MEMOIRS 
: OF 
4 


ae 
THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


VOLUME XLVII. 


> 
~~ 
/ 


C¢ 


Published by order of the Government of India. 


CALCUTTA: 
SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 
27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD. 


1923. 


CONTENTS. 


PART I. 


The Mines and Mineral Resources of Yunnan, with short accounts 


By J. COGGIN 
BROWN, O.B.E., M.LM.E., Assistant Superintendent, Geological 
Survey of India. 


of its Agricultural 


Part I— 


Part II— 


Part IlI— 


INTRODUCTION 

General Geography 
Climate . : c 
Agricultural Products 
Internal Communications 
Trade Routes — 
Trans-frontier Trade 
Railways 


Previous Authors . 
Chinese Mining Methods . 


Outlines of the Geology of Yunnan 


Coal 

Tron 

Copper . ; 
Lead and Silver 
Zine 

Tin 

Orpiment 

Gold 

Salt ; A 
Miscellaneous Minerals 
Geographical Index. 
Subject Index 


Products and Trade. 


PaGE. 


wpe 
AmRMoOntInawrn 


“3 CONTENTS. 


PART IU. 


The Alkaline Lakes and the Soda Industry of Sind. By G.de P. 
COTTER, B.A., Sc.D., (Dub.), F.G.S., Superintendent, Geological 


Survey of India. 


OuarTer I.—LNTRODUCTION . : : : : : . . 
Method of Examination . : 5 3 ‘ . . 
Physical Features of the Sind Desert ; ; , . 
The Lakes or Dhands fe ‘ ‘ ; . . 

Onapter IT.—The Khairpur State ; Nara Region. ; ‘ le . 
Producing dhands west of the Nara .- ‘ ‘ ‘ . 
Large alkaline dhands west of the Nara * 
Producing dhands east of the Nara. ‘ ‘ : . 
Large alkaline dhands east of the Nara. ‘ c 
Summary of Results of Survey ‘ A 2 . . 


Guaprer ILl.—The Khairpur State, Kot Jubo Region . .- : ‘ A 
Introductory . i 5 5 : ; . : : 
Producing dhands of 1899 compared with those of 1918 


Producing dhands between the two dra-ins ‘ A . 
Dhands on the outer margins of the dra-ins 
Large alkaline dhands of Kot Jubo area. 2 


Corrections in the Survey of India map sheet 44 Sind 
Revenue Survey, scale 1”=1 mile 
Distribution of salt and soda in dhands. . 


Ouaprer [V.—Lhe Nawabshah or Nasrat Taluqua of the Nawabshah Dis- 
trict. : : : : ° ° . 


Ouarrer V -~'The Thar and Parkar District : Sanghar and Khipro Taluqas 
History of the Chaniho Industry in Thar and Parkar 
The Sanghar Taluqa, Jakrao tapa, Bakar tapa, south-eastern 
portion 3 : : , 
Khipro Taluga, north-western region 
Khipro Taluqa, south-eastern region. : ; . ° 
Dhands of the Diplo and Mithi taluqas. Dhands in Karachi 


District ° 
Unaprer VI.—Onemical Analyses . ° . . : é : 
Analyses of Bitterns 5 ; 


Analyses of Chaniho ; origin of alkaline fakes 


APPENDIX.—Estimation of Oarbonates and Bicarbonates in Tropical Olimates 


PAGE. 
202 
204 
205 
209 


215 
215 
221 
222 
227 
229 


232 
232 
232 
235 
240 
244 


247 
248 


CONTENTS, vil 


PAGE, 

Onaprer VII.—Production of Chaniho in Sind : é s - eo 264 
Production of the Khairpur State. : : = . 284 

Production of the Nawabshah District i ; ‘ . 288 


Total Production of Sind . ; . . ‘ -. 288 
Markets for Chaniho ‘ $ . . . is - 288 


Uses of Chantho ‘ ‘ . . . . . - 289 
Grades of Chaniho . . % s . > : ~. 290 
Quality of Chaniho . 5 : : ‘ ~ 291 
Prices of Chaniho, and Methods oe Hetenetion § pp DO 
Prices of Soda-Ash, and Consumption of Soda in indie a 294 
Total Quantity of Soda available in Sind . : : oy! 
Conclusion. ° . peer CAS) 


Index . ‘s j 5 : 4 . ° ° er 00 


LIST OF PLATES. 


PuatE 1.—Fig. 1. Mould shed of an iron foundry. 


Fig. 2. Foundry for iron pans, near Shun-ning Fu. 
2.—Fig. 1. Low iron furnace of the Tien-taung Kuan in blast. 

Fig. 2. High blast furnace for iron ores showing Turbine-blower, Uung- 

ch’ang Fu. 
3—Fig. 1, Small iron blast furnace in the Tien-taung Kuan, front view. 
Fig. 2. Side view of the low iron blast furnace of the Tien-taung Kuan, 
4.—Fig. 1. Kilns for calcining copper ores, Po-p’ing-ch’ang. 
Fig. 2. High blast furnaces for smelting copper ores, Po-p’ing-ch’ang. 
5.—Arrangement for crushing galena, Ming-kuan. 
6—Fig. 1. Back view of lead blast furnaces in the Ming-kuan. 

Fig. 2. Front view of lead blast furnaces in the Ming-kuan. 
7.—Workings in a high level gold-bearing bench deposit, near A-lu-shih: 
8.—Fig. 1. Gold washing in the Yang-tze near Ohin-ch’iang-kai. 

Fig. 2. Gold washing near A-lu-shih. 

9.—-Geological sketch-map of part of Yun-nan, (1”=16 miles). 

10.—View of Ganjawari Dhand, looking westwards, showing the embank- 
ments of mud dividing the dhand into compartments. 

11.—View of Pakhyaro Dhand, taken from the south-eastern bank, showing 
the stacks of chaniho on its shores. 

12.—View of the Pur Chandar Dhand. 

13.—Specimens of Chiroli (selenite) reduced to half natural size. 

14.—General topographical map of southern Sind. 

15.—Map of the Dhands of Nara tapa, Khairpur State. 

16.—Map of the Dhands of the Jubo tapa, Khairpur State. 

17.—Map of the Dhands of the Nawabshah taluga, and part of Thar and 
Parkar. 

18.—-Map of the Dhands of the Sanghar and part of the Khipro taluqas, Thar 
and Parkar. 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


VOLUME XLVII, PART 1. 


THE MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, WITH 
SHORT ACCOUNTS, OF ITS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
AND TRADE. By Jt’ COGGIN BROwN, O.B.E., M.I.M.E., 
Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. 


Published by order of the Government of India. 


( NOV 2.4 Ee 
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MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


VOLUME XLVII, PART 1. 


THE MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, WITH 
SHORT ACCOUNTS OF ITS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
AND TRADE. By J. COGGIN BROWN, O.B.E., M.I.M.E., 
Assistant Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. 


Published by order of the Government of India 


CALCUTTA : 
SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 
27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD. 


1920 


Introduction 

General Geography . 
Climate : 
Agricultural Products 


Internal Communications 


Trade Routes 
Trans-frontier Trade 
Railways 


Previous Authors 


Chinese Mining Methods . 


CONTENTS. 


PART I. 


PART IL, 


Outlines of the Geology of Yunnan . “ r 


Coal A : 

Tron 

Copper 

Lead and Silver 
Zine 

Tin 

Orpiment “ 
Gold. : i 
Salt < ; E 
Miscellaneous Minerals 
Geozraphical Index . 
Subject Index ‘ 


PART II. 


124 
138 


142 


156 
180 
185 
189 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


In the following list the abbreviations which have been used 
to denote the works of various authorities referred to in this report 
are given. The titles of the works are to be found on pages 49—52. 


De 4 A ‘ ‘ . Davies 


De. . ; : ; : . Deprat 
Dic : : : - . Duclos 

I. ; ; % ‘ . Garnier 
gat < ‘ : : ; . Lantenois 
Wea: : ‘ ‘ ‘ . Leclére 


Ly 5 ; é : . Rocher 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


THE MINES 'AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 
WITH SHORT ACCOUNTS OF ITS AGRICULTURAL 
PRODUGTS AND TRADE. By J. COGGIN BROWN, 
O.B.E., M.1.M.E., Assistant Superintendent, Geological 
Survey of India. 


PART | 
INTRODUCTION. 


Yunnan is the most south-westerly of the provinces of China. 
It has an area of about 150,000 square miles and a population of 
approximately 11 millions, of whom roughly one-third are Chinese. 
“In the plains the population is mainly Chinese, but not entirely 
so, for in the cold plateaus of the north-west are found Tibetans, 
while many of the low-lying plains of the south are inhabited by 
Shans. Moreover in the centre of the province some of the plains 
are peopled by Ming-chias, while an admixture of Lolos is occasion- 
ally found. In the hills things are different. Here, as in the plains, 
one also finds the Chinese, and there is no large tract of country 
without Chinese villages in it. But living among them and forming 
the bulk of the hill population are numerous other tribes, each 
with its own language and its own customs. In the north-west 
corner are Tibetans, and the Semi-Tibetan Mo-so tribe. On the 
Burmese border are Kachins and Palaungs; also in the west of 
the province, but extending further into the interior, are the Li-sos ; 
everywhere throughout Yunnan are the Lo-los, a fine race and 
more numerous than any other hill tribe. Equally widely distri- 


2 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAIT| RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


buted are the Miaos, but they are only found in small and scattered 
communities. In the south-west, between the Salween and the 
Mekong are the La-hus, who with their cross-bows and poisoned 
arrows proved formidable foes to the Chinese troops a few years 
ago. Near them live the Was, many of whom are still unconquered 
and still carry on their head-hunting raids. Their relatives, the 
somewhat more civilized Las, occupy much of the country near 
the southern part of the Burma-Yunnan frontier. In the south 
of Yunnan are the P’u-mans; and further east are the Wo-nis 
and many other tribes speaking Lo-lo dialects.” (D, pp. 307-308.) 

In addition to these, mention must be made of the various 
Shan clans which are distributed throughout the valleys and plains 
but attain their maximum development in the western parts of 
Yunnan. 

On the west, Yunnan is bounded by Burma, Assam and Tibet ; 
on the north by the province of Ssii-ch’uan; on the east by the 
provinces of Kuei-chou and Kuang-hsi and on the south by Tong- 
king. The western frontier of the province is naturally the most 
important one from the Indian point of view:—At a common 
point on the Mekong river in east longitude 101° 9’, and north 
latitude 21° 47’, the three Empires of British India, China and 
French Indo-China meet. Northwards from this point the frontier 
line between Burma and China stretches, in an irregular direction, 
for some 900 miles till the confines of Tibet are reached. As far 
as latitude 26° 16’ the boundary between the two countries has 
been more or less demarcated, but beyond this point a little known 
region inhabited by wild and savage tribes is passed through. The 
frontier line through this wild tract remains undefined and uncertain, 
following generally the line of the watershed of the Irrawaddy 
and Salween rivers. 

With the exception of the great journey of Marco Polo, Yunnan 
was not visited by Europeans until comparatively recent times 
and but httle was previously known about its geography or resources. 
From the official Chinese point of view there appears to have 
been a tendency to regard the province as a mere outpost 
of the Empire, but this view was finally disposed of by the Mahome- 
dan rebellion which raged for thirty years and was only quelled 
in 1873 by the fall of Ta-li Fu. 

Apart from its size, population and the political importance 
of its frontiers, marching as they do for hundreds of miles with both 


INTRODUCTION. 3 


British and French possessions in Asia; Yunnan forms the connect- 
ing link between Burma and the valley of the Yangtze. If India 
and China are ever to be connected by a_ railway, the line must 
pass through Yunnan. The province is not a poor country and 
although the volume of its external trade is not large, this is more 
a result of its inaccessibility, mountainous surface and the miser- 
able condition of its internal communications. It produces a great 
variety of animal and vegetable products and its mineral industry 
only needs transport facilities and the application of modern know- 
ledge to make it of first-rate importance. 

I was deputed to Yunnan in November 1907. In June 1908 
I returned to Calcutta and in December of the same year I com- 
menced my second expedition, which lasted until May 1910. My 
journeys in the province totalled some thousands of miles, embraced 
the greater part of the country, excluding the eastern portions and 
Yunnanese Tibet, and often extended into new or comparatively 
unknown areas. 

In this final report I shall describe the mines and _ mineral 
resources as I found them and add such accounts as have been 
published by other workers. I shall also give the conclusions I 
have arrived at regarding the future development of the mineral 
industry. As this depends toa great extent on the transporta- 
tion problem, the subject of existing and proposed railways must 
be mentioned. A few notes on non-mineral industries and trade 
generally will be added, for although these may appear out of place 
in a technical report of this kind, such information is difficult 
to obtain elsewhere, and may be of interest to the reader desirous 
of increasing his knowledge of an important though little known 
land. 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 


Western Yunnan, which may be regarded as that portion of 
the province situated between the Burma frontier and the Mekong, 
is occupied by the north-and south-running ranges which separate 
the valleys of the upper waters of the Irrawaddy, Salween, Mekong 
and Upper Yangtze. In the extreme north-western corner of 
Yunnan the tops of the ranges attain heights of 15,000 to 20,000 
feet above the sea, and the lowest river valleys lie at about 7,000 
feet. Further south, in this section, the heights as a rule gradually 
decrease, and elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 feet prevail in the Mekong 


4 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAIi RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


ranges, the river itself being nearer 2,000 feet. The ranges between 
the Irrawaddy river and the frontier are held to belong to the Hima- 
layan system as distinct from the Mekong chains. 

The parallel courses of the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze, 
flowing to the south-south-east through Yunnanese ‘Tibet form 
one of the most remarkable geographical features of the earth’s 
surface. ‘ Each of these rivers drains a large area of Kastern Tibet 
and on the surface of the plateau they flow at considerable distances 
from one another. But during their descent they bend to the 
east-south-east, and assume absolutely parallel courses, the Mekong 
in the centre being 28 miles from the Yangtze and 20 miles from 
the Salween’’ (Burrard and Hayden: The Geography and Geology of 
the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet, p. 127). The parallel arrangement 
of their courses extends across more than 2 degrees of latitude. The 
direction of their flow is along well-known tectonic lines, and the 
profound depths of their cafions is due to late Tertiary or Subrecent 
uplifts on a grand scale, evidences of which are found throughout 
the province. 

Central Yunnan, extending say from the Mekong valley to the 
region of the lakes, has been referred to by most writers as a plateau. 
It is difficult to understand how such a misconception has arisen 
as this portion is occupied by the western limb and central portion 
of the Yunnanese arc. Between the Mekong and the Red River 
the direction of the mountain ranges is north-west and south-east, 
between the Red River and the lakes a rapid change of direction 
takes place to approximately east and west, while further on in 
north-eastern Yunnan high mountain chains stretch far to the 
north-north-east and form the eastern limb of the Yunnanese arc. 
The central portion of the arc is thus narrow and compressed ; it 
does not extend much below lat. 23° 30’, and the mountain ranges 
of the southern part of central Yunnan below this line belong to 
the Indo-Chinese system. 

A little to the south of the 27th parallel and close to the 100th 
meridian, the Yangtze abruptly changes its course which has up 
to this point followed the same direction as those of the Mekong 
and Salween, and after making its well-known bend commences 
to flow to the east. No satisfactory reason was apparent for this 
until Deprat pointed out how it depends on the direction of the 
main lines of folding as apparent in the mountain ranges. “If 
the Salween, Mekong and Upper Yangtze flow in parallel directions 


GENERAL GHOGRAPHY. 5 


in their upper valleys, it is because the Mekong ranges and the 
western branch of the Yunnanese are are parallel also, but when 
the Yunnanese ranges curve towards the south, the upper Yangtze 
leaves its sister rivers, which continue in a southerly direction, 
and accommodates itself with the folds of the Yunnanese ranges, 
later it turns towards the north-east with their eastern branches.” 
(De., p. 303). 

The ranges of central Yunnan thus form a compressed are turned 
towards the south. The Ta-liang-shan ranges which form the 
independent Lolo country in Ssi-ch’uan occupy part of the con- 
cavity of the arc. They themselves form the extremity of the 
Yun-ling-shan system. 


The higher peaks of the central ranges are from 9,000 to 14,000 
feet above the sea, but, as a rule, lower elevations are common, 
the ranges are not so well accentuated as those further west and 
the relative heights between the valleys and the crests are less, 
Plains are of more frequent occurrence and on them many of the 
cities are situated. The streams of the western portion drain into 
the Mekong and the Red River, and the watershed between the 
latter and the Yangtze is followed approximately by the main 
route to the capital, Yunnan Fu. The tributaries of the Yangtze 
flow north and have dissected deep gorges for themselves before 
they enter it at elevations of between 2,500 and 4,000 feet. 

In eastern Yunnan, from the meridian of the lakes to the borders, 
the eastern curve of the arc is found as a series of more or less regular 
chains running north-north-east and  south-south-west. These 
ranges tend to become higher as they approach the Yangtze region. 
Here heights of 8,000 to 11,000 feet are reached. About the lakes 
6,000 to 8,000 feet ridges prevail, further south towards Tongking 
they are lower still. The plains in the vicinity of the lakes have 
an average elevation of 6,000 feet. 

In the extreme east of Yunnan, a series of lower ranges separated 
by small plateaus, stretch out towards Kuei-chou and Kuang-hsi. 
The greater part of the drainage eventually goes eastward into the 
West River of Canton. 

In the south-eastern corner between the Nam Ti and the Clear 
River, there are said to be no definite orographical directions, and 
the surface is intensely eroded with a marked karstic effect. 

Characteristic of Yunnan are its fertile plains, small flat- 
bottomed valleys lying snugly amongst the mountains. It has 


6 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


been estimated that they form about one-fifteenth of the total area 
of the province and support one-third of its population. These 
plains are nearly all the dried beds of old lakes; occasionally the 
lakes or portions of them still exist; they date back to sub-recent 
times when the land stood at a higher level than it does now. They 
are always intensively cultivated and form a_ striking contrast 
with the iugged mountains surrounding them. Practically the 
whole of the walled cities are built on such sites at heights of 5,000 
or 6,000 feet, while the ranges rise 3,000 or 4,000 feet above them. 

The lowest land im the province is found in the bottom of the 
deep river cafions where they cross the southern frontiers. The 
Mekong leaves at 1,700 feet, the Red River at 500 feet and the 
Clear River at 700 feet above the level of the sea, 


CLIMATE. 


‘It is impossible to advance any general statement regarding 
the climate of Yunnan which would be applicable to the whole 
province. Its area is as large as that of some European kingdoms 
and it possesses a bewildering variety of topographic detail, broad 
open spaces alternate with exceedingly high mountain ranges, there 
are regions nourished by some of the greater rivers of the world 
and there are others parched and uninhabitable owing to the lack 
of water. I divide the province into three climatic zones :— 


(a) The Tibetan tract north of the 27th parallel, 

(6) The low plains and deep river valleys, mainly of the south 

and west, 

(c) The central elevated portion. 

As I have no experience of the Tibetan tract I quote the views 
of Major Davies, “A country of very high mountain ranges the 
plains even rising to from 8,000 to over 12,000 feet. The climate 
here is naturally colder than other parts of Yunnan, and where 
heights extend from 6,000 feet on the river banks to over 15,000 
feet on the hill tops, it varies much in different places. At the 
higher altitudes snow may fall in any month of the year, and many 
of the passes are liable to be blocked throughout April. In the 
plains the climate is less severe, but except in a shut-in river bed 
it never becomes hot.” (D., p. 309). 

In the low plains and deep river valleys of the south and west, 
the general elevation is from 3,000 to 4,000 feet with the rivers 


CLIMATE. 7 


flowing at heights of between 1,000 and 1,500 feet. The climate 
of these regions is not a good one. Conditions are almost tropical 
when compared with the more elevated areas. Fogs and rains 
are common, the temperature is fairly high and malaria is often 
prevalent. 

But these two extremes are exceptional for by far the greater 
portion of Yunnan comes into the third zone, the plains he at a 
general average of 6,000 feet with the hill tops rising some 3,000 
or 4,000 feet above them. Practically all the big cities are situated 
about this level and the coal and salt fields occur in the same 
regions. It is to these tracts that the following remarks apply: 

The climate is a most desirable one. The dry season begins in 
October and lasts into May. There is no great heat, and outdoor 
work may be carried on the day through without any particular 
fatigue caused by the temperature. The early morning mists of 
Burma and the Shan States are unknown, the damp heat often 
experienced later in the day in those countries is not experienced ; 
taken all round it is bright and exhilarating weather. The coldest 
month of all is February when snow sometimes appears at 6,000 
or 7,000 feet. Ryder registered a temperature of 17° F below 
freezing during this month at an elevation of 7,000 feet. I shall 
never forget the blizzards met with on the high ranges around 
La-li Fu at this time of the year. But those are exceptional circum- 
stances. Frostsdo occur in the winter but they are not of excep- 
tional severity. During the cold months the Chinese warm their 
houses with charcoal or coal fires contained in iron braziers. 

Leclére’s remarks on this season in eastern Yunnan are worthy 
of attention. He believes that the climate of the mining regions 
of eastern Yunnan is the best in the whole of China and that it 
is really superior to that of most European countries. During 
the winter season Yunnan possesses a strong south-south-westerly 
wind which falls off during the night but blows with great intensity 
during the day. Dust storms are of frequent occurrence at such 
periods but as far as my personal experience goes they appear to 
be somewhat localised in their areas. There is hardly any rain 
during the winter south of Yunnan Fu. North of this latitude 
showers of rain, coming from the north, occur, but they do not 
descend into the deep Yangtze valley. Throughout the season, the 
temperature of the elevated regions remains a moderate one with 
very regular daily variations, February is usually the coldest 


8 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERATi RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


month. As the cold season advances the temperature gradually 
rises. The rainy season is usually preceded by showery weather, 
then the main break comes with tropical violence, lasting for two 
or three weeks (Le., pp. 456-461). For a month or six weeks in 
the high regions and for a longer period in the lower ones, trans- 
portation on the Chinese roads is completely stopped. I marched 
during the rainy season of 1909 from Yunnan Fu to Téng-yiieh 
and although it was certainly unpleasant, I did not find any difficulty 
in getting through, nor did any of my followers including several 
natives of India suffer from the experience. It is only in the lower 
regions that transportation is completely stopped. After the first 
outbreak the rains seem to develop a weaker character and although 
there are occasional days of rain following one another in succes- 
sion, they are interspaced with periods of fine weather when field 


work may be carried on. 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 


As is only natural in a land possessing such a diversity of 
surface, soil and climate, the agricultural products of Yunnan 
are varied, Rice is the most important food plant of the Yunnanese 
and all the plains of the province which can be irrigated are devoted 
to rice cultivation during the summer months. The young plants 
are grown in nurseries and are planted out in the flooded fields from 
September to November according to the state of the season. The - 
slopes of the hills surrounding some of the plains are terraced for 
rice cultivation to a height which I have only seen equalled in the 
Himalayas. A variety of rice, called “hung mi” by the Yunnanese 
on account of its reddish colour, is sometimes grown in the hilly 
districts. It does not require artificial irrigation like the numerous 
white varieties and is grown on poorer soils. Glutinous rice is 
grown in some places, especially amongst the Shans who use it 
for food. The Chinese employ it in the distillation of spirit. 

Wheat is not an important crop in Yunnan, except in the Tibetan 
areas of the north-west, where the plains are too high and the climate 
too cold for rice cultivation, At the same time, wheat is grown 
in small quantities in many other places, and wheat flour often 
adulterated with rice meal, is obtainable in all the larger cities, 
The awned varieties of wheat are very liable to be confused with 
barley. The cultivation of true barley is confined to the Tibetan 
zone, the principal food of the inhabitants of this region being 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 9 


“tsamba ” which is made -by roasting barley and then grinding 
it into flour. Towards the end of my stay in Yunnan there was 
a large increase in the acreage under wheat owing to the restric- 
tions which were being placed on the opium crop. Other summer 
cereals are maize, millet and buckwheat. Maize and millet are 
the principal crops in isolated hill tracts. Very little care seems 
to be needed to grow them and the hill slopes around the aboriginal] 
villages are often devoted to their cultivation. I have seen no 
oats in Yunnan but Davies mentions that he saw a crop near Ch’-ii- 
Ching and I was told by missionaries that it is grown between Chao- 
tung Fu and the Kuei-chou frontier. 

After the rice has been harvested on the plains, the fields are 
again sown with winter crops which until the end of December 
1907 consisted of roughly, half poppy and the other half peas, 
beans, wheat and other products. White, yellow, green and black 
kinds of beans of all sizes were seen. They are largely used as 
food while the coarser kinds are dried and made into fodder for 
cattle and mules. Certain varieties of beans are also used for 
producing oil. Peas are obtainable anywhere throughout the winter. 
Besides being eaten raw, they are dried and ground into a 
flour from which a kind of vermicelli is made. This with bean curd 
forms the chief stock in trade of the food hawkers in the cities. 


At one time poppy fields covered half the available land in the 
province and the production of opium was the most important 
industry. Yunnanese opium was declared by experts to be better 
than any of the Indian kinds and smokers preferred it before any 
other. In September 1906 the famous edict was issued from Pekin 
which “commanded that within a period of 10 years the evils 
arising from native and foreign opium be equally and completely 
eradicated.” In the winter of 1907-08 I noticed that poppy was 
still cultivated widely in Yunnan. In the early months of 1909 
it had to all intents and purposes disappeared except in certain 
very isolated and mountainous districts. The poppy seed used 
to be sown in November either on paddy land in the plains or on 
the drier soils of the slopes, for it flourished well in both situations. 
The poppies bloomed in March or early April and the heads were 
ready for scoring about the end of April; when this operation was 
being done a white latex slowly exuded, but it soon dried to a 
brown syrup which was scraped away and allowed to dry in the 
sun, 

B 


10 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Any account of the agricultural products of Yunnan however 
brief would be incomplete without a reference to tea. This plant 
is grown to the south of P’u-érh Fu and Ssii-mao T’ing in the dis- 
tricts of Yi-pang, Yi-wu, Yu-lo, Man-sa and Man-la, in the Chinese 
Shan State of Keng Hung to the east of the Mekong river. The 
gardens are located both in the valleys and on the hill sides. The 
leaf is gathered in March and April and is dried in the sun. The 
gardens are to some extent in the hands of Shans, Akas, Pumans 
and other tribes-folk as well as the Chinese. After being brought 
into Ssii-mao, the leaf is sorted and blended and then treated by 
a steaming process which gives it the disc and hemispherical shapes 
seen in commerce. Davies has estimated the annual production 
at 15,000 mule-loads or approximately 900 tons (D., p. 96). Taking 
its average price at 3 pounds for one rupee, the value of the annual 
export would be Rs. 6,70,000 say £45,000. These figures can only 
be approximate, because most of the tea is sent to Yunnan Fu, 
the central mart for the leaf and only the small portions intended 
for the upper Lao States pass through the Sst-mao Customs House. 
The price in Yunnan Fu when I was there averaged from 23 to 
74 annas per pound, being entirely dependent on the quality of 
the blend. Inferior kinds of leaf can be bought in Ssii-mao itself 
direct from the merchants in the trade at cheaper rates (from 1 
to 4 annas per pound), and very large quantities of these teas are 
annually disposed of to Tibetans, who come down in large numbers 
to Ssii-mao for this purpose. In November 1893, when high prices 
ranged for a time in the north, there were Tibetan caravans in 
Ssti-mao, numbering over 2,000 animals, engaged in loading tea, 
according to the official report of the Commissioner of Customs 
for that year. In the borderland between Yunnan and _ Tibet, 
discs of compressed tea sometimes take the place of silver in mer- 
cantile transactions. 

The internal production of cotton in Yunnan is_ insignificant 
and as the whole population is clothed in cotton cloth often padded 
with the raw material, the importation of Indian yarn and Man- 
chester goods is a most important trade. The greater part of 
Yunnan is much too cold for cotton cultivation and it is only grown 
in the bottoms of some of the deep river valleys and in the Southern 
Chinese Shan States. 

Sugar is a crop of some consequence though it does not figure 
as an export to any extent. The cane will only thrive in the warmer 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. ll 


places and I never saw it doing well in localities over 5,000 feet 
above the sea. The canes are cut in the early summer 
and are crushed between heavy wooden rollers worked by buffaloes, 
The juice is boiled down almost to dryness and the brown semi- 
liquid mass poured into small moulds in which it solidifies. Some 
noteworthy districts for sugar are Shih-tien, Mo-hei, Pin-ch’uan 
Chou, and in general, places enclosed between high hills, where 
the climate is hot and not too dry. 

Paper is made from a bamboo and also from a species of 
mulberry. The valley of the Shwe-li above Téng-yiieh is cele- 
brated for its paper. The mulberry bark is steeped in water for 
a day or two and 1s then boiled with lime and afterwards carefully 
washed, It is then pounded between two heavy stones and disinte- 
grated. The finer pieces are picked out and thrown into large 
vats of water. As more fibre is added the mixture is kept con- 
stantly stirred, until the finest pulp is suspended in the water. A 
frame made of bamboo is then dipped into the water, in such a 
way as to ensure a thin even layer of the paper pulp across it. The 
film of paper adheres together when dried and can be turned off 
the frame without tearing. 

Fibre-producing plants are cultivated in some places, but not 
to anything like the extent to which they might be. After treat- 
ment they are used in the manufacture of string, rope and a very 
coarse kind of cloth. About 20 tons of hemp twine are exported 
from Yunnan to Burma through Téng-yiieh annually, taking the 
average export over a number of years. I do not know the botanical 
species of the hemp which yields these fibres, but the plant grows 
to a height of about 6 feet, and after being cut down it is allowed 
to rot in water, after which the fibres are easily extracted by hand. 
Mention may be made here of a curious kind of water-proof fibrous 
cloth which is made from the outer bark of a species of palm and 
which the Yunnanese call “tsung-pao.” The production of this 
material must be enormous as it is used as a water-proof cover on 
all the caravan loads in wet weather, and also as a coat by the 
labourer in the fields during the rainy season. 

Large numbers of water-proof hats are made in various places, 
such as Téng-yiieh, Ta-li Fu and Chiu-ya-ping, from the fine fibres 
of a bamboo and also from a species of coarse grass. There is a 
large local trade in these articles and numbers are exported to the 
adjoining provinces and to Burma and Tongking annually, 20,000 

B2 


12 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


or 30,000 hats of split bamboo are by no means an unusual annual 
export through Téng-yiieh. 

Tobacco is grown extensively for local consumption. Oil- 
producing plants of various kinds are raised for various purposes. 
Dye-producing plants used to be grown on a large scale, but the 
influx of the German aniline dyes had killed the industry when I 
was in the province. The only dye which I saw being made was 
a kind of indigo. The cultivation of this plant is not confined 
to any particular area as I found it scattered throughout the country. 

A very large number of different kinds of fruit thrive in Yunnan ; 
amongst others the following may be mentioned :—apple, pear, 
apricot, peach, nectarine, cherry, plum, orange, lemon, mulberry, 
citron, pomegranate, bramble, raspberry, strawberry, pine-apple, 
plantain, chestnut and walnut. There are extensive pear orchards 
around Yung-cha’ng Fu. Dried fruits of various kinds are prepared 
and exported. Walnuts are cultivated around Yang-pi and Hsia- 
kuan in Western Yunnan and are exported to Burma in large 
quantities. Over the years 1902—1909 the average annual export 
of walnuts through Téng-yiieh was 77 tons. 

The Yunnanese are skilled gardeners and grow large quantities 
of vegetables for the city markets. As a race they are very fond 
of flowers and all kinds of shrubs and trees are cultivated for their 
blooms. The wild flora of Yunnan is a very varied one and Euro- 
pean collectors have recently introduced many beautiful forms 
from its highlands into European gardens. It is not a well wooded 
country on the whole and great difficulty is experienced in obtaining 
wood of any sort near the cities. Large coniferous forests exist 
in the isolated areas but they serve no useful purpose. Timber 
for constructional purposes would make a profitable import from 
Burma if cheap railway transport was available. 

Yunnan is essentially a grazing country, so little of the land 
is under direct cultivation, while so much of it has been denuded 
of all trees and scrub vegetation that immense areas are available 
for the raising of flocks, and the salubrious atmosphere together 
with the character of the soil, tends to the growth of grasses 
suitable for them. Writing on this subject as long ago as 1877, Daven- 
port, in an almost forgotten report, stated: “It has a most. suit- 
able climate, neither too hot in summer nor too cold’ in winter, 
while the hills and surface generally are covered with luxuriant 
grass, which, like the grass in some of the Western States of North 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. is 


America, is capable of affording, though dry and dead, due suste- 
nance for animals throughout the winter, I mean of course uncut 
grass, hay beimg unknown in China, where the agriculturist has 
no instrument for cutting grass other than a sickle the are of 
which is about eight inches in length. On this subject I speak 
with certainty, as the mules and ponies we used and met with on 
the road, as a rule, had no other food than the dry grass they ate 
after their day’s journey was finished, although carrying heavy 
burdens up and: down hills for many days consecutively. More- 
over, the country is well supplied with water, while, the hills having 
a dry porous soil, sheep would probably not be liable to disease.’ 
These remarks are as true now as on the day they were written, 
and it is difficult to understand why the Chinese people do not 
practise stock raising far more extensively than is the case at present. 
The mules and ponies which are so largely used for transportation 
in Yunnan are reared principally in the north-western parts of the 
province. There is a large annual fair held at Ta-li Fu when numbers 
of animals change hands. The price of a good mule for caravan 
work varies a great deal from year to year, but as the demand 
is always active low prices are never prevalent. I do not care to 
make an estimate of the number of mules and ponies in Yunnan, 
which must be very large. In 1909, 65,409 pack animals with 
loads passed through the Custom’s barrier in Téng-yiieh, 20,261 
through Sst-mao, and 69,974 through Méng-tzi. Before the 
opening of the French railway, the number of pack animals which 
passed through Méng-tzii was much greater, for example, in 1906 
it was 295,300. At the same time, the figures may be misleading, 
as the returns do not state if these are individual animals or if the 
same caravans were not numbered over and over again, which is 
more likely to be the case. Caravans of Chinese mules travel 
great distances in the winter season and are to be found through- 
out the frontier districts of Burma, Northern Siam and even as 
far south as Tavoy. 


Cows and buffaloes are to be found in every Yunnanese village. 
The cows are sometimes used in light ploughs, though the buffalo 
does most» of this work. Bullocks are often used for transporta- 
tion, especially by the Shans; and if time is no object, they 
seem to be a fairly efficient means, though they must be driven 
in the early morning and evening to avoid the heat of the day. 
The Chinese proper rarely make use of milk and do not slaughter 


14 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL, RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


the cow for food, though beef can often be obtained in the cities 
where there are communities of Chinese Mohammedans. 
Sheep-farming is rather an occupation of the Lolos and other 
tribesfolk than of the Chinese proper. Many of these people in 
the upper basin of the Red river and in the north-eastern prefec- 
tures possess very large flocks; the wool is the most valued product, 
but they do not know how to weave it into clothes. Felt rugs, 
carpets and coarse blankets, as well as the thick woollen mats 
which are sometimes used to protect mule loads in bad weather, 
are made from wool. Some of these articles are valuable items 
of export; 1,780 felt carpets were exported through Ssi-mao in 
1909 ; in other years the number has been as high as 4,116. About 
20,000 felt carpets used to be exported through Téng-yiieh annually 
up to 1914. There is a very bright future for trade in things of 
this kind, for markets are ever present in Burma for any agricul- 
tural products which Yunnan can spare. Yunnan is capable of 
raising hundreds of thousands more sheep than it does at present, 


The Chinese use the bones of animals as fertilizers and also for 
the manufacture of buttons, dice, knife-handles, small boxes and 
chop-sticks. Horns of the water buffalo and ox are made into 
various domestic articles such as combs, brush-backs, shoe-horns 
and cups, the material being worked up in a lathe. Cow and buffalo 
horns are exported to Burma and French Indo-China. About 
200 tons of horns were exported from Téng-yiieh per annum before 
the war. In addition to this there are exports of hides. The 
annual export of hides through Téng-yiieh alone amounted to 
between 150 and 200 tons per annum previous to 1914. This, 
however, does not by any means represent the number of animals 
which have been slaughtered or have died during the year, for 
large quantities of hides are required by the Chinese glue and leather 
makers in the province. The leather is largely used in the manu- 
facture of saddlery and for the soles of boots. In this connection 
it may be well to point out that the hides from Yunnan would 
command a far higher price were they treated more carefully before 
leaving the country. Any process of pickling or salting appears 
to be unknown, and after being removed from the dead carcase 
the fresh skins are simply pegged out tightly in the sun and left 
to dry; the holes made by the pegs and the creases caused by 
folding the skins to form them into suitable loads, detract much 
from their appearance and value in the foreign market. 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 15 


Fresh pork forms the staple meat food of the Chinese popula- 
tion, and great numbers of pigs are reared in every village com- 
munity. The Yunnan pig is black and grows to a large size. They 
are fed on paddy mashes, beans and the waste product of oil mills, 
kitchens, etc., but they are also allowed to scour about the fields 
and villages, where they act as scavengers and devour any refuse 
they can find. Large numbers of hams used to be exported through 
Méng-tzi and Téng-yiieh. They can be obtained in Bhamo, where 
a ready and profitable sale is available. The two famous localities 
for Yunnan hams are Ho-ching and Hsiian-wei Chou. Pig bristles 
are exported from Sst-ch’uan in large quantities to foreign countries, 
and there is little doubt that a similar trade could be started in 
Yunnan. 

Poultry including hens, ducks, geese and turkeys are reared 
by the Yunnanese for domestic comsumption. Duck feathers form 
a profitable export from Ssi-ch’uan and a market could be found 
for them from Yunnan. 


The highlands of Yunnanese Tibet are the home of numerous 
fur-bearing mammals, which are hunted for the sake of their skins. 
Skins of foxes, lynx, wolf, civet, wild sheep, and goat are brought 
to Ta-l Fu and after passing through the hands of the furriers are 
placed on the market there. Southern Yunnan supplies the skins 
of tigers, leopards, wild cats and monkeys while the ordinary goat 
and sheep skins are also prepared for sale. 

As long ago as the 16th century the musk of Yunnan was sought 
for on the South China coasts not only by native merchants but 
by Portuguese and others from Europe as well. At this time it 
was carried down as a rule through Tongking, and after sale to 
Cantonese merchants was then taken to Macao to be retailed. The 
musk deer (Moschus moschatus), the abdominal glandular pouch 
of the male of which furnishes the secretion, is known to the Chinese 
as “tchai tse,” and used to be found in the mountains of Upper 
and Central Yunnan, in Kuei-chou, in northern Ssii-ch’uan and 
in Tibet, but for all practical purposes the deer is now practically 
exterminated, except in Tibet, from which country large quantities 
of musk are still sent into Ssii-ch’uan wid Ta-chien-lu and Sung- 
pan, and smaller quantities into Yunnan vid Ba-t’ang and A-tun- 
tzu. Animals from five to six years of age are said to yield the 
best qualities of musk, and as the material readily lends itself to 
adulteration, great care is needed in buying it. As it is so easily 


16 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAI. RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


concealed and carried, there are no reliable figures as to the exact 
amount of its production, on account of smuggling. In recent 
years a representative of a French house of perfumers (Pinaud’s 
of Paris), has been stationed in Li-kiang Fu, where he buys up 
any musk coming into Yunnan from the north. I saw this gentle- 
man (M. Perronne), in May 1910, and he informed me that it was 
now exceedingly difficult to buy musk in these regions owing to 
the higher prices which could be obtained in Sst-ch’uan. 

The last recorded export of musk from Téng-yiieh was in 1912 
when 10,356 Ibs. were sent away. Its value works out at Rs. 28 
per 0z., a price which shows little variation on that given by the 
Lyons Mission. 

White’ and yellow wax are exported through Méng-tzii and 
Ssti-mao, and are also largely consumed internally. The yellow 
wax is a true beeswax, the product of the ordinary bee. Apicul- 
ture is common everywhere and hives made from the hollow trunk 
of a tree with the ends stopped up with wood and clay are often 
seen in the country districts. The insects are also kept in old walls 
of barns and houses. Honey is cheap, but is not often met with 
as a food stuff, except amongst the Lisu and other poverty-stricken 
tribes. According to Hosie, yellow wax is employed “in rubbing 
the strings of the card figure in silk weaving; it is also used to a 
limited extent m candle making, and the carpenter finds it a good 
furniture polish. Another, but minor, use is the polishing of the 
string of the cord employed in carding raw cotton after ginning. 
This keeps the wool from adhering to the string.” 

The white wax is the product of an insect (Coccus pela) which 
is reared in the districts about the Kuei-chou frontier on the road 
from Wei-ning to Yunnan Fu, and also in the Hui-li Chou district 
in the southern part of the Chien-ch’ang valley. To look at, the 
insects seem to consist of a mass of small grubs enclosed by soft 
rounded brown shells which are carried about the land packed 
in small straw compartments. These are fastened on to suitable 
trees, when the insects are said to hatch out and spread above 
over the branches, depositing wax wherever they go. The wax 
is collected from the branches and cases by scraping and boiling, 
and it is used principally as an outer coating for Chinese candles, 
as it melts at a higher temperature than the animal fats from which 
such candles are made, and so prevents the candle guttering when 
it is burnmg. Hosie also states that it is used for imparting a 


AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, tly 


gloss to the higher grades of paper. In damp clammy weather 
a board thinly coated with white wax is drawn along the surface 
of satin and silk warps in silk-weaving establishments to facilitate 
the passage of the strands through the loops. It is used for adding 
a lustre to cotton cloth, and as a polish in jade ware, “in the daintier 
articles of furniture, such as small dressing-cases and cabinets, 
and it is universally used by the medicine shops for coating pills, 
and thus preserving the active properties of the drugs of which 
they are composed.” 

According to Davies the price near Wei-ning Chou is 20  taels 
(about Rs. 31), for a man’s load of 50 or 60 Ibs. of insects. There 
is little doubt that the finer varieties of paraffin wax would do as 
well as this white wax for certain of the uses to which it is put, 
and there is an opening for an import market of Burmese paraftin 
wax therefore in Yunnan. 

Silk is produced in Yunnan on a small scale, but the yellow 
silk which is exported through Téng-yiieh, and which forms by far 
the most valuable export, probably all comes from Ssii-ch’uan where 
it is a great and very valuable industry. In many places in Yunnan 
I have seen the cocoons laid out to dry in the sun, and in a few 
others I have seen the silk being spun from them. The provincial 
Government tried to improve the silk industry in various ways, 
Orders were issued to the district officials to encourage the cultiva- 
tion of the mulberry as much as possible, and a good example was 
set at Yunnan Fu, where many thousands of young trees were 
planted. Improved patterns of looms were set up in the provincial 
capital, and Cantonese weavers were engaged to train classes of 
students in the art. 


INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS. 


Yunnan suffers greatly from lack of efficient ways of trans- 
portation. Though some of the greater rivers of the earth flow 
through it, there is no waterway in the interior which is of any 
practical service for boat transportation on a large scale, much 
less for steamers of any kind. 

The Yang-tze is navigable by boat to Sui Fu (lat. 28° 45’, long. 
104° 35’), one stage from the Yunnan boundary, but elsewhere 
rapids and rocks make navigation impossible, except on short 
reaches, and then at considerable risk. The Red river is navigable 
by boats to Man-hao, just inside the southern frontier of Yunnan, 


18 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


and after that it is useless for similar reasons, though it penetrates 
into the very heart of the land. The Mekong, Salween, and Shweli 
need not be discussed. They flow swiftly in rocky channels 
traversed by rapids and cataracts, liable to great floods, and often 
at the bottom of precipitous cafions into which the light of the 
sun only penetrates for an hour or two in the day. 


The mountainous nature of the land and the inertia of the 
government are jointly responsible for the bad and sometimes 
dangerous condition of the roads in Yunnan. Wheeled traffic 
is for all practical purposes non-existent, and the transportation 
of goods is effected by the use of pack mules, bullock trains, and, 
more rarely, porters. The roads of Western China have been 
abused by every traveller and writer on the land from the time 
of Marco Polo onwards, and it is unnecessary to add to the great 
volume of vituperation already in existence though the memory 
of many a weary march invites one to do so. 

Zigzagging up the steep mountain sides, wandering across the 
plains, the Chinese paved roads extend for thousands of miles. 
The paving stones are of all sorts and sizes, and often no repairs 
have been done since they were first laid down, so that large spaces 
separate the stones in some places, and in others the impact of 
countless iron-shod hoofs has in the long course of time drilled a 
hole right through them, so that one appreciates the Chinese maxim 
regarding the roads of the land, “Good for ten years and bad for 
a thousand.” 

On the paved mountain tracks riding is out of the question, 
and after a shower of rain the stones become so slippery that pack 
animals can only keep a footing with difficulty. The traveller 
in despair often takes off his boots to avoid falling on the flat stones, 
only to be cut by the sharp and jagged edges of the broken ones. 
Add to this that the roads are as often as not cut along steep hill 
sides with a precipice on one hand and a slope which may serve 
for a landslip on the other, and the risks the merchants 
run in carrying goods from one part of the country to 
another may be well imagined. In the plains the tracks always 
go around the paddy fields, never across them, and every farmer 
uses them as waste irrigation canals into which to turn the surplus 
water from the crops. Very often, in order to avoid the paved 
roads, earth tracks are made alongside them, but, these are only 
available in the dry season. In the rains the overland trade is 


INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS. 19 


at a standstill, as it is impossible to get the pack caravans about 
the country when the earth paths are morasses, when every stream 
overflows its banks, and the low-lying areas are flooded. Mention 
must be made of the wonderful suspension bridges of the Chinese 
which are to be seen where the main trade routes cross the larger 
rivers such as the Mekong or Salween. Eight or ten iron chains 
of massive construction are stretched rigidly across the valley 
some distance above the water and firmly fastened in massive 
masonry on each side. The road is carried across on a gangway 
of wooden planks with a protecting parapet of railings on each 
side. The bridges are built, at the expense of the merchant guilds 
who use the road, and although they sway about somewhat, they 
can carry a heavy load; animals can cross in perfect safety two or 
three at a time. 

When the nature of the roads in Yunnan is appreciated and 
the crumpled up character of the great mountain ranges with the 
river gorges between realised, it becomes a matter of wonder not 
that the external trade of Yunnan is small, but rather that any 
exists at all. 


TRADE ROUTES. 


There are four great trade arteries into Yunnan. These are :— 


(1) The Bhamo-Téng-yiieh route—the main trade route from 
Burma—which it is necessary for me to describe in greater 
detail. Goods travel from the sea coast at Rangoon 
by rail to Katha wd Myohaung, Sagaing and Naba, 
and thence to Bhamo (lat. 24° 15’, long. 97° 15’); or 
by steamer on the Irrawaddy river from Rangoon to 
Bhamo wdé Mandalay. Bhamo is three days journey 
from the Burma-China frontier, and is connected with 
Téng-yiieh, the treaty port of Western Yunnan, by a 
mule road 112 miles in length. The time taken by 
loaded caravans to traverse this distance varies from 
74 days under the best conditions to twice as long at 
the worst. Téng-yiieh is connected with Ta-li Fu on 
the shores of lake Erh Hai by a well-known road 170 
miles long. It is not my intention to describe this route 
fully, but rather to point out the difficulties of communi- 
cation along it, and the recent attempts which have 
been made to improve it. It is probably more or less 


Bilt 


20 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


in the direct line of the old trade route which has been 
used for centuries, and it is certainly the direction 
followed by Marco Polo at the end of the thirteenth 
century, and so vividly described by the famous Vene- 
tian. It forms part of the Imperial highway by which 
officials from Pekin reach these remote parts of the 
Republic, and by it the Burmese missions — travelled 
when they conveyed the tribute from the kings of 
Burma to the emperors of China. Full accounts of 
it are to be found in the writings of Anderson, Margary, 
Baber, Gill, Jack, Davies, Ryder, Lord Ronaldshay, and 
many others. After crossing the level plains of the 
Irrawaddy from Bhamo the road enters mountainous 
country beyond Mo-mouk and proceeds along the south 
bank of the Ta-ping river, through thickly wooded 
and very hilly country until the frontier is reached at 
Ku-li-hka, after crossing which it descends to the level 
plains of the Chinese Shan State of Kan-ngai, An 
alternative and older road proceeds along the north bank 
of the Ta-ping, but it also comes down into the Kan- 
ngai plains near Man-yun (the scene of the murder of 
Consul G. A. R. Margary in 1876), a few miles from the 
other. The overland telegraph lne used to proceed 
along this road but has now been taken across to the 
other. For some years after the opening of the new 
road the muleteers engaged in the trans-frontier trade 
preferred to travel by the older and better known route, 
which although slightly longer and more difficult was 
convenient because supplies were easily obtained and 
grazing grounds were available. The tendency now is 
for caravans to take to the new road. In my own 
experience this has been so, and I am inclined to put 
it down to the gradual formation of groups of houses 
with hostelries kept by Yunnanese Chinese chiefly, who 
eater for the wants of the men and animals in the cara- 
vans; and also to the excellent nature of the road 
itself and the bridges, which are kept in repair by the 
engineers of the Bhamo district. 


For two or three marches beyond the frontier the road crosses 
the Kan-ngai plains, and the gradient is easy enough, 


TRADE ROUTES. 21 


though the road has nothing to distinguish it from the 
ordinary Chinese road across level ground. It would 
be difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that 
presented by the high, densely wooded, almost uninhabit- 
ed Kachin frontier ranges on the one hand, and 
the open paddy plains surrounded by rounded 
granite hills on the other. These are cultivated wher- 
ever irrigation is possible, and contain scores of peace- 
ful Shan villages each in its grove of trees. On each 
side of the narrow plains rise the rounded grassy slopes 
of the high granitic ranges which bound it. Tree vege- 
tation is as a rule absent, indeed throughout Yunnan 
wherever the population is fairly large the forests and 
undergrowth have disappeared. This is a well-known 
feature of Chinese civilization, and has risen partly for 
strategic reasons, and partly on account of the neces- 
sity of wood for fuel. 

A high dividing range separates the valleys of Kan-ngai and 
Nan-tien, and the Ta-ping here flows through the deep and 
narrow Hu-lu-ko gorge. The road winds over this range 
and then descends to the plains of the state of Nan- 
tien, which are by no means so rich as those of the 
sister state. The cultivated area is not so extensive, 
and a poor Chinese element predominates over the Shan 
in the population. After passing through Nan-tien the 
road commences an ascent which culminates in the 
high level valley in which the walled city of Téng-yiieh 
is built at an elevation of 5,370 feet above the sea. 
Téng-yiieh is the place of residence of a British Consul, 
a Commissioner of Customs of the Chinese Maritime 
Customs Service, whose duty it is to take account of 
all the trade passing through and to collect the taxes 
on the same (European British subjects have held this 
post since its formation), and various high Chinese 
officials, including the Tao Tai of the I-Hsi-Dao in the 
old Imperial days, or Commissioner of the Western 
Division of the province, and a Chen Tai or General in the 
Chinese Army. 

The intervening 170 miles between Téng-yiich and Ta-li Fu 
are of a very different nature to those between Bhamo 


22 


COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


and Téng-yiieh and a series of high mountain ranges 
and deep narrow intervening valleys have to be crossed. 
Lilley in 1907, after careful calculation, stated that the 
ascents on the road pass through a total vertical height 
of 26,680 feet, while the descents fall through 25,250 
feet. The total rise and fall of the road amounts, there- 
fore, to no less than 51,930 feet. The net difference 
in elevation between Téng-yiieh and Ta-li Fu is only 
1,430 feet, which means that the road, in the course 
of its length of 170 miles, passes through a vertical 
distance of nearly 10 miles. No less than eight great 
depressions with high ranges between them are passed 
in the short distance, and although there are only three 
river basins included, viz., the Irrawaddy, Salween, and 
Mekong, some of the tributary streams are quite large 
enough to be regarded as independent streams. 


Under the articles of the Man-waing agreement of 1902, the 


proceeds of the mule tax, which is levied per head on 
every mule which crosses the frontier may be devoted 
for the repair, upkeep and policing of roads of the Téng- 
yiieh and frontier areas, as well as for other municipal 
and indemnity purposes. This tax was, prior to 1902, 
collected by the Pao-chang office, which used to keep 
up the obsolete Trade Protection Levy Corps, and by 
the Sawbwas or chiefs of the States through whose 
territories the trade routes ran. The tax is now collected 
by the Customs Office in Téng-yiieh (founded in 1902), 
and the funds, which are all allotted to the Sawbwas, 
are sent to them, in return for which they have to 
guarantee the safe passage of caravans through their 
States. This agreement seems to work well on both 


sides. 


A road committee met from time to time to discuss questions 


affecting the trade routes. This committee was made 
up of the Commissioner of Customs and various Chinese 
officials, while His Majesty's Consul in Téng-yiieh also 
had a seat. In 1905-06 an attempt was made to improve 
the road between Téng-yiieh and Yung-ch’ang Fu where 
it crosses the Kaoliang Shan, the great mountain chain 
which separates the valleys of the Shwe-h and Salween 


TRADE ROUTES. 23 


rivers. In the winter of 1909 a start was made to 
improve the road between Téng-yiieh and the Burma 
frontier at Ku-li-hka. A proclamation was issued by 
the Commissioner of Customs (at that time Mr. F. W. 
Carey), and the local Chinese contractors were invited 
to undertake the work. There was practically no 
response to this appeal, and the work was eventually 
undertaken by the Customs Department, a subordinate 
officer being allowed by the Inspector-General in Pekin 
to use six months’ leave to take charge of the duty. 
I had an opportunity of seeing part of the reconstructed 
road in April 1910 when I was returning to the Burma 
frontier, and, being well acquainted with its former 
state was in a position to appreciate the improvements. 
Repair and maintenance work have been regularly carried 
out since then and in 1914, an experienced engineer, 
lent by the Burma Government commenced a survey 
for the realignment of the road between Kan-ngai and 
Téng-yiieh. 

(2) The Tongking-Yunnan Railway route. The second great 
road into Yunnan and, indeed, the most important 
as far as present day trade is concerned, is the railway 
through Tongking into Yunnan. This line starts at 
Haiphong, on the shores of the Gulf of Tongking, and 
runs to Lao-kai (lat. 22° 30’, long. 103° 57’), on the 
Tongking-Yunnan frontier, and thence to Yunnan Fu, 
the capital of Yunnan. In earlier days a well-known 
trade route was followed by caravans from Yunnan 
Fu into Tongking, but the completion of the French 
railway in the early summer of 1910 has, of course 
superseded this; it is described on a later page. 


(3) The Yangtze route. Another very important route into 
Yunnan is that which passes through the heart of China 
up the Yangtze river—the route followed by the officials 
deputed to the province from Pekin, and the direct 
way of communication with the capital. Steamers can 
ascend the Yangtze as far as I-chang, and thence junks 
proceed to Sui Fu in Sst-ch’uan, but only one stage from 
the Yunnan boundary. After marching over this road 
for 25 days Lord Ronaldshay wrote: ‘A route which 


24. 


COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


may undoubtedly claim the distinction of being the 
most difficult and most inhospitable of all the routes 
which serve as the main lines of communication in this 
part of China. Until the mineral wealth which it 
possesses is properly and systematically developed, this 
portion of Yunnan can be of no commercial value, nor 
can I imagine any line of country less likely to excite 
the enthusiasm of the railway engineer.” 


The Blackburn mission passed over this route in 1897 and 


described it as a country of “alternating bare, wind- 
swept downs and precipitous caiions.” “On 31st March 
we travelled 25 miles without seeing a village, and 
there was no work for us to do—a commercial mission 
in the Sahara. In truth from Lao-wu-tan to Kung- 
shan the country, at present, is of no possible value 
for commerce. The people are very poor, and clad 
exclusively, when clad at all, in Shah-shih cotton cloth, 
but they can scarcely afford sufficient clothing.” Speak- 
ing of the country a few miles to the east of the trade 
route in the Tung-ch’uan Fu area, Major Davies, with 
all his extended acquaintance with the geography of 
Yunnan and other countries, remarks: “I do not think 
T have ever seen such a mass of steep broken hills as_ this 
country presents. The hillsides are very barren and 
dry, and many of them are too steep to be climbed, so 
that the roads have to follow the beds of streams.” 


I give these quotations because this is one of the few districts 


in Yunnan which I have not crossed myself, and I 
desire to correct an erroneous idea which is prevalent 
that future expansion of railways les in this direction 
chiefly. This idea has arisen because it is the shortest 
route between Yunnan and the Yangtze valley proper, 
but it never existed except in the imagination of theorists 
unacquainted with the real state of the problem. 


(4) The West River route. The least important of the four 


great routes into Yunnan is the one which leads up the 
West river from Canton, through the provinces of Kuang- 
tung and Kuang-hsi to the borders of Yunnan. Boats 
can ascend as far as Pai-sé T’ing (lat. 23° 55’, long. 106°), 
one day’s march from the border of Yunnan, 


TRADE ROUTES. 25 


Other routes, of course, enter the province though they are not 
to be compared in importance with those I have already mentioned. 
They include the following roads from Burma :— 

(1) Myitkyina to Téng-yiieh wa Sadon and Ku-yung-kai, or 
vid Sadon and Chan-hsi. This track is usually followed 
by the caravans from the jade mines. 

(2) Bhamo and Nam Hkam in Burma, to Téng-yiieh and 
Yung-ch’ang Fu, vid Che-fang, Mang-shih and Lung- 
ling Ting, a quicker way into the British Northern Shan 
States than the Bhamo-Téng-yiieh route, and, there- 
fore, often taken by coolies and others who find employ- 
ment in the towns, mines, and forests of the Northern 
Shan States. 


(3) The road from Lashio (the railhead of the Shan States 
branch of the Burma Railways), to Ta-li Fu and other 
cities in Central Yunnan, wd the Kunlon ferry across 
the Salween river and Yun-chou. This is important 
because it has been greatly advocated as a proposed 
railway line into Yunnan from Burma. 


(4) The route from Kengtung in the British Southern Shan 
States into Southern Yunnan, o/@ Kenghung and S§si- 
mao. The latter city is the “treaty port” of Southern 
Yunnan, and this road takes the trade between Burma 
and the cities of the southern portion of Yunnan, 


THE TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE OF YUNNAN. 


Statistics of the foreign trade of Yunnan are available from 
three sources; the annual reports of the Chinese Maritime Customs 
Service dealing with the three “treaty ports” of Méng-tzt, Ssi- 
mao and Téng-yiieh; the annual notes on the trans-frontier trade 
of Burma published by the Government of Burma, and the annual 
reports of His Britannic Majesty’s Consular officers in Yunnan Fu 
and Téng-yiieh. 

The treaty port of Méng-tzii was opened in 1887 and here the 
import and export trade with Tongking is recorded. Sst-mao 
records trade between Yunnan, the Southern Shan States, and the 
upper Laos. Téng-yiieh, opened as a treaty port in 1902, is on the 
main trade route between Burma and Western China. 


c 


26 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


No apology is needed for reviewing the trade of a port which 
Méng-tait. depends: so largely on a mineral industry as 
Méng-tztt does. Metallic tin from the Ko- 
Chiu mines has often represented over 90 per cent. of the total 
value of its annual export trade. The money received by the sale 
of tin is used to purchase cotton yarn and other foreign imports, 
and any dislocation of the tin trade, caused by a fall in the price 
of the metal or other disturbance, is at once reflected in the general 
trade of the port. Thus the low local price of tin in 1913 resulted 
for a short time in the total stoppage of trade and the Commis- 
sioner of Customs reported that the decrease of some £90,000 worth 
of imported cotton yarn was partly due to this cause. In 1900 the 
annual export of metallic tin slabs from Méng-tzt totalled 2,899 
tons, since then it has gone on increasing year by year, with very 
few fluctuations attaining a total of 9,798 tons in 1912. It has 
been said that the tin industry is “the staple resource and mainstay 
of the province” and there is some truth in the statement. 


Other metals exported from Yunnan through Méng-tzi include 
antimony, both regulus and refined, spelter and manufactured iron 
in the form of pans, nails, etc. The antimony comes from the 
prefectures of Kwang-nan and Kai-hua, the former one being on 
the borders of Kwangsi. Rights were granted to a Chinese concern 
to mine and smelt the ores in 1909. In 1913, 427 tons were exported 
and in 1914, 335 tons. 893 tons of spelter were exported in 1913 
falling to 304 tons in 1914. In 1900 the total weight of native iron 
manufactures exported was about 20 tons, but since then they 
have gradually fallen off to insignificant quantities. 


Other important exports from Méng-tzi include tea, hides, 
Chinese medicines and cunao. The chief imports include cotton 
yarn both Indian, Japanese and Tongkingese, cotton goods of all 
kinds, velvets, blankets, Chinaware, clothing and hats, aniline dyes, 
lamps and lampware, Japanese matches and kerosene oil, both 
American and Sumatran. Exports of lesser note include horns, 
hams, white and yellow beans, china root, native-made namkien 
cloth, edible fungus, marble, potatoes, native liquor, soy, brown 
sugar, vermicelli and macaroni and white and yellow wax. It 
must be noted that the port itself is merely a distributing centre for 
places far distant and that transit goods often amount to 70 per 
cent. of the total importations, ; 


TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE. 27 


Reviewing the total annual value of the import and export 

Conipaiisen of strats trade of the three treaty ports Méng-tzi, Sst- 
values of the three mao and Téng-yiieh for the 10 years pre- 
pom, ceding the outbreak of the war in 1914, we 
find that between 1904 and 1909, the Méng-tzt figures fluctuated 
between 9$ and 102 millions of taels. In 1909 Méng-tzii was 
placed in direct rail communication with Haiphong and the value 
rose to nearly 11 millions of taels. In 1910 the extension of the 
railway to Yunnan Fu was opened for through traffic and trade rose 
to 112 millions of taels ; from that year onwards there was a gradual 
increase to 1913 with 19% millions of taels or approximately £2,977,000. 

In 1904, the value of the import and export trade of Ss -mao 
was %05,000 taels approximately. It fell slowly to 129,000 taels 
in 1908 and then began to increase, attaming a maximum of 263,000 
taels in 1912 and falling again to 244,000 (£33,800 approximately) 
in 1913. For all practical purposes the trade of this port is stagnant. 

The total value of the merchandise imported and _ exported 
through Téng-yiieh in 1904 was 2 millions of taels approximately. 
It fell to 14 millions in 1909, rose to 2 millions in 1910, fell again to 
1,7, millions in 1911 and rose to 3 millions of taels in 1914 (£400,000 
a proximately). 

The war has affected the trade of all three ports, the last 
published figures (1916) being 15 millions of taels for Méng-tzi, 
184,000 for Ssti-mao and 2-3 millions for Téng-yiieh. 

In 1913 the total value of the Méng-tzi trade was almost 6 
times the value of the Ssi-mao and Téng-yiieh trade combined. 


In 1895 Davies visited Sst-mao and afterwards wrote, “I cannot 
imagine it will ever be of any use to foreign 
merchants.” The trade returns of the port 
since then prove that his opinion was correct and I see no reason 
to come to any different conclusion to-day. Its principal exports 
are a few agricultural products of the country and a little manu- 
factured iron-ware which makes its way to the upper Laos. Its 
most noteworthy import is raw cotton. 


Ssti-mao. 


The trade of this port requires more detailed treatment, because 
it is the chief market through which com- 
merce has been exchanged between Burma and 
Western China for centuries and because it is in this market and 
along this route alone that any future expansion can take place. 


o 2 


Téng-ytieh. 


28 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


By the Burma Convention of 1894, general traffic across the 
Burma-Yunnan frontier in munitions of war, opium and spirituous 
liquors is prohibited as well as the importation from Burma into 
Yunnan of salt and the exportation from China to Burma of rice 
and grains of every kind and cash ; under the same Convention the 
duties leviable on foreign goods imported into China from Burma 
are only 70 per cent. of the duties leviable on similar goods entering 
China by any other route, while the duties chargeable on Chinese 
exports across the frontier into Burma total only 60 per cent. of 
the tariff in force throughout the rest of the Republic. 

Again, Téng-yiieh is favoured by a tax which is imposed on 
trade of all descriptions. The mule tax of 0°50 taels on every animal 
bringing import cargo and 0°25 taels on each animal carrying export 
produce, provides funds which are ear-marked for repairing, main- 
taining and guarding the routes of the district and especially the 
frontier road to Bhamo, and every traveller with any experience 
of the road knows how admirably these funds have been expended. 

Yet, in spite of these advantages, there has been no noteworthy 
expansion in commercial dealings between the two countries. 
Writing in 1912, the British Consul stationed in Téng-yiieh remarks, 
“During ten years since the establishment of the Customs House 
under foreign control there has been no regular development of 
trade, the total value having fluctuated within the narrow margin 
between a minimum of £203,000 and a maximum of £299,000. 
As a matter of fact in 1912, the value increased to £382,584 and 
in 1913 to £473,000 which is a record since the port was opened. 
These increases are due in part to the rise in the exchange value of 
the Haikwan tael. but are none the less gratifying as far as they go. 
Tt is believed however, that the trade between the two countries 
is capable of very much larger increases. 


China, as a whole, is a self-supporting country and the tendency 
at the present time, is for her to become more so. The foreign 
merchant can only hope to market those products which the Chinese 
people cannot make for themselves in large enough quantities to 
satisfy their own demands, or in luxuries of the outside world which 
contact with the West has taught the Hast to desire. Sir Robert 
Hart meant the same thing when he wrote “to dispose of their 
merchandise in proportion to the new tastes they introduce, the 
new wants they create, and the care they take to supply what the 
demand really means.” Yunnan is no exception to the rest of the 


TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE. 29 


provinces, though the question is complicated by its land-locked 
position, by its poor internal roads, and by the small purchasing 
power of the population, a result of neglected mineral dey elop- 
ment and, in recent years, of anti-opium legislation - this deprived 
the peasantry of ready money which was at one sitio used in the 
purchase of imported articles. 


The Téng-yueh trade returns issued by the British Consul and 
based on figures supplied by the Customs House, show the following 
values over the 10 years 1904-1913 :— 


— Import. | Export. | Torat. 
£ | £ £ 

1904 : : : ; : : ; 251,249 | 48,542 299,791 
1905 : ; : : : . : 222.083 | 36,428 258,461 
1906 ; ; : : j : : 185,643 44,424 | 230.087 
1907 a i ; : g ; : 205,610 75,874 {| 28)-484 
1908 : : ; : j : : 109,713 | 65,736 | 235,449 
1909 5 : ; : : ; ‘ 142,324 59,610 | 201,934 
1910 ; : ; : : : : 194,737 | 74,976 | 269,713 
1911 : : ; : ; 3 : 166,733 | 60,021 | 226,754 
1912 ; : s : ; : : 278,488 | 104,076 | 382,564 
1913 ene EE Ne te Se ai | 110,302 473,074 


According to the “ Report on the Trans-frontier Trade of Burma 
for 1916-17, the trade with Western China is practically the trade 
of Yunnan with Burma between the main centres of Téng-yiieh 
and Bhamo. The figures of the trade in merchandise between 
Burma and Western China taken from these reports over the period 
1905-1913 are as follows :— 


f 


aoe Import. | Export. | TOTAL. 
£ £ | £ 

1905-06. : : : ; : ; 114,999 220,075 | 335,074 
19060} ee ee ee ee 242.088 356,142 
1907-08. ; ; : : : ‘ 113,019 273,457 386,476 
1908-09. ‘ : : : : : 112,377 272,697 385,074 
1909-10. : : : z ; . | 107,474 263,368 370,842 
1910-11 . : : 2 : 3 ; 122,063 302,779 424,842 
1911-12... : : ; : : ‘ 120,869 239,674 | 360,543 
1912-13. ; ‘ : : 3 : 149,040 421,550 | 570,590 
1913-14. : . : 3 : : 192,692 402,722 | 595,414 


SR A RNA FAN AFR a A 


30 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


A comparison of the two tables suggests that, contrary to the 
statement quoted above, a considerable volume of trade passes 
in both directions without coming through the Téng-yiieh Customs 
House. There are several trade registration offices in the Bhamo 
district which not only collect returns of the Western Chinese trade 
but also that of certain parts of the Northern Shan States as well. 
There are also routes leading across the frontier into Yunnan radiat- 
ing from the nodal points of Bhamo and Myitkyina which do not 
touch Téng-yiieh at all. Again, even if these are left out of consi- 
deration and only the trade returns taken into account which 
have been registered at stations on routes known to lead to Téng- 
yiieh, it is impossible to correlate with any approach to equality 
the figures of the Burma returns with those of the Chinese Customs 
in Téng-yiieh, because certain amounts of trade, especially exports 
of manufactured goods from Burma, are absorbed in the intervening 
country, that is in the Kachi Hills and the Chinese Shan States. 
After a careful analysis of the Burma returns I am _ reluctantly 
forced to conclude that it is impossible to separate accurately the 
through trade, between Bhamo and Téng-yiieh from them, just 
as it is also impossible to estimate from the same publications the 
value of the trade between the Southern Shan States and Ssi-mao. 
In any consideration of this important question one is compelled 
to use the Chinese figures and it is fortunate that such reliable 
statistics are available for study. 

The more interesting features shown by both tables are the low 
trade values for the two years 1909 and 1911. 1909 marked the 
minimum point of the decade. In that year the cultivation of the 
poppy had ceased for all practical purposes and the Yunnan 
populace had not adapted itself to the new conditions. About the 
same time an outbreak of plague in Bhamo interfered considerably 
with the overland traffic. In 1911, the Chinese Government of 
the day was overthrown and the general insecurity of life and 
property caused by the revolution is held to account for the fall 
in trade values, helped locally by a boycott of British goods in 
Yunnan Fu and by the collapse of the Salween bridge on the main 
artery of trade between Téng-yiieh and Ta-li Fu. The rise in 
the total trade values in 1912-13 is a reflection of the more settled 
state of the province and the return of confidence amongst its traders. 


Perhaps the most important point brought out by an investi- 
gation of these figures is that the railway which put Yunnan Fu 


TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE. 3 l 


into connection with the sea at Haiphong in 1910 has, contrary to 
the opinion of all authorities, had no adverse effect on the Burma- 
Western China trade up to the present time. I shall return to 
this question in a later paragraph. 


The value of the overland trade then, reached a record in 1913; 
in the early months of 1914 further prosperity was witnessed and 
the record of 1913 promised to be exceeded, when the war broke 
out and this remote trade route like most others was at once adver- 
sely affected. 


In the years 1904, 05 and °06 the value of the export trade 
from ‘Téng-ytieh was 4, 4 and } that of the 
import trade respectively. During the rest of 
the decade the proportion rose and the value 
of the import trade averaged 2-6 times that of the export. The 
average figures taken from the Burma lists for the whole decade 
for the total trade with Western China, excluding specie, was 2-1. 
The principal export is raw yellow silk from Ssa-ch’uan which 
rapidly increased in quantity and value in the years preceding 
the war, reaching about 90 tons with a value of £76,560 in 1913. 
The rise and fall in the importation of this commodity depends 
on the state of the market in Burma, as the material is almost 
entirely used in the weaving of silk garments in Burma. The 
beautiful silks of Amarapura and Tavoy are alike made from this 
imported raw stuff. The competition of cheaper machine-made 
Japanese silks seems to have left the better classes of indigenous 
hand manufacture untouched and it would appear that there is 
every prospect of a continuous market for it. 


Téng-ytieh’s export 
trade. 


After raw silk, hides form the next export in order of value. 
The value of this trade has increased during the decade and still 
more since then, owing to the greater demand from Europe. In 
1913, 230 tons of hides, worth £11,821, were sent to Burma from 
Téng-yiieh. Complaints are often heard about the bad condition 
and packing of Yunnan hides, but it is very doubtful if anything 
can be done to remedy these defects. 


Musk occasionally figures in the returns as a valuable export. 
Thus in 1912, 348 Ibs. valued at £10,356 were sent out. The trade 
in musk is an erratic one. It is controlled by a famous Parisian 
firm of perfumers whose European agent periodically visite A-tun- 
tzu in Yunnanese Tibet and stays there until he succeeds in buying 


32 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


sufficient for his purposes, when he returns to France with his 
valuable stock. 

Another important product of the country is orpiment which 
figures in the returns every year. In 1910 over 500 tons were 
exported but since then there has been a decrease. In 1913 only 
269 tons were sent out. The exact location of the orpiment mines 
had been a jealously guarded secret for a number of years but I 
succeeded in visiting them and making an inspection. The subject 
is treated at length in the second section of this report and all that 
need be said here is that there is no fear of the trade in this mineral 
becoming extinct through exhaustion of the deposits. 

Felt carpets continue to be sent into Burma through ‘Téng- 
yiieh in increasing numbers. In 1913 about 25,000 were exported 
of a value of £2,884. 

Exports of lesser note include hemp twine, rain hats of split 
bamboo, walnuts, iron pans, brass bells, cow and buflalo horns 
and Chinese medicines. To those desirous of studying the returns 
of these and similar small articles the China tables are recommended 
rather than the Burma ones, in which a stereotyped classification 
conceals many of them in columns headed ‘“ Other Sorts” on “ All 
other articles of merchandise.” 

Turning now to the import trade, we find that the most valu- 

fice Nee able article entering China through Téng-yiieh 
praensyueh's import is cotton. The climate of the high uplands 

of Yunnan is too cold for the successful culti- 
vation of the cotton plant, and as the Chinese wear cotton garments 
almost entirely, they are dependent upon the outside world for 
the supply of materials to make them. Attempts have been made 
to cultivate cotton in the Mekong valley and in the warmer parts 
of the Chinese Shan States, but it is very unlikely that indigenous 
cotton will ever interfere much with the imported article, which 
as far as Téng-ytieh is concerned is principally Indian cotton yarn. 
In 1913 nearly 5 millions of pounds of yarn, worth £234,000, passed 
through the Customs House. Large quantities of manufactured 
textile goods also go in, such as grey, white, British and Indian 
shirtings ; American, Indian and English drills; T Cloths and plain 
cotton Italians. Smaller amounts of velvets and _ velveteens, 
woollens, woollen and cotton mixtures, towels, chintzes, prints, 
Spanish stripes, blankets and various forms of cheap ornamental 
cloths. 


TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE. 33 


There is a large and growing market for kerosene oil in Yunnan. 
In 1913 nearly 40,000 gallons entered the country through Téng- 
yiieh alone. 

The only mineral import is jade-stone and the quantity varies 
greatly from year to year, depending on the output of a particularly 
erratic type of native mining and also on the internal demand, 
which like most markets for precious and _ semi-precious stones 
varies with the general prosperity of the people. The jadeite is 
mined in the Mogaung subdivision of the Myitkyina district in 
Burma, exported in the rough and worked up, as far as Yunnan 
is concerned, in Téng-yiieh, where every street has a lapidary’s shop 
and lathe. In 1913, 120,000 pounds were imported, worth £4,480, 
This value is purely a nominal one, because it is impossible to 
estimate the value of a lump of jadestone until it has been cut 
several times. Dealing in this mineral is very speculative and as 
such appeals to the Chinese sporting instinct. I have seen a 
boulder sold one day for a few rupees, appreciate on cutting to as 
many hundreds with a repetition of the same process on further 
examination. 


Other imports include matches, umbrellas, various substances 
used in Chinese pharmacy and in cooking, enamelled ware, tin 
ware and miscellaneous small ware. A walk through the Téng- 
yiieh bazaar reveals a multitude of small articles coming under the 
last heading, cheap clocks and watches, mirrors, ribbons and _ laces, 
pocket knives, padlocks, leather belts, glass beads, cigarettes, 
candles, lamps and lamp-glasses, fans, musical instruments, tinned 
milk, biscuits and provisions, cheap confectionery, buttons, braid, 
cups and saucers, milk jugs, iron bowls, kettles, small metal boxes, 
scissors, ready-made clothes, hats and caps, soaps, perfumes and 
powders, medicines like quinine, santonin and boric acid, bandages 
and sticking plaster, threads and materials for embroidery, paints 
and pigments, cheap cutlery, galvanised iron and materials made 
from it, carpenters tools and toys. I have not attempted to make 
a complete list, but merely to indicate a few of the thousand and 
one wares which find a ready market in Yunnan. They may not 
appear much in themselves, but when one _ considers the vast 
quantities of similar articles which are sold in the bazaars of Burma 
and the Shan States every year, no doubt is left that a very large turn- 
over could be done in Yunnan. Most of these articles came from 
Germany and Austria before the war and it is interesting to note 


34 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


that in 1914 the British Consul at Téng-yiieh reported that the 
commercial competition of Germany and Austria, chiefly in cheap 
lines of hardware and chinaware, had been almost extinguished 
and replaced, largely by Japanese goods. In the same connection 
I would point out the desirability there is for the representatives 
of the great import firms of Burma to visit Yunnan and study the 
markets there. The province in my time was being toured by 
German, Japanese, French and American business men on_ behalf 
of firms of their own nationality, but I never saw or heard of a 
British merchant visiting Yunnan. 

Téng-yiieh itself has a population of about 10,000 souls. With 

its suburbs and adjacent villages it probably 
wengeyuen av approximates 25,000. It is an agricultural 
Hsia-kuan. 
population with a small proportion engaged 

in trading and a smaller percentage in jade-cutting, brick and_ tile 
making and mining. It is a healthy city and the populace is both 
peaceful and prosperous. Its chief importance lies in the fact 
that it is the distributing centre of the commerce of western Yunnan, 
for about three-fourths of the imported trade goes overland for 
final distribution from Hsia-Kuan, near Ta-li Fu. Hsia-Kuan_ is 
undoubtedly the commercial centre of the more prosperous portion 
of Yunnan. It lies 8 miles south of Ta-li Fu in lat. 25° 35’ and 
long. 100° 10’. Most of the merchants engaged in the Burma- 
Yunnan trade reside there, for the three routes from Burma, the 
Bhamo-Téng-yiieh, the Lashio-Kunlon Ferry and the Kengtung- 
Sstimao-Ching-tung roads meet those which continue to Tibet 
and Ssi-ch’uan in a north and north-easterly direction and to 
Yunnan Fu and other areas to the east. The place is a very 
important objective from the railway point of view. 

Every competent authority has urged that the only way in 

Proposed railway Which the overland trade between Burma and 
and its effect on Yunnan by the main route through Téng-yiieh 
the orpnienc cinade: can be greatly and permanently increased is 
by the construction of a railway between Bhamo and Téng- 
yiieh, and most if not all writers who know the country, agree 
that such an undertaking would be a profitable one. 

When the French line put Yunnan Fu into communication 
with the sea at Haiphong in the year 1910 it was feared that a 
diminution in the Burma-Yunnan trade would result at once, 
because Hsia-kuan is 280 miles from Bhamo and 220 from Yunnan 


TRANS-FRONTIER TRADE. 35 
Fu. These mileages do not represent the true state of the case. 
The time taken in travelling from the British frontier town to Hsia- 
kuan is nearly twice as long as that occupied in journeying from 
the latter centre to the terminus of the line, owing to bad roads 
across the deep valleys and high dividing water-sheds of the Mekong, 
Salween and Shweli. Merchants also run greater risks of damage 
or loss of their goods on a journey between Bhamo and Hsia-kuan 
than they do between Yunnan Fu and the same place. It was 
anticipated that the Chinese merchants, who are shrewd enough 
business men, would soon realise that it was more profitable to 
supply Central Yunnan with heavy or bulky goods such as cotton 
yarn and kerosene oil by means of the French railway rather than 
by way of the overland route from Burma. As a matter of fact 
these fears have proved groundless up to date, simply because, 
in the words of the Téng-yiieh Consular Report for 1913, “ the 
freight rates in force over the railway line...... are still so high 
that the Téng-yiieh merchants are still able to lay down cotton 
yarn, in spite of the heavy charges for mule hire over the 32 days 
journey by road from Bhamo, in Yunnan Fu itself at a price which 
enables it to compete profitably with the same article carried 
thither by rail direct from the sea.” 


The position of the overland Burma trade is a very insecure 
one for the same report states further that, “the French merchants 
in the south and east of the province are clamourmg justifiably 
for a reduction of the railway freights, and unless something is 
done to give effect to the agitation in favour of the Bhamo-Téng- 
yiieh railway organised for some years past by the Liverpool 
Chamber of Commerce and other influential bodies in the United 
Kingdom interested in the cotton and piece goods trade with China, 
the carriage of this important commodity wd Burma must ere 
long cease, and our allies will reap the fruits of their energetic com- 
mercial competition.” 


The Bhamo-Téng-yiieh line would have no great constructional 
difficulties to face; it would traverse fertile and thickly populated 
plains for the greater part of its length; it would obtain a large 
passenger traffic; it would bring about a great expansion in the 
present import and export trade, which, as matters stand, are 
doomed when the freight charges on the Tongking line are lowered, 
and further, practically every student of the question who is entitled 


36 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


to voice an opinion, believes that it would prove a sound, paying 
concern very soon after its completion. 


RAILWAYS. 


Early Railway propesals—The idea of drawing the trade 
of Western China to Burma is not a new one, for as long ago as 
1831 Captain Sprye advocated the opening of a trade route for 
this purpose. In later years Sprye proposed the construction of 
a railway line from Rangoon into Siam, and from that country 
northwards into the Shan States of Keng Tung and Keng Hung. 
The first survey of a line northwards from Rangoon to Toungoo, 
(a direction now followed by the main line of the Burma Railways), 
was the only practical outcome of these proposals. About 1867, 
when it became known that the Irrawaddy was navigable by 
steamers as far as Bhamo, the railway question was again revived, 
Cooper, who was at Batang in 1868, heard from a Chinese trader 
“of the existence of a trade route from Bathang to Rooemah, a 
town in the Tibetan province of Zy-yul, situated near the borders 
of Assam, 20 days’ journey distant.” In later days there have 
been others who have proposed to construct railways in this direc- 
tion, thereby showing a lack of appreciation of the main points at 
issue, for besides being almost an impossibility on account of the 
topography of the country to be crossed, it is exceedingly doubtful 
if such a line would benefit British trade if it were constructed. 
In 1868 a British Mission under Colonel Sladen proceeded through 
Burma and penetrated as far as Téng-yiieh, the object being, in 
the words of General Fytche, “to discover the cause of the cessation 
of the trade formerly existing by these routes, the exact position 
held by the Kakhyens, Shans, and Panthays with reference to that 
traffic, and their disposition, or otherwise, to resuscitate it, also 
to examine the physical conditions of these routes.” 

