+ i # tet yile ’ a i aerated ast ~~ oe a Any Tee SS ee ieee eae TOS Re Fe IY oo iA Gh tt cers vee Posed Pees sate oe e Site peas “ee pees ee Sear eae are eA aes - ee eo et a et eR rats: Pi Sy feiss pe if a ate ¢ anak oes ihe aries * rene cae ve wis koa 73 a : ve a s yn s 2 os aS 4. m4 " 7 a. ? Hpaee wpe ate aes Uti 3 a. af * leas fr cad ane ae aes ra Cpe oh Sie he eet ee AS 3 aie. eS oe Ft cage Lae gare ee - peteeted bet eee are Teese Sete fs ere Net tes ae one etlttes te obaletecn pet pean aks Eee ee oe Lod Rear aenece GR Se HAGE, pe oe ay eta e et Sanches aera tue : ey foe s = aS fe Se a pee . : : ele “a fie a are = ie ee mi efoie Ss, eae “oOo es eer enreas Sept we SoS Tae te OPP E laeg ree ss Joc , VOL. I. a fo DL GTNNINGS OF LIFE, - ea er c la vie y poq I dor organisée y a coal em sans germe eee Toutes les apparition aaceetne bn ont eu lieu sa ; dans le mond e Cr r, mais par la force intime déposée une fie pour toutes au sein des ch Ty Hee yee to i i tati f th ss of things as it presents itself £ to our feel x consciousness. . There is no mode of establishing t the validit se of any be except that of showing its entire congruity with all other Profess Assistant Ph LHE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE BEING SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NATURE, MODES OF ORIGIN AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF LOWER ORGANISMS. BY ne de vie organisée; donc ki aN et nou i LTON BASTIAN, M. A, M. a, B..R. =~ ke elé d'un Etre ; Fellow of the Royal College readies s,’—Ernest Renan. Professor of Pathological Anatomy in University fies London ; tan to University College Hospital; of things as it presets § Blast 3S 0 Assistant Physician to the National Hospital for the Paralysed and Epileptic. shing the validity of any fs.’ —Herbert Spencer IN TWO VOLUMES. VOLT. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. Eig te Ee / Condon — Yona ws’ MACMILLAN AND CO. 1872. [4d rights reserved] OXFORD By T. Combe, M.A., E. B. Gardner, and E. Pickard Hall PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY. ATHE! 1 of sol characters of diseases, my reference to mined to unc to revise the Pa TAGE. — more than three years ago, in the course of some investigations upon the microscopical characters of the blood of persons suffering from acute diseases, my attention was first thorcughly given to the great question of the Origin of Life. And as so Mmuch depended upon the proper solution of this problem—not only for Science generally, but even with reference to the scientific basis of Medicine—I deter- mined to undertake some investigations and endeavour to revise the grounds of opinion upon the subject. I did investigate, and in consequence was after a time compelled to renounce my old prepossessions, and adopt views concerning the origin of ‘living’ matter which are as yet only very partially accepted in the world of science. The state of professional opinion on these questions, moreover, was such that it would have been unsuitable for me to have taught new doctrines based upon facts ascertained during these investigations, without having fully and publicly stated the grounds upon which I had adopted them. At much personal sacrifice, therefore, I resolved to Brn to produce a statement of the facts which Boule carry conviction to the minds of others. And VOL. I. b although at first wishing to do this in a work much vi PREFACE. smaller than that which I now submit to the public, it was soon found that more elaboration would be needed, The scope of the subject itself, moreover, widened so rapidly—biological problems of such enormous import. ance were opened up—that I at last felt compelled to pursue the investigation in a manner a little more com- mensurate with the magnitude of its dependent issues, The First Part of this work was written and printed nearly three years ago. It was intended to show the general reader, more especially, that the logical conse- quences of the now commonly accepted doctrines con- cerning the ‘Conservation of Energy’ and the ‘Cor. q relation of the Vital and Physical Forces,’ were wholly of ‘living’ matter. It also contains a review of the ‘Cellular Theory of Organization,’ which was written and was in type before I had had the pleasure of reading Prof. Stricker’s essay on ¢ Cells.’ In the Second Part of the work, under the head ‘Archebiosis,’ the question as to the present occurrencty or non-occurrence of ‘spontaneous generation’ is fully) considered. And in spite of all the difficulties—im great part imaginary—which have hitherto interfered with the acceptance of a positive solution of this problem, it seems to me one which is now not difficult to solve. It must be considered to turn almost whollj upon the possibility of the de zovo origin of Bacteria; since if such a mode of origin can be proved for them, it must also be conceded for other allied fungoid ant algoid units. Evidence which is of the most convincing) character when looked at from all sides, now show) — => 5 ie i ie t admit that rapidly mi novo Withi even if no which can conducted present sta arise de no* also suppor Panspermi be adduced have been Mantegazz although ¢ subjected ¢ . peratures, + i first time a eee ‘ 3 Plained ex, Obtained FM new] PREFACE. ! vii nit we y that Bacteria are killed by a temperature of 140°F. c Pub. Yet similar organisms will constantly appear and rapidly " Would be ney multiply within closed flasks containing organic fluids, Teover, Wide although the flasks and their contents have been pre- h enormoys inp viously exposed for some time to a temperature of t felt compe 212°F. The latter fact has been admitted by almost T alittle more all experimenters— including even Spallanzani and S dependent jg, Pasteur—and the inference from it must be quite vritten and nis obvious to those who accept this or any lower tem- tended to sho Perature as the thermal limit of organic life. In experi- t the logical g, ments yielding positive results, they would have to epted doctrinsse admit that the progenitors of the new, and more or less rey? and the q Tapidly multiplying brood must have been evolved de ; , 70v0 within the previously superheated flasks. So that, Forces, were™ even if nothing more could be said, the positive results independent © which can almost invariably be obtained in experiments ins a Fev ‘ conducted with this temperature, should suffice, in the > which was W" present state of science, to show that living matter may > pleasure of re arise de novo—more especially when such a conclusion is also supported by the utter break-down of the opposing rk, under the Panspermic hypothesis. But much stronger evidence can e present oe be adduced ; since numerous similarly successful results generation B have been obtained by Pasteur himself, by Pouchet, the dificult! Mantegazza, Wyman, Cantoni, Oehl, and others— . pitherto int although the closed flasks and their contents had been | olution © subjected to the influence of still more destructive tem- t@™ peratures, ranging from 212°F to rather over 300°F. almost ® Several of such experiments are now recorded for the ) turp , pat’ first time; and their results cannot be reasonably ex- , origi? 4 for! plained except on the supposition that the living things i/ obtained from the closed flasks had been developed S ‘viii PREFACE. _ The probabilities in favour of this interpretation of the experimental evidence become, moreover, stronger and stronger in proportion as the problem is viewed by the light derived from various kinds of general evi- dence, which I have adduced in different parts of this work. We know that the molecules of elementary or mineral substances combine to form acids and bases by virtue of their own ‘inherent’ tendencies; that these acids and bases unite so as to produce salts, which, in their turn, will often again combine and give rise to ‘ double salts.’ molecular complexities, we find the products endowed with properties wholly different from those of their con- stituents. Similarly, amongst the carbon compounds there is abundance of evidence to prove the existence of internal tendencies or molecular properties, which | may and do lead to the evolution of more and more complex chemical compounds. And it is such synthetic processes, occurring amongst the molecules of colloidal and allied substances, which seem so often to engender or give ‘origin’? to a kind of matter possessing that subtle combination of properties to which we are accustomed to apply the epithet ‘living.’ The experimental evidence which I have brought forward not only goes to prove that living matter may originate in this natural manner, but that, like other kinds of matter, it comes into being by virtue of the operation of the same laws and molecular properties Would it not be as suffice to regulate its ‘growth. deemed absurd if we were to assume, as a necessity, the existence of one set of agencies in order to bring And at each stage in this series of ascending — as eh on EN 7“ \ say, its pc is constan being of a monopolizi world in matter of 1 processes 0 ~ somewhat consider th severed fro ditions, erc es Phe reproc ; case; and a ductive se 4 Case of liv bability th y Mode of c Bs ‘prove that re of -CONtiny A Aas § PREFACE. inds of gen ifferent Parts ® ae ae fin reference to the origin of living matter and the growth of organisms? Both crystalline and living aggregates appear to be and bases by constantly separating de zovo from different fluids, and €S; that these i both kinds of matter now seem to be naturally formable salts, which, int from their elements. It so happens, however, that one of d give tise to“ the fundamental properties of living matter—that is to $ series of asce SY, its power of undergoing spontaneous division— he products ends is constantly entailing results which, owing to their ym those of thei; being of a more obvious nature, have long and unduly e carbon ee on oPolized the attention of biologists and of the prove the exig, WOrld in general. And yet the existence in living slar_propertis, 4 matter of this power of spontaneous division, by which ang Processes of ‘reproduction’ are brought about, is rendered : 45 of a ,somewhat less exceptional and mysterious when we Ghee nd it is such a consider that a fragment of crystalline matter artificially Bee molecules of severed from the parent mass will, under suitable con- __ ditions, grow into a crystal similar to the original form. The reproduction of similar matter takes place in each es to whi © case; and surely the mere fact that the initial repro- as luctive separation may occur ‘spontaneously’ in the NR case of living matter, is no argument against the pro- gor t living ma bability that such matter may, like crystalline matter, eas ba IK"also come into being by an independent elemental : yjrtue mode of origin. mie being ie po Our experimental evidence, therefore, merely goes to a i prove that such an elemental origin of living matter is continually taking place at the present day,—that Tementary orn ‘ x PREFACE. it still comes into being, in fact, by the operation of — I the same laws, and in the same manner as the majority of scientific men and a large section of the educated public believe that it must have originated in the early days of the earth’s history—when ‘living’ compounds first began to appear upon the cooling surface of our planet. And if such synthetic processes took place then, why should they not take place now? Why should the inherent molecular properties of various kinds of matter have undergone so much alteration? Why should these particular processes of synthesis now be impossible, although other processes of a similar nature still go on? : Whilst no attempt has ever been made to justify or explain such a supposed arbitrary curtailment of natural laws, it happens most fortunately that the ascending series of molecular combinations, to which we have already referred, does not end with the birth of ‘living’ matter. Steps which were previously beyond the reach of our senses, become, in some newly-dis- covered terms of the series, capable of ocular demon- stration. Whilst invisible colloidal molecules are sup- posed to combine and undergo re-arrangements in order to produce specks of new-born living matter, such specks of living matter may be actually seen to com- bine, fuse, and undergo molecular re-arrangements S0 as to lead to the origin of Fungus-germs, of Amoeb, of Monads, or of Ciliated Infusoria; and, in the same manner, larger and still more complex living units of an algoid nature may actually be seen to fuse and become altered externally, whilst they undergo those obscure and mysterious molecular re-arrangements ee ee - es. Ae Oe oe Ss we differences or arsenic, different aj alteration i as mercuric mode of cr for us to | _comparativ cular rearr also entail Of fact, we > by the» PREFACE. ranner ae ¢ Ction of the iginated i Dt N * livino? “Ooling e on Surface ¢ Cesses took Plats OW ? Why sho, the = they. are converted into the embryos large and complex Rotifers. .. * " serve, as it were, to demonstrate the mode in which, t, arise. of Visible phenomena of Synthetic Heterogenesis thus ‘by invisible processes, the simplest living units may So that after watching all the steps of the more complex phenomena, we may find it less difficult than ‘we should otherwise have done to believe in the occur- ‘arious Kinds of i, rence of the simpler process of Archebiosis—more espe- mn? : Why shoul Wt cially when its occurrence is attested by facts and 5 now be j impo probabilities of the highest independent value. Similar nature : been made toj itrary curtailme fortunately thi ymbinations, tor tot end with the: vere previously e, in some new * able of ocular is ( attributes of the living aggregate. Again, we know that simple mineral substances may exist in ferent allotropic conditions, just as numeri- cally-similar combinations of different elements may exist in two or more isomeric states. But, if mere ‘differences in molecular arrangement may cause sulphur or arsenic, on different occasions, to present wholly different appearances and properties; or if a similar ‘alteration in molecular arrangement may lead such salts ‘as mercuric iodide to pass easily from one to another mode of crystallization, it should not be very difficult for us to believe that living matter might also, with ‘comparative ease, undergo somewhat analogous mole- cular rearrangements, and that such changes might also entail some modifications in the form and other And now, as matter of fact, we have to state that the occurrence s: Hetero- genetic Transformations amongst lower living things “and in portions of higher living things have been #” almost as well attested as the occurrence of allotropic and isomeric modifications amongst different kinds of -not-living matter. i A PREFACE. Reissek, Hartig, Gros, Pringsheim, Pineau, Carter, Nicolet, Pouchet, Schaaffhausen, Braxton Hicks, and Trécul. And yet the careful investigations of these well-known naturalists have, upon this particular sub. — ject, been either wholly disregarded or publicly repudiated by some leading biologists who—not having worked over the same ground themselves—rashly trust to their own theoretical convictions, rather than to the positive observations of so many workers. How un- warrantable this conduct has been, almost any compe- tent person—however sceptical—may learn for himself, if he will but devote two or three months to the careful study of the changes which are apt to take place in the substance of many of the fresh-water Algz, or in those _ beautiful green animalized organisms known by the name of Euglenz, some of whose marvellous trans- formations were faithfully described more than twenty years ago in the highly valuble but much neice memoir of Dr. Gros. The time is doubtless not far distant when it will be a source of much wonder that those who had already” _ heartily adopted the Evolution philosophy could—even in the face of facts long ago known—stop short of a : belief in the present and continual occurrence of Arche- biosis and Heterogenesis. the Evolutionist really have us believe that such forms are direct continuations of an equally structureless matter Unmistakeable processes of Heterogenesis have been — watched over and over again by some of the best ob. — servers, amongst whom may be named Turpin, Kiitzing, es ony o.” atest —— ah INE Ci Do not the very simplest | forms of life abound at the present day? And, would original proc which has b years with li _ to face with repeated bill - ina more o — processes thy i ; rate are, VY 5 by the Unit: pe ing Upon 4 laVing works Shly trust ‘than to th rs. How w st any compe rn. for himsel ke place in tit ve, Or in thos known by th rvellous trait -e than twell yuch negled! yhen it will 40 had ie tur * which has existed for millions and millions of years _ without having undergone any differentiation? Would » PREFACE. he have us believe that the simplest and most struc- tureless Amoeba of the present day can boast of a line of ancestors stretching back to such far-remote periods “that in comparison with them the primeval men were ‘but as things of yesterday? The notion surely is | preposterously absurd; or, if true, the fact would be sufficient to es the very ae principles of their own Evolution philosophy. Again, may we not see at the present day all those minute shades of difference by which the primordial fissiparous act of reproduction ‘gives place to the more and more specialized forms ‘of bisexual reproduction? Even this could scarcely s to the carefil ¢ occur unless the excessively changeable forms of life which supply us with these various transitions were continually seething into existence afresh. Instead of original process of evolution, each sectional mosaic of which has been faithfully transmitted for millions of years with little or no variation, we probably stand face o face with processes that have been independently ere billions and billions of times—and repeated n a more or less similar manner, simply because the Bes themselves have always been the results of the conjoint action of the same external forces in , conflict with similar material properties or tendencies. Like causes should produce like results: so that the primordial living units of to-day should undergo changes which are, in the main, similar to those passed through by the units of ae matter which first came into g being upon the sur fice: of our globe. having to do with a pretty accurate picture of the PREFACE. — tradictory doctrines to which we have already referred —are variable in the highest degree. They pass through the most diverse and astounding transformations, and, as we have endeavoured to show in the Third Part of | this work, such organisms are often seen to be derived from matrices wholly unlike themselves. In fact, these lower forms of life—corresponding pretty closely with the Protista of Prof. Haeckel—form an enormous and ever-growing plexus of vegetal and animal organisms, amongst which transitions from the ~ one to the other mode of growth take place with the © greatest ease and frequency. Here Heterogenesis is constantly encountered, and variability reigns supreme, { so that those assemblages of definitely recurring indi- — viduals, answering to what we call ‘species,’ are not to be found amongst them. They are essentially tran- sitory and variable forms, which I have proposed to name ‘Ephemeromorphs.’ Regularly recurring or homo- genetically produced types, both animal and vegetal, are, however, constantly arising out of this great ephe- : meromorphic plexus, either by direct and sudden pro- cesses of transformation or by some intermediate and J cyclical processes of so-called ‘alternate generation.’ And until such assemblages of repeating individuals | make their appearance—that is, until Homogenesis — becomes the rule—the ‘laws of heredity’ can scarcely be said to come into operation. Hence the complexly- interrelated individuals, constituting this vast under-— Again, we find that the comparatively low forms of life in which all these developmental transitions are embodied, instead of being almost unchangeable—as _ they ought to be if there were any truth in the con. admirably i Througho to consider much thorot fairly to att doctrines ni the problem Moreover, 1 “ae more strict Bt Was first Bs and j in the Vely ae an al transition, Unchangeahe tr uth in the - already ref thy They Pass thy, 'sformations the Third Py, seen to be de Cs. yd of. Haeckel} us of vegetal insitions from ike place witht a 4 . ‘ le €—corresponi PREFACE. lying plexus of Infusorial and Cryptogamic life, must remain wholly uninfluenced, so far as their fork and ‘structure is concerned, by what Mr. Darwin has ‘termed ‘Natural Selection.’ Such vegetal and animal organisms, however, gradually tend to become more and ‘more complex. An ascending development takes place, and as this occurs, the causes which originally sufficed to determine their form and structure, and which fer a time continue to induce deviations, etic less and ss capable of bringing about structural modifications during the life of the individual. Changes have now to be perfected in a succession of individuals; and ‘thus is the operation initiated of those aabile and ‘more slowly modifying agencies which have been so admirably illustrated by Mr. Darwin. 7 oe ‘ate LPICvel Os eiteon ty reigns supt sly recurring i ¢ species,’ att e essentially - Throughout this work, whilst I have been anxious ‘to consider the various aspects of the subject with as “much thoroughness as was necessary in order to be able fairly to attempt to establish the truth of the principal doctrines now advanced, I have also tried to simplify the problems as much as possible. A limitation was, é. moreover, necessitated by the pressing nature of those _ more eictly professional duties, on account of which ‘I was first induced to enter upon these investigations, ; and sud m | and in the midst of which the work has been carried intermedt™ on. A rich harvest, therefore, remains for many other ite genera . workers who may wish to develop the subject in all its eating int collateral bearings. ntil Home _ These volumes being, in great part, the record of a .dity’ can if 4 “series of current investigations—each section of which p J was written whilst the next division of the subject was cae . RAR me . being investigated—some forbearance may, perhaps, not i a unfairly be claimed for certain literary defects and in. : consistencies, which were to some extent unavoidable, — For although this order was definitely planned, yet it [ has happened that more than three-fourths of the work ae _ was actually printed before the new investigations de. ee tailed in the latter part were made—and certainly at a aL re time when I had scarcely hoped ever to witness such transformations as I have since been able to follow. I am deeply impressed with the conviction that we are but upon the threshold of our acquaintance with § Im ” these marvellous heterogenetic transformations, the F discovery of which already affords material for revolu. J tionizing the old foundations of botanical and zoological | science. But the path now opened must be followed up by other workers—by faithful and competent ob-_ aaa Se servers who are willing zealously to watch and wait 7 through eager hours whilst Nature unfolds her secret ee processes—by those true students who, instead of being — we blinded by any existing theories, are content to regard | Bees. them as useful and modifiable aids to further progress. — C a Ms The Natur aq k M4 Be | i. a hes The Persistence Physical F a t “y ~The * Vital Pri iy QUEEN ANNE STREET, CAVENDISH SQUARE, ae May 22, 1 q Nh 4 \ a) i a’ Relat Bes: = of A sie heories “and certainly, er to wit I able to follow, Onviction thy. Ucquaintance 7 insformations | aterial for rev ical and zooley must be follr nd competent! investigation, : CONTENTS. Index is an Ss we os i i page xxi PAR TT. The Nature and Source of the Vital Forces, and of Organizable Matter. oO watch andi unfolds her st q o, instead of le content to 1% further pos CHAPTER I. Pages ‘The . of Force: Correlation of the Vital and i ysical Forces. a : I-49 CHAPTER II. ‘The ‘Vital Principle’: Nature of Life ie 06 re 50-79 \ £ CHAPTER III. Nature of Organizable Materials and of lowest Living Things 80-128 CHAPTER IV. FRcations of Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral ee Theories of Organization os : .. 129-168 CHAPTER V. Modes of Origin of Reproductive Units and of Cells -» 169-239 CONTENTS. PART IL Archebiosis. CHAPTER VI. Meanings attached to term ‘Spontaneous Generation’ Bee animals f CHAPTER VII. Bx, Anima Mode of Origin of Primordial Living Things: Nature of Problem... a ae om es vs ++ 265-395 CHAPTER VIII. 5. Unicel The Limits of ‘ Vital Resistance’ to Heat .. . 306-343 iy be Formatio1 pe Develop CHAPTER Ix. 8, Developm € V 9, Developm The Experimental Proof: Untenability of Pasteur’s Con- clusions ae ae is Ae ne He -s 344-3005 10 Reproduc , 3 Ks in D CHAPTER X. j : — In Developn , so Early Fe Physical and Vital Theories of Fermentation : Bi f 33. Graafian CHAPTER XI. q Be. Tq Portions : Be Ue Se Additional Proofs of the Occurrence of Archebiosis 428-475 ee sment: q ‘ted 16, Develop j ‘e 1) Some of ation’ Nature of teur’s Con- josis 2 aS er en perrer — is) Comoran y Bad. Ger ra: mist OF ILLUSTRATIONS. t Animals found in tufts of Moss and Lichen Hydra viridis on Duckweed (Roesel) Representatives of Monera (Haeckel) Animal Cells (Kolliker) Unicellular Organisms Formation of Spore in Vaucheria en Development of Zoospores in Achlya (Unger) Development of Spores in Ascomycetous Fungi icone Development of ‘Cells’ in internodes of Chara (Carter) Reproduction of Protomyxa (Haeckel) . Development of Reproductive Units in Amoeba ticotes) Early Forms of Ova in Ascaris mystax (A. Thomson) Graafian Follicles of a Mammal (Coste) Portions of the Ovary of the Thrush (A. ehemetn) Segmentation of the Yolk after Fecundation (Kélliker) .. Development of white blood-corpuscles.. . +. Some of the Primordial Forms of Life: Bacteria, Torule, Other arly Forms of Life from Srl s Infusions Oscillatorie and other Simple Fresh-water Algee (Hassall) The ‘ Micrococci’ and ‘Cryptococci’ of Hallier Sarcina from Saline Solutions Different le Stages of ‘ Spor c found in an Ammonic Carbonate Solution Organs found in Infusions of Hay with Carbolic Acid LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. P Bacteria, Vibriones, and ase si Filaments found in an Infusion of Turnip : Organisms found in a sin Solution of Ferric and Ammonic Citrate .. Organisms found in a Solution of Ferric and Aaa Citrate, with minute fragments of wood . Ac Fungus from a Solution of Potash and Ammonia Mie with Tartar-emetic .. Be ae Torule from a Solution of Ammonic Tartrate and Sod Phosphate Fungus from a Solution of Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic osphate oe Organisms from a Neutralized Infusion of Tumip Spiga Monads, Torulz, &c., from an Infusion of Com ess cc me ae Torule from a Neutralized Infusion of Turnip : Pediastreze from a Solution wen Tron and Ammonic Citrate, &c. .. , : i Green and Colourless pie from a Solution of Iron and Ammonic Citrate Gr eenish, Desmid-like Organisms found in a Fluorescent Solution of Iron and Ammonic Citrate .. bc ve Pe. bodies from a Solution of Ammonic Carbonate and Sodic Phosphate ae Bacteria and Spore-like bodies found in a Solution of Ammonic Carbonate and Sodic Phosphate Fungus found in a Solution of Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phosphate » 460 oe 7 og aD = a (Pages of the P scouts production ¢ te, developm« 2 BE me: eon wb 9 sy on z00spor i a on bee an nts found jy . of Fei a and Sen Anno te ‘trate and a ‘trate and coal ; , henna, production of zoospores in, B1.:179. Tumip . keine eter, peor relation- ships of, xciv an ina of Eetino ophrys, mode of origin on ii. a vs ow | 3815 se aaainccse of Eug a into, i n on of ae mip. iHiated Seay li 3 sub- 2 and Ammonic sequent development of, ii. 505; oe a pats into, ii. 523; transfor of, into Tardi- des ii. ae into Piesitoids i oo Solution of Iron : gardh, on zoospores in Conferva, na Flo a. 171. assiz, on relation of Ciliata to Planaria, cvii ir =: . q relations of, to Miosses, Txiii- levi; “to Fungi, Ixx Xvi. dS resolution of _ Enuglenz into, ii. 442; transform- ‘a oe of, ii. 4433 origin of Rotifers m ; Mtemate Generation, il. 564; rela _tio of, to r processes, ii. +566: nature a mode of origin 570 =o r VOL. I, iia on conan enna stains 1. 92; experiments tM. Ad. a ith 8 gj’ morphic changes, ii ih cx} di seaseSs Cc 2 nete and Vo Ciliated Infusoria, mode of origin : ; from eggs o ropo ods and asia ii. 488; -Cv; successive forms 0! ' ae relations of: to piecadion of, from deem il. 446. C me d, Dr., on Psorosperms, ii. 353- Cohn, Professor, on Bacteria, i. 270; on a cs Pellicle, i. an8; rigin of Empusa., ii. 330; ex- periments a Ste sha sauder Ixxxi; observations on transfor ations of Protococcus, lxxxii: suc- ica of Ciliata in Infusions, Colloidal matter, ee Peas ,1. 86; inter changeability of _grystalloids and, ii. 38; 1. §2. XXIV INDEX, Comparative Experiments, bearing ina occurrence of Archebiosis, aia eae ii. 633- Co ide origin of Meee from, ii. Consciousness, 1. 42 co-exten ive i ace nerve-action, i. 45; quantitative value of, i. 46. Contagion, nee of, ii. pee mode in which brought about, CXViii ; * exiv, opaie a oe Gone acaii a mu 6; de- pendent on gee Supply . 28. Corda, on Pez . 184. ee wa oe causes of differ- ta m) of, ai: 37:; pie fe of j Pio. Ca aalioids, iistinetion | betwee colloids 88 ; norhanee an any of ae of colloids and, crsa origin of, compared with of lowest organisms, i. 298, on form- pends “pon ra Hy 69; influence oh conditi on re oe ii.87, 113; development of, 1 Darwin, Dr. Erasmus, views on Or- ganization, ll. 53 Darwin, Mr., on Natural Selection, t De aan ii. 590; converti- Awe of peach and nectarine, 596, 598; Correlated Varia- bility, il. 601; Pangenesis, li. €03 ; ta ation of existing or i 6065 variability of eee es: sli. 607; ‘sta bility of spe. cies cough ee pede. ii. 609, Dav. e, M., cter ridia, k yy) Bs cbsevatons « on er de "rate, Davy, Sir Humphrey, on Heat,i.g Decolourization, process of, in deye. lopment of Nematoids and Rot. fers} li, 532. Desmids, meee of origin of, ii, 41 416, 418, 443, 446, 451; mode of reproduction of, li. 420; convert bility of, into Diatoms or Algz, i 455: Diatoms, origin of, ii. 412, 416, 418, 441, 444, 453 sae mode of reproduc ii ; terminal forms of 1 CxI 7 Cal f, cxi; of gener nature, li. 360, cxii; of special ture, cxili. Epidemic, mor tality from, cix; importance di ; € as to origin 0, - some, oe ii. 5 Dumas, functions of animals and — compared, i. 130 Dysentery, cxxxviii. Ehrenber. aga on multiplication of In fusori 2. aie areas of pellicle, nattl® and developmental transform” ii 6135 - S, Cx oe Lape F arada : ; has! on Indest entat} ong - » Ca Of life, LEETOT IDG XXV EXistip Ariabj}in, © 0% S ad on ti ii one 2545 spheres, ough lon, on) Be esces in, ii. M., on . ii Empusa, rap of ii. "330. tions op acter Entozoa, i. 309. D Sa ang i Ephemeromorphs, nature of, ii. 559 ; Hum relation of, to crystals, iil. 571; mphrey ey, on ke a one ced = Natural Selec- 2 ess of, tt . 572; causes which regu- ‘ of Nems atoids al ate yee eee ii. 690; hav long line of een ihe 66: modes 2 Pri ti Fo | x be included 3, amo ction of 4 ii >A ee 0c ccs, “Geologie forms of life in, ni- origin of, ii, “ang stor, , Bacteria in cells of a mals, li. 342. 1 4535 mo . oa modes of origin of, ii. 421 ; li. 42 ©; terminal fy Be toemnetic transformations of, ent series, ii, 45§ ii. 434; into fun ngus-germs, ii. 436: yf ka parasiti,i into one , ll. 440; into Dia- Anto cor li. 360, cxii; off lation of, ii. 436 he ; minor mo- 2 i] in uche t lations of, to Cat 449; into Ac rape ela and Amoe- ns compares ee ii. a4 simple, ii.121 ompound, ii exxxvill. Fa raday, on indestructibility of force, nse p15. on mu ermentation, cause of, related to in origin of life, i. 400; Liebig’s physical names of, i. 403; vital others, i. 404; pr e of oxygen not essential for initiation of, i ; conclusions on subject of, of i b enone flasks, ii. 12; two de egre of, ii. 14; theories in gious Diseases, cxlix Fevers, s, Intermittent aa Remittent, cxxxv; Yellov sereate Typhoi — Rebgkine, c Se yphu 1S, cxl, il, cliv; Saas aia cliv. Flagell um S Monads, development Fivitity, tate of, ii. Food, relat on of, to tal aay, ji. 104; nature See of appar ent persistence of, 11.613. Force, Anseparability of matter and, deta cere Die 14; origin a nd en ee tion of, in - 347 : Fox, Dr. Wilson, experiments on. inoculability of Tubercle, cxiv. ep gm se on vital pre eee etONCES i. 22250 5405 preparation ‘of Secaaeel | nes Fung relation = to Re ii. o Am and Monads, ot he * and ay 06 li. cro- in so ee. silicates, xl- aa rela- ae 2 Algze d Lichen ns, moebee, exe varias hikty of o eee — mode of origin of, 183, 203; development of, in nic-carbonate solution, i aici fesistance of, to 1. 3153 oris je pe of Amoebe, 11. ae 233; in blood, ii eee ras ae les, il. 310; from er bryonal spheres, ii ; dependent origin of, y flasks (see Ar siebisals, paresis relating to). ee -» On source of energy in als, 23; 48; mode of iat ‘of pais i. 30. y-Lussac, views of, concerning 416. a ii. ardt, on fermentation, i. 416. Gon cells, ii. 96. Germs, velo ate ther mospheric, ii. 275-288 ; distribu ition of those of absence of, ystals, xv; dance of, in old crystals, xxv; presence of, in crystals of Am- 25 2 0 XX, ‘Rxht xxv XXIX;} a of in newly-formed cryst stals, xxi, Germ-theory af as CXX-CXXVil. Glanders, cxxxii. Oo i Mosses, indistinguishable ne another, Ixx Genifs. ny heter Sicaoie changes Gocdsiz: ne on centres of nutri- tion, i. 146. INDEX. i Graham, Prof., on colloids, j, 88, ii. Grant, "Pro, views Concerning evo. of. living oO Xcli ; Tela. tio Ameebe, XCi; to Ps. To Gros, Dr. ‘transformation of chlo. rop ae of Euglena, ll. 410; of Desmids and iatoms, ea 433 ; heterogenetic changes in Asta il. aa ; & glenz into Diatoms, ii. . Micrasterias an Cc ; direct transformation of Englene pe Ciliated Infusoria, 459; origin of Vorticella outgrow a ‘from a of En iransformation of Euglenz and Astasize, — Mr., on 7 otirrelitaee of phy- cal for ces, IOs Gruithuicen, on fermentative changes infusions, Cane Méneville’ M., on indepent- ent origin of Muscardine, ii. 326. Haeckel, Prof., on crea cola of Life, i. 92; Pro dt visions of, i. 115; reprodiicel of Protomyxa, 193- apes Prof, on snake-poisoning, — a ~~ ’ genesis, ya cell iis INDEX. XXViU "| eter, Prof., on micrococci, i. 283. phe n transformation of a of fees erworts, Ixxiv. A thar, ‘William, on Heterogenesis, a Dr. A. H., on formation of S, Xcii a i) spore of Vaucheria i 433: Heat, as a mode of motion, i. relation of, oe mechanical | energy, uence of, ito Diatoms, ii Bacteria and Vibri erias and ie 4295 satay ae effect of, on into Confery mpounds, if Mosses from Diieredity, law of # 94- ; direct transfom Heterogenesis Fag paedaition e into Ciliated jj between Archebiosis and, i. 249; origin of Vorjy Various modes in which it may th fees algoidf; Occur, (Table’ 1, 252; ancient process of Page 20 modern views concerning, ii. s, ii. 484; origin ¢ = 181; contact of varie- usoria from kom “eS Of i. mB progests of scending trans animal secetons, ii. 310; in tis- | afasonee coe of plants, ii. 317; frequency | of, amongst iS st organisms, il - of ‘ ; varieties of, ii. 563; origi jiated Infusona0” of Monads, erms, Ciliata, M Fungus- and Rotifers, by Cae ii. aoe to Rotifers, 1 i 26 14-521; lim 3> 514-5 5395 i . - researches conne aad with, n 4 different varieties of, gin of Entowli (Table) i. 345 ‘mations of bee nes, Dr. Braxton, production of BAimocb ee elation! of Monad s, ii. 410; Gleocapsa, r., on a i, 411; variabi lity 0 ver Algze ces, i. cel 4 nd their Somat to plete and en ' osses, liii i0 ons i. 400 oni Hi ildgard, Mr _, mode ie sae gneve grit! of Vorticella, ii 470%, yin of Mus formations of Ciliata, an > es! meister, on fre e eal Prete cgi sal 4 je Eanerogamin i i. on 0 ; Hollan , on § read of ce: Pr ot Epidemic ek nha oe ”) ois; rom Homogeny, m ena, i, 245. at 198: gp ooningsoneh int cliy. Prof., on ee. ries on Bathybius, i. 122; ar theory, ree ae ; s concerning Individu- ang il. 553; on p per aae types, 14. Ne arte origin of, from Chloro- ee aimee il. 514; from Euglenee, fae aie: ia CXXxii, cxlviii. Ee eva views concerning mean- of ter rm, il. §42; nature of, il. Individuality, ws concerning, 5533 LPs to views of f. Huxley, ns Carpenter and Prof. Hu re 553 3- 550. | Influen ae < influence of on new-born pro- toplast gicohe, ‘on ent ert of Os- cl il atorice, 1xxxili Johnson, Mr. Metcalfe, converti- bility of Ciliated Infusoria, ii. 499 ; ae of these into pest Jones, Dr. Bence, on Physical Theory of Life, i 11O2¢ aor oe doctrines fe concerning out 260; cause of, Organiza- i 58 tain vessels, alterations in globules of, ii. 318 soup M., on source of animal leas Leptothrix filaments, description a i. 277; develo opment of, ii gs se: ae Lewes, Mr. G. H., on. nari, 36; life and organiza Ons Ee L008 on Sieg ge evlutions of living pie ae n theories of de- als sae Lichens, mtn of spores In, 1935 XXViil LIN LIE pea of, to Fungi, ii. 159; to r Al gee, liii-lviili; to Mosses mea Tar ngi, xvi; interchangeabi- lity of Algee, ii il. Liebig, Baron, on ea gues of ee . 403; analogy of fermentation some vital pro- @ S425 ‘formation of aibi- min Be in plants, api views ae ancient ‘iils papas meern i. 56; vitalistic theo ties 0 of i ey: Dr. Bence sons on physical theory De i. 62; defini tions of, i. 70-77; pear ise the i, 137-142 feisies of eles ee proto- pony i. 153; doctrines concern- ino, 1. 308; destruction of, b heat, i ; evol ii es concerning, Heil; SE. of primordial forms of, ii. 110, 137, 143, 14 Lindley, Dr., on. reproduction Algals by Roospores, i. 1715 sae Ne in Achlya i Lindsa ing into, i773 no di tne line between iat. -living and, ¥27 3. in of heat upon, i. i a2 EP fot from ebke mole- i. = proc produc- li. 27; the rel K mole- cular bomin tion, 27; pro- duction sie in n saline oan ii. 30; in entiation os identical with organ- ization 127; discontinuous growth of, ii. oe various forms assumed by new-born, ii, 156. n ee » Bigee ae definition Of, i. 72; ture of ma of, to heat, i a) ; r of, in va A 4" nal ; origin of, fro per: matter, ii, 545; nature of low 587 5 ; os amb tendencies Lent on wee of muscle, 2 ory Sir Chas., cord, ii. 623 on geological Te- we Dr., on atmospheric germs, Papen CXXX Man, or om “of li. 622, 628; his advent, ii. 628; development of brain AE ii, 628, 630; his intel t i ‘ pee fas of first appearance, : s to variation of ex- rae al REE of, ii. Hee improve ment in race of, i 33: ee PV Prof, researches of, i 32 434- ete crab ec of, i i. 338 separability of force and, i. 4. Max Schultze, nature of cell, i, 150. aoa cxliii, cliv Medic neta of, influenced by ie les, clx 0 in pellicle, 1 196 interchangeability nd, it, 218; or § - gente into, ii. 440, Monera, growth and abbey Montgomery, on cell-f by Myeline, i. 52, Mosse, origin of, fr M css Dr, on tp, INDEX. XXiX 138 y new-} mot c yf iron ttn Medusze, ee oo ed aa of some of, in liy; Pon, ii, explained, ii. ontogen me Orga oes fees Transforma- eteropenee’ 4° ty ce es iL, er, M. Victor, experiments of, Sie. Tcipaly with bent-neck fas S, li. wctal polar’ crococci, Prof. Hallier, i. 283. erences of Milk a aaa conversion of, into Of silicon ungus-germs, ii. 310. Milne- Baivards ci on Pansper- . , definition of mism, ii. 27 matter of, j he Mites, protatle m mode of origin of, Iwest, com na il. 540 oS Semeat IDNIveS eT. tals, i 208. al Mivart . cause of or- , i. 317, ag apes 9833 on internal n- vacuo. :u2 tendencies t s Molecular enn ies of bodies dependent upon, il. 49. etiads, description of, i 2675 evo- | > 34 OM organic mai tence of forms of TOS; modes of i ee ae ii, 196 196, 388; origin of, nature of lowe pel IHG, 312) 214; lopinental tenis. inttchangeabiity _ of Amoebee f, gin of, frot enbryon sa eae’ of Nitella, ; from chlorophyll hace it 4095 from patie ths of Eu- glenz, ii. 436; resolution of Eu- ' glenze aN il. ae _ Monera, growth and reproduction mtractility of m as., on geologic ba atmos here of, i. 153. me P Begone, on cell-forms assumed , I ye ine; 1. 52. of i 6mm 628; Moss, origin of, from ae pbx Jopmel 423 servations of M 528 5 rae i Br ébisson on, ii. 454; relations of 6 ‘ bok suid e iil a roar de Algze, lxiii-lxv YT: 9 aoe on fission of Ciliated / afaccs H2OT. its to variation” Mucous nei d } a ranes, =o apa of ° 0g Be 2 33 S n e} eid : oie x 33 > Sirs’ “hes ait 2s reseal Murchis on, Dr., on origin of fevers, ee ft ii Murphy, 2 Pie on pat of species in e an o of we of cells HE i Biecariine. ‘nature of, li, 324-330. ys Muscle, contractility of, i. 26; J Psat or: influer® | mode of action of, i. 30; source of power in contraction of, i. 33, 4. Mushrooms, cultivation of, ti. 433. aides, a probable origin of, ii. Sie Se Pacers ii.107; Mr 572; meaning "of gene to mean- eRe 572 faftriencts ‘of, ings of, ii. Nect tarine, Peach, i Ne aia “516; 573; 574. ‘600 convertibility of, and i. 596, 598. m, On spontaneous genera- 1. 255; theory of life, H.174.. Nemaividea, penta an on ova 200 ; m Eu- glen il. in6s ae of Actin nophr ys into, ii. 525; mode of origin of, from seamen es of aucheria, li. 529; reproduction 1. 532. Nerve activity, source of heat during, i. 40. Nervous system, constituents of, i of function after apparent death, i. Nentility, sal saad i. 36. ort, Mr., on vital forces, i. 17. cl on germ-formation i in Amce- Chara fila- ments, il. 474 > hete tend anata ori- gin sid Rotifers, i ii. 509; on Amce- bee Nitelia, | eeciouantign: in, ii. 399 ; ns nsformations of Chloro oes Seices of, into Monads moebze, ii. 407; formation ie embryonal spheres in, ii. 40 their transformations into Bacte la Pythium corpuscles, 11 401; int onads, ii. 4 intc Ameebee and Actinophrys, ii. 404 into Ciliated Infusoria, li. 404 XXX EDI AAD into complex egg-like bodies, ii. 05. Nordmann, M., production of Cili- ated he an sia of Gaste- ropods, STE mode of origin of cell’ in male Lp. Oni sty on Bee of origin of een Organic compounds, pe of oe . mation in pla 233 fluence - ipayaical, ae ces on evo- lution of, il. ie artificial pro duction ae 4; views con- cernin eve ie. Buffon on, i. 174. Organisms, desiccation Of; 15. 104s to hea ae testo ing o vigil of, i on iesandcat evolutions ‘of ii. 15: ; a pa aaales amongst, il. 87-103, 116; of reproduction of ii. 110; origin of green ; de- soueetlies a ua? ll. 198; n forms of, ii. 473; modes of repro- duction in, ii. 548; frequency o as ee pA ae lowest, ii. 561 ; ieties of heterogenesis sat We 503 < 2limits, toi, 609, 610; lowest, of present day, their descent, i i. 61 Organizable Tail er, “nature and composition of, i. 83; molecular re- pei ete of, 1. 97; physical of process, i. a lexity of, ii, existence of internal principle of, ii. ; internal tenden i n b of low Ap organial in iret 4 regions, 93- Origin of living fines experiments relati r experimenters, i. 344; experiments relating to, with or i oni 3 -300; Te arks 360 exper ments relating ie vith aalite soliton 36 3 far marks on, i. 3725 ML steur’s exper riments and cad concernin g i. 374-3845 com parative expe ames: connect ed with, i. 385-391, ii. 18; dele- teriou ‘gate of acy of soli tion increased by heat, i. 392- ~396; xperiments co rat ‘in s super heated flasks, i. 441-470; re 471 curring in 22, 71; theoretical views respect — ing, ii. 254. Coe origin and developme ent, 479; or se of, from Nitella clues ii. 482 q ag 4073 a ¥ nto, i Yo or to TH ‘ic ation | Ree ne ii, 622 nesis, Mr. Dar it 98; 6035 | m by Dr. Gre ades, li. 54 vi rdigr rade ee views and Bonnet on, 1. theories, il. 207 5 hypothesis of, ii. 538. Paramecium, evolu pellicle, ii, 240-2 TN ADIN XS XXxXl West, of M9 ii. 617, Matter, natn | Ov va, in menes ae rfp ee -202; | Pellicle, formation of, on organic of, j.'9, nut, in higher infusion, i. 266; composition of, ent of ; 9’ Moly Owen, bse on cau fae i. 277, ii. 193; formation of em- of Process : tS tion, ii. 583.5 ‘tected Eten bryonal areas in, il. 198; remarks discussian sa" tendencies, ll. 591. concerning changes in, ii. 20: eg. wap f og Oxytricha, can of, from Euglenz, ries of ‘changes es ae to wt with, €cular ty, ii. 402; from Chlorococcus vesi- en on of Mon a ‘: EVolutioy cles, ii. 467; metamorphosis of other changes in, lea cee ne bgp ‘tl oh differen, Vorticella into, ii. 493; transform- lution of Fungus-germs, ii. 231- ‘ a hr 127; ation of, into Trichoda, ii. 496. 2353 sien of Ciliated tes rab cxity Of, ji soria fro 237-254; chang nternal Princ in, ne tee light hae mode of ad mal tendenc; Paleontological Record, interpreta- of livi er, ll. 262; con- x Cles p gin ; ; 'r. Erasmus Day tion of, ii, 620; imperfection of, ditions on oura 0 pl roduction 583; Prof. Oya ii. 622. of Ciliated ero ii. 244, 299. rge Mivart A Pangeness Mr. Darwin’ s hypothesis tcuncerte evolution of, ii. fers! Lamarck and} - 98, 603; Lat use of ersion of milk-globules into, use of, ii 584 f ox “by Dr. Gro 484 ;—in Pa - ‘inciple of i % _Lardigrades, ii eee peculiarities Pevaiemat, es of, from rae in by Mr. Soom ’ in Tardigrades and Rotifer . 