FROM ROADS TO RAIDS 25

boundaries of the Settled Districts, winding their way-
round the hills and through the mountain sides, stood out
as a remarkable monument to British engineering skill.
But they failed to enthuse the independent tribesman. The
latter might have been ignorant; he was not unintelligent
He only saw in these roads and Hock-houses the symbol
and instrument of his subjugation and resented the sei-
zure of every inch of ground by the British Government
for strategic purpose as an act of unprovoked aggression.
The usual consequences followed, trans-border raids being,
met with punitive expeditions by the British. The
result was a " ceaseless and chronic state of war " between-
the tribesmen and the British forces. For instance, every
man, woman, and child in the clan (the Zakkas), accord-
ing to Major Roos-Keppel,* looked upon those who com-
mitted murder, raids and robberies in Peshawar or Kohat
as heroes and champions. They were the crusaders of the
nation. They departed with the good wishes and prayers
of all, and were " received on their return after a success-
ful raid with universal rejoicings/'

To take an instance, down to 1893 Waziristan, like
the rest of Independent Territory, was beyond the British:
sphere of influence and was treated as part of Afghan-
istan. By the Durand Agreement Amir Abdur Rahman.
Khan renounced claim upon it. Raids and offences of all
sorts were extremely rare in the eighties. But during the
demarcation of the Durand Line, there was an attack on
the escort at Wana. It resulted in the campaign of 1894-98.
Till 1912, not a single road was completed in Waziristan.'
territory. A road from Thai to Idak in the Tochl
area appeared for the first time on the map in 1913-14.
The scheme of strategic roads in Waziristan was in hand,
when the Mahsuds rose and field operations had to be-
undertaken against them. Prom 1917 to 1924 was the
period of the Mahsud Expedition and occupation and a.
vigorous strategic roads construction programme. The

* Cited by C. F, Andrews in The Challenge of the North-West
Frontier, p. 62.