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VOLUME 21, No. 1. Cok ke, aa Registered at the G.P.O.,
MAY 31, 1941. uy Adelaide, for transmission
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ear 5 afro ie ; periodical.
Price: One Shilling.

‘The South Australian _—
NATURALIST —

JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

CONTENTS:

RARE! PIPE |
NATIVE P

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

May 31, 1941

The Field Naturalists’ Section

of The Royal Society of South Australia

OFFICERS, 1940-41,
Patron: LADY MURIEL BARCLAY-HARVEY.
Chairman: H, GREAVES, Esq.
Vice-Chairmen: DR. M. SCHNEIDER and MR. B. C. COTTON.

Hon. Secretary: Mr. W. M. NIELSEN.
(Phone C.3845)

Hon. Treasurer:

Miss M. EMERSON,

c/o W.E.A., University, Adelaide. ’Phone: C.3355.
Hon. Librarian: Miss D. M. MATTHEWS.

Hon. Magazine Secretary:

Mr. A. K. BEASLEY.

Hon. Auditors: Messrs. W. D. REED, F.C.P.A., and RP. B. BECK.
Hon. Editor S.A. Naturalis:: Mr. A. MOLINEUX.

Committee:

The PRESIDENT and VICE-PRESIDENTS of the Royal Society of South Australia

(ex officio), Professor J. B. CLELAND, Dr. M. T. WINKLER, Messrs. A. J. WILEY,

A. J. MORISON, A. K. NEWBERY, J. FERRIES, Mrs. A. R. ALTMANN, Miss
A. ADCOCK.

Herbarium Committee:

Professor J. B. CLELAND, Dr. M. T. WINKLER, Messrs. W. D. WADE, W. M.
NIELSEN, Misses C. M. EARDLEY and J. STOKES.

No special knowledge necessary to become a member,

only a keen interest in Nature.

THIS Section was founded’ in 1883 for the purpose of
affording observers and lovers of Natural History regular
and frequent opportunities for discussing those special sub-
jects in which they are naturally interested; for the Ex:
hibition of Specimens; and for promoting Observations in
the Field by means of Excursions to various collecting
grounds around the Metropolis.

THE MONTHLY MEETINGS of the Section for Leetures,
the Reading of Papers, and Exhibition of Specimens are held
on the third Tuesday, at 8 p.m., at the Royal Society’s Rooms,
Institute Buildings, North Terrace, Adelaide.

MEMBERS are requested to invite their friends to these
Monthly Meetings.

VISITORS CORDIALLY INVITED.

THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION (7/6) dates from August
1, and ean be sent to Mr. EB. H. Ising, Railway Station,
Adelaide,

MEMBERS are urged to take Receptacles for the carrying
of Specimens. At each outing every member is expected to
eollect Specimens wherever possible, and to hand them to the
Leader for identification, ete.

EXCURSIONS. For meeting places, see particulars on
back cover. Members desirous of attending motor exeur-
sions should advise the Hon. Secretary at least three days
before the outing, to enable sufficient accommodation to be
provided.

THE HON. SECRETARY. All letters to he addressed c/o
Royal Society’s Rooms, Institute Buildings, North ‘Terrace,
Adelaide. Letters will be collected regularly.

F.N.S. HERBARIUM. The Herbarium is kept in the Museum,
and is open to members, Mr. W. M. Nielsen, Hon. Secretary.

“THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST.” The Journal
of the Section, Editor, Mr. A, Molineux, 31 Coorara Avenue,
South Payneham. Frere to members. Exchanges may be ar-
ranged, Extra copies, 1/- each. Address communications to
A. K, Beasley, Harris Street, Payneham,

‘ar

.

May 31, 1941

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page One

Rock Carvings And Other Aboriginal Relics From
Near Marree

By

H. M. COOPER.

An interesting and very extensive series of
rock carvings exists on both banks of Boorloo
Creek, a picturesque and rocky gum-creek,
on Callanna Station, near Marree. The
country in the vicinity, which it drains, is
exceedingly rough and comprises, in the
main, low ridges and hills. The creek flows
eastward into the River Frome and thence to
Lake Eyre. Boorloo Mound Springs are dis-
tant about three miles downstream from the
carving site. This is the nearest permanent
water, at least during recent years, but there
is a soak in the bed of the creek amongst
the carvings. Parallel outcrops of ancient
rock, separated by narrow stony flats,

10 ¢M

|

afforded a generous opportunity for natives
long ago to make these records of their art,
and even a cursory examination of the many
vertical and horizontal faces proved these
to have been availed of to an extreme

degree. Further, the rocky bed of the
creek in some places was utilised for the
same purpose. Jt may be mentioned that

the typical rusty glaze, so prominent on
rocks in these arid regions, has completely

reformed on the chiselled out portions of
some of the designs, probably indicating that
those at least are of no little antiquity. Stone
implements of a crude type generally, are scat-
tered over the stony flats already referred to
and denote the former presence of some
ancient culture but, due to lack of concrete
evidence, there are no grounds for assuming
this to be the work of the same peoples.
Turning to the individual carvings them-
selves, the front cover features what is one
of the most attractive of those so far dis-

covered in this locality. It is nicely balanced
and exhibits considerable skill in its execu-

tion. The human footprints and those of
marsupials, together with what may be two
spears or clubs and a boomerang, could
almost portray a picture of a typical day in
the life of Australia’s primitive man. It has
been observed that almost invariably,
throughout this and other series, the kangaroo
or wallaby footprints or pads, whatever their
dimension, occur in pairs. Continuing, A
shows two groups of irregular lines or

a

w

May 31, 1941 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

scratchings whose meaning is obscure, whilst
B probably depicts a lizard. C could almost
record a rather realistic impression of a
hunter stalking a kangaroo, as depicted by the
marks left by hunter and hunted. D shows a
deeply cut circle containing typical animal
tracks, and E a single pair. F is certainly
most striking, even if only for speculation
as to its true meaning. G may represent two
more lizards, and H three pairs of kangaroo
pads, and the smaller ones possibly those of
birds. J, in contrast to all the other designs
herewith reproduced, has been neatly sur-
face “pecked” and not cut out. J, the typical
barred circle of the well-known Mount Cham-
bers group, is rare at Boorloo Creek, and
finally, K, the plain circle, represents a carv-
ing iteh “ia 40 plentiful in the Northern
Flinders Ranges and other areas south of

Pebble Design

Situated on a stony rise by the western bank
of the River Frome, three miles E.S.E. from
Marree, there is a pebble design.

It comprises two circles of large water-worn
pebbles, connected by a single row of stones
of the same material. In the centre of each

TO HERGOTT GA
Mound SPRINGS i

ene’

LENGTH oF ROW oF PEBBLES 4O FERC

CONTE PELL LY PP ee ee EP eer he Peet TT Pee ary

Page Three

Marree. Unfortunately, due to superimposi-
tion and severe weathering, the outlines of
many carvings are so doubtful as to render
their true deciphering difficult, if not impos-
sible. The broken and confused nature of
the country probably rendered the results of
three visits by the writer incomplete. Finally,
when reviewing the art of our stone age
peoples, often showing considerable skill and
always infinite patience, it is well to make
generous allowance for the primitive material
ath which, from necessity, they had to pro-
duce their irreplaceable work,

Stone implements and flakes collected in the
vicinity were principally discoidal adze
stones and irregular flaked knives, also two
of the so-called “sumatra” hand choppers
made from pebbles, which bear considerable
resemblance to those from Kangaroo Island.

Near Marree

circle is a low heap of similar stones. One
end of the design points roughly in the
direction of Hergott Mound Springs. It is
not known whether this is of any significance,
nor could the writer obtain any information
locally as to the nature or purpose of the
occurrence.

BWovd USAIY,*-

Native Camp Site

There is a native camp site worthy of notice
at Coolong Springs, about three miles in a
south- peeterly direction from the pebble
design just mentioned, but on the further
side of the River Frome, which in times of
heavy flood may flow in a stream two miles
wide. A group of low, eroded, sandy ridges
partly encloses a barren depression, on the
floor of which exist the springs, a small group

of permanent waters, some of which, however,
have filled up and ceased to flow. These
ridges carry a large accumulation of stone
implements and flakes, denoting considerable
native activity in the past. The predominat-
ing artefact is an adze stone, discoidal in
shape, varying considerably in size and which
may be divided into two classes, the first, a
beautifully made implement of superior

Page Four

material and probably traded from outside
sources, and the other a product of the local
industry. The latter, whilst inferior to the
former in its manufacture, is of similar
design; it is, however, superior to the crude

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

May 31, 1941

another, formerly similar, but which, after
repeated sharpening by _ re-edging, had

reached a stage whence no amount of human
ingenuity could render it of any further
service.

Collections are being made and

implements already mentioned as having been
found in the vicinity of the Boorloo rock
carvings. Since nearly 50 per cent. of the
apparently traded variety had been worn
down by continual use to a remarkable
degree, it would scem that their possessors
valued them highly and found replacement
difficult. The accompanying drawing shows
a typical adze stone of this class and

studied at the South Australian Museum in
an endeavor to determine whence these finely-
worked flakes are derived. Mr. N. B. Tin-
dale, who has been interested in this problem
for some time, has kindly supplied me with
the drawing. A side view is given of an
adze with the stone set in position in a
mass of gum on the end of a curved wood
handle.

A Second Record Of Balston’s Broad-Nosed Bat In
South Australia

By
E. F. BOEHM

Sutherlands, S.

In Wood Jones’ “Mammals of South Aus-
tralia,” pt. 3, pp. 425-6, 1925, a single South
Australian example of Balston’s Broad-nosed
Bat (Scoteinus balstont, Thomas, 1906) is
recorded from Riverton. The species was
originally named from a specimen collected
at Laverton, Central Western Australia, by G.
C. Shortridge.

An additional South Australian example of
this interesting Bat was obtained in the south-

A., 2/4/1941.

east of this State in 1933. It was secured
together with a colony of Western Free-tailed
Bats (Micronomus planiceps, Peters, 1866)
in a “hill gum” (Zuealyptus sp.), about 18
feet up from the ground.

Details of the specimen, which is now in my
collection, are as follows:—No. 126, male,
Bool Lagoon, South-East, South Australia.
21st October, 1933. Expanse 35 mm. Col-
lector, Mr. J. B. Hood.

cs

&

May $1, 1941

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Five

2

Several specimens of the Smooth Pipe-Fish
{Lissocampus caudalis) were taken in about
five fathoms, off Semaphore, during the Field
Naturalists’ dredging excursion on Easter
Monday, April 14, 1941. This little species,
which attains a length of about four inches,
was previously known only from two speci-
mens taken at Kangaroo Island in 1901.
These were described by Messrs Waite and
Hale in 1921.

The Smooth Pipe-Fish

This small Pipe-Fish differs from all our
other species in having a smooth body,
devoid of all ridges,

Mr, B. C. Cotton reports that in an aquarium,
a living example appeared to support itself
against the glass with the last half-inch or so
of the tail.

The species is possibly not rare in St. Vin-
cent Gulf, but its small size and protective
coloration have probably assisted it to escape

detection. H. M. HALE.

A New Species Of Land Shell From Salamo,

Fergusson Island, New Guinea
By BERNARD C. COTTON.

H. R. Bartlett has collected many interesting
specimens of shells in New Guinea, and it is
hoped that a full report on his discoveries
will be published later. A new and pretty
land shell recently taken by him is here
described,

PAPUINA BARTLETTI, Sp. Nov.

Holotype, Salamo, Fergusson Island, D’En-

trescasteaux Group, about 70 miles from
Samarai, Papua, on a volcanic flat. Reg. No.
D, 14080, S.A. Mus., height 20 mm., major
diameter 32 mm., minor diameter 23 mm. Im-
perforate, depressed, turbinate, convex above
and below periphery; ground colour white or
pink, with a white peripheral band defined by
an indefinite brown line ahove and below;

Page Six THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

remainder of surface streaked and dotted
with pink and brown, back of expanded lip
golden yellow; spire of medium height, apex
obtuse, protoconch of 14 whorls, polished
black tipped in the holotype, black or white
in other specimens; adult whorls 34, surface
irregularly, finely, obliquely wrinkled;
aperture oblique, slightly constricted, lip

May 31, 1941

expanded and somewhat produced at the
medium periphery; columella adnate, without
tooth or fold. This species is one of the
“Helix louisiadensis” group, different species
of which occur on the different islands in
this locality. The holotype and two para-
types were presented to the South Australian

Museum by H. R. Bartlett.

THE STONE PLOVER (BURHINUS MAGNIROSTRIS)
By H, T. CONDON, South Australian Museum.

Few there are who will not admit that it is
the sounds of the Australian bush which
contribute largely to its charm, by day and
night. Unlike other continents, however,
Australia possesses no large animals with
fearsome and resounding cries, and the

night who has not thrilled to the harsh
screams of the Barn Owl, the doleful call of
the Boobook, or the eery wail of the Stone
Plover?

The songs of many birds may bring pleasure
to the human ear, while those of others, such

(Photos by H. T. Condon.)

camper or traveller hears only the calls of
birds. By day, there is the ceaseless chat-
tering of small birds of all kinds, the
carolling of the Magpies on the plains and
the musical screeches of Parrots, while at

as the persistent calls of the Cuckoos in
spring-time become extremely monotonous;
others again induce fear and foreboding in
the lay mind. Some years ago, at Stanley
Flat, near Clare, South Australia, there were

}

May 31, 1941

persistent reports of a “ghost” which sat on
a road bridge and prevented travellers from
crossing at night—with “huge outspread
wings” and “uttering a wailing cry.” The tale
was investigated and the “ghost” proved to be
a Stone Plover. The Stone Plover was at one
time common on the Adelaide plains and
adjacent hill country, but now its melancholy
drawn out notes, “weeloo, weeloo,” are never
heard anywhere within a 10-mile radius of
Adelaide. From its call it is erroneously
called the “Curlew,” and care, therefore, must
be taken by those unacquainted with the
species not to confound it with the migratory
Curlew (Numenius cyanopus), a bird of the
seashores and swamps, which is generically
and specifically distinct. The true Curlew is
at once recognised by its long curved beak,
and calls “Curlee, curlee.” There is no
doubt that the call of the Stone Plover is
the weirdest of all bird calls heard after
nightfall in the ‘Australian bush. It is com-
menced by one bird, and gradually taken up
by all in the neighborhood until there is a
perfect chorus of these dismal sounds. The
calls are made either while on the ground or
on the wing, and they frequently call before
rain falls. Following the “weeloo” call is a
rapidly uttered shrill note, which is loud
and penetrating.

The flight is perfectly silent, with head held
low and legs straight out behind. There is
a conspicuous white mark on the wing, with a
black spot in the middle of it. The birds are
usually seen in pairs. In the day time it is
often difficult to make them flush, as they
rely largely on their protective colouration
to escape detection, They are curious birds,
and will not fly far from an intruder. There
is a white mark over the eye. which extends
halfway down the neck, and the white stripes
on the wing are also very noticeable. Their
movements on the ground are furtive and
they will try and avoid an intruder in a most
sneaking fashion, or else crouch immobile
on the ground until danger passes. The
Stone Plover is largely nocturnal in habits,
when much of its food in the shape of insects,
grubs, worms, and small molluscs, is
obtained. In places where they occur, they
will often be heard calling on moonlight
nights.

The Stone Plover, which occurs in all parts
of Australia. is variously known as the Stone-
Curlew. Curlew. Thick-knee, Scrub Curlew,

and Willaroo. In South Australia it is now

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Seven

chiefly confined to the interior and to various
islands off the coast, including Kangaroo
Island. They are very common in the Port
Lincoln district. In the north-west of Aus-
tralia and in the Northern Territory there is
a smaller race, the Little Stone-Plover (Bur-
hinus magnirostris rufescens Math.), which
is said to be more rufous in colouration than
the southern bird. The genus Burhinus is
world-wide in distribution, there being one
species in Europe, three in Africa, one in
Asia, two in South America, and each has
various geographical races. They belong to
the avian order Charadriiformes, which in-
cludes the Wading Birds and perhaps also
the Gulls and Terns, and Auks and Puflfins.

The Stone Plover is one of a few Australian
birds which make no nest, the eggs being
deposited on the bare ground. In such
situations, the eggs, usually two in number,
closely resemble their environment in colour,
and often it is only by accident that they
are discovered. The birds have been known
to return to the same spot season after season
to breed. They will also breed fairly readily
in captivity, and make interesting and useful
pets in a semi-domesticated state. There is
at least one record of a captive bird living
for over 29 years.

The accompanying illustrations were taken at
the Zoological Gardens, Adelaide, and show
a pair of old birds with two young ones
which were hatched in the aviaries which are
in the care of Mr. Herbert Manfield. the
head keener. The first ege was laid on
October 9, 1940, and the second two days
later; the young were hatched on October 31,
1940. In eleven weeks (Tanuary 18. 1941)
thev were indistineuishable from the old
hirds. The South Australian Museum has a
16 mm. film record of the actions and antics
of these birds at this time. which shows the
defensive attitudes of the old birds (see bot-
tom righthand picture herewith). The neck
is extended forward. wings are widely out-
stretched, and the bird is poised on its toes
in a most ferocious attitude. Occasionally
they would make vicious swoops at the
photographer. feathers bristling, while at
other times they would remain crouched on
the ground as shown in the picture on the
bottom lefthand side. These birds are totally
nrotected by law in South Australia, and it
ig necessarv ta obtain a permit from the Chief
Tnspector of Fisheries and Game in order to

keep them.

Page Eight THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

May 31, 1941

A List Of Plants Collected In The Musgrave And
Mann Ranges, South Australia, 1933

By

NORMAN B. TINDALE, B.Sc.

This brief paper records native plants.
including many of economic importance to
the aborigines, which were obtained during
the Anthropological Expedition to the Mann
Range in May to July, 1933. Brief notes on
the names are given and uses are detailed of
some of them. Further items can best be
supplied in a general survey of the life of
Pitjandjara tribes-people. Where separate
names are given for plants in eastern and
western dialects they refer respectively to the
Jangkundjara and Pitjandjara tribes, In
other cases the names are common to both
groups.

The collection of plants was presented, in
February, 1940, to the then newly formed
South Australian Museum Botanical Collec-
tion. ' Examples of some of the rarer species
have been lodged also in the herbarium of

the University of Adelaide.

I am indebted to Dr. C. Hackett for compan-
ionship on this trip and to Mr, J. M, Black
and Miss C. Eardley, who kindly identified
the plants. One or two may be new records
for this State. Further details of the itinerary
of the expedition may be obtained in Oceania,
IV, 1933, pp. 101-105, but in that account,
owing to an editorial alteration, the native
tribal names are wrongly spelled, a “‘z” being
substituted for “dj.” Several other typo-
graphical errors occur in that account and
the places called I[tjarano and Karapandi
should be read respectively as Itjarango and
Konapandi.

GYMNOSPERMS.
CUPRESSACEAE.

Callitris glauca, R.Br. Camp 9. Pital,
between Musgrave and Mann Ranges, on
granite rocks. Native name, kuli. June
30th.

Also S. slopes of Mt. Woodroffe, Mus-

grave Ranges. June 15th.

ANGIOSPERMS.
GRAMINEAE.

Themeda triandra, Forsk. (Kangaroo
Grass). Camp 9. Pital, a small granite
range between Musgrave and Mann
Ranges. In crevices on southern slopes
of granite. June 30th.

Tragus racemosus, (L.), Haller, (Small
Burr Grass). 2 miles west of Erliwan-
jJawanja. June 21st.

Aristida echinata v. nitidula, Henry.
Camp 9. Pital, between Musgrave and
Mann Ranges, on granite. June 30th.
Eriachne scleranthoides, Fv.M. Camp
9. Pital, between Musgrave and Mann
Ranges. Crevices on southern slopes of
granite range. June 30th,
Pappophorum avenaceum, Lind], Camp
18. Kunamata, west of Mt. Kintore;
on granite slope of hill. July 16th.

P. nigricans, R.Br. (Black Heads).
Camp 9. Pital, between Musgrave and
Mann Ranges; on granite. June 30th.
Triraphis mollis, R.Br. Two miles west
of Camp 3. Erliwanjawanja, south side
Musgrave Range. June 2Ist.

Also Camp 18, sandy slope. north of
granite range. July 16th.

Also two miles west of Erliwanjawanja.
June 2\st.

Triodta aristata, J. M. Black (Poreupine
Grass). Camp 18, in crevices of rocks
on northern slope of Kunamata
(granite). July 16th.

Triodia sp, (Porcupine Grass). Beside
claypan between Penandi (Mt, Harriet)
and Konapandi (Musgrave Range).
June 29th. “Giant Porcupine,” flower
unobtainable. Severity of injuries caused
by the spikes causes camels to cry out
in pain.

—

May 31, 1941 . THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine

CASU ARINACEAE. LE. Maidenii, Blakeley. Parasitic on
Casuarina Decaisneana, F.v.M. (Desert spiney acacia (q.v.) == Acacia tetra-
Oak). East of Camp 9. Plain between gonophylla. July 16th,

Musgrave and Mann Ranges.. June 29th,
5 AMARANTACEAE.

Amarantus Mitchelliit, Benth. ‘Two miles
west of Camp 3. June 21st.

Also Camp 5. June 26th.

Also Camp 9, on granite hill. June 30th.
Trichinium exaltatum (Nees), Benth.
Camp 9. Native name, kalpi pila; lit.
“sandhill wings.” June 30th.

PROTEACEAE.

Hakea lorea, R.Br. (Cork Bark Tree).
Camp 18. July 16.

H. miuttilineata, Meisn. Camp _ 17.
Mallee and porcupine plain, a low shrub.
Native name, ultukun; scale insects on
it produce a “wama” or sugar, used as
food. July 15th.

Grevillea nematophylla, F.v.M. Camp
23. On porcupine-grass clad _ sand-

NYCTAGINACEAE.
Boerhavia diffusa, L. Camp 18. Native

dunes, as shrubs, 5 feet. Native name, name, uruba. This is a sticky plant, and
ultukun. July 23rd. is used as a tangle-foot to trap small
G. stenobotrya, F.v.M. South of Camp birds. It is spread around waterholes.
23. On crest of sand-dune; shrub 10 ft. July 16th.
Native name, endeilba. July 23rd. Also Camp 14.

MORACEAE. PHYTOLACCACEAE.

Gyrostemon ramulosus, Desf. (Native
Pepper). Sandhills on northern side of
Mt. Kintore. Native name, kurumaru.
Not used by natives. July 17th.

Codonocar pus cotinifolius (Desf.) F.v.M.
(Native Poplar). Near Camp 18, two
miles north of Kunamata, on moving
sand dune; dense grove. The dead trees

Ficus platypoda, A. Cunn. (Native Fig).
Camp 19. Growing on granite slopes at
sacred totemic spot of the ili totem.
Native name, ili. Fruits provide an
important article of diet in early sum-
mer. July 17th.

SANTALACEAE, Cae MOS. f
Exocarpus spartea, R.Br Five miles He aie si ee, oe ater
ccutk 4 Cea 23, ae ee Ae ee srubs. Native name, kaludi. July h.
23rd, CRUCIFERAE
Eucarya sp. Camp 21. On granite pee Pa = i f
slopes. Native name, kombalba. July Lepidium rotundum, D.C. Mt. Kintore,
19th, : , between granite boulders. July 17th.

E. acuminata (R.Br.), Spr. Summ. as el ee
(Native Peach). Camp 9. Native name, PITTOSPORACEAE,

koparta —= kabarda; fruit eaten. June
29th.

Also northern slopes of Mt. Kintore, S.A.
July 17th.

E. ? (sp. indeterminable), Ernabella.
Native name, koparta. Fruit eaten. June
7th,

Santalum lanceolatum, R.Br. Camp 4.
Native name, koparta; an important
native fruit. June 21st.

Also between Camps 8 and 9. June 29th.

LORANTHACEAE,

Loranthus gibberulus, Tate (mistletoe).
Camp 16. Parasitic on “corkwood.”
July 14th.

Pittosporum phillyreoides, D.C. Flow-
ering, Camp 11. Native name, komb-
alba. July 13th.

Also Camp 15 (fruit half-ripe). July
13th.

_ Also two miles west of Camp 3. Native

name, kombalji, kombalba, not eaten
(fruit ripe). Alsc Camp 5 (flowers and
ripe fruit), bushy shrub, six to twelve
feet. Camels are very fond of it. June
26th.

Also Camp 10 (flowering). July Ist.
Camp 16 (flowering). July 14th.
Ernabella (fruit ripe). Native name,
kombalba; the fruits are considered
poisonous. June 4th.

LEGUMINOSAE.

Acacia aneura oy brachystachya (pods
absent), (Mulga). Camp 21. Along
dry creek beds. July 19th.

A, strongylophylla, F.v.M. Camp 18,
on northern slopes of granite hill. July
16th.

Also Camp 21. Native name, ngatun ==
ngatunba. July 19th.

A. brachystachya, Benth. (Umbrella
Mulga), young pods. July 19th.

A. dictyophleba, F.v.M. Near Camp 18,
two miles north-west of Kunamata, on
sandhills with poplar and tea-tree. July
16th.

Page Ten THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST May 31, 1941

eaten as a “konakandi,” ie., a native
damper or bread. July 19th.