459; from Rotifers : ii Baus PS tm 551- meres of, into Ciliated ait 2 ae . Panes, views of 2 Se Goa sori E a ae d Bonnet on, i. 259; of Pestee, anaes on formation of spores Owest Orgalike Rr cores, ii. 2675 Be ait of in, i. 184. ® things el hypothesis of, i. 305, 359, 367, Philodinice, mode of origin of, Sg 2 ae : h calcined # ee evolution of, fro Physcia, formation of spore in, i. ferent results obit pellicle, ii. 240-250; its conver- 186, ee eory of fermentation, i. 404 ; M a: Vor 1] in 5 : _ 494 5 ona ries of) rticellae, concerning ag his explanation of experiments Tks PSY ies of “inchelys il; 233% By Te 44 Etat el bent-neck 3 i. 11; on metamorphoses of Vorticellze into A753 7 ‘a Sea spheric germs, ii. 271-275, Oxytrichee, ii. 493. of pressul tio Pleesconia, origin of, from Chloro- organic ve “s Peach, converted into Nectarine, ii. ii r ir i ) Plague, cx io Peacock, black- shouldered, origin | Plants, functions - related to those of, ii. 598. of Animals, M. Bro ) Pébri | men pat ébrine, nature of, ii. 352, cxxii. niart on iecnineul of, in past XXXil LNA ES, ages, i. 137; M. Saussure on, i. Calculi, ii. 60; nature of starch, 139; growth ‘of, i li. 27; occurrence grains, ii. 66. nesis in, il. 317. Pe on spontaneous generation, j, heteroge Plastide- particles, : 267, 270. Plastides, i. 152 Slee Hebert Spencer on or- anic, ll. 23, 943 en in higher ie il. ie ever- begs cause of form ane struc i. 601 Pouchet a on vital force, i. 248; ous ape eee tle ne ntichangeabiy of for of il. ;eterogencsi 1 vitals, il. 0; i 196; of ae Vortcll, ger ee ae “connection of Ciliata with Pellicle, ii. 300 18 ringsheim, Prof; on transformations in “Algze, ii 374. ‘Sagartel on see and their allies, ee ae of succ ession of or a infus 502; variations in gercen oF Thee Progiesiv development, il. 588, 590, 602 Pouucbe re 117, 1 125. Protista, i. 115- 126; aeons hh ak 1i7s modes of pe ee amongst, 1. 116, 192, li. aw oe relation of Lichens, and Mosses ducts af fifa al op of, Ixxxii. we myxa, process of reproduction 583, 93: Pic eceris chan nges of, Ixvi-Ixxii. Protoplasm eb2y tat 153); development of erms in, i. 197. Psorosperms, ii. 352, xxii. ’ Puerperal Fever, cxxxiv. Pysemia, cxxxiv. Rainey, Mr., on ‘molecular coal- escence,’ 1. 51; on formation of Rae k, Prof., on metamorphoses of Chlor orophyl corpuscles and ollen-grains, ii. 432. Reproduction, act of, best sign of life of Bacteria, i. 320; funda. mental nature, ii. 91; limitations of process in complex organisms s nent o bi. nature of ‘alternate’ pro. of, ik. 5 Reproduction, different modes of, ‘able facing ii. 552. Reproductive units, mode of origin 169-214, 232. Robin, perigee: on nae of Leucocytes, i. rigin blood ee ae in parasitic “di Roti, eae of, into a phr on ii. se hs tion in, ii. §22, 549. es oe ee as a mode of mo - 7: Samuelson, Mr. Bee: on atmo- spheric germs, il. Sanderson, Dr. Seanad ete of desiccation on Bacteria, i. 53 Microzymes in air, il. 7; ex el nie on inoculability of ‘Tuber e€ ea e, M. Davaine on, ii. 362. nat n, Prof., tic eqnchenenies = ii. i asec = 5 odes ii. on lec! aie ie con Snowflakes il, 280. ai ‘ss nature of pro ani, FADE, ¢ meee fae meaning of 1 mutability of, i. § tj ne is of C ming sat f. on Meta hv 0 p dyll corp : me enon ‘ure of ‘alter ate 565. different mode 3 ll. 552. dailies mode of) = 14, 232. les, on inde Leucocy tes, 1,1 ze in parasitic ie ution of, into iy Peranem nt, hea at [r. Jo on : “a ii. 1.73 on ih : Mi. ee if g 10 e of, i ; ies . Be pencer, Mr. Ne INDE Xi XXXill Schelling, eee Gtaliietets.770 _ Schle en, sources of ndtrinient of plan 136. alive, on it Panspermism, i, 262. Schwann, on em of ce ae ite nad anspermism, i. 262 hod a ex $a Eeadeatton with eed - 337 Bcolecide. ee of origin of repre- 7 of, ii. 539. égui a on convertibility of se solutio for Silicates, ns of, ae S ie iia see atter, x. WS ON, CXxvii; origin of, cxliv ; contagionsnes of, cxlix. Snake- 2 ier g: Ree now-flake Solution, nature ‘of process, ii. 44. ee Abbé, on Pansperm- 2 - ism 259. S ecies, meaning Hs term, en 57s mutability . 548; nothing corresponding t, amongst lower for i. 568; nature of, 11. 569; Biisence’ by a in external con ase li, 577 and dis avi7esel tent iaeieed by eee Os tion, ii. 578; Darwin on influe a new ex aoe os so i. 591 lation of, ii. icy a sponta eous ee in unknown, il. 599; modes in which tra Ee aisdons are eae ught about, 00; er acpi, views con- ning, ii. 03. ert, on aes bility of feces, i mae on se dae of persistence fore 143; corre- lation of vital and physical forces, 2; consciousn 453 ¢ CO ir - b ter, 1. 84; instability of protein Be canna i.86; original evolu- tion of life, 1. 92; rae evolu- tion of organic matte i. 94; Oper- ation of physical jokes! upon living tissues, i, 98 ahr of living matter 163; organ c polarity, is: 84 physio logical ents il. 23, 90, 98; law of heredit ity, il. 94, fere1 atia ted organisms in pres day, ii. 587-589; physiological units, ii. Big limits to variability of spec i. 610 Bpecietbaod. de dloprient of, 1,213: Sperm-cells, ii. 96. Spira al fibres, Vv; where found, viii; in association with myc celium, Vili ; in Pailicated peas XIv. i arti The Be at Spirogy yra, eeaatoattons iG; 30 387-393- Spontaneous oo reason for rejecting t i. 244; views: of ancient ae peti ia 253 other views co 255 263; two processes incites under term, ii. Spores, mo oie f formation of, CEdogonium, 2 Z 1773 in in Hydrodictyon, i. 186 ; Phisgia, 186. Starch -grains, production of, ii. 65. nst ny on alternate generation Le 5 Stein, a concerning Acinetze and Vorticellze, xciv—xcvii. Sanival of the fittest, il. 575. Syphilis, cxxxii. Tables tee! to:—(1) origin of living things, i. 252; (2) modes of er of Copan living units, il. ; (3) modes of reproduction XXXIV INDEX. with pees = the origin and gradual appearance se sexual dif- ferentiation, Tablefac modes of dev Selec nt in relation to sexual Seen eecunane 466 ; tr Actinophrss into: H a repro- oe i. 532 nesis in iB 495 peculiarities rs NE 1. 55 ten, os of true, ii. 605. Thomson, jie Allen, on i erie a of ova in Asca rides in dividuality, ii 1. 55 hors on, W illiam, on geological, time, i Q. Tora 3 ts | 2733 mo oe of origin of, in soluti . I4F ; See a of Bacteria and, rigin of, within closed ae ( see Apes ting to). sis, experiments rela sformations, in Spirogyra, 374, ne aeons ii 376; in Go ad tre ii. Boise Of: Trichomonas n Vauche- a, ii. ‘one il. tee of Chlorophyll ee ee i. AL) Of orophyll vesicles of Vauchera, te peo etc. into Desmids, ii. 418; able organ- isms, li. 432 eae on, of Chlo- rophil vesicles and po oe 436-466 ; Acti- nophrys into Nematoids = Tar- digrades, ii. 524; of Euglene j into Rotifers, seer nd N toids, 1. 5253 0 resting-spore veqcee ria into Nem ator a Trécul, M., on development of Tory. - li. 147; origin of Amylobacter, 18. ema- teste ete In reference to hetero ogen a Tri ric choda, he f m Eugleng, 462; meta siphon of Oxy. fies into, ii. Trichomonas, Rites and transform. ations of, ii. 384. Tubercle, non- “specific natur ur in nik a bules nee oS Origin of Uredo, Types, persistence a ii. 6 Fp er sistent, Prof. sali on of persistent, ii. 616- Ig; dom nant, ll. 621. 6233 of fish and insect, - 624; estimation of worth of, ii. 625; vertebrate, ii, 626 ; Hoek of, ii. 627. Units, physiological, ii. 23, 90, 98, ii. 603. Variation, ‘spontaneous,’ meaning of, ii. 595; instances of, ii. 596- 99. Varicella, cxliii Vaucheria, format tion 173; transformations in, il. 394; = be as of, into Nematoids, ii. of spore of, i Vegetable forms, interchen a of animal and, ii. 431 ; Vibriones, nature of, i. 274; vital stance of, te me aay w, 18 ing, i. 148; Eres patholo gy, h ee activities of tissue-elements, and, i. 16-4 Vital forces, correlation of physical 49, 60; dependent of pi ' Huxley on, ii. 615; Ss se res as sion of, into Actin . aig grades rigin of Amy vl ay, } . xa ents In Tey y Pa o 1 of, f ramon af - 496. Origin and trang, 384. , 11. 625; V ration of ii. ‘a logical, ii. 23 ponies stances of Hi [ rm nation of na jons if i T emnatol é rms, intercha® Pe at ™ Ey 43 INDE X. oxidation of blood, ;_trans- mutation of creme au ce “into, i ; 67; no evidence for existence ofa es al, i. 83; relation of food to, ital processes, effect a ot and heat upotr 16 ; nable to physico- chemical fae sfisiie Lan in- explicable nature of most inti- ma Chaba ote er ntation to, i. 425, i. 186. ’ 469; ft laments of Ritalls and Chamyrococcus cor- puscles synthetic 470 Heterogenesis, il. 471 “1; metam aa a 4933 into Rotifers, ii. 502, 51 igi of, from Actinophys Xess tio Beat o Aci XCV ; Conver- sion of, into rr eal xc XXXV agen uae on oe selection, ; mean gi ate: in feathers , li. 630; future of human race, ii. 633. Watson, Sir Thomas, on non-suscep- tility to contagion of small-pox and measles, cxlix W oe oo me Hydatina senta, 11. ne Prof. Jeffries, experiments relating we origin of living matter, 4353 analogic al evi idence conceming cova of living matter, i. 471; on atmospheric germs, ii. 282. Zoolds, li. 542, 553. Zoospores, mode or origin a in Al- gee, i. 171; formation of, in Vau- cheria, i. 173; in Agia 1, 7180; THE N: BART <1 THE NATURE AND SOURCE or THE Pie HORCES, | AND OF ORGANIZABLE MATTER. VOL. I. B THE BE THE persist ENCE - Tpdestructibility of M Conservation of T= doctr deep e adm; and t that the, hHeE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Coae LER .f, THE PERSISTENCE OF FORCE—CORRELATION OF THE VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. Indestructibility of Matter. tats modes of motion. The doctrine of Conservation of Energy. History of. The unit of Heat. Con- vertibility of Physical Forces. Indestructibility of Force. Gradual rowth of doctrine of Correlation of Physical and Vital Forces. Source of Energy manifested in Plants and Animals. Doctrines concerning Animal Heat. Its real mode of Origin. Power of movement in Animals. Laws regulating muscular Contractility. uscle a machine in which heat transforms itself into Me- =e Energy. Comparison between Muscle and Steam-Engine. us phenomena. Neurility. Sensory and motor nerves have ae functions. Dependence of Nerve action upon due supply of blood. Remarkable experiments illustrating this. Evolution of heat and increased chemical change accompaniments of Nerve action. Different functions of Nervous System. Relations of Con- sciousness and Mind. Correlations of Consciousness not ascertain- able. Conclusions. . oe doctrine that Matter is indestructible may . now be regarded as one of the most universally accepted utterances of science. It is already firmly rooted, and the belief in its truth is gradually spreading deeper and wider as education advances. All must admit that there is an immeasurable difference between B 2 4 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. ae mere change of form and destruction, though in pag times—and even at present amongst the uneducateq— the former has been often mistaken for the latter, Such misconceptions, however, were natural enough in the past, and even now they are quite in harmony with the defective general knowledge of those who still entertain them: their occurrence does not in the least tend to diminish our well-grounded belief in the indestructibility of matter. Of late years, too, experimental investigators as well as purely speculative enquirers have alike been gradually tending towards the recognition of the com- plemental doctrine of the essential oneness and inde. structibility of Force. Matter, they say, is indestructible, and so also is force. Forces are ‘modes of motion, and motion is continuous. ‘The very idea of motion, however, cannot be realized in thought except it be in connection with a something which moves—though the moving body may be infinitely great or infinitely small. We may imagine molar motion, or motion of a mass, as exhibited by the revolution of a planet or of a sun in its orbit; and we may imagine molecular motion amongst the particles of a cosmical zther, even though this zther itself may be so subtle as to elude all present means of recognition. But, though motion is inseparable from matter, it is, as we have intimated, continuous or persistent, and, therefore, communicable from particle to particle. Ethereal pulses of solat derivation impinging upon the surface of our earth os manifest itself essence it rema ible cause of th same time that incapable of € matter, We cé in, and apperta ceive a body, tributes or for both indestructi incapable of ey: The growth ¢ force hag Neces the doctrines ( Vorue, During Workers of all °W Of the. Physica} COn and oth ce Cts ha: FR, 1€ une dl for the | Natural] en Mite in har © OF those , does not jp unded beli¢ =") investigatos have alike } ‘ion of the « neness and it is indestructi odes of moti idea of mot ht except i 1 moves—tit reat or infil on, or motio! n of a plat THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 5 may produce effects which, in part, manifest them- selves in our consciousness as sensations of heat; or, acting upon other bodies, organic and inorganic, may in them produce such molecular re-arrangements— such modifications of form and nature—as will suffice to alter their qualities or attributes. Matter, then, may undergo changes of form—it may be now solid, now liquid, and now an invisible gas; whilst the disguised Force or Motion, owing to such different modes of collocation of the atoms of matter, may manifest itself to us in different ways, but in its essence it remains as the underlying and indestruct- ible cause of the attributes of matter. So that at the same time that force is indestructible, it is moreover incapable of existing alone and independently of matter. We cannot conceive force save as inhering in, and appertaining to some body; we cannot con- ceive a body, or matter, existing, devoid of all at- tributes or force manifestations. Both are mutable, both indestructible, and both, so far as we know, quite incapable of existing alone. The growth of modern scientific opinion concerning force has necessarily had much influence in modifying the doctrines concerning Life which were formerly in vogue. During the present century the labours of earnest workers of all kinds have done much towards the over- throw of the ancient and long-predominating meta- physical conceptions of Life. Chemists, physiologists, 4 and others have striven manfully to dispel the mists 6 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. and darkness which previously enshrouded all vita) phenomena, and few, we suppose, would deny that the results of their labours had sent gleams of light into corners previously unillumined. However much there may be of the mysterious and occult still remaining, some of the phenomena, at least, formerly looked upon as essentially ‘vital’—and, therefore, well-nigh in. explicable—are now recognized as depending in great part upon purely physical processes. But before stating what are the modern conceptions of Life — what views are now possible—it will be well to glance briefly at the labours of those who have helped to build up that doctrine of the Correlation of Forces, or Con- servation of Energy, whose influence has been so great in upsetting the old metaphysical conceptions to which we have referred, It is not to be expected that the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy should have sprung fully formed from the brain of any single man. The progress of scientific thought and experiment had been gradually tending in this direction during the closing years of the last century, and the doctrine has since been built up and perfected by the labours of many workers and thinkers. The germs of it are, however, to be found, stated with remarkable clearness, even more than tw0 centuries ago, in the writings of Lord Bacon, who says in the twentieth Aphorism of his * Novum Organum: —‘ When I say of motion that it is the genus of which heat is a species, I would be understood to mean, 20 beat, in the OD not till quite that Benjamin announced tO upon real ex mode of mot! of cannon in Rumford was the brass afte also with the Were separate the most care of this heat tailed the és Made the foll es not “kind of ; , _ am’ _ : - Tap LF. ild deny thy, ms OF Tigh vever much | Still remaig erly looked, c, Well-nig} pending in ; 3ut before sta of Life —J ' well to gh. > helped tot f Forces, or( as been so? ceptions tom doctrine ¢ rung fully for The progiss d been git closing ye THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. " — that. heat generates motion (though both are true in certain cases), but that heat itself, its essence and quiddity, is motion and nothing else..... Heat is a motion, expansive, restrained, and acting in its strife upon the smaller particles of bodies?’ Locke, also, shortly afterwards, expressed himself in much the same terms. He said:—‘Heat is a very brisk agitation of the insensible parts of the object, which produces in us that sensation from whence we denominate the subject hot; so that what in our sensation is heat, in the object is nothing but motion.’ But it was not till quite the close of the last century, in 1798, that Benjamin Thompson, afterwards Count Rumford, announced to the Royal Society his conviction, based upon real experimental evidence, that heat was a mode of motion, Whilst superintending the boring of cannon in the military arsenal at Munich, Count Rumford was much struck with the heat acquired by the brass after it had been bored for a time, and also with the intense heat of the metallic chips which were separated by the borer?. He then instituted the most careful experiments to ascertain the source of this heat, and in his memoir, after having de- tailed the nature and results of these experiments, he made the following remarks in opposition to the then prevalent notion that heat was a material substance, a kind of igneous fluid named ‘caloric :’°—‘ We have * Bacon’s Works, vol. iv. Spedding’s Translation. ? See Tyndall’s ‘ Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion,’ 1863. p. 53. 8 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. EE seen that a very considerable quantity of heat may be excited by the friction of two metallic surfaces, and given off in a constant stream or flux iz all directions, without interruption or intermission, and without any signs of diminution or exhaustion. In reasoning on this subject we must not forget that most remarkable circum. stance, that the source of the heat generated by friction in these experiments appeared evidently to be ix. exhaustible, \t is hardly necessary to add, that any. thing which any izsulated body or system of bodies can continue to furnish without limitation cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in those experiments, except it be Morton, In 1812 also, Sir Humphrey Davy in his first Memoir! brought forward most valuable scientific evi- dence to show that no such thing as ‘caloric’ existed, that heat was not an elastic fluid, and that the ‘laws of the communication of heat are precisely the same as One of his experiments was of the most conclusive nature. ‘He succeeded in melting two pieces of ice by rubbing them together in vacuo, at the same time preventing the access of external heat. The water produced in this experiment has a much higher relative heat than the ice; hence the potential heat which caused the ice to melt must have been obtained by the conversion of those of the communication of motion.’ ? Sir Humphrey Davy’s Works, vol. ii. kind of repu knowledges t tinct fluids, ¢ sible; for th analogous to and not to { Seguin, in a | de Fer,’ calle heat and me of their equ from that a In January Royal Insti Rats electri atinity ate : € and Ply LEE, a SUrfaces | 2 al dire and Withous, €aSOning on ‘emarkable tin Tated bY frig ently to be. add, that » m of bodies; CANNOt posi tS to me ty ble, to form: Ing excited: > except it Davy in list e scientific ¢ caloric’ exis that the ‘ sely the sail n.” One of! e nature. | cause’ > conversi® |. it, THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 9 the mechanical force employed for the friction!” For, as Sir Humphrey Davy reasoned, a motion or vibration of the corpuscles of bodies must be necessarily gener- ated by friction and percussion, and so, he adds, ‘we may reasonably conclude that this motion or vibra- tion is heat, or the repulsive power” ‘Then, in 1827, Lardner Vanuxem published in Philadelphia an essay? in which he speaks of caloric, light, electricity, and His utter- ances are, however, somewhat dubious, since he at first treats of them as ‘four different states’ of ‘one magnetism as being mutually convertible. kind of repulsive matter’, though, further on, he ac- knowledges that the existence of these as ‘four dis- tinct fluids, or kinds of ethereal matter, is inadmis- sible; for this conversion or change of characters is analogous to what are called the properties of bodies and not to the bodies themselves.’ Again, in 1839, Séguin, in a work entitled ‘De P’Influence des Chemins de Fer,’ called attention to the mutual convertibility of heat and mechanical force, and he gave a calculation of their equivalent relation not differing materially from that afterwards published by Mayer and Joule. In January, 1842, in a lecture delivered before the Royal Institution, Professor Grove declared that ‘light, heat, electricity, magnetism, motion, and chemical affinity are all convertible material affections ;? and in * Orme’s ‘ Science of Heat,’ 1869, p. 163 2«On the Ultimate Principles of Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, and Physiology.’ fe) THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. the recently published third edition of his ¢ Correlation of the Physical Forces,’ he says, ‘As far as I am now aware, the theory that the so-called imponderables are affections of ordinary matter, that they are resolvable into motion, that they are to be regarded in their action on matter as forces, and not as specific entities, and that they are capable of mutual reaction, thence alternately acting as cause and effect, had not at that time been publicly advanced.’ But it was also in the year 1842, though in its latter part, that Dr. Mayer}, a physician of Heilbronn, announced independently a doctrine substantially similar, to the effect that the imponderables were forces at once indestructible and convertible. He actually calculated the mechanical equivalent of heat out of data derived from the velocity of sound in air—an intellectual feat only possible to aman of rare originality. Professor Tyndall says? of him, ‘ When we consider the circumstances of Mayer's life, and the period at which he wrote, we cannot fail to be struck with astonishment at what he has ac complished. Here was a man of genius working in silence, animated solely by a love of his subject, and arriving at the most important results some time in advance of those whose lives were entirely devoted to Natural Philosophy. It was the accident of bleeding a feverish patient at Java, in 1840, that led Mayer 1 «Bemerkungen iiber die Krifte der umbeleten Natur,’ Liebig’s Annalen, 1842, vol. xlii, 2 Loc. cit. p. 445. jn ignorance ( ings of Maye indebted for 1 the mechanic was made tO aweighed qu The mechani which was en 80 that when tain time, th and the dista in the same estimate the the fal] of 4 (RR. his ‘ Corre far a l a MPONderabje, ey are Tesohy garded jp " ‘S specific ey, reaction, the , had not at} - Was also ip: that Dr, May -d_ independ ie effect that: ndestructible: the mechati from the velt only possibh Tyndall sayy tances of Me e, Wwe cannot what he ht snius workitl € his subj Its some entirely &" cident of bie hat led Maye i Jeten Natu! THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. PT speculate on these subjects. He noticed that the venous blood of the tropics was of a much brighter red than in colder latitudes, and his reasoning on this fact led him into the laboratory of natural forces, where he has worked with such signal ability and success.’ But in the following year, 1843, Mr. Joule of Manchester published his first paper on the ‘ Mechanical Value of Heat,’ in which he detailed the most valuable results of a series of experiments, conducted whilst he was in ignorance of the labours of Séguin and of the reason- ings of Mayer. It is to him that we are principally indebted for the actual experimental determination of A paddle-wheel was made to revolve in a copper vessel containing the mechanical equivalent of heat. a weighed quantity of water at a known temperature. The mechanical force, derived from falling weights, which was employed in turning the wheel was known; so that when, after the wheel had revolved for a cer- tain time, the temperature of the water was estimated, and the distance through which the weights. had fallen in the same time was computed, it became easy to estimate the quantity of heat which corresponded to the fall of a known weight through a given distance. Of course, corrections had to be made, allowing for the heating of the copper vessel, and of the wheel itself, as well as for the loss of heat by radiation. Similar experiments were conducted with oil and with mer- cury, though under somewhat different conditions; and in all cases the amount of heat evolved by the friction . 12 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, i? of the vanes of the wheel against the various fluids was ascertained with the greatest care. The uniform results obtained in these experiments enabled Mr. Joule most satisfactorily to establish the mechanical equiva. lent of what has been termed the unit of heat. He found that the energy of a body weighing one pound which had fallen from a height of 772 feet was exactly equal to the quantity of molecular motion or heat which suffices to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree of the Fahrenheit scale'. It is needless for us to follow further the ultimate developments of this doctrine with which the names of Clausius, Rankine, Thomson, and Helmholtz are associated. We have called attention to the experi- ments and reasonings by which it has been shown that an exact relation of equivalence exists between the motion of masses produced by mechanical force, and the motion of the particles of bodies manifesting itself as heat produced by friction. Heat, therefore, has been indubitably established to be a ‘ mode of motion ;’ and there is the very best reason for believing that all the other forces or affections of matter are similarly re- lated to motion, whilst they are also mutually con- vertible. Each alike may arise from, or may give origin to motion either directly or indirectly. 1 The ‘unit of heat’ therefore, or that amount of heat which will und of water 1° Fahr., is equal to 772 ‘ foot-pounds,’ if we call the actual energy of a body weighing one pound which has fallen one foot, a foot-pound, raise a po has itself bee bert Spencer $2 into other mod erable, Prodt bodies in cont repulsions, will bouring bodies. magnetism in ; of a permane tricity, Here play of chemic and there, in Current effectj ducting Wire thcity into he the Voltaic arc vetlsm Produ Ne OF its ex We See " FE. ., ; uf Nabled Mey re Cat, | shing One mn feet Was ey Motion or | Of one pouy scale}, her the ultip Vhich the ne 1 Helmholtz; n to the ex been showat sts between nical force,! ranifesting erefore, haslt of motion; ! ying that al! are similar] O mutually ° - may give or ea _ have of its existence. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 13 By the rubbing of substances of a different nature together electricity is produced, as in the ordinary electrical machine. Magnetism, again, may result from motion; either immediately, in a bar of soft iron, through a repetition of percussions, which, producing motion amongst the particles of the bar, facilitate their assumption of the magnetic mode of collocation; or mediately through the intervention of electricity which has itself been generated by motion. And, as Mr. Her- bert Spencer says 1, ¢'The transformations of electricity into other modes of force are still more clearly demon- strable. Produced by the motions of heterogeneous bodies in contact, electricity, through attractions and repulsions, will immediately reproduce motion in neigh- bouring bodies. Now a current of electricity generates magnetism in a bar of soft iron; and now the rotation of a permanent magnet generates currents of elec- tricity. Here we have a battery in which, from the play of chemical affinities, an electric current results; and there, in the adjacent cell, we have an electric current effecting chemical decomposition. In the con- ducting wire we witness the transformation of elec- tricity into heat; while in the electric sparks and in: the voltaic arc we see light produced..... That mag- netism produces motion is the ordinary evidence we In the magneto-electric machine we see a rotating magnet evolving electricity. And * «First Principles,’ p. 254. 14 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. a the electricity so evolved may immediately after ex. hibit itself as heat, light, or chemical affinity. Faraday’s discovery of the effect of magnetism on polarized light, as well as the discovery that change of magnetic state is accompanied by heat, point to further like con. nections. Lastly, various experiments show that the magnetization of a body alters its internal structure; and that, conversely, the alteration of its internal struc. ture, as by mechanical strain, alters its magnetic con- dition” We need allude to all these possibilities of change no further; those who wish for additional in- formation may find it in Mr. Grove’s work. The most attentive consideration of the facts forces us to the conclusion—even to an irresistible belief— that though continually varying in its modes, Force As Mr. Herbert Spencer says, such an allegation really amounts to this, that 2 priori possibilities and experimental evidence in the belief ‘that there cannot be an isolated force beginning and ending in no thing ; but that any force manifested implies an itself is indestructible or persistent. alike warrant us equal antecedent force from which it is derived, and against which it isa reaction. Further, that the force so originating cannot disappear without result; but must expend itself in some other manifestation of force, which, in being produced, becomes its reaction ; and so on continually.’ If forces are nothing but the inseparable qualities, attributes, or affections of matter, and if mattef is rt Pri sell yeats, qualities. Neit! fore, and only engaged when ! in a reverse di Just as the cher periments to his tion applied by sopher expect | utmost aid in tl "Those who wis] What are its ultimat Vukx, of Mp. H that ‘ Persistence of f doctrine of the 4 RE diately a, finity, Pap wi Y Polarized f magnetic, urther like d FP AS S_ show thy, ternal struc ts internal g S Magnetic ¢ > possibilitig or addition) vork, the facts fr esistible belt ts modes, ki As Mr. Het amounts to! mental evid! at there @ es s its I eatt —_ au jf mat THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 15 itself indestructible, then, of course, it must follow as & priori necessity that forces, or the attributes of matter, are also indestructible’. As Professor Faraday expresses it”, ‘a particle of oxygen is ever a particle of oxygen—nothing can in the least wear it. If it enter into combination and disappear as oxygen—if it pass through a thousand combinations, animal, vegetable, and mineral—if it lie hid for a thousand years, and then be evolved, it is oxygen with its first qualities. Neither more nor less. It has all its original force, and only that; the amount of force which it dis- engaged when hiding itself has again to be employed in a reverse direction when it is set at liberty..... Just as the chemist owes all the perfection of his ex- periments to his dependence on the certainty of gravita- tion applied by the balance, so may the physical philo- sopher expect to find the greatest security and the utmost aid in the principle of the conservation of force. * Those who wish to follow this subject further, and to understand what are its ultimate implications, cannot do better than read chapters vi.-ix. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s ‘ First Principles.’ They will then see that ‘ persistence of force’ is really the most ultimate notion, on which the doctrine of the ‘indestructibility of matter’ as well as that of the ‘continuity of motion’ are alike dependent. He says:—‘ By the Per- sistence of Force, we really mean the persistence of some power which transcends our knowledge and conception. The manifestations either as occurring in ourselves or outside of us do not persist ; but that which persists is the Unknown Cause of these ee ee In other words, asserting the persistence of force is but anothe er mode of asserting an Pencuaditions] Reality, without beginning or wae —p. 255, 1st edit. ? * Researches in Chemistry,’ pp. 454, 459. 16 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Sere RE weet coe S All that we have that is good and safe, as the steam. engine, the electric telegraph, &c., witness to that principle. It would require a perpetual motion, a fire without heat, heat without a source, action without reaction, cause without effect, or effect without a cause, to displace it from its rank as a law of nature.’ The time, therefore, must come when the really funda- mental doctrine of the persistence or indestructibility of Force will be recognized by all educated persons to have an equal validity with the secondary, though more familiar, doctrine of the indestructibility of Matter. admission of one implies the truth of the other as a The two doctrines are correlatives, and the necessary consequence. Having come to an understanding as to what views we are to take of Force and of the mutual relations of the several physical forces, we now have to enquire as to the relation in which these stand to the so-called ‘vital forces’ manifested by Living Organisms. The first real! step in explanation was taken in 1 Tn an ‘Inaugural Address,’ delivered in 1868 at the Jeafferson Medical College, U.S., by Dr. J. Aitken Meigs, he claims the credit for Dr. Metcalfe of having initiated this part of the doctrine. These claims, and also others concerning Lardner Vanuxem, have been con- sidered in the ‘ British Medical Journal,’ January 16, 1869, p. 5°. Dr. Metcalfe’s work, published two years earlier, in 1843, was entitled, ‘On Caloric; its Mechanical, Chemical, and Vital Agencies in the Pheno- mena of Nature’ Dr. Metcalfe seems to have been a man of much power and originality, though he still looked upon heat as a material substance, an elastic fluid named caloric. This view, of course, yitiates his treatment of the subject, though it seems clear, from the passage re “electricity by nervous power known depend body on the I source of all grees and var fered to modi organization 0 hes fnity, Fang . Polarize4 i . Magnetic , urther like , S_ show thy, ternal strucp ts internal S Magnetic > possibilitig or addition vork, the facts fr esistible belt ts modes, li As Mr. Het amounts to! mental evi! at there “# ending it’ —_ eS nanifesta™ | nes its ! eat! u arable 4 F al are oe nd if ea THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 15 itself indestructible, then, of course, it must follow as an @ priori necessity that forces, or the attributes of matter, are also indestructible’. As Professor Faraday expresses it”, ‘a particle of oxygen is ever a particle of oxygen—nothing can in the least wear it. If it enter into combination and disappear as oxygen—if it pass through a thousand combinations, animal, vegetable, and mineral—if it lie hid for a thousand years, and then be evolved, it is oxygen with its first qualities. Neither more nor less. It has all its original force, and only that; the amount of force which it dis- engaged when hiding itself has again to be employed in a reverse direction when it is set at liberty..... Just as the chemist owes all the perfection of his ex- periments to his dependence on the certainty of gravita- tion applied by the balance, so may the physical philo- sopher expect to find the greatest security and the utmost aid in the principle of the conservation of force. * Those who wish to follow this subject further, and to understand what are its ultimate implications, cannot do better than read chapters vi.-ix. of Mr. Herbert Spencer’s ‘ First Principles.’ They will then see that ‘ persistence of force’ is really the most ultimate notion, on which the doctrine of the ‘indestructibility of matter’ as well as that of the The manifestations either as occurring in ourselves or outside of us do not pérsist ; but that which persists is the Unknown Cause of these manifestations. In other words, asserting the persistence of force is but another mode of asserting an Unconditional Reality, without beginning or end.’—p. 255, 1st edit. * «Researches in Chemistry,’ PP: 454, 459. 18 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. TR year Mr. Grove published his now well-known work on the ‘Correlation of the Physical Forces, and jp this, after having spoken of the relations existing between the several physical forces, he said, ‘I be. lieve that the same principles and mode of reasoning might be applied to the organic, as well as to the inorganic world; and that muscular force, animal and vegetable heat, &c., might, and at some time will, be shown to have similar definite correlations; This view was taken up by Dr. Carpenter, and was much more fully elaborated by him. In an article contributed to the ‘British and Foreign Medico. Chirurgical Review’ for January, 1848, Dr. Carpenter maintained ‘ that the vital forces, of various kinds, bear the same relation to the several physical forces of the inorganic world that they, bear to each other; the great essential modification or transformation being effected by their passage, so to speak, through the germ of the organic structure, somewhat after the same fashion that heat becomes electricity when passed Then, in 1850, a memoir was read before the Royal Society, and after wards published in the ‘¢ Philosophical Transactions, entitled, “On the Mutual Relations of the Vital and Physical Forces, in which the whole doctrine was much through certain mixtures of metals.’ 1845. Though it originally formed part of a paper which afterwarls appeared in the 20th vol. of the ‘ Transactions of the Linnzan Society: but from which this particular passage was omitted by desire of the officers of the Society. also, to a sligh tricity. These by him?:—¢T! ordial cell of then to develo organism, Was single cell, no ate progressive ants?s but it - "Th uni Ciali hie Speci lation of rine Struct time EP 7 finite comely arpenter, ani m. Foreign Me 848, Dr. Cap of various [ eral physical i ear to each or transfor to speak, tt somewhat alt tricity whet} 2 Then, ii! Society, ant? ical Trans ; of the Vie doctrine we In ang THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 19 more fully discussed, and Dr. Carpenter laboured most successfully to show ‘that so close a mutual relation- ship exists between all the vital forces, that they may be legitimately regarded as modes of one and the same force!’ And he also maintained that these so-called vital forces were evolved within the living bodies of plants and of the lower animals by the transformation of the light, heat, and chemical action obtained from without, which were given back to the external world again, either during the life of the living beings, or after their death, in terms of motion and heat, and also, to a slight extent, in the form of light and elec- tricity. These doctrines are thus definitely expressed by him?:—*The vital force which causes the prim- ordial cell of the germ first to multiply itself, and then to develope itself into a complex and extensive organism, was not either originally locked up in that single cell, nor was it latent in the materials which are progressively assimilated by itself and its descend- ants*; but it is directly and immediately supplied by * In unicellular organisms, all the vital ee so far as they are differentiated, are carried on in the single cell; and in the higher animals which proceed from the growth and dey velopment of some single, equally minute germ, Sees of function goes hand and hand with spe- Gialization of stru 6 ® This holds good for plants, the lowest animals, and the initial changes in the higher animals, though all the later vital manifestations of the latter are dependent almost entirely upon the redistribution of the .: pertaining to the organic substances which constitute their food, to the various chemical changes taking place within their own C2 20 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Po et ae the heat which is constantly operating upon it, and which is transformed into vital force by its passage through the organized fabric which manifests it. .... All the forces which are operating in producing the phenomena of life are in the first place derived from the inon ganic universe, and are finally restored to it again, .... And there is strong reason to believe that the entire amount of force of all kinds received by an animal during a given period is given back by it during that period, his condition at the end of the time being the same as at the beginning. And all that has been expended in the building up of the organism is given back by its decay after death.’ In plants and in the lower tribes of animals we are able to trace a most undoubted relationship between the vital activity of each individual and the amount of heat which it receives from external sources. Even bodies. Mr. Herbert Spencer says :—‘ We have next to note, as having here a meaning for us, the chemical contrasts between those organisms which carry on their functions by the help of external forces, and those which carry on their functions by forces evolved from within. If we compare animals and plants, we see that whereas plants, charac- terised as a class by containing but little nitrogen, are dependent upo the solar rays for their vital activities; animals, the vital activities of which are not thus dependent, mainly consist of nitrogenous substances. There is one marked exception to this broad distinction, however; and this exception is specially instructive. there is a col: siderable group—the Fungi—many members of which, if not all, cat live and grow in the dark; and it is their peculiarity that they are very much more nit:ogenous than other plants.’ (Principles of Biology, 1864, vol. i. p. 37.) - reason for regan portant influenc sine, but speci complicated an being denizens ¢ many of these regions by com there seems ad same specific ty deficient in sot features? Tha most notably Which they are be The stimt indeed, most ¢ S now Perfect Anachayie 8 a wel > and mark 1 “Tatrody ees D. 0, duction LER, —_ Upon . its PAssag, th ex ~ duration oft T More minyh! teria, the Miu uilarly light ned indefinite tine F the molec -apable of bit of heat or ott | hey may ext Bacteria cast orig. Bath tt THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 325 Although the movements of Bacteria are, therefore, frequently of so extensive a nature as to render it not at all doubtful whether the organisms which display them are living, it becomes obvious that we ought not to rely too strongly upon the mere vibratory character of their movements, as evidence of the death of Bacteria. In the experiments which I am about to relate, we shall be able to pronounce that the Bacterva are living or dead, by reference to the continuance or cessation of a much more essentially vital characteristic. If Bacteria fail to multiply in a suitable fluid, and under suitable con- ditions, we have the best proof that can be obtained of their death. Having made many experiments with solutions of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate, I have almost invariably observed that such solutions—when exposed to the air without having been boiled—become turbid in the course of a few days owing to the presence of myriads of Bacteria and Vibriones, with some Torwle. These organisms seem to appear and multiply in such a solution almost as readily as they do in an organic infusion. On the other hand, having frequently boiled similar solutions, and closed the flasks during ebullition, I have invariably found, on subsequent examination of these fluids, that whatever else may have been met With, Bacteria and Vibriones were always absent. The difference was most notable, and it seemed only intel- ligible on the supposition that any living Bacteria or dead ferments which may have pre-existed in the 326 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. solution, were deprived of their virtues by the pre- liminary boiling. ‘These experiments also seemed to show that such solutions, after having been boiled, and shut up in hermetically-sealed flasks from which all air had been expelled, were quite incapable of giving birth to Bacteria. ‘The unboiled fluid, exposed to the air, must have become turbid, either merely because it was capable of nourishing living Bacteria which it contained, or else because it was capable of evolving these de zovo, under the influence of fermentative particles whose activity had not been destroyed by heat. Hence, in such a solution we have a fluid which is eminently suitable for testing the vital resistance of Bacteria,—one which, although quite capable of nourish- ing and favouring their reproduction, does not appear capable of evolving them, when, after previous ebulli- tion, it is enclosed in airless and hermetically-sealed flasks. Three flasks were, therefore, half filled with this solution’. The neck of the first (2) was allowed to remain open, and no addition was made to the fluid. To the second (é), after it had been boiled and had become cool, was added half a minim of a similar saline solution, which had been previously exposed to the air, and which was quite turbid with Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torule., From this flask—after its inocula- tion with the living organisms—the air was exhausted 1 In the proportion of ten grains of neutral ammonic tartrate, with three grains of neutral sodic phosphate, to an ounce of distilled water. ] ie heat . “big que a oo of an * ied oo Ae ad its k ab of more iat inocula agents were “3 ack was berm ats were 4S fo j, became turbi ge second (4), ast that in th ‘|i, This latte ~ |i whilst its con /|spical examinat ret to be found tated three tin toh on two tte instead of I semed, mor “sinents of the Hh j lit, Pont and ¢} Merely beta Bacterig Which j able of evohiy of ferment atin estroyed by bybes! & fluid which tal resistance ( pable of nous does not appt previous ebil rmetically.set filled with was allow ® " ade to the Bo boiled al | m of 4 s gel # j with Ba 0! fter its ip was ss a gstile o THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 227 by means of an air-pump, and its neck was hermeti- cally sealed during the ebullition of the fluid, without the flask and its contents having been exposed to a heat of more than go°F. The third flask (c) was similarly inoculated with living Bacteria, though its contents were boiled for ten minutes (at 212°F), and its neck was hermetically sealed during ebullition. The results were as follows :—the solution in the first flask (2), became turbid in four or five days; the solution in the second (4), became turbid after thirty-six hours ; whilst that in the third flask (c), remained perfectly clear. ‘This latter flask was opened on the twelfth day, whilst its contents were still clear, and on micro- scopical examination of the fluid no living Bacteria were to be found. ‘This particular experiment was repeated three times, with similarly negative results, although on two occasions the fluid was only boiled for one instead of ten minutes. It seemed, moreover, that by having recourse to experiments of the same kind, the exact degree of heat which is fatal to Bacteria and Torule might be ascer- tained. I accordingly endeavoured to determine this point. Portions of the same saline solution, after having been boiled ‘ and then cooled, were similarly inoculated It was necessary to boil the solution first, in order to destroy any befor living things or dead ferments which it might contain. As qlated, it must contain one or the other of these, ee an unboiled become turbid; whilst, after it has been boiled, it may be kept inde- finitely under similar conditions without becoming turbid. 