412 A BRIEF SURVEY OF HUMAN HISTORY

of the usages of our Celestial Empire." The Opium Wars
(1839-42) were the English reply to this. The English had
already long secured a share in the profitable trade with
China. Since 1669 their settlement in Canton had been
the most flourishing among the European establishments
there. By 1833 the East India Company's monopoly in
the opium trade with China had become the envy of even
their own countrymen at home. In 1839 the Imperial Com-
missioner, Lin, failing to prevent the foreigners from import-
ing opium into the country (against Imperial orders), forc-
ibly seized large quantities of the drug from Canton and
destroyed the same. The English retaliated by waging war
against the Chinese who were too weak to resist successfully.
After sustaining great losses they submitted to the Treaty
of Nanking (1842). By this the English acquired Hong-
Kong, the right of residence and trade in Canton, Shanghai,
and three other ports, in addition to an indemnity of
21,000,000 dollars. This was the real beginning of the
European scramble in China and the consequent "open-
ing" of that helpless country, which is still a prey to the
predatory incursions of powerful and aggressive nations, in-
cluding her own neighbour and pupil Japan.

After the Opium Wars events moved rapidly. The English
example encouraged other Europeans and America. An in-
ternal rising, known as the T'ai-p'ing (Long-haired) Rebel-
lion (1861-64), under the Christian leader Hung Hsiu- ch'uan
(an educated convert), afforded a golden opportunity. The
capture of a few Chinese suspects from a ship at Canton
flying the British flag, by Commissioner Yeh, was interpreted
as an infringement of the Nanking Treaty. War with China
was resumed, and further "concessions" were extorted. It
was in the course of these hostilities that the English and
French acting jointly committed one of the most atrocious