TE 

HERS M N 

MANUAL OF SU 
FOR TEA HERS O 

STI N 

AUTIIORIZE 
THE MINI TER OF EDU 

RI -ENTS. 

TOR N 


SUGGESTIONS 
FOR 
TEACHERS OF SCIENCE 


CONTENTS v 

SPRING WORK OF SECOND YEAR-Continted PAGE 
Starfish ........................................... 118 
Common Animals of Minute Size ..................... 119 
Snake and Turtle ................................... 119 
Review of Animals Studied .......................... 122 
Schedule for Reviewing and Comparing Animals .... 123 

BOTAI 

AUTUMN WORK OF FIRST YEAR ........................... 125 
Simple Instruments Needed .......................... 125 
Plant, Examination of ............................. 125 
Material for Opening Lessons; Root, Stem, Foliage 
Leaves, Flower Leaves---calyx, corolla, stamens, 
pistil, receptacle .............................. 120 
Fruits ............................................. 1::0 
Fleshy, Dehiscent, Indehiscent; Dispersal of Seeds-- 
wind, water, animals, special mechanisms ........ 133 
Seeds ............................................. 133 
Dicotyledons ................................... 124 
Monocotyledons ................................ 124 
G:aunosperms .................................. 125 
Preparation for Winter ............................. 136 
Annuals, Biennials, Perennials ................... 136 
Storage ................................... lY,6 
Winter Buds ............................... 137 
Fall of Leaf and Fruit ...................... 138 
Markings of Trees and Shrubs ....................... 139 
Outdoor Work ...................................... 1:;9 

SPRING WORK OF FIRST YEAR ............................ 140 
Germination of Seeds ............................... 140 
Conditions of Successful Growth ................. 141 
Evolution of Carbon Dioxide .................... 142 
Absorption of Vater by Seeds .................... 143 
Germinating Power of" Seeds .................... 143 
Artificial Plant Propagation ......................... 144 
Study of Spring Flowers ............................ 145 
Dog's-tooth Violet, or Yellow Adder's Tongue ..... 145 
Indian Turnip .................................. 146 
Pollination ........................................ 147 
V,'ind-pollination, Insect-pollination, Odours, Self- 
pollination .......................... .- ........ 149 
Inflorescence ....................................... 150 
Use of the Flora ................................... 151 
Roots--Varieties of Root Forms ..................... 151 
Stems ............................................. 152 
Vinter ]3uds ................................... 152 
Adaptation of Form to Habit .................... 153 


CONTENTS 

Stems--Coutimwd PAGE 
Stem Structure in Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons 154 
Foliage Leaves ..................................... 153 
General Foliage ................................ 155 
Protective Structures ............................ 156 
Relation of Leaves to Sunlight .................. 
Sleep Movements ............................... 158 
AUTUMN VORK OF SECOND YEAR .......................... 159 
Composites ......................................... 159 
Wee,Is ............................................ 160 
Fungi ............................................. 162 
Saprophytes ................................... ]62 
Parasites ...................................... 164 
Physiological Experiments .......................... 166 
Roots ......................................... 
S-ils .......................................... 167 
Culture Solutions ............................... 16.q 
Stem Functions ................................ 170 
Heliotropism ................................... 170 
Foliage Leaves ................................. 171 
SPRING WORK OF SECOND _EAR .......................... 172 
Trees ............................................. 172 
Grasses ............................................ 173 
Ferns ............................................. 174 
Ecollomie Products ................................. 174 
Roview ............................................ 175 
Outdoor Work ...................................... 175 

PIIYSI('S AND ('tlEMISTRY 

REFERENCE WORKS ..................................... 176 
Physics ........................................... 176 
Chemistry ......................................... 177 
CLASS MANAGEENT .................................... 178 
APPARATI'S AND SIMPLE ]|ANIPI'rI,ATId.N'S .................. 179 
Tables, Sinks, Drawers, Bottles, Spirit-lamps or Bunsen 
Burners, Gas Collectors. Heating Glassware, Rubber 
Stoppers, Glass Blowing, Deflagrating Spoons, Evapora- 
tion of Solutions, Filtration ....................... 179 
NOTE-BOOKS ............................................ 1.q4 
APPARATUS ............................................ 1,q7 
Geaeral Equipment ................................. 1,q7 
Apparatus Required hy each Pupil (or Group of Two) .. 1.q.q 
Reagents .......................................... 189 


PREFACE 

TtIE" Suggestions" in the following pages have been 
prepared mainly in the interests of those teachers in our 
Coutinuation and IIigh Schools who, through lack of 
experience or of proper opportunities, often feel themselves 
at a loss in dealing with the many details of the Elementary 
Science work of the Lower School. This Course embraces 
work in Physics, Chemistry, Botany, and Z}ology, and 
while there are excellent manuals dealing nmre or less 
fully with each of these departments, it has beeu felt that 
a useful purpose wouhl be served if the beginner in .qcience 
teaching c,uld have at hand a single reference bo,k con- 
tainiug su(.h hints upon class management, selection of 
suitable works for extended reading, manipulation of 
apparatus, and other details, as the experience of some of 
our teachers of long standing has proved to be of value. 
A glance through the pages will sb.w that the 
" Suggestions" are not ill any sense intended to take the 
place of text-books or to exempt the teacher from the 
pursuit of iuformation through the channels of the 
stamlard literature, but rather by hints and references to 
stimulate him to personal efforts in various directions. 
In the part relating to Physics, for example, instead of 
details of certain experiments which are described in 
standard fext-bo}ks, reference is made to those text-books, 
and the teacher is cxper.tcd to have them on the library 
shelves. In Btany and Zology. in like manner, frequent 
reference is made to desirable publications in which the 
1 


PREFACE 3 

study is to be pursued under the teacher's direction, but 
different teachers, while following a general scheme recog- 
nized by common cousent as a desirable one, will put the 
stare l) of different individualities on the mode of present- 
ing the subject, all in the end arriving at the same goal. 
To help the young teacher, then, over some of the 
obstacles which lie in his path, and to stimulate him to 
wider reading and to the intelligent consideration of how 
to make the most of the Elementary Science work for the 
edueational value it possesses, is, in a word, the object of 
these " Suggestions ". 


6 ELEMEI'TARY SCIENCE 

FIRST YEAR 
S'eptember and October 
In z'erlebrales.--Class study of a grasshopper, a spider, 
a centipede. 
Comparison of a grasshopper with a cricket or cock- 
roach, leading to the recognition of the order Orlhoptera. 
Study of a IJtttterfl 3- ad a house-fly witll observations 
,l timir hat,its and habitats; feeding and developlnent of a 
butterfly. 
l'crlcbrales.--I;irds: Study of the external character- 
istics of a domestic fowl, pigeon, or other common bird; 
instructi,ns regardinff the protection of birds l,y la-. 
UOlnl,arisoll of the bills and feet of different types of the 
birds of Ontario. 
For Winter: Ob.ervation of the winter birds, their 
f,'cding ilabits, their dangers, and modes of protection. 

April, May, and June 
Inrcrlcbrates.--Class study of the fresh-water clam and 
the e:rthworm. 
Observations on the mosquito, the prevalence of its 
larvae in wet places and their destruction by kerosene. 
Vertcbrales.--Fishcs: Study of the external character- 
istics of a common fish. Structure of the gills and the 
manner of breathing. 
Amphibians: Study of the external characters of a 
common frog; of its development from the egg. Economic 
importance of frogs and toads. Feeding habits of a com- 
mon fish, frog, or toad. 
3Iigration of birds: Identification of twelve common 
birds; sufficient description for this purpose to be recorded. 
A collection of insects to be made in the first year. 


8 ELEMENTARY $CIENCE 

FIRST YEAR 
September and October 
T]e Plat n._ a wiole: A detailed study of some com- 
mou phmt such as a petunia or a buttercup, taking up 
the structure of all the parts in succession; the study of 
additional plants as a basis for the classification of roots, 
stems, foliage leaves, and inflorescence; the study to be 
such as can bc carried on with the aid of an ordinary lens. 
Roots: Varieties of form. 
Stems: Varieties of form; erect, prostrate, climbing, 
twining, subterranean, aquatic. Stem structure in dicoty- 
ledons and monocotyledons. 
Foliage leaves: [eneral structure, veining, margin, 
form, and arrangemcnt in relation to sunlight and shed- 
ding of rain. 
lfloresccncc: Varieties of axial and terminal t3"pes. 
Fruits: Structure and classification of the simpler 
fruits, such as a pea or bean, shepherd's purse, poppy, 
apple, tomat,, grape, l,lum, corn, and maple; adaptation 
for the dispersal of seeds. 
Preparatiot for II'ider: Storage of reserve food in 
root, stem, leaf, and seed; study of winter buds, their 
arrangement, structure, and means of protection ; the fall 
of the leaf and fruit ; interpretation of leaf and scale scars 
on trees and shrubs. 

April, May, and June 

Seeds: Practical study of some of the common seeds, 
such as the pea, bean, morning glory, representing 
dicotyledons; corn, wheat, representing monocotyledons; 
pine or spruce, representing gynmosperms; form, mark- 
ings, parts and their functions, position of stored food. 


BIOLOGY 9 

Germination of Seeds: Simple experiments to illustrate 
the more important phenomena and requiremeuts of 
gcrminati,m and growth, for example, necd of air, -armth, 
and moisture; evolution of carbon dioxide; how and to 
what extcnt water is absorbed; root hairs; root cap ; region 
of growth in root. 
Spring Flowering Phmts: Plant description and 
identification by means of a flora begun; relation of flower 
structure tomode of pollination ; meaning and significance 
of cross pollinatio; structure and expanding of winter 
buds; adaptation of stem form to habit; spines, prickles, 
tendrils, their frms and u.cs; foliage leaves, as in the 
autumn work of the first year. 

SECOND YEAR 
,','eptember and October 
Composites: Study of the inflresccnce and flower 
structure of typical composites, such as dandelion, burdock, 
and ox-cyc daisy. 
Weeds: Recognition of c.mmon forms; how they 
spread, and how they may be controlled. 
Fungi: Recognition and mode of life .f mu.hroona, 
puff-ball, pdypore, as sapr.phytic forms; and apple scal, 
lilac mildew, wheat rust, black knot, or other common type, 
as a parasitic form. 
Physiological Experiments : Roots : Simple cxpcriments 
to illustrate root functions, for example, absorption by 
osmosis, growth toward moisture. 
Soils: The presence of so|ul.le and insoluble materials 
in soils; simple experiments in illustration. 
Stems: Simlde experiments t. illu.trate stem funeti.n, 
for example, conduction of eel] sap, heliotropism, rotation 
of the end of the stem in twiners and climbers. 


10 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

Foliage leaves: Simple experiments to illustrate leaf 
functions, for example, transpiration, manufacture of 
starch iu sunlight, disappearance of starch in darkness, 
exhalation of a gas hy green water-plants, exhalation of 
carbon dioxide. 
April, May, and June 
Trees: Mode of brauching and identification by leaves, 
bark, and wood of maple, willow, or oak, a conifer, apple, 
and plum, or cherry. 
Description and identification of twelve different 
species of flowering plauts, representing at least six 
different orders and including both monocotyledons and 
dicotyledons. 
Ferns: General structure and habits of a common fern. 
l:eriew: General review and comparison of the char- 
actcristics of the larger groups of plants taken up in the 
Course. summariziug and classifying. 
A collection of plants to be made in the second year; 
also a collection of ten economic woods 
The collection of plants shall include carefully selected 
and prepared specimens of the species chosen for identifi- 
cation as required above. 

PHYSICS 

FIRST YEAR 

Norember to April 
Introductory: Mcasuremcnt in Metrical and English 
units t,f length, area, volume, and mass ; structure and use 
of the Balance; The Three States of Matter, defined and 
explained. 


PHYSICS 11 

Mechanics: The principle of the mechanical powers; 
some of their more important simple applications. 
Hydrolulics: Pascal's Law, statement and verification, 
some of its more importalt applications; pressure of 
liquids in its relation to direction, depth, density of liquid, 
area pressed, and the shape of containing vessel; 
Archimedes' principle; specific gravity; c,mmon methods 
of finding specific gravities of solids and liquids. 
Pneumalics: Study of the properties of a gas as ex- 
hibited in air as a t)Te; proof flint air has weight, occupies 
space, and exerts pressure; construction of the barometer; 
the relation between the volume a,d pressure of a gas; 
proof of Boyle's Law ; practical application of air pressure ; 
air pump, common pump, siphon, the principle of air 
brakes, air tools. 
SECO.N'D YEAR 
Novenber to April 
Heal: h'ature and source of heat; experiments to 
illustrate the expansion of solids, liquids, and gases by 
heat; some practical applications of the principle of 
expansion; the anomalous expansion of water, its signifi- 
cance; meaning of temperature as compared with quantity 
of heat; graduation of the mercury therm.meter in the 
Centigrade and the Fahrenheit scale; meanig of latent 
heat, applications; experimental demonstration of the 
transmutation of heat into mechanical energy. 
Sound: Nature and propagation of sound; pitch of 
sound; consonance and resonance; reflection of sound 
echoes. 
Light: Nature and propagation of light; simple experi- 
ments illustrating the reflection and refraction of light; 
dispersion of light; colour of bodies. 


BIOLOGY 15 

There can be little doubt that the study of Zoology is most 
profitably as well as most pleasantly begun in the field and 
by the seashore, in the Zoological Garden and the Aquarium. 
In a very real sense, it is true that the best zoologist is he who 
kows the most animals, and there can certainly be no better 
foundation for a strict and scientific study of the subject than 
a familiarity with the general appearance and habits of the 
common members of the principal animal classes. But Zoology 
as a branch of academic study can hardly be pursued on the 
broad lines of general natural history and must be content to 
lose a little in 1,readth of view--at least in its earlier stages-- 
while insisting upon accurate observation, comparison, and 
induction within the limited field of Laboratory and Museum 
work. 
These remark. apply equally well to Botany. A well- 
balanced course in Biology, then, 'ill be one having a 
proper adjustment betweeu the two phases of the subject 
and embodying those priuciplcs of each which make for 
the educational wellbeing of the pupil. 
Special Value oi Biology in a Scheme oi Education. 
The reader is referred to ('hapter I of Tl, e Teaching of 
Biology, by Lloyd and Bigelow, for an admiral,le exposi- 
tion of the culture value of Biolo'. A few extracts from 
the ,qummarv are given here to indicate the line of 
argument : 
The special value of biology in education must be indi- 
eared chiefly by the nature of the material with which it deals. 
The study of biology, because it is a study of objective 
realities, tends to develop the disinterested judgment, to teach 
the individual how to adjust himself to his surroundings, and 
to raise the ideals of life. 
Biology has a special value in its usefulness in multiplying 
the interests of the mind, thus furnishing sources of pleasure 
which are deep and lasting and which produce no bad effects. 
They are such as are within the reach of all. 
Biology calls for a large degree of caution in its method 
of thought. In this it resembles real life more nearly than the 


BIOLOGY 

have a series of home-made di.play charts which will help 
materially in defining aim directing the subsequent out- 
door work. Sheets of strong manilla paper, about twenty- 
four inches by thirty-six inches, will answer well; by pas- 
ting small pieces of linen at the corners of the sheets they 
may be hung on nails without tearing. The printing 
should I,e done with some such checking crayon as the 
Falcon or with India ink crayons. Instead of manilla 
paper the cloth material used for window blinds will be 
found satisfactory. 