At Atadjara on sand-slopes at foot of
a granite hill, three miles west of Camp
21. July 19th.

Acacia ligulata, A, Cunn., (Umbrella
Bush). Camp 18, Acacia scrub, one mile
north of foot of Kunamata. July 16th.
Cassia eremophila, A. Cunn. Camp 10.
Native name, enondji. Strong, sweet
smell liked by aborigines, who wear the
flowers in their head bands. June 30th.
Also at Camp 14 (fruiting). Native
name, enondji (western dialect) ==
undunu (eastern dialect). July 6th,

Woman preparing seeds of kurrajong; desert south of Mann Range.

Also east of Camp 9. June 29th,

A. tetragonophylla, Vv.M. (Dead
Finish). Camp 9. Native name,
kurara. June 30th.

Also Camp ‘18, see also mistletoe
(Loranthus Maidenii). July 16th.

A. notabilis, F.v.M. Camp 21. Native
name, itawara. Seeds ground up and

Psoralea patens, Lindl. Camp 10. July
Ist.

Crotalaria Cunninghamii, R.Br., Bird
Flower. Camp 18. Shrub six feet high,
in acacia scrub, rare, never previously
noticed by aboriginal followers. July
16th.

Swainsona Burkei, F.v.M. Two miles
west of Eriwanjawanja. June 21st.

May 31, 1941 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Eleven

GERANIACEAE. MYRTACEAE.
Erodium eygnorum, Nees. Native name,
malu pumpunju — pital pital. Two Eucalyptus oleosa, F.v.M. (Red Mallee).

miles west of Erliwanjawanja. Purple
flower. June 21st.

EUPHORBIACEAE.

Euphorbia eremophila, A. Cunn. Camp

18. July 16th.

EL. Drummondti, Boiss., manka manka, a
poisonous plant; not used by natives.
Two miles west of Erliwanjawanja.
June 2\st.

Adriana Hookeri, (F.v.M.), Muell. Arg.

Camp 21, on sand slopes on northern

side of Mount. July 19th.

SAPINDACEAE,

Dodonaea attenuata, A. Cunn. Camp
19. Native name, tjenein, tjeneinba.
Shrub on mulga plain; not used by
natives, July 18th.

Dodonaea petiolaris, F.v.M. Northern

slope of Mt. Kintore, on granite rocks.
July 17th.

MALVACEAE.

Sida virgata, Hook. var. phaeotricha
(F.v.M.), Benth. Camp 18, on granite
slopes of Kunamata. July 16th.

Abutilon leucopetalum, F.v.M. (with
diseased flowers), tjeirintjeirin, Erna-
bella; “not eaten; children make small
play spears with it.” June 17th.

STERCULIACEAE.

Brachychiton Gregorii, F.v.M. (Desert
Kurrajong). Between Camps 16 and 17.
Mallee and porcupine plain, each tree
erowing from heart of mallee clump.
Native name, ngalta, ngaltatjiti. Seeds
(tjiti) are an important food. July 15th.
Also Between Camp 24 and 25, in lime-
stone country associated with mallee and
porcupine. Native name, ngalta. The
seeds, deposited with the dung of crows
on granite rock surfaces bearing water
holes, constitute an acceptable source
of supply of grain which is milled on the
rocks and made into native bread. The
accompanying illustration shows the
preparation of this food, provided by
the crow, in the desert south of the Mann
Range. July 26th,

Owalina Soak, Musgrave Range. June
16th.

Prob. £. dichromophloia, F.v.M. Camp
9. Native name, itara. On sandy flat
near southern side of granite range.
June 30th,

Also Camp 16 (fruiting). July 14th.

E. intertexta, R.T.B. (Red Box). Camp
23, on flat beside creek. July 24th.

Also fruits from Owalina Soak, Mus-
erave Range. June 16th.

FE. Ewartiana, Maiden. Camp 17.
Mallee and porcupine plain, fruiting.

July 15th.

Also east of Camp 9, on plain between
Musgrave and Mann Ranges (fruiting).

June 29th,

E. ? rostrata, but of a mallee habit.
Tindale questions /. rostrata identifica-
tion. Camp 17, mallee and porcupine
plain. July 15th.

E. rostrata, Schlechtd. (Red Gum).
Camp 5, growing in creek bed (fruiting).
June 25th.

Thryptomene Maisonneuvii, F.v.M. East
of Camp 9, on crests of sandhills. Honey
dew is gathered from the flowers at
dawn, Native name, wapiti. June 29th.

ASCLEPIADACEAE,

Sarcostemma australe. R.Br. (Milk
Bush). Camp 26. Native name, ipi-
ipi, diminutive of ipi = milk = breast.
Used as white decorative spots on skin
and as medicine to cure sores on hands
(fruiting). July 28th.

Pentatropis Kempeana, F.v.M. — Erna-
bella, Musgrave Range. Creeper; leaves,
stems, flowers and roots eaten raw, also
cooked. Native name, puji, June 7th.

Page Twelve THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
VERBENACEAE.

Newcastlia cephalantha, F.v.M. Four
miles north-west of Camp 18, on sand-
hills with “tea-tree.” July 16th.

Also at Mt. Kintore. July 17th,

SOLANACEAE.

Nicotiana excelstor, J. M. Black (Giant
Tobacco). Camp 14. Native name,
mingurpa, true native tobacco as chewed
in Mann Range. White flower, purplish
on outer part. July llth. Chewed
ereen or after steaming over fire for five
to six minutes.

NATURALIST May 31, 1941
Fremophila longifolia (R.Br.), F.v.M.

Camp 18. On sand slope north of
granite range. July 16th.

E. Latrobei, F.v.M. Mt. Woodroffe,
valley flats at 2,500 feet. June 15th.

Also Camp 21. On red soil plain. July
19th.

Also Atadjara, three miles west of Mt.
Crombie. July 19th.

Also Camp 16. July 15th.

RUBIACEAE,

Solanum petrophilum, Y.v.M. Camp 5.
Purple flower, no edible fruit (prickly).
June 26th.

S. ellipticum, R.Br. Camp 5. Native

Plectronia latifolia (F.v.M.) Benth. et
Hook. Camp 16. July 14th.

name, koilpuru (western dialect); jura- CQMPOSITAE.

rupa (eastern dialect). Green fruit half
inch diameter; sweet, tomato-like favor;
much eaten by natives. June 25th.

Also Camp 9, on granite slopes. Native
name, jurarupa = koilpuru. An edible
fruit. June 30th.

BIGNONIACEAE.

Tecoma doratoxylon, J. M. Black (Spear-
wood Bush), Ernabella. Native name,
urutjan. Used for making a big spear
employed when hunting rabbits. Flowers
and dried seeds. June 7th,

Also Camp 21, in crevices in granite.

July 19th.

MYOPORACEAE.

Eremophila serrulata (A. Cunn.) Druce.

Myriocephalus Stuartii (¥.y.M. et Sond.)
Benth. Two miles west of Camp 3. On
sand-dune where rain showers had _ re-
cently fallen. June 21st.

Also Camp 18. On sandy slope north
of granite range. July 16th.

Calotis hispidula, V.v.M. (the Bogan
Flea). Two miles west of Erliwanja-
wanja. June 21st.

Olearia Ferresii, F.v.M. Camp 23 on
granite rocks. July 24th.

Pierocaulon sphacelatum _—_(Labill.}
Benth. et Hook. Camp 10. On porcu-
pine erass flat, gneissic rock. July Ist.
Senecto Gregorit, F.vy.M. Camp 18. On
sandy slope north of granite range. July
7th.

Wedelia Stirlingiit, Camp 21. July
} 9th.

Camp 9, granite hill, June 30th. Not Identified —Fleshy roots. West of Camp

Also Camp 21. July 19th.

11, on sandhills. Native name, warin-
eura, tjutirangu. July 4th.

May 31, 1941

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Thirteen

Additional Plant Records For National Park,
Morialta, And Waterfall Gully Reserves

By

J. B. CLELAND.

In the “S.A. Naturalist,” Vol. XVII, pages
112-127, 1936, a list is given of the plants
till then identified in the above Reserves.
Since then, a number of additional records,
included in this paper, have been obtained.
The mark x indicates that the species con-
cerned is a new record for any of the three
Reserves, and an asterisk (*) that the species
is an introduced one. Previous records for
the Reserves are indicated by M., W.G., or
N.P. I am indebted to Mr. J. M. Black for
many identifications, and to Mr. S. T. Blake
for reviewing the Cyperaceae.

A total of 575 species, and three varieties in
addition, are now known for these Reserves,
of which 402 are native species and 173 are
introduced.

NATICNAL PARK,

GRAMINEAE:—*Ehrharta longiflora Sm.,

M. W.G.

Amphipogon strictus R.Br. M.

xStipa aristighumis F.v.M. (Nov.)

Eragrostis Brownii Nees. M.

* Festuca rigida (L.) Kunth. M. W.G.

Cynodon dactylon Rich. M. W.G,

x*Hordeum murinum L., Barley-grass.

CYPERACEAE :—Seirpus inundatus (R.Br.)
Poir. W.G.
xLepidosperma carphoides F.v.M. M,
xCarex inversa R.Br,
xC. chlorantha R.Br.
C. sp., probably distinct from C. pumila
Thunb. (which should be deleted).
xC. sp. near C. Blake: Nelmes.
xC, hebes Nelmes.

JUNCACEAE :—Juncus polyanthemus Buch.,
M. W.G.

AMARYLLIDACEAE :—xHypoxis
Hook. f. (Oct.).

IRIDACEAE :—-*Romulea rosea (L.) Eckl.,
M. (Oct.)

pusilla

LORANTHACEAE :—Loranthus Miquelii on

Argyle Apple (Kucatyptus cinerea
F.y.M., planted).
L, pendulus was found growing on

Eucalyptus obliqua, with two trees of
E. leucoxylon, one on each side, with L.
Miquelii on them.

POLYGONACEAE :-—x* Rumex
Fiddle Dock.

pulcher L.,

CHENOPODIACEAL :—xChenopodium cari-
natum R.Br., Keeled Goosefoot (May).

AMARANTACEAE:—x* Amarantus — patulus
Bertol.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE :—Polycarpon _ tetra-
phyllum Loefl. M. W.G.
x* Silene nocturna L.

RANUNCULACEAE :—xRanunculus _ tricho-

phyllus Chaix, Water Buttercup, at the
Railway Dam, Dec., 1939.

PAPAV ERACEAE :—x*Fumaria parviflora
Lamk.

CRUCIFERAE :—*Sisymbrium ortentale L.,
Wild Mustard. W.G.
x*Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Moench.,
Shepherd’s Purse.
x*Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

LEGUMINOSAE :-—x* Medicago conjinis
Koch.
Psoralea patens Lindl., M., W.G.
x*Vicia sativa L. var. angustifolia
Wahlbe.
x*V. hirsuta (L.) S. F. Gray.
xGlycine Latrobeana (Meisn.) Benth.
(Oct.).

GERANIACEAE :—Pelargonium australe

Willd. var. erodioides Benth. M. W.G.

Page Fourteen

MYRTACEAL:—Eucalyptus viminalis grows
in the National Park on the lower slopes
of the gullies as a tall tree with rough
bark up to the branches, or smooth
nearly to the base, the fruits in threes
and fours, apparently no more, and
usually in threes or less. This appears
to be F. Huberiana Naudin.

CENOTHERACEAE:—*Oenothera odorata
Jacg., Evening Primrose, railway line,
beyond Long Gully (Nov.). M.

HALORRHAGIDACEAE :—
elata A, Cunn. (?).

xHalorrhagis

UMBELLIFERAE :—Hydrocotyle
DC. M. W.G.
x*Torilis nodosa (L.) Gaertn. One plant
after the fire of Jan., 1939.

laxiflora

EPACRIDACEAE :—xLeucopogon
(Labill.) R.Br.

virgatus

VERBENACEAE:—*Verbena bonariensis L.
M.

LABIATAE:—x*Stachys arvensis 1., Hedge-

nettle, ef
SOLANACEAE:—Solanum aviculare Forst.

f., Kangaroo Apple. Three seedlings

after the fire of Jan., 1939. W.G.

RUBIACEAE :—Asperula scoparia Hook. f.
(?) M. (Nov.).

x*Galium divaricatum Lambk.

CAMPANULACEAE:—Wahlenbergia Sieberi
A.DC. M. W.G.
W. quadrifida (R.Br.) ADC. M. W.G.

STYLIDIACEAE:—Stylidium graminifolium
Swartz, after the fire of Jan., 1939. M.
W.G.

COMPOSIT AE :—xLageno phora
(Labill.) Druce,
xBrachycome perpusilla (Steetz) J. M.
Black (Oct.).
xOlearia glutinosa (Lindl.) Benth.
x*Anihemis nobilis L., Common Chamo-
mile.

slipitata

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

May 31, 1941
xErechtites picridioides Turez., (Oct.
Dec.) (?).

xHelichrysum retusum Sond. et F.v.M.,
Sturt Road, beside the Park.

Ixodia achilleoides R.Br. M. W.G.
x™*Picris echioides L., Ox-tongue. _ [Pro-
bably the record for the three reserves of
P. hieracioides is a mistake for this
species. |

FUNGI :—Brachy podium distachyum (Gra-
mineae) with smut. Carex sp. (Cypera-
ceae) with rust, April, 1937.
Tricoryne elatior (Liliaceae) with rust.

MORIALTA.,

IRIDACEAE :—Romulea Columnae Seb, et
M. W.G. N.P.

ORCHIDACEAE :—Corysanthes sp.

Pterostylis robusta Rogers. N.P.

LORANTHACEAE :—Loranthus Miquelii on
Eucalyptus rostrata (new host).
L. Exocarpi on Acacia Baileyana F.v.M.
(new host).

RANUNCULACEAE.—Ranunculus
florus L. W.G. N.P.

parvi-

BORRAGINACEAE :—x* Heliotropium — am-
plexicaule Vahl (== Cochranea anchusi-

folia (Poir.) Gurke. (March).

WATERFALL GULLY.

semitannularis

GRAMINEAE :—Danthonia
(Labill.) R.Br. M. N.P,

CYPERACEAE :—xSchoenus foliatus (Hook.
f.) S. T. Blake.
Eleocharis gracilis R.Br., for Heleocharis
multicaulis.
Carex breviculmis R.Br.?, abnormal.
C. fascicularis Brott., for C, pseudo-
cyperus L,

LILIACEAE :—Lomandra caespitosa (Benth.)
Ewart. M.

LORANTHACEAE:—Loranthus Miquellii on

Eucalyptus cosmophylla (new host).

May 31, 1941

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST Page Fifteen

Plants Of The Encounter Bay District
Fifth List Of Additional Records
By
J. M. BLACK AND J. B. CLELAND.

We published a fourth list of additional
records in the “South Australian Naturalist”
for March 24, 1937 (Vol, XVI, No. 4, p. 52).
With the additions in this list, the number
of species now recorded for this district,
extending from the road to Tunkalilla Beach
in the west to Currency Creek in the east,
is 878, together with 20 varieties in addition,
of which 674 species and 17 varieties in
addition are native plants and 204 species and
three varieties in addition are introduced.

+ Indicates a new record. * An introduced

species.

LYCOPODIACEAE :—tLycopodium carolin-

ianum L., creek above Reservoir Dam in

Hindmarsh Valley, Jan., 1937,

POT AMOGETONACEAE :—Posidonia
tralis Hook f., already recorded.
Numerous fruits washed up at Encounter
Bay in the first week of January, 1940.

GRAMINEAE :—Andropogon halepensis (L.)
Sibth., Johnson Grass, already recorded,
in gardens at Victor Harbour.
+Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.
Panicum effusum R.Br., already recorded
for Back Valley, was abundant (spent
heads) near the oval by the Inman River
in May, 1939.

Ehrharta longiflora Sm., already re-

corded, is now common in Victor Har-

bour.

*Phalaris tuberosa L. (?), planted in

cleared ground on the ridges between

Back Valley and the Waitpinga Road,

and appearing sporadically around.

+*Anthoxanthum odoratum _..,
_ Valley, Oct.

+Stipa acrociliata Reader, in scrub under

bushes, etc., near Goolwa, Nov., 1935.

S. tenuiglumis Hughes, already recorded,

near Goolwa, Nov.

+S. elatior Hughes, Encounter Bay (in

Black’s Flora).

+S. aristiglumis F.v.M,

+S. bigeniculata Hughes, Encounter Bay,

Jan,

Back

aus-

{Sporobolus indicus R.Br., Victor Har-
bour, Port Elliot,

Denthonia semiannularis (Labill.) R.Br.,
instead of D. penicillata, In Callistemon
swamp near Encounter Bay; near
Goolwa, Nov.

{D. setacea R.Br., in swampy soil, Back

Valley.

D. auriculata J. M. Black, instead of D.
car phoides.

“Bromus villosus Forsk., instead of B.
maximus.

+*B. madritensis L., Madrid Brome.
+*B. arenarius Labill., Sand Brome, En-
counter Bay.

CYPERACEAE :—Cy perus

Vahl, for C. Eragrostis.
1C. gymnocaulos Steud., Encounter B., w.
of Bluff, heads after bending over root-
ing with a crop of young plants.
{Schoenus foliatus (Hook. f.) S. T.
Blake (==S. axillaris in Black’s Flora),
Back Valley, Oct.

7S. nitens (R.Br.) Poir., Back Valley.

sanguinolentus

S. tenuissimus (Hook. f.) Benth, al-
ready recorded, also Upper Willow
Creek.

tScirpus fluitans L., var. terrestris

F.v.M., Upper Hindmarsh Valley.

1S. lenticularis, in Callistemon swamp
near Bluff, Nov., 1935.

1S. stellatus C. B, Clarke, in Callistemon
swamp near Bluff.

Cladium articulatum R.Br., reported for
Black Swamp, also swamps at Goolwa
and Encounter Bay.

{Cladium laxum (Nees) Benth., vel. sp.
aff., Back Valley.

RESTIONACEAE :—Lepyrodia
Benth., Back Valley.

Muelleri

LILIACEAE :—Lomandra micrantha (Endl.)
Ewart instead of L. multiflora (in error)
recorded,.in flower in May at. Hall’s

Creek,

Page Sixteen

+L. caespitosa (Benth.) Ewart, Mt.
Robinson, above Upper Willow Creek
(edges of leaves very finely serrated).

* Allium vineale L., Crow Garlic. This
is the species (already recorded) which
is spreading near the Inman Mouth.
T*A. rotundum L., Round-headed Garlic,
a few plants in paddocks at Encounter
Bay.

Asparagus medeoloides Thunb., a num-
ber of plants well established in the
scrub on the Currency Creek-Goolwa

Road, November,

Nanthorrhoea ‘australis R.Br., recorded
by J. M. Black (Trs. Roy. Soc. S.A
Vol. 63, 1939, p. 243, for Waitpinga).

ORCHIDACEAE :—Thelymiira — grandiflora
Fitz., Goolwa (in Black’s Flora).
+T. Macmillanii Fv.M., Goolwa
Black’s Flora).

*Microtis oblongata Rogers, Victor Har-
bour (in Black’s Flora, Part IV).
+Diuris palustris Lindl., Goolwa
Black’s Flora).

The following five orchids, already re-
corded, were in flower in Upper Willow
Creek in Jan., 1940:—Microtis _ porri-
folia, M. atrata, Prasophyllum australe,

(in

(in

Orthoceras strictum and Cryptostylis
longifolia.

LORANTHACEAE :—Loranthus pendulus
Sieb., already recorded, on Eucalyptus

viminalis Hindmarsh

Valley.
CHENOPODIACEAE:—Atripex patulum. L.,

already recorded, appeared in great
abundance along the strand from the
Bluff to Victor Harbour in December,
1940, a few plants having been noticed
near the Bluff previously.

+Kochia oppositifolia F.v.M., Goolwa.
Arthrocnemum halocnemoides Nees var.
pergranulatum J. M. Black, Goolwa, near
Port Elliot.

(FE. Huberiana),

AMARANTACEAE :—*Hemichroa pentandra
R.Br., in salt-marsh, Goolwa, flowering
in Dec.

CRUCIFERAE :—*Diplotaxis muralis (L.)
DC. should be var. Babingtonii Syme.
t*Alyssum maritinum (L.) Lamk. The
florist’s Sweet Alyssum is a_ garden

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

May 31, 1941

escape at Port Elliot (May, 1940).
+*Capsella Bursa-pastoris (L.) Moench.,
Shepherd’s Purse, Goolwa.

ROSACEAE :—* Poterium
Sheep’s Burnet, already
Goolwa, Victor Harbour.

LEGUMINOSAE :—Pultenaea

sanguisorba L.,
recorded for

densifolia

I'.v.M., already recorded, near Goolwa,
Noy.
RUTACEAE :—jZieria veronicea F.vy.M., in

sand on ridge behind Victor Harbour.
tPhebalium pungens (Lindl.) Benth.,
scrub along railway line near Goolwa,
identified ie Miss Eardley in early bud,
Oct.

EURPHORBIACEAE :—}* Euphorbia — terra-
cina L., Encounter Bay, Aug.
+Micrantheum demissum ¥.v.M., occurs

on the Adelaide side of the Cut Hill on
the main road,

MALV ACE
G. Don., roadside, Encounter Bay, Jan.

MYRTACEAE:
var. ovoidea J. M.
Black’s Flora for
Goolwa.
Eucalyptus Huberiana Naudin is ap-
parently the form of E. viminalis in this

Black, recorded in

Encounter Bay and

district. In flower, Hindmarsh Valley,
March, 1939.
The following flowering dates of

Eucalypts have been noted:—

E. diversifolia, 19/8/40; E. Baxteri,
20/1/40; E. rostrata, 30/12/40; E.
angulosa, 20/1/40; E. calycogona, Gool-
wa, 20/8/40; F. fasciculosa, Goolwa,
8/1/40, Encounter Bay, 16/8/40.

EPACRIDACEAE:—Leucopogon Clelandii
Cheel, already recorded, also near
Goolwa.

ACROTRICHE sp., near A. divaricata
R.Br. and A. aggregata R.Br., though
probably only a long-leafed variety of
A, affinis, in bud, Goolwa, Nov., 1935.

CONV OLVULACEAE :—**Convolvulus — ar-
vensis, L.; Lesser Bindweed, Victor Har-
bour, Port Elliot,
*Wilsonia humilis R.Br.,
near Goolwa.

LABIATAE :—Lavendula Stoechas U., al-

ready recorded, also Hall’s Creek.

salt swamps

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

SOLANACEAE :—Nicotiana maritima
Wheeler, replaces N. suaveolens.

CAMPANULACEAE:—jWahlenbergia vinei-
flora (Vent.) Decaisne, Mt. Robinson,
Cut Hill, near Goolwa (Nov.).
tW. quadrifida (R.Br.) A.DC., Back
Valley.

GOCGDENIACEAE :—*Dampiera — rosmarini-
folia Schl., is now definitely recorded
for the railway line between Currency
Creek and Goolwa.

STYLIDIACEAE :—*Stylidium — perpusillum
Hook f., in Black’s Flora.

COMPOSITAE :—Lagenophora siipitata
(Labill.) Druce, already recorded, also
Hindmarsh Tiers.
+L. Huegelit Benth., Hall’s Creek.
Brachycome perpusilla (Steetz) J. M.
Black replaces B. collina.

{Vittadinia megacephala (F.v.M.) J. M.
Black, Goolwa.

May 31, 1941

Olearia ramulosa var. microphylla (==
O. ramulosa) and O. revoluta var. minor
(== O. ramulosa) should be deleted,
tErechtites hispidula (A. Rich.) D.C.,
near Goolwa, Nov.

Cassinia laevis R.Br., recorded in Black
(but should be confirmed as it may refer
to C. complanata), replaces the record
of C. aculeata.

Helipterum demissum (A Gray) Druce
replaces H. exiguum.

Helichrysum decurrens ¥.y.M., Goolwa.
*Cirsium Acarna (L.) Moench., Soldier
Thistle, already recorded, Goolwa, June.
t*Onopordon acaule L., Stemless Ono-
pordon, Goolwa, Dec.

*Carthamus lanatus L., recorded for
Goolwa, Encounter Bay, Feb.
*Scorzonera laciniata L., already re-
corded, near Goolwa, Nov.

"*Picris echioides L., Ox-tongue, near
Goolwa, Nov.

+" Sonchus asper Hill.

Fresh Water Snaiis From The River Torrens
By
BERNARD C. COTTON and A. K. BEASLEY

Difficulty has been experienced in naming the
various species of shells taken from the River
Torrens. The following notes are based on
the examination of some hundreds of speci-
mens taken from the river at Marden, Payne-
ham, South Australia.

AMERIANNA TENUISTRIATA SOWERBY,
1873.

This is the commonest and most variable

species in the Torrens, the type locality.

There appear to be four distinct forms.

(a) Typical. Shell blackish green in life,
brown to yellow in the dead shell; spiral
striae marked, visible to the naked eye.
Animal dark grey, tentacles long, whitish at
the base, elsewhere black.

(b) Variety “texturatus Sowerby,” type local-
ity “South Australia.” Shell thicker, axial
sculpture more pronounced than the spiral.
Animal similar to that of “A. tenwisériata.”
This variety was figured under the name of
“A. bullata” in this publication, vol. 13, no.
4., p. 161, pl. 2, fig. 9, August, 1932.

