288 A BRIEF SURVEY OF HUMAN HISTORY

compulsory service in the master's demesne and
other obligations such as aids, reliej, etc. The
contributions that the vassal was called upon to make to-
wards the expenses of the marriage of the lord's daughter, or
the accession to knighthood of the lord's son, constituted the
" aids " ; the fee that was to be paid by a tenant's heir for
succession to the fief comprised the " relief." Besides these
the vassal's holding was liable to escheat on failure of heirs
or forfeiture for disloyal conduct. If the lord was taken
captive in war by an enemy his vassals were to pay ransom
for his release. When so required the tenants with their
retainers were to render military service being fully equipped
at their own cost. In short, the tenant was to be his land-
lord's man : he was to live, work, and die for his master in
return for such justice, protection, and privileges as the
times and the tenure guaranteed to him.

In the absence! of any effective central government, justice
was administered by the feudal (from feud=fief) lord in
his manorial court. The manor was his estate. On it stood
his great castle or fortified residence. The surrounding lands
were held by his tenants or subtenants. The former held
from him directly; the latter through their intermediate
superiors. Below all were the serfs and slaves who, indeed,
formed the major portion of the population. The serfs
were superior to the slaves, and were attached to the soil
They could not be killed or alienated with impunity. Lands
were given to them for cultivation on very exacting terms.
They could not forsake their farms and run away ; but if
they did and were not discovered for a year gnd a day they
were free. They were to work on their master's farm for
three days in the week throughout the year, except during
Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. Each serf was to give
to his lord, in one typical case, ' one bushd of wheat, eighteen