A second mission under Colonel Browne in 1875 was repulsed 
and attended by the tragedy of the death of G. A. R. Margary, 
which resulted in the reports of the Grosvenor Mission, and the 
published opinion of Baber on the Ta-li Fu Bhamo route, which 
has been responsible for a greater amount of misunderstanding 
on the subject than any other expression. Baber was not an 
engineer, and it is a pity that his remarks on this route should have 
heen accepted for so long. In 1881 Colquhoun brought forward a 


RAILWAYS. 37 


scheme for a line starting from Moulmein in Lower Burma, running 
eastwards to Raheng in Siam, and thence north up the Menam 
valley and through Kengtung and Kenghung to Ssii-mao in Southern 
Yunnan. This scheme has many very obvious disadvantages, and 
was rendered unnecessary by the annexation of Upper Burma 
in 1885. The Upper Burma Railways reached Mandalay in 1889, 
and as trade at that time had temporarily left the ancient Bhamo- 
Téng-yiieh route, owing to tribal disorders and consequent danger 
of travelling, and was then entermg Burma by the Kunlon ferry 
over the Salween into the Shan States, attention was naturally 
directed in this direction first. In 1895 the construction of the 
Mandalay-Kunlon railway was ordered, and in 1903 the construc- 
tion of the line up to Lashio was completed. Already in 1893 the 
northern extension of the line from Mandalay was opened to Katha, 
which is the nearest point on the existing railway system in communi- 
cation all the year round with Bhamo. 


The French Line—The approach of the Burma Railways towards 
the Yunnan border had not passed unnoticed by the French authori- 
ties as may be seen on reference to Prince Henri d’Orleans’ writings 
in 1895, or to Governor-General Doumer’s speeches in 1897, and 
in April 1898 the Chinese Government granted to the French 
Government, or to a company which the latter might designate, 
the right to make a railway from the frontier of Tongking to 
Yunnan Fu. The world already possessed a fairly complete know- 
ledge of the regions of China proper adjoining Indo-China. The 
magnificent expeditions of Francis Garnier, who, later sacrificed 
his life in the furtherance of such work, and of many others, had 
helped towards this end. In 1898 the voluminous report of the 
Lyons Mission appeared. It contains a number of papers on the 
trade and industries of Western China by various experts deputed 
to China by the Lyons Chamber of Commerce. 


From December 1897 to July 1898 Leclére, a chief engineer 
of the Mining Service, toured in Yunnan, Kuei-chou and Kuang-si 
under orders which he has reproduced as follows: “Tl s’agissait 
de visiter les régions qui seront desservies par le prolongement 
des voies ferreés de I’Indo-Chine, et d’apprécier V’importance du 
traffic qui naitra par l’exploration des richesses minerales.” Before 
this Rocher had shown that Yunnan was exceptionally rich in 
mineral deposits but it remained for Leclére to give the first detailed 
accounts of them, 


38 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


In 1899 the first surveys were made and in spite of the delay 
caused by the momentous events of 1900, the work was slowly 
pushed on. In January 1902 the bridge across the Nam-hsi between 
Lao-kai and Ho-kou was completed. From September 1903 to 
January 1904, Lantenois, Director of the Mining Service of Tong- 
king, studied the mines and mineral deposits between the frontier 
and Yunnan Fu and helped in the final decision on the exact route 
to be followed. In the fever-striken Nam-ti valley, great trouble 
was caused by malaria which carried off a large proportion of the total 
labour force employed on this section. In spite of difficulties of 
every kind the line was opened to through traffic to Yunnan Fu 
in the summer of 1910. 


The Yunnan Company’s scheme.-—How far the anticipations of 
the French diplomatists have been justified is seen from the fact 
that the railhead of the Burma Railways is still at Lashio. In 
the autumn of 1908 the “ Yunnan Company, Limited,” sent an 
expedition into Yunnan to explore the country, and to reconnoitre 
for a railway line to connect Kun-lon on the Burmese border with 
some point on the Upper Yangtze. This expedition was com- 
manded by Major Davies, and included amongst others the skilled 
geographer Lieutenant Watts-Jones, who later on lost his life in 
the Boxer rebellion. The results of this survey may be stated 
in the words of Major Davies: “The total distance from Kunlon 
to the Yangtze is 1,000 miles. The greater part of the line would 
traverse exceedingly difficult country, necessitating in places a 
grade as steep as 1 in 25 and possibly a few short lengths 
of rack. The total cost of a metre gauge line would be perhaps 
£15,000,000 to  £20,000,000 and the time required for con- 
struction would be at least ten years. Though there are great 
possibilities of future trade the province of Yunnan is, owing to 
bad communications, at present so little developed that the rail- 
way cannot be made as an immediately paying commercial specula- 
tion.” A recent writer has remarked, “As a purely commercial 
scheme this railway may be considered as a quixotic venture. It 
may rather, perhaps, be looked on as a grand Imperial project 
that, possibly, may be influenced by wide-reaching political issues.” 


The Brahmo-Téng-yiieh and Téng-yiieh-Ta-li Fu routes.—I do not 
propose to enter into a discussion on the relative merits of the 
Kun-lon-Yun Chou-Ta-li Fu route and the Bhamo-Téng-yiieh-Ta-li 
Fu routes here, but I should like to take this opportunity of stating 


RAILWAYS. 39 


that to my own mind, after an extended acquaintance with Yunnan 
and its trade, there is not the slightest doubt that the latter is the 
better. 

The Bhamo-Téng-yiieh line would approach he ‘T’ien- taung - 
kuan and Ming-kaun valleys north of Téng-yiieh where iron, silver 
and lead depouits are being worked by the Chinese. The exten- 
sion to Ta-h Fu would tap the iron-stone field to the south of Yung- 
ch’ang Fu, would benefit the Yun-lung Chou salt field, stimulate 
orpiment mining south of MHsia-kuan, extend the Ta-li Fu marble 
business, and rou the Yangtze basin and central Yunnan mining 
fields much easier of access. I have condemned the lignites of fis 
Nan-tien valley as a possible source of fuel for the line, and the 
nearest coalfield is two stages east of Ta-li Fu 


40  COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


PARE i, 


PREVIOUS AUTHORS. 


In the account of Doudart de Lagree’s adventuresome journey 
through Indo-China in 1866-1868, B. Joubert has given some ac- 
count of the geology of the parts of Yunnan crossed by the expedi- 
tion, and a few brief notices regarding mineral deposits. (Voyage 
Wd’ exploration en Indo-Chine, Francis Garnier, Paris, 1873). 


A Chinese work by Ou-Ki-Tche, at one time Viceroy of Yunnan, 
and Hukin-sen, prefect of the city of Tung-Chuan, was written in 
1850, entitled “Tien nan kouang tchang tou lou,” dealing with the 
production of metals in Yunnan and the means employed by the 
Chinese for their extraction and treatment. A translation of this 
important work into French has been made by Thomas Ko, a Chinese 
scholar, who was interpreter to the Doudart de Lagree expedition 
and it appears in the published account of the same. In an intro- 
duction to this work Garnier has written,——“ Les derniéres parties 
de ce travail contiennent des renseignements administratifs, sta- 
tistiques et géographiques, tres-précis et trés minutieux sur la 
situation métallurgique du Yunnan et j’appelle sur eux toute 
l’ attention des lectures. Ils permettent de se faire une idée exacte 
des richesses inoiiies que renferme cette province et de la prospérité 
& laquelle elle peut prétendre des qu’elle aura des débouchés suffisants 
et une administration forte et honnéte.”’? 


E. Rocher, at first a metallurgist and later an official of the Im- 
perial Chinese Customs Service, was sent to Yunnan during the 
Mahomedan rebellion, in the early seventies. In a work entitled 
‘La Province Chinoise du Yun-nan,”’ he has given some account 
of the mines of the province then in existence and the methods 
employed by the Chinese in the mining and the extraction of the 
different metals.? 

Ludvig von Loczy, the geologist attached to Count Szechenyi’s 
expedition through China, made a rapid traverse through Yunnan 


1 Voyage @ exploration en Indo-Chine, Vol. 2, pp. 173-264. 
_ 2 La Province Chinoise du Yunnan, par Emile Rocher de 1’ administration des douanes 
impériales de Chine, 2 Vols., Paris, 1880, 


PREVIOUS AUTHORS. 41 


in 1879. Entering the province to the south-east of A-tun-tzu, 
he marched down the valley of the Yang-tze to Li-chiang Fu, and 
thence, still proceeding southwards, to Ta-li Fu. From this city 
the main westerly route to Bhamo in Upper Burma was crossed. 
This work is purely geological.t 

Duclos accompanied the Lyons Mission during its tours in va- 
rious parts of China in the years 1895-1897, and has published a 
report on the mines and metallurgical industry of Yunnan, Kuei- 
chou and Ssii-ch’uan.? 

Leclére, ‘“Ingénieur en chef des Mines,” acting in concert 
with the mission under Guillemoto, which had for its object the 
question of the extension of the railways of French Indo-China 
into China proper, made extensive traverses in the provinces of 
Yunnan, Kuei-chou and Kuang-si from December 1897 to July 1898 
and has given valuable accounts of the geology and mineral re- 
sources of the regions he traversed.® 

Monod, “ Chef adjoint du service géologique de la colonie”’, 
also made tours in Yunnan about the same time as Leclére. His 
results, which differ somewhat from those of the latter geologist 
are to be found in Le Bulletin économique de VIndo-Chine.* 

Logan Jack, at one time Government Geologist of Queensland, 
has published an account of his travels through China to Burma, 
while escaping from China during the Boxer rising of 1900. Dr. 
Jack mentions the various mineral deposits he happened to meet 
with.°® 

Lantenois, “‘ Ingénieur en chef des Mines et Directeur du Service 
des Mines de 1l’Indo-Chine”’, undertook the investigation of the 
mineral questions connected with the definite choice of a route for 
the Tongking-Yunnan Fu Railway. His party worked in Yunnan 
from September 1903 to January 1904, confining themselves 


entirely to the region between Lao Kai on the Tongking frontier 
and Yunnan Fu.® 


1 Die wissenschafilichen Ergebnisseder Reise des Grafen Bela Szechenyi in Ost-Asien. 
Vienna, 1892. A Hungarian edition of this work was published in 1890. 

2 La Mission Lyonnaise d’ exploration commerciale en Chine. 1895-97. Lyon . 
1898, pp. 283-314. 

3 Biuile géologique et miniére des provinces Chinoises voisines du Tonkin. Annales des 
Mines, Vol. XX, 1901, pp. 287-492. 

4 Contribution av étude géologique de la Chine meridionale Bull. Econ. Ind. Chine, Vol. 
XXXII, 1898.” 

5 The Back Blocks of China, R. Logan Jack, London, 1904. 


6 Résultats de la Mission géologique et miniére du Yunnan méridional, Annales des 
Mines, Vol, XI, 1907, pp. 298-503. 


D 


42 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT. RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Davies, author of the important work, Yunna», the link  be- 
tween India and the Yang-tze, has referred to the mines seen by 
himself or by members of his parties.? 

Deprat and Mansuy, members of the French Geological Service 
of Tongking, surveyed large tracts of Eastern Yunnan in the years 
1909-11. Their results were published in 1912 as Mémoires du 
Service géologique de Indo-Chine : 

Vol. 1, Fas. 1. Etude géologique de Yunnan oriental; by 

Deprat and Mansuy. 

Pt. 1. Géologie générale, by Deprat. 
» 2. Atlas, by Deprat. 

» 3. Paléontologie, by Mansuy. 

J. Coggin Brown and others. The geological results of my own 
work have been published by the Geological Survey of India as 
follows :— 

Records, Vol. XLIII (1913), 1. ‘“ The Geology of the country 

between Bhamo and Téng-yiieh.” 

By J. Coggin Brown. 

2. ‘Petrology of the Voleanic Rocks 
of the Téng-ytieh area.’ By 
R. C. Burton. 

3. “Stratigraphy of the Ordovician 
and Silurian Beds of Western 
Yunnan.” By J. Coggin Brown 
and F. Cowper Reed. 

Records Vol. XLIV, ‘“ The country around Yunnan Fu.” By 

J. Coggin Brown. 
” ” XLVII, ‘The Salween and Mekong Valleys.” 
By J. Coggin Brown. 


Accounts of the geology of the country between Ta-li Fu and 
Yunnan Fu, between Shun-ning Fu and Pu-erh Fu and of the 
Yunnan course of the Yang-tze have been written but are not 
published yet. 

Only the more important works are given in this list and espe- 
cially those referrmg to mines or mineral deposits. Scattered 
through the published accounts of the journeys of the numerous 
travellers who have visited Yunnan from the time of Marco Polo 


1 Yunnan, the link between India and the Yang-tze. Major H. R. Davies, Cambridge, 
1909. 


PREVIOUS AUTHORS. 43 


onwards, are to be found disconnected references to the geology 
of the country and its mineral industry. The above list comprises 
all those who have any claim to expert knowledge or who have 
written specially on these subjects. Other writers whose works 
may be consulted for geographical details and for general infor- 
mation include Francis Garnier, Doudart de Lagree, Prince Henry 
of Orleans, Captain Gill, Ney, Elias Colquhoun, Barber, Bourne, 
Anderson, Margary, Jack, De Valserre, Amundsen, Macartney, 
Little, Morrison, Lytton, Francois, Hosie, Ryder, Young, Lord 
Ronaldshay, Rose, Pichon, Bonin, Vaulxerre, Grillitres and others. 


CHINESE MINING METHODS. 


Mining and metallurgy in China must not be regarded from the 
standpoint adopted when considering the same 
arts elsewhere. Separated in their long isolation 
from the rest of the world the Chinese have had 
to work out for themselves methods of winning and concentrating 
ores, of smelting them and of refining the metals so produced. In 
doing so they have developed a complicated indigenous form of 
mining administration. Modern native methods in China are those 
of the ancestral Chinese. At the same time as a race they are skil- 
ful prospectors, capable miners and resourceful metallurgists but 
they are limited by their ignorance of effective means of contending 
with the natural difficulties which constantly beset the miner. 
They also lack a knowledge of underground surveying and of the 
principles of ore deposition. 

All uncommon natural phenomena are believed by the Chinese 
to be the work of spirits, or “nats” as they 
would be called in Burma. Temples built in 
their honour and for their worship adorn 
prominent mountain peaks; shrines are erected close to hot springs 
or caves, or even built on the outcrops of lodes. At Bawdwin in 
Burma, the remains of large Chinese temples are still to be seen 
close to the outcrop of the Chinaman ore body. The miners 
themselves believe that metallic ores are the work of the spirits, 
and each mine usually has its own spiritual patrons. Incense 
is kept burning at the entrances to levels and shafts and the first 
two or three sets of timber are usually pasted over with texts and 
incantations while sacrifices are performed at the appointed intervals. 

D2 


General remarks on 
Chinese mining. 


Chinese theories of 
ore deposition. 


44 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


It is believed that failure to perform these duties would be to 
risk the spirits’ displeasure and would result in the disappearance of 
the ore body or in accidents to the miners. 

I was not permitted underground at the orpiment mines until 
a fowl had been ceremoniously sacrificed and I have heard from 
the Chinese themselves that valuable ore deposits cannot be worked 
in some cases because they happen to occur within the sphere of 
action of some particular spirit, whom it would be a short-sighted 
policy to disturb. 

Other beliefs are given in the “Tien Nan Kouang Techang,” 
where we are told that the colours of mountains indicate the mine- 
rals to be found in them. “ When the mountains are clothed with 
a bluish colour, one may expect to find silver in them. If they 
contain lodestone their lower beds certainly enclose copper. In fact 
whatever metallic elements may ordinarily be buried deeply in the 
ground, a particular sign is always manifested at the surface. This 
is called “miao” or ‘ guiding sign.” The authors further state 
that it is only by knowledge and long experience that the various 
forms of the guiding signs can be distinguished. (G., p. 176.) 

The Chinese believe in the transmutation of substances. ‘‘ It 
would be a great advantage ’’ wrote the authors of the work already 
quoted, “if some one succeeded in finding the rain which converts 
itself into gold.” It is reported that silver found in mines has va- 
nished sometimes and that it has changed into other substances, 
and many other similar occurrences are recorded. (G., p. 192.) 

It is a mistake to imagine that these and similar theories are 
entirely puerile, as there is often a stratum of sound common sense 
underlying the apparent absurdities of the East. 

The Chinese in his own country is permitted to explore and 
prospect as much as he pleases. There are no 
regulations controlling such operations in 
Yunnan. The Government used to take no 
interest in such matters until they got beyond the experimental 
stage, or, in other words, until they showed any signs of becoming 
profitable. 

The Government has a special interest in copper mines, auri- 
ferous deposits, brine wells and salt mines and occasionally in lead, 
silver, zinc and tin mines and sulphur deposits. From these metals 
and minerals special revenues are raised, or tribute taken in kind, 
to supply metals for official purposes like coinage. Other minerals 


Chinese mining ad- 
ministration. 


CHINESE MINING METHODS. 45 


like coal, ironstone and orpiment belong to a separate class. Lead, 
silver, zine and gold deposits commence as a rule in this class and 
are only transferred to the first when their production becomes 
important. 

When a deposit has been located, if it belongs to group I, the 
consent of the local authorities is necessary before it can be worked ; 
in the case of group 2, an arrangement is made with the landowner. 
This usually takes the form of an obligation to pay him a royalty. 
A small fee is sometimes imposed by the local magistrate in addition 
in the form of an annual rent. It is not a recognised tax and is 
said to go no further than that officer’s pocket. 

A central office or provincial mining bureau regulates aflairs 
in which the Government has a peculiar interest. This direction 
is purely fiscal and not technical in any way. Officers are deputed 
to each important mining centre whose duty it is to see that the 
various taxes, in money or kind, for which each district is assessed, 
are forwarded promptly to head-quarters. The prices paid to the 
miners and smelters is fixed by the bureau. If the district repre- 
sentative can make more than this, he is at liberty to do so, and it 
is his own perquisite. He is allowed to control the mines in any 
way he pleases so long as peace is preserved and revenue forth- 
coming. (Details of actual practice will be found in the second part 
of this report.) To prove that the above statement is correct and 
that the central control was a very lax one provided that revenue 
was regularly collected the following quotations from the works of 
Baber and Smith are given :— 


In referring to certain abuses in South-West China, connected 
with the production of copper, Mr. Baber remarks “ Before 
the mines can be adequately worked, Yunnan must be peopled, 
the Lolos must be fairly treated, roads must be constructed, the 
facilites offered for navigation on the upper Yang-tze must be im- 
proved—in short China must be civilised. A thousand years would 
be too short to allow of such a consummation, unless some force from 
without should accelerate the impulse.” Arthur H. Smith in his 
work “Chinese Characteristics,’ adds as a footnote to page 324 
after giving the extract from Baber quoted above, “ These signi- 
ficant words of the late Mr. Baber have recently received a striking 
confirmation from a memorial in the Peking Gazette of August, 
1890, from T’ang Chiung, Director of Mines in Yunnan, who makes 
a report in regard to the condition of the works and the output, 


46 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


He states that “a great deal of illicit mining is carried on by the 
people, and the officials are afraid of the consequences of asserting 
their rights despotically. A plan has, however, been devised of buying 
up the copper privately mined by the natives at a low price and 
thus taking advantage of the extra labour by a measure at once 
profitable and popular. In this way the memorialist thinks that the 
mines will work well, and will give no cause for the intrusion of 
outsiders.” The rescript merely orders the Board of Revenue to 
“take note.” 

In a_ postscript memorial the Director informs the Emperor 
that “ten thousand catties of copper are bought monthly from the 
illicit workers of the private mines, and that the labourers are not 
paid wages, but are supplied with oil and nice.” In conclusion, he 
describes the whole state of the mines as “ highly satisfactory.” 

It is not every day that an official of the rank of Governor offi- 
cially informs an Emperor that the laws of the Empire are con- 
stantly and deliberately violated by large numbers of persons with 
whom the magistrates dare not interfere, but whom, on the other 
hand, they mollify with oil, rice, and a sum of money sufficient 
to induce them to part with their stolen copper; and that in con- 
sequence of this defiance of the Emperor’s and his officials, the con- 
dition of the Emperor’s mines is “highly satisfactory.”” No wonder 
the Board of Revenue was invited to “ take note.” 


A small proportion of the population of Yunnan undoubtedly 
regards mining as its hereditary occupation and 
its professional spirit is kept alive by the 
various guilds and secret societies, which, with the strong ties of 
family life, unite the fabric of the lower classes of the country. 
But the great majority of the miners are drawn from the poorest 
ranks of the agricultural community. They are members of 
peasant families who cannot make a living on the ancestral farms 
owing to overcrowding or some other cause, or else they are 
aborigines drawn from one or other of the numerous mountain 
tribes. 

The lot of the average miner in Yunnan is a most miserable one. 
He is usually engaged to work for a stated time at a rate of pay 
barely sufficient to permit him to exist. As a rule he is supplied 
with a daily ration of rice by his master, who also finds lamps, 
timber, tools and mining gear. Both master-miner and coolie are 
alike subject to the tyranny of rapacious money-lenders. There 


The Chinese miner. 


CHINESE MINING METHODS. 47 


is a wide gap in Chinese society between the merchants and small 
landowners on the one hand and the labouring population on the 
other, and the miner is at the bottom rung of the ladder. His 
scanty pay, ragged clothes, dilapidated hovel and his lack of all 
oriental education and culture easily account for this. The master- 
miners rarely possess capital for any length of time, but there is an 
ever present demand for metals, which ensures the help of the money- 
lender, at exorbitant rates of interest. The so-called ‘ Chinese 
Mining Companies” are often little more than syndicates of capi- 
talists formed for this purpose. Their organization varies on 
different fields and special rules are framed to meet local circum- 
stances. They areg enerally formed under the patronage of the 
local officials who, in the case of deposits of copper, gold, silver and 
salt, possess practically sovereign powers, and who, in the other 
cases, act as nominal directors of the company and sometimes 
invite public subscriptions to raise the loans. The right to sell, 
purify, smelt and trade in the finished product passes to the 
company and a fixed price is given to the miner for the ores he 
wins. Both loan and interest are repayable in kind. The actual 
mining operations are carried on by the miners themselves under the 
supervision and direction of their own chief. The ores sold to the 
company are handed over to the native metallurgists who are con- 
trolled in the same way. 


Allowing for the absence of modern methods of artificial venti- 
lation, haulage, dramage and illumination, 
Chinese mines are comparatively good. Tunnels 
designed to strike particular lodes are generally driven exceed- 
ingly well. Timbering, when it is done at all, betokens expert 
workmanship. Many simple devices are used to improve venti- 
lation. Illumination is always obtained from molten fat contained 
in a hemispherical copper vessel, provided with a cotton or pith 
wick and also with a hook and tilting arrangement. Work is 
carried on with pick, chisel, crowbar and hammer; the rock faces 
are often heated and quenched. Gunpowder is rarely used. ‘The 
workings follow the idiosyncracies of the miner and the pecularities 
of the ore-body and the result is often a labyrinth. The Chinese 
have no system in mining coal, work is continued from the outcrop 
until falls, water or fire-damp stop it, when the excavation is 
abandoned and another commenced close at hand. The main 
roads of the larger mines are high enough to walk along, but in the 


Chinese mining. 


48 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT; RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


actual workings progress is made according to the conditions of the 
deposit, for no more unproductive material is removed than is 
absolutely necessary to allow room for a man to squeeze or crawl 
through. In the salt mines of Ho-ching, I was especially impressed 
by the height of the roads and the careful way in which pillars of 
rock salt were left to support the roof. When timberjng is not 
considered necessary a rounded arch-shape is given to the top of the 
roads and in bad ground the bottom is often rounded too, so that 
in section the roads are oval-shaped. The number of men em- 
ployed in one mine depends on circumstances, such as the richness 
of the deposit, its structure and the demand for the material it 
supplies. Less than 20 men and boys win all the orpiment which 
enters Burma. from Yunnan, while some of the copper mines find 
employment for hundreds of men. Every important field draws 
its labour from a particular district. The Ko-chiu tin-miners come 
from Lin-an Fu and Lu-nan. I once questioned a large number of 
Yunnanese coolies returning from the Ruby Mines; with few ex- 
ceptions these men were natives of Chen-nan Chou. The Bawdwin 
mines draw their supplies from Hohsa or La-hsa and the surrounding 
Chinese Shan States and it deserves to be better known what excel- 
lent mining coolies these men make, under sympathetic management. 


The isolation of China, her immense population and her large 
internal demand for metals, has resulted in a 
state of affairs which is unparalleled in any 
other Eastern country and which has a very important bearing on 
the future mineral industry. I refer to the fact that the greater 
proportion of the surface of the land has been thoroughly prospected. 
It is doubtful if there is a single accessible valley in the Chinese 
parts of Yunnan which has not been minutely examined for the 
least traces of copper ores. It is no exaggeration to state that to 
all intents and purposes, the deposits of metallic ores, with the 
extraction and uses of which the Chinese are acquainted, or which 
can be treated successfully by their own methods, are known, re- 
corded and in most instances located. In other words, the mining 
engmeer of the future, be he Chinese or European, will not be 
concerned with the search for new and unknown deposits of the 
commoner metals so much as in proving the extension and value of 
the deep-seated portions of those already worked. The theodolite 
and diamond drill will be more useful instruments in the future 
than the prospector’s hammer and blowpipe outfit. 


Future prospecting. 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 49 


SUMMARY OF THE STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 


On the large map appended to this report I have shown the 
areas occupied by various groups of members of the geological 
column, in the regions traversed by myself; accounts of these 
journeys have already been published or are in preparation. The 
reader who is desirous of studying the geology of Eastern Yunnan 
is referred to the beautiful, detailed maps issued with Deprat and 
Mansuy’s memoir by the Geological Department of Tongking. A 
map published with Loczy’s work illustrates the geology of a small 
strip of country in Western Yunnan, between A-tun-tzu and Ta-li 
Fu. 


I shall now describe briefly the various rock groups :— 


(1) Crystalline Rocks. 


(1) The term is used here to designate the gneisses, schists 
and associated crystalline rocks which underlie all the recognised 
groups and are separated from them by a profound unconformity. 
These rocks are often imtruded by granite and other rocks which 
are of younger ages, but which it is convenient to consider with 
them. The following groups of crystalline rocks are known in 
Yunnan : 


(a) The frontier ranges of the Irrawaddy-Salween divide-—A 
great band of crystalline rocks, upwards of 70 miles wide 
from east to west in the latitude of Bhamo, forms the 
hilly country between the Burma-China frontier and the 
Irrawaddy-Salween dividing range in this region and 
stretches for unknown distances to the north and south. It 
may be connected with the Mogok gneiss of the northern 
Shan States and Ruby Mines district. The typical rock 
is a banded greyish-white gneiss of medium grain, com- 
posed of quartz, felspar and biotite, with garnet as a 
common accessory mineral. Fine-grained amphibole 
schists, biotite schists and quartz schists are associated 
with it. White and greyish crystalline limestones also 
occur. It is intruded by dykes and large batholithic 
masses of white and reddish-white granite. In the higher 
parts of the Irrawaddy-Salween divide, the commonest 
type of rock is a fine-grained, banded, black and white 
mica schist occurring with muscovite, quartz and horn- 


50 


COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAI. RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


blende schists and a white porphyritic granite. Further 
south, where the great range begins to die down, the 
granites are developed at the expense of the other crys- 
talline rocks, which are normally fine-grained biotite 
schists and white augen gneisses. Two varieties of 
granite occur there, the first, a coarse-grained, gneissose 
kind and the second, a finer sort in thin veins, evidently 
of later age. 


(b) Lhe Tsang Shan complex.—The T’sang Shan range 1s a 


high mountain wall rising to elevations of 13,000 feet 
on the western shores of lake Euh Hai, near Ta-li Fu. 
Gneisses, schists and crystalline limestones all have a 
part in its structure and they are intruded by a gneissose 
granite. The band is not a wide one in this region and 
its northern limits is not known. (Loczy indicates a 
small granite boss near Li-chiang Fu, and part of a 
larger intrusion to the north-east of Wei-hsi T’ing.) 


(b) The Shun-ning-Yun-chou-Mien-ning crystalline series.—The 


crystalline rocks around these towns appear to form 
part of one band which is in much the same line of 
strike as the T’sang-shan band, though not directly 
connected with it on the surface. Around Shun-ning 
Fu gneisses, schists and granite occur, the former ex- 
tending for some 10 miles towards the north, almost 
up to the Mekong. Muscovite and _ biotite granites 
were both seen, but the former is commoner. Mica 
schists, quartz schists and various forms of gneisses 
occur between Shun-ning Fu and Yun-chou, and also 
near Mien-ning T’ing where the band is 15 miles wide 
from east to west. 


(d) The Yang-tze series—Crystalline rocks occur in the Yang- 


tze valley in the vicinity of its confluence with the Yalung. 
Specimens from this region were collected by Leclére 
and examined by Lévy and Lacroix who determined 
them as diorites with bytownite, passing into amphi- 
bolites. The diorite is traversed by veins of micro- 
granulite containing amphibole, black mica, oligoclase 
and pyrite. In the region of the Ya-lung there is a great 
massif made up of granulite which near Hui-li Chou 


is traversed by thick dykes of an _ egirine-bearing 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 51 


nepheline syenite. Accessory minerals include an amphi- 
bole of the arfvedsonite family, lepidomelane, sphene, 
sodalite and cancrinite. 

(e) Scattered localities in south-eastern Yunnan.—Crystalline 
rocks are not widely developed in Eastern Yunnan. 
In the deep valley of the Red River, and on the borders 
of the Méng-tzu basin, mica schists accompanied by 
cipolins and amphibolites occur. Masses of leptynite 
and tourmaline-bearing pegmatites are associated with 
them. In the Ko-chiu neighbourhood these rocks carry 
cassiterite, and the well-known tin deposits are partly 
the product of their disintegration. 


(2) The Kao-Liang System. 


I have given this name to a series of ancient, unfossiliferous, 
metamorphosed rocks which are common in Western Yunnan, 
and are generally found between the crystalline rocks and the 
oldest, undoubted Paleozoic sediments. They consist of phyllites, 
’ slates, quartzites and subordinate calcareous horizons and there is 
invariably a most distinct unconformity between them and the 
underlying crystallines. A band of rocks belonging to this system 
and at least 10 miles across crops out just beyond the Mekong on 
the Téng-yiieh—Ta-li-Fu route. Slates, tale schists and bluish- 
white quartzites are the prevailing types. To the south the band 
broadens out and covers a wide extent of broken, deeply dissected 
country between Shun-ning Fu and Yung-Ch’ang Fu. 

These rocks are very similar to the Chaung Magyi rocks of the 
Northern Shan States, except that they contain calcareous hori- 
zons. It is probable that when they come to be examined they 
will be found to contain beds corresponding both with the Hu-t’o 
system of Western Shan-si, and perhaps even with the Cambrian 
in part. This system is well developed in Eastern Yunnan and 
it may be that the greater amount of metamorphism which rocks 
of this age must have undergone in the tectonic upheavals of the 
Mekong ranges has destroyed any traces of fossils they originally 
contained. 


(3) The Cambrian System. 


Rocks of this age are only known in Eastern Yunnan, though 
it is possible that some of the beds classified as Kao-liang in the 


52 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


western portion may really be Cambrian. According to Deprat 
they attain a thickness of not less than 2,000 metres between the 
parallels of Yunnan Fu and the Yang-tze. The series is essentially an 
arenaceous one and sandstones, slates and schistose shales are of 
far more frequent occurrence than the rare bands of brecciated and 
crystalline limestone. In spite of the great amount of disturbance 
they have undergone and their original variations inseparable from 
the formation of a detrital deposit in a shallow sea, two divisions 
have been recognised, viz., the Georgian and Lowest Acadian. 


(4) The Ordovician System. 


Fossiliferous rocks of this age have been found in three locali- 
ties in Western Yunnan. They are of little importance as far as 
the general structure of the country goes or as regards the size of 
the area they occupy, but they are of great interest from a paleonto- 
logical point of view. Having read in Loczy’s work of the exis- 
tence of cystidean plates in certain beds near Pu-piao, a village 
one stage west of Yung-ch’ang Fu, I made a careful examination 
of the locality and was rewarded by the discovery of a rich fauna ; 
it has been described by Mr. Cowper Reed. At a later period I 
discovered the fossiliferous localities of Shih-tien and Laméng 
further to the south, as the map shows. 

(a) The Pu-piao Beds.—Reddish-yellow, and greyish-green sandy 
shales with bands of hard, nodular, impure limestone 
overlain on both east and west by younger Paleozoic 
limestones and associated rocks. Graptolites and 
trilobites are the characteristic fossils. Mr. Cowper 
Reed believes that the fauna, of which 34 distinct 
species have been recognised, undoubtedly points to a 
Lower Ordovician age. The graptolites are a typical 
assemblage from the zone of Didymograptus Murchi- 
soni.—The other organisms are allied to or comparable 
with members of the North European fauna of Ordo- 
vician times and scarcely any traces of an American 
element are apparent. The Pu-piao beds have been 
correlated therefore with the Llandeilo beds of the Bri- 
tish Isles. 

(b) The WShih-tien Beds—-Red, earthy limestones; massive, 
light grey limestones; greenish-grey limestones ; harden- 
ed marls; calcareous mudstones and dark slates. The 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 53 


beds are faulted against Silurian strata on the west and 
overlaid by alluvium on the east. The characteristic 
fossils are beautifully preserved cystideans and trilobites. 
46 species have been recognised, many of which are 
new. According to Mr. Cowper Reed the fauna suggests 
the Lower Ordovician, especially the Ordovician and 
cystidean limestones of the Baltic provinces of Russia. 
Some American Trenton or Chazy affinities are also 
indicated and at least one of the species has been 
previously recorded from the Ordovician of China. 

(c) The La-méng Beds.—Hard reddish or purple calcareous 
slates and mudstones faulted down into rocks of Kao- 
liang age. The fauna is poor and scanty and only 8 
organisms have been recognised. These suggest a Lower 
Ordovician age. 

There is a marked resemblance between the fossils from 
Western Yunnan and the Ordovician fauna of the 
Northern Shan States. Both undoubtedly belong to the 
Lower Ordovician, and both have an European facies 
and belong to the same division in South-East Asia. 

(d) Ordovician of Eastern Yunnan.—Deprat has shown that 
certain small exposures of greatly metamorphosed rocks, 
which come to the surface in Eastern Yunnan, belong 
to the Ordovician. Cowper Reed has pointed out that 
the Ordovician faunas of Eastern Yunnan and Tong- 
king seem to have a completely different faunistic type 
from those of Western Yunnan, but the data are in- 
sufficient for a satisfactory comparison. 


(5) The Silurian System. 


(a) Western Yunnan.—The Silurian beds are shown with the 
Ordovician on the map. They have only been recognised in two 
localities in Western Yunnan, faulted in one case against the 
Ordovician on Shih-tien hill, and the second further south near Pai-ma. 
At Shih-tien black fissile slates and greenish-grey or pink flaggy 
slates yielded a graptolite fauna, belonging, according to Miss 
Elles, to two horizons. 18 species have been recognised from the 
zones of Monograptus Sedgwicki and Orthoceras vesiculosus or Mono- 
graptus gregarius. 


54 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


(b) Eastern Yunnan.—Deprat has recognised a Silurian hori- 
zon to the north of Yunnan Fu, and another in the valley of the 
Nam-ti, near the Tong-king frontier, where shales with Spirifer 
tonkinensis appear to form a passage between the Gothlandian 
and the Lower Devonian. 


(6) The Devonian System (Older Palaeozoic limestones). 


On the map the limestones of Devonian and Permo-Carboni- 
ferous age are shown together because it is impossible to map them 
separately without better maps, and also because in the ranges 
between the Yang-tze and the Salween, they have been so infolded, 
and in many cases altered, that it is doubtful if they will ever be 
distinguished separately in the complex where they occur. Their 
distribution is best appreciated from the map itself. 

(a) Western Yunnan.—In this region the older Paleozoic 
limestones are unfossiliferous and the most striking 
thing about them is their universal brecciation, a cha- 
racter common to the Plateau Limestone of the Nor- 
thern Shan States. The prevailing rock type is grey- 
ish-white or greyish-blue dolomite, crushed and broken 
to an extraordinary degree and traversed in all direc- 
tions by minute cracks and veins of secondary carbonates. 
The surface of the exposed rock is black, very rough 
and irregular. It is hopeless to attempt to follow up 
any definite horizons or to establish any divisions in 
such a formation. 

In the Northern Shan States identical rocks cover hundreds 
of square miles of territory, yet in the whole of the 
continuous expanse of limestone, extending from May- 
myo to the Salween river, with one notable exception, 
not a single determinable fossil has been recognised, 
though thousands of outcrops have been minutely exa- 
mined. The one exception is the remarkable Padaukpyin 
coral reef which has yielded abundant fossils 
characteristic of the lower part of the Middle Devonian 
of Western Hurope. 

(b) Eastern Yunnan.—The presence of strata of Devonian 
age in Eastern Yunnan has been known since Joubert’s 
account was published, but it remained for Deprat 
to map and subdivide the rocks in detail and for Mansuy 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 55 


to describe their fauna. They occupy a great expanse 
of country between the ‘Triassic geosynclinal in the 
extreme south-east and the region of the lakes. Pure 
limestones are said to be exceptional and the rocks 
are of sandy, marly or shaley-calcareous types. The 
Lower Devonian, and the Hifelian and Givetian of the 
middle part of the system, as well as the Frasnian and 
Fammenian divisions of its upper part are present. 
They are all very fossiliferous and the forms from the 
Eastern Yunnanese Eifelian, like the Paudaukpyin fauna of 
the Northern Shan States, show close affinities with those 
of the same age from the Rhenish provinces of Europe, 


(7) The Permo-Carboniferous System. 


(a) Western Yunnan.—The  fossiliferous  Permo-Carboniferous 
limestones are always found in close association with the older, 
metamorphosed limestones, which they usually seem to overlie 
unconformably. They and their associated contemporaneous volcanic 
rocks occupy a good deal of country in the valleys of the 
Salween and Mekong and in the Yang-tze valley north of Ta-h Fu. 
The older limestones tend to give rise to rugged hill-tops covered 
with serees, or to vertical-sided cahons, while the Permo-Carboni- 
ferous build wider valleys and form gentler slopes, through 
the soil of which their smooth isolated outcrops protrude. The 
commoner types are dark grey, or greyish-blue, massive limestones 
with a compact texture, exhibiting bits of shelly fragments and 
foraminifera in thin sections, whereas the older limestones merely 
exhibit recrystallized calcite and dolomite. From these rocks 
I have made large collections of fossils which unfortunately have 
not as yet been examined by a specialist. Until they have been 
described it is safer to make no remarks about the probable age 
of the rocks and their affinities. 

Volcanic activity was very prevalent in Yunnan whilst these 
limestones were being deposited and beds of tuff and ash, inter- 
calated with andesitic, doleritic and basaltic flows, are commonly 
found amongst them. In some localities they form the greater 
part of the series. 

(b) Eastern Yunnan.—The detailed study of the Permo-Car- 
boniferous rocks of Eastern Yunnan has been carried much 
further than in the case of those of the more westerly parts of the 


56 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


province, thanks to the brilliant researches of the official geologists 
of Tongking. 

A few exposures of the Dinantian, the lowest division of the 
Carboniferous have been found by Deprat in the Yang-tze valley 
north of Yunnan Fu. 

The Moscovian or Middle Carboniferous attains an exceptional 
development and is at least 1,200 metres thick. The lower horizons 
are sandy, whilst the higher horizons are invariably limestones. 
Between the two, there is a sandy coal-bearing series with subordi- 
nate limestone bands. 

During the Uralian, Artinskian and Middle Permian periods, 
enormous thicknesses of limestone were laid down during a slow 
submergence of the sea. In appearance they are so much alike 
that it is quite impossible to distinguish them lithologically, but 
the beauty and variety of their foraminiferal remains have enabled 
this to be done by Deprat and his colleagues. 

These immense limestone masses have made the scenery of 
Eastern Yunnan what it is. The folded middle Carboniferous 
of the regions of the great lakes, owing to the ease with which its 
sandy horizons are denuded, produces great limestone escarpments 
on the hillsides or forms the fine lines of the crests. The Uralian 
and Permian limestones constitute a series some 1,500 metres thick 
without any other rocks. 

At the end of the Middle Permian or perhaps during Upper 
Permian times a retrogressive movement set in. The land emerged 
from the sea and denudation vigorously attacked the limestones, 
removing them more or less completely according to local circum- 
stances. 


(8) The Upper Permian or Red Beds Series. 


(a) Western Yunnan.—The elevation and subsequent denuda- 
tion of the deposits of the Permo-Carboniferous sea resulted in the 
formation of a great arenaceous and argillaceous system, not 
unlike certain facies of the Indian Gondwanas in lithological aspect. 
A thick conglomerate often separates them from the underlying 
limestones, and the lower sandstones and shales are characterised 
by thick beds of rock salt and gypsum. Red and greyish-red sand- 
stones, often in thick bands, reddish-purple and greenish shales, are 
the commoner types of the series which forms a distinct and very 
monotonous type of country well seen on the main road between 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 57 


Ta-l Fu and Yunnan Fu or between the former place and Yung- 
chang Fu. 

(6) astern Yunnan.—The deposition of the Red Beds com- 
menced here with thick conglomerates and ended with red shales 
and sandstones containing beds of salt and gypsum. The close of 
the Permian was marked by wide-spread volcanic eruptions, the 
andesites and basalts of which attain an extraordinary thickness 
to the north of Ta-h Fu in the Yang-tze valley and further east 
also. The effect they have on the scenery cannot be described better 
than in Deprat’s words :— 

“Entre la région des lacs et le haut Fleuve Bleue (Yang-tze) les 
éruptions basiques se multiplient et les énormes coulées de diabases, 
labradorites et basaltes superposées, pincées dans des plis de vaste 
amplitude provoquent lapparition dans la topographie d’énormes 
croupes arrondies, s’élevant & une altitude trés considérable et con- 
trastant vivement avec les formes juxtaposées des calcaires carboni- 
fériens. Les régions occupées par ces roches sont ordinairement trés 
stériles, et le caractére dénudé de ces longues cimes arrondies est 
vraiment caractéristique.” (De., p. 5). 


(9) The Triassic System. 


(a) Western Yunnan.—A belt of Triassic rocks about 12 miles 
wide occurs near Yunnan Hsien to the east of Ta-li Fu and appears 
to strike north into the Yangtze valley where it is at least 30 miles 
wide. Its further extension to the north beyond this region is nor 
known, and it appears to come to an end a short distance to the 
south of the Yunnan Hsien area as the map shows. A large collec- 
tion of fossil remains has been made from the rocks of this basin, 
the commoner types of which are marls, sandy shales, soft sand- 
stones and occasional limestone horizons. The fauna is sure to prove 
a most interesting one, but as the collection has not been examined, 
it is impossible for me to fix the horizons of the various beds them- 
selves. If a guess may be hazarded, the general appearance of the 
fossils seems to indicate that both middle and upper Trias and 
perhaps Rhetic beds occur. The Triassic coals of the basin are of 
considerable economic importance. 

Another Triassic basin was found between Meng Chu and Ssi- 
mao in South-western Yunnan but as only one rapid traverse was 
made across it, its limits are not known. Middle Trias horizons 
seem to be represented in it. 

E 


58 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


(b) It seems probable that Triassic strata were deposited 
over a considerable portion of EKastern Yunnan and that they were 
generally removed during the severe erosion which took place in 
Pliocene times. The small areas which are found now owe their pre- 
servation to faulting. They occur in the extreme south-east of 
the province. The transgression of the Triassic sea covered a 
surface exposed to long erosion during the Upper Permian, and 
at first formed lagoon-like expanses in which the lowest deposits 
of the system were laid down as alternations of beds containing 
terrestrial plant remains with others characterised by marine forms. 
The three great divisions of the Trias are represented and well 
marked off from each other by distinguishing faunas. As a rule 
they are said to be very folded and even inverted. The uppermost 
beds of the Lower Trias have a littoral facies and the passage from 
the Werfen to the Mesotrias is a progressive one. The Meso- 
triassic forms collected by Loezy at Tchung-tien in the far north- 
west in Ssit-ch’uan are practically identical with those from the 
extreme south-east of Yunnan, which tends to prove that similar 
conditions prevailed over a very extended area. These conditons 
entirely changed with the passage into the Upper Trias, the deepen- 
ing of the sea attamed its maximum, pelagic conditions set in, and 
an invasion of cephalopods, marked by the especial development 
of ammonites of the Trachyceratide family, took place during the 
Noric and the Carnic. A definite uplift commenced in the upper 
Norie period and sandstones containing coal-seams were formed. 
Similar conditions of a continental character probably existed 
during the Rhetice at any rate over EKastern Yunnan. 


My own view is that the transgression of the Triassic sea was a 
slow and progressive one from east to west in Yunnan and that the 
continental conditions indicated by the great deposits of the Red 
Beds series persisted m Western Yunnan to a much later period 
of time than they did in the east of the province. According to 
La Touche the Trias is entirely absent from the northern Shan 
States, which nevertheless contain Rhetic and Jurassic deposits 
of a marine character with rich faunas. Now Jurassic strata are 
known to occur in Ssi-ch’uan, but no trace of them remains in 
Yunnan, if they ever existed at all. These facts seem to justify 
my assumption that the Red Beds series, though confined to the 
Upper Permian in Eastern Yunnan may be of true Permo-Triassic 
age further west, and that the marine conditions which set in in 


OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY OF YUNNAN. 59 
Eastern Yunnan in the Trias did not reach the northern Shan States 
until Rheetic and Jurassic times, when the Triassic deposits of the 
eastern area were already undergoing uplift and denudation. 
The Jurassic system is unknown in Yunnan and the Cretaceous 
has never been recognised anywhere in China proper. 


The Pliocene (Nan Tien Series). 


With the Upper Trias marine sedimentation ceased and the 
only known deposits of a later age are the fluvio-lacustrine or lacus- 
trine beds of late Tertiary times. Deposition is still in progress 
in some of the lake basins so it is sometimes impossible to separate 
the older deposits from the newer. The beds themselves consist 
of sands, sand-rock, clays, pebble beds and conglomerates. Bands 
of lignite are also known to occur in places. 

These continental conditions, unimportant from the stratigra- 
phical point of view, witnessed epoch-making changes of another kind. 
At a period which belongs to the early Himalayan phase, Yunnan 
and the Shan States were involved in far-reaching folding movements 
which have been worked out in detail by Deprat. Overthrusting 
was common and the Yangtze region in the neighbourhood of the 
great bend, was pushed forward on to the Yunnanese area further 
south. A long period of peneplanation followed, the Himalayan 
folds were planed away by denudation and eventually, probably 
towards the end of Pliocene times, great faults cut across the region. 
These caused most of the depressions, which during the subsequent 
period of stability gave rise to the lakes wherein the late Tertiary 
fresh-water deposits accumulated, while at the same time the river 
valleys became choked with thick sandy deposits. The final phase, 
a very decided uplift, is responsible for much of the present topo- 
graphy. It also drained many of the lake basins and installed the 
minor features of the existing hydrographic systems. 


60 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


PAR TAELE 
COAL. 


Coals of three distinct geological ages are found in Yunnan, 
belonging to the late Tertiary, Trias or Rhetic and Carboniferous 
periods respectively. 


Tertiary Lignite. 


Lake basins filled with lacustrine and fluvio-lacustrine deposits 
of late Pliocene and recent ages abound throughout Yunnan. To 
these deposits I have given the name “Nan Tien Series.” Bands 
of impure carbonaceous shale and lignite very often occur in them 
and are mined sometimes for local domestic purposes. 


A typical occurrence is that of the Nan Tien plain (lat. 24° 
49’, long. 98°22’) which extends for some 
15 miles down the Nam Ti valley between 
Bhamo and Téng-yiieh. Well-marked terraces, about 80 or 90 
feet high, border the plain on both sides of the river and are deeply 
dissected where small tributary streams cross them. Sections of 
the deposits show them to be made of beds of sand loosely held 
together, pebble beds which, being slightly cemented, have the 
appearance of conglomerates, silts, and bluish clays with bands 
of carbonaceous shale containing fragments of lignite.. About half 
a mile to the east of Nan Tien itself, a band of black carbonaceous 
shale. about 12 inches thick, crops out in a high terrace of these 
Tertiary deposits, composed of hard blue clays and white and 
yellowish sands. In the next valley to the north there are two 
outcrops of the same sort of material both about 15 inches thick 
and separated by 20 feet of yellowish sands. The outcrop of 
one of the bands can be traced for 300 yards. The material com- 
posing the seams is not a true coal, but a carbonaceous shale which 
has been formed by the addition of much vegetable matter to the 
mud of a lake or slowly flowing river. It decomposes very easily 
and goes to pieces when dried, or on exposure to the air for any 
length of time. In places it is purer, and masses of lignite, evidently 
formed from fragments of driftwood, occur in it. | 


Lignite of Nan Tien. 


COAL 6] 


Sunilar deposits are found in the Kan-ngai valley (lat. 24° 47”: 
long. 98° 8’), in the Lo-po-ssii-ch’uan where beds of lignite-bearing 
shales are worked near Lai-fu, in the Yung-chang Fu plain, and 
indeed in most of the old lake basins of Yunnan. As the material 
has no economic value, except possibly a very small local one, it 
is not proposed to describe the separate occurrences. 


In Kastern Yunnan precisely similar deposits occur. They were 
noticed originally by Leclére and Monod and 
later by Lantenois who pointed out that the 
lignites could not be sold in Tongking and 
only possessed a local interest. 


Lignite in Eastern 
Yunnan. 


The lacustrine deposits of the Téng-yiieh valley, (lat. 25° 0’: 
long. 98° 30’), contain beds of peat, which is 
black, somewhat compressed and hag remains 
of thin roots and stalks of plants preserved 
in it. Under the alluvial soil and loam, thin layers of yellowish 
grey clay are usually found, underlain by lighter sandy beds made 
up almost entirely of small grains of clear quartz with a few milky 
grains of felspar. Under the sandy beds there is often a layer of 
black peat up to 4 feet in thickness. During the winter the peat 
is dug out and sold for burning in stoves. It has been formed 
in much the same way as the lignites, though it is considerably 


younger. 


Peat in the Téng- 
yiieh valley. 


Brown lignitic coals, containing a high percentage of moisture 
ae are found in various parts of the Northern 
hace ae oe Shan States of Burma in small basins filled 
with late Tertiary silts, occupying the valleys 
of the streams that rise among the hills surrounding Loi Ling, 
the loftiest mountain in the States. Sometimes the seams attain 
a considerable thickness, one in the Lashio field being 30 feet thick. 
Attempts have been made to use some of these lignites but up to 
the present time they have not been successful. They are men- 
tioned here because of their similarity of composition, occurrence 
and formation with the lignites of Yunnan. 


Analyses of late A number of assays of lignites from 
Tertiary lignites. various localities are tabulated below :— 


62 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


| Mois- | Volatile | Fixed Ash. 


Locality. ture. matter. | carbon. 
Nan Tien (1) . Pi st 39-05 22:58 21-87 Does not coke, ash 
| dark brown. 
Nan Tien (2) . . | 16-22 28:94 | 18:08} 37:76 Does not coke, ash 
| dark brown. 
Tang chi (| Eastern | 33-05 34:07 | 24:27 8-61 Does not coke, ash 
Yunnan). : light brown. 
Northern Shan States | 16-78 85-72 | 32:85 | 13-28 Mean of 29 assays 
| from various locali- 
| ties, quoted by La 
| Touche. 
| Lignites from Eastern 
| Yunnan. Analyses 
} from Lantenois, 
Mi-la-ti (1) ; | 17-20 29°20 | 38-20 38-20 none of these yields 
Mi-la-ti (2) : sea ALOEZO. 31:30 | 32-50 20-00 coke. Tang-chi is a 
Pou-chao-pa (1)  . | 30:25 31-15 .|. 26:00 1260 || French analysis of 
a ger (eet 45-00 | 24-00 | 31-00 < | same material, 
© rae das (2) Raters cates! a | 34:25 | 16:50 | 36:50 ||} shown in line 3. 


a pera re) ore) 34-00 17-50 | 36-50 The specimen from 
f(D) weal eee 24-00 50-23 | 6-44 Pouch a o-pa, 
16-00 52-00 27:00 | 500 || (No. 5), gave @ 

| calorific power of 

\ | 3,400 calories 

| (Berthier’s method). 


True Coal. 


In the report of the Lyons Mission both Rocher and Duclos 
draw attention to the occurrence of coal in Yunnan; but Leclere 
established the existence of two coal-bearing horizons of Paleozoic 
and Mesozoic age respectively, though his estimates of the quan- 
tities available have proved to be very much exaggerated in the 
light of more recent knowledge. These horizons he regarded as 
belonging to (1) beds of Carboniferous age below the Productus 
Limestone, and (2) the Rhetic. Lantenois attributed the deposits 
he examined to (1) the Carboniferous, and (2) the Trias or Rhetic. 
Deprat has recently worked out the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing 
rocks and has concluded that coal occurs in the following beds in 
Yunnan :— 


Upper Trias. ° . Upper Noric sandstones. 
Middle Trias. ‘ . Sandstones with Myophoria inequicostata, 
Lower middle Trias . -« Coarse sandstones, 
Lower Trias. . . Psammites 

Rinse POGe eae : 
WWosotinn ( Limestones with Spirifer mosquensis. 


: ( Upper red sandstones. 


COAL. 63 


According to this writer the only horizons capable of yielding 
continuous seams of good quality belong to the Noric, Werfen 
and Moscovian. The other horizons contain irregular seams of 
very impure coal containing large quantities of pyrites. I have 
examined occurrences of Paleozoic and Mesozoic coals in Yunnan. 
The Yunnan Hsien-Yangtze valley field undoubtedly belongs to 
the latter division, but until my fossil collections have been deter- 
mined, I cannot state whether these coals are of Triassic or Rhetic 
age. With the exception of the Yunnan Hsien field all the Mesozoic 
coals of Yunnan are confined to the eastern and south-eastern 
parts of the province, a region which I did not examine. The 
following notes concerning them are taken from French sources 
as indicated. 

Upper Triassic Coal. 


The coal-seams of the Upper Trias are intercalated in the Noric 
hae eae papa a Za sandstones which terminate the system in 
a Yunnan. Leclére, Lantenois and Depratt have 
described the occurrence at Ni-ou-ke, 10 kilometres east-south-east 
of A-mi Chou (lat. 23° 41’: long. 103° 17’). Leclere attributed a 
Rhetic age to the deposits, which Lantenois admits is possible. 
Deprat states that they are of Noric age, at the top of the Yunnanese 
Trias. Four seams occur with a total thickness of 3 metres ; the 
principal seam which is worked is 1-2 metres thick but it contains 
marly bands. 
The following analyses of coal from Ni-ou-ke are given by 
Lantenois :— 


| : 
No. Moisture. | Volatile Ash. Calorific value. 
matter. 

1 3-0 | 33:50 4:10 

2 8-00 | 25-00 17-00 ie 

3 7-04 ey 18-42 4-740 

4 | 8-80 | 21-00 18:38 4-690 
ee 30-00 6-00 i 

6 4-00 32-00 13-00 5-350 


1 Le., pp. 353-354 ; La., pp. 395-396 ; De., p. 244. 


Leclére gives a composition of from 30-35 per cent. of volatile 
matter and about 6 per cent. of ash. The coal is said to burn 
with a bright flame and to yield a light friable coke. Its worst 


64 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


defect is the large proportion of fines. It is used in distilleries at 
Méng-tzi. 

In the neighbourhood of Ta-yao-chai, a village some 25 miles 
east-north-east of A-mi chai, two coal seams 
were found by Deprat.1 The first occurs half 
way between Yang-tsi-kiou and Ta-chai, 
dipping to the north-west and forming part of a syncline of Upper 
Trias rocks. The seam is about a metre thick; the outcrop coal 
is weathered and pulverulent, but is probably better in depth. 

The other seam crops out on the road between Ta-yao-chai 
and Chong-chai and is associated with coarse sandstones containing 
plant remains belonging to the Upper Noric. The seam dips 
north-east and the coal visible at the surface is dull. It may be 
better deeper down. 

If these deposits eventually prove valuable, it must be remem- 
bered that they are two stages away from the railway and conse- 
quently can only be utilised in Yunnan itself owing to the cost of 
transport. 


Coal near Ta-yao- 
chai. 


Middle Triassic Coal. 


The coals of the middle Trias are of little economic importance. 
They are disseminated in sandstones and shales and are generally 
very admixed with clay and shaly material. 

Lantenois? regarded the Tse-sou seams as Upper Trias or 
Rhetic, but Deprat? has shown that they are 
associated with the sandstone containing 
Myophoria inequicostata which are correlated with the St. Cassian 
horizon or the upper portion of the Middle Trias. 

Two seams, each about 1 metre thick, separated by a band of 
coarse sandstone, are found between Ya-ma-chai and ‘Tse-sou. 
Both authorities state that the coal is of very mediocre quality. 
The locality is about 15 miles east-north-east of A-mi chai. 

Near Sin-tien, Deprat noticed a coal seam about 1:20 metres 
thick in the coarse sandstones at the base 
of the middle Trias. The coal is of very poor 

quality and mixed with much clayey material. Were this not so, 
its distance of over 60 kilometres from the railway at A-mi chou 
prohibits its transport. 


Tse-sou coal-seams. 


Sin-tien seam. 


1 De., p. 245. 
2 La., p. 395. 
3 De., p. 243 


COAL. 65 


Meretgn| >» 
RY ? 
bh eh 2 


Lower Triassic Coal. 


The Lower Triassic beds of the region between Mi-lé Hsien (lat. 
24° 23’: long. 103° 27’) and Tou-tzu, forty five miles further to the 
north-east, contain some of the best coal deposits in Yunnan whether 
regarded from the point of view of quality or quantity. It is unfor- 
tunate that their minimum distance of 2 or 3 days’ journey from 
the railway prevents their scientific exploitation. 

These deposits were first examined by Connillon who came to 
the conclusion that only one seam, varying in 
thickness from 0-8 to 1-5 metres, existed. But 
Deprat has shown that this is not the case; 
thus between Je-shui-tang and Ho-kiou there are four. The seams 
are actively exploited by the Chinese and the coal is made into 
coke for domestic purposes. 


Coal-seams between 
Tou-tzu and Mi-lé. 


In every occurrence this coal is bright, generally pure, free 
from shaly partings and only contains a little pyrites. It is not 
as fragmentary as the Moscovian coals are and many of the Chinese 
mines yield large-sized material. 


The following analyses are from various sources :— 


Volatile Kat, Calorific 


District. Locality. Moisture. iAttEr, oA . Authority. 
Mi-si-sao : 0:80 12°90 32:20 pe Connillon and 
Mi-lé : Lantenois. 
Lao-song-chiu 1:00 13°00 20°50 5,924 Do. 
I-wi-chao at 0-70 19-70 14-00 6,098 Do. 
|| Tsin-si-kou (1) | 1:40 26°20 14-50 a Do. 
Between Mi-lé and< | Tsin-si-kou (2) | 1-90 23°30 12-40 5,964 Do. 
Tou-tza. | | Pu-chiao ‘ 0:50 22-60 9-90 es Do. 
| Sai-kao . s 2°35 12:70 71°30 1,226 Do. 
Tou-tza . . . | Tou-tza . 3 1-00 17-40 8-00 6,470 Do. 
Tou-tza . : . | Tou-tza . ® 0:95 16:75 7:50 8,010 Monod. 
Tou-tza . 3 . | Tou-tza . $ 1:30 15:00 10-00 7,500 Leclére. 
Mi-lé F : . | Near Jeshui-tang 37:00 9-54 oe | Do. 


These analyses are compared by Lantenois with those of the 
Hongay briquette and the Mike coal of Japan. 


Volatile Fixed Ash: | 


; Bere anes 
Locality. | Moisture, | matter. carbon. | | 
ees —_ — | --—— - ee z Sa aera 
Hongay briquette 2:20 ; 15:20 6-00 6,682 
| 
Miike (Japan) : 120 + SIO 12-70 5,838 


| | 


66 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


These coals furnish an excellent coke especially suited for 
metallurgical operations. The Tou-tza coal is very friable but 
the other localities yield compact solid material. The calorific 
power is generally high. 


Mesozoic Coal in Central Yunnan. 


Leclére in 1898 seems to have been the first European to learn 
of the existence of coal in central Yunnan. Writing of the rocks 
met with near Yunnan-i he states “ They probably reach to the 
Rheetic horizon, for at Mu-pang-pu coal outcrops are worked, from 
which an ashy coal is won, which is nevertheless made use of as 
far as Yunnan-i” (Le., p. 397). 

I visited the area in November 1908 and again in June 1909. 

In the hills to the south of Miao-tsway a village 2 or 3 miles 

; south of Yunnan-i (lat. 25° 26’: long. 100° 
fee oe a MEAS 42’), three coal-seams are found, each three 
or four feet in thickness and separated by 
bands of hard yellow and yellowish-white sandstone. Interbedded 
with these are layers of soft, greyish-white, sandy shales. Fossils 
were collected from certain marly horizons in the vicinity, but 
until they have been determined, the exact age of the seams them- 
selves cannot be stated, but they probably belong to either the 
Trias or the Rhetic. The outcrop coal is won by the Chinese by 
means of shallow drifts and incline shafts. The seams strike 
N 15°-20°E and have a high dip in a south-easterly direction. 
Samples from two of the seams gave the following results on 
assay — 


; “ie Volatile Fixed 
Locality. Moistaree | sere. | Gabon. | Ash. 
Miao-tsway (1) ; 2-03 8-10 83-28 6:59 | Does not coke. 
Miao-tsway (2). 1-52 900 | 713 10-35 | Sinters slightly. 
} 


TI was informed on Chinese authority that coal was mined to 
the south of Miao-tsway, and in February 
ees see oy 1910, I was able to confirm the truth of my 
information. Near the village of Li-kang- 

ch’ang, towards the southern end of the Mi-tu plain, and approxi- 
mately ten miles in a south-westerly direction from Miao-tsway, 


COAL, 67 


as the crow flies, two or three seams crop out at the edge of the 
valley. The seams are from 5 to 10 feet thick, but owing to the 
mines being abandoned and the locality overgrown with thick 
grass, I was unable to make any detailed examination. Whether 
the coal-bearing rocks stretch much further south is not known. 
Towards the north-east in the direction of Miao-tsway, there is 
said to be a group of Chinese coal mines at Mu-ku-lang, 3 miles 
from Li-kang-ch’ang. 
On the northern side of the Yunnan Hsien plain, the coal hori- 
Nocihamcextenuion oe ae out, being hidden under the lacus- 
of the Yunnan Hsien trine deposits of the plain in the intervening 
ceniia area. Coal is mined on the south-western 
slopes of peak 6,950, which lies to the east-north-east of the city, 
but which does not form a very conspicuous land-mark, as the 
surrounding plain has an elevation of more than 6,000 feet. The 
thick soil-cap hides most of the rocks in the vicinity of the mines 
but the exposures that are visible exhibit the same soft yellow 
sandstones and marls as those found at Miao-tsway, ten miles to 
the south-east on the other side of the plain. The strike is north 
and south and the dip high towards the east. A few fragmentary 
plant remains were collected in weathered shale on an old mine 
heap. There appear to be two seams and in the vicinity of the 
village of Ta-ho-tsun, lines of old workings run in an almost due 
north and south direction for over a mile. The only rocks visible 
are a few isolated exposures of soft yellow sandstones. Outcrop 
material from the two seams assayed as follows :— 


ea TEEESNEEEEEEEEEEEEEE EERE 


: ie Volatile | Fixed | 
Locality. | Moisture.| | atter. aeabot: | Ash. 
Ta-ho-tsun (1) 8:26 14-85 54:98 21:90 | Sinters _ slightly. 


Ta-ho-tsun (2) 5 4:27 9-88 58-98 26-87 | Sinters slightly. 


The coal-bearing rocks are again met with near Tong-ch’uan, 
a small village one stage to the north of 
Yunnan Hsien. The road to the mines leaves 
the village of Lung-yu-tsun, which is situated 
at the eastern edge of the Pin-ch’uan Chou plain (lat. 25° 44°; 
long. 100° 33’) and proceeds up the valley of a small tributary 
stream to the east, for about a mile. At first the Permo-Carboni- 


Coal-seams near 
Tong-ch uan. 


68 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


ferous volcanic rocks are passed and the then dark indurated shales, 
followed by coarse gritty sandstones. These strike north-east to south- 
west and dip south-east at 42°. Unfortunately a thick soil-cap 
hides the rocks near the mines, but the horizon is probably the same 
as the Yunnan Hsien one, from which it is separated by a distance 
of about 14 miles as the crow flies. An assay of the weathered 
coal from this locality gave the following result :— 
“cellist 


: eke Volatile | Fixed | 
Locality. Moisture. vatter. | men Ash. | 
Tong-ch’uan . > 3°33 7-51 72-06 17-10 Sinters slightly. 


| | 


ELT 


Coal-seams are also found on the western side of the Pin-ch’uan 

Ghal-asaria 40° ghe Chow alley... stom the small walled city of 
west of  Pin-ch'uan that name a road leads in a_north-westerly 
eee direction to Kan-tien at the edge of the plain. 
At this place coarse sandstones and shales strike north 30° west 
and dip in a north-easterly direction at 55°. Two miles further 
west there are exposures of grey sandstones separated by layers 
of grey micaceous shale. Coal is mined about two miles to the 
south-west of Kan-tien, which lies at the foot of a spur running 
out from a well-marked ridge. Very few rocks are visible near 
the workings, but the type of strata found further away is litho- 
logically identical with the coal-bearing horizon of Tong-ch’uan 
and Yunnan Hsien. 

An assay of a sample from a heap lying near the mouth of an 
old working gave the following results :— 


Fixed 
carbon. 


Volatile 


matter. Ash. 


Locality. | Moisture. 


or 
or 


Kan-tien ; : | 2-01 8: 71-14 18-03 | Sintr slightly. 


OF remene 


Mesozoic Coal of the Yangtze Valley. 


Yunnan Hsien is in the valley of the Red River, but very close 
to the divide between it and the Yangtze. The northern exten- 
sion of the Yunnan Hsien field is situated within the drainage 
system of the Yangtze. On the northern bank of the river coal is 
extensively worked about Chiu-ya-ping Hsien (lat., 26° 38’: long. 


COAL. 69 


101°13’) and. Ma-ch’ang (lat. 26° 35’: long. 101° 27’). The former 
place is about 80 miles in a straight line to the north-east of Pin- 
ch’uan Chou and, although the greater part of the intervening region 
has still to be examined, there is some reason for supposing that 
it forms part of the Triassic basin of Central Yunnan, and if this 
should prove to be the case, there is a probability of coal being 
found in it. 

According to Joubert, (G., Vol. II, p. 164), the early French 
fathers seem to have been the first Huropeans to recognise the 
existence of coal in the Yunnan course of the Yangtze. Garnier’s 
mission visited a mine near Ma-ch’ang in 1868 and noticed the 
seams cropping out on the river banks. One seam was more than 
seven feet thick and the coal of good quality though friable. Owing 
to this property it was all coked locally before being sold. (G., Vol. I, 
p. 505-and Vol. “IT, p. 165). 

In 1898 the region was traversed by Leclére from whose writings 
I have translated the following notes. The country between the 
north and south course of the Yangtze and its tributary the Yalung 
which flows in a similar direction! is not composed of the ancient 
Sinian rocks as Loczy’s map indicates, but is occupied by Mesozoic 
formations which continue and complete those of Central Yunnan. 
Superposed in the Ta-l Fu region on Paleozoic formations, 
Triassic, Rhetic and Liassic sediments follow one another towards 
the east. The ancient shore runs north and south on both banks 
of the Yangtze for distances that are still unknown and encloses 
coal deposits of great value. 

The most easterly outcrops of Rhetic coal are found about 10 
kilometres down stream from Ma-ch’ang. The principal seam 
exploited in the vicinity is at the base of a hill called Ke-ti-pin, 
5 kilometres from Ma-ch’ang. The same easterly-dipping horizon 
is exploited at a great number of places on the right bank of the 
river, for example near Ta-pin-ch’ang. From the roof of a mine 
below Ma-ch’ang, in a seam 6 feet thick, dipping at 40° to the east, 
plant remains were collected which Zeiller correlated with those 
from the Rhetic of Tongking. The gallery of this mine penetrated 
more than 800 feet into the seam in a horizontal plane and from 
it about five tons of coal were won daily. The small coal was 
coked on the spot. The larger coal was sold a day’s journey away 
at about 43 franes per ton, but the local inhabitants are given to 


1 The distance indicated is about 90 miles across in a straight line. J. C. B. 


70  COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


using outcrop coal which they gather themselves. A French mis- 
sionary stationed in the vicinity could obtain good coal by 
sending out his servants for a day to collect it. 

Between Ma-ch’ang and Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien coal outcrops are 
found on the lower slopes of the hills, overlain by limestones. The 
little mines made by the people of Sin-kai and Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien 
yield the best coal that Leclére met with. Coal is the only fuel 
used in the district though wood is by no means scarce. It burns 
with a brilliant flame and very little smoke in the open grates of 
the houses. Leclére gives the following assays of these coals :— 


que NE NN A NE NR RT <a 


Volatile | Fixed 


Locality. | Moisture. nS | centon: Ash. Calorifie power. 
Tai-pin-ch’ang (1). 2-6 32-4 | 59-0 6-0 | 7,854 
Tai-pin-ch’ang (2). ss [36-6 oe 456 
Near Sin-kai* . est 9-6 39-1 47-3 4-() 

Near Sin-kait . . eee 18:25 | yak 3-6 8,389 


Personal Observations. 


I made a rapic traverse across this region in May 1909, but I 
fell ill in Chiu-ya-p'ing Hsien and was not able to add very much 
to Leclére’s work. He is certainly correct in assuming the existence 
of a wide Mesozoic basin between the eastern part of the Yangtze 
bend and the Yalung. On the west the Red Beds are followed 
by the Trias between Ta-lu and Wei-sha, and on the east they 
overlap on to the igneous rocks of the Permo-Carboniferous in the 
neighbourhood of Hsin-chuang. Thus the basin has an approxi- 
mate width of 50 miles, measured in a straight line from east to 
west. We have no knowledge as to its northern limit but it would 
appear to reach the valley of the Li-t’ang river in Ssii-ch’uan. 


The first coal outcrops are found near Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien, some 
18 miles from the western edge of the basin. This town lies at an 
elevation of 4,200 feet in the narrow valley of a small tributary 
flowing from the north-west to join the Hsien-chuang Ho, a tribu- 


tary of the Yangtze on its north bank. Coal seams crop out on 


* Outcrop material. 
} Picked up from road where it had fallen in transport. Le., pp. 386-389, 


COAL. val 


both slopes of the valley and the tops of the ridges are capped with 
limestones which I believe are either Upper Triassic or Rhetic in age. 

I visited a small mine at Pa-sha-shan, in the steep range which 
borders the Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien valley on the 
west. The mine is about two miles to the 
north-west of the town at an elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea. 
Further to the north-north-west the ridge rises to an elevation 
of 10,000 feet above the sea. After crossing one limestone band 
the track ascends across red shales topped by steep limestone 
crags. The coal-seams crop out in a series of coarse, soft, grey 
sandstones, banded with variegated and yellowish shales containing 
carbonaceous layers. On the occasion of my visit only one seam 
was being worked, from three steep inclines which descended in a 
northerly direction from the outcrop. About 16 men were employed 
and the coal was drawn out to the surface in iron-shod _ sledges. 
The monthly output was about 20 tons and was sold locally for 
domestic purposes. The coal itself was hard, bright and of excellent 
appearance. There are other mines further south along the line 
of outcrop. 

Owing to the similarity of geological structure on both sides 
of the valley, it was anticipated that coal 
would be found to the west of the town. This 
proved to be the case and there are several 
outcrops in the first stage between Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien and Hsin-kai. 

Leaving the valley the red shales are followed by limestones 
dipping to the east-north-east at 20°, which give place to the coal- 
bearing, yellowish shales and sandstones again, capped by the 
upper limestones. Coal was mined at We-pan-tsun and Ta-pin-t’zu, 
while near the village of Ta-wa which 1s built on the eastern slope 
of the ridge bounding the Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien valley, I found indi- 
cations of outcrops. 


Pa-sha-shan mine. 


Coal to the west of 
Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien. 


Coming down the valley from Ta-wa to Hsin-kai, I noticed 
many abandoned drifts in the sandstones. I had no time to visit 
the active workings, to the west of the village, but the coal which 
is burnt locally is of fine quality, being hard, bright and well 
cleated. It does not soil the fingers when handled. 

Ma-ch’ang is only six or seven miles to the east of Hsin-kai, 
and is situated on the northern bank of the 
Yangtze. ‘The coal-bearing series continues 
all the way, but I did not see any outcrops 


Coal in the Ma- 
ch’ang vicinity. 


72 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


of seams or workings. The mines which Leclére described were 
abandoned but active exploitation was being carried on at Mo-so-ho 
four miles further east. On both banks of the Yangtze below Ma- 
ch’ang for several miles there was a well-marked coal horizon. 
Most of the northern workings seemed to be abandoned, but mining 
was being prosecuted on the south bank of the river. The coal 
from this neighbourhood is the best I ever saw in Yunnan and it 
yields a coke of very good appearance. 


Coal in the Hui-li Chou District. 


Hui-li Chou (lat. 26° 39’: long. 102° 15’) is in the province of 
Ssu-ch’uan, but it is advisable to mention the occurrence of coal 
in the district. It is worked at several places between the city 
and the Yunnan frontier. 

Between the villages of Ta-chiao and Chieh-tien-po, a few miles 
south of Hui-li Chou, soft yellowish sandstones, marls and shales 
interbedded with coarse grits, contain thin coal-seams. 

In the vicinity of Ho-kou, 30 miles south-south-west of Hui-li 
Chou, I saw heaps of powdery coal outside some of the houses and 
was informed that it came from the hills to the west. 

Near Lu-shui-ho, 10 miles south of Ho-kou, a powdery coal is 
mixed with clay and formed into cakes for burning in stoves. 

These coals are probably of Mesozoic age, but they are crushed 
and of very poor quality. 

Leclére mentions the existence of good coal to the south of 
Hui-li Chou, and it is also known to occur between the same city 
and Tung-ch’uan Fu (lat. 26° 24’: long. 103° 10’). The coals 
reported from various localities between Tung-ch’uan Fu and the 
Yangtze are perhaps of Carboniferous age. Regarding them Joubert 
has written (G., Vol. II, p. 165) :— 

“ Between Tung-chuan and Su Fu occurrences of coal and 
anthracite are very abundant, every day we passed them on our 
ourney. Mines are so numerous that we only cite the principal 
ones: Chao-tong, Chin-yuan, Ma-tsao-ku, Pu-erh-tou, Ta-kuan, ete. 
The Ke-lu mine, on the bank of the Lao-ya-tan river, three li below 
Teai-hiang-kuan, furnishes a coal of excellent quality. These coals 
are generally dry. The coal from the red sandstones and shales 
is of superior quality to that found near the Devonian limestone ; 
with the former coke can be made; the latter crumbles to powder 


COAL. 73 


easily, and ought to be converted into briquettes before being 
used.” 


Mesozoic Coal in Southern Yunnan. 


Joubert records the existence of coal near Na-kou-li between 
Ssu-mao Ting (lat. 22° 50’: long. 101° 0’) and Pu-erh Fu (lat. 23° 
5’: long. 101° 5’): “ Near Ssu-mao, between Na-ko-li and Ho-boung 
there is an occurrence of anthracite which is mined for use in the 
salt works of Ho-boung. The seams strike north and south and 
are numerous, close together, but of slight thickness; in a space 
of 38 feet 5 seams could be counted. The thickness of the seams 
varies between one inch and one foot approximately. The length 
of the occurrence is not even roughly known, but the coal is extracted 
at two places, six kilometres apart’ (G., Vol. II, p. 164). 

Joubert visited this region in 1867. I passed through it in 1910 
but found no trace of any workings. I was not able to identify 
the village of Ho-boung which may have been destroyed in the 
rebellion. 

Carboniferous Coal. 


The Moscovian coals of Yunnan are confined to the eastern 
parts of the province and have been studied by various French 
engineers. I have visited most of the important localities and have 
recorded the following observations. 

Excellent exposures of the Middle Carboniferous horizons are 

found at Eurl-kai, a small coal-mining village 
: Ae situated a few miles to the north-west of K’un- 

yang Chou (lat. 24° 40’: long. 102° 32’). For 
part of the way, lacustrine deposits of the lake basin of Yunnan 
Fu hide all outcrops, until sandy yellow shales are found, followed 
by limestone bands. The following section is seen at the mines. 


Thickness. 
(d) Dolomitic limestone . : > : . 2 
(c) Limestone with EHuomphalus : : k 10 feet. 
b) Sandstone with coal-seams ; ; ; ae 
(a) Reddish limestone. : : 2 


According to Deprat, coal-mining was started here in 1901. 
When Lantenois visited it in 1903 two seams were being worked 
though he was able to recognise a total of four (La., p. 392). I 
only saw two of these as the outcrops of the others were buried by 
falls. Hach seam was about 4 feet thick, and separated by bands 


F 


74 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


of sandstone and shale. Deprat states that there are at least 
four seams varying in thickness from 3} to 5} feet. The strike 
at the mines is north-east to south-west and the dip at a low angle 
to the south-east. In the hills to the north-west, I found horizon 
(c) again and I believe the coal-bearing stratum is to be found there 
also. Most of the coal is coked on the spot and then sold in Yunnan 
Fu for domestic purposes. It is transported to the capital by 
junks. At the time of my visit to Yunnan Fu it was proposed to 
use the coke in the Imperial Mint and Arsenal. Analyses of the 
coal are given in the following tables :— 


Eurl-kai (1). ee. 0-60 4 13:90 | ars 14-00 | 6,300 ae Lantenois. 
eo) | 1-00 1600 | ye 1470 | 5,940 | 2 
Sagar 23) 0-80 | 14-70 ng 16:00 | 6,200 Pe 9 
pyre) 1-20 14-30 os 13-00 | 6,240 ih re 
aa eG) 1-10 15°40 13-00 | 4 
Na oa (oe rae | 125 | 1475 Foe 16-00 | 5 
een fy) a ons ee 1:00 | 1925 | | 2150 a S. pa 
Soe. CSO ee] GAS aE TEC S690 21-03 - cakes but Coggin 
i not very | Brown. 
strongly. 
| 


The Middle Carboniferous succession found at Kurl-kai is exposed 
Middle Carbonifer. 0% both sides of the narrow valiey of the P’u-tu 
ous of Hai-kou and Ho, which drains lake K’un-yang. For over a 
Beane mile between Hai-kou and Hsin-tsun, the coal- 
bearing sandstones can be seen high above the river and they are 
doubtless prolonged further to the south-east in the direction of 
the lake. Near Hsin-tsun I found the following sequence, the rocks 
themselves being nearly horizontal :— 


Thickness 
(e) Thick bluish-grey limestone : : : 2 
(d) Limestone with Chetetes . : ‘ : 2 
(c) Limestone with Huomphalus P a ; g 
(6) Sandstones with coal-seams : ; . 80-40 feet 
(a) Limestone . : ; Z : U 


Only a few abandoned pits along the outcrop were noticed. 
As Deprat remarks, this locality offers considerable inducement for 
modern methods of exploitation. 


COAL. 75 


A few miles to the north of Yunnan Fu (lat. 25°0’: long. 
102°-45’), the Uralian limestones which occur in 
the immediate vicinity of the city, give place 
to strata of Moscovian age, the coal-bearing 
series already described being represented as follows :— 


Coal-bearing series at 
Yen-tzu-shao. 


(c) White fossiliferous lmestone. 
(6) Sandstones and shales with thin coal-seams. 
(a) Sandy limestone. 


Two pits had been sunk on a thin coal seam and a boiler was 
in course of erection to supply steam to a small pump with which 
the Chinese authorities proposed to unwater the mines. An assay 
of the coal gave the following results :-— 


lSVolatis ol. Hus 
Locality. Moisture. voles | aes Ash. 
| matter. | carbon. 
Yen-tzu-shao . 3 | “lds 4 15-88 | 52-85 30-50 Cakes but not 


very strongly. 


The horizon is perhaps the same as the one found by Leclére 
(Le., p. 362), at Kwei-long-chuan at the extreme north of the Yunnan 
Fu plain, near the celebrated pagoda of He-long-tan, where an 
almost flat seam about three feet thick crops out. It was used 
locally in lime kilns and assayed as follows :— 


Volatile Fixed 


] . aia | 
ali hess | nae Calorific | e 
Locality. Moisture. | mation | GReDeeE | Ash. power. | Authority. 
saps ancora te i tan | 23 cence sehen 
He-long-tan . : 22-0 6,734 | Leclére. 


