Before the Union 209

grievances.1304 The country's problems in the main closely
resembled those of England: thus the protestant sects managed
to grow strong in a system which, officially repressive, was in
practice almost tolerant.1305 How very normal and orderly
everything appeared to be, on the surface at least, is explained
in a study of government and electioneering methods.1506 Not
until the American revolution did an aggressively disaffected
upper class manage to score some radical successes.1307 Then
the French Revolution altered the situation by once more
turning Ireland into England's endangered backdoor, as in
the days of Philip II and Louis XIV. Although the one French
attempt at invasion came to nothing,1308 Pitt's government
resolved upon the policy of union; and since promises of
emancipation given to the catholics were at once broken under
pressure from the king, the Union led only to a century-Jong
struggle for independence, waged by an Ireland that had
changed profoundly. The Union itself has been thoroughly
studied; the political motives and manoeuvres involved have
been explained.1309 We have also been usefully reminded that
the revival of a vigorous nationalism with catholic propensities
at once provoked an equally determined counter-movement
from the other side.1310 Behind these politics Ireland still re-
mained prosperous, though once again economic history
awaits further study; meanwhile, Cullen has cast doubt upon

iso4 Oliver W. Ferguson, Jonathan Swift and Ireland. Urbana: U of

Illinois P: 1962. Pp. xii, 217. Rev: EHR 79, 4io£
1505 James G. Beckett, Protestant Dissent in Ireland, 1687 - /7#>. L:Faber:

1948. Pp. 161.
iaoe Edith M. Johnston, Great Britain and Ireland, 1760 - iBoo: a sted?

in political administration. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd: 1963, Pp. xi,

431, Rev: EHR 80, 6iof.

1307 Maurice R. O'Connell, Irish Politics and Social Cenjfat in the Age
of the American Revolution. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P:
1965. Pp. 444, Rev: Hist 53, is8f.

1308 E. H. Stuart Jones, An Invasion that Failed; the French txfxdi&m U
Ireland, 1796.0: BlackweU: 1950. Pp, xvi, 256. Rev: EHR 66, 3738!

18M G. G. Bolton, The Passing of the Irish Act 0fUm*m. L: CUP: 1966,

Pp. viii, 239.
1810 Hereward Senior, Orangeism in Ireland and Britain, ifts - /5j£ L:

Routledge: 1966. Pp. x, 314. Rev: HJ 10, 475*!".