INSTRUCTIONS
FOR COLLECTORS

Museum of

: Comparative Zoology
AT HARVARD COLLEGE

Reprinted from ‘
HARVARD TRAVELLERS. CLUB.
HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

Second Edition

1935

CHAPTER XX.
NATURAL HISTORY COLLECTING.

MamMats By Giover M. ALLEN
Birps By Grover M. ALLEN
Booxs on Natura History CoLLectInG

ReptILes, AMPHIBIANS AND FisHES By Arruur LOVERIDGE
Insect CoLLEcTING By Purr J. Dartrncron, Jr.
Mo ttusxs By Wittam J. CLencu
Parasitic Worms By J. H. Sanpcrounp
Botanica. COLLECTING By Davin H. Linper
Cottectinc Fosstts By W. E. Scuevitt

Travellers in out-of-the-way places may frequently add to the
interest of their journey as well as make valuable contributions to
knowledge by sending back specimens to museums of universal
scope. Harvard men especially may be reminded that the Uni-
versity Museum, the Gray. Herbarium and the Farlow Herbarium
at Cambridge maintain extensive study collections of animals,
plants, fossils, and minerals, to which such contributions are wel-
come. The value of specimens depends in large part on the care
taken in their preparation and the accuracy of accompanying data
as to locality, date, and other pertinent facts which should be
recorded on a label made at the time of collection and attached to
the specimen or accompanying it. While field collecting is often a
specialist’s task, the amateur, by following simple directions, may
preserve much that is of value.

MAMMALS.
By Giover M, Aen.

Small Mammal Equipment. For really serious collecting will be
needed: a light but strong fiber trunk of small size, with close-
fitting trays varying in depth from one to three inches; scalpels,
scissors, sharp-pointed and longer, blunt forceps; needles, thread,
large and small, common pins, and labels; cotton, the best absorbent
in pound packages, wire preferably noncorrosive of Monel metal
larger and smaller.

Labels should be of tough paper, bond paper, and not too large
lest they catch, 2x 44 inches is about right for small specimens,

Sn ar a ee aan | h

| COLLECTING MAMMALS 305 |

and small baggage tags may be used for hides and large skulls
(avoid surfaced linen tags as the surface comes off when wet).
India ink is best for all writing.

For a preservative, saltpeter and alum (an ounce of alum to a
pound of saltpeter) powdered and well mixed is good, and less
deliquescent than common salt. Neither will prevent the ravages
of insects, which must be kept out by a plentiful supply of naptha- 4
line flakes. Arsenic in the form of arsenical soap applied on the
inside of a skin prevents attacks of pests, but is poisonous and,
in the dry form, is often mistaken for sugar or salt. A millimeter
rule and dividers are needed for measurements.

For small mammals, traps of mouse and rat size are essential.
The “Government” mouse trap of the snap-over style with a
larger base than the regular commercial one causes less frequent
damage to skulls. They can be made to order in lots of a gross
or over, from The Animal Trap Co., Lititz, Penn.

All-metal folding rat traps in boxes of a dozen are made by J. P.
Schuyler Co., Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. For bait, a mixture of
rolled oats, chopped raisins and bacon, mixed with enough peanut
butter to form a stiff dough, lasts well and will not blow away.
Put “a pinch” on the bait-treadle of each mouse trap when setting.
For rat traps, nuts, raisins, or a piece. of meat may be used. An
excellent pamphlet by H. E. Anthony giving full instructions for
making study skins is issued at 15 cents by the American Museum
of Natural History, New York City. |

Making Study Skins of Small Mammals. The specimen is first |
to be measured: total length; length of tail held at right angles |
to the back and exclusive of the terminal hairs; hind foot from heel
to tip of longest claw; height of ear from lower border of opening to
the tip. Measurements and collector’s number; the sex; place, and
date are entered on the back of the label. In all cases the skull
must be preserved separately and given a corresponding number.

Slit the skin of the belly from chest to anus avoiding cutting
into the thin belly wall; peel the skin back as far as possible on
each side; push the hind leg forward through the cut and
sever at the knee. Loosen the skin all around the base of the tail.

Then, by holding the nail of the thumb and forefinger firmly at its
base, the bone can usually be slipped out by a firm pull. Continue
now to strip the skin back over the body to the fore limbs, which are
severed at the elbows, and the skin worked forward over the head.
Cut carefully through the bases of the ears, and through the eyelid

306 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

close to the skull. Finally, cut through the lips close in and through
the cartilage of the nose, thus removing the skin. The lips should
now be caught together by a stitch from inside and the flesh cleaned
from the forearm and lower leg leaving the bone in. Layers of fat
or connective tissue adhering to the skin must be peeled away as
far as possible, Carefully avoid pulling on the skin because it
stretches easily. Dust the skin in the preservative, and turn it
back right side out. A wisp of cotton fills out each of the limbs,
or the cotton may be wrapped about the leg bone. The rest of the
skin should be filled out with a fairly firm body of cotton, best
made by shaping a pointed strip of the cotton slightly larger and
longer than the original body and thrusting its pointed end to the
nose of the skin with the long forceps. Then tuck what remains
into the body of the skin, For the tail, cut a piece of wire of suitable
size and wrap it to about the size needed by twisting a few fibers of
cotton about its tip, and twirling it in the fingers-of one hand.
Wind on enough at the other end of the wire to fill out the tail-skin.
Then thrust the wire carefully to the tip of the tail from inside.
Now, sew up the opening in the belly of the skin, tie the label to
one of the ankles, and pin the skin out, back up, on the bottom of
one of the wooden trays of the collecting chest to dry. Be sure
that the feet are brought against the side of the muzzle in front and
to the tail behind lest they project, catch, and take up extra space.

The skull and teeth are of great importance in classification and
must be carefully preserved. Sever the skull from the body, care-
fully remove the eyes, tongue, and as much of the muscle mass as
can easily be done. With a loop of wire, hook out the brain through
the large opening at the base of the skull, being careful to break
no bones. Attach a label to the lower jaw, bearing the same num-
ber as the skin, and string with other skulls on a wire to keep them
all together and to dry. It is better to keep skins and skulls apart
because insect pests are attracted by the dried skulls. Never put
skulls in a tin box because the dampness causes decay and odor.
Keep them in wooden or paper boxes, with a sprinkling of naphtha-
line flakes.

Large Mammals, ‘To remove the skin, run a cut from chin to end
of tail along the mid-ventral line and, from this line, along the inside
of each leg to the tip of the foot. Peel off the skin, taking care to
cut away tissue instead of pulling, lest the hide be unduly stretched.
Cut through the bases of the ears, the eyelids, and the lips as close
to the bone as possible to avoid slits in the skin. If the skull is

COLLECTING MAMMALS 307

large, or with horns, it is removed by connecting the bases of the
horns by a cut, severing the skin all around the horn bases and
extending the slit on to the nape sufficiently to allow the removal
of the skull through it. The large ear cartilages must be dissected
out by carefully loosening the skin at the base of the ear from the
inside and turning the ear inside out, leaving the cartilage attached
as a shell to the inner half of the ear, as far asthetip. Ii this is not
done they cannot dry properly and the hair will slip on the backs
of the ears. Remove so far as possible, all fat and connective tis-
sue from the inner surface of the skin, and open the feet to the ends
of the toes. All fleshy pads or parts that will not dry easily must
be slit and salt rubbed in. Now rub handfuls of common salt well
into every part, working it down to the tips of the toes and into the
lips, and ears, then fold the hide up, hair side out, and set it aside
overnight or for several hours so that the salt can draw the water
from the skin and penetrate to every part. In the morning, un-
fold, drain off the accumulated liquid, rub more salt into any parts
that seem to need it, and hang up or spread out to dry slowly in the
shade. In rainy times it may be necessary to hang near a very low
fire to facilitate drying, but never in the smoke or too near heat,
lest the hide will become hard and brittle. Change its position and
examine frequently lest it dry too fast. When nearly dry, roll up,
hair side in. On the march, the salted hide can be unrolled and
spread out when making camp, and, when finally dry enough, tie
it up ina compact bundle. Be sure to tie the label on while salting
and in a place where it can be seen when the hide is too stiff to
permit unrolling. Preserve the skull as before by removing brains
and as much tissue as possible, and drying in the sun, but where
dogs or vultures cannot reach it. The label must bear the same
number as the salted hide. Wrap the tips of the jaws with heavy
padding and tie the lower jaw in place. Otherwise, the teeth and
slender bones will almost invariably be broken in travelling. Dry,
salted hides are best rolled while green into small compass and
packed in “chop boxes” with a liberal sprinkling of naphthaline
flakes. They should be examined at intervals to make certain that
they are free from insects.

