Property of OISE/UT Library Please return to 252 Bloor St. West Attention: Kathy Imrie ONTARIO TEACHERS' .IAN UALS NATURE STUDY AIJTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER qpF EDUCATION TORONTO THE RYERSON PRESS COPRIGH'i . CANADA, 1915. B" THE -INITER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO Second Printing, 1918 Third Printing. 1923. Fourth lrinting. 1924 CONTENTS v CHAPTER V. FORI I: SPRING PAGE Garden Work ..................................... 87 Garden Studies--window garden ............... 88 Wild Flowers ...................................... 90 Recognition of Wild Flowers ................... 91 Lesson in Outline--Bloodroot; correlations ..... 91 Insect Study ....................................... 93 Cecropia, or Emperor-moth ..................... 93 Dragon-fly ..................................... 94 Other Conspicuous Insects ..................... 95 Birds ............................................. 95 The Robin .................................... 96 Field exercises; the nest, eggs, and young... 96 The Song-sparrow ............................. 97 Field exercises: class-room lesson .......... 97 The Sheep ........................................ 99 Problems for Field Work ...................... 99 CHAPTER VI. FoR-[ II : AVTUMN Bulb Planting Out-of-Doors ......................... 101 Bed for growing bulbs; planting of bulbs indoors ................................. 101 Garden Work ...................................... 103 Seed selection; storing seeds; harvesting and storing of garden crops; class-room lesson; autumn cultivation ...................... 103 Garden Studies .................................... 106 Garden Records; correlations .......... Climbing Plants ................................... 108 Trees ............................................. 109 Storing of Tree Seeds .......................... 11. A Flower .......................................... Type---Nasturtium ............................. 1 Soil Studies ....................................... Kinds of Soil .................................. 112 Animal Studies .................................... Bird Migration; correlations .... ............... 113 Common Wild Animals ........................ 114 General method for field work .............. The Wood-chuck ............................... 116 The Chipmunk--field exercises ................. 117 The Eastern Swallow-tail Butterfly ............. CONTENTS vii CIIAPTER IX. FOR3I III: AI'TI'MN PA;E Garden Work ..................................... 154 Treatment of Fungi ........................... 154 Treatment of Insects--cabbage-worm ........... 156 Plants ............................................ 158 Annuals, Biennials, and Perennials ............. 158 Class-room lesson .......................... 158 Garden Studies ................................ 159 Annuals, biennials, perennials .............. 159 Special Study of Garden Plants ................. 160 Sweet-pea; pumpkin: corn: correlations .... 160 Seed Dispersal--Lesson ............................ 164 Detailed Study of Seed Dispersal--class-room lesson ...................................... 165 Seed collections; man as a disperser of seeds 166 The Sugar Maple---field exercises ................... 168 Maple Leaves--class-room lesson: correlations.. 169 Weed Studies ..................................... 170 Observation lesson on weed seeds .............. 171 Grasshopper--field exercises; class-room lesson ...... 172 Aphides ........................................... 174 Tomato Worm--the adult; the chrysalis .......... 175 The Crow; correlations ............................ 177 CHAPTEI X. FOR.XI III: WINTER Care of Plants in the Home ...................... 178 Plant Cuttings ................................. 179 Selection of cuttings; potting of rooted cuttings ................................ 179 E vergTeens--class-room lesson .................... 181 Collection of Wood Specimens ..................... Related Reading ................................... 183 How Animals Prepare for Winter .................. 183 Summary of Lessons; correlations ........... 184 Chickens ......................................... 185 Conversation lesson; arithmetic lesson: care and food of chickens .................... 185 Physical Science Phase of Nature Study ............ Solids, Liquids, and Gases ......................... 188 Change of State ............................... 189 Expansion of Solids ........................... 189 Practical applications; questions for further investigation ............................ 190 Expansion of Liquids--applications ............ 192 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER XlI. FOt:.M IV: At'Tt't.--CotDued Trees--The White Pine ........................... 232 Outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine; correlations; references ............ 235 Apples--Comparative Lesson on Winter Varieties .... 239 King, Baldwin, Northern Spy .................. 239 Codling moth; references ...................... 240 Some Common Animal Forms: references .......... 242 Centipeds and millipeds ....................... 243 Salamanders or newts ......................... 243 Spiders ....................................... 244 Bird Studies ...................................... 245 CHAPTER XlII. FOR.t IV: WLXTER Forest Trees ...................................... 246 Evergreens; Wood Specimens .................. 246 Fruits ............................................ 247 Weeds and Weed Seeds ............................ 248 Physical Science Phase of Nature Study ............ 248 Water Pressure--exercises .................... 248 Study of Air .................................. 249 The barometer; the common pump; expan- sive force of air; composition of air; oxygen; carbon dioxide; impurities of air. 250 Solutions of Solids ............................ 255 Solutions of Liquids ........................... 256 Solutions of Gases ............................. 256 Limestone ................................ 256 Carbon ....................................... 257 Hydrogen .................................... 258 Magnets ...................................... 258 Electricity .................................... 259 Steam ........................................ 260 Farm tools--machines; problems .............. 260 'HAPTER XIV. Fomx[ IV: SPRING Method of Improving Home and School Grounds ... 263 Making and Care of a Lawn: References ....... 264 Soil Studies ....................................... 265 Weight ....................................... 265 Subsoils ...................................... 266 Fertilizersexperiments ....................... 268 Soil-forming Agents ........................... 268 Tilling the Soil ............................... 269 Garden Work--experiments in plots out-of-doors. 27o PREFATORY NOTE THIS Manual is placed ill the hands of the teachers in the hope that the suggestions which it contains on lesson topics, materials, books of refereuce, and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers and in particular to those who have had little or uo instruction in Nature Study during their academic or professional training. The first Chapter of the Manual discusses topics which have general reference to the subject as a whole. The remaining part of the Manual deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the different Public and Separate School Forms. While this division t,f the matter into Forms is couvenient fa general classifieati,n, it is na to be regarded as arbitrary. Materials and nwtho,ls of pre- sentation suitable for one class of pupils in a certain Form might, under different conditions, be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same Form. Fa example, work which would be suitable for a class iu Form I made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age, after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons received special attention, would not he suit- able for a Form I class made up af pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such previous training. In leeting work for any class the teacher, therefore, should uot be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the Manual, but should exercise his own judzment, taking into account his environment and the attainment. of his pupil.. To facilitate such a selection, page references are given in the details of the Course of Study, which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the Public and Separate School Course in Nature Study. By means of these refer- ences, the teacher may find, in any department of the sub- ject, typical matter suited to the development of his pupils. 1 2 NATURE STUDY The numer,,us lype lessons tl,at are contained in the Manual are intended to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon the same and similar topics, but the teacher is cautioned against attempting to imitate these lessons. This error can be avoided by the teacher's careful preparation of the lesson. This preparation sht,uld include the careful study of the cont.rete materials that are t,, he used. The books, bulletins, etc., that are named in the Manual as references will be found helpful. To facilitate teaching through the experinaental and investigation methods, special attention has been given to the improvising of simple apparatus from materials within the reach of ever.,," teacher. Fr,,m the character of the subject the Course of Study must be more or less elastic, and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to he suggestive rather than prescriptive. It may be that, owing to local conditions, topics not named are among the best that can be used, but all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation with the In.pector. The treatment of the subject must always be suited to the age and experience of the pupils, t,, the seasons of the year, accessibility of materials, etc. Notes should not be dictated hv the teacher. Mere information, whether from book, written note, or teacher, is not Nature Study. The acquisition of know- ledge must be made sec,ndarv to awakening and main- taining the pupil'. interest in nature and to training him lo hahit. of ohservation and investigation. As a ide to the minimum of work required, it is suggested that at least one lesson he taught from the subjects outlined under each general heading in the detailed Course of Study, with a minimum average of three from the subjects under each general heading. PUBLIC AND SEPARATE CII{}OL ('OURSE OF STUDY DETAILS FORM I AUTUMN {AIIDEN VOllK AND {;ARDEN TVDII-:. : Division of the arden plot, rolncval of weed and observations on these weeds, identification of garden plants, observation lessons based on garden plant, selection of seed, harvesting and disposing of the crop. (See pp. 5-9.} STUDY OF LANTS: Class lessons based on a flowering garden plant, as pansy, aster, nasturtium; study o a field plant, a buttercup, goldenrod, dandelion. (S-t. pp. 55-9. ) Potted and garden plants: Observation lesson based on a bulb; planting bulbs in pots, or in the garden. (See pp. 69-1.) BII:DS AND ('ONSPICUOUS IN-SEt'TS : Identification of a few common birds, as robin, Eng- lish sparrow, mcad,w-lark: observation lessons on the habits ,,f these brs; collection of th,, adult forms, the larv and the cocoons of a few comfimn moths and buerflies, as emperor-moth, promotbea moth. eastern swallow-tail buiiorflv. (See pp. 30-9 and 93-8.) 3 COURSE OF STUDY 5 BIRDS AND INSECTS: Identification and study of the habits of a few com- mon birds, as song-sparrow, blue-bird, wren; observations of the form and habits of a few common insects, as house-fly, dragon-fly. (See pp. 30-3 and 93-9.) {OMMON TREES : Observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the 3_uturan. (See p. 65.) FORM lI AUTUMN BIRDS AND INSECTS: Autumn migration of birds; identification and observations on the habit. and movements of a few cvmmon insects, including their larval forms, as grass]ml)per, eastern swallow-tail butterfly. (See pp. 113-4 and 118-9.) .NIMALS OF THE FARM, FIELD, AND V'OOD: Observations on the homes and habits of wild animals, as frog, toad, squirrel, ground-hog; habits structures, including adaptive features, of domes- tic animals, as dog, cat, horse, cow. (See pp. 83 and 123-30.) TIEES OF TIIE ]ARM, IOADSIDE, WOOD, AND ORCHARD: Observations on the shapes, sizes, rate of growth, and usefulness of cvmmon orchard, shade, and forest trees, as apple, elm, horsc-c.hestnut. (See pp. 109-10.) 6 NATURE STUDY ';LI; I:LOWERS AND 'EEDS: Identification and study of a few common weeds, noting their means of persistenoe and dispersal. {See pp. 139-4{.) 'ARE oF POTTED AXI} { AI[DEN PLANTS : Preparation of pots and garden beds for hulbs; selecting and storing gardeu seeds; observations on the habits of climbing plants, and application of the kmowledge gained to the care required for these plants. (See pp. ltl-9 and ltl.) V'INTER 1)II:D. : h]entification of winter birds and study of their lneans ,ff 1)rotcction and of obtaillinff food. (See l"P- 13-2.) .NI3IALS Ol' TIIE FAI;3I : Comparative study of the horse and cow, of the dog ld c-at, and of the dm.k and hen. (See pp. 1 3-s. ) .NI3[AL OF TIfF l ]zK X'D ZOOLOgiCAL ;A]DEN: erxations on the enera] truetura] features, not- hz the natural adaptation of uc]z annm]s as bear, ]ion, deer, tier, etc.. (ee p. 132.) Winter tudv of trees, notin bud, branche, and f-]iae o[ pruce, cedar, horse-chestnut, etc. l'P- ]2Z-3.) SPRING BIRDS AXD INSECTS : Observations on the tructure, adaptations, and {'OUItSE OF STUDY 7 derelopmcnt of insect larva: kept in an aquarium, as larva of mosquito, dragon-fly, caddice-fly; spring migration of birds. (Sce pp. 14:)-153.) .kNIMALS OF TIlE FIELD AND *OODS : Observations on the forms, homes, habits, and foods of wild animals, continued. (ee pp. 11i-8, -9.) ORCHARD TREES : The buds and blossoms of apple, and cherry or plum, observed through the stages up to frui formatimL (ee pp. 141-3.} EXl'EI[E'TS I" THE GEIINATION OF SEEDS: Germination of seeds and general obserrations on the stages of development; testing the conditions required for seed germination; introducto D" exer- cises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting. (See pp. 133-s and 112-3.} WILD FLOWERS AND WEEDS : Field and class-room study of marsh marigold, Jack-in- thequipit, violet, cw. (See pp. 39-4o.} FOP, M III AUTUMN J[IRD.' AND INSECTS : Observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects, as cabbage-worm, grasshopper, tussock-moth, etc. ; discussion of means of check- ing these insets. (See pp. 15fi-7 and 1;?-7.) F.tn. .tXD WILD AN'I.IALS OF TIlE LOCALITY : Field study and class-room lesson. on the habits and structure, in.luding adaptive features, of common NATURE STUDY CIIAPT ER I THE AIMS OF NATURE STUDY NATURE Study means primarily the stn,lv of natural things and preferably of living things. Like all other subjects, it must justify its position on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil the responsibilities of citizenship. That citizen is best prepared for life who lives in most sympathetic and intelli- geut relati,m to his environment, aud it is the primary aim of Nature Study to maintaiu the boml [.f interest which unites the chihl's life to the objects and phcm.mena which surround him. To this end it is nevessarv t- adapt the teachiug, in matter and method, to the conditions of the (.hild's life, that he may learn to understaud the se.rets of nature and be the hetter able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment. At all times, the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of investigation fostered, together with carefulness and thoroughness, which are the important ends to be sought. With a mind trained to experiment and stinmlated by a glimpse into nature's secrets, the worker finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery, while, from a fuller understanding of the forces 13 16 NATURE STUDY MATT]SIt I UST BE .