(c) Shell thick, spiral striae faint, odd yellow
and brown, axial color bands,

(d) Shell very thin, amber coloured, spiral
striae obsolete. Animal red. Although this
variety is placed under A. tenuistriata its true
relationship is doubtful,

Amerianna subacuta sp. nov.

Shell dark green in life, dark brown or
yellow when dead; medium thickness; axials
fine and regular, no spiral striae; body and
spire long, spire a little longer than the body
whorl and acute. Animal dark grey, ten-
tacles long and white. Holotype. Shell
length, 18 mm., widih 7 mm.; Marden, River
Torrens, South Australia (Reg. No. D.14081,
S-A. Mus.). Formerly misidentified as A.
pyramidata (type locality, Flinders Island,
Bass Straits), swbacuta was figured under
that name in this publication, vol. 13, no. 4,
p. 161, pl. 2, fiz. 8, August, 1932. The
Victorian species, A. acutispira and A. pro-
ducta, seem somewhat similar in shape.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST May 31, 1941

The Field Naturalists’ Section

EXCURSIONS 9

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ys ada
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Set ee

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN FEATHER CORALLINE

Sterotheca elongata.

VOLUME 22, No.1.
DECEMBER 7, 1941.

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periodical.

OPP rs HAL |

RAM Lee ae
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ss
°%

ROYAL

SOCIETY OF

CONTENTS:

HYDRANTHS AND JELLY
FISHES.

NORTHERN FLINDERS
SNAILS.

EDIBLE SHELL FISH
IN FIJI.

A NEW PIPE FISH.

EUCALYPTS OF NATIONAL
PARK.

57th ANNUAL REPORT.

The South Australian

NATURALIST

JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

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THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

December 22, 1941.

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THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page One

HYDRANTHS AND JELLY FISHES

By

% BERNARD C. COTTON and FRANK K. GODFREY

Each of the major groups of the Animal
Kingdom is termed a phylum, many authori-
ties reckon twelve, counting from the lowest
forms upwards. Unicellular organisms,
example Foraminifera, constitute Phylum 1.
The Mollusca are well up the scale in Phylum
XI. The life forms here considered rank in
Phylum IH, and especially that class or sec-
lion termed Hydrozoa.

These lowly, but very interesting animals, are
usually small. They have an internal cavity
in which there is no separation between the
enteric or digestive cavity, and the coelome
or body cavity, just one continuous space
representing both and opening only on the ex-
terior by the mouth. In one stage of their
life history they are called Zoophytes (Gr.
zoophuton—an animal-plant), a term we
prefer to-day to consider as plant-like-animals.
In the other stage they are styled Medusae,
better known as jelly-fishes.

Aristotle, in the fourth century B.C., began
that systematic collection of knowledge which
nowadays we call science. He sent out
explorers to collect facts. He was the father
of Natural History and wrote:—

“The second step Nature takes is from
plants to plant-animals, Zoophytes. There
are many creatures which leave the observer
in doubt as to whether they are plants or
animals, for they grow on the rocks, and
many die if detached.”

The other term also is Greek. Medusa, in
classical mythology, was one of the Gorgons
who. giving offence to Minerva, had the fine
hair, on which she prided herself, turned to
serpents. We sometimes speak of jelly-fishes
as sea-nettles. because of the ability possessed

by some of them to sting by means of trail-
ing tentacles, hence the allusion.

A zoophyte, bearing the genus name Obelia,
is found growing on seaweeds, rocks, and
jetty piles, below low tide mark. The colour
is whitish or light brown, and it is almost
fur-like, consisting of branched filaments
about the thickness of fine sewing cotton.
Some of these filaments are closely adherent
to the weed or timber, and serve for attach-
ment, while others are given off at right
angles, and present at intervals short lateral
branches, each terminating in a_ bud-like
enlargement. The whole structure is a
zoophyte colony, consisting of a common
stem on which are borne numerous zooids.
The word zooid is from two Greek words
(zoon——an animal; eidos—resemblance), and
indicates an animal organism not indepen-
dently developed from a fertilized ovum, but
derived from a preceding individual by the
process of fission or of budding.

The short lateral branches are mostly arranged
in an alternate manner and bear the zooids
at their ends. The large majority of the
zooids have the form of little conical struc-
tures each enclosed in a glassy, cup-like
investment or hydrotheca (of or belonging
to Hydra, the typical genus of the class
Hydrozoa; theca—a sheath), and produced
distally into about twenty-four tentacles,
These zooids are the hydranths (Gr. hydra.,
and anthos—a blossom) or polyps.

Less numerous and found chiefly towards the
base of the colony, are long cylindrical
bodies or blastostyles (Gr. blastos—a sprout;
stylus—a pillar or post), each enclosed in a
transparent case, the gonotheca (Gr. gonos—
offspring, seed; theca—a sheath), and bearing
numerous small lateral offshoots known as
medusa-buds. Both blastostyles and medusa-
buds are zooids, so the colony is trimorphie.
having zooids of three kinds.

Page Two

A hydranth is a somewhat cylindrical, hollow
body, yellowish, and produced at its far end
into a conical elevation, around the base of
which are arranged the twenty-four tentacles
in a circle. This hollow body opens out
by the mouth, which is placed at the summit
of the conical elevation in the midst of the
tentacles. Small organisms may be caught
by the tentacles and carried towards the
mouth to be swallowed.

The hydrotheca is vaseshaped, transparent
and colourless. When irritated the hydranth
withdraws ilself partly into the hydrotheca,
and the tentacles become shortened and
curved over.

The blastostyle has neither mouth nor ten-
tacles, and ends distally in a flattened disc.
The hydrotheca of a hydranth is here repre-
sented by the gonotheca, a cylindrical capsule
enclosing the whole structure, but ultimately
becoming ruptured at its distal end to allow
the escape of the medusa-buds. These last
are, in the young condition, mere hollow off-
shoots of the blastostyle. When fully
developed they have the appearance of
saucers attached by the middle of the convex
surface to the blastostyle, produced at the
edge into sixteen very short tentacles, and
having a blunt process, the manubrium (Lat.
—a handle, from manus—the hand), pro-
jecting from the concave surface like the
handle of an umbrella. They are ultimately
set free, through the aperture in the
sonotheca, as little medusae or jelly-fishes.

The mouth of a medusa is at the free end of
the manubrium or umbrella handle, and is
four-sided. It leads into an enteric cavity
which occupies the whole interior of the
manubrium. From the dilated base of the
latter, are sent off four delicate tubes, the
radial canals, which pass at equal distances
from each other through the substance of the
umbrella to its margin, where they all open
into a circular canal, running parallel with
and close to the margin. By means of this
system of canals, the food, taken in at the
mouth and digested in the manubrium, is
distributed to the entire medusa.

The edge of the umbrella gives off the
tentacles, sixteen in the newly born medusa.
and very numerous in the adult. At the
bases of eight of the tentacles, two in each

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST December 22, 1941.

quadrant, are globular sacs, each containing
a caleareous particle. These are marginal
sense organs and their function, probably, is
to guide the medusa by imparting a sense
of direction,

The various branches of the common stem
of the fixed colony are formed of two layers:
a transparent, tough, outer membrane, yellow-
ish, and of a horny consistency, the perisarc
(Gr. perisarkos—surrounded with flesh), and
an inner, delicate, granular layer, the
coenosare (Gr. koinos—common; sarx—
flesh), continuous with the body of each
hydranth. The perisare is but a cuticle,
formed, layer by layer, as a secretion. It is
composed of a substance of chitineid and
serves as a protective external skeleton. In
the same way hydrothecae and gonothecae are
cuticular products of the hydranths and blas-
tostyles respectively. At the base of each
zooid or branch the perisare presents several
annular constrictions, giving it a ringed ap-
pearance.

The hydranths, their tentacles, the coenosarc,
the blastostyles and medusa-buds are all com-
posed of two layers of cells, with a delicate,
transparent membrane between them, the
same being thus continuous through the entire
zoophyte colony.

Embedded in the outer layer of cells are
numerous clear ovoid bodies, the stinging
capsules or nematocysts (Gr. nematos—a
thread; kustis—a bag), serving as weapons
of offence, and their minute barbs and poison-
ous threads exert a numbing effect on the
tiny animals upon which the hydranth preys.

The zoophyte colony is a community of
individuals run on the strictest of co-opera-
tive principles, in which the good fortune
accruing to one of the hydranths by food
falling in its way, is shared by all alike. A
hydranth cannot digest it and retain it to
its own selfish use, instead, it goes to the
nutriment of the commonwealth,

The method of reproduction is noteworthy.
In the fixed colony there are no sexual cells
set apart for reproduction. Such are found
only in the medusa and not in the colony.

Hanging from the. umbrella, at equal dis-
tances, are four ovoid bodies (gonads), each

enclosing a mass of cells, differentiated into

December 22, 1941.

hydranth
(immature)

Sa
hydranth Nae

or polyp

* hydrotheca

medusa

manubrium

ak

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST Page Three

CANN
a (ip

— hydranth

/
; / perisare

py}
/

oenosarc

medusa-bud

gonotheca

blastostyle

tentacle

oral aspect

A Diagrammatic Figure of Obelia

ova or sperms. Each medusa is of one
sex only, either male or female. When the
gonads are ripe, the sperms of the male
medusae are shed into the water and carried
by currents to the females, impregnating the
ova, which thus become oosperms or uni-
cellular embryos. The oosperm undergoes
complete segmentation and is converted into
an ovoidal body called a planula. This
swims free for a time, then settles down on
weed, rock or timber, fixes itself and develops
into a hydrula or simple polyp, having a
disc of attachment at one end, and at the
other a cirelet of tentacles. Soon the hydrula
sends out lateral buds, and by a frequent
repetition of this process, becomes converted

into the complex colony with which

started.

we

This remarkable life history is an example of
alternation of generations, or metagenesis
(Gr. meta—denoting change; genesis—origin,
source, birth). The colony is sexless, having
no gonads, and developing only by the
asexual process of budding; but certain of
its buds, the medusae, develop gonads, and
from their impregnated eges new colonies
arise, We thus have an alternation of an

asexual generation, the fixed zoophyte colony.

with a sexual generation, the medusa or

jelly-fish.

Page Four THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST December 22, 1941.

OBELIA GENICULATA.

PLUMULARIA COMPRESSA. AAGLAOPHENIA DIVARICATA.

SERTULARIA MINIMA

HALICORNOPSIS ELEGANS.

SERTULARELLA INDIVISA,

SCHIZOTRICHA SUSKI.

AGLAOPHENIA = PLUMOSA.

SERTULARELLA NEGLECTA.

SOME COMMON HYDROIDS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

At Marino, and some other beaches, the tides
have thrown up a sand ridge which holds
back a quantity of water when the tide
retires. Here, in this shallow sea pond, is
seen a quantity of brown weed, the long
narrow leaves of the submarine plant
Posidonia australis Hook. A_ little close
attention will reveal feather-like structures,
a few inches in length, floating free or al-
tached by one end to other marine objects,

such as sponges or sea-plants. Here we have
another zoophyte colony, a community of
individuals, bearing the name Stereotheca
elongata Lamouroux. On the cover we have
reproduced a photograph, taken by one of us,
of a specimen of the common South Austra-
lian Feather Coralline (Stereotheca elongata)
taken at Marino. An enlarged diagram of
the hydranths is depicted elsewhere in this
article. In the photograph the larger zooids

aN

December 22, 1941. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Five

are the gonothecae. This and certain other
species of Hydroid zoophytes live among the
brown seaweeds just below the lowest of low
tides, and may be sought alive in rock pools
which are never emptied of water, on reefs
such as at Port Noarlunga and Marino. In
such a quest the collector should lie flat
beside the pool, bringing the eye close to
the water, and look down the side to catch
the outline of any specimens attached to it.
They may be obscured by tufts of algae, so
a hasty glance may not be sufficient, Also
watch for the shadows for thus will one often
secure the reality. The forms we seek are
frail and less easy to see than the images
sketched by the light on the rock beneath.

The hydrotheca of Stereotheca is a somewhat
tubular cup, and affords an efficient protec-
tion for the hydranths when they are

retracted. The gonotheca is greatly elon-
gated and enlarged, and the distal end is
somewhat produced. The medusae are

degenerate or rather rudimentary, they are
undetached in maturity and do not swim off
as the medusae of Obelia. Nevertheless they
are the bearers of the sexual cells, and
scatter the ova which develop into the
hydroid colony, in the manner already
described.

In some forms of the Hydrozoa there are no
free medusae, the zoophyte colony producing
fixed reproductive zooids. In others again,
there is no zoophyte stage, the organism exist-
ing only in the medusa (jelly-fish) form. In
Stereotheca we saw a degenerate medusa
stage; there are also forms with a degenerate
7oophyte stage.

Thus we have zoophyte colonies known to
produce free medusae, zoophyte colonies
known not to produce free medusae, and
medusae known to have no zoophyte stage.
It is also noted that in some cases closely
allied zoophytes produce very diverse
medusae, while similar medusae in other
cases may spring from very different zoo-
phytes.

Which came first on the scene, the zoophyte
or the medusa—the hydranth or the jelly-
fish?

The life histories of the Hydrozoa may be
represented by formulae.
Let H=a conspicuous hydranth stage.

M=a conspicuous medusa stage.

h=a degenerate hydranth stage.

m=a degenerate medusa stage.

O=the fertilized ovum.

1. O-H-O—example Hydra, found only in
freshwater ponds.
O-H-m-O—example Stereotheca.,
O-H-M-O—-example Obelia.
O-h-M-O-—example Liriope. A metamor-
phosis directly converts a
Hydra-like form into a medusa.
5. O-M-O—example Geryonia; exists only
in the medusa stage, through
adaptation to a wandering life
on the ocean wave far from land,

The accompanying text figure was prepared
by Maurice Blackburn, M.Sc., of the Fisher-
jes Section, C.S.1.R., Cronulla, New South
Wales, and is here reproduced by permission.
Common South Australian Hydroids are there
depicted, greatly magnified.

A SOUTHERN RECORD OF THE
YELLOW-BELLIED BAT

By E. F. BOEHM,
Sutherlands, S.A., 4/6/1941.

The yellow-bellied bat (Saccolaimus flaviven-
tris, Peters, 1866) appears to be uncommon
in South Australia. Prof, F. Wood Jones
(“Mammals of South Australia,” p. 403,
1925) recorded specimens from Gladstone,
Penfield and the Far North. It apparently
inhabits the north-eastern portion of the Aus-
tralian continent and southern records are
rare,

An example of the species was captured in
scrub between Tintinara and Coombe, S.A.,
in 1932. It was being chased by magpies

(Gymnorhina) and miners (Myzantha).
Particulars of this specimen are as follows:—
No. 95, Boehm collection; male, forearm 74
mm.; llth May, 1932. Collector, Mr. W. J.

Harvey.

The locality is approximately 36 degrees
south latitude, and the occurrence seems to
constitule the furthest south record for the
State. As in New South Wales, this fine,
large bat probably lives in colonies of four
or five in hollow trees,

Page Six THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

December 22, 1941.

THE HABITAT OF SOME NORTHERN
FLINDERS SNAILS

By

H. M. COOPER.

An interesting feature of many types of our
native landshells is their characteristic habit
of living in comparatively restricted areas.
Thus two distinct species may often be ob-
served living within close proximity to one
another, yet with the line of demarcation
sharply defined. It seems therefore, most
desirable that localities from where speci-
mens are taken should be carefully noted,
more especially when the topography of the
country changes abruptly. Loosely designated

place names have already caused much

confusion. As an instance, Meracomelon
meridionale suspectum Iredale, was described
as from Parachilna, which is evidently incor-
rect, Parachilna is in typical sandy and
loamy plains country, inhabited by
Sinumelon remissum, a large globose snail
found in areas with these features. Meridion-
ale suspectum, a flat rock living type, how-
ever, exists in the Flinders Ranges, whose bold
western scarp (at places 3,000 feet above sea
level) commences about five miles to the east
of Parachilna. As meridionale and suspec-
tum figure prominently in this paper, they
may now be described, as the two have already
been confused and are distinct species.
Thersites (Badistes) meridionale Gude, was

described from “South Australia,” and later
Iredale gave the locality as “South Australia
—Blinman eastwards.” The type locality of
this species is here given as 4 miles south of
Blinman (See Cotton, S.A. Naturalist, Vol.
20, No. 1, Page 5). Meracomelon meridionale
Gude, to give il its correct generic name, is
keeled in the juvenile whorls while the body
whorl becomes rounded towards the aperture.
Meracomelon suspectum Iredale, was de-
scribedas from Parachilna, but as already

mentioned, the species does not occur there.
This snail is found at Parachilna Creek cliffs,
6 miles 5.W. of Blinman, which we designate
ihe type locality. (See Colton, SA. Natu-
ralist, Vol. 20, No. 1, Page 5.) Meracomelon
suspectum is a flat shell, which has the keel
permanently retained to the aperture. Unfor-
tunately, the original figure given of the
holotype is incorrect, as it shows a rounded
body whorl and no keel at the aperture; it is,
in fact, a typical Meracomelon meridionale.
The two species occur together in the moun-
tains, and are entirely different. In other
parts of the district they occur alone. Their
range has not yet been clearly defined, but
material from 38 localities indicates that they
are plentiful at least over the full width of

December 22, 1941.
the ranges, that is, about 25 miles east and
west along a belt, with Blinman approxi-

mately as its centre. Elevation and rainfall
both rise sharply as the hills are entered
from the plains from either side, with, in
the main, a corresponding increase in the
relative occurrence of the snails under review,
Both species, therefore, seem to flourish best
under comparatively moist conditions and are
confined to rocky localities, such as the ledges
shown in the accompanying photographs and
also in the broken and precipitous rock faces
of gum creeks and generally, where disturbed
rock surfaces afford cover. About 20 living
specimens of Meracomelon suspectum, taken
near Blinman, were kept under observation
at Glenelg for a period of over six months;
there were also several Notobadistes aversum,
a small globose snail from the same locality.
Mecaateeete suspectum invariably sheltered
under the rocks provided for the purpose,
while Notobadistes aversum were always ob-
served partly buried in the surface soil.
Meracomelon meridionale and suspectum do
not occur in open or hilly country in the area
mentioned above, unless suitable rock shelter
is available. Mount Emily, a rather striking
hill about 1,700 feet above sea level and 8
miles south of Blinman, is shown in the left-
hand photograph. The horizontal rocky
ridge near the summit is a feature of the
landscape in this locality, the many crevices
providing ideal shelter. The other photo-
graph shows a typical group of Meracomelon
meridionale on the same mountain. A sig-
nificant occurrence of snail distribution im
these hills is the abundance of dead juveniles
wedged amongst the crevices, suggesting that
they. along wath other forms of ie. had been
overtaken before maturity by prolonged
periods of drought, unfortunately all too fre-

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Seven

quent in the arid parts of South Australia.
Contramelon howardi Angas, of which we
have many specimens, has frequently been
confused with Meracomelon suspectum, but
it is generically distinct, being smaller, more
golid and has a round aperture with a
strongly reflexed lip. It may be helpful to
remark at this point that it is possible to
collect, on occasions, isolated dead snails of
mountain types in areas on the plains flooded
after heavy rains in the ranges and carried
thence by gum creeks. In such cases, the
collector would observe due caution in decid-
ing the distribution of his specimens. In
recommending the desirability of recording
all possible data covering our native snails
before they are swept away by cultivation,
burning off, and the other necessary inroads
of civilised life, mention may be made of
Cupedora evandaleana Pfeiffer, once typical
of the Adelaide Plains and now probably
extinct or nearly so, although it may still
occur in the Mount Lofty seers We now
have here at least one imported carnivorous
slug, Testacella haliotidea Draparnaud, and
four imported snails, Helicella ericetorum
Muller, Euparypha pisana Muller, Cochlicella
acuta Muller, and Helix aspersa Muller, the
latter causing serious damage to vegetation.
Transported ess numerous agencies of Rr iatern
life, all five are steadily airentine. As an
example, Helix aspersa Muller was estab-
lished at Muston, Kangaroo Island, by the
medium of vegetables landed at the jetty,
spreading thence to Salt Lake by railway on
bags of coal. It is certainly tragic that whilst
imported snails thrive here both in quantity
and size, our harmless native representatives,
by the very nature of ever changing condi-
tions, speedily lose ground and face ultimate
extinction.

NOTICE TO

In the next issue of this magazine it is
proposed to publish a list of the names and
addresses of all members of the Section.

Members are requested, therefore, to notify

MEMBERS.

any change of address as early as possible.

W. M. NIELSEN,

Hon. Secretary.

Page Eight THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

EDIBLE SHELL FISH

December 22, 1941-

IN THE FIJT ISLANDS

By

W. R, STEADMAN

Perhaps nowhere in the world is the extensive
use of shell fish for food by the natives a
more important part of the ordinary diet of
the people than in the Fiji Islands. Almost
every day the Fijian women go out at low
tide with palm leaf baskets gathering all
kinds of shell fish for their daily food. With
an iron spiked spear to probe around holes in
the reef, they search for fish, octopus, and
other edible denizens of the coral reef. Their
sight is keen, and their prowess in capturing
their prey is excellent from acquired ability
daily improved. At other times the women
may be seen slowly exploring mud flats and
shallow estuaries in search of the many
species of edible mollusca found there. In
the rivers, particularly the Rewa and Ba
Rivers on the Island of Viti Levu, women
wade out into the deep water and dive for
the fresh water mussels found in immense
quantities there. Sometimes one or two men
may be seen searching with the women, and
frequently young children join them, but the
native women are the main daily searchers
for reef fish and mollusca.

On Saturday mornings it is a most interesting
sight to visit the native open air markets at
Suva, Nausori, Ba, Lautoka, and other centres.
Here, in addition to fruit and vegetables from
native gardens, can be seen great quantities
of shell fish contained in palm leaf baskets
set out for sale. Business for the whole
morning, and often well on into late after-
noon, is brisk, and sometimes it seems in-
credible that so great a quantity of shell fish
is regularly available and sufficient purchasers
forthcoming to use it all. Although the
Fijians are fond of beef; and there is a good
supply of local meat at reasonable prices,
nevertheless a very great quantity of fish and
shell-fish is eaten, and forms a very valuable
part of the people’s regular diet. In the
recent Report of a Committee of the British
Colonia] Office on Nutrition in the Colonial
Empire, on page 106 of Vol. IJ it is stated

“The majority of Fijians obtain an adequate
supply of protein food from fish and shell
fish obtained from lagoons and rivers.” And
in Vol. | page 67 it is stated “Fish can con-
tribute a number of constituents which are of
importance to the dietary. In particular its
proteins may be very valuable indeed. Fish
oil, fish livers, and fat fish such as herring
and salmon are also rich in vitamin A, and
small fish entirely consumed give calcium and
other inorganic elements. In addition, sea fish.
are an important source of iodine. In short,
they are a most valuable foodstuff, and we
regard it as most important that supplies of
fish in and around Colonial waters should be
developed to the maximum possible extent.”

As a rule both fish and shell fish are eaten
with some vegetable food, either yams (uvi),
taro (ndalo), tapioca (kassava), sweet pota-
toes (kumala), or with cooked leaves such
as taro leaves, or leaves of the chili bush.

When boiled, and sometimes when eaten raw,
the animal is extracted from the shell by
means of a lemon tree thorn, otherwise the
shell is shattered.

The most common shell fish eaten are fresh
water mussels—Cyrena batissa unioniformis
(kai), which are obtained in the river beds
of the main rivers in immense quantities, and
are very popular with the natives. There are
two species, which are distinguished by the
natives by the names kai mbuli and kai tamha
ni sama. These are all eaten boiled.

Another exceedingly common shell fish, which
is usually eaten raw, is the Pearl Oyster—
Pinctada martensi (thivathiva), which occurs
in certain coastal localities in great abun-
dance, particularly around the islet of Viwa
adjacent to the old capital, Mbau, Other
species of Pearl Oyster—Pinciada margariti-
fera; Malleus malleus. Pteria sp.; and
Pedalion sp.. are also used, but in less nume-
rous quantities. The Spondylus, also called

December 22, 1941.

thivathiva by the natives, is a popular food,
Oysters of several species—Ostraea spp.
(ndio), are also eaten raw. Among the
bivalves Anadara antiquata scapha (kaikoso)
together with several species of cockles
(vivili) are extensively used, and are eaten
both cooked and raw. Limpets—WNerita spp.,
Natica spp., and Polinices mamilla and P.
melanostoma (Ndrevulakata) are also eaten
both cooked and raw.

A further very common article of diet is the
Spider Shell—Pteroceras lambis (yanga), of
which there appears to be an abundant supply
on the shallow muddy reef near the mouths
of several rivers. These are boiled, and
sometimes form a meal in themselves, though
perhaps more often eaten with vegetables.
There are several other kinds of Strombus
that are eaten, especially Ser. gibberulus, Str.
urceus, Str. luhuanus, and when available
Str. bryonia, Str. lentiginosus, Str. latissimus,
Str. laciniatus, Str, aurisdianae. The larger
Strombus are called yanga by the Fijians, and
the smaller species ngera. Prices for shell
fish are very low, and a basket of about 24
Pteroceras lambis is sold for sixpence in
Suva native market.