Game Trophies. For heads to be mounted as trophies, it is best
to make the cut along the top of the neck instead of down the
throat for better appearance. In the case of heads having horns,
this cut is extended to the base of each horn, the skin severed all
around each base, and the skull removed through the cut. If the

308 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

head alone is wanted, cut the skin as far back on the neck as pos-
sible to allow for lapping- under when it is mounted. Measure-
ments of girth at the top, middle and base of the neck are a help
in mounting. A certain amount must be pared off from the inner
side of a very thick hide to make it thin enough for the salt to
penetrate as well as to eliminate weight and to facilitate packing.

BIRDS.
By Giover M. Aten.

The ability to prepare a presentable bird skin can be acquired
only with practice. ‘The objective is to remove the flesh and other
soit parts and replace with a firm body of cotton, so that when
finished the specimen looks like a freshly killed bird, lying on its
back with the wings folded in a natural manner at the sides.

For collecting the smaller birds, a small-bore shotgun of .410 or
.44 caliber or 16 gauge, or a long-barreled pistol using shot cartridges,
is useful. For all-round use, a 12-gauge shotgun with an auxiliary
barrel is very satisfactory, the latter consisting of a steel cylinder
about seven inches long fitting like a cartridge into the breech, and
bored to take a small-caliber shell.

For collecting in dense thickets, a bird net of fine, dark twine
having about a two-inch mesh can be stretched in an opening. It
often secures secretive species that might not otherwise be found.

Immediately after shooting a specimen, thrust a small wisp of
cotton wool down the throat and plug shot holes similarly, espe-
cially an injured eye, to prevent fluids from damaging the plumage.
Then, place the specimen head down in a paper cornucopia, fold
over the ends of the latter, and lay it in some sort of carrying bag
or basket.

Skinning Equipment. The same tools are used as listed for small
mammals’ skins. A good supply of an absorbent for dusting
exposed or moist surfaces of the specimen and absorbing grease,
blood, etc., is almost a necessity. Corn meal (in a five-pound
waterproof bag) is the best; dry sawdust will do, but becomes
enmeshed in the feathers.

Skinning Directions. Lay the bird back down on the table and,
with knife or scissors, make an incision from top of breast bone to
vent, taking care not to cut through the thin belly walls (if this
happens, plug with cotton and sprinkle corn mealinthe cut). With-
out pulling on the skin, work the edges back with knife and finger

COLLECTING BIRDS 309

nails to expose the forward parts of hind legs. Push each leg for-
ward into the cut, loosen the skin all around and sever at the knee.
Split the muscle mass of the lower leg, turn it back from the bone
to the ankle, and snip it off at the tendon leaving the bone in the
skin for strength. Now, loosen the skin around the base of the
tail, cut through the anus and then through the base of the tail far
enough forward to avoid the bases of the tail feathers. Otherwise,

these will fall out. Holding the body head down in the left hand,
' carefully strip the skin forward, feather side in, to the shoulders.
Cut through the muscles and bone of the upper arm close to the
body, and having thus reached the neck, continue to peel back
the skin gently to the base of the skull. With forceps, carefully
pull out the pocketlike skin lining the ear cavity, and work the
skin forward over the eyes. The thin skin of the eyelids must be
severed close to the orbit in order not to cut through the feathered
portion of the lids. The skin is now inside out to the base of the
bill. With forceps, remove the eyes from the sockets; then, with
scissors, run a deep cut along the inner side of each jaw through
the palate to the back of the skull. Join these two cuts with a
cross cut through the back of the skull and remove the enclosed
piece which carries with it the tongue and muscles as well as part
of the brain. Finish cleaning the skull of as much brain and other
tissue as possible. Dust with preservative and fill each eye socket
with a pellet of cotton. Then reverse the skin, working the bill
and head back through the neck. After working the skin free from
the “arm bones” of the wings with scalpel and finger nails, remove
as much flesh as possible. In large birds, the forearm should be
opened from the under side of the wing and after clearing away the
muscles and tendons, they can be replaced with cotton and the
skin stitched together. The arm bones must be left in for support.
The legs of large birds have powerful tendons on the back of the
shank. ‘These must be removed by making a small incision through
the skin just above the toes, inserting the forceps and pulling the
tendon through.

Having cleaned the inside of the skin of any masses of fat or
flesh, with needle and thread catch together the tracts of feathers
on the shorlders from inside, draw them to about the natural dis-
tance apart, and tie the thread. This prevents the skin from being
too wide across the shoulders. Warious ways of making an artificial
neck and body are advocated by collectors. For small birds, a
toothpick or small stick wrapped in cotton to required size is

310 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

thrust through the neck to the brain cavity. It makes a firm neck.
A second piece of cotton compacted into a form like that of the
carcass is then inserted in place of the body, and the cut edges of
the skin sewn up. The feet are crossed, the label is tied to them,
and the bill is held together by taking a stitch through the nostrils
from side to side and tying the ends over the lower bill.

After being smoothed and the wings arranged in natural position
at the sides (a pinch across the shoulders will help), the skin must
be wrapped in a thin sheet of cotton batting. To do this, it is
laid on the diagonal of the sheet and the sides folded over to hold
the plumage in place until dry.

More detailed instructions may be found in an excellent pam-
phlet by James P. Chapin entitled, “How to Make Study Skins of
Birds,” for sale by the American Museum of Natural History, New
York City; price 25 cents.

Books on Naturat History Cotnectine.

Anderson, R. M. “Methods of Collecting and Preserving Verte-
brate Animals.” Bull. No. 69, Nat. Mus. Canada, Biol.
Series No. 18, Dept. of Mines, Ottawa, v, 1932.

(An excellent manual for the traveller.)

Anthony, H. E.: “The Capture and Preservation of Small Mam=
mals for Study.” Guide Leaflet No. 61, Amer. Mus. Nat.
History, New York City, 53 pages, illustrated, 1925.

(Of pocket size and invaluable as a guide in collecting
study specimens.)

Chapin, J. P.: “Preparation of Birds for Study.” Guide Leaflet,
No. 58, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York City, 45 pages,
illustrated, 1923.

Hornaday, W. T.: “Taxidermy and Zodlogical Collecting.” New
York, 1891, 362 pages, 24 plates. C. Scribner’s Sons.

(Though somewhat out of date, is excellent reading and
full of practical advice.)

Various contributors: Directions for collecting and preserving
specimens. Bull. United States Nat. Mus., Smithsonian In-
stitution, No, 39, Parts A-S, 1891 to 1911.

(Consists of brief separate papers giving instructions for
collecting in nearly all branches of natural history.)

REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FISHES 311

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.
By Artuur LoveriIpGE.

In general, it is the smaller species that are most interesting.
Large individuals of snakes or lizards take up more room and show
little that is not equally discernible in smaller specimens. Small
lizards are collected with the aid of a 22-caliber pistol or collecting
gun, shooting a small charge of fine shot (shot cartridges of this
caliber are obtainable at gun shops). Burrowing forms are espe-
cially desirable. Frogs are often hidden by day but become active
at night. They may then be captured with a hand net by the aid
of a flashlight at the edges of pools or in damp woods. In the
tropics, they can often be disclosed by slitting down the long sheath-
like bases of banana leaves inside of which they take refuge.