328 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. with a drop? of very turbid fluid, containing hundreds of living Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torule. A drying appa- ratus was fixed to an air-pump, and the flask containing the inoculated fluid was securely connected with the former by means of a piece of tight india-rubber tubing?, after its neck had been drawn out and narrowed, at about two inches from the extremity. The flask con- taining the inoculated fluid was then allowed to dip into a beaker holding water at 122°F, in which a thermometer was immersed. ‘The temperature of the fluid was maintained at this point for fifteen minutes °, by means of a spirit-lamp beneath the beaker. The air was then exhausted from the flask by means of the pump, till the fuid began to boil; ebullition was allowed to continue for a minute or two, so as to expel as much air as possible from the flask, and then, during its con- tinuance, the narrowed neck of the flask was hermeti- cally sealed by means of a spirit-lamp flame and a blow-pipe. Other flasks were similarly prepared, except that they were exposed to successively higher degrees of heat—the fluid being boiled off, in different cases, at temperatures of 131°, 140°, 149°, 158°, and 167°F. All the flasks being similarly inoculated with living * The proportion was one drop of the fluid, opaque with organisms, to an ounce of the clear solution. 2 Into which a piece of glass tube had been slipped to prevent collapse. Allowing even five minutes for the temperature of the 1 oz. of fluid to become equal to that of the bath, it would have remained exposed to this amount of heat for about ten minutes. pttents etl, beg sotained fluid a ~* ignor three Mor ighid and Opagl jction of myri te fuids in the weed to the his it 167°F, show al 00 diminuti bey were kept u itvelve oF four Te condition perature of ty teen minut! | beaker, Ty Y means of th Qn. was allowel expel as mud Juring its cot - was hermel- flame and & epared, exctft sigher degre | ifferent cs > and 167? with, lit with oF eft to pe pped the 1 ie pained of THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 329 Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torula, and similarly sealed during ebullition, they differed from one another only in respect to the degree of heat to which they had been submitted. ‘Their bulbs were subsequently placed in a water bath, which during both day and night was maintained at a temperature of from 85° to g5°F. The results have been as follows:—The flasks whose contents had been heated to 122° and 131°F re- spectively, began to exhibit a bluish tinge in the contained fluid after the first or second day; and after two or three more days, the fluid in each became quite turbid and opaque, owing to the presence and multi- plication of myriads of Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torule ; the fluids in the flasks, however, which had been ex- posed to the higher temperature of 140°, 149°, 158°, and 167°F, showed not the slightest trace of turbidity, and no diminution in the clearness of the fluid while they were kept under observation—that is, for a period of twelve or fourteen days. The conditions under which these experiments were made being in every way similar, except as regards the degree of heat to which the inoculated fluids were subjected, and the organisms being immersed in a fluid, which had been proved to be eminently suitable for their growth and multiplication, it seems only possible to suppose that the difference in the results had to do with the difference in the degree of heat. If such inoculated fluids after having been raised to 122° and 131°F for ten minutes, are found in the course of a 330 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. few days to become turbid, then, obviously, the or- ganisms cannot have been killed by this degree of heat ; whilst, if similar fluids, similarly inoculated, which have been raised to temperatures of 140°, 149°, 158°, and 167°F, remain sterile, such sterility can only be ex- plained by the supposition that the inoculated organisms had been killed by exposure to these temperatures‘. Some of these experiments have been repeated several times with the same results. On three occasions, I have found the fluid speedily become turbid which had only been exposed to 131°F for ten minutes, whilst on three other occasions I have found the inoculated fluid remain clear after it had been exposed to a heat of 140°F for ten minutes 2, Wishing to ascertain what difference would be manifested if the inoculated fluids were exposed for a very long time, instead of for ten minutes only, to certain temperatures, I prepared three flasks in the same manner—each containing some of the previously boiled solution, which, when cold, had been inoculated 1 More especially since the fluids which had remained sterile would always, in the course of thirty-six or forty-eight hours after inoculation with living Bacteria, show signs of an increasing turbidity. ? That the organisms in question—being minute portions of naked living matter—should be killed by exposure to the influence of a fluid at these temperatures, will perhaps not seem very improbable to those who have experienced its effects by attempting to keep their fingers for any length of time in water heated to a similar extent. With watch in hand I im- mersed my fingers in one of the experimental beakers containing water at 131°F, and found that in spite of my desires they were hastily with- drawn, after an exposure of less than jive-and-twenty seconds. athe water of us at a ten Te two other pemperature O! ts, the fluid 1 wuist in two da The fluids in ased to the ius, remainec Mele days in Inder observati Mtlote, that Ntefom ten Xe Vit] Tesist; TNR, “i Peri lal in *the que 1 yy 8 ay t seat Only * peratures! 'epeated sera Ccasions, I hyp Which had of Whilst on thre ed fluid remit heat of ic} nce would le exposed for’ nutes only, 0 flasks in the ‘the previti sined ster is ss after ino 4 jdity. «7 of the IP ake ; THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. aot with living Bacteria, Vibriones, and Torule. ‘Vhese flasks and their contents were then submitted to the influence of the following conditions:—One of them was heated for a few minutes in a beaker containing water at 113°F, dnd then by means of the air-pump a partial vacuum was procured, till the fluid began to boil. After the remainder of the air had been expelled by the ebullition of the fluid, the neck of the flask was hermetically sealed, and the flask itself was subsequently immersed in the water of the beaker, which was kept for four hours at a temperature between 113° and 118}°F 1. The two other flasks similarly prepared were kept at a temperature of 118}°-1273°F for four hours. In two days, the fluid in the first flask became slightly turbid, whilst in two days more the turbidity was most marked. The fluids in the two other flasks, which had been exposed to the temperature of 1184°-1271°F for four hours, remained quite clear and unaltered during the twelve days in which they were kept in the warm bath under observation. ‘These experiments seem to show, therefore, that the prolongation of the period of ex- posure from ten minutes to four hours suffices to lower the vital resistance to heat of Bacteria and Torule by 123°-18°F, Such experiments would seem to be most important and crucial in their nature. They may be considered to settle the question as to the vital resistance of these * During nearly the whole of the time the temperature was kept at 113°F. it only rose to the higher temperature for about ten minutes. 332 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. particular Bacteria, whilst other evidence points con- clusively in the direction that all Bacteria, whencesoever they have been derived, possess essentially similar vital endowments!. Seeing also that the solutions have been inoculated with a drop of a fluid in which Bacteria, Vibriones, and Tor le are multiplying rapidly, we must suppose that they are multiplying in their accustomed manner—as much by the known method of fission as by any unknown and assumed method of reproduction. In such a fluid, at all events, there would be all the kinds of reproductive elements common to Bacteria, whether visible or invisible, and these would have been alike subjected to the influence of the same tem- perature. ‘These experiments seem to show, therefore, that even if Bacterza do multiply by means of invisible gemmules as well as by the known process of fission, ' The Bacteria and Vibriones with which Prof. Wyman experimented were derived from different sources; and so far as I, also, have been able to ascertain, the Bacteria of different fluids are eatin affected by exposure to similar degrees of heat. Thus, if on the same slip, though under different covering glasses, specimens of a hay infusion, turbid with Bacteria, are mounted, (a) without being heated, (6) after the fluid has been raised to 122°F for ten minutes, and (c) after the fluid has been heated to 140°F for ten minutes, it will be found that, in the course of a few days, the Bacteria under a and b have notably increased in quantity, whilst those under ¢ do not become more numerous, however long the slide is kept. Facts of the same kind are observable if a turnip infusion, ee living Bacteria, is experimented with; and the phenomena are in no way different if a solution of ammonic tartrate and sodic ions vaengier Bacteria) be employed instead of one of these vegetable infusions. multiplication of the Bacteria beneath the covering-glass, when it occurs, is soon rendered obvious, even to the naked eye, by the increasing cloudiness of the film the results y +) tty also, bec iments of M. te degree of *V ater higher ors wy much great duble the micr inog or dead, th those of M. ‘posure to a te NS suffices t te, Monads, Micelle and : Med, a8 Wel] in ¢ \ arte PR. Re ce Points ; leir ACcust of r Cproductcg Ould be all t ion to Bact, Se would hay “the same ten show, therefu, ans of invisilé cess of Assi, Ome | Od of Assion —— THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 333 such invisible particles possess no higher power of resisting the destructive influence of heat than the parent Bacteria themselves possess—a result which is by no means surprising when we consider that these gemmules, however minute, could only be portions of a similar homogeneous living matter, and ought therefore to be endowed with like properties. The results just recorded seem all the more trust- worthy also, because they are confirmed by the ex- periments of M. Pouchet1, myself, and others, upon the degree of ‘vital resistance’ to heat manifested by rather higher organisms, which, on account of their very much greater size and other peculiarities, easily enable the microscopist to decide whether they are living or dead. My observations accord very closely with those of M. Pouchet; and I have found that an exposure to a temperature of 131°F for five minutes always suffices to destroy all reliable signs of life in Amoebe, Monads, Chlamydomonads, Euglenz, Desmids, Vorticellz, and all other Ciliated Infusoria which were observed, as well as in free Nematoids, Rotifers, and other organisms contained in the fluids which had been heated 2, ‘Nouvelles Expériences,’ &c. 1864, * In opposition to all this concurrent en as to the influence of comparatively low temperatures upon the lower forms of life, Mr. Samuelson (Quarterly Yournal of Science, Oct. 1870, p. 490) desires to impress us with the idea that they are capable of resisting a very high degree of heat. The evidence which he adduces, however, is quite inadequate to establish the truth of such a conclusion. Having heated 334 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Such is the evidence concerning the power of resisting the destructive influence of heat, manifested by the organisms about which we are at present most some ‘dry dust in an open tube to 480°C’ (the mode of estimating the heat not being stated), after it had cooled distilled water was added and the mixture was boiled for a few minutes. The tube containing this was closed with a stopper of cotton wool, and then, on the same eyen- ing, again opened to the air, whilst some of the fluid was poured into another tube which was afterwards plugged with cotton wool. The effect of the high temperature was thus cancelled by the subsequent addition of distilled water; and the effects of the boiling of this mixture ‘for a few minutes’ was subsequently rendered nugatory, so far as all strict experimentation is concerned, by its exposure to the air whilst it was s ch evidence is wholly inconclusive and even inadmissible. What has lately been honoured by admission, in detail, into a recent number of the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ (vol. xix. No. 128), is not much more cogent in its nature. In a paper on the ‘ Action of Heat on Protoplasmic Life,’ Dr. Crace-Calvert asserts that certain ‘ black Vibrios,’ not commonly kn heated to 300°F for half an hour. The conclusion that the organisms were living or dead in the several pasion was based Br upon the mere presence or absen sight movements of progressive nature, whilst no ae are given as to the onde # observation. In opposition to the statements and experiments o of Dr Crace-Calvert, it may be well to call his attention to the fact (of which he is hal hh ae that MM. Milne-Edwards, Claude Bernard, Pasteur, Professor Huxley, and many others who cannot be ranged in the category of investigators of germ-life ee favour the theory of spontaneous ee have most deliberately given their assent, based upon experiment and observation, to the view that the lowest forms of life are killed - contact for a very short period with boiling water. ‘Lhe truth of this conclusion has been again, of late, ratified by Dr. Lurdon Sanderson—as I ascertain from a revise (with which he has kindly furnished me) of a paper are Further Report of Researches con- cerning Contagion,’ shortly to appear in the Thirteenth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy pao pu ito wey great ift is reshould alway t difference ahbot water 5 and in etipate animals ar wee of hot dry @ jaomena produced wrrecent and most ¥ asiThe chief ms te body, in hot clim ite water exhaled t is Powe, > Manif fey At Present i Crace-Calvert ase n to naturalists, a he influence of fs n that the orga vas based appar THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 335 interested. It will be found quite harmonious with our ordinary every-day experience, and should, therefore, not be very difficult for us to believe’, An embryo of one of 1 Tt is, moreover, not in the least at variance, as some seem to ts at present known concerning the power which some individuals have displayed of braving the influence of hot dry air for very short seat either for the purposes of experiment or in Turkish baths. When such comparisons are made, two Se sear ie lost In the first place, there is the destructive ae of hot dry air and hot water ; and in the second place, highly organized warm-blooded vertebrate animals are protected, as it were, from t uenc suppose, with the fac sight eile always be borne in mind. a very great difference between e destructive in- short periods, by certain ees phenomena produced by the heat itself. this subject, in one of our recent and most valuable text-books on Physiology, Prof. Marshall says:—‘ The chief means of maintaining the normal temperature of the body, in hot climates, consists in a large increase in the amount of the water exhaled from the surface of the lungs and of the skin, especially, however, from the latter. The skin becomes bathed with fluid, the evaporation of which at the high temperature of the and the surrounding air, occasi ev ot dry air, for ons a loss of heat and a aporating surface. The effect in reducing the temperature of the body is greater if the atmosphere be dry as well as warm, and then also if it be in motion: these conditions favour cutaneous exhalation and evaporation. increased per- spiration excited by the great heat of the skin, furnishes, for a certain time, sufficient material for evaporation. ‘There is a limit, however, to the amount of this excretion, and also to its rapidity of evaporation ; for, when the surrounding air becomes moist, a check being put to the evaporation, the body is no longer thus defended, and its temperature begins to rise. Thus ina room, the temperature of which was 260° F, and the air dry, it was found possible to remain for eight minutes, by which time the body was not much altered in temperature, although the clothes and other articles in the room became very hot (Blagden and Banks), A case is on record of a person remaining ten minutes ina dry hot-air bath at 284°; whilst Chabert, the so-called fire-king, went into ovens heated from 400° to 600°; but, of course, for a much THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 330 the higher animals whilst still contained within its egg may fairly enough be compared with the lower organ- isms of which we have been speaking, in respect to the quality of the matter of which they are composed; and knowing the profoundly modifying influence of water at a temperature of 212°F upon the comparatively un- differentiated matter of the embryo in the egg—and also, we may add, even upon the differentiated tissues of the parent fish or fowl—need we wonder much that the same temperature should have been hitherto found to be destructive to the simple and naked living matter entering into the composition of Bacteria and Vibriones, and to the almost naked living matter of Fwxgus-spores? If any other result had been ascertained, would there shorter period. Many workmen employed in foundries and glass-works also withstand very high temperatures, the skin being profusely bathed with perspiration ; these men of necessity drink large quantities of fluid. When, however, the air is moist as well as hot, the temperature that can be endured is much less; for, in a vapour bath, at a temperature of only 120°, the body rapidly gains heat, as much as 7o° in ten minutes, and a feeling of great and insupportable discomfort is experienced (Berger and De la Roche). It is said, however, that from habit the Finns can withstand, for upwards of half an hour, moist air or vapour baths gradually raised to 158°, or even to 167°.’ (Outlines of Physiology, Huma d Comparative, 1867, vol. ii. p. 511.) As soon, indeed, as the temperature of the warm-blooded animal, as a whole, is raised to 110° 112°F, it speedily dies; the length of time, therefore, which it can bear exposure to higher temperatures is almost wholly dependent upon the freedom and rapidity with which evaporation of its fluids takes place. Minute particles or specks of naked living matter cannot avail them- selves of such antagonising influences, and even if they had any self protecting resources of this kind, they would be of little or no service in an atmosphere saturated with hot vapour, and of still less avail when the living particles were immersed in heated fluids. ot since 1837 | Hs experiments one slight modi - fen exactly fol | foganic matter sveurely conne itions of red-he thtanees and he time, s0 t “tled, the Aas! MParativey th the epg ay “Ntiated tisys der much ty “hitherto fou d living matty F a and Vibrimy - Fungus-spote! -d, would ther jes and glassvals pi gral ill le THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 3317 not have been much more reason for surprise? We ought therefore to be very cautious how we attempt to set aside the conclusions which have been arrived at on this subject—founded as they have been upon direct evidence of a most positive character. From this basis we may now proceed to enquire into the nature and results of the experiments which have been instituted with the view of throwing light upon the origin of Bacteria and other similarly low organisms. The method of experimentation principally relied upon since 1837 has been that introduced by Schwann!. His experiments have been occasionally repeated with some slight modification, whilst at other times he has been exactly followed. In the latter case the solution of organic matter is boiled in a flask, the neck of which is securely connected with a tube closely packed with portions of red-hot pumice-stone, or other incombustible substance; and after the solution has been boiled for some time, so that all the air of the flask has been expelled, the flask itself is allowed to cool—whilst the tube containing the closely-packed red-hot materials is still maintained at the same temperature, in order that whatever air enters into the flask may be subjected to a calcining heat as it passes through the tube. When the flask has become cool, its neck is hermetically sealed by the blow-pipe flame, so that it will then contain only the Previously boiled solution in contact with air (at ordi- Mary atmospheric pressure) which has been calcined. * «Annales de Poggendorf, 1837, p. 184. ‘Isis,’ 1837, p. 523- VOL, I. Z 338 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. Since it has been thoroughly settled that all the lower organisms which may be contained in the organic so- lutions are killed when the fluids are raised to a tem- perature of 212°F, and that no organisms have been known to survive after having remained for thirty minutes in air raised to a temperature of 266°F (130°C), the boiling of the fluid for a time and the calcination of the air has generally been supposed to be a sufficient precaution to ensure the destruction of all organisms in the experimental media} Experi- ments conducted in this way have yielded negative re- sults to some investigators, though many others have always maintained that in spite of such precautions— calculated to destroy all pre-existing living things— they have, after a time, seen multitudes of low organ- isms in their experimental fluids immediately after the flasks have been broken. Negative results in these experiments can of course prove little or nothing; they may be explained equally well by either side: either no organisms have been found, because they or all the germs which could give rise to them have been killed; or, as it is just as fair for the evolutionists to say, the absence of organisms can be explained on the supposition, that the fluids employed have not yielded them because of the severely destruc- 1 The sides of the vessel itself, above the level of the fluid, would, during the whole time, be bathed by the steam given off from the boiling fluid, even if they did not come in contact with it during the process of ebullition, so that any adherent germs would in this way be destroyed. pject wa, 0s the evolt yesandard of V: pte higher than ale positive res vet legitimately imards the settle nt hundred nega tat in the partic berlved de mo The ‘Xperimen + Daye Ided negative, Tany others by ch precautions - living thins. es of low ope ediately aftertt nts can of cls xplained eq isms have bt ‘hich could g* is just 8 fat THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. tive influences to which the particular organic matter had been subjected by the previous boiling of the fluids. When organisms are found, however, in solu- tions which have been legitimately subjected to the conditions involved in Schwann’s experiments, then one of two things is proven: either the amount of heat which was hitherto deemed adequate to destroy all pre-existing organisms is in reality not sufficient, or else the organisms found must have been evolved de novo, as the evolutionists suppose. Unless, therefore, the standard of vital resistance to heat can be shown to be higher than it was formerly supposed to be, any single positive result when Schwann’s experiment has been legitimately performed, is of far more importance towards the settlement of the question in dispute than It would tend to show that in the particular fluid employed, organisms might be evolved de zovo. five hundred negative results. The experiments of Schwann have been commonly believed by many to be altogether in favour of the views of the panspermatists. Those who read his memoir will find, however, that he did not fail to obtain living Organisms in a// his experimental fluids. When the fluids were such as were capable of undergoing the alcoholic fermentation on exposure to the air, living organisms were, in spite of all precautions, sometimes found within his flasks. And although many other investigators had subsequently obtained living things, even when other infusions were employed, M. Pasteur L 2 3240 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. was quite inclined to believe for a time, on the strength of his own experiments, that Schwann’s precautions, properly carried out, were adequate to prevent the occurrence of organisms in the experimental fluids, These early investigations were made with sweetened yeast-water, concerning which M. Pasteur says}, ‘[ have certainly had occasion to repeat the experiment more than fifty times, and in no case has this fluid, otherwise so changeable, shown a vestige of organism But after a time M. Pasteur began to employ an entirely different fluid, and in all these experiments living organisms were invariably present in the previously boiled fluids from recently opened flasks. when in the presence of calcined air. Formerly he used ‘ Peau de leviire sucrée,’ but now he employed milk—a complex and highly nutritive fluid. There was no necessary contradiction in these results. Facts which had been thoroughly established with regard to the one fluid might not necessarily hold good for the other. A consideration so obvious as this ought to have been entertained by any unbiassed experimenter, but it was not even hinted at by M. Pasteur. As on other occa- sions, when his experiments admitted of two interpre- tations, M. Pasteur spoke only of one. He completely ignored an equally possible interpretation—the very existence of which he left his readers to ascertain for themselves. Thus, speaking of his experiments with boiled milk and calcined air in closed vessels, he 1 Loc. cit., p. 36, note (1). q HE . ai ¢ gs alos reco i stances p savies dot 1200 jienprature hun dase jouit de wich | have pla tied by any dit -) sed to all sucl "lot tit, p. 60, "Int. Jefties Wye 4 voli, Sept, 18 Hes of great im 1ge of Onganisn | » > + But after ntirely diffs | Ving organi | sly boiled fuid he used ‘Ta } nilk—a compl 3 NO necesst] which had bet the one fu the other # THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 341 says!:— Je n’ai jamais vu se former dans le lait ainsi traité autre chose que des Vibrions, et des Bacteriums, aucune Mucédinée aucune Torulacée aucun ferment végétal. I] n’y a pas de doute que cela tient a ce que les germes de ces dernicres productions ne peuvent résister 4 100° au sein de Peau, ce que jai d’ailleurs constaté par des expériences directes. Et de méme nous allons reconnaitre que, si le lait se putréfie dans les circomstances precédentes, cest que les germes des Infusoires dont nous venons de parler peuvent résister la temperature humide de 100°, lorsque le liquide od on les chauffe jouit de certains propriétées” But the passage which | have placed in italics has not been demon- strated by any direct evidence: it is in fact entirely opposed to all such evidence ?. ? Loc. cit., p. 60 ? Prof. Jeffries Wyman very aptly says (American Jour. of Science and Arts, vol. xliv. Sept. 1867):—‘ The study of organisms living in thermal springs is of great importance in connection with the investigation of the limits of vital resistance. Having become ee ae a long series of years to their surroundings, such organisms may be supposed ost favourable eee re sustaining well-known oe fact that ely rent con- to live under circumstances the m life at a high temperature. It is living beings may be slowly eee to new an ditions without injury; but if the same change is suddenly ae they perish.’ Even in these most favourable cases, however, no living things have ever been found in springs at the temperature of boiling water, though certain Conferve were found by M. Descloizeaux in a hot spring in Iceland which was registered at 208° F ore extreme case than this can, I believe, be quoted. As Prof. Wyman points out, however, the question which it concerns us to settle is, at what temperature the organisms met with in our infusions perish—these being accustomed to live at ordinary atmospheric temperatures, and not being steeled against the action of heat by long custom and habit 342 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. He came to the conclusion that if fluids with an alkaline reaction were raised to the temperature of boi not all destroyed, because such fluids were subsequently —— ing water, the organisms contained in them were found by him to yield living things when experimented with in the manner adopted by Schwann; and simi- larly he believed that the organisms in these fluids were destroyed when the fluids had been raised for however short a time to a temperature of 110°C (230° F), because after such treatment no organisms were to be met with in the flasks to which calcined air alone had been admitted. The conclusions drawn by M. Pasteur from his re- searches on the subject at present under discussion, may be summed up thus :—(1) When acid solutions of organic matter are employed, no living things are to be met with in repeating Schwann’s experiments, because all pre- existing organisms are destroyed, and living things are believed to be incapable of arising de zovo; but (2) when neutral or slightly alkaline solutions are made use of, organisms may be met with if such infusions are merely raised to the temperature of 100° C, though (3) they are never to be seen when similar infusions have been raised to a temperature of 110°C. On account of these sup- posed facts, and on the strength of a chain of indirect evidence, M. Pasteur assumes, that whilst Bacteria are destroyed in acid fluids at a temperature of 100°C, their hypothetical ‘germs’ are not destroyed in a neutral or slightly alkaline fluid at 100°C, though they do cease eof existing © Nt NO orparig,| O which calig eur from his r discussion, ny lutions of orga ire to be met because all pi living things pvo; but (2) wi re made use sions are me ough (3) thy have beet at of these hain of 7 lst pat’ , of 10 Ge t jp 4 pet hy the i cl yo THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 343 to live in such a fluid after it has been exposed to 10° C, In the next chapter I shall endeavour to show how far the particular results of M. Pasteur’s experiments are entitled to be taken as the basis for any general conclusions on the great question of the Origin of Life, and how far his assumptions were warrantable in the face of existing evidence. CHAPTER: te, THE EXPERIMENTAL PROOF. UNTENABILITY OF PASTEUR’S CONCLUSIONS, Different results obtainable by Schwann’s method of experimentation. M. Pasteur’s conclusions. Presence of air in flasks not essential. Evolution in vacuo previously thought impossible. New method of apg tks Results with acid infusions. Abundance of living organisms. Experiments with acid saline solutions. These not often tine Bacteria, but rather Torule or Fungi. M. Pasteur does not adequately consider the nature of the fluid employed. inks too ee about the germ-killing Nig of acid or alkaline s. Pays no attention to opposing views. Negative re- sults nelly capable of een on either ny deeisad Importance of positive results. M. Pasteur not entitled to his conclusion about germs in alkaline solutions. His indirect evidence negatived by direct evidence. Other explanations more probable. Difference in degree of poles arecen,” between a and neutral states of same solution. Experiments in illustration. Differences seen with solutions fully a to air and germs. Similar in kind to those quoted Pasteur. Fluids most tle ® for growth also most favourable for evolution. Fertility of any given solution often in the inverse ratio to its acidity. Effect ao acidity intensified by high temperatures. Improbability of M. Pasteur’s explanations in face of these results HE experiments most frequently cited as adverse to the possibility of the de zovo origination of living things, have been stated to be those of Schwann, or re- petitions of them by other experimenters. And yet, as fa putrefacti acter, Among ive results ma \nsset, Wyma wen Pasteur hi But, as soon ire undoubte itions, and in y Schwann, h GSS Under a Tents he came Tit be encot wa VOU be ig « °Petin, ‘hin yh ich * NABILITY gy % i, dof Experiment in flasks not esa line solutions, Ty or Fungi, of the fluid empl ig powers of att | y vlews. Negatie THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 345 already mentioned, Schwann’s results were by no means universally adverse to this possibility. Sometimes living organisms were met with in his flasks, when the fluids employed were such as underwent the vinous fermentation. Many other observers have also found organisms in fluids from hermetically-sealed flasks which had been strictly subjected to the conditions prescribed by Schwann; and that not unfrequently when the change which the fluid had undergone was of a putrefactive rather than of a fermentative cha- racter. Amongst those who have obtained these posi- tive results may be named Mantegazza, Pouchet, Joly, Musset, Wyman, Bennett, Child, and others—including even Pasteur himself’. But, as soon as M. Pasteur discovered that organisms were undoubtedly to be met with under these con- ditions, and irrespective of the limitations established by Schwann, he sought to include all such exceptional cases under a new general rule. After further experi- ments he came to the conclusion that living organisms might be encountered in almost any suitable neutral or slightly alkaline solution, which had been submitted to Schwann’s conditions, though, on the contrary, they were not to be met with when the solutions employed had an acid reaction. This rule was represented by M. Pasteur to be absolute. And, although the results of 1 As it would be impossible to give any adequate account of all these valuable experiments, we must refer the reader to the works, already cited, in which they are detailed. 346 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. the investigators above mentioned did not permit them to come to a similar conclusion, still M. Pasteur’s reputation as an exact and brilliant experimenter has been all-powerful, and the majority of readers have, apparently, been only too willing to believe implicitly in conclusions which they may have found to be com- patible with their own theories or prejudices. They have not hesitated to explain away results of a contradictory nature, on the ground that those who made the ex- periments had not taken sufficient care to perform them in a thoroughly stringent manner, or else on the supposition that the organisms which they had found in their experimental fuids were not living. ‘Was it | certain that the flasks had been hermetically sealed? Had the air been sufficiently calcined? Were the organisms which had been seen really alive?’ Such were the questions and doubts that were continually addressed to persons who chanced to get results at all different from those of M. Pasteur. His experiments and reasonings have again and again been quoted as alike unanswerable. Nevertheless, I hope to be able to show that his conclusions are rendered untenable in the face of further experiments, and that M. Pasteur was not even entitled to draw the conclusions which he did draw from his own experiments. Assumptions have occasionally been inserted, in his chain of reasoning, as though they were established facts, and his whole argument has, therefore, been rendered weak and vulnerable, ‘by ily substituted hich in other itions;, whilst we to be met is substituted | | nents, He fa tr, in the p mses, On the other imanisms were Naked flasks. ¢ *S—~Gruith re Very proli held infusoria MNehed the sy 1 cr wm Voi Yin Clomale del] pt, 4, By Reng. toy ALE de Phy, ices, They : a contraiy ty O Made the g Care tO perig | ry Or else on ty they had fou iving, ‘Wai retically sale! od? Were tk y alive? Sa vere continu et results til is experimiss been quottté | ype to be abe! untenable # é THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 347 Although the presence of air within the closed flasks has generally been considered essential, still it had been shown by Fray 1, even before the time of Schwann, that atmospheric air might be replaced by other gases, such as hydrogen or nitrogen, and that even then (with the method of closing the vessels at the time in vogue) living organisms were subsequently to be met with in the infusions. More recently Prof. Mantegazza* and M, Pouchet ? showed that oxygen gas might be success- fully substituted for atmospheric air, in experiments which in other respects complied with Schwann’s con- ditions; whilst Dr. Child‘ has also shown that organisms are to be met with when either oxygen or nitrogen is substituted for atmospheric air in similar experi- ments. He failed to get any positive results, how- ever, in the presence of carbonic acid or hydrogen gases. On the other hand, it was thought by Burdach * that organisms were not procurable unless the hermetically- sealed flasks contained a certain amount of air. He says :—‘ Gruithuisen discovered that infusions, other- wise very prolific (those of hay, for example), did not yield infusoria in glass vessels in which the stopper touched the surface of the fluid.’ In a comparatively reg sur l’origine des corps organisés et inorganisés,’ Paris, 1821, PP- 5 as ek, dell. R. Istituto ao t. iii, 1851. 3* Compt. Rend.’ (1858), t *« Essays on Physiol. eet oF ed., 1869, p. 114. 5« Traité de Physiologie’ (Transl. by Jourdan), 1837, t. 1 p. 16. 348 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. recent paper by Prof. Wyman’, also, in giving an account of experiments which were more than usually productive, he says, ‘The amount of infusion used was from one-twentieth to one-thirtieth of the whole capacity of the flask;” the object of employing this comparatively small quantity of fluid being, as he adds, ‘to have the materials exposed to as large a quantity of air as possible.’ These facts and reasonings were consistent enough with the view that putrefactive and fermentative changes were incited in the organic fluids under the influence of the oxygen in the air above them*: and this has been the doctrine most in vogue amongst those who have believed in the tie of the de zovo origination of living things. It had been stated by Spallanzani that whilst organisms were procurable from hermetically-sealed flasks in which the air was somewhat rarified, they were not to be met with when the rarefaction was extreme, or where a vacuum existed*, Although this was a conclusion which seemed to be generally accepted‘, still, on re- 1* American Journal of Science,’ vol. xxxiv., July, 1862. * Thus Gerhardt says (‘ Chimie Organique,’ ee t. iv. p. 537) :-—‘ Cet oxygene est en effet la cause premitre de s les sheeaaieees de fermentation et de putréfaction.’ Dr. Child’s ee showing that organisms might be found even in presence of pure nitrogen gas, were two or three years subsequently to those we are now alluding to by Prof. em ®* See ‘ Obs. et exp. sur les Animalcules,’ p. 140 ea: as for instance, rejected as preposterous the notion that organisms could be expected to occur under such conditions, in some experiments made by M. Milne-Edwards (see ‘ Nouvelles Experiments,’ 7 gt the sealing geled and at snpler process cling the flas tat the presenc ginetimes prov uute possible 1 ary stages of tation of rearra tisolyed organ eit permit tty could have tage the va, "Sldual pases | ~ Vndye amoy i Wn 1a, Aaah Phy ly j] tte Pop hat Putrefacti In the ora In the air aby most in Vogue | e possibility rhilst organism flasks in whid ere not tok reme, Of wiet 5 a conclu i. still, 02 tt 1862. ; t, iv. P- §3/”" les phe ments, shows en gi bri alist THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 349 flection, it appeared to me to be one which might very possibly be erroneous. Putrefactive or fermentative changes might not always be initiated by contact of organic matter with oxygen or any other gas,—it might occasionally be de- pendent upon the inherent instability of the organic matter itself. Independently of the fact, therefore, that the sealing of the flask after all the air had been expelled and during ebullition of the fluid, was a much simpler process than having to admit calcined air and sealing the flask after it had cooled, it seemed likely that the presence of a vacuum might, for other reasons, sometimes prove to be a great advantage. quite possible that the diminution of pressure in the It appeared early stages of the experiment might favour the ini- tiation of rearrangements amongst the molecules of the dissolved organic substances, whilst the absence of air might permit these changes to go much further than they could have done if calcined air had been present, because the vacuum would afford a space into which residual gases might collect without at once inducing an undue amount of pressure within the flaskk'. Ex- 1864, p. 12, note); whilst on another page he says:—‘ La présence de lair parait étre l'une des conditions fondamentales de la fermentation. Plus il est abondant plus elle semble active. Si on le confine, ou s'il manque, cet acte chimique est paralysé ou absolument entravé.’ (p. 156.) * T was actually led to adopt this oe modification, perhaps, by mere chance. In the spring of last year Mr. Temple Orme, of ek College, had kindly undertaken ns perform some experiments with me bearing upon this subject. One day, however, he told me he ‘ 350 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. cessive pressure certainly does occur, and occasionally it has been so extreme as to cause a rupture of the vessel!, The tension within the flask was thought likely to be especially unfavourable to the occurrence of fermen- tation or putrefaction, since it had been experimentally proved by Mr. Sorby? that pressure does undoubtedly influence ‘chemical changes taking place slowly,’ and which are therefore ‘probably due to weak or nearly counterbalanced affinities.’ This influence of pressure in checking chemical change is more especially seen in cases where the chemical actions are accompanied by So that, as Mr. Sorby adds, ‘it may cause a compound to be permanent, which would otherwise be decomposed.’ the evolution of a gas, For these reasons I was led to adopt the following method of experimentation :— After each flask had been thoroughly cleaned with had boiled an infusion of hay for four hours, and had then hermetically sealed the neck of the flask whilst ebullition continued. This he did as a sort of In this way a more or less perfect vacuum was procu tentative experiment; but it was then, on ‘thinking over the ee ae I resolved to give the plan a thorough trial, as it appeared to by so doing I should be working under conditions which were aaa) in accordance with the theory of evolution. ; performed four experiments at that time in concert wit Temple Orme, with hay infusions, which had been boiled for four hours, ae had then been sealed up im vacuo. In each of these fluids, organisms were found after a com- paratively short time. hese were the first experiments performed under such conditions. In my subsequent work I have not had the benefit o rme’s personal assistance, although I have frequently pnw by suggestions which he has made. ‘ Essays on Phy ee pte and ed., 1869, pp. 113, ? Bakerian Lecture ‘On the ect Correlation of Ree and Chemical Forces.’ eg! of oe val Society, 1863, pp. 546 and 539-) ey 4 tis situatic oatinuously fc es At f ail (till sor i pocure the | fe boiling wa wiolence Over neatly attenua lime of anot tevation, Th ito the flame ightly moved ther the vic lon-pipe fam ted it herm te heat Was j be fag vhs a littl They, Nay nis ay Weak or re ENCE Of presyp Specially Seen i accompanie jy Sorby adds, nt, which wail easons I was ki imentation- ily cleaned wit} ad then hermett inued. In this wy! ; he did as a itd over the subject, ed to mé™ THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 351 boiling water, three-fourths of it was filled with the fluid which was to be made the subject of experiment. With the aid of a small hand blow-pipe and the spirit- lamp flame, the neck of the flask’, about three inches from its bulb, was then drawn out till it was less than a line in diameter. The neck having been cut across in this situation, the fluid within the flask was boiled continuously for a period of from ten to twenty minutes. At first, ebullition was allowed to take place rapidly (till some of the fluid itself frothed over) so as to procure the more thorough expulsion of the air; then the boiling was maintained for a time at medium violence over the flame of a spirit-lamp, whilst the greatly attenuated neck of the flask was heated in the flame of another spirit-lamp placed at a suitable elevation. The steam for a time poured out violently into the flame of the lamp; and whilst my assistant slightly moved the other lamp, so as to diminish still further the violence of the ebullition, I directed the blow-pipe fame upon the narrow neck of the flask, and sealed it hermetically. When the orifice was closed, the heat was immediately withdrawn from the body of the flask. After a little practice I soon became able to procure in this way a tolerably perfect vacuum. Even though the vessels were so small, momentary ebullition could generally be renewed again and again for the space of 1 athe : They were generally small, capable of containing from three-quarters of an ounce to one ounce and a half of fluid. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 352 five minutes after they had been hermetically sealed, by the mere application of one of my fingers, which had been dipped in cold water, to a portion of the glass above the level of the fluid. ‘The water-hammer effect was also very obvious, in those which were tested in this fashion. . I believe that an almost perfect vacuum can be produced in this way. During the first violent ebullition the air is driven out of the flask by the fluid, and as ebullition is continuously kept up after this till the flask is hermetically sealed, there is always an outpouring of heated vapour, and no opportunity for re-ingress of air. But even, if in any given case, the vacuum should not. prove to be absolute, it does not seem to me that there would be any material abate- ment from the severity of the conditions which strict experimentation would demand, If, on the one hand, absolutely the whole of the air had not been expelled from the flasks during the process of ebullition, what remained would necessarily be mixed up with a very much larger quantity of continually renewed steam, and the effect would probably be that any living things would be just as effectually and destructively heated in this as if they were lodged in the boiling solution itself; whilst if, on the other hand, the boiling had been arrested for one or two seconds before the complete closure of the almost capillary orifice at the mouth of the flask, and any air had entered, it would have had first to pass through the blow-pipe flame, and - an yaould be TS sitions for a ti ter the flash ~ qeationed, they te temperature tare been suspe! immersed in a Wi itas | have bee Thich they hay ; Whenever he d iferent localities, th vacuum Cin he first Vike K by the iy UD after this i re is always a ) Opportunity f Y given case, t lute, it does af - material abt ions which sti vn the one hat ‘ot been expel ebullition, mi THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 353 then through the white-hot capillary orifice—it would, in fact, have been calcined as in Schwann’s experiment. The conditions of the experiment would thus have been no less severe, and the only effect would be that the vacuum (with which | prefer to work) would have been rendered by so much the less complete. ‘These remarks are made with the view of meeting possible criticism. It should be remembered, however, that M. Pasteur always adopted this method when he wished to preserve solutions for a time zz vacuo}. After the flasks had been prepared in the way above mentioned, they were kept in a warm place in which the temperature could be maintained at night. Some have been suspended in the air, whilst others have been immersed in a water-bath heated by a spirit-lamp. So far as | have been able to ascertain, the temperature to which they have been subjected has mostly ranged 1 Whenever he desired to make comparative trials with the air of become filled with the ordinary air of the respective places. After this had been done the flasks were re-sealed and kept for future observation of their contained fluids. M. Pasteur, M. Pouchet, and others who adopted this method, carried away their experimental fluids in vacuo, during a two or three days’ journey to the Alps or to the Pyrenees, and it never seemed to have occurred to either of them that evolutional changes might be taking place during the interval. M. Pasteur, in fact, habitually shut his eyes to all such possibilities ; they did not come within the range of what he considered possible. Such thoughts might, however, have suggested themselves to M. Pouchet and others, had they not imagined that evolution in vacwo was an impossibility. WOE. Te Aa 354 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. between 75°-86 F (23°-29°C), though occasionally it has been even higher than this. Sometimes the flasks have been exposed to the lower temperature and some- times to the higher, and I suspect that a variation of this kind may perhaps be more favourable for the production of evolutional changes than maintenance at a constant temperature. In detailing the results of the following experiments, I. shall not enter into any minute description of the organisms found. The main object throughout has been to obtain evidence on the subject as to whether a de novo evolution of living things could or could not take place. Occasionally only small portions of the experimental fluids have been examined. If, for instance, what was found in the first few drops of the fluid left no doubt in my mind as to the nature and abundance of some living things contained therein, the remaining portions of the fluid were frequently not scrutinized. Seeing that M. Pasteur and others admit that organ- isms are to be met with in neutral or slightly alkaline fluids, treated in the manner adopted by Schwann’, I will only mention the fact that neutral solutions of hay, mutton, beef, and other substances have also readily yielded organisms in the course of a few days when treated in the manner just described. With respect to acid solutions, however, M. Pasteur’s verdict + } +] ‘Jered 1M. Pasteur’s explanation of this fact will be subseq con TH. . pest A ‘ the sterility ql “ jowel ors acd uid | rhe latter sti fel, howeve! ip experience 0 » be altogether {ite fuid emp! ieither sin} utenability of trsterlity of a A—Experime temperature ¢ itlin which th - teltids Were ¢ ts 1— Fluids "ganic matey tp ‘riment I LER inal tina, S the Tature a ta Vatiat VOurable fr t 1 Maintenans ‘ing B Cxperinny scription of ff ; throughou by - AS tO whether; uld or could nj | portions of tk If ft few drops of t ) the nature a mined, ‘ined thereia, ti | > frequently tp dmit that of" slightly jy all i by Schwatl tral golutioss quent oil ny : THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 355 is different. ‘These,’ he says, ‘are uniformly sterile ; and the sterility is to be accounted for by the fact that all the lower organisms and their germs are destroyed in an acid fluid raised to the boiling point.’ The latter statement seems to be quite true; the former, however, is one which has been negatived by the experience of others, and which now may be shown to be altogether erroneous. Alterations in the nature of the fluid employed, or in the method of experimenta- tion—either singly or in combination—easily show the untenability of M. Pasteur’s conclusion with respect to the sterility of acid fluids. A.—Experiments in which the fluids were raised to a temperature of 212°F for from 10 to 20 minutes, and in which the flasks were hermetically sealed whilst the fluids were still boiling. Serres a.—Fuids employed being filtered infusions, containing organic matter in solution and having an acid reaction. Experiment 1. A closed flask containing a very strong infusion of hay (boiled for five minutes), to which had been added syth part of carbolic acid, was opened twelve days after it had been hermetically sealed. The solution remained quite clear for the first four days, but on the fifth day a small quantity of a Powdery sediment was observed, and also one small, grey, Hake-like mass. On the seventh day more minute Aaa 356 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. flakes were noticed, and also a slight general turbidity of the fluid. The turbidity and deposit having slightly increased, the flask was opened on the twelfth day. The vacuum was found to have been only very slightly impaired; and the reaction of the fluid was still very strongly acid. On microscopical examination of some of the deposit there were found, amongst granular flakes and aggregations, a large number of Torwla cells of most various shapes and sizes; also, in the midst of granule- heaps, many large, rounded or ovoidal, densely granular, Fie. 23. Organisms found in an Infusion a Hay, plus one-twentieth part of Carbolic Acid. (x 800.) nucleated bodies—whose average size was z300° in diameter, though there were many much larger, and others evenless than half this size. Intertwined amongst the granular matter also were a large number of algoid filaments zo}o0" 10 diameter, containing seg- mented protoplasmic contents. There were also in the fe vious!) C ae (isi nical 0 the pearance T the gurtace oe manifest 0 wk of the flas emit a most : \licroscopica wey large num sme straight ; thes exhibitir with a thi Llkp, PN | Lut ee Neg ‘ Mel Only Very sy i Uid wag stil] : of Some of " | Tanular fakes ula cells of ths Midst of Pram | , densely Brann THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 357 fluid itself a number of medium-sized, unsegmented Bacteria, whose movements were somewhat languid 1. Experiment 2. A closed flask containing a filtered infusion? of turnip, was opened five days after it had been hermetically sealed. On the second day after the flask had been sealed, the previously clear solution began to exhibit a cloudy appearance. The next daya reticulated scum was seen on the surface of the fluid, which gradually became more manifest on the two following days. When the neck of the flask was opened, its contents were found to emit a most foetid, sickly odour. Microscopical examination revealed Bacteria, and a very large number of Vibriones—mostly without joints— some straight and others bent, some motionless and others exhibiting languid movements. These, mixed up with a thickly interlaced network of Leptothrix 1 This anee was one of a series of six, in which the same hay solution was employed (see Appendix C, pp. xlii-xlvi). A flask in which the hay ee had been boiled without any addition of carbolic acid, and which had been sealed after the solution had become cool and the flask was full of ordinary air, yielded no organisms. 2 This and other infusions of a similar nature have been prepared by cutting a portion of white turnip into small thin slices, and then pour- ing warm water upon them (in a suitable vessel) up to rather above the level which they alone had rea e infusions were then allowed to stand near a fire for three or ae hours, so as to keep them at a temperature of from 110°-130°F. Nothing is easier than to obtain negative results in such experiments: it is only necessary to use weak infusions, more especially if, during their preparation, they have been kept for a prolonged period at a temperature near to that of boiling water, instead of at a heat which can be supported by the finger. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 358 filaments, constituted the reticulated pellicle which was seen on the surface. The Leptethrix fibres were partly plain, and partly segmented; they presented—except in respect of their length—an appearance almost pre- SEE Ve \ SEAN =: 5G ZT a <4 \ Y) S\N sey! cM ry A AS > G —\ yY, fa o \, ; INNS rae x Sf Pass) ; PSEA ee KY SEeS ae — : =a) a Bee is BA \VerBery i> Fic. 24. Bacteria, Vibriones, and Leptothrix filaments met with in a Turnip Infusion which had been only five days in vacuo. (xX 800. cisely similar to the Vibriones. The long filaments seemed, in fact, to be only developed forms of the shorter rod-like bodies. Experiment 3. A closed flask containing an infusion of turnip!, was opened seventeen days after it had been hermetically sealed. The fluid never exhibited any distinct turbidity, and no pellicle formed on the surface; there was, however, an irregular covering of the bottom of the flask by fine granular matter, with here and there a small patch of filamentous-looking substance. No bad odour was perceived when the flask was opened. 1 See note 2, p. 357. a — yuteri pgerinen gtumip WAS vemetically S€¢ The solution as covered by Qn microsc¢ fund to contat ity active Ba ws also made wal transpare: tions this uni iheterogenetic iscribed heres Liperiment = 5 Stn of trip : ‘etically se Tes Soh Rigas lose ly. Se in a Turnip Infusn X 800.) ( long filaments 1s of the short! g an infused ter it had bet | turbidity ) a mall gq odou! er THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 359 Unfortunately, just as I was proceeding to examine the contents microscopically, nearly all the fluid was lost, including the filamentous-looking masses. Exami- nation of a few drops of the fluid which remained showed a very large number of plastide-particles and Bacteria. Experiment 4. A closed flask containing an infusion of turnip was opened seven days after it had been hermetically sealed. The solution itself was much clouded, and its surface was covered by a thick gelatinous pellicle. On microscopical examination of the fluid it was found to contain a multitude of plastide-particles and very active Bacteria. The thick gelatinous pellicle was also made up of an aggregation of these in the usual transparent mucoid material. In very many situ- ations this uniform pellicle was undergoing a process of heterogenetic organization, such as will be more fully described hereafter. Experiment 5. A flask containing a very strong infu- sion of turnip was opened fifteen days after it had been hermetically sealed. The solution itself was very cloudy, and there was on its surface a thick coriaceous sort of pellicle marked by more closely-set aggregations or islets of denser growth. On microscopical examination the fluid was found to contain a multitude of plastide-particles and very active Bacteria. "The Bacteria were almost more active than any I had before seen, and there were many different kinds. 360 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, ——_____ Some exhibited rapid serpentine movements, accom- panied by flexions of the two segments of which they are composed; whilst the movements of others were rapidly progressive in straight or curved lines. The pellicle was made up mainly of simple Leptothrix filaments (mostly without joints or evidences of seg- mentation); and the thicker islets were found to be produced by a more luxuriant growth in these situations of densely interwoven filaments, The pellicle was found to be so tough and elastic that some of it could only be mounted as a micro- scopical specimen after it had been compressed for an hour or two, by placing a small weight on the covering glass. It would be useless to quote other experiments of the same kind, though many others have been made with similarly positive results. ‘Those in which a hay infusion acidified by carbolic acid has been employed are most especially interesting. In no case has a properly prepared infusion of turnip failed to yield an abundance of living organisms in the course of from two to six days, although the reaction of the infusion has always been decidedly acid. A distinct pellicle, however, only forms occasionally. If a clear solution becomes turbid in a few days, with or without the formation of a thick pellicle, and if on microscopical examination the cause of the turbidity or the constituents of the pellicle have been found to be Bacteria, Vibriones, or Leptothrix fila- ion bas tak 7. could a cle ys, become | if Buteria ? H ach a solution ) Vihimes, and ithough in the ~ nents of the co tacely disting tat of others lovements we That the Vesse! Yew Was in te thorough! Im, agree bag (h Te found toh these Situatog Ih and eg das a mi npressed fora On the covery experiments @ been made wit ha hay infusion employed # has a prop 1 an abun pis ppl THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 36% ments, no fair critic could reasonably object to the in- ference that the organisms found were living, simply because they only exhibited languid movements more or less indistinguishable from mere molecular or Brownian movements. The property of reproduction is a fun- damental attribute of living things; the power of performing extensive movements is not. ‘That repro- duction has taken place must be obvious to all. How else could a clear fluid, within an hermetically-sealed vessel, become turbid owing to the presence of myriads of Bacteria? How else could a thick pellicle form on such a solution composed of densely interlaced Bacteria, Vibriones, and Leptothrix filaments? And, moreover, although in the fluid from some of the flasks the move- ments of the contained Bacteria were so languid as to be scarcely distinguishable from Brownian movements, in that of others (as, for instance, in Exps. 4 and 5) the movements were very active and unmistakeably vital. That the vessels were in no way cracked, and that the vacuum was in some cases still partially preserved, I have thoroughly satisfied myself!. For the rest, the 1 This is easily done by carefully heating the end of the neck of the = aa breaking it), and then softening it with the blow-pipe nking of the softened glass is a sure sign that the vacuum is still mye or less Saale The amount of gas liberated in different cases varies very m n many instances it is not suffi- cient to establish an saepaon one the external atmospheric pressure, though occasionally (even when the fluids were originally contained in vacuo) the internal tension from liberated gases exceeds the external atmospheric pressure. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 362 experiments can be easily repeated by any one who is desirous of seeing such results for himself. In the next series of experiments, ammoniacal and other saline solutions have been employed. At present, we have to do with these simply as acid solutions in which living organisms have been procured. The pre- sence of living organisms in such solutions, after ebulli- tion and other proper precautions, being, in accordance with the admissions of M. Pasteur, only compatible with the de zovo origination of those which first appear. I was induced to employ saline solutions for various In the first place, after having read M. Pas- teur’s statements, concerning the growth and develop- reasons. ment of Fungi which had been p/aced in saline solutions}, it occurred to me that it would be a subject of much interest to determine whether any evidence could be obtained, tending to show that organisms might even be evolved de wovo in certain fluids of a similar character. This, in fact, seemed to be a problem of very great im- portance; for, if otherwise suitable, the employment of such saline solutions would be attended by certain advantages. It appeared likely that the saline mate- rials in solution would be far less injured by the high temperature of 212°F than organic substances. We should thus, also, best prepare ourselves to be brought face to face with the problem—Whether the pre-existence of organic matter, which has been elabo- 1 Loccci, 425: 4 “Dase “i ‘ing g th cleme wioubtedly CO! wing experim itich more OF vey large f nmed producti te way already Series b,—. Experiment t, ifertic and ar : i) Was Open, led, A small am tly collected “10 general "Spend it y Ents € of the " Sone “Nitin AMOniacy ay DS, after chy in ACCOrdang nly compat 3€ which fy Ons for variou r read M, Pa 1 and develop line solutioss, abject of mua lence could b might even! nilar characte very great ih emp. Joymest ed by cet saline malt ured M f a iC gubsta f selves “woette a5 bee® oe iN THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 363 rated in pre-existing organisms, is, at present, absolutely necessary for the de ovo origination of living things ; or whether, in fact, these may arise, more or less directly, by changes taking place in an aggregation of new-formed molecules of an organic type! At present, however, no special precautions have been taken to ensure the purity of the chemical sub- stances employed. ‘These may, and sometimes did undoubtedly contain organic impurities, so that the fol- , lowing experiments are simply quoted as instances in which more or less acid fluids, containing at all events a very large proportion of saline ingredients, have proved productive of living organisms when treated in the way already described. Series 6.—Saline Solutions having an acid reaction. Experiment 1. A closed flask containing a solution of ferric and ammonic citrate? in distilled water (gr. x. to Zj.) was opened 29 days after it had been hermetically sealed. A small amount of powder-like sediment had gra- dually collected at the bottom of the flask, though there was no general turbidity of the fluid. Before the flask was opened it was ascertained that the vacuum was still * These having themselves arisen by the combination of some of the dissociated elements of the saline substances employe Some of the purest that could be obtained, aes Messrs. Hopkin and Williams. 364 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. partially preserved. The reaction of the fluid was found to remain slightly acid. On microscopical examination of the sediment, Bac- teria were found, having moderately active movements though they were not very numerous. many granular aggregrations, from the midst of which There were were growing Leptothrix filaments, though the organisms Fic. 25. Torule, Leptothrix, and Bacteria found in simple Solution of Ferric and Ammonic Citrate. (x 800.) which were most abundant were Toru/a cells of different sizes, many of which were provided with a segment across their short diameter, whilst each half contained a nuclear particle. These Torwla cells had a uniform very faint greenish hue, and homogeneous contents. They often existed in groups of 12-20, or more. Experiment 2. A closed flask containing a solution of ferric and ammonic citrate, together with a few minute fibres of deal wood (much less than half a grain), was opened 42 days after it had been hermetically sealed. The fluid continued clear and there was no pellicle on the surface, though, after the first two weeks a slight Amongst the ¢ st nn in | nirenely active fhments, ssdoo uipuscles, abou _] () Dan i, Leptotbriye Teng a Wood, 7 Anm : te Midst of wig rh the Organi ple Solution df 800.) sells of differ! | vith a seg “half conta | had a nif efls neous cot THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 365 deposit began to collect at the bottom of the flask, which slowly increased in quantity. On opening the flask the reaction of the fluid was found to be still slightly acid; and on microscopical examination of the deposit several different kinds of organisms were discovered in and amongst the granular ageregations of which it was in great part composed. Many minute fragments of deal wood—dotted ducts, &c.—were also intermixed. Amongst the organisms were perfectly-formed Bacteria, about -J,,” in length, which were very numerous and extremely active; several long unsegmented Leptothrix filaments, s;257” in diameter; many oat-shaped Torula corpuscles, about ;2,9” in length; three or four spherical Fic. 26. Bacteria, Leptothrix, Torule, and other organisms found in a Solution of Ferric and Ammonic Citrate, plus some minute fragments of deal Wi x ood. or ovoid fungus-spores, each having a large central nucleus, and others rather smaller, having granules within instead of a distinct nucleus; also, partly imbedded in one of the granular aggregations was a 366 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. distinct cellular body, ,o49” in diameter, having a sharply-defined border and finely-granular contents, A thick hyaline capsule seemed to shut it off from the granular matrix in which it was imbedded. And, lastly, there were a number of bodies closely resembling one of the simplest kinds of Desmids. Some of them were single ovoidal bodies, about ass” in length, consisting of an oat-shaped mass of faintly greenish protoplasm within a larger delicately hyaline envelope. Others were com- posite, and one mass was seen composed of four much larger segments !, in the midst of which was a large nucleus. Experiment 3. A closed flask containing a solution of potash-and-ammonia alum, and of tartar emetic 4 was opened 28 days after it had been hermetically sealed. The fluid then had a decidedly acid reaction. The solution continued clear throughout ; there was no trace of a pellicle and no deposit at the sides, though * Organisms closely resembling these have frequently been met with in solutions similar to the above, even when the solutions have been exposed to much higher temperatures (see vol. ii. chap. x. Exps. 8, 9, 11 and 12). And in a flask containing an inoculated solution of s case, however, the associated with a number of more aioe Torula cells. The green organisms of the iron solutions bear some resemblance to the Desmids of the genus Arthrodesmus, and to the Pediastree of the genus Scenodesmus. uantities were, unfortunately, not measured. The water used. was not distilled, but was a pure drinkable water. ne ganles 4 li t si00 in di lg met with Alun . exhibi iting ster. 1. ules "ay, Conte, leus, A ti ) m the Stan 4, lastly the Ng One Of thy -m Were sng sisting of » Oplasm with 1ers Were cop, L of four muc ng a solution urtar emetic, | hermeticaly ‘id reaction, ut; there ws 2 sides, thoi tly been mel wi tions have be 1m we of bes The patel # THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 367 4 whitish flocculent mass was seen at the bottom of the flask after the first fortnight, which gradually increased, and at last formed a mass about 2” in diameter. On microscopical examination, the white mass was found to be made up of aggregations of colourless particles, varying much in size and shape, and im- bedded (4) in a distinct hyaline jelly-like material. The granules were highly refractive, altogether ir- regular in shape, and they varied in size from Sueur. to ” in diameter. Though most of them were Fic. 27. Fungus met with in a solution containing Potash-and-Ammonia Alum, with Tartar Emetic. (x 600.) motionless and imbedded in the jelly, very many were seen exhibiting active and independent movements , some of these were in the form of little double spherules (d), and a very few others resembled Bacterva about =5,5” in diameter, though they did not possess the accustomed joint. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 368 Three fungus-spores with thick double walls were Mt seen. s359 in diameter, Within one of them there were only a number of Each of these was about granular particles (c), but within each of the other two there was a large and somewhat irregular nuclear mass, In addition there was found the complete fungus which is represented in the figure (a), with all its spores, and in a portion of one of the granular aggrega. tions, a mass of about thirty spores seemed to be under- tion of mucoid material through which some fine granules were disseminated. Tsay going evolution, by a Experiment 4. A closed flask containing a solution of neutral ammonic tartrate and neutral sodic phos- phate! was opened on the 75th day after it had been sealed 2, Before the opening of the flask it was ascertained that the vacuum had been well preserved. The reaction of the fluid was still slightly acid. For a long time the contents of the flask seemed to remain unaltered, though for the last few weeks a very small amount of greyish deposit had collected at the bottom of the vessel. When examined microscopically this deposit was found to be principally made up of amorphous granules, n the proportion of gr. xv. of the former to gr. v. of the latter in one ounce of distilled water. 2 The flask having been kept during this time in a warm water-bath which was constantly maintained at a temperature of 95-90 rola she ° By the inbending of the neck of the flask when heated. It had been kept with its neck immersed in the fluid, so that if this had become cracked the bath fluid would have been sucked into the flask. { furl obtained fi vi singly and ting was met ¥ me of thi muted as a t igheerine and i'tvo weeks it mased in size Weting-glas, Liveriment 5. ‘tonic tartra Ne ; days afte nucoid Materia lisseminated Ng a solutig | ral sodic phos er it had bea as ascertainel . The reactio 2 Jong time ti altered, thou punt of gree e vessel s_ deposit © phous ratte of the Ite #” war a a 0 f. pe 0 i ae THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 369 colourless and irregular in size, amongst which were a number of minute Toru/a-cells, scattered here and there oS ee ° 22 * CP o Fic, 28: Torule obtained from a Solution of Ammonic Tartrate and Sedic Phosphate. (Xx 800 both singly and in groups. No other kind of living thing was met with. Some of this granular matter with Torule was mounted as a microscopical specimen, in a mixture of glycerine and carbolic acid (16: 1), and in the course of two weeks it was found that the Torwlz had notably increased in size and in number beneath the cemented covering-glass. , Experiment 5. A flask containing a solution of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate was opened twenty days after it had been hermetically sealed. The reaction of the fluid was then decidedly acid. The fluid itself showed no signs of turbidity, and there was no trace of scum on its surface. Small whitish flocculent shreds had, however, been seen at the bottom of the flask for the last twelve or fourteen days, during which time they seemed very slowly to increase in size, Some smaller sedimentary particles were also seen, VOL, I, B b 370 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. On microscopical examination, some of the white shreds were found to be composed of comparatively large masses of small, colourless, algoid filaments ; whilst others were made up of aggregations of fungus- spores with an abundant mycelium which had been developed from them. The spores were rounded or oval, thick-walled bodies, varying very much in size. tooo in diameter Some a them were about to germinate, and these exhibited a rudimentary truncated outgrowth at one extremity 1, whilst others had germinated into a fungus of the Pewicillium type. In one mass the mycelium had produced four or five much larger fila- ments, terminating in artichoke-like heads of different sizes, bearing naked spores*. All gradations in size ' Some of my critics speak of this as a ‘hilum,’ and look upon its presence as unmistakeable evidence that the spore came from a parent Fungus. At all events, such a ‘hilum’ is not presented by very many spores, and its absence from any of them does not seem reconcilable with this hypothesis. Other evidence shows unmistakeably that it is a rudimentary outgrowth, r enting merely the first commencement of the mycelial filament w 2 repre hich eae develops. her critics seem to think it impossible that such heads of fructifi- cation could be developed in a fluid, and therefore express ominous doubts about my statements. Fungi of this type, however, were described several years ago by M. Pouchet (* Nouvelles Expériences,’ Paris, 1864, p- 180), who says :—‘ Parmi les espéces Sub aete ee celle & laquelle je mune. Elle offre un mycélium & filaments tres-fins, trés long, rameux, articulés, fistuleux. Les pédicelles sont simples, excessivement gréles, articulés, long et offrent cing & six cloisons. Le pinceau terminal est petit, peu rameux, et produ uit une énorme quantité de spores arrondies. : Cette esptce n’est nullement decrite, ni dans les oeuvres de Bulliard, ni dans celles de Paulet ou de Corda.’ | foes found in a Sc higate, Transit thdeeloped Myce 8 vere see] t outgrowth i erminated One mass fk} luch larger fl, ads of differ dations in six and look uponii came from a pate skeably that tt i + commencenll | of fu ds ch hea ie re express ° ad es,’ Patt ih cr THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 371 and appearance existed between the algoid-looking filaments and those which were more obviously of a mycelial nature. Fic. 29, Fungus found in a Solution containing Ammonic Tartrate and So Phosphate. Transitions between small Conferva-like filaments and well-developed Mycelium. ( x 600.) A small number of granules and particles of various shapes were seen, though, as in the last solution, there was nothing resembling a Bacterium. Spherules which seemed to represent different stages, in the development of the fungus-spores were met with, varying in size from that of an almost inappreciable speck to that of the perfect spore—which itself varied considerably in size even at the time that it began to germinate. In one of these fungus-spores Which was about halfgrown, the nuclear particle within Bba THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 372 was seen actively moving from end to end of the cell. Experiment 6. A flask containing a saturated solution of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate, prepared in the same manner as the last solution and at the same time, though opened on the thirty-fifth day, yielded no organisms of any kind. Experiment 7. A closed flask containing a solution of ammonic acetate and sodic phosphate was opened forty-two days after it had been hermetically sealed. The solution during this time had shown no signs of deposit, turbidity, or pellicle, and on microscopical examination of the fluid, no organisms of any kind were discovered. All the fluids in the experiments hitherto related were subjected to a temperature of 212°F. It has been pre- viously ascertained that none of the lower organisms which had been so treated and afterwards examined were able to survive an exposure for a few seconds to such a degree of heat. They had nearly all been destroyed, in fact, at a temperature many degrees short of this’. Many different kinds of organisms have been submitted to this test, and without the occurrence of any exceptions” ? See pp. 325-336. Re, 2 No exceptions, that is, amongst such organisms as are met with in infusions. The only known exceptions to that rule being met with in the case of seeds, naturally provided with a hard ¢esta, which had under- gone an extreme amount of desiccation (see p. 314, note 1). jig matter OF yonclude, wot pitary, that t shout exceptic giiction. TI gwinted by th ) hinself for a lon ind of organisn tied to a temp ~ Noevidence taking the ‘timents just tteview that hi I PR. Prites 0 end of f nHUrated ay : late ty b) Preparey i aNd at the a ft ; : day, Piel ining g Solatg tically Sealed, OWN No signs n Microscopie of any kind ve orto related wet [t has been pi ower organist examined Wet conds to sit! 1 destroyes i {i088 ib? pet sas are evil? , Ww note 1). iy ie ; ie i THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 373 o such a degree of heat has always proved fatal to them. Looking therefore, on the one hand, at the uniformity in the experimental evidence, which has itself extended over a wide basis, and on the other, at the comparative uniformity in fundamental nature and property existing between all the lowest kinds of living things—which are almost wholly made up of a more or less naked living matter or protoplasm—it is only reasonable for us to conclude, until direct evidence can be adduced to the contrary, that that which holds good for the many without exception, may prove to be a rule of universal application. Therefore it was that the commission appointed by the Société de Biologie (and M. Pasteur himself for a long time) assumed that none of the lower kind of organisms could survive in a fluid which was raised to a temperature of 212°F. No evidence has as yet been adduced which is capable of shaking the validity of this conclusion, so that the experiments just related afford strong evidence in favour of the view that the organisms found in my experimental fluids were there evolved de zovo. Other experiments with negative results, in the face of these, cannot prove the impossibility of such a mode of evolution. And yet the experiments of Schwann and others were deemed by many to have conclusively upset the doctrines of the evolutionists. ‘The particular fluids with which they experimented were only exposed to a temperature ot 212°F, but they worked under a set of conditions which are considered by many to be particularly adverse to the THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE: 374 occurrence of fermentation, so that they often found no organisms when their flasks were opened. But on subjecting other experimental fluids to the same tem- perature, though exposing them subsequently to quite different conditions—supposed by myself to be more favourable for the occurrence of fermentative changes —I do find organisms in the fluids when the flasks are opened. It must then never be lost sight of that the negative results of Schwann, M. Pasteur, and others, may be only applicable to the particular fluids and the particular conditions under which they worked; but the multi- tudes of positive results legitimately obtained by myself and other experimenters, must have a most important bearing upon the settlement of the general doctrine. As previously stated, M. Pasteur himself for a long time obtained only negative results in repeating the experiments of Schwann. he had generally made use of ‘eau de leviire sucrée,’ In his earlier investigations of urine, or of some other fluid which was naturally unfitted to undergo fermentative changes of marked intensity, or even to nourish the higher infusorial organ- isms 1, But there came a time when M. Pasteur chanced ! Whether the organisms found in a given fluid have been actually produced therein, or have only undergone development in it, we may, for the sake of argument, measure the evolutional capacity of a fluid by the amount and kinds of organisms which are produced in a given quantity of it, in a definite time, and at a given temperature. tainly must not judge of the evolutional qualities of a fluid by its mere tendency to emit a bad odour in a short space of time. We cer- A certain fluid igo ——— kis, of complex flu is 10 have § iferent results aplcable on tl itions—the be veel already nercome by tl ist they wer imentative cl Pe: foy Xn | Tg at the neve TS, May be onh the particu but the mul ained by mys! nost importat ral doctrine. self for a loy repeating tt -investigatin levire suet was naturll es of mat fusorial of asteur chat THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 375 to repeat his experiments, using precisely the same pre- cautions as before, and yet the results were quite different—organisms were now found in his solutions. There was one important difference, it is true. In these latter experiments, M. Pasteur had made use of milk, Now the quantity of organic matter contained in milk is, of course, very great; it isa highly nutritive and complex fluid. haps, to have suggested itself to M. Pasteur that the It might, therefore, and ought, per- different results of his later experiments were possibly explicable on the supposition that the restrictive con- ditions—the boiling of the solution, and the closed vessel already containing air—-were too potent to be . overcome by the organic matter in the one solution, whilst they were not too potent, and could not prevent fermentative changes taking place in that of the other. —urine, for instance—judged by these qualities, may be disagreeably putrescible, though its evolutional tendencies may be quite low. By many experimenters this difference has not been jaa me they seem to imagine that in employing urine they make use of a which is very favourable for such experiments forgetti no apparently ah urine is an effete Le sais Se yerhecly Sele eoinount which have already done their work in the bod t may after a short time swarm with Bacteria, ay these may be followed by fungi; but there is no comparison even as to the actual quantity of these organisms, that may be developed in Ae amounts of milk and urine respectively— when both are exposed to the air for the same time in similarly- shaped vessels, and under the same bell-jar. The milk soon becomes actually solid with fungus growths. M. Pasteur’s ‘l’eau de levire sucrée,’ by his own confession (loc. cit. note, p. 58), is never found to contain any of the higher ciliated infusoria, and though it produces fungi, they are met with in much smaller quantity than in an equal bulk of milk under similar conditions. 376 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. For if, in accordance with the belief of the evolutionists, different organic fluids have different initial tendencies to undergo fermentation (leading to the evolution of living things), it may be easily understood, that as the conditions favourable to fermentation are more and more restricted, certain of these fluids may altogether cease to undergo such changes, others may manifest them to a meagre extent, and others still, only a little more fully’. When subjected to a pressure of one atmo- sphere, do we not find that water boils at 912°F, alcohol at 173° F, and ether at 96°F? The restric- tive condition, or atmospheric pressure, is here in each case the same, only, having to do with differ- ently constituted fluids, it is natural enough to look for different results under the influence of like incident forces. Ether raised to a temperature of 100° F would rapidly disappear in the form of vapour, though no suc result would follow the heating of water to the same extent. And similarly, whilst milk might be capable of yielding organisms in Schwann’s apparatus, another fluid less rich in organic matter might fail to doso. It seems almost incredible that such considerations should not ~ 1 Referring to repetitions of Spallanzani’s experiments ss in concert with Prof. Oehl, Prof. Cantoni says (Gaz. Med. Ital. a 1868) :—‘ E in fatto, preparando diversi palloni, part scale a iluzione, riconoscemmo che, 100°, con sugo di carne a vario grado di mentre in alcune s’ aveva un pronto e ricco sviluppo di infusorj, in altre esso era tardo e scarso, ed in altre ancora mancava affatto ancor dopo molti giorni dalla preparazione.’ And even the strongest solution will _ yield similarly varying results, when ees to successively lower atmo- spheric temperatures. jiferent expla sucess 12° idimes which igthese expel i wich organism tined access nd also (cont reviously adr weenisting ge ince of the he woof of the oh M. Pa te cases in iter a gener lined Were di “tployed, el Psitive Nent ind a 10nes TYR ; In Such "Peri ‘The Cail leq i Q Yygs "iy 5 Fy ils at ah The restig re, is here i do with dife. ugh to look tr F like incideat f 100°F woul though no ut »r to the salt it be capablet . 