The Tridacna (vasua) is a very popular meal
with the Fijian people. It is eaten in three
ways:—(1) Sometimes eaten raw. The
women cut open the hinge and extract the
flesh, which they cut up into pieces and mix
with lemon juice and chilis (roketi). In
this form it is eaten with boiled yams or taro,
and deemed a great delicacy. (2) Some-
times it is eaten cooked. The flesh is
extracted from the shell and boiled with taro
leaves, water cress, or chili leaves, or it may
he boiled in cocoanut milk. This cocoanut
milk is made by scraping the white of the
cocoanut into a mince which is mixed with
water and then on being squeezed out the
moisture looks like milk with the juice cf
the cocoanut taken off by the water. Al-
though this method of boiling is often used,
the natives prefer the first method eaten raw,
(3) Sometimes the flesh of the Tridaena is
smoked, and in this way it mav be kept for
two months. or even longer. but when it is
soaked and boiled for use later on. it is
rather tough, and not so popular,

Various species of Conus are eaten boiled.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine

The natives call all Cones vuru. Trochus
niloticus (sithi), and other types of Trochus,

are eaten. The Fijians save the shell of
Trochus niloticus for sale to merchants, and
get a good price for first grade shell. A

number of different species of Turbo shells
(la) are also eaten, especially Turbo
argyrostoma. I am told that the natives do
not eat Turbo petholata, although at times
it is found in quantities. The natives call
the operculum of Turbo petholata mataka-
rawa, which means “green eye.”

Of the larger shells Triton ¢éritonis, Ranella
lam pas, Cassis spp., and Murex ramosus, are
all eaten cooked, and served with vegetables.

The natives call all these larger shells ndavui.

Very many smaller shells such as Terebra
spp. Mitra spp., Oliva spp., Gerithium
spp., Cymatium spp., Vasum spp.. Dolium
spp.. are all eaten cooked with vegetables.
but are not so widely used as other kinds.

The natives call all these by the general term
vivili. Patella (yamiyami) and Haliotis ovina
are also ea'en raw. Piana serrata is abundant
in the mud flats near the shore, and is some-
times gathered and eaten boiled. The native
name for the Pinna is thiware. Chitons
(tunduruku) are popular, and are sometimes
eaten raw, but often boiled with taro leaves
and eaten in that way. Echinus spp. (nggina
for short spined, and ngasangasau for long
spined), especially Diadema setosum, are
eaten both raw and cooked. Sea cucumbers
—Holothuroidea (ndri), are also used for
food. They are cooked and then skinned for
eating. As far as I can gather, for some
reason not known, no Cowries are ever used
for food. The general name for Cowries
used by the natives is mbuli.

Of crustaceans there is an abundant supply,
and these are very popular. They include
Scylla serrata (nggari)—a large mud crab;
Calappa fornicata (nggari vatu)—rock crabs:

saltwater crayfish—Panulirus _penicillatus
(urau); fresh water prawns—-Palaemon Sp.
(ura); mangrove lobster—T'hallasina ano-
mala (mana). These together with several

other kinds are boiled and eaten.

Page Ten

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST December 22, 1941.

A NEW SOUTH AUSTRALIAN PIPE FISH

HERBERT

By

M. HALE,

Director, South Australian Museum.

FAMILY SYNGNATHIDAE.

Histiogamphelus gallinaceus sp. nov.
Male.—Dorsal fin with 23 rays; pectoral
with 12 rays; caudal with 10 rays. Thoracic
annuli 20; caudal: annuli 31. Subdorsal
annuli 5 + 2. Brood pouch 13 caudal annuli.

Head about four and one-half times into
length of trunk and twelve times into total
length; eye a little less than half as long as
snout, which is two-fifths as long as head.
Trunk two-thirds as long as tail. Caudal fin
about one-third as long as head, Cephalic
crest rising steeply from the lips, evenly
rounded and not bisinuate; continued back-
wards to beyond middle of second, or pec-
toral, annulus as a low ridge; no other trace
of dorsal median ridge. Latero-superior
ridges ending on middle of length of second
caudal annulus. Medio-lateral ridges just
reaching on to first caudal ring. Latero-
inferior ridges and a median abdominal ridge
prominent. Tail square in section with four
ridges, the upper of which commences near
anterior margin of last thoracic annulus

above termination of medio-lateral ridge-
Caudal and minute anal fin fan-shaped.

Colour: Dark brown with front of snout while
and with grey moltlings on sides and belly.
Dorsal fin pink; caudal black.

Length: 196 mm.

Loc.—South Australia, Gulf St. Vincent, silt
grounds at Outer Harbour. (A. E. McWaters,
August, 1941.) Holotype, male, in South
Australian Museum. Reg, No. F°.2057.

H, gallinaceus differs from H. maculatus
(described from a single female) in that
the cephalic crest is elevated anteriorly
and is not bisinuate, the ridge defining the
upper margin of the snout below the crest
extends towards the middle of the depth of
the eye rather than towards its lower margin,
while posteriorly the supra-orbital ridges
trend upwards towards the profile. Further,
the colour is entirely different, and there is no
trace of a median dorsal ridge, excepting for
the continuation of the cephalic crest to the
second thoracic annulus.

Histiogamphelus gallinaceus sp. nov:

Male, holotype.

December 22, i941. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Eleven

THE EUCALYPTS OF THE NATIONAL PARK
N. B. fae

The identification key given below is not a botanical classification. It is a rough field
classification, and as such is applicable only to those parts of National Park and its
immediate environs which are stil] natural forest. It should also be understood that
occasional trees, by reason of various natural factors, may not conform strictly to the
classification.

Detailed descriptions of the species listed, and explanations of the botanica] terms used,
will be found in J. M. Black’s “Flora of South Australia.” For more detailed locations
of the various species in National Park, reference should be made to the F.N.S. publica-

tion, “National Park of S.A.”

THE EUCALYPTS OF THE NATIONAL PARK.
A. ROUGH BARKS:

Bark rough throughout, including branches. Brown or darker in colour, except
E, fasciculosa, the bark of which, even if rough on the upper branches, is whitish in
colour.

B. SMOOTH BARKS:
Bark smooth, whitish or greyish, often throughout, and almost always on the upper
branches. Bark often rough and darkish about the base of the trunk, but not on

branches. Bark of F. fasctculosa may be rough throughout, but is whitish in colour.
A. Rough Barks:
B. Fruits small, up to 4} in. long, rarely as broad . wu... E. odorata.

2. Fruits large, 3 in. to 4 in. long, about equally broad.

C. Fruits not pedicellate Sen E. Baxteri.

C. Fruits pedicellate 0.0) eee eee Pree ee yoate E. obliqua.

A, Smooth Barks:
B. Fruits large, over 3 in. long and broad.
C. Fruits not pedicellate, or very shortly so... _..... .. E. cosmophy lla.

C. Fruits pedicels very long DE eee ORR RAD a sh E. leucoxylon.

B. Fruits small, seldom exceeding + in. in length.
C. Valves sunken
Valves exserted.

Pee SPN ge ava wm E. fasciculosa.

D. Buds mostly cruciform (three in the form of a cross).
E. Juvenile leaves bright green, lanceolate ..... E. viminalis.
E. Juvenile leaves grey-green, cordate __..... wan BE. rubtda.
D. Buds never cruciform, 5 to 12 in a cluster, bud
caps rostrate ae

mes E. rostrata.
Confirmatory characteristics to the above classifications are:
!), odoraia (Peppermint): Spindly tree, trunk and limbs blackish in appearance. Fruits

heavily clustered (in umbels), umbels set back from the leafy ends of the branches (i.e.
are lateral). Pedicellate, valves sunken.

FE’. Baxteri (Baxter’s stringybark) :

Fruits top-shaped to hemispherical, not pedicellate, umbels many-flowered (and thus
many-fruited), lateral. Rim very broad, exserted. Valves exserted, generally 4.

Pare Twelve THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST December 22, 1941.

A few in north-eastern corner of the Park. Some good specimens in Sunset Rock
area,
E. obliqua (Stringybark) :

Fruits cup-shaped, pedicellate, clustered in large, lateral umbels. Rim sloping
sharply inward. Valves sunken.

Higher parts of the Park, northern slopes of Long Gully, and the north-eastern
corner along and beyond the railway line.

I’. cosmophylla (Scrub Gum) :

Small tree, up to about 20 feet. Fruits mostly in threes, not pedicellate, or only

very shortly so. Over % in. long and broad. Valves slightly exsert.

A few trees along the southern boundary,

I. leucoxylon (S.A. Blue Gum):

Fruits often single or in twos, lateral, { in. to 4 in. long and broad. Rim often

a i A . z y
deciduous as a brown, circular ring soon after fall of the flowers. Valves deeply enclosed.
Long pedicels, mostly 4 in. to $ in. long.

All through the Park,

K. fasciculosa (Pink Gum):

Fruits cup-shaped, $ in. long, seldom less, pedicellate: Large terminal umbels, but
never closely clustered.

Mostly in the north-eastern corner, on highest parts of the Park. Upper parts of
the Queen Victoria Drive.

KE. viminalis (Manna Gum, Ribbony Gum):

Bark sometimes persistent on to the lowest branches, but, if so, long and ribbony,
deciduous.

Fruits top-shaped to hemispherical, } in. long and broad, many in threes, cruci-
form, the central one shortly pedicellate, the two lateral ones sessile. This arrangement
is prominent in the young buds. Leaves long, rather darker green than usual, with promi-
nent veins, Juvenile leaves lanceolate, bright green.

Long Gully Oval and its southern slopes; Queen Victoria Drive.

Ee. rubida (Candlebark) :

As E. viminalis, but distinguished by
(1) Bark typically very white above.
(2) Fruits much smaller.
(3) Juvenile leaves cordate, grey-green.

N.B.—Distinction between these trees is often difficult and controversial. The
juvenile leaves are the only certain means of identification.

Some doubtful specimens just above Pienic Point, Queen Victoria Drive,

E. rostrata (River Red Gum):

Fruits very small, generally only about { in. long. Valves very upright and erect,
a further 4 in. long. Bud caps always pointed, and almost always bent over or twisted

at the tip (i.e, restrate). - Umbels: many-fruited, but’ not crowded and lateral.

All through the lower parts of the Park.

Mention might also be made of the planted Sugar Gums (#. cladocalyx) bordering
the main drive at the rear of the railway station. Sugar Gums have a characteristic

smooth, yellowish, often patchy, bark, and can be readily identified by the conspicuous
brownish colour of their crowns, due to the young tips.

December 22, 1941.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Thirteen

AN ADDITION TO THE ORCHIDACEAE

OF SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By
HAROLD GOLDSACK.

In the early part of September, 1940, Mrs.
Moss. Morgan collected at Coffin’s Bay, S.A.,
a parcel of orchids which she sent to Mr.
J. D. Somerville, a member of our section
who had spent some considerable time in
the Port Lincoln district,

Among the orchids in the parcel were several
plants of a species of Pterostylis (Green-
hood’s), which attracted Mr. Somerville’s
notice by their colouring, white with red
striae, and by the fact that the red labellum
was protruded through the sinus of the lower
lip of the flower.

It was apparent, when the plants reached me,
that they did not conform to the description
of any of our known South Australian species.
Close examination of the details of the flower,
however, showed that they did tally with
Pterostylis Hamiltonii, Nicholls, a species
described from Boyup Brook, W.A., in 1933
(Vic. Nat., Vol. L., August, 1933, p. 89).

A specimen of this Pterostylis, together with
dissections of a flower, was sent to Mr. W.
H. Nicholls, of Victoria, who confirmed the
identification.

A condensed description of the species taken
from Mr. W. H. Nicholls’ paper is given.

Pterostylis Hamiltonii, Nicholls. Slender,
elabious plant, 6-15 cm. high. Stem leaves
1-6 lanceolate, leaves reduced to 1 or 2
bracts at base, increasing upwards to 3 cm.
Flower, large, solitary. White, with longi-
tudinal red striae. Galea 2.5-3 cm. long,
Apex shortly acuminate, Lower lip erect
with broad sinus, the long filiform points em-
bracing and exceeding the galea. Labellum

The Chairman
Wishes
The Compliments

Christmas,

(Mr.
All

on short claw, almost wholly red, straplike,
apex curved forward slightly and reaching
well beyond sinus of lower lip when relaxed.
Lamina 1.5-2 cm. long, oblong linear with
long obtuse point. Basal appendage much
curved, apex beset with short barbellate
setae. Column erect, 1.3-1.5 cm. almost
wholly reddish brown, upper lobe with short
erect subulate tooth, lower lobe oblong,
obtuse, margins with short inturned cilia.
Radical leaves not present at flowering stage.

Distribution, W.A., Boyup Brook, June, July.
S.A., Coffin’s Bay (Mrs. M. Morgan), August-
September; Corny Point (Rev. H. A. Gunter).
Mr. Somerville tells me that he collected
similar plants at Port Lincoln on August 6,
1922. ‘These were sent to Dr. R. 5. Rogers,
and were presumably classified as Pt. reflexu
R. Br., this being the name noted in Mr.
Somerville’s diary for the orchids found on
that date. The interesting point has been
raised by Mr. Somerville: “Have all records
of Pt. reflexa R. Br. and Pt. rebusta, Rogers,
found on the West Coast, referred to the
species Pt. Hamiltonit, Nicholls?” Perhaps
if those of our readers who have collected
Pt. robusta, Rogers, on the West Coast would
examine their specimens in the light of this
article we might be able to decide whether one
species or two have actually been collected.
The colour of the flower, and especially the
protruding strap shaped labellum, distinguish
Pt. Hamiltonii, Nicholls, from our well-known
Pt. robusta, Rogers.

Since writing these notes I have seen further
specimens of this orchid collected at Corny
Point in September, 1935, by Rev. H. A.

Gunter, and which are now: in his herbarium.

B. C. Cotton)
Members
the
1941

of

Season for

Page Fourteen

FIELD

WAITE

On the afternoon of Saturday, June 7, a
party of the Field Naturalists visited the
Waite Institute, where they were met by the
Director, Professor J. A. Prescott, and shown
a selection of out of door projects of great
interest to the naturalist.

A group of three wheat stacks built at the
Institute by the Australian Wheat Board for
the Department of Entomology aroused great
interest. The stacks which contain between
them 1,400 bags of wheat are built accord-
ing to the standard practice of the Board.

Members were interested in the methods used
to protect the stacks from ground moisture
and from the weather and with the arrange-
ments made to protect them from mice, One
of the stacks contains only F.A.Q. wheat,
the second contains a proportion of wheat
with more moisture than is usual or desirable,
and the third contains a proportion of bags
of wheat which is already infested with
weevil. In this way Professor Davidson and
his entomologists can observe how the weevil
spreads, and how its spread is affected by
weather conditions. One of the chemists,
Mr. A. E. Scott, is assisting in this work by
following up the change in moisture content
of the grain, and the composition of the air
in the stack, and by observing the temperature
in the stacks.

Tubes for sampling and thermo-couples for
determining the temperature are built into
the stacks for the purpose of making these

observations. The stacks will be kept under
observation for two years and_ possibly
longer.

Another interesting feature demonstrated was
the method used in trying to reclaim for
pasture a paddock that had been denuded of
its herbage by trafhe and overgrazing, and

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

NATURALISTS VISIT THE

December 22, 1941.

INSTITUTE

which had possibly been subject to sheet
erosion when under the plough, probably
more than half a century ago. Even when
the paddock was not grazed, there was little
response to rain owing to the absence of
seed, or owing to the hard surface over which
ihe water ran away as soon as it fell. The
first step was to plough single furrows
exactly along the contour, at intervals of
half a chain. When rain falls and is not
absorbed, it is caught in the furrow and can
then soak into the ground, Along the fur-
rows kikuyu grass has been planted, and
where erosion is severe a cover of slraw or
turves of kikuyu and phalaris has been placed.

The principle is to keep the rain that falls on
the country im the country. Everyone knows
that we never get quite enough rain in South
Australia, and so why waste it?

Another experiment close by illustrated the
effect of different kinds of phosphate fertili-
ser on nature pasture. On the unmanured
ground native grasses like spear grass (Stipa)
and wallaby grass (Danthonia) have still
been maintained, but on the pasture top-
dressed with super the native grasses have
suffered from competition with the introduced
annual plants. A first class pasture must
contain perennial elements, and this is
obtained at the Waite Institute by the use
of phalaris to replace the native kangaroo
grass (themeda) which cannot stand stocking.
and which disappeared many years ago from
the Adelaide plains, and the native wallaby
erass which cannot compete with the annual
clovers and weeds.

The visitors were also shown the sheep pens
where the nutrition experiments are carried
out by the Council for Scientific and Indus-
trial Research, and the new wool shed.

December 22, 1941, THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Fifteen
Report of Excursion to River Onkaparinga Gorge,
Noarlunga, on 1/4/39

A party of 12 went by train to Noarlunga,
where they were met by a party of scholars,
who were supplied by the head teacher, and
who showed the members up the Gorge. The
walk upstream proved much less arduous
than was expected, although the party only
journeyed about one mile from the township.
A map kindly supplied by Mr. W. Tough
was found to be very helpful. Over 56 years
ago Prof. R. Tate collected in this gorge and
his specimens are preserved in the Adelaide
University Tate Herbarium.

During the afternoon 70 species of plants
were collected or noied; 20 of these were
of alien origin,

The most interesting collections were the
following:—A rigid spinescent shrub in the
violet family (ffymenanthera angustifolia),
which is very rare and is only known from
three localities; Fremophila longifolia was
growing on the river-cliffs and was in flower,
and it is possibly the first record of this
species in the southern districts. The plant
is usually found in the northern and dry
areas where practically all the 37 species
grow; the generic name is from Greek, mean-
ing desert-loving and refers to the dry habitat,
A rare cypress pine (Callitris tasmanica) was
found on the bank of the river and only one
tree was seen. This species is only known
from several localities, with very few indi-
vidual plants. A member of the heath family
(Acrotriche cordata probably), which is a
coastal plant, although it occurs in a few
inland places. Three wattles were found;
one is probably the somewhat rare and
localised varnish wattle (Acacia verniciflua) ,
but it was neither in flower nor fruit; the
other one was A. rupicola, which is not at all
plentiful in our State. The purple flowering
teatree (Melaleuca decussaia) found in the
bed of the river is usually found higher in
the range.

The leader, Mr. E. H. Ising, presented the
boys who acted as guides each with a copy
of “The South Australian Naturalist.”

A trip to the same locality in the spring
should reveal more botanical treasures, as the
gorge seems to be the last resort of some of
the original and rare species of this district.
List of plants collected or observed, River
Onkaparinga Gorge, Noarlunga, 1/4/39:—

Callitris tasmanica.
Triglochin striata.

T. procera.

Phragmites communis.
Cyperus vaginatus.
Typha augustifolia.
*Asphodelus fistulosus.
Calostemma purpureum.
Casuarina stricta,
Loranthus Exocarpi.
Muehlenbeckia adpressa.
Rhagodia.

Atriplex Muelleri.

A. semibaccatum.
Chenopodium pumilio.
Chenopodium sp.
Enchylaena tomentosa.
Salsola Kali.
*Amaranthus viridis.
Alternanthera.
Boerhaavia diffusa.
Carpobrotus aequilaterus.
Stellaria.

*Diplotaxis.

Pittosporum phillyraeoides.
Bursaria spinosa.

Rubus parviflorus.
Acacia rhetinodes.

A. verniciflua. (?)

A. rupicola,

Psoralea patens.

*Oxalis cernua.

O. corniculata.
Zygophyllum.

Adriana Klotzchii.
“Euphorbia peplus.
Dodonaea.

Lavatera plebeja. (?)
Sida corrugata, (?)
Hymenanthera angustifolia.
Callistemon salignus.
Leptospermum scoparium.
L. pubescens.

Kucalyptus rostrata (camaldulensis).

Melaleuca decussata.
*Hypericum perforatum.
*Foeniculum vulgare.
Acrotriche cordata.
*Olea Europaea.

* Anagallis,
*Asclepias rotundifolia.
*A, fruticosa,

(?).

Page Sixteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST December 22, 1941.

Dichondra repens. Eremophila longifolia.

Convolvulus erubescens. Lobelia anceps.
*Heliotropium europaeum. Wahlenbergia vinciflora.
*Salvia Verbenaca. Olearia ramulosa. (?)
*Marrubium vulgare. *Xanthium spinosa.
*Datura. Centipeda.

Solanum nigrum. *Centaurea calcitrapa.
*S. Sodomaeum, Juncus pauciflorus.
*Lycium ferocissimum. Corbiculina angasi,
*Nicotiana glauca. Hydrobia victoriae.

FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH
AUSTRALIA—FIFTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT

Ladies and Gentlemen,
Your Committee has pleasure in submitting the fifty-seventh annual report.

With one exception all meetings of the Section have been held in the Royal Society
rooms, and the various subjects chosen by our lecturers proved most instructive, and were
well received.

The conversazione which took place in February was held in the Lady Colton Hall,
Hindmarsh Square.

Throughout the year a good average attendance has been maintained, both at the
evening meetings and at the field excursions, and the objects of the Section have been kept
to the fore.

Membership now stands at 164, and is comprised of three Life Members, eight Hon-
orary Members, one Corresponding Member, and 146 Ordinary Members.

We record with sorrow the death of three esteemed and valued members of the
Section: Messrs. Edwin Ashby, John Royle, and Miss I, Vohr.

During the period under review The S.A. Naturalist has been published three times,
and previous standards were maintained.

The committee met on ten occasions during the year, and many important matters
concerning the welfare of the Section discussed, and new ideas put into operation.

At the beginning of the year the work of the Herbarium was undertaken by a small
committee, but we are pleased to note the formation of a Botany Club as a branch of the
Section, and the work is now being carried on under their direction.

We are indebted to the Malacological Branch for their valued assistance throughout

the year in providing leaders for beach excursions, and for the very interesting evening
meeting in July last.

(Signed) W. M. NIELSEN,

Hon. Secretary.

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS TO JULY 31, 1941.
EXPENDITURE. INCOME.
Bese ce ay FS fol
To Printing— By Balance in Bank, 31/7/40 __..... 49 18 1
“The Naturalist” es, cee Laer coe 66 8 11 Subscriptions and Donations .... 50 7 9
Blocks, Programmes, ete. eae S Colored Plates wn. ss 1 0 0
Poste fein ee hlieeret ames nn 419 0 Sales—
Rent, Epidiascope to June 30 ..... 010 6 the Naturalist? Sse mes, O 9 @
Rent of Beameaee ee cs... 49 0 Other Publications wu. Oy 7 {8
Presentation to Hon. Secretary 5 0 0 ‘Bede Coe. 2. ita sian eee dicate tbe 7 2 (3)
Conversazione _.... tse 517 0 EX CULSIONS i= an anne ame 31 8 11
Filin; qEline eee men oe oe bei) 014 0O Conversazione fee Uae. ae 318 9
EXCUrSION See eer et ee 28 18 0 Savings Bank Interest, General
Badges _... ted ie eee 38 0 0 Account, 31/7/41. ..... ih a 8)
RSNMOO NSS ee ee Oss 7%
Balance in Bank, "31/7/41 513 7
£139 16 8 £1389 16 38

We have examined the books and vouchers
Naturalists’ Section of the Royal Society of S.A.,

setting forth the transactions of the Field
Incorp., for the year ending July 381, 1941,

and certify that the above account of Income and Expenditure is correct.

(Signed) WALTER D. REED, F.C.A. Aust.), )
(sige) B. B.

August 29, 1941.

Life Membership Account: Balance

as at 31/7/40 ...... 5
Interest, 81/7/41 oe sean

BECK,

) Hon. Auditors.

LIFE MEMBERSHIP ACCOUN’ r.

Sos. d.4 ose ad,
Balance in Savings Bank as at
ae 16 9 O July 31, 1941 ..... — oo LOMO
Sot 0 8 O
£16 17 0 £16 17 6

Examined and found correct.

(Signed) WALTER D. REED, F.C.A.
(Signed) B. B. oe

August 29, 1941.

(Aust.), )
)

Honorary Auditors.

NATURALISTS’

ROYAL SOCIETY OF 5%.A,, INCORP,, FIELD SECTION.
ASSETS. LIABILITIES.

ae S50, & s. d.

Balances ine Banke es.) ac) Gane By alsin 7 Subscriptions prepaid for 1941-42 1138 9

Life Membership Account. —.... 1617 0 9218 4
up boad sete acer teats 4 5 0
JUpl Ongar ey <7, hee Spa ion aire met 40 0 0
SPAR INTUAISt ese hac cis 410 0
Films, Toolach Wallaby ae aes 15 0 0
(SBA CCS ene mebeariane les asce sass 2 a6
Outstanding Account eee ee oes ()
Outstanding Subscriptions... 5 0 0

£94 12 1 £94 12 1

H. GREAVES, Chairman.
M. EMERSON, Hon. Treasurer.
COLORED PLATE FUND.

ae Sh L, & shod:

Balance as at cae 31, 1940 5 8 0 Balance as at July 31, 1941 ..... 6 8 0
IDYONMEENON ag eek Coren er 1 0 0

£6 8 0 £6 8 O

August 29, 1941.

(Signed) WALTER D. REED, F.C.A. (Aust.), )
(Signed) B. B. )

BECK,

Honorary Auditors.