Equipment. Stout cotton bags with draw strings, and of various
sizes for carrying specimens in the field; chloroform (in metal cans)
for killing; tight, friction-top tin cans for holding the specimens
ean be made in pint or quart sizes and nested together until used.
For a preservative, carry ordinary commercial formalin in a well-
protected bottle or can.

Directions for Preservation. Frogs are very susceptible to chloro-
form. To kill the specimens, the bag containing them may be
dropped into a friction-top can and a few drops of chloroform
sprinkled on before the can is closed. Afterward, each specimen
should have the slime washed off and they should then be left to
soak in a bowl of water overnight (protected from predatory rats
or cats, if these are about). Next morning, drain off the water and
immerse the specimens in a bowl or tin containing five parts of
water to one part of formalin (by volume), Do not overcrowd
them at this stage. Allow them to soak for forty-eight hours.
Then, having lined the friction-top tin with paper (formalin will
rust the tin and the specimens in contact with it will be soiled),
pack the specimens between layers of rags or cotton and fill the tin
with the formalin solution. The locality, date, and other notes
should be clearly printed in pencil on stout paper, folded so as not
to become defaced (formalin destroys all paper in six months),
and placed inside each tin. If specimens from several localities
are placed in one can, each lot should be separately wrapped in
cheesecloth with its label.

Lizards, up to fifteen inches long, are treated in the same way

312 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

but, before soaking, make a small incision in the belly to permit
penetration of the formalin. With large specimens, it is advisable
to make cuts in the lower side of the tail and limbs for the same
purpose.*

Snakes are similarly preserved but several slits should be made
along the underside of the body at three-inch intervals to insure
penetration of the formalin. Usually, specimens over three feet
long are less desirable, as taking up too much valuable space.
Larger snakes may be slit the entire length of the belly and the
body removed. The skin with head and tail attached is then
rolled up and preserved in formalin.

If it is desired to mail specimens home, pour off the formalin from
the friction-top tin. The sodden rags or cotton are moist enough to
keep the specimens for at least a month. If they do not fill the
container, pack the empty space with excelsior or damp rags to
prevent them from shaking about and rubbing, but do not pack so
tightly as to crush the specimens. The can may then be wrapped
and mailed. A large number of specimens can be shipped in a
Standard Oil tin, packed as described, soldered up and crated.

FIsHES.

For collecting fishes, a small seine is useful. Along small streams,
fish traps, sometimes obtainable from natives, can be set in bar-
riers of sticks, and the pool “driven.” Closed pools are sometimes
poisoned by the use of copper sulphate. In many countries the
native population may prove helpful in bringing in certain varieties,
or a Visit to the local fish markets will often provide a supply of
the commoner or edible species. In general, alcohol is recommended
as a preservative. If possible immerse first in a weak solution,
about 50%, and after a day or so change to a stronger grade, 60%
or 70%. Formalin can be used, but its effect is to render the fish
so hard that it is useless for some purposes. For packing and
transporting, friction-top tins as recommended for reptiles are good.
Glass jars are heavy and breakable, so that if they must be used,
they should be individually isolated by being tightly wadded about
with excelsior in a wooden box.

* The preservation of reptiles in formalin can be aided by injecting into different
parts of their bodies a 10 per cent solution of formalin by means of a syringe and hol-
low needle, such as are used for the injection of antitoxin. I have seen this done
by an eminent zoologist. (G, C. 5.)

INSECT COLLECTING 313

INSECT COLLECTING.
By Purp J. Daruncron, Jr.

How to Preserve Insects. It is not necessary to carry complicated
equipment in order to collect insects casually. A long-handled
net and forceps are useful, but most insects can be caught and
handled without them. Ants and beetles, as well as spiders, can
be preserved satisfactorily in small bottles of alcohol. Denatured
alcohol from any drug store or, in a pinch, even strong rum will
do. Dry killing bottles are necessary, however, for killing most
other insects. Standard entomological killing bottles charged
with potassium cyanide can be obtained from entomological supply
stores, but the traveller who expects to collect only occasionally
will find acetic ether a more convenient killing material. Four
ounces of the fluid will do for many days of collecting. Any tight
jar can be charged with acetic ether fumes merely by wetting a small
wad of cotton or paper with the ether and putting it into the bot-
tom of the jar under crumpled newspaper, so that insects put into
the jar will be exposed to ether fumes but will not become wet.

Insects which have been killed in alcohol may be left in it in-
definitely. This is the best way to preserve ants and most beetles.
Other insects, after being kept in a killing bottle overnight, should
be packed dry. Flies, bees, wasps, and similar insects should be
packed, without crushing, between layers of dry, preferably glazed
cotton in small boxes, such as match, cigarette, or pill boxes. Metal
boxes should not be used, and no box should be reopened once
insects have been packed in it, for dry insects are very fragile
until they have been properly relaxed. Butterflies, moths, dragon-

Explanation of Figures 12, 13, 14
Steps in papering an insect: 1. Oblong of paper, creased diagonally,
2. Paper folded, with insect inside shown as though paper were transparent,
3. Finished “triangle,” with flaps folded over and creased in place.

314 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

flies, and dragonfly-like insects should be put singly into small
envelopes or in “triangles” of newspaper, as shown in the figures.
All bottles and boxes of specimens should be labeled plainly with
locality, date, and collector’s name. Boxes of dry insects should
not be allowed to become damp, In very humid, tropical climates
they should be slowly dried before a fire or in a drying box heated
by an electric bulb, and should then be sealed against moisture,
this time in metal boxes.

Where io Find Insects. Some of the best places to look for insects
are on the flowers of shrubs and small trees. Not only bees and
butterflies, but many wasps, flies, and brilliant beetles feed on
flower nectar, especially on hot days and before thunderstorms.
Freshly cut logs also attract many insects. Here, too, the best
collecting is in hot weather, but, since many wood-boring insects
are nocturnal, they should be looked for not only by day but with
a light at night. A great variety of small insects can often be col-
lected by “sweeping,” or by driving a strong net through light
vegetation, so that leaves or grass blades are knocked aside but
insects which may be sitting on them are netted. “Beating,” or
clubbing foliage or dead branches so that insects are jarred off and
fall into a big net or inverted umbrella, is an effective method of
collecting, too.

Ground insects, among which ants and beetles are most numer-
ous, are usually not so showy as arboreal species, but are just as
interesting to the entomologist. Part of the ground fauna is
active by day, but most species hide under logs or stones (where
they may often be found) or in burrows during the day and run
about at night. They can often be found with a flashlight or gaso-
line lantern. Ground collecting is often good on the shores of lakes,
ponds, or streams. The best ground collecting, however, is during
heavy floods, especially in arid country or after drought, for floods
drive insects from their hiding places to high ground and into
vegetation, or throw them ashore in drift. Small, artificial floods
made by throwing or pouring water on to the banks of ponds or
brooks, or by damming brooks, if one has a taste for engineering,
often drive out ground insects.

Many insects fly or fall into the ocean on hot days in early sum-
mer and can be collected in the windrows upon sandy beaches.
Sometimes, on hot days, flying insects accumulate in great numbers
on the highest peaks of mountain ranges. Aquatic insects can be
obtained by dredging along the edges of brooks or ponds with a

COLLECTING MOLLUSKS 315

wire sieve or cloth net, especially where there is aquatic vegetation.
Many nocturnal insects fly to light and can be picked up by the
traveller under lights even on station platforms and hotel porches.
Many scavenging insects are to be found on carrion and other de-
caying material. They are most pleasantly collected with forceps
and put in alcohol. These are only a few of the places in which
insects can be found. The success of an insect collector depends
upon his imagination and powers of observation, which will sug-
gest new sorts of places where new insects may be found, as much
as upon his knowledge of traditional collecting places.
Entomologists are as interested in small, dull-colored insects as
in large ones. The small ones are just as much worth picking up.