1-3 | 11-0 65-7 
| 


The Middle Carboniferous is well developed in the mountain 
Middle Carbonifer. T@nges running north from the vicinity of the 
ous of Si-yang and Yang-tsung lake (lat. 24°-55’: long. 103°-5’). 
eyes The northern part of the valley of the small 
stream which joins the Pei-ta Ho at Yi-liang Hsien, is bounded 
on the west by a high and precipitous escarpment, in which rocks 
are exposed ranging from the Middle Carboniferous to Upper Permo- 
Carboniferous horizons. As is the case in other localities, the 
Middle Carboniferous coal-bearing horizon occurs and the seams 
which it contains are exploited by Chinese methods, most of 


FQ 


76 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


the material being converted into coke which is sent to Yunnan 
Fu. At Si-yang, the northernmost point where coal is worked, 
the following series is exposed :— 


(hk) Hard greyish limestones. 

(7) Bluish dolomitic limestone. 

(f) Greyish sandy shales with coal-seams. 
(ce) Yellowish dolomitic limestone. 

(d) Greenish shales. 

(c) Thin limestone bands. 

(b) Red shales. 

(a) Limestone. 


There are two coal-seams, the upper of which is five feet and 
the lower between seven and eight feet thick. Both are worked 
in the usual haphazard Chinese fashion. 


I made another ascent of the scarp from Yang-kai to Ta-wa-tzu 
(elevation 7,300 feet above the sea), in the neighbourhood of Eul- 
long-si-chou. Here there are two seams in the same succession of 
limestones and shales. The strike is north 35° east and the dip 
westerly at 44°. The scarp itself runs north 20° east, and old coal 
workings extend along it for miles, confirming the continuity of 
the seams themselves. According to Deprat, the seams are con- 
tinuous over a distance of 5 kilometres, the coal is less broken up 
than in the other occurrences and it yields a good coke for metallur- 
gical purposes. The seams are free from bands of shale. These 
localities supply, I believe, coal which is used on the French railway. 
It is carried to the line on pack ponies. The following analyses 
are available :— 


A 


io oy eel Volatie | Bixed = | : | Calorific f : 
Locality. Moisture. | matter. | carbon. | Ash. power. | Remarks. | Authority. 
| 
Bul-long (1) . : 1-00 14-60 | 98-60 | 5,140 | ea Lantenois. 
Bul-long (2). - BOO 5 | > Saar se | 11:00 ” 
| | | 
Bul-long (3). - 35 | 1590 | 7503 | 822 as cakes Coggin 
| | | | | strongly,| Brown 
} | | gives a 
} | light coke 
Si-yang (1) (upper 1:93 | 15:23 Who | 8620.6 see Cakes mn 
seam). | 
Si-yang (2) (lower| 19:73 | 27-62 4505 | 701 | ee | sinters a 
seam). { | slightly. 


COAL. 77 


The Middle Carboniferous is well developed in a synclinal fold 

Middle Carbonifer. bounded on the east by the fault which forms 
ous of the Tsi-tien the western shores of Lake Yang-tsung, and 
wuss ouciesaets on the west, according to Deprat, by another 
fault which brings it into contact with the Cambrian. At various 
places in this district thin coal-seams occur in the sandstones and 
shales over the limestones. I saw several old pits, but they are 
little more than prospects. The following analysis is given by 
Lantenois :— 


: Volatile 
Locality. Moisture. | matter 


a 
| 


Fixed | Rr 


carbon. Author'ty 


} 


| 
| | 
Tsi-tien . a 3 1-70 20:55 Bey | 22-50 | Lantenois. 
| | | 


According to Deprat (De., p. 240), the coals of this locality are 
friable and full of pyrites. They have been tried on the French 
railway which crosses the region and were given up as useless. The 
coal is only good enough for lime- or brick-kilns. 


Other Coal Mines. 


The following occurrences of coal are reported on the authority 
of the French geologists, in order to complete this account. I 
have not seen them myself. 

T’ung-hai Hsien (lat. 24°6’: long. 102°48’) has an_ elevation 
of 6,200 feet and is 65 miles south of Yunnan 
Fu, in a direct line. There are three groups 
of workings at the following places :-— 

(a) Ta-che-shan. 

(b) Hsiao-pa and Lu-shui-tang. 

(c) Lu-chuang. 


T’ung-hai Hsien. 


A single seam varying in thickness from seven or eight inches 
to a little over three feet is interbedded in a series of sandy shales 
from 30 to 60 feet thick, intercalated in thick limestones. Exploit- 
ation seems to have been carried on for a long time as the pits 
are very deep. The coal is used in brick-kilns, lime-kilns and forges 
where the impure iron from the Hsi-o mines is worked up into borse- 
shoes, nails, etc. The latter are sent through Southern Yunnan, as 
far as Ssu-mao “T’ing which has an important trade with Hsi-o, 
and to the Laos. Lantenois made his observations in the winter 


78  COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 
of 1903-04. Deprat visited the mines in 1909-10 and reported 
that conditions had not changed in the meantime (De., p. 239). 
Lantenois gives the following analysis of the coal :— 


hace | Volatile 
Locality. | Moisture. | wiiinie | Ash. Authority. 
oo Te a ee ee 
Hsiao-pa 0-90 14-30 | 24-25 Lantenois. 


| 


Pai-ching is a small village about five miles north of Hsin-hsing _ 
_ Chou (lat. 24°20': long. 102°35’). Near the 

ea he at Pai- village a coal-seam occurs in a series of shales 
overlain by limestone. An insignificant amount 

of prospecting has been carried on about the outcrop and_ has 
revealed a thin seam of altered coal with an apparent thickness of 
1 foot 3 inches. The interest of this occurrence lies in the fact 
that it may represent the southern extension of the coal-seams found 
at Kurl-kai, 18-20 miles away to the north as the crow flies. 


Lantenois has given the following assays (La., pp. 390-395) : 


‘ Gerad Volatile | : 
Locality. | Moisture matte | Ash. Authority. 
A eS sei PURE CASEI ae eranen as aes — et aien iS sired th ee Geren 
Pai-ching (1) é «do 00 20-60 20-75 Lantenois. 
| | 
Pai-ching (2) : ; 1-75 17-00 | 38-00 “A 


At the extreme south-eastern corner of Lake Yang-tsung, Deprat 
reports a coal occurrence in certain red Mosco- 
vian sandstones which are lower down in the 
succession than the coal-bearing rocks already described. The coal 
is mined by the Chinese and has a high percentage of ash. It is 
interbedded with bands of shale and carries an unusual amount 
of pyrites. This coal is almost completely useless and can only 
be used in lime burning. A similar occurrence is recorded between 
Sin-kai and Chéng-chiang, and here, if anything, the coal is of worse 
quality than the preceding. A number of the same kind of seams 
are situated in the mountains bordering the western side of Lake 
Chéng-ch’iang. They possess no interest and were not described 
(De., p. 241). 

It seems certain that the impure coals of this particular horizon 
will never be of any economic importance for there is little chance 
of their improving in depth. 


Other occurrences. 


COAL. 79 
Chinese Methods of Coal-mining. 


Chinese coal-mining methods as practised in Yunnan are of the 
most primitive description. Starting from the outcrops of the 
seams, levels or incline shafts are driven down on the coal, according 
to its inclination. If the ground is hard no timbering is done, but 
if it should be bad, which is usually the case, the working is timbered 
with sets and the roof and side kept up by lagging, though the mini- 
mum amount of timbering is put in. The coal is broken down with 
small picks and carried out to the surface either in baskets or on 
small sledges with iron-shod runners usually drawn by boys. As 
a tule no side galleries are made, and the single drive is carried 
on until ventilation becomes bad enough to make work impossible, 
when the miner abandons the pit and commences another hole in 
a favourable position on the outcrop. Naked oil lamps, some- 
thing after the fashion of an Indian chiragh are used and 
explosions of firedamp are not unknown. Whenever a fatal 
accident of any kind occurs the working is at once closed and a new 
one started. Accidents are believed to be due to the malevolence 
of the earth spirits when their abodes are disturbed. Water is 
not a serious trouble in any of the Yunnanese coal workings which 
I have seen. Owing to the softness of the outcrop coal, such 
workings are quickly and cheaply driven and the outcrops of 
seams in localities where this primitive form of mining is freely 
carried on, are marked by lines of old holes and small dumps which 
sometimes extend for miles. 

Coal is not often burnt in its natural state in Yunnan. On most 
fields the material is coked or where the nature of the fuel does 
not permit of this being done, it is powdered and mixed into a 
paste with clay; from this plastic material, thin circular cakes 
are moulded by hand, dried in the sun and sold for domestic 
consumption. When burnt in hearths they smoulder slowly away 
leaving a mass of glowing ash which retains its heat for a long time. 
This is the method employed with the non-coking Triassic coals. 

The Yunnanese coke oven consists of a circular hole dug in the 
ground and about 10 feet in diameter, with a flat bottom and sloping 
sides. In the centre of the bottom there is a circular hole com- 
municating with a narrow flue. The bottom of the oven is lined 
with large stones and is usually constructed on a hill-side to allow 
of the flue being entered and cleaned. Large lumps of coal are 
arranged in the bottom around the air-hole together with a little 


80 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


wood to start the combustion. Small passages are left as channel 
for the gases and air. Smaller coal is then gradually piled on top 
and the outer hemisphere covered with earth, which is broken 
through when the operation is complete. Small air holes are left 
at the junction of the inner and upper chambers. In this way 
a hard coke of excellent appearance is produced, though it tends 
to be somewhat tumid when very bituminous coal is used. 

Owing to the practice of mining outcrop material and of allowing 
shaly partings to be mixed with the coal, as this does not interfere 
with the preparation of the sun-dried briquettes already referred 
to, it is almost impossible to obtain fair samples from stock heaps 
at the mines. In mining no selective care of any kind is exercised 
and inclusions of shale and dirt bands, or pieces of the floor and 
roof of a working are matters of no consequence at all. 


General Remarks on Yunnan Coals. 


Deprat has summarized the views of his colleagues on the 
Triassic coals of Yunnan as follows (De., p. 245) :— 

“The Triassic coals have very variable qualities: those of the 
Werfen are the best coals in Yunnan and yield an excellent, 
solid, dense coke. The seams are of great extent ; these coals 
are not so friable as those of the Moscovian or of the Upper Trias. 
The Middle Trias coal is always deceptive and was formed under 
conditions which produced irregular beds distributed in the sand- 
stones. Those of the Noric on the contrary appear better ; the 
Ni-ou-ke coal is typical; they produce a friable coke, but they are 
rich in volatile matter and are gassy.”’ 

The analyses of the Mesozoic coals of the Yunnan Hsien basin 
show that this material is lower in volatile matter than the Tniassic 
coals of Eastern Yunnan and with one exception they can only 
be classed as poor material. Yet I am inclined to regard this 
poverty in volatile matter as a result of superficial atmospheric 
action on outcrop material rather than a quality inherent in the 
coal itself. Further north, in the Yangtze valley, the coal of the 
Ma-ch’ang and Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien districts, which is probably 
of the same age as that of the Yunnan Hsien basin, possesses, as 
Leclére’s analyses show, a higher percentage of volatile matter 
and a better calorific power, than any of the other Triassic coals 
of Yunnan. It also gives an excellent coke. The seams of this 
region are mined deeper than those further south. The high ash 


COAL. 8] 


percentage in both Triassic and Carboniferous coal is partly due 
to the Chinese practice already commented on. I feel sure that 
the ash contents could be very considerably reduced by proper 
mining methods. 

My analyses of the Moscovian coals as well as those given by 
the French writers, show that they are semi-bituminous and yield 
a coke of good quality. They are probably better than the Mesozoic 
coals for steam-raising purposes. 

The friability of most of the Yunnan coals is a serious defect 
and I agree with Lantenois that it is probably the result of general 
geological conditions and not likely to improve with depth (La., 
p. 403). However, the question cannot be settled definitely until 
deeper mining is introduced. 


Future of Coal-mining in Yunnan. 


I regard Leclére’s estimates of the amount of coal available 
in Yunnan as vague conjectures and nothing more. We know 
that a great deal of the country which he assumes to be coal- 
bearing is built up of older formations in which coal does not occur. 
At the present time it is impossible to arrive at any figures which 
are likely to approach the truth, and until the fields are bored, 
the most that can be said safely is that they are likely to contain 
large quantities of coal. 

Yunnan coal has a future before it in the local market 
for domestic purposes and metallurgical operations, but owing 
to the land-locked position of the province, forming as it does the 
western hinterland of continental China, I do not think that it 
will ever attain much sale beyond the frontiers. 

The greatest consumption will doubtless be as fuel for the rail- 
ways of the province. Indeed the Moscovian coal of the Si-yang 
district is already so employed. Some of the French writers have 
concluded that Yunnan coal will find a market in Tongking and 
even in more distant regions, but it seems to me that it will need 
a hard struggle to capture markets now supplied by Japanese and 
to some extent by Indian and Australian coal. It must not be 
forgotten that the coal production of Japan now exceeds that of 
India, and that production in Japan has always exceeded home 
requirements, so that a large tonnage is available for export and 
sale at fairly cheap rates. 


82 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


The briquettes used on the railways in Indo-China are made 
at Hongay from mixtures of the rather poor coal found there and 
the richer Miike coal of Japan. Lantenois states (La., p. 404) 
that even the better qualities of Japanese coal are bituminous and 
pyritous and consequently encrust and burn the fire-grates and 
boiler tubes. The Yunnanese coals are better in this respect, and 
the interesting suggestion is made that mixtures of gaseous coal 
like that from the Ni-ou-ke field in south-eastern Yunnan, and the 
low grade coals of Tongking should be made for burning in steam- 
boat and locomotive boilers. This suggestion is based on the 
suecess with which such mixtures of small or even dust coal have 
been used as locomotive fuel on some of the railways in France. 
Such mixtures consist of } of poor material averaging 9 or 10 per 
cent. of volatile matter with 3 of rich material averaging 30 or 
35 per cent. of volatile matter. Conditions are not very different 
in Tongking where the local coal contains 8 to 10 per cent. of vola- 
tile matter and the Miike coal or the Ni-ou-ke coal of Yunnan con- 
tains 30 to 35 per cent. of volatile matter particularly rich in 
hydrocarbons. 

IT do not know whether such experiments have been undertaken. 
Their success, if the composition of the coals as given holds equally 
good for bulk, depends largely on the costs of transportation. 


IRON. 


Tron ores are well distributed throughout Yunnan and although 
the mining and treatment of iron ores has never attained the import- 
ance of copper metallurgy, the industry is a settled and well estab- 
lished one and regularly supplies the demands of the Province in 
cast iron, wrought iron and steel. 

The ‘ Tien-nan-kouang-tchang”’ enumerates fourteen ironstone 
mines, presumably working about 1850, but it is doubtful whether 
any of them can: be identified with modern mines (G., IT, p. 232). 

Joubert states that the richest deposits exploited at the period 
when he travelled in Yunnan were situated at Kang-tchong-pa 
and Lang-pong-li. I am not able to identify these localities. He 
also mentions the fact that iron minerals occur at Siao-tsao-pa, 
on the banks of the Kokui river. (G., Il, p. 159). 

Rocher writes that ironstone mines are more numerous than 
any others in Yunnan and that they appear to have been operated 
by the aborigines before the advent of the Chinese into the country. 


TRON. 83 


Tron ore is said to be so common in Yunnan that Rocher was unaware 
of a single district which did not possess one or more deposits, 
but as mine-owners sought the centres of population and the rivers, 
and as the cost of transport diminished profits, only the richest 
deposits were worked. This writer gives no list of occurrences 
to confirm his somewhat optimistic views, but he describes at 
length the processes used by the Chinese in obtaining iron from 
its ores, in preparing wrought iron from crude cast iron, in the 
manufacture of steel and in the preparation of the large cast iron 
pans so much used in China for domestic purposes. The towns 
of Lu-féng Hsien (lat. 25°7’: long. 102°7’), and Lu-nan Chou 
(lat. 24°46’: long. 102°24’), are mentioned as important centres 
for the production of refined iron manufactures, while the indigenous 
steel business was said to be at its best in Lao-lu-kuan, a village 
between Hsin-hsing Chou and Hsi-o Hsien (lat. 24° 10’: long. 
102°24’). (R., pp. 195-218). 

According to Leclére, in a mineralised country lke Yunnan, 
iron ore deposits are naturally very frequent. They are exploited 
in regions where forests still exist, for the manufacture of both 
iron and steel. In the north-eastern part of the neighbouring 
province of Kuei-chou, the nodules from the infra-Lias are used 
for local smelting purposes. Again, considerable quantities of large 
concretions of carbonate of iron are found in certain coal-bearing 
horizons below the Lower Productus Limestone. It is held that 
with very few exceptions these deposits cannot contribute towards 
the mineral development of the province. Leclére visited the iron- 
producing regions about Yi-mén Hsien (lat. 24°39’: long. 102°10’), 
and Hsi-o Hsien. In the case of the former his notes refer mainly 
to the methods of Chinese smelting. In the case of the latter, 
the mine was visited later by Lantenois, and a summary of his 
report is given below. (Le., p. 488). 


Lantenois learnt from the magistrate in Hsi-o Hsien that at 
least a dozen centres of ironstone mining and smelting existed 
within two or three stages of that town and that the total annual 
production of metallic iron was not less than 1,500 metric tons. 
The most important place is Chan-héou, one stage to the south- 
west of the town. The steel-producing centre of Lao-lou-kouan 
is not far distant. With the exception of the Hsi-o Hsien district 
this authority met with no ironstone mines in the course of his 
travels in Eastern Yunnan. On the road between Pe-tchen and 


84 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Tien-pao and not far from the Tsi-tien coal mine, he found pieces 
of iron ore from the strata immediately below the Carboniferous 
limestone. He describes the following mines :--- 

The mines supplying the iron for the manufacture of steel at 


Lao-lou-kouan are situated on the _ road 
Lao-lou-kouan. 


between that place and Chan-héou. The 
deposit consists of small pockets of ore which are fairly numerous 
in the Carboniferous quartzites. The deposit has only been 


scratched about the outcrop and the production is very small ; 
perhaps about 100 metric tons per annum. The ore is sold at a 
price corresponding to 2 francs per ton. (La., pp. 416-417). 

This deposit is in the form of nodular masses with a rough strati- 
fication in a Carboniferous limestone forma- 
tion which is about 100 metres thick and 
interbedded with quartzites. The ore is won in a methodical 
and correct manner and is sold at about 4 francs per metric ton 
at the smelters. Each miner produces about 3} cwts. per day 
and is paid a wage corresponding to } franc per day. Lantenois 
describes briefly the processes used in the manufacture of iron and 
steel. The latter is sold at a price corresponding to 300 francs 
per metric ton, and the finished bar iron is worth 170 francs per 
metric ton at Hsi-o Hsien, a price not very different from the 
ordinary European value of the metal. The production from this 
region is sent in part to T’ung-hai Hsien where it is worked up 
into all kinds of domestic articles to be sold over the regions of 
Southern Yunnan bordering the French Laos. The other part 
goes south to Méng-tzti Hsien, K’ai-hua Fu and as far as Upper 
Tongking, or even to the north towards Yunnan Fu, though the 
main supply for the capital seems to come from the Yi-mén Hsien 
region. (La., pp. 416-417). 

Deprat did not observe any interesting iron ore mines in the 
regions which he traversed. He records the occurrence of a siderite 
vein of no economic importance near Ta-li-tang and the existence 
of limonite nodules in lacustrine deposits at Mi-leu. (De., p. 246). 


Chan-héou. 


Personal Observations. 


Iron ores have a wide distribution in Yunnan and while none 
of the deposits appear to be extensive, or in any way comparable 
with, say, the extended occurrences in the crystalline rocks of the 
Indian Peninsula, yet, it is believed that nearly all the large centres 


IRON. 85 


of population have their somewhat small requirements supplied 
by mines in the same regions. Where any unusual demand has 
arisen as in the case of the cast iron pans used in the brine-boiling 
industry, there is generally a mine, blast furnace and foundry not 
very far away. As examples, the needs of Yung-ch’ang Fu are 
met from the mines at P’ing-tai in the Ta-tien-pa valley, two stages 
to the east of the city. Téng-yiieh is partly supplied from the 
T’ien-t’ang-kuan, a valley north of the city. Yunnan Fu derives 
its supplies from the Yi-men Hsien region, the cities of south- 
eastern Yunnan from the Hsi-o Hsien district and so on, 

The hemispherical cast iron pans of Yunnan are much appre- 
ciated by the Chinese everywhere and can be found in any bazaar 
in Upper Burma. Again, the thousands of mules engaged in the 
trans-frontier trade and in the Shan States every winter are always 
shod with Yunnan-made shoes and nails and every caravan carries 
a large stock of these excellent articles about with it. 


The Iron Industry of the T’ien-t’ang-kuan. 


T’ien-t’ang-kuan is one of the smaller divisions of the Téng- 
yiieh district. Its principal village is Ying-pan-kai, 37 miles almost 
due north of Téng-yiieh T’ing. The district is bounded on the 
north by unadministered territory inhabited by Lisu_ tribes ; on 
the east by Ming-kuang; on the west by Ku-yung and on the 
south by Hsi-lien. The valley contains a small but fertile plain 
about 8 miles long and 1 or 14 miles broad, which has been formed 
by the Hsiao-pa Ho, the eastern branch of the headwaters of the 
Shweli river. The plain has an average elevation of about 6,000 
feet above the level of the sea. 

The Lung Chiang or Shweli as it is known to the Burmese, 
divides into two streams near Ch’ii-ch’ih, 17 miles north-east of 
Téng-yiieh, The main stream proceeds in a north-north-easterly 
direction, but the other takes a more westerly course as far as Ku- 
tung-kai, 22 miles north of Téng-yiieh. Here it divides into two 
streams, the No-lo Ho, which continues in a north-north-easterly 
direction, almost parallel to the main river, and forms the Ming- 
kuang valley; and the Hsiao-pa Ho, which flows from the north- 
north-west and forms the valley known to the Chinese as the Ten- 
t’ang-kuan. The two districts are separated by a single range of 
mountains which attain elevations of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet 
above the sea, but the two streams are only from 8 to 10 miles 


86 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


apart as the crow flies. These mountains bordering the T’ien- 
t’ang-kuan on the east, meet with the western boundary range 
at the head of the valley, in the peak Chien-shan, which is over 
11,000 feet high, and about 15 miles north of Ying-pan-kai and 
quite close to the Burma-China border. I have given these 
geographical details because I have noticed that recent writers 
have only a hazy idea of the correct position of these valleys. 

From Téng-yiieh to Ying-pan-kai, the centre of the iron industry 
of T’ien-t’ang-kuan, is a journey of three 
days. The first stage is at Ma-chan-kai, a 
large village 14 miles to the north of the city. The second stage 
is at the market village of Ku-tung-kai, 23 miles from Téng-yiieh. 
Two roads leave this place, one in a north-easterly direction to 
the Ming-kuang, and the other in a north-north-westerly direction 
to the T’ien-t’ang-kuan. The latter road is nearly level and keeps 
to the spurs of the hills for 7 or 8 miles and then crosses the paddy 
lands of the plain. Continuing along this, still in a northerly direc- 
tion, Ying-pan-kai is reached at 34 miles and Ma-li-pa at 37 miles 
from Téng-yiieh. 

The village of Wan-yao, where iron bowls and pottery are made, is 
in the Hsi-lien district and about half-way between Ma-chan-kai and 
Ku-tung-kai ; it lies some ? mile to the west of the main northern route. 


Route. 


On my journey to the T’ien-t’ang-kuan, I found that the volcanic 
rocks already noticed by Anderson and Loczy, 
have a considerable extension to the north 
and I was fortunate in discovering a number of ancient cones from 
which these rocks have come. A full account of them has already 
been given. (C. B. I). The T’ien-t’ang-kuan plain consists of 
alluvium, underlain by lacustrine deposits of late Tertiary age. 
These are made up of yellow friable sandstones, clays with carbonace- 
ous bands. In the eastern boundary range, granite is the principal 
rock. Two groups of hot sprigs were found near the village of 
A-hsin-kai, which is half way between Ku-tung-kai and Ying-pan- 
kai. One group is just below the spur on which the village is built, 
and the other 600 yards to the south-west. Old deposits of sinter 
exist near. The water from the spring is intensely hot and the 
hand cannot be placed in it. 

The mines lie at the head of a small valley formed by a tributary 
of the MHsiao-pa Ho, which is entered to the 
east. just to the north of Ying-pan-kai. The 


Geology. 


Mines. 


IRON. 87 


valley itself runs almost due east and west, the mines bemg from 
34 to 4 miles from the village and over 800 feet above it. Ying- 
pan-kai itself is nearly 6,000 feet above sea-level. The main road 
from Téng-yiieh to Ying-pan-kai is not in bad condition as far as 
Yunnan roads go, but between the latter place and the mines there 
is only a mule-track of the roughest description, the route following 
bunds between the paddy fields in the valley, and traversing the 
slopes of the mountain sides higher up. Pack animals can be 
taken either way if loaded lightly. 

The mines themselves are located in a small hollow, which seems 
to have been brought into existence partly by the numerous quarries 
and open-cast workings of the past. Owing to a thick soil-cap and 
the vegetation which covers the surface, beyond the fact that the 
mines are merely drives made into a large ore-body, practically 
nothing could be learned of the geology of the vicinity during the 
short time at my disposal. A fine-grained pinkish granite crops 
out in a few places between the village and the mines, which, in 
general appearance greatly resembles the Ming-kuang granite. 

There were six drives but only one was being worked at the 
time of my visit. It descended steeply into the ground for about 
30 feet when it turned in a southerly direction with only a slight 
slope. The inclined part of the working had been made with steps 
to facilitate ascent and descent. The first 25 feet were of neces- 
sity well timbered, for the ground was very bad, beyond this the 
timbering was not good and the whole place was in a very unsafe 
condition. The roof was a very bad one and small stones kept 
coming down during my inspection. The working was dry and 
there was no lack of ventilation. The working was entirely in ore, 
the material of which was easily brought down with the pick, a 
form of mining much appreciated by the Chinese. I traced the 
outcrop of the ore-body on the surface for 60 feet and it 
could probably have been found much further had I been given 
time to have a few trenches made. It strikes a few degrees east 
of north and is from 10 to 15 feet wide. It consists almost entirely 
of a hard, massive, brown hematite. The exposed portions are 
somewhat oxidised and weathered on the outside. Amongst my 
specimens I recognised specular iron ore and small quantities of 
magnetite, both massive and crystalline. The hard specimens of 
the ore are of good appearance. It is impossible to compute the 
limits of the amount of ore available here without some preliminary 


88  COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


development, neither have I any remarks to offer as to the nature 
of the occurrence. All I can say is there was sufficient material 
visible to last the Chinese many years at the then rate of consumption. 


It would be expected that the miners would prefer to win rich 
ore from the outcropping portion, rather than to mine it. But 
the tools at their disposal are of poor quality and gunpowder does 
not appear to be used locally, so that it is really easier to make 
small tunnels in soft portions of the ore-body, than to attempt 
to smash up the hard portion which weathering has left on the 
outcrop. The ore is carried out to the surface in baskets and there 
broken up and hand-sorted, only the purer pieces are kept and 
second grade material is rejected. It is then loaded into small 
mule panniers and taken down to the smelters at Ying-pan-kai 
or Ma-li-pa. Mining is only carried on during the dry season ; in the 
rains the workers returns to their farms for the paddy season. The 
mines are said to have been worked at intervals for a number of 
years, but only about 15 or 20 men were employed when I was 
there in 1909. The headman of the gang of miners is financed 
by the company, which takes all the ore produced and allows 40 
cash for every 100 catties of ore handed over. This works out at the 
small sum of Rs. 1-5 per ton. A charge equal to 1} annas is made 
for transporting one mule load of ore from the mines to the smelter. 

There were three blast furnaces at Ying-pan-kai and five at 
Ma-li-pa. Those at the former place had 
been built on the mountain slopes across the 
valley, but at Ma-li-pa they were in the village itself. 

The furnace is of massive stone-work, the back and sides forming 
a rough semi-circle. It is lined with a refractory white clay. It 
differs essentially from the high blast furnace that I have seen 
used in other parts of Yunnan as it is only seven or eight feet high 
at the back, and the side walls five feet in thickness. The shaft 
is broader at the top than at the bottom. The blast is let in by a 
tuyer which enters the lower portion of the back wall and has a 
slight downward direction towards the hearth. The blower is 
seven or eight feet long and one and a half feet in diameter. It 
is worked by a turbine. The tapping-hole is situated on the right- 
hand side, and is also used as the slag outlet before the hearth gets 
full of molten metal. In front of the furnace is a paved stone 
incline which slopes up to within two feet of the top of the front 
wall, At the bottom of this is a stone-paved tank through which 


Smelting. 


IRON. 89 


water is allowed to flow and which is used to quench the hot material 
raked down the slope at the end of the operation. Just above the 
place where the long sloping hearth meets the front wall, there are 
three upright rectangular holes, which serve as places where long 
iron rods ean be introduced by means of which the charcoal and 
ore are kept from clogging. The brick wall on the right-hand side 
of these holes is removable, and is pulled down at the end of a blow 
to enable the hot charge to be raked down into the water-tank. 

I regard this furance as partly calciner and partly blast furnace, 
as it is only intended to serve in the preliminary treatment of the 
ores, which always undergo another reduction before metal is 
obtained which can be used. For example, in the manufacture 
of castings like bowls, the impure material from the first furnace is 
always reduced with charcoal in a smaller and more powerful blast 
furnace before metal pure enough for the purpose is obtained. The 
first furnace reduces part of the ore to the metallic state and prepares 
the remainder for a subsequent treatment. 

Charcoal and ore are added from time to time during the 24 
hours which the smelting takes. Two grades of material are yielded 
by the furnace—(1) flat cakes of crude iron, which are obtained by 
allowing the molten metal to flow from the tap-hole over the ground : 
(2) material raked out of front and quenched in water. This 
appears to consist of finely divided metallic iron mixed with a 
good deal of charcoal and roasted ore; it is eventually worked up 
into horse-shoes, nails, knives, ploughshares, etc. 

The working up by charcoal is done in a forge the bed of which 
is oval and some three feet long by two feet broad. It is erected 
on solid brickwork raised to a convenient height from the ground. 
The blower used is a small one, and is placed with a sight downward 
tilt to the hearth of the forge, being slightly raised above the level of 
the hearth so that the tuyer, which enters through a raised brickwork 
wall at the back, has a downward turn given to it. The blower in 
this case is worked by hand. A small anvil is placed near. 

One furnace produces from 130 to 260 lbs. of iron in 24 bours. 
A tax of three annas is demanded by the Provincial Government 
for every 100 catties of iron produced. Charcoal is very plentiful 
and cheap locally. Sometimes in the course of smelting small 
‘blooms ” of steel are formed in the furnace, but this is quite acci- 
dental and is not looked upon as desirable, as the “ blooms” collect 
around the tuyer and so stop the blast. The local workers appeared 

G 


90 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


to be unable to make any use of these small and hard lumps 
of steel. 

There are furnaces and moulds for the manufacture of cast iron 
pans at Ma-li-pa and Wan-yao. The furnace used 
is a small, round-bottomed, tilting blast 
furnace from four to five feet high. The shaft is broader at the 
top than at the bottom. It is made of thick clay-work and strongly 
bound with iron bands. The narrow part is fitted into a large, 
round-bottomed, cast iron pan, about 1} to 2 feet in diameter, the 
joint being luted with clay. This forms the hearth. The ground 
in front and underneath is cut away for 6 or 8 inches, except for 
two small projecting pieces on each side, on which the hemispherical 
iron bottom of the furnace rests, and which serve as pivots on which 
the whole arrangement can be tilted slightly. When upright it 
also rests for support on the somewhat higher ground at the back. 
The tuyer enters the back wall just above the junction of the clay 
and iron work, and it has a slight downward inclination towards 
the hearth. It is connected to the blower by means of a long bamboo 
pipe, so that the heat from the molten metal may not injure the 
woodwork of the blower. The tapping-hole is slightly below the 
level of the tuyer, but is cut in the front of the furnace. A rough 
bamboo shed covers the furnace and blower and serves as a protec- 
tion for the workmen in bad weather. 


Castings. 


The blowing machine is of the type which is commonly used 
throughout Western China for most metallurgical operations. It 
is made from the trunk of a large tree, which is cut lengthwise before 
having the interior removed, in order to leave as perfect a hollow 
cylinder as possible. The two pieces are arranged to fit together 
and the joints are made airtight by the application of clay. The 
length varies greatly for different purposes, but for the supply of 
air to a small crucible furnace like the one under description, a 
blower 44 or 5 feet long is used. For the large copper furnaces 
seen in some parts of the country very much larger machines are 
made. The piston is made of wood and is caused to fit exactly 
by having the rims of the circular piece at its head packed with 
feathers. The ends of the blower are made from circular pieces 
of wood and are movable. One is pierced with a circular hole 
for the reception of the piston rod, and both have a couple of small 
rectangular holes which are fitted with valves of soft leather on the 
inside. On one side of the cylinder two larger holes are cut and 


IRON. 91 


over them is placed a rectangular box which acts as an air chamber. 
The tube conveying air to the tuyer is 14 or 2 inches in diameter 
and passes out from the other side of the air box. 


The blower is worked by a water turbine, which is similar in 
action to the vertical axled water wheels so commonly used in the 
Himalayas for the supply of power to corn mills. The motion is 
conveyed to the piston rod of the blower by means of a wooden 
crank and long wooden cross-piece. 

The furnace having been filled with a mixture of crude cast 
iron and charcoal, laid on a charcoal bed in the hearth, is ignited. 
The blast is then turned on by opening a small wooden slide which 
allows a strong current of water to fall on to the turbine. A great 
heat is soon developed, flames of carbon monoxide issue from the 
top of the crucible, the metal is liquified and collects in the hearth. 
The tapping-hole ig closed by means of a removable clay plug, 
operated with a long iron rod. As soon as the master smelter 
considers that sufficient metal has collected in the hearth, the 
blast is turned off, the blower disconnected, the plug removed 
from the tapping-hole, the slag carefully cleaned away by means 
of a long iron bar, and the whole furnace bodily tilted, with the 
help of a long wooden beam which rests on the ground, and when 
lifted catches on a projection from the back of the furnace. 

This movement throws the furnace sufficiently out of the vertical 
to cause the molten iron to flow from the tapping hole, into a large 
iron ladle, fitted into a wooden handle which rests on the ground 
and is steadied by another workman. A second wooden beam 
is fixed in front to serve as a safety device and prevent the furnace 
being inclined to a dangerous extent. The first bath of molten 
metal is carefully skimmed, and then stirred with a thick branch 
of green wood, the gases from which appear to effect the oxidation 
of some of the impurities in the metal. The furnace is righted and 
the molten metal emptied in at the top again, whence it percolates 
through the incandescent charcoal to the hearth once more. The 
tilting operation is again performed and the molten metal taken 
a second time into the ladle. A handful of wood ashes is thrown 
on to its surface and it is poured into the mould. 

The mould used consists of two pieces, both of which are made 
of thick clay-work, and are bound tightly together with ropes in 
a bamboo framework. The top part is roughly conical in shape, 
and its lower portion is hollowed out to correspond with the exact 


a2 


92 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


shape of the bowl required. The bottom part is hemispherical 
and fits exactly into the top part, just leaving sufficient space for 
the metal to flow around and form a casting of slight thickness. 
Both pieces are pierced with numerous holes, which do not 
go right through, but are quite sufficient to allow of the escape 
of the hot air from the mould through the remaining layer of porous 
clay, during the filling operation. The upper part has four projec- 
tions which serve as handles. The metal is poured in at the top 
through the hollow conical portion. After being allowed to set 
for a moment or two, the whole mould is inverted by two men 
grasping the bamboo framework. By this means the surplus metal 
in the filling-hole is got rid of. After being placed in its former 
position, the ropes are untied, the framework and the upper portion 
of the mould removed together, and the bowl (inverted now on the 
solid hemispherical part), is lifted off with a pair of tongs. Should 
any quantity of surplus metal be left sticking on the surface it is 
smoothed off while the metal is still hot. The mould is repaired 
if necessary, and before being put in the framework for another 
filling, it is smoked by burning a quantity of dried grass under- 
neath it, a special hearth being used to support the two pieces 
during the operation. The soot so deposited serves to prevent 
any sticking of the molten metal and to give a bright smooth surface 
to the finished casting. The personnel of a foundry of this kind 
consists of six men, two of whom attend to the blower. regulate 
its speed and charge the furnace, two others perform the tilting 
and tapping processes and the remaining two attend to the moulds 
and castings. In another shed two moulders are employed, repair- 
ing damaged moulds and making new ones. These workmen with 
the aid of one furnace can turn out from 30 to 40 bowls per day. 
They are made in seven sizes, the diameter and equivalent price of 
each in Téng-yiieh is given in the table below :— 


ise. | Diameter Price. 
(inches), (approximate). 

Rs. A. 

1 5 : 29 | Bese M1) 
2 ; 26 1a AD) 
3 ad 22 0 13 
4 ; 17 0 10 
5 é 14 0. 65 
6 oa 11 ae 
7 2 | 10 0 4 


TRON. 93 


In April 1908, a public company was floated in Téng-yiieh under 
the directorship of the chief magistrate at that time. This company 
raised a capital equal to Rs. 30,000 approximately with which it was 
proposed to prospect for minerals and to exploit deposits then 
located in the Téng-yiieh district. The first work taken up was 
the development of this iron industry in the Tien-t’ang-kuan, 
which had previously been carried on in a desultory fashion by the 
local inhabitants. I was informed that small profits were being 
made in this section of the Company’s operations, but I do not 
know what has happened to it since then. It probably came to 
an end during the political troubles which commenced soon after- 
wards. 


Iron smelting in the Sha-ch’iao neighbourhood. 


Tron is smelted from ores obtained at several places in the vici- 
nity of Sha-ch’iao, a small village four miles north-west of Chen- 
nan Chou (lat. 25° 12’: long. 101° 16’), on the main trade route 
between Ta-li Fu and Yunnan Fu. There was a foundry in 1909 
at Hsi-ka-shan, a village between Tien-shen-t’ang and Sha-ch’ang, 
where the cast iron was worked up into iron bowls of 12, 14 and 
16 inches diameter. These supply the towns and villages along 
this trade route. The processes used were much the same as those 
I have just described. 

At Ye-cho-ho I examined a blast furnace 25 feet high. This 
furnace was constructed of massive brickwork lined with clay. 
The ores smelted consisted of soft flaky hematite with some 
magnetite and they were reduced with wood charcoal without 
preliminary calcination. The largest mines are said to be two 
stages from Chen-nan Chou and to be 60 years old. I did not 
succeed in inspecting them. The high Chinese blast furnace used 
in Central Yunnan for iron smelting is usually built of massive stone 
or brickwork, enclosed in heavy beams held together by cross pieces. 
The walls are thick and lined with a siliceous paste. The furnaces 
are often 20 or 25 feet high and 6 or 7 feet across at the widest 
portion, narrowing to three feet at the hearth and at the mouth. 
Sometimes the top part is not tapered as in the section depicted 
by Rocher. The blast is always produced by a cylindrical blower 
usually operated by a primitive turbine. The tuyer is generally 
cut from hard quartzite or sandstone. 


94 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Other Localities. 


I passed through P’ing-tai in March 1910. This place supplies 
iron to a great part of the Yung-ch’ang Fu 
prefecture. It lies two days to the east of 
the city itself and is quite close to the Mekong. The ores are 
obtained locally and are smelted in high blast furnaces of the 
untapering variety mentioned above. The crude material is worked 
up into bars of wrought iron for general smithy purposes, and there 
is also a foundry for the manufacture of iron bowls. 

In the Yiian-mou Hsien district, I heard of a mine at Yi-na- 

: ch’ang, five miles from Lung-kai, a village 
ee ie on the main road between Ma-kai and 
102°-0’) Ma-an-shan. 

There is an iron ore mine at Lao-pé-ya in the Téng-ch’uan Chou 

Hingoeitcan < Clean district, and one stage from the town of that 
(lat. 25° 55’, long. name. There are said to be over 10 separate 
mal 2 workings which find employment for more 
than 40 men. Cast iron is made on the spot and turned into 
pans. I believe that these are used in the brine-boiling centres 
around Yiin-lung Chou (lat. 25° 48’: long. 99° 18’). 

Hui-li Chou is supplied with iron from I-lang Ho, two stages 

west of the city and also from a mine and 
smelt at Lao-ping-wan. 
Davies mentions a small iron-stone mine at Chiao-tso, a village 
near Ssti-ch’eng, on the route between Hsin- 
ping Hsien and Yi-mén Hsien. It lies 
approximately 20 miles north-east of Hsi-o Hsien and doubtless 
belongs to the group of small producers referred to by Lantenois 
as existing in that region. This particular mine is said to be worked 
on a very small scale and did not appear to be very productive. 
Most of the ore was smelted near the mine and there appeared to 
be enough to keep one small furnace in operation. (D., p. 206). 

It was reported to me at Shui-chai in 1908, a village between 

oe Heen Yung-ch’ang Fu and Yung-pmg Hsien, on 
(lat. 25° 27’: Jong. the mam route to Ta-li Fu that iron was 
oS) smelted at Tong-shan, three stages to the 
south. This probably refers to the P’ing-tai neighbourhood which 
I visited in 1910. 

Near T’ieh-ch’ang, a village four or five miles to the south-west 
of Yung-p’ing Hsien, I found heaps of iron slags but I could not 


Yung-ch’ang Fu. 


Hui-li Chou. 


Hsi-o Hsien. 


IRON. 95 


obtain any information as to when the smelters were in opera- 
tion. 

Iron ores are mined and cast iron pans made at Lu-tzu, a village 

Lp-fig Haan. two stages north-east of Lu-féng Hsien. 
These pans are used in the salt fields around 
Lan-ching. 

Hematite ores occur in bands in the local Kao-liang slates 
between Mo-so-ing and Yi-mén Hsien and 
there is said to be a mine employing 30 men 
north of Yang-hsing-ch’uan, a village on this route. 


Yi-mén Hsien. 


A small mine was reported to be working in 1908 at Si-ha, near 

Kéng-ma (lat. 23° Ta-chai, on the Kun-lon Ferry—Yiin Chou 
32’: long. 99° 23’.) route, in the Chinese Shan State of Kéng-ma. 

If Chinese evidence can be relied upon, one of the more 

Rsaig tw Ting Important iron-producmg regions of Yunnan 
(lat. 25° 15’: long. is located around Hsi-shan-kai. This place 
eee is said to lie one stage north-west of Ta- 
tsang-kai, a large village near the head of the Méng-hua T’ing 
valley, and about halfway between that city and Ta-li Fu. If 
the distance given me is correct, the deposits probably occur in the 
Upper Permian Red Beds series. I was mformed that the mines 
work all the year round, that they find employment for a force of 
between 300 and 400 men and that they supply the cities of Méng- 
hua T’ing, Ta-li Fu and Li-chiang Fu with the metal. This may 
be the same as the Shuang-lung-tung locality mentioned by 
Davies. (D., p. 148). 

Srarerei Ting Iron ores are said to be smelted at Pé- 
(lat. 26° 45’: long. chao-pa, six stages in an unknown direction 
A oe from Yung-pei T’ing. 

Ching-iang= cee Specimens of specular iron ore were brought 
(lat. 24° 26’: long. to me by a Chinese official in Ching-tung 
nS T’ing which were said to come from the hills 
near that city. 

In the Yunnan course of the Yangtze, on the route from Yung- 
pei T’mg to Huili Chou in  S§si-ch’uan, 
between Hsin-chuang and  San-tui-tz’t, at 
nine miles from the former village, there are exposures of diorite 
traversed by films of serpentine and thin layers of practically pure 
iron oxides. I do not regard the occurrence as economically 
important. 


Yangtze valley. 


96 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Future of the Iron Industry in Yunnan. 


The later French writers do not consider that there is any scope 
for the treatment of iron ores in Yunnan by modern methods. 
Leclére does not think that the deposits can ever contribute much 
to the mineral wealth of the province and believes that future 
demands will be met by the opening up of the vast deposits in the 
older rocks of Tongking. He mentions that the price of metallic 
iron reduced by wood charcoal was about 250 francs per metric 
ton and that it was employed in the arsenal at Yunnan Fu for the 
manufacture of guns and cannon. During the time he spent in 
the province, he noticed how the least fragments of the metal were 
collected and sold. He recalls the sale of nails extracted from 
European packing cases, and the surreptitious substitution of the 
telegraph wires by cotton threads. But these instances seem to 
me to be due rather to the intense frugality of the Yunnanese 
peasantry, and to their quick appreciation of a new and_ better 
article than their own, rather than indications of any general short- 
age of iron. (Le., p. 470). 

The prices quoted by Lantenois are much the same, when 
allowance is made for the heavy transport charges from the mines 
to the cities. This writer is very emphatic in advising against the 
attempted creation of a modern iron industry in Yunnan, as he 
believes that it is bound to result in complete failure from the very 
commencement. His reasons are based on the complexity and the 
immense difficulties peculiar to China which may be summed up in 
his own words, “la mauvaise volonté incoercible des mandarins et 
de la population.” 

Again, he argues that the cost of local production cannot in any 
case be less than that of the great European works, and that the cost 
of transport from Yunnan Fu to Haiphong for example, would 
be much the same as the ocean freight from Europe to Indo-China 
or Japan. The consumption of iron in Yunnan and also in Tong- 
king is small, and, as a consequence, iron manufactured in Yunnan 
can never, or perhaps it would be better to say, cannot before a 
very long time, compete with European material either in Tong- 
king or more distant markets like Hong-kong, Singapore, etc. 
Lantenois concludes that an enterprise of this kind has no possible 
chance of success, either in the near or distant future. (La., pp. 
420-421). 

Deprat in 1912 agreed with the views of his colleague. (D., p. 246). 


COPPER. 97 


In 1908, in a manuscript report to the Government of India, 
while reserving the right to express a final opinion when I was 
better acquainted with the iron ore deposits of Yunnan, than I 
was at that time, I was inclined to believe that the French writers 
were, quite naturally, more desirous of seeing the deposits of Tong- 
king opened up than of advocating the introduction of capital 
across their frontier. A more extended knowledge of Yunnan and 
its minerals has led me to the later conclusion that in discouraging 
the expansion of iron and steel metallurgy in Yunnan on European 
lines, these writers were reasoning on sound economic _ lines. 
There are no iron ore deposits that I am aware of in Yunnan 
at all comparable in extent with those of the old crystalline rocks 
of India and Indo-China and as the local demand is a small one, 
and not likely to increase very greatly, such an industry would 
have to depend for its success on trans-frontier trade. The land- 
locked position of the province makes freight charges so high that 
even with railway transport available say to Tongking, to the 
Yangtze valley and to Burma, the local products would find it 
next to impossible to compete with French, Chinese or Indian 
manufactures in these countries or with European and American 
iron landed on their coasts. 

That a modern blast furnace plant can be worked successfully 
in China is of course proved by the Han-kow works, but a situa- 
tion such as they enjoy does not exist in Yunnan. 

At the same time there is very considerable room for improve- 
ment in the local industry, but I am persuaded that this is a matter 
which may be left with advantage to the small Chinese capitalist. 
Future progress in the way of more systematic mining, more profit- 
able utilisation of the ores and the closer association of the smelters 
with the coalfields of the province, if they come about at all, will 
probably come through him. 


GOPPER. 


Copper is said to have been smelted in Yunnan for at least a 
thousand years and the province is supposed to have supplied the 
greater part of the metal used in the coinage of copper cash through- 
out the country. For this reason a Government department has 
controlled all operations in the mining, smelting and trading of 
copper for hundreds of years. Under the Manchu dynasty all 
the mines were regulated by the authorities who granted licenses 


98 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


for working, fixed the price of the metal annually and_ strictly 
supervised the industry generally. 

In the report of De Lagree’s mission there is a detailed transla- 
tion of an important Chinese work known as Ten Nan Kouang 
Tchang Tou Lio. Itis really an encyclopedic account of Chinese mining 
and metallurgical methods, but is chiefly interesting in that it 
gives a complete list of all the mines working at the time it was 
written, and full particulars of the official regulations which at a 
later date exercised no small part in killing the mining industry 
of the province. The work was written about 1850 by Ou Ki-tche, 
Viceroy of Yunnan and Hu Kin-sen prefect of Tung-ch’uan Fu, 
perhaps the most important copper-producing district in Yunnan, 
In the list there are thirty-five important copper mines enumerated 
as well as many smaller ones. They are classified geographically 
amongst thirteen prefectures of the province and figures are given 
showing the quantities of copper each mine was compelled to supply 
free to the Government. From it we learn that 10 per cent. of 
the metallic copper produced was demanded for this imperial 
tribute. The local officials were held responsible for its collection 
‘and had to make good any shortage from the amounts assessed 
by the Imperial Bureau of Mines. Another 4 per cent. was taken 
for provincial purposes, and a third tax of 10 per cent. was levied 
to meet transport costs and repairs to roads. No less than 24 per 
cent. of the total copper production was thus requisitioned by the 
Government. 

This monumental Chinese treatise became obsolete many years 
ago, owing to the exhaustion of some deposits and the general 
abandonment of mining durimg the great rebellion. On_ its 
authority, about the year 1850 the contributions of metallic copper for 
imperial and provincial purposes amounted to 6,000 tons. Too 
great a reliance should not be placed on Chinese statistics of this 
sort, but it can be asserted safely that copper mining was a most 
important industry in Yunnan about the middle of the 18th century. 

The Mahomedan rebellion commenced about 1854 and was 
not quelled until 1873. In the general devastation of the country 
during these years the mining industry suffered a check from which 
it has not yet recovered. 

The French metallurgist, Rocher, who at a later period became 
an official in the Imperial Chinese Customs Service, arrived 
in Yunnan in February 1871 and left it again in November 1873. 


cs PLETE LM CTI CE 


COPPER. 59 


From his writings it is gathered that after the commencement 
of the civil war, the production of metals fell to practically nothing 
and that after order was re-established, the Government, though 
desirous of re-opening the mines as a source of revenue, hesitated 
to do so through fear of fresh disorders. The miners of Yunnan 
have always had the reputation of a turbulent class and there 
appears to be justification for the opinion in the fact that the preli- 
minary riots which ushered in the rebellion commenced in the 
tin-producing region of Ko-chiu. Such events were not unforeseen 
by the astute authors of the “Tien Nan Kuan Chang” as the 
following extract from their work shows :— 

“All riches to which access is freely permitted must give rise 
to differences of opinion in a force of several thousands of men. 
Therefore it is necessary to establish such regulations as are indis- 
pensable to good order, and to see that they are observed under 
pain of certain punishment. When the workers of two mines 
quarrel over the same block of ore, no man should be allowed to 
carry a sword or spear, or to fashion an instrument capable of 
causing hurt. The formation of defensive leagues, which are often 
started under the pretext of fraternity must be prevented. A 
writer named Gien expresses the following views on such associa- 
tions. ‘It is rare to find a mine which does not possess a con- 
spiracy of this nature. Mines are often the refuge places of male- 
factors who under the pretext of friendship are already bound 
together and are obliged to hide because of their crimes.” These 
things must be watched from the beginning with the greatest care 
if calamity is to be avoided.” (G., Vol. I, p. 190). 

Rocher states that copper is distributed throughout the province 
and that the mines are the deepest of any he examined. He gives 
an account of Chinese methods of mining, smeltmg and refining 
the metal and reproduces the list of mines from the “Tien Nan 
Kuan Ch’ang.” (R., Vol. II, pp. 218-230). Apparently a little 
copper continued to be produced at the mines around Tung-ch’uan 
Fu during the rebellion, though all the others were closed. 

Duclos, who visited Yunnan in 1896 and 1897, divides all the 
mines of the province into two groups as follows :— 

(2) Ancient mines and those which were active at the com- 
mencement of the rebellion in 1853 but which were 
abandoned then. 

(b) Mines in operation in 1896. 


100 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Under the emperors K’ang Hsi, Yung Cheng, Ch’ien Lung 
and Chia Ch’ing (1637-1823), the province contained fifty-four 
mines, most of which produced copper and could furnish in full 
production over 5,000 metric tons of the metal. The production of 
copper in 1896 is stated to have been 1,850,000 catties or 1,110 metric 
tons obtained from the following mines :— 

Tung-ch’uan Fu prefecture (lat. 26° 24’: long. 103° 10’)— 


Lao-tchang, distance from Kiao-kia-t’ing, 2 days. 
Ta-me-ti 3 a 3 24 ,, 
Pé-hi-lou “ 3 . : s 24 ,, 
Tong-t’an-tchang, distance from Kiao-kia-t’ing, De oe 
Kiecou-loung-tsin 5 ns e 34 5, 
Ty-tchang es 5 > ; _ O53 
Sin-chouang-long-tchang, distance from Kiao-kia-t’ing, . S. # 
Ma-y-chan, distance from Kiao-kia-t’ing, 7 me 
Kin-hé-pien __,, a % : % EN 
Tsin-pao-chan, distance from Tung-ch’uan . - ; ie 5 
Kouan-in-chan a - $5 1 day 
Tcha-ho-tchang ,, 55 ss 5 days 
Ta-kong-tchang ,, Ps $5 2 54 ,, 


These mines were controlled by the Lao-tchang-Tsong-kiow (the 
old Bureau of Mines) and yielded 950,000 catties of copper. 
Tché-kio-tchang was opened in August 1896 and produced crude 
copper. It is twenty days’ journey from Tung-ch’uan Fu. 

Chao-t’ ung Fu prefecture (lat. 27° 20’: long. 103° 40’)— 
Lo-ma-tchang, distance from Chao-t’ung : . 2 days. 
Hiao-tchay rn a a 5 4 . lI day. 


At Tchan-ka, some kilometres from Tung-ch’uan Fu, there 
is a deposit of native copper, cropping out at the surface, which 
the Chinese are unable to work. Rocher also refers to a mass of 
native copper, not less than two hundred cubic feet in size, which 
had to be abandoned in one of the mines of the Yung-pei T’ing 
district. (R., Vol. II, p. 219). 

Wei-ning Chou is just over the eastern border of Yunnan in 

Wemnuie = Chow: dis the province of Kuei-chou, but its mines 
trict (lat. 26° 50’: come under the administration of the Yunnan 
net te) bureau. The district is very rich in mineral 
deposits but lead, silver and zinc are the chief minerals produced. 
The following are copper mines :— 

Tong-tchang-ho, distance from Wei-ning . ae ‘ - 5 miles, 


Tang-ta-tchang, »  Hsiian-wel . : 3 «> days 
Ma-kou-ho, = »  Wei-ning . : A eal 


‘ 
99) 


COPPER. 101 


Ch’ii-ching Fu prefecture (lat. 25° 30’: long. 103° 44’)— 
Tou-li-chou 
Liang-chong-kin (_ ,, »  Chii-ching . A , 2. days. 
Lou-fa-tchang These mines only produce a little copper. 
Lan-tchang 
North-East and Central Yunnan.—Yung-pei-ch’ang, two days from Yung-pei T’ing. 
Ma-long-tchang and San-kia-tchang in the prefecture of Ch’u-hsiun Fu. These mines 


inelude a great number of smaller ones and produce 350,000 catties of copper per annum. 
Other mines which come under the Yunnan bureau are in the 


north of the province or in the adjoining 


Other Copper mines. < 
i province of Ssi-ch’uan. 


Hui-li Chou district (Ssti-ch’ uan)— 


Kiang-kiuin-tchang, distance from Hui-li. : . 2 days. 
Lou-tchang 53 5 ees : . 8 miles. 
Tchou-si-tien 3 9 99 . - . 1} days. 


In addition to these there are two other mines, Lou-tchouan- 
tchang, 3 days from Lou-tchouan, and Ta-yao-tchang, 1 day from 
Ta-yao hien. The five mines together produced 300,000 catties 
of copper per annum. 

In 1896 the annual imperial tribute had fallen to about 820 short 
tons per annum. Duclos also gives an account of the copper mines 
and smelters at San-kia-ch’ang in the Yi-mén Hsien district which 
I visited at a later date and will describe on a subsequent page. 
(Du., pp. 285-291). 

Leclére, writing in 1891 stated that copper-mining in Yunnan 
and southern Ssi-ch’uan commenced more than a thousand years 
ago. The Imperial Department controlling the industry was founded 
in the middle of the 17th century. He pointed out that the statis- 
tics of this department which are still available are of little value 
as they draw no distinction between active and abandoned mines. 
Yunnan copper was then the only metal used for coinage through- 
out the Empire. The annual production at the end of the 17th 
century was 6,000 metric tons, and at the time of his travels in 
the country was still 1,000 to 1,500 metric tons. 

Regarding the ore deposits he wrote that the ores bornite, 
covellite and more rarely copper pyrites are found in Carboniferous 
slates but such occurrences are practically abandoned. Layers of 
cuprite and native copper intercalated in porphyrite are very much 
esteemed, but the absence of explosives often makes them unwork- 
able. Sandstones impregnated with copper carbonates are said 
to be found in the Trias. 


102. COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


The principal deposits are in Triassic limestone the mass of 
which is impregnated by diftuston from lodes and transformed into 
a carbonate containing only traces of pyrite. Such deposits take 
the form of zones of concretions following the natural fissures of 
the limestone. 

The principal centres of extraction are Tung-ch’uan Fu and 
Wei-hsi T’ing (lat. 27° 10’: long. 99°1 0’). The smelters will only 
accept minerals capable of producing a matte containing 20 per 
cent. or 30 per cent. of metallic copper. The ores are hand-picked 
at the mines to bring this about. Minerals which do not contain 
more than 15 per cent. metallic copper are thrown away and form 
considerable dumps. Large quantities of slags containing 3 per 
cent. copper must exist in the old smelting centres. 


These facts are held to prove that Yunnan possesses consider- 
able reserves of copper-bearing minerals, chiefly in imaccessible 
districts. Only general conclusions can be drawn and a_ special 
study of each individual deposit is necessary before its value can 
be determined. (Le. pp. 441-443). 


A great number of copper deposits are capable of a very much 
larger production, even without great modification of the Chinese 
mining methods which are quite appropriate for scattered deposits 
in the Triassic limestone. Leclére thought that a production of 
10,000 tons per annum was quite possible but that preliminary 
costs would be high. A special study of the coalfields for suitable 
fuel to replace wood charcoal is necessary first of all. 


Copper deposits of Eastern Yunnan described by Leclére, Lantenois 
and Deprat. 


I have not visited any of the mines described in this section as 
they are all situated to the north or south of Yunnan Fu, beyond 
the limits of my own traverses. 


Deprat believes that the value of the copper deposits of Yunnan 
has been greatly exaggerated though he admits that there are 
important mines at considerable distances from the railway (D., 
p. 247). Most of the numerous deposits between Méng-tzi and 
Yunnan Fu are not worth the trouble of examination in his opinion. 

In 1903 Lantenois concluded that the copper deposits of this 
region are all more or less in direct association with eruptive rocks 


COPPER. 103 


such as andesites and basalts. He distinguishes four types of 
deposits :— 


(a) In contraction fissures and cracks of the eruptive rocks. 
(b) Pocket deposits at the contact of eruptive rocks and lime- 


stone. 

(c) In irregular fissures in limestone in the vicinity of eruptive 
rocks. 

(d) In more or less open fractures continuous across limestone 
and shale. 


Secondary enrichment is strong and prevalent. (La., p. 406.) 


This mine has been described by Leclére, Lantenois and Deprat. 
. _ It is situated 10 kilometres south of Mien- 
Wei-teou-chan (Lin- : : 
an Fu). tien, a small town some twenty miles east 
(Lat. 23° 36°: Long. of Lin-an Fu. In 1905 it found employment 
102° 52’.) 9 ; : : 
for 70 miners and produced 60 metric tons 
of copper per annum. According to Deprat it is far from flourishing 
and will probably be abandoned. The lode seen by Leclére is 
worked out but another thin one carrying quartz rich in bornite 
and copper and iron pyrites, following an irregular fissure in an 
eruptive rock, is exploited. A third thin lode is also worked. The 
mineral extracted contains about 20-25 per cent. of copper. (La., 
p. 409 and D., p. 247). 


This mine is situated near Pe-tchen which is a few miles north- 
Tien-pao” (OWSng. east of Hsin-hsing Chou. It has been des- 
chiang Fu). cribed by Lantenois. (La., p. 409-410). Ten 
eee 40’: Long. years previous to his visit, it found employ- 
: ment for 1,000 men and produced 300 metric 

tons of copper per annum. Mining was then impeded by the 
depth of the workings. Only forty men were employed at the 
time of Lantenois’ visit and thirty metric tons of copper were said 
to be produced annually, though Lantenois thinks this figure a 
little too high. There are three beds of mineral  interstratified 
with sandstone floors and shale roofs. Their thicknesses are -3, °5, 
and *6 metres respectively. Only one of these was being worked. 
The mineral is found in the form of balls rich in copper carbonate. 
It is handpicked and washed and yields 20 per cent. of copper 
on smelting. The copper is bought by the Government at about 
1,000 francs per metric ton, This mine deserves attention. (La,, 


pp- 409-411 and D., p. 247). 


104 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Lan-ni-pe near A-mi An old abandoned prospect with a_ slag 
ae bac ate ame, heap close to it. (La., p. 411 and D., p. 247). 
1 Bs Sais A 

At the contact of the basalts and the Uralian limestones of this 
_ region there are often little fractures con- 

Po-hsi (T’ung-hai tee 
Hsien). taining copper carbonate. They have been 
ees 6’: Long worked on a small scale near Mo-pe-tchong 

at ceee and near Lao-tchai and Sin-tchai to — the 
north of Ho-tien. They are of no economic importance. Near 
Che-mo to the east of Po-hsi there are a few abandoned pits of 
the same description. On the eastern shore of Lake Ch’éng-chiang, 
in the vicinity of Min-hin, there are a number of prospecting pits 
in the lavas and sandstones of Moscovian age. In all these 
localities copper carbonates are disseminated through certain bands 
of rock in small quantities but, as stated before, the deposits 
possess no economic importance. (D., p. 248). 


The mines in the neighbourhood of Lu-nan Chou have been 
fe an Chow abandoned for fifty or sixty years. They are 
(Lat. 24° 467: Long. located around Lou-méié, Mao-chouéi-tong and 

ge Lan-nin-tsin. There are indications of sixteen 
old workings, which are either in the eruptive rock or at its 
contact with the limestone. Lantenois estimates the slag heaps to 
contain 10,000 or 20,000 metric tons corresponding to a production 
of 2,000 to 4,000 metric tons. Deprat points out that the presence 
of large quantities of slag is no ground to base the supposed impor- 
tance of a former mine on. He writes,—“I have seen Chinese 
treating minerals of an inconceivable poorness ; nothing discourages 
them; time is no object and labour is so cheap. These mines, 
like all similar ones in Yunnan, can be considered as non-existent 
for purposes of European exploitation. A Chinese will work poor 
minerals because no great expenditure of capital is involved, and 
will continue from day to day, without making large profits, often 
simply supplying his daily wants and seeing the return of his 
expenditure. In this way he will exploit the poorest deposit and 
then search for another to be exhausted in the same way after- 
wards.” 

On the plateau of Devonian limestone between Lan-nin-tsin 
and Ta-me-ti, there are similar prospects, holes in the limestone, 
sometimes with a small heap of slag beside them. Lantenois has 
shown that these deposits consist of small nests of ore in the lime- 


COPPER. 105 


stone or the eruptive rock. They are very numerous, but distri- 
buted in such an irregular way, that large scale operations are out 
of the question. (La., pp. 411-413 and D., p. 248). 

Lao-tchou-chan is a village in the valley of the Ta-chaing Ho, 
east of the city of Ch’éng-chiang Fu. There 
are two mines, one to the north and the other 
to the south of the village. They are both in 
Cambrian slates and limestones. At the southern mine of 
Pe-mao-tchang there is a small system of workings in the slates 
on a number of scattered calcite veins containing copper pyrites. 
The deposit is not interesting. The northern mine, called 
Ouan-pao-tong, displays a small vertical fracture in limestone 
containing a vein three or four ems. thick and containing copper 
minerals. It thinned out in a distance of three or four metres 
to a pure calcite stringer. The region is very broken up and the 
strata contorted and cracked. It is considered that there is little 
chance of finding important fractures, but rather small cracks 
without any continuity which are sometimes mineralised. Lantenois 
concludes that all the copper mines he _ visited in Eastern 
Yunnan belong to the disseminated type. (La., p. 414). 


Lao-tchou-chan (Ch’ 
éng-chiang Iu.) 


Copper Mines of North-Eastern Yunnan, described by Laclére and 
Deprat. 


Leclére visited the important copper-producing district of Tung- 
ch’uan Fu in 1898; Deprat in 1910. The following notes are from 
their works. 

This mine is in Carboniferous porphyries. One of the flows 
contains a horizontal band of barytes carrying 
native copper and its oxides. Workings are 
started on the flank of the hill at points where 
the barytes layer is thick enough to permit the driving of a low 
adit without breaking into the igneous rock. The deposit 
is certainly a rich one and work was only commenced in 1897. It 
is difficult to come to any conclusion about its actual value because 
the thin portions of the deposit are not worked, though they con- 
tain as much mmeral as the others. Masses of native copper 
too large to be brought out of the workings are left behind. About 
100 men are employed. The picked ore contains 20-40 per cent. 
of copper. It is taken to Tung-ch’uan Fu where it is bought by 
the officials at about 170 francs per metric ton, including 20 francs 


Lou-pou (Tung-ch’- 
uan Fu_ prefecture.) 


H 


106 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


paid by the mine-owners for transportation. The waste material 
contains 15 per cent. of copper. Production could hardly be more 
than half a metric ton per day. Similar deposits are found in other 
parts of the same district. They are worked at Lou-fong-keou 
(15 kilometres south-west of Lou-pou), and at Kou-niou-tchang. 


Lumps of native copper and copper oxides, left after the decom- 
position of the porphyrites are often found on the surface of the 
soil around Tung-ch’uan Fu. These are worked up into utensils 
by the inhabitants. The price of native copper in Tung-ch’uan Fu 
was about 510 francs per metric ton. (Le., p. 372). 


The principal copper deposits worked in the neighbourhood of 
Tung-ch’uan Fu are comprised within the 
Tang-tan group, near the village of Ta-me-ti. 
There are four principal mines :— 


(1) Sin-tchang, a little above and to the west of Ta-ho. 300 
miners were formerly employed here, but the mine was 
abandoned in 1898 owing to its distance from the smel- 
ters. 

(2) Pe-si-la, a lode in the Lower Carboniferous, 18 kilometres 
west of Ta-me-ti. At one time it gave employment to 
300 men but was abandoned in 1898 for the same reason 
as in the preceding case. It was managed by Japanese 
working on European lines. 

(3) Lao-sin-tchang, 4 kilometres west of Ta-me-ti. Employed 
200 men. 

(4) Lao-tchang with Lao-min-tsao and Sin-min-tsao. These are 
close to Ta-me-ti and employed 1,100 men. 


Tang-tan (Tung 
ch’uan Fu prefecture.) 


At Lao-tchang there is a kind of stockwork. The ore was 
originally copper pyrites but it is almost entirely altered to carbon- 
ate and associated with concretions of banded barytes. At an 
altitude of 350 metres, the limestone massif is pierced by more than 
300 workings. Drives up to 1,500 metres in length have been 
made on the best veins. Ores containing 20 per cent. copper are 
accepted by the smelters. Poorer material does not pay for treat- 
ment owing to high costs. Fuel alone cost 7 taels per 100 pounds 
of crude copper produced. The Imperial Monopoly bought this 
copper at a price corresponding to 550 franes per metric ton. 
Charcoal made from resinous wood is used as fuel but has to be 
brought from forests four stages away. 


COPPER. 107 


The ore from Lao-sin-tchang was « most entirely copper pyrites. 
The Pe-si-la ore was mainly bornite with some covellite found in 
veinlets in a compact state. It is a difficult ore to smelt by local 
methods and requires a preliminary roasting. The Japanese 
attempted to do this, but the scarcity of fuel made operations 
impossible and the deposit is now considered unworkable. The 
slags obtained by modern methods only contain traces of copper. 
The ancient slags contain about 3 per cent. of copper, but those 
found about the present smelters have been re-treated. 


The Japanese smelters contain eight furnaces. There are others 
scattered about the district under the charge of subordinate Chinese 
officials. The furnaces consist of brasque crucibles 13 metres 
in diameter which a conical top 2 metres high. The blast enters 
from a tuyer immediately opposite a door, which is filled up during 
the fusion and only pierced by a tapping hole. The blast is produced 
by a large cylindrical wooden blower, the piston of which is worked 
by three gangs of four men each. The gangs relieve one another 
frequently during a working day of twelve hours, after which they 
are replaced by twelve fresh men. After a preliminary filling of 
wood charcoal brought to a red heat, small quantities of the carbon- 
ate and charcoal are constanty added and from time to time, a 
little sulphide ore. The slags escape through a hole pierced in 
the door, as the hearth fills with crude copper. When this appears 
at the slag hole, the furnace is allowed to cool, after which it is 
opened by taking down the brickwork opposite the tuyer. A 
fusion generally lasts five days and produces about 300 kilograms 
of crude copper. 


The total production of Tang-tan is about 500 metric tons 
per annum. The crude copper is sent to Tung-ch’uan Fu and 
refined there by fusion in a low blast furnace and poling with rods 
of green wood. Part of the finished product is sent to Pekin and 
the remainder goes to Kong-chan where there is a mint for the 
coinage of cash. 


The Chinese officer in charge of the copper business in the Tung- 
ch’uan Fu prefecture informed Leclére that the Japanese spent 
a sum equal to four millions of francs in twelve years on the con- 
struction of the smelter, the establishment of a great number of 
roads and the exploitation of the Pe-si-la deposit. The enter- 
prise had not become profitable when the Chinese-Japanese war 

H 2 


108 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


ended it. Copper manufacture was then taken up by the Chinese 
Government again. (Le., 373-377). 

Twelve years later, that is to say in 1910, Deprat visited the 
Lao-tchang mines, which are situated two stages south-south-west of 
Tung-ch’uan Fu. He found that of the four groups Sin-tchang, 
Pe-si-la, Lao-sin-tchang and Lao-tchang, only the two latter were 
being exploited, the others having been abandoned. The Lao- 
tchang deposit is formed in the fissures of cracked and_ brecciated 
limestone. The original pyritic mineral has been transformed into 
carbonate as Leclére indicated, with abundant concretions of banded 
barytes. Very numerous underground workings follow the lines 
of fracture; some of them are 1,500 metres in length; the lime- 
stone massif is riddled with innumerable holes and falls are very 
frequent. At the time of Leclére’s visit this mine found work 
for 1,100 men. In 1910, the labour force was much the same. In 
1898 Leclére gave the production as 500 metric tons of crude copper 
per annum. According to explanations given to Deprat in 1910, 
by the officer in charge of the mine, 960 Chinese tons of crude copper 
were produced for the Government. This material is worth 18 
taels per 100 kilograms. The Chinese ton is equal to 600 kilograms, 
so that the output was 576 metric tons or slightly better than it 
was 12 years earlier. The crude copper was still being refined 
at Tung-ch’uan Fu, before shipment to Pekin. 


The first smelting is made with wood charcoal which is brought 
from wooded regions three or four stages away by horse transport. 
This greatly increases smelting charges. In 1910, the Government 
paid 18 taels per 60 kilograms for crude copper. In Leclére’s time 
the price was only 12 taels for the same quantity. 

Near this pagoda, a journey of three hours from Lao-tchang, 

Kouen-in-sa pros. Carbonate of copper is found in sandstones and 
pect. quartzites. 

Four hours journey to the north-west of lLao-tchang there 
is a working on a thin vein in altered diabase. 
It has only yielded traces of copper carbonates. 
Lo-suy mine is one stage west of Lao-tchang at an altitude of 
2,520 metres. Copper carbonates occur with 
philipsite in a thin lode cutting Cambrian 
schists. There is a furnace in which crude copper is produced. 
This is refined at Tung-ch’uan Fu. The mine employs about 300 
men and produces about 60 metric tons of copper per annum. 


Sin-tien-fong. 


Lo-suy. 


COPPER. 109 


This mine is in a ravine 200 metres above the Yangtze river, 
33 stages from Tung-ch’uan Fu. It is very 
inaccessible and the roads to it are difficult 
and dangerous for beasts of burden. It possesses a furnace in which 
carbonates of copper and copper pyrites are treated. These 
ores are found disseminated here and there in thin quartz veins 
traversing sandstones and shales. The region is said to be too 
crushed to contain extended fissures and the minerals form 
scattered deposits without continuity. Production about 15 metric 
tons per annum. 


Mo-lou-tchang. 


Deprat’s résumé of the copper resources of Eastern Yunnan. 


The only interesting copper mines in Eastern Yunnan are 
situated beyond the sphere of action of the French railway. From 
the Lao-tchang mines of the Tung-ch’uan Fu prefecture to Yi- 
liang Hsien, the minimum number of stages by horseback is eight, 
over detestable roads only open for part of the year; from Tung- 
ch’uan Fu itself to Yi-liang Hsien is twelve or thirteen stages. The 
mines close to the railway are not encouraging and geological condi- 
tions are such as to confirm unfavourably the impressions furnished 
by the deposits themselves. There is copper in the basic eruptives 
of the Permian and Moscovian, especially at their contacts, but 
always in the form of restricted deposits, immediately exhausted, 
and incapable of giving an output of any importance or duration. 
In the Permian basalts copper is found everywhere, but except 
in rare cases it is in traces. 

Generally speaking between Yunnan Fu and Méng-tzi, condi- 
tions offer little encouragement, the crushing and folding of the 
strata in the orogenic Himalayan movements almost completely 
dispel the hope of finding large mineralised fractures in them. (D., 
p:. 250). 


Personal Observations. 


Copper Mines of the Yung-pei T’ing district. 


Yung-pei T’ing (lat., 26° 45’; long. 100° 45’) lies seven days’ 
journey to the north-north-east of Ta-li Fu. After leaving the 
latter city, the main northerly route leading to Li-chiang Fu, is 
followed as far as Shang-kuan (stage I) at 16 miles. Up to this 
point the road is paved, in good condition, and lies between the 


110 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


western shores of Lake frh Hai and the slopes of the steep moun- 
tains which bound it on the west. The alluvial ground around 
the lake is one of the most fertile spots in the province and the 
numerous clusters of prosperous villages bear witness to the 
large population which the land supports. At Shang-kuan the 
main northerly route is left and the Yung-pei T’ing route continues 
around the head of the lake for about six miles, as far as the village 
of Hai-ch’a-ho, whence it strikes north-east, and after crossing the 
low ridge separating the drainage of Lake Erh Hai, (which lies in 
the watershed of the Mekong), from the Yangtze basin, the second 
stage of Ta-wang-miao is reached at 29 miles. A short descent 
from this village leads the road into the valley of a small tributary 
of the Yangtze flowing north-east to meet its parent stream. For 
one and a half more days this valley is followed passing through the 
village of Sin-chen, forming the third stage at 15 miles from Ta- 
wang-miao, and 44 miles from Ta-li Fu. After meeting the 
Yangtze itself near T’ien-tzi-miao, the road continues along the 
south bank of the river until it reaches the ferry at Chin-chiang- 
kai, stage four, 63 miles from Ta-li Fu. There is a gradual descent 
of over 2,300 feet between Ta-wang-miao and the river. Here the 
Yangtze is a large river, over 600 feet broad, with a swift current 
strangled between bare mountain ranges whose rocky slopes form 
the outstanding features of the landscape of this most desolate 
region. There is an almost entire absence of trees here and 
the inhabitants are a miserable mixed breed of Chinese, Lisu and 
Pai-i, living in small, isolated village communities. Brigands do 
not hesitate to attack the solitary traveller, and as in other parts 
of Yunnan off the main routes, wayfarers took advantage of the 
protection afforded by a large caravan and journeyed with me from 
place to place. Chin-chiang-kai is a small, partly walled village 
of 40 or 50 houses. It owes its importance to its situation at the 
ferry by which the roads from Ta-li Fu and Pin-ch’uan Chou cross 
the Yangtze. Another cross road leads to Ho-ch’ing Chou and 
Li-chiang Fu. 

Yung-pei T’ing lies 43 miles to the north of Chin-chiang-kai, 
a distance which can be traversed easily in three days. The road 
is in good condition and quite passable for laden animals. It 
starts along the north bank of the Yangtze from Chin-chiang-kai, 
and then turns north up a tributary valley ; after gradually ascend- 
ing it arrives at the village of Man-kuan at 13) miles. The next 


COPPER. i 


stage is at Pan-hai-tzu, a small hamlet on the shores of the iake 
Ker-wu Hai, 14 miles from Man-kuan. Yung-pei T’ing is reached 
at the next stage, 153 miles from Pan-hai-tzu and 106 miles from 
Ta-li Fu. After leaving the village the road continues along the 
east bank of the lake for a few miles before making a steep ascent 
over a ridge, the summit of which is crossed at the guard house of 
Ho-ting-tang, 8,150 feet above sea-level. After this there is a steep 
descent to the alluvial ground of the Yung-pei Ting plain, and 
the road is almost level up to the city, a distance of 3 miles. The 
city is small, but possesses the usual walls. It is situated in a 
plain about 10 miles long and 4 miles wide at the broadest part. 
It has an elevation of 7,300 feet above the sea. Jt is under the 
civil jurisdiction of a second class officer subordinate to the “ Fu- 
kuan” of Ta-l Fu. It is the headquarters of a regiment, and is 
the residence of the delegate from the Bureau of Mines in charge 
of the copper monopoly. Permission to visit the copper mines was 
courteously granted to me. 

Between Ta-li Fu and the Yangtze, the country is almost entirely 
built up of igneous strata of Permo-Carboni- 
ferous age, surmounted here and there by 
small outliers of Permo-Carboniferous limestone. The igneous 
strata appear to be mainly volcanic rocks, many of which belong 
to the andesite group. 


Geology. 


From a limestone outcrop overlying the lavas and found in 
situ. just beyond Chin-chiang-kai, I collected numerous fossils, 
consisting of corals, and brachiopoda, but, unfortunately, they 
have not been determined yet. 

Alluvial benches of considerable thickness are developed in 
the Yangtze valley. They are made up of sand, pebble and conglo- 
merate banks, and are auriferous. The benches are well stratified 
above the level of the river, and dip down stream at low angles. 
The valley north of Chin-chiang-kai contains a good deal of al- 
luvium, but it appeared to me that the limestones were unconform- 
ably overlain by red shales and sandstones of the Red Beds series. 
There is a well-marked conglomerate band seen in more than one 
place, which may mark the junction, 

The ridge separating the valley of the Ker-wu lake and the 
Yung-pei T’ing plain, is made up of the Red Beds which here consist 
of rapid alternations of “pepper and salt’ sandstones, red shales, 
fine-grained red sandstones, greyish sandstones, greenish and reddish 


112 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT. RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


shales and soft bright-red shales. The Yung-pei T’ing valley seems 
to have been a former lake basin some 30 or 40 square miles in 
extent; it is bounded by the rocks of the Red Beds series or 
by the limestones. 

The Pao-p’ing-ch’ang mines lie to the west of the city towards 
the Yangtze. After crossing the alluvial 
deposits of the plain, the road ascends the 
ridge separating the Yung-pei T’ing valley from 
that of the San-ch’uan-pa. Here  fossiliferous limestones were 
discovered similar to those found near Chin-chiang-kai. After 
descending and traversing the San-ch’uan-pa plain, a sharp turn 
is taken to the west through the large market village of Chung- 
ch’'u-kai, and the first stage is reached at Sin-cheng, 8 miles from 
Yung-pei Ting. Near this place there are a few old levels. still 
worked for copper ores in a desultory. fashion, Leaving Sin-cheng 
the road continues west up the valley of a small stream, where 
outcrops of decomposed voleanic rocks are seen, Crossing the 
stream the road ascends very steeply to 7,300 feet near the small 
village of Ta-wa-ssi. From here it continues, still ascending to 
the west, but winding round the heads of some of the smaller 
tributary ravines, until the small stream which forms the Pao- 
p'ing-ch’ang valley is reached, 8 miles from Sin-cheng. Just at this 
point, a magnificent view of the great snowy range to the west of 
Li-chiang Fu is obtained. 


From Yung-pei to 
the mines. 


The Yangtze, which lies six or seven miles further west, here 
flows in a north and south course, between two well-marked though 
short ranges running parallel to the river. Between these ranges 
there is a series of lower cross spurs separating the drainages of 
the smaller tributaries. Pao-p’ing-ch’ang is situated almost on the 
crest of one of these, dividing the watersheds of the Wu-lang Ho 
and the next stream, which joins the Yangtze 20 or 30 miles further 
south. 

The country is built up of contemporaneous igneous strata of 
Permo-Carboniferous age, the decomposed outcrops of the flows 
being seen in the gullies where the watercourses have removed the 
overburden, but, as a rule, a red clayey soil covers the ground and 
forms the smooth outlines of the rounded mountain tops. There 
is a little pine forest, but most of the trees have been cut down 
for charcoal manufacture. Some of the bare slopes are culti- 
vated by Lisus and Mosos. 


COPPER. 113 

Pao-p’ing-ch’ang is a typical Chinese mining camp. The sides 
of the valley are covered with dumps and have been dug up 
repeatedly in the search for ores. The entrances to the levels are 
perched in all kinds of places on the steep slopes, the spoil heaps 
forming long glissades down to the stream far below. Great heaps 
of copper slags are scattered around. The village is small and 
badly built, the water supply is poor and supplies of every kind 
have to be carried in from a distance. 

A prospecting adit was being driven into the hill-side from the 
acts etanae bottom of the valley, one mile to the west. of 
Sin-cheng. Its length was about 100° feet. 
Another level entered the hill at a lower horizion in a north-westerly 
direction. The only indications of ore were at the face in the latter 
and consisted of two thin stringers of malachite in a decomposed 
and broken igneous rock. On the opposite side of the valley J 
saw three levels one above the other. Very little ore was being 
obtained, though extensive work was said to have been carried 
on formerly. Ruins of furnaces exist in the valley, but the small 
amounts of ore obtained at the time of my visit were sent to Pao- 
p'ing-ch’ang for treatment. I do not regard the locality as at all 
promising. 