%uI'rED 'ro Tl! E CII ILD For the urban pupil the treatment of tle nmterial mu:t be different from that in the case of the pupil of the rural school. Rural school pupils have already formed an exten- sive acquaintance with ninny plants and aninmls which are entirely nnknown to the children of the city. The simpler facts which are interesting aml instructive to the pupils of the urban classe: would proe commonplace and trivial to rural pupils. For example, while it is necessary to :how the city child a squirrel that he may learn the size, colour, and general appearance of the animal, the efforts of the pupil of the rural school should I)e directed to the discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life. USE OF TIlE '}3IM}NPLACE 1 musl he kept in mind that hesides leading the pupils to discover new sources f interest, tim teacher should strive t- accomplish that which is even greater, namely, to lead them t discover new truth and new beauty in ohl. familiar ,,hject. [t may be true that "' familiarity breeds con- Wml,t " an,1 there is always a danger tlmt the objects with which (.hildre ]rove as,,ciated in early life may be pas:ed ],v as uninteresting while tley go iu search of s,mething "" new and interesting" For example, t, he aide t,, recognize many plants and t, call them 1)v name is no doubt somethin of an accom- plishment, but it should not 1,e the chief aim of the teacher in eomluetin N'ature Study lessons on plants. It is of much zreaier imlmrialwe that fle child should be led to love the flwers and to appreciate their beauty aud their utility. Such appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine flowers aml useful plants, ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF LESSON 17 and this end can I,c reached ,,nly through intclligen| acquaintanceship. There can I,e m, true al,l,reciati,n with- out knowledge, and this the child gets chiefly 1,y personal observation and experiment. With reference to the wild /lowers of the woods and fields, the method employed is that of continuous observation. ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON Each animal or plant should be studied as a living, active organism. The attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities; for these appeal to the child uaturc and afford the best mean for se,.urinr interest and atten- tion. What does this animal do? How d,es it d it? IIow is it fitted for doing flis ? tlow does this plant grow ? What fits it for gnawing in this way? These are questions which should exercise the mind of the child. They are queslions natural in tle .pirit -f inquiry in child nature and give vitality to nature teaching. They are an effective means .f establishing a I.md of sympatly between the child and nature. The ,.hihl wb,, takes care of a plant or animal because it is his ,wn, does s- at first fr,-,ln a purely personal motive, whi(.h is perfectly natural h, childh_,.l; Iut while he studies its needs and el,serves it m,,vemeuts and changes, gradually and um..nsci,uslv this interest will be transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake. The nature of the chihl it thus broadened durin the process. I'IOILE.Ms IN OBSERVATION In studying the material provided, whether it be in the class-room, or during a nature excursion, ,-,r by observations made in the farmyard at home. the teacher nmst dde the efforts of the pupils by a.sizning to them definite and suit- THE SCHOOL GARDEN 19 conclusion without having studied a large number of examples. The development of critical and judicious minds, which may result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from these observations, is vastly more important than the menmrizing of many facts. THE SCHOOL GARDEN In the study of garden plants there is added a certain uew iuterest arising out of experimentation, cultivation, and ownership. The loe of the gardener has in it elements that tile love of the naturalist does not usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants produced in his garden; but every gardener should be a naturalist as well. Most people hare a higher appreciation for that which they own and which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal sacrifice ; therefore it is that tile growing of plants iu home aud sch,,()l gardens or in pots and win- dow boxes is so strongly advocated throughout this Course. Ownership always implies responsibility, which is at once tile chief safeguard of society and tile foundation of 'itizenship. A careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when he himlf has proprietary interests involved. We believe, therefore, that ever)- teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and, if possible, to own a plot of ground however small. The teacher should not merely aim at making a garden in the school grounds. The great question is rather how bes to use a school garden in connection with the training of boys and girls. To learn to do garden work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of manual training. To understand something of soils and methods of cultivation, of fertilizers and drainage, the best kinds of fl,,wers, vegetables, fruit., and farm crops, and how 20 NATURE STUDY to grow them successfully, is very important iu such a great agricultural contry as this ; but the greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with school gardening is the ennobling of life and character. The pupils are taught to observe the growing plants with great care, noting developments day by day. This adds to their appreciation of the beauties and adaptations found among plants on every side, and cannot fail to produce good results in moral as well as in mental development. The teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate. The best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate oe. It is rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply interested in. It is the garden in which they have experienced most pleasure and profit that makes them want to bare another better than the last. N, school is too small to have a garden of some kind, and no garden is t(,, small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl. S UCd EST I0 N.q For the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of eptember, in school sections where school gardening has never been carried on, the following suggestions are offered : 1. See if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden. To ascertain this, no the size of the present grounds and see if they meet the requirements of the Department as ]aid down in the Ncgulations. If they do not, consult your Inspcehr at once and a'quaint him with your plans. If the grounds are to be enlarffed, try to take in snfficicnt land of good quality to make a .zoo,l garden. 26 NATURE STUDY SUGGESTIONS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS 1. The teas.her may take all the classes, choosing an object of study from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages, a bird's nest, for example. 2. In man 3- section, the little ones are dismissed at 3.30 p.m. Opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors. 3. The oh]er pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a monitor, elected by themselves, who shall be responsible for their conduct, while the teacher is working outside with the lower Forms. 4. Boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found. 5. An oc.asional .aturdav excursion may be arranged. Discipline.--The tvacher should insist Oil making the excursion a serious part of the school work, not merely recreation. School-room behaviour cannot be expected, but the boisterous conduct of the playground should give place to earnest expectancy. The pupils should keep within sound of the teacher's voice (a sharp whistle may be used) and shonld pronptly respond to every call. Topics of c.onversations should as far as possible be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or related matters. In visiting woods, children should be trained to study flower. in their environment and leave them there, plucking or digging for none except for some excellent reason. The same respect should be shown to birds and their nests, and to insects, and all other living things encountered. THE EXCURSION 27 TIIE TEACHER'S EXCURSIONS As soon as possible after cominz to a section, the teacher should acquaint himself with the woods, groves, streams, or other haunts that may provide him with lnaterial for his indoor or outdoor work. tie can then direct the pupils effecti'ely. The teacher should go o'er the route of an excursion slmrtly before it takes place. This prevents waste of time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see. ]f the teacher wishes to increase his love for nature. he must take many walks without his pupils. The school garden offers a partial solution of the diffi- culties meltioned above. It brings a large anmunt of material to the doors of the school. Plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under various changeable conditions, and it will be seen that insect pests, weeds, and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants, while lessons on birds and toads follow those on insects. With sections of the garden devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers. ferns, and forest trees, the specially organized excursion will become les. of a necessity, although it will still con- tirade to be a valuable factor in Nature .tudv work. After an excursion is over, it should be discussed in class. The various facts learned should be reviewed and related. If any pupil. lave madc inaccurate observations, they should be reqired to observe again to correct their errors. Finally, the excursi,m may form the subject of a composition. A TYPE EXCURSION A Bird's Nest.The children have been instructed to. study the meadow-lark, beginning about March twenty- first. While engaged in this work, a nest is discovered 28 NATURE STUDY near the school. The teacher is informed and the pupils are conducted to the spot. What is growing in the field? Is there a long or a short growth? lid the mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest? Did this help to reveal its pres- ence ? " Is the nest easy to see ? The class will halt a few paces from it and try to find it. IIow many eggs? Their ,',,h,ur? Note the arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest. Returning to school, the facts observed are reviewed. The pupils may then express themselves by written eom- l,,,siti,,n t,r l,v drawings, paintings, or modellings of the nest. the e.., or the surroundings. Frequent visits to the nest should not be nmde, and the pupils should be warned not to disturh the bird. as she may desert the nest (,n slight provocation. A second excursion may he made, when the eggs are hatched, t,, see the young birds. A Wasp's Nest.--A nest having been discovered, the pupils note how it is suspended and how it is situated with regard to eoneeahnent or to protection from rain, its ,.,dour, the material of tile nest, and the position of the entrance. Is the opening ever deserted? How many wasps enter and how many leave the nest in a minute? Try to follow one and watch what he does. Wasps may be found biting wood from an old board fence. This they chew into pulp. and from this pulp their paper is made. (et the children to verify this 1)y observations. If the nest is likely t,, become a nuisance, smoke out tile wasps, take the nest carefully down, and use it for indoor study, examining the inside of the nest to ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb whirls, in this case, is en- tirely devoted to ]arv,. CHAPTER II PHYSICAL S('IEN('E PIIASE OF NATURE STUDY INSTRUCTIONS AND GENERAL METHOD THE preceding portions of this Manual dealt with living things. There is another phase of Nature Study which has a more direct relation to the physical sciences, ('hemistry and Physics, two subjects that are essentially experimental in their methods. Although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this book, the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into his work as the occasion de. mands. They may be used to throw light on other parts of the school work. The experimental method is some- what advanced for young children, hence no lessons are outlined for Forms | and II. :I, ungraded school, Forms III and IV may be combined for the subject. It will be found most convenient to take this portion of the Nature Study during the winter months. VALUE OF SUCH LESSONS l. They are ittcrestitg, hence there is attention. The senses must be alert, hence pupils are trained to observe accurately. 2. After the experiment comes the inference, hence reasoning powers are developed. 3. They enable the teacher to make exceedingly con- crete some vcry difficult abstract principles. 4. They can be correlated with a large number of other subjects and made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work. 42 PHYSICAL SCIENCE 43 5. The great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day is largely due to the study of the physical sciences. Many boys and girls (seventy-five per cent.) never attend the lligh S(.hool. The ElenIentary owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have such a bearing on their lives, that bare surrounded them with so many mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience, and that explain so many common natural phenomena. Give a boy a taste for experimental science, and there is some chance tlmt after leaving school lie will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the newspaper, but that lie will continue to investigate for himself, and make himself a well-informed man, an influential man in his section. The Elementary School must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life. 6. The advent (2f the experiment marks the downfall of superstition, prejudice, and reliance on authority and tradition. To lead a child to think for himself is a great achievement. 7. The use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions. CONDITIONS UNDER WIIICH EXPERIIIENTS SHOULD BE PERFORm, lED 1. They should be introduced into the school work naturally, as answers to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times. 2. As far as possible, the pupils should assist in per- forming the experiment. In small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work. In Form V classes and Continuation ,%.hools the pupils may do the experiments individually. REFERENCE BOOK 45 LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS AND BULLETINS GARDEN AND PLANT STUDY Bulletins of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletins of the Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Improvement of School Grounds. Department of Education, Toronto. Atkinson .............. First Studies of Plant Life. Ginn & Co. 60 cents. Bailey ................. Manual of Gardening. Macmillan Co. $2.00, lqlanchan .............. Nature's Garden. Doubleday Co. $2.00. Comstock, A. 1I ....... Handbook of Nature Study. Corn- stock Pub. Co. $3.25. Gray .................. Field, Forest, and Garden Botany. Amer. Book Co. $1.40. Green, Louise .......... Among School Gardens. Charities Pub. Co. $1.25. Hodge ................. Nature Study and Life. Ginn & Co. $1.50. Holtz .................. Nature Study. Scribners' Sons. $1.50. Jackson and Dougherty. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden. Judd. $1.50. James ................. Agriculture. Appleton & Co. 80 cents. Keeler ............... Our Native Trees. Scribners' Sons. $2.00. Osterhout .............. Experiments with Plants. lIacmillan Co. $1.50. Parsons ............... How to Plan the Home Grounds. Doubleday Co. $1.00. Sergeant .............. Corn Plants. Houghton, Miin Co. 75 cents. PHYSICAL SCIENCE Miller ................. Minerals and How They Occur. The Copp, Clark Co. $1.50. MiIHken and Gale ...... First Course in Physics. Ginn & Co. $2.00. Newman ............... Laboratory Exercises. Ginn & Co. 10c. each. 46 NATURE STUDY Remsen ............... College Chemistry. Am. Pub. Co. $2.50. Simmons andSyenhouseScience of Common Life. The Mac- millan Company. $1.00. Woodhull .............. Home-made Apparatus. High School Text-books. ANIMAL STUDY Bulletin No. 52. Dominion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. Bulletin No. 134. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletin No. 161. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Bulletin No. 124. Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto. Reports of Entomological Society of Ontario. Department of Education. Fishes of Ontario. Nash. Department of Education. Bailey and Coleman .... First Course in Biology. The Mac- millan Company. $1.25. Buchanan ............. Senior Country Reader. The Mac- millan Company. 40 cent. Chapman .............. Bird Life. Appleton. $2.00. Crawford .............. Guide to Nature Study. The Copp, Clark Co. 90 cents. Dearness .............. How to Teach the Nature Study Course. The Copp, Clark Co. 60 cents. Jordan and Kellogg .... Animal Life. Appleton & Co. $1.20. Kellogg ............... Elementary Zoology. Holt & Co. $1.35. Reed .................. Bird GuideParts I and II. Musson Book Co., Toronto. 40 cents each. Shaler ................ .Domesticated Animals. Scribners' Sons. $2.50. Silcox and Stevenson..Modern Nature Study. The Macmillan Company. 75 cents. NOTE.--The bulletins named above are supplied free to schools. Chemical and Physical Apparatus and Entomological Supplies may be obtained from G. M. Hendry Co., Victoria Street, Toronto. Rocks and Minerals may be obtained from the Ward Natural Science establishment, Rochester, or from the Central Scientific Co., Chicago. 48 NATURE STUDY Covered copper wire .................................. 10 Small compass ....................................... 50 Glass model of common pump ........................ 1.00 Globe for weighing air ............................... 2.50 Small piece of platinum foil,  in. by 2 in ................ 25 Glass prism 60 ........................................ 50 Tuning fork 42 in .................................... 50 Electric bell ......................................... 50 Motor (Ajax) ....................................... 1.50 Balance ............................................. 10.00 Air-pump ........................................... 15.00 Iron wire gauze ...................................... 05 Sheet metals, iron, copper, zinc, lead, aluminum ........ 25 2 lamp chimneys, straight ones preferred, at 10c ....... 20 Iron ball, 2 in. in diameter ........................... 20 2 dairy thermometers at 15c ........................... 30 CIIEMICALS Sulphuric acid, 1 lb .................................... 10 Hydrochloric acid, $ oz ................................ 10 Nitric acid, 4 oz ...................................... 10 Washing soda ........................................ 05 Sugar ................................................ 05 Salt ................................................. 05 Blue vitriol ......................................... 10 Alum ................................................ 05 Saltpetre ............................................. 05 Sulphur .............................................. 05 Potass. permanganate ................................ 05 Lime ................................................. 05 Plaster-paris ......................................... 05 Potass. bichromate ................................... 10 Methylated spirits, 1 pt ................................ 10 Alcohol, 95% ......................................... 10 Iodine crystals ....................................... 10 Mercury, 1 lb ........................................ 1.00 Pot. chlorate ...................................... :. .15 Manganese dioxide .10 TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY b3 To break glass bottles, make neatly a deep cut with a file, then touch the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire. When a crack appears, move the hot wire and the crack will follow. Several hearings may be necessary. In the case of a heavy glass bottle, file the cut as before, wrap the bottle with string dipped in alcohol, light it, and after it has burned, plunge the bottle vertically into cohl water. Melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks. TIME APPORTIONED TO NATURE STUDY The Nature Study lesson should be given a definite place on the time-table. It is recommended that each class should have at least one lesson of fifteen minutes in length, a week. In addition to this. about five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for out-of-door wtrk and in discussing the observations which the pupils have made on problems previously assigned. CHAPTER 11I FORM I AUTUMN GARDEN WORK O the re-opening of school after the summer holidays, the pupils should see that their plots are put into good order without delay. If they have been neglected during the holidays, a good deal of attention will be needed, and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because of prolonged neglect. If such plots are found, they should be cleaned off completely, spaded up, and left in readiness for planting the following spring. All plots should be cultivated throughout the month of September to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds. The pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots, but should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general appearance of the garden. Paths should be kept clean, and all rubbish, weeds, dead plants, etc., removed to the compost heap, which should be in the least conspicuous part of the garden. Hoes. rakes, and claw-hand weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots. The soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out. 54 56 NATURE STUDY lIence, what is one use of the root? A pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot. What is another use that you have disco'ered for the root? The plant is now uprooted from the soil, and the pupils examine the root to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and for holding the plant iu place. Note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil. The form of the leaves is studied by the pupils, and, as a test of the accuracy of their observation, they are asked to pick out the pansy leaves from the pile of leaves. To the teacher.--The pupils must be active participants in the lesson. They must use their eyes, hands, and even their noses in gaining first-hand impressions, and they are to be required h, express in their own way the things that they discoxer. The beafitiful flower with its face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination, and the child's interest in the use of things is utilized in the study of the relations of root, stem, and flower. This lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the following correlations: 1. With art: Represent the flower in colours. 2. With reading and literature: The pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the following stanza: The pansy wakes In early spring To make our world more bright; /kll summer long its happy faco Fil], hlltlre with liht. TWIGS AND BUDS 63 Answers are required fr,,m tile pnpils separately. TILe pupil's answer in each ease should be sutlieiently dear for all the elass to recognize the feature that tile answer is intended to describe. A few brief questions will guide the answerer in making his descriptiou more definite, but the description should be the result of the lmpil's observation and expressed in his t, wn words. The meanin or use of each feature sh,,uld bc dis,.usse,1. when possible, immediately after it has 1,een described. The following features will he discovered and the problems snggested will Ie soh'ed: The brmvn (,r greenish-brmvn bark. The buds. One bud (sometimes two) is at the en,l of the twi. Some buds are along the side of tile twig. What caused the ed lind to grow larer than the others ? There is a leaf sear under each bud. Of what use is it to the bud to he between the twig and the leaf stalk ? The bands of rings, one or more on each twig. The tiny oval pores, each snrrounded bv a little raised band. The detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson. FURTHER STUDY OF TWIGS The study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following" L.ok closely at the leaf scars a,l describe them fully, as to shape, colour, and marks. Do the scars look like fresh wounds, or are they healed over? Of what use t,, tile tree is the bealin,.., of the scar? TWIGS AND BUDS 65 LESSON ON BUDS Materials.- Twigs and buds of horse-chestnut, one fq,r each pupil. An opening bud. (A bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will develop rapidly.) Lesson.--Distribute specimens, and review the posi- tions of the buds. Pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them. They describe the colour, shape, and size of the buds, and also their gummy and scalelike covering. Of what use are the gum and scales ? Of what use is the brown colour of the bud ? They next find out what is inside the little brown house. They open the buds and try to identify tile con- tents. There will be some uncertainty as to the neanirrg of the contents. Leave this over till spring. To tle teacber.--The brown colour of the 1,ud makes it an al$orbent of sunlight, and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp eyes of bud-eating birds. The gummy scales are waterproof, and the scales, by spreading open gTadually, cause the waterproof property to be retained even after the bud has grown quite large. The inner part of the bud is composed of two, four, or six tiny leaves folded up and supported on a short bit of stem. Some of the buds have, in addition to leaves, a tiny young flower cluster. All of these things are densely covered with white down. The down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from the cold. REVIEW LESSON Review the lesson on buds, but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson. 68 NATURE STUDY Drill. -- Pupils pick out the shape named. Pupils name the plant to which each belongs. Which shape do you think is the prettiest ? GARDEN STUDIES If the pupils of this Form have planted and cared for garden plots of their own, they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables that grow in them than for any others in the garden, becau they have watched their development throughout. For them such continuous ob- servation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a deepening of interest and appreciation. STUDIES IN THE PUPIL'S INDIVIDUAL PLOT What plant is the first to appear above ground ? What plant is the last to appear ? Describe what each plant was like when it first appeared above ground. What plants grow the fastest? What effect has cold weather, warm weather, dry weather, on the growth of the plants? What weeds grow in the plot? Why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants ? What kind of root has each weed ? Find out what kind of seeds each weed produces? Why is each weed hard to keep out of fields ? What garden plants produce flowers ? How are the seeds protected ? Compare the seeds with those that you planted. Select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next year's seeding. 74 NATURE STUDY Watch the rabbit moving. How does a rabbit move? Which legs are the more useful for hopping ? How are the hind legs fitted for making long hops ? Why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet? Find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing. Listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while moving. Of what advantage is it to the rabbit to moe silently? Find out, by examining the feet of the rabbit, what causes it to make very little noise. How are rabbit. prepared for living during cold weather ? Test the ability of tile rabbit to hear faint noises. Why is it necessary for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds ? How is it fitted for hearing faint sounds? Examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing. To the teacher.--The long. strong, hind legs of the rabbit are bent in the form of levers and enable the animal to take long, quick hops. When the rabbit attacks, it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks with its hind feet, which are armed with long, strong claws. Ernest Thompson-.qeton's story of Molly Cottontail and "Ragg3"lug" , in Wild Animals I Have Kwwn, contains an interesting account of how Mlly rescued Raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting. The rabbit has many enemies, hence it has need of large, movable ears to aid its acute sense of hearing. The thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable it to move noiselessly. The thick, soft. inner hair keeps the animal warm, while the longer, stiffer, outer hair sheds tile rain. ! ! 76 NATURE STUDY pupil's knowledge of the cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson: The cat goes about at night as readily as during the day. cat can hear faint noises quite readily. cat can walk noiselessly. cat creeps along until it is close to its prey, then upon it, and seizes it with its claws. cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked eat likes to sleep in a warm place. eat can fight viciously with her claws. cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and well brushed with her paws. The The The pounces The gently. The The The whiskers her The cat eats birds, mice, rats, meat, fish, milk, bread. and cake. DETAILED STUDY Base the study of the details upon the facts of habit, movements, instincts, etc., which were developed in the preceding lesson. Observations.--Find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a noiseless tread. Find the claws. How are the claws fitted for seizing prey ? How are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against objects when the cat is walking? THE PIGEON A pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupi|s observe: its size as compared with that of other birds; outline of body, including shape of head; the feathers, noting quill feathers, and covering or contour feathers; manner of feeding and drinking ; movements, as walking, flying, tumbling. THE PIGEON 77 The owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot, the necessity of keeping it clean, the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the nest, the two white eggs, the habits of male and female in taking turns in hatching, the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young, the rapid growth of the young, the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is full-fledged. Descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties---pouters, fantails, homing pigeons, etc. Read stories of the training and flights of homing pigeons, from Ernest Thompson-Seton's Arnex. JORE DETAILED STUDY FOR CLASS WORK f'ompare the uses of the quill and contour feathers. Find out how these two kinds differ in texture; the differ- ences fitting them for their difference in function. The names quill and contour may be replaced by some simple names, as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the body. Study the adaptati.ns for flight, noting the smooth body surface, the overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing comes down. the long wing bones, the strong breast, and the covering of feathers giving lightness and warmth. The warmth and lightness of feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies. Examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees. Examine the beak, mouth, tongue, nostrils, eyes, ears. Ilow is the bill adapted for picking up grains and .eeds ? 