e SE pe MG Ee came ee ee ag Fem ae, a es. ne eee Rye ae Gre. A CAROLO DARWIN \ NS FRANCIS CVS DARWI ace °@e OL ie: 2@e eee . Z 226 e ee ase, soe S a A g st reer rs) ‘. a : “ eee tors? Bt 2 oo Sea y ire | ene . re ty oan? \\\\u "ee a eee 4 : . Zany: y yy oe . Sy na : ce a AW a o ° ‘< % | Seay ve : SS » a ; 39 ) Drea Br yy Sees %, | ” eas 2 (j : f : Sette cee iD. | ‘ veto ee se : 22> = oo as ‘@ : pase = oo ys: : ¢ ‘ ie | : Z - ° ele, q * S AN Piet. a: hes f og SB ZA i : iS ‘ eo ot? = SS Z N . \ se a . ry > hon x. 5 2, S Bea tee . . > z ey i Wie. BES a . zi s ey 4 a Sa f hy os i i TaN QUIMAUX.. 2. ee eee eee ees Re eae 188 - 2. Of the conversion of the Greenlanders to Christianity Section 5. Psychical history of the Negro races.....- ord Religion of the Negroes Immediate objects of worship Relations of their deities to each other .... Fetisses or charms Worship—prayers to the gods «..+ssee+e- Sacrifices . Funereal rites ...--.seeees Sacred festivals—pilgrimages Orders of priests, their offices, and powers .. 206 Figments—auguries or omens by birds .... 208 Immortality of the soul—state of retribution 209 Metempsychosis PETE ONS oa PA Of the conversion of the Negroes to Chris- | tianity Section 6. Concluding remarks CHAPTER III. Analogical Investigation continued—external Diversities— Varie- ties of Complexion in Human Races—Inquiry whether the Differences of Colour constitute specific Distinctions. Szction 1. General remarks—of the principal varieties of ANALYSIS OF THE CONTENTS. complexion observed in human races—phe- nomena of correspondence Paragraph 1. Of the melanocomous variety ——- 2. Of the leucous variety .. ——--3. Of the xanthous variety. . 226 Section 2. Of the structure of the parts on which the variety of colour depends Paragraph 1. Of the eyes 2. Of the skin —— 3. Of the hair Note on Sections 1 and 2.... CHAPTER IV. The same Inquiry continued— Varieties of Form and Structure. Secrion 1. General remarks—instances of the origination of varieties—of the seven principal varieties of mankind...... Section 2. Of the Negroes Section 3. Of the Papuas Section 4. Section 5, Of the Iranian or Indo-Atlantic, and of the Turanian nations SECTION 6. ae ee SECTION 7. entot CHAPTER V. Varieties of Form continued—National Forms of the Skull. Section 1. General views—diversities jn the form of the - 275 SEcTION 2. Of the substance and texture of the skull in dif- ferent races .. sgl 282 Section 3. Of prognathous, or narrow and elongated skulls 284 ANALYSIS OF THE CONTENTS. XV Page. Paragraph 1. Of the shape of the skull in the Negro .-.--+eececeeseeeeeees 284 2, Skulls of the Papuas, Al- fourous, and Oceanic nations 298 Section 4. Oval form of the skull—crania of the Indo-At- lantic or Iranian nationS .-+++seseseere ve B08 Secrion 5. Of pyramidal or broad-faced skulls 305 Paragraph 1. Of the skulls of the Tu- ranian nations ..cesscceesecereserrs 305 9. Of the skulls of the Abo- ; riginal Americans ...--- “smpe sGh ok 208 eames — 3. Skulls of the Quaique, or Hottentot race ..cccecssescrtescces 312 Section 6. Of artificial modifications of the form of the cra- nium—elongated skulls of Titicaca ...+.- .- 315 CHAPTER VI. Varieties of Form—Diversities of Shape im the Skeleton. Section 1. General observations—varieties in the shape of the pelvis in different races of men Researches of Soemmering, of Vrolik and of Weber 323 Section 2. Of the form of the trank—length and shape of the limbs .......ccececceeeees i iia pane eae CHAPTER VII. Analogical Investigation continued—Survey of the Varieties dis- played in other Departments of the Animal Creation, and Comparison of these with the Phenomena above described. Section 1. Of varieties of colour inanimals.........++++: 339 Note oreoection 1..e ce ee eas ee eae 343 Section 2. Of peculiarities in the constitution connected with the varieties of colour 344 Section 3. Of the varieties of texture in the human skin, H rit {f it |) . j i ie + He i] i ' i, iE F ia P: ANALYSIS OF THE CONTENTS and of some analogous phenomena in other species : Section 4. Of varieties in the form and structure of animals analogous to the diversities in human races above described CHAPTER VIII. Analogical Investigation continued—other Considerations related to the same Inquiries—Conelusion of this Argument. Section 1. Of diversity of stature. Section 2, Of the different kinds of hair which distinguish particular races of men wee 361 Section 3. Of the hereditary transmission of varieties—of atavism 366 Section 4, Recapitulation and conclusion of the analogical inquiry Directions for placing the Plates. The four figures representing the basis of the skull, opposite the title page. Fie. 1 & 2 opposite page 303 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. Fic. 1. (page 303)—Is a specimen of the oval or ooidal form of the cranium, characteristic of the Indo-Atlantic, by Blumenbach termed Caucasian nations. The skull from which this engraving was taken was that of a Greek named Constantine Demetriades, &@ native of Corfu, who was long known at Oxford, where he was a teacher of the modern Greek language. The cranium is now in the Museum of Mr. Richard Smith, at the Bristol infirmary. The engraving is copied from a drawing by Mr. Holmes. Fic, 2,—Is a representation of one of the elongated skulls brought by Mr. Pentland from the valley of Titicaca, in the highlands of Peru, Tt cannot be doubted that the peculiar shape of this skull is produced by artificial means, viz. by pressure on the forehead, ap- plied during an early period, and long continued. The skull of the Flat-head Indians in North America are modified in a very similar manner, though not to the same degree, as any person may be con- Vinced by examining one of the crania belonging to that race, of which there is a specimen in the collection at Guy’s Hospital. The skull from which this figure was taken is that in the museum of the College of Surgeons. For an opportunity of obtaining it I am indebted to the kindness of the curator, the able and distinguished anatomist, Mr. Owen. Fias, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, are specimens of that form of the cranium which I have termed Prognathous, 2. e. having the maxilla, and especially the alveolar portion, remarkably prominent. This is expressed by a term which is formed similarly to mpoxetdoc as used by Lucian. The four first figures belong to woolly-haired, the last four ‘to straight-haired races of blacks. oe Fre. 3 (page 290) is the skull of Philip Bernard, a Creole native a GS ae i ae = . XVili DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. of Cuba, whose parents were both slaves brought from the coast of Africa. This skull of which the annexed figure, drawn by Mr. Holmes, is a very good Tepresentation, is in the museum of Mr. Richard Smith. It has the peculiar formation of the Negro in a greater degree than any skull or figure that I have seen. The upper jaw is remarkably and singularly prominent, and the facial angle proportionably small. The African peculiarity in this skull, as in general, depends on the greater anterior developement of the bones of the face, which begins with the greater space of the frontal sinuses. The cranial cavity is not small when considered by itself, or with reference to the probable stature of the individual to whom the skull belonged, nor is the anterior part of the cavity remarkably deficient in space; the forehead is not so narrow and compressed laterally as in many Negro, and even in very many European heads which I have seen, Tshall have occasion to return to the description of this skull below. Fic. 4.—Is the skull of an Ashantee Negro. The Ashantee or Asianti, a tribe of the Inta race, are among the most cultivated of the Pagan nations in Africa. The general shape of their head ap- proaches much more to the European form than that of oe or but a peculiarity may be noticed in it, which was first pointed out by Mr. Owen in some Negro skulls. The temporal bone adjoins the frontal, the sphenoidal failmg to send up the process which usually divides them. The same character exists, as Mr. Owen has shown, in the skull of the troglodyte. Fic. 5. (page 297)—Is a copy of the figure of a Kaffer skull given by Dr. Knox, in the Wernerian Transactions. In this skull, although it has evidently the prognathous form of African heads, a great improvement is very manifest when we compare it with the preceding, in the amplitude and convexity of the forehead, as well as of the occiput. Fic. 6.—Represents the skull of a Tasmanian or native of Van Dieman’s Land. This cranium is in the museum of the College of Surgeons: I obtained the figure through the kindness of Mr. Owen. The general form of this skull resembles that of Philip Bernard, but the forehead is somewhat higher: the occiput likewise is more de- veloped, and this is a character which belongs to the Oceanic race, and nearly all the insular nations of the Pacific, Fic. 7, (page 299)—Represents the skull of an Australian savage, DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. XIX which is in the museum of the College. It resembles figures 3 and 4, in its general form. The longitudinal ridge running from the forehead to the occiput, which is frequently observed in Australian skulls, is Conspicuous in this. The ridge formed by the frontal sinuses is likewise prominent, and there is a deep notch over the nasal processes of the frontal bone. These characters are very strongly marked in the skulls of the Oceanic nations, as in those of the New Zealanders and Tahitians. The deeply marked depression above the ossa nasi is observable in Fig. 9, representing the skull of an Alfourou. The space marked by the insertion of the temporal muscle is in this, as it generally is in prognathous skulls, particularly in those of Negroes, deeply impressed. Fic. 8.—Represents the cranium of an Alfourou Endamene, the aboriginal race of New Guinea, the Moluccas, and of many if not all of the islands of the Indian archipelago. They are supposed, with great probability, by M. Lesson, to be of the same race as the Miserable hordes of Terra Australis. This figure and the two follow- ‘ing are taken from the magnificent work of M. Duperrey. Fic, 9, (page 299)—The front view of the skull of an Alfourou Endamene. It may be observed that the plane of the zygoma 1s nearly leyel with the sides of the head and with the planes of the parietal and frontal bones. Lines drawn from the zygomatic arches ©n both sides to the most projecting parts of the frontal bones, and prolonged upwards do not form here, as in the skulls repre- Sented in the next plate, a triangular figure, a line drawn from One zygomatic arch to the other being the base. Fig. 10,—Is the basis cranii in the same. Of these more will be observed hereafter. Fig. 11, 12, 13, 14.—Belong to the class of skulls which I have termed Pyramidal. Lines drawn touching the zygomas, and passing _ to the laterally projecting parts of the frontal bones, meet over the Summit of the forehead and form a triangle, having for base a sub- tending line determined by the lower edges of the zygomas. Fig, 11 and 12, are both American skulls, and which approximate to the form which I have termed Turanian. In both the face has a re- Markably, and even a strikingly singular flatness, and the whole front of the head has nearly the shape of one side of a pyramid. OCR See Se So on SE ER XX DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. The flatness of the face is perceptible in these sketches; it is imme- diately striking when the skulls are examined and compared. —Figures 13 and 14 have been described in the appropriate places. Of the Four Figures, representing the Basis of the Skull, prefixed to the title-page. It has been proved by Mr. Owen, that some of the most impor- tant diversities in the form of skulls, as distinguishing different taces of the same species as well as different species, are displayed by a comparative view of the bases of skulls. I have followed this suggestion by giving representations of the basis cranii in the three most distinct forms of the human skull, and these are placed in the Same view with the basis of the skull of the adult orang or simia Satyrus, which is copied from Mr; Owen’s engraving in the first volume of the Zoological Transactions. The four sketches here given are those of the skulls of an Esquimaux, an European, a Negro, and an Orang. 1, The Esquimaux, from a skull in the museum of the Bristol Institution. The basis is somewhat broader than that of either of the remaining four. Its antero-posterior diameter is least in pro- portion to its transverse. 2. The European. The skull is one of a French soldier killed in the battle of Waterloo, supposed to have been one of the imperial guards of Napoleon. It may be observed, that the foramen magnum, in this skull, is situated more posteriorly than’ in the following figure, which is that of the skull of a Negro strongly characterized by the peculi- arities of the Negro races. This refutes the frequent assertions of those who approximate the Negro to the Orang, and assert that the black man resembles that beast particularly in the position of the foramen magnum. 3. The skull of which the basis is here figured is that of Philip Bernard, before mentioned, and represented at the head of the en- gravings of prognathous skulls. On comparing these four figures, the reader will find all the ob- servations collected on the proportions of the skull as displ played by this view of it completely verified. sagen - seer RTOS sede AIR 5 ad as na 1 10 “BU A XT PULT AD S 4 VITAL ee eee Y\ COAG TH \ RESEARCHES INTO THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MANKIND. — INTRODUCTION. Section I.—General Statement of the Inquiries which for the subject of the following Work. TuERrE is scarcely any question relating to the history of °rganized beings, that is fitted to excite greater interest, than inquiries into the nature of those varieties in complexion, form, and habits, which distinguish from each other the seve- tal races of men. Our curiosity on this subject ceases to be awakened, when we have become accustomed to satisfy our- Selves respecting it with some hypothesis, whether adequate °r insufficient to explain the phenomena: but if a person Previously unaware of the existence of such diversities, could Suddenly be made a spectator of the various appearances Which the tribes of men display in different regions of the Carth, it cannot be doubted that he would experience emo- tions of wonder and surprise. Ifsuch a person, for example, after Surveying some brilliant ceremony or court-pageant im °ne of the splendid cities of Europe, were suddenly carried into @ hamlet in Negroland, at the hour when the sable tribes recre- ate themselves with dancing and barbarous music, or if he Were transported to the saline plains over which bald and tawny Mongolians roam, differing but little in hue from the B ae INTRODUCTION. yellow soil of their steppes, brightened by the saffron flowers of the iris and tulip ;—if he were placed near the solitary dens of the Bushmen, where the lean and hungry savage crouches in silence, like a beast of prey, watching with fixed eyes the birds which enter his pit-fall, or the insects and reptiles which chance may bring within his grasp ;—if he were car- ried into the midst of an Australian forest, where the squalid companions of kanguroos may be seen crawling in pro- cession, in imitation of quadrupeds ;—would the spectator of such phenomena imagine the different groupes which he had surveyed to be the offspring of one family? and if he were led to adopt that opinion, how would he attempt to ae- count for the striking diversities in their aspect and manner of existence ? To those who have considered the subject of this inquiry with the greatest attention, and are well aware of all its bear- ings, the task appears scarcely less difficult to discover a solution of the problem that may satisfy all doubts. It is found to involve a number of subordinate questions, in close relation with subjects which have long been the themes of con- troversy among naturalists and philosophers. Among these are investigations belonging to physiology, as well as others of a different kind, comprising researches into the nature of moral and intellectual diversities, or those of mind and social character, and the perhaps still more difficult inquiries which relate to the origin and formation of languages. It will be the principal object of the following work to col- lect data for illustrating these subjects, and for elucidating the inquiry, whether all the races of men, scattered over the surface of the earth, distinguished as they are from each other in structure of body, in features, and in colour, and dif- fering in languages and manners, are the offspring of a single stock, or have descended respectively from several original families. This problem is so extensive in its bearings, and in many particulars so intricate and complex, that I can scarce- ly hope to discover evidence conclusive in respect to every part of the investigation. I shall endeavour to collect and throw upon it all the light that can be obtained from dif- ferent sources. = a a oon eae —eenreaeey TT ee ov SPT Re — cadena Ss Tt apcaaemee INTRODUCTION. Szction Il.—Probable Considerations on one side of the Question. That every part of the world had originally its “ autochtho- hes,” or indigenous inhabitants, adapted to the physical cir- cumstances of each climate, is the conjecture which any person who allowed himself to speculate upon the subject would be at first inclined to adopt. Many probable reasons suggest themselves in favour of this opinion, and it seems to afford a Teady solution of some of the most difficult questions which the history of mankind presents. Hence its general preva- lence among the ancients, though it was at variance with the traditions of their mythology; and hence the willmg recep- tion given to the same hypothesis by many naturalists and Speculative writers of modern times. This doctrine, in the first place, appears to account for all the varieties in figure and complexion which are observed in different nations. It explains the diversity of colour so re- markable between the native races of Africa and the inhabit- ants of Europe. It accounts for the woolly appearance of the hair in the Negro tribes, and for its flowing and glossy texture in the Esquimaux, and for the peculiar features and Structure of limbs belonging to either race, by representing these nations as tribes of people originally distinct. The sin- Sular physiognomy and proportions of the broad-faced Kalmuks, and the pot-bellied Samoiedes; the humps and Cther well-known deformities of the Bushmen; the hairy bodies and apish countenances of the Mallicollese, occasion No further difficulty to the physiologist, as soon as he has determined to regard them as the distinguishing characters of so many different races. The history of languages presents facts which are very dif- ficult of explanation, while we maintain the opinion that all the families of men, and all their dialects, are derived from a “emmon origin. The antiquity of some languages carries us back to a very early period in the history of mankind. We trace the Egyptian language already existing in the time of the Exodus, and even in that of the patriarch Joseph, if not “0 early as the days of Abraham ; and even the dialectic dif- B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. ferences of the Semitic speech are plainly alluded to in the history of Jacob and Laban. The oldest compositions of the Greeks and of the Hindoos, and still more, the remote date to which it is necessary, on historical grounds, to carry back the separation of those tribes who have preserved dialects of the Indo-european language, oblige us to ascribe an equal antiquity to the mother-tongue of the Japetic nations. Other facts might be adduced, sufficient to prove that various idi- oms have existed, and have possessed their distinctive cha- racters, as well as their affinities, from the most remote period of time to which the antiquity of nations and the history of mankind enable us to refer. How then are we to account for the origin of so many distinct forms of human speech as we know to have existed, on the hypothesis that all the races of men are descended from one family? On the supposition that these races had the commencement of their existence se- parately, or by distinct originals, all such difficulties vanish. By adopting the same opinion we may save ourselves the trouble of accounting for the origin of moral and intellectual diversities, or for the differences in manners and habits which have been thought to characterise particular races. As tribes of animals differ from each other in instincts and other physical qualities, so the various human races, if such exist, may have had their peculiar endowments of intellect and their characteristic habits. By availing ourselves of the same resource we might succeed in explaining many remarkable facts in the history of nations and of the world; or we should, perhaps, rather escape from the necessity of accounting for them. It has often been observed that whenever the enterprising spirit of modern navigators has brought them to hitherto unknown lands, though ever so remote and difficult of access, they have almost invariably found such countries already stocked with inhabitants. The natives of distant and insulated regions, for the most part, have been barbarous people, in many instances unacquainted with the art of navigation, even in small canoes : other tribes, though they have possessed vessels of rude con- struction, have been too ignorant and timid to venture out of sight of their own shores. It is difficult to imagine by what INTRODUCTION. 9 Means the savage inhabitants of such distant tracts can have been transported into them from other parts of the world. Nations who have been discovered thus separated from the rest of mankind have been generally found to retain no tradi- tion of their arrival : in many. instances they have imagined themselves to be the only human beings in existence, and have testified great surprise in finding themselves, in this particular, mistaken. Other tribes, not so entirely rude, and Who appear to have derived from foreigners the first rudi- ments of civil culture, have preserved the record of an era When they emerged from their primitive barbarism, after having remained, from immemorial time, in a savage state, ignorant of civil arts and of the existence of civilized men, until some stranger, some Hercules, or Manco-Capac, some child of the ocean, or of the sun and moon, happened to set foot upon their shores. Many such nations have been found destitute of those common arts and resourses which it seems difficult to suppose that men could ever have forgotten or have lost when once acquired, and which scattered tribes must, 48 we are ready to conclude, have brought with them, had they migrated from those countries which we generally re- Sard as the cradle of our race. I allude to the art of domes- ticating animals, to the use of milk, and to the possession of bread-corn. These considerations have disposed many to adopt the opinion, that each distant country was originally Provided by Nature with a peculiar stock of home-born in- habitants, To these reflections we might add many others tending to @ similar result,* but what has been already said will suffice to show that the opinion which has been stated is supported y Many presumptive arguments, and that it affords an easy * We might remark further, in pursuing the same train of observations, that Vestiges have been discovered, spread through extensive regions of the world, of a Primeva] population, which had there dwelt for ages, and had multiplied, and had en swept away before the earlier inhabitants of the same countries known to his- aed made their appearance. The remains of ancient military works in various Parts of North America, as well as the discovery of skulls and skeletons entombed, which display a peculiar structure of body, indicate that continent to have been in- habited of old by tribes of a different race from those nations who have been sup- Posed to be its aborigines. And the Lenni-Lenape or Original People of the 6 INTRODUCTION, reply to some of the most. difficult questions which present themselves in relation to the organized world and its arche- ology. Whether it is the conclusion at which we are ulti- mately to arrive, after a careful investigation of particulars, does not yet appear. Perhaps, indeed, this way of getting tid of doubts and perplexities is more like the cutting a knot than the unloosening it. Section IlI.—Of Arguments which are urged on the oppo- site side of the Question. Relation of these Inquiries to the Scriptural History of Mankind. I must now proceed to consider some of the most obvious reasons which have been adduced in support of an opposite opinion. There is, in the first place, one argument which has been thought by many to be conclusive as to the whole question, and to render any further investigation superfluous. I allude to the inference deduced from the Sacred Scriptures ascrib- ing one origin to the whole human family. Although nothing can be further from my intention than to detract from the authority and importance of the Sacred Writings, I yet do not feel that I can, with propriety, avail myself of their testimony in the present instance. I am not prepared to adopt an opinion which hag been ex- pressed by writers of various times, that the Scriptures of the Old Testament comprise only the history of one particular fa- mily of men, and that other tribes may have been created to whose origin they make no allusion. To me, as I confess, it appears evident that by the writers themselves, who were em- ployed in the composition of these books, the Holy Scrip- tures were contemplated and set forth as containing a record Algonquin stock preserve traditions which confirm this opinion. They relate that when their ancestors first crossed from the westward the N; amesi-Sippu, or River of Fish, or Missisippi, they found the land already occupied by tribes of a different complexion and figure from their own, who fled from their approach. In North- ern Asia even tradition is silent as to the history of the extinct race of men, whose only vestiges are tumuli spread over the vast regions of Siberia and containing the remains of bodies, with golden and silver ornaments and distinguished by a peculiar style of sepulture, INTRODUCTION, 7 of the dispensations of the Almighty Creator to all mankind ; and if this be the fact, it can hardly be doubted that an ac- count is comprised in them of the origin of the whole human family. It may be observed, that those who hold with entire con- viction the divine authority of the Holy Scriptures, are yet accustomed to receive different portions of their contents, if not with different degrees of assent, yet with an assent modi- fied by different considerations. Many subjects are treated in these books in regard to which the only rational inquiry is, what in fact the Holy Scriptures have delivered respecting them. Such are all matters which transcend the scope of the human faculties; as the existence and nature of in- visible agents, the future state, and the relations of man to the Unseen Power to which he is accountable for his actions. On these subjects, with respect to which we must otherwise have remained profoundly ignorant, Providence has con- descended to give us by revelation such knowledge as it was important for us to possess. In such instances the Holy Scriptures are the sole “ principiwm cognoscendi ;” the only appeal is to them. But the most sincere believers in revela- tion do not give precisely the same species of assent to those parts of the Sacred Writings which relate to subjects open to the ordinary methods of investigation ; such as matters of fact and of historical testimony. These portions of Scripture have ever been regarded as admitting, and even as challenging the Most unwearied and severe scrutiny. Truth can never be in Opposition to truth ; and the investigation of all subjects com- prehensible and scrutable to the human faculties is the un- doubted privilege of a rational understanding. To silence Inquiry in such instances by an appeal to the Scriptures Seems to imply an apprehension lest something may be dis- covered that may prove them to be erroneous ; it indicates a Secret doubt of their entire truth. The palpable and almost "idiculous absurdities into which some writers have been led, m their attempt to speculate upon subjects of scientific in- quiry, by availing themselves of inferences deduced from texts of Scripture, are sufficient to convince us of the unrea~ Sonableness of this proceeding. On the other hand it may 8 INTRODUCTION. well be- remarked, that many investigations which at first had been thought likely to furnish objections against the truth and authority of the Sacred Records have been found ultimately to confirm and elucidate them. From all these considerations it appears better to proceed to the inquiry to which the following pages are devoted, as if the testimony of the Sacred Scripture were altogether indifferent as to its decision. SECTION IV.—Inadequacy of historical Sources of Informa- tion. Nor can any sufficient and conclusive evidence be obtained in these inquiries from researches merely historical. M. Baillie, Sir William Jones, and other writers on the ancient history of the East have displayed a remarkable connexion between the traditions of the most celebrated nations of anti- quity, whose descent from a common ancestry they have hence inferred. Perhaps this conclusion may be allowed to have been established with respect to the Indians, the Greeks, the Per- sians, and the Teutonic nations: in all these instances, in- deed, affinity of languages renders the kindred origin of the respective nations extremely probable. On historical grounds we might add to the preceding nations those of the Semitic family, the Hebrews, Syrians, Arabs, who though they differ essentially in language from the Indo-european race, have preserved similar histories or traditions. If we join to all these some African nations, the Egyptians, Abyssinians, Berbers, or Lybians, which is all that the most sanguine antiquarian or Philologist could pretend to claim, we still fall short of any thing like proof that all mankind derived their origin from a single stock. How are we to bring within the pale the African Negroes, with their multitudinous jJargons; the Hottentots ; the Australians; the Papuas, or woolly-haired tribes who are scattered through the islands of the great Southern Ocean : the Esquimaux and the Pesserais in the opposite extremities of the New World, and in the intermediate space, the ancient- ly civilized but singular Aztecas and Incas? Most of these nations are destitute of any vestiges which point to a com- mon origin. With respect to those races of men whose insu- INTRODUCTION. 9 lated existence and peculiar aspect and manners are most Calculated to excite our curiosity and doubt, historical inves- tigations are entirely unavailing. Szction V.—Method to be followed in the Investigation. It appears to be the general result of all these considera- tions, that we cannot obtain satisfactory evidence on the sub- Ject of this inquiry from historical testimony, or from argu- Ments founded on general probabilities. It only remains for Us to seek it through the medium of researches into the natu- ral history of the organized world, and by considering in. detail a variety of particulars connected with the history of living species. In the way of investigation thus suggested, the Inquiry resolves itself into the two following problems. 1. Whether through the organized world in general it has been the order of Nature to produce one stock or family in each particular species, or to call the same species into exis- tence by several distinct origins, and to diffuse it generally and independently of propagation from any central point ; in Other words, whether all organized beings of each particular Species can be referred respectively to a common parentage ? 2. Whether all the races of men are of one species ?— Whether, in other words, the physical diversities which dis- tmeuish several tribes are such as may have arisen from the variation of one primitive type, or must be considered as per- Manent and therefore specific characters ? . shall now proceed to enter upon the former of these in- quiries, \ BOOK I. ON THE ORIGIN AND DISPERSION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS: COMPRISING CONSIDERATIONS RELATIVE TO THE QUESTION, WHETHER EACH SPECIES IN THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE WORLD EXISTS ONLY AS THE PRO- GENY OF ONE RACE, OR HAS SPRUNG ORIGI- NALLY FROM SEVERAL DIFFERENT SOURCES. aA eA AIR Rie err oot 2 aman PART I. ON THE ORIGIN AND DISPERSION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS, CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS — OPINION AND ARGUMENT OF LINNZUS—MODE OF INVESTIGATING THE SUBJECT. Tux inquiry to which we have now to direct our attention is, Whether, throughout the organized world, including both of its great departments, it has been the method of Nature, if that expression may be used, to produce at first only one fa- tly in each particular species, or to call beings of the same Specific structure into existence simultaneously from different beginnings, and to diffuse them over the world from many distinct centres or original points: in other words, whether all the existing plants and animals of each species can be re- ferred respectively, with a degree of probable evidence that May be deemed satisfactory in such a question, to a common Stock ? It would be in vain to look for a reply to this inquiry to any arguments d@ priori, or supposed probabilities, founded n the nature and fitness of things, or on what it may appear to philosophers advisable, and what inexpedient for Provi- dence to have performed. Discussions of this kind, though often indulged in, are vague and fluctuating, and incapable of affording us any secure ground. The human imagination Is almost bewildered, when it attempts to go back to that Period which gave origin to the organized world and its in- 14 ON THE ORIGIN AND habitants. So many operative causes, totally different from any that we are now acquainted with, must have been em- ployed in setting on foot that series of phenomena which we term the course of Nature, that we are in danger of losing ourselves in doubts and conjectures when we advert to the subject, and it requires the greatest care to avoid wandering into wild and visionary speculations. It is only by a careful survey of actual facts, and an accurate analysis of their re- lations, that any light can be thrown on the history of or- ganized species, and the circumstances and conditions of their origin and early existence. In attempting to follow the par- ticular inquiry above suggested, it will be necessary to take into consideration a great number of facts, to examine accu- rately their bearings, and to collect the inferences which arise from their comparison. Linneus maintained, that in every species of plants as well as of animals, only one pair was originally produced. “ Unum individuum ex hermaphroditis et unicum par reliquorum vi- ventium fuisse primitis creatum, sana ratio videtur clarissimé ostendere.”’ He defended this position by a very ingenious argument, of which the following is nearly the substance :— Experience proves to us that every family of human or other living creatures has a tendency to multiply, and that the progeny naturally becomes more numerous at every suc- cessive generation. If we follow the history of the race in imagination, tracing the line perpetually onwards, we find the number greater at each subsequent step in the series, than in the Step im- mediately preceding, and we perceive the number of indi- viduals in each kind to be greater to-day than it was yes- terday. If now we turn our thoughts in the opposite direction, and follow the ascending line, we observe each species reduced at every step to a smaller number, many deriving their existence from few, and these few from still fewer: nor is there any term at which we find reason to stop, until we come to a sin- gle pair. Linneus afterwards proceeded to shew, that Nature has DISPERSION OF ORGANIZED BEINGS. 15 provided such means of multiplication and dispersion, as Seem only requisite on the hypothesis adopted by him. As examples of the multiplication of species, he remarks that one poppy-seed has been known to produce a plant con- | taining 32,000 seeds, and one seed of tobacco, in a good soil, to multiply 40,320 fold. These considerations are not without some degree of force ; at least they seem to render one conclusion more probable than another. But nothing altogether satisfactory can be derived from so speculative an argument. _ Perhaps there is no other way of investigating the history of particular species, and throwing some light on the inquiry, whether each tribe is derived from one or from many ori- ginals, than by collecting the facts which relate to their mul- tiplication and dispersion, and tracing the distribution of sehera and species over different parts of the earth. If it Should appear, on examination, that animals or plants of each kind have their existence, in general, in those tracts only to which it is probable they may have wandered, or whither they may have been conveyed, by accidental means, from some Smgle point—a point which may be looked upon as the pri- Mitive or original seat of the tribe—there will be a sufficient "eason for believing the whole number belonging to each Species respectively, to have descended from a single origin. ut if, on the contrary, organized beings of the same species are met with in places remote from each other, effectually Separated by vast distances, or by natural barriers, which the locomotive powers bestowed by Nature on particular ttibes cannot have enabled them to pass; and if such ex- ’mples are not rare exceptions to a general law, but matters of frequent observation, it must be allowed that creatures of € same kind had probably distinct and separate origins. tt will be necessary to pursue the inquiry suggested by this observation, under separate heads, as it relates to the different orders of organized beings. I shall begin with the dispersion of plants, and proceed then to the lower, and afterwards to the higher departments, as they are termed, of dMumated nature. ER A AT aI arson mese een eet Atom A ee aT OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS, &e, CHAPTER II. OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS, AND OF THE PRIMARY HABITATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL SPECIES. Secrion I1.—Three hypotheses which have been maintained on this subject. Tuer are only three conjectures as to the original habita- tions, and the dispersion of Plants, which can be thought in any degree probable. They are, First, That all species of Plants whatever had in com- mon their primary seat in one particular region, whence they have been subsequently spread into the countries where they are now found. Secondly, That every species or distinct tribe in the vege- table creation, originated from one particular centre or birth- place, but that the primary habitations of different species were in different regions of the earth. Thirdly, It has been conjectured that the vegetable tribes are spread over the surface of the globe, underived from any particular local origins, or centres of propagation; and that plants of every kind have been brought into existence wherever all the conditions were to be found which favoured their developement. According to this notion, particular tribes may have been, from the beginning of their existence, as widely diffused as they are at the present day; nor is it necessary, when we find the same species in two distant places, to inquire how it was conveyed from one to the other. Writers who adopt this opinion, suppose that plants were always to be found nearly in the sites where they now exist ; an exception being made in regard to certain species, which have been either designedly or accidentally conveyed by men from one country into another. Each of these three opinions has found supporters among naturalists of high reputation. a a AN la gna OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. IV Linneeus embraced and defended the first of these suppo- Sitions. He conjectured that the habitable world was limited during the first age to one region of no great extent ; the only tract in the surface of our planet, which had been as yet laid bare by the subsidence of the primeval °cean. In this fertile spot were congregated the originals of all the species of plants which have since existed on the earth, together with the first ancestors of all animals and of the human race. “In qua commode habitaverint animalia omnia et vegetabilia lete germinaverint.” In order to ac- Comodate the various habitudes of so many organized. beings and to provide a diversity of climates suited to their several Natures, Linneus imagined this common birth-place of all living creatures to have been situated in some warm region of the earth, which contained a lofty mountain-range: on the heights, and in the hollows and declivities of this were to be found all temperatures and every clime, from the torrid to that of the frozen zone.* Such an imaginary scheme is more allied to poetry or fiction, than to a serious investigation of the phenomena of nature. The hypothesis of Linneus is irreconcilable with the facts Most generally known and established with regard to the distribution of Plants. Botanists of the present day are divided between the two last of the three conjectures which I have stated. Rudolphi, Who is followed by many writers, has contended strongly in favour of the position that the same external agencies, the Same conditions of climate, soil, moisture, atmosphere, and S€ographical situation, never fail to call into existence, or to be found in local connexion with plants of the same kinds, without reference to the means or possibilities of the trans- migration of species from one region to another.+ Others find reasons for concluding that there were given to all the vegetable tribes original centres of their existence ; and they ven seek, in the case of any particular species, a spot where it Was first produced, and whence it has been spread. * De Telluris habitabilis incremento. in Amenitat. Academ. . ir Rudolphi’s Beytrage zur Anthropologie und allgemeinen Naturgeschichte. » Ueber die Verbreitung der Organischen Korper. Cc 18 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. Professor Wildenow was one of the first who adopted this hypothesis ; and.-he maintained it under a particular modifi- cation. Wildenow multiplied the Linnean centres of cre- ation. He perceived that it was impossible to account for the phenomena by supposing one primary seat or birth-place of all living creatures: he imagined that organization began in many different foci, all of which were on primitive mountains, the first that were left dry by the waters of the subsiding ocean. On the higher tracts of these primitive moun- tains, as soon as they became fitted to support vegetation, Wildenow supposed that all the plants which have since existed were first produced : as the surface of the ocean gra- dually lowered itself, the different tribes of the vegetable creation found room to extend themselves on every side ; and they descended by degrees from the heights into the plains. In these, according to the opinion of Wildenow, are to be found only such species as may be traced to the feet of the nearest mountains, and it is thus possible, by different mountain-ranges, to divide the flora of one region from that of another.* In this representation there is some truth, but scarcely sufficient foundation for such an hypothesis. It has been well observed by Rudolphi, that a person who has once ascended the Alps may easily remember how the vegetation assumed a new character from stage to stage. Instead of recognising on the tops of the mountains, which are assumed to be the original birth-places of vegetable tribes, a great mul- titude of the plants which form the vegetation of the plains, | assembled around their common centres, he finds in such places very few species, and those of a peculiar character. As he descends again to a lower level, the multitude and variety of plants increases, but in the vallies and at the feet of the hills, he loses sight of those mountain-tribes, supposed to be the ancestral sources of all vegetation. As he proceeds to the banks of rivers, to marshes, or salt-lakes, or to the sea-coast, or towards the dwellings of men, new vegetable forms everywhere display themselves; no Alps, no moun- * Wildenow—Grundriss der Krauterkunde.--Rudolphi uber die Verbreitung oder die angeblichen Wanderungen der Pflanzen. OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 19 tain-chains display the vegetation which belongs to the sea- Shore ; but in the midst of the land, wherever salt-springs break forth, the maritime tribes display themselves.”’* These observations oppose great obstacles to our reception of Wildenow’s hypothesis, that the primitive mountains of the earth have been the original centres of the vegetable crea- tion. It has been further remarked by De Candolle,+ that Without considering the difficulty which we experience in tracing the proofs of this doctrine, or rather the want of any evidence to establish it, great doubts exist whether the species of plants which vegetate in the present day, are to be iden- tified with those which grew in times anterior to the origin of Secondary formations, and of which the impressions and other remains are discovered in rocks of later date. Those Curious researches, but very lately entered upon with some degree of accuracy by M. de Sternberg, and which M. Adolphe Brogniart already seems destined to perfect, indi- Cate clearly,as M. De Candolle has observed, that our present Vegetable tribes are different from the antediluvian species, ‘nd consequently that there has been a new developement of Vegetation on the surface of the earth, subsequent to the “ra of the secondary formations. _ Agradual accumulation of facts obtained during late years, respect to the distribution of plants through different regions of the earth has laid open to naturalists new and important Points of view, from which they have been enabled to see further into the real science of botanical geography. The howledge indeed, as yet acquired, of the whole vegetable “reation is very far from being complete. It has been Calculated by M. De Candolle, that the total ageregate of vegetable species already described or observed in botanical Collections, amounts to 56,000,¢ a number which he supposes to be rather below than above the reality. After taking into “onsideration the period of time which has elapsed since the “ Rudolphi ubi supra, p. 120. + De Candolle, Geographie Botanique, Dict. d’Histoire Naturelle. + De Candolle has explained his reasons for believing that the 27,000 species dicated in Persoon’s Synopsis,may be extended by a more accurate discrimination, £056,000. See Dict. des Sci. Nat. tom. xviii, p. 420. in ome “20 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. discovery of the greater number of these species, after com- paring the proportion which the European species bear to foreign kinds, and endeavouring to estimate the extent of countries scarcely examined or as yet wholly unexplored, and the probable number of the vegetable tribes which they contain, the same writer has concluded that the plants already collected are about half the existing number, and conse- quently, that the total aggregate of species which vegetate on the earth, is between 110,000 and 120,000: a vast num- ber, which illustrates the admirable variety of nature, and provesthat the laws of botanical geography rest as yet but on an imperfect knowledge of the existing tribes. ‘The informa- tion, however, which has already been acquired of the dif- ferent assemblages of plants, or of the floras of particular countries, is becoming every day more extensive, and the comparison of different regions in the vegetable world appears already to have furnished sufficient data for some very inter- esting and satisfactory conclusions. On exploring with greater accuracy the botany of countries distant from each other, naturalists have become more and more aware of the fact, that each region of the earth has its separate botanical creation, or if we may so speak, a select arrangement of vege- tablespecies appropriate toitself; and the greater the accuracy of discrimination that has been introduced into the inquiry, the more strongly distinguished from each other have different countries become, in the comparison of their respective aggre- gates of plants. The data on which this conclusion is founded have been accumulating for many years, and have been the work of many different contributors. Link inves- tigated the flora of Northern Germany, and the calcareous districts; Thunberg explored the botany of the Cape, Adan- son, Smeathman, and others, that of intertropical Africa ; M. De Candolle has made known the vegetation of France, Wahlenberg the vegetable productions of Lapland, of Switzerland, and of the Carpathian chain: Pursh those of North America; Robert Brown has explored the bo- tany of New Holland, and has elucidated the collection of other botanists in Africa. But the science of botan- ical geography is principally indebted to the comprehensive sep Er ~ dicks Fea eae a ee eee OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. Mal and philosophical mind of M. de Humboldt, whose enlight- ened genius has penetrated the obscurities of so many re- Slons of science. M. de Humboldt’s Essay on the Geo- Sraphy of Plants was the first work, as M. De Candolle ob- Serves, which displayed the real extent and relations of this Science.* In his subsequent works, and still more in his per- Sonal researches, the same writer has further contributed to crease the sum of knowledge on these subjects, of which he has displayed the relations in a most brilliant manner in his Prolegomena to the American Flora. It would be fo- Teign to my purpose to trace the series of these discoveries. I shall merely state, in as brief a manner as possible, some Seneral results to be deduced from the researches of M. de Humboldt, Mr. Robert Brown, M. De Candolle, and other Writers, and point out their relations to the subject which I ave proposed to investigate. Sercrion [.—General facts connected with the distribution of vegetable tribes—Distribution of the great families or Classes, of the lesser families or orders, and of genera ; lastly, of species. Paragraph 1.—Distribution of Plants in reference to the three great families or classes. Among the most striking facts in Botanical Geography, are the different proportions which plants of the three great families bear to each other in different zones.{ The propor- “onal number of dicotyledonous plants increases as we ap- Proach the equator, and diminishes towards the poles. Cel- lular or acotyledonous plants follow an inverse ratio, and de- a Essai sur la Geographie des Plantes, accompagné d’un tableau physique des *egions equinoxiales. Paris, 1805. + See likewise his work, entitled ‘De Distributione Geographica Plantarum ~/ | secundum ceeli temperiem et altitudinem montium Prolegomena.” Paris, 1817. ~ + Mr. R. Brown was the first botanist who displayed the relations between the three great divisions of the vegetable world. See Appendix to Flinders’ Voyage to Terra Australis, and Observations on the Herbarium of the Congo, appended to Tucker’s Voyage to the River Zaire, p. 422, 479. M.de Humboldt, in 1815, oe the same method of research, extending it to different orders or natural amilies. yi OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTs. crease towards the equator, while they increase towards the poles; but monocotyledonous plants, in which the Ferns are comprehended by M. De Candolle, undergo comparatively lit- tle variation of number, and constitute every where about the sixth part of the entire flora. If we compare by themselves the two families of vascular plants, the monocotyledonous in- crease regularly towards the pole and lessen towards the equator. This applies chiefly to continents; for in many is- lands the proportion of monocotyledonous plants is greater than according to the ratio of latitude, owing, as it appears, to the abundant supply of moisture.* Paragraph 2.— Distribution of orders or families, and of genera. The application of the above-stated universal laws of pro- portion in the distribution of vegetable tribes, belongs to the comparison of the three great classes. The facts which re- late to families, more properly so called, or to the natural orders of plants, are more limited; but the distribution even of these depends upon physical conditions, though often upon such as are not manifest. This may be inferred from the fact noticed by M. de Humboldt, that the proportional num- bers of plants belonging to particular families, in any given region, have mutual relations. “ If we know in any country under the temperate zone, the number of Cyperacee or of Composite, it will be possible to estimate that of the Gra- minee or of the Leguminose.’’*+ In many instances Nature seems to have deposited plants, if we may use such an expression, upon different parts of the earth, arranged according to their natural affinities ; par- ticular families having certain principal foci, where the plants * De Candolle, Dictionaire d’Histoire Naturelle. + Sur les loix que l’on observe dans la distribution des formes végétales par Alexandre de Humboldt. Dictionaire d’Hist. Naturelle._The following are the expressions in which these remarkable inferences are conveyed in M. de Hum- boldt’s Prolegomena. “6 Disquisitiones iste ex Arithmetica botanica petite leges nobis patefecerunt, quarum imperio natura in quavis zona subjecta est. Penitius autem cognoscentur, quando major pars terre a viris doctis accurate erit perlustrata. Ubicunque enim, _ sub eodem parallelo, mirabilem harum legum consensum inyenies : atque is est, in OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 25 that belong to them have been produced in the greatest number of individuals and variety of species. It may be said, that plants belonging to certain natural families are Placed in particular groupes, each having a principal centre around which the genera and species comprised in it are More numerous, and display the characteristic form of the order in the greatest perfection. At a distance from these Central points, the common type of the order becomes gra- dually evanescent, or undergoes modifications. In some instances, whole genera, and even entire families of plants are confined to particular regions. The Hespe- ridex are peculiar to India and China; the Labiatiflore be- long to South America; the Epacride are nearly confined to Terra Australis, where their species are very numerous; a few being distributed to the isles of the Pacific. In some in- Stances, a few solitary tribes, forming however distinct spe- Cies, are found at a distance from their congeners, which are Otherwise assembled in one region. All the Passifloree be- long to America, except one, which is in South Africa. De Candolle observes, that all the species of Mesembryanthemum inhabit the Cape of Good Hope, except M. nodiflorum and Copticum, which are found in Corsica and in Barbary. In the same country are all the Ixie, except the Bulbocodium ; all the Gladioli, except the Gladiolus communis found in France ; all the Heaths, in number two or three hundred, €xcept five or six found in Europe; and nearly all the Oxales, except three species which are wild in France, and some found in America. The manner in which tribes thus related to particular re- gions are grouped is very remarkable. Mr. Brown has ob- served, that in Terra Australis, the foci of peculiar vegetation qualibet regione, nexus inter singulam tribum et summam plantarum phane- Togamarum, ut quoties Graminearum numerum cognoscas, inde probabiliter non Solum universum numerum Phanerogamarum queas zstimare, sed etiam Com- Positarum, Labiatarum et aliquarum tribuum. Quippe videmus stirpium familias modo ab" zequatore polos versus numero specierum augeri, modo a polis versus *quatorem ; interdum etiam cert familiae—v.c. Labiate, Umbellifere, Crucifere— ™ zona temperata numero specierum maxime abundant, polos et equatorem versus Tarescunt.”’—De Distributione Geog. Pl. Prolegomena, p. 41. 24 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTs. occur almost exclusively between the thirty-third and thirty- fifth degrees of south latitude, and principally at the two op- posite extremities of this tract; that is, near the eastern and western coasts. These remarks are illustrated by the dis- tribution of the Proteacee, a family of plants almost entirely confined to the southern hemisphere, where it is extensively dispersed. The Proteacez are generally, though very une- qually, spread over all the great southern continents ; they have been observed also in the larger islands of New Zealand and New Caledonia, but hitherto in none of the lesser ones. In America they have been found in Tierra del Fuego, in Chili, Peru, and in Guiana; but, in this continent, the number of their species is comparatively small, and their organization little varied. The American tribes of Proteaces have much greater affinity with those of New Holland than of Africa. In Africa the Proteacez occur in great abundance and variety about the Cape, in the same parallel which con- tains the principal number in Terra Australis. But, in the latter country, they have their chief seat: here, more than four hundred species belonging to this order have been alread y found. They abound at the two principal foci, but diminish very remarkably in the intermediate space. Those genera of Australian Proteacee, which bear the nearest resemblance to the African tribes of the same order, exist on the western coast, and those which most assimilate to the American tribes, on the eastern. Two genera only of this order are found in more than one of the southern continents, but par- ticular species have a very limited extent: they are not only distinct in the tracts separated by seas, but not one species has been found common even to the eastern and western shores of New Holland. There are several other families principally belonging to Terra Australis, which are partially dispersed over the south- ern countries separated from that continent by seas. In some instances the branches of these Australian families are found in the islands of the Indian Ocean ; in some others they are spread in an opposite direction, over the isles of the Pacific, and on the shores of South America. Several species of Epacridez, in New Holland a very numerous family, are OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. BD found in New Zealand; a few of them in the Society, and ota in the Sandwich Islands. Only one plant of this fa- mily, an unpublished species, exists in Tierra del Fuego. The €afless Acacie are very abundant in Terra Australis, at the two principal foci. One hundred species are found in that Country, and are peculiar to it; only seven other species are known ; of which five are natives of the tropical islands of the southern hemisphere, and one of the Sandwich Isles, Where it forms the largest tree.* Paragraph 3.—Analogy in the vegetation of parallel 7 but distant regions. Regions situated under similar latitudes and resembling soil, temperature, and local circumstances, display, in ge- neral, a certain analogy in the character of their vegetation. ‘is important to observe the particular nature of this cor- "espondence or analogy. It may be laid down as a general observation, that in dis- tant countries where the physical circumstances are similar l€ Veretation resembles, but that this resemblance does not Consist in the identity of species. In many instances, there ‘Ss found in two such regions only a general analogy in the vegetable forms ; certain families, or genera, in one replacing “imilar tribes in the other. In other instances the genera are nore widely spread, and different species belonging to the “ame genera are found in several regions. | hus the productions of the antarctic zone resemble those of the northern countries. The Dwarf Birch, which, in north- ‘tn Europe, occupies the highest tract on the borders of per- Petual Show, is replaced in Tierra del Fuego by the Betula Ant- Seg In a similar manner, on ascending mountains i “SS oahaey and equatorial countries, species analogous to those a zones are discovered in succession ; parallel tempe- ures, though under different latitudes, displaying analo-~ Sous modes of vegetation. America contains many genera in common with Europe and ; ‘ta. In some instances the particular species are distributed Senerally to North America and to Europe, as are those of the * Brown’s Appendix to Flinders. SS Se 26 OF TIE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. Fraxinus, Pinus, Populus, Tilia: in others to America and Asia; as are the Juglans, Magnolia, Vitis: in others, they are com- mon toall these continents, asthe Acer, Salix,and Delphinium. In the whole world there are known only two species of Li- quidambar, two of Panax, two of Platanus, two of Stillingia, two of Planera; one speciesin each of these genera inhabits Asia and the other America. Instances equally striking are mentioned by De Candolle, in which species belonging to ge- nera, equally restricted in number, are distributed to North America and to Europe. Similar observations are formed on comparing the three great equatorial countries of America, Asia and Africa. The intertropical regions of these three continents display genera common to two, or to all of them; but the species are differ- ent in each. America and Africa contain, between the tro- pics, different species of Cratzva, Bertiera, Eleis. Sagus and Strophranthus are, in a similar manner, ‘divided between equa- torial Africa and Asia. Species of Psychotria and Besonia are in Asia and America; and all the three equatorial regions contain distinct species of Melastoma, Stercutia, and Jussieua. Again, Cytinus, Sphenoclea, Melothria, Gyrocarpus, Sauva- gesia, each contaiming only two known species, distribute them separately in the like manner.