The youngest strata around Pao-p'ing-ch’ang are the white 
limestones of Permian (?) age. They 
surmount the tops of the hills to the north 
and north-west, and are so white that from 
a distance one is liable to mistake their scattered outcrops for snow 
drifts. I think that the dark-coloured,  fossiliferous limestones 
of Permo-Carboniferous age come beneath them, and are them- 
selves underlain by a thick series of shales and sandstones of various 
shades of yellow, white and red. They crop out near the village 
with a dip of 53° to the east-south-east, but further down the valley the 
dip is not so high. The portals of the tunnels go through these rocks. 

In association with them is the volcanic series, made up of 
lavas, tuff bands of reddish and greenish shades, ash beds of darker 
tints, with layers of shale and grit intercalated in the flows. The 
tufls weather easily into red and green spotted angular fragments ; 
the shales form easily broken, nodular masses and there is a great 
variety amongst the true igneous rocks. The lavas are often very 
altered at the surface and it is not always easy to recognise their 
true characters, 


Pao-p'ing-ch’ang geo- 
logy. 


114 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


There are very numerous old workings in the valley, but the 
deposits which were being worked at the time 
of my visit were entered from both sides of 
a spur which cuts into and narrows the valley 
near the point where it turns north-east ; (further towards its head, 
the valley has a north and south direction). The mines are from 
1 to 14 miles from the camp to which they are joined by a good 
mule track. I inspected the workings entered from the south side ; 
time did not permit of my visiting the others on the opposite side. 
The underground workings that I went through were of great 
extent, and I was in them for some hours. It is quite impossible 
to describe them in detail, without the preparation of a plan. They 
turned and twisted in every direction and formed a perfect labyrinth 
of underground galleries. Suffice it to say that the actual workings 
were amongst the best that I have seen in Yunnan. The timbering 
especially deserved much praise for it was done with a practical 
knowledge and care which betokened considerable experience. The 
main roads were high and well driven. The ventilation in the 
main ways was good and obtained by means of rises through to 
the surface and upper workings. In the remoter parts of the mine 
the air was very foul. There was not much water in the mine 
except in the lowest workings whence it was raised into the drainage 
adits by means of the usual bamboo pumps. The general impres- 
sion I received was that the mine was about exhausted as far as 
it was possible for the Chinese to go down. There was no proper 
system of working and thin quartz stringers were being followed 
in all directions. These carried sulphide ore in the form of erubes- 
cite with smaller quantities of chalcopyrite. Chalcocite, malachite 
and azurite were also identified. In one part of the mine I came 
across an old stope, which seemed to indicate the original presence 
of a large lode, 5 or 6 feet thick. The miners confirmed this and 
said that it ran out 10 or 15 years before. Decomposition and 
metamorphism of the country rocks had been very great and it 
was impossible to arrive at any conclusions regarding the forma- 
tion of the ores during the short time I was permitted to stay in 
the mine. I am inclined to think that the lodes were in very 
irregular fissures of great variation in size, traversing shales, sand- 
stones and limestones. They also appear to have entered the 
eruptive rocks in contact with them. 


Pao-p ing-ch’ang 
mines. 


The ores are carried to the surface in baskets by boys, and after 


COPPER. 115 


the larger pieces have been broken up, the material goes to the 
sorting tables, each of which finds employment for 8 or 10 women 
and girls, who are very skilful at their work. The rich pieces 
are picked out and placed in baskets. The remainder goes to the 
dumps. The latter consist of the gangue and also of the low-grade 
ores, disseminated sulphides and carbonates. The water percolat- 
ing through the dumps was of a bright blue colour and appeared 
to bear an appreciable quantity of copper salts in solution. 

The rich picked ores, consisting chiefly of erubescite and chal- 
copyrite are carried down to the smelters, 
which are situated in the village. They are 
first of all roasted in large quadrangular kilns for three days with 
ironstone, charcoal and wood. The caked masses from this opera- 
tion go into the large blast furnaces ; the smalls and dust are washed, 
the heavier portions kept, and smelted in a special furnace of 
smaller dimensions. The preliminary calcination appears to drive 
off volatile impurities, to reduce the ores to a certain extent and 
to prepare a hard porous cake in good condition for the final opera- 
tion in the blast furnace. Three sizes of blast furnace are made 
use of generally in benches of six. The largest are from 20 to 
25 feet high with a covered-in chimney, but with a long 
opening in front, above the wall of the actual reaction chamber 
which is of course much smaller. The other furnaces are about 
15 feet high, and there is also a still smaller type. The smelting 
operation takes three days to complete in the biggest furnaces, 
working day and night, and twelve hours in the smallest type. 
The blast is supplied from large cylindrical blowers worked by 
relays of coolies. The molten metal is not tapped, but when the 
reaction is completed the front of the furnace is broken in, leaving 
a bath of molten metal at the bottom in the hemispherical-based 
crucible. This is allowed to cool, and the cooling process is hastened 
by spraying rice water on the hot surface, which as it solidifies is 
removed in plates. The charges for the largest sized furnaces are 
said to be as follows :— 


Ore treatment. 


Calcined ore . ‘ i Fs : - 40 loads, say 3 tons. 
Iron ore 5 x E : < BORE: pease Eas 
Charcoal . P ‘ ‘ S oe hae aes 
Limestone * . = . ; » 20 5 Sh SES 


The amount of copper produced, according to my Chinese infor- 
mant, may be anything from } to $ ton. 


116 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


The Pao-p’ing-ch’ang mines are said to be over 200 years old 
and to have been opened in the Ch’ien Lung 
dynasty. About 100 years ago, the mine is 
related to have produced over 1,785 tons of metallic copper per 
annum, and to have found employment for five or six thousand 
men. In the K’ang Hsi dynatty an average of 110 tons of copper 
was produced annually. But of late years the production has 
fallen off rapidly and in 1907 it only reached about 20 tons. In 
the year of my visit, 1909, production witnessed a marked improve- 
ment and it was estimated that 60 tons would be turned out. About 
8 years before this the total output of all the copper mines of the 
Yung-pei T’ing district was some 150 tons per annum, but six years 
later this had fallen to approximately 30 tons. The later improve- 
ment was therefore a well-marked one though it was probably 
brought about by the installation of the provincial mint in Yunnan 
Fu and the endeavours of the Local Government to stimulate the 
supply of copper for coinage purposes. 

The mining and smelting operations at Pao-p’ing-ch’ang are 
controlled by a syndicate of twelve partners. These men are not 
natives of the district but come from the metallurgical centres of 
Tung-ch’uan Fu and Lin-an Fu. They were supposed to sell all 
the metal produced to the Government representative in Yung- 
pei T’ing, who paid for it at prices fixed from time to time by the 
Central Bureau. As a matter of fact in this isolated area far away 
from the centre of the administration, there was admittedly a 
considerable amount of corruption, smuggling and contraband trade 
in copper. 

About 250 men were employed at the time of my visit. The 
miners were paid at the rate of Rs. 3 per mensem, the carriers from 
Rs. 1-6-0 to Rs. 2 per mensem. The women who sorted the ore 
received 50 cash each per day. The surface coolies about the 
smelters received much the same wages. These remarkably low 
rates of pay do not appear so ridiculous when it is remembered 
that the Syndicate also supplies all its labour with food, salt, shoes 
and tobacco, 


Statistics. 


Other Copper mines in the Yung-pei T’ing district. 
Copper ores are worked at the following localities in the Yung- 
pei Ting district :— 
_ -Mu-erh-p’ing-ch’ang. 


COPPER. 117 


Ta-pao-ch’ang. 
Pa-sa-la. 
Hsi-si-ti. 
Tung-ch’ang-ho. 

Some of these are merely prospects finding employment for a 
few miners. None of them is equal in size or importance of produc- 
tion to Pao-p’ing-ch’ang. They are all situated from one to three 
stages to the south of Pao-p’ing-ch’ang, in the unsurveyed and 
mountainous country between it and the Yangtze. 


Copper Mines of the Li-chiang Fu prefecture. 


At Yung-pei T’ing I obtained the information that the following 
mines produce copper ores in the prefecture of Li-chiang Fu, which 
borders the Yung-pei T’ing district on the west. 

Hei-pei-shui. 
Ku-ho. 
Lo-tzu-chiieh. 


There is no agreement between my list and that given by Rocher 
30 years before. I was at first inclined to imagine that his °Té- 
pao-p’ing might be identical with Pao-p’ing-ch’ang, but a Chinese 
scholar to whom I submitted the characters, says that this is not so. 
Rocher mentions a mine called Pao-p’ing in the Li-chiang Fu pre- 
fecture, but this cannot be the same as Pao-p’ing-ch’ang, as it is 
said to be a silver mine, unless Rocher was mistaken in the product. 


San-chia-ch’ang Copper Mine, Yi-mén Hsien district. (Lat. 24° 39’: 
long. 102° 10’; visited April 3rd, 1908.) 


The small copper-producing centre of San-chia-ch’ang is situated 
five stages to the south-west of Yunnan Fu, 
in the upper valley of the eastern head- 
waters of the Yuan-Chiang, the “Red River” of Tongking. 
Between Yunnan Fu and Yi-mén Hsien (stage 3), Carboniferous, 
Permo-Carboniferous and Red Beds are found, faulted against 
rocks which I regard as Cambrian on lithological grounds. Around 
Yi-mén Hsien, limestones are again met with, but they only stretch 
a few miles further west when they are faulted against a series of 
ancient slates. In the vicinity of San-chia-ch’ang, broken bluish- 
grey slates form the steep hill-sides, covered with loose screes on 


Route. 


118 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


the eastern bank of the river. while on the opposite bank, lime- 
stones crop out. The latter are exceedingly broken up near their 
faulted contact with the slates, and every variation from coarse 
breccias with large angular fragments, down to cracked and broken 
fine-grained rocks can be found. The river flows in a gorge at an 
elevation of approximately 4,000 feet, but within four miles on 
either bank, the bounding ranges attain heights of over 8,000 feet. 
There is a great limestone precipice rising up immediately behind 
the village. It is noteworthy that rolled blocks of a red granite 
were seen in the stream-bed. 

The place was visited by Duclos in March 1897, (Du., pp. 
291-294), who gathered the information that 
several copper mines were worked in_ this 
region before the Mahomedan revolt. At three stages down the 
river the mines of I-tou, Ho-la and Tze-mou were situated. The 
mine of Ouang-po seems to have been some twelve miles further 
up the valley above San-chia-ch’ang. In addition to these there 
were several prospects. All ore was sent in to San-chia-ch’ang, 
and the supply was sufficient to keep four furnaces in continual 
operation. Only one furnace was working in 1897, and this was 
the state of affairs in 1908 at the time of my visit, though a second 


Mines. 


furnace was kept ready for blowing in if necessary. In 1897 the 
annual production of metallic copper was about 40 metric tons. 
In 1908, as far as I could gather, it had fallen to half that amount. 
An officer from the Bureau of Mines was stationed in the village 
to buy all the metal obtainable and forward it to the capital. In 
1897 only one mine was being worked to the south of the village. 
This appears to be the mine I saw in 1908. The main entrance was 
high up on the mountain side, 1} miles south of the village. The 
road to it was very bad and impassable for animals. Judging 
from the extent of the workings it was of very considerable age. 
It took me between } and ? hour travelling underground to 
reach the first working place, the roads twisting and turning in 
every direction. The country rock appeared to be an altered lime- 
stone, and the ore chalcopyrite with small amounts of enriched 
sulphides. According to Duclos, several well-marked lodes exist, 
but I was unable to trace any definite veins and the minerals I 
saw occurred in badly defined and rather thin zones of impregna- 
tion. However I was only able to examine a small portion of the 
mine. The ventilation was fairly good and was produced by rising 


COPPER. 119 


through to the open air in small inclined shafts. Timbering had 
been introduced wherever necessary. The labour employed con- 
sisted of about 20 men and all low grade ore was being thrown 
away on dumps near the mine. 

I doubt if there is much left in the mine in the parts worked 
by the Chinese, but it might be worth examining to see if the deposits 
extend to greater depths than they have been able to exploit them. 


Ta-tsang-kuan-miao copper prospect, Méng-hua T’ing district. (Lat. 
25° 15’: long. 100° 20’). 


This locality is situated in a ravine formed by a small stream 
flowing from the north-east to join the Mung-hua Ho, about 2 
miles to the east-south-east of Ta-tsang-kai, a village about 10 
miles north of Mung-hua T’ing on the Ta-li Fu route. 

The road is in good condition except for the last 3 mile. where 
it ascends the narrower part of the ravine. Prospecting commenced 
here in 1909 and when I examined the place in March 1910, work 
was still in an exploratory stage. 

The country rocks consist of soft red and white sandstones 
interbedded with well-laminated grey shales striking north-east to 
south-west and dipping south-east at about 40°. Reddish grits 
and conglomerates with quartz and other pebbles up to one inch 
in diameter are common in the vicinity. These rocks belong to 
the lower horizons of the Red Beds series. 

There are two inclined drives on the south bank, following a 
well-defined shale band with its dip. The first of these was said 
to be about 300 feet long, and enters the hill about 50 feet above 
stream level. The portal was timbered but the face was not visible 
as the drive was flooded. The second tunnel was 80 feet above 
the stream and follows the same band with its dip slope. It was 
commenced when the lower working was flooded out and had been 
driven about 120 feet. The roof and sides were standing well 
and no timbering was necessary. Traces of malachite were visible 
in the roof. From specimens of ore shown to me at the mine, I 
concluded that the shale contains pieces of bornite about the size 
of pigeons’ eggs coated with thin crusts of decomposed matter 
containing green and blue carbonates of copper. The central cores 
of the nodules were clean and of good appearance. No informa- 
tion was obtainable as to the amount of ore extracted, 


120 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


Other Occurrences in the Méng-hua T’ing district. 


An abandoned copper mine is stated to exist at Hua-pang to 
the north-west of Ta-tsang-kat. 

Copper is said to be mined and smelted near Kung-lang, a large 
village on the northern side of the Mekong about half way between 
Méng-hua Ting and Yun Chou. (Lat. 24° 30°: long. 100° 10’). 


Sha-ho-ch’ang copper mine near Yung ch’ang Fu. (Lat. 25° 6’: 
long. 99° 10’). 


Sha-hech’ang lies about 15 miles to the north-north-west of 
Yung-ch’ang Fu, as the crow flies. It is best reached by the 
northern route which skirts the edge of the Yung-ch’ang Fu plain, 
and leads across the Salween-Mekong divide into the valley of the 
Salween. The mine is in the narrow, valley of a small tributary 
of this river. The divide attains a height of about 9,000 feet. 
After leaving the alluvium of the plain a series of ancient greenish 
slates, clay schists and phyllites is met with, extending to the imme- 
diate vicinity of the mine. Here hard reddish sandstones are 
found, striking west-north-west to east-south-east. They are intruded 
by a very altered basic rock. 

Ancient slag heaps of considerable extent occur in the neighbour- 
hood and the mine is said to have been in a very flourishing condi- 
tion about 20 years ago. It is not apparent. why operations were 
stopped, but in 1909 at the time of my visit re-opening was taking 
place under the patronage of the local Chinese authorities in Yung- 
chang Fu. The new work had only commenced a few weeks 
before my arrival, but at that time over 70 men were employed 
and metallic copper was being made. 

The workings were all in the steep hill-side to the east of the 
village. There were indications of numerous old workings, while 
tour or five places were being opened up, but did not extend for 
any distance. In one adit I noticed a quartz vein from 5 to 9 
inches in thickness containing abundant chalcopyrite. The diabasic 
country rock on both walls was impregnated with the same mineral. 
Inthe other workings, similar impregnated ore was seen. Near the 
surface oxidation had taken place with the formation of copper 
carbonates. 

After mining the ores are handpicked, and the poorer material 
freed from gangue by crushing and washing. After a preliminary 


COPPER. 121 


roasting the material is smelted in a large blast furnace of the usval 
type. The metal is cast into cakes weighing about fifty pounds 
each, and the production had then reached between two or three 
tons per month. 


Other Localities. 


Copper sulphide ores occur in the Ming-kuang valley, north of 
Téng-yiieh Ting. Oxidised copper ores occur with galena and zinc 
blende at the Tung-shan mines above Hsiao-hsin-kai, and chalco- 
pyrite occurs with pyrite and galena in the complex ore from 
Hung-tu-hai in the Ming-kuang. In 1908 attempts were made by 
a Chinese syndicate to treat these ores for copper, but they were 
not successful. 


Films of copper carbonates occur in the Carboniferous lavas 
between Hung-ai and Yunnan Hsien and are probably formed from 
the decomposition of copper pyrites. The occurrence is of no 
commercial importance. 


A large copper mine is said to exist to the north of Ting-yiian 
Hsien. I tried to reach it in 1909 but was prevented by bad weather. 

In the Chin-tung T’ing district I heard that a small mine was 
producing copper at Lao-tsang near Chu-kai. The dark Mesosozic 
limestones in the vicinity of Hsiao-lo-ho contain cracks filled with 
films of copper carbonates. I noticed that open cuts were being 
made on them, one mile south of Tsu-kai-tang in 1910, but the 
occurrence did not strike me as valuable. 


The district of Hui-li Chou, now in the province of Ssii-ch’uan, 
but mentioned here because it once formed part of Yunnan _ is 
famous for its copper mines. According to Davies there is a mine 
at Lu-ch’ang, six miles south of the town. (D., p. 214). Some 
of the mines are mentioned in a recent article by Mr. Herbert 
W. L. Way. (“The Minerals of Sze-chuan, China.” Min. Mag., 
July 1916, pp. 20-23). I noticed small heaps of copper slags at 
several localities on the southern route between Hui-li Chou and 
the Yangtze. Davies has recorded that copper and iron are mined 
in the hills around the northern part of the Hui-li Chou valley and 
expressed the opinion that more mining might be done if the Lolo 
country to the east were more settled. (D., p. 222). It is interest- 
ing to note that all the Chinese copper-smelting in this region is 
done with coal or coke. (D.. p. 215). 


122 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Copper ores occur in the Wei-ning Fu district of the Kuei-chou 
province but as this town is only 20 miles from the eastern frontier of 
Yunnan, it is worth while reproducing here such information as exists 
upon them. This is taken from Davies’ account of his journey from 
Yunnan to Kuei-chou by the Yunnan Fu, Chu-ch’ing Fu, Hsuan- 
wei Chou route. On the second day out from Hsuan-wei Chou, the 
large village of T’ang-t’ang is passed. This is in Yunnan and is 
the headquarters of the lessee of the copper mines in the neighbour- 
hood. In 1899 the mines, located in many places in the vicinity, 
were not producing as much as they used to. Three stages from 
Hsuan-wei Chou brings one to Yao-chou in Huei-chou, where Davies 
examined a mine in the hills two miles to the west of the village. 
He has given the following account of it :— 

“This mine, they say, was formerly very productive and 2,000 
men are said to have found employment here. At the time of 
my visit there were not more than 100 miners at work. They 
live in little huts scattered about the valley, and there are three 
furnaces constantly kept burning to smelt the ore they dig out. 
The ore is mined out of the solid rock of which the hill is formed. 
There are no deep shafts; they cut caves out of the hillside, and 
the miners often live in the caves they are working in. They use 
hammers and iron wedges, and they say a man can get out a mule 
load of ore in two days. The ore varies a good deal in quality, 
and is sold for from two to seven mace a mule load. Taking a 
load as 130 Ibs., this comes to from sixpence to one and ninepence 
for 100 Ibs. The best ore is of a purple colour and is said to produce 
10 per cent. of copper. The lessee of the mine pays 500 or 600 
taels a year to the Government for the right of smelting, and the 
miners are obliged to sell the ore to the lessee. The copper produced 
is sent to Kuei-yang Fu, the capital of Kuei-chou province, and 
is there used for coining into cash.” (D., p. 165). 

The only importance of the Wei-ning district is said to be in 
its mines of copper, lead, silver, iron and zinc. In the town itself 
Davies lived in the Government mining office and remarks,—‘‘ They 
have a lot of boilers and other minmg machinery here, which are 
the property of the Yunnan Province Government, who have never 
used them and want to sell them, but are hardly likely to find a 
purchaser here.’ (D., p. 167). 

According to Davies the price paid by the Government for 
copyer in 1899 was equivalent to £28 per ton. 


COPPER. 123 
The Future of Copper Mining in Yunnan. 


The previous pages show that copper ores are widely distributed 
throughout Yunnan, and that at one time copper mining was the 
most important branch of the mineral industry in the province. 
The decline of the past fifty years is due to a number of causes : 
the following are the more prominent internal ones :-— 


(1) partial exhaustion of rich ores above ground water level ; 


(2) political disturbances and strangulation by too strict an 
official control ; 


(3) destruction of the forests and consequent lack of large 
quantities of charcoal at reasonable prices ; 


(4) difficulties of transportation. 


Although I believe that the earlier French writers were to some 
extent led astray by too complaisant an attitude towards Chinese 
accounts and formed too exaggerated an opinion of the potential- 
ities of the copper resources of Yunnan, I do not accept in its entirety 
Deprat’s rather gloomy prediction. It is admitted that there are 
no important deposits within reasonable distance of the railway 
which now runs from Méng-tzii to Yunnan Fu, but I wish to look 
further ahead when other lines will doubtless traverse the province 
and open up areas which are now most inaccessible. I do not 
believe that there are any important deposits unknown to the 
Chinese, unless they are situated in the remoter regions of Yunnanese 
Tibet, neither do I think that the lean deposits of small extent 
will ever lend themselves to exploitation on modern lines. At 
the same time I am convinced that Yunnan possesses considerable 
resources of copper ores at depths at which indigenous methods have 
failed to reach them. While it is impossible to point to any parti- 
cular example, I conclude that the larger deposits in the districts 
of Tung-ch’uan Fu, Wei-ning Chou, Yung-pei T’ing and perhaps 
Lin-an Fu, Li-chiang Fu and Wei-hsi T’ing, merit careful  indivi- 
dual attention. and that some of them will probably repay the 
attention they receive. 


The future expansion of copper mining and smelting will depend 
on the scientific application of the most recent practice and this 
cannot be done either by European or Chinese until better trans. 
port facilities are created in most cases, and a more generous attitude 
is adopted by the Administration towards all. : 

I 


124. COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


LEAD AND SILVER. 


Although it seems probable that in the past Yunnan has fur- 
nished large quantities of silver, obtained in most cases by the 
cupellation of argentiferous lead, to meet the demand in other 
parts of China, the available information regarding the deposits 
themselves is but meagre. The Chinese exploitation of the Bawdwin 
mines in the Northern Shan States of Burma, for silver, and the 
interesting records of their past history which extend over a long 
period of time, prove how far afield the Imperial Government was 
once prepared to extend its operations in search of — silver. 

Some idea of the importance of lead and silver in Yunnan about 
the middle of the 18th century can be gleaned from Rocher’s revi- 
sion of the Tien-nan-kuan chang lists. The following details 
are taken from that source. (R., pp. 252-259). 

The Tung-ch’uan Fu prefecture possesses numerous deposits of 


argentiferous galena. ‘The mine of Mien-hua- 
Tung-cluan Fu pre- A 


Aen to the north-west of Chiao-chia, on the 


borders of Ssiti-ch’uan. was very productive. 
The following mines are also mentioned :- 
Clvin-riu north-west of Clviao-chia ; 
ClViao-lien, east of Hui-i; 
Kuan-shan. 
The last mine was only opened a few years before the Chinese list 
was prepared, 
The mine of Lo-ma. in the Yung-shan Hsien sub-division, was 
situated at Lung-t’ou-shan and was famous fo 


Chao-t?ung Fu pre- , ‘ : ; A 
I the large amount of silver contained in its 


fecture. 
copper ores. It was practically ruined in the 
rebellion. Three other mines produced argentiferous galena. They 


were situated at Niu-kai-tien, Lan-shih-liang and at Hsin-kai-tzu ; 
the two latter produced an ore very rich in lead, but containing 
little silver. 

In the south of this prefecture two deposits of galena were 


Cl’ éng-Chiang Fu known, but the disturbed state of the country 
pretecture, interfered with their working in the seventies. 


Several deposits of galena were known in this prefecture. The 
mine of Kuei-i produced a very rich galena, 
but after the rebellion its production became 
very small, 


Clii-ching Iu pre- 
iecture. 


Pd ~ 


LEAD AND SILVER. 125 


The silver mines of Y ung-ch’ing and Ma-lin were situated to 
the south of the Ning-tai copper mine, itself 
520 li to the south of Shun-ning Fu. These 
mines were more or less under the control of 
the prefect of Shun-ning Fu, although in the territory of a semi- 
independent chief, but they fell into the hands of the rebels and 
after that reported no production to the Government. 

Lead and gold occurred with the copper ores from the Chin- 
ch’ai mine, 90 li south-west of Méng-tzii, which 
was opened during the reign of the emperor 
Chien-lung. 

Silver occurs with the tin, copper, zine and iron ores of the 
Ko-chin massif. The mine of Lung-chou contained numerous lodes 
of argentiferous galena, and the rich deposits of the Méng-ho mine 
were no less remarkable. ; 

The Pai-yang mine, north-west of Ti Fu, in the Yiin-lung 
Chou district, was at one time worked only 
for its silver minerals, but, later, copper lodes 
were discovered, and when the rebellion broke 
out, both metals were being produced. The Ta-kun mine, situated 
a little to the north of the former, was opened a short time after 
it but its production was not so important. There was another 
silver mine at Ta-mei-ti. 

The silver mines of this prefecture though not numerous were 
very productive. Yung-shen mine was  situat- 
ed to the south-west of Nan-an Chou, in the 
Chin-t’i mountains. Shih-yang mine, perhaps 
the richest, was opened in the 24th year of the Emperor K’ang-hsi. 
Ma-lung mine was also situated to the south-west of Nan-an Chou. 
The ores from this mine contained gold. 

Hui-lung copper mine used to produce very rich argentiferous 

Li-chiang Fu pre- galena. Silver minerals were also mined at 
etl Lan-shui-t’ou and Pao-p’ing. 

Only one silver mine in this district paid the Imperial dues. 

Yung-ch’ang Fu pre-e It was called San-tao-k’ou, and was situated 
fecture. in the Yung-p'ing Hsien neighbourhood. 


Shun-ning Fu __ pre- 
fecture. 


Lin-an Fu __ prefec- 
ture. 


Ta-li Fu ___prefec- 
ture. 


Ch’u-hsuing Fu pre- 
fecture. 


room chiang Fo_pre- ed to the south of Hsin-p’ing Hsien and was 
ace very productive; it was closed during the 
SF wa 4 
aerr° 


126 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


rebellion. Other deposits, some of which were exploited by the 
hill tribes, were located west of the same town. 


According to Joubert, numerous argentiferous lead mines existed 
near Sin-kai-tse, six leagues from Co-kouy, on the banks of a river 
bearing the same name. The quantity of silver produced seemed 
large enough to cover the costs of exploitation and transport of 
the lead to the markets of Chung-king, 100 leagues away, on the 
Yangtze. Very rich and easily worked argentiferous lead mines 
were situated near Tung-ch’uan, and at Méng-tza, five stages to 
the west of Lin-an Fu. The extensive deposits found around the 
town of Koui Fu, on the banks of the Yangtze, were considered 
as the most likely to be worked. (G., Il, p. 161). 


Leclére recalls that the metallurgy of lead, silver and zine forms 
part of the Imperial Monopoly. He regarded the importance of 
the deposits as not great enough to justify expenditure on communi- 
cations to them. The development of the lead, silver and zine 
mines was subordinated to the production of copper. Lodes con- 
taining lead ores are not as numerous as copper lodes and _ they 
are only well developed in certain localities, notably around Ko- 
chiu and Wei-ning Chou. In the former locality, the vein at 
Long-teou-tchai was certainly extensive and very regular, though 
when Deprat wrote in 1911, the workings had been abandoned. 
The silver was extracted from the lead by cupellation, and the 
slags were often rejected. It was clear that many of the residues 
accumulated under such a system would be amenable to European 
methods. Leclére estimated the annual production of metallic 
lead in Yunnan as approximately 3,000 metric tons. 


Lantenois received information regarding an argentiferous lead 
mine at Pan-san, one stage to the south of the Ouai-teou-chai mines 
where there were estimated to be 10,000 metric tons of lead slags 
probably worth re-treating. Lead is also said to occur in the 
Kai-hua Fu and Meéng-tzii Hsien regions. At the latter place, 
Lantenois examined specimens of antimonial galena and of quartz 
with mispickel which came from these mines. The veins appear 
to be related to the granites of the district. (La., pp. 421-422.) 


Duclos calculated the annual production of lead at 2,598 metric 
tons in 1897. (Du., p. 285). He remarks on the difficulty of 
separating lead and zine mines owing to the constant association of 


LEAD AND SILVER. 127 


galena and zinc blende in Yunnan. The following list compiled 
from Chinese sources is reproduced :— 
Kong-chan-tchang, two stages from Tung- 
Tung-ch’uan Fu pre- sh x 9 ‘ 
ee ch’uan Fu produced 1,120 tons of zine and 
863 tons of lead. 


Pe-cha-po, also two stages from the same city produced 10,000 
taels of silver and 372 tons of lead. 

Tsay-te-k’eou, two stages from Kiao-kiau-t'ing produced zine. 

Kouang-chan mine, 60 h to the north-west of Tung-ch’uan 
yielded a very argentiferous galena. After cupellation, the lead 
was sent to Ssu-ch’uan where it was re-treated, and still yielded 
a little silver which contained traces of gold. In the same massif 
high-grade blende was found, but as the price of the mineral was 
low, very ‘little traffic was done in it. 

Sate Fou-lay-tchang, one day from Wei-ning Chou 
eT eats Chou dis- produced 536 tons of lead and a little silver. 


Siao-in-tchang produced 24 tons of lead and a little silver. 

Sin-pao-tong, three days from Wei-ning Chou produced 24 tons 
of lead and a little silver. 

Tchou-tsin-tchang, one stage from Wei-ning Chou produced 18 
tons of lead and a little silver. 

Pien-kiao-tchang, one and a half day’s journey from Wei-ning 
Chou, produced 238 tons of zinc and twice that quantity of lead. 

Ta-pao-tong, two days from Wei-ning Chou produced 30 tons 
of lead and 416 tons of zine. 

Mey-houa-chan, one stage from Wei-ning Chou, produced 178 
tons of zine and 12 tons of lead. 

Loung-kay-tze, two stages from Wei-ning Chou, produced 178 
tons of lead and 60 tons of zinc. 

Y-long-ho-pa, two stages from Wei-ning Chou produced 238 tons 
of zinc. : 
Ta-lang-tchang, two stages from Ta-lang 
Ting, on the route from Yuen-kiang to Sst- 
mao, produced gold and _ silver. 

Tchen-pien-tchang, two stages from Tchen-pien T’ing, produced 
gold and silver. Three stages from the same city was situated 
the Mo-la-tcheng mine which produced silver and gold, while two 
stages away Sin-tchang was located which produced silver and 
gold. 


South and south-east 
of the province. 


a 


128 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


The mining and metallurgy of lead, silver and zinc, is controlled 
in much the same way as copper. All work is carried on with 
the permission of the Government, and is superintended by the 
mandarin-delegates of the Bureau of Mines. The rough metals 
are handed over to the officials for sale which is not permitted 
privately. Contributions of both lead and zine have to be made 
annually to the Imperial Exchequer. 

Davies has drawn attention to the fact that there is an export 
trade in lead and zinc as well as copper from Yunnan to the Yangtze 
valley. (D., p. 318). Regarding the occurrence of silver, he writes 
“This metal is if anything more abundant than copper, and one 
can seldom travel far in Yunnan without seeing or hearing of silver 
mines. I doubt if there is any large district in the province which 
does not produce silver. Many of these mines are well worked, 
and Yunnan supplies much of the silver used in other parts of 
China.” (D., p. 314). 

The same writer mentions the occurrence of lead and _ silver 
in the Ming-kuan valley and at Hsiao-hsin-kai, which I have visited 
and describe in a later paragraph. (D., p. 314). He also mentions 
the existence of silver mines in the Wei-hsi Ting districts. In 
the province of Kuei-chou he notes the prevalence of lead, silver 
and zine ores in the Wei-ning Chou district, (D., pp. 166-167.), 
and makes the following observations on mining at Kung-shan, a 
large village on the route from Wei-ning Chou to Tung-ch’uan Fu, 
just across the Kwei-chou border but in Yunnan :— 

“Lead and zinc are the two chief minerals, and the lead ore 
also produces a small quantity of silver. I was told that the 
output of lead averages 400 pounds in a day. The zine is got 
out of very deep shafts, extending they say several li into the 
hillside. I did not test the exact accuracy of the statement 
but I went a little way down one shaft and it certainly seemed a 
very deep one. They are not sunk straight down but are sloped 
so that a man can walk down them, though the passage is so low that 
he has to keep in a bent position most of the way.” (D., p. 171). 


Lead-mining in the Ming-kuan. 


The Ming-kuan is the name givento part of the valley of the 
No-lo Ho, a tributary of the Lung-chiang which is the Shwe-li of 
Upper Burma. It les between 30 and 40 miles due north of 
Téng-yiieh T’ing and about 24 miles due east from the frontier in 


LEAD AND SILVER. ids 


the vicinity of Myitkyina. The valley itself is not difficult of 
access though the Chinese roads are by no means good. I visited 
it in December 1907. At that time the prospecting rights had 
been secured from the Chinese Government by a Cantonese Chinese 
Wan Kun, who with three or four other Cantonese and a number 
of local Yunnanese was working in the valley. 


That the Ming-kuan has been the seat of a considerable copper 
and lead smelting industry in the past is proved by the large 
number of old adits which enter the hills at various places, by 
the remains of ancient furnaces, and by the heaps of slag which bear 
witness to the large quantities of ore smelted. I discovered slag 
heaps at various places, the largest being located at Hsiao-hsin- 
kai, Hong-too-hai, Kan-tung-pa, and in the valley which forms 
the pass leading from the latter place to Kai-tou. There is some 
reason for supposing that these slags could be re-treated profitably 
by modern processes, and the large quantities which exist alone 
make the Ming-kuan worthy of attention. I was told that some 
of the heaps were three hundred years old, and doubtless the 
smelting of lead ores and the cupellation of the metal for its silver 
content have been carried on more or less continuously up to the 
present time. In 1907 there seemed to be a revival taking place 
as I noticed furnaces in the course of construction at four different 
places. 


The ores from the various mines worked by Wan Kun were 
brought to Hsiao-hsin-kai and mixed. After several roastings and 
washings, they were reduced with charcoal in a small blast furnace 
of brickwork, about ten feet high, said to be capable of dealing 
with one ton of ore in twenty-four hours. The blast was produced 
by the Chinese cylindrical blower worked by a water-wheel. The 
crude lead alloy from this furnace was then cupelled for its 
silver, this operation being carried out in a dome-shaped furnace 
in which the fuel is supported on a hearth above the charge. 
Attempts were being made to smelt the copper ores which are also 
obtained locally, but the small type of furnace seemed incapable 
of producing more than a very crude copper matte. I examined 
mine workings at the following places :— 

Hsing-ai-ch’ang ; 
Tong-shan ; 
Hong-too-hai. 


1380 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Hsing-ai-ch’ang is situated in the valley of a small tributary which 
enters the No-lo Ho from the east about 6 
miles to the north of Ku-tung-kai. The actual 
workings are very inaccessible and the track to them exceedingly 
bad. There are several ancient drives in the vicinity from which 
ore has been won in the past. From one of these I obtained some 
poor specimens of malachite. A new exploratory adit had been 
driven into the granite for about 240 feet. From the end of it 
there was an easterly cross-cut nearly at right angles, and about 
150 feet in length. The mining had been carried out with 
judgment and skill, the levels were straight and high and the 
timbering good. About ten men were at work and day and night 
shifts were being carried on. At the end of the cross-cut there 
were several good stringers of oxidised lead ores, and as a prospect 
the place looked promising. The strike of the granite, which 
appeared to be intruded into crystalline limestones, was north 10° east. 


Hsing-ai-ch’ ang. 


The Tong-shan workings are situated on the hills above the 
village of Hsiao-hsin-kai, to the east of the 
No-lo Ho stream. As at Hsing-ai-ch’ang, there 
are numerous old levels now abandoned. ‘Three workings were 
yielding ore at that time. They were all in limestone, which 
is very hard and considerably broken up. The main adit extend- 
ed into the hill for over 600 feet. It was not a good piece of work, 
as it sloped very steeply and was low and tortuous. No timbering 
was necessary and the place was dry. It seemed to me that the 
ore occurred as in-fillings in certain parts of the broken and re- 
cemented limestone, but owing to the Chinese practice of heating 
the working face to lighten the labour of winning, I was not able 
to make a very careful examination. Galena, zine blende, limon- 
ite and oxidised copper ores occur. I was given some very good 
samples of galena from this mine. About eight men were employed 
but the work could easily be extended. 

Hong-too-hai is the name given to a mountain situated on 
the east side of the valley about 33 miles 
above — Hsiao-hsin-kai. Limestone with a 
north 10° west strike was noticed cropping out at intervals the 
whole way. The mountain itself is over 6,800 feet high, and 
there are numerous portals of old tunnels and the remains of broken- 
down furnaces near the foot. Two levels were being worked; the 
lower sloped steeply in to the east. No more stone had been 


Tong-shan. 


Hong-too-hai. 


LEAD AND SILVER. 131 


taken out than was necessary to make a low road, but the roof, 
which was not a safe one, was very well timbered. The country 
rock was a hard, crystalline limestone, with a very micaceous and 
decomposed igneous (?) rock in small quantities. The ore body 
was met with about 120 feet in from the portal. It was about 
15 feet in width at the face which was about 8 feet high. Its limits 
on either side were not seen. 

A second level, some distance above the first, on the mountain side, 
met the ore-body about 30 feet in from the portal. Its limits were not 
visible. 

On the top of the mountain, over 200 feet (by aneroid) above 
the level of the lower adit, there is a large outcrop visible, of, pre- 
sumably, the same ore-body. Adjoining the limestone on_ its 
west side, it continued about 20 or 30 yards in breadth to the steep 
side of the mountain, in an easterly direction roughly, where it could 
be seen cropping out some way down. In a north-south direction 
the outcrop could be traced roughly for over 120 yards. 

The ore consists of iron pyrites, with small quantities of 
pyrrhotite and smaller amounts of chalcopyrite and galena. There 
is certainly a large quantity of it available and I should have liked 
to make a thorough examination of the occurrence; this I was 
not able to do. The Chinese miners plan their workings to obtain 
the largest amount of lead and copper ores. 

On a hill to the west of Hsiao-hsin-kai a limestone was mined 
for the argentiferous galena it contained. I did not visit the 
locality. Argentiferous galena was also obtained from Long-su 
and lLoo-shan-ting further up the valley. I consider that the 
Ming-kuan is rich in minerals and that it is a field which holds 
out much promise to the prospector. 


Silver content of certain ores from Ming-kuan. 


Locality. | Ore. Silver per ton of lead. 
Tong-shan 8 5 . | Galena . . | 156 oz. 2 dwts. 22 grs.; traces of gold. 
Hong-too-hai . : . | Galena . . | 123 oz. 12 dwts. 20 grs.; appreciable 

| traces of gold. 
Hsiao-hsin-kai E . | Slag e . | 6:34 metal, mainly copper, with a 


little lead. 
| 6 oz. 13 dwts. 22 grs. silver per ton of 
| metal; traces of gold. 
Hsiao-hsin-kai . . | Lead : . | 18 oz. 18 dwts. 22 grs. silver; 3 dwts. 
| 6 grs. gold. 


(Analyst, T. R. Blyth, 1908). 


132. COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 
As a comparison, the following assays of galena collected by 


Anderson in Yunnan may be quoted. 
pase ces a Chee 


Ponsee. : . | Galena . - 7302. 10 dwts. | . Analyst, A. Tween. 
Kyet Yon x | i % | 104 oz. 10 dwts. | . i Pe 
Kakhyeen country. | 5 : . | 63 oz. 14 dwts. : - - 


———— 

The last specimen was collected by Dr. C. Williams somewhere 
in the Kachin Hills. It was analysed in 1863. The other two 
assays were performed in 1870, (A. Tween and T. R. Blyth were 


both officers of the Geological Survey of India). 


Lead and Silver metallurgy in Western Yunnan. 

The mining of galena by the Yunnanese is carried on under 
much the same rules as those adopted for 
other minerals. Some wealthy man or syndic- 
ate furnishes funds for the work and also supplies tools, lamps, 
clothes and food for the miners. They on their part are bound 
to sell him all the ore obtained. The financier does not interfere 
with the actual mining and the technical details of the operations 
are carried out by the men themselves. But he purchases the 
ores and is responsible for their transport away from the mine. 
Their subsequent treatment is carried out more under his imme- 
diate control, and smelting is performed by his own skilled work- 
men. He stands between the magistrate and the miner and pays 
the taxes and tribute demanded by the Government. 

The ores from a group of workings are transported by mules 
or coolies to some central works, whose situation has been chosen 
with regard to distance from the mines, a 
plentiful supply of water for the washing of 
the ores and also in some cases for power to drive stamps and 
the turbine which operates the blower of the furnace. As the 
workmen often suffer from the furnace fumes, it is usual to build 
the latter in an open and well elevated spot, where the gases are 
dispersed as quickly as possible. 

The ores are first hand-picked, at which the Chinese are very 
expert. The larger pieces are broken up by 
hammers. The richer ores are extracted as 


Organization. 


Situation. 


Picking and crushing. 


far as possible and are placed on one side, while the poorer material 


LEAD AND SILVER. 13:8 


and disseminated ore are carried to the stamps and _ washing-floot 
to be treated separately. As much of the gangue as can be removed 
is thrown away. The lean ores are usually crushed by hand, 
but mechanical devices are sometimes used. It is a custom in 
China as in most other Eastern countries to extract ore in the 
mines by heating the faces and then suddenly quenching them. 
This has the effect of rendering them more amenable to subsequent 
crushing than would be the case otherwise. 


The stamp used is made on the same principle as the ordinary 
Chinese overshot waterwheel used for husking rice. Two heavy 
bars of wood are let in at mght angles into the axle on both sides 
of the wheel. They are so arranged that as the wheel revolves 
they strike alternately heavy wooden beams which are poised as 
levers, by being supported at about two-thirds of their length, 
The blow delivered on one end of the beam depresses it and 
lifts up the other end. To the latter end a pestle is attached, 
made of wood as in the case of a rice mill, but fitted with a 
heavy iron shoe when stone is to be crushed. The pestle falls 
into a mortar in which the pieces of ore are placed. A strong 
stream of water carried in a box to the wheel serves to drive 
this rough but none the less useful machine. 

The washing and concentration of the roughly powered ores is 

nie performed by the following processes. A 
, Boe a and coneen- stream of water is directed along a gently 

inclined wooden sluice-box some 12 feet long, 
2 feet broad at one end and about 1 foot deep; it narrows slightly 
at the other end and has a removable riffle a few inches high, 
Beyond the box the water flows into a series of settling tanks. 
After placing the crushed ores in the box, the water is directed 
on to them and concentration done by a workman with a rake 
in the usual way. Fines escape into the tanks, which are cleaned 
up and their concentrates worked out from time to time. 

A fairly high-grade lead ore is obtained by these methods, for 
no hestitation is shown in rejecting material 
showing any metallic impurities which would 
interfere with the subsequent smelting. Copper, antimony and 
zine ores are removed in the hand-picking, gangue is removed by 
washing. The fact that the methods employed in lead-smelting 
vary little from place to place even over widely separated areas, 
although the association of other minerals with the lead ores alters 


Preliminary roasting. 


134. COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


much in different localities, is sufficient to show that considerable 
care is taken in the preliminary concentrating processes. The 
Chinese profess to be able to tell from the lustre and structure of 
a particular galena, whether its silver content is high, low or medium, 
The ores of a fine granular appearance, compact and massive, and 
exhibiting glittering facets on the broken surface of a fractured 
specimen are considered to be the richest in silver. 

Lead is usually produced in Yunnan by a “roast and reduc- 
tion’ method, but the Chinese are also acquainted with a “ roast 
and reaction’? method too. I have not seen this method in actual 
operation in Yunnan but it was employed on a very large scale 
at the Bawdwin mines of the Northern Shan States, as the remains 
of the old furnaces and composition of the slags proved. 


The powdered ores are burnt in stalls, which consist simply 
of three brick walls, forming the three sides of a square four or 
five feet across, the fourth side being left open. Several of these 
are arranged in a row. The ore is stacked on a charcoal bed and 
alternate layers of ore and charcoal are added. After ignition, 
the mixture is allowed to burn slowly for several days, charcoal 
or even wood being added to keep combustion going as required. 
During this roasting the material agglomerates and when cool it 
has a porous, sintered appearance. If the ores have not been 
carefully selected, it is the custom to smash up the roasted mass 
and to concentrate it in the sluice-boxes already described. The 
operation of roasting is repeated four times, at the end of which 
most of the lead compounds appear to be in the form of oxides. 
Careful attention is paid to the ventilation and temperature of 
the roasting so as to prevent the formation of sulphates as far as 
possible and to obviate reduction to metallic lead. 

The furnace used for smelting lead ores is from seven to nine 
feet high, made of brickwork and_ lined 
with a refractory material. The side walls 
vary greatly in thickness from place to place, but are always con- 
structed in a massive manner so as to allow of the escape of as 
little heat as possible. The well of the furnace is roughly square 
in section with the corners rounded off, but it swells out into a 
funnel shape towards the top, to permit of easy charging. I have 
always seen charging done from the top of the furnace and not 
from a special door as described by some writers. The outer 
wall is roughly semi-circular in section and the back and 


Smelting. 


LEAD AND SILVER. 135 


sides are sometimes built to project slightly above the front in 
order that the gases may be directed away from the charging 
floor and blower at the back. The front of the furnace is made 
of a double wall of brickwork which can be pulled out and renewed 
when necessary. It contains the slag hole, situated a little way 
above the depression which forms the hearth. The tapping hole 
is at the side of the furnace. Its clay plugging is pierced by 
means of an iron rod, and the molten metal flows into a mould 
in a bed of sand. 

The blower is raised two or three feet above the level of the 
furnace hearth, and the tuyer is made to slope directly down upon 
the hearth. Great importance is attached to the direction given 
to the tuyer. The blower is of the ordinary cylindrical type about 
five or six feet long. It is worked by manual labour or by means 
of the upright-axled water wheel. 

All the material put into the furnace is first weighed. To 
help the fusion at the commencement, a small quantity of old 
slag is sometimes added. The usual charge appears to be about 
two-thirds charcoal to one-third of ore, but of course there is no 
fixed rule and much depends on local conditions. Each group 
of furnaces is under the direction of one chief smelter, always 
an old man of great experience; beyond the careful regulation 
of the charges there does not appear to be any difficulty in working. 
The lead is cast into small pigs and is then sent to the cupellation 
furnace which is generally placed under a neighbouring shed. 

The furnace, or as Rocher describes it, the oven, from its resem- 
blance to a baker’s oven, is generally of a 
hemispherical shape. (The Bawdwin furnaces 
were more of a beehive pattern than any I have seen in Yunnan.) 
Its diameter is between five and six feet, though I have seen larger 
furnaces than this, and the height is somewhat less. The hearth 
is only shghtly concave and has a slight slope towards the door 
to permit of easy manipulation of the charge. Two doors in the 
wall which forms the front of the furnace serve, in the case of the 
lower as a charging door, and in the case of the upper as 
the door from which the firing is done. The most striking thing 
about the Chinese method is that the metal is placed under 
the fire and is heated by radiation from above. The section of 
the dome-shaped oven is semi-circular and at about half the dis- 
tance up, that is to say between the level of the hearth and the 


Cupellation. 


136 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT, RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


top of the dome, is placed the grating which supports the fire, 
The grating is made from a mixture of refractory sand with sufficient 
clay to keep it together. From the upper door the charcoal for 
firing can be placed on the grating, The dome is made of double 
brickwork and is lined with a refractory material. After the 
fire is lighted and the furnace well warmed, the lead to be cupelled 
is placed on the hearth, where it soon melts. A bridge of sand 
is built across the charging door to form a side for the bath of 
molten metal and to prevent it flowing out. The fire is kept 
going by the introduction of more charcoal, which has to be 
placed very carefully across the somewhat filmsy grating. As 
the temperature rises litharge commences to form, and when suffi- 
cient has accumulated it is removed by the introduction of an 
iron rod to which layer after layer of the litharge sticks as it is 
skimmed away. Sticks of stratified litharge, hollow down the 
centre are sometimes found on old Chinese slag heaps. I have 
come across them both at Bawdwin and in Yunnan. Nothing 
now remains but to keep the operation going by regulating the 
fire and removing the litharge as fast as it is formed. The process 
is a very tedious one and is prolonged sometimes for two days 
and nights. The silver which remains is far from pure and has 
to go through the hands of a refiner before it can be used as bul- 
lion. I understand that the Government insisted on a_ purity 
of 98 per cent. The litharge is either sold as such or is resmelted 
with charcoal in the ordinary way. Owing to the somewhat 
rough treatment which the furnace undergoes, there is nothing 
much left but the outside walls and it has to be practically rebuilt 
inside before another cupellation can be undertaken. 


Rocher has described the refining of the silver, an operation 
which I have not seen myself. The follow- 
ing notes are taken from his account of the 
process. The cake of silver from the cupel is sent to the refiner 
whose duty it is to bring it up to standard. The operation is done 
in an ordinary forge, the silver being melted in a crucible with 
powdered wood charcoal. As soon as the metal is molten, and 
the surface bubbles, two workmen are placed on each side of the 
forge and it is their duty to blow down long iron tubes on to 
the surface of the fused metal. Under the action of the oxygen 
the surface of the metal becomes covered with a layer of black 
oxidised scum, which is remoyed as soon as it is formed. During 


Refining. 


LEAD AND SILVER. 137 


the blowing the temperature decreases, the men therefore stop 
blowing, the fire is recharged and when the metal is fluid enough 
again, the blowing is recommenced. The master workman judges 
when the silver has reached the necessary standard of purity. 
The ingot moulds for the refined metal have various forms, some- 
times oval for one or two taels of silver and rectangular for 
larger amounts, 


Other localities. 


Galena is mined on a very small scale on the hills at the eastern 
extremity of the Pu-piao valley, Yung-ch’ang Fu prefecture (lat, 
25° 6: long. 99° 10’). Sufficient ore was being won in 1909 to 
keep a small blast furnace and a cupel in operation. The ore 
seemed to occur in a narrow vein in Permo-Carboniferous limestone 
and was worked by an adit driven into the hill-side, 

In Chéng-kung Hsien (lat. 24° 53’: long. 102° 50’) I was 
shown specimens of galena which were said to come from Yang- 
wan-shan, a locality in the hilly country to the south-west of the 
city. 

In Ching-tung T’ing (lat. 24° 26’: long. 100° 53’) I saw poor 
specimens of galena reported as coming from the Chang-sa_ region. 

The two following mines are said to produce silver in the Yung- 
pei T’ing district :—Péi-nin-ch’ang and Erh-p’ing-ch’ang. 

In the prefecture of Li-chiang Fu, the mine of Lo-mi-cha is 
said to produce silver. 

In a side valley at the head of the Mong-lai plain, passed by the 
road descending from Pang-wa in the Yun Chou district, there 
is an old lead mine. It was being worked in 1908, but I could 
not reach it owing to an unfordable stream. The mine is not a 
large one. 

In the Chinese Shan States of Keng-ma and Méng-hsa, on the 
Kunlon ferry route to Yun Chou, there are said to be three large 
lead mines which were abandoned eighty or ninety years ago, 
Great quantities of slag are said to exist near them and specimens 
were shown to me by the Shans. In appearance these slags were 
indistinguishable from those of Bawdwin. The two mines in 
Keng-ma are called Man-pien-ch’ang and Herh-shan-ch’ang. The 
one in Méng-hsa is said to be only six li from the town of 

KE 


138 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT, RESOURCES OF YUNNAN, 


the same name and is called Man-lao-ch’ang (“village of the old 
mine ”’). 

I saw good specimens of galena at Lao-pang-tung in the Shun- 
ning Fu prefecture where twenty men were employed in mining 
in 1909. 


ZINC. 


Zinc ores are an almost invariable associate of lead sulphide 
ores in Yunnan, and many of the localities where they occur have 
already been enumerated in the notes dealing with lead. The 
chief use of the metal in China is as an alloy in the coinage of cash, 
I have not seen zinc-smelting carried on and as far as I am aware 
the ores are not reduced in the western or central parts of the 
province. Zinc ores are said to be mined and smelted to the 
north of Hui-l-Chou in Ssu-ch’uan, but the most important centre 
is at Wei-ning Chou, just within the borders of Kuei-chou. The 
following notes on the treatment of zinc ores at Ma-lou-kio in this 
district are taken from the account of Duclos, who visited the 
region in 1896. (Du., pp. 298-299). 

The zinc smelters at Ma-lou-kio are very primitive and do not 
need a large capital expenditure at first; their production is pro- 
portionately small; nevertheless the procedure followed is abso- 
lutely identical with “Vieille Montaigne” practice. In this con- 
nection Duclos draws attention to the numerous inventions of 
the Chinese for which Europe believes herself privileged. But 
he also pomts out that such inventions have not been perfected. 
The routine which has preserved them has not been able to develope 
them. 

The situation of the smelters at Ma-lou-kio, instead of at Tcha- 
tse-tchang, where the mineral is obtained, is explained by the 
occurrence of coal on the flanks of the valley which surrounds 
the former place and by the fact that the operations require a 
large amount of fuel. On the other hand, the crucibles in which 
the ore is reduced, and of which great numbers are used, are made 
at Ma-lou-kio from a clay which is very abundant in the forma- 
tions above the coal horizon. The first smelter visited had only 
half its furnaces in operation. The furnace is very simple and 
consists of an outer case with parallel walls about 12 metres long, 
80 cms. in breadth and 1 metre in height. Small holes through 
the bottom serve for removing ashes, Transverse partitions divide 


ZINC. 139 


the outer case into compartments so arranged that separate parts 
of the furnace can be operated independently. About 60 crucibles 
are placed in the middle of the fuel (which is worked up with clay), 
and are arranged in three tiers. Each crucible has a pointed 
shape and measures 40 ems. long by 10 ems. in diameter at the 
open extremity, the wall is about 1 cm. thick. The pulverised 
ore is mixed with wood charcoal and charged in the bottom. The 
mixture is covered with a plug of clay, in which a kind of siphon 
is arranged to allow the zinc vapour to distill off. The upper 
part of the clay plug forms a basin-shaped space in which the 
vapours condense; to prevent their escape, the crucible is pro- 
vided with a little clay lid. The crucibles cost from 12 to 13 cash each 
and are used for two operations. Two charges are made every 
24 hours. The charge for 60 crucibles consists of 300 pounds of 
wood charcoal costing 2 cash per pound, and 200 pounds of ore 
costing on an average eight cash per pound. The production 
from one crucible is 5 ozs. The total production of one furnace 
is approximately 40 pounds of zinc in 24 hours. Three men are 
employed in each shift and they receive 100 cash each per day, 
The crucibles are made in the village in the same way as ordinary 
pottery. Most of the houses in the village are built with the 
remains of old crucibles. 


Future of Lead, Silver and Zinc mining. 


The fall in the price of silver is held by some authorities to 
have been the chief reason for the decline of the lead and silver industry 
in Yunnan. If this is read with the causes we have already 
advanced in the case of the copper mines, such as the general 
economic paralysis brought about by the rebellion, the rigorous 
official control, the exhaustion of easily won surface ores and the 
want of abundant fuel supplies, a greater measure of truth is pro- 
bably arrived at. 

Davies has given the price paid by the Chinese Government 
for copper about the year 1895 as 11 taels for 100 catties, or about three 
pence per pound, while zinc was being sold then at about one penny 
per pound, Davies believed that this was not enough to make 
mining pay and wondered how the cash which is the only real 
coin existing over the greater part of China, could be coined at less 
cost than its value as money. Where the prices of metals are 


K 2 


740 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


so low and the margin of profit on metallurgical operations so 
meagre, any great and permanent decrease in price is bound to 
result in the ‘pid decay and final extinction of these industries. 

; That modern European mining and metallurgical methods can 
be®'successfully applied to ancient Chinese mines is proved by the 
operations of the Burma Mines Co., Ltd., at Bawdwin in the 
Northern Shan States of Burma, and in China itself by the not 
inconsiderable quantities of mixed zinc-lead sulphides which were 
exported annually to Germany before the war. According to 
Ernest A. Smith :—‘‘ Lead-zine sulphide deposits occur in Southern 
Hunan, but the important Sui-ku-shan mine worked by the Hunan 
Board of Mines, is the only one in the district in active operation. 
The ore is argentiferous galena, associated with blende, iron pyrites 
and calcite. A considerable proportion of the ore mined is dressed 
at the mine. The dressed blende and the mixed lead-zinc sul- 
phides are sold to the German firm of Carlowitz and Co., having 
an ore-dressing plant at Woo-ch’ang, where the material is further 
separated, previous to exporting it to Germany to be smelted.” 
(“The Development of the Spelter Industry,” Mining Journal, 
September 30th, 1916, p. 666). 

The mixed sulphide deposits of the Ming-kuan and the reported 
occurrences of extended ore deposits in Keng-ma and Méng-hsa, 
are within comparatively short distances of the Burma frontier 
in the regions of Myitkyina and Kunlon ferry, — respectively. 
Their existence should not be lost sight of in this connection. 

Whether the deposits of the far interior, such as those of the 
Wei-ning Chou neighbourhood on the eastern borders of Yunnan 
will ever be exploited on a large scale would seem to depend more on 
the future development of communications in the province than 
on anything else. 


TIN. 


The famous cassiterite deposits of Ko-chiu in the Méng-tzu 
region of Southern Yunnan have been mentioned by most of the 
writers on the province. Few Europeans have ever been allowed 
to study the underground workings. I have not visited the dis- 
trict myself and the following accounts are taken from the writings 
of Leclére, Deprat and Collms. (W. F. Collins, “ Tin Production 
in the Province of Yunnan, China,’ Trans, Inst. Min. and Met., 
Vol. XIX, pp. 187-211.) 


TIN. 141 


These mines and their associated smelters form the most success- 
ful mineral enterprise in Yunnan at the present time. 


According to Leclére, the deposits are found at altitudes of 
2,000 to 2,700 metres above sea-level in the mountains between 
Méng-tzu, Lin-an Fu and the Red River. The deposits are not 
entirely alluvial; they are obviously vein deposits. The cassi- 
terite is always enclosed in a red clay, sometimes found in fissures 
of the limestone, at other times in the soil near them. The mineral 
is derived from the denudation of the upper portions of ancient 
lodes. As exploitation goes deeper, foreign metals appear and 
finally predominate, at first as oxides and later as sulphides. The 
deposits owe their origin to the tourmaline pegmatites which are 
injected through the lower strata up to the Lower Trias limestones. 
It is, however, worth noting that even in the upper deposits occur- 
ring in the midst of porphyries, analysis shows the presence of 
considerable amounts of tin. 


At the time of Rocher’s visit in 1872, silver, copper, zine and 
iron were being worked as well as tin, but all the others have long 


since ceased to be produced, perhaps owing to the increased cost 
of fuel. 


When Mr. W. F. Collins visited the region about 30,000 men 
were engaged in the mining, concentration and smelting of the 
ore; this was all reduced locally, and the metal exported to 
Hong Kong vid Ton-king, and thence, after refining, the greater 
part passed to Europe. The deposits then worked were all of 
alluvial origin, and the mines, some 150 in number were scattered 
over an area about 25 miles long by 20 miles broad. The ore, 
usually of sand-grain size, was found in highly ferruginous bedded 
deposits. The underground ores generally contained a little mag- 
netite and as much as 55 per cent. of hematite together with small 
percentages of lead. The deeper alluvial deposits were worked 
from inclined tunnels through the upper layers. Mr. Collins des- 
cribed the local methods of mining, dressing and concentration in 
detail. 


Deprat believes it is unlikely that other tinstone deposits will 
be found in Eastern Yunnan outside the Red River region, as the 
geological formations are not favourable. I hold Similar, views 
regarding those parts of Western and Central Yunnan that I have 
traversed. 


142 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


ARSENIC. 


The following table gives the production of metallic tin in 
Yunnan from 1891 to 1908 :— 


Year. Long Tons. 
1891 A é : F ; ° : 5 . 1,741 
1892 ; ° . ; : . . . . . 2,063 
1893 F ° . . . . . . ° . 1,923 
1894 ° . . . . . . . ’ 2,343 
1895 ° ‘i . ° : = ° ° ~ - 2,423 
1896 : . . . . . . : , + 2,013 
1897 ° . . . ° . ° ° . < 2,476 
1898 ‘ . ° ° : ‘ F : . 2,733 
1899 r : 5 ‘ ; ; : = e « 2,568 
1900 3 ‘ r ‘ 5 ; : . é . — 2,898 
1901 i : . ° . ° . ‘ . : 3,062 
1902 3 ‘ ° < ° . : ‘ . 8,788 
1903 ° 3 . F ° ccna * o - 2,443 
1904 : ° . ° . . . ‘ : ; 2,979 
1905 ; - < . . : “ A . 4,463 
1906 ; A : ‘ ° ‘ ~ ; A . 3,984 
1907 : ‘ . ° . ° > . 3 ; 3,480 
1908 : . ; . x . ° " : 4,558 


Davies states that tin is found in the Tung-ch’uan Fu prefec- 
ture and probably in other places, but he gives no authority for 
the statement which requires confirmation. (D., p. 314) :— 


ORPIMENT. 


The importation into Burma, from Yunnan, of orpiment, the 
trisulphide of arsenic, has been going on for a considerable number 
of years. The mineral is mentioned by those early writers who 
visited Upper Burma long before the annexation of the country 
and later still by Clement Williams (Resident at the Court of 
Mandalay), and Anderson (Naturalist to Sladen’s and Browne's 
missions), in their respective works. Of later years the traffic 
in the ore has increased and the traveller by the main trade route 
cannot fail to be struck by the number of mule caravans met with, 
laden solely with orpiment, and carrying it down from Western 
Yunnan to Bhamo, whence it reaches Mandalay and Rangoon. Owing, 
however, to the inaccessibility of the country, and to the secrecy 
of the merchants engaged in the trade, no one, as far as I am aware, 
has ever discovered the exact locality whence the ores are obtained, 
nor have the mines ever been visited by a European before. In 
my earlier attempts to reach the mines I encountered some opposi- 


ARSENIC. 143 


tion, but at a later date I succeeded in persuading the syndicate 
of owners to permit me to inspect them. 


The orpiment mines lie at the head of a narrow ravine, 8,100 
feet above the level of the sea; the ravine runs 
in a north and south direction, and is formed 
by a small stream which may be a tributary of the Yangpi Ho, 
itself an affluent of the Mekong. The journey can be made in 
two days from Hsia-kuan, going roughly to the south-west, and 
in three days from Ta-li Fu. The route followed at first is the 
main southerly trade route to Méng-hua Ting, and Ching-tung 
Ting. This route is left at the pass (7,900 feet) over the moun- 
tain range about four miles to the south of Hsia-kuan, and one 
has to continue along a rough track which skirts a south-westerly 
striking range, which here appears to form the water-parting between 
the Mekong and the Red River. Except for small isolated com- 
munities of Lolo tribes, the country passed through is uninhabited 
and consists of bleak, sparsely wooded mountains. Food for man 
and beast has to be carried by the traveller. The mining district 
borders on an unsurveyed part of Yunnan and the sketchy nature 
of the map does not give a proper idea of the true topography. 
My own geological observations were hampered for this reason, 
and also by the inclemency of the weather. Blinding snow storms 
swept the face of the country during my journey and stay, and 
this, with the intense cold, made outdoor work a matter of some 
difficulty. 

The rocks in the immediate vicinity of the mines, consist of 
reddish, reddish-purple and hard, greyish, quartzitic sandstones 
with black bands in places and reddish nodular shales. The strike 
is north-north-west and south-south-east, and the dip is at  vari- 
able but high angles to the east-north-east. Probably these rocks 
are associated with the Red Beds series. 

During the rise of the Mahomedan influence in Yunnan, the 
mines are said to have been worked by the 
rebel powers centred in Tali Fu. Since the 
fall of that city and the crushing of the Mussalman authority, 
they have been entirely controlled by the Chinese. Mineral was 
being won from seven drifts, which entered the hill on the north- 
east side and proceeded down as steep inclines until the ore-bearing 
stratum was reached. One drift was owned by local Lolos, who 
were compelled to sell the ore to the Chinese merchants who owned 


Route. 


Mining. 


144 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


the others. A royalty equivalent to Rs. 75 per annum was paid 
to the Government for each excavation. The workings that I 
was allowed to examine had been made with thoroughness and 
care. The roof, sides and floor of the inclines were very well 
timbered, and, sloping very steeply, had been constructed with 
steps to facilitate ascent and descent, while for 8 or 10 feet in every 
100 feet they are driven straight. On these level places sumps 
are dug, into which the water drains and being ladled out is 
laboriously carried to the top in wooden buckets. Ventilation is 
quite good and is produced by driving rises through to the surface 
at various points. All the actual mining work was done by Lolos. 
Very few men were employed as ore was plentiful and easy to win. 
Their average wages worked out at about Rs. 3-8 to Rs. 4 per 
month ; food was supplied by the owners. None of the drifts 
that I examined were very extensive, and were certainly not longer 
than 600 to 1,000 feet from the surface to the end. 


The deposit appeared to be confined to one particular band 
of greyish quartzite, associated in places with soft, blackish shales. 
The whole of the former band was more or less mineralised. There 
was no distinct vein or single fracture. A thorough shattering 
of the rock seemed to have taken place, and orpiment to have been 
deposited in the bedding, joint and fracture planes, and also to have 
replaced the minerals of the rock itself to some extent. Small 
quantities of realgar occur and minute cubes of iron pyrites were 
also found. The arsenic sulphides were seen in irregular strings, 
swelling out into patches and bands, which sometimes attained a 
thickness of over twelve inches; these larger lumps however do 
not persist very far, but only continue for a short distance when they 
are replaced by others. The mineralised band was about four feet 
thick; it may be much more, and I can express no opinion as to 
its lateral continuations which may be considerable. I have no 
opinion to offer on the origin of the ores. 

All the work is done with hammer and chisel, the broken ore 
being carried to the surface in baskets by 
small boys. It is then cracked by hand and 
the richer portions picked out. Those pieces which cannot be go 
treated are roughly crushed, and the gangue separated by pan- 
ning in small closely-woven bamboo baskets. There is a great 
waste of the finer disseminated ore by these methods: indeed it is 
surprising how much material was being rejected by the Chinese. 


Treatment. 


GOLD. 145 
The waste heaps must contain very large quantities of mineral, 
which could be easily recovered by means of a simple concen- 
trating plant. Most of the orpiment is exported to Burma by 
mule caravan, though a little, with the realgar, is kept for local 
sale. The following table shows the importation of orpiment into 
Burma from Yunnan during the period 1895-96 to 1911-12 :— 


ae ee > 


Year. Weight. Value. 
Cwts. Rs. 
Pee oo 8 pe ee eee 5,383 66,705 
1910-11 : : : ; 5 : : : : | 6,540 71,340 
Ue Sai soG o>. See ee 1,61,925 
Dee eee ee ee | 
1907-08 | 
His gg Ne Sea ee oe ag ae as 8,095 1,49,022 
PIG ee a ees ge 6,663 1,20,024 
POWEDD n> 5c gene eet 5,285 97,290 
1008s Se SS ee eae 5,678 | 99,160 
ee ee ee 87 dd 
1901-02 3 : j : ‘ ‘ : = ; | 17,268 3,17,925 
WOME a eg OS ee See i 2,22,330 
Mone Se 8712 | 1,738,730 
1898-99 [= BBS, 11), a0 
1897-98 | 3,165 | 68,005 
1896-97 | 3,77 81,165 
1895-96 | 4,067 | 87,366 
GOLD. 


Previous Observers. 


“ Proceeding five days’ journey in a westerly direction from 
Karayan,” wrote Marco Polo in the thirteenth 


P ] : . > 
Marco Polo century, “you enter the province of Kardan- 


146 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


dan, belonging to the dominion of the grant khan, and of which 
the principal city is named Vochang.” (This place is believed to 
have been the modern Yung-ch’ang Fu). “The currency of this 
country is gold by weight, and also the porcelain shells, an ounce 
of gold is exchanged for five ounces of silver, and a saggio of gold 
for five saggi of silver; there being no silver mines in this country 
but much gold; and consequently the merchants who import 
silver obtain a large profit. Both the men and women of this 
province have the custom of covering their teeth with thin plates 
of gold, which are fitted with great nicety to the shape of the 
teeth, and remain on them continually.” (Travels of Marco Polo, 
Dent’s Edition, 1914, p. 249). 


It is unquestionable that there is a certain amount of truth in 
the statements of the old Venetian as to the occurrence of gold 
in Yunnan. At the same time it is unfortunate that they have 
given rise to the exaggerated notions regarding the auriferous 
riches of Yunnan which have existed from the middle ages down 
to the present day. Gold dust has always been an export from 
Yunnan; quills of it can be purchased at the present time about 
the frontier towns of Burma. There is a gold-beating industry 
in Ta-li Fu and Yunnanese gold leaf probably gilded many of the 
older pagodas of Burma. Yet these facts do not warrant the 
belief that Yunnan is a potential Rand and it will be shown later 
that there is only one lode mine in the province itself and that 
most of the production, whatever its total annual amount may 
be, comes from a multitude of small placer workings, operated 
spasmodically by the poorer inhabitants of the country along the 
banks of the great rivers. 


These Chinese authors in their monumental treatise, the ‘ Tien 
Beard caare Nan-Kuang-Chang,” written about 1850, list 
1inan. : the following four gold mines, the total annual 
taxes collected from which, according to Gar- 

nier were equal to 1,140 grams of gold, which, as he adds, does 
not give one high ideas of the gold production of the province. 


(G., p. 230). 


(1) Ma-kou, situated to the south-west of the Ouen mountain 
on the borders of Yunnan and in the district of Lin-an 
Fu. As the mine was taxed for each gang of gold 
washers, it was doubtless a placer deposit. 


GOLD. 147 


(2) Kin-sha-chiang, to the south-west of Yung-pei T’ing, on the 
borders of the river. This locality was also taxed on 
the same basis as Ma-kou. It appears to me to include 
the workings along the Yangtze in this district where 
gold washing is still actively carried on. 

(3) Ma-kang, situated to the south of Tchong-tien. 

(4) Houang-tsao-pa, to the west of Téng-yiieh: “ west of this 
mine is the Ta-in-kiang which flows through the territory 
of a chief.” As this mine only yielded 1-4 per cent. 
of the total dues collected from the gold mines of the 
province about 1850, it is evident that its operations 
were conducted on a very small scale. The Ta- in- 
chiang is probably the Tai-ping which flows through 
the territories of the Shan chiefs of Kan-ngai and Nan- 
tien. No gold washing is done in this stream at the 
present day though a small amount is carried on in 
the terrace gravels of the upper Shweli to the north 
of Téng-yiieh. 


In the Chinese annals of the Téng-yiieh and Yung chang Fu 
districts the date of which is not known, it 
is stated that gold mining is prohibited. The 
four following localities are mentioned however : 


Chinese annals _ of 
Téng-yiieh. 


Lung-ling Lu-chiang, Chin-lung-ching, Leng-shui-ching, Kwai- 
ké. 
The Lu-chiang is the Shwe-li of Burma. The other localities were 
probably placer workings in its tributaries. 

Joubert states that all the rivers of Yunnan and Ssu-ch’uan 
carry gold, that the Yangtze in this part of 
its course, is called the Kin-cha-kiang or 
“River of Golden Sands,” because of the abundance of the pre- 
cious metal found in it. The statement that all the rivers of the 
country carry gold must not be taken too literally. It is an over- 
estimation comparable with the term “Old California” given by 
the same writer to this part of China (G., Il, p. 161). 


Joubert briefly describes gold-washing operations in the river 
of Lao-oua-tan, near Long-ki. On modern maps the town is 
Lao-wa-t’'an on the Héng-chiang, a tributary of the Yang-tze, in 
the extreme north-east corner of Yunnan. Here, in 1868, accord- 
ing to Joubert, there was an extensive deposit carrying gold and 


Joubert (1867). 


148 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


silver in a small tributary of the Héng-chiang. Each year from 
December to April, 2,000 or 3,000 men were employed in the 
workings. These were so far below the bed of the stream that 
1,200 workmen were employed in de-watering operations by means 
of bamboo pumps. 

In 1915 Professor J. A. T. Robertson who holds the chair of 
mining in the Technical College at Cheng-tu passed through Lao- 
wa-tan but he does not mention gold workings as existing there- 
(Mining Magazine, Nov. 1916, p. 271). 

Missionaries informed Joubert that gold and copper mines existed 
at Té-k6-tchang, 7 days’ journey to the west of Ta-li Fu, and that 
extremely rich mines were worked near the borders of Yunnan 
and Kuei-chou, 10 stages south of Soui-tcheou Fu. 

It is curious that this gold mine which is still producing, is not 

Joubert’s account of Mentioned in the Tien-nan-kuang-chang. It 
the T’a-lang Ting gold= was visited by Joubert in 1867 andas_ his 
ae account appears to be the only one which 
has ever been published regarding it, and as the mine is the only lode 
mine in the province proper, I give a translation of his notes below. 
T’a-lang T’ing is a small city in the south of the province on the 
main route between P’u-erh Fu and the capital. 

“Towards the north of the town, there is a portion of a moun- 
tain chain running east and west, slightly more elevated than the 
rest, on the top of which a village is situated, the population of 
which is entirely composed of miners exclusively occupied in the 
extraction of gold and silver. The village is about 1,700 or 1,800 
metres above sea-level, and about 18 kilometres N 10° E from 
T’a-lang. 

“At the base and on the flanks of the mountain a reddish sand- 
stone is met with, very folded, altered and fractured ; towards the 
top a compact limestone rises, slightly crystalline, traversed and 
raised by dykes of serpentine which crop out in the centre. This 
latter rock is widely distributed and crossed by narrow quartz 
veins, numerous in certain places. The part which is mined for the 
precious metals is centred around the village, but nevertheless covers 
a fairly large surface. The mountain is worked from the upper 
part and from both sides, but chiefly on its southern slope. This, 
having a very steep dip, offers most facility to the miners. The 
horizontal line over which mine openings and excavations can be 
seen on this slope is estimated at 4 kilometres, 


GOLD. 149 


‘It is impossible, from what we have observed, to come to an 
opinion on the value of the mines that we have visited ; the com- 
munity which works in them is a most wretched one, and nothing 
about it leads to a suspicion of much remuneration for its hard 
labour, but, on the other hand, the mining methods are so imper- 
fect that the richest parts of the deposit might be missed. 

“The opinion of the inhabitants is that gold is abundant enough 
to yield good profits to those who seek for it: as for silver, it is not 
worth while collecting, if it is not mixed with gold. These two 
metals are in the native state and are irregularly dispersed in the 
serpentine in the form of lamella or very fine grains; they are 
found in a regular manner only in the interstices of the quartz 
veins or other rocks which cross or border the serpentine, and 
so these situations are particularly sought for by the miners. _ Silver 
is not associated with the gold everywhere, it is only found in a 
restricted area to the west of the village. 

“When the miner has chosen the place where he will carry on 
his work, he digs vertical pits, or level or inclined tunnels, accord- 
ing to the dip of the bed. Excavated material is scattered around 
the mouth of the working until the presence of the metal is recog- 
nised, then the working is carried in the direction of the gold- 
bearing vein. The earth and stones which are taken out are 
gathered up separately on a platform built near the opening of 
the working. It often happens that the first operations result in 
loss and work has to be abandoned after months of unsuccessful 
searching. 

“The materials extracted from the workings are reduced to powder 
and washed in a bamboo basket, really a form of rocker, which can 
be oscillated above an inclined wooden plane bearing transverse 
channels. The lighter portion of the materials is eliminated 
by this first washing; the sand, which is retained in a basin at the 
bottom of the inclined plane, and the contents of the grooves, are 
washed a second time in a small but very wide wooden bowl, of 
little depth and about 1 metre in diameter. A series of gyratory 
movements is given to this apparatus which permits the lighter 
substances to be washed away. This highly enriched secondary resi- 
due is treated with mercury, which on volatilisation, leaves a small 
button of gold at the bottom of the vessel. 

“The tools employed in mining are of the simplest kind; they 
comprise a hammer pointed at one end, and an iron chisel about 


150 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 
0-25 metres long. The hands perform the work of a shovel in 
gathering up the débris into a basket which a child carries out 
and empties. 

“The most spacious workings which we saw did not measure 
more than 1 metre in height by 0:50 to 0-70 metres in breadth ; 
very often when the rock is hard, or in a narrow place, the 
opening is only sufficient to allow the miner to pass. But apart 
from their narrowness the workings are generally well made and 
safe; the timbering is solid, joined together with split branches 
of pine which prevent falls from the roof or walls. 

“Search for gold is not confined to the place we have just indi- 
cated. Descending from the mountain there are several torrents 
in which stone barricades retain the sands; these are washed and 
treated by the process already indicated. 

“The inhabitants of the villages on the banks of the torrents 
descending from the mines adopt this method of work particularly ; 
if it is not as lucrative as mining the ore deposits, it has the immense 
advantage of using up spare time, when the whole population 
is not absorbed in agricultural pursuits. 

“400 or 500 men are actually employed at the mines, which are 
said to produce 50 or 60 taels of gold per month, which would be 
about 2 kilograms or 6,000 francs; it is safe to say that the work 
is irregular; the war which has desolated the province since 1855, 
has caused the miners and the numerous population grouped around 
the mines to disappear; the villages are abandoned and the houses 
overgrown by bushes. At an earlier period the revenue of the 
mines would have been about 1,000 taels per month, or more than 
1,300,000 francs per annum. Nuggets are frequently found.” 


(G. II, pp. 162-163). 
According to Rocher (R., p. 247), deposits from which gold is 
Rocher (1880). recovered are numerous in Yunnan; many were 
ruined by the rebellion, and. only a few were 
working when he wrote. The treatment differs in nearly every 
mine; at T’a-lang a washing process is used; in the K’ai-hua 
prefecture, where veins occur in a very hard quartzitic rock, various 
washing operations have also given results. At Yung-pei, ground 
rich in gold is treated by amalgamation with mercury. A great 
number of streams carry gold, but not enough to warrant conti- 
nuous work ; nevertheless the people who live along the river banks, 
often wash the sands, with profitable results, during the dry season, 


GOLD. 15] 


Leclére seems to have been very impressed with the auriferous 

Lecldre (1897). riches of Yunnan. He writes as follows (Le., 

pp. 445-46) : 

‘Gold mines are extremely numerous in the zone of the north 
and south folds, where, as we have seen, during the miocene period 
important movements were superposed on the earlier dislocations. 
The deposits noted in the Chinese lists extend as far south as the 
Laos, where they have been investigated by M. Mare Bel. (In 
this region the strike of the rich lodes appears to be perpendicular 
to the direction of the Red River). The quartz veins have only 
been opened up on the surface by native exploration. The only 
actual centre of gold-mining is T’a-lang T’ing near Ssii-mao. 
It was not visited, but information collected leaves no doubt about 
the richness in gold of the eastern borders of Tibet and Burma. 

“This view is confirmed by the nature of the conglomerate tertaces 
which are found over a hundred kilometres down stream from 
Ta-li where the Blue River (the Yangtze) is called the Kin-cha- 
kiang (“River of Golden Sands”). The amount of these con- 
glomerates is very considerable, their thickness often attaining 100 
metres. A detailed investigation would evidently be necessary to 
learn their actual values. There are about 500 gold-seekers scat- 
tered along the banks of the river. During the dry season they 
treat the sediments resulting from the re-washing of the banks. 
During the rainy season the industry is pursued on the upper parts 
of the terraces at the level of the rice fields. By their rudimentary 
methods they produce at least 1 or 2 decigrammes of gold per 
day.” 

According to Deprat (D., p. 246): “Gold mines are very numer- 

Deprat (2912). ous in the zone of the north and south folds 

of Sst-ch’anese Tibet. The tributaries of the 
Yang-tze, such as the Ya-lung (Kin-Ho), come from this region. 
carrying gold-bearing sands which they drop into the Yangtze, 
it is from this cause that the rivers derive their names, Kin-hoo 
or “ River of Gold” and Kin-cha-kiang or “ River of Golden Sand.” 
The gold is derived quite clearly from the basic rocks of the region, 
the diorites and diabases, and in this matter I share Leclére’s 
opinion. It is probable that it also comes from the destruction 
of quartz veins which cross the Ya-lung. Whichever it may be, 
the gold is found in spangles in the recent river terraces of the 
Yangtze and even in the sands of its actual bed. (Leclére considers, 


152 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


for some reason which I am ignorant of, that certain of these ter- 
races are of miocene age. I have shown that the excavation of 
the Yangtze valley only commenced during the Quaternary). I 
have seen gold-washers at various places along the river, especially 
at Mo-lou-tchang; they are very wretched people and can hardly 
produce more than 2 decigrammes of gold per day. It would 
only be possible to obtain better results by using less rudimentary 


> 


methods.’ 

It is beyond question that the sands of the present river-beds 
and of the raised terraces in the upper courses 
of the Salween, Mekong and Yang-tze and their 
tributaries contain gold. Every traveller who has been in those 
parts of Yunnan has commented on the fact. Dr. Logan Jack 
in 1900 saw gold-washing between Wu-lu-t’ien and Wu-lu-pu villages 
on the Yangtze a few miles below Chi-t’ien which is about 25 miley 
east-north-east of Wei-hsi T’ing. He heard of mines and alluvial 
workings at Chin-sha on the Mekong, 30 miles north-west of the 
same city. A few miles above Shih-ku, which is situated at the 
Yang-tze bend, he saw 10 men washing for gold. (Logan Jack : 
“The Back Blocks of China,” pp. 163, 171, 179). 

