134 RENAISSANCES Aristotelians in the Crusaders' West European homeland did make serious efforts to supplement their Palermitan and Toledan translations of Aristotle's works into Latin from Arabic with better translations into Latin from the original Greek which the Frankish conquest of Romania in and after A.D. 1204 made it possible thereafter to produce.1 'The Schoolmen, no longer satisfied with renderings from the Arabic versions of Aristotle, began to obtain translations taken directly from the Greek. Thus the De Anima was known to William of Auvergne (who became a bishop of Paris in A.D. 1228 and was still alive in A.D. 1248) in a translation from the Greek, before the Schools of Paris had received Michael Scot's translation either of the Arabic text or [of] the commentary by Averroes. The Rhetoric, the Politics, the first four books of the Nice- machean Ethics, the Magna Moralia, part at least of the Metaphysics, and the Parva Naturalia, were known from the first in Latin translations from the original.2 ... It may ... be inferred3 that a Latin translation of the Greek text of the Ethics was known under the name of [Robert] Grosse- teste [vivebat circa A.D. 1175-1253], having probably been executed under his direction between A.D. 1240 and A.D, 1244 by one of the Greeks whom he had invited to England.4. .. Thomas Aquinas ... in quoting Aristotle .'. . uses translations from the Greek alone, and not from the Arabic.5 It was at his own instance that "William of Brabant" is said to have produced in A.D. 1273 (doubtless with the help of others) a literal Latin translation of the Greek text of "all the works of Aristotle", which superseded the old renderings from the Arabic.6 "William of Brabant", [who] is none other than William of Moerbeke or Meerbecke, . . , was probably one of the young Dominicans annually sent to Greece to learn the language. After his return (circa A.D. 1268) he was chaplain to Clement IV and Gregory X, and acted as Greek secretary at the Council of Lyons [A.D. 1274]." . , . Towards the close of his life he became [Latin Catholic] Archbishop of Corinth (A.D. 1277-1281) and continued the work of executing (and pos- sibly superintending) translations from Greek into Latin.'8 1 See Sandy$, °P- cit-» PP- 547-64. a Ibid., p. 548. 3 From the two facts (i) that Hermann, the Toledan translator from the Arabic, 'who finished his translation of the Arabic commentary of AverroSs on the Ethics in A.X). 1240, states, in the preface to his rendering of Al-Farfibi's comments on the Rhetoric in A.D. 1256, that his work on the Ethics had been rendered useless by GroBseteate'a transla- tions of the latter from the original Greek* (Sandys, op. cit,, pp. 554-5, citing Hermann's: 'Reverendus pater, magister Robertus, Lincolnienais eoiscopus, ex primo fonte, unde emanaverat, Graeco videlicet, ipsum librum est completius interpretatus ct, Grnecorum commentis praecipuas annexens [sic ctpud Sandysium—A.J.T.] notulas, commentatuft.'); and (ii) that Grosseteste's 'great admirer, Roger Bacon,. ,. assures us that.. . f Groaae- teste] could never translate from 'either Greek or Hebrew without assistance* (Sandys, op. cit., p. 553)), «• Ibid., p. 555. s Jourdain, op. cit., p. 40, 6 * "[Sub anno A.D.] 1273: Wilhelmus de BrabantiS, Ordinis Praedicatorum, transtulit omnes libros Aristotelis de Graeco in Latinum, verburn ex verbo, quA translations scholares adhuc hodierna" die utuntur in scholis, ad instantiate dornmi Thomae de Aquino" (Slav. Chron. in Lindenbrog's Scriptares RerumGerm, Septent,, 1706, p, ao6; cp. Jourdain, p. 675).' According to Taylor, H. CX: The Mediaeval Mind (London 1911, Macmillan, a vols.), vol. ii, p. 39 x, a series of Latin translations of Aristotle's works made from the Greek text, direct, was produced by collaborators of Saint Thomas Aquinas from A.D. Łuj,