1s, another ba : Jo so. Itset® ons should # THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 377 have suggested themselves to M. Pasteur; but yet we have no mention of them, or any evidence that they had been considered!. He explains the discrepancy between his earlier and his later experiments by reference to a completely different supposition, and, as on other occa- sions, he does not even suggest to the reader that any different explanation is possible from that which he adduces. He at once assumes that the Bacteria and Vibriones which were ultimately found in the milk used in these experiments had been derived from ‘germs’ of such organisms which either preexisted in, or had ob- tained access to this fluid before it had been heated, and also (contrary to the general rule which had been previously admitted) he assumed that such supposed preexisting germs were capable of resisting the influ- ence of the heat which causes milk to boil. No direct proof of the latter assumption was ever attempted, though M. Pasteur did afterwards endeavour to bring the cases in which organisms were to be met with under a general law: he supposed that the results ob- tained were due to the absence of acidity in the fluids employed. Neutral or slightly alkaline fluids might yield positive results in repeating Schwann’s experi- ments, because, as he alleged, the ‘germs’ of Bacteria and Vibriones were not destroyed by the temperature of 212°F in such fluids. 1 The experiments and reasonings to which I now allude are detailed in pp. 58-66 of M. Pasteur’s Memoir (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.’ 1862). THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 378 Such was the very definite statement made by M. Pasteur on the faith of a chain of evidence of which almost every link is ambiguous. He did not even allude to the desirability of making direct observations upon this subject. They lend not the least support to his assumption, however; on the contrary, they go to confirm the rule which had hitherto been generally admitted, as to the inability of any of these lower organisms to live after an exposure for even a few seconds in a fluid raised to a temperature of 212°F. { kave again and again boiled neutral and alkaline infusions containing very active Bacteria and Vibriones, and the result has always been a more or less complete disruption of the Vibriones, and the disappearance of all unmistakeable signs of life in the Bacteria!. All their peculiarly vital movements have at once ceased, and it has been shown by the evidence detailed in the last chapter, that these organisms and any ‘germs,’ visible or invisible*, by which they multiply, have been really killed by an exposure to even a much lower degree of heat. ' The results with neutral hay infusions have not seemed to differ at all from those which were obtained with slightly acid turnip infusions, or solutions of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate. See p. 318 and P- 332,noter. Itseemsa vague supposition to imagine that either Bacteria or Vibriones have germs which are in any way differently endowed from In common with other pee, living things, they are only known to multiply by Je or gemmation. The separated por- tions, however minute, would always ae the parent structure, of which, indeed, they are unaltered fragments. A Bee P..332 themselves. efof this, itW os if ie doctrine w ian truly en! ithe solution ge experime issweetened y nsalways UNT nitions una inays product ital or sligl ttbonate of lit ituently as te Tilt acid soly Cen Benen of these Ke or even a fey ture of ar} l and alkaline . and Vibrio less compe appearance of Bacteria’, Al t once cease, detailed in th any ‘ geri ply, have bs a much lowe seemed t0 if 4 turnip ne ther Bo tat a (ot THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 379 M. Pasteur approached the solution of the discrepancy in this way. His attention was arrested by the fact that milk was an alkaline fluid, because he afterwards ascertained that other alkaline fluids also yielded posi- tive results when submitted to the conditions involved in Schwann’s experiments. But having satisfied him- self of this, it was necessary for M. Pasteur to offer some explanation, if he was not prepared to yield his assent to the doctrine which he had formerly rejected. He soon found, truly enough, that the mere alkalinity or acidity of the solution was a matter of great importance in these experiments; he ascertained, for instance, that his sweetened yeast-water, naturally a faintly acid fluid, was always unproductive when submitted to Schwann’s conditions unaltered, though it was, on the contrary, always productive if it had previously been rendered neutral or slightly alkaline by the addition of a little carbonate of lime. Facts of this kind were observed so frequently as to make him come to the conclusion that whilst acid solutions were never productive in Schwann’s apparatus, any neutral or alkaline fluids might be, if they were otherwise suitable for such experiments. Then came the question as to how this was to be explained. It should be remembered that M. Pasteur was en- gaged in investigating the problem of the mode of origin of certain low organisms in organic fluids, con- cerning which so much controversy had taken place. In this controversy hitherto, it had been contended on 380 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, the one hand, that the living things met with derived their origin from pre-existing ‘germs’ that had survived all the destructive conditions to which the media sup- posed to contain them had been subjected; whilst, on the other hand, it was contended that if the media had been subjected to conditions which (by evidence the most direct and positive) had been shown to be de- structive to the lowest living things, then any such living things as were subsequently discovered in these fluids must have been evolved de wove. It was a question, therefore, on the one hand, as to the degree of ‘vital resistance’ to heat which might be displayed by the lowest living things; and on the other, as to the strength of the tendency in the organic matter of the solution to undergo changes of a fermentative cha- racter, coupled with the degree to which this molecular mobility could persist in spite of the disruptive agency of the heat to which the organic matter had been subjected. Whatever fluids are employed, if after they have been boiled and exposed to a given set of con- ditions, organisms are not found, their absence is explicable in one of two ways—that is, in accordance with either of the two opposing views. Either the heat has proved destructive to all living things in the solu- tions; or else the restrictive conditions to which the organic matter in these solutions has been exposed have been such as to prevent the occurrence of fermentative changes. Any person seriously wishing to ascertain the truth, and competent to deal with such a subject, of a psteur that 4 periments yie ere concerné rality no mor ihe. It 1s 7 pected, it is qstion of th even they t the air and be il living thin ther hand, it wy, that the fete that th btive change ANY such livin 1 these fui aS a questo gree of “yt played by th er, as to the matter of the lentative cla this molecular uptive agent] ter had bett , if after tie] in set of ol r absence i ‘n accordat — ee THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. . 381 course, would not fail to see that he was bound to give equal attention to each of these possibilities. He would have no right to assume that the probabilities were greater in favour of the one mode of explanation than they were in favour of the other; this was the very subject in dispute—this it was which had to be proved. When, therefore, it was definitely ascertained by M. Pasteur that acid solutions employed in Schwann’s ex- periments yielded negative results as far as organisms were concerned, the establishment of this fact was in reality no more favourable to the one view than to the other. pected, it is true, because—regarding it only as a It is what the panspermatists might have ex- question of the destruction or non-destruction of germs —even they had convinced themselves that calcining the air and boiling the fluids were adequate to destroy But on the other hand, it was equally open to the evolutionists to say, that the restrictive conditions employed were so all living things contained in these media. severe that they also were not surprised at the fermen- tative changes being stopped and at the consequent When positive results were obtained, however, the case be- came altogether different. inability of living things to survive in solutions which had been raised to the boiling temperature for a few minutes was absolute, so far as it had gone, and being founded on good evidence, to which M. Pasteur and others had assented, no one should have attempted to non-appearance of organisms in the solutions. The rule with regard to the 382 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. set it aside, except upon evidence equally direct and equally positive, though more extensive than that upon which the rule had been originally founded. Certainly, no one should have attempted to set it aside on the strength of indirect evidence, which, though equally capable of explanation in accordance with either one of the two opposing views, was tacitly represented to be explicable only in accordance with one of them. Such, however, was the course pursued by M. Pasteur. It will, perhaps, scarcely be credited by many that the investiga- tions of M. Pasteur, which have had so much influence, and which have been looked upon by many as models of scientific method, should really contain such fallacies. On other important occasions, however, his reasoning has been similarly defective, though he himself claimed and was believed by many to have ‘ mathematically de- monstrated ’ what he had so plausibly appeared to prove. In the present case, after his experiments with milk in Schwann’s apparatus, M. Pasteur ascertained that in other alkaline or neutral fluids, even when they had been subjected to all the conditions above mentioned, inferior organisms might be found more or less quickly. But he also discovered that even such solutions no longer yielded organisms, if instead of being subjected to a heat of 212°F they were exposed for a few minutes to a temperature of 230°F. And it was on the strength of two or three other links of such evidence as this that M. Pasteur sought to upset the rule with re- gard to the inability of inferior organisms to resist the uj resisted the ponents woul He counter aSSU neutral or alk wee greater th itd state 45 su WS NOW seen, tnditions in ¢ uch infveng, LY aS models of such fallacie his reasonity imself claimed ematically & ared to prot nts with mil tained that # en they ti ve mentions + Jess quit effet que le vinaigre.’ THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 383 destructive influence of a moist temperature of 212°F. On such evidence as this he attempted to raise the possible limit of vital resistance by 18°F, and sought to establish the rule that living organisms might survive in neutral or alkaline solutions, which had been raised to any temperature short of 230°F. He did not seem to appreciate the fact that he had less warrant for the assumption that the organisms met with in these neutral or alkaline fluids had been derived from ‘germs’ which had resisted the temperature of 212°F, than he or his opponents would have had in falling back at once upon the counter assumption, that the evolutional tendencies of neutral or alkaline fluids exposed to high temperatures were greater than those of similar fluids when in an acid state1; such neutral or alkaline fluids being, as was now seen, capable of overcoming the restrictive conditions in Schwann’s experiments and of giving ' This omission on the part of M. Pasteur is all the more remarkable in the face of facts which must have been well known to such an accom- plished chemist. Thus, Gerhardt says (‘Chimie Organique,’ — ‘Beaucoup de matiéres qui seules ou & l'état humide ne s’oxydent pas & lair, éprouv une combustion dés qu’elles se trouvent €n contact avec un alcali. Ainsil’alcohol pur se conserve a lair indéfini- tal vn ps ment et sans s’aigrir; mais, si l’on y verse un peu de potasse, il absorbe promptement de l’oxygeéne et se convertit en vinaigre et en une matitre brune résineuse. TI] est clair, Gents cela, que la potasse doit favoriser certaines fermentations, puisqu’elle favorise ee rpnon de meh et la présence de celui-ci développe les ferment says (loc. - Pp. 556):—* On sait, que les viandes et i. ae végétales i dans le vinaigre sont preservées de la décomposition, au moins pour un certain temps .. . . La plupart des acides produisent le méme 384 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. birth to organisms, by permitting the occurrence of life-evolving changes amongst the colloidal molecules contained therein. He had less right to explain the facts as he did, than the evolutionist would have had to explain them as above mentioned, because in so doing he was attempting to upset previously admitted facts on insufficient evidence, whilst the reasonings of the evolutionist would have been in every way legitimate. And yet M. Pasteur left his readers to imagine that the explanation which he had adduced was that which was alone admissible ; he did not refer to the existence of any other mode of explanation, but at once attempted to set aside the old rule. And similarly, when he as- certained that such alkaline or neutral fluids were no longer found to contain organisms if they had been previously submitted to a temperature of 230°F, he was entitled to draw no conclusion from such facts. Never- theless, M. Pasteur did assume that such ambiguous evidence entitled him to come to the conclusion that the hypothetical ‘germs’ contained in these solutions— those which were not killed, as he supposed by a tem- perature of 212°F—were destroyed by a temperature of 230°F. Such two-faced evidence is, however, worth- less for raising the standard of < vital resistance ’ to heat; and to ignore the possible differences which may exist, from the evolutionist’s point of view, be- tween acid and alkaline solutions, as M. Pasteur did, is about as reasonable as if he had imagined that because water does not boil at the temperature oe » fe 4 othet : y ich ev and ' dence yp tat OF jes in ge ait (29 » i be entrancs in a neut ai, but the pate variety tl ytin other rep {Giliated Infus woitly alkaline yeent themsel iter in a deve tt lring, The amount ~ Mduced by the by me a f Cite of whi ‘tl quantities Re in distill Deg MO, ; : 3, 18 Way legitinas hagine that ty that which ms le existence ¢ ce attempt Y, when hea fluids were 1 they had bea 230°F, he ws facts, Neve: F ich ambiguot Jusion that t se solutions ysed by ate THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 385 of 100°F, the same rule must necessarily hold good for ether. Much evidence, indeed, can be brought forward to show that even at ordinary temperatures, and under conditions in which there is a moderately free exposure to the air (and where there is therefore every facility for the entrance of germs), organisms are not only found in a neutral or slightly alkaline solution more quickly, but they are found to exist in it in much greater variety than in solutions which are slightly acid, but in other respects similar. Any of the higher forms of Ciliated Infusoria may appear in different neutral or slightly alkaline solutions, though they rarely if ever present themselves in those having an acid reaction, either in a developed or undeveloped condition—dead or living. The amount of difference that. is capable of being produced by the mere acidity of a solution was well seen by me a few months ago. Having prepared! a mixture of white sugar and ammonic tartrate, with small quantities of ammonic phosphate and sodic phos- phate in distilled water, whose reaction was found to be neutral, two similar, wide-mouthed bottles, of about three ounces capacity, were filled with this fluid. Both were kept side by side in a tolerably warm place, the mouths of the bottles being merely covered in each case by a piece of glass—after glycerine had been smeared Over the rim on which the cover rested, Although not "Dec. 23, 1869. The weather being very cold and frosty. MOE. I. CAG 386 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. hermetically sealed, these solutions were thus sufficiently protected, to prevent the access of much dust from the neighbouring fire. The fluid in one of the bottles was allowed to remain neutral, whilst to that of the other four or five drops of acetic acid were added, so as to make it yield a faintly acid reaction to test paper. The Towards the end of the fourth day the originally unaltered neutral results were quite different in the two cases. solution began to assume a cloudy appearance; this in- creased in amount during the next day, and at the close of the sixth day a thin pellicle was found on the surface, and beneath it there were some irregular, flocculent, whitish masses buoyed up by small air bubbles. Ex- amined microscopically, the pellicles and also the flocculent masses beneath were found to be made up of medium-sized plastide-particles and Bacteria, mixed with crystals of triple phosphate. There were also many scattered cells of a Torula, varying from zg5n_ tO _,1” in diameter. By this time (close of the sixth day), however, the companion solution which had been slightly acidified, had undergone scarcely any appreciable change. It was still quite clear and transparent, and there was no pellicle on the surface, though there was a very slight whitish flocculent stratum at the bottom of the bottle. Even on the twenty-first day this solution continued in much the same condition—still showing no trace of a pellicle. The fluid itself was clear, and there had been only a very slight increase in the thick- ness of the white flocculent layer at the bottom of the Lo gi on aC gc after the wed its orlg iged since this pny fom the fir a he twenty-f dud, whitish iftick floccules oistent, well- 7 hid, made up al Tnule-cells, ‘though the 1 ittal and the thinly differe "heuliar to thy (Sed in thi ‘thr in kind | ghtly Q Wi Wote ( Tow. rance s this jp Nd at the chy On the surface lar, floceule, } - bubbles, ft and also the o be made yf Bacteria, itl p ere were al I from view, inte of a forego \ifferent soi active o™ ypotsetio’ | » tO sepa , 4) of fer THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 391 2s tative tendency. On the contrary, evidence has already been adduced in this chapter to show that some acid solu- tions are most prone to undergo evolutional changes of a certain kind. These do not result in the production of living things of a high type, but rather in an abund- ance of organisms of a comparatively low type. It seems to me, however, after careful observation and experi- ment, that a neutral or slightly alkaline solution to which a few drops of acid have been added is almost always found, after a given time, to contain a notably smaller number of organisms than an equal bulk of the unaltered solution. And conversely, having an acid solution whose productiveness is known, the number of organisms found in equal bulks under similar conditions can almost always be notably increased in either one of them by the mere addition of a few drops of /:quor potass#, so as to render it neutral or slightly alkaline. This, as previously pointed out, may be interpreted as an indication that alkalinity or neutrality of the fluids is more favourable than their acidity for the occurrence of fermentative changes. And thus the fact that organisms were never met with when an acid ‘ eau de levtire sucrée’ was used in repeating the experiments of Schwann, though they were met with, on the contrary, in other experiments where portions of this same fluid had been used which had been rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of chalk, may be explained without the aid of that supposition which alone seems to have occurred to M., Pasteur. HE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 392 But, after reflection on this subject, it seemed to me quite within the range of probability, that the difference between acid and alkaline solutions as regards the number of organisms which are to be found in them, when they have been simply exposed to ordinary atmospheric conditions, might be exaggerated after they had been subjected to the temperature at which water It seemed quite possible that high temperatures might be more destructive to organic matter contained in acid solutions than when it existed in alkaline solutions. boils. Since the acid seems to exercise a certain noxious influence even at ordinary temperatures, so it may be conceived that this influence, whatever its nature, may be increased in intensity with the rise of temperature, and with the consequent greater facility for the display of chemical affinities. Hot acids will frequently dissolve metals which would remain un- affected by them at ordinary temperatures; and chemical affinities generally, are notably exalted by an increased Since the addition of an acid, there- fore, to a previously neutral or slightly alkaline fluid amount of heat. containing organic matter in solution, appears to alter its character in some mysterious way, we may assume that its action upon the unstable organic molecules goes on increasing in intensity, as the fluid becomes hotter. Thus, when two portions of a solution containing organic matter—the one neutral and the other acid—have been raised to a temperature of 212 F, the organic matter of the one has been injured only re gion yp ligh temper grease in inten: yuh high tem] i: precipitation mony with th vil the fluid ha: lsnot cause its “said, the alb Wi, or even | ~Wrased to the Ut have been fatty of acid - dininous urine “‘Wibitation > Thus th - Lemperatin ter Contained 1 in alkaline cISe a. certai 1peratures, ce, whateva with the ris reater facility ot acids wil 1 remain ut and chemict an increase n acid, there Ikaline fu! THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 393 Ly the mere action of heat; whilst that of the other solution, which has been acidified, has not only had to submit to the deleterious inhuence of the high tempe- rature, Lut also to the increased activity of the acid at this The result would be that the amount of difference existing between the two temperature. so:utions before they had been heated, would be found more or less increased after they had been exposed to the high temperature, in diiect proportion to the increase in intensity of the action of the acid produced by such high temperature. What we know concerning the precipitation of albumen in urine is quite in harmony with this view. When albumen is present, and the fluid has an alkaline reaction, mere boiling does not cause its precipitation; though, if the reaction is acid ', the albumen. present would be precipitated, when, or even before the temperature of the fluid was raised to the boiling point. Or a similar resuit might have been induced by the addition of a smail quantity of acid to a portion of a neutral or alkaline albuminous urine, which had just been boiled without a precipitation of the albumen having been brought about. Thus the addition or presence of a small quantity of acid, in conjunction with an elevated temperature, is seen to be capable of bringing about results which cannot be produced by the mere elevated tempeiature alone. But the fact that an isomeric ' Provided this was not due to the presence of a mere trace of nitric cid. 304 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. transformation of albumen can be brought about in this way—that albumen can be transformed so as to be no longer capable of remaining in solution—shows that a molecular change has been induced by the influence of the acid working at high temperatures, which neither the acid nor the heat, working alone, are capable of effecting. With the view of throwing further light on this subject, I made the following experiment on March 27, 1870:—A tolerably strong infusion of white turnip was prepared and subsequently filtered’. This had a decidedly acid reaction. It was then divided into two portions, one of which was allowed to remain unaltered, whilst to the other a few drops of /quor potasse were added, so as to give the fluid a very faintly alkaline reaction. This addition produced a slight alteration, even in the naked-eye appearance of the fluid; the faintly whitish opalescence which formerly existed disappeared, and was replaced by an equally faint brownish tinge. About an ounce of each of the two fluids was then placed separately in two small flasks. The fluids were not heated at all, but a piece of paper having been placed loosely in the neck of each, so as to exclude dust, they were exposed side by side to a temperature varying from 75° to 85° F. After twenty- four hours 2, the unaltered acid infusion merely showed 1 The turnip at this season of the year was, however, very poor and dry as compared with that which was employed in some of my earlier experiments (Experiments 2-5) during the winter months. 2 During the whole of this time the heat only varied between the limits mentioned. HE Pgs | ieacid solution. os scarcely 4PF suattwo weeks < ~ emed to be gre olition, Bit, on the san ieacid and alke bervation, I hac fio other speci ni previously ti “Mand the alk Retve flasks, ‘Udawn out ¢ ered, Thi - divided ini d to remit ops of lq a very faintly iced a slight rance of the rich former equally fait h of the td small fas ‘ece of pay sach, 908" y side to fter twenl erly $10" oot # r ye ait € h i , e i pete : THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 395 a more decided opalescence approaching to cloudiness ; though that which had been rendered faintly alkaline had a distinctly opaque whitish colour, and there was also a distinct pellicle, covering more than one-half of the surface of the fluid. In the three or four succeeding days the amount of opacity, of pellicle, and of deposit increased in both the fluids, though each of these continued to be more manifest in the alkaline than in the acid solution. After a week, however, the difference was scarcely appreciable, though on the whole, for about two weeks afterwards, the quantity of new matter seemed to be greater in the alkaline than in the acid solution. © | But, on the same morning that these two portions of the acid and alkaline infusions had been set aside for observation, I had placed with them vessels containing two other specimens of the same fluids. These had been previously treated in the following manner. The acid and the alkaline fluid were placed in their re- spective flasks, and after the necks of these had been drawn out the fluids were boiled for ten minutes. At the expiration of this time, and whilst ebullition was still continuing, the drawn-out necks of the flasks were hermetically sealed in the blow-pipe flame. These experiments were undertaken in order to show, by comparison with the other two, whether the difference produced by mere acidity or alkalinity of the solutions at low temperatures was or was not intensified by the action of heat. The flasks were all suspended in a THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 396 group at the same. time, and were, thenceforward, subjected to the same temperature. The results were as follows: After twenty-four hours the slightly alkaline fluid which had been boiled showed a slight though decided opalescence; it was, in fact, very similar in appearance to the acid solution which had not been boiled. clear as when the flask was first suspended, and it remained apparently quite unaltered, after it had been suspended a week; though the boiled alkaline solution had by this time become decidedly opaque, and also showed some flocculent matter lying at the bottom of The boiled acid solution was, however, as the vessel. And after they had been suspended rather more than three weeks, the acid solution still remained almost transparent, presenting only the faintest cloudi- ness, though with no pellicle or deposit at the bottom’. The boiled alkaline fluid, however, exhibited a totally different appearance ; it was whitish and quite opaque, there was a very thick pellicle covering part of its surface, and also some whitish sediment at the bottom of the flask. Thus the difference which already exists between alkaline and acid solutions at ordinary temperatures was seen to be most notably intensified after similar alkaline and acid solutions have been raised to a temperature of 1 This solution was, therefore, much more backward in exhibiting signs of change than were the others which had been used in Experi- ments 2 to s—a difference piobably explicable by the poorer quality of the turnip used in this last experiment (see p. 364, note 1). q glis ess prone ui, otherwise ¢ fintly alkalin fay ignored by ~ tere that the aficable only in itempted to set ‘tal resistance ? had previously - tith was most a One inds M, tina controy line solution que, and aly he bottom ¢ pended rather till remainet intest clout the bottom ited a totaly Juite opagut z part of tt + the bottol yeratures We iilar al alt pera rd ip oii ysed 1 a, oote I ual” 00 1). MeN Cng THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 307 912° F. And whilst these differences tend strongly to confirm the truth of the mode of explanation which I have suggested of the discrepancies observed by M. Pasteur when he repeated Schwann’s experiments with acid and alkaline organic infusions respectively, they may also be considered to strengthen the pro- babilities in favour of my assumption that an acid fluid is less prone to undergo those molecular changes which lead to the evolution of living things, than a fluid, otherwise similar, whose reaction is neutral or faintly alkaline. And yet, this explanation was utterly ignored by M. Pasteur; he leads his readers to believe that the Fie rieationed discrepancies were explicable only in one way; and he moreover illogically attempted to set aside a rule, concerning the limits of ‘vital resistance’ to different degrees of heat, to which he had previously assented, on the strength of evidence which was most ambiguous and inconclusive. One finds M. Pasteur, as a chemist, engaging him- selfin a controversy concerning one of the most im- portant questions in the whole range of biological Science; and yet he assumes the attitude of a man who is so convinced beforehand of the error of those who are of the opposite opinion, that he will not abide by ordinary rules of fairness; he will not even, at first, assume the possibility of the truth of the opinions which are opposed to his own. Ambiguous evidence is ex- plained as though it were not ambiguous; conclusions based upon good evidence are attempted to be set aside 398 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. in favour of conclusions based upon evidence which is comparatively worthless : and, by such illogical methods, M. Pasteur proclaims that he has ‘mathematically demonstrated’ the truth of his own views. Un- fortunately for the cause of truth, many have been only too much blinded by his skill and precision as a mere experimenter. An attempt has been made to show the incon- clusiveness of M. Pasteur’s mode of reasoning on this point, principally with the view of preventing similar deductions being drawn from observations and experi+ ments of the same nature by subsequent workers, Other- wise it would not have been at all necessary. For so far from there being any truth in M. Pasteur’s assump- tion that Bacteria and their germs are not killed in slightly alkaline or neutral fluids raised to a temperature of 212° F, we have found that experiment and observa- tion alike seem to show that they are killed when such fluids are raised for two or three minutes to a temperature of 140°F. Nay, more, taking M. Pasteur even upon his own ground—using boiled acid infusions, in which he admits that all germs of preexisting life are killed—we find, nevertheless, as others have found, that such infusions, contained within heated and hermetically-sealed flasks, will speedily become turbid, owing to the presence of multitudes of living organisms. There being no valid reasons, therefore, for our belief in the assumption that Bacteria, Vibriones, and their fyhich he 1s th Neg Which . cal Methy r ematiy ae y have bee CCision a8’ the ine DANG on thi ting simile and experi action is in al in nature’ ir discharged de, show thit of alcohol i wrt taken by gus is a contin used [insterd of ngs are gradual + air is preve a]. instrumest . his WY? ge pouch THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 411 the vinegar plant in the process is that of determining the absorption of oxygen; it is active only in virtue of this chemical property, and it can be replaced by a large number of dead materials or parts of plants.’ Again, in a continuous series of chemical changes, why should an arbitrary division be made? Why should some changes, which are admitted to be ‘ spontaneous,’ be artificially separated from others, when these latter follow in an uninterrupted sequence? Baron Liebig says!:—‘From the moment that a piece of muscle is separated from the living body it begins to undergo alteration; after some hours it acquires an alkaline reaction; the coagulable substances are coagulated, the contents of the muscular tubes become more solid and acquire a clouded appearance, with a thickish consist- ence. The muscle contracts and thickens, or rigor mortis takes place; then, after some time, the stiffness ceases, the acidity augments, and offensively-smelling products make their appearance. .... . If organized ferments have nothing to do with the formation of the first products that appear in the muscles up to the occurrence of rigor mortis—and I believe there is no physiologist who thinks they have—then it is difficult to understand how the further alterations can be de- termined by them.’ The transformation of starch into glucose by the agency of sulphuric acid, to which we have already referred, is a process that cannot logically be ge. cil. P. 123. 412 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. separated from the fermentations; whilst the change which occurs when sugar is added to a mixture of yeast and dextrine, is probably no less truly chemical in nature, even though a living organism does take part in the process. A solution of dextrine does not undergo fermentation when it is mixed with beer-yeast alone; though, when a certain quantity of sugar is added to the mixture, a great part of the dextrine shares the same fate as the sugar itself, and is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid. ‘In this case,’ Liebig says, ‘the influence of the motion communicated to the sugar atoms by the action of the yeast appears very evidently to have been extended to the dextrine upon which yeast itself has no action” Facts like these—and many others which might be mentioned, showing how the different kinds of fermentation are influenced and modified by the presence of different chemical sub- stances—lead most strongly to the conclusion that fermentations. are themselves, in essence, nothing more than definite processes of chemical change which certain complex bodies are apt to undergo, either by virtue of their own inherent instability, or by reason of the action upon them of other bodies (ferments) which are at the time in a state of molecular flux, or motor-decay. Such processes are, moreover, separated by no well- defined line from other chemical changes. It can no longer be maintained that they are chemical processes which are only capable of being initiated by the contact-influence of the changes taking place in living xq other than sabtieve either vein living thin spor else that t js It wou ~eatmue and d vanes, Just as V ~itg thing differs dtot in kind, s tient upon their ides the fermer -tubfermentatiy “itwh even to a ‘temical change “Ninsensibly ir ilk to Say Where : ‘ Mixture y as chen be does take bes does Dot ith beerjeay OF super extrine Share nVerted int ' Liebig Says, d tothe Suga ery evidently n which yeast —and many ing how the Auenced and hemical sub. clusion that nothing mote range which 20, either by by reason u ) which ments THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 413 things. Observation and experiment alike are abso- lutely opposed to such a limitation, and even had it not already been shown to be utterly erroneous, it is a doctrine which ought only to have found favour with those who are professed ‘ vitalists.’ Consistent believers inthe physical doctrine of life could scarcely be expected to do other than mistrust a doctrine which would have them believe either that the molecular changes taking place in living things were not essentially chemical in nature, or else that they were chemical changes absolutely sui generis. It would be almost impossible, indeed, to frame a true and distinctive definition of fermentative changes. Just as we have previously urged, that the living thing differs from the not-living thing in degree and not in kind, since the properties of both are de- pendent upon their molecular composition and structure ; so does the fermentative chemical change differ from the not-f —though even to a less extent, because these two kinds tative chemical change merely in degree of chemical change are now actually known to merge almost insensibly into one another. It is almost impos- sible to say where the one ends and the other begins. As we have already intimated, in the opinion of Gay-Lussac and also of many chemists in the pre- sent day, oxygen is needed to initiate the changes which the ferment undergoes. According to Baron Liebig, however, all that is essential in order that fermentation may occur, is that a complex substance should undergo changes of a particular kind, either THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 414 by reason of its own instability, or on account of the greater instability of some more mobile substance with which it is brought into contact. He says:—‘ Many organic compounds are known which undergo, in presence of water, alteration and metamorphosis having a certain duration, and ultimately terminating in putre- faction; while other organic substances that are not liable to such alterations by themselves, nevertheless suffer a similar displacement or separation of their molecules when brought into contact with the former!’ 1 ¢ Pharm. Journal,’ 1870. This statement is illustrated by Gerhardt when he says (‘Chimie Organique,’ t. iv. p. 474):—‘ En présence de l’eau, le gluten s’alttre continuellement; si on le delaye dans J’eau et qu’on l’abandonne dans cet état & la température ordinaire, il se gonfle peu % peu en dégageant beaucoup de gaz acide Se mélangé d’hydrogéne non carbone, et d’hydrogéne sulfuré ; éme temps il se ramollit et se fluidifie entitrement; l’eau qui le recouvre devient alors acide, et contient de la leucine, du phosphate et de l’acétate d’ammoni- ue; finalement le gluten se fonce de plus en plus et se dissout presque entiérement Pendant les différentes phases ie sa transformation le gluten posstde la propriété d’agir comme fermen de subir ie la ferment- & la maniére des autres substances albuminoides. Avant ation putride, il posstde la propriété de faire subir une métamorphose remarquable & la matiére amylacée. En _ effet lorsqu’on ajoute de la farine de blé & de l’empois d’amidon delayé ce l’eau et qu’on expose ce mélange, pendant quelques heures, & une température de G0 a 70° C, il perd sa ee se pened saan ey entitrement n dextrine, soit uld ie oe of that the pee iF at which this change takes ate 60-70° C (140°-158° F), en the possibility of its being brought about by living organisms, since Bacteria and Torule are uniformly killed by exposure for a few minutes to a tem- The recent researches of Hoppe-Seyler (‘ Med. 557-581), also show that living ferments are sucré; lama perature of 140°F . Unters,’ 1871, Che pp. killed by temperatures ae do not destroy the virtues of dead ferments. ‘ id 8 st shoulat mobility ipthat some subs vinluence of CO ~—gmunds of equal -ypliarities cant tay particular se ~ intances may be r: _threspect to their - Ttthare to be plas thy decompos ‘tf separate fe the second de Nevertheles tion. of the the former!’ ated by Gerhart “En présence de aye dans l'eau ¢ vre deyient alos cétate d’ammoti e dissout presqit sa transformation la maniere des - fe ‘i we THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 415 In the great majority of cases oxygen may be the initiator of the molecular change which the fer- mentable substance or the ferment undergoes; it would seem scarcely probable, however, that in the absence of free oxygen, no other conditions would be adequate to disturb the delicate balance existing be- tween the elements of a highly unstable substance. In considering such a subject it is of great import- ance always to bear in mind the various degrees of molecular mobility of different substances, and also the fact that some substances will easily decompose under the influence of conditions which do not affect other compounds of equal complexity. Individual differences or peculiarities cannot be ignored. Under the influence of any particular set of conditions, therefore, organic substances may be ranged under two distinct categories, with respect to their degree of fermentability. Substances which are to be placed in the first class are so unstable that they decompose ‘spontaneously’ and without the aid of a separate ferment; whilst those which possess only the second degree of fermentability cannot by themselves be made to initiate a fermentative change —tequire to be brought into contact with a more unstable substance whose motor-decay may impart the needful molecular movement. Once initiated, the Process of change is afterwards easily maintained, even in those bodies which possess only the second degree of fermentability. This distinction is one of a most important nature, and will subsequently help us to THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 416 explain the results of many experiments, in a manner different from that which has been generally accepted. Those experiments which I have already detailed tend to show, in opposition to the widely-accepted views of Gay-Lussac, that the presence of free oxygen is not necessary even for the initiation of certain processes of fermentation or putrefaction, since such processes may occur iz vacuo. Dr. Child, however, had previously shown that fermentation might take place in a closed flask containing nothing but freshly- prepared nitrogen gas in contact with the fermentable fluid (see p. 347). My experiments have been conducted, to a certain extent, in accordance with a method which is in daily use for the preservation of meats and various kinds of provisions. Curiously enough, Gay-Lussac, Gerhardt, and other chemists came to the conclusion that oxygen was necessary for the initiation of fermentation and putrefaction, because meats or vegetables can cnly be preserved by a process somewhat similar to that which I have adopted in my experiments—that is, by sealing them hermetically in vessels from which all air has previously been expelled by heat. So prepared, the most changeable meats or vegetables will often preserve all their freshness for many years—a fact which has been attributed principally to the absence of oxygen gas. Now, however, by a certain modification of the experi- ment, I find that fermentation and putrefaction will occur iv vacuo, and am consequently led to the opposite : 4 if ugh | | peat such i ~ ygelves a5 10 4 with jnfusi t! duitatively told yements are UNV ae of Many me oi airless anc lt afford a p setions, Ite differences b q tovever, suffic Maly discorda ned, it is in a Slemetically Se "longed ebull | ‘ace ther € m: “A the y 4 ‘ad by e “ hey Meri Pressure yt y ACcepte i -ady detail dely-accn, { fr ee Odypey a gr Ceitaiy 1, Since sug Id, howe, Might take > but freshly. > fermentable to a certain ch is in dally ious kinds of ac, Gerhant n that oxygen entation atl can only b to that whid is, by sali all aif has prepares tt ert THE BEGINNINGS OF’LIFE. 417 conclusion—that oxygen is not always necessary for the initiation of such processes. This announcement, made on a former occasion’, seems quite to have paralysed the understandings of some of my readers. The effect produced would have been laughable had it not been rather pitiable, Instead of repeating such simple experiments as I have de- scribed with infusions of hay or turnip, and satisfying themselves as to the truth of what had been said, the scientific world and the public generally have been authoritatively told by more than one of them, that such statements are unworthy of attention; and the excel- lence of many meats, which have been preserved for years in airless and hermetically-sealed tins, has been said to afford a practical denial of the truth of my assertions. The differences between the two kinds of experiments are, however, sufficiently notable to account for the apparently discordant results. When provisions are preserved, it is ina tin case that is almost filled, and then hermetically sealed, after all air has been expelled by a prolonged ebullition of its fluid contents*. What small space there may be at first between the top of the tin and the upper surface of the provisions, is speedily lessened by the insinking of the top, owing to atmospheric pressure. The meats are thus enclosed in * «Nature,’ Nos. 35, 36, 37, 1870. * Very frequently the closed tins are immediately submitted, for half an hour or more, to a much higher temperature—even to 258°-260° VOL, I. Ee 418 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. a vessel which is full—nay, more, in one in which they are cut off from all access of light. My flasks, on the contrary, have been only half filled with the fermentable infusions, and these have been subjected to any disturbing influences which may have been derivable from the influence of light, at the same time that they have been purposely exposed to a warm temperature, What, then, is the explanation to be given of the results which I have obtained? Quite early in the present century Gruithuisen discovered, as we have pre- viously quoted from Burdach, that ‘infusions, otherwise very prolific (those of hay, for example), did not yield infusoria in glass vessels in which the stopper touched the surface of the fluid” Under such circumstances ', no space is left for the liberation of waste gases; pressure rapidly increases, and fermentative or putre- factive changes, if they chance to be initiated at all, are generally checked at their very onset * When 1 Even Gay-Lussac was also aware of a similar fact with regard to urine. And, moreover, urine may often be preserved, in this way, when it has not been previously boiled. 