Major Davies states that washing for gold is carried on in many 
parts of the upper Yangtze and its tributaries ; 
that gold has always been an export from 
the country, chiefly in the form of gold leaf to gild the Burmese 
pagodas and that gold is an important article of trade at Tali Fu, 
where the gold-beating trade is carried on (D., pp. 314, 317, 67). 
He saw extensive gold-washing in a tributary of the Li-tang, itself 
an affluent of the Ya-lung between the town of Li-t’ang and a 
village named Ho-ch’u-k’a, one stage to the east. These places 
are in Ssii-chuanese Tibet, but belong to the same geological region, 
(D. p. 290). 

Major Davies believes that the Mi-li country is probably rich 
in gold. It is situated in and about the junction of the Li-tang 
with the Ya-lung. The state seems to be entirely Tibetan and 
Mi-li itself, which is only about 20 miles beyond the Yunnan border, 
near the second bend of the Yangtze, is described as practically 
nothing but a big monastery inhabited almost entirely by lamas 
and by men who work for them. Major Davies and his party 
encountered a certain amount of opposition in entering the terri- 
tory as the lamas thought they had come to prospect for gold, 


Logan Jack (1900). 


Davies (1900). 


GOLD. 153 


The Swedish missionary Amundsen who was either the first or second 
European to visit the place, relates, according to Major Davies, 
that a few years ago some Chinese came to wash for gold in Mi-li 
territory, but the Tibetan inhabitants in their zeal for the preser- 
vation of the native industries, took the extreme protectionist 
measure of killing the intruders by rolling stones down the _hill- 
side on them: ‘‘ Now,” Mr. Amundsen remarks, “‘ none but Miliang 
wash for gold.” 


In March 1900, Major Davies, either the second or third 
Kuropean to traverse this rvute, arrived at the Tibetan village 
of Ku-lu in the Mi-li state. He found the lamas very suspicious 
and goes on to relate that, “The next morning my interpreter 
went to the village to see about a guide, and was asked into the 
monastery by the head lama. He found that dignitary having an 
early breakfast and using a gold plate to eat off. Here was then 
the reason for the suspiciousness with which strangers are looked 
on in Mi-li. The country is probably rich in this metal and the 
Mi-li lamas are determined to keep it for themselves. ‘What 
have you really come for? Have you not come to dig for gold ?’ 
was the first question the lama put.’ (D., pp. 239, 240). 


Neither the Rev. Mr. Amundsen nor Major Davies are geologists 
or mining engineers, but their views have been 
confirmed by specialists like Mr. Herbert W. 
L. Way who, in June 1916, wrote, “From the Chien Chang valley 
through which flows the An Ning river on the east, to the Tibetan 
frontier on the west, and from Ta Chien Lu on the north to the Kin 
Sha river (or “ river of golden sand”’) on the south, there is a stretch 
of country having an area of 40,000 square miles that is without 
doubt richer in mineral wealth than any other part of China, and 
one of the most highly mineralized spots in the whole world. This 
is a region of great disturbance geologically, and it is full of lodes 
and veins carrying gold and metallic ores. The streams and rivers 
contain many deposits of alluvial gold. Evidences of mining 
activity are seen on all sides, and mule trains are seen carrying 
copper metal and matte, lead bullion, iron, and other metals. 
The lodes are worked in a primitive way in the oxidized zones 
by the aboriginal tribes, some under the supervision of Chinamen. 
The sulphides are left behind as too refractory. The principal 
gold mine worked by the Lolos under the Imperial Government 
and Merchants of Szechuan is the Maha. This contains a wide 


L 


Gold in Mi-li. 


154 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAT. RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


lode varying from 10 feet to 50 and 100 feet. The richer ore- 
shoots average 12 or 14 dwt. of gold per ton, and carry consider- 
able silver, copper, and lead, and the lode from end to end averages 6 
dwt. The ore has only been worked for about 20 years, but alluvial 
gold has been washed from time immemorial by sometimes as many 
as 15,000 men at a time, both in the valley in which the mine is 
situated, and in the sands and gravel bars of the Ya Lung river, 
4,000 feet below the present workings. There are extensive native 
workings on a lode that outcrops beyond the Maha mine on the 
next mountain, but there the oxidation has not gone so far, and 
most of the ore is too refractory for the primitive methods of the 
Lolos, who throw the sulphides, chiefly pyrite, galena, and chalco- 
pyrite, on the dump. The ore selected for crushing is carried by 
hand over the summit of the ridge to the Ko Lo Lo creek 400 feet 
below, where there are 80 stamps worked by 40 overshot water- 
wheels. Each stamp weighs about 40 lbs. and crushes 60 lbs. of 
ore daily in a stone mortar. About 50 per cent. of the gold con- 
tent of the ore is saved by means of quicksilver, which is obtained 
from a cinnabar mine situated at Hang Cho to the south of Kwa 
Pit. The amalgam is taken to the mining Bureau at Shaa Ba, 
where the miners are paid half its value, as they work on a 50 per 
cent. royalty. The workings are quite free from water, and as 
the lode dips with the slope of the mountain, the mine can be worked 
by adits to a great depth. A new cross-cut tunnel has recently 
been started, which should cut the vein 260 feet from its entrance, 
The workings on the Maha mine extend for 550 feet along the 
strike of the vein, and to a depth of 400 feet on its dip which is 35° 
from the vertical. The new adit should open up a large body 
of ore, and is expected to give at least 1,400 feet of backs below 
the outcrop.” (Mining Magazine, July 1916, p. 22.) Other records 
in the same paper show a long list of known mineral occurrences 
including gold. It is only 40 or 50 miles as the crow flies from 
Maha to Ku-lu and a much shorter distance to the borders of Huang 
La-ma Tifang—the land of the Yellow Lama—as the Chinese 
call the kingdom of Mi-li. There are strong grounds for believing 
that the geological structure is much the same across the whole 
region and the fact that the Western portion of it is inhabited by 
a more or less independent race unfriendly to the Chinese, may 
well have prevented its mineral resources from becoming better 


known.. 


GOLD. 155 


Personal Observations, 


Native placer workings are carried on all along the Yunnan 
course of the Yang-tze. I have seen them myself around Chin-chiang- 
kai and from Ma-chang to the junction of the Ya-lung with the 
Yang-tze. At the former jocality, which is only three stages north- 
east of Ta-li Fu, the gravels in the present river-bed were being 
washed by tribes-people, apparently in the employment of a local 
Chinese. An inclined riffled table of the usual pattern was being 
used and as the gravel was clean and the gold fairly coarse, it seemed 
to operate quite successfully. Further down stream the auriferous 
ground was being won from shallow drifts into the high-level allu- 
vials. Around Hsin-kai and between it and the mouth of the Ya- 
lung, which appears to be a stream nearly as large as the Yangtze 
itself, the river terraces are pierced in many places by these old 
excavations. The treatment of the gold dust is the same in both 
localities. It is worked up with a tiny globule of mercury. The 
amalgam bead is placed in a little hole scooped out of a piece of 
smouldering cowdung. This is made to glow by being blown on 
through a narrow tube. The mercury evaporates and leaves a small 
sphere of gold. 

I have crossed the valley of the Yung-p’ing Ho on several occa- 

Reported occurrence Sions. It is a tributary of the Mekong about 
of gold in the Yung- half way between Yung-ch’ang Fu and Ta-li 
a Festa Fu. In this region I always heard rumours 
that the gravels of the stream contained gold and I tried panning 
in various places more than once, but met with no success. I do 
not know how the rumour has arisen, it is not probable that gold 
does occur in this valley, which is composed entirely of rocks of 
the Red Beds series. 

A-lu-sh’ih is a small town situated about 20 miles north of 
Shun-ning Fu across the Mekong and on an 
unimportant route between that place and 
Méng-hua-Ting. It has an elevation of 6,300 
feet above sea-level, and is surrounded by metamorphic rocks, 
such as slates and phyllites, belonging to the Kao-liang system, 
This system is pierced a few miles further south, by the intrusive 
granites of the Shun-ning Fu neighbourhood. I was at A-lu- 
sh’ih in March, 1910, and found that gold-washing was being carried 
on in the deep valley of a small stream about a mile north of the 
town, ‘This stream is a tributary of the He-Ho, itself a tributary 


L2 


Placer gold deposit 
near A-lu-sh’ih. 


156 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


of the Yang-pi Ho which, in its turn, joins the Mekong. I visited 
the workings which lie at an elevation of about 5,100 feet above 
sea-level or 1,200 feet below the town. There was a raised terrace 
deposit about 20 feet above stream-level, covered with terraced 
rice-fields and backed by the steep hill-side rising 800 or 900 feet 
above it. About 50 men were employed in digging out the pay- 
dirt from a number of holes in the terrace and washing it in sluice- 
boxes by the side of the stream. The gold obtained was coarse 
and did not appear to have travelled far. It probably comes from 
veins traversing the old slates in the vicinity. The deposit was 
not a large one, but it is imteresting as showing another type of 
alluvial deposit distinct from the bigger ones in the rivers of northern 
Yunnan. 

Regarding the future possibilities of alluvial or lode gold-mining 
in Yunnan or about its borders, all that can 
be said is that deposits exist which deserve 
careful testing. The Yang-tze, Mekong, Salween, Shwe-li and their 
tributaries all carry gold. In this they do not differ from the 
Irrawaddy and its branches, which may be regarded as members 
of the same great group of rivers as far as their upper reaches go. 
The Irrawaddy is the only one of the group in which long and 
careful tests have been made. Three gold-dredgers have worked for 
years on the Irrawaddy above Myitkyina and have recently (1918) 
ceased operations, which apparently cannot be carried on profitably. 
Whether the alluvial deposits of the other rivers are richer is un- 
known. The Chinese are the most frugal race in the world and too 
many earlier writers have been led to dream of El Dorados because 
they have seen a group of men eking out a miserable existence on 
lean gold deposits which no one else would touch. However, richer 
deposits may occur but they will have to be sought for and investi- 
gated. 

The most promising region for the occurrence of lode gold 
appears to me to be in the basins of the Ya-lung and its tributary 
the Li-tang in Ssi-ch’uan. 


Summary. 


SALT. 


The salt-producing beds of Yunnan ocenr towards the base 
of the Red Beds series of Permo-Triassic age. This series covers 
a great expanse of country and the chief salt-manufacturing centres 
are situated in places where the lower horizons have been favour- 


SALT. 157 


ably exposed. The following prefectures all contain districts from 
which salt is obtained and are arranged in order of relative importance : 

1. Chu-hsuing Fu (lat. 25° 0’: long. 101° 55’): production 
22,100 tons per annum from the districts of T’ing-Yiian Hsien, 
Yao-chou and Kuang-tung Hsien: supplies the districts around 
the capital and towns as far south as K’ai-hua Fu and Méng-tzii 
Hsien, with an estimated population of 5,500,000 souls. 

y 2 Pu-érh Fu (lat. 23° 5’: long. 101° 5’): production 6,500 
tons per annum from the districts of Chén yiian T’ing, Wei-yiian 
T’ing and Pu-érh itself: supplies the south and _ south-western 

| portions of the province, both Chinese and aboriginal, estimated 

~ in numbers at 1,625,000 souls. 

3. Ta-li Fu (lat. 25° 42’: long. 100° 10’): production 3,600 
tons per annum from the districts of Yiin-lung Chou: supplies the 
towns of the Ta-li, Yung-ch’ang and Shun-ning prefectures, with 
an estimated population of 900,000 souls. 

4. Li-chiang Fu (lat. 26° 30’: long. 100° 10’): production 
1,400 tons per annum from the district of Ho-ch’ing Chou: supplies 
the north-western corner of the province, with an estimated popu- 
lation of 375,000 souls. 

5. Ch’éng-chiang Fu (lat. 22° 40’: long. 102° 55’): production 
1,300 tons per annum from the district of Ching-tung T’ing: supplies 
the surrounding country, which has an estimated population of 
350,000 souls. 

6. Yiinnan Fu (lat. 25° 0’: long. 102° 45’): production 600 
tons per annum, from the district of An-ning Chou: supplies certain 
areas to the south including Chiang-ch’uan Hsien and Hsin-hsing 
Chou, which have an estimated population of 150,000 souls. 

7. Ch’u-ching Fu (lat. 25° 30’: long. 103° 44’): production 
400 tons per annum, from the district of Wu-t’ing Chou: supplies 
the country around Wu-t’ing Chou, which has an estimated popula- 
tion of 100,000 souls. 

This grouping follows more or less approximately that adopted 
by the provincial Salt Administration. or our purposes it is 
better to adopt a broader classification based on geological and geo- 
graphical considerations. (It may be noted first of all that all 
the salt-producing districts are east of the Mekong river). This 
can be done as follows :— 

1. The salt-fields of North-Western Yunnan, including those 
of the Ta-li Fu and Li-chiang Fu prefectures. 


158 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


2. The salt-fields of Central Yunnan, including those of the 
Ch’u-hsuing Fu, Yunnan Fu and Ch’u-ching Fu prefectures. 


3. The salt-fields of South-Western Yunnan including — those 
of the Pu-érh Fu and Chéng-chiang Fu prefectures. The salt- 
fields of the Ching-tung district are situated about midway between 
those of Wei-yiian T’ing and Ting-yiian Hsien, but they are really 
an isolated portion of the south-western field. 


The figures of production in the above list are calculated in 
short tons from Chinese statistics supplied to me in 1909 by Mr. 
Archibald Rose, at that time His Britannie Majesty’s Consul in 
Téng-yiieh. It is not at all likely that the annual production of 
salt has varied very much since then. The total retail value of 
the 36,000 short tons of salt produced in Yunnan I calculate to be 
about Rs. 43,20,000 (£288,000) per annum, a price which compares 
favourably with that charged for the same commodity in the bazar 
of the Tavoy wolfram field at the moment of writing (June, 1918). 
Working from the same figures I calculated the total annual 
amount of revenue derived by the Government of that day from 
the manufacture and first sale of the salt to be Rs. 25,58,000 
(£170,533), on the assumption that the prices and duties throughout 
the fields were the same as those in vogue in the north-western 


field. 


It will be noticed that the 36,000 short tons of salt is consumed 
by a population of 9,000,000 souls, but it has been stated in the 
introduction to this work that the population of Yunnan is about ° 
11,000,000 souls. The question may be asked, where do the 
remaining 2,000,000 people obtain their supplies from? In this 
connection it may be mentioned that the north-eastern districts 
of the province are supplied with salt from Ssii-ch’uan, that there 
are brine-wells at Ya-ka-lo, a town five miles outside the Yunnan 
border in the extreme north-western corner of the province, which 
according to Davies supply all the surrounding country (D., p. 
263), and that there is a certain amount of illicit manufacture 
and contraband trade in salt in other regions. 


Salt is also manuiactured from brine at Yen-ching and Yen- 
tang in the Yen-yiian Hsien district of Ssii-ch’uan. Their places 
are within short distances of the northern border of Yunnan, in 
the Yung-pei T’ing district. 


SALT. 159 
Salt in the Ting-Yuan Hsien district, 


Although the existence of salt in the province of Yunnan has 

ths ah Gist oh been known for a long time, no detailed 
the ‘Ting-yiian Hsien account either of its occurrence, or of the im- 
itis vu 25° 20": portant industry to which it has given rise, 

2. ‘ appears to have been recorded by any of the 
earlier travellers who have visited this particular district. 

The salt wells are all situated in rocks belonging to the series, 
of probable Permo-Trias age, which attains such an enormous 
development in this part of Yunnan and to which I have given 
the name of the Red Bed series. It has proved quite unfossi- 
liferous. In the neighbourhood of Ting-yiian Hsien, reddish and 
reddish-violet shales with thin quartzitic bands strike N.N.W.-S.S.E. 
and dip at from 45° to 50° in a westerly direction. Between this 
place and Lan-ching there are many exposures of red shales and 
further on in an easterly direction, hard red sandstones of consider- 
able thickness are found dipping east. 

Ting-yiian Hsien is a prosperous walled city of the fourth class, 
situated two stages to the north of C’hu-hsiung Fu, in the fertile 
plain of a tributary of the Tsoling Ho, itself a tributary of the 
Yang-tze Chiang. C’hu-hsiung Fu itself lies on the main trade 
route from Ta-li Fu to Yunnan Fu, the capital of the province, 
and is some eight stages from the former, and six stages from the 
latter city. From Ting-yiian Hsien a good road runs in a south- 
easterly direction, by which the main route may be rejoined after 
four stages at Lu-feng Hsien, three marches from Yunnan Fu. 

The three localities, Lan-ching, Hei-ching and Hou-ching, at 
which salt is prepared, are situated along this road. (The termina- 
tion ‘ching ” means a well.) 

Lan-ching is a large village situated at an altitude of 5,600 

feet in the valley of a tributary of the Tso- 
Lahr i ie ling Ho, about eight miles to the east of 

Ting-yiian Hsien. The salt here is made en- 
tirely from the brine of five underground wells, all of which exist 
in the neighbourhood of the village. The two wells I have inspected 
are on the south side of the river, about half a mile to the west 
of Lan-ching. ; 

A steep incline,—constructed with steps to facilitate ascent and ) 
descent,—usually about eight feet in height, six feet in breadth and 
some twenty or thirty yards long, is driven down into the salt- 


160 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


bearing strata. At the bottom for a few feet it is carried along 
straight, and then terminates in a well with a diameter of five or 
six, and a depth of sixty or eighty feet. 

The salt is dissolved out by the water in the rocks, and then, 
percolating into the well, is raised in a carrier made of untanned 
buffalo skin by means of a buffalo-hide rope, working on a primitive 
windlass manipulated by four men. The windlass is a _ very 
crude arrangement, consisting simply of a round wooden axle, 
with two long pieces of wood dovetailed into each end at right 
angles to one another, to form the handles. The axle is supported 
on a pair of cross-stays, one on each side of the well. As there 
is no safety clutch and the carrier full of brine is very heavy, there 
is little protection for the workmen in case of accident. 


On reaching the top of the well, the brine is emptied into a 
small auxiliary tank of no great depth, excavated out of the rock. 
From here it is pumped to the surface as occasion requires. The 
pumps are made of hollow bamboos, from four to six inches in 
diameter, and from eight to ten feet long, fitted with a piston made 
from a stick with a T-piece handle, to the other end of which a 
loosely fitting plunger of skin packed with straw, is attached. 
This is inserted inside the bamboo, which is open at both ends, 
and has one end dipping into the second brine-well. A man, sitting 
astride, fills the bamboo with brine by means of a hand baler and 
then quickly works the handle up and down; the brine is sucked 
up and flows out at the upper open end into a small pool built on 
the side of the incline. From this pool another pump of the 
same kind lifts the salt solution a little higher, and the operation 
is repeated until the surface is reached. The brine is now allowed 
to flow by gravitation in open wooden boxes, made by hollowing 
out tree trunks, to large wooden storage tanks generally sunk 
in the ground, and situated near the evaporating sheds. It is 
Jadled from the tanks when wanted and carried in wooden pails 
constructed to fit on the necks of coolies by means of a shoulder- 
piece. The evaporating-sheds usually contain four furnaces, each 
of which is fitted with twenty to thirty hemispherical iron pans 
which vary from two to four feet in diameter. The pans are 
made of cast iron and are supported on iron bars covered with 
brickwork. The entire top of the furnace is filled in with clay 
and brickwork up to the level of the tops of the pans. The crude 
brine is systematically treated ; going first into a large central pan, 


SALT. 161 


it is heated and then filtered whilst hot, through line 
all insoluble impurities, into a second pan. As it becomes more 
concentrated, it is transferred again and again by means of a small 
wooden baler with a long bamboo handle, until solid cakes of salt 
are obtained. When the furnace, which is heated with fires of 
brushwood or pine needles, is cool, the salt is taken from the pans, 
cleaned and weighed. Alternate furnaces are worked on alternate 
days, so as to allow of repairs being effected. At intervals of a 
month or so, the brick and clay work of the furnace is replaced, 
the old material being broken up and leached with water to extract 
the salt with which it is impregnated. The life of the pans in 
this somewhat rough treatment is short, though to facilitate the 
extraction of the salt they are generally well oiled before boiling 
is commenced. 

The monthly output of the five wells is said to average about 
80,000 catties of salt per month, 7.e., 960,000 catties per annum. 

One hundred catties of Lan-ching salt are sold for 3 taels 8 
mace of silver. 


These figures were given to me by the Salt Revenue Official of 
the Chinese Government in charge at Lan-ching. 

Hei-ching is situated about six miles to the north-east of Lan- 

nar _, ching. The road after leaving the latter place, 
icin and its commences at once the ascent to a steep north 

and south ridge, which here forms the western 
boundary of the Tso’-ling Ho watershed. The crest of the ridge 
has an elevation of 7,300 feet, and there is a very steep descent 
down to the river at Hei-ching (5,500 feet). 

The small town is practically built around the brine-wells, 
which are situated along the bottom of the narrow valley, on the 
west side just above the level of the river. Hight wells, all of 
which appear to be in a massive red sandstone formation are 
producing brine at the present time. I have visited all these 
and found that although the majority are situated under-ground 
like those in Lan-ching, there are others here which are open 
to the surface. The brine is won and treated by methods exactly 
similar to those just described, though the industry, being much 
larger here, supports a greater number of men. The average pay 
of a coolie is from two and a half to three and a half taels per 
month and the pay of an overseer ten taels per mensem. The 
brushwood used for firing the furnaces is costly in comparison 


n which catches 


162 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


with the prices in vogue in other parts of Yunnan. This is because 
it has to be brought long distances, the neighbouring hills having 
been absolutely denuded in past decades. 

The Hei-ching, salt is cleaner and of better appearance than 
that prepared in Lan-ching, and it brings a higher price, viz., 4 
taels 5 mace per 100 catties. 

The present output is said to average roughly 600,000 catties 
of salt per month, 7.e., 7,000,000 catties per annum. 

Hou-ching is the most important of the salt-producing areas 

eee of this part of the province. The town lies 
st ep MR Ml twelve miles to the south-east of Hei-ching and 
is about three miles to the south of Hsiang- 
chi-shao on the main road from Ting-yiian Hsien to Yunnan Fu. 
There is a very steep climb out of the Hei-ching valley, and after 
this the route practically keeps to the top of a south-easterly-running 
spur, at a general elevation of 8,000 feet until Hsiang-chi-shao is 
passed. Thence a very precipitous descent brings one into the 
town, which is built in a very inaccessible position, and may be 
said to have sprung up around the mines, under the steep western 
slope of the valley of a small mountain stream. 

There is very little cultivated ground in the neighbourhood, 
the population beg mainly engaged in, or dependent in some 
way upon, the salt industry. 

Hou-ching possesses several brine-wells of the same type as 
those already described, and also three mines from which rock- 
salt is won. Permission to visit one of the mines was granted 
me by the mandarin of the town. 

The salt mine, allowing for the absence of modern appliances 
for drainage, ventilation, and haulage, is as good as any similar 
underground working in Europe. The entrance level commenced 
with a short upward, and then a gradually descending, slope for 
about 200 yards until the present “‘ working district’? was met with. 
The timbering could not be better; indeed quite unusual precau- 
tions are taken to hold up the roof and sides. The ventilation 
is excellent and is obtained by driving air-shafts through to the 
surface. From the lower end of the main level, galleries branch 
off in various directions; these are large and being arched, no 
|timber is required in them. The salt occurs in patches and strings 
‘in a hard red sandstone of considerable, but unknown, thickness 
only about 20 feet of it being mined. This red salt-bearing sand- 


SALT. 163 


stone is attacked in a methodical manner by driving iarge galleries 
into it, only sufficiently large “ pillars” being left to keep up the 
arched roof of the working. It is customary for the miners to 
work in pairs; their tools consist of chisel and hammer, one man 
holding the short wedge-shaped chisel whilst the other man strikes 
with a heavy sledge-hammer. [n this mine alone over 80 miners 
and more than 120 coolies find employment. Two miners can 
produce 25 coolies’ loads per diem. ‘The salt-bearing rock is 
carried out in oval buckets, fastened on the back of the 
coolie by means of a shoulder-piece, grooved for the neck, and a 
head band. The mine is singularly free from water; what little 
there is drains into a deep well and is thence raised to the surface 
by means of the usual bamboo pumps. 


The rock containing the salt is smashed up and then leached 
with water, the brine so produced being boiled down in the usual 
manner. 


Some of the furnaces in Hou-ching are much larger than those 
at the other places, and are constructed to take over 40 small 
pans. The salt in all the localities is taken to the Government 
stores after being cleaned and weighed. It is there officially 
stamped with red paint which, covering practically the whole 
surface, would instantly show any attempt at pilfering by breaking 
off salt from the larger pieces. From the stores it is distributed 
mainly to the capital, Yunnan Fu, but it is no uncommon occur- 
rence to meet mule-trains on the roads far from this centre, engaged 
in the transportation of salt from the Ting-yiian Hsien district. 


The output of the Hou-ching mines is said to be just over 
1,000,000 catties per mensem, i.e., 12,000,000 catties per annum. 
The price of salt here is the same as in Hei-ching, viz., 4 taels 
5 mace per 100 catties. 


I am unable to go into the costs of working the salt mines and 

Total output and Wells and to compare them with the returns for 
value of salt from mines the salt produced, owing to the incompleteness 
ee pa of the data at my disposal, a consequence of 
the short time which I was able to devote to the investigation 
of the question. But from rough calculations and on the 
general impressions of my visit, I have no hesitation in saying 
that large profits are obtained by the Chinese Government from 
their salt manufacture. 


164 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL] RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


To give some idea of the great extent to which this manufac- 
ture has grown I add the following numerical data. Whilst I 
have made every endeavour in my power to obtain correct figures, 
I cannot in any way guarantee them. They were given me 
entirely by the head officials, or their clerks, of the Salt Revenue 
Department in each place. (H. B. M. Consul-General in Yunnan 
Fu informed me that the mandarin in charge of the salt reve- 
nues of the whole province has the same rank as a_ territorial 
“ Tao-tai,” which shows the importance attached by the Chinese 
to the salt industry). 

——— 


Estimated output per 


annum. , 
. ; Value in 
Locality. | rupees, 
Catties. Tons. 
bo ter. 
Lan-ching ~ A ~ ‘ - - 960,000 571 88,975 
Hei-ching ‘ i : i : 7,200,000 4,285 7,90,244 
Hou-ching : ‘ : ‘ c - | 12,000,000 7,143 13,17,073 
Toran é 201,600 | 11,999 21,96,292 
(piculs) (approx.) 


— 


SE cm EPR Oa ME Fer cee cette 
Notr.—The value is calculated on the retail spot price per 100 catties, and on 
the assumption that 100 catties=1334 Ibs. avoirdupois. 
41 taels= Rs. 100 (1908 exchange value). 
Fractions of one ton are not included. 


As salt is a monopoly of the Chinese Government, and also a 
source of revenue in the Indian Empire, questions are raised, in 
any discussion with regard to its trans-frontier carriage, which 
cannot be dealt with by a geologist. The supply of salt for Yunnan 
itself, with its large population, appears to be in no danger of 
exceeding the demand. One of the most serious expenses of the 
industry is the cost of transportation, from the manufacturing 
centres to the areas of distribution, which is at present carried on 
by coolie or by pack mules. The introduction of railways into 
the province will considerably reduce this expenditure. 


There is a splendid opportunity for the introduction of European 
machinery into the salt wells and mines. Small pumps of no 
great cost working at the wells would effect great. economy, whilst 


SALT. 165 


the same end would be attained by installing a modern hauling 
plant in the various Hou-ching mines. 


Salt in the Yun-lung Chou district. 


Yiin-lung Chou is a small unwalled city situated in latitude 
25° 48’: longitude 99° 18’, at a height of 
5,500 feet above the sea, in the Ta-li Fu 
prefecture, but under the immediate jurisdic- 
tion of a small civil official, the Chou-Kuan. The city is built 
in a narrow valley surrounded by steep, barren mountains so that 
there is little ground under cultivation. A small river, the Lo- 
ma Ho, a tributary of the Mekong, flows down the valley and 
is crossed by a covered bridge. A weekly market is held, to which 
the inhabitants of the surrounding villages congregate; they are 
chiefly Minchia and Minchia-Chinese and have a very poverty- 
stricken appearance. The city appears to contain about 5,000 
people, and owes its existence to the salt-wells in the environs. 
Though at the present time the city must be classified amongst 
the poorest in Yiinnan, evidences are not wanting pointing to a 
former prosperity when the brine-wells were more productive. 

I left Téngyiieh on 15th March 1909, and proceeded by the 

main easterly route as far as Yung-ping Hsien, 
eener and geology of 4 distance of 102 miles, which was reached 
; on 22nd March. This is a small walled city 
situated in a plain formed by the Yung-ping Ho, a tributary of 
the Mekong. From Yung-ping Hsien the main road continues in 
a north-easterly direction to Hsia-Kuan and Ta-li Fu, whilst the 
route to Yiin-lung Chou proceeds in a north-westerly direction 
from the city, which has an elevation of 5,300 feet. 

The whole of the country on this side of the Mekong, between 
Yung-ping Hsien and Yiin-lung Chou, is made up of rocks of the 
Red Beds series of Permo-Triassic age. There is reason to 
suppose that they also stretch for considerable distances into the 
unsurveyed areas to the north. Around Yung-ping Hsien, alluvial 
deposits of the valley plain were met with, consisting of yellow 
coarse-grained, friable sandstones, white, and brownish-white, fine- 
grained shales with fragmentary plant remains and broken indeter- 
minable Gasteropoda. In places thin bands of lignitic carbonace- 
ous shales were seen. The road continues up the valley of the 
Yung-ping Ho and after crossing the alluvial deposits, poor ex- 


The city of Yiin- 
jung Chou. 


166 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


posures of red shales and sandstones were seen in the bed of the 
stream. The first stage is reached at Kuan-Chiao, 11 miles from 
the city. 

For some miles beyond this village similar sandstones and shales 
are found in rapid alternations, the sandstones predominating on 
the whole. The general strike is about north 20° west and the 
dip 53° towards the south-west. It was very difficult to locate 
my exact position from the map hereabouts; the names of many 
of the villages shown are unknown to the local inhabitants, neither 
does the road follow the main stream as indicated. In reality 
it takes a northerly turn and ascends one of the tributary streams, 
crosses a small spur and continues up the side valley. Numberless 
blocks of red sandstone and shale strew the beds of the streams, 
whilst the steep forest-clad hillsides rise up very close to the water. 
There is now a very steep ascent to the top of the ridge separating 
the valleys of the Yung-ping Ho and Lo-ma Ho, at an elevation 
of 8,600 feet. From the summit an extensive view is obtained 
of the country to the north, including the Mekong valley, and 
the break in the hills where the Lo-ma Ho flows through to join 
its parent stream. The hills are all covered with thick forest, 
the monotonous tints of the pines and evergreens being brightened 
at the time of my journey by patches of scarlet and white rhodo- 
dendron blooms. There is a steep descent to a small tributary 
of the Lo-ma Ho and after a slight rise the track proceeds north- 
west, keeping almost level high up above the bottom of the valley ; 
passing through the scattered hamlets of Kan-hai-tzu and Po 
chiao, it then descends very precipitously to the river-bed and 
at 25 miles reaches the hamlet of Sha-chiao. 

The country around this place is very poor, the villages are 
small and scattered, and it is almost impossible to obtain supplies 
or fodder. The people are all Minchia and Lolo, the pure Chinese 
type being conspicuous by its absence. Poppy cultivation and 
opium manufacture used to be the staple industry of these tribes, 
but the recent prohibition edicts have had a wonderful effect in 
banishing the poppy even from these remote valleys where it 
used to form the chief means of livelihood of the people. The 
Lo-ma Ho at Sha-chiao is a deep and unfordable stream with a 
strong current. Its bed is from 50 to 100 yards wide and is full 
of great sandstone boulders. In places the water fills the bed, but 
in others it is confined to swift rapids 15 to 20 yards across, 


SALT, 167 


The bottom of the stream is rocky, its valley is deep and precipi- 
tous, but there are narrow bands of cultivation around Sha-chiao. 

The Yiin-lung Chou route continues in a northerly direction 
along this valley, reaching the city at mile 40 from Yung-ping 
Hsien. The valley narrows considerably and becomes gorge-like, 
and it is only at the bends that there are deposits of alluvial goil 
suitable for cultivation, and even these small fields are half covered 
with boulders which have fallen from the cliffs. There is much 
contortion of the strata near Hsi-fang, where an excellent example 
of a complex double fold is seen in a cliff section on the west bank. 
There are very few shale outcrops and the whole country seems to 
be chiefly made up of this greyish-red sandstone formation. The 
dip is variable but usually steep towards the north-east. The 
river is crossed at the small Minchia village of Sung-ma by a 
wooden roofed bridge, and above this place as far as Yiin-lung 
Chou the road keeps to the west side; the valley however becomes 
very narrow again and just before the city is reached resource 
is had to step-cutting in the rocky sides in order to carry the road 
through. Falls of stone must be of frequent occurrence. Hard 
reddish sandstones and white fine-grained quartzitic sandstones 
crop out in this part of the valley. 

I arrived in Yiin-lung Chou on 25th March, which happened 
to be market day, so that large numbers of people were gathered 
together. The Minchia men are powerful and muscular and used 
to carrying heavy loads. Goitre is extremely common and even 
young children frequently exhibit the swollen glands in the neck. 
There is only one camping ground on the alluvial plain opposite the 
city. Hundreds of people assembled to watch the pitching of my 
tents, as foreign travellers are very rarely seen in these out-of-the-way 
regions. They were, however, a friendly though exceedingly dirty mob. 

All the salt which the Yiin-lung Chou disteict produces is 

: manufactured from brine obtained from a 
sritndiap Oot district, Humber of wells situated in the vicinity, 

There are no salt mines. 
Brine wells are found at :— 
Pao-fung-ching—in the city itself. 
Shih-men-ching 
Tien-erh-ching 
Ta-ching 
Shang-ching 


—in a valley six miles north of the town, 


168 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Lo-ten-ching. ) 
Lu-ching. —in the unsurveyed area to the north of 
Shwun-tan-ching. 5 Yiin-lung Chou. 


An official of the Imperial Chinese Customs Service has recently 
written :— 

“Tf the collection of the land tax is veiled by obscurity, of 

Oviiation of the the grain tribute by equal obscurity, of the 
salt gabelle in the “ Regular’? Customs by — greater obscurity, 
eee nod Bees. the greatest obscurity covers the revenue from 
the salt gabelle, owing to the mixture of the official and 
mercantile elements in its collection. Salt is everywhere under 
the strictest Government control, and is taxed at every stage— 
in its manufacture, purchase, at the vats, transport, sale at the 
depot, and sale to the people.” 

In Yiinnan it is easy enough to see into the higher department 
of the salt gabelle, to understand the official relationships of the 
mandarins, who occupy the highest posts in the administration, 
but to come to a proper appreciation of the organization at the 
other end of the scale—which is vastly more important to under- 
stand in a discussion of this sort—the obligations of the brine-winners 
and salt-manufacturers themselves to the government, is often a 
difficult matter. So long as the smaller officials of the salt admini- 
stration keep the peace in their respective areas, and regularly 
forward to the central bureau at the appointed times, the amounts 
of revenue for which they are assessed, the provincial government is 
not likely to concern itself very much in the dealings of its agents 
with the producers. It is therefore found that different systems 
of work are in operation in different districts, sometimes even at 
neighbouring wells in the same area. A local official will modify 
or alter the methods of working with the people in accordance 
with local tradition and custom, with the alteration of the assess- 
ments, with the price of fuel, or in any way to suit his pocket, 
being always careful enough to keep clear of conditions which 
would cause active opposition, for which he would certainly be 
held responsible by his superiors. Wells under a mandarin may 
be worked entirely by him, that is to say, he may supply the capital 
and take the risk, the actual workers being merely his servants ; 
or again, he may control a company (in the usual Chinese meaning 
of the word). Sometimes in the case of salt wells and mines the 
mandarins have no connection with the companies, which may 


SALT. 169 


be composed of groups of capitalists or even of a whole municipality. 
Cases are known in which the miners and drillers work wells on a 
kind of co-operative basis. It is not safe to take any district or 
any well and set it up asa type of all others. Conditions which 
vary a great deal are also introduced in the systems of payments 
for evaporation of the brine and also in trading in the finished 
salt. These, coupled with the natural Chinese suspicion, exaggera- 
tion and unwillingness to give true information, often make the task 
of the investigator anything but a light one. 

The highest official in the salt gabelle dealing with the Yiin- 
lung Chou area is the “ Yen-ta-shu’’ who resides at Tien-erh- 
ching and who is responsible for the collection of revenue in the 
whole of this district. He is subordinate to the “ Yen-ti-ki” 
who resides in Pe-ching and is in charge of several salt-producing 
areas. Deputy officials or ‘‘ Wei-yuans” of small rank are usually 
stationed at each well. It is their duty to keep accounts of brine 
extracted, and of the people who take it away for evaporation. 
Other minor officials are in charge at the weighing stations and 
storehouses. 

The Pao-fung-ching well is situated on the mountain side above 
the town of Yiin-lung Chou,—indeed the town 
appears to have grown up round this brine 
well, which in former times was of some 
importance and yielded large quantities of salt. At present it 
is in an impoverished condition. The methods used by the 
Chinese in drillmg the well and obtaining the brine are exactly the 
same as those in vogue in the Ting-yuan Hsien district of Central 
Yiinnan, which I have already described in some detail. It is 
therefore unnecessary to recapitulate here. The brine is conducted 
down from the well to a storage tank in the middle of the town 
by open wooden water-boxes. The storage tanks are made of 
wood. From them the brine is baled out as required and taken 
away to be evaporated. A writer keeps an account of the various 
amounts taken away by different people. The brine is very 
weak and the output from this well has declined rapidly in recent 
years. The actual working is in the hands of a small company, 
who pay a license fee of 18 taels per mensem to the local official, 
to whom they are compelled to sell all the salt produced. There 
are only 10 coolies employed in carrying brine; they are paid at 
the rate of + tael per day each. Most of the evaporation is 


Description of wells. 
Pao-fung-ching. 


M 


170 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


done in dwelling houses, the pans being arranged in batteries of 
14. I estimate that there are about 30 batteries in Yiin-lung 
Chou. The salt is of poor quality and is sold by the government 
at the rate of 3°6 taels per 100 catties. 

The small town of Shih-men-ching lies six miles to the north- 

saci gie Naas sae east of Yiin-lung Chou, a good mule-track 
ele * connecting the two places. After crossing the 
Route from Yiin-lung yjver, there is a steep ascent up the east bank 
Chou. : 
as far as Shan-ting-tzu, whence a gradual 
descent brings the road almost down to the level of the water 
again at mile 2, On the opposite bank near this place a large hot 
spring issues from beneath a precipitous cliff of sandstone. Chinese 
and aborigines come from far and near to bathe in the waters, 
which are alleged to have curative properties in the treatment of 
skin diseases. After crossing a tributary stream by a substantial 
wooden bridge at mile 3, the road ascends and descends and in 
places is actually built up above the river-bed. The strike of 
the massive red sandstone veers round to the east and west and 
there is a dip of 17° to the north. The valley widens out where 
it receives a tributary coming from the east, the main stream 
continuing north. Shih-men-ching, a village of about 120 houses, 
is situated akout half a mile up this tributary valley. Imme- 
diately to the north, stretching for at least 100 miles, is a large 
area of unsurveyed country which has never been seen by a 
European. There is not much land suitable for cultivation 
around Shih-men-ching, and the prosperity of the place has 
evidently declined in recent years. Numerous rock inscriptions, 
temples and memorial stones proclaim to the traveller that the 
village was the birthplace of a Chinese who rose to be governor 
of the province of Shan-si. This fact is blazoned forth on all 
sides, and in the eyes of the natives elevates their homestead far 
above the depressing level of the ordinary Yiinnanese village. 

The Shih-men-ching brine-well is at the eastern end of the 
village ; it is best described as a twin well as there are two shafts 
close together. At the time of my visit only one was giving 
brine ; sweet water was being pumped from the other. There are 
numerous shrines of patron deities around the well and storage 
tanks. Brine has been met with here without digging a shaft 
so that only a shallow drift is needed and the familiar windlass 
and untanned skin brine-carrier are absent, the salt water being 


SALT. 171 


raised by four hand-worked bamboo pumps. The brine is of 
good quality and the total yield is said to be about 80,000 catties 
per mensem. The fiscal system of the Shih-men-ching well is 
somewhat complicated. Brine is won under the direction and 
control of the “ Yen-ta-shu,” but the people have to pay a monthly 
license of 64 taels to Government. This is an increase of 24 taels 
on the amount demanded for the license last year (1908), and 
is one little incident in the wholesale increase which the provin- 
cial mineral duties are being burdened with this year in order to 
find funds for the military, educational, and railway schemes of 
the late Viceroy. The contractors who undertake the evaporation 
of the brine have to find their own fuel and to pay for the 
carriage of the brine from the storage tanks to the evaporation 
sheds. Fuel is fairly cheap, as the unsurveyed areas to the 
north are full of forest and advantage is taken of the swift current 
of the Lo-ma Ho to float the logs down to the salt-producing places. 
Large numbers of coolies are engaged in carrying wood from the 
river to the yard whence it is retailed as required. Owing to 
deforestation in bygone days there is very little fuel in the 
immediate neighbourhood of these places. There are about 30 
batteries of evaporating pans in Shih-men-ching, each consisting 
of batches of 12 or 14 pans. On an average it takes three days 
for one battery to produce 100 catties of salt. The total produc- 
tion must be sent to the stores of the “ Yen-ta-shu,” who pays for 
it at the rate of Tls. -9 per 100 catties. The duty amounted 
to Tls. 2°35 per 100 catties and the local selling price is Tls. 4 
per 100 catties. The local official is left therefore with a balance 
of Tis. 4—(2°35+:9)=Tls. *75. Out of this he has to keep the 
wells in repair, pay the wages of pump-men and writers and 
meet all other incidental expenses. There is another small well 
to the east of the village, but its production is unimportant and 
I have classed it under Shih-men-ching. 


Two miles further up the Shih-men-ching valley in an easterly 
direction, the village of Ta-ching is found. 
It is a large place with about 120 houses, the 
inhabitants beimg mainly dependent for a livelihood on the salt- 
well situated just outside the village. There are very few rock 
exposures, but there is much scree and rock débris on the hillsides 
owing to the excessive denudation of the slopes. I made an inspec- 
tion of the Ta-ching well and have never seen a better engineered 


M 2 


Ta-ching. 


172 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


or cleaner kept underground excavation in Yiinnan. The drifts 
going into the ground are very steep, their mouths being protected 
by stone-roofed buildings and the roads were carefully gated. 
For the first few yards the mouth of the main drift is arched, but 
beyond this it is supported by timber arranged in a systematic 
manner. The drift extends steeply down for 72 paces, when the 
brine is reached. Steps are constructed to facilitate ascent and 
descent. The brine is pumped out by the usual methods, the 
relay cisterns being of solid wood-work and not of clay, as is so 
often the case. Stone conduits take the brine to the storage 
tanks, which are well built and covered. Pumping is carried 
on in the evening and early morning, with an interval of rest 
during the greater part of the day. 

The Ta-ching well produces 70,000 catties of salt per mensem, 
but it is not equal in quality to the Shih-men-ching salt and only 
brings Tls. 3°8 per 100 catties. The fiscal organization is the 
same as at Shih-men-ching, the mandarin buying in the salt at 
Tls. ‘9 per 100 catties. There are 30 batteries of evaporating 
pans in the village. I observed here a curious method of finishing 
the salt which is not adopted on the other salt-fields of Yiinnan 
as far as I know. Generally, the brine is evaporated and the 
salt dried im the pan, fresh liquor being added from time to time 
until a solid hemispherical mass of salt—the cast of the pan—is 
obtained. At Ta-ching and other places in this valley, however, 
the salt is removed from the pan when it is still wet, and firmly 
pressed into small cylindrical moulds, so that instead of the large 
masses made on the other salt fields, which form a heavy load 
for a man, the salt comes on to the market in the shape of small 
cylinders each of about 3 Ibs. or so in weight. 


The large village of Tien-erh-ching is built on the steep northern 
slopes two miles further up the valley. 
There are here good exposures of the salt- 
bearing, massive reddish sandstones of Permo-Trias age, which have 
a strike of north 30° west and a steep dip towards the south- 
west. There is nevertheless considerable confusion in the dips 
along the road, and a good deal of folding appears to have taken 
place. I here saw the “ Yen-ta-shu,’’ a Chinese official of about 
40 years of age, who received me in a friendly manner and 
accompanied me on a visit to the Tien-erh-ching well. I found him 
ery anxious for advice as to how the outputs of brine might 


Tien-erh-ching. 


SAL. 173 


be increased, and he further asked me where favourable places 
might be found in which to commence new drifts and wells. The 
well is a large one, situated in the middle of the village with 
its storage tanks close at hand; it is deep and is worked in the 
usual manner. The output of brine appeared to me to be greater 
than at some of the other places, but it does not contain so large 
a percentage of soluble sodium chloride, which accounts for the 
fact that there are over 70 batteries of pans used for boiling down 
brine in Tien-erh-ching. The monthly production of salt is said to 
be about 40,000 catties. The organization differs little from 
that of the Ta-ching well and the prices paid are the same, UZ. , 
buying price from the maker, Tls. -9 per 100 catties. The 
licenses for all the wells in this valley are the same as the Shih- 
men-ching one, i.e, Tls. 64 per mensem. 


In every part of the province of Yiinnan the supply of salt 

Future developments 18 hardly equal to the demand of the popula- 
of the Yiin-lung Chou tion for it. The area under description is no 
pail. exception to this rule although the consump- 
tion per individual is probably reduced to a very low limit. The 
cost of native salt in districts far removed from the centres of 
production is so prohibitive that the article is a luxury to be 
purchased occasionally only by the poor, and forms to this day one 
of the principal media of exchange between the Chinese and 
the indigenous tribes who surround them. Illicit salt manufac- 
ture is an offence nominally punishable with the extreme penalty 
of the law, and it is only by dealing with the law-breakers in a 
severe manner that the Government monopoly can be strictly 
maintained. The quality of the salt supplied is of the very poorest 
grade, and cannot be in any way compared with the material 
to which Europeans are accustomed. Injurious salts and insoluble 
matters must be present in most specimens, for no attempts at 
refining are ever made. The excessive cost of salt in Yiinnan 
is due partly to the heavy taxation which it has to bear in every 
stage of its manufacture and partly also to the great cost of trans- 
portation by mule caravan and porters over rough tracks in an 
exceedingly mountainous country. Railways running through 
Yiinnan- will certainly capture much of the salt traffic and do away 
with the latter evil to a great extent. A railway from Bhamo or 
Téng-yiieh to Ta-li Fu would cross the route of the salt caravan 
from Yiin-lung Chou near Yung-ping Hsien, and would at once 


174 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


enter into successful competition with the overland road _trans- 
port ; instead of having to travel 75 miles by mule caravan across 
the Mekong watershed to Yung-chang Fu, or 122 miles across 
the high mountains and deep valleys of the Mekong, Salween 
and Shweli rivers to Téng-yiieh, a journey of some 40 miles would 
bring the salt into touch with the railway at Yung-ping Hsien. 
The railway therefore would gain the freight to be made by the 
distribution of native salt in the Western Circuit of Yiinnan and 
would be the means of a considerable reduction in the price of salt 
throughout the Yung-ch’ang Fu, Téng-yiieh Ting and adjoining areas. 

The Burma-China Convention of 1894-1897 prohibits the import 
of salt from Burma into Yiinnan. Under these conditions it 
would be a waste of time to discuss the probable effect a railway 
would have on the trans-frontier carriage of salt. At the same 
time there are other features of the Yimnan salt supply which 
have some bearing on the importation of salt from Burma, which 
it is within the province of the economic geologist to point out. 
It is certain that the output of native salt in Yiinnan is slowly 
declining, a state of affairs readily understood when it is remem- 
bered that there are no workings in the province which touch the 
deep-seated deposits, and that the shallow wells and drifts have 
been worked so actively and continuously by the Chinese, as to 
be now in a condition verging on exhaustion. Everywhere in 
the province the same story is told, a story of the former prosperity 
and present decline of the salt-producing centres. 

The output from the Yiinnan wells could be greatly increased 
by the introduction of simple machinery, especially for the opera- 
tion of pumping and quick transmission of the brine. I also 
believe that modern drillmg and pumping machinery with some 
improved method of evaporation could be profitably installed in 
other places at present unknown to the Chinese, where there is 
reason to suspect the existence of the salt-bearing horizons of the 
Upper Permian Red Beds, which are lying buried under consider- 
able thicknesses of later Mesozoic strata, 


Salt in the Wei-yuan T’ing district. 


Wei-yiian T’ing is a small and poor city lying at an elevation 
The city of Wei-yfian of 3,150 feet in the valley of the Wei-yiian 
Ting (Lat, 23°" 30, Chiang. It is under the jurisdiction of the 
long, 100° S07} Pu-erh Fu prefect, but is a place of little 


SALT. 175 


importance as it is not situated on or near any main trade route. 
It lies in a plain some 12 miles long and 3 miles broad, traversed 
by the river of the same name. It was formerly the capital of 
a Shan State named Méng Wa and the population is still largely 
Shan as it is a malarious neighbourhood inimical to the Chinese. 
The principal product of the region is salt. 

The geology of this field is much the same as that of the others ; 
rocks of the Red Beds series build up the 
whole of the surrounding country and stretch 
for at least 30 miles to the north-west and 
south-west of Wei-yiian T’ing. Hsiang-yen-ching, the first stage, 
is 10 miles south-south-west of the city. The road traverses the 
level plain of the river for most of the way, then arises gently at 
its end and drops steeply into Hsiang-yen-ching,—elevation 3,500 
feet. The only rock exposures seen were in the last mile and 
consisted of pinkish sandstones striking a few degrees west of 
north. In the stream-bed just beyond the river fine-grained, 
soft reddish sandstones with false bedding and _ well-marked 
jointing strike north and south. The rolled boulders and pebbles 
in the stream-bed give a very good indication of the various kinds 
of local rocks of the series. I found very fine-grained, dark red- 
sandstones, light red, soft sandstones, hard reddish-black sand- 
stones with small inclusions of dark red clay, hard red marls, 
light red and yellow sandstones with gritty bands, rounded pieces 
of dull quartz and clouded yellowish felspar about the size of 
peas. 


Route and geology of 
the journey 


The village has two productive salt mines and two underground 
wells of the usual type with brine-raising 
bamboo pumps. Another well was in the 
process of being sunk and had reached a 
depth of 60 feet. The wells are all in the village. The mine 
lies in a narrow valley to the north-east about ? mile away. 
Its shaft is well timbered and slopes steeply from the surface. 
I wished to go underground but was told that the workings were 
very distant, low and tortuous, so I did not press the matter in 
face of this obvious opposition. The mine is said to be 30 years 
old. A large shed is erected over the mouth of the shaft for 
the storage of the excavated rock-salt. This was seen to be of 
a clean crystalline nature occurring abundantly in a red marl. 
In the shed there is an overseer’s office where the output is checked 


Salt at Hsiang-yen- 
ching. 


176 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


and tallied, The material is broken up in the shed and then 
taken in baskets to the town. Here it is placed in small wicker- 
work baskets suspended in large wooden tanks filled with water. 
The baskets are hung from cross pieces placed over the tank in 
such a way that they can be raised and lowered. One tank 
takes about 20 baskets. The salt dissolves and the mud settles 
down. From time to time the baskets are examined and the 
material broken up until a_ salt-free red silt is left. The brine 
is then raised by a pump and flows down a bamboo pipe into 
a stone-lined storage tank. Both tank and well are often in 
the furnace house. The boiling-down process is identical with 
the practice on other fields and need not be described again. If 
anything, conditions are dirtier and more insanitary here than 
elsewhere. The furnace houses are the homes of large families 
and the gutters carrying the brine run along the village streets 
alongside the sewers. A great deal. of the boiling is done by 
Shans and a Shan official is in charge. About 200 coolies find 
employment in mining and brine-boiling here. Miners receive 
7 candareens per 100 catties of crude salt mined and carriers 
5 candareens for bringing out the same amount. There are 30 
batteries of 6 to 10 pans each. The monthly production was given 
at 250,000 eatties or 140 tons approximately. The official price 
paid for the salt was Tls. 18 per 100 catties. Its official selling 
price was Tls. 482. The tax per 100 catties was Tls. 3:18. Pre- 
ventive work is performed by an armed guard of 30 men under 
the control of the local Shan chief. 

Ho-ti-tang is a small village 12 miles to the south-south-west 
of Hsiang-yen-ching. The road ascends quickly 
out of the first valley and then descends 
into another at 6 miles. Both streams are tributaries of the 
Wei-yiian-chiang. The second stream is crossed and _re-crossed 
many times. Numerous exposures of red shales and sandstones 
are seen, the former weathermg down into irregular fragments. 
The country is dissected up by small tributary streams and 
there is much vegetation. At 8 miles thin oolitic limestone bands 
are interbedded in the red shales. The exposed parts of the 
bands simulate an organic structure but this is due to the weathering 
out of the oolites. I found no fossils. The road now leaves the 
valley and stil keeping south-south-west rises to 5,400 feet at 
9 miles, followed by a steep descent of 2 miles and then winds 


Salt at Ho-ti-tang. 


SALT. 177 


along into Ho-to-tang, which has an elevation of 4,300 feet. In 
the stream-bed at the river hard, fine-grained red, and hard bluish- 
white sandstones with quartz infiltrations alternate with the usual 
type of irregularly fracturing, soft, red, marly shales. The whole 
series strikes north and south and dips at 45°—50° to the west. 

Ho-ti-tang, or as it is also known I-shang-ching, has two salt 
inines, which were opened about the year 1899. The processes of 
extraction and manufacture are identical with those in vogue at 
Hsiang-yen-ching and need not be repeated. The boiling-sheds are 
located in the village and the industry is in the hands of Chinese 
who appear to form a more prosperous community than the Shans 
of Hsiang-yen-ching. The  boiler-houses are large, commodious 
brick structures with tiled roofs and are cleaner and_ better 
appointed generally than those at the other locality. 80 coolies 
find employment ; miners are paid 1 mace per 100 catties of rock- 
salt; porters in the mines get 5 candareens. There are 8 batteries 
of 10 or 15 pans each. The official price paid for the salt is Tls. 
1°80 per 100 catties; the official selling price is Tls. 4°82 per 100 
catties; the salt tax amounts to Tls. 3°10 per 100 catties. The 
average monthly production is about 150,000 catties or 84 tons 
approximately. 

There are several other salt-mines and brine-wells in this region 

Other: aalgqnedutans but I did not succeed in obtaming a list 
centres in the Wei-yiian of them. On the §.E. frontier sheet no. 12 
Ting neighbourhood. == -W. (1”=4 miles), a salt-mine is shown 7 
or 8 miles to the south-south-west of Wei-yiian T’ing at the 
edge of the valley. A number of mines are also indicated in the 
valley of an unnamed tributary of the Mekong, 20—25 miles south- 
west of Meng-ka, as the crow flies. Davies visited a brine- 
well at Hsi-kung-ching, 8 miles north of Wei-yiian T’ing along the 
Chen-yiian-t’ing road (D., p. 199). The production of the field is 
sent to Keng-ma, Mien-ning T’ing, the Shan States west and 
south-west of Yun Chou and to the Lo-herh mountains. It 
supplies therefore the wants of the Shan and wilder populations of 
these parts of Yiinnan. 


Salt of the P’u-erh Fu neighbourhood. 


There are several salt-producing centres around P’u-erh Fu 
(lat. 23° 5’: long. 101° 5’) but I was only able to visit one at 


178 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Mo-hei. However, it is probably the largest and most important 
producer in this part of Yiinnan. 

The important city of P’u-erh Fu, lies at an elevation of 4,500 

feet in a small plain of its own, surrounded 

pou by limestone hills. Mo-hei is 12 miles to 

the north-east of the city along the main route to the capital. 

Permo-Carboniferous limestones continue for a few miles and are 

then followed by typical rocks of the Red Beds series. The 

road gradually rises, attaining an elevation of 6,200 feet at 8 miles 

and then descends rapidly into the valley in the bottom of which 
Mo-hei is built at an elevation of 4,200 feet. 

At one time a salt-mine was worked at old Mo-hei, but it became 
exhausted and the present output comes from 
a mine opened at new Mo-hei, one mile 
further up stream. There is also a_ brine- 
well near the same place. The processes of mining, leaching and 
boilmg are the same as elsewhere. The evaporating sheds, of 
which there are 28, are large and clean. Each furnace carries 
24 pans in 6 rows of 4 each. About 300 miners and coolies are 
employed and the monthly output is 600,000 catties or 334 tons 
approximately. The salt-boiler receives Tls. 1:1 per 100 catties. 
The Government selling price is Tls. 4°82 per 100 catties. The 
Government tax is Tls. 3°20 per 100 catties. 


Salt-mine and_brine- 
well. 


Salt near Lang-Ch’iung Hsien (lat. 26° 6’: long. 99° 55’). 

Logan Jack has described the salt works of Chow Ho (Chiao- 
hou-ching) a small village about 10 miles west of Lang Chiung 
Hsien, in the following words :—For the first time in China we 
saw rock-salt, a little dark in colour but fairly pure, and entirely 
soluble, with the exception of a trifling residue of silica. The 
rock is sawn into blocks of varying sizes convenient for transport 
and sale. There are also brine wells, the brine being led down 
in long conduits from the hillside to evaporation works in the 
village. The firewood for the furnaces is floated down the river, 
and caught and stacked at the village above, Chow Ho. (Jack, 


op. cit., p. 189). 


The brine-wells of An-ning Chou (lat. 24° 56’: long. 102° 29’). 
An-ning Chou is a small town one day’s march to the west of the 
capital, along the main trade route to Ta-li Fu. Though now 


SALT. 179 


in a broken and decayed state, evidences are not wanting that 
in former times the town was of some importance. The remains 
of a large wall and gates, the ruins of temples and bridges, and 
the long streets, now bordered by poor hovels, all go to prove 
this. 

Around all the salt-mines and brine-wells of Yiinnan, a large 
population generally exists, which is entirely dependent for a 
living on the salt industry. (This is especially noticeable since 
in most other parts the number of people in a particular area is, 
as a rule, limited entirely by the amount of land available for 
cultivation and by the supply of water for irrigation.) Should 
the mines or wells become exhausted, as they have done at An- 
ning Chou, then a migration of the population is bound to take 
place with more or less disastrous results to the locality. 


Considered with respect to the output of salt for the whole 
province, the brine wells of An-ning Chou are of no particular 
importance and the following description is given to illustrate 
the persistence with which even smalk deposits are worked by 
the Chinese, and their ingenuity in overcoming natural difficulties. 
Duclos has already given a brief account of the wells. (Du., 
pp. 290-291). 

Around An-ning Chou there is a considerable development of 
massive red sandstones and other rocks which are much the same 
as those found about the saliferous localities of the Ting-yiian 
Hsien district. Towards the east and south-east of An-ning Chou, 
Permo-Carboniferous limestones underlie these red beds. 

The brine-wells and salt-works are within the city near the 
north wall and close by the yamen of the local magistrate. 

Three wells were being worked in March 1908, at the time of 
my visit. Owing to their greater depth some modification of 
the ordinary windlass is necessary, and it was found that instead 
of the form described from the Ting-yiian Hsien neighbourhood, 
worked by four men, a double handle is attached to the axle and is 
operated by eight, usually four men and four women. Attached 
to the axle are the ordinary double untanned leather carriers, 
so arranged that while one is ascending with a load the other is 
descending to be filled, 

The brine is very weak, and before being boiled down is con- 
centrated by the following methods. It is led away in long open 
channels to shallow pools, which expose as much of the liquid 


180 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


as possible and so favour evaporation. Beds of dried earth 
are systematically arranged near these pools and are periodically 
drenched by the salt liquors which are baled out and thrown over 
them. Aided by the sun and the wind the water evaporates, 
and the operation is repeated until the earth will take up no more 
salt. It is then leached out with water in other tanks, and the 
dirty salt liquors so obtained, after being filtered through beds 
of charcoal, ashes and sand, give a clear brine of much greater 
concentration than the original liquid from the wells. The treat- 
ment of the brine after this is precisely the same as that carried 
out at other places. The small amounts of salt so produced are 
taken by the officials of the Salt Monopoly and doubtless find 
their way into the open market by way of Ytnnan Fu. 


MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS. 


Mercury. 


Cinnabar probably occurs in Yiinnan, several specimens were 
shown to me at various places though some of them may have 
come from the well-known mines in the neighbouring province of 
Kuei Chou. At Yun-lung Chou, I heard of a mercury mine 3. or 
4 days’ journey towards the north but I was unable to spare the 
time necessary to verify the information. According to Rocher, 
(R., p. 247), several cinnabar deposits were worked in_ the 
Ta-li prefecture before the rebellion. This would include the 
Yun-lung Chou locality, in all probability. Rocher describes 
the treatment of the ore, which consists of roasting in a furnace ; 
the vapours are condensed in a kind of jar, three or four of which 
are placed on each side of the furnace and connected by tubes 
of glazed earthenware. Water is placed at the bottom of the 
jars to aid the condensation of the vapours. Near Ta-chuang 
there was a deposit containing native mercury; after removing 
the metal, the ores were subjected to a high temperature in a 
retort and the vapour condensed in receivers with water. This 
mine was abandoned during the rebellion and has not been re-opened. 
When Logan Jack was travelling from Hsiao-wei-shi to Wei-hsi- 
T’ing he was informed by a member of his escort that there 
was a quicksilver (cinnabar) mine beyond the right walls of the 
valley below Ta-pien-ta. ‘ He so minutely described the process 


MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS. 181 


of distillation, that I think there can be no mistake about it, 
although we saw no specimens’ (Logan Jack, op. cit, p. 178). 


Antimony. 


I was shown specimens of stibnite frequently in Eastern Yiinnan, 
but never met with the mineral in the western parts of the pro- 
vince. The Director of the Bureau of Mines in Yiinnan Fu had 
a fine series of specimens of the ore, both native and refined. I 
was told that these came from the Kai Fu prefecture. 

It is a well-known fact that antimony ores occur in this vicinity 
and also about Kwang-nan Fu on the borders of Kwang-si. 
Rights were granted by the Government to mine and smelt them 
in 1909. In 1913, according to the Méng-tzii Customs reports, 
427 tons of antimony were exported through that port, and in 
1914, 335 tons. 

Cobalt. 


Leclére states that a cobalt-bearing oxide of manganese is 
mined in the north of the Tung-chuan prefecture. It has supplied 
the dyes used in the manufacture of the famous Kuang-si blue 
porcelain for long periods. (Le., p. 446). 


Marble. 


Ta-li Fu marble is famous throughout China and is used for 
making ornamental plaques, tombstones, etc. I have visited the 
quarries which are located on the high mountain wall a few miles 
to the north-north-west of “the city. A crystalline marble crops 
out in them. It is a fine-grained variety with patches and 
irregular spots of dark micas and amphiboles in a white back- 
ground, which produce fantastic effects much appreciated by the 
cultured Chinese. Large quantities of the stone are still avail- 
able, but the industry is controlled by the dealers, rather than 
by the quarry-owners or the polishers. The stone is all prepared 
locally and is often stained and then covered with a coating of 
white wax to emphasize the colour designs. 


Semi-precious stones. 


The jadeite which is worked up in Téng-yiieh comes from the 
mines of the Mogaung subdivision of the Myitkyina district in 


182 COGGIN BROWN : MINES & MINERAT: RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


Burma. The best qualities are said to be exported direct, in 
the rough, to Canton, and only the second-grade stone is sent to 
Yiinnan. Nevertheless, jade-cutting and -polishing is a staple trade 
in Téng-yiieh and I have already commented on the subject 
in the section of this report dealing with trade. 

Amber ornaments are common. Most of the specimens I 
examined bore the characteristic fluorescence of the Burmese 
material. 

Turquoise ornaments are always worn by the Yunnanese Tibet- 
ans, but the stone is not of local origin. 


GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 


GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


183 


ee nn 


A-miChou . 
A-tun-tzii. ‘ 
An-ning Chou, 
Ba-t’ang . 
Bhamo 

Chao-tung Fu 
Chén-hsuing Chou 
Chen-nan-Chou 
Chéng-ch’iang Fu 
Chéng-kung Hsien 
Chia-ting Fu 
Chin-chiang-kai 
Ching-tung T’ing 
Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien 
Ch’ii-ching Fu 
Ch’u-hsuing Fu 
Hsi-o Hsien . 


Hsia-kuan . 


A 5% Hsin-fu 3 ; 


Hsin-hsing Chou . 
Hsin-p’ing . 


. 


° 


: ie Pn) 
28 
24 
: - | 30 
i | 24 


27 


‘ 


41 


| 
Latitude. |Longitude. | 


‘| 


| 
| 


Pages. 


63, 104 

15, 31 

157, 178, 179 
15 

19. 60 


100, 124 


93 
103, 124, 157 
137 
110, 111, 155 
95, 137, 157 
68 


101, 124, 157 


83 


34, 143 


78, 83, 103 


125 


—_—____ee____e—e—e———e—e—e——e—ee—eeee——— 


184 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN 


a 


— Latitude. |Longitude. Pages. 
eheieas z a ee 
° 7 | ° 7 
Baie a ee | 104. 0 | 100 
Hui-li Chou r g : i 26 39 | 102. 15 121 


Racceel a ee a) 08 BY 20, 61 
Keng Hung . : : em 5 O00. iO 0, 36 
Keng-ma_. : . . ale20). Oo 99 23 | 95,137 
Kun-lon Ferry . : A . | 23 25 | 98 40 | 25, 34, 95, 137, 140 
K’un-yang Chou . é : . | 24 40 | 102 32 | 73 
Lang-chiung Hsien . 5 wale = 6 po SOeeOp ed L78 
Ave Yaoksi 5. 5 ee See BO" | 108) G7, 28 
Tashio : ‘ é 5 : 23 «0 | 97 45 | 25,61 
Li-chiang Fu . * 3 26 50 | 100 10 | 117,123 125, 137,157 
AT Lin-an Fux. . . : : 23 36 | 102 52 123, 125, 146 
Lu-féng Hsien. . . : D5 ae eV ODEs 3148850 
Lu-nan Chou : 4 afk mR 24 46 103. 16 | 83, 104 
Lung-ling Ting . ; : a) 24 85 4}. 08: 40 0225 
Ma-ch’ang . ‘ i . : 26 35 | 101 27 | 69 
Méng-hua T’ing . : .| 265 16 | 100 20 | 95,119, 120 
AIT Méng-taiHsien . . ~ «| 23 20 | 103 27 | 26, 26,64 
Mi-li . : . : 5 ° 28 10 | 100 50 | 158 
Mi-lé Hsien . : ‘ . ; 24 23 | 103 27 | 65 
Mien-ning T’ing . ° . . 23 50 | 100. (O 177 


Myitkyina . : ; ‘ 5 eed be Dor (97, 25 12 


Nan-tien . : : ; 1 (oad OU 98 15 | 21, 60, 62, 147 


Pai-nd Tite. © 6) et Geen | 28 Bie Pe 0 | 24 


ER ee eT TE 


Pi-chieh Hsien 
Pin-ch’uan Chou 

jv P’u-erh Fu. 
Shih-ku 
Shih-ping Chou 

eianadne Fu 

Ssu-mao 
Sui Fu 
Ta-chien-lu 

Ay: Ta-lang Ting 
Ta-li Fu 
Téng-ch’uan Chou 
Téng-yueh Ting . 
Ting-yuan Hgien . 
Tung-ch’uan Fa 
Tung-hai Hsien 
Wei-hsi T’ing 
Wei-ning Chou 
Wei-yuan T’ing . 
Wu-ting Chou . 
Yi-liang Hsien 
Yiemen Hsien 
Yuan-mou Hsien 


Yiin-Chou 


GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 


Latitude. ‘Longitude. 


26 


or w 
or or 


o 


185 


Pages. 


67 


73, 148, 157, 177 
152 
125, 155 
13,. 16, 25, 
17, 23 
15 
127, 148 
19, 34, 125, 157, 181 
94 
19, 27, 34. 61 
121, 159 
100, 105. 106, 123, 124, 
127, 128, 142, 181 
77, 104 


102, 123, 128 


100, 123, 127, 128, 
138 

157, 174 

157 

109 


83, 95. 117 
94 
120, 137 


186 COGGIN BROWN: MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES OF YUNNAN. 


— Latitude. |Longitude, Pages. 


Yun-lung Chou . : ~ . pezaee4s 99. 18 | 94,.157, 165 


Yung-ch’ang Fu . ° . + PE2oees 6 99 10 | 94, 120, 125, 137 
Yung-ning . . . : i pemeeOe -| LOO; 20 ot oe at 


Yung-pei T’ing . . . 5 26 45 | 100 45 | 95. 109,116, 123. 137, 


Yung-p’ing Hsien a . «(eee 2 99 32 | 94,125 
Yunnan Fu C c 3 ; 25 0 | 102 45 | 75,157 


Yunnan-i . ‘ : c - {| 25 26 | 100 42 | 66 


The latitudes and longitudes are in most cases approximate to within 5’, 
They are taken from the map of Yunnan, on the scale of one inch to twenty 
miles, compiled by Major H. R. Davies and published by the Topographical 
Section of the General Staff in 1906. 


INDEX. 


A 
Page. 
A-lu-sh’ih, gold deposit. : . . : poe 4 : : 155 
Amber . . 3 Zs é 5 4 2 . i 4 182 
Analysis, coal, carboniferous . , 5 : . . : : 74--77 
Analysis, of coal, Hsiao-pa . Ree: : ; ; : - 78 
~ 3 L. Triassic. 3 i 3 3 : F 4 65 
$3 eo Mesozoic, C. Yunnan . ‘ z - s 4 66—68 
” » Mesozoic, Yangtze Valley. : f : : 70 
33 5 Pai-Ching . E ; : ‘ ‘ : 78 
% > Tertiary . . ‘ : ; s : ; i 62 
%9 3 U. Triassic . 5 A F . 5 i 63 
» of Lignite . ; : ‘ 2 2 : < = . 62 
»» Of silver ore, Ming Kua _ F i . . - 131, 132 
Anderson, J. ‘ . ; 3 ; 3 : : : 142 
An-ning Chou, brine wells of . : 5 A : $ - 178 
> Salt : - : : 4 P 5 x 157 
Anthracite, near Ssu-mao A : 7 : RB : : 2 73 
Antimonial Galena 4 S z : Fe E F c 2 126 
Arsenic ‘ 3 : : ‘ 3 ‘ : ‘ y 142 
Antimony . : : E ‘ is 5 . - é 181 
B 
Blyth, T. R: . t : Q : ‘ ‘ ‘. i ~ oe SL Too 
Bornite ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ g : 7 : % - 101, 107, 119 
Brine wells, An-ning Chou Z Z . - “4 é K s 178 
95 »  Hei-ching . z i s f s ¥ 5 ; 161 
95 » Hou-ching . “i ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ i : é 162 
” » Hsi-Kung-ching . : < ‘ . : : . 177 
* » Lan-ching . 3 8 é Z ° - 4 4 159 
” »» Mo-hei . . . . . . . . : 178 
. » Pao-fung-ching . . > . ° : . . 169 
. »» Shih-men-ching . : 5 : 5 : 170 
. » Ta-ching . ; : . ‘ : : 5 « 171 
”» » Tien-erh-ching . : 3 : é ; x 172 
Brown, J. C. i * a . a je . . : - 42 
Burton, R. C. . . - . ° ° . . . . 42 


N 2 


188 INDEX. 


Cambrian System, occurrence of 
Cassiterite 
Chalcopyrite 
Chao-tong, coal 
Chao-t’ung Fu, Silver ores 
Shén-yiian T’ing, Salt 
Ch’éng-Chiang Fu, Galena 
Chin-ch’ai, Lead mine 
Chin-tung T’ing district, Copper 
Ching-tung T’ing, Salt 
Chin-Sha, Gold 
Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien, Coal 
Chin-yuan, Coal 4 
Chiu-ya-p’ing Hsien, Coal 
Chow-Ho, Salt works < 
Chii-ching Fu, Copper mines . ‘ 
aA Galena. : A 
Ch’u-hsuing Fu, Silver mines of 
Cinnabar, Ta-li prefecture 
be Ta-pien-ta, near 

Coal. : < : 

s, Eurl-kai, analysis of 

>,  Hui-li Chon district 

» Ma-ch’ang : 

> near Tong-ch’uan . 

5, Pai Ching 

> Pin-ch’uan Chou 

;, Pin-ch’uan Chou, analysis of 

» P’u-erh Fu 

5 ssu-mao. 

» Tong-ch’uan, aakten sis of: 
Tung-hai Hsien 

5, West of Chiu-ya-p’ing Hiciedt 
» Yangtze Valley, analysis of 

;, Yunan Hsien field, analysis of . . 
;, Carboniferous, analysis of 

- 3 Eurl-kai 

»  L. Triassic, analysis of ‘ 
x ae between Mi-lé and Ton- bed 
» Mesozoic, analysis of 
4 “a at Mias-tsway . 
a » of the Yangtze Walley 
Shai Carboniferous, Hai-kou 
- ve + Hsintsun 
by read ge Tsi-tien a 


- 118, 120, 


75, 76, 77, 


INDEX. 


Coal, M. Carboniferous, Yen-tzu-Shao 
»  M. Triassic, at Sin-tien . 


” + at Tse-sou . 
»  U. Triassic, at Ni-ou-ke. 
” 99 near T’a-yao-chai. 


Coal mine, Pa-sha-shan . 
Coal mining, Chinese methods 


Cobalt . : 
Collins, W. F. 
Copper 3 
55 Eastern Yunnan 
es Hung-tu-hai 
3 Ko-Chin . 
os Kouen-in-sa 
+ Kung-lang : 
> Lan-ni-pé near A-mi Chou 
> Lao-tchu-Chou 
” Lo- -suy 
” Lou-pou (Pang: -ch’uan Fu) 
2 Mo-lou-tchang 
Pr Ming-kuang valley 
” Mung-hua T’ing district 
pe nature of deposits in E. Yunnan 
35 near Chu-kai 
Py near Lu-nan chou 
” near Ssii-ch’uan . 
9 near Tung-ch’uan Fu 
*9 North Eastern Yunnan 
” Po-hsi (‘T’ung-hai Hsien) 
% prospect of, at Ta-tsang-kuan-miao 
ss Tang-tan (Tung-ch’uan Fu) 
ay Ta-tsang-kai 


” Tien-pao (Ch’éng- amines Fu 
” Tung-shan 


” Wei-ning Chou Aisteiot 

” Wei-teou-chan 

” Yung- pei T’ing district 

” mine, Ho-lu . 

” »  Hsi-si-ti. & : 
” »  Hui-li Chou dintisot 5 
oF) ” I-tou . e 
” »Lao-sin-tchang 

” »  lLi-chiang Fu ais ak . 
” ” Lu- ch’ ang - 

” »  Mu-erh-p’ing-ch’ang 

” »» near Yung ch’ang Fu 


” »  Ouang-po 2 - . 


140, 


79 
181 
141 

97 
102 
121 
125 
108 
120 
104 
105 
108 
105 
109 
121 
119 
103 
121 
104 
101 
100 
105 
104 
119 
106 
120 
103 
121 
100 
103 
109 
118 
117 
121 
118 
106 
117 
121 
116 
120 
118 


190 INDEX. 


Copper mine, Pao-p’ing-ch’ ang 


” » Pa-sa-la . ‘ . 
” » Pe-si-la 
” », San-chia-ch’ang . 
” » Sha-ho-cha’ng 
” ” Sin-tchang . . . 
” » ‘Ta-me-ti ° 
” » ‘Ta-pao-ch’ang 
” » ‘Ting-yiian Hsien 
o », Tung-ch’ang-ho . 
» » ‘Tze-mou 
% »» Yung-pei Ting distrivt 
o mining, prospects of, in Yunnan . 
Bye Onesan ‘ : 
” »  Hei-pei-shui 
” » Ku-ho 
» »  Lo-tzu-chiieh 
” »  Pai-yang 
» » Wei-ning Fu 
ss workings, Sin-cheng 
Covellite 
» 
Cuprite 


Crystalline rocks, occurrence of 


Davies . : . * 
Deprat 

Deprat and Mansuy 

Devonian system, occurrence af 
Didymograptus Murchisoni 


Duclos , ‘ : 
Eul-long, coal, analysis of ‘ 
Eurl-kai, coal 3 : . A 


» analysis of 
Hixsort, of Copper . 
» Of Lead : . 
» of Orpiment ° ° ° 
»  ofSilver . ° ° . 
.. Cf Ze. - ° . - 


42, 121, 


122, 128, 
105, 109, 


42, 118, 


| PaaK. 


139, 
141, 


126, 


114 
117 
106 
117 
120 
106 
106 
117 
121 
117 
11s 
116 
123 
130 
117 
117 
117 
125 
122 
113 
101 
107 
101 

49 


152 
151 
42 
54 
52 
138 


76 
73 
74 
128 
128 
145 
128 
128 


INDEX. 
Export through Méng-tzti 
» through Ssti-mao 
Je through Téng-ytieh . 
G 


Galena . 


Ch’éng-chiang Fu 
Chéng-kung Hsien 
Ching-tung ‘l’ing. 
Ch’ii-ching Fu prefecture 
Lao-pang-tung ‘ 
Ming-kuan, analysis of . 
Pupio Valley 

Yunnan, analysis of 
argentiferous 


Chin ch’ai mine 

Chin-lung-ching . 
Houang-tsao-pa, W. of Téng- yich ‘ 
Kin-sha-chiang, 8. W. of Yung-pei T’ing 
Kwai-ké , ‘ . : , 
Lao-wa-t’an 

Leng-shui-ching 

Lung-ling Lu-chiang 

Ma-kang, 8. of Tchong-tien 

Ma-kou in Lin-an Fu district . 

Ma-lung 

Mi-li 

near A-lu-sh’ih 

near Mo-la tcheng 

near Sin-tchang 

near Ta-lang Ting 

near Tchen-pien T’ing 

reported occurrence of, in sak ai ing Ho 
T’a-lang Ting . 

Té-k6-tchang, W. of Ta- li Ba 

Yalung R. : 

mining, future prospect 


Hei-ching, output of salt from . 


” Salt well 


He-long-tan, Coal, analysis of . 


124, 


191 


PaGE. 


25 
27 


27, 31 


125, 126, 


145, 151, 


148, 


130 
124 
137 
137 

24 
138 
131 
137 
132 
131 
152 
125 
147 
147 
147 
147 
147 
147 
147 
147 
146 
125 
153 
155 
127 
127 
127 
127 
155 
151 
148 
156 
156 


164 
161 
75 


192 INDEX. 


Ho-ch’ing chou, Salt . . ; 
Hong-too-hai, Copper, Lead and Silver ; 
Ho-ti-tang, Salt. ; . ‘ 


Houang-tsao-pa, Gold mine 
Hou-ching, output of Salt from 
a Salt well 
Hsiang-Yen-ching, Salt . 
Hsiao-hsin-kao, Lead ore, analysis of 
Hisao-pa, Coal, analysis of 
Hsi-kung-ching, Salt 
Hsi-shan-kai, [ron 
Hui-li Chou district, Coal 
Hui-lung, argentiferous galena 
Hu Kin Sen . ° . 


IJang Ho, Iron. . . 
Import trade, 'Téng-yiieh 
bo a ‘ ‘ ‘ 
Iron, Ching- —_ Ting 

T) Hsi-o Usien . 

»  Hui-lichou . 

» Kéng-ma . i P ‘ . 

»  Lu-féng Hsien 

» Méng-hua Ting 

ij previous observers on the occurrence eof 

»  Wei-ning Fu 

va Yangtze Valley 

»» Yi-mén Hsien 

» Ytian-mou Hsien . 

» Yung-ch’ang Fu 

»  Yung-pei T’ing 

», Yung-p’ing Hsien . ‘ 

» industry, T’ien-t’ang-kuan 

»» industry, Yunnan, prospects of 

» Ores, Ko-chin ; 2 

»  pyrites. . - 

», smelting, sha-ch’iao 
Irrawaddy-salween divide ‘ 
I-shang-ching. See Ho-ti-tang. 


Jack, Logan . ° ° ° . 
Jadeite . . ° > . . 


Page. 
157 
131 
176 
147 
164 
162 
175 
131 

78 
a 
95 
72 
125 


40, 146 


41, 152, 178, 180 
181 


INDEX. 


Jeshui-tang, Coal, analysis of . gt ne ‘ ‘ 
Joubert ; : - ; - ‘ ‘ 


Kai Fu, Antimony 
K’ai-hua, Gold veins 
Kan-tien, Coal . 
Kao-Liang System, occurrence of 
Ke-lu, Coal 
Ke-ti- pin, Coal 
Kin-sha-chiang, Gold mine 
Ko-chin, Cassiterite 

a9 Silver 
Kong-chan-tchang, Lead aul Fase 
Kouang-chan, argentiferous Galena 
Kuang-tung Hsien, Salt . . . 
Kuei-chou, Gold 
Kuei-chou, Zine. ¥ , = 
Kuei-chou province, Copper 
Kuei-i, argentiferous galena 
Kung-lang, Copper at 


Kwang-nan Fu, Antimony . . ‘ . . 