78 NATURE STUDY OBSERVATION AND CARE OF WINTER-BLOOMING PLANTS Children are most interested in things which they own and t'are f,r themselves. If a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing it to maturity, it will be to him the mo.t interesting and, at the same time, will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find them. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of having beautiful flowers in the hon,e in winter, when there are noue to be had out-of-doors. Every lmpiI should be encouraged to have one plant at least, and the bulbs planted in October and stored away in the dark in the home cellar will require a good deal of ('are and afford an excellent opportunity for charring plant _*rowtb and the development of flowers. If the pots have I,een strafed in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist, the bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every day. The pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are noticeable in the growing plant. They will note the appearance of pale green shoots, which later develop into leaves and at least one flower stalk. They should make a drawing once every week and show it to the teacher, and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the pupils' plants by calling at their homes. In this way the pupils come to know what plants need for their develop- ment in the way of soil, water, light, and heat. This in- terest will soon be extended, until, in a very few years, the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home r.olleetion and assmne the responsibility of earing for all of them. TREES 79 TREES PINES OF THE LOCALITY This study may be commenced in November after tim deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period. This is the time when the ever- greens stand out so prominently on the landscape in su,'h sharp contrast with the others that have becn stripped of their broad leaves and now lo,,k },are and lifeless. If no pines are to be found in the vicinity, balsam or spruce may be substituted. The lessons should, as far as possible, be observational. The pupils should be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school. At leact one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors, a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for the purpose. The following method might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree. THE WHITE PINE FIEL|} EXER['ISES Have the pupils observe the shape and height ,f the tree from a distance, tracing the outline with the finger. Compare the shape o this tree with that of other ever- greens and also with that of the broad-leafed trees, tIave them describe in what particulars the shapes differ in different trees. They will come to realize that the differ- ence in shape results from difference in length, direction. and arrangement of branches. They may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft from the bottom to the top, that all have a more or less conical shape, and that the branches grow nmre or less straight out from 80 NATURE STUDY the main stem, not slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms. Coming close to the tree, the pupils may first examine the trunk. By using a string or tape-line, find its diameter and how big it is around. Tell them how big some ever- greens are (the giant trees of the :Pacific Coast are some- times over forty feet around). Have them notice where the trunk is largest, and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong at the ground. Heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point. Illustrate by taking a long slat or lath, drive it into the ground firmly, and then, catching it by the top, push it over. It will break off just at the ground. If a little pine tree could be taken up, the pupils would be interested in seeing what long, strong, fibrous roots the pine has. Let them examine the ],ark of the trunk and describe its colour and roughness. The fissures iu the bark, which are caused by the enlarging of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark, are deeper at the bottom of the tree than at the top, the tree being younger ad the bark thimer the nearer to the top we go. Let the pupils look np into the tree from beneath and then go a little distawe away and look at it. They will notice how bare the hranr'hes are on the insile, and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is so. They will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the ends of the branches as they get light there, while the centre of the tree top is shaded, and the great question that every tree must try to solve is how to get most light for its leaves. The pnpils will now see an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper ones. The greater lenh of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into the sunlight. TREES 81 The reason for calling this tree an "evereen " may now be considered. Why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes; but if the question is asked, the teacher may get over the difficulty by ex- plaining to the class that the leaves are so small, and yet so hardy, that wind, frost, or snow does not injure .them. Each pupil may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a class-room lesson. CLASS-RO01I LESSON Materials.--Small branches--one for each pupil, cones, bark, pieces of pine board. Introduction.--Review the general features of the pine that were observed in the field lesson. Observations. --The branches are distributed. Pupils test the strength and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface. Of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms ? Examine the texture, stiffness, and fineness of the needles. :Note that the needles are in little bunches. How many are in each bunch ? Are there any buds on the branches ? If so, where are the buds ? How are the buds protected from rain ? The pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape. The pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds. Allow the seeds to fall through the air, and thus the pupils will discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds. NATURE STUDY The wood is next examined, its colour and odour are noted, and its hardness is tested. Find articles in the school-room that are made of pine WO0(]. ELM The following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree : The The The The the top. (Pry The The height of the tree. part of the height that is composed of tree tops. umbrella shape or dome shape of the top. gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of to find other trees with tops like that of fle elm. diameter of the think. diameter is almost uniform up to the branches. The branches all come off from one point, like the ribs of all umbrella. The thick bark, that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows. The birds that make their nests in the ehn. In spring find and examine the flowers, fruits, seeds, and also the leaves. FIELD EXERCISE A good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above, is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a numl;er of elm brees growing in the locality and to describe their Ideation and the kind of soil on which they grow. The maple, oak, horse-chestnut, and apple are also suit- able trees upon which to base lessons for Form I. DOMESTIC ANIMALS 83 DOMESTIC ANIMALS Domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation work, but also afford good opportunities for developirg that sympathetic interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely. THE HORSE Introduction.-- By means of a conversation with the pupils, find out what they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper treatment. Lesson.--The matter and method are suggested by the following: What are the different thing. for which horses are useful ? What kinds of horses are m,,st useful for hauling heavy loads ? Why are they most useful? What kiuds are the most useful for general farm work ? Why are they the most useful ? What kinds are the most useful for driving? Are there any other animals that would he as useful as the horse for all these things? What causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and brisk? What kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth, dryness, and fresh air? Why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth ? W-hen a horse is warm from driving on a cold day, how should he be protected if hitched out-of-doors? DOMESTIC BIRDS 85 learn that, in return for his good services, the horse should be treated with kindness and consideration. The legs of the horse are long, straight, and strong, and the single toe (or hoof) means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe, and the hoof is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe. To these features is due the great speed of the horse. IIorses gather together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the group, just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection. The wild horses "shied " at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass, and the tame horse shies at a strange object. CORRELATIONS With literature and reading: By interpretation of Tle Bell of A tri. With language: By exercise on new words, as graceful, etc. DOMESTI(' BI RDS THE DUCK Home Observations.--Colnpare the duck and the drake as to size, colouring, calls, and other sounds. Observe the position of the birds when standing. 0b- sere their mode of walking, of swimnfing, and of flying. Where do they prefer to make their nests? Why is the duck nmre plain in dress than the drake? What is the shape, size, and build of the nest? Describe the eggs. When does the duck sleep ? Why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do ? How do ducks feed on land ? Compare with the feeding of hens. Observe how ducks feed when in water. Observe the various souncks, as alarm notes, call notes, social sounds 86 NATURE STUDY Describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it. Compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones. Do the young ducks need to be taught to swim ? CI.ASS-IIO0.I LESSON Provide, where convenient, a ,luck for class study. Observations.--('olour, size, general shape of the body, and the relation of the shape to ease of swimming; divisions of the body. Size of head, length of neck, and the relation of the length of the neck to the habit of feeding in water. The legs and web feet, and the relation of these to the bird's awkward walking and ease in swimming. The bill an.l its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by sc(,Ting things fr,,m the ltt,m of the water and then strainiug the water out. The sensitive tip of the bill by which the ,luck can feel the food. The h, athcrs, their warmth, an,1 compactness for shed- ding water. The oil spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against water. The bill, feet. and feathers should be compared with the, so of the hen and Zor,se, and reasons for the similarities and differences should be discussed. The uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs; the gathering of eider-down. For desk work, make drawings of the duck when swim- ruing, flying, and standing. BIRDS The pupils should observe the above features, and also the movements, seizing of prey breathing, moulting, semi- resting or pupa stage, at the close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts the skin from which the adult emerges. The pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult. Observe.--Tbe size, length of body, movements in flight, lace-like wings, and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly. Should dragon-flies be protected? Give reasons. Are all dragon-flies of the same size, build, and colour? At what time of year are dragon-flies most numerous? Referenee.--Sileox and Stevenson: Modern Natre Study OTHER CONSPICUOUS INSECTS The potato-beetle, giant water-bug, eastern swallow-tail butterfly, and promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils of Form I. The giant water- bug is the large, broad, grayish-brown insect that is found on the sidewalks in May and June mornings. (For in- formation on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see Metamorphosis, in Butterfly and M,Jth Collections.) Bird studies for Form I should be limited to observa- tions made directly upon a few common birds, such as the robin, house-sparrow (English), song-sparrow, flicker, house-wren, crow, bronzed grackle, and meadow'-lark. These are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and village school, and the purpose of the lessons should be to 96 NATURE STUDY teach the pupils to recognize these birds, and by making use of child interest in living active creatures, to develop their interest in birds. THE ROBIN FIELD EXEECISES Observe the robins and find out the following things: 1. Are all robins of the same colour? If not of the same colour, what difference do you note? 2. Does the bird run or hop? Imitate its movements. 3. Listen to its sottg. I it sweet or harsh? Is it, loud or low ? Is it cheerful or gloomy ? 4. Watch the rubin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds out where the worms are. To the teacber.--The pupils should be given a few days in which to find out answers to these questions, and at the end of that time the answers should be discussed in the class. Male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins. The beak is yellower, the breast is brighter, the back and the top of the head are darker. Robins both run and hop. The sense of sight of the robin is very acute, but its sense of hearing is even more keen. The bird may be observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm which is still inside its burrow. II A second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more detailed study of the bird, namely, a study of the size, colour, form of body, manner of flight, and length of beak. 98 1NIATURE STUDY Try to interpret the song in the words: " hIaids! Maids! Maids! Put on the tea-kettle, tea- kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle, tea-kettle-cttle." Is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy? Does the bird sing this song often? Approach close to the bird. Are there any stripes or spots on its breast or head ? Describe the flight of the bird from its perch, when it is disturbed. To tle teacler.