MOLLUSKS.
By Witutam J. CLencH.

Equipment. Small glass vials, glass jars or metal containers that
can be tightly sealed and will answer for the preservation of most’
mollusks. A pair of forceps will aid materially in picking up the
very small forms. Alcohol (60%), or even rum, will preserve the
material sufficiently to get it to the museum without spoiling.
Large specimens can be boiled and the soft parts extracted with a
pin or fish-hook and the dried shells shipped in paper.

Methods. Specimens that are preserved in liquid should be held
firmly in the container by crumpled paper or cotton to prevent
breakage. Dried material can be wrapped in paper and packed in
boxes or nail kegs.

Land snails of all sorts can be shipped alive without any preserva-
tion, as long as they are shipped in a dry condition. Free use of
paper in packing will prevent any excess moisture from developing.
Marine and fresh-water mollusks must either be preserved in.
spirits or boiled and the soft parts extracted before shipping.

Labeling. Much care should be taken to keep the proper data
with the specimens because material without locality data has
little value. Each container should be fully labeled, numbered or
identified so that the proper data can be associated with the speci-
mens from letters or notes explaining the shipment. The label
can be rolled around the small vials and the two wrapped in paper.
A good grade of stiff paper should be used for all labels placed
within any container, especially if any sort of preserving liquid is
used, and the data should be written in pencil.

316 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

Regions from which Material is desired. The Museum of Com-
parative Zodlogy (Harvard) is anxious to obtain material from
everywhere outside of the United States. This is especially true
of regions that are rather inaccessible and infrequently visited.
Islands, particularly, are sources of valuable material, because
isolated regions of this sort are usually populated with peculiar
races or forms of a species that do not exist anywhere else. This
applies to the land and fresh-water snails especially. Gather live
material if possible; otherwise, fairly fresh specimens will answer.

PARASITIC WORMS.
By J. H. Sanpcrounp.

All classes of the higher forms of life, from the insects and mol-
lusks, through fishes and reptiles to birds and mammals, are subject
to parasitism. So large, indeed, is the number of kinds of parasitic
“worms,” that new species are constantly being discovered. It
is rare in Nature to find an animal which has entirely escaped
infection. Valuable material may be found while preparing skins
of birds or animals. One who kills even the most common species
of animals, and who will take the trouble to collect the parasites
he is sure to encounter when he becomes acquainted with their
many forms, will find very appreciative recipients for his material
in any of the larger museums which support departments of helmin-
thology. It is very desirable to have material that is collected
adequately labeled as to its source (proper scientific name of the
host, if possible, date and locality).

Parasitic WorMs, THEIR HasBitaTs, AND CLASSIFICATION.

Trematodes or “flukes” are usually internal parasites. They
are unsegmented, frequently leaf-shaped, and they attach them-
selves to the tissues by means of sucking discs. They vary in size
from microscopic forms to more than an inch in length. Fresh-
water snails act as hosts for the larval development. The adult
worms parasitize vertebrates. Certain species are found in the
lungs, others in the bile ducts and blood vessels of the liver or other
organs, and many species in the small or large intestine.

Cestodes or “tapeworms” are usually white, elongate, ribbon-
like segmented animals when adult. They live by absorbing food
from the intestine of vertebrate hosts and they attach themselves
by hooks or sucking organs to the wall of the small intestine.

COLLECTING PARASITIC WORMS 317

Special care should be taken to secure the “head” when removing
the worms for collection. Some tapeworms are so small that they
may easily pass unnoticed; others may be a yard or more long so
that their presence is noted as soon as the gut is opened,

Nematodes or “threadworms” or “round worms” are more or
less elongate, smooth round worms that are unsegmented. The
parasitic species are very numerous. To detect many of them, the
use of a good magnifying glass is necessary, but others can easily
be seen with the naked eye and many of them attain considerable
length. Practically all species of fishes, frogs, mammals, etc., may
serve as hosts. The favored habitat is the intestine, but different
species may be found in almost any part of the body.

Acanthocephala or “thorny-headed worms” resemble nematodes
in outward appearance. They also exhibit a great range in size.
The larval life may pass in an insect but the adult develops only
in the intestine of a vertebrate. Here they attach themselves
securely by means of a retractile proboscis armed with thorn-
shaped hooks. As with tapeworms, care should be taken to avoid
breaking off the head or hold-fast organ when collecting these
parasites.

Some Favorep Locations or Parasites tn Brrps AND MAMMALS.

Even when heavily infested with parasitic worms, some animals
will not appear sick or show obvious outward signs of the burden
they carry.

Before skinning the animal, it is well to examine the eyes and
orbits, the nasal cavity and the mouth.

In the process of skinning, it is not unusual to find parasites en-
closed in cysts under the skin, around the tendons of the limbs or in
the superficial muscles. Before eviscerating the carcass, wash
the abdominal cavity and the inside of the thorax with physiological
saline to detect worms lying free in these cavities.

Remove separately the liver, heart, lungs and trachea and the
entire alimentary tract. So far as possible, examine these organs
under saline solution. Examine the bile ducts and large blood
vessels in the liver for flukes, In birds and mammals, nematodes
may often be found in the lungs and the trachea or windpipe.
Cut off and examine separately the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, caecum and colon. Slit these various parts with blunt
or round-ended scissors and wash the contents into a large jar of
water. Stir the mixture well, pour off the supernatant liquid and

318 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

examine the sediment in a glass or black enamelled dish. Then
carefully examine the lining of the intestine for smaller worms that
may still be attached. In birds, the horny lining of the gizzard
should be stripped as it is often undermined with sinuous tunnels
produced by small colorless or red nematodes which may be ex-
tracted with fine forceps.

EquipMeNntT AND Metuops oF PRESERVATION.

The equipment necessary for collecting parasites can be reduced
to very small proportions and much of it is contained in the ordinary
skinning kit. In addition to the usual scissors, scalpel and forceps,
‘ the following items will come in handy: simple hand lens; several
eye dropper pipettes; -a couple of needles, mounted on sticks;
small brass spirit lamp; glass or black enamelled photographic
developing dishes (about 8”x 10” size); a few stout-walled test
tubes and a good supply of small botiles and vials of various sizes with
good cork or rubber stoppers to fit.

For killing and preserving the various classes of worms so that
they may be in the most favorable condition for subsequent study,
different mixtures are called for, yet, for all but the most special
purposes, killing and preservation in 5% formalin will serve well.
This may be carried in the form of formaldehyde, which is inex-
pensive and less bulky than alcohol, and diluted with water as
needed. For large specimens, 10% formalin (one part of formal-
dehyde to nine parts of water) is desirable unless the collector will
have an opportunity to change the preserving fluid should it become
too greatly diluted. The addition of about one part of glycerine
to twenty parts of the diluted formaldehyde is of value to prevent
complete desiccation of specimens in case of evaporation of the
preservative.

Before killing worms, it is always a good plan to wash them free
of mucus and other matter. This may be done by vigorously
shaking them in water in which a little less than 1% of common
salt has been dissolved to form a physiological saline solution,
Nematodes and Acanthocephala tend to curl up when killed in
cold fluid. It is highly desirable to prevent this by heating the
killing fluid into which the worms are to be dropped to about
70° C, (160° F.).

IDENTIFICATION.

For the identification of tapeworms it is usually necessary to
have the head whereby the worm attaches itself to the wall of the

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 319

intestine. For nematodes, the male worms, which are frequently
smaller and less numerous than the females, are often essential
for the identification of the species. The collector need never fear
to collect too much material of any one species.

Jf material is sent to me at the Museum of Comparative Zoélogy,
Harvard University, I will always be glad to furnish the collector
with identifications of his collection. Additional hints and some
equipment can be had by prospective collectors on application to
the writer.