* In the southern hemisphere, the three great continents con- tain towards their southern extremities, three very remark- able botanical provinces. A certain analogy has been ob- served in the vegetable forms which display themselves in all these regions ; but there is by far the strongest resemblance between the vegetation of South Africa and that of Terra Australis, under the same parallels. In reference to this sub- ject, I shall cite M. Leschenault, who has drawn the most striking picture of the aspect of the Australian forests. “Ifthe animal kingdom in New Holland offers remarkable peculiarities which isolate it, if ] may be allowed the expres- sion, from all other parts of the world, the vegetable kingdom has a character no less distinctive. This character relates not only to botanical differences, but likewise to a na- * De Candolle ubi supra. = OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS, OT tural physiognomy, which would be remarked by the most Careless observers. The vegetation only of the southern Parts of Africa can be compared to that of New Holland: in the same latitudes, we find innumerable legions of heaths and Protee, which include many shrubs remarkable for their Sraceful and delicate forms, adorning the otherwise barren Soil of either climate.” “ But in all the places we have visited, and above all on the western side of New Holland, we do not find, in the great Masses of vegetation, either the majesty of the virgin forests of the new world , or the variety and elegance of those of Asia, or the delicacy and freshness of the woods of our tem- Perate countries of Europe.. The vegetation is generally Sloomy and sad; it has the aspect of our evergreens or heaths : the plants are for the most parts woody : the leaves of nearly all the plants are linear, lanceolated, small, coria- “eous and spinescent. This contexture of vegetable produc- “ons is the effect of the aridity of the soil, and the dryness of the climate: it is, without doubt, to these same causes that the rarity of cryptogamous and herbaceous plants is owing. The grasses, which elsewhere are generally soft and flexible, participate in the stiffness of the other vegetables. € greater part of the plants of New Holland belong to new 8nera; and those included in the genera already known, are ° hew species. The natural families which prevail, are those of the Heaths, the Protee, Composite, Leguminose and yrthoidee. The larger trees all belong to this last family, and almost exclusively to the genus Eucalyptus. “The families which I have mentioned are spread very abun- dantly, and form a great part of the vegetation. This remark Proves to what an extent the system of natural families is in *Ccordance with the method of nature, which seldom renders Species isolated, but on the contrary, reunites them, nearly “ways in great, number, upon the same soil and in a similar Climate,’* 7 P &, Observations de M. Tesehenoult, forming’ an Appendix’ to Peron’s “Yayag* ‘utour du Monde. : See also M. Lesson.—'Tableau Physique de la Nouvelle Hollande. “ Tous les Vegétaux de la Nouvelle Hollande ont un caractére unique, c’est celui de posséder rae Cn ta eS SET ee SE Aa a Ae strc ee pT a a 28 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. The analogy between the systems of vegetation in these three southern countries, depends, as the observations of M. Leschenault would lead us to suppose, and as those of Mr. Brown demonstrate, on the same sort of correspondences as those above described. There are very characteristic and extensively diffused tribes in either country, which are wholly wanting in the other. Such are, in New Holland, the genus Eucalyptus, and the leafless Acacie, each consisting of about one hundred species already known: These, taken together, comprise, according to Mr. Brown, in respect to numbers, and the vegetable matter they contain, nearly one half of the whole vegetation of Terra Australis. No traces of them have been found in South Africa. That country, on the other hand, has several genera, very characteristic of its vegetation, which are entirely wanting in New Holland. In other instances, certain families in one region replace analo- gous tribes in the other. The Epacridez, one hundred and forty species of which are nearly confined to Terra Australis, appear there as substitutes for the Ericez, a numerous and diversified order in South Africa. We are informed by Mr. Brown, that the general character of South American vegetation probably recedes more from the Australian than the latter does from the South African. Yet, in Chili and Tierra del Fuego, there are certain tribes of plants nearly corresponding to some Australian genera. Paragraph 4.—Of species common to distant countries— enumeration of botanical provinces. The instances already collected are sufficient to prove, that the general law of nature is the distribution of different, un feuillage sec, rude, gréle, aromatique, 4 folioles presque toujours simples: par toute la terre en effet, les mimosz ont des feuilles composées, mais il étoit donné a la Nouvelle Hollande d’en produire un grandnombre a pétiole devenu feuille simple. Cette coupe similaire donnée a la foliaison semble étre accommodée 4 la sécheresse du sol, et destinée 4 multiplier les surfaces par ou s’opére la nutrition du vegétal.” << En dernier résultat,” concludes M. Lesson, “les foréts del’ Australie ont quelque chose de triste et de brumeaux qui fatigue la vue: la teinte du feuillage est d’un vert glauque, monotone: les rameaux sont 4 demi depouillés de leurs écorces fon- gueuses, ou celles-ci se détachent par laniéres qui flottent au gré des vents.” € OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 29 though analogous species, to, separated regions where the phy- Sical conditions are similar. We might almost venture to Consider those cases, in which the same identical species are found in different continents, in the light of exceptions to a Seneral fact. But the nature of these instances must first be €Xamined. Very many plants of simple structure are widely diffused, the same species existing in distant countries. This fact Struck the observation of Linneus, who says, “ Miramur Muscos, fungos, byssum et mucorem ubique erescere.” Asi- Milar remark has been the result of extensive researches made by modern travellers, and it has been fully confirmed by M. de Humboldt and Mr. Robert Brown. It is now well known ibe a general fact, that cellular or agamous plants, which wae looked upon as the lowest orders in the vegetable crea- tion, or as those of most simple structure, are extensively dis- Persed. Two thirds of the Lichenose observed in Terra Aus- tralis are also natives of Europe. Of the Musci and Hepa- Hee one third part, and of the submerged Alge found on the Shores of New Holland one sixth are European species; and °f the discovered Ferns of the same region, which exceed °ne hundred species, twenty-eight have been recognised in other countries.* Many of the monocotyledonous tribes likewise are widely fused. Many Grasses and Cyperacee are common to Eu- Tope, and to Terra Australis, and to South America. M. de> umboldt found not only Mosses, but Grasses and Cype- "acee which are well known as European species. Very different are the facts established. in regard to the \cotyledonous tribes found in various countries: yet a few of these are common to distant regions. _ It has been observed by M. de Humboldt, that in compar- ing the vegetation of the old and new continents, a general fact May be recognised, parallel to that which was observed y the Count de Buffon in respect to the distribution of ani- oo cae OE principally in the arctic regions where the two f ;, General Remarks on the Botany of Terra Australis, by R. Brown, Esq. ‘RS, Appendix to Flinders’ Voyage, p. 591. : oa Quod ad plantas phanerogamas attinet, feré eidem legi subjectas esse videas, Mam disertus nature interpres, Buffon, in animalibus zone torride, vim habere ooo sie . 5 PSS ae ee ae = SO Aan tn er re Sone 30 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. continents approach towards each other, and are almost joined, that most of the plants common to both regions have been discovered. Some few have been found in other parts of America and of the old world; but, if we abstract from the number those species which appear to have been trans- ported by human agency, the number of these common kinds everywhere diminishes as we approach the southern regions, where the continents are more widely separated. Among the 2691 Phanerogamous species, described by Pursh as natives of the United States, there are three hundred and eighty-five which are also found in the northern, or in the temperate parts of Europe; and among these there are se- veral, as M. de Humboldt has observed, which can scarcely have been transported by men; as the Satyrium Viride and Betula Nana. On the other hand, M. M. de Humboldt and Bonpland, in their travels in equinoctial America, found only about twenty-four species which were com- mon to the new continent and to any part of the old; and these were all belonging to monocotyledonous tribes, viz. Cy- peracee and Graminee. The agamous plants, of which more numerous species are common to the two regions, obey the same law: the number is greater towards the north than to the southward.* observavit. Ex magno numero stirpium, quas in Americe plaga #quinoctiali, Bonplandio atque mihi legere contigit, exceptis forsan arbusculis quibusdam ma- ritimis, (Rizophora Mangle et Avicenia Tomentosa) in herbariis nostris huc usque ne unam quidem dicotyledonem antiqui orbis offendimus, quam constaret ab Eu- ropeis, post patefactum novum orbem, non invectam esse.” ‘* Nos certe, quanquam herbariis diligentissime comparatis, in Phanerogamis Americe zquinoctialis longe a littore lectis, nom nisi monocotyledones ; sed earum ultra 20—24 glumaceas, nacti sumas.” * De Candolle. Dict. des Sciences Naturelles. ‘Rebus his diligentur perpensis patebit, plantas monocotyledones non eidem legi ac dicotyledones, subjectas esse, Aasque solas, ratione modi quo per va- rias terras continentes fuse sint, cum animalibus comparari posse. Nam ne- que ex quadrupedibus, neque ex avibus animans ulla zone torridce utriusque orbis communis est ; neque reptile ullum, auctore viro summo Cuviero, dissentientibus licet herpetologorum pluribus, qui veram Boam Americe cum Pythone antique continentis confundunt.” 2 “‘ Si ex plantis novi orbis longe plurime peculiares illi sunt (nam utrique con- tinenti communes ne quadragecimam quidem partem Phanerogamarum Americe jam cognitarum efficere videmus) necesse est, ut nunc inquiramus qua ratione stir- pes ille, secundum ceeli temperiem, diffuse sint, et quibus limitibus versus polos € OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. ol In Terra Australis, the aggregate number of plants known toMr. Brown is 4100. Of these, one hundred and sixty-six are “ommon to that country and to Europe; one hundred and Nineteen of the latter are agamous plants, thirty-two monoco- tyledonous, and only fifteen dicotyledonous. Of these fifteen Several are such as may be suspected to have been transported Y men; but this cannot be said of all of them. However, all of them, and indeed nearly the whole of the phaneroga- | ™ous plants which are common to Terra Australis and to Urope, are such as are likewise found in America, and se-— veral of them also exist in other regions. A diversity not less striking has been discovered, on com- Paring the vegetation of other southern countries with that of Europe and the northern regions. Although the propor- ton of European plants in Terra Australis is so small, it ap- Pears, as Mr. Brown has remarked, to be greater than that Which is found in the south of Africa. “The vegetation of the Cape of Good Hope,” he continues, “ not only in the ‘umber of species peculiar to it, but in its general character, 4S depending on the extensive genera or families of which it . Composed, differs almost as widely from that of the north- “tn parts of the same continent and the south of Europe, “8 does that of the corresponding latitude of Terra Australis "om the flora of India, and of Northern Asia. The same Writer has also observed, that the proportion of European *Pecies in South America, is probably still smaller than in “cuth Africa, though our means of judging on this point are Sufficient. However, some European plants are known to €Xist in South America. The two Forsters found in Tierra el Fuego, the Pinguicola Alpina, Galium Aparine, Statice "™eria, and Ranunculus Lapponicus. Wildenow has re- Marked, that it may be questioned whether these naturalists Were not deceived as to the specific identity of some plants With their European analogues, owing to the want of an op- be Montes, a frigore circumscribantur. Considerantes primum non nisi loca plana 70nge frigide et temperate, mirabimur quantopere, sub eodem parallelo, in amba- "S continentibus annua temperies differat. Non est hic'locus, causas hujus diffe- renti : : : ; aoe ie t ies €xponendi, quas jam alias demonstravimus; sufficit in hoc argumento ra i nes diligentius, quam antea factum est, numeris exponere.” A. de Humboldt, © distributione Geographica Plantarum. i . TG ES Ge oe OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. portunity of comparing them. De Candolle has made a si- milar observation, with respect to the older botanists in ge- neral. They were too ready to admit, without discrimination, identity of species, when they discovered in distant re- gions plants resembling those of Europe. In parts of the same continents remote from each other, or isolated by mountainous barriers, or cut off by sandy or rocky deserts or by wide rivers, which, however, are less effectual causes of separation than those before mentioned, different aggregates of plants are likewise found ; and though the limitation of species is in such examples not so decided as in some of the instances already pointed out, it is yet very strongly marked. Several attempts have been made, with re- ference to these observations, to distribute the surface of the earth into different regions of vegetation or botanical pro- vinces. The following is the enumeration adopted by M. De Candolle. 1. The Hyperborean region, which comprehends the northern extremities of Asia, Europe and America. 2. The European region, comprehending all the middle parts of Europe, excluding the countries which approach the pole, as well as those which border on the Mediterranean, and reaching eastward nearly to the mountains of Altai. 3. The Siberian region including the great steppes of Siberia and of Tartary.* * It was long ago observed by Gmelin, that the eastern part of Siberia consti- tutes a distinct province in the animal and vegetable world. In the preface to his Flora Sibirica, Gmelin has remarked that the river Yenisei seems to be a natural limit with respect to organized productions between Europe and Asia. “ After passing to the eastward of this river, the traveller sees every thing under new ap- pearances: a new and unusual vigour reigns in the vegetable creation. The mountains, which to the westward, as far as the Uralian chain, appeared only scattered, now take full possession, and are interspersed with the most beautiful valleys. New animals, the Argali, Musk, and others, begin to shew themselves. The plants of Europe disappear, and Nature begins suddenly to display a creation of vegetable tribes peculiar to Asia.” Pallas has confirmed these remarks of Gmelin, with some modifications. He says, that in the western parts of Siberia, immediately beyond the Uralian chain, the vegetation still remains similar to that of Pannonia: very few of the plants proper to Siberia are there seen, especially in the lower countries toward the north. On ascending the Irtish towards the chain OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 33 4. The Mediterranean region, comprehending the whole Seographical basin of the Mediterranean, viz. that part of Africa which lies to the northward of the Zahara, and those Countries in Europe which are sheltered to the northward by Chains of mountains more or less continuous. 5. The eastern European region, comprehending the coun- ‘ries which border on the Euxine and the Caspian. 6. India and its Archipelago. 7. China, Cochin-china and Japan. 8. New Holland. 9. South Africa, beyond the tropic. | 10, Abyssinia, Nubia, and the coast of Mozambique, on Which our information is very defective. Il. Equinoctial western Africa, including the borders of the Ongo, Senegal, and Gambia. 12. The Canary islands. 13. The United States of North America. 14. The western coast of North America within the tem- Perate zone. 15, The Antilles. 16. Mexico. 17, Intertropical South America. 18. Chili. 19. Southern Brazil and Buenos Ayres. 20. The Magellanic countries, Lastly, each of the islands sufficiently remote from main- lands to afford a peculiar vegetation, ought to be added to 'S catalogue. of Altai a Variation is perceived : the plants of the mountainous tracts begin to have afinity to those of the Yenisei. In the high plains beyond the Oby many plants al Ound, which are wanting in western Siberia, in the lower countries, and are only vund towards the Altaic mountains. As you go up the Yenisei, the vegetation of «mountains takes the ascendancy: to the southward of Lake Baikal is its true Native seat, Tn the easternmost tracts of Siberia and Kamtschatka, even in the “ai and plains, most of those plants are found which grow on the steppes, oe i sige them in the northern marshes which border the icysea. See Pallas, Reisen i tberien, French translation, vol. vi. p. 157. ans oe hence that the vegetable tribes of this region have their true native try} ee thie high chain of Altai and Sayan, and that from sce tract, where they are Yindigenous, they descend along the courses of the great rivers, sparingly towards © Western parts, but in great abundance to the eastward of the Yenisei. D Ses sane ; = mgs ose eee tee eget tO er arena il i, eas na ae 34 _ OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. It has been observed by M. De Candolle, that the vegeta- tion of these several botanical provinces is so distinct, that when we read in the works of scientific travellers accounts which state the plants of one region to have been discovered in another, we ought not to admit the fact as perfectly es- tablished, without a careful inspection of particular speci- mens, I shall now proceed to survey a different series of facts related to the same inquiry, and point out their bearing on the conclusions which I have already obtained. Szorton II1.—Of the means provided by Nature for the dis- persion of Plants—Facts relating to the migrations and Colonies of Plants. =a oo Oe Go ee eS It seems to have been a part of the economy of Nature, if such an expression may be allowed, to provide for the diffu- sion of the vegetable tribes. This may be inferred from the extreme minuteness of many seeds, admitting their trans- portation by winds through spaces of indefinite distance, and from the wings and feathery appendages with which other seeds are provided. In order to form a correct estimate of the efficacy of this and other causes, which contribute to the same result, we must survey facts connected with the actual dispersion of plants. The means by which the transportation of seeds have been effected are of various kinds. One of the most obvious is human agency. eee te Paracrapnu 1. — Of the dispersion of Plants by human agency. It has been observed, that mankind have almost every- where surrounded their abodes with artificial plantations ; they have changed the most desert spots, and the most dreary morasses, into corn-fields and gardens; and there is, even in the northern extremity of Europe, scarcely a poor hamlet where some exotic tree, or at least some vegetable of foreign extraction, is not to be found.* Together with these * Rudolphi uber die Verbreitung oder die angeblichen Wanderungen der Pflanzen- OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. bs Plants designedly introduced, others are conveyed accidentally. hus, with rice and other kinds of grain many plants have Come in which are still found among them, as the knap-weed ; and others which have become very widely spread, as the erigeron canadense. It was thus that hemp, as well as the . orn-apple, was first introduced, neither of which are na- “ves of these countries. De Candolle observes, that the in- habitants of the south of Europe sow together with the wheat of Barbary, the wild plants of Algiers and of Tunis. He "eports an instance of the accidental diffusion of seeds from other importations. Near the gate of Montpellier, there is & field appropriated to the drying of foreign wools after they ave been washed. Scarcely a year passes, in which some °reign plant does not make its appearance in this field. He Mentions psoralea palestina, hypericum crispum, centaurea Parviflora.* Many plants have been dispersed, in the first ‘nstance, from gardens among surrounding countries, and have ~©Come naturalized. Linneus remarked, that the erigeron “Anadense was introduced into gardens near Paris from North Merica. The seeds had been scattered by the wind, and this plant was, in the course of a century, spread over all "ance, Italy, Sicily, Belgium, and Germany.t emacs == — voit Ee Go ten SS EE Ee Oe OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS, 4] from the river Teith and discharging it into the Forth, the under-soil of clay being then cultivated. The clergyman of the parish standing by while the workmen were forming a ditch in this clay, which had been covered with fourteen feet of peat-earth, saw some seeds in the clay which was thrown Out of the ditch: he took some of them up and sowed them; they germinated and produced a crop of Chrysanthemum eptum. What a period of years must have elapsed while the seeds were getting their covering of clay, and while this Clay became buried under fourteen feet of peat-earth ! These facts, which clearly prove that seeds may be con- Cealed in the earth for an indefinite period without losing their vitality, must have an important bearing on the theory of the dispersion of plants. They show that there is no ne- Cessity for resorting to so bold an hypothesis, as that of equi- Vocal production, in examples which would be otherwise very difficult of explanation. To return to the consideration of the diffusibility of seeds y means of atmospheric currents, it cannot be doubted, that their agency is productive of considerable effects in the dis- Petsion of the lighter seeds, such as those of mosses, fungi, ‘nd lichens ; these are diffusible through the air in an impal- Pable powder, like thin smoke, which may be blown to very istant places, and under the influence of permanent aerial Currents, such as the trade-winds, may be conveyed, as it Would appear very probable, from one part of the world to “nother, MM. De Candolle has recorded an observation which “tems to place this supposition beyond all reasonable doubt. t Quimper Corentin, on the south-west coast of Britanny, he 'SCovered on some trees two lichens, the sticta crocata and € physcia flavicans, which have never been found in any Place in France. These lichens are peculiar to Jamaica, and - De Candolle supposes that their seeds had been carried €nce by the south-westerly winds, which prevail during a Steat part of the year on this part of the French coast.* * Essai sur la Geographie Botanique. OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS, Paracrapu 4,—Diffusion of plants by water. It is certain, that plants have been transferred from one country to another, by means of currents in the ocean, and by rivers; and it is probable, that water is one principal medium of the dispersion of seeds. It is well known, that plants of the sea-coast are among those which are most extensively spread in different regions. The seeds of these plants are of such a character, that they are not easily destroyed in the waters of the ocean, and of those which appear less likely to be thus preserved, it pro- bably happens occasionally that a few escape out of the ereat number which are exposed to the causes of injury. It is easy to collect facts of this description, many of which were known to Linneus, and are recorded in the Amenitates Academice.* The seeds of the cassia fistula, anacardium occidentale, mimosa scandens, dolichos urens, guilandina bonduc, and several other plants of Jamaica and the equi- noctial countries in America are occasionally collected in the Hebrides, whither they are conveyed by the Gulf stream.t Numerous instances of a similar description may be collected in the works of botanists and scientific tra- vellers.{ Streams of fresh water descending from Alpine regions bring with them the seeds of plants, and it is common to find a similar flora along the banks of rivers, and even the plants of mountains occasionally reappearing where the waters have deposited them.§ Mr. Lyell cites a fact remarked by Keith and others, that the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by seeds which belong to the interior of Germany, and the western shores of the Atlantic by seeds which have been generated in the interior of America, * Amen. Academice. De Coloniis Plantarum. + Pennant’s Voyage to the New Hebrides, 1772. p. 23. Sloane in Philos. Transactions. No. 223. p. 398. M. de Humboldt’s Travels, i. p. 59. + Amen. Acad. De Telluris habitabilis incremento. § De Candolle. Dict. des Sc. Nat. OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 43 The greatest difficulty presented by the diffusion of plants, When we adhere to the theory of their propagation, and reject : that of equivocal production and of the spontaneous gene- Tation of the same species in distant places, arises from those Not very uncommon instances in which aquatic plants occur ‘a the rivers and marshes of countries remote from each Other, Rudolphi says, that he possessed specimens of po- , tamogeton natans collected in St. Domingo, in nothing differ- 3 €nt from that of Europe. The Nymphza Lotus, supposed tmerly to have been peculiar to Egypt and India, grows also ue Hungary. Wildenow remarked, that zannichellia palus- tris, lemna minor, and polyrrhiza, and several other water- Pants, are indigenous both in Europe and in North Ame- Ica, Tt must be remarked, that many of these plants are very Senerally and almost universally spread, and their discovery ™ two distant places is so much the less remarkable. In other instances we must have recourse, in order to account for ©m, to the changes which the surfaces of various lands have Ndergone, and to extensive inundations. We can only US explain, as De Candolle observes, such facts as the dis- ©every of the Aldrovanda in the basins of the Po and of the One. The same fishes and other fresh-water animals are also found in lakes which have no communication. The dis- Persion of these as well as of aquatic and even of mountain Plants, can only be explained by reference to inundations, Which ; ; ; Ich in various times have covered extensive portions of our Continents, * Skorron IV.—Phenomena connected with the Vegetation of Islands, and of opposite Coasts. “yk have seen in a former section, that the vegetation of : Untries separated by wide oceans, or by great distances of s ace from each other, consists in general of peculiar tribes ; nd that when, in regions parallel in latitude and similar in Physical conditions, Nature reproduces analogous forms, oF * De Candolle, ubi supra. 44 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. families and genera resembling each other, and even allots species of the same genera to different countries; the spe- cies of plants are yet for the most part distinct in re- gions thus cut off from each other. We have likewise ob- served, that although the general law of Nature is what we have stated it to be, yet many exceptions to it may be found. We have in the next place remarked, that Nature has pro- vided means for the dispersion of the vegetable tribes, which have been, toa certain extent, effectual in giving origin to colonies or migrations of plants, and that many plants have actually been conveyed by such means to distant shores where they have vegetated. The most striking of these in- stances were, as it was to be presumed, examples in which species had been conveyed to climates unfavourable to their multiplication. Had the climate of the Orkneys been conge- nial to the plants brought by the Gulph-stream, an abundant vegetation from the seeds thus conveyed would long ago have been formed, and we should not be able to ascertain the fact of any recent transportation of plants from tropical climates by the great oceanic currents. But since we know that plants have actually migrated from distant coasts, the fact being here shown by circumstances unfavourable to their multipli- cation, and since it is highly improbable that these are the only instances of the same kind which have taken place, have we not reason to advert to the same fact in other examples, when identical species are found vegetating in distant places ? A survey of the vegetation of islands and opposite shores will throw light upon this subject. We may observe in the first place, that in small islands, very remote from continents, the species of plants are very few, and sometimes quite peculiar. Thus in Kerguelen’s Land, _ or the Island of Desolation, when visited by Captain Cook, although there was soil sufficient to afford a considerable ver- dure, it was found that this appearance entirely depended on one small plant, and the whole flora of the land contained only sixteen or eighteen species, including some sorts of mosses, and a kind of lichen. There was not the least ap- pearance of a shrub in the whole country, nor were there any animals except seals and marine birds. These animals were SO eae tee “SSS Rg SN ete SR Ge on Tas LEE a * eae ee a gs OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 45 Snly visitants; but all the plants were thought by Mr. An- derson, from whom we have the account, to be peculiar to © that island. We have one instance of an island at no great distance from a continent having a peculiar vegetation. Mr. R. Brown ‘a8 remarked, that there is not even a single indigenous spe- “les, characterising the vegetation of St. Helena, that has €en found either on the banks of the Congo, or on any other Part of the western coast of Africa. Does the diversity of Marine and atmospheric currents more completely separate this island from the continent than its situation would imply, °r are the nature of soil and other local circumstances, the ©ause of so marked a diversity ? The last supposition seems the most probable; because, not only the species of plants, ut likewise the genera in St. Helena, are different from those of the African coast. But, generally, the flora of islands near to continents con- “ISts in part of species found also on the nearest main-lands. Some examples of this kind, circumstances confirm and Seem fully to establish a conclusion which presents itself 4S a probable conjecture, namely, that in such cases the Plants have been conveyed from one shore to the other. f © Araucania Excelsa of New Caledonia has been “und in New Holland. If a doubt is raised whether it Nigrated from one place to the other, we have to observe, ~lat the same tribe inhabits also the intermediate Norfolk ‘sland, and that the part of New Holland where it exists is the Coast opposite to the islands before mentioned. The odenia Littoralis which grows on the western shores of “tra Australis, has been found on the opposite coast of Sinn Ametica it is also found in New Zealand, which is ated between those shores. - De Candolle has remarked, that the British isles con- 1485 vascular plants, of which there are only forty-three at have not been discovered in France. : alta and Sicily have some plants which belong to Europe, nd others of an African stock. The Opposite shores of the Mediterranean present a re- arkable sameness in their vegetation. Out of 1577 species tain th ——— a PS a RR Se ————— FOES et “s ay he ar So 46 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. observed by M. Desfontaines in Barbary, there are only about three hundred, or scarcely one fifth part of the whole number, which are not known in Europe.* The Canary islands, according to M. de Humboldt, contain plants found in Portugal, in Spain, in the Azores, and on the north-west coast of Africa. According to De Candolle, of five hundred and thirty-three vascular plants found in the Ca- naries, two hundred and twenty-three have been discovered in Africa. A great number of species, and even entire ge- nera, are peculiar to Teneriffe, to Porto Santo, and to Ma- deira. Mr. R. Brown inferred, from the botanical specimens col- lected by Professor Smith in St. Jago, that the flora of the Cape de Verd islands is intermediate between the vegetation of the adjoining African continent and the Canary isles.t But the principal insular region of our globe is the great Southern Ocean, including the Indian seas, and the most re- mote spaces of the Pacific. Much information has been col- lected on the botany of this region by the two Forsters, more lately by Mr. R. Brown, by Labillardiére, Chamisso, and other scientific men who accompanied the French and Russian expeditions, and lastly by M. Lesson. This writer appropri- ates the term Polynesia to the groupes of islands and archi- pelagos of the Indian seas, including the Sunda, Molucca, and Philippine islands, with New Guinea of which he con- siders the chains of Louisiade, the New Hebrides, and New Zealand to be continuations, and he comprises under the name of Oceania, the more remote groupes of the Pacific. The former, which consist according to M. Lesson of primi- tive, or as he terms them primordial formations, are re- garded by him as theterminal points, and the débris of the great Austral Asiatic continent, which has undergone disruption in its equatorial region: the islands of Oceania on the other hand are of volcanic and madreporic origin, of recent * Personal Narrative.—Translation, p, 270. vol. i. + Dict. des Sci. Nat. p. 406. + Brown’s Appendix to Capt. Tuckey’s Voyages, p. 476. — See also Extracts from Smith’s Journal, in Tuckey’s Narrative, p. 29. OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. AQ formation, posterior to the era of the present surface of our Planet,.* The vegetation of Oceania is composed, according to this €xcellent naturalist, of plants exclusively Indian, or analogous to those of equatorial India, of the Sunda isles, Moluccas, and New Guinea. Their distribution has evidently taken Place from Polynesia eastward to Oceania, and towards aster island and the American coast. M. Lesson observes, — that the vegetable kingdom, so luxuriant in the isles of Poly- Resia, lessens gradually in richness as we advance towards the fast. The isle Juan Fernandez, however, has not yet been ex- amined, and it would be not surprising if this ancient volcano should be found to bear the flora of the continent which it *pproaches, ’ The Indo-Polynesian vegetation displays itself in all its Splendour under the equinoctial line. Majestic in the Sunda isles, it spreads progressively over the numerous Malayan and dorian possessions, and appears in all its grandeur and lux- "ance in the eastern Moluccas, and the land of the Papuas. It is there, that numerous Palms, Cycades, and Ferns assume © graceful and slender form of light columns: immense rests are composed of lofty trees, such as the gatip or in- carpus edulis, bread-fruit-trees, nutmeg-trees, and spondias : is in the depths of these forests that we meet with the “Sculent plants of the Oceanian people, shrubs and. legumes = imnumerable and various forms. In observing the mass of 18 Vegetation, we find it perceptibly diminishing as we ap- Proach the straits of Torres, which only a few species tra- verse, belonging to genera by no means extensive. Such are © cabbage-bearing Arec, the Indian Erythrine, two wild Utmeg-trees, and the Flagillaria Indica. Continuing to ex- “Mine the flora of the chain reaching southward of Polynesia, viz. New Britain and New Ireland, we find again the same UXuriance: the forests are still peopled with the Areca and “880-trees, with great Ferns, and Drymyrrhizee. Proceed- ag towards higher latitudes, in the New Hebrides and % + * rs ox ‘o Hist. Nat. des Mammiféres et des Oiseaux découverts dépuis 1788 jusqu a nos Mts. par R. P, Lesson. Paris, 1828. ———————— —_—_—_—_————————— 48 OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. New Caledonia these tribes become less numerous; and still further southward the Austral temperate zone completely changes the physiognomy of vegetation, and the Isle of Nor- folk, has, in common with New Holland, the Araucania, found also in the harbour of Balade, and with New Zealand the phormium tenax. It is, however, remarkable, that this vast island, composed of two lands separated by a channel, though so near New Holland, and lying under the same latitude, dif- fers from it so completely, that they display no resemblance in their vegetation. Yet New Zealand, so rich in genera pe- culiar to its soil and little known, has some Indian plants, such as Pepper, the Olea, and a reniform fern, which is said to exist in the Isle of Maurice. The high lands of southern Polynesia between the tropics partake of the alimentary plants of the Indian islands, which have spread themselves in different directions to the most distant clusters, m a manner which it is difficult to explain, since it is often contrary to the prevalent course of winds and currents. Nearly all the high islands of oceania bring forth almost spontaneously bread-fruit-trees, the taro, or esculent arum, sugar-canes and bananas. At Taitiis found the Hi- biscus Rosa Sinensis, so abundant in the Moluccas ; the Pan- danis Gardenia Florida, the Cyathee, the Crateva, Figs and Bamboos, there display their several tribes. And it is on this island as M. d’Urville observes, that a multitude of Ferns begin to appear which inhabit this zone, spread hence and even from the Marquesas to the Moluccas, some even reaching to the Isle of France. Easter island, beyond the tropic of Capricorn, presents but a small number of species, and these are of Indian tribes; such are hibiscus populneus, some mimosas and a solanum, which the younger Forster found also at Taiti. “It is more easy to trace the way in which vegetation has spread to the low coral islands, and we have often fol- lowed the difference stages of its progress. The flora here consists but of a few species. The manner in which this in- teresting phenomenon has taken place, answers almost ex- actly to the description, somewhat poetical, but true in its main principles, of vegetable migrations, sketched in so de- OF THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 49 lightful a style by M. Bernardin de St. Pierre, and M. Cha- teaubriand.” A review of the general bearing of the phenomena con- Nected with the vegetation of islands, brings out results Strongly confirmatory of the dispersion of species from parti- Cular central points. Islands of considerable extent, and par- _ ticularly those of ancient formation, though near to continents, ave in several instances peculiar systems of vegetation ; but where the flora of islands is not peculiar, it is almost “verywhere precisely of that character which we should an- ticipate from the local conditions and proximities of the main- ands or neighbouring shores. comparison of the flora on the different coasts of inter- topical continents has developed some relations which we Must not omit to notice. Upwards of six hundred plants were collected by Professor mith in the neighbourhood of the river Zaire, which have “£en compared by Mr. Brown with the plants of other coasts Within the tropics. Of these six hundred species, Wenty-two are common to equinoctial Africa, India, and Merica, _ Thirteen are common to Africa and America, and unknown India, _ Seventeen are common to Africa and India, and not found 0 America, ost of these plants are strictly equinoctial, and they are Such whose dispersion cannot be ascribed to human agency. ¢ was observed by Mr. Brown, that most of them were found on the lower parts of the river Zaire, where they form but a ‘mall part of the entire vegetation, and that most of the di- “otyledonous plants in the list, are such as produce seeds “apable of preserving their vitality a long time in the currents of the ocean, particularly those belonging to the orders Mal- "ace, Convolvulacee and Leguminose, two of which are “Mong the most numerous families on all equinoctial shores. GENERAL INFERENCES RESPECTING Section V.—Recapitulation and conclusion. We may now compare the results which arise from the facts stated in this chapter, with the three suppositions laid down in the outset, respecting the origin of plants. In the first place it is obvious that the hypothesis of Lin- neeus, which represents all plants whatever as originating from a common centre, is wholly irreconcilable with the phe- nomena. It is unnecessary to say any thing further on this part of the subject. We have seen, that various parts of the world, remotely separated, possess each of them a vegetable kingdom in a great measure, at least, peculiar and distinct from the productions of other countries. The same considerations are, perhaps, equally conclusive against the third hypothesis, that the species of plants are universally diffused wherever climates and physical condi- tions in general are congenial to their existence and propaga- tion. This opinion, which has been held by many eminent naturalists, seems to be most clearly refuted by the following arguments. 1. It would be easy to discover districts, situated re- spectively in North America and in Europe, or in equinoc- tial America, Africa, and Asia, in which all the same physical conditions exist, namely, a parallel temperature and. ‘elevation, a similar soil, and the same degrees of humidity in the atmosphere; yet the species of plants in these several districts will be far from being identical. The vegetable tribes will present, in each respectively, analogies of form and general character; but few, if any, of the same species will be found in localities thus separated.* 2. Instances may frequently be observed in which plants become naturalized in countries where they had never existed uutil they were conveyed by human agency, or by the acci- dental transportation of seeds. When this has once hap- pened the results prove, that the climate and all external * Vide De Candolle, ubisupra, p. 402. THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 51 Conditiong are perfectly congenial to their nature, since they ave Spread, in a short time, over extensive regions, and have 2ppeared to supplant, in some places, the indigenous tribes. "eviously to the importation of seeds, the physical conditions Scally present had no power of producing such plants ; nor °es it appear, that their existence is so connected with ex- “thal conditions as to have been from the origin of things necessarily or naturally co-extensive with them. When in- troduced they multiply just as horses and oxen from Europe “ve produced herds which cover the immense plains of Pa- Taguay, : It appears, then, that the phenomena connected with the ‘Stribution of plants are only reconcilable with one hypo- €sis, or rather they lead us clearly to one inference ; namely, at the vegetable creation was originally divided into a li- muted number of provinces. Each country had its peculiar "bes, which at first existed not elsewhere. This conclusion “sults most distinctly from the general difference in the spe- “les belonging to each of the great continents; a difference “Ver called in question in respect to the principal masses of “Setation, and the great aggregate numbers of plants which, Y their situation at a distance from sea-coasts, and by the nature of their seeds, are removed from the chances of trans- Portation ; and, secondly, from the arrangement of gregarious Plants round some particular foci, the individual species being “Pread Out in various directions with reference to the central Points t Vv If we now revert to the question, of what nature are the : “€ptions to this general inference ; or whether it is probable, ln the plants which are found in different botanical pro- a Were indigenous in all of them, or have been dispersed ey ne original seat, the following considerations deduced s ; facts already surveyed, will serve to point out which '€ probable conclusion. * that there are natural provisions for the dispersion of Plants, and causes actually in operation which have this "esult, 2. That the species of plants are widely spread or re- | “8 52 RECAPITULATION OF FACTS stricted to particular places, nearly in the proportion in which they appear to be thus diffusible or otherwise. The diffusible nature of seeds belonging to the cryptogamous species has been often adverted to, and by many has been thought to afford a sufficient explanation of the almost universal dis- persion of the cellular tribes of plants. M. de Humboldt seems, indeed, to admit the original diffusion of the fung! and other agamous plants, but M. De Candolle with greater reason rejects this opinion. He remarks, that the determi- nation of species is very difficult in these tribes of simple structure, and that the minuteness of seeds explains the wide extension of such tribes. Among the more perfect plants, it seems that the species which vegetate on the sea-coast and at the mouths of rivers are the most widely spread. Thus the phenomena to be explained coincide with the sup- position, that plants have been accidentally spread, when we advert to the facilities afforded by their nature and organi- zation. They equally agree with this hypothesis when we direct our attention to the situation of countries. For, I. The phenomena related to the dispersion of plants to islands and sea-coasts, are, as we have seen, in many in- stances such as to force upon us the conviction, that par- ticular species have spread themselves from one place te another. I now refer to some of the facts connected with the dispersion of plants over different islands the Pacific, and with the corresponding vegetation of oppo- site shores. But generally considered, the diffusion of tribes over islands coincides with what we should expect to find o® the supposition now contemplated, and give the negative t0 any other. II. The different proportions in which the same species o¢- cur in the flora of continents and great regions tend to esta blish the same belief. I allude to the fact, that so many tribes are common to the northern continents where they approach and afford facilities for migration; and that the number diminishes as the great lands become separated by wider oceans towards the equator, till in the south we find RESPECTING THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS. 53 regions so entirely diverse in their botanical productions, as those of South Africa, South America, and Austral Sia, On the whole we may conclude, witha great degree of pro- bability, that each tribe of plants, and especially of the more Perfect plants, had on the earth one original habitation, from Which it has been dispersed according to the capabilities afforded by its structure, and the aid of external agencies. -—Srmpentnietetter orient tet | {Sa 6 OS Sane ERS aa Se a NaN - al eal i a ‘| : i ti a in 4 e | | 3 i Hh 5 ¢ | F va t i a ae it he | { i} Hy Pieie | is a aaa re Ve t | a ; | TASER OF THE DISPERSION OF INSECTS. CHAPTER III. DISPERSION OF ANIMALS. Section I.—Of the lower orders of Animals. On adverting to the dispersion of animals, we are struck by a fact in close analogy with one of the most general ob- servations presented by the survey of the vegetable tribes, and their local distribution. I allude to the almost universal dispersion of organized beings of the smallest size and most simple structure, and the more limited existence of those whose organization is complex, and their bulk comparatively great. We have seen, that botanists explain this fact, as far as the vegetable kingdom is concerned, by reference to the universal diffusion through the atmosphere of the minute seeds which produce the simplest plants. Recourse has been had to a similar expedient for explaining facts which other- wise bring us to the doctrine of equivocal generation in the animal kingdom, but still greater difficulties here stand in the way. These difficulties have been strongly stated by Rudolphi, who was a decided supporter of the theory of the spontaneous origin of animals. Rudolphi argues, that Infu- sory Animalcules are everywhere produced of the same form and structure. He says, “ I am not acquainted with any re- searches into the nature of these creatures made in other quarters of the world ; but as they are so similar in the differ- ent countries of Europe, we may expect that they will be found to agree for the most part in other regions. Those simple structures, which are so speedily produced at the decay of larger animals, require very little for their existence, and the requisite conditions are easily fulfilled. After the acute researches of Treviranus the elder, no one will, as formerly, mistake these creatures of a moment. Truly, I know nothing more ridiculous, than the theory which peoples heaven and OF THE DISPERSION OF INSECTS. 55D earth with seeds, which come nobody knows whence, and quietly wait for the moment, when some naturalist is about to make experiments, in order to spoil his work, and surprise him by the appearance of so many interlopers. As mould and various fungi generate themselves under the necessary Conditions, so likewise do these infusory animalcules; and the Most unbridled fancy can hardly imagine, that the mfusoria Were produced in Asia, and from thence have been spread over the world.” From the infusoria, Rudolphi goes on to make similar strictures on the production of other zoophytes ; but he seems to consider the facts which relate to intestinal Worms the most conclusive in favour of the theory which he has adopted.* I shall not enter at large on the discussion of so wide a question as that which refers to the existence of equivocal or Spontaneous generation, since it appears to be but remotely Connected with the main subject of my inquiry. Whether those minute creatures, whose size is so small as to baffle all Accurate researches into their mode of origination, produce themselves and begin to exist without parentage or not, no- thing of this kind can be predicated of animals whose na- ture admits of more satisfactory investigation ; and although reasoning from the known to the unknown can amount to hothing more than probability, yet to proceed in the reverse direction would be perfectly absurd.+ The inquiry, whether Species of animals proceed generally from many, or in the ‘stance of each species from a single original stock, cannot derive illustration from any surmises founded on the supposed Presence of minute beings of simple organization wheresoever the conditions exist which appear compatible with their pro- * Rudolphi’s Beytrige zur Anthropologie, &c. §. 130. u. s. : + The reasons which have induced most of the naturalists of the present day, to "lect the docirine of equivocal generation, may be stated under two heads; first, the @Tgument of analogy derived from the known fact with respect to all the higher orders of animals, as well as of plants; secondly, the negative argument arising from experiments, such as those of Spallanzani, and Sennebier, which prove i by Precluding the access of minute seeds and ova floating in the atmosphere, the Rana. of sninute animal and vegetable life is prevented, in a very great mca- Sure at least, from taking place. ene On oe ne ee — ev a _ = = a cnet acaaiaita iia SS nea = oe er a p ie 7 + y : iP RTS 6 RE Ee 56 OF THE DISPERSION OF INSECTS. duction. We must proceed to establish inferences from par- ticular facts, and from a survey of what actually is known in respect to each different department of the animal creation. From the known facts we shall be enabled to draw inferences which will be sound and firm, as far as they relate to parti- cular departments of nature, whatever may be the case in other regions yet involved in obscurity. I shall now trace the phenomena connected with the dis- persion of animals, arranging them according to the elements and the departments of the world inhabited severally by par- ticular tribes, rather than the order of the zoological system : I proceed, first, to insects and birds; secondly, to marine animals ; thirdly, to animals of the land, including mammifers and reptiles. Szorion I].—Of the dispersion of Insects. The local existence of insects is closely connected with that of the plants and animals, which afford them sustenance, and which, in many instances, furnish them their only places of concealment and abode. We should, therefore, previous to any inquiry respecting facts which particularly relate to in- sects, expect to find the same laws prevailing in this part of the creation, as in the dispersion of vegetable tribes, and in that of other animals. A great number of insects are espe- cially limited in the sphere of their existence by the presence of particular plants. With the exception of mosses, alge, and lichenose, which are, in a great measure, exempted from contributing to the support of the insect tribes, there are few species in the vegetable creation which are not destined to afford habitation and sustenance to one or more species, and in numerous examples, several different kinds of insects are appropriated to one plant. One half at least of the in- sect tribes are thus limited to particular regions, since it ap- pears, according to M. M. Kirby and Spence, that phytiborous and carnivorous insects exist in nearly equal proportions. But the remaining half are not much more at large with respect to the sphere of their existence, since the animals on which they feed can in general be supported only under given OF THE DISPERSION OF INSECTS. 57 ©onditions of nutriment and climate, which are themselves determined by localities. The noxious insects which man ©arries with him are said to be the only kinds which are uni- Versal, Fabricius had some knowledge of the geographical distri- ution of the insect tribes and of their local relations, but the Subject had never been fully investigated until this, as well ®$ most other questions in the natural history of the imsects and arachnides occupied the attention of M. Latreille. The ollowing are the general conclusions of this celebrated na- turalist, with respect to the dispersion of species in this de- Partment of nature.* 1. The whole or avery great number of the arachnides and DSects inhabiting countries of which the temperature and the Soil are the same, but separated by great distances, are com~ Posed, in general, of different species, if the countries are "der the same parallels. All the insects and arachnides Which have been brought from the eastern parts of Asia, as nina, are distinct from those of Europe and Africa, whatever ®latitudes and temperatures of the Asiatic countries may be. _2. The greatest part of the same animals differ, besides, spe- “ifically, when the countries which they inhabit having a simi- arity in the soil and temperature are separated one from ‘ “Nother, the-differences of latitude being of no consequence, | Y Natural barriers which interrupt the communication between — “sé animals or render it difficult; such as seas, lofty chains . Mountains, and vast deserts. The arachnides, insects, and “ven the reptiles of America and of New Holland, cannot be “onfounded with the animals of the same classes inhabiting “old continent. The insects of the United States, although piten very similar to ours, are different in some characters. hus the tribes which inhabit the kingdoms of New Grenada, and of Peru, countries near to Guiana and likewise equinoc- hal, are yet in a great measure different from those of Guiana, “parated from them by the Cordillera which divides the cli- Mates of these countries. In passing from Piémont into France Introduction a la Geographie Générale des Insectes et des Arachnides, par *“. Latreille. Memoires du Muséum d’Hist. Nat. tom. iii. 58 OF THE DISPERSION OF INSECTS. bythe Col de Tende,a very suddenchange is perceptible. These remarks may have exceptions, relative to aquatic species. We are acquainted with insects whose habitation extends very far. The thistle-butterfly, termed “ La Belle Dame,” so common in our climate, and even in Sweden, is found in the Cape of Good Hope. New Holland likewise has a species very near to it. The sphinx of the nerion, and sphinx celerio, have for their northern boundary our climate, and the Isle of France for their southern limit. Among the aquatic insects, the dytiscus griseus inhabiting the waters of the ci-devant Provence, and of Piémont, is not uncommon in Bengal. It appears from some further observations by the same writer, that the distribution of genera and the species com- posing them, in this department of the animal creation bears some analogies to those general facts, which we have observed in the dispersion of plants, and to the laws of geographical diffusion which prevail in other departments of zoology: M. Latreille was aware of this relation. He remarks, for ex- ample, an approximation in the entomology of America to that of the Austral countries and the eastern parts of Asia. But this observation refers to genera of which particular species are the peculiar stock of each country, and not to any example in which the same species is found in separate regions. The insects of New Holland are often of the same genera with those of the Moluccas, and the south eastern parts of India: they have much affinity with those of New Zea- land and New Caledonia, and generic relations, as we have observed, with those of America: yet the entomology of New Holland has, according to Mr. Latreille, a peculiar type. Many instances have been pointed out by naturalists i2 which tribes of insects existing in one region, but absent iD another where the climate is parallel and the local condition® apparently similar, are replaced by analogous groupes. The honey and wax of Europe, Asia, and Africa, are prepared by bees of the same genus with our common hive-bee. In Ame- rica, this genus is not to be found in the native state, but is replaced by Melipona and Trigona ; and in New Holland, by a still different but undescribed representative. The Melo OF THE DISPERSION OF BIRDS. &9 lonthide and Rutelide of the old and new world, are repre- Sented in'Terra Australis by the brilliant and numerous Ano- Plognathide. The Rhipicera of the Brazils is of a different type from that of New Holland. The singular genus Cre- Mastocheilus of North America has the Genuchus K. for its Tepresentative in Africa, and the Lucani of other countries 8ive place in New Holland to the Lamprima of Latreille, and the Ryssonotus of M‘Leay.* 7 MM. Kirby and Spence have enumerated some of the Principal genera of insects which impart a peculiar entomo- logical character to different regions. They observe, that the enera Manticora, Graphipterus, Glaplegous, Eurychora, Neumora, Masaris, and many others, are peculiar to Africa. n Asia alone we find Mimela, Euchlora, Colliuris, Catasco- Pus, Apogonia, a peculiar form of Horia. In America, Agra, Galerita, Nilion, another type of Horia, Tetraonyx, Rutelia, Doryphora, Alcernus, Erotylus, Scotinus, Cupes, Corydalis, abiolus, Heliconia, Castnia. In New Holland, Hellulo, Edephastomas, Anoplognathus, Agrotiphila, Cerapterus, He- fus, Adelium, Paropses, Achirus, Thynnus. Section II].—Of the dispersion of Birds. The geographical distribution of birds has seldom engaged © attention of zoological writers, and with the exception of Professor Illiger’s “ Tabellarische Uebersicht,”’+ in which the Abodes of 3800 species were the subject of inquiry, scarcely “ny systematic attempt has been made to elucidate this de- Partment of natural history. The ornithology of many ex- tensive regions, abounding in tribes of birds, has been as yet a imperfectly. explored, that it would be impossible for any Naturalist of the present day, to treat this subject with an “xtensive and satisfactory examination of all its bearings. Buffon imagined the total number of species existing in the Class of birds to be about 2000. It has been stated, that * M. M. Kirby and Spence’s System of Entomology. wy Tabellarische Uebersicht der Vertheilung der Végel uber die Erde. Abland- "gen der K. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin. b. x. 60 OF THE DISPERSION OF BIRDS. 6000 species are already ascertained, and many new species are added every year to the catalogue. The whole number in existence must be very much greater than this aggregate, since 500 species have been ascertained in the colony of the Cape,* while the ornithology of most intertropical countries, which abound in tribes of birds, has been, in comparison, little explored. Europe and the United States are, perhaps, the only regions the winged tribes of which have been ade- quately compared. The known birds of the new world were reckoned by Charles Lucian Bonaparte, in 1827, to be three hundred and ninety-six species, of which three hundred and eighty-two belong to the United States. The number of spe- cies ascertained in Europe in 1832, was stated by the author of an excellent paper in the Quarterly Review, to be three hundred and ninety-five, of which two hundred and seventy- seven species are natives of Britain and Ireland. The species of Europe and of North America have been classed under one hundred and seven genera, of which sixty-four are com- mon to both continents. Of all existing tribes of animals, birds and the cetacea are, partly owing to their structure, and in part by the nature of the media they inhabit, best fitted for extensive migration. Accordingly in these tribes, and scarcely in any others, there are individual species which appear to be almost universally spread. The locomotive powers of some birds are so great, that scarcely any natural barriers are capable of setting limits to their migration. The only boundaries which confine them are uncongenial climates, or physical circumstances in- compatible with their existence. Some of the largest birds of prey are found in many distant countries. It has been observed, that even those tribes which are nearly or wholly destitute of the power of flight, are more extensively spread than the wingless animals: that the ostrich, for example, is to be found over all Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to the Cyrenaik, and from Cape Verde to Babel-mandeb ; that the same osprey, or Fishing Eagle, wanders along the shores * South African Quarterly Journal, No. 1. p. 10.—Quarterly Review, vol. 47, p. 853. —_——— = OF THE DISPERSION OF BIRDS. 61 of Scotland, and on those of the south of Europe and of New Holland. The Chinese goshawk is said to reach from the South-eastern tracts of Asia to the western coast of Europe, inhabiting many intermediate stations and extending across the broad expanse of the American continent: the Lammer- geyer haunts the heights of the Pyrenean, the mountains of Abyssinia, and the Mongolian steppes. The Penguin Falcon Sccurs in Greenland, Europe, America, and New Holland.