430 A BRIEF SURVEY OF HUMAN HISTORY

in Europe; and where other minorities existed, protection
of such minorities was guaranteed to them under the aegis
of the League. All disputes were to be settled, not by bar-
barous warfare as heretofore, but by peaceful arbitration.
An International Court had been already set up at the
Hague, as early as 1899 ; it was now rehabilitated as the
Permanent Court of International Justice. Another important
tody that was also created was the International Labour
Organisation (I. L. O.). It has done much useful work to
improve the conditions of labour all over the World. We
cannot dwell at length upon these matters here. Though the
League of Nations has suffered from the defects of its orga-
nisation, its recent failures in the political field, its non-
recognition from its very inception by the U. S. A., its
defiance by Germany, Japan, and Italy, in the pursuit of
their selfish national ambitions, etc., it is too premature in
the light of World History to write its epitaph.

Before we conclude this chapter we must, at least briefly,
describe the main trends and new strands in the World since
the War. In their concrete aspects these relate to Russia,
Turkey, Italy, Germany, Spain, Japan, and India. Other
factors and forces may be only incidentally referred to in
a brief survey like this.

Russia had grown steadily in importance ever since the
time of Peter the Great and Catherine. Alexander I had
played a very prominent r61e, in the post-Napoleonic epoch,
and with all his faults had been the inspirer of the Holy
Alliance to uphold 'Christian principles1 in the political
relations of European states. He was thus the fore-runner
of the Concert of Europe and the League of Nations. The
Balkan policy of the Czars had created the Eastern Question
which brought Russia into direct political conflict with the
Western Powers. Balked by the Crimean War and the