More comprehensive information on the methods of collecting
parasites is contained in pamphlet No. 12 of the series “Instructions
for Collectors,” published by the British Museum (Natural His-
tory), London.

BOTANICAL COLLECTING.
By Davin H. Linper.

Because most scientific institutions dealing with the taxonomic
side of biology are severely handicapped in their endeavors by the
lack of abundant funds for subsidizing professional collectors in the
field, the traveller to out-ofthe-way places has a remarkable
opportunity to assist greatly in the accumulation of facts that aid
in clarifying questions of scientific and intellectual interest. But
science alone does not profit, for the collector of specimens greatly
enriches his experiences through the wider interests that develop
with the increasing observation of the fauna, flora, and geography
of the region through which he travels. Incidentally, the habit of
making collections is one that stands the traveller in good stead
during unavoidable delays.

Equipment. For those who intend to make botanical collecting
a side-line of their trip, the equipment needed is neither compli-
cated nor expensive, although it may prove a bit bulky for light
travel. The amount of equipment will vary with the type of
travel, the amount to be spent on transportation, the amount of
work planned, and the time spent in the field. The following list,
however, is fairly complete and should enable the collector to
gather a goodly number of specimens:

2 to 5 flower presses, preferably of ash and strongly put to-
gether with copper rivets.
4 to 10 webbing trunk straps, 6 feet long.

320 - HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

250-500 blotters: 1614x11}4 inches, medium weight, and
absorbent.

1,000 or more sheets of news-stock or old newspapers.

25 to 50 ventilators: 1614x1114 inches, double faced card-
board, the corrugations running lengthwise.

5 to 10 pounds of naphthaline flakes.

1 or 2 pairs of pruning shears, if many trees or shrubs are to be
collected.

1 collecting trowel or botany pick.

1 large vasculum of rugged construction.

2 balls of light twine.

50 feet of clothesline.

Waterproofed tarpaulins or ponchos for covering presses while
on the march.

2 large notebooks.

The above equipment should be sufficient for one person for
three months or more of rather intensive collecting, but in addition
to the above, should the trip be planned for a region in which post-
offices are few and the mail service infrequent, it would be well to
be provided with tin boxes twenty-four inches long, eighteen inches
deep, and eighteen inches wide, which when tightly packed with
thoroughly dried plants could be soldered to keep out moisture.
The best type of box is equipped with a grooved upper edge, and
and the lid is provided with a flange which should fit snugly into
the groove. These tin boxes should be protected by wooden boxes
of half-inch stock, the cover hinged on one side, and provided with
a hasp and lock on the other. When made in the manner just
described, the boxes may be used until needed for the storage of
specimen, for the transportation of the botanical equipment and
other supplies as well. It would be safe to figure that between one
hundred and fifty and two hundred numbers of specimens, de-
pending on the proportion of woody to herbaceous plants, could
be accommodated by each box. A shipping box of tin would re-
quire the addition of solder, a good soldering paste, and a heavy
soldering iron to the list given above.

The type of material to gather will depend upon the seriousness
with which the traveller intends to go into the business of collecting.
If it is his intention to gather a representative flora of the region
then he should collect everything. On the other hand, he might be
interested in such special plants as those that furnish native food,

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 321

clothing, dyes, medicine, arrow or fish poison, or that enter into the
folklore of the region. Still again, he might be interested in cor-
relating the type of flora with the geology and climate of the coun-
try through which he passes.

The collector is advised before leaving to get in touch with the
curators of the herbarium in which he plans to have his plants
identified for they will be only too glad to give helpful advice and
may be able to give letters of introduction to local people who, be-
cause of their knowledge of their region and their contact with
others, may prove capable of rendering assistance.

Coritectine FLowEeRING PLANTS AND FERNS.

Before going into the field, it is well to decide on whether one is
going to keep the plants listed in a notebook or whether necessary
information is to be jotted on the folder in which the plants are to
be pressed. The advantage of the notebook is that all plants from
one region will be listed together, with any additional information,
such as the size, general appearance, color of the flowers, and native
uses. With this information all together and correlated with the
geography of the country, it can be used readily at a later date as a
source of material for lectures or articles for publication. When,
on the other hand, the data are written on the folders, they become
widely scattered and difficult to arrange in an orderly or natural
sequence. Even though there is no intention on the part of the
collector to lecture or write about the botanical aspect of his trip,
he should bear in mind the fact that the person who is determining
his plants needs a certain amount of information, and this would
greatly expedite the work of classifying many species.

For the taxonomist, there are certain questions that should be
answered. Is the plant an herb, woody vine, herbaceous vine,
undershrub, shrub, or tree? Is it aquatic, epiphytic, or para-
sitic? Does it produce a resinous, milky or colored juice? If a
tree, is the trunk columnar, buttressed, smooth, spiny, or with
rough scaly bark? Are branches produced a short distance above
the ground or are they confined to the summit of the trunk? Are
they opposite, alternating or in whorls? If herbaceous, does the
plant produce tubers, bulbs, runners or suckers? Is it erect,
ascending or creeping? And, finally, what are the colors of the
flowers? Many of these questions can be answered by a photo-
graph. Even though the questions seem numerous, they will not
appear so complicated in the field, for then the collector will be

322 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

struck by outstanding characters and it will be the most natural
thing in the world to jot them down, time permitting.

When possible, three to five complete specimens should be col-
lected, but if only one is found that one should not be passed by
because it may be that the solitary specimen is new to science or
if not new, very rare. The reason for collecting at least three
specimens becomes obvious when it is realized that, in many in-
stances, duplicate specimens must be sent to other institutions to
be identified by specialists. When this is done, it is usually the
custom for the person classifying the plant to keep one complete
specimen for his own herbarium as a reward for the labor of deter-
mining the species. A complete specimen is one that shows as far
as is possible in the limited space available on the herbarium sheet,
the manner of growth, the flowers, and when present, the fruit. If
the plants are of the herbaceous type, that is, non-woody, the whole
plant, including the room should be collected. The same holds
true for ferns, but, in collecting them, both the sterile and the
fertile fronds should be preserved.

Back in camp after a successful foray, the next step is to take
care of the specimens. They should first be carefully sorted ac-
cording to species, and then they should be roughly grouped into
three general categories: (1) tender and easily dried herbaceous
plants; (2) tough, woody, and easily dried plants; and (3) thick,
succulent and slowly dried plants. It is usually best to put them
in the press in the order given because, if succulent plants are indis-
criminately scattered through the press, the excessive amount of
moisture that they give up tends to retard the rate of drying of
the other plants and thus keeps the presses full an inconveniently
long time and to increase the chances of spoilage by mildew.
Whereas the succulent plants may require special treatment, it is
often advisable to press them separately.

Once the plants are sorted into groups, they should not merely
be thrown in between the blotters to create a hopeless tangle.
The plants should be placed in the press in such a way as to ap-
proximate as accurately as possible the natural appearance of the
plant as it grew in the field. This effect can often be obtained if
the specimen is held suspended by the base and then carefully
placed on the news-stock folder where the leaves are then straight-
ened out and placed in a more natural position, but taking the pre-
caution to see that at least one leaf shows the under side. When
the specimen is too large for the sheet, the procedure is the same

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 323

as before except that after the lower leaves have been properly
arranged, the specimen is then folded diagonally back on the sheet
and the additional leaves are then arranged, care being taken to
see that the flowers are not obscured, and that the leaves do not
cross the stem to obscure the manner of branching. While it is
best not to cut out leaves or branchlets, if it is found that the leaves
or branches make too bulky a specimen or obscure the natural
appearance, then some may be removed, but a part of such leaf or
branch should be left to indicate the removal. Frequently, both
flowers and leaves give considerable difficulty because of their
tendency to curl and wrinkle. This can be avoided by wetting
small pieces of news-stock against which the flower or leaf, after
arrangement, is gently pressed. Still other forms cannot be han-
dled until after they have wilted. These can best be arranged
when the blotters are changed on the following day.

