268 A BRIEF SURVEY OF HUMAN HISTORY

monarchs, the Empire in its original form was at an end.

From the point of view of the restoration of order in
Europe, which is the only significant viewpoint for us here,
the dynastic history of Otto's successors may be very briefly
told. The outstanding figures are those of Henry IV (1056-
1106) and Frederick Barbarosa (Red Beard, 1152-1190),
though the latter belonged to a different family,—the
Hohenstaufen. The reigns of both were marked by the
titanic struggle with the Popes. Frederick failed where
Henry had at least partially succeeded. The two together
indicate the trend of medieval European civilisation.

Otto the Great like Charlemagne had received the imperial
crown! from the Pope (962). But unlike Charles the Great
his relations with the head of the Roman Church were fraught
with dire consequences. They reached a climax under
Henry IV and continued to trouble Europe for several gene-
rations. Briefly put, the German monarchs considered
themselves thereafter as Roman Emperors no less (or perhaps
even more) than German kings. This made them concen-
trate on dominating over Italy instead of maintaining orderly
government in their own country. While such a policy
resulted in postponing the day of German unification, it also
set to Europe one of its toughest problems. Feudal anar-
chy throve in Central Europe while the Emperors distracted
themselves with futile quarrels with the Popes. The cause
of the struggle, though it might appear trivial now, was con-
sidered most vital by both parties in those times. In effect
it was the question whether the Pope or the Emperor should
be regarded as supreme in Christendom. Both were trying
to arrogate to themselves the myth of a bygone age, viz.
the ideal of Theocracy.

There may be little doubt about the secular sovereignty
of the Emperor and the spiritual sovereignty of the.