The Field Naturalists’ Section

EXCURSIONS

Date. Locality. Time.
1942,
Jan. 17—Semaphore South Train, 12.55 p.m.
Feb. 2—Port Adelaide—Glenelg Train, 9.56 a.m.
14—Flinders Street, Kent Town ‘Tram, 1.30 p.m.
28—Marino Train, 1.11 p.m.
Mar. 7—Napier Terrace, Unley Park Train, 1.23 p.m.
21—Mt. Lofty Train, 1.23 p.m.
28—River Torrens Tram, 1.10 p.m.
April 3-6—Port Elliot Train and Motor
18—Grange Train, 1.15 p.m.
27—Tailem Bend Motor, 9.0 a.m.

9-—-Museum
23—-Outer Harbor

May
9.0

June 8—Mannum Motor, a.m.
20—Botanic Gardens Entrance, 1.0 p.m.
27—Henley—Glenelg Tram, 1.4 p.m.

July 4—Museum Entrance, 2.0 p.m.
11—Semaphore-Grange Train, 12.55 p.m.
25—Field River Motor, 1.0 p.m.

Aug. 1—Kooyonga Tram, 14 p.m.
15—Eden Train, 1.0 p.m.
29—Largs Train, 12.55 p.m.

Entrance, 2.0 p.m.
Train, 12.55 p.m.

Subject. Leader.
Marine Life Rev. W. R. Steadman
Boat Trip Mr. B. C, Cotton
Aquaria Mr. P. Geisler
Hydroids Mr. F. K. Godfrey
Aviaries Mr. S. E. Terrill
Flower Show Mr. A. J. Morison
Freshwater Shells Mr. A. K. Beasley
Marine Life Mr. F. ee Godfrey
Shells Mr. W. G. Tucker
Swamp Life Mr. B. e “Cotton
Ethnology Mr. N. B. Tindale
Seaweeds Miss D. M. Matthews
Physiography Mr. A. G. Edquist
Shrubs Mr. H. Greaves
Shells Rev. H. Gunter
Ornithology Mr. H. T. Condon
Beach Life Mr. B. C. Cotton
Geology Mr. R. Sprigg
Birds and Pond Life Mr. W. G. Buick
Orchids Mr. H. Goldsack
Shells Mr. R. C. Shinkfield

TRAM EXCURSIONS.—Meet in Grenfell Street,

by T. & G. Building.

TRAIN EXCURSIONS.—Will members obtain their tickets and meet on the train.

MOTOR EXCURSIONS.—Meet at the Town Hall, Adelaide.

EVENING

1942.
Feb. 17—‘‘Brown Men and Red Sand,”
Mr. C. P. Mountford

17—“‘A Naturalist in Norway,’ Mr. A. G, Edquist

Mar.
Mr. B. J. E. Bone

April 2i—‘‘Parks and Gardens”

Meet at the Royal Society Rooms,

MALACOLOGICAL SOCIETY:

1942.

Mar. F. K. Godfrey

Mr. B. C. Cotton
” Rev. H, K. Bartlett
_ Mr. W. M. Nielsen
Mr. B. C. Cotton

2—-‘‘Sea-anemones”
16—‘‘Turridae”’ ......

April 6-—‘‘New Guinea Shellfish” .
O02 aan ceomalls en, ace...

May 4—‘Mitridae? 2.0 no cee ee
1S Coral sie .. Miss D. M. Matthews
June 1—‘“Foraminifera” 0 i. eo. wee Mr. W. J. Parr

15—‘Triphoridae” ” Mr. F. K. Godfrey

1942.
Feb. 11—‘‘Seed Dispersal”
25—‘“‘Compositae”
11—“‘Grasses”
25—“Polypodiaceae”’
8—“Water Plants”
22-—‘‘Asclepiadaceae”’
May 13—‘Lichens”

27—“‘Orchids”

kath, Semen Ar Miss L. Harry
. Miss C, M. Eardley
oP cits Mr. G. H. Clarke
Miss D. M. Matthews
. Mr. W. M. Nielsen
uae Dr. M. T. Winkler
. Miss B. S. Barrien
Mr. J. Ferries

Mar.

April

Book with the Secretary or the Treasurer.

MEETINGS

1942.
May 19—‘“Our Changing Landscape,” Mr. F. C. Martin
June 16—Shell Club Evening: Lecturettes
July 21—Botany Club Evening: Lecturettes
Aug. 18—‘‘The Clothing of Animals,”
Mr. J. E. L. Machell

North Terrace.

Evening Meetings

1942.
July 6—“‘West Coast Chitons” Rev. B. J. Weeding

20—“Shells: Parasitic and Commensal,”

Mr. B. C. Cotton
Aug. &—Annual Meeting and Exhibits by Members
17—“‘Correlation of Gastropoda,” Mr. B. C. Cotton

Meets at the South Australian Museum, North Terrace.

THE BOTANY CLUB:

Evening Meetings

1942.
June 10—‘‘Mosses”’ is
24—‘“Plant Conservation”
July 8—‘Fungi”
22——**Violets”’

. Mr. H. Goldsack
. Dr. H. C. Trumble
Prof. J. B. Cleland
Mrs, W. M. Nielsen

(Annual Meeting)

Meets at the South Australian Museum, North Terrace.

Printed by ‘E, J; McALISTER & CO., 24 Blyth ncmece “Adel: AGS,

SIGMOIDELLA Bouvinetta
ELEGANTISSIMA. Se FOLIUM.

Dy SPIROLOCULINA
ANTILLARUM.

QUIN QUELOCULINA
PotyGONA.

CONTENTS:

FORAMINIFERA.

SEA ANEMONES.

SEA HARES.

BATS.

BARRETT’S LAND SHELL.

PLANTS OF FLEURIEU

: PENINSULA.
: Nupecutaria
| i LUCIFUGA.
——— TRILOCULINA Y REE,
ae Wa
VERTE BRALINA PeNeRopuis CRIBROBULIMINA
STRIATA PLANATUS. PoLYSTOMA
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN FORAMINIFERA.
VOLUME 21, No. 3. e
The South Australian

JULY 14, 1942,

eee NATURALIST

Registered at the G.P.Q.,

JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION

Adelaide for transmission ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

through the post as a
periodical.

Price: One Shilling.

OF THE

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

July 14, 1942.

The Field Naturalists’ Section

of The Royal Society of South Australia (Inc.)

OFFICERS, 1941-42.
Patron: LADY MURIEL BARCLAY-HARVEY.

Chairman: Mr. B. C. COTTON.

Vice-Chairmen:

Dr, M. T. WINKLER and Mr. A. MOLINEUX.

Hon. Secretary: Mr. W. M. NIELSEN.
(Phone: C 3845.)

Hon. Treasurer: Miss M. EMERSON,

c/o W.H.A., University,

Adelaide. ’Phone: C 3355.

Hon. Librarian: Miss D. M. MATTHEWS.

Hon. Magazine Secretary: Mr. A. K. BEASLEY.

Hon. Editor S.A. Naturalist: Mr. A. MOLINEUX.

Hon. Auditors: Messrs. W. D. REED, F.C.A. (Aus.), and B. B. BECK.

Committee:
The PRESIDENT and VICE-PRESIDENTS of the Royal Society of South Australia
(ex officio), Rev. H. A. GUNTER, Mrs. A. R. ALTMANN, Miss A. ADCOCK, Messrs.
H. GREAVES, A. J. WILEY, A. J. MORISON, A. K. NEWBERY, J. FERRIES.

No special knowledge necessary to become a member,
only a keen interest in Nature.

THIS Section was founded in 1888 for the purpose of
affording observers and lovers of Natural History regular
and frequent opportunities for discussing those special sub-
jects in which they are naturally interested; for the Exhibition
of Specimens; and for promoting Observations in the Field
by means of Excursions to various collecting grounds around
the Metropolis.

THE MONTHLY MEETINGS of the Section for Lectures,
the Reading of Papers, and Exhibition of Specimens are held
on the third Tuesday, at 8 p.m., at the Royal Society’s Rooms,
Institute Buildings, North Terrace, Adelaide.

THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION dates from August 1, and
can he sent to Miss M. Emerson, c/o W.E.A., University, North
Terrace, Adelaide.

Ordinary Members 7/6 per annum

Junior Members, 11-16 years 2/6 per annum

TritosMembershlp ec) swt cs etna cn on. ee a
EXCURSIONS—

For excursions by tram, meet in Grenfell Street, by T. & G.
Building.

Train Excursions.—Will members obtain their tickets and
meet on train?

Motor Excursions._-All_ motor excursions leave from Town
Hall, Adelaide, and members wishing to go on these
trips MUST advise the Hon. Secretary or Treasurer at
least three days before the excursion, so that sufficient
accommodation may be provided.

MEMBERS are urged to take Receptacles for the carrying
of Specimens. At each outing every member is expected to
collect Sbecimens wherever possible, and to hand them to the
Leader for identification, ete.

COMMITTEE MEETINGS are held on the first Wednesday
of each month.

THE HON. SECRETARY. All letters to be addressed c/o
Royal Society's Rooms, Institute Buildings, North Terrace,
Adelaide. Letters will be collected regularly,

“THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST.” The Journal
of the Section. Editor, Mr. A. Molineux, 81 Coorara Avenue,
South Payneham. Free to members. Exchanges may be ar-
yanged. Extra copies, 1/- each. Address communications to
A, K. Beasley, Harris Street, Payneham.

—

ty

July 14, 1942.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST Page One

FORAMINIFERA

By W. J. PARR

For more than fifty years, South Australia
had, in the person of the late Professor
Howchin, one whose work on the Foramini-
fera, limited though it was in quantity,
placed him in the front rank of workers on
the group. . His paper on the Foraminifera
of the Port Adelaide River, published in
1890, constitutes almost all we know of the
occurrence of these organisms in the vicinity
of Adelaide. Professor Howchin’s passing
has left a gap which has not yet been filled,
and I hope that these notes may inspire one
or more of my readers to undertake the study
of these most fascinating organisms. I may
here sound a note of warning. An interest
in the Foraminifera, once acquired, soon
develops into a disease which persists and
increases in intensity with the passage of
time.

‘Some of you will perhaps be wondering just
what are these Foraminifera. This question
may best be answered by asking you to go
with me in imagination to one of the sandy
beaches near Adelaide, say that at Glenelg.
If we walk along the beach at low tide, we
will probably find that, in the vicinity of
any projection, such as a small point, which
checks the drift of the waves, the ripple
marks are occupied by a whitish sediment,
which apparently consists of minute shell
fragments. When this material is examined
with a pocket lens, it will be seen that the
light coloured particles are largely minute.
but perfect shells. If they are white and
chalky-looking and of very irregular shapes,
they are Foraminifera belonging to the genus
Nubecularia, which occurs in enormous num-
bers growing on the Posidonia grass in Gulf
St. Vincent, This genus is one of the Fora-
minifera found adherent to other organisms,
such as Mollusca, particularly if broken, and
sea weeds. The shells of adherent Foramini-
fera are usually of very irregular form, as
the animal adapts the shape of its shell to
that of the object upon which it is growing.
With the white, irregular shells of Nubecu-
laria, we will find other shells, in shape
resembling a miniature Trochus. but glassy
and of a rich brown colour, particularly
towards the apex. These are more or less
transparent, ef very regular form, and with
the surface perforated by innumerable small

holes. They belong to the genus Discorbis,
probably to the species Discorbis dimidiatus,
which is the most widely distributed and
ccmmonest of all Foraminifera in shallow
water on the Australian coast.

In addition to the two Foraminifera I have
mentioned, many others will usually be found,
although the specimens will not be so nume-
rous, nor will they be so large and conspicu-
ous. Some of them, instead of having shells
formed of lime secreted by the organism, as
in the cases of Nubecularia and Discorbis,
may have shells built of quartz sand, frag-
ments of siliceous sponge spicules, or even
of other Foraminifera, all cemented together
by a cement secreted by the little animal.
Having seen the complex, many-chambered,
beautifully-constructed test of a foram like
Discorbia, we can be excused for thinking
that the Foraminifera are related to the
cephalopod, Nautilus, Indeed, the first
students of the Foraminifera, including the
famous Carl von Linne—or Linnaeus, as he
is also known—regarded them as miniature
Nautili and described them as such. It was
later recognised that the divisions between
the chambers—the septa—in the glassy-
shelled forms, were perforated by a number
of holes instead of being traversed by a con-
tinuous tube or siphon, as in Nautilus. They
were therefore called Foraminifera—from the
Latin words meaning “holebearers.”

Shortly after this, a Frenchman named Du-
jardin made the discovery that not only were
the Foraminifera unrelated to the Nautilus,
but that they were actually one of the simplest
types of animal life, consisting of only a
single cell. They are therefore protozoans,
like the well-known Amoeba, but unlike it,
form a shell. This shell may be formed of
chitin only, but usually consists of lime
secreted by the animal or of sand grains
or other foreign material it has cemented
together. The shells of the : Foraminifera
assume a great variety of shapes and are often
exceptionally beautiful.

The living foraminiferal animal consists
of a mass of the jellylike substance known
as protoplasm, with a nucleus. The nucleus
is inside the shell while the protoplasm
occupies the remainder of the inside of the
shell and also extends outside it, either

Page Two

through the aperture of the shell alone, if
the species is one of those with an imper-
forate shell wall, or—in the case of those
with perforations in the shell wall—through
both the aperture and the wall perforations.

The protoplasm outside the shell streams
away from it in all directions in the form of
very fine threads, known as pseudopodia, or
“false feet,” which are connected with one
another at various points. These pseudo-
podia enable the animal, if it is not one of
the adherent or fixed forms, to move slowly
about, and they also catch the diatoms and
other vegetable matter on which the foram
feeds. The majority of those studying the
Foraminifera work on their dead shells alone
and have never seen a living specimen, I
must admit to being one of this number, as
the two or three efforts I have made to
secure living material have been unsuccess-
ful. My friend and collaborator, Mr.
Frederick Chapman, tells me, however, that
anyone living near the coast will have no
trouble in this direction. All that is neces-
sary is a wide-mouthed jar—a glass jam jar
will do—partly filled with sea water, and
supplied with the material to be observed.

This material is obtained from the red and
green seaweeds found in low tide pools. A
few bunches of the weed ;may be shaken
and washed in the jar, in which a few pieces
of the weed should be left to keep up the
balance of conditions. The sandy material
coming from the surface of the fronds often
largely consists of foraminiferal shells in the
living state, In the day time, the living Fora-
minifera can be seen attached to the light side
of the jar, with their pseudopodia extended.

If a little of the weed is placed in a stage
aquarium specially constructed for the pur-
pose, it can be placed under the microscope
and the Foraminifera seen to better advan-
tage. Viewed with dark-field illumination,
living Foraminifera are stated by all who
have seen them to be such beautiful objects
as to turn the observer into an ardent and
life-long student of this group of animals.
Before I pass on to the next portion of this
address, I would suggest that an almost cer-
tain source for living |Foraminifera near
Adelaide will be found in the Posidonia
grass which is so abundant in parts of Gulf
St. Vincent, The kind is the Nubecularia 1
described earlier and which will be found
encrusting the stems and surface of the sea

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST July 14, 1942.

grass, pieces of which musi therefore be
examined for it.

Partly because of the necessity of keeping
the little animals alive in an aquarium for
a considerable time, so that they can be con-
stantly observed, the life history of the
Foraminifera has been studied by only a
few marine biologists. During the last few
years, very great advances in this particular
branch of study have been made in the marine
laboratories at La’ Jolla (pronounced La
Hoya), in California, and Villefranche-sur-
Mer, on the Mediterranean coast of France.
At La Jolla, Dr. Myers has done some re-
markable work including the taking of a
2,000 feet motion picture film that faithfully
portrays every significant phase in the life
history of one species. Some of his conclu-
sions are disputed by the French worker, Le
Calvez, so the only aspect of the life history
of the Foraminifera I will touch on is the
phenomenon of dimorphism.

Any of those present who have been to
Egypt and visited the pyramids have perhaps
noticed that the pyramids are built of a lime-
stone consisting largely of lens-shaped shells
about an inch in diameter and perhaps a
quarter of an inch thick. These are the
shells of Foraminifera known as Nummzulites
—-literally in English, stone coins. It was
early noticed that the nummulites, which are
widely distributed over the world and occur
in countless numbers, were found together in
two sizes—one very large and the other
comparatively small. The small shells pos-
sessed a large central chamber, while the
large shells had a small central chamber
which was followed by a very much greater
number of chambers than in the small shells.

It has been found that the two different shells
belonged to the same species, the differences
between the two being explained by the fact
that one—the smaller shell—was the result
of the splitting-up of an earlier animal by
simple division to form a number of new
animals. The large shell with the small
initial chamber did not, however, originate
in this way, but is the result of a conjuga-
tion or sexual process.‘ As most of us are
gardeners, I will turn to the garden for

something to illustrate what happens. Car-
nations and also roses, for example, are
raised in the first place from seed. They

do not, however, come true from seed, and
it is therefore necessary, if we want to in-

July 14, 1942. THE
crease our number of plants, to take cuttings
and strike them or, in the case of roses, we
may also bud or graft them. In other words
we increase them by division like the small
Nummulites. Unfortunately, as we all know,
there is, as the years pass, a gradual deteri-
oration in the vigor of the variety and we
are then obliged to sow seed and raise new,
strong young plants. In the same way, there
appears to be a gradual falling-off in the
vigour of the foraminiferal animals after a
series of increases by division has taken
place, and Nature then provides for the
rejuvenation of the species by a process akin
to the raising of the carnations or roses
from seed.| If you read any paper describ-
ing Foraminifera, you are sure to meet with
references to megalospheric and microspheric
forms. These are respectively the shells with
a large initial chamber and those with a small
one. I have a piece of limestone collected
in Syria by a friend in the ALF. On one
side of this will be seen a natural section
through the centre of a microspheric example
of a large Nummulite. It will be noticed
that the initial chamber is too small to be
visible except under a microscope. I would
also direct your attention to the very large
number of whorls or coils in the shell. If
these are looked at carefully, you will notice
that each whorl is divided up into hundreds
of tiny chambers.

Among the Nummulites, we find the largest
kinds of Foraminifera, one of them from
Europe attaining a diameter of 44 inches. The
shells of Foraminifera are, however, usually
microscopic, averaging from about one mil-
limetre to a quarter of this size.

Most Foraminifera live on the bottom of the
sea, crawling slowly about on the top of the
muds or 00zes, or attached to various objects.
There are a few species which have become
adapted for a surface existence. These are
mostly the Globigerinae which are found all
over the world and the dead shells of which,
falling to the ocean bottom, form the well-
known Globigerina-ooze, which occupies
millions of square miles of the sea floor.
Living specimens of Foraminifera are often
beautifully coloured, the protoplasm varying
from light pink and salmon to various shades
of brown, while it may also be colourless.
The shells themselves are, as a rule, not
strongly coloured except in shallow water.
Some tropical forms, such as Homotrema,
which is found growing on the older parts

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Three

of corals on the Great Barrier Reef, are a
beautiful rich deep crimson. Another,
Planorbulina rubra, which occurs on the
South Australian coast, frequently has shells
of a delicate pink.

1 have already briefly referred to the prin-
cipal types of shell-wall found among the
Foraminifera. Strictly speaking, the word
“shell” is not correct, and the covering of
the animal would be better referred to as a
test, because it is not secreted by special
organs as in the Mollusca. In addition to
those with caleareous shells—(of which there
are two sections—one with perforated walls
and the other not perforate)—-and the sandy

shelled forms, there are rather rare
forms with the test formed in some
cases of chitin, and in other cases of
silica, secreted by the animal. The

various classifications of the Foraminifera
which are used by the students of the group
are all based in the first place on the nature
of the shell wall. One section of the Fora-
minifera—the sandy shelled or arenaceous
seclion—has always had a peculiar fascina-
tion for me. This is because of the remark-
able ability shown by some of the species
to select certain materials from the mass of
debris on the sea floor and to use only these
materials—and to use them in a special way
—for the construction of their tests. Only
a few of these can be mentioned, One is
Marsipella spiralis, found in the North Sea.

This constructs its test of short fragments of
siliceous sponge spicules, which are ar-
ranged spirally around a long, central axis
and cemented together, so that the resultant
test looks something like a twisted piece of
string. Another species, Psammosphaera
parva, typically constructs its globular sandy
shell about the centre of a large needle-
shaped sponge spicule, the ends of which
protrude from either side. Another species,
Reophax spiculifer, formed wholly of sponge
needles, is found off the coast of Tasmania.
Other species display a fondness for heavy
minerals. I have seen specimens of a tiny
form, with the name of Proteonina tubulata,
dredged off the Antarctic Ice Barrier by Sir
Douglas Mawson, in which the shel] is
formed almost wholly of garnets brought
down from the ‘Antarctic Continent by
glaciers and deposited on the sea floor as a
result of the melting of icebergs.

Page Four

When we stop to think that the forams
are single-celled animals, without any of the
special sense-organs with which man is pro-
vided, is it not remarkable how these species
I have been describing are able to exercise
this power of selection? Much has been
written as to how this power is to be ac-
counted for, but the latest writer on the
subject, Mr. Arthur Earland, has summed the
present position up in the words of Omar,
who—

Pe Madng heard great argument
About it and about; but evermore
Came out by the same door as in I went.”

While the Foraminifera so far mentioned
have all been marine forms, there are a cer-
tain number which live in salt or brackish
water away from the ocean. As far as I am
aware, there are only two instances of this
recorded. One of these is from salt pools in
Hungary. The second is from springs in
the desert of Kara-kum, in Central Asia, the
latter waters being supposed to be the rem-
nant of the sea which occupied the area
millions of years ago. Coming nearer home,
I may relate one of my own experiences in
this direction. Just after the outbreak of
the present war, Mr. W, Baragwanath, the
Director of the Geological Survey of Vic-
toria, who is always on the look-out for
material which might interest me, brought
back some lake weed from the shore of one
of the salt lakes to the west of the Grampians,
in Western Victoria. To my astonishment,
the weed contained hundreds of specimens of
a foram species which is usually found at
the mouths of rivers where the influx of
fresh water has lowered the salinity of the
sea water in the vicinity. No fossil deposit
containing this species and from which the
specimens could have been washed out into
the lake, was known in the district. In
spite of this, the possibility of such a deposit
could not be overlooked. I thought to
myself that, if I could find living specimens
in the lake the existence of the species there
could be settled beyond doubt. I accord-
ingly made the long journey to Douglas, only
to find that during the interval of time which
had elapsed between Mr. Baragwanath’s visit
and mine, the lake had dried up. The mys-
tery of the presence of the apparently-living
forams there is accordingly still unsolved. It
has heen suggested that the Central Asian
species were originally transferred there on

_BYTHE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

July 14, 1942.

the legs of sea birds, but it is not known
whether forams can live for any time out of
water. Should they be able to do so, trans-
port by sea birds may account for their pre-
sence in the Victorian salt lake.

I will now tell you something of the dis-
tribution of the Foraminifera from two
standpoints, The first of these is their geo-
graphic distribution. While up te the present,
we have been dealing mainly with Australian
Foraminifera, this is only because, placed as
we are, they are of more immediate concern
to us than any others. Actually, Foramini-
tera are found wherever marine conditions
exist throughout the world, although, of
course, there are differences in the species
and assemblages wherever we go. With the
Foraminifera, it can be said that tempera-
ture is the great controlling force, and depth,
except as controlled by temperature, a
much smaller factor. For this reason, we
find that in the Tropics, certain species, gene-
rally sandy-shelled forms, will only be found
at great depths, while the same species will
occur in the Antarctic in comparatively shal-
low water.

In the warm, shallow waters of the Tropics,
the Foraminifera are, as a rule, predomin-
antly calcareous forms. In the vicinity of
coral reefs, some species occur in such num-
bers as to form almost pure foram sands.
The largest Foraminifera living are found in
warm tropical seas with a depth of less than
30 fathoms. One of these is Margtnopora
vertebralis, whose white, flat, discoidal tests
will be familiar to everyone who has been
on the Great Barrier Reef. Other large,
tropical, shallow water forams which are
also common there belong to the genera
Alveolinella, which has a long, -spindle-
shaped test, and Heterostegina, the shell of
which is roughly ear-shaped and flattened,
with the rectangular internal chamberlets
visible from the exterior.

The Foraminifera occurring in shallow water
on the coast of South Australia are all of a
microscopic size and differ a good deal, ac-
cording to my limited experience of them,
from those found in Victorian waters, The
South Australian species include a number
which are typical of warmer water than that
on the Victorian coast. Of these, I may
mention Nubecularia, which I have told you
cecurs so abundantly in Gulf St. Vincent.
Another is Peneroplis, which is illustrated.

July 14, 1942.