Thick, succulent plants, such as orchids or live-forever, often
give considerable trouble unless special facilities for drying are
available. If they are not specially treated they may remain in
the press for two or three weeks, and may still be alive and grow-
ing even then, The easiest way to handle these specimens is to
dip them in a kettle of boiling hot water and leave them there until
all the air is driven out and the plant takes on a watery, translu-
cent appearance. The plant thus killed loses its moisture much
more rapidly and, because it dries faster, the color is better pre-
served. It is advisable to sprinkle naphthaline flakes around such
plants while they are in the press in order to prevent the growth of
destructive mildews and the ravage of mites.

Aquatic plants as a rule are readily cared for, but the more deli-
cate ones may have to be floated out in order to make a more pre-
sentable specimen. Small plants may be spread out in a photo-
graphic tray or some other shallow vessel. Once they are arranged
and separated in the water, a piece of paper is slid under them and
is then carefully withdrawn with the plant in such manner that,
as the-water runs off the paper, the leaves will not cling together.

If they do cling, it is easy to rearrange the plant with forceps or a
slender, pointed stick plus a few drops of water. Ifa shallow pan is
not available for the process, the plants should be arranged as
naturally as possible on the herbarium sheet and the remainder of
the job can be done by carefully pouring water on the parts that
need to be separated. Whichever method is adopted, it is very
desirable that dirt and other foreign matter be removed before an

324 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

attempt is made to mount the plants. The technic outlined above
is also suited for the preparation of fresh and salt-water algae,
excepting that the specimens should be protected by a layer of
cheesecloth in order to prevent them from sticking to the blotter
or to the herbarium paper. :

Before proceeding to the methods of drying specimens, it would
be well to give a few hints that may help to economize on effort and
supplies. The news-stock as it is purchased by the collector is about
the same size as a page of the ordinary newspaper and hence has to
to be folded before it will fit into the press. If, for example, five
specimens of one species, to which is assigned a number, are being
pressed, only one folded sheet of news-stock need be used; the
remaining four specimens can be pressed on half-sheets. The num-
ber assigned to the species and other data need only be placed on the
folded sheet, whereas on the half-sheets only the number, and it
should agree with that on the folder and with the one entered in the
field notebook. The writer has found that a serial stamping ma-
chine that can be set for serial numbering, duplicate, or repeated
numbering expedites matters considerably, as do also a date stamp
and an office lettering stamp. The last can be set up and used
constantly while the collector remains in one locality, and, even
when frequent changes have to be made, it will be found that the
amount of time necessary to reset the type is more than made up
for when large numbers of specimens have to be labeled. In addi-
tion, the legibility is always perfect, whereas when notes are hastily
scrawled by hand and in pencil, deciphering becomes problematical.

The problem of drying plants is one of minor importance to the
traveller in arid regions, or to one who goes from place to place by
auto or steamboat, because, to him, abundant heat is always avail-
able. It isin regions of prolonged fogs in the north, or of high humid-
ity and excessive rainfall in the tropics that the problem becomes
difficult. Two methods are suggested. ‘The first is probably the
simpler when intensive collecting is being done and when some
assistance is available; the second is better when one has to rely on
his own effort and has only a few presses to care for.

The first way, then, is to build a platform according to the gen-
eral plan illustrated by Figure 15. The platform should be con-
structed of green wood in order to obviate the danger of its catching
on fire, and this is especially important if the platform is to be used
for any length of time. If the two horizontal crosspieces are heavy
enough, they will last for some time. The shorter and more slender

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 325

crosspieces should be changed if they show signs of charring. The
flower presses are placed on top of the platform and, in case of sud-
den rain they should be
quickly covered with a
poncho. The disadvan-
tage of this system is
that the fire has to be
watched constantly and
the presses turned at
intervals. If one is
lucky enough to obtain
the services of a con-
scientious native or is
= eee able to add this chore to
Fig. 15. the camp cook’s other
duties, all will go well,
but it is the writer’s experience that natives are not always to be
trusted with this responsibility.

The other method, which proved remarkably effective in the
American tropics when the writer was on a solo expedition, is to
suspend the flower press from the ridgepole of the tent or from any
supporting structure that the shelter provides. The press should
hang three or four feet from the floor. Around it is wrapped a piece
of oilcloth which should fall to within six inches of the floor, thus
forming a chimney through which must pass the hot air, produced
by a lantern placed below. ‘The presses are provided with card-
board ventilators, and the hot air, as it passes through the channels
in the cardboard, rapidly removes the moisture liberated by the
plants. This method of drying plants has the advantage that the
presses are constantly sheltered from the rain, that the danger from
an open fire is obviated, and that constant attention is not needed.
Except for the fact that a greater amount of luggage in the form of
kerosene lamps, kerosene oil, and oilcloth is needed, the method is
ideal even for drying a large number of presses. On a large expe-
dition, the extra luggage would be a small item even though a
special tent fly should be carried to house the presses while in use.
However, certain precautions should be taken. The lamps should
be filled every day in order to avoid the danger of explosion or
flaring up. Also, the chimney and wick should be tested with the
grade of kerosene that is to be employed, because even though the
lamp may burn with a clear hot flame when tested with the more

326 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

highly refined oils obtained in the United States, when the cruder
oils that are sold in the tropics are used, the heat produced is in-
versely proportionate to the amount of smoke that belches forth,
and it would seem that nothing can be done to correct the trouble.

Whichever method is selected for drying the plants, the presses
should be opened every day or every other day in order to substitute
dry for wet blotters, to arrange leaves that have accidentally been
folded, and to take out the plants that have dried. It may prove
desirable, also, to insert extra ventilators in order to speed the drying
process.

As the specimens are removed from the press, they should be
sorted according to number and made up into bundles which should
not exceed two inches in thickness. They can then be packed
where they will be protected from dampness. Since nothing is
moisture proof in the tropics unless hermetically sealed, these
bundles should be placed in the sun at every opportunity. When
there are enough to fill one of the tin boxes mentioned in an early
paragraph, they can all be packed at once and, after they have been
generously sprinkled with naphthaline flakes, the tin can be soldered
with the assurance that the plants will arrive at their destination in
good condition, If, on the other hand, one is conveniently located
near a shipping point, the specimens may be sent home at frequent
intervals and thus can be avoided the necessity of constantly
watching the dried material. Even though plants are shipped at
frequent intervals, and especially when the specimens have to be
transported over long distances in the hold of a ship, it is always ad-
visable to take the precaution of sprinkling naphthaline flakes
throughout the packages. Above all, do not substitute paradi-
chlorbenzol for the naphthaline flakes because the former attracts
rather than repels moisture and, whereas its fungicidal action
appears to be rather small, there is the possibility that the specimens
treated with this substance may become moulded.

Cot.ectinc Mosszs, Licnens, anp Funct.

It is unfortunate, but true, that few expeditions and even fewer
travellers pay any attention to the lower forms of plant life. The
explanation lies in the fact that not only are the plants usually
inconspicuous, but also because they belong in groups that are
little known to the lay traveller, and interest in them is more diffi-
cult to arouse, These groups, however, with but few exceptions, re-
quire much less attention as far as the making of specimens go,

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 327

than do the flowering plants since they may be readily dried, few
notes need be made and these for the most part are confined to the
date and locality of collecting, the color, and consistency, and the
substratum upon which the plant grows. Since these lower forms
show such a diversity of form and appearance, and especially is this
true of the fungi, it seems desirable to consider them by groups in
the following paragraphs. However, it is impossible to give a very
definite description, and for this reason those who intend to collect
cryptogams or nonvascular flowerless plants should by all means
visit an herbarium and ask the curator to point out the different
types of material, particularly those forms that might prove of
interest to the collector.