GENERAL METHOD OF DEALING WITH 
MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES 
The teacher is urged to keep in lnind the proper 
intent of the nmrphological studies. FOl'm and structure 
are not to be studied for.their own sake ; the end does not 
lie in the observing and recording of these. Behind these 
always there must be such questions as: Vhv is this ? Why 
should this be so? Ilas Nature provided wisely here? 
Does this suit the environment? As the syllabus states 
it: " Behind lhe observation of the form tbcrc must be a 
constant effort to interpret the meanlng of the form, to 
show the relation of form and function ". 
In the instruction given in the outlines for the different 
topics, this side of the teacher's work is not directly 
indicated. Questions to cover the matter would take up 
unnecessary space, as they would contain many repetitions. 
The method may be indicated more clearly by a direct 
reference to a few of the first observations suggested in 
the study of the grasshopper. These are: 
1. Note tle sIape, coloration, size, and dbnensions 
(comparative length, width, and d'plh ) of tlc bodg. 


22 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

?. Note thc nature of the animal's outer body wall (the 
cxoskclcton), the substance of it (cl, ilin), its hardness, 
smoothness, and hairincss. 
3. Note the main dirisions of the body--head, lhorax, 
and abdomen. 
Shape.--Finding the body of the grasshopper to be of 
a certain shape (and having knowledge besides of the 
activities of the living animals) the question is, does this 
suit the animal's activities, for example, izl crawling among 
the grass, leaping, or flying through tile air? 
Colour.--Ohserving the grasshopper to have a certain 
general coloration, the question is, does this suit its needs, 
for exanll,le , as a protection; and the young grasshoppers 
heing a brighter grcen than the older ones, why so, or for 
what. possible purpose? 
Size.--Xoticing that. the animals have a certain range 
of size, would there be disadvanta.ges (providing its con- 
ditions of living were the same) in being larger? 
Dimensions.--What is the advantage (if there is any) 
in tile animal's body havilg a greater diameter in the 
depth than it has in the width ? 
Body Wall.--What good purpose is served the animal 
in its having a hard, chitilmus exoskeleton? ]f it is 
smooth, what advantage is there in this? If there are 
hairs, what purpose may they serve ? 
Body Divisions.--What is the significance of the fact 
that the body has three very well distinguished regions--a 
head. a thorax, and an abdomen ? It. must mean that the 
different regions have distinct functions to perform. 
And so. throughout the study, seek to find nature's 
meanings and purpos. 


24 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

sibility. They are exercises in truth-telling. The neces- 
sity for making a record thus provides incentive for the 
accurate observation and the correct thinking. These 
purposes place the teacher under the responsibility of see- 
ing that pupils arc not debarred from this wholesome 
training; under these circumstances, dictating notes be- 
comes a distinct evil; it is not only not doing right, it is 
d,ing wrng ; it is suppressing individuality and originality 
where these should be encouraged ; it nmkes for weakmess 
when the proper aim is for strcnh; it is producing 
creditable (?) note-books at too great a cost. 
Neatness, system, and persistency arc essential for the 
making of a creditable book of science records. 

Drawings. In this connection the teacher of Biology 
may take it for a sound working principle that " no one 
ha. seen an obje.t aright until hc has made a drawing of 
it". They arc quite indispcnsablc. Therefore, encourage 
records in drawings as far as time and circumstances 
permit. Fr the attainment of good results in this, care 
and patience will be required. To most pupils represen- 
tation by drawing is very difficult; the hand and the eye 
have not been attuned to a co-operation in this direction. 
Because of this very lack, the pupil should be encouraged 
to persevere in efforts to acquire a manual dexterity that 
is fundamentally important in all industrial effort and 
whieh may be of great service to himself and others. 
The following suggestions may be found helpful. .Iake 
the conditions for drawing favourable. Be sure that the 
preliminary seeing has been accurate and complete. 
Before the work is commenced, discuss the size, propor- 
tions, and position of the parts of the object that is to be 
represented; also thc scale to be used and the selection of 


BIOLOGY  

the most suitable position on the sheet of paper. Insist 
on the mapping out of the whole drawing before any part 
is finished ; encourage the repeated use of the eraser ; if the 
foundation is right, a good superstructure is easily built. 
In some cases it may be advisable at first to allow the 
partial use of hook drawings as copies. The best exercises 
should be exhibited on the bulletin board and some of them 
retained in a school portfolio for showing to subsequent 
classes. 
The drawings must tell the truth or show an effort to 
tell the truth; a nicely executed and neat representation 
that is untrue must not be accepted as hi.re desirable than 
a clumsy but hone.st expression of an observation. They 
should be lahelled so as to make clear, as far as possible, 
the terms used to desiguate the parts described, and such 
terms will not need to be set forth agaiu itl written Yecords. 
Ilave the pupils provide themselves with a good draw- 
ing pencil (about ]I) and a kneaded eraser; if the pencil 
drawings are to be traced in with India ink, require the 
nse of a good white ledger paper. Many pupils will like 
to use this ink with a fine tracing or mapping pen. It 
makes drawings show up very well. A supply of the ink 
and pens might be provided in the school. 

THE LABORATORY 
The fitness and equipment of the laboratory will deter- 
mine, to some extent, the success of the work. But an 
elaborate equipment is not a necessity for good work. A 
progressive teacher will gradually secure and arrange all 
tim essentials for the work. The first requisites arc good 
light and convenient seats. Where special rooms and 
fittings are provided, the work tahlcs should be placed with 
their longer axes at right angles to the windows. 


BIOLOGY 29 

well to fix on some such I)t)ttle as a standard clear glass 
pickle bottle. It adds much to tile appearance of museum 
specimens to have them exhibited in uniform bottles. 

HOW TO GET SUPPLIES 

Tile following list comprises tile best known dealers in 
such supplies as may be required in biological work. 
Teachers should send for catalogues, and in purchasing, 
ask for quotations and terms, hnported for educational 
purposes, most articles required will be duty free. 
some cases, purchase from foreign firms nmy be made on 
as good terms through local School Supl,ly IIouses as one 
can secure by dealing directly. If purchasing supplies 
prepared in Fram.e or Gernmny, through United States 
firms, it is advisable to give them an import order, so 
that the Vnited States duty may be saved. It usually 
requires a long time to fill such an order, and due allow- 
ance should be nmde for this if the supplies are wanted for 
any particular part of the year's work. 

ZOOLOGICAL SUPPLIES 
MUSEUI SPECIIENS 
The Kny-Scbeerer Company, 404 West 27tb St., New 
York 
Les Fils D'Emile Deyrolle, 46 rue du Bac, Paris, France 
The feo. MT. /[endry Co., Limited, 215-219 Victoria St., 
Toronto 
Ward's Natural Science Establishment, 6 College Ave., 
Rochester, N.Y. 
The Rochester firm advertises the following Zoological 
sets, specially selected, to meet the requirements of the 
Ontario Course of Study in science: 


38 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

sary for the proper covering of the field of study. It must 
be remembered that it will take time to build up a 
('Jnlplcte library; but systematic additions should be 
arranged for in all purchases of books. The order of list- 
ing tile books may be taken as a guide in purchasing; the 
]Jest books arc listed first. 
Where there is a public library in the town co-operating 
with the s.lml ill furnishing books reconlllmndcd for the 
pupils' supl,lcmcntary reading, the s(-lm,l may be relieved 
of lurchasing many of the general works. The school 
slmuhl endcavour to have a representative on the library 
board who Call arrange fJr plans for bringing the library 
and school into t'lose association in the cause of good read- 
ing and education generally. 

SPECIAL BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 

ZOOLOGY 
Text-book of Zoology. 2 w,ls. Parker and Ilaswcll. Mac- 
millans, Toronto. $9.00. 
.l[,,d of Zoology. (An American al,rid.o-ment of above) 
Parker and ]laswell. Macmi]lans, Toronto. $1.6(. 
The TeaclHg of Biology. Lloyd & Bigelow. Longmans, 
;rcen & Co. $1.50. 
Teacler's Mual. (Accompanying Zoology, Descriptive 
ad Pr(wlical) Colton. IIeath & Co., Boston. 
Book of Stggeslions to TeacIters. (Accompanying Stdie. 
of .lid Life) Walter, Whitney, & Lucas. Heath 
& Co. 

Parker and Haswell's Text-5oolc of Zoology is almost 
indispensable as a comprehensive and standard work of 
reference. 


40 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

hd,orat,,ry book shelf, as there may be occasions when they 
can be put into a pupil's hands with advantage. 

ZOOLOGY 
,_'tudics of Inim,d Life. Walter, Whitney, & Lucas. 
Ileath , {'.. 5Oc. 
St,dies in Zoology. Merrill. American Book Co. 50c. 
Praclb'al Zoology. Colto. lleath & Co. 60c. 
Elementary Biology. Boyer. lleath & Co. 80c. 

BOTANY 
I'lant Biolovy. Carets. W. 13. Clive, London, England. 
:1.. 6d. 
Laboratory l'r,,'tice for Beginners in Botuny. Setchell. 
Macmillans, Toronto. 90c. 
General Texts for Pupils' Reterence and Supple- 
mentary Reading, as well as tor Teachers' Use. 
These b,,,,ks should be kept on the laboratory book shelf, 
 here pupils can have such ready access to them that they 
nmy form a habit of using them. 

ZOOLOGY 
Fir.t ('mr.e in Biology. Bailey and Coleman. Mac- 
millans, Toronto. $1.25. 
Modern Nature Sudy. Silcox and Stevenson. Mac- 
millans, Toronto. 75c. 
Nature Sudy and Life. IIodge. Ginn & Co. $1.50. 
First Lessons in Zoology. Kellogg. Holt & Co. $1.12. 
Introduction to Zoology. Davenport. Macmillans, Toronto. 
$1.10. 
Animal Forms. Jordan and Heath. Appleton & Co., 
New York. $1.10. 


BIOLOGY 41 

Animal Life. Jordan and Kellogg. Appleton & Co. $1.2o. 
Animals (combining the two above). Jordan, Ileath, and 
Kellogg. Applet.n & Co. $1.80. 
The Study of Animal Life. Thomson. John Murray, Lon- 
don, 5s. 
Descriptive Zoology. Colton. Heath & Co. $1.5. 
Elementary Lessons in Zoology. Needham. American 
B.ok Co. 90c. 
Elementary and Comparative Zoology. Kingsley. }l.lt & 
Co. $1.20. 
Animal Activities. French. Lonquans, Green & Co., 
New York. $1.20. 
The first five books listed will be found most useful. 
The others are useful books, too, but will be found suitable 
for reference and reading rather than for guides in the 
practical work. Bailey and Coleman's book especially is 
recommended to teachers. It is the latest High Schovl 
text in Biol%oy and comes nearest to supplying the require- 
ments of our Courses of Study in purpose, matter, and 
method. 
BOTANY 
The Essentials of Bobny. Bergen. Ginn & Co. $1.5o. 
Botany All the Year Round. Andrews. American Book 
Company. $1.00. 
Lessons with Plents. L.H. Bailey. Macmillans, Toronto. 
$1.10. 
Phmt Studies. Coulter. Appleton & Co. $1.8o. 
Elements of Bol(my. Kellerman. tIinds, Hayden & 
Eldredgc, New York. 90c. 
(Useful for nformation as to economic plant-products) 
First Book of Forestry. :Roth. Ginn & Co. 75c. 
Our N_dh, e Trees. Keeler. $2.00. 


ZOOLOGY 51 

(f) Locate the spiracles (breathing pores), small openings, 
one on each side of the first eight segments. (Are there 
any in the thorax?) (g) Identify the pair of, glistening 
membranous oval ear drums on the sides of the first 
abdominal scnent. 
6. The head and aplndages.--(a ) the size, shape, 
hardness, and movability of the head; (b) the position of 
the nmuth ; (c) the position, size, structure, and movability 
of the anlenw (feelers); (d) the positi,,n, shape, and 
numerous facets of the two large compound eyes; (e) the 
three ocelli (simple eyes), one in the middle of the fore- 
head and one just behind the base of each antenna; 
(f) the structure of the mouth parts--the labrum (uiper 
lip), the labium {lower lip} with its jointed labial pall,s 
(lip-feelers); the mandibles (biting jaws), the maxill, e 
(holding jaws) with their j,,inted ma.rilbtrp p,dl,S. 
As there is considerable difficulty in making out these 
mouth parts, it will lie advisahle to help the pupils by show- 
ing them a printed chart or a set of the parts dissected off 
and glued to a card. The use of the large Carolina locusts 
makes the work easier. 

STUDIES WITtl THE MICROSCOPE 
EXAI.X'E : 
1. A piece of the cornea of a compound eye, to show 
the shape and number of the facet. 
2. A thin piece of an abdominal segment containing a 
spiracle, to show the slit and its borders. 
3. A piece of one of the hind wings, to show the veins, 
hairs, etc. 
4..k piece of the muscle of the thigh teased out, to 
show the character of muscle fibres. 


ZOOLOGY 57 

CENTIPEDE 
References: 
Introduction to Zoology. Davenport 
b'tudies in Zoology. Merrill 

LABORATORY STUDIES--LIVING ANIMALS 
Using a glass jar or rirarium pro'ided u'itb a moist 
"" cover " for the animals-- 
NOTE : 
1. Whether they can climb up glass. 
2. Their manner of walking. 
3. Their ability to turn themselves over if they are 
thrown on their bin.ks. 
4. Their behaviour toward food such as a dead fly, 
small piece of meat, or a worm. 

LABORATORY STUDIES--MORPHOLOGICAL 
1. h'ote the general shape, size, proportions, colour, and 
hardness of the animal. 
2. Note the divisions of the body (h,rd and trtnk). 
and compare them. 
3. Count the s%ments and compare the dorsal (upper) 
side with the relral (lower) in regard to the segmentation 
or ntmber of plates to he seen; in what directions do the 
segments allow for movements ? 
4. Note the head.--(a) its eolour, shape, comparative 
size, movability on the neck; (b) the mouth parts, the 
direction of their movement, evident stren._,a-th and purpose ; 
(c) the anl,nnce (feelers)--situation, comparative lenh, 
segmentation, movability; (d) the eyes--their location, 
number, and whether single or compound. 
5. ote the legs.--their number, similariiw or diversity, 
place of attachment, number of segments, range of move- 
merit, presence or absence of daws or hairs. 


60 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

5. Note the spilming apparatus.--its situation and 
gcucral structure. 

STUDIES WITH TIlE :MICROSCOPE 
EXAMINE : 
1. The hooked end of a leg. 
2. The spinning apparatus, which may be sliced off a 
preserved specimen for this purpose. 
3. The structure of one strand of a web. 

GENERAL DISCUSSIONS 
1. Comparison of structure of insect and spider 
2. Economic uses of spiders.--food of birds, destroyers 
oi harmful insects, silk producers 
3. Tim relationship of harvestmen (Daddy-long-legs) 
with the true spiders 
4. The occurrence of the allied nfites and ticks.-- 
lcaf-all-m.tes, water-mites, itch-mites, cheese-mites, cattle- 
ticks, etc. 
5. The misunderstandings about the poisonous char- 
acter of spider bites and the danger of the tarantula. 