* The structure of these tribes, or the local circumstances of the countries where they were placed, affords a full and ade- {uate explanation of the fact that their wanderings have been So extensive. On the other hand it appears as a general ob- Servation, that tribes in respect to which these conditions are found to be reversed, are confined to a very limited range. This is the case especially with birds inhabiting islands and Endowed with but weak powers of flight. An example may be found in the species belonging to the parrot tribe, of which the number known some years ago amounted to two hundred and thirty-nine. These are divided into groupes, which are distributed separately to different parts of the world, to India, to Africa, and to America. The Lories inhabit New Guinea, Oluccas, and other eastern islands, but are unknown to the New world. Owing to the weakness of their flight, one island of an archipelago often contains a peculiar species which is Wanting in other islands of the same groupe.f Another il- lustration of the same remark is furnished, as Mr. Lyell has observed, by the humming-birds. They are peculiar to the ew World, where a few have a wide range ; Trochilus Flam- Mifrons ig common to Lima, Juan Fernandez and the Magel- lanik, but other species are peculiar to one of the West Ndia islands.t The common grouse peculiar to Britain is a Similar instance of single collocation. It may be remarked, that the distribution of genera among Inds to different countries, displays the same method of ar- . Quarterly Review, vol. xlvii. p. 357. 1s Remarks on the History and Distribution of the Genus Psittacus, or Parrot.-— “mn. Philo, Magazine, May, 1832. t Principles of Geology, vol. ii. 62 OF THE DISPERSION OF THE rangement, if we may use that phrase, as that wh‘ch has always been observed in the dissemination of plants and of the insect tribes. As ornithology has advanced, it has been found more and more requisite to divide extensive families of birds into different groupes, distinguished from each other by some peculiarity of character, or by a leading deviation in the nature and habits of species from the nature and habits of other species belonging to the same family. It appears more and more as knowledge becomes more extensive and particular, that groupes thus constituted have different geo- graphical relations. Thus in the late work, still incomplete, of the excellent naturalist M. Lesson, the vulture tribe, or as they are more properly termed the Vulturidei, are separated into departments, and distinguished by particular names. Of these the true Vultures and the Percnopteri belong to the old world ; the Sarcoramphi belong to South America, as well as the Catharti and the Iribins, and the Gypaétes is proper to Europe. New Holland is distinguished from the rest of the world in having none of the vulture tribe, which are there replaced by the different races of Caracaras or Polybori.* Section IV.—Of the dispersion of marine Animals. The inhabitants of the ocean are not so entirely limited by those abrupt barriers which confine within particular regions the natives of the land, of islands separated by seas, or of continents divided by rivers and chains of lofty mountains. It seems likely, that many of the marine tribes should be found to take a wide range, and to wander wherever the vast regions of the ocean afford them an open path. The natural history of these tribes is among the most imperfect depart- ments of zoology, and the undefined characters of particular species has long favoured the error of thosewho have regarded some of them as cosmopolites. Mistakes of this description have been pointed out by M. Péron in regard to the tribes of Phoce. Under the name of Phoca Ursina, or sea-bear, more than twenty species have been described, or merely indicated, “ Hist. Nat. des Oiseaux, p. 12. PHOCACEOUS TRIBES. 63 by various authors, which are distinguishable from each other, not only in colour, form, size, and the relative position of their fins, but even in the number of their teeth and the Presence or want of external ears. Not less confusion has Prevailed respecting the Phocee Vituline or sea-calves, an Maginary species supposed to inhabit at the same time the tozen oceans of either pole, and to bask under the equatorial Sun. Even the barriers which confine the ocean,were thought have set no limits to the progress of this tribe, which has ®en said to have made its way into the Caspian, and what is Still more strange, to have peopled with the native herds of the : Salt sea, the fresh water lakes of Baikal, Ladoga, and Onega. me writers have found no difficulty in supposing that seals, Which breathe at the surface of the sea, could yet find a pas- “age through subterraneous conduits from the Euxine to the aspian. Others have preferred to make them travel up © great rivers of Asia, from the frozen ocean to the elevated akes in the steppes of eastern Tartary, getting over some Part of the journey on the land by means which are not ex- Plained. The facts which these conjectures are intended to ie plain, rest on the authority of such writers as Langius Isbrandt, and it is supposed with great probability by olga by Lesson,} that the pretended seals of fresh- €r Siberian lakes are otters. = ost of the instances in which marine animals have been Pposed to have so wide a range, appear to have been re- Ported on the authority of ill-informed persons, and so many tistakes have been detected in these relations as prove them ; © unworthy of belief. Facts connected with the disper- On of Seals, as well as of the Cetacea, have been investigated. YM. M. Péronand Le Sueur, and more recently by M. Lesson. Y Peron it has been proved, that Steller and Fabricius have “scribed two different animals under the designation of Sig Leonina, and that three great species of Phocacez abiting the Austral seas have been confounded with the ‘ dy an M. Péron et Le Sueur sur les Habitations des Animaux Marins. Annales: Luséum, tom. xv. j €sson’s Hist. des mammiferes, tom. 4. Les Phoques. | Sea i Sas Ses eee ay =f ee Be Be Be 2] 64 OF THE DISPERSION OF THE true sea-lion of the south. If so much uncertainty prevails with respect to some of the largest Phocz of our northern hemisphere, it is probable, as M. M. Péron and Le Sueur have observed, that still greater errors are involved in the history of the innumerable marine animals which inhabit all the regions of the Antarctic ocean. “ How can we admit these improbable instances of identity in species which are registered in so many works? Observed even to the present day almost exclusively by men who are strangers to all the principles of science, incapable of making the comparisons and distinctions which it exacts; the majority of these ani- mals are so little known, that it is impossible to determine any thing with respect to their species.” The same writers conclude by declaring, that among those tribes which they have been able to examine with their own eyes, or with regard to which they have obtained accurate information from others ; there is not a single animal belonging to the marine amphibie of the antarctic region, which is not distinguished by specific characters from analogous tribes in the northern seas. The dispersion of the Phocaceous tribes has been more recently investigated by M. Lesson. “These native inhabi- tants of the sea are nowhere more abundant, nowhere united in more numerous herds than upon the coasts of lands smitten with death, or enveloped in the ices of the pole. Here, in- deed, have their savage tribes preferred to remain for ages; and here the number is continually increased by the destruc- tive disposition of man, which incessantly pursues them, and drives them from milder climates.”’ The Atlantic ocean, as well as the Mediterranean and Cas- pian seas, the Indian ocean and the Red sea, the equatorial, as well as the arctic and antarctic oceans, are nurseries of seals: nevertheless we can confidently lay it down as an ub- - doubted truth, that the Phocacez which live under the equa- tor and between the two tropics, are merely isolated or solic tary tribes, rarely united even in small companies ; and that those which live round the north pole, or upon the bounda- ries of the south pole, unite in great herds, or form innv- merable legions. Some travellers have likewise pretended OF THE DISPERSION OF CETACEA. 65 that the phocacez are found in the fresh waters of the lake aikal.* Such a fact requires strict examination before it Can be established. Some naturalists worthy of credit, and @mong others M. Péron, have remarked that it was easy to Mistake otters for phocacee ; and. it is very probable that this error has been committed. It has been for a long time believed—and this mistake is of greater importance since it 8 contributed to confound our nomenclature—that certain Species of phoce exist indifferently in either hemisphere : tamed in conformity with this idea, the descriptions of Steller nd Fabricius have been made to agree with those of Foster, agés, Dampier, and others. Péron has first pronounced Strongly against this opinion, and we fully coincide with him. n fact, large animals, and the phoce among others, have Cunds which they seldom pass. The marine elephant, for €Xample, has never been found in the northern hemisphere, or has one of the phoce of the north been observed in the South ; and if the sea-lion, bear, and sea-cat of Krakennini- °w and Steller are looked upon as synonymous with the ‘imals so termed by Pernetty and Forster, the name which ‘© improperly unites them, and which is given by navigators Without reflection to all amphibious animals, has had more Share in this than any resemblance or analogy of form.” “Adopting thus the views of Péron, which no exam- Ple invalidates, while, on the other hand, every observation ‘tems to strengthen them, we shall find that the phoce May be distributed geographically into three groupes; first, Hlantic phoce of the north pole; secondly, Arctic phoce of the Pacific Ocean; thirdly, Antarctic phoce.”’+ _M. Péron was not less decided in pronouncing on the en- tire diversity of the cetacee inhabiting the northern and the- “outhern oceans. He considers it to be entirely by mistake that the Balena Mysticetus was supposed to swim around ' Pitzbergen, as well as in the seas of the antarctic pole. On 'S subject M. Lesson has expressed a different opinion. © admits the conclusion of M. Péron as almost universally * Krakenninikow’s “ Travels in Siberia and to Kamtschatka’” + Lesson, ubi supra, p. 373. 66 OF THE DISPERSION OF CETACES. correct, even with respect to the majority of cetaces, but con- tends, that it is not applicable, if we can rely upon the pre- sent state of our information, to some of the whales and ca- chalots which are capable of traversing the equatorial seas from one polar region to the other. Itis generally admitted, as he observes, that the best known among the great cetacee, are spread through all seas on the globe, and that the same species of whales or macrocephalous cachalots belonging to the northern seas are found in the great ocean, whether in the waters which wash the north-west coast of America, orin the seas of Cape Horn, or southward of New Holland. The whale- fishers whom we have consulted on this subject have, in fact, always affirmed this identity; and the whales or fishes that we have seen under all the parallels of the north or south, or under the equator, in the Pacific, as well as Atlantic Ocean, have appeared to us to differ in no respect from the species of cetacee inthe northern seas, such as they have been de- scribed. But we know that the same remark does not hold with respect to dolphins; these are subject to the laws im- posed upon all animals in a state of nature; they do not go beyond certain limits. Within these limits are all the condi- tions appropriated to their support; there they find the kind of nourishment which is proper for them, the nature and tem- perature of the waters to which their organs are accustomed ; all the requisites of their existence are included under these latitudes: thus to the south belong the delphinapter of Péron, and its representative in the north is the beluga: thus the dolphins of the coasts of Iceland or even of Europe, are by no means the same as those of the antarctic seas.’’* The dispersion of fishes has been still less an object of re- search, but in this instance the leading facts direct us to 4 similar conclusion. The fishes of the Red Sea, as Mr. Lyell has observed, are said to differ entirely from those of the Me- diterranean. Flying fishes are almost confined to the inte!- tropical oceans, and different species are found in the Atlantic and in the eastern seas. The electric gymnotus belongs exclu- sively to America, and the silurus electricus to the rivers of * Lesson, Hist. Nat. des Cétacés, p. 9. OF THE DISPERSION OF FISHES. 67 Africa, while the torpedo, which is dispersed over all the tro- Pical seas, is found also in the temperate regions.* The greatest difficulty connected with the distribution of Shes is the discovery of the same species in fresh-water lakes remote from each other, and spread at great distances and at different elevations over mountainous regions. Such Phenomena, have a close relation to those which are displayed by the diffusion of aquatic plants of the same species through Inland seas and lakes; and the only satisfactory solution of these facts is to be obtained by reference to inundations and and-floods, the frequent occurrence of which in different Periods is attested by historical and by geological proofs. It ‘Ssupposed by Gmelin and by Mr. Lyell, that birds, and par- “eularly the anseres, retain occasionally the mimute eggs of fishes among their feathers, and transport them from one lake to another. M.M. Péron and Le Sueur have adopted a similar conclusion "especting the lower departments of marine animals. They *egin with asserting a just claim to attention. “ No voyager "48 collected a greater number of animals than we have done ™ the southern hemisphere; we have observed, described, ‘nd drawn figures of them all in their native spots: we have ought with us many thousand species into Europe, where they are deposited in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. €t these numerous animals be compared with those of our hemisphere, and the problem of their identity or diversity will be solved, not only with regard to species of a more per- ©ct organization, but even with respect to all those which “te of more simple structure, and which, on that account, “ght seem likely to have received from nature less variety °F form. Let those who doubt, examine not merely the spe- “les of Doris, of Aplysia, of Salpa, of Nereis, Aphinome, mphitrite, and that multitude of mollusce and worms, Which offered themselves successively to our observation ; let €m descend also to the Holothuriz, to the Actinie, the Be- "oes, the Meduse; let them extend their researches even to Se shapeless Sponges, which all agree in regarding as the * Pods. Principles of Geology, p. 2. + Gmelin in Amenitat. Acad. 75.—Lyell’s Geology, vol. iii. p. 3. hc, — . | Poe 68 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN lowest term of degradation, or rather of simplicity in animal structure. Among all this immense assemblage of antarctic animals, it will be found, that there is not one which exists in the seas of the northern hemisphere.’’* Section V.—Of the Dispersion of Mammifers and Reptiles of the Land.— Division of the Earth into Zoological Provinces. When we engage in similar inquiries with relation to animals of larger bulk and destitute of wings, such as quadrupeds and reptiles inhabiting the land, the various questions that present themselves appear to be more capable of solution and encumbered with fewer difficulties. By reason of their bulk or stature, these animals are easily ob- servable: they do not elude our view as do the Phoce and Cetaceee and other marine tribes in the deep waters of the ocean. Nor are we subjected in this instance to the same causes of ambiguity which perplex the researches of botanists mto the history of plants, the seeds of which are liable to be carried down by rivers, and transported by ma- rine currents to distant shores, where they vegetate and establish new colonies, which may be mistaken for original centres of diffusion. In comparing the wild mammifers which inhabit separate countries we are enabled to draw inferences with greater certainty from the facts which present them- selves; and hence the conclusions, which with respect to dicotyledonous plants, as well as other tribes of animals, could only be stated as highly probable or at most as gene- ral facts, may be maimtamed almost without exception in the instance of quadrupeds and reptiles inhabiting the land. Animals thus limited in their power of locomotion, are confined within the regions which gave them birth by natural barriers which prevent their dispersion. The climates and temperatures which furnish the necessary conditions of their * Hist. de tous les animaux qui composent la famille des Méduses, par M.M. _ Péron et Le Sueur. Ann. de Muséum, tom, xiv. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 69 existence, are perhaps only to be found within a certain tract. Tn general the limits which restrain the dispersion of repent and progressive animals are high mountain-chains, which often are the demarcations of climates, and beyond which new systems of vegetation as well as new animated tribes exist ; or they are wide rivers or branches of the sea which Mtersect continents and separate islands. Hence, by a teference to the geographical features of countries, we may divide the earth into a number of regions fitted to become the abodes of particular groupes of animals. We shall find ©n inquiry that every one of the provinces thus conjecturally Marked out is actually inhabited by a distinct assemblage of peculiar mammifers and reptiles, as they are likewise in Most instances the appropriate seats of distinct systems of Vegetation, and of particular families in the lowest depart- Ments of animated nature. Tn the first place, it is obvious that the only latitudes Where the great continents are sufficiently near to allow a Possible transit to wild quadrupeds from one into the other, %e those of the arctic region. In the extreme north, the “oasts of Asia, Europe, and America, form almost one con- tinuous tract ; the narrow strait which separates the old and aod continents is partially frozen over in winter ; the distance urther broken by intervening islands, and a passage be- Comes practicable fromm one region to the other for such “Nimals as are able to endure the intense cold of the arctic _ This tract is accordingly one of the great provinces = the animal kingdom; it contains tribes of quadrupeds Mmon to all the northern regions of the world. Bondy —The temperate zone of the earth to the north- “Td of the equator, is divided by the ocean into two great ama The temperate region of Asia and Europe affords ‘ oe Eat, passable by migratory animals from Europe, Ough Asia, and as far as the shores of the northern Pacific. a Ocean sets an insurmountable barrier ; accordingly, the ag tribes ought to be in many instances found spread ee the western to the eastern esi uimi acne of the old i iment in the temperate zone, while the four-footed inha- ants of the same zone in the new world should be 70 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN races peculiar to it, and such as never make their appearance in the old world. Thirdly.—The equatorial region contains three great tracts, separated from each other by wide seas. We must expect to find in them three distinct assemblages of intertropical quadrupeds, viz. the American, the African, and the In- dian. Fourthly.—The great and numerous islands of the Indian Archipelago, separate, and perhaps anciently torn from the continent of Asia, form with reference to their geographical position, a distinct region of the earth, which is similar m climate and in its vegetable productions to the hottest parts of Africa. Here we shall expect to discover mammifers and reptiles of peculiar character. Fifthly.—Beyond the Indian Archipelago, we find a remark- able country, very fertile in vegetable productions. Papua includes New Guinea, New Britain, and New Ireland. The lofty mountain-ranges which support it, spread themselves out in several great arms, and run southwards into the Pacific, forming straits and groupes of islands, everywhere attaining a considerable elevation. The Archipelago of Solomon, the Arsacide, Louisiade, Santa Cruz, Tierra del Espiritu Santo, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and per- haps the two long islands of New Zealand, appear to be branches of the same central region. The more remote groupes of islands in the great southern ocean may be reckoned as parts of the same zoological pro- vince. The whole of this region is placed under circum- stances, likely to call forth the most abundant productions of organized nature. In fact its vegetation is luxuriant; but as we might expect to find im conformity with the preceding observations, the animated creation is as remarkably de- ficient in its principal tribes. Sixthly.—Beyond the Indian seas, but separated from New Guinea only by straits, we find an extensive continent differing from the rest of the world in all its physical pecu- liarities. Terra Australis or Austral Asia according to the best informed observers, is peculiar and striking in its geo- logical aspect. It is equally remarkable for the singularity a ree ae vee MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 71 of its vegetation. In no part of the world has the animal Creation so distinct and peculiar a character. Seventhly.—The southern extremities of America and of Africa contain countries situated under a similar climate. The temperate parts of these continents, as well as that of Terra Australis, are thus so many insulated regions. In all We may expect to find peculiar tribes. I shall now attempt a general survey of the animated ttibes inhabiting these several provinces, taking them in a different order from that to which I have enumerated them. Szorion VI.—Peculiar Characters of each of the great Zoological Provinces. We have already observed that in each of the great bo- tanical provinces, the system of vegetation there indigenous, displays a peculiar aspect or a character of its own, which dis- “nguishes it from the aggregates of plants indigenous in other parts of the world. A similar remark may be applied to the distribution of animals; and I shall now endeavour to Collect the most striking particulars which illustrate this ob- Servation, and point out its bearing on the principal subject of my inquiries. Paragraph 1.—Terra Australis or Austral Asia. There is no other extensive region so remotely sepa- tated from countries in corresponding latitudes, as is the Steat island or continent of New Holland, and there is No other part of the world which has so peculiar an as- ‘emblage of organized beings. This great region may ® said to contain. within itself a particular creation, an Crganized world of its own. South Africa, and the Ma- Sellanic countries, differ in their productions from the rest of the continents ‘of which they are prolongations, but im €rra Australis living nature displays a peculiar type and new forms, which seem to deviate from the laws of cO-eXxis- tence, generally regarded. as universal conditions of life. a H i i 4 B Srey yi OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN Botanists have observed in the vegetation of this country a peculiar physiognomy. It is equally striking that many tribes of animals indigenous in the same region, though dif- fering from each other, displaysome remarkable attributes of or- ganization which may be looked upon as common characters. It is well known that the great class of warm-blooded quadrupeds constitnted by Linneus, under the name of Mammalia, has two distinctive characters. It is understood as implied by the term, that the tribes to which it belongs, are those which bring forth their offspring in a mature state; in that state in which the young animal ceasing to be organ- ically united to the body of its mother, is fit to enter upon its independent existence, and to be entrusted to the spon- taneous impulses of its own instinct. The offspring of mam- mifers, unlike that of birds and amphibious animals and the lower orders of the creation, passes at once from the state of feetal or uterine existence, to that of separate life and lo- comotion. A second feature considered to be not less essen- tial to animals comprised in the class of mammalia, consists in the endowment of a double heart anda double vascular system, with more ample organs for breathing and evolving heat. To the universal conjunction of these leading charac- ters of structure, no exception was for a long time believed to exist, and it would have been deemed in the highest degree improbable that such a fact should ever have been discovered. It must however now be admitted, that a remarkable deviation from the general character of the mammalia has taken place in the mursupial tribe, of which Terra Australis is well known to be the principal abode. Nature has fitted these animals for a sort of double gestation, having provided the females with a pouch formed by a fold of the abdominal tegument and supported by marsupial bones. The pouch encloses the organs of suckling and receives the embryos, which are transferred to it, as yet little developed, from the uterus ; and in this new receptacle they are subjected to dif ferent and peculiar modes of vitality, until at a later period the offspring becoming more robust and capable of tempo- rary separation from the pouch, begin to accustom them- selves to the open air and the exercise of their instinctive ANIMALS AND MONOTREMES. 5 faculties, but take refuge at the least alarm, in their former Tetreat. It is not determined in what precise manner the embryo is conveyed from the uterus into the pouch, though the remarkable discovery of peritoneal canals in the female kanguroo by Mr. Owen has seemed likely to afford an €xplanation. Nothing however can be more obvious than the fact that the existence of this marsupial structure, in pro- Yiding for the premature removal of the embryo from the Uterus, constitutes an important deviation from the essential Character of the mammalia. A still ereater deviation is how- “ver that which has been noted in another tribe, bearing Some remarkable analogy to the marsupial animals. I allude to the monotremes, creatures which, though warm-blooded quadrupeds, are provided with a system of reproduction so ano-~ Malous, that naturalists have differed widely from each other 48 to the station to be assigned to them in the system of organ- “ed beings. M. Cuvier placed the monotremes at the end of the edentata, but this was with reference merely to their tgans of mastication. Authors who direct their attention 0 the reproductive system, and particularly M. Lesson, place . “Masa separate class between birds and reptiles, as an ‘ntermediate link which connects these departments of the animal kingdom to the mammalia. The monotremes are Provided with cloace analogous in every respect to the | “loaces of birds ; they have no abdominal pouch, but the pre- Sence of marsupial bones displays in their organiza- tion the rudiment of this structure. Their reproduction ap- Pears to be ovo-viviparus, and the envelope of the mem- Tanous egg being torn is supposed to afford an exit to © foetus, which may then be considered as hatched.* Their ap of lactation has only been the theme of doubtful “njectures. Their skeleton is equally anomalous, and it oF a clavicle common to the two shoulders, similar in ‘cture to that of birds. t 18 impossible to determine or even to conjecture what are a Circumstances in the physical state of the Austral land, as require the existence or favour the developement of Uctures so peculiar; in other words, how it comes to pass * M. Lesson, tom. iv. oS oo ne ee . - Mina —— 0 Ste Ani sli leds dans eee re SEE TSE eee rae ania ae ESAS OO === =" ———— —— = = = = —— tea = — ——— F 7 ia ae a t fi 74 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN that the warm-blooded quadrupeds of this region are generally constructed for an earlier exclusion of the embryo from the uterus than those of other regions. The plastic operations of nature, or those physical processes, which, under the guid- ance of a supreme intelligence, gave origin and a peculiar modification to the different tribes of organized beings, are beyond our scrutiny. It may perhaps hereafter be dis- covered how such a peculiarity of structure is adapted to the local conditions of the region, what congruity or fitness there is between them., But that there is a local relation between these modifications of form and the climate in which they dis- play themselves is undoubted: in order to be convinced of it we need only survey hastily the distribution of the mono- tremes and marsupial tribes. “ Previous to 1789,” says M. Lesson, “ the only marsupials known were the didelphes or filanders of America, mentioned by Marcgraf and Pison, and the phalanger of the Moluccas, described by Valentine, and figured by Seba. Buffon knew only six didelphes; one chironectes, viz. the little otter of Guyana; two phalangers or couscous. Naturalists of the present day have distinguished with accuracy twelve genera of these animals, in which are comprised a great number of species.” Though the marsupial animals are considered as a single family, a term which might be applied in one sense to the rest of the mammalia, they differ widely in all other respects. Among them are found true carnivorous animals as well as insectivorous, rodentia or gnawers, herbivora and edentata- These tribes differ in respect to their teeth, their digestive organs, their feet, and consequently their habits. The dasyuri are carnivorous, and correspond to the weasel tribe of the old world. The thylacine represents the wolf, and has been described as belonging to the canine family- The sarigaes belong to America, the phalangers to the Mo- luccas, the parameles are found in New Guinea as well as in New Holland; but by far the greater part of this numerous family, including a very considerable number of species, be- long exclusively to Terra Australis. This character, a M. Lesson observes of marsupiality, seems to form for New MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 75 Holland a true zoological law, from which only three mam- thifers can be excepted ;—namely, the roussette or frugivorous at of the intertropical parts, the phoce: on the shores, and the Australian dog which followed the miserable natives in their first emigration into this destitute region. M. Lesson ere associates with the marsupialia the monotremes, which ave the rudiments of the same structure, but he does not ronfound these different tribes. “‘ Rien ailleurs,” he says, he peut donner l’idée des étres singuliers qu’on a nommés Paradoxaux, et qui sont. l’ornithorhynque et: Vechidne. Le Premier, A corps couvert de poils, a bec de canard, a pieds Sarmnis d’érgots, veneneux, pondant des eufs, semble étre une “‘teature fantastique, jetée sur le globe pour renverser par sa Presence tous les systémes admis sur histoire naturelle ; °at on peut soutenir avec tout autant de raison qu’elle ap- Partient aux quadrupedes, aux oiseaux, ou aux reptiles.” _ The same writer has observed that few countries. are so rich ‘2 ornithology as New Holland, and that remarkable pheno- Mena similar to those which characterise the mammifers of that region appear also in its birds. The greater part, un- “ble to derive subsistence from fruits which are wanting to € Australian forests, have peculiar modes. of sustenance ; °Se which feed upon insects have tongues organized as in 'e birds of other climates, but the parroquets, the black- tds and many of the sparrows, obliged to pump out the ‘Weet juices which exude from the corollz of flowers, are en- Owed at the extremity of the tongue with bundles of papille, “esembling a pencil, and enabling them to absorb the whole of this fluid, which is only to be obtained im sparing Tantities. The birds of this region vary in the colours of “u feathers, but are generally remarkable for some singu- “tity of structure or plumage. Thus instead of the swan of Other countries, of a spotless white, New Holland has one of a deep black, and it has black cacatoos replacing the White cacatoos of the Moluceas.* The: most frightful reptiles ate found in the same climate; the poison of some is fatal in “ Ce serait outrepasser les bones de: cet article, que de s’étendre longuement Sur Jj < : ho ®S espéces rares et curieuses qui peuplent cet étrange climat ; nous.ne pouvons ns dispenser toutefois de citer quelques oiseaux des plus remarquables parm 76 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN a few minutes. The intertropical country partakes in the productions of New Guinea, and has likewise the bicarenated crocodile of the Moluccas. Numerous lizards, and different species of skinques and of agami abound in New Holland; the most. striking are the gigantic black and yellow skinques, and those singular saurians the phylluri, having leaf-shaped tails. There are likewise numerous serpents, some of which are well known to be extremely venomous. The chelonians, the mollusce, the insects, the zoophytes of Terra Australis, present phenomena of singular form and organization which are scarcely less remarkable. For a description of these I must refer to the works of the excellent naturalist whom I have so frequently cited. Paragraph 2.—Intertropical and South America. The equatorial and southern parts of America constitute a vast region which might be subdivided into many zoological provinces. The western part, including the Brazils, is dis- tinguished by peculiar physical and geographical features, and limited by well-marked boundaries. The tropical and the temperate countries lymg westward of the Cordilleras might be divided into two other provinces; and a fourth, of a very distinct kind, and bearing much resemblance to South Africa, is formed by the great plains of the Pampas. Tierra del Fuego must be reckoned as a fifth district, and one of a par- ticular description is the vast interior country, covered by dense and lofty forests and intersected by the rivers Pa- raguay and Uruguay. In several of these regions peculiar phenomena relating to the animal kingdom might be traced and examined, and it would perhaps be not difficult to distin- ceux qu’ony trouve. En premiere ligne sont ce superbe ménure dont la queue est Vimage fidéle dans les solitudes Australes de la lyre harmonieuse des Grecs; ce lo- riot prince-regent, dont la livrée est mi-partie—dé jaune d’or et de noir de velours, ces oiseaux satins, ces cassicans variés, ces philédons nombreaux, ce scytrops dont le bec imite celui de toucan ; ce céréopsis cendré, ce casoar Austral, ce faucon d’un blanc de neige, ces moineaux webomgs, ces traquets superbes, ces perruches de toute taille, et de toute couleur, ces bruyants, martin-chasseurs, ce moucherolle crepitant dont le cri imite 4 s’y méprendre le claquement d’un fouet, et tant d’autres espéces rares et precieuses pour Vornithologiste, et qu’il seroit fastidieux de nommer. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 77 Suish the zoological character of each department. But as Neither zoology nor physical geography constitutes the sub- Ject of this work, I shall confine myself to some very general "emarks on the whole region of South America. The zoology of South America has some features which "emind us of that peculiar to Terra Australis. It recedes “onsiderably from the character of the animal kingdom Proper to Asia, and perhaps, in a greater degree, from that of Africa, * It was observed by the Count de Buffon, that the largest qWadrupeds are natives of the old world, and strangers in erica. “ Nature,” says this ingenious and eloquent writer, z Seems to have adopted a smaller scale in the formation of Qimals for the new world, and to have framed man alone in © Same mould as elsewhere.”’ To Asia and Africa belong “various species of elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopota- Mus, and giraffe, camels, horse, and most of the ox kind. © fossil remains of large animals have been discovered in Merica, but those now existing are in general smaller than © tribes inhabiting the old world. Tt may be observed, that the races of animals which have © Most powerful and perfect structure belong chiefly to the *'¢ world. Those of the new have, in general, a character organization which places them lower in the scale of ani- Mated beings. hose carnivorous animals, for example, which have the Steatest vigour and courage, are confined to Asia and Africa. | e lions, tigers, hyenas, the fiercest of the cat and dog — nds, all such animals as are taken for symbols of energy, ‘ "eneth, and ferocity, are among them. The American tribes, ich approach the most nearly to the kinds above mentioned, "e in general much more gentle and feeble than the African ‘nd Asiatic species. The swiftest and most agile quadrupeds, | *S Well as the most graceful and beautiful, chiefly belong to © old continent ; and those, likewise, which are the most : The ZOolo gical features of Paraguay are extensively described in the work of on. elix de Azara, and those of the eastern region of South America in the great 0 *< of Von Spixand Martius. To ee Cas TSS Se a tf Pi ase 78 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN useful to man. Among these are the antelopes,* including a great number of species, as well as the goat, horse, ass, and ox kinds. On the other hand, we find in the new world most of those singular races, in the formation of which Nature seems to have deviated most from her ordinary rules. Such are the tribes which Linneus referred to his order of Bruta: they are termed by Cuvier, Edentes, or quadrupeds defective with respect to teeth, all of them being deficient in the organs of mastication. America contains, for example, the whole family of tar- digrades or sloths, which Buffon characterises as defective monsters, as rude and imperfect attempts of Nature. Cuvier has remarked of the living species of this tribe, “ that we find in them so little relation to ordinary animals; the gene- ral laws of organization prevailing among the species at pre- sent existing apply so little to them, the different parts of their bodies appear to be so much in contradiction to the laws of coexistence which we find established through almost the whole animal kingdom, that we might really suspect them to be the remains of another order of things, the living relics of that pre-existing nature, the rus of which are elsewhere dis- covered only in the interior of the earth, and we might con- jecture that these creatures have escaped by some miracle; the catastrophes which have destroyed the other species that were their contemporaries. > Besides the living species of sloth, two gigantic creatures of the same singular family are known to us by their organi¢ remains: one of these is supposed to have been of the size of an ox; the other as large as a rhinoceros. They have bee? termed megalonyx and megatherium. Their relics have bee? found only in America. * The mountainous parts of America contain some animals allied to the argali or wildsheep. Three species have also been described which are nearly related t? the antelopes, but which are supposed to form a separate natural family, requiriDé a distinct classification from the antelopes of the old continent. Transactio™® of the Linnean Society, vol. xiii. p. 40. + Buffon’s Hist. Naturelle, Article des Tardigrades.—Cuvier, Mém. sur le Meé- galonyx. Annalesdu Museum, tom. v.—Item, Mém. sur le Mégatherium, par le méme.—Ibid. | “MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 79 The fossil animals above mentioned, resembled in some pe- Cuhiarities of structure the myrmecophage, a tribe which also "ecedes from the common characters of quadrupeds in several "espects, but particularly in being entirely destitute of teeth. €y are peculiar to the new world. The same observation May be applied to the armadilloes, of which there are nume- “ous Species. These belong to the order of Bruta: they have Stinding teeth, but neither tusks nor incisores. Some of these animals resemble more particularly the sin- Sular tribes already mentioned as characterizing the zoology °f New Holland: but they are in their reproductive economy “ntirely similar to the mammalia properly so termed. The torrid parts of America contain, however, a distinct marsupial amily, analogous to the Australian tribe, though consisting “ntirely of peculiar species, and even of genera distinct from those of New Holland. The relation of this structure to the °cal circumstances of the region is here equally unknown, ut the marsupial animals of America differ from those of ‘tra, Australis in various particulars; in some of which we 'SCover a remarkable fitness for the countries which they *’e destined to inhabit. The differences of the American Sehera and species of marsupial animals have been described y M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire. I shall only remark, that the “tructure of the American kinds is more fitted for agility | an that of the pouched animals of New Holland, and | at Nature has provided them with long prehensile or | Muscular tails, which constitue a fifth limb, singularly use- — ™’ to animals which are the inhabitants of vast and lofty rests. There are other tribes in the same region of America pos- “essing a similar conformation. The sapajous, a numerous tibe of monkeys peculiar to these countries, have a slender, ‘Pider-like form, which gives them great agility in climbing “8; they have also prehensile tails, like those of the di elphis. The same countries contain also the myrme- “phage, or American ant-eaters, the kinkajou, and hystrix Prehensilis ; all of which are, in this respect, similar to the Possum, : We have here an instance of evident adaptation in the meee) = ree m3 ia a Sie eas ae ae : ye ene a eT } 80 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN structure of animals to the nature of the districts in which they are destined to dwell. The hoofed animals found in South America are of different structure from those of southern Africa. The organization of the former renders them fit inhabitants of the precipitous Cordilleras, while the form and structure of the gnous and springbocks, and other antelopes, and of quaggas and zebras, are adapted to the vast and dry plains of Caffraria. In the lower departments of animated nature, the observa- tion which I have cited from Buffon seems to be reversed. The reptiles of America, display when compared with those of the old continent, the greatest bulk and more powerful struc- ture. This is remarkable in the batracian, but still more i7 the saurian and ophidian tribes. Paragraph 3.—Intertropical and South Africa. Intertropical Africa and the temperate countries to the southward form another insulated region. We find the ani- mal creation assuming here a character almost as peculiar as that which is displayed by the vegetation of the same coun- tries. In the inferior departments of animated nature this peculiarity is apparent. A prodigious number of insects are found near the Cape of Good Hope, which are unknown i? other countries. Lichtenstein collected there between six and seven hundred species, of which, Professor Tliger found that three hundred and forty were entirely new.* In mammalia, southern Africa contains several peculiar genera, which are spread over various spaces towards the north, according to their capability of enduring the heat of tropical countries: In many instances this region contains the same genera which are found in temperate climates to the northward of the line; but then the southern are different from the northern species Thus we find the quagga, the zebra, and some other species of the horse kind, corresponding with the ass and the per getal of Asia. The south of Africa is spread out into fine level plains from the tropic to the Cape. In this region, say$ Pennant, Africa opens at once a vast treasure of hoofed quadrupeds. Besides the horse genus, of which five specie? * Lichtenstein’s Travels in Africa, vol. i. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES, 81 have been found, there are also peculiar species of rhinoceros, Of the hog and the hyrax among pachydermatous races, and among ruminating animals the giraffe, the Cape buffalo, and a Variety of remarkable antelopes, as the springbock, the "ryx, the gnou, the leucophoé, and the pygarga.* Paragraph 4. Indian Archipelago. The Indian Archipelago forms a third intertropical region, Which may be imagined to connect Asia and Terra Australis, “nd which bears to these countries the same geographical re~ ation, as Darien and the Gulf of Mexico to the two Mericas. There are many facts which, in the opinion of ‘ Lesson, prove that this central portion, as he terms it, of €astern Asia, once formed part of a great continent. He re- “arks, that these islands contain ereat living species of quad- "Upeds, which are, in some instances, common to several ferent isles, and that the channels by which they are se- Parated are shallow, and intersected by banks apparently ‘; Temains of ground submerged.} Yet it must also be ob- “ "ved, that several of these equatorial islands have particular Pecies which they seem alone to have preserved. It is re- aeetble, though not contrary to general analogy, that the & °S of this archipelago reproduce genera, though not spe- .“S, found in the New World, and hitherto regarded as pecu- lag it. Such are the tapir, the couroucous, and a green Yicola, In the seas of this region is found the dugong, so “nS believed to be the creature of imagination. Sumatra Orheo are supposed to contain some species which are cal, such as the Indian elephants and the orang. The “Mer which have received the names of Javanicus and Su- identi _ Pennants Hist. of Quadrupeds.—Burchell’s Travels.—Gmelin, System. Nat. “vier, Régne Animal. © Momentum with which the waters of the equatorial ocean are borne the eastern side of America, though it has hollowed out the Gulf of Mexico, t been sufficient to break through the ridge of the Cordilleras. In the Seas no similar mountain-chain existed to support the connexion between d Terra Australis. A comparison of the geographical facts which dis- OVey 3 : at themselves in other equatorial regions, goes far to confirm the opinion of * M€sson, ®BZaingt aS no fastern Sig an G oe a Sanna 82 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN matrensis belong more especially to Sumatra. This island contains also a great number of monkeys, particularly the semnopitheci, and a variety of other mammifers, among which are the viverra musangua and the tupaca tana of Raffles, and the Indian tapir, discovered also in Malaya. It is probable, that Borneo yet conceals many unknown tribes: among those which are chiefly noted in that great island, the orang-outan is said to exist also in Cochin-China. Java also contains some new species.” * ~ To the Malayan archipelago belong most of the flying quadrupeds. With the exception of bats, nearly all those mammifers which are enabled by their structure to support themselves in the air for a short time, and to imitate imper- fectly the flight of birds, are natives of the Indian archipe- lago. In the Linnean order primates, the flying lemures oF galeopitheci, which, as M. Lesson observes, approach most nearly to the maki, have three species in the Sunda, Molucca and Pelew islands.t The taguans, or flying nocturnal squit- rels, of which several species inhabit Java and the nearest islands, are peculiar to the same archipelago and the neigh- bouring coasts.{ The roussettes or frugivorous bats, so termed though very distinct from the rest of the bat tribe, are likewise very numerous in the Malayan islands. Yet among the marsupial animals, while the tribe generally termed phalangers are distributed to Terra Australis and the Moluccas, it seems that the flying phalangers, lately termed petauriste, and distinguished as a separate groupe, have only been discovered in New Holland. Animals of the lacertiné tribe abound in the hotter parts of this archipelago, and lessen, in variety, as we proceed towards the East.§ Croco- diles, though found in Java, Timor, Borneo, and Bourou, aré only represented in New Ireland by a large tupinambis. The birds of this region are of endless variety and resplendent ' beauty. Java and Sumatra possess many species, but the eroupe of isles termed the Land of Papuas is unrivalled in _ * JLesson, tom. ii. p. 25. + Tom. iv. p. 413. + They have been described by Raffles and Horsfield in the Linn. Transactio™® § Lesson ii. 29. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 83 a gaudy and various plumages of its feathered tribes. To 'S region belong the splendid birds of paradise, the great pe wetopes. The lories and the parroquets, the most beau- fully clothed among the parrot tribe, belong principally to ~ © Moluccas and the neighbouring countries. Paragraph 5. Zoology of Polynesia. Beyond the Malayan archipelago a high mountain-land &xtends towards the south-east, several arms or branches of Which support great islands of considerable length, or long Chains or series of smaller islands. New Guinea is the centre nucleus of this insular region. Issuing from the eastern “xtremity of this elevated country, a vast circuit of islands, “Nder the names of New Britain, New Ireland, Solomon’s Sles, Louisiade, the New Hebrides, New Zealand, surrounds all the eastern side of Terra Australis, and has been supposed © have originally formed with it one great continent. Thus ae according to M. Lesson, a primordial or primitive region ae beyond it, in the wide spaces of the great southern . ~ 1. the lions, to which belongs the puma of America, the couguar of Buffon; 2. Tigers;§ 3. Pantherine cats. There are several in Asia and Africa, and one species, the jaguar in America. 4. Oceloids, or species resembling the ocelotl, all belonging to America. 5. Rimaus or Malayan cats; * The dog of New Ireland termed poull, which, as we have seen, differs put little, if at all different, from the canis Australasie. The Australian. dog is pt” nounced by M. Lesson, to be certainly of the same stock with that of New Irelané and the isles of Bouka and Bongainville. Liss. iii, p- 221. + Hist. Nat. de Chili. Bongainville’s Voyage. + M. Deshaiesin Ann. Sc. &c. Nat. xvii. Lesson v. p. 335. § One of the most remarkable facts connected with the history of the tiger; is the existence of this species as an indigenous inhabitant of the countries near Lak? | Baikal, and the river Jenesey. Though the Siberian tiger differs considerably in some particulars from the Indian, it is supposed, by M. Lesson, to be merely # variety of the same species. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 9] Which replace the tiger in the Malayan Archipelago. 6. Gué- Pats or hunting tigers, in Asia and Africa. 7. Servals in torrid Africa and Viverrine cats, which replace the servals mM India. 8. True cats, of which there are several tribes ‘carcely to be distinguished. The felis catus is a native of Urope, and a variety is described by Pallas, n Mongolia. ; Lynxes, of which there are several distinct species peculiar £0 the old continent, and others to America. According to - Lesson, the Canadian lynx appears to be a different “Pecies from that of Sweden.* I have already referred to the geographical distribution of © phocaceous tribes, and of the marsupial animals, which “omplete the catalogue of species belonging to the zoopha- 80s order, or the carnassiers of the French nomenclature. The rodentes, the glires of Linneus, form a most extensive amily, which have been greatly multiplied by the discoveries modern travellers in different countries. In M. Lesson’s “St enumeration of genera belonging to this order, they *Mount to sixty-one, in which are not mentioned a great ‘umber of sub-genera. The species included in these genera taken collectively, would amount to many hundreds. The nore accurate researches of modern naturalists have proved a the existence of individual species is in general limited : districts of no great extent: particular groupes are repre- eed in distant countries by analogous tribes; but in most "stances the species in one region collectively resemble each €f much more than those of a remote country; so that we nd Subgenera in Europe corresponding with other sub- ee in Asia, and again with forms differently modified on . © Other side of the Atlantic. Thus America, which abounds “i ps of the squirrel tribe, has all its species distinguish- fe y a particular character from those of the old conti- - The species of rodentes appear never to be identical : ote countries. Perhaps one or two exceptions ought valia, made to this remark, but they are such as do not in- * ate its truth. They occur in races of animals which Ye become more or less associated with mankind. The 1 rem * Lesson, v. p. 356. SS SS — = 92 OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN most remarkable are the three species of common European mures, the domestic mouse, the rat, and the mus decu- manus or surmulot, which appear to have introduced them- selves wherever man has taken up his abode. All of these are found in North America, where there are likewise many peculiar species. The rat is found in all the islands of the Pacific, and in the isle of Oualan the decumanus has made its appearance near the dwellings of men. The Antilles have the pilori, or mus pilorides.* In other instances a more exact examination has established a dif- ferent opinion, in regard to species which had been thought to exist in parts of the earth remote from each other. The rabbit of the straits of Magellan resembles the lepus cuni- culus of Linneus, and has been supposed to be the same tribe ; which appeared so much the more remarkable, as rab- bits are mentioned as existing in these coasts in the voyage of Pigafetta, who accompanied Magalhaens in the voyage of discovery which made them known. Baron Cuvier and M. Lesson have come to the conclusion that it is decidedly a distinct species.+ The bruta or edentata are distributed in a remarkable manner. All the sloths are of American birth, not only the existing species but likewise those huge monsters now, as it seems, extinct, which Baron Cuvier has termed megatherium and megalonyx. The armadillos belong to the same region as well as the myrmecophage, which are replaced in the old continent by the octeropus and the manis of Africa, by at- other manis, the Indian pangolin, and by the monotremes of Terra Australis. Hoofed animals are considered as forming the second great division of mammiferous quadrupeds. As their species are much less numerous and their bulk greater than that of ani- mals which have fingers or claws, their distribution is more accurately known. Of elephants and rhinoceroses it is well known, that several species exist distributed separately to the hot regions of Asia * Tesson v. 445. + Cuvier, Régne Animal.—Lesson, Hist. des Mammif. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES, 93 and Africa.* The extinct races, organized as it would appear to be inhabitants of cold regions, were much more widely 'Spersed: the extinct elephant was capable of enduring the climate of the north, and existed in both of the great “ontinents.+- _ The tapir was long supposed to be peculiar to America, Ma living state, though the remains of two extinct species ve been discovered in Europe. Another living species of *apir has lately been discovered in Sumatra and Malacca : 't appears to have been long well known in China, and it is “scribed, according to M. Lesson, in many Chinese books. he species belonging to the hyrax and the hog tribes, ‘Te peculiar to warm climates, and to limited regions. The wild boar wanders further towards the north than any of his “Ongeners, He is found in various parts of Europe; but has Never been seen to the northward of the Baltic. This species “cordingly is not indigenous in America, though the warm Parts of America are very congenial to it: domestic hogs “ve run wild there, and have formed herds of vast num- ers, Among ruminant animals, the camelopardalis, antelopes, and Soats, are confined to the old continent. Some peculiar ‘Pecies of sheep are found in America, and some tribes "hich are considered as representatives of the camel and the “Ntelope as well as others which bear the same relation to “Musk ; no species of either of these kinds being common ° both continents. °me species of the deer and ox kinds inhabit very cold ‘nates, and these have found their way through the arctic “ountries from Europe and Asia to America, or in a contrary Tection. Those species which are unable to sustain incle- ent Seasons, have a limited range in either continent. _ Survey of the habitations of the reptile tribes would “ish a number of facts of a parallel kind to those which I * eli te - Lesson describes three species of plewolena proper to India, Java, and Su- atra, tom iy, —o ngainville’s Voyage round the World.—Pennant’s History of Quadrupeds. Vie pret Régne Animal.—Mem. sur les Elephans, vivans et fossiles, par M. Cu- 5 Annales du Muséum. 94 . OF THE DISPERSION OF TELLURIAN have mentioned. Each of the principal geographical dis- tricts would be found to possess, not only peculiar species, but appropriate genera, or families. The distribution of the crocodile tribe has been already adverted to. Among the other genera which belong to the Saurian family, Africa possesses the monitors, and most of the chameleons, one species of the latter belonging to the Moluccas. The iguanas and jeckos are more numerous, an more widely dispersed; some species are natives of South America, others of different parts of the old continent. The serpents are extensively spread; but the warm climates of America claim the rattle-snake tribe, the ceciliz, or naked serpents, as well as the sub-genera termed ophisaurus and amphisbena, and. several species of boa.* In the frog tribe, the pipa belongs to South America; and it has been observed by Cuvier, that some of the testu- dines and lacerte of the same regions resemble these animals in certain particulars of structure. The reptiles of New Holland are likewise of very peculiar character. Szotion VIII.—Concluding Remarks on the distribution of tellurian Animals. . The preceding facts relating to the distribution of species; afford some results which deserve consideration. The remark made long ago by the illustrious Count dé Buffon is abundantly confirmed. In the extreme north, where the two great continents approximate, and an almost con- nected land extends from the west of Europe eastward through America and Greenland, several species of animals appear to be common to the borders of either continents such as the Polar bear, and other quadrupeds of thé bear and dog kinds. The number of species common 1? different continents even in this northern tract, is evidently * Cuvier, Régne Animal. See also a variety of memoirs on crocodiles, &¢. ™ the Annals of the Museum, by the same author. MAMMIFERS AND REPTILES. 95 Very much less than it was supposed to be by Buffon, Pen- Nant, and other naturalists of the last century. With the °regoing exceptions, and without any others, as far as zoolo- Bical researches have yet gone, it may be asserted, that no dividual species are common to distant regions. In parallel Climates analogous tribes replace each other; sometimes, ut not frequently, the same genus is found in two separate “ontinents ; but the species which are natives of one region “te not identical with corresponding races indigenous in the °Pposite hemisphere. _ Asimilar result arises when we compare the three great — ‘tertropical regions, as well as the extreme spaces of the Tee great continents which advance into the temperate cli- Mate of the southern hemisphere. Thus the tribes of simie, of the dog and cat kinds, of pa- “Ayderms, including elephants, tapirs, rhinoceroses, hogs, sid bats, of saurian and ophidian reptiles, as well as of birds *nd other terrene animals, are all different in the three Seat continents. In the lower departments of the mammi- a family, we find, that the bruta or edentata of Africa = differently organized from those of America ; and these 82in, from the tribes found in the Malayan archipelago and “tra Australis. Se — general result to which all these observations tend is ; tmed by a survey of phenomena connected with the zo- °gy of islands. This will appear from the two following Seheral facts. he Small islands, situated at a remote distance from = Ments, are in general altogether destitute of land quad- ae except such as appear to have been conveyed by men a. have found their way by accidental means. Kerguelen’s omy or the Isle of Desolation, Juan Fernandez, New Shet- oy and other antarctic isles, the Gallapagos, the Islas de . Contained, when discovered, no mammiferous inhabi- ane seals. In the groupes of islands in the great : €m ocean, though many of them are of great extent : temarkable fertility, abounding in luxuriant vegetation, Warm-blooded animals were found, except a few species gan appear to have been conveyed, or to have found their Y from the Malayan archipelago. we rn , _AE ON ee Sarma ——Ses on — a Pn woe ae ee, ee — ta Se eee Fae pie Fan RE ie > = . : i ST ETT SS A AeA TTT eS PE esi seis in pt ta a 110 ON THE MEANS OF DETERMINING and similar in many respects but different in others, are in reality so many distinct species or merely varieties of oné species. The doubt can only be removed by a comprehet- sive survey of the phenomena related to the origin of varie ties in breeds, and of facts in the animal economy, connected with their propagation. The inquiry divides itself into tw? heads; the first is an investigation of phenomena taking place in the particular races to be compared, and in respect to which the question has been set on foot; the second refers to other tribes bearing some analogy in their structure, and in the general laws of their economy to these particulat races. The most immediate and decisive proof that the di- versities observed between any given tribes constitute only varieties, arises from the discovery of corresponding phe- nomena of variation in those very races which are the sub- jects of comparison. Thus, if any one should maintain that asses are degenerated horses, he would establish his opinio? to the conviction of every one, if he could only point out at instance in which horses have actually degenerated int? asses. A less direct though still sufficient evidence may be furnished by facts which bear, by analogy, on the subject of research. If it can be proved that certain deviations in the form and structure of individuals, analogous to those which are the subjects of inquiry, actually occur in other tribes; that a provision is made for their developement in the law$ of the animal economy, that there is nothing in the chang? supposed to have taken place out of the usual course 0 organized nature, the inference that such deviations consti- tute merely varieties, and do not amount to specific distin¢e- tions, will be established with a considerable degree of proba- bility, though scarcely with that decisive evidence whic! the direct manner of proof affords. In adverting to re searches into the physical varieties of mankind, the forme! method of inquiry must be termed the historical or ethn0 graphical one, and the latter the analogical. The first com prises a survey of the different races of men, an investiga tion of their physical history, the ethnography, as it is termed; of every tribe of the human family, undertaken and pursued in such a manner as to enable us to determine what change* THE IDENTITY AND DIVERSITY OF SPECIES. 