One of the most remarkable forms is Cribro-
bulimina mixta, which is one of our living
fossils and, if we want to find its ancestors,
we musl go to France, to the Eocene deposits
of the Paris Basin. The study of the Forami-
nifera has shown that there have been migra-
tions of faunas in Tertiary times. Perhaps
the most striking of these, and certainly the
one possessing most interest for us is the
migration of the Eocene (Lutetian) fauna of
the Paris Basin and southern England through
the Mediterranean region to Australia. Many
of the species of the European Eocene are
found but little changed in the Miocene of
Australia and, even in some cases, in the
recent material from the Australian coast.
What makes South Australia so important to
the student of these problems is that it ap-
pears to have been the southern limit of this
migration. Its shallow water Foraminifera
are therefore deserving of the closest study.
Leaving shallow water on your coast, and
passing southward over the continental shelf,
we notice a gradual change in the Foramini-
fera, as the depth increases. Between Aus-
tralia and the ‘Antarctic continent, very deep
water is encountered, with depths of up to
2,000 fathoms, Here, as elsewhere under
similar conditions, the sea bottom consists
largely of the Globigerina-ooze.

When we reach the continental shelf sur-
rounding Antarctica, we find that the char-
acter of the foraminiferal assemblages en-
countered is quite different from any of those
already referred to. The lower temperature
of the water is probably responsible for this.
While Foraminifera are surprisingly abun-
dant and often of very large size, they are
predominantly of the sandy-shelled types.
Calcareous types, both perforate and imper-
forate, are also common, but the specimens
being smaller, form a comparatively small
percentage of the bulk of the Foraminifera
present in the sample. One of the largest
of living, sandy-shelled Foraminifera, Reo-
phax nodulosus, is found in this area.

All I have said on this merely illustrates what
is already familiar to you as students of the
Mollusca—namely, that each area is charac-
terised by its own particular assemblage and,
after some experience, we can tell, except
in the case of the deep-water Globigerina-
oozes, fairly accurately where an unknown
sample comes from. Of course, this applies
as much to fossil faunas as to living ones.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Five

Living Foraminifera have not, as far as [ am
aware, aly interest for anyone other than
the scientist, or the microscopist who is at-
tracted by the beauty of their forms. Fossil
Foraminifera are, however, of very great eco-
nomic importance and you may therefore like
to hear something of them and their use to
man. The earliest Foraminifera known were
described by Mr. Frederick Chapman from
limestones of Cambrian age in England, and
we have since had a species in the Cambrian
limestones of Curramulka, in South Austra-
lia, Foraminifera did not, however, become
common until the period during which the
great British deposits of coal were formed.
‘they then appeared in great variety and
immense numbers, the members of a now
extinct family, the Fusulinidae, forming ex-
tensive deposits of limestone. These lime-
stones occupy large areas of North America,
Europe, and Asia, and extend down through
the East Indies to the Kimberley region of
North West Australia, from which they have
been recorded by Mr. Chapman and myself.

Deposits of Fusulina-limestone are even found
within the Arctic Circle, on the Island of
Spitzbergen, and they are common in Japan.
The many different varieties of these fusulines
are most useful to the geologist, as each one
lived for only a short period, and they are
therefore valuable in enabling the age of any
rock in which they occur to be determined.

When we come to the rocks forming the
Mesozoic or Secondary Era of geologists,
many of the Foraminifera are like those of
the present day.’ It was in this period that
the chalk forming the white cliffs of Dover
was laid down. Until very recently, it was
generally believed that chalk was composed
almost entirely of Foraminifera, but it has
now been proved that the percentage of
Foraminifera in chalk does not exceed ten
per cent. of the bulk of this rock.

Passing into Tertiary times, we reach the
Golden Age of the Foraminifera. They then
reached their maximum development both as
regards size and abundance, and their re-
mains formed great beds of limestones ex-
tending across whole continents and often of
enormous thickness, These limestones in-
clude the nummulitic limestones, of which,
as I have told you, the Pyramids are built.

Actually the first forams ever recorded were
nummulites, from near the Pyramids. The
peculiarity of their remains struck the

Page Six

ancient geographer Strabo, who accounted
for their presence in the limestone by as-
serting that they were the petrified remains
of lentils from the rations of the workmen
employed in building the Pyramids!

The nummulitic limestones spread in a more
or less continuous broad band from the
Pyrenees across Europe, Northern Africa, and
Asia, to the Himalayas, attaining a thickness
of several thousand feet. It is not surprising
that papers have been written on the role
played by the Foraminifera in the building of
the world of to-day.

The nummulites have long been extinct, but
others kinds of Foraminifera have taken their
place as rock-formers. ! The only State in
Australia in which rocks formed almost
wholly of Foraminifera are found is, I
helieve, Victoria. Visitors to Melbourne have
noticed the unusual architecture—Norman in
style—of the building immediately north of
the National Museum, in Russell Street. This
is the City Court, which is constructed of
limestone, formed almost wholly of myriads
of the tiny tests of another extinct genus of
Foraminifera, with the name of Lepidocyelina
—literally, in English, scaly wheels, from the
rough exterior of the discoidal shell.

So far, I have dealt with the fossil Foramini-
fera from the point of view of their use
to us as sources of building material. Their
greatest value to us is, however, in the part
they play in the search for oil. It may
surprise you to know that every important
company engaged in oil search employs one
or more experts who have been trained in
the use of Foraminifera to find whether con-
ditions favorable to the occurrence of oil
are present. The value of Foraminifera for
this work was discovered only within the
last twenty years. It is based on the fact, so
well known to all geologists, that once the
fossils characteristic of the various strata
are known, a geologist can, if set down in
any part of the country, readily determine
on which bed in the geological series he is
standing, if only he can find a few fossils.

Much of the data on which the oil geologist
must base his opinion, as to whether oil
is likely to be found in a particular area, is
obtained from samples of the underlying
rocks brought up to the surface by drilling
plants, like that now operating at Nelson, in

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST July 14, 1942.
South-western Victoria. In the majority of
cases, the only fossils which are commom
in these bore cores are Foraminifera. They
are also so small that, no matter what method
of drilling is used, many of them escape
injury during the boring and they can there-
fore be recognised by the foram-expert, or
micro-palaeontologist, as he is known. He
washes down each sample by the method I
shall describe to you later, and then identi-
fies the Foraminifera. All differences are
noted, and the skill of these men is so
great that, after having examined 2,000
samples, ‘taken from 10,000 feet of bore
cores, one of them, Dr. J. A. Cushman, the
greatest authority on the Foraminifera, was
able to recognise the exact position of ten
of the samples which were given to him later
without particulars where they had come
from. You will understand how it is pos-
sible, from the study of the Foraminifera in
the cores from a number of borings in an
area, to tell the position of each stratum in
each bore and by this means determine whe-
ther the rocks are folded or tilted and
generally whether the right kind of geologi-
cal structure for the occurrence of oil is
present. In a broadcast talk, Dr. Cushman
compared the micro-palaeontologist with a
person travelling in a lift to the top of a
sky-scraper, The lift-traveller recognised
where he was by the floor numbers. Simi-
larly, the micro-palaeontologist was able to
tell what position he was in, geologically,
by reading the “floor-number” with which
the Foraminifera supplied him.

I have said more than I should have done
on the geological side of the Foraminifera.

I hope you will pardon me for this, remem-
bering that IT have done much more work on
the fossil species than on the living ones.

However, before I pass on to the practical
side of my talk, I should like to tell you
something which will give you some idea of
the importance of the Foraminifera in the
search for oil. We all have read of the
severity of the financial depression of the
nineteen-thirties in the United States of
America. Millions of people lost their em-
ployment. These included great numbers em-
ployed by oil companies, but in spite of
this, every oil company took care not to
put off one of its micro-palaeontologists.

July 14, 1942. THE SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Seven

Collection and Preparation of

Material.

I shall now deal with the collection and
preparation of foraminiferal material, deal-
ing first with recent material.

I have already mentioned how Foraminifera
occur on the beach at Glenelg. On coasts
with shallow water which have many algae
(for example, the Posidonia grass of Gulf St.
Vincent) or hydroids, the shells of Foramini-
fera often come in on the beach in enormous
numbers.’ At Altona Bay, near Melbourne,
I have seen parts of the beach inches deep in
Foraminifera. There are lew sandy beaches
on which they are noi present, but in most
localities they do not occur in sufficient
numbers to be worth collecting. It will also
be found that a spot which, on one visit,
has been very rich may, on the next visit,
be almost without Foraminifera. As an
example ,of this, I may mention Barwon
Heads, just outside Port Phillip Heads. A
friend has collected foraminiferal sands from
the same spots there every Christmas for the
last ten years. Some of the gatherings have
been so poor as to be scarcely worth looking
at, while others have been exceptionally rich,
so rich that Barwon Heads can be said to have
the largest number of species, well over 200,
known from littoral gatherings. It will also
be found that some gatherings made at a
locality contain many rare species which are
absent from other collections made there.
These differences are, of course, due to the
conditions prevailing at the time each col-
lection was made. Heavy seas or the set
of the tidal currents will affect the nature of
the gatherings, and also where the material
will be found on the beach. We must not
therefore be disappointed if we do not find
Foraminifera where we found them pre-
viously. What we should then do is to move
along the beach following the drift of the
beach currents, We will probably find that
the foraminiferal material has been concen-
trated against some other small point or
projection which has checked the movement
of the water and caused the deposition of
the Foraminifera which have been carried
along by the waves.

Having found our gold-bearing material,
the next thing to do is to collect it. The
apparatus required for this is very simple.

The essentials are something with which to
scrape the material up and something in
which to place it. A large spoon will do
to scrape ripple marks and the lid of a
tobacco tin makes a good scraper for the
more level surfaces. The material collected
can be placed in a tobacco tin and labelled
with the place and date of collection. It
should not be left for any time in the tin
without being washed and dried, otherwise
the salt will soon corrode the tin and the
rust will damage any Foraminifera with
which it comes in contact.

If material is plentiful and reasonably dry,
it can be put into strong paper bags, or, if
wet, into cloth bags.

Sometimes it will be found that the Foramini-
fera are not present in sufficient numbers to
enable them to be collected without scraping
up a much larger amount of sand. In this
case, the greater part of the sand can be
got rid of on the spot by adopting a process
akin to that followed by gold miners in pan-
ning off with a gold washing dish. A small
enamel or aluminium pie-dish or a photo-
graphic developing dish with a lip at one
corner is suitable for the purpose. The dish
is nearly filled with sea water and a handful
of the sandy scrapings is then placed in it.
By gently shaking and rotating the dish, the
Foraminifera, being lighter than the sand,
will come to the surface and can be concen-
trated at one corner of the dish. From here
they can be poured off into a cloth bag,
which will strain off the water. If a tin
is used as a container, some sort of strainer
will be necessary to get rid of the water.
A piece of fine cloth, say a handkerchief,
will do.

Having become acquainted with the forams
found on the beach, it will not be long
before we wish to know something of those
in deeper water. From experience recently
gained in attempting to bail the water out
of my A.R.P. dugout, I would advise anyone
using a bucket to fasten half a brick to the
bucket handle so as to keep the top of the
bucket down.

Page Right

Earlier workers on the Feraminifera ob-
tained much of their material from the mud
off ships’ anchors, collected for them by
seamen. ‘This method of securing material
is not so often heard of nowadays, but some
years ago, when the yacht “Utiekab Ill’ made
a cruise around the south-west Pacific, a
friend who was on board collected a most
interesting series of anchor muds for me.

When we come to really deep water, samples
of the sea bottom can only be obtained by
ships which are properly fitted up for the
purpose, The expeditions to the Antarctic
under the leadership of Sir Douglas Mawson
have dredged large quantities of material,
some of which has already been described
by Mr. Frederick Chapman and myself. We
are now engaged on that obtained by his
expedition of 1929-1931.

Having secured our foraminiferal material,
we musi now clean it. Several methods have
been advocated, but the essentials are the
same. In the first place, the material is
slowly dried. Too much heat will cause the
Foraminifera with glassy tests to become
opaque and they will lose much of their
beauty. Jt must then be washed. The
method T follow is to put the dried material
into a basin (or for preference—if there are
no household objections—an aluminium
saucepan, as it has a handle), and then add
water. It will usually be seen that the lighter
Foraminifera, because of their being filled
with aiz, float to the surface and adhere to
the sides of the container. They are the most
perfect specimens and can be removed by
means of a camel’s hair brush on to a saucer
and then genily dried. My practice is, how-
ever, to pour the water off through a fine
sieve of 80 meshes to the inch, and catch the
Foraminifera in this way. With muddy
material, some of the Foraminifera may be
very small and a finer mesh may be neces-
sary. For this reason it is advisable to catch
the material which passes through the sieve
and, after allowing it to settle, dry and
examine it to see whether any Foraminifera
are in it.

After the water has been poured off, more
is added and decanted through the sieve, this
beiag continued until the water being poured
off is clean. Our material is then ready for
drying.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

July 14, 1942.

Fossil materials are prepared in much the
same way. In South-eastern Australia, Fora-
minifera are usually found in clays, marls, or
limestones. The clays and marls should be
broken up into small lumps, thoroughly
dried, and then dropped into water, where
they should be allowed to remain for some
time. It will then be found that the mate-
rial has disintegrated into a fine, silty mud
which can be readily washed away by the
decanting method I have just described,
leaving a sandy residue consisting of Fora-
minifera, ostracods, and other minute
organisms, and mineral grains. The fossil
Foraminifera in this area are most beauti-
fully preserved and, unlike fossil Foramini-
fera in most parts of the world, many of
them are air-filled and will float like living
Foraminifera.

In dealing with very sticky clays or with
shales, the disintegration of the material will
be facilitated if it is first boiled with com-
mon washing soda before washing is at-
tempted.

Having washed our material, we are now
ready to see what forams it contains, The
specimens which floated and were removed
with the brush or caught by the sieve will be
the first to be examined, for this portion of
our sample will be frequently almost pure
Foraminifera without any admixture of sand.
With the forams there will probably be
ostracod tests and often fragments of
Lryozoa. As I mentioned earlier, the forams
found in the floatings are usually the most
perfect specimens. They consist in most
cases of delicate glassy-shelled forms or
white tests of the porcellanous group. The
sandy-shelled species are usually too heavy
to float on the surface of the water.

The cleaned and dried sandy residue after
washing consists of the heavier Foraminifera,
hroken tests of others which would not float,
ostracods, Bryozoa, and other organisms as
well as a proportion of sand. Several
methods have been suggested to concentrate
the Foraminifera and so avoid the labor of
searching through large quantities of sandy
material. The “panning-off” process with
sandy beach material has been described
earlier. There is, however, a much hetter
method of mechanical sorting now’ available
for washed material. This was worked out

—

July 14, 1942.

by Dr. Ozawa, and involves the use of carbon
tetrachloride, which, as it has a_ specific
gravity of 1.6, as against 1 for water, will
lift air-filled Foraminifera which will not
float in water. The material must first be
carefully washed and dried and then any fine
material taken out with a 200-mesh sieve.

The sample is then placed in a dish and
ordinary commercial carbon tetrachloride
poured over it. The Foraminifera and ostra-
codal tests will at once float to the surface
and may be retained by pouring the liquid
through chemist’s filter paper inserted in a
glass funnel into a container beneath. As a
substitute for the filter paper, ordinary fine
cotton cloth may be used. The carbon
tetrachloride left on the filter evaporates
very quickly and the separated specimens are
dry in a minute or two. ‘The residue left
in the dish will also soon dry. It should
then be examined to see if any forams are
left in it, particularly if fossil material is
being dealt with, as fossil specimens may
be infilled with some mineral which prevents
their floating. The tetrachloride passing
through the filter should be bottled up with-
out delay as it evaporates quickly. It can
be used over and over again. It should be
remembered that carbon tetrachloride, like
chloroform, to which it is related, evaporates
at ordinary temperatures and its fumes are
anaesthetic in their effect. It is therefore
advisable to work with it near an open win-
dow, the draught from which will carry away
the fumes and enable it to be used with
safety. I should also tell you that carbon
tetrachloride is at present “frozen” by the
Commonwealth Government under the Na-
tional Security Regulations, as supplies are
short and they are required for essential
work. It cannot therefore be obtained until
the present restrictions are removed.

The first essential for the study of the forams
is, of course, a microscope. High magnifi-
cations are not necessary, and indeed actually
hinder working. For most work, a magnifi-
cation of from 30 to 40 diameters is sufficient.
The best medium for mounting forams on the
slides is gum tragacanth. This can be bought
either in lump form or as a powder, and is
then dissolved in warm water to form a
consistency suitable for the specimens to be
mounted. A drop or two of formaldehyde
may be added to the dissolved gum to aveid
the growth of moulds which sometimes occur

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine

on the slides. The gum is used by spreading
a thin coating over the slide with a brush
before commencing mounting. When it has
dried, the mere placing of the specimen on
the slide by means of the moistened brush
will usually be sufficient to hold the specimen
in position. Should, however, the specimen
be large it may be found necessary to use
additional tragacanth,h The gum need not
be used too sparingly in mounting, as it con-
tracts and disappears in drying. Another
advantage of tragacanth is that it has no
glaze and the specimens can readily be re-
moved by moistening them with a wet brush.
It is hoped that these remarks upon one of
our most interesting groups of marine
organisms may awaken in some of my
readers a desire to make a study of them.

South Australian shallow water areas -offer
a rich field for research. The late Professor
Howchin, in 1890, recorded a number of
unusual species which have not since been
met with, from the vicinity of the Port Ade-
laide River.’ If the localities have not been
effected by the march of progress, dredgings
from them would provide valuable data for
a comparison with the records of 50 years
ago. Finally, there is an unsolved problem
which needs the attention of some local
worker. There are some peculiar forms—
survivals from the Tertiary migration from
Europe I referred to earlier—which occur in
the sandy beds, of Upper Pliocene age, in the
horings around Adelaide. While most Upper
Pliocene species of Foraminifera are also
found living, it is remarkable that these
Adelaide species are known only as fossils.

I cannot help thinking that they will be
found living in shallow water on a sandy
bottom in Gulf St. Vincent, close to Adelaide.

The illustrations on the cover represent some
common South Australian types of Foramini-
fera which can be found at the edge of the
tide on the sandy beaches at Semaphore and
other places in Gulf St. Vincent.

Page Ten THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

July 14, 1942.

SEA ANEMONES

By

BERNARD C. COTTON and FRANK K. GODFREY

“Sea-anemones” is a popular name for those
marine radiated animals which present some
resemblance to the Anemone, but really look
more like the Chrysanthemum or some others
of the Compositae.

The Sea-anemone is a polyp, formed on the
same general lines as the Hydrozea, but
differing in having numerous tentacles ar-
ranged in mulitples of six, and in the absence
of a hypostome, the mouth being nearly flush
with the surface of the disc. Its great size
and bulk, and the comparative firmness of its
substance, are also striking points of differ-
ence between Sea-anemones, which rank in
class Actinozoa, and the polypes belonging
to the class Hydrozoa. They all belong to
the phylum Coelenterata, which also includes
the Corals and the Jelly-fishes large ‘and
small.

Habitat. Sea-anemones are found attached to
the upper surface of rocks; in rock pools
uncovered only at very lowwater; in holes
or crevices of overhanging rocks, or in a
cavern; or on the broad leathery fronds of
kelp.( Some are fond of crevices and places
where gravel and broken shell accumulate,
and beneath these the individual buries its
base, and attaches bits of shell and stone to
the many whitish suckers, with which the
upper part of its column is studded, and
when the tide retires and leaves it, one has
to look not for an expanse of brilliant
tentacles, but for a little rounded heap of
gravel.

One particular species, in the daytime,
compresses itself into a dirty yellow button,
a few millimetres in thickness. In this con-
dition it might be taken for a small limpet
shell or a flake of rock. At night the
depressed yellow button has gone, and there
stands a tall and elegantly formed column,
two inches in height, supporting a crown of
many transparent tentacles,

Other species are so small that an adult
hardly exceeds six millimetres in height, and

the breadth a little more. Some such tiny
representatives may be found associated in
colonies of up to fifty individuals. The
species may be variable in colour, but the
members of one colony may be expected to
resemble each other very closely, in this as
in other respects.

At low water one sees upon a rock a group
of dumpy masses of clear white jelly. If
these are removed to a collecting jar, and in
the evening, when they have had time to
recover from the shock, they will astound the
beholder. The squat jelly-lump erects itself
into a shapely alabaster column, a couple of
inches high, and near the top a rounded
parapet, above which the lobes of the crown
will spread out, densely clothed with feathery
tentacles.

The shells of hermit crabs are a common
abiding place for certain species. It is not
clear what are the advantages to the com-
mensal partners. It is, however, probable
that the Sea-anemone derives advantage from
being carried about from place to place, and
so nas better opportunity for securing food
than if stationary; whilst the crab is probably
saved from being swallowed by a big-mouthed
fish, owing to the unpleasant odour of the
Sea-anemone, It has been noted that the base
of the Sea-anemone gradually absorbs that
portion of the Gastropod shell to which it is
attached.

On the Great Barrier Reef, the large Sea-
anemones of genus Discosoma, are found
associated with small Fishes or Crustacea,
which seem to have their abode in the enteric
cavity but how they avoid the fate of the
prev of the Sea-anemone is not known. Some
of these sigantic Discosoma attain a diameter
of two feet.

Perhaps the most remarkable association of a
commensal kind is to be seen in the case of

July 14, 1942.

the little shore crab of the Indian Ocean
(Melia tesselata), which invariably holds in
each of its large claws a small Sea-anemone.

Observers relate that when the Crab is robbed
of its Sea-anemone, it appears to be greatly
agitated, and hunts about on the sand in the
endeavour to find it again, and will even
collect the pieces, if the Sea-anemone is cut
up, and arrange them in its claw.

Distribution. Sea-anemones are found the
world over, and in many cases the same
genera are found in widely separated parts.

The larger, and those of more varied form
and colour, are mostly found in tropical
regions. Most are littoral, living either
between tidemarks or at slight depths; a few
are pelagic, and some species have been
dredged from depths down to nearly 3,000
fathoms.

Description—Exterior. A Sea-anemone is
an animal having a body of a more or less
columnar shape, terminated at the lower
extremity by the base or pedal disc, and at
the upper extremity by the oral dise which
bears the tentacles, enclosing the mouth.

The entire quantity of solid matter in a Sea-
anemone is very smali, as may be seen in
those species that become exceedingly thin
and flat in the day-time, but expand into a
tall, graceful column at night. In a similar
fashion the tentacles are constantly with-
drawn by becoming very small; and the full
expansion of these and the column is alike
effected by the absorption of much water. A
consideration of these facts will make it
easily understood that Sea-anemones are
much more abundant than is generally
recognized,

Attachment to a rock or other support is by
means of a sole-like broad base, usually
sharply separated from an upright cylindri-
cal wall or column, and sometimes beset with
rows of adhesive warts or tubercles. Some
species have a rounded base which is thrust
down into sand, and there retained by infla-
tion. Sea-anemones can move on this base,
much after the manner of a snail, but more
slowly. Some constantly inflate the base
to such an extent that it becomes a swimming
bladder, buoying them to the surface of the
water, along which they float inverted.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST Page Eleven
The column at its upper or distal end passes
into a horizontal plate, the disc, or peristome.

In the middle of the disc, and slightly ele-
vated above its surface, is an elongated slit-
like aperture, the mouth, from which streaks
of colour radiate outwards. Springing from
the disc and encircling the mouth are nume-
rous tentacles, which are usually arranged in
multiples of six (occasionally five), in a
number of circlets. Supposing the innermost
circlet to contain six, the second also six, the
third may number twelve, the fourth twenty-
four, the fifth circlet (if present) forty-
eight, and correspondingly increased if a
sixth circlet is in evidence. Totals of 400 to
900 tentacles are sometimes, but rarely
found, The tentacles are usually simple,
unbranched, hollow cones, an extension of the
body wall and vary greatly in length.

Enteric System. The mouth does not lead
at once into a spacious, undivided enteric
cavity, but into a short tube, having the form
of a flattened cylinder, which hangs down-
wards into the interior of the body, and ter-
minates in a free edge (bottomless), produced
at each end of the long diameter into a
descending lobe or lappet. This tube is the
gullet or stomodaeum, whose inner surface is
marked with two longitudinal grooves cor-
responding with the lappets, the gullet
grooves.

The stomodaeum does not simply hang freely
in the enteric cavity, but is connected with
the body wall by a number of radiating
partitions, the complete or primary mesen-
teries. Between these are incomplete
secondary mesenteries, which extend only
part of the way from the body wall to the
stomodaeum, and tertiary mesenteries ‘still
more limited in their extent. Mesenteries may
be traced in some genera to the sixth order.

The usual arrangement of the mesenteries is
hexameral, i.e., that there are six primaries.

In most cases also there are six secondary
and twelve tertiary mesenteries. After the
tertiaries have been formed, only two of each
succeeding group appear in each sextant, so
that the arrangement of a sextant containing
mesenteries up to the fifth order would be
as follows:—

Paste oe 4 al

Page Twelve

The mesenteries are ‘often perforated by
foramina or stomata, which serve to promote
the circulation of fluid along the chambers
of the body cavity.

Thus the enteric internal cavity of a Sea-
anemone is divisible into three regions: (1)
The stomodaeum or gullet, communicating
with the exterior by the mouth, and opening
below into (2) a single main digestive cavity,
the stomach ‘or mesenteron, which gives off
(3) a number of radially arranged cavities,
the inter-mesenteric chambers or metentera.
Cell layers. The body wall (base, column,
and disc) consists of a layer of ectoderm
(outside), one of endoderm (inside), and be-
tween therr an intermediate layer or
mesogloea, which is extremely thick and
tough.