OUTDOOR WORK 

1. Collect specimens for putting in school vivaria or for 
preservation in liquid preservative in vials--(they cannot 
be mounted on pins like insects). 
2. Collect also some of the tough little egg sacs to be 
found under window-sills, etc., and keep in jars or bottles, 
to see the little spiders hatch during the winter or spring. 
3. Note.--(a) the location and building of webs; 
(b) the position taken by the watching spider; (c} manner 
of securing and entangling prey; (d) behaviour when 


62 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

LABORATORY WORK---LIVING ANIMALS 
For this work an observalion bee-hive will be needed. 
There are different models of these hives oil the market. 
In lh,dge's Nature Study and Life, Chap. XIV, different 
models are described and their use and care explaiued. 
It may be possible to arrange with a local apiarist to put 
one in the school for a season and to look after it. Single- 
frame hives are best; in them one can have every bee, in- 
cluding the queen, uuder ob.ervation, and if it is set up 
with a queen cell at the heginning of the season, practically 
all pha.es of the bee's life history and activities nmy be 
.CCll. Such a hive will l)robal,ly require to have its bees 
put back into a larger hive for the winter. It may be 
attached t[ a wind,w-sill in the scherzi-red,m, preferably 
where it will not be disturb,_.d too much or have the sun 
shining on it. 
These hives may I,e secured from The A. I. Root Co., 
Medina, llhio (E. {raingcr & ('o., Deer Park, Toronto, 
['alla,lilll ;Igcnts), ,r F. W. Krouse, Esq., Guelph. The 
price will dclwnd ,n the .tvle ,f the hive and whether bees 
tlil[l qtle(ql are required. A hive complete with super, 
frame of bees, and (lll(,ell cell will cost about five or six 
d.)llars. 
1. Learn to recognize the diff,,rent kinds of bees-- 
queen, drone, and w[)rkers. Compare them as to size, 
shape, activities, and functions. 
2. Nrte the work done hy ihe different classes of work- 
ers--gnarding, fanning, feeding the grub., gathering 
honey, attending the queen, ere. 
3. Observe the life history--the queen laying eggs ; the 
growth of the larvm; the emerging ef young bees, etc. 


ZOOLOGY 65 

COLORADO POTATO BEETLE 
L.lou TOY VOK--LIViX'O .X'M LS 
IVilh specimens in glass jars or lerraria-- 
NOTE : 
1. Their manner of walking and climbinz. ('an they 
climb up glass? 
" Their life history. This may be observed if ,,," are 
brought ill and the larvae fed regularly; n.tice tile maimer 
of feeding, moulting, etc. 
3. Their powers of rcpro,luction. Count tile lllinl]lPl" o[" 
eso laid by one female alone. 

LA BORATOI:Y WOR K--M OR P ! IOLO(; ICAL 
Keeping in mind the gra.shopper or other type studied 
as a ba.si.s of co,qmrison, proceed as outlined for the 
cabbage-butte'fly. 
Note particularly the things that characterize it as a 
beetle.--(a) the elytra (shield wings); (b) the n, outh 
parts adapted for lilting and chewing; (c) the nlvable 
prothorax, and (d) the cCmplete metamorpho.sis. 

DISCUSSIONS 
1. The use of Paris green in controllinz tile pest: what 
Paris green is composed of, its manufacture and cost ; best 
methods of application 
2. The history of the introduction of the pest-- 
recollections of old settlers regarding it; h,calities still free 
from it ; its cost to the country. 

OUTDOOR WORK 
NOTE : 
1. The date of its first appearance; whether it has any 
relationship to the time of potato planting: whether livin 
beetle arc uncovered in spring workin. of zar,lens. 


ZOOLOGY 67 

LABOIIATOI:y .TUIq ES--MOIPIIOLOG ICAL 

Proceed as with the butterfly and other insects, noting 
particularly.-- (a) the number of wings ; (b) the structure 
of the feet; (c) the structure of the mouth parts; (d) its 
hairincss; (e) the size of the eyes. 

STUDIES WITII TIIE MICROSCOPE 
EXAMINE : 
1. The detached mouth parts. 
2. The fly's foot. 
3. Its wings. 

GENERAL DI.qC I_'SIONS 

1. The justificati,,: f-r its l,eiu called the deadliest 
animal in the world, tlow typhoid fever is spread by it. 
e. Its t.li of death iu the S.uth African War. Uom- 
parison with the Russo-dapanese War. 
3. Best mcaus of combating the pest. 

OUTDOOR WORK 
NOTE : 
1. IIow the approach of the autumn affects the pre- 
valence of flies. 
2. How the attacks of a fungus parasite kill them off in 
the autumn. 
3. Where are survivin flies to be found in winter? 
4. At what time are they first noticed in numbers in 
the spring ? 
5. Does the proximity to horse stables or manure piles 
seem to affect their numbers? 
6. Estimate the number that may be produced from a 
little 1,tie of horse dung. 


@8 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

7. What kinds of odours or foods seem to attract them 
most ? 
8. In what kinds of shops are they seen most fre- 
quently ? 
9. Learn to di.tinfish other common flies, such as the 
stable fly, the horsefly, the blue-bottle fly. 
10. Observe how some of their natural enemies capture 
them, for example, the common garden toad, swallows, etc. 

BUGS 
References: 
Modern Nature Study. Silcox and Stevenson 
Studies in Zoology. Merrill 

LABORTOI2Y STUDIES--LIVING AXlMALS 
On a house plant, twig of fruit tree, or cabbage leaf 
infested with plant-lice (aphids)-- 
1. Count the number of insects feeding on one leaf. 
:L Note the effect of treatin the foliage with an in- 
fusion of tobacco leaves or soap-suds. 
3. Observe the emergence of winged forms from the 
larvae, the presence of the larval skins, etc. 

LABORATORY STUDI ES--:MORPHOLOGICL 
Using any of the common forms mentioned below, for 
example, the squash-bug, proceed as in other insect studies, 
noting particularly-- 
1. The suctorial mouth. 
2. The wing structure and arrangement. 

STUDIES WITH THE :MICROSCOPE 
Examine a plant-louse (aphid), with the low power, 
noting the eyes, antenme, honey tubes, etc. 


ZOOLOGY 75 

Mounted collections of these parts of birds suitable for 
class use may be made by tacking the dried and extended 
wings, feet, or bills on boards. Being well dried, they will 
prove servieeabh, for years. 

,qKELETL CIIARACTER,q OF BIRDS 
Reference: 
First Course in Biology.. Bailey and ('oh.man 
From tile knowledge already in possession of the pul,il 
regarding the external fOl'lt of a bird. some deductions may 
Iw umde regarding the lwobahlc interred sk'letal structures. 
for example, the vertebral structure of the movable neck. 
aud the comwetion of the hones of the winffs and those of 
the legs with au internal framcw, wk. These facts may be 
as an introdm-tiou to the examimdi,,n of a 

deduced 
skeleton. 

Usi.g a l,relmred mounte,l skeleton-- 
NOTE : 
() The l)ony character of the skeleton with the ex- 
eeptiou of bill aml uails; (b) the vertebral axis extending 
from the head to the tail with distinct regions marked 
differently shal,cd vel'tel,r;v; (c) the strong I)reast-bone 
and its ('ounection with the vertebral axis: (,1) the nmlmer 
iu which tile wings and legs are swung t,, the rest ,,f the 
skeleton ; (e) the likeness of a wing to an arm. 
Based ou these ol,servatiolS, discuss tile suitability of 
the strueture to tile purposes of tile living animal.--(a) its 
heing almost entirely bone; (b) its having moval,le 
vertebr in the neck and tail; (c) its having united 
vertebrae in the svnsacrum; (d) the possession of a strong 
keel on the breast-bone; (e) the necessity for strong 
supports for the wing and leg attachments, etc. 


ZOOLOGY 87 

BIRD STUDIES AT EXIIIBITIOXS 
In a locality where there is a general interest in poultry 
raising, a good use may be made of the poultry exhibits at 
the Fall Fairs, etc., to develop an interest in the study of 
domesticated birds. Previous to the fair, a live fowl might 
be used in school to teach the names of the parts and 
markings, so that any systematic observations made at the 
fair may be intelligent and to the point. ]f a local poultry 
fancier can be secured to give a talk to the pupils on solne 
of the common breeds, using live birds for illustrations, so 
much the better. Such work may lead to the formation of 
very wholesome interests and hobbies. 

SPRING W(}RK OF FIRST YEAR 

MOSQUITO 
References: 
Nature ,Study and Life. Ilodge 
First Lessons in Zoology. Kellogg 
Book of Suggestions to Teachers. Lucas 

LABORATORY STUDIES--LIVING 
Using packages of the eggs or a supply of the larra 
placed in glass jars, which are kept corered by mo,quito 
netting-- 
1. The number of eggs in a package and their hatching 
into larva. 
2. The shape, size, colour, and divisions of the body. 
3. Their locomotion.how they reach the top of the 
water (do they float up ?) : how they get to the bottom of 
the water (do they sink down ?) ; their position in respect 
to the surface of the water ; the effect of disturbing the jar 
or water. 


88 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

LABOIIATOIIY STUDIES--MORPI IOLOGICAL 
Usb, g freshly killed specime,s of the insects-- 
NOTE : 
1. The divisions of the body, number of legs and wings, 
the antcmm,, presence of hairs, the mouth structures. 
2. The distim'tions between the male and female in 
their antenme and mouth parts. 

STUDIES WITtI TIIE :MICROSCOPE 
Examine the nmuth part% antenna, wings, and eyes, 
with the low power ; a living larva is also interesting 

DISCUSSIONS 
1. Malarial and Yellow Fcvers 
2. The distim.iion between the malarial-producing 
.lnophclcs and the common Culex (See Nature 5'tudy 
ad Life, Hodge.) 
OUTDOOR LIFE 
NOTE : 
1. Whether active wintering specimens are to be found 
in warm houses, cellars, greenhouses, etc. 
2. The presence of the wrigglers (larvae) in rain 
I,arrels, swamps, ponds, and puddles in the early spring. 
Collect some and keep them in jars of water. 
3. (a) The time of year that the mosquitoes beconm 
common; (b) the relation of their abundance or scarcity 
to the dampness or drabness of the season; (c) the time of 
tbe cessation of the pest, and its relation to the dry 
weather; (d) their comparative abundance in high and low 
parts of the town. 
4. Their value as a fish food, hy putting some of the 
larvae into an aquarium where a fish is kept. 


90 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

3. The rate of its forward movement, measured by the 
length of the furrow left behind it or by marking its posi- 
tions with pieces of paper fastened to the glass. 
4. Its behaviour when disturbed.--effect of jarring the 
aquarium, stirring the water, touching the fringe of its 
valves with a pencil. 
5. The water currents entering and leaving the shell 
through the valves; these may be seen by inserting a few 
drops of coloured ink near the valves by means of a 
pipette, or l)y having the water in the aquarium so shallow 
that the surface is just above the clmn (which should be 
near the side of the aquarium) and then looking through 
the glass up under the surface. 

L__BORATORY STUDIES--5IORPHOLOGICAL 
('lares are best killed by immersing in boiling water 
for a few minutes. If they are to be preserved in alcohol, 
a hole should be made in the shell, so that the liquid will 
I,e readily admitted. 
Using clean, empty shells, a supply of which should be 
kept on hand-- 
NOTE : 
I. n the outside.--the co]our, shape, proportions, 
markings, line of dirt deposits, and amount of springiness 
in the hinge joining the two vah'es. How far apart are 
the valves kept by the hinge ? 
2. On the inside.--the colours and markings made by 
the manlle and muscle; the presence of rough spots in the 
pearly layer--the molher-of-pearl layer. 
3. The nature of the substance composing the shell. 
Scrape the outside of the shell to see if there is anything 


ZOOLOGY 91 

like horn in it; in a test-tubt, treat a broken piece of the 
shell with a solnti.n of hylroehloric acid. qlat kind of 
substance eoml,oses tile hinge? 

Lay in waler, in a sou l, l,l,de, a freshly killed specimen 
from u'hich one vah'e has been carefully removed, eilher by 
culling throayh lhe adduclor mascles or breaking it away 
piecem eal, and-- 

OTE : 

1. Tile al,sence of an)" distinct divisions of tile body or 
such organs as eyes, feet, feelers, I,ones. 
2. Tile two large muscles which hold tile valves 

together. 
3. Tile 
4. Tile 
and fixing 
5. The 
of this. 
6. The 
markings. 

large ldough.hare-shaped foot. 
mantle with the band of muscle bordering it 
it to tile valve. 
siphons with their fringes at the posterior edge 

two gills lying under the mantle, and their 
(If one of these is nmch swollen it will be due 
to tile presence of young "seed " which tile female carries 
here for a time.) 
7. Tile mouth above tile forward end of the foot, with 
a pair of flap-like palps at the side of it. 
8. The heart at tile top between tile two large muscles. 
9. The likeness of the structure to a book with the two 
valves of the shell making the cover; tile two parts of the 
mantle, the gills and the foot constituting the leaves and 
body of the book. 
10. As a SUl)plementary exercise, identify as far as 
possible the corresponding parts of an oyster. Both being 
bivalves, account for the differences in structure. 


ZOOLOGY 93 

LABORATORY STUDIES--LIVIN'G AXlM kLS 
Using specimens in a glass jar in which some cool, 
moi.t "" cover '" is provided for them 
Their feeding habits.--how they eat freshly provided 
cabbage leaves, etc. 
Using specimens moving on a sheet of glass or in a 
tumbler-- 
NOTn : 
1. The sliding, undulating movement of the foot 
observable when one looks through the glass at the under 
side of the animal. 
2. The slimy trail left on the glad. Des the animal's 
supply of the mucous substance seem to IWcolne exhausted 
in travelling over dry glass? Is the animal's body 
naturally dry or moist 
3. Whether the animal can crawl up or do, accord- 
ing as the glass is turned one way or the other. 
4. The changes in the shape of its body.(a) how 
long, how flat, or how roded it becomes; (b) how it 
projects or withdraws its tentacles or mouth; (c) the 
effects of disturbing it by touching the tentacles with a 
pencil. 
5. The eyes.--dark spots at the end of the longer pair 
of tentacles. 
6. The mouth.--to be seen through the glass on the 
under side, beneath the tentacles. 
7. The respiratory aperture.its position on the right 
side of the body and its opening and closing. 
8. The mantle.--the thickened and raised f,Ad on the 
upr forward part of the body. 


94 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

SUPPLEMENTARY LESSONS 
If ol,portunity offers, pupils should be made acquainted 
with the common land and pond snails also. The pond 
snails will be fund in great abundance in the spring, and 
can bc observed well in glass jars of water. ]n an 
aquarium they are very useful in keeping glass sides free 
of incrnstations. Their eggs can be easily found. The 
land snails will be found under damp leaves in flae woods. 
DISCUSSIONS 
1. The trade in edible slugs in France 
?. Means ,f c,ml,ating garden slugs when they become 
a pest t, gardeners. 
OUTDOOR STUDIES 
NOTE : 
1. (a) Their occurrence in the garden under boards or 
rubbish ; (b) the attitude assumed when disturbed; their 
attempts t escape; (c) whether they are to be found 
under dry boards or rubbish. 
2. Whether they are to be seen moving about during 
the day, cihcr when it is dry and sunny, or dam l) and cool. 
Where and how d) they winter ? 
3. The silvery tracings to be seen on tim sidewalks or 
ground in the early rimming, marking the slimy tracks of 
the aninml's travels durin7 the night. 
4. Whether they arc found damagg vegetables such as 
cabba,e, lettuce, or tomatoes. 
5. Wheflmr birds or toads prey on them. 
EARTHWORM 
References: 
First Course in Biology. Bailey and Coleman 
Nture ,b'tmly ad Life. ]Iodge 
Book of Suggestions to Teachers. Walter, Whitney & 
Lucas 


96 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

DISCUSSIONS 
1. The rSlc played by earthworms in Nature's soil- 
making and working. See ])arwin's ,b'ludies and his 
I'egel,tble Mould and Earlhworms. 
2. The regeneration of complete worms from the 
divided 1,arts of an animal. 