Kwei-long-chuan, Coal . . . . A ; 


La-Meng Beds 
Lan-ching, output of salt trons) 
=. ss salt wells 
Lang-ch’iung Hsien, Salt near 
Lantenois 2 ; 2 ; ; x : = 
Lao-lou-kouan, Iron : ’ % ‘ 
Lao-pang-tung, Galena: . 
Lao-pé-ya, Iron. . : : - r - 
Lao-sin-tchang, Copper . 
Lao-song-chiu, Coal, analysis of ; : he , 
Lao-Tchang, Copper . : . : : - 
Lao-wa-t’au, Gold . z 5 ‘ a 
Lead, Chao-t’ung Fu a : ‘ d ; 
»  Ch’éng-chiang Fu 
»» Chin ch’ai mine 
» Chii-ching Fu prefeotans ‘ 
» export tradein . ‘ ‘ ‘ : 
»  Hsin-kai-tzu , ‘ ‘ : : 
»  Lan-shih-liang  . . . ; : . 


193 


Page. 


82, 126, 147, 


. 41, 
101, 


65 
148 


181 
150 

68 

51 

72 

69 
147 
140 
125 
127 
127 
157 
148 
138 
122 
124 
120 
18] 

75 


53 
164 
159 
178 
126 

84 
138 

94 
106 

65 
106 
147 
124 
124 
125 
124 
128 
124 
124 


194 INDEX. 


Lead, Niu-kai-tien ‘ ° ° ° 
production of, in Tung-ch’uan Fu 
a 53 ., in Wei-ning-chou 
smelting of, in W. Yunnan 
Tung-ch’uan Fu prefecture 
»  Wei-ning Fu 
» mine, Ch’iao-len . 
Re » Chin-niu 
Keng-ma 
» Kuan-shan . 
ns 5 Lo-ma 
Méng-hsa 
» Mien-hua-li . 
Ming-kuan . 
Yun Chou district 
mining, prospect of 
jy OFeB .« ‘ . 
,, Hsiao-hsin-kai 
» 9» Hui-lung 
Kai-hua Fu 
» oo Kung-shan 
» 9» Lung-chou 
» »» Méag-ho 
Méng-tzu Hsien 
» » Ming-kuan valley 
»» Pan-san ; . 
» 9, Sin-kai-tse 
Shun-ning Fu 
Tung-ch’uan 
», Wei-ning Chou district ‘ 
Taxlare Pass ‘ A 
Liang-chong-kin, bopper’ mines 5 ib 
Li-chiang Fu, argentiferous galena 


. ,, Copper mines in 
Lignite, analysis of és ‘ 4 
£5 in Eastern Yunnan 
a in Nan Tien : ; 
Limonite é ; . i . 
Lin-an Fu, Copper ‘ . . i‘ 
aS » Gold 2 ‘ : 
% 5» Lead . : j . 
Li-tang R., Gold, washing in the 
Loczy, Ludig von ‘ 
Lo-ma, Copper ores 
es Silver ‘i ’ ‘ é é 
Lo-mi-chu, Silver . ‘ ‘ 


Lou-fa-tchang, Copper mines a . ‘ 


3, 105, 


PAGE, 


126, 141, 


- 


124 
127 
127 
134 
124 
122 
124 
124 
137 
124 
124 
137 
124 
128 
137 
139 
137 
128 
125 
126 
128 
125 
125 
126 
128 
126 
126 
138 
126 
128 
151 
101 
125 
117 

61 

61 

60 
130 
123 

12 
125 
156 

40 
124 
124 
137 
101 


Loung-kay-tze, Lead and Zine . 
Lon-pou, Copper 

Lu-féng Hsien, Iron 
Lung-chou, argentiferous galaae 


Ma-ch’ang, Coal 

- vicinity of, Coal 
Ma-kang, Gold mine 
Ma-kou, Gold mine 
Ma-kon-ho, Copper mines at 
Malachite 
Ma-lin, Silver mines 
Ma-li pa, Iron castings 


ke Iron smelting . 
Ma-lung, Gold 

a Silver mine 
Marble 


Marco Polo 

Ma-tsao-ku, Coal 

Méng-ho, Silver mine 

Méng-tzu, Lead and Silver mines 

Mercury, Ta-chuang 

Mey-houa-Chan, Lead and Zinio 

Miao-tsway, Coal 

Mien-ning T’ing Series 

Mi-Ié, Coal, analysis of 

Mi-li, Gold in 

Ming-kuan, Lead fining’ 

Mining, modes of the Chinese . 
sf administration, Chinese 

Mi-si-sao, Coal, analysis of 

Mispickel 

Mo-hei, Salt mine . 

Mo-lou- -tchang, Gold 


Monod : : : ‘ 
Monograptus gregarius 
” Sedgwicki 


Mung-hua T’ing, Copper in 


Nan-Tien Series 


Ni-ou-ke, Coal je . 
Nin-kai-tien, Silver ores . - 


INDEX. 


195 


PaGe. 
127 
105 

95 
125 


69 
72 
147 
146 
100 
113, 119 
125 
90 
88 
125 
125 
18] 
145 
72 
125 
126 
180 
127 
66 
50 
65 
153 
128 
43 
44 
65 
126 
178 
152 
41 
53 
538 
119, 120 


59 
63 
124 


196 INDEX. 


0 
PAGE. 
Ordovician system, occurrence of. ; ‘ , . ? a 52 
Ore deposition, Chinese theories of . ° ‘ , ‘ : ‘ 43 
Orpiment . : ‘ ; : : : ; : ‘ . 142 
me export of : A . ; és rs ‘ F F 145 
Orthoceras vesiculosus ‘ : A : ° : é : ‘ 53 


Ou ki Tehe . ‘ ‘ ‘ - : ‘ , ‘ ‘ . 40, 146 


P 
Pai-ching, Coal, analysis of — . : : ; “ “ H - yee 
Pai-yang, Silver mine. ~ . . : P : é ; 125 
Pan-San, argentiferous lead. “ : A : : F 126 
Pao-fung-ching, Salt wells ‘ ‘ . : - . ; ; 169 
Pao-p’ing-ch’ang, Geology of . . . : . . ; P 113 
Pa-sha-shan, Coal . . . . . : ° . . ‘ 71 
Peat, in Tengyiieh ‘ - 4 ; - A . i 61 
Pe-cha-po, Lead and Silver. : - : . : ’ ; 127 
Permian, Upper, occurrence of : : ; - ‘ ; , 56 
Permo-Carboniferous system, occurrence of : . . : 55 
Pe-tchen, Copper mine near. . ‘ : . ; “ . 103 
P’ing-tai, Lron . . ; . : . . é : = 94 
Pliocence, occurrence of . ; : : 4 : ; : ; 59 
Porphyrite  . . . . : - : . - - - 101 
Ports . . . . ° : . . : : - - 25 
Products, agricultural . . ‘ : : ; , ; - 8 
Pu-érh-tou, Coal . : ‘ ; A ; ‘ . : : 72 
P’u-erh Fu, Salt. : ‘ . . : ‘ . . « S64, IT 
Pu-piao beds ‘ , ‘ ° . : . ; : ; 52 
Pyrrhotite . - . , . : : . E . 131 
R 
Realgar ‘ : . . . . ‘ : : 3 - 144 
Red Beds. ; , . . . : . , . . 56 


Reed, FR. C. ° . e e ° ° ° os . 7 . 42, 53 
Rocher, E. . ‘ : . - - : i. - 40, 82, 117, 124, 141 
Rock Salt, Lang-ch’ung Hsien . . . * . . 178 


Salt, An-ning Chou ais ° . ° » ‘ P - — 157, 178 
,, Ch’éng-chiang Fu . . . . ° . . . . 157 


INDEX. 


Salt, Chén Yiian T’ing 
», Chiao-hou-ching 
», Ching-tung T’ing 
». Chou-ching Fu 
»» Ch’u-hsuing Fu 
»» Ho-ch’ing Chou 
» Ho-ti-tang 
» Hsiang-yen-ching 
» Kuang-tung Hsien . 
» Lang-ch’iung Hsien 
»» Li-chiang Fu . 
,, manufacture of, at Hei tekush 


- 9 at Hou-ching . 

% ” at Lan-ching . 

99 ” at Yen-ching . 

9 ” at Yen-tang . 

9 ¥9 in Yen Yiian Histon. 
» Output of .. ; : 

* i at Hei ching . 

* % at Hou-ching 

am 9 at Lan-ching . 


»» prospects of, in Yiin-lung chou 

» P’u-erh Fu 

» La-li Fu 

» Ting-Yuan Hsien district 

» Wei-Yuian 

» Wu-ting Chou 

.s Yao-Chou 

» Yunnan Fu 

,, Yiin-lung Chou 

., Yiin-lung-Chou district 

., mine, Mo-hei . 4 : 
San-chia-ch’ang, Copper mine . A 
San-tao-k ou, Silver mine 
Sha-ch’iao, Iron smelting 
Sha-ho-ch’ang, Copper mine 
Shih-tien beds 
Shih-yang, Silver mine 
Shun-ning Fu Series 

ssow~S ss Ver Mines 
Silurian system, occurrence of 
Silver, Chao-t’ung Fu prefecture 

53 export trade in 

9s Hsin-kai-tzu . 

»  Ko-chin os ‘ ‘ 

»  Lan-shib-liang . ; ‘ 

mA Li-chiang Fu . ° 


198 


Silver, near Mo-la-tcheng ‘ . 
near Sin-tchang 

near Ta-lang ‘T’ing 

near Tchen-pien T’ing . 


29 


9° 


bE 


Niu-kai-tien 
production of, in 


29> 


smelting of, in W. Yunnan . 
Tung-ch’uan Fu prefecture . 
Wei-ning Fu. 4 

Yung pei T’ing distric 

mine, Ch’iao-lien. 


3° 


”? 


Ch’in-niu. Z 
Kuan-Shan . 

Lo-ma 

Ma-lin : 
Mien-hua-ti . ‘ : 


Shun-ning Fu prefecture 
Wei-hsi T’ing district 
Yung-ch’ ing 


mining, prospect of 
Silver ore, Hsiao-hsin-kai 


Msin-p’ing Hsien 
Hui-lung 

Kung-Shan 

Lan-shui-t’ou 

Lung-chou . 
Ma-lung ‘ ‘ . 
Méng-ho ; . 
Méng-tzu . é ‘ 
Ming-kuan Valley . . 
Pai-yang R , 4 
Pan-San . . . 
Pao-ping . ‘ . 
San-tao-k’ou . ‘ 
Shih-yang 

Sin-kai-tse 

Tai-ho . : ‘ 
Ta-mei-ti 

Tung-ch’uan . ; 
Wei-ning Chou district . 
Yung-shen : Z 


Sin-kai, coal, analysis of 

Sin-kai-tse, Lead and Silver mines . 
Sin-tien, Coal 

Si-yang, Coal ; ; . , 


+» analysis of . , 


INDEX. 


Tung-ch’uan Fu . 
in Wei-ning chou 


PAGE. 
127 
127 
127 
127 
124 
127 
127 
134 
124 
122 
137 
124 
124 
124 
124. 
125 
124 
125 
128 
125 
139 
128 
125 
125 
128 
125 
125 
125 
125 
126 
128 
125 
126 
125 
125 
125 
126 
125 
125 
126 
128 
125 
70 
126 
64 
76 
76 


Smith, E. A. ; 
Soui-Tcheou Fu, Gold near 
Spirifer tonkinensis 

Ssu-mao, Anthracite 

Stibnite. See Antimony. 
Sui-ku-Shan, Lead-zine Sulphide 


Ta-ching, Salt wells 
Ta-chuang, native mercury 
Ta-ho-tsun, Coal 
Tai-ho, Silver mine 3 
Tai-pin-ch’ang, Coal, analysis of 
Ta-kuan, Coal ; ; 
Ta-lang-tchang, Gold and Silver 
T’a-lang, Gold mines, account of 
Ta-li Fu, Cinnabar 
Ta-li Fu, Copper 
Ta-li Fu, Marble 
Ta-li Fu, Silver 
Ta-me-ti, Copper near , 
Tang-tan, Copper deposits of . 
Tang-ta-tchang, Copper mines at 
Ta-tsang-kuan-miao, Copper 
Ta-wa-tzu, Coal 
Ta-yao-chai, Coal, near . 2 é 
Tchen-pien-Tchang, Gold and Silver 
Teng-ch’uan Chou, Iron . ; 
Téng-yiieh, Jade-cutting industry 
Thomas ko , ‘ . 
Tien-erh-ching, Salt wells 
Tien-pao, Copper 
T’ien-t’ang Kuan, Iron 
Tin : 
Tin, Ko-chin. 4 a A 
», Output of, during 1891—1908 . 
» Tung-ch’uan Fu 
Ting-yiian Hsien, Copper mine at 
s om ait 
Tong-ch’uan, Coal . 
Tong-Shan, Galena 
es ;» limonite 
me », Zine blende. 
Tong-tchang-ho, Copper mines at 
Tou-li-chou, Copper mines at . 


INDEX. 
i 
T 
148, 


199 


AGE. 
140 
148 

54 


73 


140 


200 INDEX. 


Tou-tza, Coal, analysis of 

Trade 

Trade returns 

Trade routes ‘ ‘ 
Triassic system, occurrence of. 
Tse-sou, Coal 

T’sang Shan complex 

Tsi-tien, Coal i ‘ 
Tung-ch’uan, Lead and ee mines 
Tung-ch’uan Fu, argentiferous galena 
Tung-chuan Fu, Cobalt . 
Tung-ch’uan Fu, Copper 

T’ung-hai Hsien, Coal 

Turquoise 

Tween, A 


Wan-yao, Iron castings . 
Way, H. W. L. 
Wei-hsi T’ing, Copper 
ase. Gunna, Hee. and Silver 
Wei-ning Chou, Copper . 
» 9» 9» Lead and Silver 
Se oe 
Wei-ning Fu, Copper 
Tron 
ona Lead 
9 oe Silver 
ae Zine 
Wei-teou-chan, Copper 
Wei-yiian T’ing, Salt 
Williams, C. . : : ; 
Wu-lu-pu, Gold washing . P : 
Wu-lu-t’ien, Gold washing 
Wu-t’ing Chou, Salt : 


Ya-lung, basins of, gold in 
Yang-tze R., Gold sands 
= series . ; 
- Yao-chou, Salt. : - 
Y-long-ho-pa, Zine ° 
Yi-mén Hsien district, Copper hitwens 


10 


15 


PAGE. 


2, 


7, 


65 
25 
29 
19 
57 
64 
50 
rere 
126 
124 
18] 
105 
77 
182 
132 


90 
121 
102 
128 
100 
127 
138 
122 
122 
122 
122 
122 
103 
177 
142 
152 
152 
157 


156 
151 

50 
157 
127 
117 


INDEX, 


Yi-na-ch’ang, Iron ‘ ‘ ° 
Ying-pan-kai, Iron smelting 
Yuan-chiang Fu, argentiferous galena 


Yiian-mou Hsien, Iron . : . 
Yun chu series ‘ * . 
Yung-ch’ang Fu, Iron 
35 Silver mine . i 

Yung-ch’ing, Silver mines 5 . 
Yung-pei Ting, Iron smelting at. : 

in a district, Copper 

> ys >» Copper mines at 

” % » Geology of 
Yung-shan Hsien, Lead and Silver . 
Yung-Shen, Silver mine 2 : . 


Yiin-lung Chou, Salt 
Yiin lung Chou district, Silver 


Z 
Zinc, export trade in , . 2 ° 
» Ko-chin * y 4 . 
»» production of, in Tung-ch’uan Fu. 
- “a in Wei-ning Chou 
»» Smelting at Ma-lou-kio . . . 
»» Wei-ning Fu . - ; « . 
» blende . e “ ; 5 £ 
»» mining, prospect of ° ‘ 


» ore, Hui-li-chou z P 
9 265 Kung-Shan . . . 
» 9», Ssu-chuan : ‘ ; ‘ 
»» »» Tcha-tse-Tchang ° ; ; 
» 9 Wei-ning Chou. - ; 
>» »» Wei-ning Chou district . : 


201 


PAGE. 
94 
88 

125 
94 
50 
94 

125 

125 
95 

109 

116 

111 

124 

125 

157 

125 


128 
125 
127 
127 
138 
122 
130 
139 
138 
128 
138 
138 
138 
128 


CALCUTTA 
SUPERINTENDENT GOVERNMENT PRAN'NNG, INDIA 
8, HASTINGS STREET 


MVAPAS 
‘ 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 


Memoirs, Vol. XLVII, PI. 


MOULD SHED OF AN IRON FOUNDRY (note piston of cylindrical blower). 


y J. Coggin Brown. G. S. L. Calcutta. 


FOUNDRY FOR IRON PANS, NEAR SHUN-NING FU, 


l. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 
Meéemoirs,) Vol. XLVII, Pl. 2. 


FIG. 1. LOW IRON FURNACE OF THE TIEN-TAUNG KUAN IN BLAST. 


Photographs by J. Coggin Brown. G. S. 1. Calcgtta. 
FIG. 2. HIGH BLAST FURNACE FOR IRON ORES SHOWING TURBINE-BLOWER, YUNG-CH’ANG FU. 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 


Memoirs, Vol. XLVII, Pl. 3. 


.. Se 


FIG. 1. SMALL IRON BLAST FURNACE IN THE TIEN-TAUNG KUAN, FRONT VIEW. 


Sw 2 
As 


¥ as a 
et tk * 
: #- eB. . 


Photographs by J. Coggin Brown. G. S. 7. Caleutta. 


FIG. 2, SIDE VIEW OF THE LOW IRON BLAST FURNACE OF THE TIEN-TAUNG KUAN, 


GLHOLOGIGAL SORVLY GFR INDIA, 
Memoirs, Vol. XLVII, Pl. 4. 


FIG. 1. KILNS FOR CALCINING COPPER ORES, PO-P’ING-CH’ANG. 


Photographs by J. Coggin Brown. G. S. LZ. Cateutta. 
FIG. 2, HIGH BLAST FURNACES FOR SMELTING COPPER ORES, PO-P’ING-CH’ANG. 
Front view of a bench of four. 


“NYNYA-ONIW 'VNI1TV9 ONIHSNYD YO4 LNIWFJONVYYY 


UROL UES 17 +f Ag P2YLDASOJOY, | 


js 


Rew , Gt hee 
, whametta nah seer act 


"9 ‘Id ‘IIATX ‘[9A ‘StioWaW 
VOTND REL SE ge Tea Fe a ao). 27 ODD 


GEOLOG/CAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 
Memoirs, Vol. XLVII. Pl. 6. 


FIG. 1. BACK VIEW OF LEAD BLAST FURNACES IN THE MING-KUAN, (Showing blower). 


Photographs by ifs Core tn Brown. meas ¢. Calcd. 


FIG. 2. FRONT VIEW OF LEAD BLAST FURNACES IN THE MING-KUAN 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 


(a 


Memoirs, Vol. XLVII, Pl. 


Calcutta 


Ls 


sy 


Photographed by J. Coggin Brown. 


WORKINGS IN A HIGH LEVEL GOLD-BEARING BENCH DEPOSIT, NEAR A-LU-SHIH, 


GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF J/NDIA. 


Memoirs, Vol. XLVII, Pl. 8. 


mtr 


IG. 1. GOLD WASHING IN THE YANG-TZE NEAR CHIN-CH’IANG-KAI. 


Photographs by J. Coggin Brown. Geos Le Calcutia, 
FIG. 2, GOLD WASHING NEAR A-LU-SHIH. 


~~ 
~ 


69687) =PhnloB 


KN oe 


aio 461 
{e) 


S > Songean 


G. S. 1. Caltatte: 


Photographs by J. Coggin Brown. 
FIG. 2. GOLD WASHING NEAR A-LU-SHIH. 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 


VOLUME XLVII, PART Q. 


THE ALKALINE LAKES AND THE SSNA INDUSTRY OF SIND. By 


G. DE P. COTTER, B.A., SC.D. (DuB.), F.G.S., ae diesses 
Geological Survey of India. 


Published by order of the Government of India. 


- GALCUTTA : 
SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 
27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD. 


1923. 


Srice Rirpees Four. 


MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 


Vor. 


Vor. 


Von, 


Vou. 


Vor. 


Vor. 


Vor. 


Vou. 


Vou. 


Vou. 


Vot. 
Vout. 
Vot. 


Vou. 
Von. 


VoL. 


I. 


Il, 


IT. 


IV. 


VIl. 


VII. 


IX. 


xX. 
XI. 
XII. 
XXIII. 


XIV. 
XV. 


XVI. 


Pt. 1, 1856 (out of print) (price 1 Re.) : Coal and Iron of Talchir.— 
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Geological structure of central portion of Nerbudda District.—Tertiary 
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relations and probable age of systems of rocks in Central India and 
Bengal. 

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remarks on systems of rocks in Central India and Bengal.—Indian 
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Pt. 1, 1863 (out of print) (price 2 Rs.) : Cretaceous Rocks of Trichino- 
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. Pt. 1, 1865 (out of print) (price 3 Rs.) : Sections across N.-W. Himalaya, 


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in Sind.—Geology of portion of Cutch. Pt. 2, 1867, Rep. 1908 and 
1921 (price 2 Rs.) : Bokdro Coal-field.—Ramgarh Coal-field. Traps of 
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Pt. 1, 1869 (price 3 Rs.) : Vindhyan series—Mineral Statistics : Coal.— 
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> cir Pt. 3, 1889 (price 2 Rs.) : Coastal Region of Godavari Dis- 
rict 


2 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 


—— 


* 
= mes ca 
GF enn Ere 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 


VOLUME XLVII, PART 2. 


THE ALKALINE LAKES AND THE SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. BY _ 


G. DE P. COTTER, B.A., SC.D. (DUB.), F.G.S., Superintendent, 
Geological Survey of India. 


Published by order of the Government of India. 


CALCUTTA : 
SOLD AT THE OFFICE OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 
27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD, 


oo 


1923. 


CONTENTS. 


CHsarrreR I.—InNrTRODUCTION 


Method of Fivanination 
Physical Features of the Sind Desert 
The Lakes or Dhands 


CuaprerR I].—Tur Kuatrpur State ; NARA REGION 


Producing dhands west of the Nara 
Large alkaline dhands west of the Nara 
Producing dhands east of the Nara 
Large alkaline dhands east of the Nara 
Summary of Results of Survey 


Cuaprer II].—TuHm Kuarrpur Stare, Kor JuBo REGION 


Introductory . 
Producing dhands of 1899 eotpared wih those of 1918 
Producing dhands between the two dra-ins 
Dhands on the outer margins of the dra-ins 
Large alkaline dhands of Kot Jubo area 
Corrections in the Survey of India Map sheet 44 
Sindh Revenue Survey, scale 1”=1 mile 
Distribution of salt and soda in dhands 


CHAPTER IV.—TuHr NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA OF THE Na wanseant 


DISTRICT 


CuaptrER V.—Tur THAR AND PARKAR ‘Disweror: iseuiy & AND Kura 


TALUQAS. : 
History of the Chante intiistzy in Thar and Parkes 3 
The Sanghar taluga. Jakrao =e Bakar tapa, south- 

eastern portion . . : 
Khipro taluqa, north-western cegickt: 

Po south-eastern region .« i 
Dhands of the Diplo and Mithi sa oa Dhands i in 
Karachi District . 


CHAPTER VI.—CHEMICAL ANALYSES 


Analyses of Bitterns , ° 
Analyses of Chaniho ; origin of sliclive inkes 


AppENDIX.—ESTIMATION OF CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES IN TROPICAL 


CLIMATES 


CHAPTER VII.—PRODUCTION OF Chantho IN Srey’. 


Production of the Khairpur State 
Production of the Nawabshah District e 
Total Production of Sind . ‘é ‘ ‘ : é 


ses 


vi 


INDEX . 


CONTENTS. 


Markets for Chaniho ‘ ° ‘ . , 

Uses of Chaniho . ‘ , ‘ 

Grades of Chantho . 

Quality of Chaniho . ’ 

Prices of Chantho. Methods of ‘Bxtraoting. 

Prices of Soda-Ash, and Consumption of Soda in Tndia 
Total Quantity of Soda available in Sind 

Conclusion . ; . ° . 


LIST OF PLATES. 


PxiAtE 10—View of Ganjawari Dhand, looking westwards, showing the embank- 

ments of mud dividing the dhand into compartments. 

» 1l—View of Pakhyaro Dhand, taken from the south-eastern bank, show- 
ing the stacks of chantho on its shores. 

» 12—View of the Pur Chandar Dhand. 

» 13—Specimens of Chiroli (selenite) reduced to half natural size. 

», 14—Genera! topographical map of southern Sind. 

»» 15—Map of the Dhands of the Nara tapa, Khairpur State. 

» 16—Map of the Dhands of the Jubo tapa, Khairpur State. 

»» 17—Map of the Dhands of the Nawabshah taluqa, and part of Thar and 
Parkar. 

» 18—Map of the Dhands of the Sanghar and part of the Khipro taluqas, 
Thar and Parkar. 


[ vi ] 


alae eg 


nin Cte 


Pe 


ia 


MEMOIRS 


OF 


THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 


THE ALKALINE LAKES AND THE SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 
BY G. Diere COTTER bees (DUB.), F.G.S., 
Superintendent, Geological Survey of India. 


CHAPTER I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


HE soda industry of Sind appears to have existed from time 
immemorial, although it has attracted little 
notice, on account of the smallness of the 
output. No scientific examination has hitherto been made of these 
deposits, but certain samples of alkali were analysed in 1901 in the 
laboratory of the Reporter on Economic Products to the Govern- 
ment of India (Mr. I. H. Burkill). In the maps of the Survey 
of India, published from 1860 to 1863 (scale 1”=1 mile), one of 
the lakes of the desert is marked ‘“ Natron producing.”! The soda 
is also described as Natron in the first edition of the Sind Gazetteer 
published 1874.2. “In the desert portion of Khairpur ” says the 
Gazetteer “are pits of natron—an impure sesquicarbonate of soda 
and always found containing sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium. 
It is generally obtained by means of evaporation. These natron 
pits are a source of income to the ruling Mir, as many as a thousand 
camel-loads of this substance being annually exported to Northern 


Introduction. 


' Sheet 43, Sind Survey, scale 1”=1 mile. 
* Sind Gazetteer, 1874, p. 407. 


( 202 ) B 


203°. COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


and Central India, as also to the sea-board, each camel-load being 
taxed at 24 rupees.” <A further mention of soda in this Gazetteer 
is as follows. ‘‘ Thar and Parkar...... Soda, or khara chania, is 
obtained from the dhandhs, and exported, and cheroli, a sulphate 
of lime, or gypsum, is found near the village of Ghulam Nabi jo 
Got.””t 

The analyses made by Mr. Burkill, prove that the mineral is 
trona (urao), and not natron as it is called above. The term 
natron is, however, loosely used in the Gazetteer, while the descrip- 
tion of the compound as a sesquicarbonate of soda shows that the 
mineral now known as trona was alluded to, since the mineralogists 
of that time regarded trona as a sesquicarbonate, 


The late war with Germany and consequent difficulty of 
obtaining supplies from England drew the attention of the Govern- 
ment of India and the Indian Munitions Board to the examination 
of those natural resources of India which in time of peace have 
remained undeveloped owing to the low prices of imported com- 
modities. Since manufactured soda in England averaged in price 
between £4 and £5 per ton befcre the outbreak of war, the develop- 
ment of natural deposits of trona could only be regarded as a 
paying pruposition in cases where the deposits occurred on a vast 
scale, as at Owens Lake in California or Lake Magadi in the British 
Rast Africa protectorate. In view of the low price, the develop- 
ment of small deposits such as those of the Sind desert, situated as 
they are at a considerable distance from the railway, was not 
regarded as commercially feasible except for local trade. In 1917 
the question of the examination of the soda of Sind was taken up 
by the Indian Munitions Board and by the Geological Survey of 
India, and it was finally decided that an officer should be sent to 
Sind to examine these deposits. 

Accordingly I received orders to tour in Sind in the cold weather 
of 1918-19, and to report upon the soda deposits there. 

My tour lasted from November 9th to February the 13th, 
aitnough the actual work of investigation was done in December 
and January. When I reached Sukkur early in November, I was 
fortunate enough to find the Commissioner in Sind (Mr. H. S. 
Lawrence, C.8.1., 1.0.8.) in Sukkur on tour. Mr. Lawrence was 
greatly interested in my investigation, and very greatly assisted 


1 Sind Gazetteer, 1874, p. 825, 


INTRODUCTION. 204. 


me by deputing the Assistant Commissioner of Salt, Excise, and 
Opium, Mr. E. L. Thurley to accompany me on my tour. 
Mr. Thurley joined me just before Christmas, and gave me the 
full assistance of his department in collecting samples of lake- 
water and dry specimens of salt and alkali. I was thus enabled to 
handle a far greater number of specimens than I could have done 
unassisted. In Khairpur State, the Vazir of Khairpur sent one of 
the State officials connected with the soda trade, Mr. Mohammed 
Khan, to my camp. This officer gave me great help in showing 
me the various dhands, and accompanying me on tour throughout 
the State. Without his aid, travelling in this desert country would 
have been exceedingly difficult, 


In the talugas of Nawabshah, Sanghar, and Khipro, I received 
much help from the Mukhtiarkars, who both assisted in the collec- 
tion of samples, and in obtaining information from the local villagers 
regarding dhands which had ceased to yield chaniho. My thanks 
are due to these officials, through whose aid I was enabled to make 
a fairly comprehensive survey of the soda industry of Sind, 

In order to examine the water of the alkaline lakes, I came 
equipped with a small travelling laboratory 
for volumetric analysis. It was my practice 
to visit each dhand, and after making the 
usual observations regarding size, depth, etc., fill a bottle with the 
bittern, which was afterwards tested in camp. On arrival in camp 
the specific gravity was first taken by means of hydrometers 
graduated to three places of decimals; the bittern was then tested 
for total alkalinity with half-normal acid, and usually for salinity 
with standard silver nitrate of the same strength. Roughly 
graduated school burettes were used, so that the results are not so 
accurate as those made in a laboratory, although they are sufficiently 
accurate for all practical purposes. 

It was not found possible to determine the sulphate content 
volumetrically. An attempt was made to do so by Wildenstein’s 
method. The bitterns are however so much cc)oured by” organic 
matter, that the end-point of the reaction was quite impossible to 
determine. 

Fifty-seven samples of bitterns were collected and sent to the 
Geological Survey Laboratory in Caleutta for further more accurate 
analysis, Besides these a large numbet of specimens of crude 
trona (chantho) were collected and sent to Caleutta for analysis, 


B2 


Method of  exami- 
nation. 


205 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


This report deals mainly with an area in Eastern Sind, com- 
prised by the southern half of the Khairpur 
Physical features of §tate, the eastern half of Nawabshah district, 
the Sind Desert. 
and the northern half of Thar and Parkar 
(see Plate 14). 
This area is entirely covered by alluvial clays or by wind-blown 
sand, and there are no outcrops of rock visible. 


It is bisected in a north-south direction by the East Nara Canal. 
This canal lies in the bed of an ancient river, known to history as 
the Hakro or Lost River of Sind.t. The only other canal which 
need be mentioned is the Jamrao, which leaves the East Nara, 
near the southern boundary of Khairpur State, and runs in a S.W. 
direction into Nawabshah district, finally turning south into Thar 
and Parkar. 


Roughly speaking the area covered by alluvial clays and silts 
lies entirely west of the Nara, and south of the Jamrao. The area 
covered by wind-blown sand includes all the country east of the 
Nara, and north of the Jamrao Canal. I shall proceed to give 
short descriptions of each of these areas. 


The allavial country south of the Jamrao and east of the Nara, 
is covered by fine clays and silts, which, it is important to observe, 
are very highly impervious to water. This fact has been demon- 
strated by observations of leakage of water from the Jamrao and 
from other canals, which show that while that part of the canal 
which runs through sand-hills allows large amounts of water to 
escape through the walls, only a very small percentage of water 
leaks from the canal where it runs through alluvium. 

A large portion of the soil of this country is unfit for cultiva- 
tion, being highly charged with mineral salts, known as rch or 
kalar. These are mixtures of the chloride, sulphate, and carbonate 
of sodium, but of very variable composition, the chloride being 
largely predominant in this area. 

A few halophytes grow upon this soil, the most abundant being 
small shrubs of the Goosefoot order (Salsola, Sueda.). 

Regarding these plants Brandis? remarks, “As far as known, 
their roots largely take up salts of sodium, while most other trees 
and shrubs mainly take up potassium salts, though sodium salts 


1 Sind Gazetteer, 1907, p- 323, also J. As. Soc. Bengal, LXI, pt. 1. 
2 Sir D. Brandis, “ Indian Trees ”, p. 518, 


INTRODUCTION. 206 


are always present in the soil. Their ashes are rich in sodium 
chloride, and many species were formerly and are still here and 
there employed to make an impure carbonate of soda (Barilla, 
Sajqr).” 

In Sind and in the Kachhi district of Kalat, which is geographi- 
cally a continuation of the Sind plain, small quantities of ths crude 
carbonate (barilla or sajji) are manufactured by burning and 
lixiviating the ashes of these chenopodiacious plants, locally known 
as lant. Doubtless a certain amount of reduction takes place 
during the process of burning, in a manner crudely similar to that 
of the Leblanc process. I mean that the roots of these plants which 
contain various sodium salts, carbon in the woody tissue, and @ 
certain amount of calcium carbonate in the calcareous soil mixed 
with the roots, react under the influence of heat, so that the total 
amount of carbonate after burning is considerably greater than 
that originally present. 


The soda produced in this manner is small in quantity, and lies 
outside the scope of my enquiry. I need not therefore allude to 
it again. 

Another tree of common occurrence, especially near the saline 
dhands, is the tamarisk. I shall allude subsequently to the curious 
apparent connection between the rounded mounds of  chiroli 
(gypsum) seen so frequently on the shores of saline dhands, and 
this tree. 

Several other halophytes are found, but they do not appear to 
be of interest in my present enquiry. 

The alluvial country is fairly free from large sand-dunes, but 
small incipient crescent-shape dunes, technically known to science 
as barkhans, are of common occurrence throughout this area, Near 
Karachi they have received a special description from 
Mr. R. D. Oldham. 

The second tract, comprising the country east of the Nara and 
north of the Jamrao, is entirely covered with wind-blown sand. 
East of the Nara and in the south of Thar and Parkar, the sand- 
hills are aligned in long parallel ridges, called in Sindhi bhits, the 
direction being parallel to that of the prevailing monsoon winds. — 
In the south of Thar and Parkar near Diplo, Mithi, Nagar, and 


1R. D. Oldham, Mem. Geol. Sur. Ind., Vol, XXXIV, pt. 3. 


©) 


- 


OT om COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Umarkot, the general direction is N.E.-S.W., or E.N.E.-W.S.W. 
Near Khipro the direction changes to N.E. by N. and finally N.N.EK. 
in Sanghar taluga and the south of Khairpur State. In that part 
of Khairpur State which lies west of the Nara, the direction of the 
bhits is almost due north. Mr. R. D. Oldham, in the 2nd_ edition 
of the Manual of the Geology of India,! has explained and illustrated 
the formation of the sand-hills of the Sind desert. He recognises 
two types of sand-hills, (1) the longitudinal ridges or bhits, aligned 
as has been noted above, parallel to the direction of the monsoon 
winds, and (2) the transverse dunes, aligned more regularly, but 
generally transversely to the prevailing direction of the wind, 
Oldham remarks that “the restriction of the longitudinal type of 
sand-hill to the seaward and western margins of the desert appears 
to show that they are connected with a greater wind force than 
the transverse type.” 

In the area with which I am dealing, the most southerly portion 
of the sand-covered country in the Khipro taluga, is characterised 
by long parallel sand-hills. Between the sand-hills, the old original 
alluvial soil, which must everywhere underlie the sand-hills, is 
either at or very close to the surface. The valleys between the 
bhits or sand-ranges are locally known as talis, or tullees as spelt 
on the maps. 

The winds which blow from the Rann of Kachh are strongest 
near the coast, and in this coastal area characterised by strong 
winds, the bhits are in unconnected parallel ridges. The further 
north we travel, the more do we observe the bhits to be connected 
by transverse ridges. In the southern part of the Khairpur State 
west of the Nara, the bhits or sand-hills have in places almost a 
haphazard appearance, although the north-south trend of the 
targer bhits cannot fail to be noticed if looked for. This is a region 
of small oval shaped talis (valleys or hollows between the sand- 
hills) some of which contain shallow lakes (dhands) and some of 
Which are dry but studded with green shrubs and trees. The same 
features are found on the east of the Nara in Khairpur State for a 
distance of about 25 miles from this canal. 

The eastern part of the Khairpur State lies in a rather different 
type of country. To the east of the old fort of Kot Jubo the 


* Manual of the Geol. of Ind., 2nd edition, p. 455. 
See also Holland and Ohristie, Rec. Geol. Sur. I nd., Vol. XXXVIII, p. 163. 


INTRODUCTION, 208 


quantity of sand deposited by the wind has been so great as to cover 
completely the whole face of the country with plateaux of deep 
sand, These plateaux of soft deep sand, continually changing 
their shape with every breeze, over which all tracks are obliterated 
in a few hours, are called by the Sindhis dra-in. The dra-ins are 
difficult to cross, since one’s feet sink deep into the sand. Only the 
local camels can negotiate them. When crossing the dra-ins, one 
finds oneself in a veritable billowy sea of sand with no single scrap 
of vegetation to vary the monotony of the brown hills. The sand 
is disposed in beautiful irregular curves of hills and hollows; it is 
impossible to cross in a straight line, the path being a series of 
semicircles, whereby the distance is greatly lengthened in travelling 
from one point to another. Yet after travelling thus over this 
barren waste for hours, one may suddenly come upon a_ hollow 
rather deeper than usual, filled with vegetation and _ greenery. 
Such hollows are locally known as kochur, and there is usually damp 
ground or perhaps a little water at their bottoms. Other still deeper 
hollows contain shallow lakes or dhands (also called in this neighbour- 
hood tith or duba). 


Although it is customary to speak of this part of Sind as a desert, 
it is by no means so devoid of vegetation as Baluchistan. Only 
the dra-ins are entirely barren; the bhAits and talis which cover 
most of the country have quite a vigorous flora of their own. The 
average rainfall at Umarkot for the three years ending 1903 was 
6 inches, at Hyderabad the average rainfall was 7 inches ; these 
figures being greater than those for western Sind and the Kachhi 
district of Kalat, and nearly equal to the figures for the highlands 
of Baluchistan. The Sind desert therefore receives quite an 
appreciable amount of rain. Doubtless a large proportion of this 
is lost again by evaporation, but still a certain percentage is absorbed 
by the sand, through which it sinks downwards until it is held up 
by the impervious alluvial clay which underlies the desert sand. 
As a result the basal layers of desert sand are kept moist by the 
absorbed rain-water, and yield springs in places where a deep tali 
exposes the lower layers of the sand. There isa special term in Sindh 
for this kind of percolating water, it is called sim water, and many 
dhands are also termed sims, which signifies that the water of these 
particular dhands is not regarded as surface rain-water nor as flood 
water from the Nara, but as percolating water from the lower 
layer of desert sand. On the other hand the plains of western 


209 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Sind and of Kachhi, which are free from sand, do not absorb so 
large a percentage of water; the rain-storms give rise to sudden 
floods, but the water is rapidly carried away into the nullahs, and 
finally reaches the Indus. 

Like all desert plains that of Sind is characterised by the absence 
of water-courses ; such as do exist are water-courses in decay like 
the old river bed of the Kast Nara or the Sang nullah on the site 
of which the Jamrao Canal is constructed. I have not made any 
systematic examination of the desert trees, but in passing, it may 
be as well to mention a few of the more common types. Perhaps 
the commonest tree is AKundi (Prosopis spicigera) a thorny middle 
size tree of the Mimosa family ; Phog (Calligonum polygonoides) an 
almost leafless shrub ; Kirar (Capparis aphylla) a leafless caper, as 
its name implies; Khip (Leptadenia spartium) a twiggy shrub from 
the fibre of which ropes are made; Kabbar (Salvadora persica) an 
evergreen shrub, very common in the bottoms of salt talis. The 
tamarisk is common in the south in the Khipro taluqa, but rare 
in the sand-hills of Khairpur. A cactus-like Huphorbia (E. nerei- 
folia) has a similar distribution, being common in Khipro and rare 
in Khairpur. 

‘The desert is then by no means the barren waste that one might 
have imagined. Grasses are common in the bottoms of talis, the 
country supports a few cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys, while 
there is abundant fodder for camels. The inhabitants are all 
herdsmen, and live maimly on milk, curds, meat, ete. There are 
numerous wells, although the water is frequently brackish. 

It has been stated that the water which percolates through the 
basal layers of the desert sand where it rests 
upon the impervious alluvial clays of the Sind 
plains, emerges in any low-lying places to form marshes or lakes 
(dhands). Since the soil of the Sind plain is heavily charged with 
sodium salts, this percolating water carries these salts away in 
solution from the buried soil underlying the sand hills, and brings 
them into the dhands. The whole process is very similar to the 
transport of soluble salts by rivers to the sea, and results in a 
constantly increasing accumulation of salts in the dhands. While 
the water of a dhand may be strongly alkaline or saline, it is customary 
to find the sym or percolating water round the shores of the dhand 
sweet and drinkable, containing only a very smali percentage of 
soluble salts. The water of Usar dhsnd in Khairpur, where I 


The lakes or dhands. 


INTRODUCTION. 210 


encamped, has an alkalinity of 19-3 grams of Na,CO, per litre, 
and is undrinkable. I had some holes dug on the shore, in which 
I found that the water was quite sweet and at a shghtly higher 
level than that of the dhand. 


From what has been said, it will now be apparent that the 
dhands of the Sind desert are really low-lying flat places where the 
original alluvial clay has remained uncovered by sand or has only 
a thin covering, and where the sand-hills are not entirely arranged 
in parallel bits, but in a sort of network of paralle! bhits connected 
by transverse ridges of sand. In this sort of country the talis or 
valleys between the bhits form oval enclosures where the water 
accumulates provided there is sufficient spring or sim water round 
the base of the tali. The dhands therefore, although often large 
expanses of water, are never very deep; a dhand of one mile in 
length may be only ten feet deep in the middle; they are in fact 
huge flat-bottomed evaporating pans, in which by continual evapo- 
ration the salts of the sim or spring water round their shores are 
continually being cencentrated. As a general rule the shallower and 
smaller the dhand, the greater is the concentration of the solution. 
The shape is most frequently an oval or elongate ellipse, the long 
axis of which is parallel with the main bits, that is parallel with 
the direction of the monsoon winds. 


In the part of Sind with which I am dealing, the dhands fall 
into two groups. The first group are those on either side of the 
Nara at distances of from a quarter up to about seven miles. The 
second group are those east of Kot Jubo in the east of the Khairpur 
State. . 


The survey of 1860—65 shows the original state of the Nara 
group of dhands. In the old maps of this period one cannot. fail 
to notice the numerous large dhands east of the Nara in the Khipro 
and Sanghar talugas of Thar and Parkar, all of which are now either 
very much diminished in size or entirely dry talis. It is necessary 
to note the causes of the gradual desiccation of this area, which 
has resulted in a shrinkage of the former chantho'! producing area 
to narrower limits. According to the Sind Gazetteer,? the Nara, 
before its canalisation was “a channel or narrow valley in the 
sand-hilis, through which the spill water from the left bank of the 


1 Chantho is the term used in Sind to denote trona or natural soda. 
2 Op cit. (1907 edition), p. 323. 


211 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Indus above Rohri found its way to the desert........ Upon Sir 
Bartle Frere’s advice a survey of the valley was undertaken in 1852 
and it was discovered that more spill water escaped from the Indus 
to the Kastern Nara than had previously been believed, but that, 
owing to the sandy nature of the valley and especially to numerous 
immense hollows in the desert, the water, except when a very large 
flood occurred, was entirely absorbed. Dams were immediately 
constructed which diverted the stream from the sandy hollows 
in which it was absorbed to the alluvial plain extending south of 
Mithrao.”’ 


In May 1859, a cutting was made at Rohri from the Indus to 
the Nara. In 1885 a head regulator was constructed at Rohri. 
Improvements continued to be made every year, and finally in 
1899 the Jamrao Canal was completed and opened, This takes 
a large portion of the water of the Nara, and distributes it to the 
west of Thar and Parkar and part of Hyderabad. 

To prevent flooding of the desert, the Nara has, in the Sanghar 
and Khipro taluqas, continuous banks on either side. The diver- 
sion of so much water to the alluvial plains to the west, has led to 
the gradual drying up of all the dhands on the east of the Nara in 
Khipro end Sanghar. Although many dhands_ still remain, the 
majority have vastly diminished in size or have become entirely 
dried up. A few dhands still exist whose waters are replenished 
by floods from the Nara, but the great majority of the present 
dhands derive their supplies of water from springs or sims, as has 
been explained above. 


Near the head of the Jamrao Canal, embankments have been 
made for the purpose of controlling the flood water. As a result, 
the dhands of the Nawabshah taluga have in many cases dried up. 


North of the junction of the Jamrao and the Nara, that is, in 
Khairpur State, the dhands show the same general tendency towards 
desiccation, but in a much less marked degree, and their present 
condition is not vastly different from that of 1860. 

As a rule the water of the dhands situated at a distance from 
the Nara is highly charged with salts, while that of dhands close 
to the Nara is in many cases fresh. This is due to the fact that 
owing to constant flooding in the past, the dhands close to the Nara 
have had their dissolved salts washed out of them by floods, and 
have never become concentrated. These fresh-water dhands are 


INTRODUCTION, 219, 
easily recognised, both by the abundance of reeds and by the presence 
of crocodile, which can be seen in swarms. 

In this Nara belt the brackish dhands of Khairpur are alkaline ; 
those of Khipro are saline, while those of the Sanghar taluqa are 
of an intermediate type. The alkaline dhands can be distinguished 
even at a distance from the saline. Round the shores of the alkaline 
dhands and some little way ito the dhand, there is abundant soft 
green grass, and abundant trees. The saline dhands are barren 
of grass, and except for a few halophytes such as tamarisk and 
saltworts, are very bare of trees. Small tamarisk bushes are 
however very common round the saline dhands, and their presence 
accounts for the very curious shapes of the hillocks of gypsum 
(chiroli) seen all round the shores of these dhands. It is well known 
that the tamarisk grows in places which are liable to be submerged 
in time of flood. Those which now grow on the shore of the dhands, 
were in former days liable to be completely submerged by floods, 
or may have been continually partially under water. The saline 
dhands have deposited great quantities of gypsum as well as salt, 
and it is clear that amongst other constituents of the salts washed 
into these dhands sulphate of calcium was abundant. The gypsum 
crystallises around the stems of the tamarisk. I have collected 
specimens of gypsum growing round branches of dead tamarisk 
from some of these dhands. The crystals are disposed radially 
around the branches of the tamarisk, so that the stems become 
thickened with a casing of white crystals of gypsum. The tree 
now looks like a tree covered with hoar-frost and frozen hard. 
The process of deposition of gypsum goes on, until the resemblance 
to a tree is lost, instead of a tree there is a small round hillock with 
innumerable rounded knobs. The cylinders of gypsum which 
surrounded the branches have broadened and coalesced until this 
curious shape is arrived at. If one of the knobs is broken off the 
remains of the decayed tamarisk stem will be found in the middle, 
and the crystals will be observed to radiate out from this central 
stem. Both stages of development are shown in Plate 13. 


These mounds of chiroli (gypsum) are characteristic only of 
saline dhands. It is easy to see that in the presence of sodium 
carbonate, any calcium sulphate present would be precipitated as 
carbonate; hence no gypsum is found near the alkaline dhands. 

It has been said that the alkaline dhands support a more luxuriant 
vegetation than the saline; they have other distinct characteristics. 


213 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Those which are more concentrated have a peculiar smell resembling 
that of decaying fish, while the water is of a red colour. 


T. M. Chatard! ascribes the red colour of alkaline lakes to the 
presence of a crustacean (Artemia salina), which however is not 
known to occur in India. The red colour of the saline Sambar 
Lake in Rajputana is due, according to the researches of the Salt 


Department to algae. 

The Sind dhands are subject to considerable seasonal variation 
in depth, being at their fullest after the monsoon rains, and lowest 
in May or June, just before the break of the rains. The very small 
or very shallow dhands dry up completely ; the large dhands shrink 
considerably but do not as a rule dry up or become sufficiently 
concentrated to deposit their dissolved salts ; it is only those dhands 
which are of a medium size, and shallow depth which deposit their 
soda without drying up completely; from these the best quality 
of soda is obtained, while those dhands which dry up completely 
yield much more impure deposits. 


Turning now to the dhands near Kot Jubo, the majority of 
which are alkaline, a few saline, and a few fresh, it may be worth- 
while to explain their connection with the dra-ins, and the source 


of their water. 

An examination of Plate 16 will show that the country east of 
Kot Jubo is for the greater part covered by two large sand-plateaux 
or dra-ins, that to the west being known as the Kharori or Pur 
Chandar jo dra-m, and that to the east as the Sandi je dra-in. 
Between these two dra-ins is a belt about two miles in breadth of 
bhat and tali running in a N.N.E. direction, and extending for over 
12 miles in length. South of Kot Jubo and Pakhyaro dhand, 
the dra-in gives place to bhit and tali type of country. North of 
Kinri and Sahai dhands again the dra-ins diminish in breadth while 
the bhit and tali type of country becomes more common. 

It is very evident that these two large sand-plateaux or dra- 
ms form reservoirs of a kind for the absorption of the monsoon 
rains. The presence of fresh-water at the bottoms of the numerous 
kochurs, and the presence in the very middle of the Pur Chandar 
jo dra-in of sims of fresh water shows that water is abundant in 
the lower levels of the sand of the dra-in. As a result, the Pur 


+“ Natural Soda; its Occurrence and Utilization” Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., 
No. 60, 1890, p. 96. 


INTRODUCTION. 214 


Chandar and Sano-i dra-ins are fringed with dhands, caused by 
percolating water escaping from the lower strata of the dra-ins, and 
accumulating in any low-lying places, where the bottoms of the 
talis are at a sufficiently low level. Especially the belt of bAit and 
tali country between the two great dra-ims of Sano-i and Pur Chandar 
is studded with dhands which derive their supplies of sim water 
from both dra-ins on either flank. The fresh-water sims and dhands 
are supplied by water which percolates the sand, which is fairly 
free from salts, but this water is not at a sufficiently low level to 
tap the reh or kalar salts of the alluvial soil concealed beneath the 
desert sand. Probably all the fresh-water sims are at a higher 
level than the brackish. 

None of the dhands are very deep, although another impres- 
sion is given by a curious note on the Survey of India map about 
the Pur Chandar jo dhand. The note states that “This lake is 
of immense depth; supposed by the natives to be fathomless and 
the origin of Noah’s deluge.” Mr. Mohammed Khan contrived 
a raft upon which I sent out a native with a long pole. He touched 
ground near the middle of the lake with the pole at a depth of about 
15 feet and, I fear, damaged this picturesque legend. 


1 See sheet 44, scale 1 inch=1 mile, Sind Survey. 


CHAPTER II. 
THE KHAIRPUR STATE ; NARA REGION. 


It has been said that the dhands from which trona (chaniho) 
is produced fall ito two groups, (1) the Nara group lying in a 
belt of country about 10 to 12 miles wide and bisected by the Nara, 
and (2) the group east of Kot Jubo in the east of the Khairpur 
State, near the border of Jaisalmir. The first group extends from 
the south of the Khairpur State into the Nawabshah and Thar 
and Parkar districts, while the second lies entirely in Khairpur. 
It will be convenient to subdivide the first group territorially into 
A. The Khairpur State dhands, Nara region; B. The dhands of 
the Nawabshah taluga; ©. The dhands of the Sanghar and Khipro 
talugas of the Thar and Parkar district. In order to complete the 
description of the Khairpur State deposits, before describing those 
of British territory, I shall describe in Chapter III the second group 
of dhands east of Kot Jubo, and postpone the description of those 
subdivisions of group (1) which lie in British territory to the subse- 
quent chapters. 

The dhands with which the present chapter deals,—those of 
the Nara region, Khairpur State—-may again be divided into 
two sections, viz., those west and those east of the East Nara. 

In a letter dated November 2nd 1918 to the Political Agent, 

Khairpur State, the Vazir of Khairpur State 

Producing | dhands gives a list of dhands yielding kharo chaniho. 
west of the Nara, : it: 

Of the 68 dhands mentioned in this list, the 
following are west of the East Nara :— 


1. White Bitiro. 10. Western Dabanwaili. 
2. Lahuri. 11. Paroowali. 

3. Dail. 12. Whichonaro. 

4. Guloo Wali. 13. Chugari Chahewali.4 
5. Dherioon. 14, Nanganwala,” 

6. Sukchahow. 15. Tikini. 

7. Taraie Pir Nango. 16. Bagarwala. 

8. Pharanwala. 17. Kalarwali. 

9. Chugari Kalarwari. 18. Bolahwali.§ 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION, 216 


19. Ohilh. | 28, Mitheri. 
20. Kharri Chach Wari. | 23. Dosewali. 
21. Boogi. 


The order in which these names are given appears to be purely 
haphazard, and bears no relation to the geography of the district. 
Moreover in the Vazir’s list, they are intermingled with the names 
of the dhands east of the Nara. The names are reproduced with 
the spelling and in the order in which they appear in the list. 

It will be more suitable in the present report to consider the 
dhands in their proper geographical order, beginning with those 
to the north, and so working southwards towards the boundary of 
Nawabshah. The position of each dhand is shown in Plate 15. 


(1) Dabranwari (Western Dabanwali of Vazir’s list) is shown 
on the map as Dubrunwaree Tullee. It was completely 
dried up, and had yielded no chaniho at the time of 
my visit. It was also dry in season 1912-13, and in 
season 1915-16, but produced well in other years since 
1912. 7 ; 

(2) Bulah-wari (Bolahwali of Vazir’s list), marked Boolah- 
waree Tullee on map, is about 1 mile east of Dabranwari. 
It is an oval-shaped dhand about 300 yards long, and 
was 1 foot deep at the time of my visit. There were 
several piles of chaniho round its shore at the time of 
my visit. The chaniho was regarded by Mr. Mohammed 
Khan as 2nd grade in quality. In 1917-18, it is said 
to have yielded nearly 2,800 maunds of trona. 

(3) Bagarwaro or Bagarwala, 1 mile S.S.W. of Bulahwari 
and + mile west of Bhitrajo Tul as marked on map. 
There are two dhands here which are really a westward 
extension of Bhitrawaro dhand or Bhitra jo Tul as it is 
named on the map. The name Bagar-waro is equivalent 
to Baghal-wala or “ Side-dhand” implying that it lies 
at the side of another, viz., the Bhitrawaro dhand. Bhitra- 
waro itself is a large brackish dhand, but is not sufti- 
ciently concentrated to deposit trona. Of the two dhands 
on its west margin, the first is small, about 80 by 40 
yards, and yields very little chaniho. It was dry at the 
time of my visit. The further dhand is about 300 by 
80 yards and was very nearly dried up. These two 


arr COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


dhands are said to have yielded nearly 2,800 maunds of 
chantho in 1917-18. The analysis of a specimen of 
chaniho from the large dhand is given in Chapter VI. 

(4) Dail.—This dhand is 2 miles west of Bagarwaro, and was 
dried up at the time of my visit. Owing to its having 
remained dry, it had yielded no chaniho. In 1917-18 it 
was said to have yielded about 2,900 maunds. 

(5) Sukchaho, 1} miles $.S.W. of Bagarwaro and 5 mile west of 
the large brackish dhand Bitriwari, is one of the largest 
producing dhands of this section west of the Nara. It 
is about 400 yards in length by 100 in breadth, the 
depth being about 1 foot at the time of my visit. It 
yields 2nd grade chaniho. In 1917-18 the amount 
produced was 2,700 maunds. The bittern had a specific 
gravity of 1°164 and contained 111°5 grams of Na,CO, 
per litre. (In this and similar field analyses, the total 
alkalinity is estimated as sodium carbonate.) Analyses 

of its chanitho, and of its water are given in Chapter 

VE ° 


(6) Chughari Chahewari, about 1 mile E.S.E. of Sukchaho, 
and lying between the two large brackish dhands of 
Bitriwari and Dangi Chhuowari, is a very small dhand, 
about 80 by 40 yards, which had a very little water at 
the time of my visit. The water contained 133 grams 
of Na,CO, per litre. An analysis of this bittern will 
be found in Chapter VI. 

(7) Chughari Kalarwari, 14 miles §. by W. of the last-named 
dhand and about 4 mile north of the large dhand Pir 
Naga or Pir Nanga, is also a small dhand similar to 
the last named, but was completely dry at the time of 
my visit ; hence neither water nor trona could be collected, 

(8) Tarai Pir Nanga is a small dhand or rather a southward 
extension of the large Pir Nanga dhand, and lies to the 
immediate south of Pir Nanga. It was dry and had 
yielded no trona at the time of my visit. The Pir Nanga 
dhand itself is practically fresh-water with a specific 
gravity of 1°002, and an alkalinity equivalent to only 
1*2 grams of Na,COx. 

(9) Khariri (or Kharri) Chachwari, called Chachwari to distin- 
guish it from another Khariri east of the Nara (Khariri 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 218 


Mojanwari) is a very large dhand with quite 8 feet of 
water. It is diamond-shaped, about 1 mile in length and 
half a mile at its widest. Owing to its depth and size, 
it seldom becomes sufficiently concentrated to deposit 
chanitho: it is the first dhand of those as yet considered 
which contains too much water to yield chantho, but we 
shall find that there are many others in this class, It 
did, however, yield about 10 maunds in 1912-13. Its 
water had a_ specific gravity of 1-089, and contained 
50:3 grams of Na,COgs per litre. 

(10) Dosewari is an oval-shaped dhand on the N.W. flank ot 
and close to the large Khariri dhand ; it is in fact part of 
the Khariri basin, but separated by a narrow spit of low 
sand-bank. It is about 200 by 80 yards in size. It was 
dry at the time of my visit, but in other years had 
yielded small quantities of 2nd grade chantho. 

(11) Dheriun is a dhand lying about 1$ miles south of Khariri. 
It was dry and had given no yield at the time of my 
tour. I did not therefore visit it. 

(12) Kalarwari is half a mile south of Pir Nanga dhand. This 
is a small dhand, and was dry with no yield at the time 
of my visit. 

(13) Virchora Sim, called Whichonaro (possibly a misprint 
for Whichowaro) in the Vazir’s list, is a large dhand almost 
divided into two by two promontories of sand which nearly 
meet in the middle. This dhand never yields chaniho 
itself, but supplies are occasionally obtained from the 
pools round its edges. It is inhabited by crocodile, which 
are here probably in water as brackish as they can 
stand. The specific gravity is 1:025; it contains 15-0 
grams of Na,COs per litre, and 8-5 grams of NaCl per 
litre. Na SOq is present only in small quantity. 

(14) Pharanwari Sim (Pharanwala in list, and Sim Pharewaree 
in map) is a long narrow sim with probably about four 
or five feet of water. The sim itself does not yield 
chaniho, since the concentration is not sufficient, and 
the dhand is not sufficiently flat-bottomed to evaporate 
rapidly. At the south end there is a small pool isolated 
from the main dhand. Here concentration takes place, 
and a yield of chaniho amounting to about 200 maunds 


Cc 


219 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


per annum on an average is secured. This dhand is 1 mile 
east of Virchora and 2} miles south of Pir Nanga. 

(15) Tikini (marked Tur Teeknee on the map) is 2 miles W.S.W. 
of Pharanwari. This is a small unimportant dhand, and 
has always yielded only a very little chaniho. 

(16) Achro Bitiro (or, as in list, White Bitiro) is close to and 
K. of the dhand marked Achro Doobbo on the map. 
While Achro Doobbo is brackish, the small dhand Achro 
Bitiro close to it was completely dry and had yielded no 
chantho in 1918. Compare the case of dhands Dosewari 
and Khariri described above. 

(17) Paruwari (or Paroowali of list, marked Paroowaree Tullee 
onmap) is2 miles S, of Tikini, and was completely dried 
up with no yield of chaniho at the time of my visit. 

(18) Nanganwaro or Nanganwala is about 1 mile west of 
Paruwari. It also was dry and had no yield. 

(19) Chilhanwaro (or Chilh as in list) is + mile 8. of Nanganwaro 
and not quite half a mile N. of Mitheri. It is a small 
oval-shaped dhand with very little water at the time of 
my visit, but with great abundance of efflorescent salt 
round its shore. An analysis of its chaniho will be found 
in Chapter VI. Its usual yield is about 300 maunds 
per annum. 

(20) Mithri (or Mitheri, marked Mithrejo Tur on map) is an 
oval dhand of very much the same size as Sukchaho, 
lying to the south of Chilhanwaro. It yields 2nd grade 
chantho of which about 6,000 maunds were stacked round 
the dhand, this representing the season’s output. The 
dhand was almost dry, but had a few patches of water 
here and there. There was great abundance of efflorescent 
salt (kalar) round its shores. This efflorescence, caused by 
the evaporation of sim or percolating water round the 
shores of the dhand, is washed into the dhand during 
the rains, and from the bittern thus produced chaniho 
crystallises out in the hot season (May or June). The water 
of this dhand had a specific gravity of 1:265, and contained 
133-2 grams of Na,COg per litre. 

(21) Galuwari (Guloo Wali of list: spelt Gulloowaree Tullee on 
map) is 14 miles $.S.W. of Mithri. It was completely dry 
and had produced no chaniho at the time of my visit, 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 220 

(22) Bujiwari (Boogi of list, and Bojewaree Tullee of map) 
was also dried up, and produced no chaniho at the time 
of my visit. 

(23) Lahuri.—About 24 miles S. by W. of Galuwari at the spot 
marked Ghulam Chang jo Moqam are two dhands, both 
called Lahuri. The more westerly dhand is larger than 
Bagarwaro, the dhand to the east being smaller. Both 
were quite dry with no chaniho. They do not appear 
to have yielded since 1912-13, according to the statistics 
from Khairpur State. We have now described all the 
dhands west of the Nara in the Vazir’s list. I may add 
one more dhand said to have yielded chaniho in former 
times during the rains; it is— 

(24) Chambwari (marked Chumb on the map). It was dry, 
and had not yielded anything at the time of my visit. 
This dhand is 1 mile S.E. of Mithri. 

Reviewing now the dhands we have just described, it may be 
noted that three dhands, viz., Khariri, Virchora, and Pharanwati 
are too deep and contain too weak a bittern to deposit chaniho 
in the dry season: the chaniho is collected from isolated pools 
round their margins. Thirteen dhands never at any time during 
the rainy season immediately preceding my visit had enough water 
to dissolve the kalar around their shores and in their bed, and to 
re-deposit it ‘n pure enough form to be marketed as chaniho. The 
names of these are Dabranwari, Dail, Chughari Kalarwari, Tarai 
Pir Nanga, Dosewari, Dheriun, Kalarwari, Achro Bitiro, Paruwari, 
Nanganwaro, Galuwari, Bujiwari, Lahuri. To these may be added 
a fourteenth, the unlisted Chambwari. 

Only eight dhands were producing chaniho out of the list of 
23. These are Bulahwari, Bagarwaro, Sukchaho, Chughari Chahe- 
wari, Tikini, Chilhanwaro, Mithri. Also Pharanwari which although 
it has excessive water, yields from an isolated pool at its south end. 

In very wet years, it may be reasonably expected that many 
of the thirteen dry dhands above listed will again produce chaniho. 
On the other hand, the three large dhands with excessive water 
above-mentioned would not be likely to yield much chaniho, unless 
after a succession of exceptionally dry years. The seven producing 
dhands are those which produce in ordinary years. The best pro- 
ducer is probably Mithri; next in order Bulahwari, Sukchaho and 
Bagarwaro are good producers, all three fairly equal in merit; 

o2 


= 


221 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


the remaining three dhands are small and unimportant. I have 
stated that the season’s output from Mithri was estimated at 6,000 
maunds. 

Having described the soda yielding dhands west of the Nara, I 
will now consider those larger or deeper dhands, 
which, although alkaline, never become 
sufficiently concentrated to yield  trona, 
and have never become producers. I have not attempted to make 
a complete list of these dhands, some of which are not marked on 
the map. A full list could only have been made by a complete 
survey of the whole country, which would have greatly extended 
my tour. I give a list of the alkaline dhands seen in the course of 
my survey of the producing dhands. This list, though not complete, 
contains all the more important dhands, with analyses of the water 
in the case of the larger ones. 

Of the dhands already described, three properly belong to the 
class now about to be described, wiz., Khariri, Virchora, and Pharan- 
wari, because these three have never themselves yielded chantho, 
which has only been collected from pools at their margins. Khariri 
and Virchora are the largest of the alkaline dhands. Analyses of 
their waters will be found in Chapter VI. Commencing with the 
mst northerly, the list is as follows :— 


Large alkaline dhands 
west of Nara. 


(1) Bhitrawaro dhand, west of and close to Bagarwaro, is 
about 3 furlongs in length, and contains brackish water 
probably not very highly concentrated. 

(2) Bitrewari dhand, between Sukchaho and Chughari Chahe- 
wari, is a brackish nearly circular dhand about + mile in 
diameter. 

(3) Khariri, already described. 

(4) Pir Naga or Pir Nanga, | mile S.E. of Khariri, is an almost 
fresh water dhand; specific gravity 1-002; alkalinity 
calculated as sodium carbonate 1-2 grams Na,OOs per 
litre. 

(5) Nichora, a small narrow dhand, } mile in length, north of 
Virchora with brackish water. 

(6) Virchora, already described. 

(7) Pharanwari, already described. 

(8) Dillahuwari, a large dhand 1 mile long, half a mile broad 
to the south, narrow in the north, situated 1 mile south 
of Virchora. The water of this dhand had a specific 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 


222 


gravity of 1-024 and contained 12:8 grams of Na,COs and 


3-5 grams of NaCl per litre. 


(9) Gunjwari (spelt Goonjwaree on map), not quite 1 mile 
S.W. of Bujiwari, are a pair of dhands, separated by a 
low spit of sand. That to the east is full of crocodile, 
and does not appear to be very brackish. The west 
dhand is about } mile long, and not very broad. Its 
water has a specific gravity of 1-049, and contains 41-9 


grams of 
Chapter VI. 


Na,COg per litre. 


An analysis is given in 


Of the other dhands marked on the map, the majority are fresh 
or else slightly brackish. 
In the Vazir’s list already mentioned, the 


Producing 
east of Nara. 


a 
COO OND OP OO DD 


— 
i 


pat fat 
Co bo 


dhands 


. Charakhanwala, Great. 
. Ashrafwala. 

. Lahri, Great. 

. Saidahoo. 

. Taraie Barkow. 

. Khari Mojanwala. 
. Khara Oker. 

. Tarai. 

. Barkow. 

. Digh. 

. Jatoo Wali. 

. Lalri Lanbriwali. 
. Bartkon. 


} 
| 
| 


| 


14. 
15. 
16. 
. Kakaranwala. 

. Matiwalo. 

. Lalri, Small. 

. Lambrow. 

. Hazari. 

2. Buxahoo. 

. Khabarwala. 

. Small Charaganwala. 
5. Gango. 

. Mirwali. 


following are the dhands east of the Nara :— 


Kino Chaho. 
Metahari. 
Eastern Dabanwali. 


Here again the order of these names is neither geographical nor 
in descending order of production, but haphazard. I shall take 
the names in geographical order, beginning with the most northerly. 


(1) Taraiwari (Tarai, 


Turaewaree) is a small dhand yielding 


about 300—400 maunds of 3rd grade chaniho. It is 3 
miles north of Jatuwari dhand (see below). Depth 1 


foot. 


(2) Mirwari (Mirwali, Meerwaree) is 1 mile west of Jatuwari, 
and was dry at the time of my visit, having yielded 
no chantho that season. 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


(3) Jatuwari (Jutoo Wali of list, Jatoje Sim of map) is a long 
narrow dhand of small size, 200 yards by 30, but 
containing about 4 feet of water at the time of my 
visit. Owing to the excessive water, it had yielded no 
chaniho that season. A specimen of the water had a 
specific gravity of 1-19, and contained 143-4 grams of 
Na,CO3 and 59-1 grams of NaCl per litre. 

(4) Khariri Mojanwari is marked on the map as Kharwaree, 
but named Mojanwari to distinguish it from Khariri 
Chachwari west of the Nara. This is a long narrow dhand 
about + mile east of Jatuwari, avd resembling Jatuwari 
in shape, but still longer and larger. It is about 600 by 
50 yards and has a depth of about 4 feet. Chaniho is 
only obtained from a small flat depression at the south 
end of the dhand separated from the main dhand by a 
bar of sand. The yield is about 600—700 maunds. An 
analysis of the chaniho will be found in Chapter VI. 
The water of the main dhand has a specific gravity of 
1-118, and contains 88-7 grams of Na,COg per litre. An 
analysis of the water is also given in Chapter VI. 

(5) Bartako (Bartkon, Burtakowaree) is a mile and a_ half 
S.S.W. of Mirwari. Here are two circular medium-sized 
dhands, but both were completely dry, having yielded 
no chaniho that season. 

(6) Metahari, not marked on the map, is 14 miles §. of Jatu- 
warl. Here are two very small dhands which lie to the 
immediate north of the more westerly of two dhands 
marked on the map as Lamrejee Sim. These two last- 
mentioned dhands are now known as Saidinwaro to the 
west and Khabarwaro to the east. The Metahari 
dhands lie to the immediate north of Saidinwaro. Third 
grade chaniho is obtained from Metahari, the yield being 
about 2.000—3,000 maunds. The depth is about 1 foot. 

(7) Ubrand Dabranwari (or Eastern Dabranwari} is so called 
to distinguish it from a dhand of the same name west of 
the Nara (see ante) which latter is known as Ulan 
Dabranwari or Western Dabranwari. This dhand ig 
marked Wurenwaree on the map; the name Wurenwaree 
is however completely forgotten. Ubrand Dabranwari is 
1 mile S. by W. of Bartako. It is a medium-sized 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 224 


dhand, but was completely dry andhad no chaniho, at the 
time of my visit. 

(8) Lalri Sanhri (or Lalri the Narrow, Small Lalri of list) is 
not marked on the map, but lies } mile N.N.W. of the 
large dhand Lambro, marked Lambre-waree on the 
map. This dhand is a small narrow dhand, 100 by 30 
yards, and 1 foot deep. It yields 3rd grade chaniho, of 
which there were, about 400 maunds. 

(9) Lalri Lambre-wari (Lalri Lanbriwali of list) is not named 
on the map but is shown as a small oval dhand north of 
Lambrewari. It 1s about 120 yards long by 50 broad, and 
has about 2 feet of water. It yields first-grade chaniho, 
of which there were about 200 maunds. 

(10) Lambro (or Lambre-wari.)——This is the largest dhand, except 
Virchora, of all the producing dhands of Khairpur, and 
the second greatest producer, Barko being the greatest, 
It does not however yield from the northern half of 
the dhand, where there are about six feet of water. If 
we imagine the dhand to be divided into three parts from 
north to south, then the southern third part of this 
dhand is separated from the northern two-thirds by a 
sunken bar of sand, which is uncovered only in the hot 
weather. It is from this southern third that chaniho is 
collected. This is second-grade in quality, and there 
were about 8,000—9,000 maunds present. ‘The water 
of Lambro has a specifie gravity of 1-081, and contains 
19-0 grams of Na,COg per litre. Analyses of the water 
and the chaniho will be found in Chapter VI. Lambro 
is about 1 mile in length, and three furlongs broad. 

(11) Lalri Wadi (or Great Lalri), is a medium-sized dhand 
situated at the northern end of the taki marked 
Lagrewaree on the map. It is less than } mile distant 
from Lambro, and lies to the west. When I saw it, 
it had about 1 foot of water, and had produced that 
season from 3,000—4,000 maunds of chaniho of | first 
grade quality. An analysis of the chaniho is given in 
Chapter VI. 

(12) Ganjawari (Gango of list) is a long narrow dhand, about 
500 by 80 yards. It contained about 1 foot of water, 
“in which plenty of chaniko was erystallising. Is produced 


2 


5 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


in the season of my visit between 3,000—4,000 maunds 
of first-grade chaniho. This dhand is marked on the 
map and is about 1 mile 8.W. of Lambro. Its water 
contained 91:5 grams of Na,CO3 and 92°5 grams NaCl 
per litre. An analysis of its water and of its chaniho 
will be found in Chapter VI. 

(13) Matiwaro (marked in map as Futlowaree Sim) is an oval- 
shaped dhand of medium size, length about + mile. It 
had about 4 feet of water in it at the time of my visit. 
Owing to this excessive depth of water, no chaniho had 
been obtained that season. This dhand js about 1} 
miles S.8.W. of Ganjawari. 

(14) Khara Okar (marked on map as Khara Oogurwaree Sim) 
is about two miles §, by W. of Matiwaro dhand. There 
are here two medium-sized circular dhands. Both of 
these contained excessive water, and for that reason no 
chantho was obtained from them that year. A specimen 
of water from the northern dhand had a specific gravity 
of 1-151 and contained 118-1 grams of Na,COs per litre. 

(15) Khabbarwaro (marked Khubburwaree on map) is 1 mile 
east of Khara Okar, and is a long narrow dhand, 500 
by 40 yards approximately. The dhand contained a little 
water. The chaniho yielded is said to be third-grade. 
An analysis is given in Chapter VI. 

(16) Kakaranwaro (marked Kuhrunwaree Sim on map) is a 
large alkaline dhand which has never, yielded chaniho 
owing to excess of water. To the north, there is a 
small dhand covering not quite an acre, with about 1 
foot of water, About 400—500 maunds of chaniho were 
seen ; this was of third-grade quality. This dhand is 
half a mile N.N.E. of Khabarwaro. 

(17) Drigwari (Digh of Vazir’s list) is 2 miles W.S.W. of Khara 

Okar. There are three completely dry dhands here. No 

chaniho was obtained this year. An analysis of the 

kalar efflorescence is given in Chapter VI. 

(18) Ashrafwaro.—This dhand was also completely dry. An 
analysis of the kalar efflorescence is given in Chapter 
VI. Ashrafwaro is about 1 mile §.E. of Drigwari. 

(19) Kino Chaho.—This is marked as Chuhwaro Put on the 
map. Ina list dated 1899, the dhand is called Tat 


a 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 226 


Adlahu Chaho. It is completely dry and only kalar is 
visible. An analysis of the kalar is given in Chapter 
VI. Kino Chaho is about half a mile south of 
Ashrafwaro. In former years it produced fairly pure 
chaniho, an analysis of 1899 showing only 2 per cent. of 
NaCl in the chaniho of this dhand. 

(20) Tarai Barko.—This is a small dhand to the immediate 
north of Barko. It was dried up, and no chaniho was 
obtained from it. 

(21) Barko (marked on map as Bukarukhio jo Sim) is the 
largest producer of all the dhands, yielding from 10,000 
to 11,000 maunds of first grade chaniho per year. From 
1913 to 1915, it did not yield, presumably owing to 
excess of water. Barko is 2 miles 8. by W. of Khara 
Okar, and is an oval-shaped dhand, about 400 by 200 
yards in size. It contains about 3 feet of water. All 
round the dhand there is abundant kalar efflorescence. 
A specimen of the water had a specific gravity of 
1-157, and contained 106-0 grams of Na,COs_ per litre. 
An analysis of the chaniho and water is given in 
Chapter VI. 

(22) Buxahu, ? mile east of Barko, is named on the map Ram 
Rahoo jo Koomb. This name of Ram Rahu is now 
forgotten, but a small dhand near Matahari is now called 
Ram Rahu. Buxahu is a long narrow dhand, about 500 
yards by 30 yards. It contains first grade chaniho, of 
which an analysis is given in Chapter VI. The water 
was about 1 foot deep. There was very little kalar 
round its margin. 

(23) Saidahu, 2 miles south of Barko, was completely dry at 
the time of my visit, and yielded no chaniho. An 
analysis of its kalar is given in Chapter VI. 

(2) Charakhanwaro Wado, and (25) Charakhanwaro Nandho, 
(or Charakhanwaro the large, and the small) are both 
about 1 mile south of Saidahu. Both these dhands were 
completely dry, and yielded no chaniho that season. An 
analysis made in 1899 on a_ specimen of chaniho from 
one of these dhands, shows only 2 per cent. of NaCl, 
The analysis does not state from which dhand the chantho 
came. 


297 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


(26) Hazari is marked on the map as Huzaree jo Chhuo. There 
are here two dhands, one a large dhand of sweet water, 
and a small dhand to the north in which chaniho 
accumulates. The large fresh water dhand had water, 
but the small dhand, from which chaniho has been 
obtained in former years was completely dry. 


Of the twenty-six dhands in the above list, twelve only produced 
chaniho, viz., Taraiwari, Metahari, Lalri Sanhri, Lalri Lambrewari and 
Lali Wadi, Khariri Mojanwari, Lambro, Ganjawari, Khabbarwaro, 
Kakaranwaro, Barko, and Buxahu. Three dhands had excessive 
water, viz., Jatuwari, Matiwaro, and Khara Okar. Eleven dhands 
were dry, viz., Mirwari, Bartako, Ubrand Dabranwari, Drigwari, 
Ashrafwaro, Kino Chaho, Tarai Barko, Saidahu, Charakhanwaro 
Wado and Nandho, and Hazari. Three of the producing dhands, 
viz., Khariri Mojanwari, Lambro, and Kakaranwaro are closely 
connected with larger dhands or deeper extensions of the same name 
which do not, owing to excess of water, yield chaniho. 


Of these dhands by far the best producer is Barko: next in 
order of merit is Lambro, next Ganjawari; these three are superior 
to any dhands west of the Nara. Lalri Wadi, Metahari, Khabbar- 
waro, and Buxahu are medium producers, ranking with Bulahwari, 
Sukchaho and Bagarwaro west of the Nara. Taraiwari, Khariri 
Mojanwari, Lalri Lambrewari and Sanhri, and Kakaranwaro are 
small producers of much less importance. The production however 
varies from year to year according to the rainfall, 


Of the larger dhands, which owing to depth and size, have never 
deposited chaniho, the most northerly dhand 


Large alkaline dhands ex see 


east of Nara. 


(1) Khariri Mojanwari, main dhand, already described. 


(2) Sarwari (marked Sarwaree Sim on map) is 13 miles S.W. 
of Khariri Mojanwari. Sarwari is an oval-shaped dhand, 
about 3 furlongs in length, with 4 or 5 feet of water. 
The water has a specific gravity of 1-049, and contains 
34:3 grams of NaC; per litre. 

(3) Mogamwari (marked Mookamwaree Sim) lies a furlong to 
the east of Sarwari, and is about the same length 
although perhaps a trifle narrower. The depth of both 
dhands appears to be about the same. The specific 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 228 


gravity of Meqamwari is 1:127, and the water contains 
105-9 grams of Na,COg per litre. 

(4) Ram Rahu dhand, west of Metahari, and close by is a 
small alkaline dhand, narrow and deep (about 4 feet) 
from which no chaniho has as yet been obtained. Its 
name is not shown on the map. 

(5) Saidinwaro is an oval dhand, } mile in length, with 3 or 4 
feet of water, lying immediately south of Metahari. It 
is named Lumrejee Sim on the map, the name being 
written over this and another dhand to the east. 
Lumrejee presumably implies merely “one of the Lambro 
group,’ and this dhand might be called Saidinwaro 
Lambreji. Its water has a specific gravity of 1-119, 
and contains 47-4 per cent. of Na,COg per litre. 

(6) Khabbarwaro Lambreji.—This is the easterly of the two 
dhands marked Lumrejee on the map. It is named 
Khabbarwaro by the inhabitants, but should not be so 
called without adding Lambre ji, in order to 
distinguish it from the producing dhand Khabbarwaro, 
which lies between Khara Okar and Kakaranwaro. This 
dhand is narrow and is nearly ? mile long, but broadens 
out slightly at its northern end. Its water has a 
specific gravity of 1-089, and contains 53 grams of 
Na,.COg per litre. 

(7) Lambro.—The northern two-thirds of this dhand never 
vields chaniho. The dhand has already been described. 

(8) Usar (marked Oosarwaree Sim on the map) is two miles 
west of Lambro. It is an oval-shaped dhand, ? mile 
long, and } mile broad, with a small island in the 
middle. It had about five feet of water. The specific 
gravity was 1-031, and the water contained 20-1 grams 
of Na,COs per litre. 

(9) Kakaranwaro, main dhand. This is an oval medium- 
sized dhand, distinctly alkaline, but has never yielded 
chaniho, which is obtained only from a small dhand to 
the north. 

(10) Motranwaro is a dhand, long and narrow, and of much the 
same dimensions as Buxahu (500 by 30), but has never 
yielded chaniho. It is nevertheless highly alkaline, 
although not sufficiently flat-bottommed to evaporate 


229 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


sufficiently in the dry season. It had about four or 
five feet of water. The specific gravity was 1-189, and 
the water contained 123-6 grams Na,COgs per litre. 


Other dhands nearer to the Nara, such as Bar Ramo or Bar Rame- 
wari, and Pokhulwaro west of Sarwari are fresh. The dhands 
between Usar and the Nara are also fresh. 

In concluding this chapter, I give below tables summarising 

the results of my survey. I reserve questions 
SRaMereR, ees OE production for a future chapter. From the 
tables given it will be seen that the season 

1918-19 was inclined to be a dry one in the Nara region, although 
not excessively so, for it must not be forgotten that besides the 
effect of dry seasons, the gradual desiccation of the Nara region owing 
to the control of the floods, is having some effect upon certain 
dhands. Possibly Drigwari, Ashrafwaro, Kino Chaho, Lahuri, and 
perhaps one or two more are permanently dry, or at any rate will 
never have enough water to dissolve the kalar, and recrystallise 
it out as trona. Other dhands are dry owing to the scanty rainfall, 
and it is to be hoped will again yield in wetter years. But in wetter 
years, some of the dhands which now produce will pass into the class 
of dhands with excess of water. It is exceedingly unlikely that 
Lambro for instance would yield in a very wet year. It is thus 
apparent that chaniho is obtained from a different set of dhands 
each year, according to the rainfall, and that it would be impossible 
for all the dhands to produce simultaneously, 

From table II it will be seen that there are at least 18 dhands 
(probably more, for the list is not complete) from which trona 
could be obtained by artificial methods. 