2 A microscopical examination of the surface of some preserved meats which are sold as being ‘ perfectly good,’ and whose taste ratifies the truth of this description, has occasionally revealed the presence of a number of Bacteria and Leptothrix filaments, which, though extremely small in quantity and ‘not numerous enough to affect the quality of the provisions, would seem to have been developed in the situation in which they are found, because the meats in their original condition do not present even this amount of organisms, and because other cases of meats are found to be perfectly free from organisms (* Nature,’ No. 48, p. 433). Thus a change seems to commence in certain cases, which is, however, so speedily stopped (owing to the unfavourable nature of the ion 1S hindered -iniaution of pl hos which are ; ist for the occt qaually smaller “st, to which ca ‘tstimulus of fre “der to incite fe: - {nditions may | Tel fling the “heect vacuum fy Oe Wishe “en tnabled ‘ ‘ iving organi \ not Usually i Vhich the . to 4 Diab} : ee dogs 2 detrim ’ vi Proceed, \ Nm 2 iy. ee hag? Expe. ; _ On “ae 0 a en detivah), ime that they mperature, Piven of the Carly in the We have pr. Ms, Otherwise did not yield opper touched cumstances}, waste gasts; ‘ive or putte tiated at al, set 2, When ct with regard in this way: e prese served? - taste vi THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 419 this liberation or emission (which is almost always one of the accompaniments of a fermentative change) has taken place to a slight extent, the meats are in the very best condition for preservation. ‘There is an absence of free oxygen, an utter absence of light, and also an absence of that diminished pressure which my ex- periments seem to show? is favourable to the pro- motion of many kinds of fermentative change. It would seem that fluids whose fermentation or putre- faction is hindered by increased pressure, and favoured by diminution of pressure, may be placed under con- ) ditions which are successively more favourable than the last for the occurrence of such changes, by putting a gradually smaller and smaller quantity of fluid into a flask, to which calcined air is admitted*. Whilst, if the stimulus of free oxygen is not absolutely needed in order to incite fermentation in the fluid employed, the conditions may often be still further improved by only half filling the flask, and procuring a more and more perfect vacuum before it is hermetically sealed. If any one wishes, therefore, to understand why I have been enabled to bring about putrefaction and to obtain living organisms in my flasks, whilst preserved meats do not usually change iz vacuo, let him repeat ‘conditions’ to which the fermentable substances are exposed), as to cause no appreciable detriment to the provisions. the change does proceed, and the contents of the tin become more or a3 putrid. 1 See i C, Exps. ix. and xv., Exps. xxxiii. and xxxvi., etc. ? See p ther rare cases, Ee 420 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, Gruithuisen’s experiment and one of my own with the same fluid. Let him filla stoppered bottle with a boiled infusion of hay or turnip and then close it hermetically, and he will almost certainly find, as I and others have found, that such an infusion will keep for an indefinite time without exhibiting any trace of turbidity!, Let him, at the same time, treat some of the same boiled infusion of hay or turnip in a different manner: let it only half fill a hermetically-sealed flask from which all air has been expelled. He will then learn, better than by any amount of mere idle conjecturing, whether there is any real contradiction between the results of my experiments, and generally admitted facts. The conclusions to which I have been compelled to arrive, therefore, on the subject of Fermentation, are these. The ¢ Vital theory’ is untrue on account of its exclusiveness; some organisms are ferments, though all ferments are not organisms. Organisms may be either 1 Although hay and other infusions will yield these results—which are comparable with the majority of cases in which provisions are properly preserved in tins—still it has been shown by M. Pouchet (‘ Nouvelles Expériences,’ Paris, 1864, p. 190), that beer-wort which has been boiled will undergo change even in a full vessel, and give rise to an abundance of yeast-cells. This, therefore, is an example which is comparable with those exceptional cases in which meats undoubtedly become putrid in spite of every care in their preparation, and notwithstanding the fact of their being contained in filled-tins which are hermetically closed. Some fermentations are doubtless attended by a less copious emission of waste gases than that which characterizes other fermentations ; and some fermentations will progress in spite of an amount of pressure which, in other cases, would quite put a stop to the process. Us f dalgenin, whic qwith dilute su at (Torula) ; anc it may be in — Hentact with jubecting it to ‘wema), Whils ‘mich the trans ‘tttd with the ‘lar fXamples ¢ “Mentation i a by the ago “living mat ok tmentative ~ Same boilel lanner: let i rom which al n, better thar whether ther results of my | compelled t nentation, at account of ti | its, though al may be either -esult THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 421 absent, occasional instruments, or necessary conco- mitants in processes of fermentation. ‘Thus there are (2) chemical changes which are essentially fermentative in nature, with which organisms are never known to be associated: to this class belongs the conversion of cellulose into dextrine and glucose under the influence of heat and sulphuric acid. There are other (4) fermen- tations that may be initiated by ordinary physical or chemical agencies alone, or which may be brought about by the agency of living organisms. Examples of such changes are the conversion of salicin into glucose and saligenin, which may be produced either by con- tact with dilute sulphuric acid or by the influence of yeast (Torula); and also the acetous fermentation, which may be induced either by bringing alcohol into contact with certain dead oxidising agents, or by subjecting it to the influence of a living fungus (Mycoderma). Whilst there is a third set (c) of changes in which the transformative processes are invariably associated with the presence of organisms; the most familiar examples of this class being the putrid and vinous fermentations. Although these latter may be initiated by the agency either of dead or of living ferments, living matter is one of the invariable products of the fermentative changes!: during their progress 1 « Schlossberger observed that many juicy fungi (for example Agaricus russula, &c.), when kept in narrow-mouthed, open flasks, underwent vinous fermentation spontaneously, and that alcohol could be obtained from the expressed liquid on distillation ; meanwhile true yeast-cells were 422 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. growth and reproduction of the old, goes on simul- taneously with the production of new living matter. Looked at from a chemical point of view, the most essential feature of these changes seems to be that they are successive, similar changes, induced by mere con- tact with another body'. As we have previously stated, however, such changes do not form a group apart, they blend insensibly into chemical actions in general. To speak of certain chemical changes, therefore, as fermentations, as though they were different in kind from other chemical changes, may be convenient, though it must be acknowledged to be a mere arbitrary distinc- tion, and not justifiable from a philosophical point of view. Limiting ourselves, however, to such processes as seem best entitled, in the opinion of Liebig and others, to be included in this category, it appears to me that, from one important point of view, they may be included under three principal groups ?. formed. (Liebig on Alcobolic Fermentation, loc. cit.) When a small quantity of yeast is added to a simple solution of sugar, there can be no new production of yeast either by growth or evolution, if no nitrogen exists. 1 See the definition of Pelouze and Frémy at p. 402. Liebig says:— We effects produced when sulphuric acid acts on metals or metallic oxides; but it is quite absurd to ascribe them to a peculiar cause, altogether different from chemical affinity.’ (Letters on Chemistry, 1851, p- 263.) 2 These views are submitted, with all deference, to the consideration of chemists. ; deen qHE ? ae peti | iy ne whol: whi _ gett by ba ts of CY cone of the simple - jah changes mig I, (Analytic Fer gamore or less nore simpler pr iontact with sulp ~dgucose; or wh th beaks up into ll (Analytico-sya ‘t0 processes ¢ ‘babstance brea ‘tame time Yet products 2, es Osi S Matte, ew, the Ih ’ be that th by Mere ¢ . On f 10Uusly State, 1p Apart, they 1D gener therefore a Tent in kind nient, though itrary distinc. nical point of uch process f Liebig and it appears t0 ew, they mi} 2 > - When 2 stl var, there can be > . ‘on, if no nity? A: jebig S45, Liebig wife e al ci THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 423 |. (Synthetic Fermentations.) In this group the changes that occur are wholly synthetic, leading to the evolution of compounds which have a higher molecular com- plexity. Thus, as Schmitz and Glutz have observed, contact with strong hydrochloric acid causes the con- version of cyanogen into oxamide (C? N*-+2 H? O=C* O02 N?H%), by bringing about a combination between the elements of cyanogen and those of water. ‘This is one of the simplest examples, though a large number of such changes might be cited’. Il. (Analytic Fermentations.) In these cases we find that a more or less complex body breaks up into two or more simpler products, as when starch and water, in contact with sulphuric acid, is converted into dextrin and glucose; or when salicin, in contact with the same acid, breaks up into saligenin and glucose. IL. (Avalytico-synthetic Fermentations.) In this group the two processes occur simultaneously—the ferment- able substance breaks up into simpler compounds, and at the same time gives origin to higher and more complex products?. As a simple instance of such a change may be cited the fact, that tartaric acid, when heated, not only yields such lower derivatives as water and carbonic acid, but also the decidedly more com- 1 See vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 24 2 This is an occasion most favourable for the production of higher compounds. Elements or compounds always unite most freely ‘ when one or both are in the act of separating from some previous combination. The state in which they are at that moment is called by chemists the status nascens, or nascent state.’ (Liebig.) 424 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, plex body known as pyrogallic acid. Here, all the products are still mere ordinary chemical compounds. But in those processes which are most familiarly known as fermentations, some of the higher products constitute what we know as ‘living’ matter, and soon separate from the solution in the form of visible specks or particles!. This is what occurs in the vinous, and all those more or less putrid fermenta- tions of animal and vegetable substances with which living matter is invariably and necessarily associated. These are all of them exceedingly complex processes 2, which are as yet very imperfectly understood. The results of the experiments of many investigators, how- ever, compel us to believe that living matter is one of the products, in these fermentations. Double simultaneous changes of a synthetic and analytic character are familiar enough to chemists. When olefiant gas (C? H‘), or the vapour of alcohol or ether, is passed through red hot tubes, a complex body known as naphthalene (C1° H8) is obtained in addition to such lower products as marsh gas (C H*), carbon and hydrogen. Several acids when heated yield water and a di-acid: thus tartaric acid yields di-tartaric acid, whilst glycol yields di-glycol, and even tri- and tetra-glycol. More notable, however, than the oc- 1 See pp. 77-79. 2 Even in the vinous fermentation there are, as Pasteur has shown, non-volatile products, in addition to such derivatives as succinic acid, glycerine, alcohol, and carbonic acid. get fee 4| relation: “ses of fermer “sh occur withis ‘gltion and g: “sie theories of “sd the phenome na totally diffe td their eluci ‘ve may arriy se taking p “Who can “icance of “ad enplanati Opaiation 18. re, al Q l th COmpoyp i . familia ler Products Natter, and 1 Of visibj CUFS in the 1 ferments, With which " associated, - Processes?, tood. The gators, how- atter is one nthetic and o chemists yf alcohol or ymplex body in addition H4), catbol jeld watt! , di-tarta" ren tri jan the ‘ “ THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 425 currence of all such reactions is the fact that simul- taneous processes of analysis and synthesis are con- tinually taking place in all growing forms of living matter. This dependence of life on decomposition is a subject which has been much dwelt upon by Dr. Freke! and Mr. Hinton?; and, quite apart from the special relations to which I have just been alluding, Baron Liebig has, on other and broader grounds, pointed out the striking analogies that exist, between processes of fermentation and those nutritive changes which occur within the living body during the acts of assimilation and growth. After alluding to the retro- gressive theories of Pasteur*®, he adds:—‘I have re- garded the phenomena of fermentation and putrefaction from a totally different point of view, and have con- sidered their elucidation as the bridge by means of which we may arrive at a more exact knowledge of the processes taking place in the bodies of animals and plants4. Who can at the present time fail to perceive the significance of these facts, in regard to the concep- tion and explanation of many vital processes? If a ' On Organization, 1848. 2 «Life in Nature,’ 1862, pp. 51-54, and 229-258. 3 Tn the following terms :—‘ Inasmuch as Pasteur has again diverted the study of fermentation and putrefaction by microscopists into the old objectless path, the result has been, that the general aspect of these pro- cesses has been disregarded, the Sa mnae that are common to all of them have been overlooked. bservation has been directed to the search for mere details, and it has thus become incoherent.’ (Ox eae Fermentation, Pharmac. a Aug. 6, 1870, p. 104.) ‘Ann. Chem. Pharm.’ Ixii. p. 2 426 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. change in the locality and relative position of the elementary particles of animal substances", outside the organism, be capable of exerting a very definite in- fluence upon a number of organic substances which are brought in contact with them; if those substances are thereby decomposed, while new compounds are formed from their elements; and if it be considered that the class of substances susceptible of such changes as take place in fermentation, comprises all those which are the constituents of the food of man and animals, who can doubt that the same causes act one of the most important parts in the vital process, or that they have a powerful share in the alterations which the materials of food undergo when they are converted into fat, blood, or constituents of organs?? We know, indeed, that there is in all parts of the “living” animal body an incessant change going on; that living particles of this body are eliminated; that their constituents, whether fibrin, albumen, gelatin, or whatever else they may be, rearrange themselves as new compounds; that their elements unite to form new products. In accordance with our experience, we must presume that in virtue of this activity, there is at all places where it obtains, and corresponding to its direction and intensity, a parallel alteration in the character and composition of con- 1 Belonging to the class known as ‘ ferments.’ 2 This view was very clearly expressed by Mr. Hinton in his ‘ Life in Nature, pp. 41, 42—an interesting work, which I have only seen since this Chapter was in type. gon the essen sion both the $ ve, Chemica sal agencies, é th lead to the itical affinities retul in contin tied, ~Nutriti tative proce ‘tle to commor hich are ¢ “aunt Units 6 on of the fj is va : ” ke tiny nher al 4 | : i lay 10 Ae . © the Cinite in. S Which ar stances ate are formes €d that the IBES as take > Which are imals, why of the most it they have 1e materials d into fat, ow, indeed, mal body aa icles of this ts, whether hey may bs - that thet accordance in virtue 0! sbtains, y,2 parall jon of OF Life® +, bis’ 1 in sot en only % THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 427 stituents of the blood or of food, coming in contact with such changing particles—that juently the animal metamorphosis is itself a main cause of the alterations that the food undergoes, and a determining condition of the nutritive process.’ The breadth and suggestiveness of these views of Liebig are most striking, and we venture to hope that they may be considered to derive additional sup- port from our own experiments—all of which tend to show the essential similarity of the influences that occasion both the ‘ genesis’ and the ¢ growth’ of living matter. Chemical affinities, variously modified by physical agencies, are the causes of those fermentations which lead to the production of living matter; and chemical affinities similarly modified, are again all powerful in continuing the growth of the matter thus initiated. Nutritive processes are closely allied to fermentative processes, and both sets of phenomena are due to common causes. In other words, the same forces which are operative in the production of the subsequent units of living matter are potential in the initiation of the first unit. The occurrence of living matter is, like the formation of crystalline matter, the result of inherent molecular affinities and of im- mutable natural laws. e CHAPTER XI. sina ot to be gal ADDITIONAL PROOFS OF THE OCCURRENCE OF ARCHEBIOSIS. mere afirmatiol nye uniformity Uniformity of natural phenomena. Influence of Heat upon Living sjexists in the Matter. Equally uniform appearance of Bacteria and Torule within ee super-heated, closed Flasks. Their de novo origin alone reconciles (ll biologists. such apparently contradictory Facts. Difficulties with which the “which experin Experimenter has to contend. Nature works with Unboiled Mate- —— * vials, and under freer Conditions. Further deleterious Action of {hang Immerse ; increased Heat. Living, Colloidal, and Crystalloidal Matter. she temperature Diminishing Molecular Complexity goes with diminishing destruc- — arnacl 2 Heat. Limits within which Archebiosis is possible. i. ormity, Life and Death are but Transitions. tsch an amot pete with still Higher Temperatures. Those of Mantegazza, lsimil : : Ihuar, mint Wyman, and Cantoni. Author's ae Mode of preparation. i Sealed flasks heated to 270°-2 . Living Torule, Protamebe, regard to the and Monads. Sealed flasks pie to 293°F. Bacteria, Leptotbrix, ‘there is the and chlorophyll-containing Organisms found. Sealed flasks heated to 295°-307°F for four Hours. Bacteria, Fungus spores, and Fungi i who are found. Other experiments in which Flasks were heated to 327°F te) 4 to the and 464°F. Charring of Organic Matter most extensive. Action tet of high temperatures upon Living Organisms. They not only kill Ve to all but disintegrate. Experiments conclusively in favour of the occur- ‘Met With in inf rence of Archebiosis. ° hh the oth er ha ‘te i : ‘HE regularity of natural phenomena is proverbial, haye Noy and is tacitly recognized by each one of us in y Vil, th; our daily actions. Even where the succession of events ty Of life seems less constant, they are none the less the natural ; YY Within b ile : f On RCHEBIOSIs, it upon Living 1 Torule within Hoidal Matter nishing destruc sis is possible of Mantegazé, 1ey no ur of t he octll THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 429 resultants of a more complex set of antecedent condi- tions. Chance finds no recognized place where law, or uniformity of result, is eternal. New doctrines must, therefore, before their period of general ac- ceptance, be shown to rest upon phenomena that are easily obtainable. Facts which can be attested by all are not to be gainsayed by any amount of theorizing, or mere affirmation of opposite ‘mental convictions.’ The uniformity in the properties of living matter, as it exists in the simplest living things, is recognized by all biologists. All minute, naked, living organisms with which experiment has been made, have been killed by being immersed for a few minutes in water raised to the temperature of 140°F; so that, judging from this known uniformity, there is very good reason for believing that such an amount of heat would prove destructive to all similar, minute, naked portions of living matter. With regard to the higher temperature of 212°F, how- ever, there is the most unanimous agreement (amongst all those who are best entitled to speak upon the subject) as to the fact that such an amount of heat is destructive to all the lower forms of life which are to be met with in infusions. On the other hand, the labours of very many experi- menters have now placed it beyond all question of doubt or cavil, that living Bacteria, Torule, and other low forms of life, will make their appearance and multiply within hermetically-sealed flasks (containing Organic infusions), which had been previously heated to 430 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 212°F, even for one or two hours. This result is now so easily and surely obtainable, as to make it come within the domain of natural law!. All pre-existing living matter and organisms having been killed within the closed flasks, how can new living things appear therein save by a process of Archebiosis—or new origination of living compounds? The explanations which are ad- duced may be criticized, the phraseology employed may be objected to, but the great fact remains that the new living matter must have originated by the occurrence of some combinations similar in kind to those which 1 In a very large number of trials I have never had a single failure when an infusion of turnip has been employed, and from what T have more recently seen of the effects produced by the addition of a very minute fragment of cheese to such an infusion (see Appendix C, pp. xxxiv—xxxviii), I fully believe that in 999 cases out of 1000, if not in every case, a positive result could be obtained. Having made use of this infusion most frequently, Iam able to speak more positively con- cerning it than about others, many of which would, I doubt not, if sufficient care were taken, yield equally unmistakeable results. It must indeed never be forgotten, that the obtaining of positive results or not, in such experiments, depends not a little upon the strength of the solutions employed. .A weak infusion will often yield no trace of living things, whilst a stronger infusion—prepared at the same time, and treated in the same manner—will, after a similar period, be found to swarm with living organisms. The original access of germs having been equally possible in each case, and the destructive influences to which they had been submitted being similar, the subsequent presence of living organisms in the one solution and their absence from the other, seems only consistent with the supposition, that an increased quantity of or- ganic matter in a solution acts in the same way as the addition of a very fermentable fragment (cheese), and suffices to produce an increased tendency towards the occurrence of those fermentative changes during which there is a correlative production of new-born living matter. js whether il “git lakes, it ais the freest isitable materi iris taking pla sjorentous que himself of 3 ntfrom all cha tuitions, whic ‘tue, In the « ~“thtion an abu tes have not h “ot heat, an ; i ad al those Ome Within ting living Within th ear therein Origination Lich are af, ployed may lat the new Occurrence those which a. single failure ym. what I hare ition of a vey e Appendix (, of 1000, if not THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 431 take place in plants during every moment of their growth—even though such chemical combinations oc- cur ‘spontaneously,’ or independently of the influence of any pre-existing living protoplasm. It may be easily understood, however, that he who investigates this subject has to work under the in- fluence of a set of conditions which are of the most unfavourable description. What he wishes to ascer- tain is whether in the wide field of nature—in its ponds, its lakes, its rivers, and its ocean beds, where there is the freest play of cosmical forces upon the most suitable materials—any de zovo origination of living matter is taking place. And with the view of answering this portentous question, he is compelled (if he would avail himself of experimental conditions which shall be free from all chances of error) to resort to a poverty of conditions, which seems but a mockery of the wealth of nature, In the one case we have ponds, containing in solution an abundance of protein materials whose virtues have not been impaired by the blighting in- fluence of heat, and which are freely exposed to air, light, and all those other known or unknown cosmical agencies which stimulate the growth of living matter. Whilst, in the other case, the experimenter has to content himself with boiled organic infusions, shut up within the narrow confines of a small, hermetically- sealed flask. Seeing, however, that conclusive results are still obtainable in spite of these unpromising con- ditions, the subject is one on which science may be 432 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. congratulated. Had the natural tendency to the for- mation of living compounds in certain solutions been much less potent than it seems to be, the problem to which we have been referring could never have been solved. As it is, that which we are absolutely com- pelled to believe takes place within the closed flasks, may illuminate our mental vision concerning all the richer probabilities which are possibly being realized from moment to moment in such freer sites as ponds,. lakes, rivers, and ocean beds. Looking, however, again at the experimental aspects of the question, it will be easily understood that by increasing the stringency of the ‘conditions,’ we may ultimately succeed in stifling the voice of nature. That combination of properties which we generalize and include under the word ‘ Life’ being the result of a fine and subtle molecular combination in the matter by which it is manifested, it is easy to understand that a certain amount of heat may be adequate to destroy these more delicate conibinations, and so put an end to the ‘vital’ manifestations with which they are associated. Such is the action of heat when it just suffices to convert a living thing into a dead organism. Though it is no longer living, however,— though, in common parlance, its ‘life? has departed— the body may still remain as an organic aggregate. If allowed to continue in water, it gradually disin- tegrates, and becomes more or less dissolved—yielding 1 See Vol. ii. pp. 27-32. aa) it to an amot tof previous | “eh yn - sjids unaltere pose differ . oe intense t -csbjected, the a0 the dissolv 1481s the soluti “ev combinatior The de novo o \wble at any p atisting li hed has not | tidal ~ “ COMmpoy Se mou *© the fo. i bey ~ Probl lem ty r have been lute} ly Con, ‘losed fas ning all ¢ | the ing realize eS as Ponds, ental aspects ‘ood that by ns,’ we may lature, ve generalize re result of2 | the matter » understani adequate 1 ns, and % with whic THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 433 an organic solution in which colloidal substances are dissolved. But just as the combinations which constitute living matter are superior in complexity to, and more destruc- tible by heat than, colloidal compounds, so are colloidal compounds themselves broken up and more or less destroyed, by an amount of heat which will leave many crystalloids unaltered. The degree of heat necessary to decompose different complex colloids is, of course, subject to an amount of variation which does not admit of previous predication. As a rule, however, the more intense the heat to which a solution has been subjected, the more has the complex compo- sition of the dissolved substances been impaired, and the less is the solution calculated to be one in which the new combinations initiative of living matter could arise. The de zovo origin of living matter in a solution is possible at any period, after the destruction of all its pre-existing living things, provided the heat employed has not been so extreme as to break up its colloidal compounds, or such other unstable com- binations as may be capable of conjointly yielding so high a product. The number of successful results, however, naturally diminishes, according as one em- Ploys, either more destructible compounds or higher temperatures and less destructible compounds. So that however meagre the chances may seem for the occurrence of nature’s subtlest material com- binations within even ordinary experimental flasks (as VOL, I. a THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 434 compared with those which favour their induction in the outside world), the chances become far less when still higher temperatures are made use of, with or without longer periods of exposure. And, ultimately, a limit must be attained, at which the degrading in- fluence of heat produces effects that suffice to render the experimental vessel a dreary and lifeless tomb, in which no living thing can subsequently arise. The transition from the not-living to the living, is an ascent in molecular complexity which may not be possible under such conditions—where the much-altered matter exists, though shorn of its finer virtues. ‘Nec perit in tanto quicquam (mihi credite) mundo, Sed variat, faciemque novat : nascique vocatur, Incipere esse aliud, quam quod fuit ante ; morique, Definere illud idem.’ Although no additional evidence is actually required to prove that living matter can and does arise de novo, still my own experiments, and those of others, in which very much higher temperatures have been re- sorted to, and successful results have yet been obtained, ought to be cited, because of the great additional surety which they supply that no pre-existing living matter was left within the experimental flasks. In 1851, Prof. Mantegazza’, of Pavia, introduced a decoction of lettuce into a strong glass tube, and then hermetically sealed it in the flame of a lamp. One- 1 « Giornal dell R. Istituto Lombardo.’ Exp. iii. q q “Yt hey i 4 microscc -{Mantegazza Sa} ‘num term. sith, Prof. Jeff “ied, and subs: nents’, ¢ Exp, ton, in a hern timtes in a Pa 4 : “Mopheres [12 “ty, Tt was, St of Prof. Gra beter i, ‘Tums, som Yy i a *XPerime: lution 2. It iy as the D é . Q minutes, duction; r he whey A With ot ‘ioe “Stading ig. CE tO render SS tomb, in Arise, The ving, i$ an may not be much-altered ues, undo, Ir, orique, ally requite arise de nov if others, # ave beth It een obtaintl stional sul ving ced * trodu in oe and the Jamp. xp yu. Ost THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 435 third of the tube was occupied by the fluid, and the remaining two-thirds contained ordinary air. It was exposed for thirty minutes to a temperature of 212°F, and for forty minutes to 284°F (140°C), in a bath saturated with carbonate of potash. Fifty-nine hours after having taken the tube from the bath (during which time it had been maintained at a temperature of about 45°F), it was divided by a file, and the fluid was sub- In the fluid, Prof. Mantegazza says he found living specimens of Bacterium termo. In 1862, Prof. Jeffries Wyman, of Cambridge, US., performed, and subsequently recorded the following experiments 1, ¢Exp. xxxiv. (3.) March 27th. Juice of mutton, in a hermetically sealed flask, was boiled five minutes in a Papin’s digester, under a pressure of two atmospheres [120°6°F]. A film formed on the fourth day. It was opened several days later in the presence of Prof. Gray, and found to contain Vibrios and Bacteriums, some of them moving with great rapidity.’ mitted to a microscopical examination The next experiment was also made with the same Kind of solution?. It is thus recorded :—‘ Exp. xxxv. (3-) The same as the preceding, and boiled in Papin’s digester ten minutes, and under the pressure of five * * American Journal of Science and Arts,’ July, 1862. * In two other experiments, in which beef j juice was ee yed instead ~ of mutton juice, and in which the flasks were raised to the same tem- peratures for fifteen minutes, no organisms were found Pt 9 436 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. atmospheres [152°2°F']. No film was formed. The flask was opened on the forty-first day. Monads and Vibrios were found, some of the latter moving across the field. No putrefaction; the solution had an alkaline taste.’ In 1868, Prof. Cantoni, of Pavia, also made some experiments in concert with Profs. Balsamo and Maggi, in which hermetically sealed flasks containing various organic solutions or infusions were heated to tempera- tures ranging from 100°-117°C (212°-242°6°F), in a Papin’s digester}. Amongst other fluids they tried a solution of yolk of egg, and with reference to this Prof. Cantoni says?: ‘We began by observing that this solution, enclosed with plenty of air in a flask hermeti- cally sealed and heated to 105°-110", produced a large number of Vibrios in two days. We heated it in different experiments to 112°, 114°, 116°, 117°, and always obtained the same result, if the temperature of the air was from 25° to 27°.. Experiments were similarly conducted with other organic fluids, which led to the following results:—‘ The juice from meat sufficiently concentrated produces Vibrios if heated to 112°, but not if heated to 114°; cow’s milk of good quality pro- duces them if heated to 113°5°, and remains unpro- 1 T was for a long time unable.to procure a sight of Prof. Cantoni’s valuable papers, but he has lately been kind enough to send them to me. Having merely seen references to them in journals, I was led on a former occasion (‘ Nature,’ No. 48, 1870, P. 432) to state that he had obtained positive results at 242°6°C, instead of 242° oF, I much regret that the mistake should have occurred. 2 « Gazzetta Medica Italiana~-Lombardia,’ Serie Wit, 1, 1868, q g onstantly at ; hunking it very #10 which som wing rendered “aed to any exten ‘nito produce Vibrio ‘iaons of Liebig’s Unductive at and a ; "goa to tempera --Utenperature remai hi . De flag | and Vibxig 8S the fly NE taste Made SOme and Magy NING Varioy to tempera 16° F), ina they tried g to this Prof i that this ask hermeti- luced a large eated it in "1 and ature of the ore similatly 1 led to the ; guficieat!) to 112) qua lity Pp rains wap? o but THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 437 ductive from 114°5°; a decoction of pumpkin 1 produces them at 110° and not at 112°; the albumen of an egg is productive at 112°, and at 113° commences to show signs of disintegration; and the decoction of hay gives, moreover, Vibrios at 110°, but cannot when subjected to a higher temperature?” These experiments were all comparable with one another, from the fact that they were performed during the months of July and August, when the atmospheric temperature remained pretty constantly at from 25°-27°C (77°-80°F)*. Thinking it very desirable to ascertain the highest point to which some solutions might be heated with- out being rendered unproductive; and also wishing 1 Heated to any extent short of 110°C, this fluid is said by Prof. Cantoni to produce Vibrios with astonishing rapidity 2 Solutions of Liebig’s ae were also found, on another occasion, to be unproductive at and above this point, though they were productive after exposure to ee a little lower, providing the daily atmo- aie temperature remained high. rof. Cantoni naturally enough asks, why it should be, if the Vibriones are in all cases produced from germs, that these germs should be killed at such different temperatures in different fluids; and why the germs (which nobody has seen) should require such a very much higher temperature to kill them, than suffices to destroy their parents? The latter he, also, believes to be destroyed by a temperature of about 60°C. Then, again, there is the fact that the amount o heat which is necessary in order to stop the productivity of the fluid (other things being equal), becomes lower and lower as the temperature of the air diminishes—so that the yolk of egg, for instance, which, with a temperature of 25°C, will produce after being heated even to 117°C, will not produce after being heated only to 110° if the temperature of the air continues at 20°, whilst when it is still further reduced to 15° (59°F) the fluid ceases to be productive after it has been exposed to 105° or even 100°. 438 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. to ascertain what amount of evidence was obtain- able as to the possibility of living matter being pro- — duced de ovo, from changes taking place, in the main, amongst inorganic or mineral elements, I made during the present and the past year many experiments, some of which I will now detail. With the exception of Prof. Mantegazza’s one experiment, and of one by Prof. Wyman, all the flasks in my experiments have been raised to temperatures higher than any which had pre- viously been resorted to. In those which have been productive, the hermetically closed flasks have been exposed to temperatures ranging from 270°-307°F (132°-153°C), though in other un- productive experiments the flasks have been heated to 327°F and 464°F. As on other occasions, the solu- tions were heated iz vacuo, so that the experiments also differed in this respect from those of Mantegazza, Wyman, and Cantoni, who adhered to the method pursued by Spallanzani and Needham. In some of my earlier experiments, I had the benefit of Prof. Frankland’s assistance, though subsequently he kindly placed his digester at my disposal *. The mode of preparation of the flasks and the instru- — ment employed for heating them were thus described by Prof. Frankland :— 1 Of the Experiments now about to be recorded, those in which the flasks were heated under Dr. Frankland’s superintendence are Nos. g; b, j, ky s, u, w, and y, whilst those which were executed alone by me in University College are Nos. a, 5, ¢, d, e, f J, m, m, 0, py Gr Ts by Us Ms atts, the tube ' pat he tubes were opter, described ‘ms for 1854, | itical iron ve thean be secur ~ them wit astly, ait erably equ A investile out fa 4 for 8 j at 4 tem sed £0 we THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 445 Experiment c. An infusion of beef with some mus- cular fibres, prepared at the same time, similarly ex- posed, and also opened after nine weeks, was not found to contain any living things, though there was an abundance of mere moving granules. Some of the muscular fibres had preserved their natural appearance, whilst others had lost it, and had become completely granular. Experiment d. An infusion of cod-fish muscle, simi- larly prepared and exposed, also proved quite sterile. Experiment e. A solution containing ten grains of potash and ammonia alum, three grains of tartar emetic, and half a grain of new cheese to an ounce of distilled water. . The vacuum having been ascertained to be still partly preserved, this flask was opened at the end of the seventh week. The fluid was odourless, and its reaction neutral. There was a considerable quantity of dirty-looking deposit, and some oily matter on the surface, though the fluid itself was tolerably clear. The deposit was, for the most part, com- posed of dark granules, together with mucoid flakes also containing granules. Mixed with the moving gra- nules were a considerable number of Bacteria—partly of the ordinary shape, and partly of the monilated | variety—the movements of which were tolerably ex- tensive. They travelled over small areas, and danced around one another, in a manner quite different from the mere granules with which they were intermixed. 446 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. There were no traces of Torule or Leptothrix fila- ments. Experiment f. ammonic tartrate and three grains of sodic phosphate, with half a grain of new cheese, to an ounce of distilled water. The vacuum having been ascertained to be well preserved, the flask was opened in the early part of the sixth week. The fluid was found to have a neutral reaction, and there was a well-marked, whitish deposit at the bottom of the vessel. tion, no Bacteria, Torule, or Fungi were found, but A solution containing ten grains of On microscopical examina- there were a great number of fibres, exactly like un- egmented Leptothrix filaments, growing from the midst of aggregations of the irregular particles of which the deposit was composed. Other filaments were seen having a close resemblance to the spiral fibres met with in somewhat similar solutions which were exposed to a lower temperature}, They were, however, in smaller masses, the spirals were less marked, and transitional states existed between them and the fibres which resembled Leptothrix *. 