1li have actually arisen in the physical characters of nations or Uman races. The second involves every consideration Sunded on physiology, or the laws of the animal economy, that may serve to elucidate the relation of different tribes to “ach other in respect to their physical characters and con- ‘titution. It will be my endeavour in the course of this work t0 go through both of these investigations, and lay before NY readers their results; but I shall take up these two de- Partments of inquiry in a different order from that in which ave mentioned them. Several motives have determined. Me to pursue this plan, but principally the impression that Ny readers will proceed with greater facility and advantage 0 the ethnographical researches, which form the greater part nt my work, after they have directed their attention to the Physiological and anatomical facts to be comprised in the other part. Sroron 3.—Analogical Investigation of the Nature of Varieties—Different Heads of this Inquiry enumerated. This part of our inquiry ought to comprise a survey of the Ole theory of varieties arising in the breed or progeny of *Tganized beings, and an investigation of the nature of such €Viations from the structure of the race, as well as of the “Weumstances by which their extent is limited or confined. Within certain bounds. It includes the attempt to determine vhat in the structure of species is permanent, and what is ‘able to transmutation, a question bordering closely on sub- Jects of controversy, which have been much discussed among Rturalists of the present day. By confining myself strictly _ : the examination of facts, and avoiding whatever is conjec- “tal and imaginary, I shall spare myself the necessity of “tering on disputed ground. The question to which I have direct the attention of my readers is, what are the charac- pe of organization which are permanently transmitted in © Species of animals and of plants, without change or “ariety, and what are those which are liable to deviation? t seems to be a fact, that the most permanent and invari- ————— Tg ei a RT aioe EN SO gee iE ISEATS ne eR ee RE Se = SS 112 ON THE MEANS OF DETERMINING able characters in the animal kingdom and those which are accordingly fitted to distinguish species, consist chiefly in the general laws or arrangements of the animal economy in each tribe. An objection which is likely to be offered to this remark 15; that the structure of parts is essentially anterior to their func tions; that functions are merely the results of organization, and ought accordingly to be considered in the last place, all distinctions and classifications bemg founded on the struc- ture of organs. Such an observation proposed in abstract terms is very specious, and it would be well founded if our knowledge of structures were more complete than it is. But in the present state of our science, we have frequently no other method of discerning most important diversities of organization than by. noting the phenomena of functions. Articulate speech 1 among the most important attributes of humanity, but this faculty would, perhaps, never have been demonstrated by ana tomical examination of the human vocal organs, or by a com parison of the structure of these with corresponding parts i” the orang. Until the organization of living bodies shall havé been so fully explored as to elucidate in every instance thé whole capabilities of structure, we must consider functions as leading facts on which classifications and inferences may -be founded not less securely than on what we know of orgat- ization itself. Nor does any material difference exist in this point of view between the two series of facts. In general, the most constant peculiarities in the races of animals, and those which accordingly best answer the pul- pose of specific characters, consist, as I have already observed; in the great laws which govern the functions of the anima! economy. The physiological characters of race are liable t° few and unimportant deviations. Particular species have, I general, one limit in regard to the average duration of life, the circumstances connected with the reproduction of thei! kind, such as the number of their progeny, the times and frequency of breeding, among mammifers, the period of utero-gestation, and among birds, the interval between laying and hatching eggs. The other natural functions are subject THE IDENTITY AND DIVERSITY OF SPECIES. 113 to the same laws: tribes of the same species are with some Varieties subject to the same diseases. Their animal or psy- Chical faculties are equally constant: in general, their Mstincts and habits are found remarkably uniform. Few : any important diversities in respect to any of these principal ’Ws of the animal economy are known to take place within the limits of one and the same species; while, on the other “and, those tribes which most strongly resemble each other outward form, but are yet specifically distinct, are found in Teality to differ in the particulars above mentioned. Such ave the permanent characters of species. There are, indeed, WVersities in the internal constitution, as evinced by the phe- homena of temperament and predisposition, springing up within € race; but these do not interfere with the principal laws of €animal economy. It is in the external and less essential Parts that varieties principally take place. In the texture and “oVeringss whetherhairy or woolly of the skin, the absence or pre- ‘ence and the size of horns and other appendages, the colour *r complexion, and in some instances in the number of fingers “Nd toes ;—in all these particulars, varieties frequently spring "P within one and the same species, to the transmission of which there is a strong tendency in the animal! econo- bata Similar observations may be made, mutatis mutandis, With respect to the vegetable creation. The species of plants 'Splay, as it is well known, varieties of the most striking ap- Pearance ; and these are confined to the least essential, but Which are often the most conspicuous parts of vegetation, while © organs of fructification are unaffected by such changes, and retain a permanent character.* - Shall now proceed to inquire, with respect to all these veral particulars, what physiological facts can be esta- ‘shed that may tend to illustrate the relations of races a other, both in the lower departments of nature tic a mankind, and I shall begin with some of the par- a ars in the physical history of races which are the most ing and which scarcely deviate within the limits of the a Species. The subject naturally divides itself under the Swine heads :— * De Candolle, Dict. des Sci. Nat. 114 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 1. The great laws of the organized system, or with respect to sentient beings of the animal economy, all the principal facts which relate to the natural and vital functions, the periods and duration of life, the economy of the sexes, the phenomena of parturition and reproduction, are with slight deviations resulting from external agencies, constant and uniform in each particular species. 2. Connected with the same subject are the phenomen@ relating to the mixture or blending of races, and the pro- pagation or sterility of hybrids. In the circumstances related to this series of facts, it is possible that some information may be obtained on the distinctive characters and discriminatio? of species. 3. The pathological history of species and of races is @ branch of physiological history which has not been so much investigated as its importance seems to merit. It is one at least the consideration of which must not be omitted. 4. The psychical endowments of particular tribes, compre hending all their faculties of sense and perception, as well 2° their instincts and propensities, their modes of action and habits, constitute an important part of the natural history of species. These characters are, when viewed on an extensiV® scale, subject to few variations ; they may be said, indeed, t° display a surprising uniformity. 5. After considering what bearings the facts observed under these different heads have on the inquiry respecting the human family, we shall proceed to the more variable characters of species, and to the deviations which frequently arise in the same identical race, and constitute particula? tribes. Section IV.—First Head of the Analogical Investigation of Species—Laws of the Animal Economy in S'pecies. Animals of the same species are subjected to nearly unl form laws with respect to all the principal functions of thé animal economy. Among the most constant characteristi® of species are the circumstances connected with rep! duction, the times and frequency of breeding, in mammalia DURATION OF LIFE. 115 the period of utero-gestation, and in birds that of sitting Upon eggs, the number of progeny brought forth at a time, and the period of suckling or watching over the young. The Progress of physical developement and decay is likewise °rdained by nature to take place in each species according ‘0 a certain rule. The periods at which individuals arrive at adult growth, the different changes which the constitution "ndergoes at particular ages, the periods of greatest vigour and of decline, and the total duration of life are given, Sugh with individual exceptions and varieties, to every “Pecies of animals. There are exceptions and variations, but “Se are within certain prescribed limits, and obey definite ‘awe, On the other hand, it may be observed as a very general “ct, that animals belonging to tribes which nearly resemble “8ch other, but are yet specifically distinct, differ in a decided ?anner with respect to the same particulars. Thus the wolf and the dog, though proximate species, differ "emarkably as to the period of utero-gestation. The she-wolf “Ppears to carry her young ninety days, while the period of Sestation in the bitch is well known to be sixty-two or sixty- "ee days ;* the former being longer by nearly one-third Part than the latter. We are acquainted with no similar €Viation in the animal economy within the limits of any one “Pecies, and it is very unlikely that such a fact will ever be Served, Paragraph 1.—Of the Duration of Life in general. The duration of life proper to each species is subject, like ia characters of the physical constitution, to individual 0 “ieties, The peculiarities of temperament and organization "Which these individual varieties depend are, like other * gous properties, more or less disposed to become here- ary, and by transmission common to whole families. Indi- * The ®bove hal, fj 1 Count de Buffon asserts that the period of utero-gestation of the wolf is one hundred days. An instance is reported in the fourth volume of the 2 of the Museum of Natural History, in which the gestation of the wolf was “ighty-nine to ninety-one days. 12 116 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. viduals in some families appear, indeed, to grow old, if wé may use the expression, at an earlier period of life than in others. But all these variations appear within certain limits, and they are all proper to individuals, and disappear when aggregates or large numbers of individuals are compared. I shall hereafter exemplify this last remark, but 1 must first observe, that besides that variety in the duration of life which belongs to individual peculiarity of constitution, there is another sort of difference depending upon climate. In tribes of animals whose local sphere of existence is, by the condi tions of their physical structure, circumscribed within one region, there exist only individual peculiarities ; but in species which are spread over vast regions, or inhabit indifferently the whole world, certain varieties take place in respect to the average duration of life, and the progress of physical develope ment, which are the obvious results of different external agencies. The proportionate duration of human life in different clir mates has lately been an object of statistical inquiries, which many distinguished writers have been engaged. It would be superfluous to enter on the present occasion int? the statements connected with this subject; but it is neces sary to form some idea of the manner and extent in which thé duration of life is affected by climate, in order to be prepared for estimating the facts which relate to longevity in particulat races of men. It is well known that the proportional number of indi- viduals who attain a given age differs in different climates 3 and that the warmer the climate, other circumstances beiD% equal, so much the shorter is the average duration of huma? life. Even within the limits of Europe, the difference is very great. In some instances, according to the calculations ° M. Moreau de Jonnés, the rate of mortality, and inversel¥ the duration of life, differ by nearly one half from the propo tions discovered in other examples. The following is a brie extract from a table presented by this celebrated calculato to the Institute. The table comprehends returns belonging to different periods, illustrative of the effect produced by politica! changes and improvements in the state of society on the mx DURATION OF LIFE. 117 duration of human life. I have omitted this part, and have only abstracted that which illustrates the influence of Table exhibiting the annual mortality in different countries m Europe. In Sweden, from 1821 to 1825 Denmark mT 45 Germany ee 45 Prussia 1821 to 1824 39 Austrian Empire 1825 to 1830 43 40 England ME Great Britain .. 1800 to 1804 47 France to 1827 39.5 Canton de Vaud 1824 .. “ 47 Lombardy .... 1827 to 1828 31] Roman States.. 1829 .. 28 Scotland if 50 The difference of twenty-eight and fifty is very considerable ; ut even the latter rate of mortality is considerably greater than that which the data collected by M. Moreau de Jonnés Attribute to Ireland, Norway, and the northern parts of Scot- and. Th approaching the equator we find the mortality increase, ‘nd the average duration of life consequently diminish. The following calculation obtained by the same writer will suffi- “lently illustrate this remark.+ Latitude. Places. 1 death in 6° 10’ Batavia 10° Trinidad 13° Sainte-Lucie 14° Martinique 15° Guadaloupe 18° Bombay 23° 1)’ Havanna th - There must be a mistake in thisnumber. According to Porter and Reikman, “umber of annual deaths in England from 182] to 1831, is one in fifty-one. D ; Notice sur la Population des etats de 1’Europe, par M. Moreau de Jonnés.— “Homme et de ses Facultés, par M. Quetelet. A RE RI a me in RN —————— a a 118 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION It has been observed that in some of these instances the rate of mortality appears greater than that which properly belongs to the climate, as some of the countries mentioned include cities and districts known to be by local situation remark- ably unhealthy. In some the mortality belongs in great part to strangers, principally Europeans, who coming from a differ- ent climate suffer in great numbers. The separate division from which the collective numbers above given are deduced will sufficiently indicate these circumstances. In Batavia 1805 Europeans died ...... Slaves Chinese oka tal Javanese, viz. Natives. . Bombay, 1815 Europeans Mussulmans Parsees ‘ 40 d Whites $ Free-men of colour .. 35 Martinique, 1825 7a j 24 Guadaloupe, 1811 to 1824.. Free-men of colour .. 23 Grenada, 1815 Slaves 22 Saint Lucia, 1802 Slaves 20 The comparatively low degree of mortality among the free men of colour in the West Indies, and the Javanese and Parsees, in countries where those races are either the original inhabitants, or have become naturalized by an abode of some centuries, is remarkable in the preceding table. It would seem; that such persons are exempted, in a great measure, from the influence of morbific causes which destroy prematurely Eu- ropeans and other foreigners. That the rate of mortality should be lower among them than in the southern parts of Eu- rope, is a fact which, in the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to explain. It would appear, that in the hotter climates a great part of those who would otherwise attain to longevity, are carried 0 prematurely by various causes of disease. In all countrie® however, particular individuals escape from the noxious 1° fluence of causes which shorten the existence of the majority} OF SPECIES. 119 and of these we shall be enabled to collect a sufficient num- ber to prove that the attainable duration of life, or the term of longevity, is nearly the same in different races of men. As this position is one of great importance with respect to the Inquiry which I have principally in view, I shall endeavour to establish it upon sufficient evidence. It was calculated by Buffon, that a third part of the hu- Man race die before the age of ten years; one half before that of thirty-five ; two-thirds before fifty-two, and three- Surths before sixty-one years of age. A very different com- Putation has been made by later writers. According to ufeland’s estimate, out of a hundred individuals born, fifty die before their tenth year, and six only live to be above the age of sixty.* It may be thought that the instances of centenarians are 80 few and scattered, that a collection of their numbers is tather a matter of accident than calculation. I do not believe this to be the case ; and I have selected this particular class of aged persons, as examples of longevity in different races, €cause I find instances frequently on record, owing to their aving been regarded as matters of singular occurrence and Curiosity, and therefore preserved in periodical accounts and other documents. It is difficult to ascertain from data now existing, the pro- Portional number of centenarians in the whole community. It was calculated from the bills of mortality in London, that ne individual in 3126 reaches his hundredth year. But in 751, the total number of deaths amounted to 21,028 : in this Number there were fifty-eight persons aged ninety, thirteen ged one hundred, and one aged one hundred and nine; giv- tg one centenarian to 1617; and in 1762, out of 26,326 €ceased there were eighty-five aged ninety, and only two Centenarians. From 1728 to 1758, during a period of thirty Years, the total number of deaths in the bills of mortality *Mounted to 750,322. In this number, two hundred and orty-two persons exceeded the hundredth year.* The tables * Hist. Nat. du Genre Humain, par M. Virey, Paris, 1824. + Easton ou Longevity, Salisbury, 1799. 120 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. of mortality, constructed in this country, do not go up 8? high as the hundredth year; but in a table for the Belgi¢ states, M. Quetelet has given the numbers of persons abové ninety years of age as follows: In 10,000 births, the age of 90 is attained by 682 M. Quetelet informs us, that at the commencement of 1831, there were ten centenarians in Belgica, of which fourteen were in the three provinces of Hainault, Namur and Luxembourg: Limbourg and eastern Flanders had each one, and there were none in the province of Brabant, Antwerp, West Flanders and Liege. The three oldest of these centenarians were aged one hundred and four, one hundred and ten, and one hundred and eleven. They belonged to Luxembourg: the others did not exceed one hundred and two years. Haller made a collection of facts relating to longevity, and — obtained notices of upwards of one thousand individuals who exceeded their hundredth year. Of these sixty died betwee? the hundred and ten and one hundred and twentieth yeal, twenty-nine were between one hundred and twenty and oné hundred’ and thirty years old, fifteen between one hundred and thirty and one hundred and forty years; and seven eX ceeded this last term, of whom one lived to be one hundret: and sixty-nine years old. Mr. Easton of Salisbury, in a curious work on longevity; has collected notices of one thousand seven hundred and DURATION OF LIFE. 121 twelve persons who exceeded their hundredth year, and from these the following table has been deduced. ‘Of males and females who lived from one hundred to one Undred and ten years, (both inclusive,) the instances have “en one thousand three hundred and ten: Above 110 to 120 i Ha Lia 130 .. 140 .. 150 .. 160 .. 170 .. The following is a collection of instances of very advanced Weg by the same writer. Apollonius of Tyana . in a.D. 99 aged 130 St. Patrick --. 122 Attila ose- 124 Llywarch Hén see» 150 St. Coemgene arene LD Piastus, king of Poland -+e- 120 Thomas Parr ae eLiaye Henry Jenkins foes LOD The Countess of Desmond --e+e 145 Thomas Damme vas hd: Peter Torton wins UBD Margaret Patten nha Of, John Rovin and his Wife oe 172 & 164 St. Mongah or Kentigen i. aalBo Beyond the limits of Europe there are numerous instances Well authenticated longevity. indi “ton Larrey states, that there were, at Cairo, thirty-five viduals upwards of one hundred years of age. i. has often been related, that the cenobites of Mount ; 4, live not unfrequentiy to the age of one hundred and ten ®ne hundred and twenty years. d men are mentioned by travellers in Arabia, Barbary, yta, and Persia, to exceed not unfrequently one hundred J€arg of age. of SE FRETS Tame ig? ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION The following * are mstances of longevity which oceurred in America or the British colonies, in persons either of Euro- pean descent, or born in Europe, but resident abroad during the greater part of their lives. Mr. C. Cotterel died at Philadelphia, aged one hundred and twenty years and three days, afterwards his wife, aged one hundred and fifteen, after living together ninety-eight years. } At Laurens district, South Carolina, died Mr. Solomon Nr bel, aged one hundred and forty-three years: he emigrated from England in 1696, aged nineteen. } At Whitehall, near New York, Henry Francisco, aged ov° hundred and thirty-four, died in 1820. He was present at the coronation of Queen Anne of England.§ At Campbell, Virginia, died in 1821, Mr. C. Layne, aged one hundred and twenty-one. He was born in Buckingha®™ county, in 1700. He has left a widow aged one hundred and ten, and a numerous and respectable family to the fourth g& neration. || In Fairfax county, Robert Thomas, aged one hundred and seven, died in 1821. At Bow, in New Hampshire, in 1823; died Samuel Welsh, aged one hundred and twelve years and seven months.] Died at Spanish Town, Jamaica, Nov. 21, 1829, Mrs. Ju dith Crawford, aged one hundred and fifty-one years: she T° tained her bodily strength and her faculties until within a few days of her death. She remembered the earthquake iB 1692."* Died at Goshen, in Union district, South Carolina, Jul 1630, Samuel Selby, upwards of one hundred and one ye#* “of ages? * These instances were communicated to me by the late Dr. Edmund Fry, who collected them from various authentic sources. + Benj. Martin’s Miscellaneous Correspondence in Prose and Verse.—Jan. 176) t Times, Sep. 22, 1820. § Baldwin’s London Mag.--Jan. 1821. | London Mag.—Aug. 1821. 4, Morning Herald.—June 2, 1823. ** Gent. Mag.—April 1830. ++ Gent. Mag.—Sep. 1830. OF SPECIES. 123 Died at Mount Grace, in Jamaica, December, 1830, Mrs. ary Innes, aged one hundred and. twenty years.* Died in the island of St. Helena, in September last, Mrs. liz. Honoria Frances Lambe, aged one hundred and ten Years and four months. In the year 1731, she was house- “eper to General Pike. She was married eight times, and eft Many descendants, of whom two hundred and sixty yet tve. “ She died in the full persuasion, that the Millennium will happen in 1836, and that the charter will be renewed to ~ ee India Company.”-++—Extract from the Times, Sep. 8, Paragraph 2.—Of the longevity of the Africans. It has been supposed by some, that the Negro race is of “orter life than the European.t tr, Winterbottom informs us, that “ few of the inhabitants Guinea arrive at old age.” He says, that “they turn old uch sooner than Europeans, and appear in a state of decre- Pitude when the latter have scarcely reached the grand cli- rene.” M. Adanson makes a similar remark of the na- « of Senegambia. “The Negroes of Senegal,” he says, are Teally old at the age of forty-five, and sometimes earlier.” “Counts of the same purport are given by Bosman and “ts, respecting the natives of Guinea and Congo. he shortness of life observed among the Africans by these Uthors, appears to be the result of circumstances. The con- ton of savages, their exposure to noxious influences, and © particular situation of these tribes on the African coast cul; Clently accounts for the fact, without supposing any pe- arity in the race. © are informed by Mr. Oldfield, that the coast of Africa, “ar the river Nunn, is extremely unhealthy, being covered @ luxuriant vegetation of mangroves and plants of the * Suppt: Gent, Mag.—Dee. 1830. i M. Virey says, that the Negro race is in general more short-lived than the *Pean.— Hist, Nat. du G. H. par M. Virey, tom. i. p. 143—365. 124 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION strand exposed to inundations and extensively swampy.* The natives are very thoughtless and dissolute: they are subject to diarrheeas, dysenteries, and a variety of cutaneous disease* Considering the general condition of the country, the state ° the natives, their irregularity of living, it is not surprising says Mr. Oldfield, to find that few of them attain old ag® It was remarkable to observe so few aged men in the Eboé country, considering the vast population. The same writer has observed, that in the Nyffe territory which is a fine open country, the natives attain a good old age. He says, “we met with several aged people said to be upwards of eighty years old.” He visited Mallum Dando, formerly king of Rabbah, an old man with a long white beard, who died soon afterwards, at the age of one hundred and fifteen years. Other instances of considerable longevity in Africa, are fT corded by Winterbottom, Paterson, and Barrow. There 18 reason to believe, that the constitution of Negroes is bettet adapted to the climate which they inhabit than that of Eve ropeans ; and that the average duration of life would be ereater among Negroes in such a climate, than among Eur” peans inhabiting the same region. This, however, would not establish the conclusion, that the Negro race is absolutely of equal life with the European. In order to render this pt® bable, we must collect instances in which they appear to hav? attained an age equally advanced. I have examined the registers of slaves on some estates ip the West Indies, in which 1 have observed frequent instance? of advanced ages. Many are set down as seventy and eighty years old. This is the more remarkable, since the cause tending to shorten life operate with so much severity up the enslaved population of the West India islands, where it has been stated, that one Negro slave dies annually out ° five or six, whereas among the free-blacks who serve in the English army, the annual mortality is only one in 33.3. * Memoirs by Mr. Oldfield, Surgeon to the late Expedition to explore the course of the Niger. + Elements of Medical Statistics by Dr. B. Hawkins.—Quetelet sur Homme ses Facultés. et OF SPECIES. 125 Edwards, in his History of the West Indies, says, that Negroes in these islands often attain to a great age: he men- 1ons one instance of a negress, aged one hundred and twenty Years, and a second of one who was strong and healthy at © age of ninety-five, or upwards.* The following instances are collected from a variety of Sources, ¥- December 5th, 1830, died at St. Andrews, Jamaica, the property of Sir Edward Hyde East, Robert Lynch, a “egro slave in comfortable circumstances, who perfectly re- “ollected the great earthquake in 1692, and further recol- “cted the person and equipages of the Lieutenant Governor, os Henry Morgan, whose third and last governorship com- enced in 1680, viz. one hundred and fifty years before. Owing for this early recollection the age of ten years, this Negro must have died at the age of one hundred and Sixty} Died at Kingston, Jamaica, Catherine Lopez, a negro Woman, at the age of one hundred and. thirty-four years.§ Died April 6th, 1821, at Fellowship Hall, Jamaica, Mar- Saret Darby, a free black woman, at the age of one hundred and thirty years. She retained all her faculties to the last ?oment., | Died at Frederick Town, North America, in 1797, a mu- to man, said to be one hundred and eighty years old.{] led in Spanish Town, Jamaica, Dec. 20th, 1820, a negro *man, named Mary Goodsall, at the age of one hundred twenty.** Died Feb. 17th, 1823, in the Bay of St. John’s, Antigua, . 48ck woman named Statira. She was a slave, and was Ted as a day-labourer during the building of the gaol, and “S present at the laying of the corner-stone, which cere- °RY took place one hundred and sixteen years ago. She : Hist. of West Indies. + Communicated by Dr. Fry. * Supplem. Gent. Mag. June 1831. § Monthly Mag. Jan. 1807. | Blackwood’s Mag. July 1821. | Morning Post, Dec. 20, 1804. Blackwood’s Mag. Jan, 1822. 126 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION also stated, that she was a young woman grown, when the President Sharpe assumed the administration of the island, which was in 1706. Allowing her to be fourteen years old at that time, we must conclude her age to be upwards of on? hundred and thirty years.* April 7th, 1827, died at Falmouth, Jamaica, Rebecca Tury: ‘a black woman, at the age of one hundred and forty yeat® as correctly traced from the deeds of her owners. She 1r& tained her faculties to the last.+ Died in South Carolina, Tom, a negro man, belonging to Mrs. Bacon, at the age of one hundred and thirty years.{ At Jamaica, November 10th, 1830, died Francis Peat, @ black slave of Kingston, aged one hundred and thirty, leav” ing many decendants to the fourth generation.§ Died Oct. 12th, 1830, in Jamaica, aged one hundred and twenty years, Jane Morgan, a negro woman, formerly be- longing to George Crawford Ricketts, esq. attorney-general of the island.|| Juan Moroygota, a native of the parish of Tabio, of the canton of Cappaquina, who completed his hundred and thirty” eighth year, on the 12th of June, 1828. At this advanced age, he enjoys perfect health, and works every day as @ agricultural labourer.4] Died in Jamaica, 1821, Joseph Bam, a negro belonging the estate of Morice Hall, at the age of one hundred and forty-six.** . Sept. 3rd, 1831, in Jamaica, died a creole negro woma” named Catherine Hiatt, formerly belonging to the Honourable John Hiatt; she frequently said she was a good sized girl at the insurrection of the Coromantee negroes, in Carpenter’ Mountains, Clarendon, which happened in 1690; from thiss her age is computed to have been upwards of one hundre and fifty years. She never bore a child: she retained all het * Times, Oct. 2, 1823. + St. Jago Gazette. + Gent. Mag. July 1829. § Gent. Mag. April 1831. 5 || Gent. Mag. March 1831. @ Gazeta de Columbia, Nov. 28, 1820" ** Gent. Mag. Dec. 1831. OF SPECIES. ry faculties to the last moment, and did coarse needle-work a very short time previous to her death.* Sept, 8th, died in Jamaica, Frances Johnson, a Samboo Woman slave, aged one hundred and seven years, retaining all her faculties to the last.+ A complete proof that negroes are not short-lived people, ‘nder circumstances favourable to their longevity, is afforded Ythe late census of the population of New Jersey. The Whole ageregate number of the inhabitants of that state was “Omputed to be upwards of 300,000 souls, of which number 0,000 and upwards were negroes, and 300,000 white people. Mong the 300,000 whites, there were existing, at the date of _ © Census, only two individuals one hundred years of age, while &Mong the 20,000 negroes, there were not fewer than eleven Persons who had lived a century and upwards. tom the facts above stated we might infer, that many other Countries are even more congenial to the negro race 8n their native Africa, or at least more favourable to lon- SeVity. But we are not sufficiently informed of the actual “condition of the African nations, and particularly of what re- ie to the statistics of that region of the globe, to allow of a drawing any positive conclusions on this subject. The *rtropical region of Africa is probably more congenial to ~ erin of negroes, than to that of other human It may be observed, that there are many instances of lon- Sevity on record, which have occurred among other African “tions; I mean among tribes not usually included under the .Signation of negroes. Mr. Patterson has mentioned the "Stance of a Kaffer, aged ninety years,{ and Mr. Barrow,§ “a more recently, Mr. Burchell|| have seen Hottentots who “¢ exceeded their hundredth year. * + Gent. Mag. Supplem. Dec. 1831. + Gent. Mag. Supplem. Dec. 1832. at terson’s Travels in Caffraria. § Barrow’s Travel’s in the interior of Africa. 'rchell’s Travels in South Africa. IB To eS ee : 2 eS ea 128 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Paragraph 3.—Of the longevity of the American and othe! races of men, It has been supposed by some that the native American® are of shorter life than the races of men inhabiting Europe. Dr. Rush informs us, that the Indians of North America have at an earlier period than Europeans the marks of old age, and that longevity is more rare among them than among white people. It may be suspected that the fact asserted by Dr. Rush ought to be attributed to accidental circumstances and to the peculiar state of the tribes from whom his information wa obtained. The native Americans appear, from the accounts given by many well-informed writers, to be rather remarkable for longevity. Don Felix de Azara seems to have formed this opinion of the natives of South America. In describing the Charruas ° Paraguay, he says that they never lose their hair, which only becomes grey by half in persons aged about eighty years. The Mexicans, says Clavigero, become grey-headed and bald earlier than the Spaniards ; and although most of the die of acute diseases, it is not very uncommon among them 1° attain to the age of a hundred years.* « Among those Americans,” says the same writer, “ whosé great fatigues and excessive toil do not anticipate their death, there are not a few who reach to the age of eighty, ninety) and a hundred years ; and, what is more, without there beiN$ observed in them that decay which time commonly produc® in the hair, in the teeth, in the skin, and in the muscles of thé human body.” + We have asimilar observation from M. de Humboldt respec” ing the native Americans. He says, “It is by no meall® uncommon to see at Mexico, in-the temperate zone, half w@J up the Cordillera, natives, and especially women, reach ® hundred years of age. This old age is generally comfor™ able; for the Mexican and Peruvian Indians preserve theit *® Mexican History, book i. + Idem, Dissertations. OF SPECIES. 129 Streneth to the last. While I was at Lima, the Indian, lario Pari, died at the village of Chiguata, four leagues istant from the town of Arequipa, at the age of one hundred and forty-three. He had been united in marriage for ninety Years, to an Indian of the name of Andrea Alea Zar, who attained the age of one hundred and seventeen. This old €ruvian went, at the age of one hundred and thirty, from three to four leagues daily, on foot.* _ Another race of men, very different from the above-men- toned, and also from the generality of Europeans, are the @planders. According to Rheen, who is cited by Sheffer,+ € Laplanders are rather remarkable for long life. He says, the Laplanders, not being subject to any dangerous distem- ‘Pers, grow old, and live even to a great age: some live above hundred years, but most to seventy, eighty, or ninety years. Otwithstanding which, they lose not much of their natural “l¥our, being able to traverse the highest mountains and ickest woods, and manage all other affairs as before; nei- *t get they any grey hairs till they are very old.” € might be almost inclined to suspect, from these state- nents, that the longevity of some other races of men, instead falling short of the average duration of life, rather exceeds © term prevalent in those nations who inhabit most of the “untries of Europe. But, on the whole, it does not appear at any well-marked differences exist between the several "ces of men, that can furnish a constant character. fewer) It is interesting, in connexion with this subject, to notice one Very wide interval which separates from mankind the t : " ‘ ‘ . The of animals most approximating to them in physical “tueture, Of all the simie and indeed of the whole brute “ation, the orangs and the troglodyte most nearly resemble .. : this analogy is very striking in the internal organization, ‘, Which the natural functions principally depend. According - Lesson, who has with great accuracy described the * Political Essay on New Spain. + Sheffer’s History of Lapland. K 130 PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL family of simiz and the tribe of orangs in particular, there are satisfactory grounds for believing that the full term of existence for the chimpanze, or troglodyte, is about thirty years. This is a longer period of life than other naturalist have attributed to any of the tribe, and may perhaps be con- sidered as its full period of longevity. Paragraph 4.—Of the Progress of Physical Developement, the Periodical Phenomena of the Constitution, the state of the Natural and Vital Functions in different Races. There are many circumstances connected with the state of the natural and vital functions which are strikingly charac teristic of species, as being remarkably uniform within the limits of one species, and different in races well known to be distinct. Among these, the specific temperature of the bodys the frequency of the pulse and states of all the functions of physical life are included, as well as all the phenomena re lating to breeding in the economy of the female. The specific temperature, and the ordinary frequency of thé pulse, are well known to be nearly uniform in all races ° men. With respect to the periodical phenomena of the constitutio™s before we can appreciate the differences which may belong 1 races of men, we must first advert to those which are the immediate results of external agencies, particularly of circu” stances related to climate. It is well known that climate® give rise to a considerable difference in the period of puberty which is much more early in hot than in cold countries, ip the same races of people. The period of child-bearing 18 generally observed to commence and cease at a younger age in tropical climates than in temperate ones, and to be latest of all in extremely cold countries, There is also a conside! able variation dependent on the habits of society. The women of the peasantry in Europe have a more tardy appearance of the catamenia than the inhabitants of citie® especially the higher orders. In the state of manners which exists in populous cities, the time at which these phenomen@ commence is much accelerated ; they are greater in degre’ DEVELOPEMENT !—PERIODS OF LIFE. ae nd occasion much more disturbance in the system, by their “Xess and occasional irregularities. In England, the age at which the catamenia make their ‘Ppearance is generally about thirteen or fourteen years, “ometimes a year or two earlier or later; and the age of Puberty in the male sex is from fourteen to sixteen years. In © north of France, a difference is perceptible in these Periods, which are accelerated in proportion to the tempera- we.* In Italy, the phenomena of the female economy "elated to the uterine system are established at twelve years °L age, and in the south of Spain marriages take place at that Period. In Minorca, according to Cleghorn, puberty com- Nences at the eleventh year, and at Smyrna women are some- ‘Mes mothers at eleven or twelve years of age. In Persia, ardin reports that the females have the catamenia at nine T ten years of age. The age of ten is the ordinary period, “cording to Niebuhr, in Arabia. In Jamaica, says Mr. Long, “€ women attain earlier to maturity, and sooner decline than “the northern climates: they often marry very young, and “Te mothers at twelve years of age. Diversities of an opposite kind are observed in northern “Mates. In the north of Germany, the catamenia do not “Mmence until the fifteenth year, according to Blumenbach. 3 Some parts of Europe, the period is still more tardy. “lineeus informs us, that the women of the Laplanders We the catamenia, in general, less copious than the Swedes. “i adds, that obstructions of the catamenia are very rare ng them, excepting those who live in the service of the “onists ; these are occasionally troubled with such irregu- ‘Tities, and are subject, in consequence, like the females of . *r races, to epistaxis and cedematous swellings of the gs, Such being the variety in this respect which obviously “ults from climate in the European races and in Asiatics of * Same complexion and physical variety, we may expect to i difference between the inhabitants of Europe and the © people of Africa and America. Te Mes ; Pitzgerala, Mem. p. 3. Virey, Gen. Hum. p. 130. + Virey, 130, tom. 1. K 2 age == = a Se So me ge SS SS SS so ———— = er on ans Sa Sar teenoneres “ a eae aN eae aT Europeans, who are usually exposed to the open air; 132 PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL We are informed by various writers that the females among the African nations have the catamenia very early. Mr. Burchell says, the girls among the Bushmen are betrothed at seven years of age, which, however, implies nothing more; but he adds, that they are sometimes mother at twelve, or even at ten years of age. In the hot and low country of the Eboes, the female according to Mr. Oldfield, have the catamenia at eight or nine years of age. He was informed that the periods frequently return every third’week, having a duration of about three days. In the West Indies, we have an opportunity of comparing the white and black people under the same climate, though not precisely under the same circumstances. I have fre- quently made inquiry on the same subject of medical prac titioners who have lived in the West Indies, and the unifor® result of this inquiry has been, that there is no difference 2 respect to the age of puberty, the period of fecundity, or any of the circumstances connected with the catamenia betwee? white women and negresses. Few persons have possessed greater opportunities of ac quiring information on the physical condition of the African than Dr. Winterbottom. This writer declares that there 18 little difference in the age of puberty between the Africa? and the European. With regard to the catamenia he ob- serves, “ I am unable to speak with precision respecting this excretion in the natives of Africa, but among the settlers at Free Town, in Sierra Leone, my opportunities of observatio? were very extensive. It may be proper to remark that thes? people, who are generally called Nova-Scotians, becaus? brought from that country to Sierra Leone, are blacks who were either carried to America when very young, or were born there of parents who came from Africa. Of course they are sufficiently acquainted with the customs of white peopl® and they live nearly in the same way as the lower classes . people in Europe. Among the Nova Scotian women, the catamenia have precisely the same appearance as among an the same varieties occur with regard to quantity, periods ° DEVELOPEMENT :——PERIODS OF LIFE. 133 "ecurrence, &c. nor have they experienced any material altera- hon by change of climate.” If any race of men deviates more than others from the “ommon standard in these particulars, I apprehend it to be the aborigines of America. Among them, although the odily frame is endowed with great muscular strength and rtitude, the powers of life in the natural and vital functions, “S they are termed by physiological writers, are at a low ebb. t. Rush says, that out of eight Indians whose pulses he “Xamined at the wrist, he did not meet with one in whom arteries beat more than sixty-four strokes in a minute. tis commonly supposed, that the fecundity of the American Women is less than that of the females in other races,* and at the sexual affections among these people are less power- ul. Some writers have indeed plainly intimated a suspicion of an important and specific difference between them and other races of men in these particulars. In order to clear up *'I doubts on this head, I shall cite the testimonies of some ®! the best informed observers. mo Bush assures us, that the women of the North Ameti- Q tribes seldom begin to be subject to the catamenia, till "a are about eighteen. or twenty years of age, and that ag phenomena generally cease before they are forty years ‘ They have the catamenia in small quantities, but at Sular intervals. They seldom marry till about twenty: “ir marriages are rarely unfruitful: miscarriages seldom “ppen among them. Their labours are short, and accom- Panied with little pain; and after a few days they return to “Ir usual employments.” hese observations refer chiefly to the tribes in the nor- ern, and middle parts of the United States. In the account tch was published by Mr. James, of an expedition to the ba Mountains, we have information on many points con- ed with the physical and moral history of the nations in * ee Felix de Azara says, in describing the Indians of Paraguay: “ J’ad- jot 4 hauteur de leur taille, la grandeur et l’élégance de leurs proportions; qui fé tes Wégales dans le monde; et en méme tems, je ne doute pas de leur peu ®condité,” Dr, Rush on the Discases and Medicine of the American Indians. 134 PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL the interior of North America, on the various branches of the Missouri. In some of the above-mentioned circumstance this account differs from that of Dr. Rush. “In the young squaw,’’ says the editor of this work, were informed that the catamenia, and consequent capability of child-bearing, take place about the twelfth or thirteenth year, and the capacity to bear children seems to cease about the fortieth year; but as superstitious notions prevent thesé Indians from taking any note of their ages, these periods at? stated with some hesitation.” The same writer adds, that “ child-birth is remarkably easy among these women. Sterility is rare. The usual number of children may be stated at from four to six in a family, but in some families there are ten or twelve.” It is added, that children are often suckled till they are three years of age.* Perhaps this fact, togethet with the other circumstances of savage life, may fully e* plain the small number of children frequently, but not co” stantly observed in the families of these tribes. The different ages at which puberty takes place among the American races mentioned in these two accounts, on thé accuracy of which we have reason to rely, may be ascribe to the difference of climate. We are assured by M. de Humboldt, that the women of the Chaymas, in South America, are often married at the age of twelve. This celebrated writer is inclined to attribul the precocity of the Chayma women, not to climate, but 1 a peculiarity of the race. That he is not correct in this opinion, may perhaps be shown by comparing the facts ia lated by him with the observations above cited from Dt Rush and Mr. James. Some additional observations to the same effect may bé collected from the work of Professor Keating, of the University of Pennsylvania, containing a series of excellent and i teresting memoirs on several of the native races of the “¢ we BY * Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains. Edwin James, Botanist, &c. to the expedition. Vol. i. p. 214, of the Londo edition. In the same place the reader will find a copious and accurate account ° the physical peculiarities of these races. + Personal Narrative, vol. ili, p. 232. DEVELOPEMENT !:—PERIODS OF LIFE. 135 American continent. From this work I shall cite some re- Marks which bear upon the subject now under consideration. Ih an account of the physical character of the Potowatomi tribe, belonging to the great Algonquin race, and residing Near lake Michigan, we are informed, on the testimony of etea, a Potowatomi chief, that the period of gestation in the women of that tribe varies from eight to nine months, and is seldom attended with sickness or nausea. The cata- Menia commonly commence at the age of fourteen, and con- tinue until fifty, and in some cases until the sixtieth year. Chis last is probably only in cases of disease. Metea added, “That it is not uncommon to see a woman with grey hairs, Whose catamenia have not ceased. Irregularities are not “Weommon, as well as obstructions : but on these subjects it Seems that the informant of the author spoke with reserve.” The same writer has the following remarks on the Dacotas, or Sioux, another American race, distinct from the Potowa- tomi and other Algonquin nations. “Sterility among women is by no means uncommon, Neither is it disreputable. It frequently happens that a wo- Man, reputed barren, will bear children if she change her hus- and. The catamenia commence later among the Dacotas than among the Potowatomis, for with the former they sel- °M come on before the age of fifteen or sixteen, while in € latter they appear at fourteen; this difference is easily *Ccounted for, by the more severe climate which the Dacotas ‘nhabit, and by their greater exposure to privations of every Ind.’ << Women are frequently liable, durmg pregnancy, to lethargy and sick stomach; and we are informed that the cota women have their faces covered with spots, in the Same manner as white women. Being hardened to exercise, ey attend to their usual occupations, even in the last stages of gestation.” Many other particulars are added to the preceding, which *e not less important in respect to the physical history of © American races. For these I must refer my readers to the original work.* * : : yr ‘ Ri By. W arrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River, &c. y. W. eee 1. Keating, A. M. vol. i. chapters 3 and 8. se. SS SS eS aieiieinteanetnsas sae eemmememnaiadaeaet 136 PROGRESS OF PHYSICAL M. Rollin, surgeon to the expedition under the unfortunate La Pérouse, has given us very sufficient information respect ing the physical character of several races in different parts of America, particularly of the natives of the western coast at Baie des Frangais, of the people of California, and those of Chili. The following is an extract from his general re marks on all these nations collectively.* “The natural progress of life,” he says, “ among these nations, in all its periods of increase and decay, appears to be the same as with us; but the climate, their mode of lifes and other habits, may have introduced some slight dif- ferences.” “ In Chili and California, the appearance of the beard, and the change of the voice, announce the age of puberty, in males, about the thirteenth year. The girls arrive at puberty about the age of eleven or twelve, of which the enlargement of the breasts, and the appearance of the catamenia, are the usual indications. The quantity in which this periodical phenomenon takes place, varies in different individuals, ac cording to their constitution and manner of living. If n? accident interrupt the natural course, it takes place every month, and continues from three to eight days. Women aré subject to it until about the fortieth year; but it is not un common for some to afford signs of fecundity at a more ad- vanced age.”’ “ Old age and decrepitude announce themselves among these nations, as in civilized countries, by the decrease of the humours, the loss or decay of sight, and other senses, and 4 change of colour in the hair of the head and beard.”’ “ Women who have borne several children, have thei! breasts loose and pendant, and the skin of the pelvis corru- gated, like Europeans in similar cases, without any observ- able difference.” “‘ These nations have very nearly the same passions, the same sports, and the same manner of living; are equally violent in the expression of joy and anger, which the slightest action is sufficient to excite.” We are informed by Don Felix de Azara, that the wome? * Physiological Memoir on the Americans, by M. Rollin. DEV ELOPEMENT :—PERIODS OF LIFE. 137 « the Charruas, Guarani, and all the other savage nations ie Paraguay, and the eastern parts of South America, are “emarkable for the paucity in which the catamenia make “lf appearance and return. € general conclusion, which results from a comparison fall the preceding testimonies is, that there is no marked “nd decided difference between the different tribes of men in “spect to the principal phenomena of physical life, or m those processes which are termed by physiological writers the “atural functions. It seems that the phenomena connected With child-bearing and the uterme system are different in ite and black women who inhabit different climates, in re- tion merel y to climate. The races differmg most in these "SShects from the European are the native Americans, whose “Onstitution of body appears to be endowed with a lower de- Bree of irritability ; hence, there is less of activity in their “ita functions, or the processes of physical life are carried “1 in them with less vigour and intensity. But this difference S bY no means so great as to allow of a question whether . ‘Mounts to a specific distinction, since it does not exceed, nd Perhaps scarcely equals the degree of difference which sub-. “sts between individuals of the same nation or kindred. It : to be expected that varieties in the temperament of par- “ular individuals in respect to the early or late commence- Ment and ‘termination of the prolific period and the de- Stees of fecundity, would manifest themselves more or less * characters of breeds or races, as they are known to do ven in the vegetable tribes;* but such variations among tman races are evidently confined within very narrow limits ; “*Y do not exceed the measure of individual variety. S Plants, as M. De Candolle observes, display hereditary characters ; and races o¢ Pla ' : : a a8 it is well known to horticulturists, may be obtained by certain manage. te it which are precocious or tardy in bearing, or which are capable of flowering “0 Mtedly, as well as others which resist the action of cold or of heat. De Can- * Physiol, Veg. ii, 738. Knight, Hortic. Transact. np LI SON PE ONE NO TA A Ni Pte " Se aes ian alee ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Szction V.— Second head of the Analogical Investigation Inferences with respect to sameness or distinctness of Sp® cies, derived from the Phenomena of Propagation betwee” different breeds. From the capability of propagating or the sterility of animals sprung from the blending of different breeds it has been supposed that a criterion may be draw! whether the races from which such animals are enge® dered, are of the same or of distinct species. It is wel known that mules are in general barren, or incapable ° procreating ; and it has been supposed that all other hybrid animals—a term applied to the offspring of a male and fe- male of different species, are equally sterile. From this cil” cumstance naturalists have attempted to determine what races of animals are of distinct species, and what breeds al only accidental varieties of the same species. It has bee? concluded, that if the offspring of two individual animals b@ longing to different breeds is found to be capable of procre*” tion, the parent animals, though differmg from each othe in some particulars, yet belong to the same species; if the offspring so engendered is sterile, an inference has bee? drawn that the races from which it descended are originally distinct. . The great advocate for this doctrine was the celebrated John Hunter, and since the time of Hunter, it has bee? adopted by many of the most distinguished naturalist Other writers have altogether rejected it as an opinio? founded on a hasty and too general duction from a few facts. It must be allowed that the exceptions to the sUuP” posed law of nature rendering sterile all hybrid productioD are very numerous, and that when they are stated coliectivelY in the manner in which this has been done by Rudolph» they have a most imposing appearance, and are well calc lated to excite our doubt as to the soundness of the gene™ conclusion to which so many particular facts are opposed. * Rudolphi, Beytraege zur Anthropologie und allgemeinen Naturgeschichte- PHENOMENA OF HYBRIDITY. 139 The casual intermixture of breeds, or the production of hybrids, is a phenomenon observed occasionally in almost every department of nature, and in many instances it must be admitted that hybrids have been found to be capable of Procreation. We must take a brief survey of the principal observations which have been collected in reference to this Subject. The existence of hybrids in the vegetable kingdom isa fact well known, since the time of Linneus, who indeed ima- ined this phenomena to be much more frequent and to take place under a greater variety of circumstances than More accurate investigation has been found to warrant. ybrid plants are continually produced in gardens between Proximate species, by a process well known to horticulturists. 1 the state of nature they are very rare; and although the °bservation of botanists has been directed to this subject Wing more than one hundred years, the number of hybrid Plants as yet discovered to have been produced in the wild 4nd natural condition of the vegetable tribes, amounts in the aM and most accurate enumeration only to forty.* Of these has been ascertained that several are absolutely sterile, ot Ovary being constantly found at the period of maturity ‘ Contain no embryo. This is the case of the medicago “tsicolor, which according to M. De Candolle is a hybrid ee M. sativa and falcata; with the ranunculus lace- ‘ s and two other ranunculi, which are all hybrids, ac- rdine to the same writer, and with the known hybrids of © verbascum, digitalis and polygonum. There are two Ybrid centaureee which are commonly reported to be fertile, ut M. De Candolle says, that he has observed them in Serdens, and has constantly discovered them to be sterile. Ith respect to all the remaining mstances of hybrids pro- ae among plants in the natural state, it has never been Certained whether they can be reproduced or not. Among the insect tribes examples of irregular unions be- Ween different species are cited by some naturalists, but fonctions vitales des * é Physiologie Végétale ou Exposition des forces et des At. E : sttaux, par M. Aug. Pyr. De Candolle, tom. ii. 1832. Se La a a RE 140 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. they appear to be of rather ambiguous character. Rossi's observation of the coupling of cantharis melanura, with the female of the elater niger, though cited by Treviranus and Rudolphi, has been received with the doubt which belong® to a very improbable relation,* and the conjunctions of dif- ferent coccinelle, which are testified by Fabricius, do not afford an unequivocal example of the union of different species, since, according to the opinion of Illiger, accidental varieties of the coccinella have been frequently mistaken for distinct kinds.+ Hybrid productions are reported by naturalists among fishes. Rudolphi declares that he has seen a carp of # mule breed, and Bloch has cited various writers who havé brought forward instances of a similar kind.{ The principal examples of mule fishes upon record have occurred, as it seems: from the intermixture of different species of the cyprinu® Defay mentions a hybrid between the barbus and carpi0i and Bloch a similar production, intermediate between the cyprinus blicea and brama. Among birds similar productions are more frequent, and of more various kinds. Bechstein mentions mules from thé canary-bird with the goldfinch, the siskin, the bramble finch, the greenfinch, the greater linnet, the bullfinch, thé lesser linnet, and the chaffinch.{ The same writer say® that the tetras urogallus, or cock of the wood, will breed with the T. tetrix, as well as with the domestic fowl, and with thé turkey. Treviranus has collected many other instances jl a bastard progeny between the anas glaucion and the anas querquedula is described by M. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire,f] and one between the goose and the swan, by M. Frederi¢ Cuvier.** * Rossi, Memorie di Verona, T. viii. Meckel, Traité Gen. d’ Anatomie compare® See Treviranus, Biologie, Th. iii. viii. 416. Rudolphi’s Beytraege, p. 160. +. Fabricii Systema Eleutherator. T.i. Rudolphi ubi supra. + Bloch’s Naturgeschichte der Fische Deutschlands, T. i. Rudolphi ubi sup! § Gemeinnitzige Naturgeschichte der Vogel Deutschlands, B, i. Leipz. 1807: Rudolphi, p. 161. || Treviranus Biologie, Th. iii. q Annales du Muséum, T. vii, ** Tbid. T. xii. p. 122. PHENOMENA OF HYBRIDITY. 141 With respect to mammifers, it is well known, as M. Ru- Olphi contends, not only that hybrid productions are very merous, but that they are not unprolific. Mules, properly nti termed, are not always barren ; a fact which was known to tistotle: the instances of their breeding are supposed to be Rot unfrequent in warm countries. Several examples are “Pon record in which asses and zebras have bred together. The mixed offspring between the wolf and the dog has fre- {ently been described,* and the progeny of the dog and the foxy, and the dog and the jackal is well known. In all of “se mixed productions the hybrid animal has been found 0 be capable of procreation. “ya Sparrmann declares, that the offspring of the Ethiopian 8 and the common swine is prolific.{ The bisons of Ame- "ea and those of India are said to breed readily with the hed cattle of Europe, and the lumps of the bisons to dis- *Ppear in the course of several generations.§ What appears Stil] More remarkable is, that sheep and goats are asserted Y many authors to produce an offspring which is capable of : reeding again with either of its parent stocks, so that in “any generations the effect of this intermixture is lost, and the Progeny will become completely sheep or goats according 8 the propagation is continued with either kind. || Rudolphi “ven declares, on the authority of Hellenius, whom he con- Siders as a witness fully deserving of credit, that a female ‘tdinian roe became pregnant by a ram, and produced young “nes which resembled the father in form, but the mother in *olour, These hybrid animals were afterwards made to breed t two successive generations with common Finnish rams ; % Maschim Naturforscher, St. 15. In this instance the hybrid was prolific. seer Ry ™ Philos. Ty. 1787—89. Geoff. ‘St.-Hilaire. Ann. du Muséum, tom. 1v- olphi’s Beytrage. “allas (N. Nord. Beytriige) gives from Pennant two instances of generation tey et é . Ween the dog and wolf, and one between the dog and the fox, in which last the Pring, a female, afterwards produced young by a dog. Rudolphi ubi supra. < _Pattmann’s Voyage to the Cape. € la Nux.