OUTDOOR WORK 
NOTE : 
1. Whether the robins, returning early in the spring, 
are able to secure food supplies of earthworms, and how 
these birds locate, secure, and manipulate them. 
2. Whether the breaking up of the frost in the ground 
affects or controls the appearance of the worms. 
3. Whether they are found to be numerous and active 
in the gr[mnd at the time of gardening operations, and 
whether their coml)arative prevalence or scarcity i. related 
to the richness of or the kind of soil. 
4. Whether they are as numerous later in the season 
at the same 1,lace  where supplies for fishing purposes must 
he sought in the summer months. 
5. Whether, on the approa.h of winter, they are near 
the surface or at s-me depth in the gardens. 
6. Their occurrence at the surface after or during rain ; 
how their appearance in rain barrels may be explained. 
7. Their appearance (using a lantern) after nightfall 
on the surface of a well-watered lawn; the manner and 
speed of their disappearance on being disturbed or touched. 
8. Their burrowing and burrows.--(a) how a worm 
placed on the surface of rather compact soil gets down 
into it; (b) how deep these burrows are to be found; 
(c) whether partially uncovered worms disappear back- 
ward or "head first": (d) the force with which they 


98 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

2. Its respiration.--(a) the motions of its mouth and 
the opercula (gill covers) on the sides of the head; 
{b} wlwther these motions are incessant; (c) the direction 
,f the accompanying water movement, as may be deter- 
mined t,y small floating particles. 
3. Its feeding.--(a) how it takes its food (mosquito 
larvae, fine biscuit cruml,s, etc.) into its mouth; (b) how 
the mouth and opercula are held while swallowing; 
(c) whether water is swallowed with the food. 
4. Its development.--it may be po..ible to secure a few 
young fish from some nearby hatchery and keep them for 
,l,servation in an aquarium furnished with a continuous 
SUl,ply of fresh water. (See Text-book of Zoology, Parker 
and lfaswell.) 

LABORATORY STUDIES--]IORP HOLOGICAL 
Using fresh ly killed specimens, if such can be secured-- 
NOTE : 
1. The "feel " of the fish in the hands. 
. The proportions, shape, general colorations, and 
markings. How do these suit the animal's needs in loeo- 
luotion, speed, or hiding .9 
3. The general tructure.--(a ) the scales, their manner 
of overlapping, the number of rows and bare places; 
(b) the divisions of the body, head, trunk, tail; (c) the 
openings--mouth, nostrils, opercular slits, and two vents; 
(d) the fins--two pairs of paired fins: (1) pectoral 
{chest) and (2) pelvic (correspond to legs); the median 
fins: (1) dorsal (back), (9,) caudal (tail), and (3) anal 
or ventral (belly). 
4. The head.--(a) the position, size, and shape of the 
mouth: (b) the position, number, and movability of the 


ZOOLOGY 99 

nostrils; (c) the position, size, shape, colorations, mov- 
ability, protection, and toughness of the eye; (d) and 
cutting off the operculum of one side--the colour, number, 
overlapping, movability, general structure, and attachment 
of the gills. 

STUDIES WITH THE MICROSCOPE 
Examine a scale, with lhe low pwer. 
book of Zoology, Parker and Ilaswell.) 

(See Text- 

DISCU.SIONS 
1. The position of the fishes in the animal kingd,,m 
2. The location, extent, and value of (_'almdial fishclics 
3. IIow the appearance of the gills is a guide in the 
buying of fresh fish. 

OTE: OUTDOOR WORK AND STUDIES 
1. The different species of local fishes. Collect speci- 
mens for the school museum. (See Nash's Check Lists.) 
2. Their habits.--(a) in what kind of places they are 
generally found; (b) how and when they are caught; 
(c) what they feed on; (d) their natural encnfies, etc. 
3. The fish sold in the shops.--(a) the canned fish. the 
salt fish, the frozen fish; {b) where they c,me fr.m; 
(c) how and when they are caught and prepared for 
market. 
4. The modern methods of rearing artificiallv.-- 
(a) the location of hatcheries; (b) the methods of secur- 
ing spaam and milt; (c) the care of the young and their 
distribution; (d) the causes for the depletion of our fish- 
ing ffrounds; (e) location of local reserved fishing grounds 
and the plans used for insuring sport. 


100 t)IOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

SKELETON OF A FISH 
In addition to the general structure to be made out 
from the mounted skeleton belonging to the school, parts 
.f a skeleton may be brought from home. A fish that has 
been prepared for the table by steaming or boiling whole 
will provide good material for studies of spines, ribs, and 
vcrtebrw. Such a prepared fish lends itself, too, very well 
to observation of the manner in which the muscles are 
arranged. 
The chief facts that should be brought out in the study 
are : 
1. The vertebral character of the axis. 
2. The comldicated bony .tructurc of the head. 
3. The presence of ribs forming a support for the wall 
over the body cavity. 
4. The similarity of the vertebrm and the limited 
amouut of articulation amon them. 
5. The study of a sinzlc vertebra will give a clear idea 
of the meaning of spine, spinal column, spinal cord, 
ccrtebral column, centrtm, etc. 

FROG OR TOAD 
References: 
First Course in Zoology. Bailey and Coleman 
Check List. :Nash 
Book of Suggestions to Teachers. Walter, Whitney & 
Lucas 
LABORATOIY STUDIES--LIVING ANIIALS 
Development of Frog or Toad 
To observe the different phases of development put a 
few freshly deposited eggs in jars of water or in aquaria. 
The mistake is often made of overloading the jars with too 


ZOOLOGY 101 

many eggs. Keep the water fresh by renewing it and 
remove any specimens that may die. As the tadpoles 
grow, some water plants, such as green alga, .hould be 
added for food. The eggs of the leopard frog will be 
easiest to procure; they are the most common egg masses 
to be found in the ponds. Toad's eggs will be found 
twined about grass stems or lying along the bottom in two 
long strands. Do not set the dishes in sunlight, where 
the water will get too warm. 
:NOTE : 
1. If possible, how the eggs are laid by the female frog. 
2. The number, size, shape, colour, and buoyancy of the 
eggs. 
3. The changes.--(a) the disappearance of the white 
portion by the overgrowth of the black; (b) the chane 
from the spherical shape to an elongated one with a groove ; 
(c) the appearance of a form with head and taft, capable 
of moving; (d) its emergence fr,n the surrounding jell.,," 
and the development of gills; (c) the development of 
eyes and a mouth: (f) the disappearance of gills by an 
overgrowing operculum and the animal coming to the top 
of the water to breathe air; (g) the appearance of its hind 
legs; (h) the appearance of front legs; (i) gradual dis- 
appearance of taft, and emergence from the water on to 
the land. 
These later stages will be seen best perhaps in specimens 
found out-of-doors in the sunanaer. 
Using specimens set free on the table or under a glass 
cover-- 
NOTE : 
1. The size, coloration, general shape, proportions, and 
posture of the animal. 


:104 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

When the study of a mammalian skeleton is afterward 
taken up (Autumn Term, Second Year), comparisons 
should be made regarding the bones comprising the legs 
and toes particularly. 
A frog's skeleton may be prepared fairly easily by 
dipping an animal into boiling water for a few minutes 
and picking off the flesh. 

VI.CEI{A OF FROG OI{ TOAD 
See method suggested under " Birds" 
BLOOD FLOW IN TADPOLE'S TAIL OI{ FROG'S FOOT 
By means of a glass tube used as a pipette, remove a 
tadpole from an aquarium and place it on a glass slide. 
After tiring itself in wriggling, it will probably remain 
still long enough to permit the observation. Use the low 
power of the microscope and focus on a thin part of the 
tail. 
To keep a frog still, hind it firnfly with a damp cloth 
to a small board. Draw out one of the hind legs, and by 
threads atta,.hed t,, two of the toes spread the web over a 
glass slide. Examine with a microscope, using the low 
p,,wer. By the use of a little chloroform the animal may 
be quieted. 
NOTE : 
The rate of blood flow; how the corpuscles travel; 
whether there are any temporary stoppages in any vessels ; 
whether the flow is constant in any vessels. 
NATUIE'S LOSSES AS ESrFIIATED F1ROI FROGS  :EGGS 
At me small pond. make an estimate of the number 
of pairs of frogs breeding. Estimate also the number of 
eggs in all the egg masses deposited there. Allowing that 


ZOOLOGY 105 
the nex- year there will probably be about the same 
number of frogs breeding again in the same locality, 
calculate the waste of nature's production. 

DEMONSTRATION OF CHICK EMBRYOS 
Reference: 
Texl-book of Zoology. larkcr and |Iaswell, Vol. 
p. 4o9 
This study should be precedcd by the study of the 
structure of an egg, in the work of the previous auttmn. 
Material may be brought by pupils who arc having eggs 
hatched by incubators or by natural means. 
Put three or four freshly laid eggs, marked with tile 
date and hour, under a sitting hen seventy-two hours 
before they are needed for the class work; twenty-four 
hours after put three or four more similarly marke, and 
again twenty-four hours later three or four more. This 
will provide a supply of one, two, and three-day embryos. 
For comparisons, an unfertilized egg that has been under 
the hen for three days may be also used. 
Break the eggs into dishes (soup plates) containing 
warm water. The yolks will lie in the water, permitting 
ready view of the developing chicks. 
NoE : 
1. The comparative sizes of the embryonic areas of the 
different days. 
2. The development of a head and the signs of a 
segmented body. 
3. The bending over of the embryo; the development of 
a dispr,portionately large head; the cominff into bcing of 
hcart, 1,1ood-vessels, eye, and ear; the bcating of tile heart. 
4. The changcs that ha'e occurred in tile nature of tile 
white of the egg and of the yolk. 


108 BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

:BENEFICIAL IN'SECTS 
Among the insects that must he considered beneficial to 
gardener, fruit-grower, or farmer are bees, lady-bird 
beetles, ichneumon-flies, and dragon-flies. 
The class work shouhl be taken up, as far as possible, 
along the lines indicated for the in.ect studies of the first 
year, that is, first, ohservation of the living animal ; second, 
morphological studies of killed specimens. 

:EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF A ]IAMMAL 
Reference: 
Bailey and Coleman 

LABORATORY STUDIES--LIVIN'G ANI3IALS 
While a satisfactory consideration of the external char- 
acters of a cat, dog, or rabbit might very well he based on 
observations made at home, in many respects it will he 
better to have one of these animals-or all of them if 
comparisons are desired--irefore the class. 

With a cat, for example, before tle pupils 
NOTE : 
1. The divisions of the |)ody.--head, neck, trd-, tail, 
legs--the relative lengths of these. 
2. The covering of the hody.--(a) What places are 
devoid of hair? (b) Are there any specially sensitive 
hairs? (c) Is there short hair among the longer hair? 
(d) Would the aninml's colour he changed if the hair 
were clipped short? (e) Is the colour of a single hair 
uniform throughout its lenh ? 
3. The head.--(a) its poise ordinarily, and in alarm, 
surprise, hunting, etc.; (b) the relative size and position 
of the ears, mouth, eyes, whiskers, and nostrils; (c) the 


ZOOLOGY 109 

motions and movability of these; (d) compare its eve; 
with human eyes. 
4. The legs.--thcir comparative lengths; the straight- 
ness, heaviness, number, and positiou of the tes. (',m- 
paring them with tile human body, h,cate the ell,,w, wl'ist, 
and hand in the front leg, and the knee, heel, and 
the hiud leg. 
5. Movements and activities.--(a) Observe the action 
of the legs in walking, running, galloping, creeping. 
(b) What kiud of tra('ks would tile animal leave iu the 
snow? (c) Ilow does it climb, descend from a t,'ee, seize 
its prey, play with its victim, drink, purr, protect itself, 
fight, warn an enemy, etc. ? 
4. The teeth.--thcse can be best studied from the 
skeleton. Compare the number in the upper and lwer 
jaws--how are these set agaiust one another? Judging 
from their shape, what different purpses do they serve? 
Compare them with man's teeth. Interpret the 
formda i , c, p., m 30. (See Text-boot," of Zoology. 
Parker and Haswcll, Vol. ]I, p. 536.) 

COMPARI.ON. OF MAMMALS 
Comparisons of typical mammals will have to be based 
partly on outdoor observations and partly on museum 
specimens. The teacher should get together such skulls as 
may be picked np sometimes in the woods or fields; or. if a 
special study of farm animals is to be made, such as nmy 
be procured from butchers. The bones of the hwer parts 
of the legs of the horse, cow, sheep, and pig will be useful 
also. Mounted skins of a squirrel, mole, and bat are 
needed. The skins of other wild mammals, such as the 
woodchuck, muskrat, mink, and weasel, would also be 
interesting. 


110 BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

The comparisons mi,,_,ht be fixed and emphasized in a 
schedule drawn up after some such manner as the follow- 
ing (use drawings instead of word descriptions as far as 
possible) : 

Locomotion. [ ........ I ..... ] 

After these practical studies on typical local manmaals 
are comldeted , a broader view of the diversity of form in 
this class of animals might well be given by means of 
lantern slides or charts. Failing these or the time neces- 
sary for it, the pupils might be directed to read on the 
topic in the books by Jordan and Heath, Bailey and Cole- 
man, or Ih,rnadav. The subject will be found to be of 
great iuterest to them. 

SKELETON OF MAM:MAL 
For this study the school should be provided with a 
mouuted skeleton. If this is not available, a chart might 
be used in conjunction with such loose, detached bones as 
nmy be picked up on field excursions. Comparisons should 
be made with skeletons previously studied, and also, if 
possible, with tim parts of the human skeleton. The sug- 
gestions given for the stud,, of the lard skeleton apply 


ZOOLOGY 111 

here also. The exercise is not to be a close anatomical 
study, |Jut a general c leading to the recognition of the 
more important relationships and bones, for example, 
NOTE : 
1. The divisions of the spin(d colum n.--cer'ical (neck), 
thoracic (rib bearing), lambar (without ribs), sacral 
(ertebr united), caud,d (tail). Compare the siz and 
direction of the spines. 
2. The relationships of some of the parts.--(a) how the 
head is swung on the neck vertcbr ; (b) lmw the vertebrae 
move on one another; (c) how the ribs artk'ulatc with the 
thoracic vertebrae; (d) how the legs are joned up to the 
main axis; (e) how the |Jones of the legs are related. 
3. The divisions of the legs.--the front leg, counected 
with the scapula and made up of humeras, radius, and 
lna, carpus (wrist), and hnd; the hind leg connected 
with the peh'ic girdle--femur (thigh), lib& and fibul,, 
patella (knee cap). tarsus (ankle). foot. H.w many bones 
are there in the wrist, the ankle, the hand ? 
4. A vertebra nmde up of the cenlrum, neural arch, 
neural cened, spine, f,cels of arlicalation, and processes. 
For testing the pupils' knowledge of the structures of 
skeletons, have them locate the position of bones, such as 
may be secured from roasts of meat, etc., or other odd 
bones that may be picked up for the purpose. 

