Modernization and the Growth of Nationalism 113
government was followed by anti-foreign disorders, the worst
of which occurred at Alexandria and caused the deaths of 57
Europeans and 140 Egyptians. Arabi began to strengthen the
military defences of Alexandria, presumably to meet the threat
of a landing from the British and French squadrons. On 5 July,
the British government decided to demand the cessation of
these military works at Alexandria, with the threat that the
fleet would otherwise destroy them. The French government,
however, declined to co-operate, and withdrew its ships the
day before the British on n July, having had no reply to their
ultimatum, destroyed Arabi's defences by a heavy bombardment.
The commander of the British force disembarked at Alexandria,
faced by the Egyptian army in prepared positions twelve miles
away, resolved on an outflanking movement from the Suez Canal.
The French government now proposed to concert with Britain
action limited to safeguarding the neutrality of the Canal; but the
Opposition overwhelmingly defeated the motion, arguing the
impossibility of separating the Canal from the general Egyptian
question. While the French chamber debated, British troops were
landed at Port Said. They shattered the Egyptian army at Tell el-
Kebir on 13 September and entered Cairo two days later. In the
following month Britain informed France of her intention to with-
draw from the Dual Control. In the following July a Khedivial
decree abolished it altogether, and Evelyn Baring, later Lord
Cromer, became for twenty-four years the de facto ruler of Egypt.
The French historian Driault claimed that the abstention of France
was due to 'her desire not to conflict with Egyptian national senti-
ment, which she had believed capable of more energetic resistance'.
French public opinion had, however, made no objection to the
systematic exploitation of the inexperience of Egypt's rulers to the
profit largely of French investors in the previous twenty-eight
years, nor to the pitiless spoliation of the Egyptian fellahin to meet
the payment of usurous interest.1 The abstention of France was
due to her government's indecision, the besetting weakness of her
political system under the Third Republic. But French public
opinion has never forgiven Britain for taking action when she hung
back, and for twenty-two years she bitterly obstructed every con-
structive British effort to restore and improve the economic condi-
tion of the Egyptian people.
1 Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt, 28 ff.