THE AGE OF EXPANSION 317

Aristotle, for instance, who was the most widely read ancient
writer in the medieval world, was available for long only
in Latin translations derived, not from the original Greek,
but from Arabic. The Moorish universities of Cordoba and
Toledo became the sources of inspiration to the Christian
universities of later times. When these centres of learning
and cultural influence were extinguished in the West, the
Crusades kept up the contact with the East. While the
Europeans hated the Muslims, particularly Turks, they pro-
fited both from their culture and trade. Indeed, they
valued these so much that when their highways of commerce
with the East were blocked by the Turks, the Europeans
desperately sought other channels of communication with
the Orient. Like a pent up-stream bursting over a dam
Europe, after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks
in 1453, was bubbling with an overabundance of energy that
was to find expression in a variety of forms which we shall
study in the course of this chapter. The most remarkable
outward feature of this energy was the spirit of adventure
and geographical exploration.

Before Marco Polo (1260-95) advertised the Orient among
the Europeans their knowledge orf the outside world was
very limited. Indeed, that was the case with most people
in times when the means of communication; were very diffi-
cult, both by land and sea. Moreover, the needs of all
people were so few and simple that they rarely felt the
necessity of looking far around. Even if any desired to
travel widely such roads as existed were so beset with
dangers that few would take the risk. Wars were frequent,
robbers were rampant on land routes and pirates infested
the seas. Yet, thanks to the enterprising spirit of traders,
and the intercourse stimulated by the Mongolian invasions
and the Crusades, even in the Middle Ages there existed a