VISCEIIA OF IASISIAL 
See suggestions given for the study of the viscera of 
bird. Since. however, this topic has such a direct appli- 
cation in the physiological interests that are bound to 
arise, an effort should be made to take it up in some 
practical way. A prepared dissection would answer best 


112 BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

perhaps for a mixed class. Pupils who wish to work the 
matter out for themselves should be directed to follow the 
instructions given in Studies in Zoology, Merrill, or in 
Practical Zoology, Colton. 

SPRIN(-I WORK OF SECOND YEAR 

CRAYFISH 
References: 
Bailey and (!oleman 
Walter, Whitney & Lucas 

COLLECTING 
In gathering crayfish, seize them between the thumb 
and finger over the back; held in that position they can- 
not seize one with thcir claws. Do not try to bring many 
back in a small pail. It is better to carry them packed in 
damp moss or grass. Keep them cool and moist. 

AQUARIA 
Do not overload the aquarium with too many speci- 
mens or with very large ones. Remove dead specimens 
without delay. Keep the aquarium where it will not be 
warmed by the direct rays of the sun. A metal tray three 
or four inches deep supplied with water and a bed of 
gravel and sand answers well for keeping crayfish. If a 
number are to he kept for some time for laboratory studies, 
pack them in damp moss and keep them in a cool cellar. 

LABORATORY STUDIES--LIVING .tXI-tALS 
Using Iiring specimens in aquaria, shalIou, dishes such 
as soup plates, or. i, some cases, free onthe desks-- 


ZOOLOGY 113 
NOTE : 
1. The animal locomotion.--(a) how it moves its feet 
in walking; (b) how it carries its large chelipeds (claw 
feet); (c) whether it can walk backward or spring up 
into the water; (d) whether its extended backward move- 
ment is jumping, swimmilg, or floating. 
2. Other movemcnts.--(a) the occasion and extent of 
the sweeping about of its feelers; (b) the directions and 
extent of the eye movements; (c) how it acts when it 
touches another crayfish or is touched by a pencil; (d} the 
constant churnin movement near its mouth ; (e) how its 
claws act in .eizing anything; (f) how it puts a piece of 
food into its mouth. 
3. Its process of growth--if opportunity offers, the pro- 
cess of moulting.--(a) where the exoskeleton splits; 
(b) how the animal gets out; (c) its condition and dis- 
position after the moult. 
4. ]ts young.--to some of the female crayfish gathered 
in the spring, young crayfish will I,e found attached: note 
their number, colour, manner, and place of attachment. 
5. Its mode of respiration.--With a specimen in a 
shallow dish of water determine, by the movement of par- 
ticles in the water, the direction of the flow of water 
caused by the churning of some of the mouth parts. Or, 
to make the movement more discernible, put a drop of 
coloured ink near the hase of the hinder legs hy means of 
a pipette. Can the crayfish live out of water for any lenh 
of time ? 

L .BORATORY .TVDIES--M'ORPIIOLOC ICA L 
Using specimens either freshly killed or preserved in 
alcohol or formalin-- 
NOTE : 
1. The general shape, proportions, ant] colour. 


114 BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

2. The divisions of the body.--cephalo-thorax and ab- 
domen. 
3. The shell.--the unsegmented carapace over tile 
cepbalo-thorax, the overlapping ring-like parts of tl,e seg- 
mented abdomen. 
4. The abdominal appendages.--(a) the tail fin made 
up of five broad lobes; (b) the four pairs of swimmerets 
on a female; (c) the three pairs of swimmerets and two 
pairs of spine-like appet&tges in the male. 
5. Tile thoracic appendages.-- (a) tile four pairs of 
wall,'i,g legs and oue pair of chelipeds (jaw-feet) ; (b) tile 
,umber of joint.% directions of setting from body, and the 
number that have claws. 
6. The head appendages.--on the upper side, the an- 
t,'lt,cc (long feelers), anternules (short feelers), the 
stalked eyes. 
The appendages on the under side of the head are 
numerous and complicated. To be seen rightly, they should 
be removed in order and fastened to a card (see Bailey and 
Coh.man). There are three pairs of maxillipeds (foot- 
jaws), two pairs of vaxilloe (thin jaws), and one pair of 
nardibles (str,ng jaws). 
7. The breathing organs.--Expose the gill chanber by 
removing one side of the carapace; lay the specimen in a 
plate of water, and note the arranzement of feathery gills. 
N,te the size, number, shape, structure, movability, and 
connection with tile movement of the legs. 
Compare a lobster with a crayfish. 

NOTE : OUTDOOR WORK 
1. Their occurrence.--(a ) Are they common in streams, 
ponds, dit.hes, or lakes? (b) the size of the largest and the 


118 BIOLOGY--SECOI'D YEAR 

LABORATORY STUDIES 
This subject should be trcated in a way similar to that 
outliacd for the lesson on the ,'ponge. 
Have the pupils bring samples of different kinds of 
corals (either fossils or recent forms) that may be bor- 
rou'ed from. carlo collections or elsewhere. Also get samples 
of the corals used for necklaces, etc. 
oTE : 
1. The foms, colours, hardness, and weight of the 
masses. 
2. The holes which mark the positions of the bodies of 
the coral polyps (so-called insects). 
3. The effect of treating the coral with dilute hydro- 
chloric acid. 
With diagrams or charts, the teacher should explain 
the structure and life history of the coral polyp. 

GENERAL DISCUSSION'S 
1. The occurrence of fossil corals in the glacial drift 
which came from the north 
2. The formation of coral islands, etc. 
3. The position of the coral polyp in the animal king- 
dora. 
STARFISH 
References: 
Bailey and Coleman 
Miller's Miner.ls aad How They Occur pictures fossil 
forms found in Ontario. 

This study is fo be taken in the same way as fhose of 
fhe Sponge and Coral. 


120 BIOLOGY---SECOND YEAR 

2. The seizure of flies, grubs, or frogs that may be fed 
to it; how large frogs are swallowed. 
3. lts harmlessness.--it may be handled without any 
fear of injury. 

LABORATORY STUDIES---IIORPHOLOGICAL 
Using a dead specimen-- 
NOTE : 
1. lts length, proportions, and coloration. 
2. The divisions of the body.--head, trunk, tail. Is 
there a neck ? 
3. The head.--(a) its shape and the arrangement of the 
scales; (b) the position of the eye and the presence or ab- 
sence of lids; (c) the mouth and its extensibility; (d) the 
tongue, its shape, protection, and extensibility; (e) the 
1,rescnce or absence of teeth. 
4. The body.--(a) the arrangement, numbers of rows, 
and overlapping of scales; (b) the use of the belly scales 
in locomotion. 
II'ith a .mall turtle in an aquarium prorided with a 
floating board for the animal to rest 
NOTE : 
1. its movements.--swimming, floating, diving, rising, 
climbing on the board, extending or withdrawing the head. 
2. Its general behaviour.--whether it takes food or 
sleeps ; whether it is very sensitive to disturbance, etc. 

LABORATORY STUDY--ZIORPIIOLOGICAL 
Using a preserred specimen of a common turtle 
NOTE : 
1. The size, proportion, and coloration of the body. 
2. The divisions of the body.--head, neck, trunk, tail. 


122 BIOLOGY--SECOI'-D YEAR 

6. Their enemies.--hawks attacking snakes, etc. Is it 
true that young snakes are swallowed by the old ones for 
pr,,tcction ? 
7. Their disappearance with the approach of cold 
weather.  here and how do they pass the winter ? 

REV-IEW OF ANIMALS STUDIED 
The all,,tlnent of work for this term permits the giving 
of c,,1,sidcrablc time to reading. Pupils should be directed 
to the best I,,,oks available, such as those listed in this 
Manual. and em'ouragcd to read systematically, and to take 
notes on what they read. 
The use of some form of schedule for comparing, sum- 
marizing, and classifying, will be found helpful in unifying 
the s,'attcrcd or more or less unsvstc,natic treatment of the 
subject. This plan may be used to advantage, too. as the 
work 1,1"ocecds fr,,m term to term. The form may be placed 
across the black-board or made permanent by printing with 
India ink crayon on a chart made of window-blind linen. 


ZOOLOGY 123 
SCHEDULE FOR REVIEWING AND Cf)MP.,IING ANIMALS 

Animals Studied 

Chief External Characters 

Grasshopper ........... 
Cricket ............... 
Butterfly .............. 
Bee ................... 
Potato beetle .......... 
House-fly ............. 
Bug .................. 
Dragon-fly ............. 
]losquito .............. 
Spider ................ 
Centipede ............. 
Crayfish ............... 
Wood-louse ............ 
Clam or Slug ........... 
Earthworm ............ 
Sponge ................ 
Coral ................. 
Starfish ............... 
Fish .................. 
Frog ................. 
Snake ................. 
Turtle ................ 
Bird .................. 
Fat ................... 


124 

BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 
St'll ED|'I,s--Col l inued 

Chief Internal Activities 
Characters 

Related 
Local 
Forms 


BOTANY 129 

The ,qtamens.--Note : 
1. The number. 
2. The distinction of fil,tment and anther. 
3. The relation of the stamens to each other (cohesion). 
4. Their relation to any other parts of the flower, such 
as calyx or corolla (adhesion). 
5. The structure of the anther: its mode of opening, 
its mode of attachment to the filament. 
6. The pollen" the al)pearanee of the graius under a 
microscope, and compared with grains from some other 
flower. 
7. Use of the pollen to the plant. 
8. Insect-polliuation and wind-pollination. 
The PistiL--Note : 
1. The different rezions of the pistil- the orary, the 
style, the stigma. 
2. The rough appearance of the sti,mm und,r the lens 
and its nmistncss. Its use. 
3. The smoothness of the style as compare,l with the 
stiozna. 
4. The structure of the orary, and its contents (ordes 
in young flowers and seeds in ripened ones). 
5. The component parts (carpels) of the pistil as a 
whole, and whether these are consolidated together or sep- 
arated (cohesion). 
6. Relation to other parts of the flower (adhesion}. 
The Receptacle.--the tip of the stem supportin z the flower. 
When the general structure of the flower has been one 
over, discuss the relative importance of the parts, and de- 
velop the idea that the ultinmte purpose of the plant is the 
successful production, dispersal, and germination of seeds, 
in order to secure the contiuuance of the race of plants. 


130 BIOLOGY FIRST YEAR 

Ilave sketches made, where possible, to illustrate the 
p-iuts taken up. 

FRUITS 
Trace, as far as possible, the development of the pistil 
aft. fertilization till the fruit is ripened. 
Ih.rive a defiuition of the term " fruit ". 
For further study, secure an abundant supply of typical 
flrms, such as bean or pea, columbine, milkweed, rose, 
],uttercul,, shepherd's purse, mustard, garden stock, poppy, 
maple, elm, oak, gooseberry, grape, cranberry, orange, 
,'m'und,er, te.mato, pine, hawthorn, morning-glory, peach or 
I,lum, banana, etc.., etc. 
Teach the usual classification into dry and flesly fruits, 
with the subdivision of the former into del, iscent and in- 
del i.ce  t. 
Note also such forms as accessory (for example, apple 
an,l strawberry), aggregate (raspberry), ndliple (pine). 
Compare the popular idea of a fruit with the true mean- 
ink of the term, and secure aeeuraev of terms in the ease of 
fruit. such as those of the buttercup, suuflower, and Indian 
corn, which are not uncommonly referred to as seeds. 
In all eases consider adaptations (a) for protecting and 
nourishing the ripening seedy, (b) for helping the dis- 
persal of the seedy. 

FLESHY FRUITS 

With such examples in hand as gooseberry or grape, 
peach or plum, apple or pear, develop the differences be- 
tween berry, drpe, and pome. 
Make a careful sudy of the pericarp in each case. 
Cn.ider also the hearing of such pericarps, when ripe, 
upon the question of seed dispersal. 


BOTANY 131 

Submit to the pupils such forms as cucumber, t,mato, 
orange, banana, date, etc., for exercise in classification. 

DRY DEIII.";CENT FRUITS 
For the study of tile legume and the follicle, ripening 
pods of pea or bean, and milkweed or COlUlnlille, will Ire 
convenient. 
Note the mode of dehiscence and the attachment of the 
seeds in all cases. 
For thc study of the silique and the silicle use fruits of 
shepherd's purse and garden stock or mustard. 

NOTE : 
1. The 
2. The 
3. The 

mode of dchisccnce. 
falling away of the vah'es. 
persistence of the central partiti-n. 
4. The arrangement of the seeds around the edge of 
the partition on both sides. 
With a supply of such cap.,'ules as those of horse-chest- 
nut, poppy, plantain, m,rning-glory, etc., study the various 
modes of dehiscence illn.trated by thcln. 
Ill all cases have sketches made of the structures 
observed. 
DRY INDEHISCENT FRUITS 
For the study and comparison of the achene and the 
grain, provide abundant specimens of wheat or Indian corn 
grains ; and fruit. of the buttercup or the sunflower. 
Carefully distinffuish a true nut, such a. an acorn or a 
hazel-nut, from such drupe forms as walnut, cocoa-nut, 
and almond. 
By means of such forms as the fruits of the mallow, 
carrot, geranium, maple, etc., teach the structure of the 
schizocarp, showing that while these forms break up into 


tOTANY 133 

Examine with the lens, and have sket'hes made of the 
hooks, bars, etc., by means of which the fruits cling to 
clothing and to the fur of animals coming in contact with 
them. 
The case of such fruits as beech-nut, thorn-apple, etc., 
should also be considered. Ilere the spines or prickles do 
not appear to aid in seed dispersal, their prolable use be- 
ing to protcct the ripening seeds from attacks of small 
animals. 
The use of the soft pericarp of flcshy fruits in attrm't- 
ing animals, and particularly birds, can Ie readily made 
evident. Note, also, that in most fleshy fruits the seeds 
are protected by hard or t<ugh coats, so that they are 
either discarded by feeding animals, or, if swallowed, pass 
uninjured through the alimentary canal. 
Dry fruits, such as nuts and grains, are commonly car- 
ried off by squirrels and other small animals. 
In this connectin, also, man's influence as a distributor 
must not be overlooked. 
4. Dispersal hy Special Mcchanisms.--]f possible, have 
specimens of the ripening pod. of the garden balsam or 
the wild impatiens, and have pcrfc('tly ripe p<ds of peas 
and violets. 
Note the effect of pinching the ends of the pods, and 
have sketches made of the appearance of the pods before 
and after the tension has been relieved hy pinching. 

SEEDS 

A supply of large seeds, such as bean. In,lian corn. and 
morning-glory, should be provided, and both dry and 
soaked specimens should be ready for examination. 
Compare dry and soaked seeds as to size and weight, 
and note results. 


BOTANY 13a 

Note the section of the embryo, and mako out" 
1. The sinle cotyledon. 
2. The radicle. 
3. The plumule. 

Cautious use of the point of the ueedle will hel l) in this 
exam ination. 
Select a secmd softened grain ; renmve the coverings 
and carefully dissc.t out the c,ml,lcte eml,ryo. Sketch in 
different positions. 
Test the endosperm and cotyledon for storage or re- 
serve food. 
Any other grains may be treated in a similar manner, 
and compared with indian corn. 
For an excellent and well-illustrated account of the 
behaviour of a germinatin onion seed, the teacher may 
consult Bailey's Lessons with Plants, page 323. 