--It is possible for the pupils to dis- tinguisb the solg-sparrow by means of the above exercises. it is one of the first hirds to return in the sprilg, and, as it is a lusty singer, it will attract the attention of all who are looking for birds. The dark brown spot i, the cenlre of the breast is a distinguishing mark, and the more c,bservant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head aad the dark line through the eye. When disturbed, it does not rise into the air, but flies dowmvard and disappears with a swish of its tail. The nest is usually built on the ground or in a low bush or tree. I t is c.mposed of grass, fine roots, or weed stems, and lined with fine grass or hair. The eggs are usually four or five. but sometimes there are as many as seven. They are white with a greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown. CLASS-ROO2I LESSON Discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the field exercises. Generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have seen the sparrow singing, and as to the times of day in which the bird sings. THE SHEEP 99 Teach the marks of identification which some have discovered, using for this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings; and encourage those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure the assistance of those who have succeeded. Compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the house-sparrow (English). Tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms, plant-lice, caterpillars, ground-beetles, grass- hoppers, flies, and other insects. It also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating thousands of seeds of noxious weeds. Assign the pupils some other things to discover, as for example: Through how many months of the summer does the bird sing? Find the nest. Why is it hard to find? Describe the eggs, as to size, colour, and number. Do not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often. To the teacher.--Base lessons in bird shady upon the English sparrow, flicker, wren, and mead3w-lark. THE SHEEP PIIOBLEIIS FOR FIELD wortK How do sheep find one another when they have become sepffrated ? How old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when running? What fits the lamb for run- ning so well ? Watch the lambs when they are playing, and find out whether they play: 1. I'm the king of the castle. . Follow the leader. 102 NATURE STUDY ing should remain until the tips of the bulbs are showing above ground, when it should be removed. Ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up. They should then be reset or replaced with new ones, and the bed made and fertilized as before. In clay soil the lmlbs should not he set quite so deep as in sandy soil, and the bulbs hae better ,lraiuage about their roots if a handful of sand is placed under each bulb in planting. Crocus bulbs may be planted ill clumps anywhere about the grounds or borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep, dropping the bulb in, and covering it. Lily of the valley grows best in partial shade in some lmfrequented corner. PLANTING OI" BULBS INDOORS Read again the instructions given under this heading in Form I work, regarding soil, planting, and care. The Chinese sacred lily and trumpet narcissus may be chosen f-r the pupils of this Form. The narcissus, also called daffodil, may he held back until early spring if kept in a cool, dark cellar, hut the Chinese sacred lily, which is also a variety of narcissus, comes int, bloom from four to six weeks after planting. It is usually grown in water in a bow! of suitable size. Place a few pieces of charcoal in the bottom c,f the bowl, set the hulb upon them, and pack coloured stones and shells around it as a support. Keep the howl about two thirds full of water and set it in a warm, sunny place. It does not need to he set in the dark, as is the case with other bulbs. These may also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus. When blooming is over, the bulbs may be throw_n..away, as they cannot be used again. 106 NATURE STUDY be kept in the sane way as grains? What are the condi- tions that are best suited for keeping the latter products? Name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the ways already discussed. Why can they not be kept in these ways ? These discussions will develop the idea of the neces- sity of keeping apples, potatoes, and turnips, in cellars, root-houses, and pits, where they cannot freeze, but where they are kept at uniformly low temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points. The air must not be too dry, as dryness causes them to shrivel up. In dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil. Very delicate fruits, such as cherries, grapes, peaches, plums, straw- berries, etc., can only be kept for a length of time by pre- serving or canning them. Correlate with lessons in Household Management on preser ing and canning. FALL C ULTIVATIOiN" When the garden has been finally cleaned out, the plot should be spaded up and left without raking. Clay soil especially is much improved in physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost. All garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for winter. GARDEN STUDIES The observational studies suggested under this head for Form I will be followed also in Form II. The pupils of Form II will be expected to make more critical obsorva- tions in connection not only with the plants growing in their own individual plots, but also with those plants GARDEN RECORDS 107 which other pupils have been growing. They should give some attention also to the plants in the perennial flower border. GARDEN RECORDS. In this Form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such points as the following: 1. Description of the plant--size, habit of growth, kind of leaves and their arrangement, date of flowering, form, size and colouring of the flowers, points of merit or the reverse, description of the seed and how scattered, how disposed of, and the value. 2. The work done in the garden from day to day, with dates. 3. The effect of rain, drought, or other weather condi- tions on the growth of the plants. 4. What insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were doing--whether beneficial or harmful. 5. What birds or other animals were found frequent- ing the garden. (See Animal Studies, pp. 30, 96, 217.) 6. What plants suffered from earliest frosts ; what from subsequent frosts; what ones proved to be most hardy, etc. 7. What plants the pupils like most in the garden, and what ones seem to suit the soil and weather conditions best. The pupils in this Form, by direct observation, should come to appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower. Their work in seed selection, based upon the excellence of the flower, helps to ensure this line of observation. CORRELAT1ON8 Art: Drawing of leaves, flowers, and vegetables, in colour when possible. 108 NATURE STUDY Arithmetic: Calculations as to dimensions, number of plants, number of flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower, value of products of flowers and vegetables. Cost of seeds, fertilizer, and labour, gross and net proceeds. Statement showing the above. Composition: General connected account or story of the work done and the things learned during the season. as taken from the garden diary and from memory. Exercises in writing and spelling, as suitable seat work. Geography: Weather observations, as related to the garden work and to plant growth. Coml)arison of the soil of the garden with other samples from the district, as to eompositiol and origin. ])irection, as related to the path or walks in the garden. Map drawing: Plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds, represented on sand-table, paper, or black- board. Mp drawing on a horizontal surface is best for the first year or two. The products of the garden, as compared with home products, as food supplies for man and beast. ]Ianual Training: Makin. of seed envelopes and boxes, modelling in clay of fruits and vegetables. CLIMBING PLANTS Observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory. Consider the following points: 1. Advantages gained by climbing, such as securing of more light, production of maly leaves and flowers, and not so much stem. . Ietbod of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the support: morning-glory b' twining its TREES 109 rough stem closely around its support. Do all morning- glory vines twine in the same direction? Find other vines that climb. Examine their modes of climbing. 3. Time of flowering and notes on how to plant. Make drawings of the leaves and blossoms. TREES (See type lesson on trees under Form I.) In this Form it is better to follow closely the develop- ment of one or two selected trees in school or on the h(,me grounds than to attempt to observe many different species. Allow the pupils to choose their own trees for study and, if possible, have them select one at ]mme and another near the school or on the way to school. The following points might receive attention: The name of the species, whence obtained and by whom planted if known; its approximate height, size, and age; its locatiou, and the nature of the soil; its general shape, and whether or not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to other trees; description and arrangement of its branches, leaves, and buds, its bark, flowers, and fruit; time of ]eating out and blossoming; colouring and falling of leaves and ripen- ing of seeds; the amount of growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the younger branches; qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree. Drawing exercises. At least two visits should be made fo the woods during the autumn months, one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another when the leaves have fallen. Con- sider the preparation made for winter in the woods and fields, the use of dead leaves in the woods as a protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material. Bring A FLOWER: NASTURTIUM 111 I[ Each member of the class brings a flower to the school- room. The varieties of colours of tile flowers are dis- cussed. The cave-like form of each flower is noted. The velvety feeling of the corolla and the delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils. The pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar (honey), and thus learn why tile insects visit tile flowers. They next trace tile course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point into the cave. Continuing their explorations of tile mouth of the cave, the pupils will discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that tile flower dusts upon the insects. The names pollen and pollen boxes are given. The fringe on the edges of tile leaves of the corolla for the purpose of preventing the insects stealing into the cae without receiving their baptism of pollen, is discovered. The teacher should, at this point, give a brief explana- tion of the valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to grow in the next flower that the insect visits. The position of the tiny brush (stigTna, but do not give this name) held up by the seed case for rubbing the pollen off the insect, should also be observed. Summary.--Name and point out the parts of the flower (calyx, corolla, pollen boxes, seed cases). What useful work do insects do for the flower ? What reward do they receive for their work? What advertisements do the flowers put out for attract- ing themselves? (Bright colours, sweet perfumes, and honey) SOIL STUDIES 11,2 Clay. Xote colour and odour of fresh sample. Dry and pulverize and note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers (an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles). Clay is made from crushed rocks, chiefly feldspars. Mix clay with a little water and note sticky character. Compare with sand in this respect. Which makes the best road in wet weather. avel, sand, or clay? Note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened. Uses of clay--pottery, bricks, tile. Pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard and watcl the process of manufacture. In many parts of the world there are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness, from which beautiful china is made. Htmus is decayed vegetable matter. Pupils shoul,1 gather soil from the forest, bog. or marsh. Note dark colour. Examine carefully and see what you can find in it that is not in sand or clay. Most of our farm land cousists of these four s)ils mixed in various proportions, and it gets its name from the one that preponderates. Thus we have our sandy, gravelly, or clay loarns. 17Iumus is likely to be present in all fields, because vegetable matter grows, to some extent. ererywhere; but freshly broken land. reclaimed swamps. and prairie lands are likely to be especially well supplied. The great value of humus in the soil will appear in later studies. ANIMAL STUDIES BIRD MIGRATION (Consult Bird Li[e by Frank M. Chapman, and Bird ,tttdies by G. A. Cornish.} In the autumn, direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese and to the gathering into flocks t,f r,,bins. COMMON WILD ANIMALS I15 In some cases, only one pupil will be studying a par- ticular kind of animal, while in other cases several pupiis may be studying the same kind of animal. The latter method has the advantage of giving opportunity for com- parison of results. Differences should serve as stimuli to more careful observation, in order to verify or disprove previous conclusions. The observations and inferences, together with draw- ings illustrating the animals, their homes, etc., are re- corded in the Nature Study note-books. These are dis- cussed in the class, verified or corrected, and supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from nature writers or naturalists, such as Charles G. D. Roberts, Ernest Thompson-Seton, etc. When pupils become interested in this form of study, they become nature students in the true meaning of the term. The pupil is brought into contact with the animal in its natural environment and, under these conditions, the natural habits, interests, and activities of the wild creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than under any other method of study. The method has also the advantage of being one of original discovery, and consequently it trains in self-reliance and independence of thought. Finally, since close and careful observation is neces- sary, the child learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal, and thus a better relationship between child life and animal life is fostered. It may be objected that this method is slow and that little is accomplished. This may be true from the view- point of matter learned, but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score ot pictures or stuffed skins. 