The stomodaeum is an inturned portion of
the body wall, is lined with ectoderm, and its

surface which faces the intermesenteric
chambers is endodermal.
The mesenteries consist of a supporting

plate of mesogloea, covered on both sides by
endoderm.

The tentacles are hollow out-pushings of the
dise, and contain the same layers.

Muscular System, { Sea-anemones perform
various characteristic movements: the column
may be extended or retracted, the tentacles
extended to a considerable length, or drawn
back and completely hidden by the upper
end of the column being folded over them,
like the mouth of a bag; the stomodaeum,
and even the mesenteries, may be partially
everted through the mouth; and lastly, the
whole animal is able, very slowly, to change
its\ position by creeping movements of its
base. These movements are performed by
means of a very well developed set of
muscles.

Attack and Defence. Stinging capsules occur
in the ectoderm, and are also abundant in
the mesenteric filaments. They resemble in
general characters the nematocysts of
Hydrozoa, but are more elongate, and the
thread is usually provided at the base with
very numerous slender barbs. Gland cells
are abundant in the ectodermal lining of the

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST July 14, 1942.
stomodaeum and in the mesenteric filaments.
In possessing both stinging capsules and
gland cells, the mesenteric filaments perform
a double function. The animal is voracious
and is able to capture and swallow small
Fishes, Molluscs, Sea-urchins, etc. The prey
is partly paralysed before ingestion by the
stinging capsules of the tentacles, but the
process is completed after swallowing, by
those of the mesenteric filaments. Then, as
the captured animal lies in the stomach, the
edges of the filaments come into close contact
with one another and practically surround it,
pouring out, at the same time, a digestive
juice secreted by their gland cells.

Reproduction. Sea-anemones are dioecious,
the sexes being lodged in distinct individuals.

The gonads—ovaries or testes—are developed
in the substance of the mesenteries, a short
distance from the edge, and when mature,
often form very noticeable structures. The
sperms, when ripe, are discharged into the
stomach and escape by the mouth; they are
then carried, partly by their own movements,
partly by ciliary action, down the gullet of a
female, where they find their way to the
ovaries and impregnate the eggs.

The oosperm undergoes more or less regular
division, and becomes converted into a
planula, an elongated ovoidal body with an
outer layer of ciliated ectoderm, and an inner
layer of large endoderm cells, surrounding a
closed enteric cavity, usually filled with a
mass of yolk, which serves as a store of
nutriment.

In this condition the embryo, usually
opaque white, escapes from the parent through
the mouth, swims about for a time, the
aboral end foremost, and then settles down,
becoming attached by its broader or anterior
end, At the opposite or narrow end a pit
appears, the rudiment of the stomodaeum,
and so on to tentacles and mesenteries.

In a considerable number of species the fer-
tilization of the eggs and their subsequent
development take place in sea water. In many
others the embryos are discharged into the
water from the body cavity of the parent,
with six or twelve tentacles already deve-
loped.

July 14, 1942.

Under natural conditions the sexual condi-
tion is seasonal, but Sea-anemones when kept
in an aquarium and regularly fed, may be
expected to breed nearly all the year round.

Asexual reproduction is apparently not a
common occurrence but there are many
known instances. Longitudinal fission occurs;
also transverse fission when the body of the
Sea-anemone becomes constricted in the
middle, a circlet of tentacles is formed below
the constriction, and division takes ' place.
The upper half floats away with the original
tentacles and stomodaeum, and becomes at-
tached by the base in another place. The
lower half remains behind and develops a
new stomodaeum and other organs,

In some species a form of asexual reproduc-
tion occurs known as pedal laceration. The
pedal disc spreads on the rock upon which
the animal rests, in the form of a thin mem-
brane or film of an irregular circular shape,
nearly twice the diameter of the column. As
the Sea-anemone glides along, the film
remains behind and breaks up into a number
of hemispherical droplets, which, in a very
short time, develop tentacles, a mouth,
mesenteries, and other organs. They may
also reproduce by gemmation, the buds ap-
pearing either on the disc or the base.

In the development of the Sea-anemone there
is no alternation of generations, as we find
in so many of the Hydrozoa. They exist
only in the polyp form, no medusa stage
being known in any member of the class.

Food. On the continent of Europe a dish
called Rastegna is mainly prepared from cer-
tain species of Sea-anemone. Perhaps some
of our local enthusiasts would like to experi-
ment; in that case we should be glad to have
their experience and candid opinion on the
suitability of our native forms for human

food.

Aquarium. Sea-anemones undoubtedly make
really charming pets. In the eighties of tac:
century there died a Sea-anemone which had
lived sixty-six years in an aquarium in Scot-
land, and specimens are still living which
are known to be almost as old, The average
life of a Sea-anemone on the rocks in a state

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Thirteen

of nature, is probably not more than thirty
years and perhaps a good deal less.

Many species adapt themselves to the artifi-
cial life of an aquarium very readily, and
without any great exhibition of shyness. For
this purpose it is better to take medium size
specimens, rather than to look for the largest
example, as they are less likely to be injured
by removal. Examples attached to small
stones are to be preferred to disturbing the
attachment of others, They are not great
consumers of oxygen, and consequently the
water in the vessels does not readily become
fouled, except as the result of feeding.

Do not give food more than once in a fort-
night or ten days, but be sure it is suitable
food, and in small fragments only. Cockles
and mussels, both are plentiful, tiny pieces
uncooked, are an ideal food. Fish that is
hard muscle is quite unsuitable, for they can-
not readily digest jt. They require so little
that we may well select what is known to
be easily digestible. Of course, a piece out
of the side of a young whiting would be
most acceptable.

The nutriment extracted by a Sea-anemone
appears to be entirely of a fluid character.
They suck the juices from it, and having
done so completely, what remains becomes
pearly white, and having been wrapped in a
thick transparent glaire, is thrust out by the
way it entered, Now this excrement is of a
very objectionable character, and if allowed
to remain for a short time will infect the
whole of the water in the vessel, and begin
to destroy all the life therein: so it must
be removed at once.

Should a rock be selected to serve as a resi-
dence in the aquarium, let it be pitted with
holes and recesses into which the more retir-
ing species may withdraw their columns. If
green weed is attached it will be quite suit-
able, but beware of thick-fronded leathery
olive weeds which soon begin to decay and
melt in slime.

To convey Sea-anemones from the sea to a
distance, it is best to wrap them lightly
in some of the finer seaweeds, and put them
in a weed-lined box. This is better than
carrying them in water.

Page Fourteen

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

July 14, 1342.

SEA HARES

By G. PATTISON.

On March 3rd, 1942, while at Port MacDon-
nell, South Australia, searching for marine
life, I observed on flat reefs at low water
several dozens of Sea Hares, Tethys gigantea
Sowerby, a species hitherto recorded only
from the Swan River, Western Australia. The
largest specimen was 300 mm. (12 inches),
and the average 200 mm, in length. They
apparently mate at this time of the year. The
animal is a rich sepia in colour, and a
fringe extends along the back for three-
quarters of the animal’s length. On being
picked up a copious supply of rich
purple fluid was exuded, covering my hands
and arms. ‘This discharge continued after
the return to the water, evidently coming
from certain pores situated at each side of
the mouth, underneath. The fluid seems to
act as a smoke screen. It was once thought
to be poisonous, but that is not so. The
shell set in the middle of the back is convex,
translucent, flexible when alive, curving in at
one end and about 60 mm. long and 40 mm.
wide. It is thinner and more fragile (when
dry) than the smaller Sea Hare, Tethys nor-
folkensis. The animal is graceful in action,
and the contours of its body are constantly
altering. The tentacles are retracted and
protruded frequently, and it would certainly
make a “star turn” for a motion picture film,

The Sea Hare ate weed, vegetable matter, and
the guts of fish which I left in rock pools.

There is a smaller Sea Hare, Tethys nor-
folkensis, which I have taken in the South-
Fast, Kangaroo Island, and St. Vincent Gulf,
South Australia. This has the same habits
as T. gigantia, but the small shell on its back
is quite different. It is brown, thin, highly
arched, elongated triangular shape, coming to
a beak at one end. The shell is about 20
mm. long, 15 mm. wide, 8 mm. deep. The
name “Tethys” given to this weird, grotesque
slug of the sea has certainly its humorous
side. “Tethys” in Greek mythology was the
beautiful wife of Oceanus, and the Mother of
the River Gods, There is a good description
of this animal and shell by B. C. Cotton and
F. K. Godfrey in the “South Australian Natu-
ralist,” May, 1933. The animal is 40 to

60 mm. long, dark brown, sometimes spotted
lighter colour or whitish dots, very often
black on the fringes of the lobes. The purple
fluid given off by this smaller species is less
in proportion than the amount ejected by
Tethys gigantea. These animals make a fine
study subject in an aquarium.

J have to thank Mr. B. C, Cotton for the
identification of the Sea Hares here recorded.

The Shell

The large Bailer Shell, Melo mitltonis, is
rarely taken alive by South Australian col-
lectors. It appears to be fairly common,

Southern’ Bailer

however, in the Great Australian Bight. The
photograph shows eight living specimens,
ranging from nine to twelve inches in length,
taken by E. T. Wheare at Cape Thevenard in
one and a half fathoms. They are now in
the South Australian Museum collection.

—B. C. COTTON.

July 14, 1942.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Fifteen

Notes On Some South Australian Bats —No. |

By

E. E.

BOEHM

Sutherlands, S.A., 31/1/1942.

Little Brown Bat (Vespadelus pumilus pumi-
lus, Gray 1841).—Although this diminutive
dusky-brown bat is said by Wood Jones
(“Mammals of South Australia,” p, 423;
1925) to be by no means common, it is rela-
tively numerous in the semi-humid areas of
South Australia, where the savannah wood.
land and sclerophyll forest formations are
found,: The size-variations noted by Wood
Jones appear to be partly due to age. Exami-
nation of a long series of specimens, with the
length of the forearms ranging from 28 mm.
to 33 mm., indicates that the smaller, less
brownish individuals are sub-adult, and that
the larger, brown, or rufous-tinged examples
are aged individuals.

At Bool Lagoon, South-east South Australia,
Mr. J. B. Hood discovered a colony of forty
in October, 1934. They were observed by
him at dusk, emerging from a crack in the
trunk of a dry hollow Yellow Box (Eucalyp-
tus sp.), about eight feet from the ground.
Leaving the tree at the rate of one per
minute, the bats dropped towards the ground
before flying off, Only one male was found
in the colony.

Gould’s Wattled Bat (Chalinolobus gouldi
gouldi, Gay 1841).—Flying early in the
evening, Gould’s Wattle Bat appears on the
wing in our! mallee areas the whole year
around, excepting in very rough or wet
weather. Occasionally one may be seen as
early as sunset in summer time, when it is
still light enough to distinguish the choco-
late-coloured throat, blackish head, and short,
characteristic ears. Rarely one is observed
flying about in the morning as late as a
quarter of an hour after sunrise.

Large examples are often of a blackish
colour. In these specimens the dorsal sur-
face is blackish, shading off to very dark
rusty-brown on the extreme lower back,
while on the ventral surface the gradation

is from very dark rusty-brown to dark grey.
Small communities of from six to ten indi-
viduals occupy a suitable hollow tree trunk,
or bough, in most patches of scrub in the
mallee districts.

Peters’ Free-tailed Bat (Micronomus plani-
ceps, Peters 1866).—Described by Wood
Jones under the name of Nyctinomus petersi,
Leche 1884, this bat is apparently not un-
common in South-east South Australia, and
its occurrence in South-western Victoria is to
be expected. A colony of thirty-one was
found at Bool Lagoon, S.A., on 21st October,
1933, by Mr. J. B. Hood. They were in the
hollow limb of a ring-barked Hill Gum
(Eucalyptus sp.), eighteen feet up from the
ground. The animals generally moved back-
wards and were very active. A small heap
of excreta was situated directly below the
entrance of the hollow, and the inside of the
limb had a smooth and greasy appearance,
which seemed to indicate that the situation
was a permanent camping place.

The colony comprised six males and twenty-
five females.

CORRECTION.

The last issue of this publication had on the
cover Vol. 22, No. 1. This is incorrect, and
should read Vol. 21, No. 2.

The Secretary is preparing a list of members,
is deine Cas

Will you write in, giving name, address, and

date of joining the F.N. Section?

Page Sixteen

BARRETT’S

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

LAND SHELL

The accompanying picture, taken by Captain

Graham and forwarded to me by E. T.

Wheare, shows an extraordinarily numerous

colony of the Native snail, Bothriembryon

barretii. The shells are situated in sandhills
near the head of the Great Australian Bight,
due north of Twin Rock.

B. C. COTTON.

List of Plants on

Fleurieu Peninsula

By
J. B, CLELAND AND C. M. EARDLEY.

In June, 1930, one of us (J.B.C.), through the
courtesy of the then Conservator of Forests,
Mr. E. Julius, accompanied by Mr. A. L.
Pinches, had an opportunity of spending a
few days in the Second Valley Forest Reserve.

Considerable additions to the list of plants
then obtained were made during the visit of
the Tate Society of the University of Adelaide
in December 1938, whose camp was situated
on Deep Creek about a mile south of tke
Reserve. Excursions were made from this
site to various portions of the rough, scrub-
covered hills and valleys between the ridge
road and the southern coast-line,

The Fleurieu Peninsula area may be con-
sidered as comprising the country south of

the Inman Valley-Yankalilla-Normanville
Road, separated on the east by the Bald Hills
and the Tunkalilla Road from the Encounter
Bay district. Torrens Vale is thus included
in the Fleurieu Peninsula area. Most of
the plants in the following list were obtained
during the two expeditions mentioned, but a
few: are included that had been collected at
other times within the area defined as the
Fleurieu Peninsula,

A total of 301 species and one variety in ad-
dition appear in the list, 40 of which are
introduced species.

Mr. J. M. Black has kindly identified various
species, and most of the Cyperaceae have
been identified by Mr. S. T. Blake.

July 14, 1942.

eA aOR

FILICALES :—Lindsaya
Adiantum aethiopicum _L.,

Cheilanthes tenuifolia, Swartz;
aquilinum (L.) Kuhn., Bracken; Blechnum
discolor (Willd.) Keys; B. capense (L.)
Schlecht.; Dryopteris punctata (Thunb.) C.
Chr.; Gleichenia circinata Swartz, Coral Fern,
Deep Creek; Schizaea dichotoma Swartz, un-
der tall sedges in drying swamp just to the
west of and three miles along the road to

Tunkalilla.

Swartz;
Maidenhair;
Pteridium

linearis

TYPHACEAE:—Typha angustifolia L., Bul-

rush,

SCHEUCHZERIACEAE:—Triglochin striate
Ruiz et Pav.; T. procera R. Br.

GRAMINEAE:—Themeda triandra_ Forsk.,
Kangaroo Grass; Neurachne alo pecuroides,
R. Br.; *Paspalum dilatatum Poir.; Spinifex
hirsutus Labill., C. Jervis; Microlaena
stipoides (Labill.) R. Br.; Amphipogon
strictus R. Br.; Stipa Muelleri Tate, in colo-
nes from underground runners under Stringy-
barks near the edge of a swamp on a creek
south of the Second Valley Forest Reserve;
Echinopogon ovatus (Forst.) Beauv.; Poly-
pogon monspeliensis Desf., Beard-grass;
Agrostis avenacea (Amel.) Pilger, Blown
Grass; “Aira caryophyllea L., Silvery Hair-
grass; *Holcus lanatus’. L., Yorkshire Fog;
Danthonia sp.; Triodia irritans R. Br., C. Jer-
vis; Phragmites communis L., Common Reed;
*Briza maxima L., Large Quaking Grass; B.
minor L., Lesser Quaking-Grass; *Poa annua
L., Annual Meadow-Grass; Glycerta fluitans
(L.) R. Br., Manna Grass; *Bromus hordea-
ceus L., Soft Brome; *Lolium sp.; *Lepturus
eylindricus Trin.; Agropyrum scabrum (La-
hill.) Beauv.

CYPERACEAE :—Cyperus tenellus ben be
vaginatus R. Br.; Schoenus foliatus (Hook.
f.) §. T. Blake (=. axillaris in Black’s
Flora); S. apogon Roem. et Sch.; S. nitens
(R. Br.) Poir.; S. Tepperi F.v.M.; S. Carset
Cheeseman (= Cladium monocarpum Black) ;
Eleocharis acuta R. Br.; E. gracilis, R. Br.

(= E. multicaulis Sm.); Scirpus fluitans L..

and var. terrestris G. Myen.; S. cernuus
Vahl.; S. platycarpus S. T. Blake; S. inunda-
tus (R. Br.) Poir.; S, nodosus Rotth.; Cla-
dium junceum R. Br.; C. Mariscus (L.) Pohl.;
C. articulatum R. Br.; C. rubiginesum (So-

land.) Domin.; C. tetragonum (ULabill.) J. M.
Black; C. laxum (Nees.) Benth.; Cahnia
trifida Labill., Cutting-Grass; G. lanigera (R.
Br.) Benth., C. Jervis; G. psittacorum Labill.
(used at one time for thatching) ; Lepidosper-
ma exaltatum R. Br.; L. gladiatum Labill.,
Sword Rush, C. Jervis; JL. laterale R. Br.;
L. viscidum R. Br.; L. semiteres F.v.M.; L.
carphoides F.v.M.; Carex appressa R. Br.; C.
tereticaulis F.v.M. (also at Torrens Vale);
C. breviculmis R.Br.; C. fascicularis Brott
(= C. pseudocyperus L.)

RESTIONACEAE: — Hypolaena lateriflora

(R. Br.) Benth., in swamps; A. fastigtata
R. Br.

CENT ROLEPIDACEAE :—Centrolepis strigo-
sa (R. Br.) Roem. et Schult.; C. fascicularis
Labill.?

XYRIDACEAE:—Xyris operculata Labill.

JUNCACEAE :—* Juncus capitatus Weig.; J.
bufonius L., Toad Rush; J. caesptticius E.
Mey; J. holoschoenus R. Br.; J. pallidus R.
Br., Pale Rush, with rust; J. pauctflorus,
R. Br.

LILIACEAE: — Dianella revoluta R. Br.;
Burchardia umbellata .R. Br.; Lomandra
dura (F.v.M.) Ewart; L. caespitosa (Benth.)
Ewart; £. multiflora (R. Br.) J. Britten; L.
effusa (Lindl.) Ewart, C. Jervis; Thysanotus
Patersonit R. Br.; Th. dichotomus (Labill.)
R. Br.; Chamaescilla corymbosa (R. Br.)
F.v.M.; Tricoryne elatior R. Br.; Dichopogon
strictus (R. Br.) J. G. Bak.; Xanthorrhoea
Tateana F.v.M.

IRIDACEAE :—Patersonia longiscapa Sweet;
L. glauca R.Br.

ORCHIDACEAE :—Dipodium punctatum R,
Br.; Thelymitra fuscolutea R. Br.; Microtis
porrifolia Spreng.; Othoceras strictum R. Br.

CASUARINACEAE :—Casuarina stricta Ait.,
Sheoak; C. striata Macklin; C. Muelleriana
Mig.

PROTEACEAE :—Isopogon ceratophyllus R.
Br.; Adenanihos terminalis R. Br.; Persoonia
juniperina Labill.; Hakea vittata R. Br., C.
Jervis; H. rostrata F.v.M.; H. ulicina R. Br.;
Banksia marginata Cav., dwarf form; Grevil-

lea lavandulacea Schlecht.

To be continued next issue.

The Field Naturalists’ Section

EXCURSIONS

Date. Locality. Time. Subject. Leader.
1942.
April 27—Tailem Bend Motor, 9.0 a.m. Swamp Life Mr. B. C. Cotton
May 9%—Museum Entrance, 2.0 p.m. Ethnology Mr. N. B. Tindale
23—Outer Harbor Train, 12.55 p.m. Seaweeds Miss D. M. Matthews
June 8—Mannum Motor, 9.0 a.m. Physiography Mr. A. G. Edquist
20—Botanic Gardens Entrance, 1.0 p.m. Shrubs Mr. H. Greaves
27—Henley—Glenelg Tram, 14 p.m. Shells Rev. H. Gunter
July 4—Museum Entrance, 2.0 p.m. Mineralogy Mr. H. T. Condon
11—Semaphore—Grange Train, 12.55 p.m. Beach Life Mr. B. C. Cotton
25—Field River Motor, 1.0 p.m. Geology Mr. R. Sprigg
Aug. 1—Kooyonga Tram, 1.4 p.m. Birds and Pond Life Mr. W. G. Buick
15—Eden Train, 10 p.m. Orchids Mr. H. Goldsack
29—Largs Train, 12.55 p.m. Shells Mr. R. C. Shinkfield

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TRAIN EXCURSIONS.—Will members obtain their tickets and meet on the train.
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EVENING MEETINGS

Royal Society Rooms, Kintore Avenue.
1942. 1942.
Feb. 17—‘‘Brown Men and Red Sand,” May 19—‘‘Our Changing Landscape,” Mr. F. C. Martin
Mr. C. P. Mountford June 16—Shell Club Evening: Lecturettes
Mar. 17—“A Naturalist in Norway,” Mr. A. G. Edquist July 21—Botany Club Evening: Lecturettes
April 21—‘‘Parks and Gardens” ...... ...... Mr. B. J. E. Bone Aug. 18—‘The Clothing of Animals,”
Sense (thal Mr. J. E. L. Machell

MALACOLOGICAL SOCIETY: Evening Meetings

Royal Society Rooms, Kintore Avenue.
1942. 1942.
May 4—“Mitridae” 2. oo. woe oe oe Mr. B. CG. Cotton July 6—MVolutes” on ee vom oo ee oe Mr, B. C. Cotton
« ” . 20—‘Shells: Parasitic and Commensal,”
18—“Corals”’ ...... ...... ... Miss D. M. Matthews Nin, AB ie ie ce
June 1—“Foraminifera” 0. we soo ov Mr. W. J. Parr Aug. 3—Annual Meeting and Exhibits by Members
1—“Tripheridae” oo. sen Mr. F. K. Godfrey 17—“Correlation of Gastropoda,” Mr. B. C. Cotton

THE BOTANY CLUB

Saturday afternoons at the Museum, North Terrace.

1942. 1942,
“Tichens” 2... es te an Miss B. S. Barrien Baal OAT os dees eee are aero Prof. J. B. Cleland
“Orchids” ..... wu. wu Mr. J. Ferries “Wiolets? i. cee ee cee oe. Mrs, W. M. Nielsen
“Mosses” on. cn . Mr. H. Goldsack (Annual Meeting)

“Plant Conservation” . . Dr. H. C. Trumble

Printed by BE. J. McALISTER & CO., 24 Blyth Street, Adelaide,

CONTENTS:

0

ie)

VARIATIONS IN CHITONS
FROM THE FLINDERSIAN
REGION.

ie)

ie)

A TEAL WITH A BROKEN
HUMERUS.

0

O

SOME HISTORY OF
KANGAROO ISLAND.

o———-0

PROTOCONCH OR
EMBRYONIC SHELL.

ce)

Oo

PLATYPUS IN SOUTH
AUSTRALIA.

)
PUBLIC LIBRARY OF SOUTH

ie)

AUSTRALIA.
9) oO
A man of the Pintubi tribe preparing for a secret an
ceremony near Mount Liebig in Central Australia. PLANTS OF FLEURIEU
He is decorated with emu down, gummed on with PENINSULA (Continued).

human blood, and has blood-soaked gum _ twig
shavings on his head.

oe
oe

VOLUME 21, No. 4.

The South Australian

NATURALIST

JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

DECEMBER 1, 1942.

Registered at the G.P.O.,
Adelaide for transmission
through the post as a

periodical. Price: One Shilling

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

The Field Naturalists’ Section

of The Royal Society of South Australia (Inc.)

OFFICERS, 1941-42.
Patron: LADY MURIEL BARCLAY-HARVEY.

Chairman: Mr. B. C. COTTON.
Vice-Chairmen: Mr. A. MOLINEUX and Mr. H. GOLDSACK.

Hon. Secretary: Mr. W. M. NIELSEN.
(Phone: C 3845.)

Hon. Treasurer: Miss M. EMERSON,
c/o W.F.A., University, Adelaide. ’Phone: C 8355.

Hon. Librarian: Miss D. M. MATTHEWS.
Hon. Magazine Secretary: Mr. A. K. BEASLEY.
Hon. Editor, S.A. Naturalist: Mr. B. C. COTTON.
Hon. Auditors: Messrs. W. D. REED, F.C.A. (Aus.), and B. B. BECK.

Committee:

The PRESIDENT and VICE-PRESIDENTS of the Royal Society of South Australia
(ex officio), Rev. H. A. GUNTER, Mrs. I. GOODALL, Miss L. HANSSON, Messrs. A.
J. WILEY, J. FERRIES, A. G. EDQUIST, G. PATTISON, J. FARSCH.

No special knowledge necessary to become a member,
only a keen interest in Nature.

THIS Section was founded in 1883 for the purpose of

affording observers and lovers of Natural History regular
and frequent opportunities for discussing those special sub-
jects in which they are naturally interested; for the Exhibition
of Specimens; and for promoting Observations in the Field
by means of Excursions to various collecting grounds around
the Metropolis.
. THE MONTHLY MEETINGS of the Section for Lectures,
the Reading of Papers, and Exhibition of Specimens are held
on the third Tuesday, at 8 p.m., at the Royal Society’s Rooms,
Institute Buildings, North Terrace, Adelaide.