SEEDS OF GYSINOSPERMS 
Winged seeds of pine or spruce are not difficult to 
obtain. Being small, they arc not so easy of cxamination as 
larger seeds, but with patience the more important features 
can be made out. 
The seeds should be soaked for a day before being used 
for examination. 
:Inspect through the lens and make a sketch of the ex- 
ternal appearance. 
Try to find. with the lens, the micropyle at the small 
end of the seed. 
Pwmove the coat and examine again with the lens. 
Try to dissect out the embryo from the endosperm. 
Try to count the number of cotyledons. 
Test the cn,losperm for starch. 


140 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

The teacher will, of course, give advice in regard to the 
work of collecting and preserving plants and seeds. Chapter 
VI of Ganons Tle TeacIing Botanist contains so com- 
plete and satisfactory an account of the best mode of man- 
aging collections that it would be superfluous to enter here 
into details which the teacher can so easily master for 
himself. 

SPR]N( WORK OF FIRST YEAR 

GERMINATION OF SEEDS 
:For the practical study of the phenomena of germina- 
tion a plentiful supply of seeds will be required, as well as 
suitable germinating pans or boxes. For the latter any 
ordinary boxes (not too shallow) filled with sawdust or 
bog-moss will answer; or even moist sheets of blotting- 
paper placed upon a plate, with another plate inverted over 
it. 
In order to be able to watch the development of seed- 
lings without disturbing them, some boxes should be pro- 
vided with one glass side, and this side should be made 
vertical in some cases and sloping downward and inward 
in others. 
The seeds-under observation should be placed against 
the glass side, and the boxes filled with moist sawdust or 
moss. :It is well to have the glass fixed with putty round 
the edge. 
Useful seeds for work in germination are pea, bean, 
Indian corn, onion, pine, pumpkin, oak, etc. 
Soak a number of bean seeds in water and plant them 
half an inch or so below the surface in a germinating box. 


BOTANY 141 

Examine at intervals and note: 
1. The bursting of the seed-coat. 
2. The escape and downward oxowth of the radicle end 
to form the root. 
3. The upward oxowth of the plumule end to form the 
shoot. 
4. The expandiug of the first leaves and the variation 
in form and position of the subsequent ones. 
5. The production of root-hairs. 
6. The lifting of the cotyledons above the surface, and 
their falling away when no lonzer needed. 
7. Tile gradual establisbnlent of the new plant. 
Other seeds, such as pea, puml)kin, onion, etc., may be 
started at the same time in other boxes, and their behaviour 
compared with that of tile bean. 
]Iake sketches and notes of all points observed. 

CONDITIONS OF SUCCESSFUL GROWTII 
When a number of seedlings have been studied and 
compared in this way, some simple experiments should be 
carried on, to find the more important conditions of suc- 
cessful oxowth. 
For example, to test the bearing of warmth and 
moisture on germination, place some dry seeds in dry, loose 
sawdust and keep without water for several days in a 
warm place. Observe and record the effect. At the same 
time, treat other similar dry seeds in all respects in the 
same way, except that the sawdust shall be well sprinkled 
with water occasionally. A third lot of seeds may be 
treated in the same way as the second but, instead of 
keeping them in a warm place, expose them to a low tem- 
perature. Note and record what happens. 


142 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

To find out whether air is essential for germination, 
seeds may be placed in a glass jar or bottle filled with 
water from which air has been expelled by boiling. 
Tightly cork the vessel and set aside for examiuation from 
time to time. Note and record what hapl)ens. 
To determine whether heat is produced during ger- 
mination, special care is required in arranging the 
apparatus. S,aked seeds should be placed in a jar through 
the cork of which a thernmmcter is thrust into the seeds. 
Another jar should be prepared in exactly the same way, 
but with seeds which ]Lave been killed hy hoiling. The 
two jars with the thermometers in them should then be 
l,laced side by side in a box with dry sawdust around and 
between them, aud tile readings of the thermometers cora- 
l,areal at intervals of a few hours. (The thernmmeters 
must, of course, be compare,1 before being used by being 
put t,gether into water of different temperatures, and any 
differences in tile readiugs noticed, if there are differ- 
ences, these will be allowed for in the subsequent com- 
parisons.) 

EVOLUTION OF C3.RBON" DIOXIDE 
To show that carbo dioxide is given off during ger- 
mination, put a quantity of well-soaked peas or beans in 
tile bottom of a glass jar or cylinder and cover the latter 
with a glass plate well smeared with vaseline. Put away 
in a warm place for twenty-four hours. Then, carefully 
sliding the cover to one side, pour in a little baryta water 
and note the result. Try also the effect of lowering a 
lighted splinter of wood into the jar. 
The influence of depth of sowing on germination may 
be tested by placing seeds at different depths in a glass- 
sided germinating box. 


BOTANY 145 

way of ensuring the continuance of valuable varieties of 
fruits, flowers, etc., as compared with the results of propa- 
atiou by seeds. 

STUD]" OF SPRING FLOWERS 
The flowers of the locality will be utilized, as they 
appear, for a study of the different orgaus aud their modi- 
fications and as a basis for exercise in ordi,,ary plant 
description. 
The most esscntial technical terms shouhl be taught as 
necessity arises, and, when possible, the id(.a of rclatio,.hip 
between pla,ts with similarly coustru(-tcd fl,wers should 
be developed. 
]n all cases of irrcgularity, aduati,n of parts, etc., an 
effort should be made to detcrmiue the probable use to the 
pla,t of such couditions as prcseut themselves. 
Valuable exercises may be given in nmkiug and draw- 
ing longitudinal and transverse sections of fl.wcrs under 
examination, for the purpose of showing rel,tin of parts. 
In making vertical sectious, it is generally best t cut 
upward from below the flower. Of course a very sharp 
knife-blade is essential. 
The following suggestions for the descriptive study of 
two common spring plants--d%Zs-tooth violet and ludian 
turnip--are taken from Atkinson's Eleme,bry Botay, 
to which the teacher is referred for similar suggestions as 
to other plants. 

DOG'S-TOOTII VIOLET, OR YELLOW ADDER'S TONGUE 
Entire Plant.--Observe the bulb from which the 
flowering scape arises; the small scale-like leaves over- 
lapping it; the two large spotted leaves on plants which 


146 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

have the fl.wer. In the case of non-flowering specimens, 
observe that there is only one large leaf. If an oppor- 
tunity offers for an excursion in the woods where the 
plant grows, see if you can determine how the bulbs are 
l'-rmed at the ends of the runners. As to depth in the soil, 
c-mpare the bulbs of the flowering and non-flowering 
plants. 
lnflorescenee.--The inflorescence is determinate, and 
consists of a single terminal nodding flower on a scape. 
Flower.--Beginninff with the outcr whorl of members 
-f tim flower, determine the number of members in each 
wlmrl, as well as their form, relatiou to each other, and the 
r,lation of the different sets anmng themselves. 
Sketch a member of the calyx, corolla (outer and inner 
s.ts of the perianth), and andraecium. Sketch the pistil, 
mmin the parts. Make a section of the pistil (preferably 
one in whi.h the seeds are nearly mature) and determine 
the number of carpels united to form it. How is the 
number of carpels manifested in the stigma? 
fonstruct a floral diagram to show the relation and 
number of the different nmmbers of the fl,wer. 
The flower of the adder's tonffue is complete, because it 
possesses all the floral sets. It is perfect, because it 
possesses both the andrecium and the gynoecium. It is 
regular, because all the members of the calyx as well as 
those of the corolla are of equal size. 

THE INDIAN TURNIP 
Staminate Plants.--Sketch an entire plant, showing 
the corm (the thickened perennial stem) and the annual 
shoot with leaves and spathe. Cut away one side of the 
spathe to expose the ],,nff compact cluster (spadix) of 
staminate flowers within. Sketch the spadix, showing the 


148 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

NOTE : 
1. The 
2. The 
filaments. 
3. The 
4. The 

abundance and lightness of the pollen. 
mode in which the anthers are attached to the 

usually large and branched stigmas. 
exposure of the flowers to the wind. 

5. The absence of nectar. 
6. The usually inconspicu,us character of the flowers. 
7. iqmther the stamens and pistils are contained in the 
same or separate flowers. 

I NSE('T-P( }LLI NATION 
Almost all conspicuous and scented flowers will serve 
for illu.Iration. 
Try to ascertain whether the flowers produce nectar, 
and find the position of the ectaries. The columbine, for 
example, secretes nectar at the bas of the long spurs of 
the petals; their nectar, therefore, is out of reach of insects 
with short probosces and can be obtained only by those 
with long probosces, or by humming-birds. The same may 
be said of the violet, larkspur, and many orchids. The 
buttercup has its nectaries at the base of the petals on the 
inside. The hollyhock bears a nectary on the inside face 
of each sepal, and many flowers have the nectar freely 
exposed on the surface. 
Note also, that even if honey is not produced, the 
flowers may be visited by insects for the pollen, which they 
use as food. Wood-anemone, clematis, and St. John's wort 
are examples of these '" pollen flowers" 

ODOURS 
Note, in regard to od,urs, that these are not necessarily 
agreeable. Purple trillium, crrion flower, and skunk- 


:BOTANY 149 

cabbage have offensive odours, which doubtless serve to 
attract flies and carrion beetles. 
]Iake a practice of loking for special devices to assist 
in the work of pollination. The common barberry, for 
example, has sensitive stamens, which fly forward when 
touched. In the dandelion, the united anthers open 
inward, and the hairy, upward-growing style acts as a 
brush to bring the pollen into view. If the two-lobed 
stigma does not receive [ollcn from another flwcr, the 
lobes curl backward, and the stiomatic face of each is 
brought against the pollen on the style ; that is to say, if 
cross-pollination fails, self-pollination is rcsol'ted to. 
Examine flowers to find out whether the stamens in a 
given flower mature before or after the sti,o-mas, and con- 
sider the effect of any difference in the times of maturing 
which may be observed. 
The common plantain shows instructive differences be- 
tween the upper and lower flowers of the spike. 
Study also the flowers of a geranium cluster. 
Discuss the general advantages secured by cr,ss- 
pollination such as: 
1. The greater vigour of the resulting plants. 
2. The tendency to transmit any useful variation in 
either of the parent plants. 

SELF-POLLINATION 

Interesting examples are furnished by the small purple 
polygala, the violets, and wood-sorrel. In these cases, 
study the inconspicuous cleistogamous flowers, noting how 
self-pollination is inevitable so far as they are concerned. 
Compare also the time of their production with that of the 
ordinary showy flowers. 


152 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

in water without penetrating the soil at all (a hyacinth 
bulb will produce such roots, as will also slips of many 
plants, such as geranium, if suspended in water). 
Root-hairs.--Examine seedlings, such as those of wheat, 
oats, etc., to determine the region of the root upon which 
root-hairs are most abundantly developed. :Note that the 
tip and the older regions are without hairs. 
Bring out the value of the hairs as increasing the 
absorbing surface, and as holdfasts enabling the tip the 
more effectively to push its way into the soil. 
Root Cap.--Demonstrate the form and position of the 
root cap, by mountinz in water on a slide under the micro- 
scope the tips of seedlings, such as cress, and note the 
situation of the growing points. 
P-.zion of (rowth.--To e.tabli.h the region of growth 
in the root, spr-ut some seeds, .uch as peas, in clean saw- 
dust or blotting-paper and, when the roots are a couple of 
inches lng, mark them across at short intervals through- 
out their length wit] fine India ink lines. Continue the 
process of growth and examine the roots at intervals for 
several days. The relative widening of tle spaces between 
the marks shows clearly where growfl is most active. 

STEMS 

WINTER BUDS 
The study of winter buds, which was begun in the 
autumn, should be followed up in the spring, when the 
buds resume their growth. The observations should cover 
(a) the falling of the bud scales, (b) the lenhening of 
the axis, (c) the manner in which the young leaves are 
folded in the bud (vernation), and (d) the gradual ex- 
pansion of the leaves, all designed to show that the bud is c. 


BOTANY 157 

The "bloom" on such leaves as those of the cabbage 
sheds water from the leaf and checks tran.piration. 
Observations should be made of the relative density of 
the coating of hairs on the two leaf surfaces, and an ex- 
planation sought in case of marked differences. 

RELATION OF LEAVES TO SUNLIGIIT 
The relation of leaves to sunlight is a matter of great 
importance. Pupils shouhl be encouraged to examine and 
compare as many leafy twigs as possible, as well as to study 
complete plants, in order to understand how different cir- 
cumstances affect and modify leaf arrangemelts, so as to 
secure the most favourable exposure of tile surfaces to light 
and air. Simple instances are the cases of o[)posite leaves, 
where each pair is at right angles to tile pair next to it, 
thus avoiding shading, and of lower leaves extended upon 
longer petioles than the upper ones, with the same result. 
3[any eases of leaf mosaics can also be readily found, especi- 
ally among those plants which produce numerous root- 
leaves, such as the dandelion, plantain, etc. 
Besides the contrivances in such cases, the effeet of the 
cutting of the leaf blade into fine segments, as in the carrot, 
and of the complete division of the blade into separate 
leaflets, as in all compound leaves, will be noticed. 
In this connection, attention should be directed to the 
power which many leaves have of adjusting the position of 
the surfaces so as to secure the most advantageous exposure, 
turning the edge of the blade t[ward the sun when the 
light and heat are greatest in the middle of the day, and 
returning to the horizontal position in the more moderate 
fgU rs. 


158 BIOLOGY--FIRST YEAR 

SLEEP-:MOVEM ENTS 
The so-called sleep movements also demand attention, 
and some eth)rt should be made to explain the significance 
of the familiar phenomenon of the differing night and day 
positions of the leaves of ch)vcr, wood-sorrel, acacia, et. 
The cause of the bending of stems toward or away fl'om 
the light should also bc cxplailmd. Read Carets' Pb,,! 
Biology, sections 317, 31. 


AUTUMN WORK OF SE('ONI} YEAR 

COMPOSITES 
At least one example of em'h of the form. should he 
studied. 
The dandelion or chicory may represent the heads made 
up exclusively of ligulde florets. 
The thistle or burdock may be used as a type of the 
head composed entirely of tubulm, florets. 
Tile sunflower, cone flowcr, ox-eye daisy, eta'., will serve 
fr heads of the third type, having both rty and disc flrcts. 
No'rE : 
1. The form of the head. 
2. The involtcre.--number of r)ws of brtrt.% and any 
peculiarities about tile latter. 
3. The florets.--(a) whether ligulate or tubular, or 
both, (b) whether all opeu at tile same time aud, if not, 
which ones mature earliest. 
Split tile head fr(,m below upward with a very sharp 
knife, and examining the cut surface, note the receptacle.-- 
(a) its shape (flat, conical, etc.), (b) the presence or ab- 
sence of chaff-like bracts among the florets. 
Carefully pick off a well-matured fl,)ret from the outer 
part of a dandelion head and, using the hand lens, note : 
1. The ovary (inferior). 
2. The pappus (representing calyx-limb). 
3. The corolla (ligulate and epi.q!p,o**s). 
4. The five stamens attached to the corolla, and having 
(a) their filaments free, (b) their anthers joined and form- 
ing a sleeve round the style. 
5. The top of the style with it two-lobed stig-ma. 
lIake a complete sketch of the floret as thus seen. 
159 


160 :BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

Taking a fresh and well-opened floret again, let the 
pupil hold the lower end (ovary) with finger and thumb of 
the left hand and then gently pull the upper forked end 
of the style with the right. The style will break off below 
a.l ire drawn up through the sleeve of the anthers. The 
sleeve, or tube, can thou be split with the point of a needle 
and opened out to show the dehiscence of the anthers on 
the inside face of the tube. 
Now take another floret not so far advanced, and have 
tbc ather tul,e split and spread out to show that the an- 
tilers lllatUl'e filial discharze their pollen before the stigma 
is ready to receive it (prolamlry). 
KOTE, as far as possible: 
1. Tile upward growth of the style, with its brush of 
hairs rouud the top, with which it sweeps the pollen up- 
ward. 
. The opening out of the forked top, in order to ex- 
pose tile inner stigmatic surfaces. 
3. The fimtl recurring of the two lobes, so as to secure 
self-pollination, if cross-pollination does not occur. 
Consider the effect of the massiug of colour by the clus- 
tering of the florets, any contrivances to aid in seed dis- 
persal, aud what different kinds of insects would probably 
visit florets with corollas of different length (the nectary 
being at the base of the style). 