116 NATURE STUDY A second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals. By conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what tame squirrels, ground- hogs, raccoons, foxes, and other animals are available for class-room work. The possessors of these animals are usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study. The movements, habits, food, and other topics, may be studied by direct observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems. A third method and, unfortunately, the one which is in most general use, is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures, supplemented by descrip- tions and stories by the teacher. These lessons may be callcd information lessons, but they are not worthy of the name Nature Study. Indeed, if conditions are such that it is the only method available for animal study, it is ad- vised that the time be spent on other branches of the sub- ject; but if living animals are made the basis of study, stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and for confirming observations on minute structural features, colour, etc. THE WOOD-CHUCK The problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study suggested in the first general method. They are assigned to a boy who has discovered a ground- hog burrow, in order to direct him in his observations on the animal. What is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow ? "why is this soil suitable for the burrow? What size of stones are dug out in burrowing? Are there more en- trances than one? THE CHIPMUNK 117 Bv slowly approaching the animal, find out how close it w, ll permit you to come. At what times of day does the ground-hog come out ? Give reasons for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day. Upon what does the animal feed? Describe the colour of the animal and find out any advantages in this colour. Observe the fol- lowing actions: running, hiding, keeping sentry, and scouting. Do more wood:chucks than one live in one burrow? When do the young wood-chucks first come out of the burrow? Describe their size, colour, and habits. Are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter? Do they use the same burrow year after year ? Describe the sounds made by the animal. What injury does the animal cause to the fields ? Describe the fur, teeth, and claws, and show their rela- tion to the animal's habits of life. Dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it. Make pictures showing the various attitudes of the animal. THE CHIPMUNK FIELD EXERCISES Describe the size, colour, shape, length of tail, and movements of the chipmunk. Compare with the red squirrel. Have all chipmunks the same number of stripes ? Discover its home; method of carrying grain, nuts, or other foods; whether it is found most commonly on the pound, in trees, or among logs and stones. Try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and, finally, to have it feed from your hand. 118 NATURE STUDY Find out why there Js no loose soil around the en- trance to its burrow, whether more families than one iive in one burrow, whether the chipmunk comes out during winter, or how early in the spring. Learn to distinguish the sounds of the animal, as expressing alarm, surprise, anger, playfuhless. To the teacher.--('hipnmnks carry grain, etc., in their cheeks. Frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to enter their burrows. It is not unc-lnllmn for several to spend the winter in the same burrow, having a common storehouse connected by pas- sages to the main burrow. These little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to take food from the hand. They are not hibernating animals, for they store food for winter, and though they are not asleep all winter, yet they rarely (',me out of their hurrows hile there is snow on the ground. EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIL BUTTERFLY No butterfly is more suitable for study by the Junior Forms than the Eastern Swallow-tail. It. is one of the m,st beautiful and attractive of our butterflies and lays its cgs so accommodatingly on every carrot or parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation. If possible, have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing the eggs, one here and one there, on the under surface of the leaves of the plants, noting the busy movements; discuss the adx'antaze of scatterin the eggs, and also that of placing them on the under surface of the ]eaves. If the egg placing cannot be ohserved, there will be little difficulty in finding the large yellow and green larva EASTERN SWALLOW-TAIl, BUTTERFLY 119 with a head shaped like that of a miniature sea-horse. If the larva itself is not easily found, the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground will reveal its presence. Why was it difficult to see such a large, and now that it is seen, conspicuous object? Lead tile pupils to notice that the yello" and green bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of golden sunlight. Does the larva feed by biting or by sucking? How many legs has tile larva? ('over tile plant and larva with a paper bag, or inverted bottle, or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown; or place the larva in a vivarium, feed it on carrot leave.% and observe its growth. When full grown, the larva builds for itself a snail- shaped, fairly firm case, fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other support. Keep this over winter, and in March, or early April, the black-and-blue- and-gold insect emerges. Observe the movements of the wings in flight, the Iong tube with which it sucks honey from flowers, the three pairs of legs, the position of the wings when at rest; com- pare the structure with that of the larva. Make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours. CItAPTER VII FORM lI WINTER CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME THE CARE of flowering bulbs, which was begun in Form I, will be continued in Form I|. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil, water, and sunlight. The following points should be observed: 1. (ioo(1 pott;ng soil can be made by building up alter- nating layers of sods and stable lnanure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plant.. o,. Thorough watering twice a week is better than add- ing a little water every day. 3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them from dust. 4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissoh'ed in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice. Common soap- suds may also he used for this purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash. 120 TREES 121 5. Most planL need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although most of the ferns grow without it. 6. Plants usually need re-potting once a year. Many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in May and left until September, when they may be taken up and placed in pots, or cuttings may be made from them for potting. 7. A flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year, or at a local exhibition, adds to the interest. 8. The pupils should report to the teacher, from tim.. to time, the progress of their plants and make many draw- ings showing their development. TREES In November or December make a study f Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar if avail- able. The pupils should learn t distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves, buds, arrange- merit of branches, bark, seeds, and cones. The age of young trees can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches. In this way also the age of the leaves may be determined. On some trees the leaves persist for seven or eight years. :Evergreens are frequently used as Christmas trees and their brandies for house decorations. On which species do the leaves persist longest? How do they compare with the pines? The leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow. Have the pupils notice how the small leaves and hori- zontal branches resist the clinging of snow in winter. Each branch bends down enough to cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below, and so on, until it reaches the ground. The conical shape of the tree also facilitates this action of dislodging the snow. They will 12g NATURE STUDY establisl,,ment of sympathy with animal life, the humaniz- ing effect upon child nature of having a kitty for a play- fellow, will offset many times over the amount of depre- dation of which she may be guilty. t'OMPARISOX OF TtlE HORSE AND COW Assign problems for the pupiis to solve by observations made upon the animals in the field or farmyard. 1. What features of build give to the horse greater speed than the r, ow? "-. ('ompare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while .ropping rass. Account for the difference. 2,. Ilow has nature fitted the cow and the horse respec- tively, f,r defence? 4. Which end t,f the body does the horse raise first when it is getting up? Which end of its body does the cow raise first? Account for the difference. To the teacher.--The horse is the swifter and more graceful runner because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter. In cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the o'rass off, a pro- cess which is made necessary because the cow has no upper front teeth. The strong, sharp horns, short, powerful neck, and beavv shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence, while the ]on. strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs. The horse rises upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body, while .ow raise. its hindquarters first. WINTER BIRDS 131 CLASS-RO0I LESSON The method is conversational and based upon tile observations made by tile pupils during the field exercises. The discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more common birds, as, for example, the ruffed grouse (commonly though incorrectly called tile part- ridge). This bird takes shelter from the winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a snow bank. The close covering of feathers up,,n its feet serves not only to keep the feet warm, but also as snow- shoes. Ill the evenings these birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple, birch, cherry, and poplar, the buds of which form the greater part of their winter food. The snow bird, or snow bunting, is another bird com- monly seen in winter. Flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and fields during winter. Its summer home is in the far north. Another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is tile pine grosbeak, which is often mistaken for the robin, for these two birds are nearly equal in size. The carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grsbeak distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the robin. The grosbeak frequents the rowan trees. The bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the cheerful notes of the chickadee, the bold clarion call of the blue jay, and the sharp tap, tap, tap, of the downy woodpecker. The downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within hollow trees, but, when the weather is favourable, they go about searching industriously for the eggs and larvae of insects that infest forest and orchard trees. CHAPTER VIII FORM II SPRING GARDEN WORK THE PUPILS have now arrived at au age when they are able to do most of the work of preparing and planting their own plot.. The seeds have been sclected and place in readiness for planting long before the wound is ready. The plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the different plots have likewise been arranged. Fertil- izers, lines, tools, and labels are made ready for use. With such thorough preparation the making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to both teacher and pupils. The garden diary shou|d begin as soon as the snow disappears from the grden and be continued until all the work is completed in the autumn, and the garden again blanketed in snow. The main points to be safeg'uarded are: 1. Thorough cultivation and fertilization. 2. The best available seed carefully planted. Guard against thick sowing and deep covering. 3. Frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite small. 4. Vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious insect. and promptness in combating them. STUDIES OF GROWING PLANTS 137 4. Plant a few seeds, similar to those used in No. 1 in a box containing soil that is moist but not wet, and set the box in the school window. 5. Plant seeds as in No. 4, except that the b.x is kept in a dark eupl)oard. Compare the results of the above with reference to" 1. The number of seeds that germinate. 2. The growth and condition of the plants. Form conclusious with referen(.e to" 1. The conditions that are required for seed germinatiofi. ?. The lenefits of w,ll-draim.d s,il. Pupils make drawings shwing tile bxes and p]: nts. PLANTS ]:OR INDIVIDUAL PLOTS The pupils of this Form should not attempt to grow more than two varieties of flwers and two of vegetables. Of flowers, mixed asters and Shirley poppy are to bo ree.mmcnded, tile I"'PPY I,ein fill early bh,,ming floer and tile aster late hloomin. ('arrots and radishes are desirable vegetable., as tile carrot matures late and the radish early. Two or tlree cr.ps of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one seas,,n. Besides these. a few others should be chosen for special study, sucl as the potato, onion, corn. and sunflower. STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATIONS OF GROWING PLANTS Attention should Ire given t. tile growing 1,aldts of plant., tle size and rate of develpmeuf, the method of multiplying and propagation, and the part ued for food. 138 NATIrRI] STUDY The potato is a tuber which is nothing more than the swollen end of an underground stem; the onion a bulb composed of the bases of thickened leaves; the corn an example of a jointed stem or grass having two kinds of flowers, the tassels being the staminate flowers and the .ob with its silk the pistillate ones; the sunflower an example of a v.mpound flower made up of many little flowers eaeb of which produces a single seed. Observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the nuts and other tree seeds collected n the fall. When the seeds fall fr-m the elms and soft maples in the spring, some of them should be collected and planted in the forestry plot, or nursery. PLANTING AND (?ARE OF SWEET-PEAS 1. Sow as early as possible in spring. ?. Sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass. (rass roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water. :. Use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeply into the soil. This is best done in the autumn. 4. Make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep. 7,. Plant in a trench in April from half an inch to an inch apart. 6. ('over from three inches to four inches deep. . Water thoroughly once or twice a week, and have the soil lower along the row than farther out, so as to bold the water. 8. Put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent drying out. WILD FLOWERS 139 WILD FLOWERS Arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom. Keep a flower calendar, showing: 1. The date when a plant was first found in bloom 2. The name of the plant 3. Place where found 4. Name of the pupil who found it. When in the woods discuss the following points: 1. Why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring. They bare a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer. 2. Dig down with a trowel or heay knife and find this storehouse of food. It may be in the form of bulb, corm, or rhizome. 3. The blooming of the spring flowers in the wood before the leaves of the trees reach their full development, thus taking advantage of the sunlight. 4. ]Iark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a month. Look for the growing fruit with its seeds. 5. The leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear are leaves which grew the previous season. Dig up a plant and notice the new leaes starting. 6. The kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light it receives. 