—Zimmerman’s Zoolog. Geograph. ! gotten, Hist. Nat.—Cogitationes quedam de an. hybrid.—Aboe, 1798.— olphi's Beytrage, p. 165. 142 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. until at length the mixed breed came to resemble in every respect the common breed of Finnish sheep.* All these instances are obtained from among animals im @ state of domestication ; a fact of a different description is re ported by Steller, whom both Pallas and Telesius considered to be worthy of confidence. Steller declares, that in Beb- ring’s Islands, sea-lions or phoce jubate frequently breed with the female phoce ursine or sea-bears.+ Such examples of mixed generation, when brought toge gether, form a large aggregate, and might, at the first view of the subject, tempt us to believe, that there is really, in nature, no impediment to the propagation of hybrid animals; a conclusion which, indeed, some of the writers cited in the preceding pages appear desirous of bringing us to admit. But a question here suggests itself which is not easily to be answered by those who maintain this doctrine. If there is no principle in nature which impedes the unrestrained inte! mixture of species, how is the order and at the same time the variety of the animal creation maintained? If animals of different species mixed their breed in the ordinary cours? of things, and hybrid races were often propagated, the an mal world would soon present a scene of strange confusio? ‘ its various tribes would become everywhere blended togethe" and we should, at length, scarcely discover any genuin® and uncorrupted races. It may rather be affirmed, that this universal confusion of all organized tribes would long ag? have been effected. But how opposite is such a state of things from the real fact. The same uniform and regulat propagation of species holds still throughout all nature, n°! are the limits of each kind less definite than they are sup” posed to have been some thousand of years ago. It is plain that in some manner the preservation of distinct tribes h@* ' ™ Tt has often been said, that the animals called giummari, or jumars, ate pro” created from parents of the ox and horse kinds. Meckel has shown this to be # groundless opinion. Anat. Comparée, tom. i. p. 402. Buffon had previously * jected it. Equally groundless are the stories related of intermixture between 409° and cats, turkeys and domestic fowls.— Meckel. 1. c. + Steller’s Ausfuhrliche Beschreibung von sonderbaren Meerthieren, Halle. Ru dolphi ubi supra. ; PHENOMENA OF HYBRIDITY. 143 been Secured, and that universally, or throughout all the differ- “nt departments of the organized creation. Of what nature are the causes by which the intermixture s living tribes is so effectually prevented ? It would appear, that Several different circumstances co-operate to this result. 0 the first place, it seems evident that races of animals in € wild and natural state are kept distinct not merely by the Sterility of mules, but perhaps chiefly by the fact that such ‘Teatures are seldom or never brought into existence. It Would appear that there is a mutual repugnance, or at least a Want of inclination to intercourse, between animals of different *Pecies, while they remain in their wild and unrestrained con- tion, which prevents any blending of kinds, and might be Sufficient alone to account for the fact that hybrid productions *e in that state almost unknown * Exceptions are reported > the universality of this observation. I have already cited the fact reported by Steller as to the different tribes of phoce “Mong which it is said that intercourse occasionally takes “ce, It has been stated, though I know not on what evi- “nce, that the stag has been known to follow the female of © fallow-deer. In some old book of voyages relations are to R found which report that male apes of the African and of the ‘ lan species have carried away negresses or other human een and have lived with them in the woods. It has been ell observed by M. Lesson, in his work on Mammifers, that oe reports are defective in evidence ; they are appa- Y as unfounded as they are in every way improbable.t Would appear that captivity and restraint, or at least « 8 €xclusion from females of their own species 1S requisite °rder to prepare animals of one tribe for intercourse with ag of another kind. It is in this way that equine mules : ®ngendered. Even this, however, isnot always successful, ut appeared in the experiments made by the Count de uifon on the wolf, the fox, and dog, who repeatedly kept * Th Talis Sc view of the subject apiiears long ago to have occurred to a Gonna: ander , 0 laid it down as a positive rule, “ Wenn sich Thiere von Natur ag opr 8atten, so ist solches ein unfehlbares kennzeichen, dass sie von einerlei specie Frisch, cited by Blumenbach de Gen. H.V. N. - €sson, Hist. des Mammiféres et des Oiseaux. Les Orangs, tom. 11) Sing.» TL 144 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. animals of these tribes together under circumstances most favourable to their intercourse, without any such result, which in these instances at least was obviously prevented by nothing else than a mutual repugnance.* The existence of this ave sion was so apparent as to cause the Count de Buffon to doubt for a time, though he afterwards found reason for changing his opinion, the truth of Aristotle’s assertion, that dogs, wolves, and foxes will sometimes breed together. But in the second place, when animals of different species have been brought to cohabit, it appears that in many instances no offspring is produced, and that when conceive it is not so regularly brought to perfection as the progeny? unadulterated, of one species. Many such births are pr& vented by abortion. In many conception never takes placé at all, though all the preliminary conditions appear to have been fulfilled.+ Lastly, the permanent distinction of tribes is further secured by the sterility of hybrid productions. We have seen that occasional exceptions are known to this general fact ; but these though curious and remarkable as 6” lated phenomena, are not of such a description as to indicat® any real infringement of the law of nature which maintail® the diversity of tribes in the organized world. Hybrid ani mals have never been known to propagate their kind; that ™ by cohabiting with other hybrids of an opposite sex to enge™ der an offspring similar to themselves. It has been only when coupled with animals of a pure breed that hybrids hav? been known to produce at all. Mules have been foul capable of bearing an offspring begotten by horses, but ther? is no instance upon record in which two mules have bee? known to breed together. A similar observation holds gor" with respect to the hybrid animal generated between the dog and the wolf, and to that between the dog and the jacka™ This latter animal has been found capable of breeding with ® : : i * Buffon Hist. Nat. du Chien. I beg the reader who doubts the reality of supposed natural repugnance to read Buffon’s account of his experiments. ++ See the account of an experiment in which no conception took place after ® iJs full and sufficient trial between a male fox and a terrier bitch, of which the det are given in Dr. Baron’s Life of Dr. Jenner, p. 74. PHENOMENA OF HYBRIDITY. 145 dog, but it has never been ascertained that two such hybrid “teatures could breed together. Human care and interference ee Perpetually necessary in order to originate and maintain © existence of such breeds.* Without this interference they Would never have existed, and when called into existence would speedily disappear.+ In the vegetable kingdom, it is well known that hybrids Produced by cultivation are sometimes capable of bearing Seed, though in a great many instances they are com- Pletely sterile. The extreme rarity of hybrid plants ob- “erved in a state of nature, and the difficulty which is ~XPerienced in preserving them in gardens afford, as M. — 7® Candolle has observed, strong reasons for believing that “Ven in the case of prolific hybrids, fecundation is difficult “ud incomplete. The impediments opposed by nature to the “Cundation of hybrid plants are referred by M. De Candolle » Several different principles. He conjectures that the pollen . hybrid anthers is wholly or partially deficient in granules, and that on this difference depends the absolute sterility of ‘ome, and the comparative, though still defective, fecundity *F other hybrid plants. With this supposed defect, he com- ares the fact “ que les mulets steriles d’animaux sont privés . “Qimalcules.” That some cause of this description must ‘ituence the results of experiments would appear evident». "Om the observations of M. Gertner, who found that the \ “umber of grains fertilized in each fruit is much less in the *ttempts to produce hybrid fecundation than in the natural / "cess, It is conjectured also by M. De Candolle, that “Portion of the germs or some monstrosity in the organs of "UCtification are among the causes which impede the repro- “ction of hybrid flowers. It appears, however, that in some ines these hybrid plants can be made to reproduce, her by blending them with the primitive kinds, or with : . . Hs, is said that female mules in Arabia being pregnant by horses often cat . ag 8 birth to their young, but that the Arabs are accustomed to preserve the Si 4s their dams by the Czsarean section. ‘* Lettere sull’ India Orientale.”— Phi, Beytraege,—ubi supra. *€ some excellent observations on this subject in Mr. Lyell’ 8Y, book iii, Udo] s Principles of Geo], “ L 146 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. other hybrids. But this rare fertility has never been know? to become permanent. According to Professor Lindley; it has never exceeded the third generation. The result of all the observations which have been made upon this subject is, as M. De Candolle has remarked, that “all such interme- diate breeds tend incessantly to extinction, by the difficulties which are opposed to their reproduction. This explains the rarity of their appearance, and reconciles the permanence which is observed among the distinct species of nature with the real existence, often, however, exaggerated, of hybrid or temp rary tribes, which are thus reduced into the class of monstrou® productions.” It seems on the whole evident, all the departments of the organized creation being considered, that the energy of prop# gation is very defective in the union of different species, ab ~ subsequently in the reproduction of hybrid animals or plants: The result of experiments has uniformly proved that if such a stock can be kept up for a few successive generations, which has only been done by a reunion with a pure breed, it has at length disappeared, or has at least ceased to exist aS ® peculiar race. Paragraph 2.— It may be worth while to compare with this conclusion thé well known results of crossing or intermixing varieties Ms races differing from each other in colour and form, but stil belonging to the same species. Both horticulturists and thos who are engaged in breeding cattle and other domesticaté animals, are well aware of the advantages to be derived from this resource; the former, in improving the varieties of fruit’ trees and other vegetable productions, and the latter, wit relation to breeds of oxen, horses, sheep, swine, and dog* Mixed breeds are very often produced superior in almost * their physical qualities to the parent races, and particular! with so much vigour of propagation, that they often ga? ground upon the older varieties, and gradually supersede the™ This one property of greater fecundity is often the particul® 5 PHENOMENA OF HYBRIDITY. 147 “€ason for the selection, and the circumstance which induces ®griculturists and the breeders of cattle to adopt new races 1n Preference to the old ones. Paragraph 3.—Of mixed human races. A question now offers itself to our consideration with respect ® Mixed races in the human kind, whether they ere the Phenomena of their propagation, analogous to hybrid produc- tions or to the blended offspring of tribes which are merely Yatieties of the same species. . Ow the undoubted fact is, that all mixed races of men are "emarkable for their tendency to multiplication. The men of Co Cur, or the mixed breed between the white Creoles and the . “Stoes, are well known in many of the West Indian isles to Nerease rapidly, and this chiefly by family connexions among “Mselves, Hence there has resulted a particular caste in many ag so numerous and so rapidly gaining ground, as to give _ __© to serious apprehensions that they are destined to become *ngth the dominant tribe in the community.* In other “tts of the world, in almost every example to which different - Neties of mankind are brought into social relations at all “tuilar to those of the Negroes and Creoles, or offering facilities i intercourse, similar results have taken place. I shall here Y point out in a brief manner some few of these instances . Ich I shall have future occasion to investigate, when con- ‘ ering the ethnography of particular countries and the phy- “ical history of particular races of mankind. In Africa there s Several remarkable instances of a similar description. The "quas, or bastard Hottentots, the mixed race between the Utch Colonists and the aborigines of South Africa, form on * Parton cS Man Sng. t injustement réprouvés,” says M. Bory de St. Vincent, “les Mulatres {ent cependant pas de cette beauté et de cette intelligence qui résultent en Sion du ctoisement des espéces et des races. Les Négres portent cava a is su ? “ qwils prétendent s’arroger comme tenant des Blancs; ceux-ci qui nes Pas qu’il soit criminel de les procréer, n’imaginent pas non plus qu'il sot .° les dégrader, et c’est un trait déshonorant de histoire des Hommes d'espéce ee que des coutfimes avouées autorisent cette inhumanite.”—Dict. Class a Nat, 2 148 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. the borders of the colonial settlements a numerous and rapidly increasing race. The Griquas now occupy the banks of the Gariep or Orange river, for the space of at least seven hundre miles, where their numbers were estimated some years ag # be at least 5,000 souls. They are powerful marauders, 4” harass by their predatory incursions all the native tribes their vicinity, and are frequently troublesome to the neigh bouring colonists. Great numbers of the same mixed race a! in other parts thrivmg agriculturists; and there is a large com munity at Griqua Town settled under the government of the Missionaries of the United Brethren, by whose means they had been converted to Christianity and have adopted the habit of civilized society.* Another mixed tribe in Africa has becom? one of the more powerful nations in that continent. The Fella tahs are, according to the most recent and accurate accoun!® amixed progeny from the intermixture of the Red Poules, the old inhabitants of Fouta Dhiallo and Fouta Torro, with t? Iolofs, Jallonka, and Torodos, as well as with other black nations with whom they have coalesced.+ The intermedial race resulting from this intermixture has become so mue more numerous and powerful as to have superseded the orig nal Poules in their native lands, and to have spread themselve moreover by conquest over a great part of the interior © Soudan. In South America, both the European colonists 2 the Negroes whom they have introduced have intermixed ve extensively with the native population. In Brazil, the mix breed between the Negroes and the aborigines are termé Cafusos: they are a very peculiar race, whose physical che racter has been described by Von Spix and Martius.} Spaniards have everywhere intermixed with the native peopl? in South America. In Paraguay, the mixed breed constitute according to Don Felix de Azara, a great majority of th people termed Spaniards or white men; and they are said to a people superior in physical qualities to either of the races fro™ % * For an account of the Griqua, or bastard Hottentot race, see Thomps Travels in South Africa. + Mollien, Voyages en Afrique.—Golberry, Voyage au Sénégal. + Von Spix und Martius, Reisen in Brasilien. th. 1. INTERMIXTURE OF RACES. 149 which they have sprung, and much more prolific than the aborigines, The following is the description given of them y Azara: “ Ces métis s’unirent en général les uns aux autres, Parcegy’il ne passe en Amérique que tres peu de femmes “Uropéennes, et ce sont les descendans de ces métis qui com- Posent aujourd’hui au Paraguay la plus grande partie de ce {won appelle Espagnols. Ils me paraissent avoir quelque “Uperiorité sur les Espagnols d’Europe, par leur taille, par Clégance de leurs formes, et méme par la blancheur de leur Peau. Ces faits me font soupconner non seulement Ave le élange des races les améliore, mais encore que espece Wopéenne Vemporte a la longue sur l’Americaine, ou du Noins le sexe masculin sur le feminin.* : In the north of Asia there are innumerable instances of inter- ixture of breed between the Tartar, Mongolian and Tungusian "Aces, and the Russians and Chinese who are predominant °Yer the other nations of that continent. Pallas informs us, at even intermarriages between Russians and Tartars with '¢ Mongolians, who differ widely from both of these races in oe physical character, are very frequent in Mongolia. . the children born from these marriages are thus described n Pallas’s Memoir on the Mongolian Nations. “ Ces en- ans ont d’agréables et quelquefois de superbes figures, tan- 8 que ceux d’origine purement Kalmuke ou Mongole con- “ervent jusqu’a dix ans une figure difforme et bouffle, un a : ate “pect cacochyme, qu’ enfin la croissance du corps fait dispa- "Oltre,”? + Similar observations may be made in different parts of Eu- Tope, The Celtic and Slavonic races were not so strongly Marked in their physical differences from the German or ee race as many other tribes of mankind, yet there ex- “ae Some physical peculiarities which distinguished these ‘ons, It may be observed that, in many instances, the in- Mixture has produced breeds physically superior to the : “Jority of either ancestral race. This may be remarked in Me parts of Ireland: where the Celtic population of that % Voyages en Amerique Meridionale du don Félix de Azara. ‘ Pallas, Mémoire sur les tribus Mongoles. Mém. du Muséum, 1828. —S ane 150 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. island is nearly unmixed, they are, in general, people of shor stature, small limbs and features; where they are intermixed with English settlers or with the Lowlanders of Scotland, thé people are remarkable for fine figures, tall stature, and creat physical energy. It would be easy to multiply instances ? this description, but I shall not proceed further at present. On a review of all the facts connected with the propag#” tion of mixed breeds we may conclude, that real hybrids a either barren or so little prolific that their stock is destine? soon to become extinct, while the mixed offsprings originating from different races within the limits of the same specie generally exceed in vigour and in the tendency to mult plication the parent races from which they are produced. do not wish to erect an important conclusion upon this oné argument, but its evidence as far as that extends, and consi derable weight will be allowed to it, is manifestly favourable to the doctrine that the several tribes of men are but varietie of the same species. Szorion V1.—Third Head of the Analogical Investigatio™ of Species.—Pathological Considerations. It has been well observed by a celebrated German phys cian, C. W. Hufeland, that the comparative pathology ° living tribes and species must be more attentively studied a more fully elucidated than it has yet been, before we ca? render complete our acquaintance with their physical history: The diseases and predispositions to disease peculiar to certail races, constitute as much a part of the physical descripti? and enter as fully into the aggregate of distinctive characte! belonging to these races, as any feature in their anatomical structure. It is much to be regretted, that the sources of i” formation are very defective in reference to this subject. We are only enabled to collect facts which are as yet so few av so imperfectly understood, that they sometimes appear dis crepant and contradictory in their bearing. This is particl” larly the case with respect to the inferior tribes of the anim@ creation, and the reasons are so obvious, that they do n¢ PATHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 151 Tequire to be specified. The pathology of these tribes is 80 ‘mperfectly known, that we are not enabled to deduce from 'S quarter any general inferences which may be afterwards “ompared with, and may tend to elucidate the bearing of ana- gous facts collected from the history of mankind. The pa- ology of human races is somewhat more advanced, and the facts related to it rest on less doubtful authority, but they are of very limited extent. P aragraph 1.—Of contagious and epidemic Diseases. Observations on contagious diseases,* or on complaints Which are capable of spreading from one individual over a Whole community, may throw some light on the limitations of “Pecies, If it should be proved, that the influence of morbid Poisons is, iz general, confined to some particular races and. S destitute of agency on other species, in respect even to Nbes the most nearly approaching in form and organization, ue Might avail ourselves of this fact as a criterion by which the question might be determined with some degree of proba- llity, whether all human races originate from the same stock. € state of knowledge on this subject is at present too im- Perfect to warrant any positive conclusions. It is, indeed, well known, that some contagious diseases are “oMmunicable from one tribe of animals to another. Cow-pox “Hords the most familiar example. Without assuming it to . @ certain fact, that this disease is identical with that which horses is termed the grease, and that it has been communt- “ated from the horse to the cow through human intervention, Points which have been, however, in my opinion, fully esta- lishea by Dr. Baron, it is certain, that the ass, the dog, the ou and the sheep are capable of receiving the vaccine dis- ase by inoculation, and that matter taken from pustules so arti ; : : : Z ag circumstances infectious or capable of spreading, of which the class 1s y indeterminate, are not meant to be included under the term adopted in the text. 152 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. produced affords the genuine cow-pox in the human species.” It is obviously very probable, that the same susceptibility would be found, on experiment, to exist in many other tribes- Small-pox, as we might conjecture from its analogy to cow” pox, is likewise communicable to many species. M. Vibor$s at Copenhagen, is believed to have communicated this diseas¢ from the human subject by moculation to asses, dogs, and swine.+ It had been reported long ago by Jansen, a phys! cian at Amsterdam, that an ape was affected with pustules from the contagion of small-pox;{ but without displaying any of the other symptoms of the disease. The cow is like wise said to receive the small-pox by inoculation. § Hydrophobia is another malady which, by a peculiar method of inoculation, is known to be communicable to many specié of animals, though it probably originates only in the dog: Instances have likewise been reported in which the poison’ of glanders, a disease commencing in horses, is said to havé affected grooms, who have had wounds in their hands, and have become accidentally inoculated. There are other contagious diseases, which, as far as the evidence yet obtained extends, are incommunicable from thé human to other species, though it does not appear that any race of men has an immunity from their influence. One of these is the yaws, a disease which, though principally know? among Negroes, also attacks Europeans. We are informed by Dr. Thomson, that repeated attempts have been made i? the West Indies to communicate this disease to rabbits, dog® and fowls, by different methods of inoculation, but that they have all failed. He adds that there is an eruptive disease im cattle, which the Negroes in Jamaica term the yaws, but that it bears no analogy to the complaint so termed in man. J8 this disease the cow-pox?|| Dr. Kerr, in his excellent tre@ tise on yaws, contained in the Cyclopedia of Practical Medi- * Dr. Baron’s Life of Dr. Jenner, page 243. + Medical and Physical Journal. Sept. 1802. Dr. Baron’s Life of Jenne page 216. + Blumenbach, de Gen. Han. Var. Nat. § Dr. Baron, ubi supra, page 216. || Edin. Med, and Surg. Jo. vol. xv. PATHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 153 Pas, Has likewise remarked that “ repeated experiments have Proved the impossibility of transferring yaws by moculation be- Yond the human species.” Attempts have been made to inoculate ™ ape with the poison of syphilis, but they have failed.* ether contagious diseases, such as measles, scarlatina, hoop- 'N&-cough, are not known to extend their influence beyond the human species. I am uncertain whether to include plague ‘1 the same order of diseases with those above mentioned. hen this disease has been committing its ravages, and almost depopulating whole cities and districts, it might be “tpposed that domestic animals would have suffered, if they aete Capable of receiving the contagion. Nothing of this “ind, as far as I know, is on record. Murrains among cattle "te indeed said to have preceded some fatal epidemics, but “te is no evidence that these were the genuine plague . and “ppears to me, that Dr. Baron has succeeded m rendering : “xtremely probable that they were epidemical imvasions of Mall-pox, and not the bubonic pestilence or plague, properly : termed. In general the distempers which attack different Pecies of animals, as of cattle, are not observed to spread : Sy One to another, however severe their effects may be in © destruction of the particular kind in which they originate. 4s been observed that sheep and pigs have been carried © the West Indies in the same vessel, and that a distemper Pparently contagious has broken out in one kind, without . ting the other in the smallest degree. Even among plants 4s been remarked, that a disease which is very destructive She species, will not attack others, even the most nearly €d to it, On the other hand, it is well known with respect to the con- "Slous diseases affecting mankind, that there is none which is “culiar to one racé, or incapable of attacking others ; though a Predisposition to any given disease is different in different NG as it is known to be in the several families of the same ee nation. On the whole, the inferences resulting from facts ng to contagious and epidemic diseases are, as far as their all; ‘ E Ke ae bee, Tt has been asserted, but I know not on what authority, that this disease has n r Communicated to dogs. 154 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. evidence extends, favourable to the doctrine that all huma? tribes belong to one and the same species. Paragraph 2.—Endemic diseases. The facts relating to endemical diseases and predisposition® to disease, deserve our closest attention, and lead apparently to some curious results. Before we can collect these result it will be necessary to attend to particulars. Some of these diseases are properly termed endemical, though they are not the immediate result of local influences) the constitutional predisposition to them is inherent in pal” ticular races. It seems to originate in local influences, but these influences must be exerted during a long course of yea! and perhaps during several generations, in order to bring forth the morbid tendency. This observation must be illustrated by some examples. The plica polonica is a disease exhibiting remarkable ph@ nomena, on which some recent information has been col municated in Hufeland and Osann’s Journal, in 1834.* “ This complaint,” says Hufeland, “ is peculiar to distric® on and in the neighbourhood of the Vistula, whence its d& nomination. The Germans term it Weichselzopf, Casarié Vistulana. From this circumstance it has been supposed be a disorder arising from merely local causes, or depending 1 mediately on climate. But if such was the fact, the inhabr tants without exception would be subject to the disease. we find, on the contrary, that the Germans who inhabit the same districts and are exposed to the same local influences, if they have not an entire immunity from the Plica, are at least al fected by it much more rarely, and, as it would seem, only ag the result of contagion or communication with infected person: We even find villages close by each other, one of German the other of Polish population, the disease being prevalent 7 the latter and not existing in the former. It has forme!) been supposed to originate from the dress of the people, from their wearmg skin and fur, and the practice of shaving thet * Merkwiirdige Falle von Plica Polonica zur Aufhellung ihrer verbot Formen gesammelt, von Dr. Kutzin zu Bromberg. gen? PATHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. | 155 heads ; but the Russians wear the same sort of dress, and the EES Glkewise shave ‘their heads, yet neither have the plica. ust as little can we account for this fact by reference to the "neleanly habits of the Polish boors, since the Russian pea- “tntry are not much behind them in this respect, and yet ave no Weichselzopf. All these considerations render it to ~ very probable that the plica, with respect to its origination, Clongs to the class of national and not local diseases. It is Peculiar to a particular race of men, namely to the Sarmatic, and i Senerally to the whole Slavonic family, which mcludes the “"matian, the Russian, Bohemian and the proper Slavonian "anches; for these last-mentioned races do not partake of © affection.”* he Poles or the Sarmatic race, as Hufeland terms them, long originally to the same stock as the Russian and Bo- “man, We have therefore in this instance a proof that a ” tbe of people, by long residence in a given district, are capa- é. = acquiring a peculiar hereditary and national variety of istitution, predisposing them to a particular disease from a Ich other tribes of the same original stock are altogether very nearly free. ther equally striking instances may be found, in which Predisposition to diseases is only acquired by individuals after ne Tesidence, or even by races after some generations passed th the climate productive of such diseases. This appears to be “case with the species of elephantiasis, or elephant-leg of atbados, and other intertropical countries. The endemical “ease of Barbados must be distinguished from the leprosy » Well known in the lazar-houses of Madeira and other. “ces, which is termed by some writers elephantiasis, and y Others, lepra Arabum. The former disease attacks, as yeht be supposed, the black indigenous races more readily el = Europeans, or the descendants of Europeans. The “Phant-leg of Barbados has long been known as an en- “mic among the black population, to which it was confined “Ol 1704, At that period it was first known in a white ous but before 1760, when he died, it had become a "on disease among the white people of the island. In u * Vorwort iiben Ragen-Krankheiten, von C. W. Hufeland. 156 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Demarara this disease attacks the Negroes principally, but also sometimes the whites. It is more frequent among Dutch than English families, the former having been longer resident in the country. It is however said to be unknown among the native Americans. Their different habits of life and the different localities occupied by them, are perhaps the causes of this exemption. In Ceylon a similar disease prevails among the indigenous people and the Creoles, or desce- dants of Europeans born in the country, but does not appeat among immigrants, whether Europeans, Africans, Hindoos; or Malays. The only case recorded in an European, that of a man who had been resident at Point de Galle from thirty to forty years. Europeans likewise escape ® similar disease, which affects the natives of Cochin in the Peninsula. An affection analogous to the Elephantiasis of Barbados; is said to take place in the same island in oxen, dogs, and poultry ; and in these animals it probably arises from the same influences of climate. The participation of so maby different species in this endemical sort of tumor may remind us of the steatopyga, or accumulation of fat about the root of the os coccygis, which is common to the Hottentots and the South African breed of sheep. The Elephant-leg of Barbados is the peculiarity of certain individuals, as is the hump of the Hottentot ; neither of these appearances 18 common to all the individuals of the race chiefly predisposé to the affection. Nor is the steatopyga confined entirel¥ to the Hottentots among human races, though it is chiefly known in this tribe of men. We are informed that it occu! in a less degree among the Kaffers, and various tribes ° black people on the eastern coast. The yaws has been already mentioned among contagiov® diseases, but the predisposition to it is in the strict sense © the term an endemical affection, since it prevails m0! strongly, as we may judge from the greater frequency of the disease, in some races, namely among the Negro nations, tha? in others, without being entirely confined to the forme! The yaws is indigenous in the western parts of Negrolan® whence it has been conveyed to the West Indies, and to the PATHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 157 American continent with slaves from Africa. This disease has been considered by some as peculiar in Africa to the Negro race; but Dr. Winterbottom, whose residence at Sierra fone enabled him to acquire correct information, asserts that this is by no means the case ; and his opinion has been “stablished by well-marked examples of the disease described y himself and others, in persons of European birth and descent, In the West Indies and in America it sometimes, though rarely, attacks the white inhabitants. Sprengel dis- tineuishes two varieties of this disease, the proper yaws and % Pians, which he says was originally endemic in one dis~ trict of the coast of Guinea, the kingdom of Sanguim, and is Rot so readily communicated to white persons as the former Variety, By most authors they are considered as the same lSeage, It appears evident, that the predisposition to yaws, or € susceptibility of the disease is greater in the Negro, than in © European race; and, in this respect, yaws is very nearly pa- allel to the plica polonica which attacks so much more fre- Wently the race which has long mhabited the banks of the “Istula, than the more recent settlers. It would be interest- Ng to know whether any particular tribes of Negroes are more Subject to yaws than others. This is the case, as we are in- formed by Dr. Winterbottom, with respect to lepra, or the lephantiasis of the East, which prevails endemically among ‘Ne native tribes near Sierra Leone, as it is well known to do = Many other places and among very different races of men. Interbottom informs us, that this disease does not appear to © 80 common among the Bulloms and Timmanees, as among te Foulahs and Mandingos. | It has been observed, that cretinism, which is an endemi- al disease in the Valais, and in some other parts of Switzer- “nd, is more prevalent in and among the descendants of ®Woyards and the old residents, than in the families of persons "om the higher parts of Switzerland, or of Frenchmen who “ve settled in the country.* * . M; Tn the report of M. Rambuteau, prefect of the department of the Valais, to the Mister of the Interior. - Dict. de Médicine. 158 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, On the whole it appears evident, that races of men acquire predispositions to particular diseases by a residence of several | generations in particular districts. Hence, then, varieties of / predisposition are no proof of diversity of origin. | On this principle we may explain, without reference to aDY other hypothesis, the remarkable fact proved by the late re- searches of Dr. Clarke, that Negroes and Malays are the vic tims of tubercular phthisis in much greater proportions that other races of men. By a calculation founded on data which relate to the West Indian army of Britain, it appears, that in every thousand deaths among the whites, chiefly as I sup- pose, if not almost wholly, natives of Europe, one hundred and twenty arise from pulmonic diseases, while in every thou- sand deaths among the blacks, four hundred and seventy-tw0 are attributed to the same cause. Dr. Clarke has likewise shown, that in Ceylon, the deaths from phthisis in one thou- sand deaths from all diseases, are in Europeans 43, in Malays 58, in Caffers 146, in Indians 59 ; thus proving, that in othet races of men inhabiting tropical climates, the greater frequency of tubercular disease is in as great proportion; whence he con- cludes, that predisposition to such diseases is brought forth in the organic structure of the human body by residence ™ hot climates. The excessive proportion of deaths by phthisical diseasé among the native races of hot climates, compared with thos which take place in strangers from cold countries, depends # great part on the greater mortality produced among Europe ans by morbific causes peculiar to tropical regions, when com pared with that which takes place among the native inhabi- tants. Negroes and other natives of hot countries bear with comparative impunity many other agencies which are highly destructive of life among Europeans. We must not, howeve! suppose from this fact, that the Negro is by nature exempt from the susceptibility of those diseases which destroy so maDY of the whites. Dr. Winterbottom assures us, that this is fat from true; that the native blacks of Sierra Leone often hav@ remittent and intermittent fevers, which run their course pre cisely as they would do in Europeans, who, by what is termed seasoning, have accommodated themselves to the clr PATHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 159 Mate.* He adds, that the same diseases are very common “Mong the Negroes who were brought from Nova Scotia to Wve at Sierra Leone. This remark illustrates the nature of at immunity from tropical diseases which some have as- “bed to Negroes as a specific character. Dr. Clark of Do- unica, in describing the yellow-fever which prevailed in that sland in 1793—6, observes, that the “ New negroes,” who ad lately been imported from the coast of Africa, were all “ttacked by it. The Negroes who had been long in the town °F on the island escaped. It is well known, that the Negroes ° the African coast suffer greatly in unhealthy districts from Ysenteries, diarrheeas, and other diseases which arise from cal causes.t The native tribes of America are likewise sub- Jeet, according to Dr. Rush and others, to remittent and inter- ‘tittent fevers, dysenteries, and other diseases analogous to °se which attack Europeans under similar circumstances. © yellow-fever appears to have been known in America long fore the arrival of Europeans. Such, at least, is the result of information obtained by M. de Humboldt. This appears to aye been the pestilence, which was termed matlazahuatl, and _ Ich ravaged the empire of the Aztecas before the arrival Cortes and the Spaniards. tio ‘he native tribes of America, as we learn from the informa- : obtained by M. Say and Professor Keating, are likewise “dject to the same constitutional diseases as other races of i The account given by these writers of the diseases of © Sioux clearly proves that the morbific causes which affect ‘ Constitution of Europeans, have the same imfluence, with 'y slight differences which are easily accounted for, as those the native Americans. It appears, for example, that the ter are subject to disorders of the nervous system, excited a Mental emotions: that cases of fits and of insanity are ved among them to disappointments mn love, and that ‘ disorders are so frequent as to be often feigned. Mmilar observations respecting the diseases of northern * W; Mterbottom, vol. ii. p. 14—22. 48 _ edical Tacts, vol. viii. Winterbottom ubi supra. “ Winterbottom.—See Mr. Oldfield, Memoir on the Medical History of the tries Visited in the late expedition to explore the Niger. Seninunssan sagan cinean ammceimenemnehameie oe eaecar aaa aan 160 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Europe may be collected from the accounts of Lapland by Sheffer and by Linnzus, and of Asia by Pallas and Gmelin. From a review of the whole subject considered in this se tion it apears, that the great catalogue of diseases which al- flict mankind are common to the whole human family. They differ in different climates; and local circumstances often e2” gender a predisposition to particular disorders in races which have been long subjected to their influence. These are all comparatively slight modifications. The pathological history of different races appears to illustrate and confirm the infel- ence, already deduced from researches into their physiology: that a common nature belongs to all mankind. NOTE ON THE CONTENTS OF CHAPTER THE FIRST. 161 NOTE ON THE CONTENTS OF CHAPTER THE FIRST. In page 132, I have stated the general results of inquiries ®btained from medical practitioners in the West Indies in Teference to the physiology of the Negroes. The follow- Mg queries were sent some time since to Dr. Huggins, & very intelligent physician, who has had great opportunities of observation during a long residence and very extensive Practice in the island of St. Vincent, and by him the replies Were given which are appended to the queries. They cannot ll to be interesting to many of my readers. Question 1. Is longevity frequent among the Negroes of St. Vincent's? Answer. I have known a great many very old negroes se exact ages could not be ascertained. At the time of © hurricane in 1831, I had a record of the mortality in the Whole of my practice from the year 1813, and in every year ere were deaths of Negroes computed to be sixty, seventy, - eighty years of age, and upwards. My father will be eighty- eur years old in May next, and the negro woman who carried. ™ about asa child is still living, and at the age of ninety-six “Hjoying good health, upright infigure, and capable of walking *veral miles. Ona property belonging toa nephew of mine, . re is an old woman who has five ereat-grand sons and one s"eat erand-daughter, which great-grand daughter has six ° dren, and is daily expecting a seventh, The age of this Steat-oreat-orandmother is not known, but her daughter, © great-grandmother, has been doing nothing for very many Years, [ believe for the last twenty. On anestate in the Caraib “Suntry, under my own medical charge, out of two hundred * forty apprentices, there are one hundred and five Afri- 4s, whose average age is computed at fifty-eight, and on “Nother property not far distant, out of about the same num~ M 162 NOTE ON THE CONTENTS OF CHAPTER THE FIRST. ber of people there are one hundred and three Africans, whos¢ average age is estimated at fifty-six. This fact will at once explain the principal cause of the decrease in this and othe! islands so much dwelt upon by the abolitionists. It is ob- vious, that there is a great disproportion of aged people, and that the percentage of mortality must be considerable during the next ten or fifteen years. So it is with the whole island, more or less. At the time of the registration, 1817, ther? were upon one estate in my own practice one hundred and eighty-eight Africans: of these one hundred and ten or one hundred and twenty have died, principally within the last te? years; yet the actual strength of the gang is now ereatel than it ever was, notwithstanding the diminution in the number. Qu. 2. At what age do the Negro women begin and ceas? to be subject to the catamenia ? Answer. There is some difficulty in answering this que* tion, arising from the Negro women never knowing their ow? ages, or being able to answer questions regarding time: but as far as my opinion or information goes, I should say, that there was no difference in these respects between black and white women. The black girls in this island often do not commence menstruating until they are seventeen a? upwards, but this is late, and 1 have imagined that it may be attributed to their early habits of licentiousness. Qu. 3. Is there any difference in these respects, or in any of the circumstances connected with the catamenia, betwee? negresses and white women ? Answer. There is no difference that I am aware of. Qu. 4. Is there any difference in the period of utero-gest®” tion or any of the circumstances connected with child-birt) between negresses and white women ? Answer. None that I am aware of. Qu. 5. What are the prevailing diseases among Negroes! Answer. Worms, dysenteries, colds and coughs and othe! pulmonic complaints, rheumatism, mflammatory fever dropsies, also herpetic and itchy eruptions, ulcers, hernia inguinal and umbilical, menstrual obstructions. Two-thirds ° NOTE ON THE CONTENTS OF CHAPTER THE FIRST. 163 the patients come into the hospitals with functional derange- Ment of the stomach and chylopoietic viscera, and are re- eved by an emetic, and one or two purges of calomel. Pure idiopathic fever, or the common bilious or remittent fever af- ®cting the white inhabitants, may be said to be almost un- Nown among the negroes. Indeed there are medical men, of Steat experience tuo, who have never witnessed a case and are therefore sceptical as to those of which they hear accounts— ut I have myself witnessed many cases, and several of them fal. But then the diseases of the district in which I have Practised, the Caraib country, have always differed from those of other parts of the island, in being of a more inflammatory Nature, and requiring a freer use of the lancet. This may be "counted for by its peculiar situation. The peculiar and Pty extraordinary disease, termed “ mal d’estomac,’’ answer- Mg to the “ marasmus anhemia” of Dr. Good, is still fre- Went, but by no means so common as formerly. Phthisis Pulmonalis occurs much more frequently than has been sup- Posed, I have examined negro lungs as thickly studded with tubercles as I have seen in Europe. Insanity is by no tee uncommon among the Negroes, notwithstanding the ‘Sertion of Sir Andrew Halliday to the contrary. I have had any patients. ke u. 6. Is yaws prevalent and do Europeans ever con- act it 2 Answer, The yaws has been very prevalent here, but is “aad becoming more rare. Europeans do occasionally con- “act it. I have attended a white family labouring under it. ah: U7. Is elephantiasis prevalent, and are Europeans or tte men, in any degree, subject to it? “Xswer. Elephantiasis (meaning the elephantiasis or lepra oe) is very prevalent among the N egroes ; and Europe- I S do occasionally become affected with it, but very rarely. ve had no white patient myself, and have only heard of "ee or four. If by elephantiasis be meant the elephant or thados-leg, I would say that it is confined to the Ne- ro : > ee ; 8, having never seen or heard of a case m a white mM 2 164 NOTE ON THE CONTENTS OF CHAPTER THE FIRST. Qu. 8. Are negro children m any respect inferior to white children in their faculties ? Answer. Negro children do not appear in any respect infe- rior to white children in their faculties. On the contrary, they seem to be generally more forward as infants, a circumstances no doubt, to be attributed to their being left much to them selves, for being thus thrown more upon their own resources they become earlier engaged in the exercise of their faculties» CHAPTER Il. ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION CONTINUED—OF THE PSY- CHOLOGICAL COMPARISON OF HUMAN RACES. Stcriox I.—General Remarks on the Psychical History of different Species. ed is scarcely any trait in the deseription of animals ich is more characteristic of species, than the psychical QWalities with which Providence has severally endowed them. i the er psychical endowments I mean to include the his of the dare ae and perceptive faculties of animals, a” or what in them approaches most nearly to the Sie of intellect, as well as their instincts, feelings, propen- By, » and habitudes of action; all that corresponds in the er orders of the creation, to the powers and attributes of ‘, mind in man. I have adopted this expression, psychical a or endowments, because I cannot find another that " be well answer my purpose. To speak of the minds of 3 — would be to take a liberty in the use of words ois ould hardly be tolerated, and our language supplies no Whict, aia than what I have chosen for expressing the sense at term would convey. .. the tribes of animals are characterised by dispositions, = ts Instincts appropriated to particular species. No- — og example, is more remarkable in the dog kind, than a on of the whole tribe to associate themselves ss man; whence it has arisen that in all ages, and im almost Ba corner of the globe, they have been his companions and ed followers. In this respect, the dog 1s strikingly con- 166 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. trasted with his congeners, as the wolf, the fox, and the jackal, animals so strongly resembling the dog in structure that by many naturalists all these tribes have been identified: The fierce and untamable disposition of the wolf separates hi at a wide distance from the dog. The gregarious habits of the wolf equally distinguish him from the solitary fox. In al these instances there is just sufficient evidence, independently of diversities of instinct, and arising from physical considera- tions alone, to mark out these several tribes of animals as °° many distinct species, and we find in reality these proximaté species characterised by different instincts. In laying down, as a law of nature, the general observatio® that each species has its given instincts universally chara@™ teristic of it, we must not omit to take into our account the fact, that variations are likewise to be traced, though of 4 more limited extent, in the psychical manifestations of pa” ticular tribes. Such variations, as it has been fully show» by Jacobi, bear everywhere a close relation to corresponding varieties in bodily structure.* Some breeds of dogs, for €* ample, pursue wild animals in the chace by sight, and other® by the sense of smell ; according as they have received from nature a more perfect developement of the visual or olfacien! organs. It may be said, that since all the varieties of the dog tribe are generally supposed to belong toa single sp® cies, the variety of instinct in these different breeds of dog? affords one instance in which the preceding observati® must be modified. I do not assume as certain that @ the various breeds of dogs belong to a single original rac® although the great number of essential points in which they all resemble each other afford a strong, and to myself a co” vincing proof, that no specific difference exists among the If, however, this be allowed for the present and we recognis? the fact, which is indeed beyond dispute, that the instinct ° dogs undergoes considerable modifications in connexion wit corresponding varieties in their bodily structure and the di ferent aptitudes for action which thence result, we may stl o J * Sammlungen fir die Heilkunde der Gemiithskrankheiten, von Dr- Ma Jacobi, Elberfeld, Th. 1. PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 167 Maintain the position that they have many remarkable quali- Hes in common, which taken collectively are sufficient to con- Stitute a peculiar psychical character, and that the lesser Varieties of instinct belonging to the dog tribe do not inter- fere with the general observation above laid down. This ob- Servation, it must be remembered, is not that the same spe- “les of animated beings does not display some variety in its ‘stincts, but that the same instinctive attributes do not clone to several species. Perhaps it would not be easy to point out two species of animals, confessedly distinct, which are more similar m their rm and structure than the African and Asiatic elephants. Ow the psychical qualities of these tribes differ. The Afri- “an elephant, though partially tamed in ancient times for the Purposes of warfare, has never been known to display that docile understanding and gentle temper which are so remark- ble in the elephants of India, and particularly in those of eylon, a The ox kind, and the bison and the buffalo, are species Nearly allied, though perhaps not so closely related as the ifferent tribes of elephants. Similar differences in regard to Psychical endowments exist between these animals. One of the species above mentioned is among the most subdued Slaves, and the immemorial companions of mankind; the thers are but imperfectly tamable by any means that have “en devised.* Other instances may be pointed out in which, between faces separated by naturalists at a much greater distance in the “ological system, the psychical character constitutes the ost striking and in reality the most. essential differences. €ep and goats, as it is well known to all, constitute distinct Senera, It has been observed by a celebrated naturalist who 88 attempted to sum up the distinguishing characters of these | Wo kinds, that the most decided differences are to be sought 0 their habits and instincts. The sheep always stupid or of © most simple understanding, from its birth timid and inert, par, * See Sir Francis Buchanan’s Journey in Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, Vol, iii, Ato, 168 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, follows its dam, the same feeble and defenceless animal that it is destined to remain through its life, an emblem everywher® of unresisting innocence. The goat, agile and ever roaming: shows its disposition not less early: the young kid, driven by its instinct, seeks in the first hours of its existence the clefts and summits of rocks, which nature already points out to it its future abode. Among the most surprising instincts of mammiferous tribes are the migratory propensities of the lemmings, or wandering rats. The migrations of these tribes are well known to be exe cuted with surprising energy, and with the universal accord of the whole tribe. But to each tribe the migratory mov ment, as well as other habits, is peculiar. The lemmings of the Scandinavian Alps are not found far towards the east: eve? in Russian Lapland they are unknown, and they are replaced near the shores of the Polar Seas and in the Ural, by a racé different in aspect and in colour and smaller by at least on@ third. These races may be considered as species nearly ap proximating: they are distinguished by a striking differencé of instinct. The Scandinavian lemmings are said to lay UP no provisions, and to have only a smgle chamber in theif dwelling-places, while the Uralian tribe excavate numerov® apartments, and provide for the winter season by storing UP magazines of the rein-deer lichen.* If now we direct our attention to other departments of thé animated world, we shall observe the phenomena of psychical life more diversified ; but in the endless variety of instincts be stowed by nature on different tribes, we shall find them every” where severally distributed and typical of particular specie* Among insects especially it is most remarkable that all the sp@ cies in each tribe display peculiar habitudes and various mod® of energy extending to every thing within their sphere of acti” and of existence: they have different methods of providing for their young ; construct their nests of different materials ; pla them in different situations; deposit their eggs, and prote? them in different ways; each peculiarity in the characteris * Dictionaire Class. d’Hist. Nat. art., Campagnol. Quarterly Review, vol. xvib p. 339. PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 169 habits of the species being common to all the individuals “omprised in it. In order to be fully convinced of the truth ae this remark, we have only to read the admirable descrip- Hong given by M. M. Kirby and Spence, of the habits of the YMenoptera, and particularly of the wild bees and wasps. he xylocopa violacea, which bores cylindrical tunnels in the Tinks of trees; the melitta fodiens, which perforates earthy ‘nks ; the apis manicata, which places her eggs in membra- *aceous coverings in holes; the apis muraria, which builds for , them stone walls; the apis papaveris, which covers them with 'e leaves of the wild poppy; the centuncularis, or rosen- lene,* which lines her burrows with rose-leaves, are all dif- “tent species of bees, distinguished from each other by thei ‘Pecific habits more strongly than by any discovered peculi- “Nty in the structure of body belonging to each tribe. Analo- 80s varieties of instinct distinguish the different species of Wasps, among which the odynerus muraria is remarkable, as Well as the several species of cynips, or gall-wespe,} of which Re tribe produces the rose-galls, another those of the oak, ae third, the galls of the carica, or wild fig ; and likewise Ne several races of tinia and curculio. Each species in these ‘everal tribes obeys laws or principles of action entirely Peculiar to its own kind, and distinct from those which govern al other kinds. Other families of insects and arachnoides are equally diversified by habits appropriate to their respective ‘Pecies, Almost every species of spider is distinguished by a Peculiar method of spinning its web. Storron Il.—Psychical Characteristics of Mankind in com- parison with Brutes. th order to illustrate the foregoing observations, and pro- Ote the object which I had in view in bringing them before 7 readers, I think it necessary to dwell somewhat longer on 1 5 Psychical characters proper to certain tribes, and particu- y to advert to the psychical endowments of human races. “ Blumenbach, Handbuch der Naturgeschichte- + Ibid. 170 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Since the resembling tribes among the lower animals differ 6° remarkably from each other, as to their instinctive propertie® or faculties and habits, each species having its prescribed a? characteristic laws of action, and its peculiar manner of exis ence, which separate all the individuals comprehended in one tribe from those which belong to species most nearly @P proaching to it, it becomes interesting to us to know whethe any human races are distinguished from each other in a liké manner. If this should appear, after due examination, to be the fact, a strong argument would thence arise tending to est” blish a specific diversity between different tribes of men. Ui, on the other hand, we should be able clearly to trace the sam® mental endowments, similar natural prejudices and impressio™ the same consciousness, sentiments, sympathies, propensitie® in short, a common psychical nature or a common mind, p#™ ticipated in by all the different branches of the human family the result would be a strong inductive argument against the existence of more than one human species. The most ful and complete investigation of this problem would requilé ; comprehensive survey of human nature in its different rel@ tions. J cannot attempt to go over so wide a field, but shal endeavour to obtain satisfactory results from a survey of the subject in some particular pomts of view. It will be advisable, before we proceed to a particular scription of different races of men, shortly to compare some ® the most striking universal characters of mankind with the corresponding qualities of those tribes, among the lower an mals, which most nearly approximate to man. In the functions of the animal economy it has often be” observed that the Simie most resemble man: in the gene! structure of the body and limbs they approach most nearly 0 the human kind: m the psychical characters of the monkey tribe we shall find a corresponding analogy to our own, # though this remark can obviously have reference only to the lower and merely animal qualities of man, it is a sort ° resemblance or correspondence which has powerfully fixed th attention of naturalists, and even of casual observers. __ The Simie, says M. Lesson, appear organized to be the connecting link between man and the lower orders of animals’ PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. a ee) N general organization, indeed, they are much nearer to man 4n to the brutes, and it is only in relation to intelligence and judgment that they remarkably recede from human beings ; © mankind they bear the most complete resemblance in the Structure of the viscera and the destination of parts. Thus in € brain and its connected structures, in the perfection of the Tgans of sense, of sight, hearing, and touch, in the length and Position of the intestinal canal, every thing in the simize is the “Ounterpart of what we discern in the human body. The *rang-outan is indeed the only ape in which the vermiform “Ppendix has been found, which we know to be adherent to the “xttemity of the cecum ; and it may be proper to observe, that € stomach of the white-rumped semnopithecus dissected by - Otto, instead of being simple was found to be composed 4 Several spacious cavities separated by contractions and in- ‘cating that the animal is by nature subjected to a particular et, consisting of roots and plants. The brain of the simiz has three lobes, of which the pos- “tor covers the cerebellum. The researches of M. Tiedemann ‘Ndicate the most complete analogy in the structure of the tain between the orang of Borneo and man, and great dif- ‘tences between this orang and the lower simie. According 4 Tiedemann, the brain of the orang differs from that of other Mie and approaches to the human brain in a great many Sttiking particulars, in respect to which differences have been raced between the brain of man and that of the monkey Nbes in general.* to these certainly remarkable analogies presented by the “tgan of the understanding, M. Lesson subjoms the resem- blances which have been traced between mankind and the :. These particulars are as follows: I cite from M. Lesson. Ist. Absence of : Medullary fasciculus, named trapezium, which, in the animals possessed of 'S situated behind the cerebral ganglion, the point whence issue the auditory — Diag nerves. Qndly. The existence of a sloping hollow, posterior to the ellum. 3rdly. In a greater number of furrows and lamine in the same Nl 4thly. In the presence of two distinct maxillary tubercles. Sthly. In more = Rerous and at the same time less symmetrical convolutions and anfractuosities ® cerebrum. 6thly. In the existence of fissures directed towards the cornu Monis. Now all these are characteristics of structure in the human brain. "son, Hist. des Mammiféres, tom. iii. p. 233. 7s ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. simize in the form of the cranium favorable to the mainte- nance of an erect position. In a future part of this work 1 shall find a more proper place for some further inquiry into anatomical relations. It will be sufficient for the present to observe that the analogy in this respect between mankind and the simiz, has been supposed to be very much greater than it really is. The skulls of the adult chimpanze and orang outan, differ, as Mr. Owen has clearly demonstrated, much more from the human cranium than it has been hitherto supposed. Paragraph 1.