Taste I.—Table showing the state of the Khairpur dhands, Nara 
region, as they were in season 1918-19. 


LS 
—— Producing. Dry. Excessive water. 
Bulahwari. - | West Dabranwari . | Khariri. 
Bagarwaro 2) a . Virchora. 
DHANDS WEST 
OF NARA. Sukchaho - | Chughari Kalarwari 


Chughari Chahewari | Tarai Pir Nanga , 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE; NARA REGION. 230 


TasLe I.—Table showing the state of the Khairpur dhands, Nara 
region, as they were in season 1918-19. 


Seen ee 
| i] 


ees | Producing. | Dry. Excessive water, 
Tikini ‘ | Dosewari. 
| Chilhanwari . Dheriun. 
DHANDS WEST < | 
OF NARA. | Mithri . ; A Kalarwari. 
| Pharanwari* . : | Achro Bitiro. 
| | Paruwari. 
| _ Nanganwaro. 
| | Galuwari. 
| Bujiwari. 
| | Lahuri. 
| | Chambwari. 
ToraLs . =. a 14 SE ee ey 
| Taraiwari : . | Mirwari : . Tateivedt: os 
Metahari ‘ - Bartako ‘ - | Matiwaro. 


Khariri Mojanwari* | East Dabranwari . | Khara Okar. 
Lambro ; . | Drigwari 
Lalri Sanhri . . | Ashrafwaro. 


DHANDS EAST Lalri Lambrewari . | Kino Chaho. 


OF NARA. 
Lalri Wadi . . | Tarai Barko. 
Ganjawari. - | Saidahu. 
Khabbarwaro . | Charakhanwaro 
Wado. 
Barko . . | Charakhanwaro 
Nandho- 
Kakaranwaro* . | Hazari. 
Buxahu. 
TorTaLs es 12 
GRAND TOTALS 20 


TE PION Sn ect ei ta rR na an aa 
Notg.—Those dhands which are marked* produce chaniho from isolated portions, 
while there is excessive water in their main dhands. 


231 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


~ABLE IT.—List of alkaline dhands which have never produced, owing 
to excessive depth and insufficient concentration of water, Those 
dhands marked* yield from isolated portions, but not from the main 


- dhands 


Bhitrewaro, 


r 
Bitrewari, 
Khariri* 
Nichora. 
DHANDS WEST OF NARA F ‘ 
Virchora* 
Pharanwari* 
| Dillahuwari, 


Gunjwari. 


TOTAL 


(| Khariri Mojanwari,* 


| 
| 


DHANDS EAST OF NARA e 
| 
| 


Sarwari. 

Moqamwari. 
Ram Rahu. 
Saidinwaro. 


Khabbarwaro Lambreji. 


Fe ey ey ene, 


Kakaranwaro.* 


(] Motranwaro. 
TOTAL 10 
GRAND Toran 18 


Norg.—Khariri and Virchora are asterisked, since they yielded from isolated por- 
tions in former years, They did not yield in season 1918-19, owing to excess of water, 


CHAPTER III. 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 


It has been already explained that those dhands which lie east 
of Kot Jubo are maintained by the sim or 
percolating water which escapes from beneath 
the two great sand-plateaux or dra-ins, named the Pur Chandar and 
the Sano-i dra-in respectively. The belt of country covered by 
bhit and tal: lying between these two dra-ins contains the majority 
of the dhands, and it is with this belt that our description must 
commence. It will be convenient to travel over this belt from south 
to north, and then to describe the outlying dhands. Here again the 
dhands fall into two sections, viz., A. Dhands lying between the two 
great dra-ins, and B. Dhands on the outer margins of the dra-ins. 
I visited this area in company with Mr. E. L. Thurley, and 
spent three days from January l4th to 16th there. In this brief 
time, I was unable to visit all the dhands, but I succeeded in obtain- 
ing specimens from the more distant ones through the assistance of 
Mr. Mahommed Khan, who sent off messengers with bottles to be 
filled with the bitterns. 
Two lists of the producing dhands of the Kot Jubo region are 
in my possession. One list dating from 1899 
Producing dhands of was obtained from an old file on chaniho in 
1899, compared with ‘ work ‘ 
Shose of 1918. the nossession of Mr. Thurley, This list gives 
also the percentage of NaCl in the chaniho of 
each dhand. I add to the list a statement of the present state of 
each dhand, 7.e., whether dry, producing, or containing excessive 
water. The second list is that given by the Vazir, already mentioned. 
The earlier list is reproduced below :— 


Introductory. 


Name of dhand. ee Present condition (1918). 
1. Rojewaro . . . . . 5 Dry. 
2. Abdul Rahim . 3 ; : 9 Produced 200 maunds 1918-19. 
3. Letan Abdul Rahim . . ‘ 3 | Dry. 


233 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Nante of Dhand. 


4. Laniwari . : ‘ 
5. Kot Koro* 

6. Gidhar-waro 

7. Padrio 2 : ‘ 
8. Jaran-waro : 

9. Wat-waro . : 

10. Waran-waro : 

1]. Matran-waro. 
12. Boran-waro or Bowan-waro 
13. Manchur . S ‘ 
14. Garho Got* : ‘ 
15. Suji Nandhi 
16. Suji Wadi . 
17. Bambalui Nandhi* 
18. Bambalui Wadi* 

19. Kandiwaro* 
20. Rahimwaro 
21. Achro : 
22. Sano-i Nandhi . 2 
23. Sano-i Wadi* . 

24. Sano-i Narwari* ‘ 
25. Jhando-i Wadi* : 
26. Jhando-i Nandhi ‘ 
27. Gandhi* . : : 
28. Gapnum or Gubno , 
29. Ahirowaro : ° 
30. Kalbuwaro* ss 


Percentage 


Present condition, 


of NaCl 

76 Excessive water. 
5 Excessive water. 
19 Dry. 

39 Dry. 

3 Dry. 

64 Dry. 

ll Dry. 

17 Dry. 

38 Excessive water, 

76 Dry. 

4 Excessive water, 

3e Producing. 

59 Producing, 

39 Dry. 

4 Excessive waters, 

21 Excessive waters. 
5 Dry. 

13 Dry. 
2 Dry. 
2 Excessive water. 
8 Excessive water. 
1 | Excessive water. 
3 | Dry ? 
8 Excessive water. 
of Excessive water. 
8 | Excessive water. 
1 | Excessive water. 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 234 


Name of Dhand. | eee | Present condition, 

3]. Pharanwaro) . ° CBee oa i | Producing. 

32. Gadan-wari . * : | 4 | Producing. 

33. Narwaro or Nainwaro : | 3 Producing, 

34 Ganorwaro or Ganwarwaro 1 Producing. 

35. Pakhyaro*. . e ° 1 Producing. 

36, Khairo or Kharro* 1 Excessive water . 

37, Bhaun ss. . 1 Dry. 


Of the above 37 dhands those marked with an asterisk appear 
in the Vazir’s list, dated 2nd November 1918, mentioned above. 
In addition to these the Vazir’s list gives eight other dhands, viz. 
Laiwaro, Gabanwaro, Rait Pario Sano-i Garhi, Nau Rait, Dabho, 
Padru, and Sano-i Kotenwari. These in eddition to the eleven 
dhands marked with an asterisk, number 19 in all, which wa; the 
total number on the Khairpur State list in 1918, 26 of the 37 dhands 
having dropped off the list in the course of twenty years while 
only eight new dhands were added. The spelling of the Vazir’s 
list differs from that of the first list of 1899. Bambalui is spelt 
Niblowie, while the name Phuloowala according to Mr. Mahommed 
Khan, denotes the dhand properly known as Kalbuwaro. The 
other differences in spelling are trifling. 


We may add the eight new dhands of the Vazir’s list to those 
previously given, as follows :— 


Name of Dhand, Present condition. 
38, Laiwari . ° . . . - | Producing. 
39. Gabanwaro , ~ > . - | Excessive water. . 
40. Rait Pario , ° x « | Excessive water, 
41, Sano-i Garhi . . Z * - | Excessive water. 
42. Nau Rait Be = . ° . Excessive water, 


235 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


LT 


Name of Dhand. Present condition, 
43. Dabho . : % ; ; : Excessive water. 
44, Sano-i Koten-wari . ; ; . Excessive water. 
45. Padru . ‘ ; ‘ . ‘ Excessive water. 


sc spanesan emi GuEse sii INTSSis ss G2 Uae =e A aR A ian ema 


Of the 45 dhands above listed, the condition in season 1918-19 
was as follows :— 


Nine dhands were producing. 
Fifteen dhands were dry. 
Twenty-one dhands had excessive water. 


All the dry dhands were dhands which had dropped off the Khair- 
pur lists since 1899, They all lie to the north of the dra-ins of Pur 
Chandar or Sano-i. Probably in the course of years the desert sand 
has blown over much of the land to the north of the dra-ins, filling 
up the hollows in many. places, so that dhands are now smaller or 
entirely dried up in this area. Mr. Mahommed Khan informed 
me that the Pur Chandar dhand, formerly supposed to be fath- 
omless, has grown smaller of late years by the encroachment of the 
desert sand, and that the local people no longer place any credence 
in the old legends of its great depth. 


The fact then that fifteen dhands were dry has nothing to 
do with the rainfall of 1918. If this fact is recognised it will be 
seen that in the Kot Jubbo area, the season immediately preceding 
my visit must have been an excessively wet one, since only nine 
dhands produced, and the rest of the recently worked dhands con- 
tained excessive water. But the most curious feature is that of the 
nine producing dhands six, viz., Abdul Rahim, Suji Nandhi, Suji 
Wadi, Pharanwaro, Gadanwaro, Ganwarwaro, are names which 
occur-in the old list of 1899, but are not found in the recent list of 
1918. This means that the very excessive rainfall caused water 
to collect in several of the old usually dry dhands which again, 
after a lapse of years, yielded chantho. 

(1) Pakhyaro was by far the largest producer in season 

1918-19, although there was an excess 

Producing dhand* of water in the dhand, so that chaniho 
between thetwo dra-ins. : 

was obtained only from the south 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 236 


end, while the north part did not yield. Pakhyaro is 
the most southerly of the dhands, being 3 mile long 
and about 100 yards broad (see plates 2 and 7). There 
is about 2 feet of water. The specific gravity was 
1-104, and the water contained 87-4 grams of Na,COg, 
and 22-7 grams of NaCl per litre. Complete analyser 
of the water and the chaniho of this dhand are given in 
Chapter VI. There were about 5,000 maunds of chanihc 
of first grade quality stacked on the south shore at the 
time of my visit. 

(2) Ganwarwaro.—One of the old dhands, dry during several 
years, which, owing to the excessive rainfall, yielded in 
the season of my visit. The dhand is about } mile N.N.E. 
of Pakhyaro, and is very small (50 by 50 yards about) 
being circular in shape, and containing about 1 foot of 
water. About 500 maunds of third grade chaniho were 
obtained from it. An analysis of the chaniho is givep 
in Chapter VI. 

(3) Nainwaro or Narwaro.—This is 1 furlong N.N.E. of Gan- 
warwaro, and is still smaller (25 by 50 yards). It is also 
one of the old dhands of the 1899 list, which remained 
dry for some years, and again yielded in this excessively 
wet year. About 200 maunds of third grade chaniho 
were obtained. An analysis is given in Chapter VI. 

(4) Gadanwari dhand.—In the Survey map reproduced in plate 
16, it will be seen that a dhand north of Pakhyaro is 
marked Guddarwaree. This dhand is not correctly named, 
its real name is Lai-wari, while Gadanwari lies in the 
tali immediately to the west. Gadanwari consists of two 
dhands, one to the north and one to the south, and 
separated by a narrow bar. Each dhand is about 100 
by 25 yards, and has about 2 feet of water. These 
two Gadanwari dhands are about 300 yards west of Lai- 
wari (marked Guddarwaree on the map). About 800 
maunds of second grade chaniho was obtained from the 
south dhand, and 400 maunds from the north dhand 
in season 1918-19. The dhands are mentioned in the old 
list of 1899, but not in the list of 1918. The specific 
gravity of the water of the south dhand was 1-051; 
there were 35:0 grams of Na,CO, and 14-3 grams of 

p?2 


937 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


NaCl per litre present. An analysis of the chantho of 
the north dhand is given in Chapter VI. 


(5) Laiwari is about 1} miles N.N.E. of Pakhyaro, and is a long 
narrow dhand, about 5 furlongs in length. It is not 
mentioned as a producer in the old list of 1899, and 
evidently had then too much water. At the time of my 
visit there were from 3 to 4 feet of water, and although 
there is abundant sodium carbonate in the lake, only 
about 100 maunds were extracted. The water had a 
specific gravity of 1-115, and contained 100-3 grams of 
Na,CO, and 24-9 grams of NaCl per litre. On the 
Survey of India map this dhand is wrongly named 
Guddarwaree. : 


(6) Pharanwaro, mentioned in the list of 1899, but not in 
that of 1918, is a very tiny dhand, about 30 by 6 yards 
and is situated immediately north of the now dried up 
depression marked on the map of 1860 as Leware je 
Dhund. About 50 maunds of third grade chaniho were 
obtained in season 1918-19. 


(7) Kalbuwaro is so named in the list of 1899, but in that 
of 1918 there is a dhand named Phuloowala, which, 
according to Mr. Mohammed Khan, is a corruption of 
the true name Kalbuwaro. It is marked on the Survey 
map, but not named, and is the dhand lying immediately 
west of that marked as Savaree je Dhund. The dhand 


is now a small one, about 100 by 30 yards, and yielded no © 


chaniho owing to excess of water in season 1918-19. In 
the preceding year, it yielded about 300 maunds of 
third grade chaniho. ; 


(8) Gapnum is the dhand marked as Gubno jo Dhund in the 
Survey map. It is mentioned among the producing 
dhands in the old list of 1899, but not in that of 1918. It 
isa small dhand, but has excess of water, and does not 
yield chaniho. 


(9) Ahirowaro, also mentioned in the list of 1899, but not in 
that of 1918, appears to be the dhand marked Jhungun- 
waro Dhund on the map. I could not reconcile the map 
in this portion with the actual country. North-east of 
the dhund marked as Savaree je Dhund, there is a dhand 


3 ,. 


THE KHAIRPUR SPATE, KO'T JUBO REGION, 938 
marked on the map as Turhan je Dhund. But this 
dhand is also known as Savari dhand, the name being 
applied to both with the prefixes East and West, or 
Ubrand Savari and Ulan Savari. The name Turhan is 
applied to a dhand about ? mile north of Ulan Savari. 
We may either say that the dhand now known as Turhan 
is not marked on the map or that the dhand lying be- 
tween Jhungunwaro and Gubno is intended to indicate this 
dhand, but that it has been wrongly placed too far to the 
north. Ahirowaro and Gubno are small unimportant dhands. 

(10) Achro is west of the large Sahai dhand, and close by. It 
is mentioned in the 1899 list, but is now dry. 

(11) Padru is the northern of the two small dhands immediately 
west of Machoee or Mujoee je Dhund (see map). It is not 
mentioned in the 1899 list, but occurs in that of 1918. 
It is a long narrow dhand, about half a mile in length 
by about 80 yards across. and had a depth of about 5 to 
6 feet of water. Owing to excess of water it yielded no 
chaniho in 1918-19. The water had a specific gravity of 
1:029, and contained 20-1 grams of Na,CO, and 6-2 
grams of NaCl per litre. - 

(12) Kandiwaro (or Kandriwaro) is mentioned in both lists, and 
lies a furlong or so west of Padru. It is about 150 by 56 
yards and had about 3 feet of water. It had excessive 
water and yielded no chaniho in season 1918-19, but in 
the previous season its chaniho was second grade. There 
was abundant kalar at the south end of the dhand of 
which a specimen was taken, the analysis of which is. . 
given in Chapter VI. Its water had a_ specific gravity 
of 1-025, that is almost the same as Padru, and 
contained 14:9 grams of Na,CO, and 11-1 grams of NaCl 
per litre. 

(13) Bambalui Wadi.—This is mentioned in both lists, but is 
called Niblowie in that of 1918. It is about 1 mile N. 
by W. of the dhand marked Noon Khan je Dhund. 
It is a large dry dhand with a pool at its south end 
about 60 by 20 yards in size. In former years it yielded 
third grade chaniho, but none in 1918-19. The water 
had a specific gravity of 1-084, and contained 58-4 grams 
of Na,CO, and 289 grams of NaCl per litre. 


239 


COTTER: SODA LNDUSTRY OF SIND. 


(14) Bambalui Nandhi,—This lies north of Bambalui Wadi. 
It is now dry. The name occurs in the old 1899 list, but 
not in that of 1918. 

(15) Rahimwaro is north of Kandiwaro and close by. It is 
now dry. 

(16) Gidharwaro, (17) Padrio, (18) Jaranwaro, (19) Watwaro, 
(20) Waranwaro, and (21) Matranwaro are all three 
miles or less north of the northern of the two dhands mark- 
ed Chundroee jo Dhund. The name Chundroee should 
only be applied to the sourthern, the name of the northern 
being Leyara. All these dhands (16) to (21) are now dry, 
and are not mentioned in the 1918 list. 


(22) Boranwaro (or Bowanwaro).—Mentioned in the 1899, but 
not im the 1918 list. This dhand lies between Leyara and 
the group of dhands numbered (16) to (21). It had 
excessive water according to Mr. Mohammed Khan. 


(23) Manchur, 1 mile north of Leyara, is mentioned in the list 
of 1899, but has since dried up. 


(24) Garho Got.—Mentioned on both lists, is a small dhand 
between the two dhands marked Chundroee on the map, 
that is, between Leyara and Chundroee (since the northern 
Chandroi is wrongly so named, and should be marked 
Leyara). It is a circular dhand with a diameter of about 
60 or 70 yards. It contaimed 2 to 3 feet of water, 
and had yielded no chaniho that season. Its water had 
a specific gravity of 1°060, and contained 47°1 grams of 
Na,CO, and 13°2 grams of NaCl per litre. 


(25) Kharowaro is a dhand not mentioned in either list. It 
lies very close to and immediately north of Chandroi 
(that is the southern of the two dhands marked Chundroee). 
It is very small, about 20 by 20 yards. It produced 
50 to 60 maunds of third grade chaniho during season 
1918-19. 

(26) Suji Nandhi, and (27) Suji Wadi are at the north-east end 
of Chandroi, quite close to Kharowaro, I saw only one 
pool nearly dry, about 50 by 15 yards in size. I do not 
know whether this was Suji Nandhi or Wadi. About 
300 maunds of second grade chaniho had been obtained, 
Au analysis is given in Chapter VI. The two Suji 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 240 
dhands and Kharowaro are to be regarded as isolated 
pools of Chandroi, and are only separated from the 
large dhand by very narrow bars. 


The 27 dhands given above complete the list of dhands from 
which chaniho has been obtained, and which lie between the dra-ins 
of Pur Chandar and Sano-i. 


Owing to the limited time at my disposal, none of the dhands 
on the outer margins of the dra-ins were 
Dhands on the outer visited, with the exception of the four Sanoi 
margins of the dra-ins. : aa 
= dhands, which were visited by Mr. Thurley. 
Since none of the outlying dhands, with the exception of Abdul 
Rahim had yielded any trona in the year of my visit, it did not 
appear necessary to do more than examine the water of the more 
important ones. Mr. Mahommed Khan, however, procured  speci- 
mens of the bitterns for me, and thus saved me from the necessity 
of collecting them myself. 


I shall consider the dhands on the outer margins of the Sanoi 
dra-in, beginning with the most southerly. 


(28) Kharro, mentioned in both lists, yielded chaniho containing 
only 1 per cent. of NaCl in 1899, but had excessive water 
in the season of my visit. Kharro is marked on the map 
as Khure jo Tith, and is 124 miles E.S.E. of Pakhyaro. 
It is about 2 acres in extent, and has about 2 feet of 
water. The specific gravity was 1-069, and the quantities 
of salts present were Na,CO,— 53-8 grams per litre, 
NaC] — 19-3 grams per litre. 

(29) Jhando-i Wadi, and (30) Jhando-i Nandhi. Mr. Mahommed 
Khan knew of the existence of only one dhand named 
Jhandoi, presumably Jhandoi Wadi, the other having 
possibly become dry within the past twenty years. This 
Jhandoi is mentioned in both lists. It had excessive 
water in 1918 and produced no chaniho. It is reported 
to be a small dhand 30 by 30 yards with about 2 feet 
of water. It lies 8} miles due east of Gapnum or Gubno 
and is marked on the map as Jundoee-waro Koothee. 
The water has a specific gravity of .1:090, and contains 


60-8 grams of Na,CO,; and 29-6 grams of NaCl per 
litre. 


241 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


(31) Dabho is said to be 1 mile north of Jhandoi, and is about 1 
acre in extent with about 2 feet of water. It is not 
marked on the map and its name is not given in the list 
of 1899. It had excessive water in 1918. 


(32) Gandhi (or Gandhi-waro, marked Ghundeewaro Tith on 
the map), mentioned on both lists, is 64 miles east of 
Gapnum and 2 miles W. by 8. of Jhandoi. Its chaniho 
had 8 per cent. of NaCl in 1899. In 1918 there was 
excess of water and no chaniho. It is about 3 acres in 
extent, and was reported to have 2 to 3 feet of water, The 
specific gravity of the water was 1-087, and there were 
69-0 grams of Na,CO, and 27-8 grams of NaCl present 
per litre. 

(33) Sanoi Nandhi— This is one of the group of Sanoi dhands, 
situated 4} miles east of Sahai (Sahaee je Dhund of 
map). Sanoi Nandhi is now dry, although it yielded 
in 1899. It lies to the immediate north of the Sanoi 
Wadi, which see. : 


(34) Sanoi Wadi is mentioned in both lists. It is the western 
of the two long narrow dhands marked on the map 
Sunnohee jo Tith. Mr. Thurley reports that the dhand is 
about 200 yards long by 10 yards wide, with a depth of 
3 feet, and that there was a heavy coating of efflorescent 
salt on its shores. The water had a specific gravity of 
1-048, and contained 34-8 grams of Na,CO, and 7-0 grams 
of NaCl per litre. Owing to excess of water, no chaniho 
was obtained in 1918. 


(85) Sano1 Kotenwari, (36) Sanoi Garhi, and (37) Sanoi Narwari 
were in 1918 all one dhand, namely, the eastern of the 
two marked on the map as Sunnohee jo Tith. In drier 
years this dhand becomes separated into three by the 
emergence above water level of two bars. Of these 
three dkands, that to the south is Kotenwari, that in 
the middle is Garhi, and that to the north is Narwari. 
The whole three dhands are about 260 yards in length. 
Mr, Thurley gives the dimensions as follows :— 

Kotenwari . c ‘ - 50 by 10 yds, ; depth 4 ft. 


Garhi . z ‘ . - 60 by 10 yds. ; depth 3 ft. 
Narwari 3 # + 150 by 15 yds. ; depth 5 ft. 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 242 


Mr. Thurley collected samples of water from the three sections 
of the then united dhands. The following are the results of the 
analyses :— : 


TABLE III. 


} 
Na,CO3;, Na SO pe. a4 
— Sp. Gr. | grams per gms. per | De eee 
| litre. litre. | Per Ure: 
Sanoi Kotenwari. .  . | 1-033 22-8 31 | 61 
SanciGerhi. . . «| 1:037 | 26-1 35 7-0 
Sanoi Narwari ; = a 1-046 | 33-7 4-4 9-1 


The proportion of carbonate to chloride in these three dhands is 
nearly the same, vz., in Kotenwari 3-73: 1, in Garhi 3-73: 1, in 
Narwari 3-70: 1. It will be seen that while the solution is weaker 
in the south, the proportions of the salts do not greatly vary. 


(38) Gabanwaro is mentioned in the list of 1918, but not in that 
of 1899, probably because it then had excessive water. 
Gabanwaro is 5 miles N.W. of Pur Chandar dhand, and is 
the easterly of the two dhands shown on the map as 
lying immediately north of a dhand marked Dhoon 
Khan jo Doobhan. Gabanwaro is about 1 acre in extent, 
and had about 3 feet of water in 1918, having yielded 
no chaniho that year. The water bad a specific gravity 
of 1-041, and contained 21-1 grams of Na,CO, and 24-9 
grams of NaCl per litre. 

(39) Rojewaro, mentioned in the list of 1899, is west of Gaban- 
waro but has been dry for many years. 

(40) Abdul Rahim lies north of and close to Rojewaro, and is 
mentioned in the list of 1899, but not in that of 1918. 
It has been dry for several years, but owing to the excessive 
water of 1918, again yielded about 200 maunds. (2) and 
(3) are similar resuscitated dhands, see ante. 

(41) Letan Abdul Rahim, mentioned in the 1899 list, lies north 
of and close to Abdul Rahim. It has been dry for 
several years. 

(42) Laniwari, a dhand which in 1899 yielded a deposit con- 
taining 76 per cent. of chloride, lies about 2 miles N. of 


243 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Dhoon Khan jo Doobhan, not far from Lanehwalee Bhit 
marked on the map. Laniwari had excessive water in 
1918, but in any case the lake is probably too saline to 
yield chaniho. The bottle containing the specimen of 
water from the dhand was broken and no test made. 

(43) Nau Rait.—This dhand is mentioned in the list of 1918, but 
not in that of 1899, and is a comparatively new 
producer. Mr. Mahommed Khan describes it as situated 
4 miles W.N.W. of the dhand marked Kharoree je Dhund 
on the map, which latter dhand lies 24 miles N. W. of 
Dhoon Khan jo Doobhan. It is about 2 acres in extent 
with about 3 feet of water, the water in 1918 being in too 
great excess to deposit chaniho. The water had a specific 
gravity of 1-172, and contained 123-8 grams of Na,CO, 
and 49-3 grams of NaCl per litre. 

(44) Rait Pario, north of and close to Nau Rait, is also a com- 
paratively new producer. It is about the same size and 
depth as Nau Rait. Owing to excessive water it did 
not yield in 1918. The water had a specific gravity 
of 1-037, and contained 8-8 grams of Na,CO, and 28-7 
grams of NaCl per litre. In 1912-13 this dhand is 
reported to have produced about 5,700 maunds, but in 
1915-16 and 1916-17 nothing was obtained, as also in 
1918. In its present state the dhand is too saline to 
yield chaniho. 

(45) Bhaun, a dhand mentioned in the old list of 1899, is 2 miles 
north of Rait Pario, and is now dry. 

(46) Kot. Korro (Koro or Kot Imamgarh dhand). While all 
the dhands hitherto mentioned lie east of the Kot Jubo 
meridian, Kot Imamgarh dhand is about + mile 8S. of 
Fort Imamgarh. This old fort is described by the 
Gazetteer as “the Gibraltar of the Khairpur Mirs,” 
and lies 16 miles N.W. of Kot Jubo. It was visited by a 
military mission under Sir Charles Napier in 1843. The 
dhand is about 2 acres in extent with 2 feet of water. 
No chaniho was obtained in 1918 owing to excess of 
water. 

The list of forty-six dhands given above completes the descrip- 

tion of the dhands of the Kot Jubo area, which have ever been 
known to produce chantho. 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 944 


Commencing with the most southerly dhand 
of the large non-producing dhands, which have 
never concentrated sufficiently to deposit 
chaniho, the first is— 


Large alkaline dhands 
of Kot Jubo area. 


(1) Narui, a dhand nearly a mile in length with a depth of about 
six or seven feet, is marked on the map, but not named. 
It is thedhand east of Lai-wari (see No. 5 of previous 
list) @.e., the dhand east of that shown on the map as 
Guddanwaree. The water had a specific gravity of 1-057, 
and contained 31-9 grams of Na,CO,, and 25:6 grams 
of NaCl per litre. The size and shape of the dhand can 
be seen from the map. 


(2) Dabura, shown on the-map as Daboorah je Dhund, is 5 
furlongs in length, hardly a furlong broad at its broadest 
part, and is about 7 or 8 feet deep. The water had a 
specific gravity of 1-059 and contained 34-7 grams of 
Na,CO, and 30:3 grams of NaCl per litre. 

(3) Savari Ulan (or West dhand), marked on the map as Savaree 
je Dhund, is a narrow dhand about half a mile in length, 
and contains about 8 feet of water. The breadth is 
about 150 feet. The water had a specific gravity of 
1-044, and contained 26-0 grams of Na,CO, and 25°3 
grams of NaCl per litre. 


(4) Savari Ubrand (or East dhand) is marked wrongly on the 
map as Turhan je Dhund. It lies close to but east of 
(3), and is roughly about the same size. Its water has 
not been tested. 

(5) Turhan dhand—In my description of the Gapnum dhand 
I have noted the error in the map whereby the 
Savari Ubrand dhand is labelled Turhan, and the dhand 
known to the local people as Turhan is either unmarked 
or is wrongly placed. Turhan is about ? mile north of 
Savari Ulan and is a long narrow dhand, about 650 by 
100 yards, with a depth of 8 or 9 feet. Its water had a 
specific gravity of 1-045, and contained 32-5 grams of 
Na,CO, and 13:0 grams of NaCl per litre. 

(6) Sanbri, a small narrow dhand not quite 3 furlongs in length, 
lies S.E. of Sahai. It is marked on the map but not 
named. Its water was not tested. 


me 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


(7) Sahai dhand, marked on the map as Sahaee je Dhund, is 
one of the largest of the Kot Jubo dhands. It has 
probably 10 feet of water but there is shallow water 
in the middle of the dhand. The dhand is slightly over 
a mile long and is } mile broad. Sahai has a specific 
gravity of 1-038 and contains 15-1 grams of Na,CO, 
and 25-7 grams of NaCl per litre. The lake was covered 
with thousands of flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) at the 
time of my visit. These birds, which were also abundant 
on Leyara dhand (see below) appear to prefer the saline 
to the alkaline dhands. 

(8) Machoi (or Mujoi dhand), marked on map, lies about a furlong 
north of Sahai, and is a long very narrow dhand. Its 
water had a specific gravity of only 1-009, containing 
4:8 grams of Na,CO, and 2-0 grams of NaCl per litre. 

(9) Lun Khan Ubrand dhand. In the 1860 map there are two 
dhands about 1} miles N.W, of Sahai: these are named Sone 
je Dhund and Noon Khan je dhand. These two dhands 
were united into one dhand at the time of my visit. Mr. 
Mahommed Khan, who lived for many years near Kot 
Jubo and is very familiar with the past history of 
this country, could not remember that there was ever 
more than one long dhand, which he called Lun Khan 
not Nun Khan. He observed also that there was 
another dhand known as Lun Khan about 7 miles to 
the west, and lying to the N.E. of Kinri dhand. It will 
be observed that there are two dhands marked on the 
map in this part, viz. Lanehwalee Tith and Dhoon 
Khan jo Doobhan. The name Laniwari is now applied 
toa dhand of small extent lying some 2 miles to the 
north of these dhands (see ante). It would appear that 
the dhand marked on the map as Lanehwalee is really 
Lun Khan Ulan dhand, since the latter dhand is described 
as a very long narrow dhand of over a mile in length: 
this description could only apply to Lanehwalee. The 
water of Lun Khan Ubrand has a specific gravity of 1-035 
and contains 12:7 grams of Na,CO, and 26-3 grams of 
NaCl per litre. The dhand as it was at the time of my 
visit was nearly a mile long but very narrow, and pro- 
bably with not more than 4 or 5 feet of water. 


THE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION. 246 


(10) Leyara is the northern of the two dhands marked Chundroee 
jo Dhund ‘on the map. It is a dhand over } mile in 
length, over a furlong broad at its northern end, and 
probably 6 to 7 feet deep. Leyara is a saline dhand, 
not alkaline. Its specific gravity is 1-075 and its water 
contains 90:4 grams of NaCl per litre, while the CO, 
present calculated as Na,CO, is equivalent to 1-7 grams 
of Na,CO,. The water of Leyara is clear and not 
yellowish or reddish as is that of the alkaline dhands. 


(11) Chandroi is marked on the map as a long dhand some 23 
miles in length, 7.e., the southern of the two dhands named 
Chundroee jo Dhund. In reality there are two dhands in 
this length of 2} miles shown in the map. Chandroi is 
14 miles in length and is separated by a bar from the 
southern part at a point half a mile W.N.W. of Ramzan 
je Wand. The southerr. part, which runs into the Pur 
Chandar dhand, is called Dukani. The water of Chandroi 
has a specific gravity of 1-114 and contains 25-3 
grams of Na,CO, and 102:3 grams of NaCl per litre. 
It is thus a highly saline dhand, although more alkaline 
than Leyara. 

(12) Dukani is a long very narrow dhand, in places about 10 
yards across, in length about 14 miles between Chandroi 
and Pur Chandar. It is separated from Chandroi by a 
bar of sand, but at the time of my visit it had a 
channel into Pur Chandar. In drier years it is sepa- 
rated from Pur Chandar by the drying up of this 
channel. Dukani though very narrow is probably 5 feet 
deep. Its water had a specific gravity of 1-069 and 
contained 47-9 grams of Na,CO, and 27-8 grams of 
NaCl per litre. 

(13) Pur Chandar dhand is the deepest of all the dhands visited. 
T have already mentioned the local superstition that this 
lake was bottomless. I sent out a man on a raft to sound 
it in various places, but he touched bottom with a long 
pole easily. I do not think the dhand can be much 
over 15 feet in depth at its deepest. It is said to have 
diminished greatly in size of late years, especially at 
its south end. Quantities of sand are continually being 
blown into it. In spite of its depth, there is curiously 


247 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


enough a smal! island in the middle. The size of the 
dhand can be judged from the map, but it is a little 
smaller than as shown. Its water has a specific gravity 
of 1-070 and contains 48-1 grams of Na,CO, and 28-9 
grams of Na,Cl per litre. 
(14) Kinri or Kinriwari dhand is 6 miles west, of Chandroi 
and is marked on the map. Its water contains 50-2 grams 
of Na,CO, and 14-0 grams of NaCl per litre, and has a 
specific gravity of 1-064. 

(15) Lun Khan Ulan.—-This dhand appears to be the same as 
that marked Lanehwalee Tith on the map (see note on 
Lun Khan Ubrand). Unfortunately the specimen of its 
water was broken in transit and could not be tested, 

It is necessary to make the following corrections in the map, 

omera nee The dhand marked Guddanwaree should be 

Survey of India Map Laiwari, A  dhand should be drawn in the 

sheet 44 Sindh Revenue {q/j immediately west of Laiwari and should 
Survey, scale 1”=1 mile. ? - 
be marked Gadanwari. 

The dhand east of that wrongly named Guddanwaree should be 
marked Narui. 

Savaree je Dhund should be Savari West, and the dhand marked 
Turhan je should be Savari East. 

Turhan is a large dhand 3? mile north of Savari West, and should 
be marked on the map, but is not. 

The dhands Sone je and Noon Khan should be joined into one 
and marked Lun Khan the Eastern, 

Padru dhand marked but not named on the map is drawn much 
too small. 

The dhand marked Chundroee immediately south of Bhewalee 
should be named Leyara, 

South of the Leyara dhand there is shown on the map a dhand 
of about 23 miles in length, which is named Chundroee jo Dhund. 
There are in reality two dhands here separated by a bar of sand 
at a point } mile N.W. of Ramzan je Wand. The northern of these 
two dhands is the true Chandroi, and the southern Dukani, 

The dhand marked on the map as Lanehwalee Tith situated 
about 5 miles W.N.W. of Chandroi appears to be known now as Lun 
Khan Ulan. 


HE KHAIRPUR STATE, KOT JUBO REGION 248 


It is remarkable that in the more open country to the north of 
the dra-ins the proportion of salt to soda is 
very much greater than in those dhands which 
lie in the middle of the dra-ins. This can be 
seen from a comparison of the analyses of the water of Pur Chandar 
with that of Dukani, Chandroi, and Leyara, While Pur Chandar 
contains about 5 grams of carbonate for every 3 grams of chloride. 
Leyara is entirely a saline dhand, the two intervening dhands Dukan 
and Chandroi showing decreasing proportions of soda. An excep- 
tion to this is the large Sahai dhand, which, although highly saline 
itself, is enclosed on the north and south by more alkaline dhands, 

I conclude this chapter with one tabular statement showing 
the state of the dhands of the Kot Jubbo area as they were in 1918-19. 


Distribution of salt 
and soda in dhands. 


Taste IV.—Table showing the state of the Khairpur dhands, Kot 
Jubo region, as they were in season 1918-19, 


er 


| Dhands which never 
Producing. Dry. Excessive Water. produced owing to 
excess of water. 
Pakhyaro. Achro. Kalbuwaro. Narui. 
Ganwarwaro. Bambalui Nandhi. Gapnum. Dabura. 
Nainwaro. Rahimwaro. Ahirowaro. Savari Ulan. 
Gadanwari. Gidharwaro. Padru. Savari Ubrand, 
Laiwari. Jaranwaro. Bambalui Wadi. Turhan. 
Pharanwaro. Padrio. Kandiwaro. Sanhri. 
Kharowaro. Watwaro. Boranwaro. Sahai.* 
Suji Wadi Waranwaro. Garho Got Machoi.* 
Suji Nandhi. Matranwaro. Kharro. Lun Khan Ubrand. 
Abdul Rahim. Manchur. Jhandoi Wadi. Leyara.* 
Jhandoi Nandhi. Gandhi. Chandroi.* 
Sanoi Nandhi. Dabho. Dukani. 
Rojewaro. Sanoi Wadi. Pur Chandar. 
Letan Abdul Rahim. | Sanoi Kotenwari. Kinri. 
Bhaun. Sanoi Garhi. Lun Khan Ulan. 
Sanoi Narwari. 
Gabanwaro, 
Laniwari. 
Nau Rait. 
Rait Pario. 
Kot Korro. 
10 15 21 15 


Those dhands marked with asterisks are never likely to deposit 
trona owing to a deficiency of carbonate, 


CHAPTER IV. 


THE NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA OF THE NAWABSHAH 
DISTRICT. 


The chaniho deposits of the Nawabshah district lie on its north- 
eastern margin entirely within the limits of the Nawabshah or 
Nasrat taluga. This district was formerly part of the Hyderabad 
district, from which it was separated about six years ago owing to 
the growth and excessive size of the latter. 

The dhands which yield chantho lie in the sand hills north of 
the Jamrao Canal, near the Jamrao Head. Owing to the embank- 
ment of the canal and the control of the flood water, this region 
has been gradually drying up, so that the number of producing 
dhands has become greatly circumscribed. 

In the year 1903, this area was reported upon by the then Salt 
Inspector of the Naushehro division. A translation of his report, 
which was in Sindhi, was kindly given to me by Mr. Thurley. 
He gives a list of 18 dhands, with brief notes on each. I give below 
in brief the substance of the Inspector’s report. 


Last of dhands in which chaniho or phuli! is produced in the Nawabshah 
Taluqa. 


(1) Kelahu.—Water brackish; no chaniho at present (June 
1903), but is expected in July. 

(2) Korki.—Water brackish; 2 heaps (about 10 maunds) of 
phuli obtained. 

(3) Lainwari.—Dry; 4 heaps of phuli, no more obtainable in 
1908. 

(4) Lathwari.—Dry; after rain chaniho and phuli both 
obtained ; in all, 6 heaps of chaniho and 9 of phuli. 

(5) Jaganwari—Dry; 11 heaps of phuli obtained; no more 
expected in 1903. 

(6) Minwari.—Water brackish ; yielded 4 heaps of chaniho and 
11 of phuli, weighing 24 and 40 maunds respectively. 
More may be obtained. 


' The word phuli derived from phul, a flower, signifies efflorescent salt, 
( 249 ) 


THE NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA. 250 


(7) Patehu.—Water brackish, some phuli; may deposit chantho. 

(8) Paniwari._-Water brackish; no prospects of chantho. 

(9) Khabbarwaro.—Water brackish; at present only yields 
phuli. There are hopes of a further yield. 

(10) Phogwari.—Water brackish; no prospect of chaniho. 

(11) Gulabwari.—Dry; owing to rain 10 heaps (about 60 
maunds) of chaniho were produced, but no phuli. 

(12) Ridhwari.— Water brackish; at present no prospects of 
either chaniho or phuli. 

(13) Sari No. I.—Dry. About 32 maunds of phuli obtained. 

(14) Sari No. I1—-Owing to rain water, both chaniho and phult 
were obtained ; 6 heaps or 20 maunds of the former, and 
20 heaps or 100 maunds of the latter. 

(15) Khororo.—Water brackish; 12 maunds of chaniho ob- 
tained. 

(16) Dinganwaro or Deganwaro.—Owing to rain water, this 
dhand yielded 6 heaps (80 maunds) of chaniho and some 
phult. 

(17) Bolahii—Water brackish; only phuli obtained, 20 heaps 
amounting to about 100 maunds. 

(18) Akanwari.—Water brackish, and no prospects of chaniho 
at present, but this dhand may produce in the future. 

In addition to the above list of 18 dhands, the Mukhtyarkar of 
Nawabshah furnished me with the names of other dhands in this 
area not included in the list of 1903. Some of these have never 
produced chaniho, but their waters are brackish (khara). 

(19) Sanhri, containing excessive water in 1918. 

(20) Chugeri, dry in 1918. 

(21) Wasuwari, dry in 1918. 

(22) Manakwari, containing excessive water in 1918, 

(23) Soro, dry in 1918. 

(24) Gunijo, dry in 1918. 

(25) Kilanwari, dry in 1918. 

(26) Gidharwari, dry in 1918. 

(27) Gundwari, dry in 1918. 

These lists came into my hands after the conclusion of my visit; 
to the Nawabshah taluga. I was shown only three producing 
dhands in December 1918, viz., Akanwari, Kilanwari, and Phogwari, 
and was informed that these were the only dhands which had pro- 


E 


251 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


duced that year. This information appears to be quite correct 
since it corresponds with that given me by the Mukhtyarkar of 
Nawabshah, I examined all the producing dhands, but only a few 
of those which were dried up, since little or no information can be 
obtained by visiting a dried up dhand. 

Taking the dhands in the order listed above, I shall now describe 
their positions with brief notes :— 


(1) Kelahu is shown on the map as Gelahoo, and lies 8} miles 
west of Jamrao (Jamrahoo) village. It was a small 
perfectly dry depression with kalar, of about an acre 
in extent, and had produced no chaniho, but the mineral 
is said to be obtained in the rains. 

(2) Korki is 1} miles N.N.E. of (1) and is a similar dry depres- 
sion, but larger than Kelahu. Only kalar visible, no 
chaniho. 

(3) Lainwari—The Mukhbtyarkar reports that no dhand of this 
name is known, and thinks that the dhand Lathwari 
is alluded to, which he suggests that the Inspector 
of Salt duplicated in error in his list in 1903. 

(4) Lathwari—-This dhand is half a mile 8.W. of Korki and is 
reported to be perfectly dry with only kalar appearing. 
It is about three acres in extent. 

(5) Jaganwari appears to be identical with Jooga Khanoo of 
the map of 1860. It is a little smaller than Lathwari, 
and was quite dry with only kalar visible. 

(6) Minwari is also quite dry with only kalar visible. It lies 
close to and $.W. of Jaganwari, and is about the same size 
as Lathwari. 

(7) Patahu is marked on the map as Putahoowaree, and was 
dry with only calar visible. It is about the same size 
as Minwari. 

(8) Paniwari is N.W. of and close to Patahu. It was dry with 
only kalar visible. 

(9) Khabarwaro.—East of Paniwari and about one furlong 
distant. Completely dry with only kalar visible. 

(10) Phogwari.—} mile N.W. of Goonja jo Sim. When I saw 
Phogwari in December 1918, there was a small pool in 
the middle of the dhand about 10 feet in diameter, with 
a scum of chaniho on the top of the water. The rest of 
the dhand was covered with kalar. 


THE NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA. 952 


(11) Gulabwari is 4 mile N.E. of Phogwan and S.W. of Goonda- 
waree (see map). It was reported to be dry, but to 
have yielded chaniho and phuli recently. 

(12) Ridhwari is } mile N. of Phogwari. It was dry, with only 
kalar visible, but is reported to have yielded chaniho 
in recent years. 

(13) Sari No. L—This is N.W. of Patahu, and may be identical 
with the Suhaoowaree of the map. It was dry, with only 
kalar present. 

(14) Sari II is west of, and close to, Sari I. It was also dry 
with only kalar visible. 

(15) Khororo.—This dhand is marked on the map as Dhund 
Khororee. It is $4 mile 8.W, of Bolahi (Sim Bolaeewaro 
of map). It is reported to be about 5 acres in extent, 
with 3 feet of water. It yielded no chaniho within the 
last two years. A sample of the water, on analysis, was 
found to have a specific gravity of 1-068, and to contain 
42 grams of Na,CO,, 24 grams of Na,SO,, and nearly 6 
grams of NaCl. 

(16) Dinganwaro is } mile S.E. of Kurunda Wado dhand 
(marked Simm Wuddee Jorindawaree of the map). 
Dinganwaro was dry with only kalar visible, but like 
others of these Nawabshah dhands, it was said to yield 
chaniho in the rainy season. 

(17) Bolahi (marked Simm Bolaeewaro on the map) is reported 
to be 15 acres in extent, with a depth of from 2 to 4 
feet of water. It yielded no chaniho within the last two 
years. The water of Bolahi is very similar to that of 
Khororoh, with a sp. gr. of 1-069 and _ containing 43 
grams of Na,CO,, nearly 26 grams of Na,S8O,, and 64 
grams of NaCl per litre. 


(18) Akanwari.—This dhand is the only really important pro- 
ducer of the Nawabshah dhands. It appears to be 
identical with the dhand marked Sathedwaree Simm on 
the map of 1860. It is a dhand of oval shape, but 
narrow, being about 200 by 50 yards, with 2 feet of 
water. There were 114 stacks of chaniho, each of about 
4 to 5 maunds. The chaniho appeared to be of a good 
quality, of a fairly white colour, and comparatively free 
from organic matter. The water of Akanwari had a 


E2 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


to 
or 
i) 


specific gravity of 1°110, and contained 79:5 grams of 
Na,CO,, 73:5 grams of NaHCO,, 37-5 grams of NaCl, 
and a trace of Na,SO,, per litre. An analysis of the 
chaniho, which appears to be fairly pure, is given in 
Chapter VI. 

(19) Sanhri (near the Sunhuree Bhit of the 1860 map) is 
reported to be 14 acres in extent, and to have a depth 
of 1 foot. The water had a sp. gr. of 1-049, and contained 
14:9 grams of Na,CO,, 28:2 grams of NaCl, and 14:6 
grams of Na,SO, per litre. 

(20) Chugheri, a small dry dhand, 4 miles south of Wasuwari, 
which see. No yield in 1918. 

(21) Wasuwari, also dry, is east of Wasoowaree Bhit as marked 
inthe map. 

(22) Manakwari is about half a mile $.E. of Bolahi and south of 
Akanwari. It covers about 2 acres and has a depth of 
about 3 feet. It is slightly brackish having a sp. gr. 
of 1-016, and containing 7°5 grams of Na,COg, 4:7 grams of 
NaCl, and 3-6 grams of Na,SO, per litre. No chaniho 
has been obtained within the last two years. 

(23) Soro, dry, lies south of and close to Jaganwari (see ante). 

(24) Gunjo, dry, lies S.E. of and close to Jaganwari. 

(25) Kilanwari, identical with Guree Sim of the map, and east 
of Jaganwari, was dry with only one small heap of 
chaniho and some kalar visible, but chaniho is said to be 
obtained in the rains. 

(26) Gidharwari is half way between Kilanwari and Phog- 

wari, and is close to Goonja jo Sim. It was dry. 

(27) Gundwari, N.E. of Phogwari and Gulabwari, is near the 
Goondawaree Bhit of the 1860 map. It was dry. 


The Kurunda dhands, viz., Kurunda Wado, marked on the map 
as Wuddo Jorindawaree, and Kurunda Nandho, marked Jorinda- 
waree Simm, are fresh water. The CO, estimated as Na,CO, amounts 
to only 1-2 grams per litre, while the NaCl present is less than 0-5 
grams. The water of Gunja, marked Goonja jo Simm is also fresh. 
The desiccation and gradual deterioration of the Nasrat taluqa 
deposits is apparent when we compare the stat» of the dhands 
in 1903, shortly after the opening the Jamrao Canal with their state 
in 1918. 


THE NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA. 


254 


TasLeE V.—Table showing the state of the Nasrat dhands in 1903 and 


in 1918 


Name of dhand. 


Kelahu. 
Korki. 
Lainwari. 
Lathwari 
Jaganwari 
Minwari. 
Patahu. 
Paniwari. 
Khabarwaro. 
Phogwari 
Gulabwari. 
Ridhwari 


Sari I. 


Sari II. 
Khororo, 
Bolahi. 
Akanwari. 


* 
Dinganwaro 


State in 1903. 


Excessive water. 
Excessive water. 

Dry ; producing in rains. 
Dry ; producing in rains. 
Dry. 

Water ; producing. 
Excessive water. 
Excessive water. 
Excessive water. 
Excessive water. 

Dry ; producing in rains. 
Excessive water. 


Dry, yielding efflorescent salt 
(phuli). 


Dry ; producing in rains. 
Water; producing. 


Excessive water ; yielding 
phuli only. 


Excessive water. 


Dry ; producing in rains. 


State in 1918. 


Dry ; produces in rains. 
Dry. 

Not known. 

Dry. 


Dry. 
Dry. 
Dry 
Dry. 
Almost dry ; producing. 
Dry 
Dry. 


Dry. 


Dry. 
Excessive water. 


Excessive water. 


Producing pelntifully. 


Dry ; producing in rains. 


LS 


Tt is curious that Khororo should appear as a producing dhand in 
1903, but as having excessive water in 1918, contrary to the general 
tendency. It is possible that chaniho may have been collected from 
pools at its margins in former times, but there is no information on this 
point. The majority of the other dhands clearly show how great has 
been the desiccation of this area, owing to the embankment of the Jamrao 


Canal. 


955 COTTER; SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Tasie VI.—Table showing the state of the Nasrat dhands in 1918. 
SE 
] 


Producing. 


Phogwari. 
Akanwari. 


Kilanwari. 


Torats - 3 


Dry. 


Kelahu. 


Korki, 


| . ° 
| Lainwari. 


Lathwari. 
Jaganwari. 
Minwari. 
Patahu. 


Paniwari. 


Khabarwaro. 


Gulabwari. 


| Ridhwari. 
Sari I. 


| Sari IT. 


Dinganwaro. 


Chugheri. 


Wasuwari. 


| Soro. 


Gunjo. 
Gidherwari. 


Gundwari. 


| Khororo, 


| Bolahi, 


Sanhri. 
| Manakwari. 


| 
| 
| 
| 


| Excessive water, and brackish 
dhands which never produced. 


From the above table, it will be seen that there is little hope of 


expanding the chaniho production of Nasrat. Of the three producing 
dhends, Kilanwari and Phogwari were practically dry with a very 
small production. Akanwari is the only good producing dhand. 


It is true that some of the dry dhands produce after rain, but this 


THE NAWABSHAH OR NASRAT TALUQA. 256 


is both entirely dependent on the rainfall, and results in only small 
yields of impure chaniho of very low grade. Of the four brackish 
dhands, Kororo and Bolahi might produce in future, but Sanbri is 
too saline to yield good chaniho, while Manakwari has a very low 
percentage of dissolved salts, and is not likely to become sufficicntly 
concentrated in the near future. The only dhands which afford 
any hope of expanding the industry are then Khorcro and Bolahi. 


CHAPTER V. 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT ; SANGHAR AND KHIPRO 
TALUQAS; DIPLO AND MITHI TALUQAS ; AND KARACHI 
DISTRICT. 


The working the deposits of chaniho in the Thar and Parkar 
district was stopped by order of the Commissioner in Sind in the 
year 1902 (letter No. C.-277, dated April 23rd, 1902, to the Deputy 
Commissioner of Thar and Parkar). 

All the dhands then worked for chaniho proved to be dry in 
January 1919. 

It was necessary therefore to make a complete survey of all the 
dhands of these talugas in order to ascertain whether any new 
dhands which might have contained excessive water in 1902 had 
become sufliciently concentrated to deposit chaniho. 

Before proceeding to describe the dhands of these taluqas, I 

Hides ORAS tHe will briefly relate the circumstances which led 
dustry in Thar and to the closing of the industry in Thar and 
Parkar. Parkar. 

Thay and Parkar had for many years produced chaniho. The 
industry is mentioned in the first edition of the Sind Gazetteer 
published in 1874. Pottinger', writing in 1816, states that alkali 
was one of the main exports from Karachi, and it may be assumed 
that this alkali came from Thar and Parkar, Nawabshah, and 
Khairpur. 

The output of Thar and Parkar from 1893 to 1899 was as fol- 
lows : 2— 


Taste VIT.—Output of chaniho and phuli from 1893 to 1899 in Thar 
and Parkar. 
-.) 


-—— | Kharo chaniho. Phuli. Tora.s. 
sa coe Re 

| maunds. maunds. / maunds. 
1893-94 : ; é ra ORDO: ce: (pl apade 
1896-97 : ; % es 3,441 4,133 7,574 
1897-98 4 P } 2,800 3,200 6,000 
1898-99 % $ é 800 2,700 | 3,500 

| 
ene 


1 Pottinger, Lieut. H., “Z'ravels in Beloochistan and Sinde”, p. 344. 
? Letter of Commr. in Sind, No. C.-75 of 1901. 


(| 257 ) 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT. 258 


and it was considered that in an average year about 4,000 maunds 
were collected. Since 1877 the collecting of chaniho from the 
Sanghar and Khipro dhands was farmed out, and an auction was 
held every year for the right to extract chaniho over the period of 
one year from August to July. The prices realised for this right were 
as follows :— 


Year Rs. 
1894-95 £ 3 - . é S ¢ 1,925 
LSOS:06 see ee eee eee ut ey oe 1,925 
1896-97 . ; ¥ 4 : ; ; 5 g ; 7,000 
1897-98 : 3 , 3 % : $ é s 4,050 
1898-99 ? : . : i 3 ‘ 5 Y 2,700 


In January 1899 the Chief Collector of Customs in Karachi ordered 
the Special Salt Inspector in Sind to tour the Thar and Parkar dis- 
trict and to report on the state of the salt deposits, etc., there. 

On the 30th March 1899, the Special Salt Inspector reported 
that some of the kharo! and phuli (efflorescence) removed from the 
dhands could be used as common salt, and he requested that the 
deposits of the chief chaniho producing dhand of Thar and Parkar, 
—a dhand named Dabhiwari in the Khipro taluqa—might be tested, 
whereupon the high percentage of chloride would become apparent. 

He explains in a subsequent letter that kharo and chaniho are 
synonymous terms both indicating a hard crystalline deposit from 
a concentrated bittern, while the term phulz denotes a soft powdery 
efflorescence. 

Three samples of chaniho and phuli were now sent to the Chemical 
Examiner in Bombay. These samples presumably came from Dab- 
hiwari. On analysis they were announced to contain 84 per cent., 
53 per cent., and 43 per cent. of NaCl. respectively, the remainder 
being CO, and SO, with bases Na, K, and Mg. 

As soon as it became apparent that the excise duty on salt was 
likely to be evaded by the traders in this very impure chaniho who 
sold an article purporting to be soda, but im reality largely salt, 
the matter was energetically taken up by the Salt Department. 
The chaniho sold in Karachi bazaar was now analysed. but the two 
specimens sent to the Chemical Analyst showed only 5 and 3 per 
cent. of NaCl respectively. Probably these specimens were from 
Khairpur. 


' Tho torms kharo and chaniho are synonymous, both signifying trona. 


259 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Meanwhile the Deputy Commissioner of Thar and Parkar for- 
bade the removal of the heaps of chaniho at Dabhiwari, of which 
there were estimated to be 3,200 maunds. I saw the remains of 
these heaps in 1918, and collected a specimen of the chaniho for 
analysis, see Chapter VI. 

The following dhands were being worked at this period :— 


(1) Dangi jo Chaho . ' i * . . - Sanghar taluga, 
(2) Sahib Dinai jo Puso , : : ° . . ” ” 
(3) Kariwari ; Hs ; k - ~ 2 na a 
(4) Bodlo . ‘ ‘ 5 ‘ f , ‘ i$ nf 
(5) Sanhri, : ; ; ; . ; - Khipro taluqa. 
(6) Mitho Puso . 4 ; : ; ; ° ‘ 9 +i 
(7) Laiwari é : ; . é : ‘ < 9 Po 
(8) Garho Puso ; * . . . . : » ” 
(9) Laniwari. : i ‘ i ; ‘ ‘ % ‘f 
(10) Dimunwari 5 fs x ; een o _ 
(11) Dabhiwari ‘ P i . ; % = 5 


and there were at least nine other places, the names of which are 
not recorded, from which chaniho was produeed. The dhands are 
given above in geographical order from N.W. to S.E. 

A Committee was then appointed consisting of the Mukhtyarkars 
of Sanghar and Khipro, the Special Salt Inspector, and the Deputy 
Collector of the K. Nara Valley, who were sent to examine and report 
upon the chaniho industry in these taluqas. 

The Committee collected the following samples, whieh were after- 
wards analysed :— 

Dabhiwari, from the chaniho stacks of 1896-97, four samples 
with 85 per cent., 64 per cent., 73 per cent. and 25 
per cent., of NaCl respectively. 

Dabhiwari, from the chaniho stacks of 1898-99, three samples 
with 70 per cent., 43 per cent. and 30 per cent., of NaCl 
respectively. 

Laiwari, sample of phi containing 20 per cent. of NaCl. 

Laiwari, two samples of chaniho containing 58 per cent. and 
89 per cent. of NaCl respectively. 

Bodlo, sample of phuli containing 22 per cent. of NaCl. 

Garho Puso, sample of phiwli containing 7 per cent. of NaCl, 

Mitho Puso, sample of chaniho containing 8 per cent. of NaCl. 

Sanhri, sample of phuli (?) containing 19 percent. of NaCl. 

Kariwari, sample of phuli containing 24 per sent. of NaCl, 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT, 260 


Sahip Dinai jo Chaho, sample of phuli containing 34 per cent. 
of NaCl. 

Dangi jo Chaho, sample of phulc containing 35 per cent. of 
NaCl. 


The Deputy Collector of the East Nara, in forwarding the Com- 
mittee’s report, states that chaniho is not annually found in the same 
set of dhands. “ After a few years” he says “ the conditions 
change, and no chaniho is found there, but is found in other places 
where there was none for years.” He proceeds to point out that 
in the same dhand are found several grades of chaniho, a superior 
quality used as baking powder for pulse-cakes, and an inferior salty 
quality used for washing and dyeing. Re. 1-8-0 is obtained per 
maund for the superior, and As. 10 per maund for the inferior 
quality. Most of the chaniho is collected in May or June,-7.e., 
when the dhands have been evaporated to their greatest concentration. 

During the enquiry into the chaniho industry, the Salt Depart- 
ment collected and analysed 41 samples of chaniho and phuli from 
the dhands of Khairpur State. I have given a list of 37 of these 
dhands and the results of the analysis in Chapter III, p. 232. 


Comparing the results of the analysis of the Khairpur dhands 
with those of Thar and Parkar, it will be seen that while the majority 
of the Khairpur dhands yielded a fairly pure chaniho, those of Thar 
and Parkar had in many cases over 50 per cent. of NaCl. Apparently 
the deterioration of the Thar and Parkar chaniho was in 1899 only a 
recent feature. Mr. W. H. Lucas, then Deputy Commissioner of 
Thar and Parkar, in a letter to the Commissioner in Sind ! states 
that he had questioned a man who had been employed for 25 years 
in removing chaniho from the deposits of the district, and that this 
man stated that it was only since 1896-97, that this very highly salt 
impregnated kind had been deposited. 

Mr. Lucas describes in his letter the conclusions he arrived at 
after having visited the Dabhiwari dhand. He emphasises the 
fact that many different grades of chaniho are hopelessly mixed 
together in the produce of one dhand in one year. “* Chantho highly 
impregnated with salt might lie,” he says “side by side in the bed 
of the dhand with chaniho which contained hardly any salt. The 
same dhand often produces quite pure chaniho one year, and very 


1 Letter to the Commr. in Sind, No. 681, dated 5th April 1900. 


261 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


salt chancho the next.” The observations of Mr. Lucas are of course 
perfectly clearly explicable to anyone who understands the princi- 
ples governing the deposition of trona from carbonate-chloride and 
carbonate chloride-sulphate waters. The various deposits of the 
Lonar Lake in Berar illustrated this.! 


As a result of this enquiry into the chantho industry of Thar and 
Parkar, the Government of Bombay, who had previously ruled that 
all alkali produced in Bombay Presidency, excepting the Province 
of Sind which contained more than 50 per cent. of NaCl should be 
dutiable as salt, extended their orders to Sind on the 19th April 
1902.2 Acting on these orders, the Commissioner in Sind ordered 
the closing of the chantho deposits of Thar and Parkar ;3 this order, 
which was passed on the 23rd April 1902 ended the Thar and Parkar 
industry. 


At the time of my visit, the industry was quite forgotten, and I 
could get no local information. The name Mitho Puso,—a_ well 
known dhand in 1899—could not be identified with any locality in 
Khipro or Sanghar. Enquiries made by the Mukhtyarkars failed to 
solve the question : the local inhabitants appeared to have few 
memories of the industry, and many of the older amongst them 
had been carried away by the influenza epidemic. 1 found that in 
general very few of the names on the map of 1860 were remember- 
ed. With the aid of Mr. Thurley and his subordinates, I was able 
to test samples of water from nearly every dhand in Sanghar and 
Khipro, and in this way I was enabled to form a clear idea of the 
distribution of alkaline waters in these taluqas. I shall commence 
my description with the northern part of Sanghar. 


The most northern tapat of Sanghar is the Jakrao tapa, which 
was formerly part of the territories of the 
Khairpur State, but was ceded to British ad- 
ministration at the time of the construction 
of the Jamrao Canal. The tapa lies to the S.E of the Nasrat taluqa 
of Nawabshah, but there are no dhands of a salt or alkaline type west 
of the Nara, 


The Sanghar taluqa : 
Jakrao tapa. 


1 See Rec. Geol. Sur. Ind., XLI., p. 266. 

2 No. 2623, Revenue Department of Government of Bombay, dated April 19th, 
1902. 

3 No. C.-277, Commissioner in Sind, dated April 23rd, 1902. 

‘ In Sind a taluga is subdivided into three or four tapas under tapadars, for eollec- 
tion of revenue. 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT. 262 

The following dhands east of the Nara were reported to be sweet, 

water :— 

Lukunwaro, 94 miles S.E. of Jamrao Head, and 6 miles N.E, 
of Jakrao. 

Punwaro, 4} mile east of Lukunwaro. 

Jhandewari, 14 miles south of Lukunwaro. 

Satnewari, 3} mile east of Jhandewari. 

Pirwari, 2 miles E.S.E. of Jhandewari. 

Bajriwari, 3 miles S.E. of Pirwari, and 1 mile north of Badarwaro 
Kot. 

Laihoro, 1 mile S.E. of Badarwaro Kot, and_ west of Sumana. 

Marrowari, 13 miles N.E. of Badarwaro Kot. 

Bahunwari, 14 miles east of Sumana. 

Gari, 3? mile south of Sumana. 

Specimens of the water of four dhands, supposed to be slightly 

brackish were brought to me by the Supervising Tapadar. 

Badarwari, } mile N.E. of Badarwaro Kot. The water of this 
dhand had a sp. gr. of 1:000, and contained CO, corre- 
sponding to less than half a gram of Na,CO, per 
litre. 

Gidderunwari, } mile south of Badarwari. The water of 
this dhand had a specific gravity of 1-004 and contained 
CO, corresponding to 1-6 grams of Na,CO, per litre. 

Kalachwari, } mile south of Gidderunwari. The water of 
this dhand had a specific gravity of 1-011, containing 1-5 
crams of Na,CO, and 8 grams of NaCl per litre. 

Gati Vagi, 1 mile south of Kalachwari. The water of this 
dhand had a specific gravity of 1-000, and the equivalent 
of 0-5 gram of Na COs. 

; In the Bakar fapa of Sanghar, the following 
Bake toe. taluqa: — dhands east of the Nara occur. The order is 
geographical from N.W. to S.E. :— ; 

Sirunwari, 5 miles S.E. of Sumana in Jakrao tapa. The water of 
Sirunwari hasa sp. gr. of 1-039, but is saline with 40-4 
grams of NaCl per litre, and less than 0-5 gram of Na,CO3. 

Bholuwari, } mile S.f. of Sirunwari, has a sp. gr. of 1-020, con- 
taining 12-9 grams of NaCl and less than half a gram 
of Na,COs. 

Ratrao (Ratrahoo), 1 mile N.E. of Bholuwari, is reported to oe 
sweet water. 


263 


COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Kinri, 3} miles S.E. of Bholuwari, is dry. 

Kari, 14 mile N.E. of Kinv, is dry. 

Mahmuda, } mile east of Kari, is dry. 

Sukiawari, 3 miles 8... of Mahmuda (Sookia of map), is reported 
to be a shallow dhand, 200 by 25 yards and 6 inches 
deep. The water had a sp. gr. of 1:021, and contained 
10-2 grams of NaCl, 6-2 grams of Na,CO,, and 5-8 grams 
of Na,SO, per litre. 

Rehro dhand, 2 miles 8.W. of Sukiawarl, and 5 miles N.N.E. of 
Bakar, is reported to be sweet water. 

Nirawal dhand is a very small dhand immediately south of 
Dogacha and 1 mile 8.E, of Rehro. The water had a 
specific gravity of 1-059, and contained 20-4 grams of 
Na,CO3, 21:8 grams of NaCl, and 24:6 grams of Na,SO, 
per litre. There was very little water in the dhand. 

Bahanwari is 1 mile E.8.E. of Dogacha and Nirawal. It is also 
a small dhand. The water had a sp. gr. of 1-054, and 
contained 20-9 grams of Na,CO,, 24:6 grams of NaCl, 
and 155 grams of Na,SO,. 

Gari dhand, 1 mile south of Dogacha, is a small oval dhand 
covered with soft mud, on which there was a crust of 
impure chaniho. I attempted to get some water from 
the middle of the dhand where there was a large pool, 15 
yards in diameter, but found it impossible to walk on 
the mud, which was deep and treacherous. A sample 
of water was taken from one of the smaller pools near 
the margin. This water had a sp. gr. of 1-154, and 
contained 57-2 grams of Na,CO,, 71-7 grams of NaCl, and 
70°7 grams of Na,SO.. 

Suru (Soor je) dhand, 1 mile south of Gari, and 3 miles N.N.E, of 
Bakar, is sweet water. 

‘Bari dhand, 1 mile south of Suru, is sweet water. 

Kharor je dhand, 2}" miles east of Suru (Soor je), has a sp. gr. 
of 1-042, but is saline, with less than 0-5 gram of Na 200, 
per litre. 

Biyowi (Beoeeje), 1 mile east of Kharor, is dry : 

Panyal, 2 miles 8.8.W. of Kharor and 33 miles east of Bakar, 
is a saline dhand with a sp. gr. of 1-034, containing 36:3 
grams of NaCl, but less than half a gram of Na,CO, per 
litre. 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT. 264 


Ugam je dhand, 2 miles E.N.E. of Biyowi dhand (see above), 
is a good sized dhand with abun- 
soar ay pitludts dant reeds and vegetation, ‘The 
water had a sp. gr. of 1-009, and 
contained 3-5 grams of Na,CO,, and 5-3 grams of NaCl per 

litre. 

Khari dhand, 1 mile east of Ugam, is a long narrow dhand 
about 250 by 80 yards, with about 2 feet of water. 
The water had a specific gravity of 1-048, and contained 
25:9 grams of Na,CO,, and 18-5 grams of NaCl per litre. 
It might be possible to obtain chaniho from this dhand 
at some future time. 

Turunwari, west of Khari, is dry. 

Sangriam je dhand, 3 miles 8.W. of Ugam and 5 miles east of 
Bakar, is dry. 

Rojuli dhand, which has been marked on the 1860 map as 
Kojdee, evidently through a mistake in reading the 
handwritten name, is dry. Rojuli is } mile S.E. of San- 
griam je. 

Rarr dhand, 4 mile east of Rojuli, is a very long dhand of sweet 
water, and full of crocodile. 

Dangi jo Chaho is situated + mile east of the north end of 
Rarr. It is the dhand marked but not named on the 
1860 map, + mile due west of the spot named Pudr 
Hamid Shah. Dangi jo Chaho was a dhand of soft 
treacherous mud with no water, but with abundant 
efflorescence. This dkand was worked in 1899 and prece- 
ding years for chaniho. 

Sahib Dinai jo Chaho, also worked in 1899 and _ preceding 
years for chaniho, lies not quite half a mile south of 
Dangi jo Chaho, close to the trigonometrical station 
marked Rarr jee R. 8. on the 1860 map. It is now a 
completely dry oval dhkand covered with kalar effloves- 
cence. 

Dimunwaro Khuror or Khuror dhand, 1} miles 8.B. of Rarr 
dhand, has water which, however, contains less than 0-25 
grams of Na,CO, per litre. 

Lanari (Laneree jee) is dry. This dhand is 4 miles N.E. of 


Tando Mitha Khan, and 2 miles south of Dimunwaro 
Khuror. 


265 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Nahur dhand. 1 mile east of Lanari, is dry. 

Banahu or Bambahu, N.E. of Nahur, is also dry. 

Patehal (Putehul) dhand, 4 mile $.. of Nahur, has water, 
although much shrunk from its former size. The water 
had a sp. gr. of 1:06 but contained less than 0-25 grams 
of- Na,CO, per litre. 

One mile east of Banahu, the large dhand marked as Purai 
(Pooraee jee) has shrunk, so that the western portion is dry, 
while the eastern part is now two small dhands separated by dry 
land. That to the north is called Purai dhand, and that to the 
south is Bakhvoro. 

Purai dhand is now about 250 by 80 yards, and has a specific 

gravity of 1-039 but contains less than 0-25 grams. of 
Na, CO, per litre. Bakhvoro dhand, which is a little 
larger than Purai, has a sp. gr. of 1-040 and contains 
about 0-75 grams of Na,CO, per litre. 

Bodlo (Bodulwaree), 4 mile N.E. of Purai village, is dry. 
is one of the old dhands worked before 1899 for chaniho. 


This 


South of Bakhvoro, and about 1 mile distant there is a long 

narrow dhand of sweet water. 

Kari Vari is a name of one of the Sanghar dhands worked 
before 1899 for chaniho. No one could identify this name 
with any locality ; the name Khari is a very Common one, 
and there are several dhands so named, but which of 
these is meant in the old list cannot be now ascertained. 

Patehal, Puvai, and Bakhvoro are all saline dhands. 

Toriwari dhand, on the boundary of Sang- 

Sy: Aiea ae ala har and Khipro, is dry. It is 8 miles 

= E.N.E. of Tando Mitha Khan. 

Sanhri dhand, 1 mile east of Toriwari, and 11 miles N.N.W. of 
Khumbro village is dry. This is one of the dhands 
worked previously to 1899. 

Kari dhand, 1 mile west of Khumbro, contains water of a sp. gr. 
of 1:01, and with 4°6 grams of Na CO, per litre. 

Mitho Puso, one of the old dhands worked previously to 
1899, is probably identical with Mitha Poosa marked on 
the 1860 map as being 1} miles east of Khumbro. If 
the identification’ is correct, Mitho Puso is now dry. 

Kharuki dhand, marked on the map as a very large dhand 6 
miles S, by KE. of Khumbro, although very greatly 


HE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT. 266 


diminished, contains water of a sp. gr. of 1146, which is 
saline, with only 1°7 grams of Na,CO, per litre. 

Jakrao (Jukrahoo) dhand, formerly a very large dhand, now 
contains a little water in the deepest part. It has a sp. 
gr. of 1°014 with 3:4 grams of Na.CO, per litre. 

MunGur, about 1} miles N. of Jakrao, also contains a little 
water of a gp. gr. of 1°048, but saline with less than 0°8 
gram of Na,CO, per litre. 

Budahu dhand, 1 mile N.E of Munchur and 7 miles N. by E. of 
Khipro, also contains a little water of a sp. gr. of 1:048, 
but saline with less than 0°89 gram of Na,CO, per litre. 

Kundhi Tul dhand, 4 mile cast of Budahu, has a little water of 
a sp. gr. of 1-008 with 2°4 grams of Na,CO, per litre, 

Gapni (Gupnee), 3 miles N.N.E. of Budahu, is dry. 

Laiwari, 1 mile N.E. of Gapni, is one of the old dhands worked 
before 1899, but is dry with only kalar visible. 
Dimunwari (Dimunwaree Khuror) is another dry dhand with 
kalar, formerly worked for chaniho, situated 1 mule 

east of Gapni and S.E. of Laiwari. 

Garho Puso, also worked previously to 1899, is now dry with 
only kalar visible. 

Laniwari, 1 mile S. by W. of Rukhbim jo Tuss, and 1 mile east 
of Kundi Tul, is also dry, with patches of kalar. This is 
one of the old dhands worked previously to 1899. 

Baharo (Buhareh), 2? miles east of Kundi Tul, contains saline 
water of a sp. gr. of 1038, and with less than O'4 gram 
of Na,CO, per litre. 

Dabhiwari is 3 miles south of Baharo. This dhand was the 
greatest producer of all the Thar and Parkar dhands 
previously to 1899. This dhand was dry, when I saw 
it early in January 1919, but owing to heavy rain at 
Christmas, there had been a little water in a small depres- 
sion abouts 5 yards across in the centre of the dhand, 
which had dried up a day or two before my visit. In 
this depression I found a crop of crystals of mirabilite 
(Na,SO,, 10 H,O) lying on the mud. Most of the 
crystals had dried to an opaque powdery condition, owing 
to their alteration to anhydrous sulphate (Na SO,). On 
the shores of the dhand the old heaps of chaniho condemn- 
ed in 1899 were still lying in a dilapidated condition. 

¥ 


267 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Gug, 2 miles east of Dabhiwari, has saline water ofa sp. gr. 
of 1:042 with less than 0-25 grams of Na,CO, per litre. 
South of Gug are the following dry dhands, Lalur, 
Gurkno, Bandki, and Chiéki. 

Khariwari, supposed to be identical with Nurunwaree of the 
1860 map, is saline with a sp. gr. of 1-027 and with less 
than 0-5 grams of Na,CO, per litre. It is 3. miles S.F. 
of Dabhiwari. 

Chaura Thur, $ mile east of Khariwari, is saline with a sp. gr. 
of 1-025 ana with less than 0-4 grams of Na,CO, per 
litre. 

The dhands of the south-eastern part of Khipro are entirely 

saline. Dilyar (Dhiliar) is the headquarters of 

Khipro taluqa, south- the Dilyar Salt Depot and Works. A dhand 
eastern region. x 5 x ; ; 
named Darwari, 54 miles BH. by N. of Dilyar, is 

worked for salt by the Salt Department. The following is a list 
of the dhands in the south-eastern part of the Khipro taluqa. 
(Dilyar is about 8 miles 8.B. of Khipro, and the dhands mentioned are 
at varying distances up to 7 miles to the N.E., E., and 8.0. of Dilyar),— 

Kinri, 4 miles S.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-007. 

Bangrio, 5 miles S.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-012. 

Manikpur, 6 miles S.f. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-091. 

Shihunwari, 5 miles E.S.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-206. Abundant 
chiroli,! mounds round its shores. 

Aantio, N.W. of and close to Shihunwari, sp. gr. 1:120. 

Gaganwari, 5 miles E. by N. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-044. 

Sumerat, 1 mile east of Gaganwari, sp. gr. 1-137. Chirola! 
abundant. 

Uthanwari, 1 mile S.W. of Gaganwari, sp. gr. 1-157. 

Mural, 3 miles KE. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-05. Chiroli abundant. 

Sanhri, 4 miles N.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-127, Chiroli abundant. 

Paniwari, 14 miles N. of Mural, sp. gr. 1-206. Chiroli abundant. 

Kalarwari, 2 miles N.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1-057. Chiroli abun- 
dant. 

Darwari, 1} miles N.E. of Mural. Dry, except for pools of 
saturated brine, and the source of the salt sold at Dilyar. 
This dhand is a sheet of pure salt, surrounded by clusters 
of chirol’ round its shores. Square cuttings are made in 


* See ante, Chapter I, p. 212, 


THE THAR AND PARKAR DISTRICT. 268 


the salt, which are filled with saturated brine, from which 
the salt is allowed to recrystalise. The fresh salt is 
washed in the brine and piled in heaps, each heap being 
reckoned to be about 200 maunds in weigitt. 
Dimanwari, 3 miles N.E. of Dilyar, sp. gr. 1064. 
All these dhands with the exception of Bangrio contain CO, 
equivalent to less than half a gram per litre of Na,COg. 
The amount of CO, in Bangrio works out at 12 grams of 
Na,CO, per litre. I have not reproduced that part of 
the Sind map which shows the position of these dhands, 
since they are outside the alkaline area. 
Samples of brine from the following dhands in the Diplo and 
Mithi talugas in the south of the Thar and 
ia ee wie Parkar district were sent to me by the 
Collector.— 
Phangario, 4 miles N.W. of Rahim ki Bazaar, sp. gr. 1101. 
Mero, 24 miles S. of Islamkot, sp. gr. 1,206. 
Khuraro, 3 miles E. of Rahim ki Bazaar, sp. gr. 1°065. 
Lunkhan, 3 miles W. of Rahim ki Bazaar, sp. gr. 1:056. 
Sikut, 2 miles N. of Rahim ki Bazaar, sp. gr. 1°206. 
Jhu-jhu, 4 miles distant from Rahim ki Bazaar, sp. gr. 1:045. 
Guni Belo, 28 miles S. of Islamkot, sp. gr. 1204. 
Rato, 24 miles E. of Balhari, sp. gr. 1°206. 
The CO, of these dhands corresponds to less than 0-2 gram of 
Na,CO, per litre. 


From the foregoing account of the dhands of Thar and Parkar, 
it is now apparent that this area has been 
desiccated to a considerable extent since the 
canalisation of the Nara, so that without exception all the dhands 
worked for chaniho previously to 1899 are now dry, and can never 
yield again. Moreover, of the large dhands such as Sangriam, 
Badahu, Jakrao, ete., some are dry, and some are mere remnants of 
their former size. 

It is clear also that the ancient limits of the alkaline region did 
not extend south of the latitude of Khipro, the most southerly 
dhand, Dabhiwari being highly saline. At present the most southerly 
alkaline dhand is Khari dhand in theS$.E. part of Sanghar taluqa. 
while the only other dhands containing alkali in any quantity are 
Sukiawari, Nirawal, Bahanwari, and Gari, all being small dhands and 
all containing excess of chloride over carbonate. Khari, however, has 


Summary. 


F2 


269 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


an excess of carbonate over chloride, and might yield a substantial 
deposit whenever it dries up sufliciently, There are then prospects 
of only a very small production of chantho from the Sanghar taluqa, 
and no prospects of any production of chaniho from Khipro, nor. 
as far as we know, from any of the dhands in the southern taluqas, 
for it is to be assumed, since the dhands so far tested are saline, and 
since no one has ever heard of any alkali being produced from the 
dhands of the southern taluqas, that the area is one of salt and not 
alkaline deposits. 

At the request of the Commissioner in Sind,* samples of brine and 
of salt were sent to me from various deposits 
and dhands near Shahbandar and Moghal Bein 
in the Karachi district. No alkali was found 
in the solid specimens, while the brines from the following dhands, 

Kayur, Verh I, Verh J, Chach-Mumbrani, Sallewaro-Dhoro, 
were saline with less than 0-5 grams of Na,CO, per litre. 


Moghal Bein area, 
Karachi district. 


CHAPTER VI. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EFFLORESCENT SALT AND MODE OF 
FORMATION; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BITTERNS ; 
ANALYSES OF CHAN/H 9. 


The following are the results of the 
analyses! of eleven specimens of reh or kalar 
efflorescences collected from the shores of the 
Sind dhands. 


Analyses of reh or 
kalar efflorescence. 


Taste VIIL.—Analyses of kalar from the Sind alkaline dhands. 


| 
ie | | 
Area. Name of dhand. con Cl | 80, | Na,CO, | NaHCO, |NaC1) Na,So, 
| | | 
KHAIRPUR STATE Mithri. 5 | 14:6 21:6 10-60 27-0 | 128 | 35-4 157 
' i } 
1.—West of< | Galuwari | 128) 178 52 212 | 151] 29 | UT 
Nara. | | 
Lahuri | 12:5 | 16 5:3 20-1 160 | 26 78 
Drigwari ; | 140/16 60 23:3 16-4} 26 73 
| j | 
Ashrafwaro { 140) 18 61 22:8 | 2 | 2-9 15 
Il.—East of : | | 
Nara. Kino Chaho .| 13:9 19 61 244 14:3 31 75 
| 
Charakhanwaro , 13:0 16 4:9 21-7 | 151 26 V2 
| | | 
Ul.—Kot Jubbo | Kandiwaro . 161 5:9 25 27:0 | 18:5 | 97 3:7 
1 } 
Nawassuan Dis- | Ridhwari oe LIRA 9 Oy 10-0 18-0 149 | 85 14:8 
TRICT. | 
THAR Ano (| Khart . ./ 166/77 | 142 30-2 15-6 | 12:7 21:0 
PARKAR aE ia | H | 
TRIOT. Dangi jo Chahe 15 | 17-2 28-7 11 | 42 | 28-4 42:5 
} | | 
| 


In the above analyses, only the acid radicles have been estimated 
and the amounts of sodium salts present are obtained by calcula- 
tion on the assumption that the acid radicles are entirely combined 
with sodium. This is only approximately correct, since small 
quantities of potash are probably always present. 


tThe greater part of the analyses given in this chapter were done under the 
supervision of Mr. H. Walker, Curator, Geological Survey. The remainder includ- 
ing the ostimation of bicarbonate were done by the following members of the 
Curator’s Staff under my supervision—Babus B. B. Gupta, Sub-Assistant ; B. C. 
Gupta, Assistant Curator; and Mahadevy Ram, Laboratory Assistant, [G.deP. C.] 