7. Have the pupils examine the flower. and leave them owing. They should gather a few for the school-room. BIRD STUDY 143 of poison to kill the tiny worms which cause apples to be wormy, it is the green cup that grow.,; and forms the flesh of the apple. Orchard trees suitable for lessons for Form II are apple, plum, pear, peach, and cherry. BIRD STUDY A valuable exercise in bird study, suitable for the pupils ,f F-rm II, is the study .f a pair of birds and the, history of their home through the entire season. A record, with dates, should be kept, and the followin.u topics are suggested for observa!ion : Where the nest is located, protection of the nest. part of building done by each bird ; e,,s number, c,.Im, r, size. time required for hatching; young birds, number, des.rip- tio.n, how fed and upon what f,ods, time required before ready to leave the nest; history for a time after leaving the nest. Birds suitable for study by the pupils of Form II are the crow, flicker, downy woodpecker, blue-bird, chipping- sparrox , phoebe, wren. Correlate with art, by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its surroundings, and with language, by having pupils write the history of the nest and family. THE TOAD FIELD EXERCISES Direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the lawns in the evenings, and to observe what they are doing. Find out, by turning over boards, logs of wood, stones, and old stump., where t)ads spend the daytime. 146 NATURE STUDY a,,mng grasses and other .hjeets in the ponds. (Frogs' oggs are i, masses of jelly, not in strings.) Place some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the school-room. A great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar, a few dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop. The water in the jar should be changed twice a week. Observations.--The light and dark areas of the eggs, the dark area gradually increasing in size; the in- crease in the length of the egg; the gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with head and tail, the first appearance of the gills, the separation front the jelly, the movement by means -f the tail, the disappearance of the gills, the growth of the hind legs and. later, of the forelegs, and the disappearance of the tail. Questions and Observations.What is the use of the dark colour of tl,e area fr,m which the tadpole is f,rmed ? Explain the uses of the strings of jelly. Describe haw the tadpole swims. Upon what does tl,e young tadpole feed ? What is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's life ? Later Observations.The disappearance of the gills, the hudding out of the hind legs and, later, the forelegs. While the legs are growing out. the tail gradually becomes smaller, at the same time the shape changes to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and evs. Questions.--What movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have ? What make.* these movements possible? 148 NATURE STUDY tutdoor studies may be assigned, }bserve the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows. Insert a straw in the burrow and, following it, dig down- ward with a garden trowel and learn the nature of the earthworm's home. -- Are earthw.rms ever found out ,,f their burrows during the day? If so, on what kind of days? Why do earth- worms burrow deep in dry weather? Earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of tlmir bodies are in nmist eonflilions. Go out at ni.bt with a lantern to where earthworms are known to hae Imrrow., observe the worms stretched out with the rear end. of their bodies attar'bed to the hurrows, and note how quiek]y they draw back when they are touched. D. hev draxr baek if the o'round is jarred near them? Do t|wv draw back when the light falls upon lhem ? .tale the facts which arc taught bv the ob.ervations which were made on the above tolfies. Put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich, damp s,AI, on top of hieh there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick. Put bits of eabba.,_,e, ,,ni,m. yras.% and other plants ,,n the urfaee and cover the jar with a glass slip or cardboard. After a few days, examiue the jar, noting the number of hurrows, the foods .e]eeted, the en.tings, the food dragged into the burrows. Pour water into the jar and ohserve the a,.tions of the warm.. ('an an earthworm live in water? Place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and dire,'l the pupfl. to study it, a. follows: AQUARIUM SPECIMENS: MOSQUITO 151 are they most pkentiful? Why are they most plentiful these places? Are mosquitoes ever seen during fall or winter? lIow do you account for their rapid increase i,J number early iu summer? How do mosquitoes find their victims? Obse,:ve the humming noise and try to discover how it is made. Watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand. Does the point of the beak pierce the skin ? Capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water. Cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze. Watch for the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water. The eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels, and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory. .'TUDY OF THE ADULT l:OllM Note the shape, colour, sucking tube, wings, and legs. Compare with the house-fly. Distinguish the male insect from the female" the former has feathery feelers, and has mouth parts tin- suited for biting. How many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen? Direct attention to the kind which causes the spread of malaria. It is recognized by its habit of standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which its feet are placed or, in other words, it appears to stand on its head. THE DEVELOPIIENT Describe the egg raft. Observe the wigglers (hatched in about a day); the AQUARIUM SPECIMENS: CADDICE-FLY 153 These larva are easily found during the month of May in little streams of water everywhere throughout the Province. Look for what at first sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch 1,ng moving along the bottom as though carried by currents. Closer observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case composed of grains, of bits of stick, or of sand and tiny shells, and the head of the occupant may be seen pro- jeering from one end. Collect some of these larvae in a jar of water and transfer them to the aquarium. Direct the pupils to look for others in the streams, so that they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural environment. If kept in jars, the water must be changed every day, and the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults. Observe.--The shape of the various kinds of cases; the materials, and how fastened together (chiefly by silk} ; the part of the larva that protrudes from the ease: the movement, and how caused; the fitness of the case as a protection. Note hardness, colour, and shape as pro- tective features. The pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change into the four-winged fly. INSECTS SUITABLE F)R LESSONS IN FORM II Walking-stick insect, katydid, cricket, mole-cricket, clothes-moth, giant water-bug, potato beetle, click-beetle, luna moth, and swallow-tail butterfly. TREATMENT OF FUNGI 155 and die before the tubers have matured. This disease nlav be prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as Bordeaux mixture. This may be prepared as follows : Take one pound of copper sulphate (blue vitriol}; make it fine by pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water, using a wooden pail. It dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack, which is sus- pended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it. Dilute this solution to five gallons. Take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime and add a cupful of water to it. When it begins to swell up and get hot, add more water slowly, and, when the action cease., dilute to five gallons. Mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel, and churn them up, or stir them together vigorously. They give a deep robin's-egg-blue mixture, which is slightly alkaline and should be used at once. The solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed. ('are should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been diluted to the strenh, one pound to five gallons. A piece of blue litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline. If alkaline, as it should be, the paper remains blue when dipped in it. If the mixture turns the litmus paper red, it must bare more lime-water added to make it alkaline. The potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two weeks, until they have been treated three or four times. This is to prevent blight and not to kill bugs. If the potato-beetle is troubling the potatoes, add paris-green to the Bordeaux mixturea tea- spoonful to every two gallon,. T prove the value of this J 62 NATURE STUDY stem touches the ground. This gives extra nourishment. The leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direc- tion, but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem. Notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of tlem set fruit. Examine the flowers. Some of them have stamens for producing pollen, but no pistil. These never produce fruit, for pumpkins are simply enlarged and ripened pistils. Look for insects and examine them to find out whether they are carrying pollen. Notice younger pumpkins and even blossoms toward the end of the vine. Pick all the blossoms and small pumpkins off a vine, leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins. See whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having young pumpkins developing on it. Notice the arrangement of the seeds inside a ripe pumpkin. ('ollect some seeds, wash clean, and dry for spring planting. ]t is desirable to plant pumpkins late in May, so that they will have flowers on tieir vines as late as September. Study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the pumpkin. This plant is native to America, was greatly prized by the aborigines, and even worshipped ])y some of them. Note the upright character of the plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints, ,r nodes. Count the joints and also the leaves, and note the relationship of leaves and joints in the stalk, and how the leaves come off in different directions so as not to shade each other. Note the strong, string" threads in the leaf, which give strength to the leaf as well as circulation of sap. They are strong and elastic, allowing of movement. The same strengthen- GARDEN STUDIES: CORN 163 ing fibres are seen ill the stalk when it is broken across. In the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form, as this gives greatest strength, the centre being ft and weak. The stalks arc largest near tile base, where the greatest stiffness is required. The nodes are also closer together here for strength. The stem is made much stronger by the bases of tile leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a distance above the point of attachment at the node. Notice the close-fitting sheath or rain-guard, where the blade of the leaf leaves the stalk. This prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath, but lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed. As the plant gets older and taller, new roots come out from the node next above the root and sometimes from the second node above. These prop-roots are needed for support as the stalk lengthens, and they also reinforce the feeding capacity. Note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves. As soon as the silk appears, take a cob off and open i careful])'. Tile little cob, which corresponds to the pistil in other plants, is covered with small and unde- veloped kernels, and to each kernel one of the strands of so-called silk is attached. Whilst this little cob is form- ing, a bunch, or tassel, of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant. Open one of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside. This pollen, when shed, falls upon the silk, and each grain sends a tiny tube down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob, fertilizing them and starting them to develop. The silk then withers. The wind carries this pollen. Find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen. What is the need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces .9 NATURE STUDY Strip off the husks and compare the tough, hard husks lhat are found on the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob. Show how each kind is fitted for its particular work. Pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find: 1. Whetlmr the corn grows faster: 11 ) When the soil is kept melhw or when tim soil is hard ; (2) When the days are warm or when they are cl; (3) When the nights are cool or when they a 2. The effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in adjoining plots. Account for the re- suit. CORRELATIONS Art: Clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant, and also upon the ear. Literature: Interpretation and reading of " Blessing the Corn-fields", from Hiawalha. History: The name Indian corn originated in the early colonial days of t]e Easlern and Cenlral Stales, when the pioneers obtained corn from the Indians. The Indians showed the settlers how to kill [he trees by girdling and how to plant [he corn among the slanding trunks, and rims have corn ready for roasting by August, and for grind- ing into meal or for boiling to make hominy by September. SEED DISPERSAL The lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in Form I should be continued in this Form. SEED DISPERSAL 1B-; I. LESSON Select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of seeds, such as wild mustard, white cockle, false-flax, etc. Distribute the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate the number of seeds produced by each plant. By references to observations made in the garden, help the pupils to recall the bad results, both to parent plaltS and to young seedlings, of improper scattering of seeds, namely: 1. The excessive crowding and shading, which causes the plants to become weak. 2. Insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants, which causes the plants to be small and worth- less. Discuss how the crowding of cultixated plants is pre- vented and, iu a general way, how nature provides for the scattering of seeds. The great work of the plant is the production and dis- persal of its seeds. Ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds, and to bring these plants to the class for the next lesson. DETAILED STUDY OF SEED DISPERSAL II. CLASS-ROO:M LESSON lIake use of the specimens gathered by the pupils aud by the teacher for observing and classifying as follows: 1. Seeds that steal rides. Examples--burdock, blue burr, pitch-fork weed, barley, stick-tight, hound's tongue. NATURE STUDY 2. Seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive colours, tastes, etc. Examples--apple, grape, cherry, rowan, hawthorn. 3. Seeds that are carried by the wind. Examples-- dandelion, thistle, milkweed, maple, pine, elm. 4. Seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods. Examples--violet, jewel-weed (touch-me-not), sweet-pea, witch-hazel. 5. Seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the wind. Examples--Russian thi.tle, tnb!e- mustard, tumble-grass. 6. Seeds that float. Ver many seeds float, although not specially fitted for floating, and some, such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily, arc especially adapted for dis- pcr.al by water. To tie teacIer.