—Gesture. Are any of the simiz destined for an upright posture? This is a question relating to physical circumstances though inti- mately connected with psychical considerations. It is now perfectly ascertained, says M. Lesson, that the gesture of the orangs is never agile and natural, unless when they employ all their limbs. It is only by accident, and often with the help of branches of which they lay hold, or 2 climbing steep places, that the orangs tread for a few moments upon their posterior limbs alone. By long and repeated in- struction, they can be taught to walk upright, but their mse- cure gait and the constant habit of resting on the outer edge of the foot, clearly prove this position to be very unnatural to them.* Condemned to support his trunk by his four limbs, the orang can after all be a very imperfect approximation to map. This circumstance involves an almost infinite number of modi fications in the psychical condition of the tribe. * The truth of this observation, which contradicts an old and prevalent notion, has been fully proved from anatomical structure, by Mr. R. Owen, in his excellent Memoir on the Osteology of the Chimpanze and Orang, in the first volume of thé Transactions of the Zoological Society. The same fact has been established. bY actual observation. M. Fred. Cuvier has given some valuable remarks on thé habits of a living orang. He says—‘‘ Cet orang-outang était entiérement con" formé pour grimper et pour faire son habitation des arbres. En effet, autant? grimpoit avec facilité, autant i] marchoit peniblement.”’ ‘II passoit facilement Ex arbre a un autre lorsque les branches de ces arbres se touchoient, de sorte que dans une forét un peu épaisse il n’y auroit ef aucune raison pour que cet animal des” cendit jamais 4 terre, ou il marchait difficilement.” Annales du Muséum, vol. xvi Mr. R. Owen on the Osteology of the Chimpanze. PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. Paragraph 2.—Family Relations and Habits. Monkeys appear to resemble man in many of their social habits and dispositions. In the state of nature they go in little troops, which appear to be led by old and experienced chiefs. “ The authority of adults over their young is absolute, and the former are said to maintain it by means of chastisement.”’ It is supposed that the sapajous and gibbons are monoga- Mists, but in all the other tribes the females are common. The paternal affection is however remarkably strong im the Monkey tribe. The females of the chimpanze watch their off- Spring during two complete years, with the most tender soli- Citude, and the young apes are so strongly attached to their Mothers, that if the latter are killed, they can hardly be sepa- tated from the bodies. Instances have been known evincing & deoree of maternal love not exceeded in the human species. A female of the simia entellus has been seen, when feeling herself mortally wounded, to collect all her strength, and in a dying effort to place her young in a state of security.* Paragraph 3.—Use of Speech. The use of articulate language has always been regarded as ne of the most remarkable endowments of mankind. The Universality of its existence among men is not a less striking fact than its total absence among brutes, even among those Which are nearest to man, and in whose organization nothing as been discovered that precludes the endowment of speech. re may account for the fact, that there is no tribe of men Without speech, by supposing language to have been handed down from one original to various branches of the human family, But contingencies may have occurred, and, we are “pt to think, must have happened in a long course of ages, and amidst the wanderings of a scanty population over previously Utrodden wildernesses, fitted to interrupt the traditional pre- Servation of this acquirement. How many stories have been * Lesson, Hist. Nat. tom. iti. p. 248. 174 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. handed down of children lost or abandoned by their parents and nourished in deserts by wild animals, or fed by their own instinct upon berries and other spontaneous fruits. Mothers who have been dumb or almost speechless have borne chil- dren, and have perhaps ere now brought them up in wild tracts without society. We might thus account in part for the origin of new languages. But there are no dumb hordes, or tribes of savages destitute of speech. Paragraph 4.—Necessary Arts of Life. The use of fire, of artificial clothing, of arms, and the art of domesticating animals are characteristic habits of mankind. Though tradition goes back to the period when these prac- tices are said to have been first adopted, they are now uni- versal. There is no great division of the human family among whom some traces of these arts are not found. Paragraph 5.— It is not im respect to these more variable traits of human action that we must compare man with the lower species, or one tribe of mankind with another. The same race who in the age of Tacitus dwelt in solitary dens, amid morasses, have built St. Petersburg and Moskow; and the posterity of canni- bals and phthirophagi now feed on pillau or wheaten bread. The habits of men undergo changes from time to time, in all that refers to their diet and the supply of bodily wants, and they do not admit of comparison with the uniform customs of the lower tribes, which are precisely the same in every re- spect to-day that they were in the times of Homer and of Aristotle. There are however uniform traits in human nature, habitudes both intellectual and moral, which may be regarded as fixed principles of action, and in this point of view will admit a com- parison with the invariable psychical qualities of brute animals. The instinct of the brutes has been already illustrated by one profoundly philosophical writer through a comparison with the PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 175 internal governing principle—the hyepoverh of human action.* I shall attempt to pursue this investigation, adapting it to my own particular point of view, which is ultimately the com- parison of human races with each other. Paragraph 6.—Of Human Sentiments. Thé outward characteristics which I have before enume- rated would be sufficient to discriminate mankind from the brute tribes which most nearly imitate him ; but it must be ob- vious on a little reflection, that it is not in these solely or even principally that the difference consists, which separates man- kind at so wide an interval from the most anthropomorphous of animals. The sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal con- sciousness and mind, and the habitudes of life and action thence resulting, are the real and essential characteristics of hu- manity.. But in order to consider this observation in a way that may enable me to apply it satisfactorily to the subject I have in hand, it will be necessary to contemplate it in a par- ticular point of view. If we could divest ourselves of all previous impressions re- specting our nature and social state, and look at mankind and human actions with the eyes of a natural historian or as a zoologist observes the life and manners of beavers or of ter- mites, we should remark nothing more striking in the habi- tudes of mankind, and in their manner of existence in various parts of the world, than a reference which is everywhere more or less distinctly perceptible to a state of existence after death, and to the influence believed both by barbarous and Civilized nations to be exercised over their present condition and future destiny by invisible agents, differmg in attributes according to the sentiments of different nations, but univer- sally believed to exist. The rites every where performed for the dead, the various ceremonies of ‘cremation, sepulture, em- balming, mummifying, funereal processions, and pomps fol- lowing the deceased, during thousands of successive years in every region of the earth—innumerable tumuli scattered overall * Dr. Hancock on the relations of instinct. o> =a navies oa ee 176 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. the northern regions of the world,which are perhaps the only me- morials of races long extinct—the morais, pyramids, and houses of the dead, and the gigantic monuments of the Polynesians— the magnificent pyramids of Egypt, and of Anahuac—the prayers and litanies set up in behalf of the dead as well as of the living, in the churches of Christendom, in the mosques and pagodas of the East, as heretofore in pagan temples—the power of sacerdotal or consecrated orders, who have caused themselves to be looked upon as the interpreters of destiny, and as mediators between the gods and men—sacred wars, desolating empires, through zeal for some metaphysical dogma —toilsome pilgrimages performed every year, by thousands of white and of black men, through various regions of the earth, seeking atonement for guilt at the tombs of prophets and holy persons—all these and a number of similar phenomena in the history of nations, barbarous and civilized, would lead us to suppose that all mankind sympathize in deeply im- pressed feelings and sentiments, which are as mysterious in their nature as in their origin. These are among the most striking and remarkable of the psychical phenomena, if we may so apply the expression, which are peculiar to man, and if they are to be traced among races of men which differ physically from each other, it will follow that all man- kind partake of a common moral nature, and are therefore, if we take into the account the law of diversity in psychical pro- perties allotted to particular species, proved, by an extensive observation of- analogies in nature, to constitute a single tribe. The history of moral sentiments among different nations and of their religion and traditional and peculiar metaphysics, if it could be collected from data everywhere correct, would bring us very near to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject of these inquiries. The attempt to engage in this investigation will lead me far out of the path of strictly physical research ; _ yet I shall enter upon it to a certain extent, since the results which in a limited survey I may hope to obtain will tend, if I am not mistaken, to clear up one considerable obscurity, and to solve a problem the nature of which is now sufficiently obvious to my readers. I shall endeavour in the following 7 PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. ivi pages to collect the most striking and characteristic particu- lars relating to the moral impressions, and the superstitions of some of the most dissimilar races of men, and as this will tend still further to illustrate their mental history, I shall add such authentic statements as I can find, in reference tothe at- tempts which have been made to spread Christianity among such tribes. This course of proceeding may at first appear to some of my readers out of place, but I am persuaded that they will, on consideration, admit the propriety of adopting it. Srctron 1[I.—Ofthe Psychical Characters of the Bushman or Hottentot race. Writers on the history of mankind seem to be nearly agreed in considering the Bushmen or Bosjesmen of South Africa as the most degraded and miserable of all nations, and the lowest in the scale of humanity. M. Bory de St. Vincent describes them in his usual manner, as differmg most widely from what he terms the Japetic species of men, and as form- ing the transition from the genus homo, to the genera of orangs and gibbons: he even finds analogies between them and the macacos. “ Of all species of men, this race, approaching as it does in its form most nearly to the second genus of bimanous ani~ mals, is still more closely allied to the orangs, through the inferiority of its intellectual faculties. Happily for themselves, he continues, these people are sobrutish, lazy, and stupid, that the idea of reducing them to slavery has been abandoned. “A peine peuvent-ils former un raisonnement, et leur language, aussi sterile que leurs idées, se réduit a une sorte de glousse- ment qui n’a presque plus rien de semblable A notre voix. D’une malpropreté révoltante qui les rend infects, toujours frottés de suif ou arrosés de leur propre urine, se faisant des ornemens de boyaux d’animaux qu’ils laissent se dessécher en bracelets ou en bandelettes sur leur peau huileux, se rem- plissant les cheveux de graisse et de terre, vétus de peaux de béte sans préparation, se nourrissant de racines sauvages ou de pances d’animaux et d’entrailles qu’ils ne lavent méme N 178 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. pas, passant leur vie assoupis ou accroupis et fumant, par fois ils errent avec quelques troupeaux qui leur fournissent du lait. Isolés, taciturnes, fugitifs, se retirant dans les caver- nes, ou dans les bois, 4 peine font-ils usage du feu, si ce n’est pour allumer leur pipes qu’ils ne quittent point. Le foyer domestique leur est A-peu-pres inconnu, et ils ne batis- sent pas de villages, ainsi que les Cafres, leurs voisins, qui re- gardant ces misérables comme une sorte de gibier, leur don- nent la chasse, et extermiment tous ceux qu’ils rencontrent. Ou les a dit bons parce qu’ils sont apathiques, tranquilles, parce qu’ils son paresseux, et doux, parce qu’ils se montrent laches en toute occasion.””* No picture of human degradation and wretchedness can be drawn which exceeds the real abasement and misery of the Bushmen, as we find it displayed by the most accurate wri- ters who describe this people. Without houses or even huts, living in caves and holes in the earth, these naked and half- starved savages wander through forests in small companies or separate families, hardly supporting their comfortless exist- ence, by collecting wild roots, by a toilsome search for the eggs of ants, and by devouring, whenever they can catch them, lizards, snakes, and the most loathsome insects. It is no matter of surprise, that those writers who search for ap- proximations between mankind and the inferior orders of the creation, fix upon the Bushmen as their favorite theme. But accurate observers who cannot be suspected of undue prepossession towards opposite sentiments and representations of human nature, have drawn a less unfavourable picture of the moral and intellectual character of the Bushmen. Mr. Burchell, who sought and obtained opportunities of conversing with them and observing their manner of existence, though he found them in the most destitute and miserable state, yet discovered among them traits of kind and social feelings, and all the essential attributes of humanity.+ * Dictionaire Class. d’Histoire Naturelle, Artic. Homme. ‘+ Among other interesting remarks of Mr. Burchell’s tending to the same re sult, we find an observation that the females among the Bushmen, though nearly naked, displayed as much the signs of modesty as Europeans. “ The girls were 28 PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 179 It must not be forgotten that the Bushmen are not a dis- tinct race, but a branch or subdivision of the once extensive nation of Hottentots. This was at one time denied. Lichten- stein, who was followed by other writers, asserted, that the Bosjesmen are a peculiar family of men: he regarded them as entirely distinct from all the other inhabitants of southern Africa. A careful comparison of their language with that of the Korah and other Hottentots convinced Professor Vater that there is an essential affinity between them, and in recent times this conclusion has been fully established by local in- quiries, and no diversity of opinion at present exists upon the subject. We are assured by one of the latest and best wri- ters on South Africa, that the Bushmen are the remains of Hottentot hordes, who subsisted originally, like all the tribes of southern Africa, chiefly by rearing sheep and cattle, but who have been driven by the gradual encroachments of European colonists, and by internal wars with other tribes, to seek for refuge among the inaccessible rocks and deserts of the interior. ‘“ Most of the hordes,” says the same writer, “known by the name of Bushmen, are entirely destitute of flocks and herds, and subsist partly by hunting, partly on the wild roots of the wilderness, on reptiles, locusts, and the larve of ants, or by plundering their hereditary oppressors, the colonists of the frontier. Having descended from the pastoral, to the state of robbers and hunters, the Bushmen, as we are assured, have necessarily acquired, with their increased perils and privations, a more resolute and ferocious character: from a mild, confiding and unenterprising race of shepherds, they have been gradually transformed into wandering hordes of fierce, suspicious, and vindictive savages; by their fellow- men they have been treated as wild beasts, until they have become assimilated to wild beasts in their habits and dispo- sitions.”’ delicate in feelings of modesty, as if they had been educated in the most decorous manner.” He adds, that they are pleasing by a sprightly and interesting expres- Sion of countenance, though far from beautiful, and although their features have the peculiar type of the Bushman race. Mr. Thompson fully confirms this account, and even gives a still more favourable description of the females of the Bushmen.— Travels in Africa, vol. i. 434. wn Y 180 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Difficult as it may be to imagine a change from the state of herdsmen to that of the miserable Bushmen, the transi- tion has been actually observed and described. Among the Hottentot tribes, the Koranas are well known to be the most advanced in all the possessions and improvements which be- long to the pastoral life. A late traveller in Africa, whose narrative is replete with good sense and the marks of accu- rate knowledge, has traced from observation the process by which hordes even of the Korah race have been reduced from the life of peaceful herdsmen to the condition of hun- ters and predatory savages. The Koranas, as visited by Mr. Thompson on the Hartebeest river, had actually undergone this transition: having been plundered by their neighbours, and driven out into the wilderness to subsist upon wild fruits, they had adopted the habits of the Bushmen and had become assimilated in every essential particular to that miserable tribe.* Considering the pastoral Hottentots and the Bushmen as one race, I shall make some remarks on their mental charac- ter in general, in order to furnish the ground for a compa- rison between this and other families of men. We must attempt to estimate the character of the Hotten- tot race, not from their present degraded condition, after the cruelty and oppression which they have endured from Euro- pean colonists during so many generations have broken their spirit and reduced them to bondage or exile, but from the accounts left by older writers of the condition of these tribes soon after the first settlement of the Dutch colony. The voyager Kolben has given us a full and circumstantial ac- count of the Hottentots at this time, and many of his state- ments are singularly at variance with the description which late writers have drawn. The original Hottentots were a nu- merous people, divided into many tribes under the patriarchal government of chiefs or elders: they wandered about with flocks and herds, associated in companies of three or four hundred persons, living in kraals or movable villages of huts constructed of poles or boughs and covered with rush mats, * Thompson’s Travels in South Africa. PSYCHOLUGICAL COMPARISON. 18] which were taken down and carried on pack-oxen. A man- tle of sewn sheep-skins was their clothing; their arms were a bow with poisoned arrows and a light javelin or assagai. They were bold and active in the chace, and although mild in their disposition were courageous in warfare, as their Euro- pean invaders frequently experienced. Kolben extols the good moral qualities of the Hottentots. “ They are, perhaps, the most faithful servants in the world. Though infinitely fond of wine, brandy, and tobacco, they are safely entrusted with them, and will neither themselves take, nor suffer others to diminish any such articles when committed to their trust. To this quality they add the greatest huma- nity and good nature. Their chastity is remarkable, and adultery, when known among them is punished with death. They are dirty in their habits, slothful and indolent, and though they can think,” as he says, “ to the purpose, they hate the trouble of thought.’”’ Kolben considered their intellect as by no means deficient. He declares, that “ he has known many of them who understood Dutch, French, and Portu- guese to a degree of perfection; one, particularly, who learnt English and Portuguese in a very short time, and having conquered the habits of pronunciation contracted from his native language, was said by good judges to understand and speak them with surprising readiness and propriety. They are even employed by Europeans in affairs that require judg- mentand capacity. A Hottentot named Cloos was entrusted by Van der Stel, the late governor of the Cape, with the business of carrying on a trade of barter for cattle with the tribes at a great distance, and he generally returned, after executing his commission, with great success.” The internal character of the mind is best known by disco- vering the religious ideas and impressions. It has often been said, that the Hottentots are destitute of all belief in a Deity or afuture state. Enslaved and separated from their fellows, and scarcely able, without constant toil, to support life, some may have lost the power and habit of reflection and all traces of sentiment ; but Kolben assures us, that the Hottentots of his time had a firm belief in a supreme power, which they termed “ Gounya Tekquoa,” or the god of all gods, saying, that he eS Ae aay eA GRITA TAA To nelne waeth oe 182 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. lived beyond the moon. They paid him no adoration, but they worshipped the moon at the full and change, by sacrifices of cattle, with distorted faces and postures, shouting, swearing, singing, jumping, stamping, dancing, and making numerous prostrations, repeating an unintelligible jargon of words. “ They also pay a singular veneration to a peculiar kind of beetle, the appearance of which is supposed to be particularly fortunate. They have an evil deity called Toutouka, whom they repre- sent as a little crabbed, ill-natured being, a great enemy to the Hottentots and the author of all the mischief in the world. They offer sacrifices to him in order to soften his temper. All sudden pain, accidents, or sicknesses, are attributed to witch- craft. Charms, and amulets are in high esteem among them. Kolben thinks they have not the least notion of rewards and punishments ; yet, says he, that they believe in the mmorta- lity of the soul seems evident from these particulars ;—first, that they offer up prayers to saints, or good Hottentots de- parted : secondly, that they are apprehensive of the return of departed spirits to molest them ; for which reason, on the death of any person they remove their kraal, believing that the departed souls remain about the places which they for- merly inhabited: thirdly, they believe it is in the power of witches or wizzards to lay these spirits.” A faithful and correct account of the conversion of these people to Christianity, would not fail to display in striking points of view many traits in their moral and intellectual history. The early endeavours that were made to induce them to receive the truths of Christianity, were met with the same obstinate resistance of which we hear so much in almost every similar instance; and one writer has given as the sum- ming up of his observations, that “the Hottentots, in short, seem born with a natural antipathy to all customs and every religion but their own.” This remark is exemplified by the account of a Hottentot boy, who was bred up by the governor Van der Stel, in the habits and religion of the Dutch, and having learnt several languages and discovering a very pro- mising genius was sent to India and employed in public business. After his return to the Cape, he stripped off his PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 183 European dress, clothed himself in a sheep-skin, and pre- senting himself to the governor, emphatically renounced the society of civilized men and the Christian religion, de- claring, that he would live and die in the manners and cus- toms of his forefathers.* In this we trace one characteristic trait of human nature as it exists in other races of men. A sort of instinctive and blind attachment to the earliest 1m- pressions made upon the mind is one of our strongest intel- lectual propensities. In the example above cited, it appears to have been equally powerful in the mind of the Hottentot as it is known to be in more cultivated nations ; yet this has not prevented the spread of Christianity in the same race of people, when introduced among them under different circum- stances. Srction IV.—Of the Introduction of Christianity among the Hottentots. It is indeed surprising, after all that we have heard of the sloth and brutish sensuality of the Hottentots, to learn that no other uncivilized race has given a more willing ear to the preach- ers of Christianity, and that none has been more strikingly and speedily improved by its reception, not only in moral character and conduct, but also in outward condition and prosperity. So rapid has been the spread of civilization around the settlements of the United Brethren, by whom the task of introducing the Christian religion among the Hotten- tots was undertaken, as to have given rise to a general notion that the missionaries of that church direct their endeavours in the first place to the diffusion of industry and social arts, and make religion a secondary object of attention. This, however, they uniformly deny. It is the unvarying statement of these missionaries, deduced from the experience of a hundred years of patient service and laborious exertions among the rudest and most abject tribes of human beings, that the moral nature of man must be in the first instance * Kolben’s Voyages and Natural History of the Cape of Good Hope. an Ra oa cnn a RE =a a i 184 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. quickened, the conscience awakened, and the better feelings of the heart aroused by the motives which Christianity brings with it, before any improvement can be hoped for in the out- ward behaviour and social state, that the rudest savages have sufficient understanding to be susceptible of such a change, and that when it has once taken place, all the blessings of civilization follow as a necessary result. — The first attempt made to spread Christianity among the Hottentots was by a missionary named Schmidt, a man of great zeal and courage, who undertook this task in the early period of the Moravian church. He arrived in South Africa in 1737, and having settled at some distance from the Cape, soon collected a small congregation of Hottentots by whom he was much beloved. Being obliged to sail to Holland, his return was prevented by adversaries, under pretence of zeal for the purity of doctrine and peace of the church. The undertaking was suspended during nearly fifty years. It was renewed under more favourable auspices in 1792. The new missionaries sought out the ruins of Schmidt’s abode. They found some aged Hottentots who still revered his memory, and laid the foundations of the settlement of Bavian’s Kloof, since termed Gnadenthal. The school established by the missionaries was soon at- tended by many Hottentots, both children and adults; and the religious instructions, by reading the Bible and expositions, were frequented by many attentive hearers. The historians of the mission say, “ The reverential stillness with which the Hottentots attended these meetings, the eagerness with which they listened to the discourses, and the emotion visible on their countenances astonished the missionaries, who had been told that they would find it impossible to fix the attention of their hearers even to the shortest address of a serious nature.” The number of scholars increased, and soon amounted to two hundred, who were instructed in the open air. Many Hotten- tots came from a considerable distance, bringing their fami- lies and their cattle with them, and associated themselves to the settlement. The colonial boors became alarmed at the idea of being deprived of the services of their Hottentots, and on many occasions threatened, and even attempted the de- PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 185 struction of the settlement ; but these menaces were averted, and it became at length apparent even to this class of the inhabitants that the Hottentots who had become Christianized under the instruction of the missionaries were far more useful and trustworthy servants, than the sensual and degraded pagans whom they had previously been obliged to employ. In the course of a few years, the Hottentots began to resort from all parts of the colony, and increased the population of Bavian’s Kloof. The missionaries were slow and cautious in baptizing converts, until they thought that evidences were perceptible of repentance and faith. There were, however, in 1799, two hundred and thirty-eight Hottentot houses; the number of inhabitants amounted to 1234, of whom three hundred and four were actual members of the congregation, eighty-four of them having been baptized during the year. When the Cape colony came under the. power of the Eng- lish, the beneficial results of instruction imparted to the Hottentots by the missionaries of the United Brethren were so manifest, in the improvement of manners and industry, that the missions obtained the steady and uniform protection and favour of government. Gnadenthal had now grown into a populous settlement, displaying the best effects of human culture, and occupied by numerous and thriving families of husbandmen, who obtained a rich produce from the soil over which their ancestors had wandered for ages without attempting to im- prove it. In addition to this settlement, another tract, termed Groenekloof, was given by the government to the United Brethren. In the course of a year, from being a wilderness, it was made to bear a plentiful crop. The missionaries reported that in conducting their temporal concerns “ the Hottentots gave evidence that they were under the influence of Christian motives. They went diligently to work in building their huts, and cultivating their grounds, and God blessed the labour of their hands.” Some of the Dutch farmers expressed their surprise at the change which they witnessed in these people. ‘They were astonished,” say the missionaries, an Seeing how the wretched drunken Hottentots, when they get to Gnadenthal, and hear the word of God, truly receive grace, and become quite a different sort of people.” = Cote. a eee = STITT in ie me ~ Taaee a canoe n a 186 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Perhaps nothing in this account is more remarkable than the fact, that so strong a sensation was produced among the whole Hottentot nation, and even among the neighbouring tribes of different people, by the improved and happy con- dition of the Christian Hottentots, as to excite a general desire for similar advantages. Whole families of Hotten- tots, and even of Bushmen, set out for the borders of Caffraria, and performed journeys of many weeks, in order to settle in Gnadenthal. Individuals of the Tambuki nation, and some from the Damaras beyond Great Namaqualand, resorted to Groenekloof, and there took up their abode. It isa singular fact in the history of barbarous races of men, that the savage Bushmen, of their own accord, solicited from the colonial government, when negociations were opened with them with the view of putting an end toa long and bloody con- test, that teachers might be sent among them, such as those who had dwelt among the tame Hottentots at Gnadenthal. “ History,” says the historian of the mission, “ probably fur- nishes few parallel examples of a savage people, in treaty with a Christian power, making one of the conditions of peace that missionaries should be sent to instruct them in Christianity.” I have not room to add further details from this account. The facts which I have extracted have an important bearing on the psychical history of a curious and interesting race of human beings, and could not be omitted in connexion with the inquiry in which I am engaged. Those who will candidly consider them and give them their due weight, will allow that they prove the existence of the same principles of action, and of the same internal nature in the Hottentot race as are re- cognised in other divisions of mankind: and this conviction will be increased by a careful perusal of all the details which the missionaries have afforded of the progress of the work, and of the moral changes which accompanied it. Szction 1V.—Of the Psychical Character of the Esquimaua. The manners and habits of the Esquimaux have been 8° generally made known by late writers that it is unnecessary PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 187 for me to enter into any full and particular description of them. I shall in this place confine myself to a few prelimi- nary remarks on the general condition and habits of this race, and shall principally endeavour to collect such traits as may serve to illustrate their intellectual and moral state, the cha- racter of their minds, their natural endowments and suscepti- bility of mental culture. To fulfil this purpose, I know of no better means than an inquiry into their old national supersti- tions, and their modes of thinking and feeling in relation to subjects remote from the cognisance of the senses: and secondly, an account of the reception and progress of Chris- tianity among them. The habits of the Hyperborean people, says M. Lesson, are nearly the same wherever they have been carefully ob- served. Living on tracts of the earth where living nature seems to be expiring, buried under the eternal ices of the pole, their industry is directed towards fishing and the chace, which are their only resources for support, and in which they have acquired great skill. The rigour of the climate during long winters has obliged them to dig for themselves subterraneous abodes and storehouses for the provisions which they lay up against the season when they can no longer fish or hunt. During the long polar nights which the aurora borealis feebly illuminates, the Esquimaux, buried under the ice and snow in yourtes excavated deeply in the soil, feed upon dried fish, or the flesh of whales, and drink with delight the oil which they have laid up in bladders. They sew with nerves their winter garments made of the skins of seals, the hair of which serves the purposes of fur; and make their summer dress of the intestine of the largest whales, which resembles varnished stufts. The Esquimaux is skilful in the chace of foxes and sables, whose skins serve him for clothing, and for an object of barter in the traffic of the arctic people. He boldly harpoons the cetacea; his darts made of bone and pointed stones are surmounted with inflated bladders, the resistance of which. upon the water wears out the strength of the whale, who speedily rises, and exposes himself to fresh attacks. Superstitious to excess, says the same writer, the Polar 188 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. race, with some slight shades of difference, displays the same religious sentiments prevalent among all its tribes. Their loose morality renders the men addicted to polygamy, and causes them to prostitute without shame their wives and daughters, whom they regard as creatures of an inferior order, to be disposed of according to their pleasure. In Greenland, and in Labrador, missionaries of the United Brethren have long had settlements among the native peo- ple, who are of the same race which is elsewhere spread along the shores of the Polar Seas. From these mission- aries we have obtained much more accurate information respecting the habits of the people than from any other quarter. The following particulars, which I extract from their accounts, relate chiefly to the Esquimaux of Greenland, from whom, however, it is well known that the western tribes of the same race differ but in accidental circumstances. Paragraph 1.— The voyagers who first described the natives of Greenland formed very erroneous opinions respecting them. It was reported that they worshipped the sun, and sacrificed to the devil. Sailors who had observed them look intently on the hea- vens, on rising in the morning, hence derived the first of these notions: the second arose from the discovery of flat square stones, strewn with cinders and bones: it was concluded that these were places of sacrifice, and to whom should they sacri- fice but to the devil? When the Moravian missionaries learnt their language, and were able to converse with them, they found these notions to be quite erroneous. The Greenlanders, like other nations, believed in the exist- ence of supernatural powers exercising control over the desti- nies of men. It appears, however, as we might a priori imagine, that they had in general no clear idea of a Creator or a creation. “They knew not, and perhaps the generality of them never considered, whether things were always as they are or not.” Yet, if we may believe the Moravian mission- aries, whose good faith seems above suspicion, there were some philosophers among these Pagan seal-catchers, who PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 189 speculated on the doctrine of final causes. An Esquimaux told one of the missionaries that he had often reflected that a kadjak, with all its tackle and implements, does not grow of itself into existence, but must be made with labour and con- trivance. But a bird, he added, is constructed with greater skill than the best kadjak, and no man can make a bird. “JT bethought me,” said the Greenlander, “ that he pro- ceeded from his parents, and they from their parents ; but there must have been some first parents—whence did they come? Certainly, 1 concluded there must be a being able to make them and all other things; a being infinitely more mighty and knowing than the wisest man.” ~The Greenlanders believed universally in the existence of spirits, good and evil, besides the souls of men. The ange- koks, or diviners, who pretended to have visited frequently the realm of souls, describe them as pale and soft ; not to be felt, if any one should attempt to grasp them. They be- lieved in a future existence, which was to be without end. This elysium was generally placed by them in the abysses of the ocean, to which the deep cavities of rocks are avenues. There dwells the great spirit Torngarsuk, and his mother, under a joyous and perpetual summer, where a shining sun is obscured by no night; there is a fine limpid stream, abounding with fine seals, fish, and fowls easy to be caught, and even to be found boiling alive in a great kettle. But these seats of the gods can be approached only by those who have displayed great courage and address, who have mastered many seals, and have undergone hardships, have been drowned in the sea, or by women who have died in child-bed. Here is obviously the persuasion that virtue, bravery at least, is rewarded in the future life. Before the disembodied soul enters Torngarsuk’s realm, it undergoes a sort of purgation by sliding, five days or longer, down a rugged rock, which is thereby full of blood and gore. Un- fortunate souls who perish in cold winter, or boisterous weather, incur a risk of being utterly destroyed on the road. Annihilation is regarded by the Greenlanders, as by other nations, with peculiar horror; and to prevent it, the survivors abstain for five days from certain meats, and from all noisy 190 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. work. The fictions of this people are not so definite as to admit of no variations in the site and description of elysium : some fancy it to be the sky, and say that the northern lights are the dances of sportive souls; others maintain this state of agitation in the air to be the destiny of worthless souls, who will there be half-starved, and tormented by ravens. It seems on the whole that the future state of the old pagan Esquimaux or Greenlanders, was in a great measure a state of retribution, of rewards and punishments. Happiness and misery were at least not dispensed with indifference to merit and demerit. Torngarsuk is the chief of spirits, dwelling in his happy subterranean mansion. His mother or wife is a mischievous being. This Proserpine of the north, lives in a great house under the ocean, where by magic spells she can detain all the animals of the sea. In the oil-jar under her lamps, sea- birds swim about. Her throne is guarded by rampant seals, or defended by a great dog, who never sleeps but the twink- ling of an eye. So many curious traits occur in the descrip- tion of this infernal goddess and her abode, which recal the Proserpine of classical mythology, and the Pattala of the Hindoos, and the subterranean scenes of enchantment among the Arabs, that we might well be inclined to derive these fables from a common source, if the resemblance be- tween them was not better accounted for by referring it to the common laws of the human mind, and to the tendency of the imagination to create similar fictions with reference to particular subjects, and under the influence of corresponding feeling and impressions. But this brings out so much the stronger a proof, that the mind is the same in different coun- tries and in different races of men. The Greenlanders likewise believe, that the souls of the dead are sometimes seen near their places of burial. The sun and moon have their tutulary genii: water, air, and fire, mountains and caves are the abodes of nereids, and salaman- drine spirits. Giants and pygmies, and monsters with dogs’ heads, find their place in this as in so many other mytho- logies. The natives of Greenland were strongly imbued with the PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 191 notions so prevalent among mankind in different regions, that there must be a particular class of men fitted to mediate be- tween the people and supernatural powers. These persons in Greenland were termed angekoks, that is sorcerers and divin- ers. Many families living together, according to Crantz, always keep an angekok as their counsellor on particular occasions ; and if they cannot get one they are despised, and pitied as miserable wretches. In order to become an ange- kok, it is necessary to abandon for a long time the inter- course of men; to macerate the body by long fasting, and by strenuous intensity of thought, like that of the Indian sannyasis performing puja, to distract the mind almost into madness. When a Torngak, or familiar spirit, is obtained by these efforts, the individual becomes an angekok, and thence- forward is possessed of the united powers of sorcerers, and magicians. On all occasions of distress or sickness the angekoks are applied to for relief. It is believed that they can take diseases off or lay them on; that they can en- chant or dissolve the spell of the enchanted arrow; that they ean call blessings down or chase spectres away. If they have to do with a sick patient, they must mutter something over him, and blow upon him to cure him; or they must fetch and implant a healthy soul in him, or perhaps only predict if he will recover or die. By other enchantments they dis- cover if an absent man is living or dead. They cite the soul of a man to appear before them, and if they wound such a soul with a spear, the man must die a lingering death. The witches of Greenland are exactly parallel to the witches of England, according to the belief of our ancestors. The account of the conversion of the Esquimaux to Chris- tianity and to civilization, as given by Crantz from the Simple and unaffected narrative of the Moravian missionaries, cannot be read without a lively interest. In the long and Painful struggle, almost leading to despair of ultimate suc- Cess, and in the event which rewarded their labours, the his- tory of these missions affords a specimen of what has taken place in almost every similar instance, where the pro- Mulgators of Christianity have been sincerely devoted to their undertaking, and have been endowed with sufficient tahoe ie” poanapee CT " Saas 192 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. zeal and perseverance, and with other requisite qualifica- tions. Among the Greenlanders, as elsewhere, many years of patient labour were toiled through, and many a prediction had been heard of utter failure in so vain and impracticable an undertaking, before a more encouraging prospect was opened, or any perceptible effect was produced upon the minds of ignorant savages. In the resistance long made by these people to Christianity, as well as im the circumstances which attended its ultimate reception, we perceive the work- ings of the same mind which has often displayed itself in other races of men. It was in 1721, that Egede, the apostle of Greenland, established the first Danish mission in that country. He was followed by missionaries belonging to the Unitas Fratrum. After an interval of fifteen years, we find Crantz, the historian of this community, thus confessing the total want of any apparent result of their long and pain- ful exertions. “ Hitherto,” he says, “they had not seen the trace of any permanent impression from the truths they had held forth. The Greenlanders who came from a distance were stupid, ignorant, and void of reflection; and the little that could be told them in a short visit, even if it was heard with attention, died away in their perpetual wanderings. Those who lived constantly in the immediate neighbourhood of the missionaries, and had been instructed so many years, were not grown better, but most of them worse; they were disgusted, tired, and hardened against the truth.’ When pressed to give a serious attention to the doctrines of Chris- tianity, they either showed their dislike openly, or excused themselves in terms like the following :—“ Show us the God whom you describe,” said they, “then we will believe in him, and serve him. You represent him too sublime and incomprehensible ; how shall we come at him? Neither will he trouble himself about us. We have invoked him when we have nothing to eat, or when we have been sick, but it is as if he would not hear us. We think what you say of him is not true, for if you know him better than we, then do you by your prayers obtain for us sufficient food, a healthy body and dry house, and that is all we desire or want. Our soul is healthy already, and nothing is wanting, if we have but @ PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 193 sound body and enough to eat. You are another sort of folk than we: in your country, people may perhaps have diseased souls; and indeed we see proofs enough, in those who come here, that they are good for nothing; they may stand in need of a Saviour, and of a physician for the soul. Your heaven and your spiritual joys and felicities may be good enough for you, but this would be too tedious for us. We must have seals, fishes, and birds; for our soul can no more subsist without them than our bodies. We should not find these in your heaven; therefore we will leave your heaven to you and the worthless part of the Greenlanders ; but as for us, we will go down to Torngarsuk ; there we shall find an exuberance of every thing without any trouble.” The first individual of this nation who became a convert was a man of extraordinary mental powers in such a state of society, and one whom the missionaries always mention as altogether a most remarkable person. His name was Kajar- nak. They describe him as “a man whom they cannot but wonder at, when they consider the great supineness and stupidity of the Greenlanders in general, and that they can comprehend nothing except what they are daily conver- Sant with. But this man,” they continue, “ scarcely hears a thing twice before he understands it, and retains it in his mind and heart. At the same time he shows an uncommon love to us, and a constant desire to be better instructed ; so that he seems to catch every word out of our mouths, which we have never perceived in any Greenlander before.” Kajarnak had come from a remote part of Greenland: he was a stran- ger to the missionaries, and was immediately interested with their representations of the Christian religion, and impressed with the narrative, which in a simple and emphatic manner they delivered, of the most striking events of the evangelical history.* Kajarnak became a zealous convert and disciple ‘ IT have no doubt that some of my readers will be interested with the account Which the missionaries transmitted of the manner in which doctrines so remote ei their habits of thought penetrated the minds of the first converts among the “animaux. The following is an extract from Crantz’s work. In the summer of 1728, many natives of the southern country visite Settlement. One day when a missionary named John Beck was employed in oO d the 194 ANALOGIGAL INVESTIGATION. of the missionaries, and was a willing and able instrument im propagating the doctrine which he had embraced among his countrymen. A few of them soon followed his example; and a small community of proselytes was formed, which in a few years increased to a considerable number. When such a commencement had once been made, the con- version of the Esquimaux of Greenland to Christianity seems copying part of a translation of the Gospels, he read a portion of it to these savages, and took an opportunity of explaining it to them. ‘ The Holy Spirit,’ say the missionaries, ‘ prompted this brother to describe the agonies and death of Christ, with more and more energy ; and he exhorted them with a warm heart to think seriously how much it had cost our Saviour to redeem us, and that on that ac- count they should by no means withhold their hearts from him, which he had earned at so dear a price; for he had been wounded, and shed his blood, and died to purchase them, and had endured such anguish of soul, that it made him sweat blood. At the same time he read, out of the New Testament, the history of our Saviour’s agony on the Mount of Olives, and of his bloody sweat. ‘Then the Lord opened the heart of one of the pagans, whose name was Kajarnak, and he stepped up to the table and said with a loud, earnest, and affecting voice, ‘ How was that? tell me that once more, for I fain would be saved too.’ ‘ These words,” says the missionary, ‘ penetrated my very soul, and kindled in me such an ardour that I gave the Greenlanders a full account of our Saviour’s whole life and death, and of the counsel of God for our salvation, while tears ran down my cheeks.’ From that time Kajarnak became a, disciple of the missionaries, and was a willing and able instrument in propagating the Christian doctrine among his countrymen.” In a further account of the state of the new converts, written a few years after the transaction above related, we find the following reflections. “Though the woeful state of the heathen still grieved the brethren, yet the fruits of grace which they discern in Kajarnak and the rest of the catechumens rejoiced them more and more. They evinced plain signs, not only of a true con- sciousness of a divine being and of a profound reverence for him; not only joy that Christ will raise the dead, and that believers will be happy in another world, put principally a real sense of their own misery, a joy in the love of God mani- fested to the fallen human race, in the atonement by Christ, and a growing desire after the word of life. It was plainly to be seen that the work of grace had taken deep root in their hearts, by a change of life, by a voluntary abstinence from heathenish vanities, and by cheerfully enduring the reproach of their infidel countrymen, by whom they were forsaken, hated and despised. Kajarnak, after his country people had been catechised by the missionaries, used to subjoin an e%- hortation, that, having been so long ignorant, they should now embrace the truth with a willing and thankful heart, and let it effect a true change; or he would sometimes conclude with a short but fervent prayer. And here let it be observed, that this was not a thing he was ordered or led to do, but of his own free impulse- He had at the same time a clear head, helped his teachers to the words they wanted in the language of the Greenlanders, and often corrected them, because he pretty well understood their meaning.” PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 195 to have proceeded rapidly. Inthe year 1744, it was evident that a considerable effect had been produced upon the minds of the people generally ; great numbers were interested in the subjects which the missionaries set before them. In 1748, not less than two hundred and thirty converts resided at New Herrnhut, thirty-five of whom had been baptized during the year. “Though these people are not without imperfections,” say the historians of these missions, “ it is yet evident that they are advancing. Their intercourse with one another is become more and more characterised by mu- tual kindness and the proofs of real conversion.” A few years afterwards it was observed, that though nearly two hundred persons baptized by the missionaries had finished their earthly career, the congregation now consisted of four hundred persons. “Since 1742, when the first general awaken- ing of the natives commenced, the increase has been consi- derable in proportion to the population of the country.”’ Se- veral new colonies had now been established by the Danes, provided with missionaries from the royal college at Copen- . hagen. These were stationed in different parts of the coun- try. Two additional settlements were founded by the United Brethren in 1758 and 1774, at Lichtenfels and at Lichtenau, near Cape Farewell, where there was soon a congregation of two hundred and five baptized Greenlanders. In the con- clusion of the history drawn up a few years ago, it is ob- Served, that since the commencement of the mission, a very remarkable moral change has taken place in the state of the Country and the character of the natives. “ Along the whole extent of the western coast, the barbarities of savage life and the enormities ever attending Paganism where it is dominant are now rarely to be met. with; and the state of the country, compared with what it was eighty, or but fifty years ago, may be termed civilized. The nature and climate of this dreary tegion, and the methods by which the natives procure their Subsistence, necessarily preclude the introduction of many arts of civilized society. The people can neither till the land nor employ themselves in manufactures. A Greenlander can Neither live in the European manner nor clothe himself like an European, dwelling as he does on sterile rocks and under 0 2 196 ANALOGIGAL INVESTIGATION. the rigors of a polar sky. Yet it may be said with truth, that the converted Greenlanders, by the habits of industry which they have acquired since the introduction of Chris- tianity among them, by their contentment amidst privations and hardships, and by the charity of the more affluent to- wards their needy brethren, strikingly exemplify the doctrine, that in every circumstance of life and in every station, a reli- gious life is great gain, having the promise of reward in this world and in that which is to come.”* The particulars which I have collected relating to the su- perstitious opinions and impressions of the Greenlanders in their primitive state, and especially the facts connected with their conversion to Christianity and civilized habits, are suffi- cient, if I am not mistaken, to prove that the mind of the Ks- quimaux has the same moral and intellectual constitution as that of other human beings. They have the same elements of moral feeling, the same sympathies and susceptibilities of affection, the same conscience or internal conviction of ac- countableness more or less obscurely or clearly impressed, the samesentiments of guiltand self-condemnation, the same desires of expiation, which are common to so many other nations in almost every degree of mental culture. The most elevated of these principles are only recognised in the natural or pagan state of these men as mere rudiments of higher and better un- derstanding, or as scintillations now and then shooting forth. When those doctrines and representations are opened to them which have been found, in so many other parts of the world, * Historical Sketches, p. 64.—-From the accounts recently published it ap- pears that a fourth mission has been established, and that the number of Christian Greenlanders belonging to the Moravian church, which excludes those under Danish Lutheran ministers, is 1808. In this last account we are informed, that “the ef- fects of Christianity upon the moral and social state of the Greenlanders has been in every respect most cheering and beneficial. The national superstitions have everywhere almost entirely disappeared. The practice of sorcery is almost unknow? upon the coast. Cruelty and licentiousness, with a whole train of attendant vices, have, through the influence of Christianity, given way to brotherly kindness, good order, decorum, and such a measure of civilization as is compatible with peculiar circumstances. The mind of the Greenlander has been cultivated and his heart softened and purified; though his mode of life is still rude, and his habits greatly at variance with European ideas of comfort and civilization.” PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 197 congenial to the human mind, and as such have been re- ceived by the most polished, as well as by the most barba- rous nations, they have produced their wonted effects upon the Esquimaux. The minds of these people appear to be, as to all essential principles of feeling and understanding, in harmony and in strict analogy with those of other men. Such a mind can hardly be supposed common to different species of organized beings. os Suction V.—Psychical History of the Negro Races. I proceed to offer some remarks on the Negro races. It may appear irregular to take up this part of the subject in the order in which it now occurs; but some advantages will arise from this method, and I do not think it liable to any valid objections, because the Hottentots and Negroes, though resembling in some respects physically, are yet clearly to be distinguished from each other. There was, therefore, no im- propriety in describing the Esquimaux intermediately, who may, indeed, be as nearly allied to either of the above-men- tioned races as they are to each other. As I have collected fuller accounts of the religious be- lief and practices of the Negroes, than of the superstitions of other races, and as these will best illustrate the mental cha- racter of the people, I shall immediately commence with the religion of the African Negroes. It is commonly said, that the religion of the African na- tions, of those, at least, who have not embraced Mohamme- danism, is the superstition of Fetisses, that is of charms or spells. This expression conveys a notion, that is not perfectly correct. The superstition of charms or spells holds a prin- cipal place in the minds of the idolatrous Negroes; but this does not preclude a very general prevalence in their belief of the first principles of natural religion. It may be observed, that among nations enjoying a much higher degree of mental culture, the prevalence of superstitions and practices more or less resembling the Fetissism of Africa, may be re~ cognised: such are a belief in destiny or fatality, astrology, SS ee 198 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. necromancy, charms, spells, omens, lucky and unlucky days, fortune, and the good and evil genius of individuals. “ The word fetisso,” says Barbot in his description of Gui- nea, “isa Portuguese word signifying charm orspell. It is not a native African term, though used by the Negroes of the Gold Coast, after the Portuguese. These Negroes term their idols Bossum, or Bossefoe. Father Godfrey Loyer, aposto- lical prefect of the Jacobites, who made a voyage to the kingdom of Issini, and studied the temper, manners, and re- ligion of the natives, says, that it is a great mistake to sup- pose, that fetisses are the gods of the Negroes. He declares that they have a belief in one universally powerful being, and that to him the people of the countries visited by Father Loyer address prayers. “ Every morning,” he says, “ after they rise, they go to the river-side to wash, and throwing a handful of water on their head, or pouring sand with it to express their humi- lity, they joi their hands and then open them, whisper softly the word ‘ Eksuvais.’ Then lifting up their eyes to heaven, they make this prayer :— Anghiime mame maro, mamé vice, mamé shike e okkori, mamé akaka, mamé brem- lic, mamé unquan e aconsan;’ that is, ‘ My God, give me this day rice and yams, give me gold and aigris, give me slaves and riches, give me health, and grant that I may be 2 99 active and swift. The excellent missionary Oldendorp, who appears to have had rare opportunities, and to have taken great pains to become accurately acquainted with the mental history and character of the Negroes, assures us, that he recogmsed among them, an universal belief in the “ existence of a God,” whom they represent as very powerful and beneficent. “He is the maker of the world and of men: he it is who thunders in the air, as he punishes the wicked with his bolts. He regards beneficent actions with complacency, and rewards them with long life. To him the Negroes ascribe their own personal gifts, the fruits of the earth, and all good things. From him the ram descends upon the earth. They believe that he is pleased when men offer prayers to him in all their wants, and that he succours them in dangers, in diseases, and PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 199 in seasons of drought. This is the chief God who lives far from them on high; he is supreme over all the other gods.’’