Mosses and lichens, although two entirely unrelated groups,
share in common similar types of habitats. They both grow on the
ground, on rock, or on dead and living trees, and, in the tropics, on
the surface of leathery, broad, and fairly persistent living leaves.
Since the species of both mosses and lichens dry readily, they need
only be placed in a paper container and exposed to the heat of the
sun, or else to the radiations from the camp firetodry. Naturally,
it would be of great assistance to the curators of herbaria if the
specimens were carefully sorted to species and nicely pressed to
show the vegetative and fruiting bodies, but even this is not nec-
essary since the material can be moistened and then sorted and
pressed after its arrival at the herbarium. A sorting of obviously
different species, however, is highly desirable and should be done
in the field when time permits. Nothing is more exasperating than
to have to prepare specimens from clumps of either mosses or
lichen that are balled up and composed of several species.

The type of container is a matter of personal choice. Some col-
lectors prefer to employ different sizes of kraft paper bags, such as
are used in grocery stores. These possess the advantage that the
time-consuming chore of folding envelopes is done away with.
There is also a further advantage in that, after specimens are dried,
by folding over the open end of the bag one or two times and catch-
ing the fold with a self-piercing paper-fastener or with a paper clip,
the bags are closed with the assurance that they will remain so.
The smaller-sized bags, number 2 or 4, will be found most fre-
quently useful, but it is advisable to have on hand a few larger
sizes, for example, number 6 or 8, :

The other type of container is merely an envelope of news-
stock folded as shown in the adjoining figure 16. The first fold

328 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

is made along line 4A so that
the flap which forms the body
oftheenvelope fallsjust short B B
of line BB. The upper nar-

row flap is then folded down

over the lower one along BB, A A
after which the ends are
folded backward to complete
the envelope. The drawback
of this type of container is
that with handling, the ends
constantly unfold and when

the packet is well filled with Cnet ey
material, the upper flap either yey Mee

tears or bulges open, hence,
there is always the risk of los-
ing or mixing specimens. On the other hand, the envelopes keep
the specimens flat, and because they can be made of a size to suit
the material, they are somewhat more economical of space.

All packages containing the same species from one locality
should be given the same number and, as for the flowering plants,
labeled with the place and date of collection, and in addition, it
should be stated whether the specimens were growing on rocks
(granitic, limestone, sandstone, etc., if known), on soil, or on trees.

The substratum of leaf-inhabiting forms is obvious, since they
are collected and pressed i situ.

If weight is not important, certain of the lichens that form a
thin, although often conspicuously colored crust on rocks may be
collected. While some species may be found on‘rocky fragments,
many must be chipped from boulders or ledges with a hammer and
cold chisel. For such specimens, either tin tobacco boxes or durable
cloth bags make the best containers,

Fungi, because of their diversity of appearance, are rather diffi-
cult to describe to the lay traveller, and for this reason those who
are interested in collecting these lower organisms should visit an
herbarium in order to have demonstrated the most common types.
However, they can be divided into three general categories: (1)
Forms living in or on the leaves of higher plants. (2) Aquatic
forms. (3) Wood or soil inhabiting forms.

(1) The leaf-inhabiting forms attract the attention of the pas-
ser-by, either because they form a superficial black, sooty layer or

Fig. 16.

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 329

spots on the leaves, or because, as a result of their activity within
the host, the green pigment of the host is locally broken down and
yellow, orange or brown spots may result. The size of the spots
may vary from one-quarter of an inch or less to two or three inches
in diameter, and the outline may be circular or linear or any varia-
tion within these two extremes. But leaf-spots should not be
collected for the variations in size and design. They should be ex-
amined under a 10X or 15X hand lens on both sides to determine
the presence or absence of fungi which may be in evidence as small
black spots imbedded in the host tissue, as blisterlike swellings, as
white or dark cottony or powdery growths, or as light or dark-
colored creeping threads. If the host is not well known to the col-
lector, a good specimen with flowers and fruits should also be pressed
at the same time, for an accurate knowledge of the host species
saves considerable time in determining the name of the parasite,
and often may prove to be indispensable. For this reason, then,
the label on the packet should include a cross reference to the host
number and the data should read somewhat as follows:

No. 242
On host No. 63
Cambridge, Mass.
June 1, 1933

(2) The aquatic forms, although belonging in a fascinating and
beautiful group of fungi, have scarcely been collected on expedi-
tions. It is, therefore, a practically untouched field of endeavor
for the traveller in the tropics. They should be looked for in pools,
ditches, along the margins of ponds or lakes, or in slowly flowing
streams, in which places they will frequently form white halos or
tufts of slender threads that radiate from dead worms, insects,
fishes, or from fruit and twigs which have fallen into the water.

Should the explorer be stationed at a base camp for any length of
time, say two weeks, he has an opportunity to set out lines of bait,
the bait consisting of either firm fruit or berries, or green twigs.
These should be pricked or slightly slit with a sharp knife or scalpel,
and then fastened to a line which may be tied to some bush or limb
along the edge of the body of water. If many such bait lines are
put out, it may prove desirable to indicate their location by tying
white rags to the anchorage, but this procedure sometimes proves
disastrous, since natives, filled with curiosity, may be tempted to
pull in the lines with high expectations, and finding nothing but

330 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

twigs or fruit, drop the bait on shore wondering what fools we
mortals be.

Once the aquatic species have been found and the type of habitat
observed, further collections come with ease. To preserve such
forms, they should be placed in one-half ounce or one-ounce vials
that have been fitted with a good grade of cork stopper. The pre-
serving fluid may be 2% of commercial formaldehyde in water,
60% to 70% alcohol, or a combination of both. Formaldehyde
possesses the advantage that it is very concentrated and therefore
larger quantities can be taken into the field in the minimum amount
of space, but it is not the ideal preservative since it causes a shrink-
ing of the cell contents. Another preservative which offers certain
advantages is a concentrated solution of lactophenol made up
according to the following formula: '

Paice. = ee eee grams
Phenol (carbolic acid). . . . 10 grams
(GRR COTING Sits Gaels meas 20 cubic centimeters

This solution may be diluted to one part in ten to twenty parts
of water as needed. The mixture is of a syrupy consistency and
therefore the danger of total loss if the bottle is tipped over is
greatly reduced. Care should be taken, however, not to spill the
concentrated stock solution on the skin because of the caustic
action of the carbolic acid.

Once the vials are filled, the stoppers should be held in place by
strapping with narrow strips of adhesive plaster. One strip should
extend from one side of the vial over the top of the cork and down
onto the other side of the vial. This strip should then be held in
place by wrapping a second strip around the top of the vial. Sur-
geon’s plaster also makes the best type of label because subjection
to alternate damping and drying does not cause it to peel off, and
also because the data can either be stamped on it or written on with
a pen or indelible pencil.

(3) The wood and soil-inhabiting forms often attract attention
because of their size, shape, or color; yet many interesting ones
pass unnoticed, either because of their inconspicuousness or because
they grow on the under side of fallen bark, limbs, dead leaves, or
boards on which they form a light, cottony or dark, short-velvety
layer. Other species produce a thick and clearly marked, often
brightly colored, smooth or porous layer. Still other species grow
into cushion-shaped, hemispherical, or even branched fruiting

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 331

structures. All such forms, even though gelatinous in texture,
may be cared for by simply drying them and placing them in
packets as mentioned for lichens and mosses. The data on the
packets, however, should include the substratum (host name if a
living plant), and notes on color and consistency (dry, waxy,
gelatinous) of the fungus.

There are certain groups of the wood-inhabiting species that need
especial attention in collection and preparation; namely, the
phalloids or stink-horn fungi and the agarics or gill mushrooms.
The former may be cared for in two ways. They may be preserved
either in alcohol or in the diluted lactophenol solution already men-
tioned in connection with the water-moulds. It may not be con-
venient for the traveller, however, to transport pint or quart pre-
serving jars, in which case the next best thing to do is to dry the
specimen in a flower press. When this is to be done, the specimen
should first be allowed to wilt until it loses its brittleness. It is
then placed on a half-sheet of herbarium paper covered with wax
paper, and afterward placed between the blotters of the press,
which should not be tightly closed but rather should have only
enough pressure applied to keep the press from sliding or falling
apart. Usually, all that is necessary is to place the press on a flat
surface and to put on it only two or three pounds of weight. It is
always desirable to photograph the plants while in a fresh condition,
because on drying they lose some of their outstanding characters
and it may then be difficult to determine the species. Failing a
photograph, a water-color, or pencil sketch often proves a distinct
aid to classification.