1 See Appendix A, pp. v—ix. 2 Since this was written I have seen Leptothrix (or Spirulina) filaments, growing so as to form quite irregular, spirally-disposed masses of dif- ferent sizes. These were obtained from the surface of water, in which a few young twigs of the common elder had been immersed for five or six days. All stages were seen, also, between such spiral masses and more ordinary Bacteria and Vibrio forms. As the latter elongated they gradually became curved. Segmentations were seen, at intervals, in the internal solid protoplasm of which they were principally composed. wy Naas vy | = fins expe sel °¢ nl ae geld 4 periment § gl alkaline phe fask Ww gum was fot “gstil of the jen from the ‘sh though the je waS a Sn sof the sur -aiment, but a, On mic “tinber of mi tin groups, 110 bodies Z i tng Of To, ng tj Or V. A Stains of ? hosphate 1 Ounce of to be wel Part of the € a neutral tish deposi al examina. found, but tly like un- m the midst f which the were sel fibres met ere expose sowever, it sarked, a nd the fibres . ) flames THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 447 Solutions exposed in airless and hermetically-sealed flasks to 293-F (145°C), for from five to twenty minutes; and subsequently maintained at a temperature of yo-80°F. Experiment g. A turnip infusion rendered very faintly alkaline by liquor potassz. The flask was opened after nine weeks, when the vacuum was found to be partially preserved. The fluid was still of the same light brown colour as when it was taken from the digester. Its reaction was now decidedly acid, though the odour was slightly sour and not feetid. There was a small quantity of granular scum on some parts of the surface, and a distinct brownish flocculent sediment, but the bulk of the fluid was _tolerably clear. On microscopical examination of the deposit, a number of minute Toru/a-cells were found, both singly and in groups. They varied from the minutest specks up to bodies zg5y” in breadth, and were mostly with- Various kinds of Torule from a neutralized Infusion of T urnip. (X 600.) out nuclei or vacuoles. Some were growing out into mycelial filaments. Other small, nucleated, spores were 448 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. also met with, singly and in groups; and in addition, a thick-walled body with granular contents, z3,,” in diameter. No distinct Bacteria were seen, though there were numerous acicular crystals, some solitary, and others in peculiar bundles having constrictions at in- tervals. A number of minute octohedral and prismatic crystals were also present 1. Experiment h. A solution containing seven grains of iron and ammonic citrate (mixed with a few very minute fibres of deal wood), seven grains of ammonic tartrate, and three grains of sodic phosphate, to one ounce of distilled water. | When taken from the digester this solution was found to have become fluorescent—being blackish by reflected, and olive-green in colour by transmitted light. After a time, some cloud-like flakes appeared, and also an increasing quantity of sediment. After eight months, Fic. 33. Bright green Organisms resembling Pediastree, from a Solution con- taining Iron and Ammonic Citrate and other ingredients. (Xx 800. the vacuum being still well preserved, the neck of the flask was broken and its contents examined micro- 1 Only three drops of the fluid were examined. which 4 vac ‘js were seen iq was SuTTOU “gite protop! “ain have unde “ine of this f "id tube, and Shad lost all t aed a dirty y lyeriment j, ‘and ammx “ot deal woo he Vacuum | 4 . after its ey faintly , ‘ea 4 notab) mt . in Ough there itary, and ONS at in. 1 pr ismatic Ven graing 1 few Very F ammonic ite, to one lution was dlackish by 1itted light d, and also rht months, Solution 7 a (0 neck of ne d mio” od. y LHE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 449 scopically. The sediment contained a few wood fibres and ducts, and very much granular matter together with actively-moving particles, though no distinct Bacteria. There were also very many ovoid cells (single, and in groups of two to eight), about z45,” in length, with somewhat granular and rather bright green contents —in which a vacuole existed. Other somewhat similar bodies were seen in groups of four, each segment of which was surrounded by a hyaline envelope. In one group the protoplasm within the hyaline envelope was seen to have undergone segmentation Some of this fluid was put on one side in a small corked tube, and when examined after six weeks, the cells had lost all their green colour—the contents a assumed a dirty yellowish brown hue}. Experiment j. A solution containing fifteen grains of iron and ammonic citrate (mixed with a few minute fibres of deal wood), in one ounce of distilled water. The vacuum having been ascertained to be well preserved, the neck of the flask was broken eight Months after its preparation. The fluid, which was still very faintly acid, was not fluorescent, though there had been a notable amount of sediment for some time. On microscopical examination, the latter was found to Consist of dotted ducts and minute portions of woody fibre, mixed with large quantities of granular matter ‘ A certain general resemblance exists between the organisms met with in this experiment, and those of Experiments j, 1, and m, as well as those of Experiment 2, recorded at p- 365. VOL. I. Gg THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 450 (aggregated into flakes), and a great multitude of very — actively-moving particles. Some of them had a figure- of-8 shape, and others were well-formed Bacteria. There were also a few monilated chains, as well as simple unsegmented Leptothrix filaments. The most Fic. 34. Bacteria, different kinds of Leptotbrix, and green Organisms resembling Desmids, from a Solution of Iron and Ammonic Citrate. (x 800.) notable products, however, were a great number of single and aggregated organisms, resembling certain simple Desmids and Pediastree. Like them, also, they exhi- bited slow oscillations or partial slight rotations. Their contents were decidedly greenish, though the hue was not so bright as that of the organisms found in the last solution. Some were single, and others were in groups of four or eight’. Two drops of the solution, containing some of the sediment, were placed in a clean animalcule-cage, 1 The organisms in this solution more closely resembled those of Experiment 2 (p. 365) than those of Experiments | and m. Bacteria were contained in both, and the solutions themselves were also more similar —neither of them had become fluorescent. fs 4 is of protoplas! “ste developme i three elong yeral Leptoth viten place in t vive moveme! ‘intents of the ‘ty seemed gr “ad increased Zawas kept ¢ Winn kA Nic sulphate, isms resembling ate. (x 800) aber of single xtain simple 5 they ete jons. Tel the hue was id in the last ere in ops some oft naloule-< dé thos bled Pa | Bal n 450 mor? sf THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 451 which was kept at a temperature of 85°—g0°F in a developing oven. After twenty-four hours the groups and single Desmid-like bodies were still seen under- going partial rotations, and the number of Bacteria had increased in quantity. After forty-eight hours, a group of eight cells, in addition to solitary and smaller groups, was seen distinctly oscillating; and there were two or three elongated bodies (containing segmented blocks of protoplasm), which seemed to have resulted from the development of single organisms; there were also several Leptothrix filaments, and a great increase had taken place in the number of Bacteria, which showed very active movements of translation. After this period the contents of the Desmid-like bodies began to fade, and they seemed gradually to die; though. the Bacteria lived and increased for several days, during which the specimen was kept under observation. Experiment k. A solution containing ten grains of ammonic sulphate, and ten minims of dilute liquor ferri perchloridi in one ounce of distilled water. A thick scum formed on the surface after about two months. The flask was opened at the expiration of the third month, the vacuum being still well preserved. On microscopical examination, no trace of living things was to be seen amongst the amorphous deposit at the bottom of the flask. The pellicle was found to Present a cellular arrangement (Fig. 39). It polarized light, however, and was obviously crystalline in con- stitution. It was very heavy—sinking at once in the Gg2 452 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. eee ee ences ee watch-glass as soon as its upper surface was wetted. This solution contained no carbon (see Appendix A, p. X). Experiment 1. A solution containing twelve grains of iron and ammonic citrate (mixed with a few very mi- nute fibres of deal wood) in one ounce of distilled water. The flask was opened at the commencement of the seventh week from the date of preparation. It was exposed to sunlight for about eight days during the last fortnight, though previous to this the amount of sedi- ment had gradually increased. After the second or third exposure the previously dark brown fluid became fluorescent—black to reflected, but olive-coloured to transmitted light. There was also a brownish deposit on one side-of the tube. When the flask was opened it was found that the vacuum was almost wholly impaired, by an internal evolution of gas. .Om microscopical examination of a drop of the fluid (con- taining sediment), multitudes of granules, separate and aggregated into flakes, were seen. There were no dis- tinct Bacteria, though large numbers of the rounded and ovoid organisms similar to those met with in Exps. 9 and 12, were intermixed with the eranules. ‘They were partly separate, partly in groups of fours and eights. They varied considerably in size, and also in colour— some being decidedly greenish, and others quite yellow and faded. In the granular aggregations, different stages in the growth of these Desmid-like bodies were to be recognized. What appeared to be short Leptothrix fila- ments issued from some of the granular masses. cto meena “1 jp Ue © sf j _jmila igh . | ight, howev" for two WE ; gnencenent igs then found sist experime! ‘,gdiment the : ged) were see ‘ggike organist iy the last sol siesh appearance inal yi great varia vin length, w yi length, Se X) ky ‘by { ide Open Stent € ‘Patate e} \ The, Solution 7 e Were Ting the lay UNt of sedi. € second of fluid became coloured to mish deposit was opened most wholly aS. On separate and vere 10 dis. rounded and gsc THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 453 Experiment m. Some of the same solution as was employed in the last experiment, similarly exposed and rendered similarly fluorescent. After the exposure to sunlight, however, the tube was kept in ordinary daylight for two weeks, so that it was not opened till the commencement of the ninth week. It was then found that the vacuum was impaired as in the last experiment. On microscopical examination of the sediment the same kind of granules (separate and aggregated) were seen, and also great multitudes of the Desmid-like organisms. These existed more abundantly than in the last solution. Here also there was the same fresh appearance of some, and faded look of others, and also great variations in size—the largest being Ho in length, whilst many were not more than moo in length. Several groups of four were seen, in Fic. 35. Greenish, Desmid-like Organisms of different kinds, and sve found in a fluorescent solution of Iron and Ammonic Citrate. Which the separate elements were spherical instead of Ovoid. There were also many straight, or slightly THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 454 curved bodies, having blocks of protoplasm within— which apparently resulted from a longitudinal growth of single frustules. The groups of organisms, as well as those which were single, exhibited the same slow partial rotations, forwards and backwards, which had been observed in those produced in other solutions. Some of this solution was put into a corked tube, and when it was examined two months afterwards, all the frustules had lost their greenish colour, and were apparently quite dead. Experiment n. A solution containing ten grains of ammonic carbonate, and three grains of sodic phosphate in one ounce of distilled water. The flask was opened in the commencement of the twelfth week from the date of preparation, the vacuum having been previously ascertained to be well preserved. The reaction of the solution was slightly a/kaline. There was no notable turbidity of the fluid, though there was a small amount of whitish deposit, which on microscopical examination was found to be mostly composed of amorphous granules. The fluid itself con- tained a small number of minute but distinct Bacteria, and also a number of figure-of-8 shaped bodies—all of which exhibited sluggish movements. They were very faint in colour, so that on this account and owing to their small size, although plentiful enough, they were somewhat difficult to recognize. A drop of the solution, on the application of the covering glass, had been immediately cemented, and when examined after Hy J ji at darker by ¥ let ” “th yacuum in of the flui gwashay-like “ongnisms of a midst the minu ‘lpriment 1p. A iin its natural masumed the athe digester. | ‘Heculent sed. le fask was ¢ Um having be fies Was stil] - % There was Yat the bot Na exan : dtecteg L ‘ty Tate Se i ~y % iS Within. hal Stow y AS Well 23 low Partial} had Deen orked tube, rwards, al » and wer N grains of C phosphate ment of the the vacuum II preserved: tly alkaline. uid, though it, which 0 be most d itself com net Bactei, podiest! THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 455 ae twenty-four hours, both varieties of Bacteria had notably increased in quantity, and had become some- what larger, though their movements were not at all more active. Experiment o. An infusion of hay, which had become slightly darker by the exposure to heat, and in which a fine focculent sediment had been thrown down. The flask was opened at the end of the seventh week, the vacuum being still well preserved. The reaction of the uid was then found to be acid, and its odour was hay-like though somewhat altered in character. No organisms of any kind were discovered in the fluid, or amidst the minutely granular deposit. Experiment p. An infusion of turnip (not neutralized but in its natural slightly acid condition) was found to have assumed the colour of pale sherry when removed from the digester. There was also a small amount of light flocculent sediment. The flask was opened eight weeks afterwards; the vacuum having been well preserved. The reaction of the fluid was still acid, and its odour was that of baked turnip. There was a considerable quantity of granular matter at the bottom of the flask, but after careful microscopical examination, no organisms of any kind could be detected 1. 1 Compare the results of this experiment with those of Nos. a and g. The very slight addition of dilute liquor potasse to the latter fluids seems to have been the immediately determining cause of their productiveness (see p. 383). Some other experiments recorded in 450 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE: After it had been examined, the remainder of the fluid was left in the open flask. it was accidentally noticed, and a bluish-green fungus Six weeks afterwards was seen covering the surface of the fluid. On microscopical examination of the sediment which had collected at the bottom of the flask, multitudes of Torula cells were found, though there was a complete absence of Bacteria). Solutions exposed in airless and hermetically-sealed flasks to a temperature of 295°—307°f (146°—153°C) for four hours, and subsequently maintained at a temperature of 70°—8o°F, An infusion of turnip which had It had become brown in colour, and in addition there was a Experiment q. been much charred by the high temperature. Appendix C, also point to the desirability of neutralizing a turnip infusion if we wish to increase the chances of finding organisms within e flasks. In Exps.a and g the odour was not that of mere baked turnip, and the solutions had become acid—fermentation had in fact taken place. e also on other occasions (see Appendix C, Exp. xviii.) fre- quently found, when the fermentability of certain fluids is lowered by the influence of heat, that they Le nothing but slowly-growing Torule, a portion of the same fluid, unheated and standing beneath the same bell-jar, would eal become turbid and yield myriads of Bacteria without Torule. Facts of this kind are i: interesting, rv althoug Tor rapidly, are ete smaller and he perfect in form than those of slower grow 5 el sof reddish © 5 bit n0 org: th ‘gniment Yt. Al - daeby the add | ‘td in almost ] sient, Ik flask was pr ue same int tl characters, dere “en ing luid, On Which had titudes of 1 complete led flasks i ') for fr perature of which had e. It had here was a ing a tump anisms within + mere baked , had in fact THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 454 blackish-brown deposit of charred matter, which, after it had thoroughly settled, was about equal to one-twelfth of the bulk of the fluid. The flask was opened at the end of the eighth week, when the vacuum was found to be well preserved. The odour of the fluid was for the most part that of baked turnip, and its reaction was acid. ‘The deposit was composed of amorphous granules, and also of a mul- titude of reddish or claret-coloured spherules of various sizes, but no organisms of any kind could be dis- covered. Experiment r. An infusion of turnip rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of dilute liquor ammoniz, was affected in almost precisely the same way as in the last experiment. The flask was prepared at the same time, and opened after the same interval. The deposit, in its micro- scopical characters, resembled that found in the last experiment, and there was a similar absence of all organisms }. Experiment s. A tube containing an unaltered infusion of turnip was opened at the end of the twelfth day. When received from Dr. Frankland, the fluid had been changed to a decided but light brown colour, and there was some quantity of a blackish-brown granular * Considering the results which were obtained in Exps. a and g, think ge a turnip infusion oo by ia pose rather fet li iqu 719 one of tl pr oducing organisms after exposure to high temperatures. 458 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. sediment, though the infusion had been quite free from all deposit when placed in the digester. After this tube was suspended in a warm place, as the others had been, it remained in the same position till it was taken down to be opened. A slight scum or pellicle, which partially covered the surface, was observed on the sixth day. During the succeeding days it did not increase much in extent, though it became some- what thicker. Although very great care was taken, still the slight movement of the flask, occasioned in knocking off its top, caused the pellicle to break up and sink}. ; The contents of the fragrant odour of baked turnip, and the reaction of the fluid was still slightly acid. On microscopical exami- flask emitted a somewhat nation, a great deal of mere granular dééris and irregular | masses of a brownish colour were found, and also a very large number of dark, and apparently homogeneous reddish-brown spherules, mostly varying in size from why” tO sghoo” in diameter, partly single and partly groups of various kinds. ‘There were no distinct Bacteria, though in one of the drops examined there was a delicate tailed-monad in active movement—a speci- men of Monas lens, in fact, 7sh5 in diameter, having 1 It was owing to the appearance of the pellicle and the seeming likelihood of its breaking up and sinking to the bottom of the vessel, as others had done, if allowed to remain, that I was induced to open this tube so early. I thought it possible that nothing else might form after- wards, and felt anxious to examine the pellicle before it became mixed with the granular deposit. jarblacks - i task, though \ getty colour. opfask was OPE seven days | sqvering part « “yigelf remainin ‘ystongly acid, ' iplke, The s rdamed granu aims could be f iposit briment uw. As aie carbonate, “omce of dist Yen taken fron: ‘fund to be co Bie. free from A fter thi Ithers had ill it Was pellicle Served yp YS it did Me some. /as taken, S10ned in break up somewhat ‘ion of the cal exami- d irregular nd also a nogeneous size from and partly 0 distinct there WS oe spec: et, having the geemil§ esth a THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 459 4 distinct vacuole in the midst of the granular contents of the cell, and a rapidly-moving flagellum. Experiment t. An infusion of hay. When taken from the digester there was a considerable quantity of brownish-black, charred, organic matter at the bottom of the flask, though the fluid itself was clear and of a dark sherry colour. The flask was opened on the fourteenth day; and for six or seven days previously a slight scum had been seen covering part of the surface of the fluid, the solu- tion itself remaining clear. ‘The fluid was found to be quite strongly acid, whilst its odour was sour and not at all hay-like. ‘The scum was found to be composed of mere charred granules and globules, and no trace of organisms could be found either in the fluid or amongst the deposit '. Experiment vu. A solution containing fifteen grains of ammonic carbonate, and five grains of sodic phosphate, in one ounce of distilled water. When taken from the digester the glass of the tube was found to be considerably corroded, and there was * This infusion had been evidently wholly altered in quality by the high temperature to which it had been exposed; and from the fact that it was left in an open flask a more than a week, and was still found to be free from any trace of living things, its original sterility cannot be wondered at. It is easy enough to believe that the different organic compounds existing in different infusions would be differently capable of resisting the destructive influence of heat; so that some infusions may € much more favourable than sie for experiments in which high temperatures are resorted 460 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. a whitish deposit as a result of this. After a few weeks many bluish cloudlike masses became visible in the fluid, dotted here and there with minute whitish spots, but no pellicle made its appearance on the surface. The flask was opened at the end of the fifteenth week, no apparent change having taken place. On micro- scopical examination the flakes were found to have a very minutely granular composition, and the whitish spots on them consisted of aggregations of minute linear crystals, about zo3yy” in length. The deposit was composed of amorphous particles and spherules, but there was no trace of the existence of living things 1. Experiment v. A solution of eight grains of ammonic carbonate and three grains of sodic phosphate in one ounce of distilled water. When taken from the digester the glass was not in the least corroded. The tube was opened at the ex- piration of eight weeks, when the vacuum was found to be well preserved. There was a very small amount of whitish deposit at the bottom and sides of the tube, though there never had been any trace of scum on the surface. When examined microscopically the deposit was found to be composed of more or less rounded refractive particles, imbedded in a homogeneous colour- less matrix. There were also very many motionless rod- 1 This tube was one of English glass. The quality of the solution must have been altogether altered by the corrosion—a great part, if not the whole, of the phosphoric acid being precipitated in the form of insoluble phosphate of lead. efi was 2 6 the twentie “jleen seen gT jnthe latter £ sickness, and varance, The ‘pparent turbi: rutitish deposi Ie fask was ton of the fi ‘nabmitted ti “tt pellicle we a, and higt ‘“Uyarent jelly Stated in. si, “Ry branched 1€ whitish of minute he deposit erules, but chings ammonic te in one as not in it the ex- was found 1 amount “the tube, ym on the depos! , rounde us colo nless rod ution the reat path in pa pe {om ee THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 461 like bodies from za/55” to zeoy” in length (crystalline ?), but no trace of living things, either amongst them or suspended in the fluid itself. Experiment w. A solution containing an unweighed © quantity of ammonic carbonate and sodic phosphate in distilled water. The fluid was at first somewhat whitish and clouded. From the twentieth to the thirtieth day a thin pellicle had been seen gradually accumulating on its surface; and in the latter four or five days this increased much in thickness, and gradually assumed a distinct mucoid | appearance. The fluid itself was tolerably clear, though an apparent turbidity was given by the presence of a fine whitish deposit on the sides of the glass. The flask was opened on the thirtieth day, and the reaction of the fluid was then found to be neutral. When submitted to microscopical examination portions of the pellicle were seen to be made up of large, irregular, and highly-refractive particles, imbedded in a transparent jelly-like material. The particles were most varied in size and shape, many of them being variously branched and knobbed. Several very delicate perfectly hyaline vesicles about 5,45,” in diameter, altogether free from solid contents, were seen; and, in addition, there were a number of figure-of-8 bodies, exhibiting tolerably active vibrations, each half of which was about zs 94,9” in diameter. A subsequent careful examination, on the same evening, of a quantity of the granular matter of the 462 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. pellicle (which had been mounted on two microscope- slips, and at once protected by surrounding the covering glasses with cement), revealed five spherical or ovoid spores, the average size of which was about 3359” in diameter. They all possessed a more or less perfectly- ee) © Pip st © ee Fic. 36. Spore-like bodies, and figure-of-8 particles, from a solution of Ammonic Carbonate and Sodic Phosphate. (x 600.) formed nucleus, and all showed a most distinct doubly- One of the smaller of them showed that it had reached a stage when it was about to contoured wall. germinate. In addition, a small mass of Sarcima-like material was seen, which was not very distinctly de- fined, owing to its being still in a somewhat embry- onic stage. Experiment x. A solution containing eight grains of ammonic carbonate and three grains of sodic phosphate. The vacuum having been ascertained to be well preserved, the tube was opened in the beginning of the eleventh week. There was no pellicle or scum of any kind, and no turbidity, though there was a very small amount of deposit at the bottom of the vessel. The reaction of the fluid was decidedly though not q gph less refrac ig ga mn having all 40 project fror ©) ny Leptotbrize, an Anmonic Carbo ‘nl : \ ‘age and un jo : Or OVoid eee ett 5 3300 In Perfectly. of Ammonic ct doubly m_ showed about to ‘arcina-like inctly de- at embry ght grails of godic inning of 0 very s¢h was 4 the yes nous? 7 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 463 strongly alkaline. On microscopical examination, the deposit was found to be principally made up of mere amorphous granules—separate, as well as forming ag- gregations of various sizes. Here and there, however, there were granules, both separate and aggregated, of a much less refractive character, and more closely re- sembling organic particles. Short homogeneous fila- ments, having all the appearance of Leptothrix, were seen to project from two or three of the granule heaps. Fic. 37. Bacteria, Leptotbrix, and Spore-like bodies found in a Solution of Ammonic Carbonate and Sodic Phosphate. (Xx 800.) Several Bacteria, some of medium size, and others some-. _ what large and unjointed, were observed, flitting across the field of view with quite rapid undulating move- Ments, whilst others were seen rapidly rotating on their long axis. There were also many figure-of-8 shaped bodies which showed distinct and slightly pro- gressive movements—dquite different from those which are called ‘ Brownian’— though many single particles were seen which soon ceased to exhibit movements of any kind, In addition, there were several spore-like 464 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. bodies having doubly-contoured walls, which were also similar to those of the last solution. Experiment y. A solution containing an unweighed quantity of ammonic tartrate and sodic phosphate in distilled water. The solution in this tube was at first quite colourless, clear, and free from visible deposit. About the fifth or sixth day, however, after it had been suspended in a warm place, a number of small, pale, bluish-white flocculi made their appearance throughout the solution, and continued always in the same situation except when the fluid was shaken,—owing apparently to their specific weight being the same as that of the fluid itself. The contents of the tube were repeatedly scanned with the greatest care with the aid of a lens, though nothing else could be seen until about the expiration of a month. Then there was observed, attached to one of the flocculi, about 1” from the bottom of the vessel, a small, opaque, whitish speck, scarcely bigger than a pin’s point. This seemed to increase very slowly in size for the next three or four weeks, and then another smaller mass was also per- ceived. At the expiration of this time the larger mass was more than 2” in diameter. Both could be, and were, seen by several people with the naked eye. During the three weeks immediately preceding the opening of the flask, it was often remarked that the mass did not appear to have undergone any increase in size. " examined sles and wh , + mass issued hid, which wel B at once take tansferred to a dina drop o ‘ted by a thi - Attion, we at _inposed of a . Smith mycelia A Were also UNWeighed 0sphate in Colourless It the fifth Spended in luish-white 1e solution, ion. except tly to their f the fluid repeatedly | of a lens, about the ; observed, / from. the ‘tish speck, yt 3300 WS se'5p in diameter. ——— —— — THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 465 Sa It was found that the tube acted as a water-hammer only to a trifling extent before it was opened, though, when the narrow end of the tube was broken off, there was a slight dull report, and a quantity of small particles of glass were swept by the in-rush of air into the fluid. There had still, then, been a partial vacuum in the tube. The reaction of the fluid was found to be slightly acid. This tube was opened in Dr. Sharpey’s presence. He had examined the white masses previously with a pocket-lens, and when the vessel was broken the larger white mass issued with some of the first portions of the fluid, which were poured into a large watch-glass. It was at once taken up on the point of a penknife and transferred to a clean glass slip, where it was im- mersed in a drop of the experimental fluid and then protected by a thin glass cover. On microscopical examination, we at once saw that the whitish mass was composed of a number of rounded and ovoidal spores, with mycelial filaments issuing from them, in all stages of development. The spores varied much in shape and dimensions; the prevalent size being about "7 in diameter, though one was seen as much They all possessed a single and rather large nucleus, which was mostly made up of an aggregation of granular particles. Some were just begin- ning to develop mycelial filaments; others had already given origin to such filaments, which were about 7-45” ' diameter, and in which were scattered some colour- VOL. I. Hh 466 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. less protoplasmic granules, but no vacuoles. Contiguous to these fresh and evidently living portions of the plant, there were other parts in all stages of decay, in which ~ Wy iM , \\ Fic. 38. Fungus found in a solution of Ammonic Tartrate and Sodic Phosphate. (X 600.) the remains of the filaments were seen in the form of more or less irregular rows of brownish granules— representing the altered protoplasmic contents of a previous filament, whose walls were now often scarcely visible. Subsequently the smaller white mass was picked out, and this was found to contain some living mycelium and spores, and also a considerable patch of decaying filaments, in connection with which there tutions i ascertained 4 for a few mur si this solution is ajith which othe ximen which had be walythree months, ai seposure to the influ a Co ONtiguoys . Bi Plant, y; in Whig, and Sodic . the form — THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 467 was a long and broader filament bearing at its distal extremity a large aggregation of more than 100 spores, quite naked, and very similar in character to those from which the mycelial thread arose. This plant was evidently a Penicillium, quite similar to what had been obtained from other ammonic tartrate and sodic phos- phate solutions’. The delicate flocculi that first made 1 | have ascertained that the life of this particular fungus is destroyed ° exposure for a few minutes to the influence of te water. Placed n in a mere corked flask, containing an onic tartrate ee iy boiled fungus does not grow, whilst an Sabalid specimen will slowly increase and grow in all directions. (The extremely slow growth - the fungus in this solution is very remarkable, when compared with the rapidity with which other minute ee increase in organic solutions.) A specimen which had been boiled for 5” was kept under observation for nearly three months, and it showed not the slightest signs of growth. Mere exposure to the influence of boiling water for a few minutes suffices to break up and disperse such heads of fructification as are represented in Fig. 38, and also to produce some amount of disorganization of the filaments. How much more, therefore, does it seem likely that an exposure to 146-153°C for four hours, should prove destructive even to mere organic forms? With the view of answering this question, I placed a quantity of a small fungus, consisting of mycelial filaments and multi- tudes of spores (closely resembling, although not quite so delicate as those which were met with in the saline mixtures), into a solution, of the same strength as that which had been previously employed, of tartrate of ammonia and phosphate of soda in distilled water, and then handed it over to Dr, Frankland with the request that he would kindly treat this in the same way as he had done the other solutions. Accordingly, on May 11, a vacuum having been produced within the flask before it Was hermetically sealed, the solution was submitted in the same digester to a temperature of 146-153°C for four hours. When taken from the digester, the previously whitish mass of fungus filaments and spores ad assumed a decidedly brownish oe and it was in great part converted into mere débris. On the following morning the flask was broken, and some of the remains a the fungus and its spores were Hha 468 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. their appearance in the solution, and which persisted throughout, were gelatinous and made up of aggre- gations of the finest granules. These, however, became almost invisible when mounted in glycerine and car- bolic acid. Experiment z. A solution containing eight grains of ammonic tartrate, and three grains of sodic phosphate, in one ounce of New River water (from the tap). On dissolving the crystals in this water, a small amount of fine white precipitate was produced. After the tube was taken from the digester a fine white de- posit soon subsided. No cloud-like flocculi appeared, and no further change was discovered in the solution. The tube was opened on the sixty-sixth day, after the vacuum had been ascertained to be still well preserved. The fluid had a neutral reaction, and on microscopical examination no living things could be found, either in it or amongst the amorphous granules of the sediment !. In addition to the experiments now recorded, I have performed twenty others in which the tubes and solu- xamined microscopically. The plant was completely disorganised : not a could be found; they were all broken up into small ere more or less single entire spore and more or less irregular particles, and the filaments w mpty—containing no definite contents, and being only represented by torn ae fragments of various sizes. 1 New River water was used in this case with the view of seeing how the results would be modified. It probably contained too much lime- salts and other saline constituents. Germs, of course, may have been present in abundance, and yet no living things were subsequently to be found jy and turnip temperature al by this an sdgster, the pr ~_ ins, for instanc ito the abund tuned organic ‘uy occupied a ‘spernatant b tt hiter tubes had | Petsistey 7 Agere. T, became - Brains of Phosphate, ap). > 4 small ed. After : white de- appeared, e solution, 7, after the preserved. croscopical 1, either in sediment’. Jed, I have and solu- ed : nol ganis “il —_— THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 469 tions were exposed to still higher temperatures. In fourteen of these they were heated to a temperature ranging as high as 329°F (164°C) for four hours, whilst in the other six they were maintained at a temperature of 464°F (240°C) for one hour!. Some only of each set have been opened, but all of these were wholly devoid of living things. The infusions of hay and turnip which have been heated to the lower temperature of 327°F were almost hopelessly changed by this amount of heat. the digester, the previously clear and colourless turnip When taken from infusions, for instance, were of a brownish-black colour ; owing to the abundant presence of granules and flakes of charred organic matter, which, after complete sub- sidence, occupied a space equal in bulk to one-fourth of the supernatant brown fluid. Infusions of hay were ' The latter tubes had been sealed in the blow-pipe ae during the ebullition of their contained fluids. Each was then pla in a very thick iron tube, whose internal diameter was ee eee phe than the glass, and into which some of the Ostia fluid was also poured. Each iron tube was fitted with a screw-cap, w as firmly fastened by means of long iron wrenches, whilst the tube ene was secured in a vice. The hermetically sealed glass in a her- metically closed iron tube, and by putting the same kind of fluid within each, an equal pressure was ensured upon the inner and the outer surfaces of the gss. All the tubes were then placed in an iron vessel containing five quarts of the very best French Colza oil, which was maintained, 4 Means of gas burners, at a temperature of 464°F for one hour. Althou the oil did not boil, the vapours which were given off at this ae Were most disagreeable and suffocating, and made me feel faint and giddy for several hours afterwards. Oils of inferior quality are not available because they actually boil at much lower temperatures. h 3 tube was thus enclosed with 470 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. charred to a similar extent. however, were scarcely altered in colour by this tempe- rature or by the higher one of 464°F, and only a small amount of a light flocculent precipitate was thrown But on opening these flasks, the mutton infu- Infusions of mutton, down. sion in each case presented a very strongly ammoniacal and otherwise unpleasant odour, and was also alkaline in reaction. The organic compounds had, therefore, been differently decomposed in these cases—in the hay and turnip infusions more or less pure carbon had been liberated, whilst the mutton solution probably broke up, in the main, into ammonia and carbonic anhydride. Seeing that the organic matter was so thoroughly destroyed in these infusions, there was not much chance that any mere shreds of it should have escaped uninjured in the tubes which contained various saline solutions. And in those experiments in which the tubes and their solutions were raised to the temperature of 464°F, all the disadvantages were further augmented by the extreme amount of corrosion. of the tubes, which took place even when the hardest Bohemian glass was employed. Confining ourselves, theretore, to a consideration of the experiments in which the closed flasks containing the experimental fluids have been heated to tempera- tures ranging from 270°-307°F, the results arrived at must be looked at from two or three different points of view. bea dificult yn hesitate to | ccpally on ac doganisms « dmry parentag ~ grery simplest ‘itt indisposed m which I h . dendent origi ft upon this ‘Uiifficulties ; “gh consider, ‘reader will pe : pe Aad xy, ly ' iting Ourse]y ee Mutton his tempe lya Small as thrown itton inf. NMOniacy] 30 alkaline therefore, in the hay arbon had | probably 1 carbonic er was s0 re was not it should contained xperiments » raised t0 tages were f corrosion he hardest n of eratio Ping containlts arrived ‘ ent po pts ——— THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE, 471 Living organisms have, undoubtedly, been obtained from hermetically sealed flasks which had been heated for various periods to such temperatures; and many persons have been not a. little surprised at the com- paratively high forms of life which have presented themselves. This of itself has been deemed by some to be a difficulty of so serious a nature as to make them hesitate to accept the results of the experiments— principally on account of a preconceived notion that such organisms could not arise de zevo and without ordinary parentage. Although willing to concede that the very simplest organisms might so arise, they are quite indisposed to believe that some of the higher forms which I have represented could have had an independent origin. I will not, however, at present enter upon this question, but will merely state that such difficulties are likely to disappear on a more thorough consideration of the subject—as it is. hoped the reader will perceive after a perusal of Chaps. xiii. xiv. and xv. Limiting ourselves at present to the fact that specks of living matter must either have been born in the experimental fluids: after they had been exposed to the heat, or else (having pre-existed in the fluids) have braved its influence, we have merely again to consider which of these alternatives is the more probable. A choice must be made, and yet, as Prof. Wyman has Pointed out, it does not appear at first sight that a Profitable resort can be made to arguments from analogy. 472 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. He says?:—‘ If, on the one hand, it is urged that all organisms, in so far as the early history of them is known, are derived from ova, and therefore from analogy, we must ascribe a similar origin to these minute beings whose early history we do not know; it may be urged with equal force, on the other hand, that all ova and spores, in so far as we know anything about them, are destroyed by prolonged boiling: there- fore from analogy we are equally bound to infer that Vibrios, Bacteriums, &c., could not have been derived from ova, since these would all have been destroyed by the conditions to which they have been subjected. The argument from analogy is as strong in the one case as in the other.’ We do not think, however, that the analogical arguments are so nearly balanced as Prof. Wyman appears to consider them. Whilst it would contradict all our previous experience, and violate the uniformity of natural laws, if certain pre-existing germs had been able to survive the exposure to which they must have been subjected in my experimental flasks, it would in no way outrage our experience if we found that specks of living matter might form de zovo in some fluids, just as specks of crystalline matter form in other fluids— especially as they do actually appear, under the micro- scope, to arise in this way. The physical doctrines of life which are now so widely believed in, speak unhesi- * «American Journal of Science and Art,’ July, 1862. ace is erronec sting about th sof reproduci: ay say, from dire daists has hac sinwhich organ itevery cases in tour observatio _ ime organisms specisely the sai ity can be sec “sting Visible g ‘my therefore, 1 “knows, are ; °y to all eyj, P) ‘ al Ksisting Whatey, ee 4 that all f them : 7 fore from to these 10t know: ther hang V anything Ng: there. infer that en derived ‘Stroyed by subjected, in. the one analogical f, Wyman contradict uniformity ; had been must have t would in that specs fluids, just rer fluids the micro octrines ° eak ynhes! 862. ——— ccm THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 473 tatingly in favour of the latter possibility. So that we have an analogical argument of great force, and, in addition, most overwhelming experimental evidence, tending to oppose a mere dogma (omne vivum ex vivo) which many erroneously believe to be a legitimate inference from every-day experience. I say that this inference is erroneous, because, whilst we do know something about the ability which most organisms possess of reproducing similar organisms, we cannot possibly say, from direct observation, that every organism which exists has had a similar mode of origin. The cases in which organisms may have originated de xovo are the very cases in which their mode of origin must elude our observation; for it can actually be shown that some organisms make their appearance in fluids after precisely the same fashion as crystals—that is to say, they can be seen to arise independently of all pre-existing visible germs}. Germs, therefore, which cannot be seen, and which nobody knows, are not only presumed to exist, but (contrary to all evidence) they are to be deemed capable of resisting the influence of far higher tempe- ‘ Having made this announcement on a. previous occasion, and having had the satisfaction of finding it pooh-poohed as an idle state- ment, I, still believing in - truth, am glad to ascertain that others hold the same opinion. Dr. Burdon Sanderson says in a recent Memoir (Thirteenth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, Pp. 62):—‘ From the most careful and repeated examinations of water _ to be zymotic, we have learnt that such waters often contain no elements or S icles aes which can be detected by the microscope.’ 474 THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. ratures than those which, on other occasions, are uniformly found to be fatal to all germs with which experiment is made, whether visible or invisible. And, moreover, some would have us give credence to these assumptions and improbabilities, in order to stave off a belief in the occurrence of something which would be thoroughly harmonious with all the best biological knowledge of the day. Let the reader finally consider the extent of the contradictions which would be involved by the ac- ceptance of the hypothesis, that the results of my experiments are to be explained by the assumption that some preexisting germs escaped death within the closed flasks, during the fiery ordeal to which they had been submitted. It has been previously shown that Bacteria and Torule—as well as their germs, both visible and in- visible '—are killed by exposure for ten minutes to a temperature of 140°F, and that they are even destroyed by a heat of 125°F, when it is prolonged for four hours. It is, moreover, admitted by all persons who have paid an adequate attention to the subject, that all such low organisms as may be met with in the experi- mental fluids, are unable to resist the destructive in- fluence of boiling water. And yet now, in addition to all the evidence previously detailed, we again find living organisms occurring in closed flasks which have been 1 See pp. 331~333- { wganisms were sfyas that whicl jet Monads and igems scarcely lace which coulc wurrence of Arc 2 Keb, Ng which the best nt of the y the ac Its of my ssumption within the h they had teria and le and it- nutes to 4 1 destroyed d for fout >¢sons who set, that al the exper ructive addition ® find jivind have beet a i —_ | A cli aia amma THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE. 475 | exposed to 270°F, and 293°F, and even in others which have been heated to 295°-307°F for four hours. Of these experiments none have, perhaps, yielded more striking results than No. b. and ciliated Moxads were taken from an hermetically sealed flask which, eight weeks previously, had been exposed to a temperature of 270°-275°F; and these very organisms were killed by the same temperature (140°F) as that which has been found to prove fatal to all other Mozads and Protamebe. It seems scarcely possible to present experimental evidence which could speak more plainly in favour of Here active Protamebe the occurrence of Archebiosis. 