* “ Among all the black nations,” says Oldendorp, “ with whom I have become acquainted, even among the utterly ig- norant and rude, there is none which did not believe in a God, which had not learnt to give him a name, which did not regard him as the maker of the world, and ascribe to him more or less clearly all the attributes which I have here briefly summed up. As, however, the Negroes always designate God and the heaven by the.same term, it 1s doubtful whe- ther they do not regard heaven itself as the Deity; but, perhaps, their notions are not so clear as to have led them even to contemplate this distinction. “ Besides this supreme beneficent divinity whom all the various nations worship in some way or other, they believe in many gods of inferior dignity, who are subject to the chief Deity, and are mediators between him and mankind. Such are the powers which they reverence in serpents, tigers, wolves, rivers, trees, hills, and large stones. The more stupid among the Negroes certainly imagine the serpent, the tiger, and the stones to be themselves gods, that the tree understands them, and the tiger gives them rain; on the other hand, the more intelligent look upon these objects, as representations of the inferior gods, and imagine, that local deities dwell unseen under certain trees or on particular hills. This appears from the fiction which the priests of Akkran have invented res- pecting the subordination of the tutelar gods under the su- preme divinity, and from the notion that these gods absent themselves during a certain season of the year, while the vi- sible objects remain.” * The author begins his account of the religion of the Negroes with an assu- rance, which has every appearance of being made in perfect good faith, that he will relate nothing which he has not received immediately and exactly from the Negroes themselves. See C. G. A. Oldendorp’s Geschichte der Mission der Evan- gelischen Brider auf den Caraibaischen Inseln St. Thomas, 8. Croix, und S. Jan. 1777, s. 318. + The same observation has been made by the Jesuit Duhalde as to the Chinese. Whaneti, the supreme divinity, is also the heaven. So in fact was Jupiter both among the Latins and the Greeks, as it is expressed in the well-known passage of Ennius and the parallel one of Euripides. Perhaps the Semitic people were the only race whose language displays a purer or more metaphysical conception. ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, Immediate Objects of Worship. “ These gods are either national or domestic. Thus the Fida, besides the great serpent, which is adored by the whole na- tion, have each their particular smaller serpents, which are worshipped as household gods, but are not esteemed so pow- erful by far as the great one to whom the smaller serpents are subjected. Where the latter are unable to assist, their worshippers have recourse to the great serpent. The national deity of the Kanga is an elephant’s tooth, and that of the tribe of Wawa, a tiger. The Sember have wooden gods in human form, which they call Zioo. The Loango also have similar carved idols of both sexes, some clothed, some naked and pated, as well in their dwellings as in sacred buildings. They are served by priests, who are said to be inspired by them, and give out the answers of the gods as oracles. Some of the Amina call the Creator of the world and of their nation Borriborri, and imagine that he has a wife, who is called San- komaago, by whom he has a son Sankombum, who is the mediator between man and the superior deity.” Relations of the Deities to each other. “These inferior powers are appointed by the chief deity as tutelar gods over certain countries, men, animals, plants, rivers, &c. and must yearly give an account of their conduct. This is done in a general assembly of all the gods at the court of the chief divinity. He who has given satisfaction, is confirmed by the great god in his tutelar office of a pro- tecting spirit for a year, and is marked with a red hot iron: but those who have permitted the evil spirit to disseminate unjust wars among the nations, or have wilfully allowed pes- tilence or fires and such evils in the territory entrusted to them, are deposed from their office, expelled from the rank of gods, and made mortals. From despair and malice such deposed gods are accustomed to embrace the party in oppo- sition to the divinity, and become maleficent spirits. I have taken this account,” says Oldendorp, “of the relation of the inferior gods to the higher deity from the journal of Christian PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 20] Prottens, a native African, who had been for a long time in the community of the brethren.” Fetisses or Charms. The fetisses of the Negroes, which hold so prominent a part in their superstition, are of the same nature as the spells and charms of the northern nations, and as the amulets and talis- mans of the east. “ Fetisses, or schambos,” says Oldendorp, “as they are called by the Wawa, are sacred things, which have received a pecu- liar power from God, as well to drive away the evil spirits, as ‘to succour in all sorts of diseases and dangers, especially against enchantment. They have not the dignity of gods ; although it might be supposed from the peculiar veneration of the Negroes for these fetisses that they were the objects of their national worship, as indeed many ignorant people say. They ornament not only themselves, but also their idols with these fetisses, which descend by inheritance from parents to chil- dren, who preserve them with the greatest care. Others are preserved in particular houses, over which overseers are ap- pointed. The Mandongo willingly receive for their fetisses any thing that has been struck by thunder, Thus we per- ceive that the Negroes only venerate their fetisses, because they believe that something divine has been united to them ; and how could this take place more manifestly, than in the instance of thunder, which they look upon as the peculiar attribute of the Deity, and proceeding immediately from him? “ The Negroes employ these fetisses especially as a means of protection against every thing which they esteem evil or hurtful. Thus the Ibo, when they go to war, bind fetisses with cords round their bodies, to protect them from wounds ; and the Amina expect the same advantage from a conse- crated cow’s tail. They make use of them particularly to preserve them from the evil spirit, and his hostile attempts. They believe that he is the origin of all evil. He is the enemy of the good God; he seeks to mislead men, to myjure them, destroy them, and after death to get their souls mto 202 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. his power. They never consider themselves secure from his snares. “No African nation makes the malevolent demon an object of worship, or calls upon him for assistance, but they are universally afraid of this powerful agent, and seek to ap- pease him with favours. Thus, for example, the priests of Amina, before they bury their dead, place some costly things upon a place cleansed for this purpose for the evil spirit, - whom they term Didi. They call him and give him to un- derstand that these gifts are for him, and that he must be contented with them and leave the dead alone. When they wish ill to any one, they curse him by the Didi, Kalliam- pemba, or by whatever name they address the evil spirit.” Worship—Prayers to the Gods. We have seen that the Negro nations have agreed with other races of men, in the belief that supernatural powers exist to whose control all things are subject, and that they differ not materially from other nations in their conception of the nature, attributes, and relations of the gods to each other. It seems that they further agree with European and Asiatic nations in the methods by which they endeavour to conciliate the favour of the unseen beings to whose power they hold themselves to be subject. The principal of these have been everywhere prayers and sacrifices. “The Negroes,” says Oldendorp, “ profess their dependence upon the Deity in different ways, especially by prayers and offerings. They pray at different times, in different places, and as the Amina Negroes told me, in every time of need. They pray at the rising and setting of the sun, on eating and drinking, and when they go to war. Even in the midst of the contest, the Amina sing songs to their god, whom they seek to move to their assistance by appealing to his paternal duty. The daily prayer of a Watje Negress was—‘ O! God, I know thee not, but thou knowest me; thy assistance is necessary to me.’ At meals they say, ‘OQ! God, thou hast given us this, thou hast made it grow;’ and when they work, «O! God, thou hast caused that I should have streneth to do PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 203 this.’ The Sember pray in the morning. ‘ Oh! God, help us; we do not know whether we shall live to-morrow; we are in thy hand.’ The Mandongo pray also for their deceased friends. They pray in the presence of their idols and fetisses. The solemn prayers which are made by @ tribe or nation, are accompanied by dancing to the sound of instruments, and are pronounced with terrific cries. The Akkran frequently interrupt their dances by kneeling down. “The requests which they make to God, refer to their bodies, health, good weather, rich harvests, victory over their ene- mies, and such things. In a continued dry season, the Wawa assemble in a melancholy procession, whilst they bind leaves upon their bodies and heads, before the scham- beo-house, in which a tiger is worshipped as god. With howling and lamentations they represent to him their neces- sity, and pray that he will cause it to rain, since they must otherwise all die of hunger. Among the Loango, upon a similar occasion, an offering of cattle is brought. When this 1s accomplished with the customary ceremonies, the priest, who is as well an enchanter, desires the people to hasten home, not to be surprised by the rain. Among the Koro_ manti Negroes, the women go in procession to their priest, whom they call be/wm, bring him all sorts of fruits, and beg him to procure them rain. The Watja beseech the new moon to give them strength for labour, and the Amina even request their god to pay their debts.”’ Sacrifices. “ The sacrifices constitute the most important part of their worship, which are performed in sacred places by conse- crated persons. The sacred places are those, where one of their divinities dwells, visibly or invisibly ; particular build- Ings or huts, hills, trees, remarkable for their age, height and strength. They have also sacred groves, which are the abodes of a deity, which no Negro ventures to enter, except the priests. “ The oblations of the Negroes consist of oxen, Cows, sheep, Soats, fowls, palm-oil, brandy, yams, &c. Human sacrifices 204 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. are offered by some nations. On joyful occasions they offer white, and on sorrowful, black animals. The sacrifices take place partly at appointed seasons, and partly occasionally. The intention of them is to gain the favour of the deity, to procure help in sickness or in war, and rain in dry seasons, or to manifest their gratitude for benefits received. Obla- tions are also brought for the dead. “ When the young men of Temba go to war, the old ones, who remain at home, seek to gain for them the protection and assistance of Sioo, their divinity, by prayers and offer- ings. They fall before the image upon their knees, offer him sheep and fowls, pour out the blood and entrails before him ; but they dress the flesh for a meal for themselves. If the design of the sacrifices is not obtained and the expedition does not succeed well, the fault is not laid upon Sioo: they do not doubt his willingness to assist; he has been unable for this time to prevail against the powerful god of the enemy. In order to obtain rain, the Amina sacrifice many sheep and fowls, and beseech the Tankoubum to cause rain to flow as plentifully from heaven as their blood has flowed for him. Many oblations are made for the sick, and many presents made to the priests, that they may assist in restor- ing them to health. If the sick person dies, the priests are persuaded that the gods wished for his soul: against this no presents could be of service. If he recovers, his friends pre- pare a great feast, and offer for a testimony of gratitude, white sheep and fowls.” Funeral Rites and Sacrifices. ‘Even the dead are not buried without sacrifices. A white hen is slain by the priest before the corpse comes to the grave, and the bier whereon the body lies is sprinkled with its bloo 4; This custom was introduced by the nation of the Kagreut. These people offer to the deity a tame animal when they till their ground, and vow another of the same kind if God will bless their produce. Human sacrifices are very rare among the Negroes, but not entirely unknown. In Old Kalabara child ten months old was hanged upon a tree with a living fowl, for PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 205 the recovery of the king, which M. Seelgrave relates as an eye-witness. Thus the king of Dahomee sacrificed to his god, out of gratitude for the victory granted to him, four thousand captive Fidans, and caused their heads to be cut off, and piled together in a heap.” Sacred Festivals. “ At the annual harvest-feast, which nearly all the nations of Guinea solemnize, thank-offerings are brought to the deity. These festivals are days of rejoicing which the Negroes pass with feasting and dancing, and they prove their gratitude to their divinities by pouring out before them and offering to them a portion of their prepared food. They likewise give back to their gods, in gratitude, a part of every thing they earn. The Karabari have the peculiar custom on such feast- days of hunting the old evil spirit out of their villages before they celebrate their harvest-feast. The Watje assemble at harvest upon a pleasant plain, when they thank God thrice upon their knees, under the direction of a priest, for the good harvest, and pray to him for further blessings. When they have risen, the whole assembly testify their gratitude to God and their rejoicing, by clapping their hands. After this di- vine service, a joyful feast follows, for which each family kills and prepares white sheep and fowls.” Pilgrimages. “ Among the annual festivals is the pilgrimage of the nation of Fida to the great serpent. The people collected before the house of the serpent, lying upon their faces, worship this supposed divinity, without daring to look upon him. Except the priests, the king alone has this favour once. In the same manner the Wawa hold an annual service in honour of a tiger, whom they look upon as a god, and whom a priestess serves. They do not only then solemnly worship him, but bring him oblations of maize, fowls, sheep, and such things. These are first set before the tiger, who is ornamented at this solemnity with schambos or fetisses, and what he leaves 1s 206 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. made into a sacrificial repast, which is accompanied with dances and other amusements. A Negro also annually so- lemnizes the day on which he first shed the blood of a hu- man being,” Of the Order of Priests, their Offices and Powers. Like all the nations of antiquity the pagan Negroes ascribe to a particular class of men the office of mediators between mankind and the gods. The priests in Africa, as elsewhere, are the only individuals who can offer acceptable sacrifice to the divinity; they alone are interpreters of the divine will. To this function they join that of diviners or magicians, masters of spells and amulets. It is really won- derful to discover so extensive an analogy in the opinions of men and of races separated from each other from immemo- rial time, not only in the general principles of natural reli- gion which conscience and the internal feelings impress upon the understanding and belief, but in all the various phases and modifications of superstition, and in the modes by which crafty and designing men have availed themselves of the weakness and credulity of the people. “The priests and priestesses are the sacred persons upon whom the divine service of the Negroes depends, and who, as they suppose, have confidential intercourse with the gods, and interpret their will. They alone understand by what means the wrath of the deity may be appeased. To them it - belongs, to present the offerings to the gods, and to be the intercessors between them and the people. They convey the questions of the people to the gods, who reply by the mouths of the priests. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at, that they are held in the greatest esteem by the people, and exer- cise almost boundless authority over them. No Negro will transgress the priest’s commands. Even after ceaiie in the performance of sacred ceremonies at the burial of the body; the assistance of the priest is necessary, for he alone under- stands how to prevent the evil spirit from getting the soul into his power. “« At times of sickness, warlike expeditions, and in other im- ee ; c Lard PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISON. 207 portant affairs, the Negroes desire to be assured of the is- sue by a divine answer. In such cases, the Amina bring a sheep either entirely white or black to the priest, who sa- crifices it, and with its blood sprmkles a large vessel; where- upon he receives an answer to the question laid before him. If a Fida Negro is sick, he causes the serpent to be inter- rogated through the priest, whether his disease proceeds from God, or from enchantment. Together with the answer which he receives, a remedy is shown him, by means of which he may recover. But if the disease is fatal, he receives the melancholy intelligence, that he can be cured by no possible means. In this case, the priest or priestess takes no reward for their trouble, which is required in all other instances. The great snake unasked reveals impending wars to the priestess, who does not fail to give intelligence of it to the king. She tells him the name of the enemy; appoints the time of the invasion and the fortunate or unfortunate issue of the affair. In the latter case, she gives him the prudent ad- vice, to save himself by a speedy flight. She also foretels to the king the time when ships will arrive. The priests, likewise, foretel dearth and sterility, as the effect of the anger of the gods, who, however, may be appeased by pre- sents and sacrifices. Nothing is so concealed that the priests cannot foretel it; even the fate of souls after death is known to them, and from them it can be learnt whether each indi- vidual is gone to God or to the evil spirit. “ The priests of the Negroes are also the physicians, as were the priests of Apollo and Esculapius. The notions which the Negroes entertain of the causes of diseases are very differ- ent. The Watje attribute them to evil spirits, whom they call Dobbo. When these are very numerous, they ask of their sa- cred cotton-tree permission to hunt them out. Hereuponachase is appointed, and they do not cease following the demons with arms and great cries, until they have chased them beyond their boundaries. This chase of the spirits of disease is very customary among many nations of Guinea, who universally believe that many diseases arise from enchantment, and others by the direction of the deity.” 208 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, Ingenious Figments by which these pretensions are main- tained.— Auguries or Omens by Birds. “ It is not in consequence of the unskilfulness of physicians that their remedies are of little use during the rainy season, but, as they say, on account of the absence of their gods, who are obliged to appear, in this dangerous season, at the court of the superior deity. Consequently the priests cannot get advice from them, and they can do nothing effectually with- out instruction. During the absence of the protecting spi- rits, which lasts six weeks, the sacred drum is not beaten, no holidays are held, and the dead are interred without noise or songs, and without being bewailed. Among the Fida, those ‘who have received no help in their sickness from the small snakes or household gods, turn to the great serpent, who dis- covers through the priests a medicine, or reproves them for not having sufficiently honoured, or entirely obeyed the in- ferior gods, and to regain their favour, he advises them to offer fowls and the like to them, to appoint a feast in honour of them, and to invite an assembly, to sing, play, dance, and make merry. In this way the inferior gods will become fa- vourable to them, and heal them. When the Mokko, by the instruction of the priests, have brought an offering for a sick person, they leave a portion of the sacrificial meat for the birds, and decide upon the cure or death of the patient by the deportment of the birds towards the food. Some of the sacrificial blood is sprinkled upon the medicaments which the sick person is to take.” Holy Water. “The priest of the Akrissons take of the holy water, which flows from the hole in the rock in which their god Kinka dwells, and give it to the patients, who are to wash them- selves with it, and be cured of their infirmities. Some Kas- senti offer for a sick person a hen at a sacred tree, which they worship on their knees, and they pour a thick pap of maize over it before the tree, part of which they take to anoint the patient. PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 909 “Of the Bliakefa, the priests of Karabari and of Sokko, it is remarkable, that they give some instruction to the people concerning the Divinity and prayer. The Negroes come to them for this purpose either singly, or in companies, when they pray with them on their knees, that God, whom they call Tschukka, will protect them from war, captivity, and the like. They promise to these priests that they will use their slaves mildly, and give them two days in each week for their own concerns. Some priests are likewise sorcerers ; but among several nations, the Sokko and Watje for example, the latter office is distinguished from the former.”’ Immortality of the Sout. “ There is scarcely any nation of Guinea which does not be- lieve in the immortality of the soul, and that it continues to live after its separation from the body, has certain ne- cessities, performs actions, and is especially capable of the enjoyment of happiness or misery. ‘The Amina call the soul and the shadow by the same name; and some of the Watje nation told me, that they consider the soul to be of as subtile a nature as is the shadow.” ‘ State of Retribution. “The Negroes believe almost universally that the souls of good men, after their separation from the body, go to God, and the wicked to the evil spirit, whence at the death of their chiefs, they make use of the expression, ‘ God has taken their souls.’ The Loango imagine the abode of the blessed — to bewhere Sambeau Pungo, thatis God, dwells, but hell to be above in the air, which others on the contrary suppose to be deep in the earth. They believe that the souls which go to the evil spirit, become ghosts, and re-appear, and because they preserve their inclination to do evil, torment those whom they dislike in sleep ; and besides, flutter about in the air, and make noises and disturbances in the bushes. If any one, therefore, is said to appear on the third day after his death, it is a proof that he is not gone to God. The body - P 210 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. of a Negro, of whom a wicked neighbour pretends to have seen the spirit, is not buried with honour, among the Amina. The Negroes imagine also, that even the good souls are often compelled to pass by the evil spirit before they go to God; when this wicked spirit endeavours to bring them into his power. Hence arises a custom, which the Amina ob- serve: survivors satisfy the claims of the Dide, as it has been before observed. The Mokko affirm, that they free them- selves from the claims of the evil spirit, by proving to him, that they belong to God, by the marks which they have upon their bodies, to which nothing can be objected. The Ibo say, that each soul is accompanied upon the way to its appointed place by two spirits, a good and evil one, and has to pass a dangerous part, a wall, by which the road is divided. The good spirit helps a pious soul happily by ; on the other hand, a wicked one knocks his head against it. After this, two roads open; a narrow one, by which the good soul is led by his benevolent director to God, and one broad, by which the wicked soul, under the guidanee of the malevolent spirit, is conducted toa darker place.” The representations which these ignorant people give of the situation of the blessed, is very similar to their other ideas. Their conduct towards the deceased gives us to under- stand that they suppose the future condition to belittle differ- ent from the present life, and they believe them to be affected with the same wants which they have here. On which ac- count they not only place for some time food upon their graves, but give them likewise their wives, servants, and slaves in the other world. Metempsychosis. The Karabari and several other black tribes believe in the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul from one body to another, and imagine that the soul of a dead person revives in the body of the next child born after his death. It is fully established by the assurances of the Negroes, that they believe in the transmigration of a human soul, into the body of a bird, fish, or other creature. This belief in metempsy- PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 211 chosis has a very injurious effect upon many Negroes. If their slavery is too severe in the West Indies, they destroy themselves with the prospect that their souls will wander to their country, and there revive in the body of achild. Some fully believe that they will rise alive in Guinea. Murderers and such criminals are shut out from the privilege of com- mencing a second happier course of life in a strange body. Abarre, the evil spirit, will ordain this as a punishment: they fly about as ghosts, and by inclination torment men with frightful appearances. I could cite other writers on the history of the African na- tions who confirm the statements given by Oldendorp, though none of them have written so clearly and distinctly, and ap- parently from such full and satisfactory sources of informa- tion. Many similar observations occur in the accounts ob- tamed by fathers Loyer, Labat, and by Bosman. From the last-mentioned writer I shall cite some further particulars. Bosman mentions their superstitious fear of ghosts and ap- paritions. He says, “they stedfastly believe the apparitions of spirits and ghosts, and that they disturb and terrify some people. If any considerable person dies, they are perplexed with horrid fears, fancying that he appears for several nights successively before his late dwelling.” “They have long been acquainted with the division of time into weeks, and each day of the seven has its proper name in their language. Their sabbath falls on our Tuesday, except at Ante, where, like that of the Mahomedans, it is on Friday. No person is then permitted to fish, which is the only dif- ference.” In their belief of lucky and unlucky days, oracles, omens, and the like, the Negro tribes might almost be supposed to have formed their opinions on the model of the Greeks and other nations of antiquity. “ The inland Negroes,” says Bos- man, “ divide time into lucky and unlucky days. The great Period of good fortune lasts in some countries nineteen, and the lesser seven days; between these are seven unfortunate days. During the unlucky days they neither travel, till the land, nor undertake any affair of consequence, but remain altogether idle. The Aquambo people will not even willingly p 2 212 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. receive any presents made to them on these days. The inhabi- tants of some districts differ from those of others as to the particular days which they hold to be lucky and unlucky.” Of the Conversion of the Negroes to Christianity. We have seen that the Negroes of Africa display in their original and primitive state of mind, untaught by foreign in- structors at least within the reach of history, the same ten- dencies to superstitious belief, as well as the same moral im- pressions as the rest of the human family. It only remains, in order to fill up this part of the mental history of the Negro race, to remark, that they have given a ready reception to fo- reign religions both true and false. Mahomedanism is well known to have spread in Africa. Soudan sends its yearly pilgrims to venerate the sacred stone ; and the sable hadji is as highly revered on the Niger and the western Nile, as the Syrian pilgrims among the Moslems of Damascus. But [ have not room for tracing the progress of Islam, and it will proba- bly be more satisfactory to my readers to observe the result of endeavours which have been made by European teachers to bring Negroes to the Christian religion. Of these we have some of the most successful examples in the efforts of mis- sionaries sent out by the church of the United Brethren. An interesting account of the proceedings of these well-meaning and devoted persons is to be found in the undisguised and simple narrative of Oldendorp. I shall abstract from it a brief statement of such particulars as are necessary, in ordef to pot out the way in which the rudiments of true and un- corrupted religion found their way into the minds of the Afri- cans, and to show how far the process of their conversion, indicates an agreement of feeling and sentiment betwee? them and other divisons of mankind. The first attempts to convert the slaves of the Caribbea? islands to Christianity had their occasion in a meeting of some followers of Count Zinzendorf, with one Anthony, # Negro from the island of St. Thomas, who had been bap- tized at Copenhagen. This man represented in so strong CO lours the wretchedness and ignorance of his countrymen an PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 213 relatives, and urged so zealously his entreaties on the brethren to undertake their conversion, that the congregation at Herrn- hut, before whom he had been induced to appear, were dis- posed to make the attempt. The difficulties of the enterprise were great, and they were not lessened by Anthony, who af- firmed, that in order to promote the conversion of slaves, the missionary must himself consent to become a slave. Even under these conditions several of the brethren were willing to devote themselves to the task. The names of the heroical men who voluntarily offered themselves, believing themselves specially called to the undertaking, were Leonard Dobel and Tobias Leupold. Leupold did not go, the lot having deter- mined otherwise; and David Nitschmann was substituted for him; who entered on the voyage with similar expectations. The business was commenced under the most unfavourable circumstances. The work proceeded slowly at first and amidst great opposition ; yet a small number of hearers was soon collected, some of whom gave signs of sincere conver- sion, and of disgust at their former courses of life. Circum- stances required the return of the missionaries to Europe, and an interval ensued during which the mission was suspended. It was renewed in 1734 on the arrival of Martin, a zealous preacher and a man of great energy, whose exhortations were followed with so much effect, that when Bishop Spangenberg visited the mission in 1736, he found in not less than two hundred blacks who attended the services of the brethren, a great desire to be instructed in the Christian religion, and three individuals, who, on a careful examination, were judged to be in a fit state to receive baptism. It is impossible to read the narrative of Oldendorp without being convinced of the perfect sincerity of the writer and the truth of his ac- count. It proves that no other means were used to influence the Negroes, that no other motives were put in operation to affect their minds than those of which the promulgators of Christianity availed themselves in the first ages of the church. “ Pull of ardour for the salvation of men,” says Oldendorp, “ Martin declared to the poor slaves the infinite kindness and condescension of the Saviour, what for their sakes he had done and suffered, and how worthy he was of their gratitude 214 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. and love.” “ If he once received concerning any individual the impression that a change had been commenced in his mind, he never lost sight of such a person, but with the greatest constancy followed up his work till he gained him over to the cause of religion. By the constant exhortations of the Brethren a perceptible change was produced in the minds and cha- racters of the Negroes; and notwithstanding the unfavourable circumstances and the bad examples by which they were sur- rounded, it became manifest, not only that the number of professed converts increased, but that motives and influences were in operation capable of effecting a moral revolution in their minds and character. And so deep was the impression which had been produced, that when the colonial government, jealous of innovation, threw the missionaries into prison, bap- tized Negroes were found ready to carry on the work of ex- hortation, and contribute greatly to mcrease the number of converts. When in the following year, 1739, Count Zinzen- dorf visited the island, he was filled with astonishment at the greatness of the work which had been accomplished. It seems, that at this time the number of Negroes who regularly attended the preaching of the gospel amounted to eight hundred.” The other Danish islands, St. Croix and St. Jan, were after- wards visited by the Moravian missionaries whose exertions were attended with like success. I shall not attempt to follow the steps of their progress, which are described by the writer so frequently cited. In his conclusion he gives the summary of its results, from which it appears, that in the year 1768 the number of Negroes who had been baptized in the three islands by the missionaries during thirty-four years, amounted to 4,711. In this very general statement of the facts connected with the conversion of Negroes in these islands, the principal evi- dence is yet wanting by which it may be proved, that the minds of Negroes are, not otherwise than those of Europe- ans, capable of receiving all the impressions implied in con- version to Christianity. This evidence can only be fully ap- preciated by those who read in detail the biographical no- tices, and other particulars detailed by the historians of the PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPARISONS. 215 community to which Oldendorp as well as Crantz belonged. But no part of this evidence is more conclusive than the se- lection of short homilies composed by Negro preachers or assistants, and addressed by them to congregations of their countrymen. Some of these, though they do not rival in strength of diction the discourses of Watts or Doddridge, breathe the same spirit, and were evidently written under the influence of the same sentiments and impressions. A selec- tion of these addresses has been appended by Oldendorp to his work, which I have so often cited. Szcrion VI.—Concluding Remarks. It would be easy to collect information on the mental his- tory of other races of men, tending to establish with respect to them the same conclusion which I have already drawn, after describing the Esquimaux, the Hottentots, and the Negroes. The inquiry would not be without interest, and I shall hereafter take an opportunity of pointing out at least some of the sources from which data may be obtained for pursuing it. But it would not greatly strengthen my argu- ment, and I am unwilling to occupy a larger space than is necessary in the discussion of questions which may be thought remote from the principal object of a work profes- sedly devoted to physical researches. There are no races of men so widely differing from each other in structure of body, and in physical properties as the three above mentioned, and the fourth class of nations with whom they have been throughout compared: if therefore the principal conclusion is allowed with respect to these instances, it will scarcely be thought disputable in others. If the evidence adduced in the foregoing pages is sufficient to establish the conclusions which I have ventured to de- duce from it, it may be affirmed that the phenomena of the human mind and the moral and intellectual history of human races afford no proof of diversity of origin in the families of men; that on the contrary, in accordance with an extensive series of analogies above pointed out, we may per- ET 216 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. haps say, that races so nearly allied and even identified in all the principal traits of their psychical character, as are the se- veral races of mankind, must be considered as belonging to one species. Nor can it be pretended, that any intellectual superiority of one human race over another, which can be imagined. to exist, furnishes any argument against this conclusion. If, for example, it were allowed that the Negroes are as deficient in mental capacity as some persons have asserted them to be, this could not prove them to be a different species, since it must be allowed that there are differences equally great, and even greater, between individuals and families of the same nation. It would certainly be no difficult matter to discover particular men, and even entire families in this country, who are intellectually weaker than any reasonable person could pretend the generality of Africans to be. On this ground it would therefore be impossible to argue with effect in favour of diversity of species, which confessedly re- quires the constant transmission of distinguishing characters. On the other hand there is nothing more probable than the supposition, that the average degree of perfection in the de- velopement of the brain as of other parts of the system, differs in different nations with the diversities of climate and other elements of the external condition, and with the degrees of social culture. It is probable that the condition of men in civilized society produces some modification in the intel- lectual capabilities of the race. But without going into any of these conjectural discussions, it will be quite sufficient for my present argument, if it is allowed, that there are some Negroes whose mental faculties fully attain the standard of European intellect. As this is a position which can scarcely be disputed, I think it superfluous to enter at pre- sent on a discussion, which in fact is not strictly within the scope of my present argument, The reader will find however in the sequel, some testimonies on the subject, which may be thought sufficient, VARIETIES OF COMPLEXION. CHAPTER III. ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION CONTINU ED—EXTERNAL DIV ER- SITIES—VARIETY OF COMPLEXION IN HUMAN RACES——IN- QUIRY WHETHER THE DIFFERENCES OF COLOUR CONSTITUTE SPECIFIC DISTINCTIONS. Srcrion I.—General Remarks—Of the principal varieties of Complexion observed in Human Races—Phenomena of Correspondence. Tur course which I have proposed to follow, brings me now to consider the perceptible varieties of colour and organi- zation. It has often been observed that the external parts of animals, such as their integuments, hair, feathers, horns, or other similar appendages, are more subject to varieties of form and colour than the structure of internal parts. Whether this remark is well founded or not, it is certain that very considerable variations actually take place in many species of animals, as well as of plants, in the colour, conformation, and texture of the outward parts. I have to determine if possible, whether those differences of external character which display themselves, when human races are compared with each other, are instances of this description, or depend upon original diversity. I shall begin with colour, and in the first place describe the varieties which subsist in this par- ticular among the human inhabitants of distant regions. _ The term complexion is generally applied to the colour of the skin, but this is well known to be related to various hues in the hair, as well as in the pigment of the eye. It has been thought also, there is some variety in the colour of other parts. The different colours of the hair, the skin, and the eyes, generally correspond in a perceptible manner. Tn par- 218 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, ticular, the colour of the skin bears a relation to that of the hair, and there is an intimate connexion between these phe- nomena, indicating their dependence on a common cause. Men who have white or red hair, have generally what is termed a fair skin, that is, a complexion not merely of white or light hue, but owing to the peculiarity of its texture, of a ruddy tint. This is derived from the transparent nature of the skin, transmitting the colour of the blood which circu- lates in the cutaneous tissue. Black-haired persons have sometimes skins as white, but not so fair and transparent as the light-haired. The skins of the former also differ from those of the latter, in regard to the effect produced upon them by exposure to the heat and light of the sun. When so exposed, the complexion of the black- haired presently acquires a brown or yellowish hue, very different from the tinge produced in the sanguine, whose skin, as well as that of the albino, becomes reddened, inflamed, and blistered. If therefore black-haired persons are very white, they may be considered as etiolated or bleached by artificial protection from light, or at least from the solar rays; and when exposed freely to the influences of climate, their colour is found to differ nearly in proportion to the temperature of different countries. The women of Syria and of Barbary are often very white,* though they have black hair, but this is the result of careful protection from the sun. And in Europe, black-haired women are termed brunettes, from the hue which the skin acquires on ordinary exposure. The colour of the eye corresponds with that of the hair, but with more frequent exceptions, for it is not very uncom- mon to see black-haired persons with light blue or grey eyes: the converse is more rare, red or white-haired persons having very seldom or never black eyes. Generally white-haired or very light flaxen-haired persons have either very light blue eyes, or the choroid is red from a total absence of the pigment, which in other instances covers its surface, and # ¢¢ Jyes femmes qui habitent dans les villes de Barbarie sont d’une blancheut presque rébutante, d’un blane de marbre qui tranche trop avec le rouge trés vive de leurs joues.” Buffon, on the authority of Bruce, Hist. Nat. tom. v. VARIETIES OF COMPLEXION. 219 from the hue of the blood being perceptible through the trans- parent coats.* Such red-eyed persons are termed albinos. Their physical condition is not so strongly distinguished from that of other very fair persons, as it Is commonly sup- posed, and both appear to be only different degrees of the same constitution; for the albino has been known to acquire the pigment, and to become a person of the ordinary fair complexion with blue eyes.+ is The preceding remarks indicate the propriety of dividing the complexions of mankind into three classes, distinguished by the colour of the eyes and hair. This division will be _ Tt is observed in the Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science, No. V. that the fact asserted here may be proved by killing a white rabbit, and cutting one of its eyes out of the orbit: the vessels being thus divided, and the blood suffered to escape by immersion in water, the iris and pupil then appear quite colourless, both by reflected and transmitted light. + I extract the following interesting particulars from the Dublin Journal, No. XV. above cited. They are from the able and distinguished editor, Professor Graves. “ Last year, Dr. Ascherson informed me that he had seen a case of the after de- velopement of the pigment of the eye, in an albino boy, three years old. This child had at its birth white hair, and violet-coloured eyes, with dark red pupils; at the end of the third year its hair was light brown, and its eyes were blue; but they had still in a remarkable degree, though less so than before, that restlessness peculiar to albinos. This was the only case of the kind I had ever heard of, ex- cept that communicated by Michielis, in Blumenbach’s Medicinische Bibliothek, vol. iii. p. 679; which however, rests only on the uncertain authority of some pea- sants. Singularly enough, (says Dr. Graves,) I had soon after the good fortune to meet with a similar case myself. In my younger days, there were two children, a brother and sister, living near me, who presented such striking symptoms of leucosis in their eyes, hair, and skin, that they were recognised as albinos even by non-medical per- sons. My attention was lately drawn to them by an advertisement I saw in the papers, in which their name occurred, and I learned that the brother had become a tobacconist; but, to my great astonishment, on going to see him, I found that his eyes had changed from violet red to grey, and his hair from white to light brown, and that the susceptibility of the eyes to the light had greatly diminished. There is a circumstance in some degree analogous to this subsequent developement of the pig- ment of the eye, which though much less striking, is of frequent occurrence; namely, that in children born with grey or blue eyes, they gradually become brown before the expiration of the first or second year. How far Rudolphi’s Statement is correct, that the secretion of the pigment of the eye is more copious in youth than in middle age, I am not prepared to say. Desmoulins also main- tains, that the pigment of the eyes diminishes in old people, as is notoriously the case with that of the hair.”—Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science, No. XV. ; 220 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. found very convenient and useful in facilitating an inquiry into the nature of such varieties. It is likewise necessary, in order to prevent the frequent repetition of descriptive phrases, to adopt some technical expressions or appropriate terms, under which all the characteristics of each class may be collectively understood and recalled, without the necessity of recapitulation. I shall therefore adopt the following terms and descriptions. 1. The black-haired or melanocomous or melanous variety, characterised by black or very dark hair. 2. The xanthous variety, distinguished by yellow, or what is termed red or light brown hair, and by eyes of a blue or other light colour. The skin is, in persons of this descrip- tion, generally fair, as I have before remarked. 8. The leucous variety. Individuals of the human kind who belong to this class, are termed albinos, but the expres- sion is not usually applied to animals, and it is desirable to have some generally applicable epithet. The distinguishing characters of this variety are a red hue of the choroid as al- ready described; the hair is usually either white, or of a pale or cream colour, its texture being peculiarly soft and resem- bling combed flax; the skin is very light and fair, and easily reddened and blistered on exposure to the sun, even in albinos born in the Negro race. I shall now add a few particulars respecting these varieties of complexion. 1. Of the Melanocomous variety. The black-haired variety forms by far the most numerous class of mankind. It is the complexion generally prevalent, except in some particular countries, chiefly in the northern regions of Europe and Asia, where races of the xanthous variety have multiplied, and it may be looked upon as the natural and original complexion of the human species. This variety is distinguished by the hair, both erinal and pilar, being quite black. The crinal hair in these races is of various texture and growth, from the long and lank hair of the native Americans, to the fine crisp hair of the African Negroes. But varieties in the texture of hair will be considered LEUCOUS VARIETY. 221 in a separate place; here we have only to speak of its colour. The hue of the skin varies in the black-haired races from a deep black, which is the colour of some African nations, toa much lighter, or more dilute shade. The dusky hue is com- bined in some nations with a mixture of red, in others with a tinge of yellow. The former are the copper-coloured nations of America and Africa; the latter the olive-coloured races of Asia. In the deepness or intensity of colour we find every shade or gradation, from the black of the Senegal Negro, or the deep olive, and almost jet-black of the Malabars and some other nations of India, to the light olive of the northern Hindoos. From that we still trace every variety of shade among the Persians and other Asiatics, to the complexion of the swarthy Spaniards, or of black-haired Europeans in general. 2. Of the Leucous variety. Examples of the leucous variety have been noticed in almost all countries. Either they more frequently occur in dark-coloured races and in hot countries, or they have been more the objects of attention, when appearing under such circumstances. In Europe they are by no means infrequent ; Blumenbach says he has seen sixteen instances in Germany. European albinos present some variety of appearance. Their hair is sometimes as white as that of old age, and not differing in texture from that of the ordinary kind; at others it is of a very pale yellowish white, or cream colour, flowing in long straight bundles of soft, silky texture, which Blumenbach with reason compares to goat’s wool. I have seen examples of both, in persons born in Europe, of genuine European descent. Those African albinos, who are termed white negroes, have coarse woolly hair of a white colour. The red iris has often a tremulous motion, and the eye is very sensible to light. The skin in European albinos is like that of the very fair sanguine complexion. 222 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, The following are descriptions of this variety, as it appears in different races, Among the copper-coloured native Americans, in the Isth- mus of Darien, it is, according to an intelligent eye-witness, remarkably frequent. The albinos or blafards of Darien, are thus described by Wafer :— “These persons are white, and there are of them of both Sexes; yet there are but few of them in comparison of the Copper-coloured, possibly but one to two or three hundred. They differ from the other Indians chiefly in respect of colour, though not in that only. Their skins are not of such a white as those of fair people among Europeans, with some tincture of a blush or sanguine complexion; yet neither is it like that of our paler people, but it is rather a milk-white, lighter than the colour of any European, and much like that of a white horse. “ For there is this further remarkable in them, that their bodies are beset all over, more or less, witha fine, short, milk- white down; but they are not so thick-set with this down, especially on the cheeks and forehead, but that the skin ap- pears distinct from it. Their eye-brows are milk-white also, and so is the hair of their heads, and very fine withal, about the length of six or eight inches, and inclining to a curl. “ They are not so big as the other Indians, and their eye- lids bend, and open in an oblong figure, pointing downwards at the corners, and forming an arch, or figure of a crescent, with the points downwards. From hence, and from their seeing so clear as they do in a moonshiny night, we used to call them moon-eyed. For they see not well in the sun, poring in the clearest day, their eyes being weak, and running with water, if the sun shines towards them; so that in the day-time they care not to go abroad, unless it be a cloudy dark day. Besides, they are a weak people in comparison of the others, and not very fit for hunting and other laborious exercises, nor do they delight in any such; but notwithstand- ing, their being thus sluggish and dull in the day-time, yet when moonshiny nights come, they are all life and activity, running abroad in the woods, and skipping about like wild Saas eaten saetetresetmmeseney SSS —— — LEUCOUS VARIETY. 923 bucks, and running as fast by moon-light, even in the gloom and shade of the woods, as the other Indians by day; being as nimble as they, though not so strong and lusty. The copper-coloured Indians seem not to respect them so much as those of their own complexion, looking on them as some- thing monstrous. They are not a distinct race by themselves, but now and then one is bred of a copper-coloured father and mother, and I have seen of less than a year old of this sort.”* Albinos have been observed in many islands of the Indian and great southern ocean. The following is the description of them in Otaheite, by Captain Cook.—“ During our stay on this island we saw about five or six persons whose skins were of a dead white, like the nose of a white horse; with white hair, beard, eye-brows and eye-lashes; red tender eyes, @ short sight, and scurfy skins, covered with a kind of white down. We found that no two of these belonged to the same family.”+ An individual of this class was seen on the same island by Mr. Bankes and Dr. Solander, and described by them: “ his skin was of a dead white, without the least ap- pearance of what is called complexion, though some parts of his body were in a small degree less white than others: his hair, eye-brows, and beard were as white as his skin; his eyes appeared as if they were blood-shot, and he seemed to be very short-sighted.’’} In Java, Ceylon, and other neighbouring islands, albinos are well known. Here, and on the continent of India, they , are termed “Chakrelas, or Kakkerlakken,” that is, cock- roaches. Dubois has thus described the albino variety, as it appears among the Hindoos.—“ It is no uncommon thing to meet with a class of persons among the Hindoos, who are born with a skin much whiter even than that of Europeans. But it is easy to perceive that it is not a natural colour, be- cause their hair is altogether as white as their skin ; and in general their whole exterior appearance is unnatural. They have this distinguishing peculiarity, that they cannot endure * Watfer’s account of the Isthmus of Darien, 1699, also Phil. Transact. 1765. + Cook, apud Hawkesworth, ii. 188. t Ibidem, p. 200. 224 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. the light of the broad day. While the sun is up, they cannot look steadily at any object; and during all that time they contract their eye-lids so as apparently to exclude vision. But in return, they are gifted with the faculty of seeing almost every object in the dark.” He adds, “that these individuals are termed by Europeans in India ‘chakrelas.’ By the Hindoos they are looked upon with horror, and their bodies, like those of persons labouring under cutaneous diseases, are cast upon a dunghill, or left to be eaten by wild beasts.” Among the black races of Africa white Negroes are fre- quently born; they are looked upon as great curiosities, and are often collected by the black kings, and kept as objects of wonder or ornament. Many of these white Negroes, though as I believe not all of them, are albinos. The following are some examples described by eye-witnesses :— Dr. Winterbottom has described, from his own observation, several instances of this variety occurring in Negro families at Sierra Leone and other neighbouring parts of the African coast. The following are selected from them :— “ At Malacurry, in the Soosoo country, I saw a girl about nine or ten years of age, born of black parents: her skin was of an unpleasant dead-looking white, and pretty smooth, though beginning to assume a cracked appearance, owing to the action of the sun. There was a man of the same colour belonging to this town, but he was then absent.” “ At Wankapong, I saw a young man about eighteen years of age, tall and well-formed, whose father had been a white Negro. This young man’s mother, three brothers, and two of, his sisters were black, but one sister was white like himself. His skin, from exposure to the sun, had acquired a slight reddish tinge, and was covered with a great number of black or brown spots, like freckles, some of which were nearly as large as asixpence. It was much rougher and harsher to the touch than the woman’s, feeling almost like the skin of a lizard. He complained very much of the action of the sun,, which cracked his skin, and sometimes occasioned it to bleed. He was also peculiarly sensible to the bites of insects. His hair was of a dirty white, and woolly ; the iris of the eye was of a reddish brown colour, and his sight very weak. WHITE NEGROES OF BUFFON. 225 _ © At Bottoe, on the Kroo coast, I saw another appearance of this kind in a man about twenty-five years of age. His parents were black, and had several black children, but they had two white ones, himself and a sister. The man was very tall, rather robust, but awkward in his gait. His skin was nearly of a cream colour, and freckled from exposure, but so very much unlike that of European sailors, who expose them- selves without shirts to the sun, that the difference was very striking at some distance. His eyes were of a reddish co- lour, and very weak, appearing red round the edges of the tarsi, and constantly winking in a strong light. His skin was uncommonly coarse in its texture, and the sebaceous glands were very large and numerous. He was married to a black woman, but had no children ; his sister, whom | did not see, was married toa black man, and had two black children.” Buffon has given a minute description of a white Negress, born in the island of Dominica, of black parents, who were natives of Africa. She was not quite five feet high, and well proportioned in her body, but not exactly so with respect to her head, which was too large in proportion to the trunk. The author adds, “ Tous les traits de la face sont absolument semblables A ceux des Négresses noires, seulement les oreilles sont placées trop haut.” “Les lévres et la bouche, quoique conformées comme dans les Négresses noires, paroissent sin- culiéres par le défaut de couleur: elles sont aussi blanches que le reste de la peau, et sans aucune apparence de rouge: en général la couleur de la peau, tant du visage que du corps , de cette Négresse blanche, est d’un blanc de suif qu’on n’au- roit pas encore épure, ou si l’on veut d’un blanc mat blafard et inanimé; cependant on voyoit une teinte légére d’incarnat sur les joues lorsqu’elle s’approchoit du feu, ou qu'elle étoit | __. rémuée par la honte qu’elle avoit de se faire voir nue.” “Les | | mamelons étoitent d’un rouge assez vermeil.” “ Sa téte étoit — bien garnie de laine: cette laine est tres touffue et frisée, na- turellement blanche a la racine et roussitre a l’extremité.” “ Les yeux sont remarquables par un mouvement trés sin- vulier :” “ ses paupicres n’étaient pas plus amples qu’elles le sont ordinairement; elle pouvoit les fermer, mais non pas les ouvrir au point de découvrir le dessus de la prunelle, en sorte . 4 pa ee — aE Se . TS 226 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. que le muscle élévateur paroit avoir moins de force dans ces Neégres blancs que dans les autres hommes : ainsi les paupie- Tes sont toujours a demi fermées. Le blanc de l’ceil est assez pur, la pupille et la prunelle assez larges. L/iris est com- posé 4 Vinterieur, autour de la pupile, d’un cercle jaune in- determiné ; ensuite d’un cercle mélé de jaune et de bleu, et enfin d’un cercle d’un bleu foncé, qui forme la circonférence de la prunelle: en sorte que vus d’un peu loin, les yeux pa- roissent d’un bleu sombre.” Many other particulars are mi- nutely detailed in the original description of this individual, to which I must refer the reader; but the following observation deserves particular notice. “Au reste, les personnes, auxqu’elles cette Negresse blanche appartient, m’ont assuré que presque tous les Négres males et fémelles qu’on a tirés de la Céte d’Or en Afrique pour les fles de la Martinique, de la Guadaloupe, et de la Dominique, ont produit dans ces iles des Négres blancs, non pas en grand nombre, mais un sur 6 ou 7 enfans.”’* In this instance the iris was coloured, and not devoid of the pigment, as it is in perfect specimens of the albino va- riety. This is an approximation towards the character of the flaxen-haired and blue-eyed variety of mankind, 3. The Xanthous variety. The xanthous variety is a term which I adopt to include all _those individuals who have light brown, auburn, yellow or red hair. With hair of these colours is almost always com- bined a fair complexion, which on exposure to heat acquires not a black or deep brown hue, but more or less of a red tint : and this is not merely the effect of the blood in the cutaneous vessels, but of a peculiar secretion which imparts its colour to theskin. The pigment of the eye is in this variety of a light colour; a light grey, or azure blue, is the most common hue: but it has sometimes various shades of yellow or brown, and occasionally a green-yellow tint. This variety passes insensibly into the others ; it would be * See Buffon. Supplement, tom. iy. p. 559 et seqq. XANTHOUS VARIETY. 907 difficult to determine whether some individuals belong to it or to the melanous: and again, the characters of the xanthous variety are in some instances intermixed with, or passing into those of the albino by intermediate gradations. There is something in the temperately cold regions of Eu- rope and Asia, which favours the production of this variety ; for it is in these countries chiefly that it prevails, and is In some instances the general character of whole tribes. From this fact we must conclude that there is in the climate of these countries some quality congenial to the constitution of body connected with this complexion. Either it springs up more frequently there than elsewhere, or when it casually appears, multiplies and is propagated more extensively. It is not un- common to find it prevailing in high mountainous tracts, while in the neighbouring low grounds it gives place to the melanic variety. But this is not the place to consider the connexion of varieties with local or other causes. The xanthous variety springs up out of every melancomous tribe. Sometimes it forms the majority of a tribe or nation, though more frequently only a part. The Jews, like the Arabs, are generally a black-haired race, but I have seen many Jews with light hair and beards, and blue eyes, and in some parts of Germany, the Jews are remarkable for red, bushy beards. The Greeks were probably, in Homer’s time as now, in gene- ral of the melanous variety ; yet it appears from the use of such epithets as muppoc EavBo¢ and yAavkomce, that the xan- thous complexion was not unfrequent. Among the Romans a grey-eyed child was considered as something disgusting, perhaps bordering on the monstrous, which indicates that it was rare.