,VEEDS 

The common weeds of the garden, the roadside, and the 
field will be studied, and these will, of course, vary wifl 
the locality. These plants are sources of trouble to the 
farmer and the gardener and, as a rule, are so constituted 
as to resist hard treatment of various kinds, such as 


BOTANY 163 

3. The pileus. 
4. The gills.--the spore-bearing surface under the 
microscope. 
5. The stalk. 
6. The attnulus. 
7. The absence of chlorophyll and the mode of life of 
the plant as a saprophyte. 
8. Its purely asexual mode of reprodu(.tim. 

Take a specimen with full expanded pileus and cut the 
stalk across close to the tOl) ; lay the pileus, with the gills 
downward, on a shcct of white paper, and leave it undis- 
turbed for a few hours. [l lifting the pilcus carefully, a 
beautiful pattern of its undcr side will be found on the 
paper, due to the falling of imlllCllSe numbers of spores. 
Inspect some of these under the microscope. 
For the study of puff-balls both young and mature 
specimens are wanted. The general aspect of the plant 
body will be colnpared with that of the mushrooln, and 
sections will be made throuTh the younger specimens to 
show the internal cavities, the walls of which form the 
hymenium. 
The similarity in the mode of production of the spores 
of the mushroom and puff-ball will be explained. 
Ripened specimens, showing the ruptured peridium, 
will be compared with the younger specimens, and the dis- 
persion of the spores illustrated. 
In like manner the plant body of a polypore will be 
compared with that of the nmshroom and the puff-ball, and 
the method of spore production investigated. (Read 
Bailey and Coleman, First Cottrse in Biology, Chaps. xv 
and xxiv.) 


166 BIOLOGY--SECOND YEAR 

spring specimens. Later ones show the fully formed knot- 
like mass, havin z the velvety surface covered with the con- 
idia-bearing lyp/c. The specimens gathered in late sum- 
mcr differ in surface aspect from the earlier ones, the 
hyplne having shrivelled up. Sections will show the peri- 
tl, ecia with the spore-bearing asci lining their cavities. 
The lifc history shouhl be outlined, and shmdd include 
tile l..netrati.n of tile young hark hy the hyphm in the 
snmmer, the activity of fhe hyphe and cmsequent forma- 
ti,m of the knot in the foil.wing spring, the production of 
eonidia in the snmmer, the development of ascopores in 
the autumn, and their ripening in the winter. 
Remedial measures shouhl be discussed, such as-cutting 
mt and hnrnin the knot or, in very had eases, cutting 
down and burning the wh.le tree. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS 
ROOTS 
In order to understand the absorptive action of root- 
hairs in their close contact with moist partMes of soil, an 
experilncnt should be arranged to slmw osmotic action. A 
c,mmon form of such an experilnent is to make a model of 
a root-hair out of a long, sound potato, hv scooping out the 
substance of it, leaving only an ouier wall of a quarier of 
an inch or so in thickness. If this is now half filled with a 
five-per-cent, salt or sugar solution siained with a little red 
ink, and immersed to the depth of the solution in a jar of 
water, observations made at intervals will show the gradual 
rise of the liquid inside the tuber. The analogy between 
the process and the action of the root-hairs, which always 
contain sugar or other matier dissolved in ile cell sap. is 
easily seen. Other forms of the experiment are described 
in the text-books and may be substituted for the abovc. 


BOTAN-Y 167 

If time permits, it will be well to set up an experiment 
to show the strength of the upward sap pressure from the 
root through the stem. This can be done with a plant such 
as a bean growing in a pot. The stem should be cut off a 
couple of inches above the soil and a glass tube attached to 
the sttmp with a bit of tight-fitting rubber tubing. The 
tube can be kept upright by tying it to a stick thrust into 
the earth in the pot. If a little water be now put into the 
tube and covered with a drop of oil to prevent evaporation, 
the gradual rise of the water in the tube, due to pressure 
from below, can readily be observed. 
To show the tendency of roots to grow in the direction 
of moisture, seeds may be grown in moss in a germinating 
box with a wire gauze bottom. If the box is hung up, the 
radicles will make their way through the gauze into the air 
below, but will soon turn upward toward the moist moss. 
The influence of light on root growth can easily be 
shown. A tumbler of water may be covered with a piece of 
muslin tied over it, and the roots of some seedlings thrust 
through holes in the muslin. If the tumbler is now placed 
in a box having a slit in one side to admit light, the direc- 
tion of the root growth in relation to the light can be 
readily noted. 
SOILS 
The soil in which a plant grows is a storehouse of mois- 
ture for the plant's use and contains also the necessary 
mineral ingredients for its food. Some conversation with 
the pupils, therefore, on the origin of soils, and a few 
simple experiments on their composition, will be appro- 
priate. 
The mechanical separation of certain constituents may 
be effccted through the agency of water. A pound or so of 
good .garden soil may be mixed with a small quantity of 


172 BIOLOGY--SECOlX'D YEAR 

upper end of the funnel. Set the apparatus in tile sun- 
li:ht and, when sufficient gas has collected in the test-tube, 
test it with a glowing spliuter of wd. 
The exhalation of carbon dioxide may be shown by 
c, mfininz a growing plant in a deep, dark jar or box along 
with a small open vessel of lime-water. The lime-water 
becomes turbid owing to the formation of calcium ear- 
bonate. 

SPRIN(} WORK. OF SECOND YEAR 
TREES 
Tile se,,pe of the work on trees is sufficiently indicated 
in the curriculum. A good deal of tile work will neces- 
sarily be d,ue out-of-dors ill tim presence of the trees 
themseh'es. The branching can, of course, be best studied 
before the leaves of tile season are produced. Pupils shouhl 
b,, led to see that the general aspect of a tree depends very 
largely upou its mode of brane]ling, and such round-topped 
forms as the elm, maple, and apple should be compared 
with types like the Lombardy poplar and spire-like forms 
such as spruce and cedar, all such comparisons involving 
a careful study of the branching in each case. 
Besides the general aspect of the tree, as resulting from 
its branchinz habit, a study should also be made of the 
bark of the wo-d as shown in different sections. :For this 
purpose there should be in the laboratory a good collection 
of examples of the wood and bark of tl'e commoner trees 
of the locality, for ready reference. Tile leaf, also, should 
receive attention, and an ample supply of preserved leaves 
should be always on hand. :If properly taught, the young 
student should be enabled to recoHze most of our  com- 
moner fruit and forest trees at sight. 


PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 179 

or a liquid is to be distributed, the pupils must be trained 
to get immediately a test-tube or a paper ready to receive 
it and to write down the name of the substance to be re- 
ceived. This distributing work may also be done by a 
pupil. The teacher is better employed in watching tim 
progress of the class. 

APPARATUS AND SIMPLE MANIPULATIONS 
I'ABLES.--It is entirely erroneous to think that good 
work in Physics and Chemistry requires expensive desks, 
numerous sinks and taps, and running water. These all 
help. but very good work can be done without them : what 
is essential, is to have enough t, able room for all the pupils. 
Half a dozen cheap kitchen tables are very mu-h m,re 
useful than one small but expensive desk. Kitchen tables 
will do very well in mall schools, but whatever desks are 
used their tops should be covered with melted paraffin, 
and this should be ironed in thoroughly with a heavy hot 
iron; or they may be covered with floor wax. 
SINKs.--These should be small and shallow, with a flat 
bottom and never with curving sides. Each should be 
situated near one end of the desk. so that as much desk 
surface as possible is left on which to work. The tap sh,uhl 
be near one side of the sink and should be high enough 
above the bottom of the sink to admit a tall bottle under- 
neath, but very high taps should be avoided, as they cause 
splashing. These sinks will serve as pneumatic troughs, 
but, if they have curved sides, they are useless for this 
purpose. 
D.wEas.--If drawers are placed under the desks for 
individual apparatus, it is economical to have one drawer 
at each desk without a lock, in which to put unbreakable 


180 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

apparatus, such as burners, iron stands, matches, etc. 
These can be used hy all the pupils working at this desk. 
if the sets of apparatus are small, each pupil may be asked 
to bring a box in which to store his apparatus, and the 
boxes can bc put away on shelves at the end of the lesson. 
The boxes should be uniform, such as the tin ones used 
for soda biscuits. 

BoTTLES.--G]ass-stopl)cred bottles must he used for the 
acids and bases and other corrosive materials, and for the 
bases the clean stoppers should be dippcd in mcltcd paraf- 
fin, or they will be sure to stick. Gem jars are the cheapest 
receptacles in which to store bulky pwders and other 
solids. All bottles mu.t be labelled, and appearances are 
greatly iml)l-oved if bJttlcs uniform in shape but of several 
sizes are used. Dcllnison's labels can be purchased very 
cheaply. A preparation called Vitro Ink can l got from 
J. J. Griffin & Sons, Lndon, W.C., England, with which 
the names can be written directly oil the gl,; this is 
quite durable if used as directed, and is not corroded by 
acids. Neat labcls add greatly to the appearance of the 
bottles ill the laboratry. Chclnica|-proof labels may be 
made as follows: Let the name be written oil a paper 
label and stuck on the bottle. IIcat the bottle mltil quite 
warm, then rub over the label a paraffin c;mdlc until a 
thin coating is formed. No chemical will corrode this. 
To pour a liquid fl'onl a bottle, hold tile bottle in the 
right hand, the test-tube, say, between the thumb and first 
finger of tile left hand; take out the stopper with the last 
two fingers of the left hand and. holding it there, pour out 
the required liquid: then replace tile stopper, gathering 
back into the bottle any drop of adhering liquid at the 
mouth. 


PHYSICS AND CIIEMISTRY 181 

SPIRIT-LAIPS OI BUNSEN BtmNFms.--Spirit-lamps of 
brass are very durable and give excellent service, though 
they sometimes get a little hot. There should be two or 
more gasolene blast lamps to produce a vertical flame in- 
tense enough to reduce limestone to quicklime. 
GAs ('OI.LErons.--A large granite-ware dish, ten 
inches in diameter and four or five inches deep, makes an 
excellent pneumatic trough for the collection of gases over 
water. Pickle bottles or small gem jars make good gas 
jars. To invert these in the trough, fill them with water, 
cover with a piece of paper just larger than the mouth, 
invert carefully, place in the water, and withdraw the 
paper. To collect gas in such bottles avoid the pneulnatic 
helf; just tip up one edge and put the mouth of the de- 
livery tube underneath. Do not have more than two 
inches of water in the pneumatic trough, and then the gas 
bottles are not so likely to topple over. Use a rubber de- 
livery tube from the generator to the collector. 
HEATING GLASSWAItE.--In heatin flasks, beakers, 
evaporating di.hes, test-tubcs, etc., with s.lids in them, 
always have a close-meshed copper or brass gauze under 
them. This causes the different parts of the surface to be 
heated more uniformly and prevents breaking. When 
heating a test-tube with a solid in it, as when nmking 
oxygen from manganese dioxide and potassium chlorate, 
the tube should I,e held horizontally or with the closed end 
a little higher than the open one; this will prevent the 
water vapour, which is likely to condense in the upper 
part of tile tube, from running down to the hot part and 
cracking it. It is wcll in heating such tubes to roll gauze 
around them, nnless the heat requires to be concentrated 
at one point. 


182 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

IUBBER STOPPERS.--Thc mouths of the large-sized test- 
tubes and of flasks should be of the same size, so that the 
same stopper will fit them. For this purpose rubber stc T- 
pcrs with two holes should be used, and, if only one hole 
requires to be used, the other may be plugged with a piece 
of wood or a piece of glass rod. All glass tubing to be 
used with flasks, test-tubes, etc., should be of one size-- 
6 ram. is the best. :In putting glass tubing through a hole 
in a cork or rubber stcTper , wet it and twist the cork upon 
the tube--do not try to push the glass tube straight through 
the aperture. It should be pulled out in the same way. 
Immediately after the experiment, all tubes should be 
withdrawn from the stoppers, as it injures these to have 
tubes left in them, and it sometimes becomes difficult to 
withdraw the latter. 
GL.Ss BLowx.x'c.--The teacher and pupil must learn to 
bend the glass tubing and fit up their own apparatus. 
With an ordinarv Bunsen flame or spirit-lamp, glass tubing 
cannot be bent perfectly. For this purpose a wide, flat 
flame must be used. Where P, un.en burners are in use, a 
fish-tail attachment can 1.e purchased for a trifle, and this 
gives a proper flame. However, the bending can be done 
with a spirit-lamp, but the bore will probably be somewhat 
constricted at the bend. The tubing should be held 
horizontally, and brought cautiously down to the flame at 
first: it must be kept rotating, so that all sides will be 
uniformly heated. When it becomes quite soft. withdraw 
it from the flame, and then carefully bend it once ; if it is 
not completely bent at the first trial, heat again, but just 
to one side of the bend, and again withdraw and bend. 
When the tube colours the flame yellow it is getting near 
the melting point. The gasolene blast lamp can be used 
for this kind of work. 


PtIYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 183 

To seal one end of a glass tube, have it cut off square, 
and, with the end in the flame and the tube held obliquely, 
keep it rotating, and it will seal very neatly. 
To draw out glass tubing to a point, heat it as for 
bending, keeping it rotating all tile time. Wllen it be- 
comes quite soft, withdraw from the flame and quickly pull 
apart tile two ends Ulltil a uarrow neck is formed. When 
cool, cut this neck across by means of a file. 
To break glass tubing, make a mark on it at the point 
where it is to be broken, by drawing once across it tile 
angle of a triangular file; hohl the tubing fil'nllV in the two 
hands with the fingers on the sides of the tube where the 
mark was made and the two thumbs directly opposite the 
mark; then bend with both hands away from the mark. 
Only small tubing can be broken in this way ; larger tubing 
will require a special tube cutter. 
In fitting up apparatus, do not use glass tubes which 
have been bent several times; use simpler tubes and fit 
them together with joints made of pure lm rubber tubing. 
This gives flexibility to the whole apparatus. 
The end of a glass tube, before being used, should 
always be held in a flame till it melts slightly; this takes 
the rough edge off and gives a rounded form which will 
not cut rubber tubing or corks. 
DEFLA(IATIN( SPooxs.--These can be made bv bind- 
ing a piece of school crayon with the end hollowed out. to 
the end of a stiff wire ; this can always be kept clean, which 
is more than can be said of the ordinary spoon. A cover 
made out of cardboard serves as well as one of metal. 
EvaPon.TlOX oF SOLt'TlOXS.--All evaporation of solu- 
tions should be performed in an evaporating dish over a 
water-bath; otherwise the solid will likely be scorched and 


!84 ELEIIENTARY SCIENCE 

discoloured. A good water-bath is made from a shallow 
beaker with half an inch of water in it, placed on brass 
gauze over a flame. Place the evaporating dish on this 
with a match between it and the edge of the beaker, so that 
the steaIu can escape. 
FILT.TIo.x-.--Funnels about three inches in diameter 
are convenient for filtering. Filtering papers five inches 
in dialneter will fit these funnels. To fit the paper to the 
funnel, fold it twice across two diameters at right angles 
and fit it into the funnel, having it three-ply on one side 
and one on the other. Be sure it fits tightly and does not 
project above the edges of/be funnel. Wet the paper with 
water before adding the substance to be filtered. Never 
bare the lower end of the funnel below the surface of the 
filtrate; if the base of the funnel touches the side of the 
vessel into which the filtrate is running, there will be no 
splashing. When pouring from a wide-mouthed vessel (as 
a beaker) into a funnel, if the lip is put in contact with a 
glass rod aud the liquid is poured down the glass red, 
there is less chance of waste by spilling. 