2 Veta fo vooft fo Ta BAD. prt. 16a? fs , "et * MATHEMATICS. Equations will be found in this Essay integrated with ease in finite terms, which were never so integrated before. Ferrers.—AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON TRILINEAR DI CO-ORDINATES, the a of ae ae ae and the Theory of Projectors. By the Rev. N. M. FER M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and ane College, Gusitace Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d. The cae of the author in writing on this subject has mainly been to it on a basis altogether independent of the ordinary Cartesian one instead of regarding it as only a special form of Abridged Notation. A short Ee on Determinants has been introduced. Frost. —THE FIRST THREE SECTIONS OF NEWTON’S RINCIPIA. With Notes and Illustrations. Also a regs of Problems, principally intended as Examples of Methods. By PERcIVAL Frost, M.A., late Fellow of St. ae s ae Mathematical Lecturer of iis College, Cambridge. Second Edition. 8vo. cloth. 10s. 6d. The author's principal intention is to explain difficulties which may ue encountered by the student on first reading the Principia, and ¢ wlustrate the advantages of a careful study of the methods clos to the student who ts en, oe in the ned of the higher branches of mathematics, by representing in a geometrical form several of the processes employed in the Diforential and Integral Calculus, and in the analytical investigations of Dynami Frost and Wolstenholme.—A TREATISE ON SOLID GEOMETRY. By Perctvat Frost, M.A., and the Rev. J. WoLSTENHOLME, M.A., Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Christ’s College. 8vo. cloth. 18s. Intending to make the subject accessible, at least in the earlier portions Z sie eh students, completely a din ary Se and problems, thus directing the student to the selection of methods which are best adapted to the exigencies of each problem. In the more difficult portions of the subject, they have 8 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. a considered themselves to be addressing a higher class of students ; and they have there tried to lay a good foundation on which to build, if any reader should wish to pursue the science beyond the limits to which the work extends. Godfray.— Works by Hucn GopFray, M.A., Mathematical Lecturer at Pembroke College, Cambridge :— z A TREATISE ON ASTRONOMY, for the Use of Colleges and | Schools. 8vo. cloth. 125. 6d. Astronomy in its prop ft ts a book which is not likely to be got up unintelligently.” AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE LUNAR THEORY, with a Brief Sketch of the Problem up to the time of Newton. Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 5s. 6a. These pages will, it is hoped, form an introduction to more recondite cs. Difficulties have been discussed at considerable length. nm the University of Cambridge. ‘‘As an elementary treatise and introduction to the subject, we think it may justly claim Zo supersede all former ones.” —London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Phil. Magazine. Green (George).—MATHEMATICAL PAPERS OF THE LA GEORGE GREEN, Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Edited by N. M. Ferrers, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College. 8vo. E The publication of this book may be opportune at present, as several of the subjects with which they are directly or indirectly concerned have recently been introduced into the course of mathematical q at + aly ; 4 y alms tirdy ff the felon id 4 i An jysts t = ns of a C gi one, 7 i htation “a ft ° the ¢ 1° Op Prope. ee b | "orp £ Ce > more 4 : 7 iy er, 4 of deny, whe ch 4 e beyony ‘ olleges ang 2 have ‘i mn Ff M oF THE and Caius Ate Fellow ; ass i he a ——— MATHEMATICS. 9 study at Cambridge. They have also an interest ¢ as being the work of an almost entirely self-taught hi aay gen The Papers comprise the following :—An Essay on 5 osphettin of Mathe- On the Laws of the Equ uilibrium of Fluids analogous to the Electric Fluid—On ses Seiten eat of the Attractions of Ellipsoids of variable Densities—On the Motion of Waves in a variable Canal of small fe ‘ue width-On the Reflection and Refraction of Sound—On the Reflection and Refraction of Light at the Common Surface of two Non- Crystallised Media—On the meee on of ai LP dulums in Fluid Media. een for some time recognized that Green’s writings are amongst a most valuable mathematical productions we possess.” —Athenzeum Hemming.—AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE DIFFERENTIAL AND BORO ce CALCULUS. For the Use of Colleges and Schoo W. HEMMING, M.A., Fellow of St. John’s Co ise haa: Second Edition, with Corrections and Additions. 8vo. cloth. “* There ts no book tn common use from which so clear and exact a knowledge of the principles of the Calculus can be so readily ob- tained. PSL fanaa Gazette. Jackson.—GEOMETRICAL CONIC SECTIONS. An Ele- mentary Treatise in which the Conic Sections are defined as the Plane Sections of a Cone, and treated by the Method of Projections. By J. Stuart JAcKson, M.A, late Fellow of Gonville and Caius s. 6d. College. Crown 8vo. This work has been written with a view to give the student the igs : the Method of Projections as applied to the Ellipse and FH, When this method ts admitted into the treatment of Conie f.., there are many reasons why should be defined, not with sclaiai ce to the focus and directrix, but according to the original definition from Dak they nae ‘th heir name, as Llane — Sections of a oe This method ts calculated to produce a material simplification in the rane aw of these curves a to make the proof of their properties more easily understood in the first instance and more easily remembered. It ts also ower, a instrument in the solution of a large class of problems relating to these curves. SCIENTIFIC CA TALOGUE. Morgan.—A COLLECTION OF PROBLEMS AND EXAM- PLES = AS MATHEMATICS. - With Answers. By H. MorGAN, M.A., Sadlerian (and Mathematical Lecturer of Jesus College, Senne Crown 8vo. cloth. 6s. 6d. This book contains a number of problems, chiefly — in the Mathematical subjects usually read at Cambridge. They have been selected from the Papers set during late years at Fesus College. Very Jew of them are to be met with in other collections, and by far the larger number are due to some of the most distinguished Mathe- maticians in the University. Newton’s Principia.—ato. cloth. 315. 6d. It is a sufficient guarantee of the reliability of this complete edition of Newton's Principia that zt has been printed for and under the care of Professor Sir he lliam Thomson As eae Blackburn, of Glasgow Univers The bes ollowing notice ts £3 git —‘* Finding that all the pi 2s the Pri a are now out o = int, we have been induced to reprint Newton’ 5 ge edition bof 1726] without note or comment, only introducing ee ‘ Corrigenda’ of the old copy and correcting typographical errors.’ é book ts of a handsome size, with large type, fine thick paper, Bs cleanly-cut figures, and is the bead recent edition containing the whole of Newton’s great Parkinson.—Works by S. Parkinson, D.D., F.R.S., Fellow and Tutor of St. John’s College, Cambridge :— AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON MECHANICS. For the Use of the Junior Classes at the University and the Higher Classes in Schools.. With a Collectio Fourth Edition, on of Examples. revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 6d. In preparing a fourth edition of this work the author has kept the same cee im view as Be had in the former editions—namely, to in- clude such portions ie Theoretical pa as can be con- Pests een mas t the use e Differential Calculus, and so render it suitable as a ideas fe the juntor classes tn the University and the higher classes in Schools. With one or two short exceptions, the student is not presumed to require a knowledge of any branches of Mathematics beyond the edements of Algebra, Geometry, — ; ee si the collection q om ae ON 3 ged, Crown Sve “lin of Exam, which are sufficten soul exercise for 2 —qupse has been haa nd the several C ol, ] ita ELEMENT. By J. I “— ~ Kamples. Tutor of Clare Colles doth. 5s. 6c Ths edition has been _ Mustrations and E { ts usefulness to stua cordance with sugye: wit 4 | | dl the Examples ha ; ey hiof des, Wation, Has 4 "ingly - th Ly 1” a Rui. ‘. Torm ‘ S) oe DE By A bis A oe Jesus ery and by far the uished Mathe. plete edition of figures, and is Vewton’s great R.S., Fellow | (cS. For the. Higher Classes yurth ee vy has Rept te to ye ) Parkinson (S.)—continued. Phear. ees | Ag ee = Ww developing and strengthening the mental powers, it ought to be Roe be ae | worked out rationally and conclusively ; and in this oe the Ny rh author has endeavoured to reason out in a clear and accurate = “a hop Sf oe they . his 203 Snlatgeg "ide ge Locat ambridge - enlarged, / chapter : he Colleges L CATA: ry AND St, John’s asters of garplainins = | Tait and Steele. MATHEMATICS, 13 manner the leading oes the science, and to illustrate and apply those propositions in practice. In the practical part of the subject he has peo Ne Coe the majority of preceding writers; particularly in Division, in Greatest Common Measure, in Cube Root, in the chapters on per Money and the Metric System, and more especially in the application of Decimals to Per- centages and cognate subjects. Copious examples, original and selected, are given. Snowball.—THE ELEMENTS OF PLANE AND SPHERI- CAL TRIGONOMETRY ; with the Construction and Use of Tables of Logarithms. By J. C. SNOWBALL, M.A. Tenth Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. 7s. 6d. In preparing the present edition for the press, the text has been sub- jected to a careful revision ; the proofs of some of the more import- ved to the ee, oh cite and ae ues ae DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE. With numerous Examples, By Professor Tarr and Mr. STEELE. New itio Crown 8vo. cloth. 10s. 6d. In this treatise will be found all the ordinary propositions, connected with the Dynamics of Particles, which can be conveniently deduced Ale, 0 wil be found a number of wlustrative examples icindaags in the text, and for the most oo Boeses worked out ; others with occa- stonal solutions or hints to assist the student are appended to each chapter. For by far te greater ivsthe of these, the Cambridge enate-Louse and College Examination Papers have beer applied to. Taylor.—GEOMETRICAL CONICS ; ae ae Anharmonic CaF. gare and ae with numerous eee amp By C. TayLor, , Scholar of St. John’s ys Canbaiee Crown 8yvo am 7s. OG, This work contains elementary proofs of the principal properties of Conic Sections, together with chapters on Projection and Anharmonic atio, SCLENTIFICCA TALOGUE. Todhunter.—Works by I. Topxunrer, by Mi ASS PRAM, ae St. John’s College, Cambridge :-— ‘‘Perspicuous language, vigorous investt, ‘cations, scrutiny of di alee and methodical treatment, characterize Mr. Todhunter’s works.” vil Engine THE ELEMENTS OF EUCLID; MENSURATION FOR BEGINNERS; ALGEBRA FOR BEGINNERS; TRIGO- ETRY FOR. BEGINNERS ; eee FOR BEGINNERS.—See EDUCATIONAL oe ALGEBRA. For the Use of Colleges and Schools. Fifth Edition. hares Crown 8vo. clot This work contains all the propositions which are usually included in elementary treatises on Algebra or Exercise. Zhe autho telligible to students, without impairing the accuracy of the demon- strations, or contracting the limits of the subject. The Examples, about . aes and fifty 2 umber, have been selected with a view to iulustrate every part of the s. mai The work will be Sound ee adapted to the wants of st who are without e aid of a teacher. The Answers to ae Peis ie hints aL Sor the solution of some in which assistance may be needed, are given at the end of the book. In the present edition two New hundred mzscellancous Examples have been S merits which ih iain! place ut first in the class to which tt belongs.” —Edu KEY TO ALGEBRA FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES AND: SCHOOLS. Crown 8vo. Ios. 6d. AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS. Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 7s. 6d. This treatise contains all the propositions which are usually included of Equations, together with ary. rder lo exhibit a compre- hensive view of the subject, el treatise includes investigations which are not found in all the preceding elementary treatises, and also TRIGONOS s Crown Sv ' _ ir { wed by the studer “hk subject. Int Examples have bi 4 ~—SUTISE ON SI 3a ellarged. Cr ment work hy Trigonometry tS co; F, Rg, P Cificuti s works» > TRIGO. [CS FOR fth Edition, ‘Included in > needed, are mm two New os have been t first in the GES AND ZORY OF 8yo, cloth. ily include of 2 agile ate = oar i = = - MATHEMATICS. Todhunter a ee some investigations which are not to be found in any of them. For ie second edition the work has been revised and some additions ve been made, the most important being an account of the Re- ke of Professor get tees respecting Newton’s Rule. “A thoroughly trustworthy, ats and yet Gia too elaborate treatise.” —Philosophical Magazine PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. For Schools and Colleges. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. cloth. 5s. The design of this work has been to render the subject intelligible to beginners, and at the same time to afford the student the oppor- tunity of obtaining all the eens niet he will require on this branch of Mathematics. Each chapter is followed by a set of ag ed : those which are entitled Mistellanous oe les, together with a few in some of the other sets, may be advantageously reserved 4 is student he exercise after he has made some progress in the subject. In the Second Edition the hints for the solution of the Examples have been Se increased, . See = _—_— gen et, | A TREATISE ON SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. Third Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo. cloth. 45. 6d. The present work ts constructed on the same plan as the treatise ow ane Trigonometry, to which wt ts intended as a sequel. apr been given of a method of proof devised by Napier, which seems to have been overlooked by most modern writers on the subject. Con- siderable labour has been bestowed on the text in order to render it comprehensive and accurate, and the Examples (selected chiefly erifie q “i College Examination Papers) have all been carefully verified. ap for educational tt rposes this work seems to be superior to any | 4 4 others on the subject.” —Critic. PLANE CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY, as applied to the ee rth ay ' Line and the Conic Sections. With numerous Examples eee7 5 Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo. clot The author has here endeavoured to exhibit the subject in a simple manner for the benefit of beginners, and at the same time to include in one volume all that students usually requi 1 ition, therefore, to the propositions which have Hate ie im such Todhunter (1.)—continued. SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. S treatises, he has introduced the methods of abridged notation, which are of more recent origin: these methods, which are of a less elementary character than the rest of the work, are placed in separate chapters, and may be omitted by the student at first. A TREATISE ON THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. With numerous Examples. Fifth Edition. 8vo. cloth. 10s. 6d. Crown Lhe author has endeavoured in the present work to exhibit a compre- hensive view of the Differential Calculus on the method of limits. m the more elementary portions he has entered into considerable detail in the explanations, with the hope that a reader who ts without the assistance of a tutor may be enabled to acquire a competent ac- The method adopted is that of Dif- Lxamples sufficiently numero nder another book unnecessary $ these mee pss mostly selected from College Examination Papers. e following work have been transla nto Ltalian by fe ee nt, who in his Preface speaks thus “In publishing this translation of the Differential and ene Calculus of Mr. Todh versities, a work remarkable for the clearness of the exposition, the vigour of the domes the just proportion in the parts, and the ag store of examples which offer a large field for useful exercise.’ A TREATISE ON THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS. revised and enlarged. With numerous Examples. Crown 8vo. cloth. Ios. 6d. Third Edition, This is designed as a work at once elementary and Bae adaptea for the use of beginners, and sufficient for the advanced students. In the selection of the propositions, and in the mode of establishing them, it has been sought to exhibit the principles clearly, and to illustrate all their most are results. summation h d, wt of securing the attention of the student to the peices which form the true foundation of the Calculus itself, as well as of its most valuable applications. Every attempt has been 55 7 explain those - Framination P 7” made, in or + the subject to the \ HISTORY OF ~-ROBABILITY, In 18s, Te subject of this | f the subtle pro ed y Not Lich @ Sty are Pd First ALCULYS, 8¥0. cloth, ‘bat a compre. od of Limits, unnecessary ; 4 — a g iy S. & Ss gg a4 i~o s = a SNS ee #§ as 1 for useful . AND ITS jrd Edition, plete, adapiea of mtd i ie ut MATHEMATICS. difficulties which slates Ler, ie beginners, BEES with reference to the limits of integrate: zw method has been adopted tm regard to the ronsermation of multiple integr ht The last chapter deals with the Calculus of Variations. A large collection Lixer- cises, selected from ‘at Examination Papers, has es Seemed to the several chapter EXAMPLES OF ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THREE DIMENSIONS. Second Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. cloth. 45. A TREATISE ON ANALYTICAL STATICS. With numerous A HIST ee from the Time of Pascal to that of Laplace. 8vo. S. The ih! of this work has high claims to consideration on account Examples. Third Edition, revised and enlarged. Crown 8vo cloth. 10s, 6d. In this work on Statics (treating of the laws of the equilibrium of bodies) will be found ail the propositions which usually appear in treatises on Theoretical Statics. To the different chapters Examples are appended, which have hon ae es see Zo. University Examination Papers. Ln the Ldition additions have been made, in order to illustrate a appintion o. ih principles of the subject to the solution of problem RY OF THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF of the subtle problems which it involves, the valuable contributions o every great mathematician within the range of a century and a half comes under consideration in the course of the history. The author has endeavoured to be quite accurate in his statements, and to reproduce the essential elements of the original works which he has analysed. Besides being a history, the work may claim the title of a comprehensive treatise on the Theory of Probability, for tt an elementary book on Algebra, and introduces Aim to almost every process ant every special Ones which the literature of the subject can furn RESEARCHES IN THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS, Principally on the Theory of Discontinuous Solutions: An Essay * 18 SCIENTIFIC ikdgss igo Todhunter Fas pega to which the Adams’ Prize was awarded in the University of Cambridge in 1871. On Os The subject of this Essay was prescribed in the following terms by the aminers :—‘‘ A determination of the circumstances under which of maximum or minimum in the Calculus of Variations, and P eS to particular instances. It ts expected that the discus- sion of emstances should be exemplified as far as possible geo- metrica ly, and that gis be especially directed to cases of real or 1G. B. )- y, oP) supposed failure of the Calculus While the Essay is thus ik 4 i ¢, B. AIRY devoted to the pt Ss o discontinuous solutions, vartiou loth. other questions tn the Calculus of Variations are examined pre pin. clo ‘ elucidated ; and the author po he has definitely contributed to the This work cons extension and improvement of our knowledge of this refined depart- ment of analysts. Wilson (W. P.)—A TREATISE ON DYNAMICS. By W. P. Witson, M.A., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, ary and Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Belfast. 8vo Oo gs. 6d. } we al aleulation.”? Wolstenholme.—A BOOK OF MATHEMATICAL “/“@a@th PROBLEMS, on Subjects included in the Cambridge Course. ind instrumen By JosEPH WOLSTENHOLME, Fellow of Christ’s College, some time Fellow of St. John’s College, and lately Lecturer in Mathe- Man (H at 6 matics at Christ’s College. Crown 8vo. cloth. 8s. 6d. NIGIN OF L CONTENTS :—Geometry ( Euclid )—Algebra—FPlane Trigonometry— Experimey Geometrical Conic Sections—Analytical Conic Sections— Theory of I Hofessors Hu Lquate tons— Differential Calculus—Integral Calculus—Solid Geo- Rg KS, ] metry—Static ws— Elementary Dynamics—Newton—Dynamics of @ lege, Lond on, Point—Dynamics a Rigid Bo Pe ee “— | oe Optics—Spherical Trigonometry and Plane Astronom { ' Volum, cases the author has prefixed to certain classes of Pies. pe th ed in a » mentary notes on the mathematical subjects to which they relate. ure ang 3 t “* Sudicious, symmetrical, and well arranged.” —Guardian. a ” @ the Phys a Vaivenity of ng lerms by the es under wy why refined depart. ‘AMICS. By e, Cambridge, Belfast. 8vo, ‘MATICAL ridge Course. College, some rer in Mathe- , a. be wwii PHYSICAL SCIENCE. Airy (G. B.)—POPULAR ASTRONOMY. With Illustrations. By G. B. Atry, Astronomer Royal. Seventh and cheaper Edition. 18mo. cloth. 6d. This work consists of Six Lectures, which are intended *‘ to explain to intelligent persons the principles on which the pen ase: 2 an Observatory are tataiiee ne (omitting all es so far as ; merely subsidiary), and the principles which the Samah nte) made with these instruments are treated i deduction of the distances and weights of the bodies of the Solar eect and of a few stars, omitting all minutie of Sormule, and all troublesome ere of calculation.” The speciality of this volume ts the direct reference of every step to the a. and the full description of the methods and instruments of observatio Bastian (H. C. M.D., F.R.S.)}—THE MODES OF ORIGIN OF LOWEST ORGANISMS : Including a Discussion of the Experiments of M. Pasteur, and a reply to some Statements by Professors Huxley and Tyndall. By H. CHARLTON BasTIAN,) .D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy in University College, London, etc. Crown 8vo. 45. 6d. The present volume contains a fragment of the evidence which will be embodied in a a ae work—now almost complete AEE te! to the nature and origin of living matter, and in favou termed the Physical Doctrine eof Life. ‘‘Itts a work worthy of the highest respect, and cha its author in the very first nee — physicians. . . . Lt would be difficult to name an instance u skill, knowledge, perseverance, and great reasoning snien vr have ee more applied to the investigation of a complex etek bss happily pro bGitere.? *—British Medical ae 20 SCLENTIFIC CATALOGUE: Birks (R. B. feos MATTER AND ETHER ; or, The Secret Laws of Phy Change. Rector of Pe Herts, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. AS yen Birks, M.A., Ho By TH ee 7 ow of Trinity College, The author believes that the hypothests of the existence of, besides matter, a luminous ether, of immense elastic force, supplies the true and suf- ficient key to the remaining secrets of inorganic matter, of the phe- In this treatise the author endea- form a clear and definite conception with regard to the real nature both of matter and ether, and the laws of mutual action which must be Bi to exist between them. He then endeavours to trace out the consequences of the fundamental h i pothests, and their S sabponiene with the known phenomena of physical change. er (W. T.)—GEOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY OF SSINIA. By W. T. BLANFOoRD. 8vo. 21s. This work contains an account of the Geological and Zoological Obser- vations made by t. British Army on a march to Magdala and na during a short journey in Northern A i after the dear we troops. Part I. Personal Narrat art IL, Geology ; aes Zoology. With Coloured eee and Colt Map. Tes Jeng ois labours,” the my Sia ‘ts an inepor 2 to the natural history ve the country.” ia (Josiah :P., Uli —FIRST igen ek OF P. Coo CHEMICAL PHILOSOPH X. Sy yOsia E, jung Ervine Professor of Chemistry and eee, in hee College. Crown 8vo. The object of the author in this book is to present the philosophy of — in such a form that it can be made with profit the subject ollege recitations, and furn aon the student’ s _ “ee and ability. With this view the subject has been developed in a logical order, and the principles “ the science are taught pit fea selirs of the experimental evidence o which they rest. nish the teacher with the means of q wri th a wa M. 3 y} desct! Soy BL “ght oe thirh Stic aaa iti nics id ical Index 9 iirats, for ma awson (J. W ~Sncture, Organi als uti, New Bran a mumerous I] Au Ne abject of the j Tach of the Yee The Secret RKS, M.A 'Y College ‘des Matter, ue and $ of physical OGY OF gical Obser- PLES OF OKE, jun. ard College. jilos sophy iy of az the subj ans HY m she ys aah of 0) ; | PHVSICAL SCIENCE. ay Cooke (M. C.)—HANDBOOK OF BRITISH ‘ FUNGI, with full descriptions of all the Species, and Illustrations of the Genera. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. Two vols. crown n 8vo During the thirty-fwe years that have elapsed since the appearance of the last complete as cologic Lora no attempt has been made to revise it, to incorporate species since discovered, and to bring it up to the standard of ef Sclence. apology, therefore, ts sana is the present effort, since all will admit that the want of su manual has long been felt, and this work makes tts pee under the advantage that tt seeks to occupy a place which has long g of confidence, and, by the ee of an occasional eee at ts hoped to maintain ut for many years as the ** Handbook” for every student of British Fungt. Appended ts a complete alpha- betical Index of all the Points and subdivisions of the Fuugt noticed in the text. The book contains 400 figures. “ Will main- tain its place as the standard E ee be on the subject of which it treats, for many years to come.” —Standard. Dawson (J. W.)—ACADIAN GEOLOGY. The Geologic Structure, Organic Remains, and Mineral Resources of Nova Scotia, New Branswick, and Prince Edward Island. By Jot Wittiam Dawson, M.A., LL. D, F.RSi, .5., Principal a Sec Vice-Chancellor of M‘Gill Callege and Uni Weis Montreal, &c. econ d Edition, revised and enlarged. With a Geological Map and numerous Illustrations. S$vo. The object of the first edition of this work was to place within the she of the people of the districts to which it relates, a popular account of the more recent discoveries in the geology and muneral resources of their country, and at the same time to give to geologists n other countries a connected view of the structure oe a very in- teresting portion of the American Continent, in ts ton to general and theoretical Geology. Ln the Waew edition, ut ts die thes design is still more desing las with reference to the present more advanced condition of knowledge. The author has endea- region in such vr as to be intelligible to ordinary readers, and has devoted a em to all questions relating to the nature and present or prospective ee of deposits of useful minerals. SCIENTIFIC CA TALOGUE. | Besides a large coloured Geological Map of the district, the work 7s ere by upwards o, 260 cuts of sections, fossils, animals, etc. “*The book will doubtless find a place in the library, not on ly of We scientific geologist, but also of all who are desirous of the in~ hess ges progress and Sieesan “Th “XPos ; e Most Non fa . “onform. ist Land and Meal of the DRESSES, Rea New 2 Advisable. 4s drifts of RESSES, e above. numerous ene the ons ral view 4 or Venn . Respir 3 —— ae " PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 25 tion : Sources of Loss and of Gain to the Blood ; the Function of Alimentation ; Motion and Locomotion ; Sensations and Sensory Organs ; the Organ of Sight ; the Coalescence of eg with one another and with other States of Consciousness ; the Nervous . Minut he T1 zs append The se are fully illustrated ae numerous en gravings. ‘‘ Pure gold throughout. Guardian. ‘* Unguestion- ey the pier and OF complete elementary eae on this subject that we possess in any language.” —Westminster Review. Kirchhoff (G.)—RESEARCHES ON THE SOLAR SPEC- RUM, and the Spectra of the Chemical Elements. Byee Gs KircHHuoFfF, Professor of Physics in the University of Heidelberg. Second Part. Translated, with the Author’s Sanction, from the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1862, by Henry R. Roscog, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester. “Tt is to Kirchhoff we are eeeeiied For by far the best and most observations of these phenomena.” —K.di eview. ‘‘ This memoir seems almost oy aoe to every ee observer.’ —Philo- sophical Magaz «herd (J. N.)—ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN AS- NOMY. With numerous Illustrations. By J. NORMAN he F.R.S. Eighth Thousand. 18mo. 5s. 6d. The ee has here aimed to give a connected view of the whole seas 1S and to supply facts, and ideas founded on the facts, to serve as a jor Sse ee and discussion. The chapters treat of es Stars and Nebule e Sun; the Solar System ; Apparent Move- ments of the ae Bodies ; the Measurement of Time; sacle ‘ the Telescope and Spectroscope; A pparent t Places of the Heavenly Bodies ; the Real Distances and Dimensions ; Universal pS BE The most recent Astronomical Discoveries are incorporated. Mr. Lockyer’s work cuir that of the Astronomer Royal. ‘‘ The book is full, clear, sound, and worthy of attention, not only as @ opular foge ition, but as a scientific ‘ Index,’ — Athen “‘ The most fascinating of elementary books on the Sens? — alas st. 26 SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE: Macmillan (Rev. Hugh). Author, see THEOLOGICAL CATALOGUE, HOLIDAYS ON HIGH LANDS; or, Rambles and Incidents in search of Alpine Plants. Crown Bee. cloth. 6s. The aim of this book is to impart a general idea of the origin, cha- racter, and distribution of those rare and beautiful Alpine plants - A where on the shy mountain chains of Europe, Asia, Africa a” ) America. In rst three chapters the peculiar iii of the “Ihe aim of U LTighland ne zs fully described ; while in the fr "species have chapters this vegetation ts traced to its northern ues im the moun~ “ vt unre Tu tains of Norway, and to its southern European patie in the - “ylection,” an Alps of Switzerland. The information es author has to give ts can be absolu conveyed in a setting - personal adven. re. ‘* One of the most ward those Se hie Aoeke of its kind ever wr rl ae Spo a8 lake (4 ‘Mr. Ms slowing pictures of Scandinavian scenery.” —Saturday qf wy Review = cosmos, **in ; lear FOOT-NOTES FROM THE PAGE OF NATURE. With 4 fide index m numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. in his addres. ** Thosewho have derived ion and profit from the study of flowers _ ammend ear: and ferns—subjects, it is pleasing to find, now everywhere popular __ ther side, the —by descending lower into ie arcana of the vegetable kingdom, —) ERS, a boo, will find a still more interesting and delightful field of research in | Wit has dese the objects brought under review in the following pages.” —Prefac “In no work “* The naturalist and the botanist will delight ve this volume, and hen those who understand little of the scientific parts of the work will linger over the mysterious page of nature fii unfolded to ther view.” —John Bull. Treated | of facts, and Review, i, Mansfield (C. B.)—A THEORY OF SALTS. A Treatise "tte ie: W on the Constitution of Bipolar (two-membered) Chemical Com- ; ENCE, E pounds. By the late CHARLES BLACHFORD MANSFIELD. Crown j tats Is, a an 8vo. 14s. b lading ““ Mansfield,” says the editor, ‘‘ wrote this book to defend the prin- 4 by ciple that the fact of voltaic decomposition afforded the true indi- * les man cation, of properly interpreted, of the nature of the saline structure, 4 Went of oo ual, and of the atomicity of the elements that built it up. No chemist — ‘oy te “ron will peruse this book without feeling that he is in the presence of an. ‘q . Whi the Same Neidents in Te isin, cha. ~Saturday E. With » WOT vd to their \ Treatise ical Com ), Crown + the prim true ind PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 27 ee thinker, whose pages are continually suggestive, even though their general argument may not be entirely concurrent im sai with that of modern chemical thought.” Mivart (St. George).—ON THE GENESIS OF SPECIES. St. GEORGE MIvArT, F.R.S. Crown 8vo. 3 cond Edition, y to which notes have been adaha j in Pyne a and reply to Darwin’s. “Descent of Man.” With numerous eee pp. xv. 296 Qs. The aim of the author 1s to support the doctrine that the various igh have been evolved by ordinary natural laws (for the most part unknown) controlled by the subordinate action of ‘‘ natura en? and at the same time to remind some that there is and can be absolutely nothing in physical science which forbids them to regard those natural Beis as acting with the Divine concurrence, and in papas to a creative - tat orig se eee on the primeval cosmos, ‘‘in the beginning,” 4 ts Upholder, ee its Lord. Nearly fifty woodcuts Besteats oe ee -press, and a plete index makes all oe ences extremely ea Canon nee in his address to the evonshir Lasiioe? says, ** Let me re- commend ss ane to you, as a a en of what can be said on the other side, the * Genesis of Species, by Mr. St. George Mivart, R.S., a book which Lam happy to say has been received sashes: as ut has deserved, and, I trust, will be received so among you.” ‘In no work in the English language has this great ibe been treated at once with the same broad and vigorous grasp of se and the same liberal and candid ae ”__Saturda’ a8 Nature.—A WEEKLY ea Shaina eesuhevs OF SCIENCE. Published every Thu Price 4¢. Monthly Parts, 15. 4d. and Is. 8d. ; ; Half. yearly ae 10s. 6d. Cases for binding vols. Is. 6d. ** Backed by many of the best names among English philosophers, and by a few equally valuable supporters in America and on the Conti- nent of Europe.”—Saturday Review. ‘‘ This able and well-edited Journal, which posts up the science of the day pate scie and promises to be of signal service to students aes savants.”’—British Quarterly Review. 28 SCLENITIVG CAL TALOGUE. Oliver.—Works by DANIEL OLIVER, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University College, London, ye ee a the Herba- rium and Library of the Royal Gardens, LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY BOTANY. Hundred Illustrations. Twelfth Thousand. With nearly Two 18mo cloth. 4s. 6d. This book is designed to teach the elements % Botany on Professor Hlenstow's plan of selected Tyftes and by the use of Schedules. The earlier chapters, embracing the Ped ats of ae uctural and Physio- logical Botany, introduce us to the methodical study of the Ordinal “y pes. he con pene: chapters are Bec ie ** How to Dr Plants” and “ to Describe Plants.” A valuable Glossary is appended to the soe In the preparation of this work free use has been made of the manuscript materials of the late Professor Lenslow, FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY. With numerous 6s. 6d. Illustrations. Extra fcap. 8vo. This manual is, in substance, the amass “* Lessons in Elementary Botany,” adapted for use in Indi In preparing it he has had in view the want, often felt, es some handy résumé of Indian Botany, which might be serviceable not only to residents of India, but also to any one about to proceed BES destrous ee getting some pre: liminary idea of the botany of the countr im digested summary of all essential pivaleize Se to Indian otany, wrought out in accordance with the best principles of scientific arrangement. ”—Allen’s Indian Mail. Penrose (F. C.)—ON A METHOD OF PREDICTING BY GRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION, OCCULTATIONS OF TARS BY THE MOON, AND SOLAR ECLIPSES FOR ANY GIVEN emia ea with more rigorous methods for the Accurate Calculation of pein F. C. PENROSE, F.R.A.S. With Charts, aie 4to The author believes that tf, by a oo. method, the prediction of occultations can be rendered more inviting, as we ve expedt- tious, than by the method of calculation, it may prove acceptable to the nautical profession as well as to selieahi travellers or amateurs. The author has endeavoured to make the whole process as intelli- gible.as possible, so that the beginner, instead of merely having to 12S: 4 fil ‘4 4 gy as fot gree! anings, i. Be nui proctce ; _W for! ; chemistry in ¢ gsg0NS IN nD ORGA jtho of fn S farths. f. 6d. Ithas been the é Pee Tofess 0 he r of Hertha, 45, 6g Lr ofes, Sor 2 Professor numerous slementary - to Indian P EN ROSE, adicton 4 af an 5 as ial » paving to PHYSICAL, SCIENCE. follow directions imperfectly under ‘stood, may readily compreh the meaning of each step, and be able to wlustrate o practice ig ee theory. Besides all necessary charts and tables, the work contains a large number of skeleton forms for ee out cases in penis Roscoe.—Works by Henry E. Roscor, F#R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester :— -. IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC RGANIC. With numerous TERRE and Chromo- . a the Solar Spectrum, and of t e Alkalies and Alkaline Earths. New Edition. Thirty-first Dake 18mo. cloth. 4s. 6d. 3 has been the endeavour ae the author to arrange the most ae facts and principles of Modern Chemistry in a plain but concise and scientific form, ieee to the present requirements if bpsgcti instruction. For the purpose of facilitating the att ainment of questions upon the lessons have been ed. The metric system of weights and measures, and the ieee thermometric scale, are used throughout this work. The new edition, besides new wood- cuts, contains many additions and improvements, and includes the J “We u nounce it the best of all our elementary treatises on Chemistry. Medical Times. PECTRUM ANALYSIS. Six Lectures, with aig En- gravings, Maps, and Chromolithographs. Roy al 8vo A Second Edition of these . aahaist containing all the most recent discoveries and several additional illustrations. ‘‘In s facts relating to the analysis of light in such a way that any reader of ordinary intelligence and information will be able to understand what ‘Spectrun SAN ; 2 Analysis’ is, and what are its claims to rank Mf ? lecture of extracts from the most important published memoirs, the author has rendered it equally valuable as a text-book for advanced students.” —Westminster Review. Stewart (B SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. -)—LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY PHYSICS; . By BALFOUR STEWART, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philoso ophy ns College, Manchester. ‘With numerous Illustrations and Ghnoshclitys of the pee of the Sun, Stars, and Nebule. Second Edition. 18mo. 4p». A description, in an elementary manner, of the ast il ad of those laws which regulate the. jhe dee of na The active agents, heat,” oe electricity, ei enerey, and t, another, leaded. at tn this light, and the paramount importance of the laws of energy, are clearly brought out. The all the aes ech ine The Educ ‘“the 2 of a scientific text-book, clear, thorous: volume contains ational Times calls this accurate, and ‘Thudichum and Dupré.—a TREATISE ON THE : ORIGIN, NATURE, VARIETIES OF WINE. Being a acon Manual of Viticulture and CEnology. By. ji W. TuHupicHum, M.D., and Aucust Dupré, Ph.D., Lecturer on chawians e Westminster Hospital. Median eye cloth gilt In this elaborate work the subject of the manufacture of wine is treated scientifically in minute detail, from Nes point of vi hapter t: oy of Vines, two ip the apters, the remaining seventeen chapters being occupied with a detailed ncooshd of the Viticulture and the Wines of the various countries of Europe, of the Atlantic me of Asia, of Africa, of America, and of Australia. Besides number of Analytical and Sabo Ti a the work ts erick with eighty-five illustrative woodcut “‘A treatise almost unique Jor its usefulness either to the wine-grower, the vendor, or the con- sumer of wine. The analyses of wine are the most complete we have yet seen, exhibitin glance the constituent principles Es ing at a nearly all the wines known in a country.” —Wine Trade Revie ‘Wallace (A. R.)—CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION. A Series of Essays. By Coy ment of Hume Th Seatey part omy. Te ‘cabs thee PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 31 ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, Author of ‘* The hem pangs etc. Second Edition, with Corrections and Additions. Crown Bvo. 8s.6d. (For other Works by the same pce see CATA- LOGUE OF HISTORY AND TRAVELS.) Mr. Wallace has good claims to be adh ea as an independent LI originator of the theory of natur al sel LE ee in his address to the British Association, an: ee of the author: ‘Of Mr. Wallace and his many contributions to ee biology it is not easy to speak without enthusiasm ; for, putting aside their great merits, aS throughout his writings, with a modesty as rare as I believe it to be Chaba Sorgets his own unquestioned claim to the eee of having originated, indepen- dently of Mr. Darwin, the theories onic. he so ably defends.” The Saturday Review says: ‘‘ He has oes an abundance of fresh and original facts with a liveliness and sagacity of reasoning which are not often ecuiasies 50 oh ah on so small a scale.” The Essays tn this volume are “On the Law which has regu- lated the introduction of New cae IT. ‘* On the Tendencies of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type.” III. “*Mt- micry, and other * Protective Resemblances among Animals.” IV. egies Selection.” V. ‘On Instinct im Man and Animals. VI. ‘* The anlseatt ef Birds Nests.’ VII. ‘‘A Theory of Birds Nest. VIII. ‘‘ Creation by ae w.” IX. ‘* The Develop- ment of Human Races under the Law of Natural Selection.” X. ** The Limits of Natural Gee as ate to Man. Warington.—THE WEEK OF CREATION; OR, THE. COSMOGONY OF GENESIS CONSIDERED IN ITS RELATION TO MODERN SCIENCE. By GEorGE WaR- IncToN, Author of ‘‘ The Historic Character of the Pentateuch Vindicated.”” Crown 8vo. 4S. The greater part of this work it taken up with the teaching of the e is also investigated, and a chapter is Hebrew text and of distinguished scientific attainments.” — Spectator 32 Wilson.—Works by the late GEORGE WILSON, M.D., RELIGIO CHEMICI. SCLENTIFIC CATALOGUE. F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Technology in the University of Edinburgh :— a design by Sir No—EL PaTon. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d. ‘George Wilson,” says the Preface to this volume, ‘‘had it in his heart Jor many years to write a book corresponding to the weer Medici of Sir Thomas Browne, with the title Religio Chem Several of the Essays tn this volume were intended to form he of it. These fragments being in most cases like finished gems waiting to be are now given in a collected form to his friends n living remembrance of his purpose, the name chosen os himself has been adopted, although the original design can be but very faintly represented.” The Ngo te ee the volume are:—** Cherm astry and Natural Theology.” he Chemistry a an Argument touching the Stars and their Princes: css i Caphie final Causes; as hice ie by the At esence of eee and Iron he EHigher Sentient Or, See Boyle.” "Wollaston. oo an sneHisnyS “* Thoughts on the Resurrection; an Address to Medical ee ss ‘4 more fascinating volume,” the Spe one says, ‘‘has seldom fallen into our ee The Fre {Shy valuable deeply interesting. The p thinker, a suggestive and eloquent writer, and a man whose piety and genius went hand in hand.” THE PROGRESS OF THE TELEGRAPH. Fceap. 8vo. Is. “* While a oe view of the progress of the greatest is human inventions ts ned, all its suggestions are brought out with a rare thought{u bate a genial humour, and an eee: ae of st. utterance.’’—Nonconformi “Winslow.—FORCE AND NATURE: ATTRACTION AND REPULSION. discussed in their Relations to ana and aaa De- By C. F. WINsLow, M. The author Ait Jor long investigated Nature in many dir ections, t unsatisfied with the physical ee i which some branches of science have been so long compelled to rest. The question, he believes, must have occurred to many MERE and velopment. With a Vignette beautifully engraved after The Radical Principles of Energy graphically — anit i ht 4 “Dyserves thoug "jt. -A HIST dee of Lavoisier ‘ faslated by HE "The discourse, a: angular lumine: _ mst oficiently,””- RRS IN PE ~— MEDICay. Bete: : PRgp nburgh