( 270 ) 


271 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


The following analyses have been done in the Geological Survey 
Laboratory. CO, and Cl have 
a of the mated volumetrically, while SO, and total 


solids have been estimated gravimetrically. 
The estimation of bicarbonate has been according to a method 


described in the appendix to this chapter. The results are expressed 
in grams per litre. 


been  esti- 


TasLe IX.—Analyses of bitterns of Sind dhands. (Lhe figures 
represent grams per litre.) 


District. | Namo of dhand. | ‘Sp. Gr. 00, ct | Bor | ee. 
pips | cee cena ree eae esate [ae — 
Sukehaho  . a Lisa 46°31 | 39°04 | 17°81 20196 
Chughari Ohahewari 1-224 54-78 03-54 | 16-65 | 
KHAIRPUR STATS, | | 
NARA AREA. | Khariri Chachwari . 1-089 20:68 20°59 | 1457 | 108-4 
L.—West of Narad| Mithri. 1-265 55:00/ 90:85 | s740 | 
Virchora : 1025) 6-07 516 141 | 24-90 
| Dilahuwari . | 1-024 | 519 213 2:30 21°36 
Ul Gunjawari W. sim | roag | 16-28 | 586 | 8-71 55-08 
Jatuwarl = 1-191 | 58-96 35:86 | 24-43 | 233-9 
Khariri Mojanwari . | L118 | 36-52 | 17-75 | 14:52 134-0 
Ganjawari : 1-164 37-40 | 56°09 =| 16-67 208-65 
_ Lambro - 2] 108 770 | 20:29 | 25-18 | 108-72 
eet OP 1-157 43-78 42-51 7-60 «| 1949 
Khora Okar : 1-151 A774) gato 18-08 | 477-1 
Sarwari Pobre 1-049 13-97 | 5°68 4-95 50:0 
| Moqamwaro . 1-127 43-56 | 16-61 976 | 146-45 
| Saidinwaro 1119} 19:36 3195 | 3180 | 1468 
| Carne ie 1031 8:18 | 865 | | 2.80 30-1 
| Motranwaro. =. 1-189 50°82} 3834 | 3205 | 285-14 
| Pakhyaro 1-104 35:86 13-75 272 | 113-07 
| Gadanwar 1-051 14:30 870 | 257 53-46 
Laiwari Ba Sas ie 41-14 15-00 | 223 | 128-40 
eee hee ee -| tos7| 1308] 1553 | soz | 6509 
KOT JUBO ARBA.) | Dabura rie eo 1-059 14-19 18-37 1-538 67-72 
| Sayari Ulan 1-044 10-61 15:25 0-22 52:80 
| aide ee etre 1-045 18:31 7:90 0-12 46:85 
CRON fp or 1-088 612 15-62 205 48:42 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 


Tapie [X,—Analyses of bitierns of Sind dhands — contd. 


District. 


Machoi 
Padru 


Kandiwaro 


Name of dhand, 


Sp. Gr. 


1-009 
1:029 
1-025 


Lun Khan Ubrand . 


1-035 


512 


Bambalui 


1-084 


Leyara . 


Garho Got 


1-075 
1-060 


Chandroi 


Dukani . 


Pur Chandar . 


KHAIRPUR STATE, Kharro . 
Kor Jubo ARKA. 


—contd.% 


Jhandoi Wadi 
Sanoi Wadi 
Sanoi Kotonwari 
Sanoi Garhi 
Sanoi Narwari 
Gandhi . 

Kinri 


Gabanwaro 


Laniwari 


Nau Rait 


Rait Pario 


Khororo 


NAWABSHAH  DIS- Bolahu . 
TRIOT, NASRAT 


TALUKA. 


Manakwari 
Sanhri . 
Nirawal 


THAR AND PARKAR Bahanwari 


DrsTRIOT, SANG- : ; 
HAR ‘TALURA. Sukiawari 


Gari 


Assuming that the base co 
however is not quite correct, sin 
are probably present), I give below 
radicles are expressed as salts of sodi 


1-114 
1-069 
1-070 
1-069 
1-090 
1:048 
1-033 
1-037 
1-046 
1-087 
1-064 
1-041 
1:124 
1-172 
1-037 
1-068 
1-069 
1-016 
1-049 
1-059 
1-054 
1-021 
1-154 


23-98 
0-46 
19-25 
10:34 


19-64 
19-75 


22-00 


24-97 
14-19 

9-31 
10-71 
13-75 
28-27 
20:57 

8-26 
19-25 
50-60 


3-56 


nsists entirely of 


15-09 
51-65 
29-91 
17:39 
3:55 
3:90 
2-84 
17-13 
13:22 
14-91 
6-21 
43-49 


soduim 


449 
2-07 
2-85 
2-99 
Trace 
Trace 
1:45 
18-95 
23-64 
4°44 
16-22 
17-45 
2-47 
9-91 
16-64 
10:47 
3-89 
47-83 


Total 
solids. 


6-36 
26-42 
26-70 
39-34 
95-06 

104-44 
61-22 


79.02 
79:88 
75:70 
102-80 
47-90 
32-00 
35-04 
46-77 
98-56 
64:99 
48-16 
159°8 
207°70 
43-98 
70-04 
73-82 
14:42 
56-10 
65-00 
60-00 
21-32 
195-78 


(which 
ce small quantities of potassium 
a table in which the above acid 
um, The proportions of carb- 


273 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


onate to bicarbonate have been calculated by a method described 
in the appendix to this chapter. The first column shows the number 
of grams per litre of NaHCO,, the second column the number of 
grams per litre of Na,CO, the third column shows the amount in 
grams of normal carbonate of sodium corresponding to the amount 
of bicarbonate present, according to the equation :— 
2 NaHCO,=Na,CO;+H,0 {-CO,. 
168 => 106; 

The fourth column shows the total Na,CO, present, and is the 
sum of the figures in columns 2 and 3. The fifth column shows the 
amounts of NaCl in grams per litre ; the sixth the amount of Na,SO, ; 
the seventh column shows the total sulphates and chlorides present, 
and is the sum of columns 5 and 6. 


Motranwaro . ° 22-65 


108-12 15°44 123-56 63-20 | 47°39 110-69 
74:20 13:16 87-36 22-67 | 4°02 26°69 
27°56 744 35°00 14°34 | 3°80 18°14 
83:74 16:59 100-33 24:87 3:37 28°24 


Pakhyaro : eS 19°32 
Gadanwari. ; 17°92 
Laiwari > k 24-36 


Tabiy X. 
NaHCO, | otal Total NaCi 
Name of dhand. NaHCO, | Na,CO, as Na,co NaCl. Na,SO, _and 
Na,CO, See Na,SO, 
fee eee es a 

Sukchaho  . a ee “uae daar 1 65°84 26°34 92°18 
Chughari Chahewari | 17°64 | 120-84 | 12-01 132-85 154-12 | 24-62 | 178-83 
Khariri Chachwari | 9-24 43-99 | 6-29 50-28 | 33-94 21:55 55:49 
Mithri . : 3 | 1344! 124-02 | 915 | 133-17 | 148-95 | 55:30 | 204-25 
Virchora . | 7:56 | 9-86 | B15 | 1501 8-49 2-09 10°58 
Dillahuwari . ‘ 6:38 | 8:48 4°34 | 12-82 3:51 | 8:40 | 6-91 
Gunjawari W. sim . 26°88 | 22:26 19-61) 41°87 9:66 | 548) 15-14 
Jatuwari ‘ 28:56 124-02 19-45 143-47 59-11 | 36-13 | 95-24 
Khariri Mojanwari . 15-12 73-44 10:30 ¢ 88-74 29:26 21:47 50:73 
Ganja wari 28-56 72:08 19-45 9153 | 92-47 | 24-66 117-18 
xamoro Ses 8-28 18-35 5:60 18-95 | 48-28 | 37-24} 5-52 
Barkoce toes 10°92 98°58 744 106-02 70°08 | 11°24 | 81°32 
Khara Okar . +. 27°72 97°52 18°88 118°40 | 368 20°60 57°18 
Sarwari i 5 12°18 25°97 8°29 34°26 9°36 7:32 16-68 
Mogamwaro. . 18:48 98-28 12:58 105-86 27-21 14-44 41-65 
Saidinwaro . ° 15:96 36:57 10:87 47-44 | 52:62 | 47-02 99-69 
Usa oe ne ay 7-40 15:05 5-04 20-09 | 585 4:28 10-18 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 274 


TaBLE X—contd. 


————— a nes i 


\ 
Name of dhand. | NaHCO, | Na,CO, a ne wrotal | act. | Na,80, [rot xeot 
Na,CO, oe | Na,SO, 
Hard: sco ee ee 10-29 24-91 7-01 | 31-92 2560 | 7-42 33-02 
Dabura setts 10-50 27-56 715 34-71 30-29 | 2-26 32-55 
Savari Ulan. TT 20:67 5:29 | 25-96 25-31 | 0:33 25-62 
Turhan ..- sos 7:98 27:03 5-43 | 32-46 18-02 | 0-18 13-20 
SabAl xa oteetten 672 10:49 4:58 | 15-07 25°75 | 3-08 28-78 
Maohol ss” Ses 4:37 1:80 2:98 | £78 2-05 0-21 2-26 
Padre. co tee 6-97 15:37 475 | 20-12 | 615 0-43 6-58 
Kandiwaro . + 8:82 8:90 6-01 1491 1145 0-53 11-68 
Lun Khan Ubrand . 6-47 8-27 4-41, 1268) 26-34 1:86 28-20 
Bambalui . 13-44 | 49-20 9-15 | 5844 | 28:97 9-06 38-08 
Lleyn 1:98 | 0-42 131 173-9042 | 1585 | 107-59 
Garho Got. * 14°28 | 37°36 9°72 47-08 | 13-24 0-64 13:88 
Chandroi 5 ; | 7-22 | 29°35 4:91 25:26 | 102-27 | 0-58 k 102-85 
yiedl ao | thE | es 7:58 47-86 27-80 3:88 31:68 
Pur Chandar. - 987 | 41:34 672) 48:06) 28-97 4-04 33-01 
Khatiosy otceeeaee 1512 | 43°46 10°30 | 53:76, —-:19°B1 1-48 20-79 
Jhandoi Wadi 13-14 51:67 915 | 6082 29:56 | 12-59 42-15 
Sanoi Wadi . 13-02 25-97 | 887 S484 7-02 6-64 13-66 
Sanoi Kotenwari . 781 17:49 | 5-82 2281 6-15 3-06 9-21 
Sanoi Garhi. - 10-71 | 18°81 | 7-29 | 26-10 | 7-03 3-47 10-50 
Sanoi Narwazi 12-18 25-44 8-29 | 33-78 9-07 4-42 13°49 
Gandhicwe | 18-06 56-71 | 12:90} 6001 | 27-80 | Trace 27-80 
Ran eee es 13-86 40-81 o44| 50-25) 14.05] Trace 14-05 
Gabanwaro . + | 6-05 16-96 4-12 | s1.08 24-87 214 27-01 
Laniwari . 13-02 38-16 8-87 47-03 | 85°16 23.02 | 113-18 
Hau Bait oe 38-64 97-52 26:31 12883) 40-81 34-98 84-24 
Rait Pario . 487 5-51 3-82 | 8:83 28-68 6-56 35-24 
Khororo «Ss 4-20 39-22 2:86, 42:08 5:85 23-99 29-84 
Bolahu . 5 . 6-17 38-69 4:56 43-25 6-44 | 25:81 32-25 
Manakwari . P 9-16 1-22 6-24 7-46 4-68 3-65 8-33 
Sanhri-:- i om 11:93 678 8-12 14°90 28-28 14-65] 42-89 
Nirawal eo 11°93 12:30 812 20°42 21°80 24°61 46°41 
Bahanwari . 10°92 13°57 7:44 20-91 24-58 15-48 40-06 
Sukiawari 4-96 2-86 3-38 6-24 10-24 5-76 16-00 
Gatiee co 20-16 43-46 13-73 57-19 71-69 70-72 | 142-41 


275 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


From the above analyses it will be seen that while the dhands ot 
the Nara region are typical “triple” waters containing mixtures 
of sulphate, carbonate, and chloride, those of the Kot Jubo area 
are more of the carbonate-chloride type with subordinate amounts 
of sulphate. 


Laniwari, Nau Rait, and Rait Pario are exceptions to this, 


being “triple” waters, while Leyara is a sulphato-chloride dhand, 
as is also Lambro. 


Laniwari, Nau Rait, and Rait Pario lie in the more open country 
north of the great sand-plateaux or dra-ins of Pur Chandar and 
Sanoi; it may then be said that those dhands which are in close 
association with the dra-ins are of the carbonate-chloride type 
or tend to that type, while those of the open country composed 
of bhit and tal tend to be of the “triple” type. 


The proportion of carbonate to chloride in the dhands is much 
lower than it is in the efflorescences. This means that the sim or 
percolating water carries greater quantities of chloride than the 
efflorescence which it causes. We would naturally expect this to 
be the case, since the predominence of carbonate in the efflorescence 
is due to fractional crystallisation, whereby trona is deposited 
(or sodium bicarbonate), while a large part of the chloride stays in 
solution, 

The following are the analyses of the speci- 
mens of chaniho collected. 


The last column shows the quotients obtained by dividing the 


quantity of sodium carbonate present by the amount of sodium 
bicarbonate. This may be called the “ carbonate-bicarbonate index.” 


The theoretical carbonate-bicarbonate index in trona is 106/84 
or 1°262. In practice, in natural trona the carbonate-bicarbonate 
index appears never to be quite so low as the theoretical value. 
The index for the trona of the Lonar Lake (dulla), calculated from 
¥. J. Plymen’s analysis given in La Touche and Christie’s paper! 
is 1°413. 

In the above analyses, the indices in the cases of fourteen 
dhands are below 1°600. The chaniho of these fourteen dhands 


may be regarded as trona, not altogether pure perhaps, but: still 
trona. 


Analyses of chantho. 


La Touche and Christie, Rec. Geel. Sur. I nd., XLI, p. 266. 


276 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 


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| 
J 


oyvyg andirvey yy 


| 
owl oyraeyo fo suaunoads fo sashuy—TX aTav,L 


277 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


In the cases of Lambro, Nainwaro, and the old chaniho heaps of 
Dabhiwari, the so-called chaniho is mainly sulphate; the alkali 
in the chaniho of Lambro must be largely natron or a_ partially 
dehydrated product of natron. 

The analysis of the Barko chaniho is interesting. We have 
seen from the analysis of the water of Barko that the dhand is 
deficient in bicarbonate. In consequence, the chaniho of Barko 
is largely normal carbonate, which must have crystallised as natron 


from the dhand. 

The chaniho of Ganwarwaro was collected from the dried up 
dhand, and represents the solid residue of the total dissolved salts. 
The chaniho of Laiwari appears to have been collected from dried 
up pools at the sides of the dhand. The dhand itself, from which 
a specimen of water was taken, did not dry up at all. Consequently 
the chaniho of this dhand represents an impure residual deposit. 

The chaniho of Bagarwaro is also an impure deposit. 

I have remarked in chapter II that there were from 8,000 to 9,000 
maunds of chanihe on the southern shore of Lambro, which was of 
“second grade” quality. That is to say, itis classed as second 
grade by the local people. It is however impossible to see how 
Lambro could produce anything except a largely sulphatie deposit, 
considering the analysis of its water (see ante). The classing into 
grades appears to be a purely physical classification based upon 
the hardness and texture of the deposit, and freedom from solid 
impurities, such as sand. No one seems to be able to distinguish 
sulphate from carbonate of soda. 

The specimens analysed above are not average samples, but are 
pieces picked at random from one of the chaniho stacks. Before 
collection, they had been exposed to the dry air and sun’s heat 
for several months, and probably lost some of their volatile con- 
stituents. 

It is perhaps worth while to recapitulate briefly the various 

views put forward regarding the formation of 

i alka- alkalis in desert regions. It is generally recog- 
nised that efflorescent salt characterises arid 

areas of imperfect drainage where water rising to the surface by 
capillary attraction is evaporated, leaving its burden of dissolved 
salts as a crust on the surface of the soil. This crust is known in 
North West India as veh, and in Sind as kalar. Land rendered 
barren by the presence of such salts is termed usar land. Analyses 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 


278 


of reh from usar lands in the United Provinges are given by 
J. W. Leather.t The deposit consists of the four salts, sodium 
carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride in very varying 
proportions, and the analyses are very similar to those given above 
of the efflorescent salt from the Sind dhands. W. Center? discusses 
the mode of formation of veh and inclines to the view that the alka- 
line carbonates are derived from rock decomposition, the sodium 
being derived from such minerals as felspar which are acted on by 
water with carbon dioxide in solution. : 

Efflorescent salts of a very similar type are found in the desert 
regions of the United States, where they have been investigated 
very carefully by the scientists of that country. Analyses and a 
resumé of the various hypotheses of their formation are given by 
Tf. W. Clarke.? Clarke explains the alkalis of the Lahontan waters 
in Nevada asa concentration of leached material from the igneous 
rocks of the neighbourhood,—a view that may be compared with 
that of W. Center in the case of reh. La Touche and Christie,* in 
their account of the alkaline Jake at Lonar in Berar, adopt a similar 
explanation. The chief difficulty in the way of accepting this 
view is the fact that in all these alkaline deposits, large quantities 
of chloride are associated with the alkali. It is not easy to account 
for the chloride as due to the breaking down of rock-forming minerals, 
since, as W. Center and others have pointed out, the percentage of 
chlorine in the different classes of rock is extremely small. 

Those authorities who have explained the origin of the carbonate 
in the manner outlined above have found it necessary to seek a 
different origin for the chloride, which the majority appear to regard 
as ultimately derived from the sea. The necessity of supposing 
different origins for these two associated salts is a stumbling-block 
in the way of full acceptance of these views. 

Accordingly other hypotheses have been put forward, which are 
not open to this objection. A view developed by T. Sterry Hunt,° 
E. von Kvassay,® E. W. Hilgard,’ and by G. Schweinfurth and 
R. Lewin,® supposes that the sodium carbonate of alkaline lakes 

1 “[nvestigation on Usar Land in the U. P.,” Allahabad, 1914. 

2W. Center, Rec. G. 8. Z., XIII. p. 253. 

3B. W. Clarke, “The Data of Geochemistry ,” Bull. U. S. Geol. Sur., No. 616. 

‘Rec. G. S. I., XLI, p. 266. 

5 Am. J. Sci., 2nd Ser., vol. 28, p. 170. 

6 Jahrb. K.-k. Geol. Reichsanst., 1876, p. 427. 


7 Am. J. Sci., 4th Ser., vol. 2, p. 123. 
8 Zeits. Gesell. Erdkunde, vol. 33, 1898, p- 1. 


279 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


is due to reactions between calcium bicarbonate, salt, and gypsum, 
the last two substances reacting to form calcium chloride and sodium 
sulphate ; the sodium sulphate thus formed is supposed to exchange 
with calcium bicarbonate to produce alkali. Lastly a view put 
forward by E. Sickenburger may be mentioned. In a paper dealing 
with the alkaline lakes of Egypt,! he suggests that the carbonates 
are derived through the reduction of sulphates by organic matter 
such as algae, which are abundant in the Egyptian lakes. 


T have had little time to investigate this question. Nevertheless 
I should like to put forward tentatively the conclusions to which 
I have come. I feel difficulty in accepting W. Center's hypothesis 
for several reasons, first. because there are no rocks in the immediate 
neighbourhood of these alkaline lakes of Sind, and the nearest 
rock—the limestones of Rohri and Sukkur—cannot be supposed to 
contain any appreciable quantity of alkaline silicates. Secondly the 
alkaline region is very limited in extent, and is surrounded by a 
saline region; if however the alkali was really due to the decom- 
position of more distant rock-masses such as the Himalaya, or the 
Archean complex of Rajputana, how are we to explain the peculiar 
limited geographical distribution of the alkaline lakes ? 


These considerations, as well as the fact that there are very large 
quantities of salt both in association with the alkali and in the 
country immediately surrounding the alkaline area,? lead me to 
suppose that a hypothesis such as that of Sickenburger is prefer- 
able in the case of the Sind dhands. JI think however that the fact 
that the efflorescences from the sim or percolating water contain 
large quantities of carbonate shows that the conversion of sulphates 
to carbonates cannot be produced by the decomposition of algae 
in the lakes, but has taken place before ever the salts reached the 
lakes, and while they were actually dissolved in the percolating 
water. The decomposition is of course carried on by bacterial 
action, and it seems reasonable to suppose that the carbonates 
derive their carbon from the decomposition of organic matter, as 
has been suggested by Sickenburger. I see no necessity for the 
hypothesis put forward by some authorities that the carbon is 
derived from the breaking down of calcium carbonate. 


1 Chem. Zeit., 1892, pp. 1645—1691. : 
2See Blanford, Rec. Geol. Sur. Ind., X, p. 10; also La Touche, * Geclcgy 
of Western Rajputana,” Mem. Geol. Sur. Ind., XXXV, 


CHEMICAL ANALYSES. 280 


Assuming then that sodium sulphate is formed in the manner 
suggested by Schweinfurth and Lewin (see above), we have to 
consider whether the peculiar conditions in the Sind desert favour 
the further transformation of sulphate into carbonate by bacterial 
action as Sickenburger supposes is the case in Egypt. 

The following points seem to be of importance in this connec- 
tion :-~ 

(1) The alkaline dhands derive their water supply invariably 
from sim or percolating water coming from beneath the 
desert sand. ; 

(2) The soil associated with this sim water is of a very dark 
colour, and has a carbonaceous appearance. 

(3) The alkaline dhands have a peculiar and offensive smell 
and in this respect differ markedly from the saline 
dhands. 

(4) They contain bacteria of a peculiar type. Specimens of 
the bitterns were taken by me in December 1918, placed 
in spring  stoppered bottles with rubber fittings (and 
therefore air-tight), and sent to the Geological Survey 
Laboratory for testing. With the exception of an hour 
or so, when the bottles were opened in order to take 
out samples for testing, they were kept air-tight till 
September 1919,—a period of eight months. Never- 
theless the bacteria were still vigorous, and were found 
still living in such strong bitterns as Mithri and others 
of similar high specific gravity. The discovery of 
bacteria in these bitterns is due to Dr. Annandale, who 
kindly examined several bottles. Captain R. 8. Sewell, 
I.MS., also kindly examined some samples for me. The 
bacteria appear to be anerobic, but they have not been 
identified with any known type, and it would be exceed- 
ingly interesting to study them further. I am _ not 
myself qualified to undertake this, but I hope at some 
future time that the matter may be investigated by a 
bacteriologist. 

I then seek an explanation of these alkaline dhands in the peculiat 
conditions of the Sind desert, where a flat alluvial plain, probably 
fertile formerly (or at any rate as fertile as the plain west of the 
Nara), is now completely covered by wind-blown desert sand. The 
alluvial clay is fairly impervious to water. This is a fect well 


281 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


known to the Irrigation Department, who have estimated the loss 
of water through the banks of such canals as the Jamrao, where 
it passes through the sand-hills, and the almost negligible loss 
through the canal banks where it passes through alluvial clays. It 
seems clear that the alluvial clays beneath the desert sand hold 
up the rain water, so that a moist layer is formed at the base 
of the sand. The numerous kochur, and pools in deep hollows in 
the sand-plateaux, I think, prove this. It is also obvious that 
the dhands derive their water from the basal layers of the sand- 
hiils around them, since in many places there are small pools of 
water and moist ground along the shore of the dhand, the level 
of the water-pools being one or two feet above that of the dhand. 
These pools are often filled with drinkable water, while the water 
of the dhand may be unfit even for cattle. 

This moist layer of basal sand is doubtless full of organic matter, 
due to the remains of the vegetation which formerly covered the 
alluvial plain. It is also protected from the air and from an oxidising 
environment by the cap of sand. Such conditions are exceptional. 
They are very different from those prevailing below the level of 
permanent saturation in cultivated country. Water below the level 
of permanent xaturation in ordinary alluvial plains is subject to 
very little movement, if indeed any. Such chemical changes as 
go on below the level of permanent saturation appear to be of the 
type associated with a reducing environment, but the changes are 
necessarily slow processes. Most moving water in ordinary alluvial 
country appears to become oxidised at some time or other, and 
the abundance of kankar nodules in the old alluvium is evidence 
of this. But in the Sind desert there isa stratum of flowing water, 
which is yet very well protected from the air. It appears to me 
probable that in this circumstance is to be found the explanation 
of the alkaline lakes of Sind. 


APPENDIX. 


ON THE ESTIMATION OF CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES 
IN TROPICAL CLIMATES. 


It was found impossible to obtain accurate results from the use 
of Winkler’s method, as given in the text-books, 


‘ESTIMATION OF CARBONATES AND BICARBONATES 989 


An attempt was made, using a modification of Winkler’s method 
as described by F. K. Cameron,! but even on the same solution 
no two results were alike. 

The cause of the varying inaccuracies is the high temperature 
of Calcutta in the hot weather. It is possible however to work 
Winkler’s method in the cold weather. 

In the hot weather temperatures of 80° or 90°, perhaps even 
100° Fahrenheit, the standard solution from the burette, when 
admitted slowly into the liquid causes local supersaturation, and 
some CO, inevitably escapes, before all the carbonate has been 
converted into bicarbonate. 

In estimating the bicarbonates and carbonates, I followed very 
closely the method adopted by F. K. Cameron, using very small 
quantities of indicator, titrating to the first change of colour of the 
methyl orange, and to complete loss of colour of the phenolphthalein. 
I modified his method in the following manner :— 

Using a burette, not fitted with a glass stop-cock, a rubber tube 
of ;3,” bore about 16 inches long was fastened to the end of the burette. 
The lower end of the rubber tube was fitted with a glass nozzle. 

An Erlenmeyer flask of 350 c. ¢. capacity was now fitted with a 
rubber cork in which two holes were drilled close together. Through 
one hole the glass nozzle which conveys the liquid from the burette 
was inserted. Through the other was inserted a short piece of 
glass tube, about two inches long, of which about ? inch protruded 
from the top of the cork. This was fitted with a short piece of 
rubber tubing about 24 inches long. 

A large pinch-cock was now fitted, so that it controlled both the 
rubber tube from the burette, and the short rubber tube fitted 
to the short glass tube which passes through the rubber cork. The 
burette was now filled with standard KHSO,, and the liquid to be 
titrated was placed in the Erlenmeyer flask. The cork was fitted, 
and the standard solution admitted slowly. Every now and then 
the pinch-cock was closed, whereby the flask was completely sealed 
and the flask was rotated with a circular motion. In this way 
any CO, which has escaped into the air inside the flask is not lost, 
but is re-absorbed into the liquid so long as any normal carbonate 
remains. Absorbtion is aided by the warm temperature of the 
laboratory. 


1. K. Cameron. “ Estimation of Carbonates and Bicarbonates in Aqueous 
Solution”, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of Soils, Bull, 118 1901. 
G 


283 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


This method prevents any loss of CO,. It was checked by 
titrating pure sodium carbonate, when it was found that exactly 
half the quantity was required to the end-point of the phenol- 
phthalein, There are still difficulties in using this method of testing, 
as the persona] equation enters largely into the determination of 
the end-points, which are difficult to fix. It is necessary to practise 
first upon pure sodium carbonate before titration, to use very 
winute quantities of indicator, to take the same amounts of solu- 
tion and as nearly as possible the same strengths of alkali, and to 
use the same number of drops, (not more than two, preferably one) 
of indicator in each experiment. Titration must be carried on 
exactly to the end-points indicatea in F. K. Cameron’s paper, 
viz., to complete loss of colour of the phenol-phthalein, and to the 
first change of the methyl-orange. 


CHAPTER VII. 


PRODUCTION OF CHAN/HO IN SIND; CURRENT PRICES; 
GRADES OF CHAN/HO ; METHODS OF COLLECTING ; PRICES 
OF SODA-ASH AND CONSUMPTION OF SODA IN INDIA; 
CONCLUSION. 


The earliest returns which I have been able to obtain date 

from 1895 to 1900. These are given in a 

in be ee phe oe memorandum by the Commissioner in Sind, 

airpur ,. 

State. No. ©-319, dated 2nd May 1900. The returns 

are given in figures which evidently represent 

maunds, although the unit has been omitted from the copy of this 

letter shown to me. Separate returns are given for kharo (crystalline 
trona) and for phuli (efflorescent impure trona). 


TaBLr XII.—Output of chaniho in Khairpur State from 1895 to 


1900. 
Season, ict i Phuli. ToTaL, 
1895-96. : : r ; . ; 68,529 4,540 73,069 
1896-97 . 3 ; ‘ . j , 78,471 387 78,868 
1897-98 . i ‘ ~ : ; - 28,143 1,008 29,161 
1898-99 . i é . ; 34,524 6,726 | 41,250 


1899-1900 : , . : ; : 59,895 ee 60,840 


LL 


Total for five years :—283,168. Average yearly production :—56,633. 


This average yearly production works out at 2,089 tons of trona 
per annum, which corresponds to probably about 1,000 tons of soda- 
ash. Pure trona ought to contain 70-3 per cent. of anhydrous 
sodium carbonate, but the commercial trona of Sind is never pure ; 
consequently it may be regarded as certain that 2,089 tons of trona 
correspond to considerably less than 1,468 tons of Na,CO;. The 
figure is therefore nearer to 1,000 tons. 

( 284 ) 


G2 


285 COTTER, SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


The returns of chantho in recent years from Khairpur State are 
difficult to interpret. ‘The unit of weight adopted is the mani. 
According to the Report of the Weights and Measures Committee, 
1913-1914, 1 mani is equivalent to 12 maunds (1 maund=:822 Ib.), 

In the returns of chaniho production obtained from the Khair- 
pur State, there is however a footnote stating that “ Hach mani 
contains about 9 maunds.” I wrote to the Political Agent, Khair- 
our State, to ascertain the exact value of the mani in that state, 
and received a reply from the Vazir, in which he says that ‘“ a mani 
is held to be equivalent to 9 maunds, as is noted in a foot-note....” 

The Khairpur mani must then be regarded as equivalent to 9 
maunds (1 maund=82? Ib.). 

I have on my files two sets of returns of chaniho from the Khair- 
pur State. The first list accompanies a letter dated 2nd November 
1918 to the Political Agent, Khairpur State) but I am informed 
by the Vazir,? that it was reproduced from a list accompanying 
a previous letter dated the 25th October 1917.3 The second list 
accompanies a letter to the Commissioner in Sind, and is dated the 
16th January 1918.7 Tt is therefore the later of the two lists, and 
I am informed by the Vazir that the later list is the more accurate 
of the two. I therefore reproduce the later list below. I have 
given in column 2 the revised spelling of the dhands adopted in this 
Memoir, and at the end of the table the totals in manies and in 
maunds, 


Taste XI.—Output of chamho in Khairpur State from 1912-13 
to 1916-17. 


| 
Spelling in this 1912-13 | 1918-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 


Name of dhand. Memoir. ““manies.”’| “‘ manies.’’} ‘‘ manies.”] “ manies.”| “ manies.” 
! 
oS | eC iiss 
White Bitiro . . | Achro Bitiro , 4 
Lahuri . ; . | Lahuri . 4 | 
! 
Dail : - . | Dail * r 7 159 | et 12 oy 70 
Charakhanwala . | Charakhanwaro 8 
Great. Wado. 
Guloo Wali. -| Galuwari. # | oe 160 | 


} Letter No. 3398, dated 2nd November 1918, from the Vazir of Khairpur to 
the Political Agent, Khairpur State. 

* Letter No. 1818, dated 17th June 1919, trom the Vazir of Khairpur to myself. 

* Letter No. 3903, dated 25th October 1917, trom the Khairpur State. 

* Letter No. 255, dated 16th January 1918, from the Khairpur State to the 
Commissioner in Sind. 


PRODUCTION OF CHANIHO IN SIND. 286 


Taste XILE—Output of chaniho in Khairpur State from 1912-13 
to 1916-17—contd. 


1915-16 | 1916-17 


1912-13 1913-14 | 1014-15 


Spelling in this | a 


Name of dhand. | 


Memoir. manies.””| manies.”” “ manies.”| ‘ manies.”| “* manies.’ ’ 
Ashrafwala Ashrafwaro | 12 | | 
Lalri Groat . . | LalriWadi . «| 84 12 | 15 
Dherioon : - | Dheriun é 3 | 16 | | | 
Sukchahow . . | Sukchaho ‘ | 300 
Saidahoo . - | Saidahu z . 25 IZ | | 
Taraie Bharkow’ .. |} Tarai Barko . F 4 | S 
Pharanwala . . | Pharanwari | | | 18 
Khari Mojanwali . | Khariri Mojanwari . 44 | | sy 
Chughiri Kalarwari | Chughari Kalarwari 16 | | ats 
Kara Oker . . | Khara Okar . yey 32 | se | 
Western Dabanwali | West Dabranwari . 2 300 25 | - 300 
Tarai ; | Taraiwari | 150 
Bharkow , . | Barko 1,255 400 
Paroowali . . | Paruwari 44 | 100 162 | 30 
Whichonoro : | Virchora . . | 6 . 
Chughari Chahewali | Chughari Chahewari | | - | 60 
Digh eS | Drigwari . | | 100 | | | 
Noganwala . ; | Nanganwaro . = 6 4 . : 
Jatoowali. . | Jatuwari é : | | : 70 | 30 
Lalri Lumbrewali . | Lalri Lambrewari | | 20 
Bartkon =. =. | Bartako 22 | 
Tikini . . | Tikini ones 19 | 4 | Peay 
Kino Chaho . a | Kino Chaho . a 12 | | | 
Bagarwala. é Bagarwaro.. ; 210 | 20 
Mothari : . | Metahari : “4 30 80 | 120 | 80 
Kalarwali: . | Kalarwari. ; “a | 4 
Eastern Dabanwali | Hast Dabranwari | | 155 €5 6¢e 
Kakaranwala . | Kakaranwaro | 75 | 
Bolahwali . —. | Bulahwari | 7 120 | = 150 | 32 
Chih . . —. | Chilhanwari | 45 , | cg 
Mat Walo  . ~~. | Matiwaro “3 4 | 25 
Lalri Small. - | Lalri Sanhri —. 13 22 | 
Lambrow . - | Lambro s | | 660 | 
Buxahoo ° - | Buxahu ‘ | 150 | 60 
Hazari ; | Hazari : | 64 | 6 | | , 


to 1916-17 —contd. 
EE SN 


} | 
Name of dhand. Spellingin this | 1912-18 | 1913-14 | 1914-15 | 1015-16 | 1916-17 
Memoir. * manies,’’| ‘* manies, eerer| ** manies,’’| ‘* manies,”’ | ‘‘ manies,”” 
re. | 


ne 


Khabarwala . . | Khabarwaro . 258 | 


45 


} 
| 
Small Charaganwala | Charakha n w aro 8 i | s * | 
} 
| 
} 


Nandho. 


Gango . 3 . | Ganjawari ss. . | Ai ey - 405 | 
Khari Chachwali . | Khariri Chachwari . | 1 
Boogi . . - | Bujiwari . | 4 
Mitheri . : . | Mithri ey 


Mirwali ‘ . | Mirwari 


° . i 
‘ ae pe 
or 
oS 


Dose Wali ° . Dosewari ‘ ‘ 


TOTAL PRODUCTION, NARA REGION. oe ee (1) 738 1,527 2,825 | 2,124 


Kot JUBO REGION. 


Pakhiaro : + | Pakhyaro 500 190 


Niblowie : - | Bambalui 20 


Laie Wala Laiwari : ed *y a - 280 


Phuloowala Kkalbuwaro. : 32 


Gabanwala Gabanwaro. ‘ 190 
Rait Pario. .| RaitPario .  . 810 140 
Snowie Great - | Sanoi Wadi 


Snowie Red . - | Sanoi Garhi . - | 


are 


Rait New . - | Nau Rait r - | “ } 
Gandhi . . - | Gandhi . 

Kandriwala_ . - | Kandiwaro. = 15 
Kote Korow . - | Kot Korro.. . | a 75 
Reddish Got . - | Garho Got 


bw 
or 


} 
| 
| 
} 
| 
} 
Shandoie : . | Jhandoi Wadi at es “4 < 40 


. 


Dabhow Dabho . 


Kharrow > - | Kharro. ‘ ‘ 


~_ 
oe 
tw 


Padrew r - | Padru . | 
Snowie Kotenwali . | Sanoi Kotenwari | er se vs 125 
Snowie Narwali . | Sanoi Narwari 172 < 35 


TOTAL PRODUCTION, Kor Juno REGION . + 1,067 240 | 206 | 1,858 


ts 


287 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND 
TaBLeE XUJ.—Outpwi of chaniho in Khairpur State jrom 1912-13 


| 


GRAND TOTALS IN MANIES °. 2,337 978 1,733 3,688 


21,033 | 8,802 | 15,597 | 33,147 


EQuU'VALENTS IN MAUNDS * 


2,357 
21 
LOTAL FOR FIVE YEARS 99,792 MAUNDS, AVERAGE YEARLY PRODUCTION, 19,958 MAUNDS, 


PRODUCTION OF CHANIHO IN SIND. 288 


The average annual production during the quinquennium ending 
1917 thus works out at only 734 tons of trona, an amount corre- 
sponding to less than 500 tons of sodium carbonate. 

The reasons of the very marked fall in production in the quin- 
quennium ending 1917, as compared with the quinquennium ending 
1900, I am unable to state. 

Returns for the seasons 1915-16, and 1916- 
Pita ea oe 17 are the only ones I have been able to 


‘nia obtain from the Nawabshah district. The follow- 
ing were the quantities of trona obtained :— 


Maunds 
1915-16. = ; “ = ‘ : é - 10,215 
1916-17. $ ~ ; : “i : = . ; 4,775 


The Collector of Nawabshah remarks' that “the marked 
decrease in the output of ‘chaniho’ during the year 1916-17 is due 
to heavy rains, in consequence of which the tanks (7.., dhands) 
could not be worked for full three months, viz., July to September 
1917 out of a season of seven months, April to October, during which 
the deposits are ordinarily worked.” 


Since Khairpur and Nawabshah district are the only areas 
which now produce chaniho, (the Thar and 
Parkar production having ceased since 1899, 
as has been explained in Chapter V), the 
total production for Sind can be obtained by adding the Nawab- 
shah production to that of Khairpur. The following are therefore 
the figures for the total Sind production for 1915-16, and 1916-17, 


Total production in 
Sind. 


. Maunds, 
1915-16. ‘ ; ‘ = % - : 4 - 43,362 
1916-17 . : : ‘ ¢ 2 : m " . 25,988 


The Collector of Nawabshah! states ‘‘ There is very little local 
demand for the commodity. Almost the 
whole of it is exported to Karachi and Sukkur, 
where it is used for washing and dyeing purposes, for purifying 
molasses, and for soap-making. The product (i.e., of Nawabshah 


Markets for chaniho. 


1 Letter No. 3039 Rev. Dept., dated 15th October. 1917, from A. W. Mackie, 
Esq., 1.0.8., Collector of Nawabshah District , to the Commissioner in Sind, 


989 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


district) is not of that superior variety which is used in Sind for 
the preparation of pulse-cakes, and which is obtainable from the 
Khairpur State.” 

The Sind Gazetteer notes that the purer chaniho from the Khair- 
pur State is exported to Bombay. Mr. Thurley made enquiries 
in the Karachi Bazaar, and writes “Except for a negligible 
quantity that is disposed of in Sind, the whole of the chaniho goes 
to Bombay or Basra. How much to each of these two places | 
cannot say.” 

The export figures for chaniho from Karachi for the years 1915-16 
and 1916-17 are given below :— 


TABLE XILY. 


seas 1915-16. 1916-17. 
Cwts. Rs. Cwts. Rs. 
Exports to foreign countries 7,483 44,897 5,723 34,340 
Exports to coast ports . | 7,036 42,219 | 11,885 | 71,310 
Toran .| 14,619 87,116 | 17,608 | 1,058,630 
ee apres ee 
| 
Mds._ | | Mds. 
ToraLs IN Maunps - 19,760 | 3 23,964 


Comparing these figures with those of production for the years 
1915-16 and 1916-17, it is evident that over 63 per cent. of the 
chantho is exported, presumably mainly to Bombay and Basra. 

The uses of chaniho are stated in a letter 
‘from the Assistant Commissioner in Sind to 
be— 
for washing and dyeing clothes ; 
for hardening treacle ; 
for converting sugar-cane into molasses ; 
in flavowting the preparation from tobacco called goorakho ; 
and principally as a yeast in the preparation of papars or 

pulse-biscuits to make them light, crisp, and digestible. 


Uses of chaniho. 


‘Letter No, Exc. 396, dated 22nd Aug. 1917. 


PRODUCTION OF CHANIJHO IN SIND. 290 


Mr. Mahommed Khan, the Khairpur State official, who accom- 
panied me on my tour through the State, 
recognised three grades of chaniho, the dis- 
tinctions between each grade being purely physical. The first 
grade is crystalline and light; the second grade is more powdery 
and is derived from a deposit in which efflorescence is common as 
well as crystalline deposition. The third grade is heavy owing to 
the presence of sand mingled with the chaniho. These three grades 
are grades of what is known as kharo saf or pure trona, as distin- 


Grades of chaniho. 


euished from kharo lunial, which according to Mr. Mahommed 


Khan is not produced by the State. MAharo lunial or salty trona 
is a term formerly applied to the very impure salty residues from 
the Thar and Parkar dhands. 

In the Haidarabad bazaar four grades of chaniho are sold. Speci- 
mens of these were forwarded to me by the Collector. The following 
are their partial analyses :— 


TaBLe XV.—Analyses of specimens of the four grades of chaniho 
sold in the Haidarabad bazaar. 


sere LO CEE EO OLE LOA CLL AT LLL LOLOL LLL LE LLL LL LLL 


| 
| Residue 
— co, | NaHCO,* | Na,CO,* | Cl | NaCl* insoluble 
in water. 
Gadel 2s 31-5 11:8 68-4 1-45 24 | 652 
Grade IE . 36-0 3-4 84-5 1-19 2-0 3-40 
Grade LI 23-4 04 | 562 13-70 | 226 | 5-04 
GradeIV. 30-9 04 | 742 2-84 47 | 3-92 
| | 


* Calculated, assuming the base to be Na. ; Na,SO, was not estimated. 


There is not much to be gained in studying the chemical com- 
position of these four grades. Undoubtedly the third grade is 
chemically inferior, but there is not much to choose between the 
first, second and fourth. It must however be noticed that the first 
grade is the only one suitable for use as a baking powder. 

Here again the distinction between the four grades is purely 
empirical and physical. I have made the following notes on the 
four grades— 

Grade I.—A hard white crystalline cake, fairly pure in appear- 
ance and free from dirt. 


ee ee ee ee ee te Pe ee re 


_ 


ee 


——— 


291 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Grade [I.—Broken in small pieces, very vesicular, although 
‘crystalline in parts, and of a good white colour. 
Grade I1I.—Broken in small pieces, vesicular, of a dirty colour, 
and more impure in appearance. 
Grade IV.—Broken in small pieces, of a still dirtier colour 
than III, and apparently more impure. 
The analyses of chaniho given in Tables XI and XV_ show 
how very variable is the composition, so that 
it is mainly a matter of chance whether the 
chantho sold is over 90 per cent. carbonate or 50 per cent. sulphate. 
No one seems to be able to recognise the existence of sodium sulphate 
as a separate and distinct compound from salt and trona. Some 
of the Sindhi villagers appear to think that it is a mixture of the 
two latter, because its taste is feebly saline. Doubtless they are 
content to use such poor stuff as the so-called chaniho of Lambro 
or Nainwaro for their domestic use, having a prejudice, like all 
lovers of their country, for their own good old Sind chaniho, which 
has been used by their forefathers from time immemorial. 

The analyses of chaniho in Table XI show however what sort 
of quality of trona may be expected, provided a scientific scrutiny 
is exercised over the deposits. Some of the trona, such as that 
of Laiwari, Gadanwar', and Pakhyaro, seems to be quite high 
enough in carbonate to put on the modern market, but it can hardly 
be a wise policy to mix such sulphatic deposits as those of Lambro 
with the purer trona of other dhands, since the modern world is 
now-a-days quite experi enough to form a correct opinion of the 
quality of the articles they buy, and to refrain from buying the 
inferior article. 


Quality of chanitho. 


In 1900, the bazaar prices for chaniho 
were as follows :— 

Grade 1, packed in wooden boxes, known as papar-khar, per 

maund Rs, 3-12 to Rs. 4. 

Grade II, known as Gulahi, per maund Rs. 2-10. 

Grade III, per maund Rs. 2-4 to Rs. 2-6. 

The Thar and Parkar chaniho used to be sold at Re. 1-8 for the 
better quality, and Annas 10 for the inferior quality. 

In 1917 the bazaar prices in Karachi were! from Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 
per maund wholesale up to Rs. 10 per maund retail. 


Prices of chaniho. 


1 Letter No. Exc, 396, dated 22nd Aug. 1917. 


PRODUCTION OF CHAN1HO IN SIND. 999 


Mr. R. E. Gibson, I.C.8., Collector of Haidarabad, who sent 
me the four specimens of grades of chaniho from the Haidarabad 
bazaar mentioned above, informs me that the bazaar prices were 
in 1919 :— 


Rs. 
GradeI . 5 : ‘ - 2 - : . age 
Grade II . ; ‘ z * - 5 ; gi alae 
Grade III . . 3 ; : 3 5 - 5 Jes 
Grade IV. : F ee | 


The retail price of chaniho has therefore, like that of all other 
commodities, risen during the war. 

Sind however consumes but a fraction of the total chaniho 
produced, and for the remainder which is exported wholesale rates 
at a very much lower scale are obtained. Mr. H. L. Thurley informs 
me that the price wholesale in Karachi, appears to fluctuate, as 
far as he can ascertain, between Re. 1-8 and Rs. 2 per maund, but 
he says that his information was given him casually in conversation 
and, not being based on accurate study of figures, may not have been 
quite reliable. His figures are lower than those in Table XIV 
where chaniho is valued at Rs. 6 per cwt. or Rs. 4-6 per maund. 
The prices quoted by Mr. Thurley are more likely to be the prices 
paid at the dhands, where the chaniho is bought by Bombay 
merchants, who export it to Karachi and Bombay. The usual 
practice appears to be purchase at the dhands themselves by the 
merchants from Bombay or elsewhere who require it. They then 
export the chaniho, without resale in Karachi. 

Mr. Mackie! states that the average selling price during the 
seasons 1915-16 and 1916-17 was Re. 1-7 per maund in Karachi 
and Sukkur. 

At Akanwari dhand the chaniho was said to fetch about Rs. 9 
to Rs. 10 per mani, or Re. 1 to Re. 1-2 per maund, but the best 
quality has fetched as much as Re. 1-14. 

The “pit’s mouth,’ or rather “ dhand-shore”’ value lies 
apparently between Re. 1 and Re. 1-14 at the present time. 

The right to excavate chaniho is put up to auction every year 
in Nawabshah. Last year a bid of over Rs. 7,000 was received, 
the average total production in the last two preceding seasons 
having been 7,495 maunds. Re. 1 per maund is therefore a minimum 
sale-price at which the lessee could normally sell without loss, 


1 Letter No. 3039 Rev. Dept., dated 15th October 1917, from A. W. Mackie, 
bisq., L.C.S., Collector of Nawabshah District, to the Commissioner in Sind. 


293 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


Since my visit to Sind took place in the cold weather, I did not 
witness any dhand being worked. I have 


Methods of extrac- 5 
however made the following notes — 


tion. 

The season for collecting chaniho is from April to October. 
Chaniho is removed in May or June, when the dhands owing to 
evaporation are at their driest. If the rains, which usually fall 
in July, are abundant, no more chaniho can be obtained that season, 
since the bitterns do not become sufliciently concentrated. But 
if the rains are scanty, the dhands again become sufficiently concen- 
trated to yield chaniho in September or October, and thus two 
annual crops are obtained. 


In order to prevent undue dilution of the dhands by the rain or 
by the sim water, bands (or low mud embankments) about one foot 
in width, are constructed, so as to divide the dhand into compart- 
ments. Bands are constructed parallel with the shore, and about 
10 yards out; the water between the shore and the band may 
become dilute, but that inside the band continues to evaporate. 
Besides the bands parallel with the shore, others subdivide the 
enclosure thus made into smaller compartments. Plate i0 (Photo- 
graph of Ganjawari) shows these bands. They are only to be found 
in certain dhands which have a slight excess of water. The chaniho 
forms a thick crust when the dhand or a compartment is sufliciently 
dried, and is cut out with pick and spade. It is now carried to 
the shore in baskets, aud stacked in conical stacks from 4 to 5 feet 
in height (see Plate 11, View of Pakhyaro dhand). These stacks 
are then covered with grass to protect the chaniho from the rain ; 
the stacks now look very much like the ordinary haycock with 
which we are familiar. 


The purer chaniho forms crusts in the shallower parts of the 
alkaline dhands or around the margins, while the salt and sulphate 
remain in the bittern, which occupies a circumscribed space in the 
centre or deeper portion of the dkand. But others of the dhands 
dry completely, and when this happens the chaniho is less pure. 
However purer chaniho usually marks the outer zone of retreat 
of the drying-up bittern, and the impurer residue will be found in 
the middle. The intelligent workman may reject this,—or may 
not. I have elsewhere recorded that the workman seems to be 
quite as well satisfied with sulphate of soda as with trona, and 


stacks both, 


PRODUCTION OF CHANTHO IN SIND. 294 


The price of soda-ash has risen from Rs. 5-4 
Prices of soda-ash per cwt. in 1912 to Rs. 5-12 and Rs. 6-4 in 


and consumption of : 
soda in India. the present time. 


The imports of soda-ash and soda-crystal into India during the 
last four years were :— 


Tons. 
1914-15 A . ‘ : ; , ‘+ , A 22,627 
1915-16 : é " ; : ‘ ‘ , ; 27,639 
1916-17 ‘ ; s & . ‘ E § 18,376 
1917-18 : ; : : ; 5 : ; * 35,014 


Bengal consumes more than three-fourths of this supply. 
Without accurate measurements of depth and area of each dhand, 
it is not possible to form any estimate of 
the amount of soda available as trona in 
the large unworked dhands. Furthermore it 
would be necessary to carry out experiments in the fractional 
crystallisation of trona from solutions of similar composition to 
that of the dhands, before any estimate could be made. It is obvious 
however that many of the larger dhands contain very large quantities 
of soda; probably the two largest—Pur Chandar and Khariri— 
contain each up to 25,000 tons. There are other large alkaline 
dhands, the waters of which I have not analysed, e.g., Bitrawaro, 
Bitriwari, Nichora, Pharanwari, Ram Rahu, Khabbarwari-Lambre- 
ji, Kinri, Lun Khan Ulan, all of a good size, besides possibly some 
which I have not heard of. To this unknown quantity has to be 
added the trona produced annually from the producing dhands, 
the figures for which have been given above. 


Total quantity of 
soda available in Sind. 


Besides the quantity of trona actually in the dhands, it must 
not be forgotten that a smal! amount is brought in annually by the 
sim or percolating water. 

As a general conclusion, it may be admitted that there is a pose 
sibility of developing the trona of Sind provided that— 


(1) a market can be found for natural soda, which seems always 
to be more impure and more discoloured than artificial 
soda produced from salt, and 

(2) that the trona can be recovered and calcined cheaply. 


The development of the Sind soda will, in my opinion, depend 
mainly upon these two points, 


995 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY OF SIND. 


According to Martin, Smith, and Milsom’s Manual,’ 144 tons 
of coal are required to calcine every 100 tons of soda-ash produced 
from bicarbonate of soda. 


Now 100 parts of trona correspond to 70-3 parts of soda-asb, 
according to the equation :— 


2Na,CO,, 2NaHCO,, 4H,0=3Na,CO, +5H,O +CO,,. 
452: 318 


that is 38-7 maunds of trona=27:2 maunds, or 1 ton, of soda-ash, 

That is for 3,870 maunds of trona or 100 tons of soda-ash, about 
14-5 tons of coal are required, or 394-4 maunds, assuming that a 
nearly similar quantity is required for trona as for bicarbonate. 


The cost of recovery of the trona from the bitterns is impossible 
to estimate. I may mention however that at the Salt-Gardens at 
Maurypur near Karachi, the recovery of salt from sea-water costs 
in the present time (1918-19) of high prices, five annas per maund 
according to information received from Mr. Thurley. The cost of 
recovery of trona is of course a very different matter, but in general 
principle the operations are similar, consisting as they do of the 
concentration by solar evaporation of dilute solutions, 


The price of soda-ash produced artificially is Rs. 5-14 per ewt. 
or about Rs. 4-5 per maund. The soda-ash produced from natural 
trona would be less pure than the artificial article; I do not think 
one could aim at a purity of much over 90 per cent. In conse- 
quence it could not command so high a price. Nevertheless even 
if it fetched only Rs. 3-8 per maund, it seems possible that there 
might be a final margin of profit sufficient to make it worth while to 
develope the industry, 


Whatever be the future of the soda industry of Sind, it would 
certainly be advisable to work at least the 
existing dhands in a scientific manner, having 
regard to the principles of chemistry, and applying a knowledge of 
the fractional crystallisation of “triple” waters to practical 
purposes in the process of recovery of the trona. 


Conclusion. 


1“The Salt and Alkali’ Industry”, by G. Martin, S. Smith, and F, Milsom, 1916, 
yp. 7. 


PRODUCTION OF CHANIHO IN SIND. 296 


In the foregoing account of the Chantho-Industry of Sind,—a 
somewhat cursive sketch, the result of rapid observations carried 
out in a period of two months,—I have not thought it necessary 
to discuss methods of recovery of trona, which must be left to the 
ingenuity of whatever company cares to take up the proposition. 
The report is far from being exhaustive, and future observers will 
doubtless find much to add and something to correct. None of 
the samples collected were average samples; they were simply 
specimens rapidly collected. The figures given, the analyses as 
a whole, are therefore only approximations, and are bound to be 
to a certain extent inaccurate. The sizes and depths of the dhands 
are merely guessed, 


ne 


APPENDIX. 


RATES FOR TRANSPORT OF SODA-ASH FROM PITHORO AND 
KHADRO TO KARACHI. 


* x * Hh ok od * * 


The following rates for transport by goods train from Pithoro 
and from Khadro to Karachi were communicated to me in 1919 by the 
kindness of the Eastern Bengal Railway. 


Soda-ash (alkali) from Pithoro to Karachi, wd Haidarabad :— 


At Owner’s | At Railway 


pba Risk Risk 
per maund. | per maund. 
Rs. a. P. | Rs, &. P. 
Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway 
0 2 3 | 0 3 2 
North Western Railway . | 
0 3 4 | 0 411 
Surcharge 
00 2 | 00 2 
TOTAL —— — 
05 9 | Pee 


297 COTTER: SODA INDUSTRY QF SIND. 


Soda-ash (alkali) from Khadro to Karachi, wé Mirpur Khas 
and Haidarabad :— 


A Re ne wenn, 


| 


At Owner's At Railway 


saee Risk | Risk 
per maund. per maund. 
| Rs. A. P. | Rs. A. P. 
Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway : ‘ : : 7 Oe 8 | 0 5 | 
North Western Railway . ’ ‘ ; ; =f 0-3-4 | 0 411 
Surcharge 5 : : x ‘ : a OO" sg | 0 0 2 
Toran : Bo 2 a aera 2 


SS TNS EN meres 


The above rates are subject to confirmation by the railways 
concerned, : 


INDEX. 


A 
Page 
Aantio * f 3 : : ; : 2 : 5 Z a 267 
Abdul Rahim 3 : : 2 : ? : : a ‘ “gee dP 
Achro . ‘ ; 5 ; - : ; : ; : 7 Dao 


5). SaBItLO-% F : : 2 d ; ‘ ss 219, 220 
9% » , Outputof . ; : ° ; > : ; ‘ pe 253 
Ahirowaro . ; ; : ; : z E : ; ; See 


Akanwari. - 3 5 ; . " 250, 252, 292 


3 , analyses of chaniho from ; ; “ 4 ; : = - =~ HO 
Annandale, Dr. N. é 3 : : : : ; 5 = 25U 
Ashrafwaro . ; : ; ; ; F . s é 225, 227 

+ , analyses of kalar from . - ‘ A : . : . 270 


¥s , output of . : ; - ‘ < s . . . 286 


B 
Bacteria in dhands r A ‘ B ; ; . ‘ 5 - - 280 
Badarwaro . ; A ‘ “ j ; * i $ 3 262 
Bagarwaro é j a 5 5 ; 216, 220, 277 
oy , analyses of chaniho from ean < 5 é ; pe OG 
- , output of . : : ; ; 3 > : - 286 
Baharo : . ; . < : ‘i ; 4 s 266 
Bahunwari . $ : ; ; 5 : ‘ z : : 262, 263 
ae , analyses of bitterns from a - ‘ ‘ . : 272, 274 
Bajriwari. . ‘ q ‘ ‘ ; , . ° . 4. (202 
Bakar Tapa . ; . : . ‘ : . . : ‘ - 262 
Bakhvoro : ‘ ‘ , ‘ : : . - . 265 
Bambahu see Banahu. 
Bambalui_. : , : ° 2 ‘. . ; ; 234, 238, 239 
Pe , analyses of bitterns from ‘ ‘ - a . - 272, 274 


_ , output of ., : ; : ~ i e : : ae Or 
Banahu ‘ 2 5 m ‘ , : : Fy - 265 
Bandki : § f ; ; : z 4 : ; P ~ . 267 
Bangrio . : ‘ . . . : x : : ; masa 


H 


il 


Bar Ramo 
Bari 
Barilla . 
Barkhans 
Barko . : : : 
; analyses of bitterns from 

= = , chaniho from 

» 3 Output of . : e 
Bartako , 

»  ; Output of 
Bhaun . 
Bhbit 
Bhitrawaro 
Bholuwari : 
Biyowi : ; : 
Bicarbonates, estimation of 
Bitrewari : 
Bitterns, analyses of 
Bodlo . 
Bolahi . : ; : 
Bolahu, analyses of bitterns from 
Bolahwali see Bulah-wari. 
Boogi see Bujiwari. 
Boranwaro : 
Bowanwaro see Boranwaro. 
Budahu 
Bujiwari - : 
» 5 Output of 

Burkill, I, H. 


Bulahwari 
” , output of 
Buxahu $ ; 
» , analyses of chaniho from 
+; Output of 2 


Cameron, F. K. , : : 
Center, W. . ‘ é P 
Ohach-Mumbrani 


INDEX. 


Chambwari . ; z : 
Chandroi . 2 = F i 
i , analyses of bitterns from 


Chaniho, meaning of the term 
»  » analyses of 
s>  » grades of 


Page. 
229 

263 

206 

» 206 
226, 227 
271, 273 
276 

. 286 
223, 227 
286 

- 248 
206, 207 
216, 221 
262 

263 

281 
217, 221 
271, 273 
259, 265 
250, 252 
272, 274 


239 


- 266 
220 

ee | 
202, 208 
216, 220 
286 
226, 227 
276 

286 


282 
278 
269 
- 220 
246, 247 
272, 274 
210 
- 275 
290 


INDEX. 
Chantho, impure 
, prices of . , : 
ss 5 prices of — in Thar and Parka 


»  , output of. 
s , transport charges of 
Oharakhanwaro, analyses of kalar from 
> Nandho 
9 99 
” Wado , 
ss » output of 


, output of 


Ohatard, T. M. 
OChaura Thur 
Ohidki . ; 
Ohilh see Ohilhanwa aro 
Ohilhanwaro . 
‘9 , analyses of chaniho fron 
Chilhanwaro, output of 
Chiroli . 
Ohugari eNawsbshah) 
Ohughari Chahewari ‘ ; 
, analyses of bitterns from 
- 7 , output of 
- Kalarwari 
5 , output of 
Chekewate Put see Kine Ohaho. 
Ohundroee 
Clarke, F, W. ; > 
Oorrections in the Survey of Taal Map r 


D 


Dabanwali, Western see Dabranwari. 
Dabhiwari ; ; ‘ ; 
, analyses of chantho from 
, Inspection of 


Dabho . we 
ss , Output of . 
Dabranwait a 


Dabranwari Eastern or Ubrahd see Obrand Dabradwarl. 


Dabura 
Dail 

» » output of 
Dangi jo Ohaho 


, analyses of bitterns from . 


om , analyses of halar trom 
Darwari - - : 


i 


Page. 


° 260, 


296, 


226, 


226, 227 


R 219, 


203, 206, 
250, 
217, 
271, 


. 266, 


216, 220, 


° 271, 


261 
291 
258 
284 
297 
270 
227 
287 


285 
213 
267 
267 


220 
276 
286 
212 
253 
220 
273 
286 
217 
286 


. 246 


247 
247 


277 
276 
258 
241 
287 
286 


244 
274 
217 
285 


. 264 


270 
267 


iv INDEX. 


Page. 

Dhands ; : ‘ : P ‘ ‘ : ; ' 207, 209, 210 
3 » Saline : - . 2 : : 3 ‘ , oe AL 

»  , alkaline — distribution of : : ‘ . ‘ . ; 211 
Dheriun . § ; é ‘ ‘ $ z e ‘ 218, 220 
»  » Output of a ; ‘ ; ¥ ; ‘ 7 ‘ 2 286 


Digh see Drigwari 
Dilyar Salt depdt . : ; ‘ ‘ : : . ° ‘ Oe 


Dillahuwari . ; ; ; : ; ; : ; j ‘ i 221 
* , analyses of bitterns from. : ; ‘ . , 271, 273 
Dimanwari . : : ‘ x . ‘ : . ; ‘ . 268 
Dimunwari . ; 4 . i : ‘ : : : . vine BOO 
Dimunwaro Khuror j ; ; : . ; ; ‘ 2 ». 264 
Dinganwaro . ; . . : ‘ . : . , . 250, 252 
Diplo taluga : : : : : ; . ‘ ‘ - 268 
Dosewari é : ; . ; 218, 220 
» » analyses of chaniho from . : ‘ : . ‘ . <n SY 


‘ig , output of F j 5 ‘ 5 % ‘ > e : 287 
Dra-in . ; 2 , : : ; ‘ ; ‘ , : 208, 213 
Drigwari : : : . 225, 227 

» » analyses of kalarfrom . ‘ , : ; ‘ P ve eT 

»  » output of . - é . ‘ : ~~ step ; fee” 
Duba . : . ‘ ; . ‘ ; ‘ : ‘ . sae 


Dukani 3 : i : ‘ ; : ; ; , fs 246, 247 

» », analyses of bitternsfrom . 5 ¢ ; 3 i ‘ 272, 274 

Dunes . : ; rn ; ‘ ‘ ‘ : r - ; 207 
E 


East Dabranwari, output of . ; . ; ‘ . ; : . 286 
Fast Nara Canal . 3 - ‘ ‘ ; : ‘ : 205, 209, 210 
Euphorbia . : : . i ; . . ‘ . : - 209 


” 
F 
Frere, Sir B. é ‘ ‘ : 3 é : ; : . + aah 
G 
Gabanwaro , ’ ‘ mn ie : 4 : ° . 242 
. , analyses of bitterns from : ; ; ‘ x : 272, 274 


- , output of . : < 4 a ; e P F epee 33 
Gadanwari ‘ P : ; ; 236 
3 analyses of bitterns from . ; ; ‘ ‘ . 271, 273 
9 N., analyses of chaniho from . : : : : : Re | 


INDEX. 


Gaganwari 
Galuwari 
» -, Output of 
» 5 analyses of kalar from 
Gandhi, analyses of bitterns from 
»  » Output of . 
Gango see Ganjawari. 


Ganjawari é ; : : 
x , analyses of bitterns from 
$3 $g 5, chaniho from 
* , output of 
Ganwarwaro 
i , analyses of chantho tok 
Gapni . 
Gapnum 
Gari 


» , analyses of pittents from 
s» (Jakrao) 
Garho Got ; , 
3 s» » analyses of bitterns from 
s, , output of 
Gatho Puso : 
Gati Vagi 
Gidharwari . : : : ° 
Gidharwaro . 
Gidderunwari ‘ 
Ghulam Ohang jo Mogam 
Goorakho : 
Goosefoot 
Gubno see Gapnum. 
Guddarwaree see Gadanwari. 
Gug 
Gulabwari 
Gundwari 
Gunja 


Gunjawari W. Sint, analyses of bitterns from : 


Gunjwari 
Gunjo . 
Guni-Belo 
Gupta, B. B. 
Gupta, B. C. 
Gurkno 


Halophytes . . . ° 
Hakro or Lost Brvex of Sind ‘: ; 


Vv 


Page. 
267 

219, 220 
285 

270 

272, 274 
287 


224, 227 
271, 273 
276 
enaot 
236, 277 
276 
266 
237 
. 268 
272, 274 
262 
. 239 
272, 274 
yest 
259, 266 
. 262 
250, 253 
239 
262 
220 
289 
205 


i OF 
250, 252 
250, 253 
. 253 
271, 273 
ee 
250, 253 
268 
270 
270 
267 


~ 205 
- 205 


vi INDEX. 


Hazari . F 
Hazari, output of . 
Hilgard, E. W. 


Jaganwari : : 
Jakrao tapa . : ‘ 

Ny »> 5» concession o 

»  dhand 
Jamrao Oanal 
Jaranwaro 
Jatuwari : ‘ ; ; 

33 , analyses of bitterns from 

, Output of 

Jhandewari . 
Jhandoi . ; , . . 

» Wadi, analyses of bitterns from . 

9 +»  » Output of 
Jhu-jhu ; 
Jhungunwaro ; : 
Jorindawaree see Kurunda. 
Jutojee Sim see Jatuwari. 
Jutoo Wali see Jatuwari. 


Kabbar 
Kacbhi district 
Kakaranwaro P 
, output of 
Kalar . ; 
»» » analyses of . 
+» » formation of 
Kalarwari ‘ : 
7" , near Dilyar . 
> , output of 
Kalachwari 
Kalbuwaro 
" , output of 
Kandiwaro : ; ; ‘ 
— , analyses of bitterms from 
” % ” kalar 
Kandiwaro, output of ‘ 
Karachi district . : ‘ : ‘ 
»  , alkali exported from . 7 


> 


Page, 
227 
286 
278 


249, 251 

261 

261 

. . 266 
205, 211, 249 
: . 289 
223, 227 

271, 273 

- 286 

262 

. 240 

272, 274 

287 

268 

237 


; . 209 
206, 208, 209 
225, 227, 228 
; . 286 
205 

aes yi) 

277, 278 

218, 220 

- 267 

286 

» 262 

234, 237 

oie ST 

- 238 

274, 275 

270 

287 

5 - 267 
° « 267 


INDEA. 

Kari F ; ; ; 
Kariwari 
Kayur . ; ° . : . 
Kelahu 
Khabbarwaro , ‘ 

” , analyses of chaniho from 

, output of 

Khabbarwaxo '(Nawabshah) 

n Lambreji 
Khairpur, Vazir of ¥ “ 


+ State, Physical features of 


Khara Okar . 
>, » analyses of bitterne from 


” 9 output of 


2? 


” 
Khari . : ; ; 
», , analyses of kalar from . 
Khariri, output of . 
3 Ohachwari 
2? 39 
” Mojanwari : ; : ; 
, analyses of bitterns from 
chaniho 


9 , output of 
Kharri see Kharivi. 

Khariwari 

Khariwaree see Khariri Mojanwati. 
Kharo lunial 

Kharo saf 

Kharor 

Kharowaro 

Kharro 


29 


, analyses of bitterns from 
»? > output of . 
Kharuki 
Khip 
Khororo ; ; : : 
»» » analyses of bitterns from . 
Khuraro 
Kilanwari : ; : . 
99 , analyses of chaniho from 
Kino Chaho . : y ; ‘ 
, analyses of kalar from 
, output of 


39 ” 

2? 99 
Kinri : ; : 5 
, analyses of bitterns from 
,. (Thar and Parkar) . 


Kirar 


99 


, analyses of bitterns from . 


> 


vii 


Page. 
263, 265 
259, 265 
- 269 
249, 251 
225, 227 

276 
en ee 
250, 251 

228 
- 204 
207, 208 
225, 227 
271, 273 

286 
264, 268 

270 

287 
217, 220 
271, 270 
223, 223 
271, 277 

273 

286 


267 


290 
2°0 
263 
239, 240 
240 
272, 274 
287 
265 
209 
252, 254 
272, 274 
268 
250, 253 
276 
225, 227 
276 
. 286 
247, 267 
272, 274 
263 
209 


Vili INDEX. 


Kochur 

Korki . A 
Koro see Kot Korro. 
Kot Imangarh 

ss Jubo : 4 

» 9 » group of dhands 

»» Korro : 

39 » 5 Output of A 
Kukrunwaree see Kakaranwaro. 
Kundi . 

Kundhi Tul . 
Kurunda Nandho . 
Wado 

Kvassy, E. Von 


Lahuri . ; : : 
» » analyses of kalar from 
>» ; Output of . 

Laihoro 

Lainwari 

Laiwari : : : 
+» » analyses of bitterns from 
» , analyses of chaniho from 

Lalri, Great see Lalri Wadi. 

Lalri Lambrewari . 

=a 3 output of 

ss sSanhri . = 

r » » Output of 

>». Wadi ‘ é . 
= » », analyses of chaniho from 
Re > » Output of 

Lalur ; : 

Lambrewari see Lambro. 

Lambro ‘ s ; ; 
» , analyses of bitterns from 
$5 35 3, chantho from 
» 5 Output of 

Lanari . 


Lanehwalee, see under Lun Khan Ulan. 


Lani 

Laniwari . 3 : 2 
» » analyses of bitterns from 

Lathwari . ; 


237, 259, 


242, 266, 275 


Page. 
208 
249, 251 


243 
207 
231 
243 
287 


209 
266 
253 
253 
278 


220 
270 
285 
+ wOm 
249, 251 
266, 277 
271, 273 
276 


224, 227 
. 286 
224, 227 
. 286 
224, 227 
.. wiG 

286 

267 


224, 227, 228, 275 


271, 273 
+ ae 
- 286 
- 264 


206 


272, 274 
249, 25 


INDEX. 


Lawrence, H. S. 
Leblanc process 
Letan Abdul Rahim ; 
Leware je Dhund see Pharanwaro, 
Lewin, R. f 
Leyara ; : ‘ 
» , analyses of bitterns from 

Lonar, Lake . 
Lucas, W. H. 
Lukunwaro 
Lun Khan : 

5 »,  Ubrand 


” % »» 5 analyses of bitterns from 
” 2 Ulan 
M 
Machoi 


» , analyses of bitterns from 
Mackie, A. W. 
Mahadev Ram 
Mahmuda 
Manakwari ; ; : 

% , analyses of bitterns from 

Manchur 
Mani 
Manikpur 
Marrowari 
Matiwaro : 

re , output of 
Matranwaro . . 
Maurypur. : ’ 
Meerwaree see Mirwari. 
Metahari / 

oy , output of 
Minwari 
Mirwars : 

»  » Output of 
Mithi taluqa . 


Mithri . é ‘ ‘ 
», » analyses of bitterns from 
” ’ ;, chaniho from 
% i ;, kalar from 
» » Output of 

Mitho Puso 


Moghal Bein ; : ‘ 


1X 


Page. 
203 
206 
242 


. 278 
246, 247 
272, 274 
261, 275 

260 

262 

268 
245, 247 
272, 274 
245, 247 


. 245 
272, 274 
290, 292 
270 
263 
250, 253 
272, 274 
239 
285 
267 
262 
225, 227 
286 
239 
295 


223, 227 
286 

249, 251 
222, 227 
287 

. 268 
219, 220 
271, 273 
276 

270 

287 

259, 261, 265 
. 869 


Mohammed Khan : : 
Moqamwaro 


Moqamwaro, analyses of bitterns from 


Moro 
Motranwaro 
Mujoi see Machoi. 
Mukhtiarkars 
Munchur 

Mural 


Nahur 
Nain waro . : : ; 

5 , analyses of chaniho from 
Nanganwaro < 

” , output of . 
Napier, Sir Chas. 
Nara, Group of dhands 
Narui . "ie ‘ ; 
»» » analyses of bitterns from 
Narwaro see Nainwaro. 
Natron 
Nau Rait : ‘ : : 
» » analyses of bitterns from 
* » » output of 
Nawabshah, Collector of 
= Taluqa, dhands of 

Niblowie see Bambalui. 
Nichora 
Nirawal : é 
Noon Khan see Lun Khan. 


> 


Oldham, R. D. : ; 
Owens Lakes, California 


Padrio . ‘ ‘ P . . 
Padru . , 3 zs : S 
» » analyses of bitterns from 


analyses of bitterns from 


INDEX. 


Page. 

204, 214, 231,241 

; . 227 

271,273 

: : 2 ; . 268 
eee ° : » 228 
: : : 271, 273 

; 204 

: - 266 

267 


265 
236, 275 
: 276 
219, 220 

286 
eo BAS 
215, 230 
: 244 
271, 274 


202, 203 
243, 275 
271, 274 
287 
288 
249 


22] 
263 


: . : . 239 
. . . ° . . 2388 
. ’ . ; 272, 274 


INDEX. 


Padru, output of 

Pakhyaro ; . ‘ : 
ae , analyses of bitterns from 
9 a ., chantho from 
33 , Output of 

Paniwari ‘ 
9 near Dilyar 

Panyal 

Papar . 

* Paruwari : 
»  ,Outputof * 

Patehal 

Patehu 

Phangario . 

Pharanwari . 

- , output of 

Pharanwaro . 

Phog 

Phogwari é ; , . 
» » analyses of chaniho from . 

Phuloowala sce Kalbuwaro. 

Pir Nanga 

Pirwari 

Plymen, F. J. 

Pokhulwaro . " 

Pottinger, Lieut. H. 


Punwaro 

Purai ‘ 

Pur Chandar ° é : ‘ 
i » » analyses of bitterns from 
ms = dhand, legend of 
+7 > j0 dra-in 


Rahimwaro . 

Rait Pario ; j F ; 
"= » » analyses of bitterns from 
o » » Output of 

Ram Rahu 

Rarr 

Rato 

Ratrao 4 ‘ é 

Red colour of the alkaline lakes 

Reh see Kalar. 

Rehro . ‘ . ; : : 


xl 


Page. 
287 
en OO 
271, 273 
276 
287 
250, 251 
ee] 
263 
. 289 
219, 220 
. 286 
. 265 
250, 251 
ae 0G 
219, 220 
<a 
237 
rai 2 
250, 251 


276 


221 
202 
275 
229 
257 
262 
oe aoe 
246, 248 
272, 274 
214, 235 
213, 231 


- 239 
243, 275 
272, 274 
mea, | 
226, 228 
264 
268 
262 
213 


« 263 


xii INDEX. 


Ridhwari é ‘ é 
* , analyses of kalar from 

Rohri, cutting at. 

Rojewaro é : 

Rojuli . . é P 


Sahai , . : 
» ; analyses of bitterns from 
Sahib Danai jo Ohaho 
Saidahu : 
Saidahu, output of 
Saidinwaro ‘ : E : 
9 , analyses of bitterns from 
Sajjt 
Sallewaro-Dhoro 
Salsola 
Sang nullah . 
Sangriam 
Sanhri . 2 z ‘ 
ss » analyses of bitterns from 
», near Dilyar . 
ss (Nawabsbah) 
»» (Thar and Parkar) 
Sanoi Garhi . ; ; : 
» , analyses of bitterns from 
* ss » Output of 
% ji dra-in 
» Kotenwari ; F : : 
, analyses of bitterns from 


39> 9? 


55 ~ , output of 

» Nandhi 

» Narwari : : : , 
ES > » analyses of bitterns from . 
7” » 5 Output of 

is Wea j : 

3 » » analyses of bitterns from 


i » » Output of 
Sari (1). 
»» (2). 
Sarwari 2 ; ; 
» », analyses of bitterns from 
Satnewari 
Savari Ubrand 
7 Olea 5 ie é ; . 


Page. 
250, 252 
267 

211 

242 

264 


245 
271, 274 
262, 264 
226, 227 

286 
. “228 
271, 273 

206 

269 

205 

209 

264 

244 
272, 274 

267 
250, 253 
259, 265 
241, 242 
272, 274 

287 
213, 232 
241, 242 
272, 274 

287 

241 
241, 242 
272, 274 

287 
<> 
272, 274 

287 
250, 252 
250, 252 
+ 227 
271, 273 

262 
244, 247 
244, 247 


INDEX. xili 


Page. 
Savari Ulan, analyses of bitterns from 271, 274 
Schweinfurth, G. 278 
Sewell, Capt. R. S. 280 
Shah Bandar 269 
Shihunwari 267 
Sickenburger, E. 279 
Sikut 268 
Sim 


‘ : ‘ : : ° 208, 209, 214 
Sind desert, physical tontanes of ‘ ‘ é s ‘ : ; . 205 


Sirunwari 


; : é ; ‘ ‘ 262 
Soda, consumption 7 — in Tidia : : ; ; ; . p . 294 
Soneeje, see under Lun Khan Ubrand. 

Soro > ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ‘ 250, 253 
Sterry Hunt, 7, : : - " ; : : ! , ; “ 418 
Sueda . ; : 3 < : : : . ; ; . 205 
Sut. : ; : - - , ; : . 239 

»» » analyses of Sento toni : ; : : ; ; : «> et 
Sukchaho E : : ; ; 217, 220 

» analyses of Bitters Erbin. ; ; ; : E ; 271, 273 

» » analyses of chaniho from ; ; 2 ; 3 ‘ edo 

9% output of : : , ; : ; : 4 ; . 286 
Sukiawari . . ; . i : ; : : ; ‘ - 268 

Sy , analyses of bitterns from ; ; : : : : 272, 274 
Sumerat é ; ; . ; j : ; , : f Od 
Suru. . : ; ; : r - 263 

T 
pt Racers: . : ? : is 4 = . : ‘ ; ‘ 207 
Tarai Barko . ; ; : : ; ; ‘ ; : . 226, 227 
~ » » Output of . / 3 : : ‘ : 5 3 . 286 
Tarawari. ; . ; 2 ; ; ; ; ; ; 222, 227 
Tarai Pir Nanga . ; : : : . 217, 220 
Tat Adlahu Chaho see Ride Chatio. 
Thar and Parkar, dhands of . : : ‘ - ; , ‘ - 257 
63 ‘ »  » Closing of F . . 261 
Thiitlay, E. L. x ; : ; - 204, 231, 241, 242, "249, 261, 292, 295 
Tikini . : é 3 ; : ‘i 3 : : S ; 219, 220 
» »,Outputof . 3 ; ; é ‘i : . : e7 ROU 
Tbe nn A - - : : : 2 ; ‘ a ‘ : 208 
Toriwari : ; : : ; i : ; ; ; ; . 265 
Tullee see Tali. 
Turunwari . ; ; ; ; ; j : ; : . 264 
Turhan . ; ; ; : : : : 3 ‘ ‘ 244, 247 


»  » analyses of bitterns from | genre 


xiv INDEX. 


U 
Page. 
Ubrand Dabranwari ' ‘ : , ° 223, 227 
Ugam . : ; F , ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ “ , ° - 264 
Usar . ; ; , ‘ ‘ - i ; ; . 209, 228, 277 
» » analyses of bitterns from : : , F ; . . 271, 273 
Uthanwari . : 7 ; : : ‘ ; ; i , a eT 

V 

269 


Verh (7) ; : : ; ; ; : P , 
269 


cy) (ti) . . . . . . . . . . . 
Virchora F 2 7 : ‘i , : : 218, 220 


» 4 analyses of bitterns from ; , ‘ 271, 273 
+»  » output of A : ‘ - - ‘ 286 
W 

Walker, H. . : 270 
War, effects of : : ‘ : 3 F P . ‘ ; 203 
Waranwaro . : ; ; ; : ‘ : ; , ‘ . 289 
Wasuwari : ; > ; P 250, 253 
Watwaro , ; , ‘ 239 
West (Ulan) Dabranwari, output of 286 
Whichonaro : : 218 
White Bitiro , : : 7 ‘ 219 
Wildenstein’s method of determining sulphate . 204 


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MAP OF THE DHANDS OF THE NARA TAPA, KHAIRPUR STA 


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7 DHANDS OF THE JUBO TAPA, KHAIRPUR STATE. Litho. G. $. |. Caleutta. 


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ON, OA, (F0., 70. AS, 7.8, 
AiKardar Office é 
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N“ 


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~~ eenerrs 


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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 


Directo. 
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Superintendents. 


L. Lercu Fermor, 0.B.E., A.R.S.M., D.Sc. (London), F.G.8., F.A.S.B., M.ILM.M.: 


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MA Snes 


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K. F. Wartkrnson, 
Sub-Assistants, 


Bankim Brant Gupta: DurcasankaR BHatracHaRst: BaRopa CHARAN Gupta ; 
HARENDRA Monon Lanter, M.Sc. : L. A. NARAYANA Tyger, M.A.: 


Assistant Curator. 
PurnA CHANDRA Roy. 
, : Head Clerk. 


A. K. Banern, B.A. apiece _ 
Geological Museum Library, and Office, Caleutta. 


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