NOTE-BOOKS 

The loose-leaf book is the best. A pae poorly done 
can be removed easily, on review a page can be added, and 
if the work is not always taken in the most logical order-- 
and often it cannot betbe records can be arranged 
properly. 
The records should always be in ink and, of course, the 
utmost neatness is necessary. The note-book should con- 
tain such a record of an experiment that a person of intelli- 
gence would, by reading it, gain a clear idea of how the 
experiment was performed and what conclusions could be 


PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY I$5 

derived from it. Precision and terseness of statement are 
essential. If a diaeoxam shows plainly the arrangement of 
the apparatus, it is not necessary that the pupil should 
also describe it in words. The neatness, the thoroughness, 
and the usefulness of the note-books depend, to a large 
extent, on how the teacher treats them during the first 
month. -[odel records of experiments should be written 
on the black-board. Every book should be read carefully, 
the errors corrected, and the notes rewritten bv the pupil 
when necessary. After careful habits have been formed, 
the eoxeater part of the class will look after themselves; a 
little attention devoted to the careless will act as a proper 
stimulus to all. The books should be examined several 
times during the year and valued, the marks counting in 
an estimation of the pupil's standing in the class. 
The record of an experiment should always contain in 
order the following information, not necessarily under 
headings : 
1. The date and number of the experiment 
2. The purpose 
3. The directions for performing it, with drawings 
4. The observations 
5. The explanation and conclusion. 
Where possible, the observations should be in the form 
of tabulated results, and all the mathematical reasoning 
necessary to derive the conclusion from the observations 
should be recorded in the explanation. The drawings 
should be placed on the left-hand side of the page, and the 
teacher should insist on their being as large as the page 
will admit. Enctmrage the pupils to make drawings in 
ink; these should be diagrammatic and, while little per- 


16 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

spective should be demauded, tle pupils should not be 
discouraged from showing depth. The drawings should 
show the experiment at its most important stage. The 
parts may be labelled and tile contents of bottles, test- 
tubes, etc., indicated. No notes should be dictated under 
any circumstances. Each pupil should record the facts 
of the experiment entirely in his own language. While 
l,crforming the experiment he should be reqdred to make 
rou!l h notes and sketches to be used as a guide and aid to 
memory in writing the permanent notes. 

Figure 1 

Tile following example 
will convey an idea of what 
is meaut : 

EXPERIMENT 16 
April 19, 1 .'m., 
Pt'POS. : To prove Archi- 
medes' principle 
DInECrlOXS : Weigh the 
catch-bucket elnpty, then 
weigh the glass stopper in 
nir ; immerse tile glass 
stopper in the water which 
fills the overflow-can; catch 
the water that overflows in 
the catch-bucket; then weigh 
the glass stopper hile im- 
mersed ; lastly, weigh the 
catch-bucket with the water 
in it. Repeat this three 
times. 


188 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

1 electric bell 
I incandescent lamp with wire attachments 
5 pounds glass tubing, 6 ram. in diameter 
3 pounds capillary glass tubing, opening 1 
diameter 
1 pound glass rod, about 6 mm. in diameter 
1 square foot sheet rubber--very thin 
1 bicycle pump 
3 metre sticks 
2 cylindrical measuring glasses, 250 cc. 
1 large round-bottomed flask. 1 litre 
1 atomizer or scent-bottle bellows 
1 set cork borers 
1 triangular file 
1 gross assorted corks 
2 bar mag-nets 
3 mortars and pestles 
2 pounds mercury 
1 dozen candles 

mmo 

APPARATUS REQUIRED BY EACH PUPIL (OR GROUP OF TWO) 
1 eellidoid rider about 30 era. long 
1 burette 
1 pipette, 15 ee. 
1 spring balance, 250 grams 
1 lamp ehinmey 
1 rubber stopper, with one hole, to fit the lamp chimney 
1 iron stand with two rings, one 2" diameter, the other 
31/" 
1 funnel, 3" diameter 
1 barometer tube 
1 pinch-cock 


190 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 

oz. sulphur 
oz. sodium 
lb. granulated zinc 
lb. sulphurie acid 
I, ifmus paper 
l],. marble (get at stone-cutter's) 
gallon wood alcohol 
quart gasolene 
11,. quicklime 
lh. iron filin.zs 
inches platinum wire 


196 PHYSICS--FIRST YEAR 

PRACTICAL :MEASURE,IENTS IN VOLU%IES 
The pipette, the burette, and the measuring glass or 
graduate should be utilized for this purpose. ]n using the 
burette, the chief source of error results from not freeing 
the glass tip of air bubbles. This can most easily be done 
i,y turning the tip upward, when the air will rise out 
of it. 
1. hleasure the volume of a pint measure in cubic 
centimctres by means of the measuring glass. 
2. Calculate the volume of a metal cylinder (salmon 
can) by measuring its height and the diameter of its end; 
alo measure the volume by immersing in water in the 
measuring jar. Compare results. Tabulate. 
3. Find the volume of a tack, small nail, or bullet, by 
immersing twenty of them in a burette. 
4. Test the accuracy of a measuring glass by (a) the 
burette, (b) the pipette. 
5. Ieasure the volume of a test-tube full of sand. 
Read the measuring glass with water in it, then pour in 
the sand, and notice the rise. 
6. 5Ieasure the volume of air discharged at an ordinary 
expiration. By means of a tube discharge the air from the 
lungs into a large sealer filled with water and inverted in 
water. Use the measuring glass to find the amount of 
water left in the sealer and also to find the amount of water 
the sealer is able to contain ; the difference is the volume 
of the air. 

IEASUREIENT OF IASS, DENSITY, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
A prime requisite for science work is one or more suit- 
able balances. English firms now manufacture excellent 
ones for ten dollars or less. The balance should weigh up 
to 500 grams, and should not weigh beyond centigrams ; 


]IEASUREMENT 197 

one in which the decigrams and centigrams are measured 
by a sliding rider is most satisfactory, as small weights are 
difficult to handle and are easily lost. Agate knife edges 
are quite unnecessary, and a very sensitive balance is not 
by any means a necessity, nor perhaps even a help. If 
balances as above cannot be provided, good work can be 
done with small spring balances at 
sixty cents apiece. These spring 
balances weigh to eight ounces or 
250 grams, and any experiment in 
the Physics Course can be performed 
with them. 
A very valuable piece of ap- 
paratus for specific gravity work is 
what Professor Hall calls an "over- 
flow-can and catch-bucket" (Figure 
1). The overflow-can is a small 
cylindrical copper vessel with a spout 
from near the top sloping gradually 
downward. The catch-bucket is a 
small can made of thin copper, 
which will hold three or four 
ounces. It must have a handle. Rub |  
vaseline inside the spout, to insure [- ..... 
the rapid and complete drainage off 
of the water. A still simpler form 
(Figure 2) can be made by select- Flre 2 
ing a lamp chimney with a very narrow constriction 
near the top; fit to it a rubber stopper through which 
passes a piece of glass tubing. This piece of tubing should 
extend to within an inch of the base of the lamp chimney 
and should be bent so as to lie near one side of the chim- 
ney. The apparatus is put in the ring of a retort stand 


:198 PHYSICS---FIRST Y-EAR 

with the narrow corked end down, and filled with water 
uutil it overflows into the glass tube. Then, when any 
IJodv is immersed in the chimney, its volume of water will 
flow out through the tubing. (See Ontario High School 
Laboratory Manual in Physics, page 2.) 
A Florence flask with a mark filed on the neck. if used 
carefully, gives very satisfactory results as a specific gravity 
bottle. 
In suspending solids use a horselaair. 
]n weighing any solid in a liquid brush off all air 
bubl,]es with a feather. Also brush off the air bubbles from 
the immr stu'face of a flask when in contact with a liquid. 

I'RELI_'IIN.AI/Y PROBLEMS TO BE GIVEN 
FOR SOLUTION AT tt03IE 
1. Explain exactly what is meant by saying lead is 
heavier than water. 
2. You have 1 cc. of each of the following substances: 
arrange theln in order of their weight, placing the liglltest 
first--water, pinewood, coal-oil, iron, glass. 
3. How would you find the weight of a cubic centimetre 
of water, if you had a burette and a balance? 
4. II,w can an iron boat float on water ? 
5. If you had 1 gr. of eaeh of the substances in (2), 
bow would you arrange them in the order of their size? 
6. Ilow would you find whether a given solid is heavier 
or lighter than water ? 
7. H,,w do clouds composed of drops of liquid water or 
ice remain floating in the air ? 

EXPERIMENTs TO BE PERFORMED 
. Prove Archimedes' principle for solids that float and 
those that sink in water. (lIall and Bergen, Tc.rt-boob 


]::[Y-DROSTATICS 201 

EXPERIMENTS 
1. Observe carefully the water in a kettle, and find if 
the levels in the spout and in the kettle are at the same 
height. 
2. Fill three bottles with water, invert one in water 
and one in air; into the third put a cork with a sInall hole 
in it and invert in air. Explain the results. 
3. Thrust a large empty pail, bottom down, into a tub 
of water, and decide which way the water is pushing the 
pail. 
4. With a darning-needle make a hole in the bottom of 
a paper pail such as is used for carrying oysters or cream. 
(An empty tomato can will answer, and in this case the 
hole may be made with a small brad.) Thrust it down into 
water, bottom first, and watch the water enter throuzh the 
hole; thrust it quickly to different depths ; note the force 
with which the water enters the hole at varying depths. 
5. Using a similar can or pail. make three similar holes 
through the side at varying depths and fill the vessel with 
water; note the force with which it issues from each hole, 
and decide how the pressure changes with the depth. 

The above experiments are examples of many that can 
be given on different topics for home work; in this way the 
teacher can economize school time and probably create an 
interest in science in the home circle as well. 
The experiments frequently used in our schools to illus- 
trate the five properties mentioned above require expensive 
apparatus or are difficult to nanipulate and unsatisfactory 
in results. For the following experiments the apparatus is 
simple and the results easy to obtain; each pupil should 
perform them. 


HYDROSTATICS 203 

in water to prevent premature bulging of the rubber mem- 
branes. A pressure applied inward upon one membrane 
then produces an equal bulging outward on all the others. 
The principle can be equally well illustrated with a hollow 
rubber ball. Puncture it in a number of places with a sew- 
ing needle ; then through a small hole cut in the ball fill it 
with water; if the hall is now squeezed while a finger is 
held over the hole, the water will be projected from the 
different punctures to approximately the same distance. 
4. Pressure is the Same in all Direclion..--Take a set 
of tubes as in Figure 3. They must be made of tubin 
not more than 6 ram. in diameter. Each piece must Ire 
bent, as in the Figure. When immersed to the same depth, 
the water is forced into each tube, and the air transmits 
the pressure of the water. Mercury is placed in the bend 
of each tube, and the difference of level in the two arms 
measures the pressure the water exerts on the inclosed air. 
5. Water Seeks its ou'n LeveL--In the bottom of a 
lamp chimney fit a cork stopper through which three or 
four holes are bored. Bend ./ in. tubing, as in Fiure 2, 
and pour water into the lamp ehimney. (See Milliken 
and Gale, p. 44.) 
Use the principles proven above to explain such phe- 
nomena as fountains (water seeks its own level), water 
pressure in waterworks system (Pascal's principle), fore- 
ing of corks into bottles immersed in deep water (pressure 
increases with depth), heavy iron-ribbed helmet for head 
in diving-suit (pressure increases with depth), fl,wing 
wells (water seeks its own level), an iron boat floats 
(Archimedes' principle), hydrostatic press (Pascal's prin- 
ciple), hydraulic elevator (Pascal's principle). 


204 PHYSIC,-FIRST YEAR 

PNEUMATICS 
The explanation of all the phenomena of gases should 
be based on a careful experimental demonstration of the 
following propositions : 
1. Air lms weigl, t. 
2. Air exerts pressure. 
3. Air, nli'e liquids, expands indefinitely, and its 
volume raries inrersely as tl, e pres.ure to u, lzicl it is sub- 
jected (Boyle's Law). 
4. Pressure in air is equal in all directions. 
1. Air has Weight.--The simplest way to prove that air 
has weight is to place a little water in a round-bottomed 
flask and fit to it a rubber stopper with a glass tube in- 
serted ; on the outer end of the tube place a short piece of 
pure g-urn rubber tubing; boil the water in the flask until 
all the air is expelled, then close the flask by a pinch-cock 
attached to the rubber tube, taking away the flame at the 
same time. Weigh the flask carefully when cooled, sus- 
pending it by a thread ; then, leaving it still on the balance, 
open the stop-cock; the air can be heard rushing in and 
the balance pan goes down. This experiment can be suc- 
cessfully performed by omitting the water and sucking the 
air out of the flask by the mouth. To make sure that no 
saliva adheres to the tubing when sucking out the air, in- 
sert a piece of glass tubing into the rubber and, after ex- 
hausting the air, withdraw this tube. 
2. Air exerts Pressure.--The barometer, of course, is 
used to measure the air pressure. The most suitable form 
for the pupils is the siphon barometer (Gregory and Sim- 
mons, Lesson, s in Science, page 42). The short piece of 


PNEUMATICS 205 

tubing should be twelve inches long, and a funnel should 
be attached to it by rubber tubing through which the mer- 
cury is poured. When making a I)arometer of the cistern 
type, it is well, when the tube is filled to within two inches 
of the top, to invert the tube several times, as the two 
inches of air sweeping along will drain the mercury of air 
bubbles. When the tube is filled, do not close the end with 
the thumb, as many text-books direct, but with the first 
finger, and the inversion will be much easier. A barometer 
tube with the open end expanded like a thistle tube is now 
for sale by certain dealers. Such a tube is useless, as are 
tubes with a bore so small that mercury will run down 
into thegn only with the greatest difficulty. 
For use in the barometer, the mercury must be clean 
and dry. The simplest way to clean mercury is to add 
water with a little nitric acid in it and shake thoroughly 
for some time; then rinse with water till all the acid is 
washed out, drain off as much water as possible, absorb 
the rest with blotting-paper, and strain the mercury several 
times through a dry, clean towel ; it lnay finally be filtered 
through ordinary filter paper with a few needle holes 
punched in it. 
Be sure to show by slanting the barometer tube that the 
air pressure is measured by the vertical distance between 
the two levels and does not depend at all on the length of 
the mercury colunm. 
Pupils are slow to grasp the fact, even after the bar- 
ometer is explained, that the air presses on the whole sur- 
face of the earth with about the same force as would a sea 
of mercury spread over its surface 76 centimetres deep. 
This must be nmde clear, and problems involving finding 
the pres