--Require the pupils to observe the .pecial structure that facilitates the dispersal of the seed. As an illustration, ask the pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is really like. Thev find that the burr is a little basket filled with seeds. The basket has many |ittle hooks which catch on the hair of anima|s and, since these hoo]s turn inwards, they serve to hold the basket in such a position that all the seeds are not like|v to drop out at one time. The pupils should also observe that these ba.lets are quite firmly attached to the parent p|ant until Che seeds are ripe; after that the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull. SEED COLLECTIONS During late summer and in the autumn the seeds of tim weeds that ha-e been identified by the pupils should be collected. SEED DISPERSAL 167 Instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods be- tween the hands until the seeds are thrashed out, at tile same time blowing away tile chaff. The seeds are now placed i small phials or in small envelopes and these are carefully labelled. If possible, fill each phial so that there may be sufficient seed 5r use by all tile nmmbers of tile class in the lessons on seed description and idenlificatim which are to be taken during the winter months, when Kature Study material is less plentiful than it is in the summer and autumn. Tile phials or envelopes nmv be stored ill a shallow box, or the phials may be mounted on a stout card. They may be attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and passing arounI the phial, or by brass cleats, which may be obtained with the phials from dealers in Nature Study supplies. MAN AS A DISPERSER OF SEEDS Man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for discussion. Obtain, through the pupils, samples of seed-grain, clover seed, timothy seed, turnip seed, etc. Ask the pnpils to examine these and count the number of weed seeds found in each. The results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious weeds are introduced. Describe the introduction from Europe to the wheat- fields of the Prairie Provinces of such weeds as Ru..ian thistle, false-flax, French-weed. The seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain, fodder for animal., and also in the hay and straw used by the immiants as packing for their houhold goods. Careful farmers will not allow thrasbing-nmehine., seed drills, fanning-mills, etc., to come from farm. 12 TOMATO WORM 175 (also called lady-bugs), are small, spotted beetles, broad oval in form, of bright colours, red and black, or yellow and black, or black and white. They are of eat service to the farmer and gardener because their foods consists largely of plant-lice (aphides). Watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides. The ants may be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers, causing the aphides to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds. Aphides are sometimes called ant-cows. Direct the attention of the pupils to the difference be- tween the male and female aphides; the males have wings, but the females are wingless. TOMATO WORM TIIE ADULT The adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in bloom, as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey. It is frequently mis- taken for the humming-bird when thus engaged. It may also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the leaves of tomato vines. Observe the worms that hatch from these e,,,-s and note their rapid orowth. Keep the larva  in a box in the school-room and feed them on tomato leaves. Note their size and colour, the oblique stripes on the sides, the horn which is used for terrifying assailants, the habit of remain- ing rigid for hourshence the name sphinx moth. The larvae burrow into the ground in September to form the chrysalides, hence there should be soil in vivarium in which they are kept. 176 NATURE STUDY THE CHRYSALIS Observations.--The shape, colour, nature of the covering, the long handle, the wing impressions, the seg- mental part, the emergence of the adult in May or early June. What organ of the insect was contained in the "' handle" of the chrysalis ? The adult is one of the handsomest of moths, because of its graceful, clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress. Look on poplar, cotton-wood, plum, and pine trees, and on tobacco plants for relatives of the tomato worm, tile large 'reen larwe whose chrysalis and adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm. THE CROW ('rows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer. (As the crow is a bird that is easily tamed, it may be possihle to have a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of structure.) Observations.--Deseribe its attitude when perched, movements of the wings in flight, speed of flight. Why does the crow perch high up in trees? What gives to the crow its swift flight? Study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm, threat, summons, and expression of fear. Find the nest and note its position, size, build, material., eggs, and young. How is the nest coneeale,? What makes it strong? Are crows -ften seen on the ground? Do they walk or hop ? THE CROW 177 Observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding. It eats corn, potatoes, oats, beetles, crickets, gTasshoppers, cutworms, and occasionally birds' eggs or young birds. Why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow? Are scarecrows effective in keeping crows off the grain fields? Note the sentinels that are on the 'atch to warn other crows of danger. Give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird. Give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful character. Give reasons why crows should be protected. No'r.--Crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered ith coal-tar beforo it is planted. In addition to the animals already named, the musk- rat, raccoon, fox, flying-squirrel, robin, wren, and king- bird will be found conxenient for study in many localities. The swimming of the musk-rat, and how its shape. fur, feet, and tail fit it for a life in water are topics suit- able for observational exercises, as are also its food, its winter home, and the burrows leading from the water into the banks. In the case of the winter home. the location. the structure, the submerged entrance, the living-room. and the surrounding moat, are topics of interest. CORRELATIONS With literature: By reading animal stories, such as, The Kindred of the Wild and " Red Fox." by Charles G. D. Roberts; and Wild Animals I Ha'e Known, by Ernest Thompson-Seton. With language: By oral and written descriptions of the animals that have been observed. CHAPTER X FI)I{M Iii WINTEI,' CARE OF PLANTS IN THE HOME THE c.rr of flowering bulb. which was be,o'un in Form I will be continued in Form l[. The growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up. In those schools which are kept continuously heated, potted plants may be kept throughout the year. The pupils will come to appreciate the plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the suplly of good soil. water, and sunlight. The fol- lowing points should 1,e observed: 1. ;,,od polting soil can lie made by building up alter- nating ]avers of sods and stable manure and allowing this --mpost to stand until thoroughly rotted. A little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants. 2. Thorough watering twice a week is better than add- ing a little water every day. 3. The leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them from dust. 4. An ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice. Common soap- suds may also be used for this purpose, but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash. .5. Most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible, although most of the ferns .OOW without it. 180 NATURE STUDY just below a node, or joint, and leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip. Insert it to about half its depth in the box of moist sand. These cuttings may be placed a few inches apart in the box, which should then be placed in a warm, light room for a few weeks until the roots develop. The cuttings should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight, and the sand kept slightly moist but not wet. Bottom heat and a moist, warm atmosphere hasten their development. Another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings is to take a six-inch flower-pot, put two inches of fine gravel in the bottom, set a four-inch unglazed fl,wcr-pot in the centre, and fill up the space around it with sand and garden-loam, mixed. Put a cork in the hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot, and then fill it with water. Put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a fairly warm room in moderate light. POTTING OF ROOTED CUTTINGS When the cuttings are well rooted, which requires from three to six weeks according to the variety and growth ,nditions furnished, they should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or can. First put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage, and then a little good potting soil. Set the plant in place and fill in around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots, leep room in the top of the pot for water. When the new plant has made some growth, it may be shifted to a larger pot. Geranims and coleus (foliage plants) should not be kept more than two seasons. Take cuttings off the old plants and then throw the latter away. EVERGREENS 181 EVERGREENS In December make a study of Canadian evergreens, choosing spruce, balsam, and cedar, if available, or sub- stitute hemlock for any one of these. Compare the general features of these trees, such as shape, direction of branches, colour, persistence of leaves through the winter. Have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows and storms of winter by: 1. The tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree. 2. The fine, needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will adhere. 3. The very tough, flexible, and elastic branches, which bend in the wind and under the weight of snow, but spring back to their old positions. 4. The resin in leaves, stems, and buds, which enables the trees to resist frost and rain. Teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones. CLASS-RO0I LESSON Distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and describe the ]eng-th, shape, and co]our of the ]eaves. Next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare the spruce ]eaves with those of the balsam in length, shape, and co]our. Next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly. The cones may he dealt with in a similar manner. }{equire the pupils to make a census of the evergreens of Ct:II('KENS 185 3. Some animals build houses and slore foods: Examples--beaver, squirrel, chipmunk, honcy-Iee, deer-mouse. 4. ,%me animals build homes convenient to food: Examples--musk-rat, field-mouse. 5. S.me animals put on warmer clothing: Examples--fox, mink, otter, rabbit, horse, cow, partridge, chickadee. The rabbit and weasel turn white, a colour protection. ;. Many insect larvae form cocoons or pup,'e cases: Examples--emperor-moth, codling moth, tolnat, worm. ('ORRELATIONS With literature, reading, and language. With geography: By a lesson on "The influence of climate upon animal and plant life" CHICKENS (Consult Principles and Practice o Poultry CIture by Robinson. Ginn & Co., $2.00.) CONVERSATION LESSON ]{OW lany of you keep chickens at your homes ? Why do many kinds of people keep chickens? What breeds of chickens do you keep? How many other breeds do you know? Describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds. Why are there so many different breeds? ]ame those that are good laying breeds. Name breeds that are not usually considered good lav- ing breeds. CHICKENS 187 3. If the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is thought to be nreliable, make use of the fol- lowing: The average numl)er of eggs laid each year by each hen in Ontario is seven dozen. Use this average numl)er, and: (1) Calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year, the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen. (2) If the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen (a number that is easily possil,le under im- proved management), find the value of the egrs that w,,uld 1)e produced in a year, and find the gain that would result from this better management. 4. If it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen, find the net annual profit to this district from the egg produc- tion. (_'ARE ,F ('llIt'KEX.q The method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a knowledge of the history of the original wild hens. Information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay. Chickens that are hatched in April begin to lay in November or December and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price. The original wild hens lived in the dry. grassy, and shrubby jungles of India. They were free to move about in the open air, and at night they perched in the trees. which sheltered them from rain. Hence may be inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens. NATURE STUDY CONVECTION Water is not a conductor, how then is it heated ? lrop a few pieces of solid colouring matter, (analinc hlue, hlueing, .r potassium permanganate) into a beaker of cold water. Place the beaker over a heater and observe the eoloured portion rise. Wet sawdust will make a good suhstitute for the e,louring matter. A sealing jar or even a ti cup will do instead of the heaker. The stove or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp. PROBLEMS 1. lrsing a therm,meter, see whether the water at the b,ttom is warmcr than that at the top while the beaker is being heated. ". ][eat some oil and pour it over the surface of some .,hl water. L,wer a thernmmeter into this. Does the u atcr at the bottom soon become warm ? 3. If your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank, find out what part of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted. 4. In hathing, where do you find the eohlest water of a pond or still river? See Science of Common Life, I'hapter VI: also Tle Otario High School Physics, page 280. CONYECTION IN GASES A good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter in one side of a chalk box, replace lhe lid with a piece of glass, place a ]amp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the chimneys. ||old a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn and note direction of air current. RADIATION OF HEAT 199 APPLICATIONS 1. Winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas, allowing cooler currents to take its place. (Geo- graphy) 2. _looms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than tlm rest, thus producing a current. (llygiene) Winds are nature's means of ventilating the earth. RADIATION OF HEAT This should be taken up as an introduction to dew, frost, winds, climate, etc. 1. Make an iron ball hot (the end of a poker will answer). IIold the band a few inches below the iron. Does the heat reach the hand by convection.9 By conduc- tion.9 By means of suitable questions, lead the pupil to see that it is not by convection, for the hand is below the hot object while heated air rises; it is not by conduction, for air is one of the very po-rest conductors; moreover, the heat is felt instantly from the poker, but it takes an appreciable time for it to come hv conduction and con- vection. We say this heat is radiated from the iron. The velocity of radiated heat is about 186,o00 miles a second. 2. The ahove experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron radually tward the bulb of the air thermo- meter and noting the greatest distance at which it will affect the thermometer. It is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us. We get much of the heat of stoves, fire-places, and radiators by the same means. Why does the earth cool off at night? Why does de,, form? Why can lm dew form cm a cloudy nig