Of the gill mushrooms, there are two types: a leathery type
which can be dried readily and a fleshy type which rapidly decom-
poses. Concerning the latter, a few words need to be written be-
cause, if the instructions are not followed, it may prove well nigh
impossible to determine the species.

Whereas the fleshy fungi are usually very fragile, care should be
taken always to keep the lighter specimens above the heavy ones
in the vasculum or market basket, whichever is employed. Also,
each species, as collected, should be placed in a paper bag or else
loosely wrapped in a piece of newspaper in such fashion that it will
be protected from crushing and shaking. Whenever possible, at
least five specimens should be collected and they should show as
many stages in the development of the fungus as possible.

Promptly after returning to house or camp, the specimens

332 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

should be sorted and the fleshy or putrescent forms studied first
and notes recorded on their color, structure, and habitat. Because
the generic position of the plant is often dependent on spore color,
spore prints should be made. To do this, the stem should be cut
off at a level with the bottom of the cap, and the cap then placed
on a piece of white paper, gill side down. The remaining speci-
mens may then be placed around the cap in such a way as to protect
it, and the four corners of the wrapping paper on which the pile
of specimens is placed should be brought together and twisted so as
to form a protecting cover. Then the package of plants may be
placed back in the basket. If bags are used instead of a wrapping
of newspaper, the cap from which the spore print is to be obtained
is placed in the bottom, the remaining specimens carefully put in
around and above it, and then, after closing the opening of the bag,
the bags are placed vertically either on a shelf or back in the basket
and allowed to remain for three or four hours, or overnight, after
which time the specimens may be taken out of the sacks or wrap-
ping and dried in the sun or in wire trays over a fire.

Before the drying process is begun, or better still, just after the
specimens are sorted, notes should be taken and should answer the
questions indicated by the following form as listed by Kauffman
in the “‘Agaricacez of Michigan’:

Locality

Date

Finder or collector

Weather

Habitat: ground, leaves, humus, woods, open grove, field, lawn,
wood (kind), tree (kind), moss, dung (kind).

Habit: solitary, scattered, clustered.

Odor: pungent, nauseous, nitrous, etc. ‘

Taste: bitter, peppery, mild, slight, etc. Danger: see below.

Pileus: size. Shape when young; conical, campanulate, acorn-
shaped, cylindrical, convex.

Shape when expanded: plane, convex, obtuse, umbenate,
umbilicate, depressed.

Surface: viscid (slimy), dry, hygrophanous (changing color
in drying), moist, smooth, silky, fibrillose, floccose, scaly,
even, wrinkled, striate, furrowed (radially or concentrically).

Color: (when fresh and moist) (after lying a while) 7MPOR-
TANT.

BOTANICAL COLLECTING 333

Gills: attachment: adnate, partially free, or free, or running
down stem.
Width: in millimeters or relative to thickness of pileus.
Shape: linear, equal in width, attenuate, broadest near or
away from stem, etc.
Spacing: crowded, close, distant.
Texture: dry, waxy, or deliquescing.
Edge: thick, thin, irregular, or flocculose.
Color; when gills are young and when mature, after bruising.
“Stem: size and shape.
Texture: fleshy, cartilaginous (making a clean break when
strongly bent), spongy, rigid.
Interior: hollow, stuffed with loosely arranged threads, solid.
Surface: see Pileus.
Color: at base and at apex, within and without, and after
handling.
Flesh of Pileus: Consistency: compact, spongy, soft, brittle.
Color: when moist, under cuticle.
Juice: taste, abundance, and after exposure to air.
Annulus: if present, whether a free or attached ring around stem.
Volva: whether cup or as coarse scaly fragment around base of
stem.
Color of Spore: make spore print.

The above is a long list of observations to make but, unfortu-
nately, they are necessary for the accurate determination of the
species. However, many of the points listed above may be more
easily and rapidly indicated by a sketch of a longitudinal section
of the fruiting body and, if made natural size, may do away with
the necessity for making measurements.

Caution. In tasting specimens, especially if their edibility is not
well known to the collector, only a small bit of the flesh should be placed
in the mouth, crushed for a few seconds, and then be spit out. It is
dangerous to taste any species which have white gills, a ring around the
stem, and a cup at the base, and it is because of the last point that
all mushrooms should be dug up rather than snapped off at the
level of the soil. Forms so characterized belong in the deadly
poisonous genus Amanita, which includes, among others, the Fly
Amanita and the beautiful though exceedingly poisonous Angel’s
Death Cup.

One last word about the care of the specimens. Just before they

334 HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL

are put away to dry, a light sprinkling of naphthaline flakes should
be added to the packets. This kills the insects already present in
the living specimens, and keeps out mites, buffalo bugs, and others,
as well as reduces the chances of disastrous infections by moulds.

COLLECTING FOSSILS.
By W. EF, Scuevitt.

The incidental collecting of fossils need not make great inroads
on the time of travellers, nor distract them much from their chief
purpose. Usually, all that is required is to pick the specimens up,
label, and pack them. Briefly defined, a fossil is a trace of an
organism preserved in the rocks. It may still have some indica-
tions or vestiges of its soft parts, but it is much more likely to con-
sist only of hard parts or traces thereof. It may be practically un-
altered; it may have been completely dissolved, leaving either a
cavity or a rock cast; it may have been delicately replaced by
mineral matter (petrified); or, again, it may be a mere impression,
as for example a footprint. (Fossil indications of soft parts are
mostly of this nature.) r

Except to say that fossils are not to be expected in regions where
only igneous rocks are seen, it is difficult to offer any general rule
as a guide in searching for them. Look at rock outcrops; where
these are scarce or not readily to be seen, try steep slopes and cliffs,
creek banks, and artificial excavations, such as quarries or road
cuts or the material dug out of wells. Fossils may also be found
in stream beds, in detrital material along the shore, or even weath-
ered out and scattered through the soil. In short, fossils may be
expected anywhere that sedimentary rocks (as sandstone, lime-
stone, shale, cave deposits, etc.) are being attacked by erosion
and denudation,

Although the larger fossils are perhaps more likely to be spec-
tacular, they are not necessarily any more interesting or valuable
than small ones; large specimens are certain to be more trouble to
collect. Small fossils in soft rocks are quite easy to attend to;
very little care is needed in extracting them. Hard rock involves
the use of a hammer or even a chisel to break off bits of rock con-
taining fossils, No attempt should be made in the field to clean
the rock entirely from the fossil — that is much better left for the
laboratory.

In packing, all that is necessary is padding sufficient to keep the

COLLECTING FOSSILS 335

specimens from rattling about, though it is important to wrap
them well individually at first. Fragile specimens may often be
strengthened for removal by repeated impregnations with thin
shellac. Large fossils may be handled in the same way if they are
strong enough to withstand transport. If they are fragile, the
matter becomes more complicated, involving the use of shellac and
bandaging with flour paste or plaster of Paris or both, reenforced
with something like burlap or sacking.

Probably the most important single item in the whole matter of
collecting is the labeling. All specimens should be thoroughly
documented as to the locality in which they were found. This
should be as exact as practicable, not merely to enable one to
revisit the locality if desired, but primarily to enable the worker
at the home museum to locate it on a map. It is, of course,
always desirable to have any possible information relating to
the geological position of the fossils, although this cannot always
be expected of the casual traveller; some valuable suggestions
under this head may be found in the section on Fossils in Chapter
XIX, page 299.

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