* The Germans had generally blue eyes, and red or yellow hair in the time of Tacitus ;} but this is by no means the fact in the present day. Among the genuine Celts * Lucretius, lib. iv. + I suspect that the remark on the complexion of the ancient Germans has never applied to the Suevi, the ancestors of the Allemannic Germans, but to the Gothic, Scandinavian, and Anglian races ; who are very distinguishable from the eastern Germans, in the present time, by their greater fairness of complexion, and more Tegular and softer features. See Dr. E. Clarke’s Travels in Scandinavia, part. i. chap. 1. oy ee 228 ANALOGIGAL INVESTIGATION. there were at least some melanous tribes, as the Silures ; yet Strabo repeatedly assures us, that the Celte of the con- tinent, viz. of Gaul, were nearly as yellow-haired as the Ger- mans. Many of the Russians are light-haired, though the mass of the Slavonian nation is of the melanous variety. And among the ancient Scythians, Herodotus informs us that the tribe termed Budini were xanthous. The Laplanders are ge- nerally of the dark complexion; but the Finns, Mordouines, and Votiaks, who are allied to them in race, are xanthous. Many of the northern Tungusians or Mantschu Tartars are of the xanthous variety, though the majority of this nation are black-haired. Even among the Kalmuks and Bouriets, as Pallas informs us, the xanthous variety springs up. The same variety appears among the South Sea Islanders, the aborigines of America, and in many other nations. The xanthous variety appears not only in those melanoco- mous races which are of less swarthy shade, such as the na- tions already mentioned; among the ancient Egyptians it seems to have arisen occasionally; Diodorus says, that red- haired persons were not frequent in the native stock of Egypt, but light brown hair has been found in Egyptian mummies. And among the Negro races of Africa, both in their native climate, and in other places to which they have been trans- ported, the xanthous variety frequently appears. This fact requires some further details. I have already cited some accounts of the appearance of white Negroes. The instances I have selected were examples of the leucous variety. It seems to be generally believed that all white Negroes are albinos; this appears to be however by no means the fact. On the contrary, I find that a consi- derable proportion, perhaps the greater number of the indi- viduals termed white Negroes, are either genuine examples of the xanthous variety, or resemble that variety in some respects, and appear to exhibit gradations between the albino and the xanthous. Some of them have all the characteristics of the xanthous. Dr. Winterbottom mentions what he regarded as an inter- mediate step between the common African complexion and the albino. It was the instance of a man, who though bor® XANTHOUS NEGROES. 229 of Negro parents, was of a mulatto complexion, and much freckled, and who had strong red hair, disposed in very small wiry curls over his whole head.* . Marcgraf saw in the Brazils, an African woman, whose skin and hair were red.+- Dr. Winterbottom remarks, that when the beard of a Negro has been exposed during the dry season to a hot sun, the ends of the hair frequently acquire a reddish or burnt appearance. This is nothing extraordinary ; but he adds, that sometimes this is the natural colour of the hair, independently of expo- sure tothe sun. “ Ina family at Free Town, in Sierra Leone, the children had red or copper-coloured skins, and woolly hair of a dirty red or singed colour.” “ At the same place,” he adds, “ I saw a mulatto man, belonging to the Kroo coast, whose hair was a pale red, such as occurs in England, and disposed in very small curls over his head ; his skin was very much freckled, his eyes were black, and not affected by the glare of sun-light.” This man was evidently of intermediate variety between the Negro and the xanthous. Blue eyes, or brown eyes, appear to be not uncommon, as well as red or yellow hair, in what are termed white Ne- groes. Dr. Winterbottom describes two white Negroes in the Mandingo country, from the testimony of an eye-witness. “ In both of these the iris was of a light blue colour, the eyes were very weak, and unable to support the light of the sun ; the hair was woolly and white,”’ the skin was rough, and had red patches here and there. He describes, from his own ob- servation, a white Negro woman whom he saw at Dumboya, near Wankapong in the Soosoo country, whose parents, bro- thers and sisters, were all black. She had borne a black child to a black man, so that no doubt could be entertained of her being of genuine Negro origin. He says that her skin was coarse, dry, and wrinkled. In parts exposed to the sun it was of a reddish tinge, or cream-colour; but in parts less exposed, of a dirty white. Large black spots like freckles, produced by the sun, were scattered over it, These are fre- * Winterbottom, ii. p. 170. + Marcgraf, Tractatus Brasilia, p- 12. Blumenbach, p. 182. 230 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. quent effects of heat on a skin not fitted by nature, as that of the black Negro is, to endure it. The hair of this woman “was of a dirty yellowish white, but woolly and crisp. Her eyes were of a light bluish colour, very weak, constantly twinkling. The eye-brows and eye-lashes were nearly white.” “Twas informed,” says Dr. Winterbottom, “ that a boy of a similar appearance resided in the neighbourhood.” The skin is sometimes quite healthy in appearance, and the complexion ruddy, like that of Europeans of sanguine tem- perament. Pallas has minutely described a white Negress seen by him in London, in 1761. She was born of Negro parents in Jamaica, and was sixteen years of age. She was of small stature, fair complexion, with ruddy lips and cheeks. The iris of her eye was neither red nor blue, but of brownish grey colour: her eyes were weak, and impatient of a bright light, which was said to have arisen chiefly from the small- pox. Her hair, which was quite woolly of texture, was of a light yellow colour, or what the French call “blond.”* This girl had the Negro features strongly marked, and had every appearance of genuine Negro descent. A white Negro is described by Dr. Goldsmith, who saw him exhibited in London. He says, “upon examining this Negro I found the colour to be exactly like that of a European ; the visage white and ruddy, and the lips of the proper red- ness.” “ However,”’ he adds, “ there were sufficient marks to convince me of his descent. The hair was white and woolly, and very unlike any thing I had seen before. The iris of the eye was yellow, inclining to red; the nose was flat, exactly resembling that of a Negro, and the lips thick and promi- nent.’”’+ In this example the characters of the complexion seem to have been intermediate between those of the albino and the xanthous. The same remark may be applied to the following instance, described by Dr. Winterbottom. He says, “in the colony of Sierra Leone, there is a girl about nine or ten years of age, born in Nova Scotia, who has all the features of a * Pallas. Nove Species Quadrupedum, pp- 10—11. + Goldsmith’s History of the Earth and of Animated Nature, vol. ii. p. 241. XANTHOUS NEGROES. 931 Negro, with woolly hair, of a dirty white colour, and whose skin equals in whiteness that of a European; without any thing disagreeable in its appearance OF texture. Her eyes are between a red and light hazel colour, but not much af- fected by the light.’”’ In this instance, however, it must not be omitted, that the parents were both mulattos. White Negroes are by no means unfrequent in Congo, and we have accounts from early voyagers, stating, that individu- als of that description were kept as objects of curiosity at the court of the king, or emperor. They are generally des- cribed as having a white skin, with grey eyes, and red or yel- low hair. A more particular account of them will be given in the sequel.* If the hair alone were found to vary in the Negro, this would amount only to a singular anomaly, and as such it seems to have been regarded by Blumenbach : but when we find this character combined with blue, grey, or brownish- grey eyes, and a white ruddy skin, it must be allowed that the individuals presenting these appearances are examples of the xanthous variety, and of something approaching to the sanguine complexion, as it is termed among Europeans, though springing up in a Negro race. It appears that some of those called white Negroes are of this description, while others are albinos, and in not a few the peculiarities seem in- termediate between these two varieties. ® The fact of red hair occurring among the Negroes of Congo has been alluded to by Blumenbach, who observes in confirmation of it, that he has seen many Mulattos with red hair; and says that Groben has made the same remark of the Mulattos of Sierra Leone. + Arthaud has made some remarks which were sufficient to show that all white Negroes are not albinos. He says, “‘ Toutes les observations prouvent que les Négres blancs ne différent des autres que par la couleur: que leur constitution n’est pas aussi robuste que eelle des autres Négres, sans Gtre aussi faibles ni aussi dégradée qu’on V’a dit; qu’ils ont quelque fois de la carnation, et les lévres verme- illes: que leur téte est converte d’une laine rousse, et qu’ils ont des poils lanugineux pas aussi Journal na de la me bonne que chez les autres homme: que Piris est diversement coloré, ete. de Physique, October, 1789; cited by Blumenbach. See French edition of his work, entitled, “ De VUnité du Genre Humain, et de ses Variétés, p- 2753" and a note by the Translator, p. 277- me couleur, sur les autres parties du corps; que leur vue n’est 232 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION, Mr. Burchell has given a description of an individual of the xanthous variety born from the race of black Kaffers in South Africa. The parents, who were genuine Kaffers, had lived as servants at Van Heerden’s farm, and had left their child, a female, when an infant, and returned into their own country. When Mr. Burchell saw her she was sixteen years old, stout, and of short stature. “The colour of her skin was that of the fairest European, or more correctly described, it was more pink and white.” “ Perhaps it will be more in- telligible to a painter,” says Mr. Burchell, “if I describe it as being compounded of a pure white, and a moderate tint of vermilion, without the admixture of any other colour. Her hair was of the same woolly nature as that of her country- women, but it was of a singularly pale hue, nearly approach- ing to the colour which is termed flaxen. Her features, how- ever, were those of a genuine Kaffer.”’ In all races of dark complexion the xanthous variety occa- sionally springs up. Instances appear now and then among the natives of the islands in the Pacific. In some of these - groupes, as in the Marquesas, brown hair and light com- plexions are frequent; in others, they are rare phenomena. In the isle of Otaha, Dr. Forster informs us, that he saw one man who had a complexion lighter than all the rest. He had ted hair. In these islands the xanthous, or fair individuals, have never been confounded with the albinos or leucous. Srorion I1—Of the Structure of the Parts on which the variety of Colour depends. Paragraph 1.—Of the Eye. The colour of the eye is well known to depend upon the pigment lining internally the choroid tunic, and imparting its peculiar hue, which is visible through the other transparent coats. The pigment is a peculiar secretion from the vessels of the choroid. In the albino and the leucous variety in general it is wanting, and the eye has a red or rose-colour, arising as [ have before observed from the blood which cir- VARIETY OF COLOUR. 933 culates in the vessels of the choroid and iris. The pigment has been known to make its appearance, as I have said, though originally wanting; and thus an actual transition has displayed itself, from the xanthous and the leucous variety, which in the general state of the constitution approximate to each other, both being connected with that habit of body termed the sanguine temperament. Paragraph 2.—Of the Skin. The variety of hue which the skin displays in different races of men depends entirely on substances external to the cutis vera, or true skin. This outer covering or case of the whole body, which the Germans term haut or hide, and French anatomical writers corion or corium, is nearly of the same consistence and of the same white colour, in all human races. External to the cutis there are, as it is well known, cer- tain layers of a substance various in consistence, and scarcely organized; in these, which may be regarded as secretions from the vessels of the cutis, is the seat of colour. They are commonly designated the rete mucosum of Malpighi and the cuticle, but their anatomical structure is by no means com- pletely known, although many authors of great celebrity have occupied themselves in this investigation. Among these Albinus,* Camper,+ Haller, Soemmerring,§ Blumenbach, || Lawrence,§ have directed their attention particularly to the anatomical state of these parts, as giving rise to the peculiar hue of the dark races of men: and if the subject has not been fully elucidated, it must be concluded that some par- ticular obscurity and difficulty lies in the way. It appears from various observations, that there is some difference in the cuticle of the Negro and that of the Euro- pean. This substance is well known to be of various thick- * Albini Dissert. secunda de sede et causa coloris Hthiopum et ceterorum homi- num, &c. Leyd. Bat. Liaw e + Rede tiber der Ursprung und Farbe der Schwarzen, 1764. + Elem. Physiologie. T. 5. § Soemmerring uber die Korperliche Verschiedenheit des Negers, u. S- W- || Blumenbach de Gen, Hum. Var. Nat. “| Lawrence’s Lectures on the Nat. Hist. of Man. 234 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. nesses in different parts of the body. In the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet it is thick, and this is one reason why these parts are whiter in the Negro than other parts of the body. It is said to be of somewhat coarser texture in the Negro than in the white man.* In the dead body it is hard and dry; in the living it has a somewhat oily surface, especially in the Negro, whence the peculiar velvet- like softness of the skin in the African races. Haller observed that the cuticle consists in the Negro, in a healthy state, of two distinct and separate lamelle.+ Soem- merring could never distinguish this double fold of the cuticle in those parts of the body where it is usually thin. On the other hand he declares, that he once found the cuticle distinctly separable into two folds n an European female, of which he preserved the preparation in his museum. The cuticle itself is besides not quite so white in the Negro as in Europeans, according to Soemmerring’s observations. It has especially on some parts of the body a brown and darker hue in the former ; yet it is not in this part of the integument which is more easily examined, since it may be separated from the body by vesication, that the chief peculiarity of complexion consists. _ The dark colour of the Negro principally depends on the substance interposed between the true skin and the scarf- skin. This substance presents different appearances, and it is described sometimes as a sort of organized net-work or reticular tissue, at others as a mere mucous or slimy layer; and it is odd that these somewhat incompatible ideas are both conveyed by the term rete mucosum, given to the intermediate portion of the skin by its original discoverer, ~ Malpighi. The cuticle is adherent in the fresh state of parts to the rete mucosum, and both together are easily separable from the cuticle, but it is very difficult to detach the cuticle alone from the subjacent rete and true skin. On examining this middle membrane when either of its coverings is removed, with a magnifying glass it has, as Soemmerring observes, the * Soemmerring, p. 45. + Prin. lin Phys. 424. Soemmerring, 1. c. VARIETY OF COLOUR. 235 appearance of an irregular net-work. “ This mucous net- _ work,” says the same writer, “ constitutes, as long as it is fresh and unimpaired, a sort of third skin difficultly separable from the outer covering, but more easily from the cutis, and evidently in some places thicker than the cuticle itself. It cannot however without much trouble be shown as a par- ticular detached skin, or as a continuous and self-subsisting membrane, at least in any considerable portions, and I could only succeed in this attempt at the scrotum. It then ap- pears lighter on the cuticular than on the interior surface. When putrefaction however takes place, the skins are easily separated, and then the Malpighian reticle, or middle mem- brane, dissolves into a soft slimy mucus, which may easily be washed away like an unctuous pigment from the cutis, or scarf-skin. The colouring matter sinks in water, and settlmg forms again a layer, somewhat resembling a membrane. Its appearance in this state is compared by Mr. Lawrence with that of the pigment of the eye, to which it bears a striking analogy, and probably almost an identity of nature. Thus it appears that the chief seat of colour in the black men is an unorganized extra-vascular substance, falsely termed a membrane or skin, in fact nothing more than a peculiar matter secreted from the leatis. Hence we need not be sur- prised when we find Dr. Gordon asserting, that after trying all the usual means, he has never been able to succeed in discovering such a membrance in white persons. It appears from pathological and other facts, that the pre- sence and absence of the coloured pigment depends on modi- fications in the state of the skin, which may take place even after the birth of the individual. It is no uncommon thing to see white persons with black or dark-coloured patches on the skin of various extent. Many females have a dark tinge ex- tending over a considerable space round the nipple during pregnancy, which disappears in a great measure afterwards. This is unexplained by any pathological principle ; but the change of colour which happens at such periods, varies in its degree of intensity as well as in the space occupied by it; and in some individuals it has been known to cover the ab- 236 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. domen,* and even to affect the whole body. Bomare, in an article cited by Blumenbach, mentions a French peasant whose abdomen became entirely black during each preg- nancy ;+ and Camper has given a particular account of a female of rank, who had naturally a white skin and a beau- tiful complexion, but whenever she became pregnant, began immediately to grow brown :—“ Vers la fin de sa grossesse,” he says, “elle dévenait une veritable Négresse.”+ After de- livery the dark colour gradually disappeared. Dr. Strack, in a work on intermittent fevers, whichis cited by Soemmerring, mentions the case of a man who became, after a fever, as black as a Negro. Blumenbach says, that he possesses a part of the skin taken from the abdomen of a beggar, which is as black as the skin of an African. Haller, Ludwig, and Albinus have recorded similar instances. These facts are quite sufficient to prove that independently of the influence of solar heat, a physical change may take place, connected with the state of the constitution, which imparts a black hue to the skin, similar to that which is natural to the African race. This colouring matter is also liable to disappear by ab- sorption in skins to which it is natural. Instances are not untrequently observed in different countries in which Negroes gradually lose their black colour, and become as white as Europeans. An example of this kind is recorded in the fifty-seventh volume of the Philosophical Transactions. Klin- kosch mentioned the case of a Negro, who lost his blackness and became yellow,§ and Caldani declares that a Negro who was a shoemaker at Venice, was black when brought during infancy to that city, but became gradually lighter, and had the hue of a person labouring under a slight jaundice.| The black substance is capable, like other products of vascular cutis, of being regenerated when partially destroyed. * Soemmerring, loc. c. + Camper, Kleine Schriften, Soemmerring, 47. + “Une autre,” says the learned writer, “a toujours la jambe gauche noire dans cette circonstance.”” Si asa de vera natura Cuticule Prag. 1775. Soemmerring, 1. c. || Caldani Institut. Physiol. p. 170, VARIETY OF COLOUR. Vad The contrary has been asserted, and it has often been said that cicatrices in Negroes remain always white ; an assertion which has been ascertained by Mr. Lawrence* to be alto- gether without ground. From these facts it appears evident that a substance analo- gous to the mucous pellicle, which covers the cutis in the Negro, is liable to be secreted occasionally in white persons, and that in the Negro this matter is capable of being absorbed. It is therefore a safe inference that a substance exists m Europeans, although in white races the rete mucosum has never been demonstrated,+ which is analogous to it in its nature. As the cutis is always white, and the cuticle mor- ganic and susceptible of little variety in its state, there must be something interposed between the two on which colora- tion depends, and this is probably analogous to the cutaneous pigment in the African. It cannot be doubted that the other dark-haired races of men have the same colouring membrane, if so it ought to be termed, as the Negro. Albinos born in such races are, as we have seen, white; if then the cutis and epidermis are as in other individuals, their whiteness must depend on the want of the rete mucosum, as it is known to do in white Negroes, or albinos of African descent. Paragraph 3.—Of the Hair. The hairs issue from bulbs or roots, situated in the cellular web under the cutis. ‘These bulbs have an external vascular root, which is probably the source whence the hair derives its nourishment; there is besides a membranous tube, or sheath, which envelopes the hair, and passes out with it through the different layers of the skin. The hair itself con- sists of an external horny covering, and an internal or vas- cular part, termed medulla, or pith. The pith or medulla * Lawrence’s Lectures, l. c. 7 + Mr. Lawrence says that there is in the Hunterian collection, a portion of white skin with the cuticle turned down; a small portion of thin transparent pellicle has been subsequently separated from the cutis. In the instance mentioned by Soemmerring of the cuticle separable into two thin layers, it is not impro- bable that the interior pellicle is the representative of the middle skin. 238 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. appears to be endowed with a species of vitality, or organi- zation susceptible of vascular action, since it undergoes cer- tain changes in disease, which cannot be accounted for on any other principle. In the plica polonica, it is said, that the hairs bleed when cut: it is well known that they become white in old age, and grief and anxiety have been observed to render them white in a very short space of time. Bichat affirms that he has seen at least five or six examples in which such a change of colour has taken place in less than eight days: in one person, known to the same writer, the hair be- came almost entirely white in the space of one night, the effect of some sudden and poignant grief. It is doubtless in this vascular medulla, whatever its structure may be, that the colour of the hair resides. The outer covering is of a substance analogous to the cuticle, the nails, and the horns of animals. The colouring principle is manifestly of a common nature in the skin and hair. It has been asserted by a French anatomist,* who has displayed much ingenuity in his re- searches into this subject, that the colouring matter of the Skin is produced and secreted in the bulbs of the hair. This opinion was formed from an attentive observation of the phenomena which ensue after the black pigment, in the skin of the Negro, has been destroyed by the application of blis- ters, or by any means producing vesication. In the process of restoration the black matter first begins to reappear at the pores through which the hairs make their exit. From these pores, as from centres, it is gradually seen ramifying in dif- ferent directions, and insensibly proceeds to cover the whole space which had lost its colour. The same opinion receives some support from the fact, that parts which are most com- pletely devoid of hair, as the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands, are in the Negro and other black men, of a | much lighter shade than the rest of the body. In spotted Negroes, or Negroes who have white spots on parts of their bodies, it has been remarked that the hairs issuing from the white patches, are themselves perfectly white. Still it is * Récherches sur l’Organisation de la Peau, &c. par M. Gaultier. VARIETY OF COLOUR. 239 scarcely possible that the bulbs can be the only seat of the secretion of this colouring matter, for the skin of the Negro is occasionally black in some parts which are quite destitute of hair, as on the inside of the lips. The secreting fabric, whence issues the colouring matter, is apparently spread in a certain degree over the whole cutis. Whatever conclusion may be the true one on some of these points, it is undoubted that a close connexion exists between the colouring principle in both of these parts. For the sake of facilitating comparison, I shall divide the hair into crinal and pilar, terming crinal that of the head, beard, &c., and pilar that which grows upon the trunk, par- — ticularly on the breast and on the limbs. The manes and tails of horses, and other animals, are analogous to the crinal hair of mankind, and the hair which is generally spread over their bodies is analogous to the pjlar. NOTE ON SECTION I. AND II. From what has been said of the seat and cause of variety in complexion, it must be apparent, that in the instances before described, a light colour of the skin and eyes makes its ap- pearance in dark races ; the choroid of the eye being coloured as in fair Europeans, and the hair yellow or red, are examples of the xanthous and not of the leucous variety, since the pigment is present which gives a hue to the eyes in persons of the former class, as well as the colouring matter in the hair. It must be apparent to the reader, that as the colour of the skin passes by a gradual transition from the deeper black to a light shade, and even to a white or colourless state, we can- not well divide human races into particular classes by refer- ence to the complexion of their skins. The colour of the eye displays more strongly marked divisions, but, on the whole, the hair chiefly, but in conjunction with other characters, af- fords the most convenient principle of arrangement. : 240 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Section II].—Of variety in the Colour of some other parts. It had been asserted by some anatomists before the time of Soemmerring, particularly by the elder Meckel, and Wagler of Brunswick, that the brain of the Negro is of darker colour than that of white men. Meckel thought this to be the case particularly with the white or medullary portion. A different opinion was that of Walter, who thought that the cineritious portion was somewhat darker. Soemmerring endeavoured to ascertain the truth in this dis- puted question, and dissected carefully the brains of three Ne- groes in the presence of several other anatomists, viz. Professor Weichman, Professor Schumlanski of Petersburg, and Bill- mann of -Cassel, taking care to compare on the spot the fresh brain of a European. The result was that he could not dis- cover either the cineritious or medullary substance to be in the least darker than in Europeans. He even thought the colour rather paler in the African than in the European brain. Camper had made the same observation in the examination of four brains of Negroes; and Professor Bonn of Amsterdam, had declared that he could not perceive the Negro brain to be of darker hue than that of white men, though he thought the pia mater of a deeper tinge. On the whole we must con- clude, as Soemmerring observes, that there is no remarkable difference as to colour in the brains of Negroes and Euro- peans. CHAPTER IV. THE SAME INQUIRY CONTINUED.—VARIETIES OF FORM AND STRUCTURE. SECTION I.—General Remarks—Instances of the origina- tion of Varieties—Of the seven principal Varieties of Mankind. Diversitizs in form, in the shape of the body and the pro- portion of the trunk and limbs, as well as in the figure and structure of particular parts, exist in almost every species. We must take a brief survey of the phenomena of diversity observed in the human form, and then proceed to compare these phenomena with those which display themselves in other tribes. A few previous remarks on the origination of such varieties will assist us in formmg some conception of their nature. On extending our view over the organized world, we per- ceive no other quality so generally characterising the works of nature as an infinite and inexhaustible variety. Human art aims at precise uniformity in its productions, while Na- ture seems, if we may be allowed the expression, to be every- where satisfied with resemblance. Her purposes are attained by displaying that sort of general analogy which is still com- patible with individual variety. It is most probable, that no two individuals were ever produced in any species with com- plete and perfect sameness of form and structure. This cha- racter in all the productions of nature was remarked by Lu- cretius, whose poetical imagination has led him in this in- stance, in spite of his atheistical philosophy, to the conception of a final cause. R A ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Preterra genus humanum, muteque natantes, Squammigerfim pecudes, et lata armenta, fereeque, Et varie volucres, letantia que loca aquarum Concelebrant, circum ripas fonteisque lacusque, Et que pervolgant nemora avia pervolitantes ; Horum unum quodvis generatim sumere perge ; Invenies tamen inter se distare figuris. Nec ratione alia proles cognoscere matrem, Nec mater possit prolem ; quod posse videmus, Nec minus, atque homines, inter se nota cluere, And again he applies the same observation to other depart- ments of nature. Postremo quodvis frumentum, non tamen omne Quodque in suo genere inter se simile esse videbis, Quin intercurrat quedam distantia formis. Concharumque genus simili ratione videmus Pingere telluris gremium qua mollibus undis Littoris incurvi bibulam pavit equor arenam. The variety in form, prevalent among all organized produc- tions of nature, is found to subsist between individual beings of whatever species, even when they are the offspring of the same parents. Another circumstance equally remarkable is the tendency which exists in almost every tribe, whether of animals or of plants, to transmit to their offspring, and to perpetuate in their race all individual peculiarities which may thus have taken their rise. These two general facts in the economy of organized beings lay a foundation for the exist- ence of diversified races, originating from the same primitive stock and within the limits of identical species i and by no- ticmg the phenomena which associate themselves with both of these principles, we appear to make some progress towards an explanation of the varieties which distinguish from each other different races of men. But there is a question which remains to be answered, and that one of no very easy solu- tion, before we can determine to regard this or that instance of diversity as an example referrible to variety thus originating and perpetuated. This question is, what is the extent of de- viation in structure, or what are the limits within which it is restricted. That there are such limits can hardly be ques- tioned, since without these, one species would be for ever VARIETIES OF FORM. 243 passing into another—no tribes of animals or of plants would be defined and characterised and like only to itself. ( Even ~ those physiologists who contend for what is termed the indefinite nature of species, admit that they have limits at present and under ordinary circumstances. Whatever di- versities take place happen without breaking in upon the cha- racteristic type of the species. This is transmitted from ge- neration to generation: goats produce goats, and sheep, sheep. But the new characters of organization, which spring up as it were casually in the breed, and which, owing to our igno- rance of the circumstances of their rise, are termed acci- dental varieties, are transmitted perhaps with equal con- stancy. These remarks will be illustrated by an account of some particular instances of variety in structure, springing up for the first time in races of men and of animals, and per- petuated by hereditary transmission. A singular variety of sheep has appeared with a few years in New England, which furnishes an example of the origination of variety in form. The first ancestor of\ this breed was a male lamb, produced by an ewe of the*common description. This lamb was of singular structure, and his offspring in many instances had the same characters with him- self. These were shortness of the limbs, and greater length of the body, in proportion; whence this race of animals has been termed the otter breed. The joints also were longer, and their fore legs crooked. It has been found advantageous to propagate this variety, because the animal is unable to jump over fences. The following facts seem conclusive as to the permanency of the breed, and are very remarkable. I have heard but of one questionable case of a contrary na- v ture.” “ When an otter ewe is impregnated by a common ram, the increase resembles, wholly, either the ewe or the ram. The increase of a common ewe, impregnated by a ram of the new breed, follows entirely the one or the other, without blending any of the distinguishing and essential peculiarities of both. rR Q 244 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. “ Frequent instances have happened where common ewes have had twins by otter rams, when one exhibited the com- plete marks and features of the ewe, the other of the ram. The contrast has been rendered singularly striking when one short-legged, and one long-legged lamb, produced at a birth, have been seen sucking the dam at the same time.’’* Several instances may be adduced of variety in structure equally striking originating in the human kind, and in like manner propagated through many generations. The growth of supernumerary fingers or toes, and corres- ponding deficiencies, is a fact of this description. Mauper- tuis has mentioned this phenomenon; he assures us that there were two families in Germany, who have been distin- guished for several generations by six fingers on each hand, and the same number of toes on each foot. Jacob Ruhe, a surgeon of Berlin, was of one of these families, and marked by their peculiarities, which he inherited from his mother and grandmother. His mother had been married to a man of the ordinary make. She bore eight children, of whom four resembled the father; the other four partook of the mo- ther’s peculiarity. Jacob Ruhe transmitted his supernume- rary members to his posterity. Reaumur mentions a family which had a similar peculiarity. The grandfather had a supernumerary finger on each hand, and an additional toe oneach foot. His eldest son had three children with the same peculiarity. The second, who had the usual number of fingers, but in whom the thumb was very thick and appeared as if composed of two united toge- ther, had three daughters with the supernumerary members ; the third had the natural structure ; a daughter with a very thick thumb brought forth a son with the additional finger.t * Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, No. 2. Col. Humphries, ona New Breed of Sheep. Philos. Transact. 1813. Part. i. + This variety has frequently occurred. Instances are recorded among the a0- cients. Pliny says, “ Digiti quibusdam in manibus seni. C. Horatii ex patricia gente filias duas, ob id sedigitas appellatas, accepimus, et Volcatium sedigitum illus- trem in Poetica.” The six fingered variety springs up sometimes among the Negroes in the West India islands and the American states, Dr. Gibson, author of an inaugural disset- { }} J VARIETIES OF FORM. 245 | Sir Anthony Carlisle has given an account of a family, in which the supernumerary toes and fingers were transmitted through four generations. The first instance was a female, who had six fingers on each hand, and six toes on each foot. She had ten children like herself, and an eleventh, who only differed from her in having one hand naturally formed.* The following phenomenon is perhaps more curious than any of the foregoing. Ina family at Iver, the individuals for nine generations had perfect thumbs, but instead of fingers, had only the first phalanx of each, and the first and second joint of the ring finger of the left hand, these rudiments of fingers having no nails. This is said to be the description of the whole family, as it had been with slight variations that of nine numerous generations. It is added that it was the wo- men only who had the misfortune of entailing this defect upon their offspring, which they did almost uniformly. Perhaps the most permanent peculiarity recorded, is a sin- cular thickness of the upper lip, in the Imperial house of Austria. This peculiarity is believed to have been introduced into the Hapsburg family, many centuries ago, by an inter- marriage with the ancient house of Jagellon.{ It is well known tomedical practitioners, that the same ob- servation equally applies to those minute varieties of organi- zation, which give rise to peculiarities of habit or tempera- ment, and predispose to a variety of morbid affections, as deafness, scrofulous complaints, and the whole catalogue of disorders in the nervous system. Even those singular pecu- liarities termed idiosyncrasies are often hereditary, as in the in- stance of a remarkable susceptibility of the action of parti- cular medicines. Many examples of similar variety will be mentioned in the tation, in which are many curious and original observations, says, that he has met with such instances. In all the examples which occurred to his notice, except one, the little finger and toe were redundant. In one casea thumb and great toe were supernumerary. * Philos. Transact. 1814. + This account is taken from the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical J ournal, vol. iv. p. 252. + Coxe’s Memoirs of the House of Austria. Se aa : ae mere 8 es nn 246 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. sequel which are not less remarkable than the preceding. These have been cited on the present occasion in order to es- tablish the fact that such deviations really take place, that varieties of structure are not always referrible to ancestors and to original difference transmitted from first parents, but arise in breeds previously destitute of any such characters, and when they have once arisen, become permanent in the stock. Variations are observed every day in the shape of the hu- man body, in the size and form of the head and the proportion of parts. The causes which give rise to these phenomena, are various influences which have exerted their agency on the parents previous to the birth or perfect developement of offspring so characterised. Whatever the external agencies may be which give rise to such phenomena in one country, their variety and consequently the diversity and extent of their influence must, as it would seem, be much greater when differ- ent regions and different climates are compared with each other. Hence, we should not be surprised in finding the na- tive inhabitants of one part of the world differing from those of another more widely than the inhabitants of any one coun- try differ among themselves. Whether all the phenomena for which we are seeking to account, admit of such an expla- nation is still to be determined. I shall not at present attempt to describe all the varieties which exist in the form and configuration of the human body in different nations, or of the peculiarities of every race of men. The more particular enumeration of natural diversi- ties belongs to the latter part of this work, which refers to the origin, history, and affinities of nations. It will be suffi- cient for my present purpose to examine the most striking and remarkable of these varieties. If any tolerably certain inferences can be drawn respecting these greater deviations, it is obvious that they will hold, A fortiori, of those which are less considerable. On comparing the principal varieties of form and structure which distinguish the inhabitants of different countries, we find that there are seven classes of nations which may be se- ; parated from each other by strongly marked lines. Among VARIETIES OF FORM. 247 their principal characteristics are peculiar forms of the skull, but these are by no means the only difference which require notice and particular description. These seven principal classes are, first, those nations who in the form of their skulls and other physical characters resemble Europeans, including many nations in Asia and some in Africa; secondly, races nearly similar in figure, and in the shape of the head to the Kalmuks, Mongoles, and Chinese. These two first classes of nations will be designated, for reasons to be explained, Lra- nian and Turanian nations. I shall hereafter state my reasons for avoiding the use of the terms Cacuasian and Mongolian races, which have been adopted by many late writers in de- signating these divisions of mankind. The third class are the native American nations, excluding the Esquimaux and some tribes who resemble them more than the majority of the inhabitants of the New World. The fourth class comprises only the Hottentot and Bushman race. A fifth class are the Negroes; the sixth, the Papuas or woolly haired nations of Polynesia: the seventh, the Alfourou and Australian races. The nations comprised under these departments of mankind differ so strikingly from each other, that it would be improper to include any two of them in one section, and there ;s no other division of the human family that is by physical traits so strongly characterised. There are, indeed, some na- tions who cannot be considered as falling entirely within either of these divisions, but they may be looked upon as approximating to one or another of them. Sxction I1.—Of the Negroes. The physical characters of the Negro races are so well known, that it is needless to enter into a particular descrip- tion of them in this place. It has often been said that inde- pendently of the woolly hair and the complexion of the Ne- eroes, there are sufficient differences between them and the rest of mankind to mark them as a very peculiar tribe. ‘This is true, and yet the principal differences are perhaps not so constant as many persons imagine. In our West Indian co- ed — 248 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. lonies very many Negroes, especially females, are seen, whose figures strike Europeans as remarkably beautiful. This would not be the case if they deviated much from the idea prevalent in Europe, or from the European standard of beauty. Yet the slaves in the colonies, particularly in those of England, were brought from the west coast of inter- tropical Africa, where the peculiarities of figure which in our eyes constitute deformity in the Negro, are chiefly preva- lent. The black people imported into the French and to some of the Portuguese colonies, from the eastern coast of the African continent, and from Congo, are much better made. The most degraded and savage nations are the ugliest. Among the most improved and the partially civilized, as the Ashantees, and other interior states the figure and the features of the native people approach much more to the European. The ugliest Negro tribes are confined to the equatorial countries ; and on both sides of the equator as we advance towards the temperate zones, the persons of the in- habitants are more handsome and well formed. In a later period of this work I shall cite authors who have proved that many races belonging to this department of mankind are noted for the beauty of their features, and their fine stature and proportions. Adanson has made this ob- servation of the Negroes on the Senegal. He thus describes the men. “ Leur taille est pour l’ordinaire au-dessus de la médiocre, bien prise et sans défaut. Ils sont forts, robustes, et d’un tempérament propre a la fatigue. Ils ont les yeux now's et bien fendus, pue de barbe, les traits du visage assez agréables.” They are complete Negroes, for it is added that their complexion is of a fine black, that their hair is. black, frizzled, cottony, and of extreme fineness. The women are said to be of nearly equal stature with the men, and equally well made. “ Leur visage est d’une douceur extréme. Elles ont les yeux noirs, bien fendus, la bouche et les lévres pétites et les traits du visage bien proportionnés. Il s’en trouve plusieurs d’une beauté parfaite.” Mr. Rankin, a highly in- telligent traveller, who reports accurately and without prejudice the results of his personal observation, has recently given a similar testimony in regard to some of the numerous tribes of PECULIARITIES OF THE NEGRO. 249 northern Negroland, who frequent the English colony of Sierra Leone. In the skull of the more improved and civilized nations among the woolly-haired blacks of Africa, there is comparatively slight deviation from the form which may be looked upon as the common type of the human head. We are assured, for example, by M. Golberry, that the lolofts, whose colour is a deep transparent black ,and who have woolly hair, are robust and well made, and have regular features. Their countenances, he says, are ingenuous, and inspire con- fidence: they are honest, hospitable, generous and faithful. The women are mild, very pretty, well made, and of agreeable manners.* On the other side of the equinoctial line, the Congo Negroes, as Pigafetta declares, have not thick lips or ugly features; except in colour they are very like the Por- tuguese. Kaffers in South Africa frequently resemble Eu- ropeans, as many late travellers have declared. It has been the opinion of many that the Kaffers ought to be sepa- rated from the Negroes as a distinct branch of the human family. This has been proved to be an error. In the confor- mation of the skull which is the leading character, the Kaffers associate themselves with the great majority of woolly African nations. The craniology of these races will come under our consideration in the following chapter, and we shall have a proper opportunity for describing the differences which subsist between particular African nations, when we enter upon the ethnographical inquiries which form the sub- ject of the succeeding books. Szotion III].—Of the Papuas. The name of Papuas is perhaps most commonly applied to tribes of people, whose colour, approaching to black, varies im the deepness of its shade, and whose hair is neither lank nor absolutely woolly. Races. of this description are known on the coasts of many islands in the Malayan seas, such as Waigiou, Sallawaty, Gummen, and Battenta, and about the * Golberry’s Travels in Africa, vol. i. Mudford’s Translation, p- 74 950 - ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. shores of New Guinea, from Sabelo to the Cape Dory, where they have been described fully by M. M. Quoy and Gaimard. These insular and littoral tribes are in fact, as the writers above mentioned have proved, a mixed race, between Malay settlers and the genuine Papuas. This has been inferred from the mixed state of their language, as well as of their physical characters and their religious customs, which par- take in some parts more, in others less, of the corrupt Mahomedanism of the Malays and the Paganism of the native Papuas. The same conclusion appears highly probable, when it is considered that the small tribes into which these people are divided, under the rule of petty chiefs termed rajahs, are spread over tracts just intermediate between the Malayan isles, and the Land of the Papuas, namely, on the shores of small islands clustered together under the equator, and continually receiving new Malay settlers from Tidor and Ternate, as well as Papuas from New Guinea, and even some Alfourous from the mountains in the interior. The governing and the commercial caste, are the Malays, who hold the mixed Papua race in subjection. The latter are des- cribed as indicating by their puny stature, timid character, and the leprous diseases which are prevalent among them, the unwholesome influence of the tracts which they inhabit, and of their mode of life.”’ Such, as M. Lesson observes, are the Papuas, who were visited by d’Entrecasteaux, Rossel, La Billardiére, de Frey- cinet, Quoy and Guinard. They must be distinguished carefully from the genuine Papuas, who inhabit the northern parts of New Guinea and the great adjoining islands of New Britain, New Ireland, as well as the groupes which extend southward into the Pacific Ocean, and which are distinguished in maps by the terms of Louisiade, Bouka, Santa Cruz, and Solomon’s Islands. The results obtained by M. Lesson from his researches into the history of these races, differ materially from the opinions advanced by Mr. Crawford. According to Lesson, the Papuas bear the closest resemblance to the Madecasses, or as he terms them, Cafro-Madecasses, the race of people who occupy the greater part of Madagascar; this remark PECULIARITIES OF THE PAPUAS. 251 applies to many of the habits and traditions,as well as to the physical constitution, common to these races. The Papuas, as Lesson concludes, are not the aborigines of the Indian Archipelago; their migration appears to have been posterior in time to that of the Oceanic tribes, a migration which has not reached into the remote spaces of the Pacific, which spread itself along the northern coast of New Guinea, then over New Britain, New Ireland, the Isles of Bouka, of Bou- gainville, the Admiralty Isles, the Archipelago of Solomon, of Santa Cruz, the Tierra Australe del Espiritu Santo, and New Caledonia. These inhabitants of New Guinea distin- guish themselves by the name of Papuas, reserving the de- nomination of Endamenes to the black tribes with coarse and lank hair, who inhabit the interior of the same country. The latter are the people who are termed by various writers Alfourous, Alfoérs, or Haraforus. They are, according to the information obtained by M. Lesson, the aboriginal inhabi- tants of the great islands of the Malayan archipelago: they still occupy all the inland and mountainous parts of New Guinea, and all the southern coast, whence they appear to have spread themselves in miserable and scattered hordes over the barren wilderness of New Holland. They appear, however, never to have passed the strait which cuts off from that continent the Land of Diemen. In the latter country, the woolly-haired race can only be supposed to have found their way by passing along the groupe of the New Hebrides, and from New Caledonia.* Such is the theory adopted by M. Lesson, respecting the migration of these people, which I have alluded to in order to point out the probable connexion of different tribes, and to give a general idea of the extension of the Papua races. In a future part of this work it will be my turn to collect what traces 1 may be enabled to find for the elucidation of this subject. I shall now proceed to the physical description of the Papua race, and shall then collect some further notices of the Alfourous. “The woolly-haired race spread over the northern parts of * Mémoire sur les Papouas ou Papous, par M. M. Lesson et Garnot. Annales des Sie, Nat. tom. x. 1827, p. 93 252 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. New Guinea, distinguish themselves by the terms Arfaki, or mountaineers, and Papuas, or people of the sea-shore. These last live in scattered and insulated tribes, and in a continual state of dissension and hostility. Their villages built upon the water and upon piles, consist of a few huts under the authority of aged chiefs. The stature of the people is gene- rally of the middle height, but there are among them tall and well-srown men. Their limbs are well proportioned, and their figure is often robust and athletic. The colour of their skin is black, mixed with an eighth part of yellow, which imparts to it a clear tint of various intensity. Their hair is black, very thick and moderately woolly. They wear it frizzled out in a very remarkable manner, or let it fall upon their necks in long and twisted masses. Their countenance and features are regular except their noses, which are some- what flattened, with the nostrils enlarged in the transverse direction. Their chins are small and well formed; their cheek-bones are prominent, their foreheads elevated, their eye- brows thick and long. Their beards are thin: they let them grow upon the upper lip and chin, like many African nations. The physiognomy of the Papuas easily reflects the feelings which animate them, and which arise from mistrust, sus- picion, and all the most hateful passions, indicating a re- markable predominance of purely instinctive faculties over those of intelligence.* The women are generally ugly, yet we observed in New Guinea, some girls who were well made, and whose regular and soft features were remarkable. Formed for servitude and obedience, this sex among the Papuas and many African Negroes, is subjected to the rudest labours, which their rigorous and inflexible masters disdain to par- take.” * Lesson remarks that the more remote men are from a state of civilization, the more their instinctive faculties are proportionally developed. The senses of the Papuas are more perfect than those of Europeans. They have a more piercing sight, and their hearing is more acute. M. Lesson adds, that the masseter and temporal muscles are in this race of great strength, their only business being to satisfy a voracious appetite, and this function absorbing all their faculties. ‘Thus, he says, “ we remarked on several skulls, numerous crests, roughening the whole anterior part of the temporal fosse, and serving to give the fibres of the crotaphyte muscles strong points of attachment.” PECULIARITIES OF THE PAPUAS. 953 “ The natives of Bouka, with whom we communicated, dis- played all the characters and all the habits of the Papuas, and wore, like them, their long and woolly hair frizzled out. The natives of Port Praslin, in New Ireland, and those of the Isle of York, in the channel of St. George, differ not from the latter; only there were among them a greater num- ber of tall and robust men; but many individuals were re- markable for the light shade of their complexion, approach- ing the tawny and slightly bronzed hue of the Oceanic nations. The persons of the old men among these different nations, were generally calm, placid and impassible ; yet we observe rapid changes pass over their countenances. The treacherous and cunning looks of some were as remarkable as the suspicion and mistrust expressed by others, and the simplicity and frankness of a small number. If we examine,’ says M. Lesson, “ the physical conformation of the natives of the great island of Madagascar, properly so termed, known under the name of Madecasses, we shall find among three or four human varieties which inhabit that great island, black tribes whose limbs are proportioned with regularity, and whose forms display vigour and activity. The Made- casses have a handsome figure, and among them I observed a great number of men of fine stature. Their hair moderately woolly, is tied over the occiput in great ringlets; their skin is a dark brown mixed with yellow; their noses are slightly flattened, their mouths large; in a word, the whole of their countenances and regular features would represent the por- trait of a Papua of Dorery, of Beraae, or New Britain, New Ireland, or of Bouka. The hair of all these people is in general very Crisp, stiff, and at the same time very thick. Some families of New Guinea, Waigiou, and of Bouka, give it the frizzled out and singular form, which is the character- istic of the Papuas. But other tribes, as those of Bony, 10 New Guinea, of New Britain, and New Ireland, let it fall upon their shoulders in long and floating ringlets. ‘The Papuas go quite naked, and cover their shoulders and breasts with incisions, ranged in curved or straight lines. This cus- tom, which distinguishes many tribes of the interior of Africa, is practised by all the natives of Madagascar, as well as by 254 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. the black races in the western parts of the Pacific, in Van Diemen’s Land, and in New Holland. The Papuas are fond of covering their heads with the dust of ochre mixed with grease, which reddens their hair and their whole countenance. They wear abundance of feathers in their heads, and orna- ments of shells, as well as in their girdles and on their arms. A custom exclusively belonging to this race, is that of wear- ing bracelets of a dazzling whiteness, made very artfully and polished, which they probably fashion from the large ex- tremity of the great conchs which are found in the neighbour- ing seas.” Some of these ornaments, according to M. Lesson, are precisely similar to those which are found about Egyp- tian mummies. The author of these remarks endeavours further to illustrate the relation, which he evidently supposes to subsist between the Papuas and Madecasses, by showing that there are un- questionable affinities im the dialect of these nations. This is not a fit place for entering into ethnographical in- quiries. In a future part of my work I shall endeavour to examine the questions which relate to the analogies known to exist between the colonies of tribes scattered through the Southern oceanic region, which have given rise to a variety of speculative theories. For my present purpose it is suf- ficient to recognise the fact, that the Papuas and Madecasses, whether allied in lineage or not, belong to the same variety of the human species, since they resemble in form and colour, and more particularly in the texture of their hair, which in general differs both from the woolly hair of the Negro and Hottentot, and from the lank hair of other nations. It must at the same time be noticed that some Papua tribes have hair nearly resembling that of the African races. We shall see that the Papuas are not the only variety of mankind which is supposed to be spread over the oceanic region from Madagascar to New Holland. Ssotion IV.—Of the Alfourous and Australians. Another race equally interesting in relation to the natural PECULIARITIES OF THE ALFOUROUS. 255 history of mankind, and hitherto much less known, at least in the countries to which we have already referred, are the Al- fourous. According to M. Lesson,who has given the results of his own personal inquiries, the primitive population of the Indian Archipelago consisted of tribes of blacks with rough but lank hair, very distinct from the Papuas. These tribes appear to have been supplanted in some islands at various periods by more powerful races, who have either extirpated them or have driven them from the coasts into the mountain- ous and desert parts in the interior. They are yet to be found in all the wildest and most inaccessible tracts of Polynesia, under which term M. Lesson comprehends all the lands bordering on or contained in the Malayan archipelago, re- serving the name of Oceania for the remote groupes of islands in the Pacific. The central parts of most of the Moluccas are still occupied by Haraforas or Alfoers, the Philippines by tribes of the same description, whom the Spaniards term Los Indios; Mindanao by the Negros del Monte; the interior of Madagascar by Virzimbers,* of all which countries these races appear to be the aboriginal inhabitants ; in the interior of New Guinea tribes of a similar description are termed by the Papuas Endaménes.+ The Alfourous or Endaménes live in the most miserable man- ner. Continually at war with their neighbours, they are solely occupied in endeavouring to preserve themselves from attacks, and escape the snares laid for them. The custom prevalent among the Papuas of the coasts, of putting their prisoners to death, and erecting their spoil as trophies, accounts for the difficulty we find of observing them, even in New Guinea: and two or three men, reduced to slavery, whom we saw at Doréry, are the only ones we have met with. The Papuas described them to us, as of a ferocious character, cruel and gloomy, possessed of no arts, and passing their whole lives * Robert Drury is the only writer who has given from personal knowledge any tolerable account of the Virzambers or Ovales, the lank-haired people who inhabit the interior of Madagascar. + Mémoire sur les Tasmaniens, sur les Alfourous et sur les Australiens, par M. M. Lesson et Garnot, Ann. des. Sie. Nat. tom. x. p. 149. 2 == ———S = —— —— — a : eee = ~~ : ail - = : ———————— 256 ANALOGICAL INVESTIGATION. in seeking subsistence in the forests. But we cannot regard this hideous picture, which each people draws of its neighbour- ing tribe, as authentic. The Endaménes whom we saw, had a repulsive physiognomy, flat noses, cheek-bones projecting, large eyes, prominent teeth, long and slender legs, very black and thick hair, rough and shining, without being long. Their beards were very hard and very thick. An excessive stupidity was stamped upon their countenances—probably the effect of slavery. These savages, whose skin is of a very deep, dirty brown or black colour, go naked. They make incisions upon their arms and breasts, and wear in their noses pieces of wood nearly six inches long. Their character is taciturn, and their physiognomy fierce: their motion is uncertain and slow. The inhabitants of the coasts gave us some details of the En- daménes; but as they seemed to us to be dictated by hatred, and as their accounts differed, whether because the sense of what they told us was badly understood, or they related to us statements which they did not themselves credit, with the intention of inspiring us with fear, we think it useless to make a race of men known by false or inexact descriptions, whose history is still enveloped in thick darkness. The Endaménes, confined in the interior of New Guinea, in the northern region of that country, still continue, as is sup- posed by M. Lesson, to be the sole possessors of the southern coast ; if they reach to the northern limits of Torres’ Straits, the supposition that in former times they may have passed over the channel, and spread themselves in the vast regions of Terra Australis, becomes very probable. M. Lesson refers the Australians to the class of Alfourous. The following is the general description of their physical character. The stature of the Australians is moderate and often below the ee The limbs among many tribes are slender, thin, and, In appearance, of unproportioned length, while some in- dividuals, on the contrary, have them stout and well-propor- tioned. Their hair is not woolly; it is hard, very black and thick ; they wear it dishevelled, and in general short, in frizzled masses. Their beard is of the same nature as their hair; commonly rough and tufted on the sides of their face. Their countenance is flattened, their nose very large, with nostrils INDO-ATLANTIC AND TURANIAN. 257 almost transversely placed, thick lips, mouths of unproportioned width, teeth projecting, but of the finest enamel. Loose circular ears very amply developed and eyes half closed by the laxity of their upper eyelids, give to their physiognomy a savage and repulsive aspect. 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