THE ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION dates from August 1, and
can be sent to Miss M. Emerson, t/o W.E.A., University, North
Terrace, Adelaide.

Ordinary Members 7/6 per annum
Junior Members, 11-16 years

Writes Membership ie..: 95.0 @sg.0) ad Moe beeen area eas ee EO ee

2/6 per annum

EXC URSIONS— :
For excursions by tram, meet in Grenfell Street, by T. & G.
Building.

Train Excursions.—Will members obtain their tickets and
meet on train?

Motor Excursions.—All motor excursions leave from Town
Hall, Adelaide, and members wishing to go on these
trips MUST advise the Hon. Secretary or Treasurer at
least three days before the excursion, so that sufficient
accommodation may be provided,

MEMBERS are urged to take Receptacles for the carrying
of Specimens. At each outing every member is expected to
collect. Specimens wherever possible, and to hand them to the
Leader for identification, ete.

COMMITTEE MEETINGS are held at 7 p.m. on General
Meeting Nights.

THE HON. SECRETARY. All letters to be addressed c/o
Royal Society’s Rooms, Institute Buildings, North ‘Terrace,
Adelaide. Letters will be collected regularly.

“THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST.” The Journal
of the Section. Editor, Mr. B. C. Cotton, ¢/o S.A. Museum.
Free to members. Exchanges may be arranged. Extra ecpies
1/- each. Address communications to A. K. Beasley, Harris
Street, Payneham.

December 1, 1942

Variations in Chitons from the

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page One

Flindersian Region

By B. J. WEEDING.

The Flindersian Region extends from Gerald-
ton in Western Australia to Wilson’s Promon-
tory in Victoria and includes the northern
and western coasts of Tasmania. The Region
washed and influenced by the Great Southern
Ocean cold current,

Iixcept for a few extra-limital species, the
chitons of this Region form a distinctive
group quite different from those of the Pero-
nian Region in the east and the Dampierian
Region in the weet.

Within the Flindersian Region considerable
variation is found in both size and sculpture
in many of the species, and attempts have
heen made io separate these variations ac-
cording to the political boundaries of the
States. A number of specific and subspecific
names have been introduced, simply because
they have been found in Western Australia,
South ‘Australia or Tasmania, as the case may
be, Frequently these species have been in-
troduced without adequate description or
ficure. In most cases these names are useless,
as the features upon which they are founded
are not constant and geographical boundaries
to the variations do not exist.

This applies very definitely to those sub-
specific names introduced for Western Aus-
tralian variants, for the variations found in
these species are found, not only in W.A.,
but often in the bays of the Great Australian
Bight and often to a still greater degree in
Spencer Gulf, South Australia. The marine
fauna of the eastern coast of that gulf
shows a definite western influence. The
result is that the western variations are found
in South Australia, where they blend indis-
tinguishably with, what may be called, more
typical forms, and consequently they cannot
be regarded as having either constant features
or geographical boundaries, They are
worse than useless, for the multiplication of
synonyms not only confuses workers but must
be a source of confusion or perplexity to
students overseas.

At the eastern boundary of the Flindersian
Region, the colder waters of the Tasmanian
seas produce specimens, which with few ex-
ceptions are larger and more strongly
sculptured than those found in the warmer

seas of the South Australian Gulfs. This
slight variation in sculpture or size has, in
several instances, been regarded as sufficient
reason for the introduction of new names.
If we compare specimens of Jschnochiton
elongatus Blainville collected in Gulf St.
Vincent with Tasmanian specimens, the latter
will be found to be much larger and more
strongly sculptured. It grows weaker as we
travel westward and finally disappears on
reaching Spencer Gulf. This species escaped
splitting but Ischnochiton lineolatus Blain-
ville from Bass Strait has been sub-specifically
named /schnochiton iredalei kingensis Ashby

and Hull.

To use another illustration—Notoplax rubro-
strata Torr is a small and rare shell in South
Australia, though it is much more common in
Tasmanian waters, and like ithe other two
species mentioned, grows to a much larger
size. These Tasmanian shells have been
named Notoplax extra Iredale & Hull. It
seems that Notoplax rubrostrata Torr grows
larger in Tasmanian waters and when it is
fully grown it becomes Notoplax extra Ire-

dale & Hull !!

At the western end of the‘ Region slight
variations from what may be called typical
forms also occur and authors have not been
able to resist the temptation to record those
variations either as “occidentalis”! or “wes-
ternensis,”’ at least half a dozen variants now
share these names. One unfortunate species
appears to have received both of them! This
is Cryptoplax striata occidentalis Iredale and
Hull and Cryptoplax striata var westernensts
Ashby, both names were given without
either adequate description or figure.
Cryptoplax iredalei attenuate Iredale & Hull
is a name given to the western shells of C.
tredale; Ashby, but Ashby’s holotype came
from Port Lincoln and Iredale’s description
of “attenuata” is a good description of “ire-
dalei,”

Again to use another illustration, Anthochiton
torrianus klemi ‘Ashby is plentiful in the
western end of the Region but Ashby’s holo-
type came from Corny Point, Spencer Gulf. It
has fewer sulci on the pleural area than is
found on most specimens of the South Aus-
tralian “rorrianus.’ The same weakening

Page Two

is found in Aulacochiton cimolius Reeve and
specimens are found in Western Australia
with only a few ridges on the central area;
these have been given full specific status
and called Lorica paucipustulosa Hull.
Some species, on the other hand, are more
strongly sculptured in the western specimens.
The western specimens of Ischrochiton (Hete-
rozona) cartosus are as a rule much stronger
sculptured than ihe eastern shells and have
been called “occidentalis.” Specimens of
Bassethullia matthewsi Pilsbry with a few
more lines than usual on the median valve
have been named “occidentalis.” Perhaps
Ornithochiton occidentalis Ashby can be ac-
cepted with more reason, for although it is
inseparable from eastern forms, there are no
South Australian forms with which it can
intermingle. The same reason cannot be
advanced for attaching the name “westernen-
sis” to the large green “resplendens,” as that
form is found throughout the whole Flinder-
sian Region, although they appear to be
much more plentiful in the west. Ischno-
chiton contractus Reeve is another species
which grows coarser in the west, and the
name Gymnoplax urvillei Rochbrune 1881 is
available for collectors who want to separate
them, but there are no constant features to
make the separation advisable.

The subspecific name 'Jschnochiton virgaius
exaggeratus Iredale & Hull could have been
used for a dark coloured variety found in
Western Australia and in the bays along the
Great Australian Bight, but the authors added
to the “dark brown or blackish colour” the
words “sometimes creamy white” and that
leaves the larger size as the only distinguish-
ing feature. The name therefore appears
useless to the collector, who cannot always
wait for a specimen to grow up before know-
ing whether to label it J. virgatus or I.
virgalus exaggeratus.

Workers have jumped to the conclusion that
as over a thousand miles separate ‘Albany,
Western Australia, from Spencer Gulf, South
Australia, the Marine fauna cannot possibly
be the same, We could give many other
illustrations of the attempts to separate the
variations in the species within the Flinder-
sian Region, but enough has been given to
show the unsatisfactory nature of what has
been accomplished. There is no doubt that
other workers in the future will attempt to
separate existing species, but the unsuccess-

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST December 1, 1942
ful efforts of past workers show that a more
thorough knowledge of the whole Region is
essential if such attempts are to be of any
value.

The influence of the ocean currents has been
emphasised by some workers and just as em-
phatically denied by others. It is doubtful
whether enough is known of the direct or
indirect influence of the ocean currents upon
particularly in the Flindersian Region
the flora and fauna of the Laminarian Zone
to allow anyone to make authoritative state-
ments on the subject, but it will be better
for future workers to take their possible
influence into consideration rather than to
accept political divisions as an adequate and
safe guide for the introduction of new species
and subspecies as has evidently been done
in the past.

There is great need of more field work with
this group of Mollusca, for our knowledge of
the range of many of the rarer species is
very limited. Actually only a comparatively
small percentage of the species have been
traced throughout the Region and their varia-
tions noted.

More knowledge of the nature of the weed,
rock, temperature of the water, and other
physical conditions under which the chitons
live is also needed. These conditions will
probably be found to be the real cause of the
difference in size of the shells and the strength
and variations in the sculpture.

It has been pointed out that a warm sub-
surface current from the Indian Ocean flows
along the track of the Southern Ocean cold
current and is about 400 miles wide and
250 fathoms deep. This is said to be on the
surface at Cape Leeuwin but 150 fathoms
below: the surface at Cape Northumberland,
so that its influence over littoral life is prob-
ably insignificant.

But to what extent species are influenced by
special environment or dispersed by these
ocean -currents to more favourable or less
favourable situations as the case may be, can
only be guessed at at present, and consider-
able differences of opinion will always be
held by workers until years of patient
field work and painstaking investigation have
accumulated enough data to enable us to
speak with confidence about the cause, nature
and extent of the many of the variations
found in the chitons of the 'Flindersian
Region,

December 1, 1942

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Three

A Teal with a Broken Humerus

By H. E. DUNSTONE and B. COTTON.

The following account appeared in the “S.A.
Ornithologist,” 1942, 16 (1), 11. An X-ray
of the bone is here reproduced:

In 1929 Mr. Richards noticed at Tantanoola a
Grey Teal (Querquedula gibberifrons) flying
erratically, and shot it. The bird was later
dressed and prepared for eating, when it was
noticed that the humerus of the left wing was
deformed as the result of a bad break and
subsequent unusual repair. An X-ray of the
broken humerus was taken. The shaft had
been broken across at about one-third of the
length from one end, and the muscular pull
had separated the broken ends by a distance

the break—amounting in one portion to the
whole length of the fragment. Apparently the
periosteum had been torn somewhat along
these lengths, and this had rendered the perio-
steum active, to send out osteoblasts to invade
the mass of granulation tissue known as
“callus,” which occupied the space between
the fragments shortly after the injury, and
converted it into true bone. An inspection of
the X-ray picture showed that the bony fibres
thus formed had taken definite directions, to
render the resulting bridge capable of stand-

ing the strains which would later be imposed
on it in the manner most calculated to be

of 20 mm., and overlapped them by a similar
distance. A bony bridge 15 mm, wide and
10 mm. span had been formed to connect the
two portions of the broken shaft. The ends
of the fractured bone had been rounded off,
and played no part in the repair, which had
been carried out by the periosteum of the
shaft of each fragment for some distance from

The resulting architecture of the

effective.
bridge is a good example of now Nature pro-
vides structural details to withstand stress
where it is most required.

The specimen was donated to the South Aus-
tralian Museum by Mr. P. K, Bidmeade, who

received it from Mr. Richards some years ago.

Page Four THE SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

December 1, 1942

Some History of Kangaroo Island, South Australia

By GEORGE PATTISON.

To most people of South Australia some
knowledge of Kangaroo Island exists, but to
the rest of Ausiralians there is almost a total
ignorance of its existence. Yet it is Austra-
lia’s largest island, in its coastal sea belli,
also the most interesting. It is situated across
the entrance to St. Vincent Gulf of South
Australia. In 1802 it was given its name by
Capt. Flinders owing to so many kangaroos
being there. The island is about 110 miles
long by 40 to 50 miles wide for the major part
of the length. At the eastern end is a knob of
land almost separated from the rest of the
island. Only a narrow neck of land about
half a mile wide joins the two. At the ex-
treme east end of this knob of the island is
one of our first lighthouses, Cape Willoughby.

It was originally named and charted as Sturt
Lighthouse. It was from this lighthouse sta-
tion in 1859-61 that rations were issued to
the last survivors of the aboriginal women
who had been stolen from the mainland by
the early escaped convicts and sealers. The
last of these women were named Sally, Betty,
Nelly, and Mary Adelaide. The woman Sally
was demented, and had to be looked after by
the other aborigines. They lived in the bush
and along the coast from Hog Bay to Sturt
Lighthouse (Cape Willoughby). Their
rations consisted of flour, sugar, rice, and
blankets. These were issued to them by the
lighthouse keeper, W. A. Cawthorne, who was
the son of the first lighthouse keeper, Capt.

W.C. Cawthorne. At the end of 1860 another
lubra turned up for rations, by name of Mary
Manarto. After the end of June, 186], these
natives must have died. They came no more
for rations, and all traces of them were lost.

They did not like the flour and rice, but
valued the sugar and blankets. Evidently
these natives had been discarded as they grew
old by the men who stole them from the
mainland, or their man had been killed, or
died. Fatal brawls were frequent amongst
the wild element of the escaped convicts and
sealers, Between this “knob” of the island
and the mainland is a narrow sea-way of 8
to 12 miles wide, called Backstairs Passage.

Nearly three-quarters of the island’s coastline
is bold and perpendicular cliffs. Many
famous square-rigged sailing ships were
wrecked and dashed to pieces on these, at
different parts of the coast, generally with a
total loss of all hands. So numerous light-
houses and warning unattended lights were
built around the most dangerous parts of the
coast in the track of shipping routes. Owing
to the wrecks of the “Loch Sloy” and the
“Loch Vennachar,” two fine full-rigged sail-
ing clipper ships of the wool clippers of 1900
period a powerful 750,000 candlepower light-
house was built. on the S.W. point of the
island. This point was Cape de Couedie.

Close to here in 1905 the “Loch Vennachar”
was wrecked with the loss of all hands. She
was driven ashore by northerly gales when
trying to make the Backstairs Passage, An-
other day’s fair wind run would have landed
her safely into her destination at Port Ade-
laide. J think only three people got ashore
from the wreck of the “Loch Sloy,” which
also occurred not far from Cape de Couedie.
One died from starvation after getting to the
cliff top. He was too hurt to walk. The
other two survivors set out in different direc-
tions through the dense scrub in search for
help. One was found by the head keeper of
Cape Borda Lighthouse, and the other by an
old resident of the island, who was carving
out a home for himself in the bushy scrub
of the island, at Rocky River. When the help
arrived at the cliff top, the scene of the
wreck, only the bones of the other survivor
were found. He had dragged himself around
a bit, and eaten all the “pig’s-face” plant he
could reach, for food and drink, but it was
not enough to sustain life until help came.

The surface of most of the island is covered
by a dense scrub. It is far more prickly and
thorny than is known on the mainland, Very
fertile patches now make good farm and pas-
ture lands, but most of such are on the north
side of the island facing the mainland.

Most of the island is still pure virgin land
in its natural state. Although the land is poor

December 1, 1942

in most places, a thick, luxurious growth of
trees and shrubs exists, owing to a good rain-
fall and a mild climate. Some of the largest
kangaroos ever known live here. Runaway
convicts from Botany Bay and Van Dieman’s
Land found an arcadian home here when they
landed in whale boats which they had stolen.

Also old sealers, either wrecked or runaways,
threw in their lot with the escaped convicts.
Early in the 19th century, about 1805, some
sealers were known to be living on the island.

Uncontrolled by any Government, the inhabi-
tants in the early part of the above century
became a “law unto themselves.” They
raided the mainland across Backstairs Pas-
sage, and stole the women from the Australian
aborigines and took them back to live with
them on the island. Wild characters were
amongst some of the escaped convicts, and
lawless small mobs arose, so much fighting
and wild orgies took place, Seal skins and
other products were bartered for intoxicating
liquor from whaling and sealing ships which
touched at the island. If any punitive expedi-
tion was sent against ihem, the islanders
retired to the dense scrub in-land, until the
soldiers were withdrawn. However, by 1836,
when the founding of South Australia took
place, the newcomers found the people of
Kangaroo Island fairly orderly and a con-
trolled community. Many wild tales are told
of happenings before this period. One notori-
ous bully, who held his leadership of the
wild gangs by terrorism, was finally got rid
of by those under him. They were killing and
skinning seals at the bottom of a high cliff,
having got down there by means of sliding
down a rope. While their bully leader was
engaged killing the seals, the others climbed
back up the rope, with the intention of leaving
him to his death by hauling up the rope. The
leader turned and saw them climbing back,
so ran and climbed up after them. However,
the last man before him reached the top of
the cliff with the bully just behind him, then
he cut the rope and the leader was dashed to
pieces when he fell.

The Yacca Gum tree grows to perfection on
the island, and an industry in the gum pro-
duct of the tree sprang up. Farmers also
combine a eucalyptus still with their farm.
Some of the finest eucalyptus oil is distilled
by them and sent to market. The island
should be more accessible to people of the

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST Page Five
mainland, as it is an ideal place either for
the “camper-out” or the small towns offer
splendid accommodation to visitors. The
island has a beauty of its own, of virgin coun-
try somewhat different to anything on the
mainland. Big timber sometimes appears to
change suddenly to thick scrub and then to
yacca country. It is not many miles to Har-
riet River and Vivonne Bay from Kingscote.

This is an ideal place to camp: good fish-
ing and shooting. One can fish in the river
or from a jetty which was built here years
ago. Even township sites and blocks were
surveyed here, but about the only cargo ever
shipped from the jetty was a few loads of
yacca gum into ketches. Good camping is
also to be had at Stuns’il Boom River. This
name brings back the days of the “wind-
jammer” sailing ship to one’s memory, with
all its romance and hardships. If one goes *
on a bit farther, Sou’-West River will be
reached. Here can be caught plenty of fish,
mostly bream. So why not camp here for a
few days, eat, drink, and lazily be merry?
Close by is the Flinders Chase Reserve for
Flora and Fauna, well worth a visit, to Rocky
River Station, the headquarters of the care-
taker.

At the extreme S.W. corner of the island you
come to Cape de Couedie. Here is the grand-
est and most awe-inspiring cliff coastline
in all Australia. There are steps in a cliff-
face here, cut into the cliff by some of the
very early ganes of convicts who escaped
from Van Dieman’s Land, This was over 100
years ago, and erosion had worn away some
of the steps that were cut in the cliff-face.
With a cold-chisel and hammer I recut these
steps, with a rope around my waist to support
me while doing so. Here is the place where
the rope was cut and the bully leader sent
to his death.

Back to the other end of the island now.
The visitor who has not the exploring strain
and love of nature in their psychology can
here find a “place of rest and contentment,”
either at Kinescote or American River, or
at Penneshaw. “To go is to go again” would
be a slogan worthy of Kangaroo Island.

Very much more could be written of this
island, with its history dating back long
before the foundation of South Australia,
but space does not permit.

Page Bix THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST December 1, 1942

The Protoconch or Embryonic Shell
of the Gastropod

By BERNARD C. COTTTON and FRANK K. GODFREY.

The Gastroped protoconch is the nuclear
shell which is completed in the egg during
the embryonic stages. It consists of few or
several turns or whorls, and not infrequently
differs in form from the shell of the adult.

It is always coiled in a spiral, even though
the adult is without spiral form, as the
limpet.

The larva is characterised by its velum and
other external or superficial larval organs.
The velum (Lat. a covering, curtain) is the
locomotory ciliated ring, which arises antero-
dorsally and circumscribes the apical area.
As im the Crepipoda, it is only slightly
prominent in the most archaic marine forms,
such as the limpets, the Trochidae, etc., but
in other Gastropods it becomes more and
more prominent, and eventually gives rise to
a natatory or swimming velum formed of two
lateral lobes with ciliated margins. These
lobes may in turn be subdivided into two
or three,secondary lobes, as in Atlanta, and
in some of the Strombidae. In viviparous
species, in forms like the Pulmonata, in
which the young are hatched in the adult
condition, the velum is rudimentary or dis-
appears altogether; in the Basommatophora
(fresh water Gastropoda), it is developed to a
slight degree, but only on the sides, and is
not continuous, as in the Lymnaeidae, but in
the Ellobiidae, Amphibolidae, and Siphon-
ariidae, all of which are marine, a normal
velum is present.

The foot is always present in the newly
hatched larva, and is very short at first.
The operculum is formed early, and exists in
all testaceous larvae, even in cases in which
the adult possesses neither shell nor foot; the
only exceptions to this statement are the
Pulmonata (but excluding the marine Ello-
biidae, Amphibolidae, and Siphonariidae,
which conform), and the Pteropods. The
pedal glands arise in some species in the
larva, though they are absent in the adult,
as for example Neothais,

The primitive shell-gland appears at the be-
ginning of development in the centro-dorsal
area behind the velum. It is surrounded by
a ridge which gradually extends over the
visceral sac and secretes the shell.’ The young
shell grows in thickness internally, fresh
matter being added to it from the external
surface of the mantle of the animal, but its
increase in extent is dependent on the
activity of the border of the mantle, where
there are special glands which degenerate
when the animal reaches the adult state. It
is only at this period that the aperture of
the shell acquires a lip, or is contracted in
various ways to form, for example, the linear
aperture of the Cowry, Olive, etc.

Post-larval metamorphoses occur in various
cases, The velum disappears, then in various
genera the operculum falls off, and so also
does the shell in naked forms, as the Nudi-
branchs.

It is only in rare cases that a second larval
form exists after the disappearance of the
velum, and before the adult stage is reached;
this is the case, however, in certain of the
Pteropoda, in which three transverse and
parallel ciliated rings are formed before the
fins are completely developed.

It is only in exceptional cases that the young
are hatched out with the characters of the
adult, but this is the case in all the land and
fresh water species of the sPulmonata, in
certain genera of Opisthobranchia, and in the
Littorinidae, also the Thaididae and Buccini-
dae. In normal cases the young Gastropods
are hatched out as free-swimming or pelagic
veliger larvae. This veliger (velum, and
gero to carry) has a more or less voluminous
velum, and is the characteristic larval form
in most of the Gastropoda. Even in those
that are hatched out in the adult form, the
veliger stage can generally be recognised, in
a more or less reduced condition, within the
egg membranes.

Generally the velum is reduced in proportion
as the foot develops; nevertheless, in a con-

December 1, 1942

siderable number of pelagic larvae the veliger
stage is preserved for a long time, and the
velum persists, and often develops exces-
sively long lobes, even after the creeping
foot is fully and normally developed. The
velar lobes may even produce lobate expan-
sions of the margin of the aperture of the
shell, although these disappear when the
velum is eventually absorbed and the shell
assumes the adult form. Such juvenile forms
were accepted by the early authors as dis-
tinct, and several genera were set up for
their reception,

Sinusigera d’Orbigny 1846 was a genus thus
proposed with the following description—
“Turbinate, imperforate, dextral or sinistral,
with a smooth, striate or tuberculate surface
and frequently a keeled periphery; aperture
channelled in front, peristome thickened,
reflected, with one or two claw-like lobes.
The animal has four arms, arranged in cruci-
form manner and used for swimming. There
are two tentacles, and the eyes, well formed,
are situated on the outer side of their bases.
Siphon short, being a simple fold of the
mantle. Foot large, very mobile, with a
small, thin, spiral operculum.”

Conchologists were so impressed by these
discoveries that some proposed to group such
molluscan forms in an order by themselves,
while others placed them among the
Pteropode.- Late last century their true
nature was recognised and the idea of
separate genera was dropped. The name
Sinusigera (Lat. sinus a curve or bay, gero
to carry) has been retained as explanatory
of that form of the Gastropod protoconch,
with one or more claw-like processes on the
labrum or outer lip, and a relatively broad
and deep curve or bay on either side. It is
free-swimming, and has the ability to remain
afloat for considerable periods, although
direction is controlled by the ocean currents.
Should the juvenile thus impelled arrive at a
suitable habitat within a certain limited time,
it will settle and develop there. If no such
coast, or rock, or island is met with, the
animal dies. The numbers lost in the open
sea must be prodigious, the tiny shells con-
tributing to make up the ooze on the ocean
floor. Common southern Australian examples
of the group are the Triphorids.

To know whether a shell possesses a Sinusi-

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Seven

gera apex, very young shells must be col-
lected either alive or dead. Many species
have such apices, but in adult specimens the
characters are so obscure that it cannot be
recognised. Moreover, it is very often tilted,
and the later, true shell whorls overrun the
claw and make it unrecognisable. A shell
with a Sinusigera apex may be expected to
be: of widespread distribution, and, vice
versa, many species, widely distributed, most
certainly owe their range to their Sinusigera
youth. An examination of the marine mol-
luscan fauna of almost any Pacific island
will demonstrate this, when the majority of
the Gastropod species are recognisable as
possessing free-swimming Sinusigera larvae.
The occurrence of the Sinusigera apex has
been noted in families, Mitridae, Buccinidae,
Thaididae, Pyrenidae, Coralliophilidae, Tur-
ritidae (in genera Turris, Drillia, Daphnella),
Terebridae, Triphoridae, and Cerithiidae.

A Triphora species has been taken in the
open sea, with eight or nine whorls, free-
swimming, the animal still having larval
characters. One could reasonably doubt the
possibility at such an occurrence in connec:
tion with our Neothais textilosa although
credited with Sinusigera properties. The
Triphorid Sinusigeras are much different in
shape and form from those of the Thaididae.
They are much more minute and elongate,
and the claw is in reality the only resemb-
lance. The apices of some species of
Strombus indicate their free-swimming pro-
perties, though of quite a peculiar nature.
[t is probable that the Cypraeidae, in which
many species are so widely distributed, has a
Sinusigera youth, but the post-embryonic
whorls clasp the embryo so high up that the
absence or presence of a claw’ cannot be even
guessed at. Conus stands unrevealed without
any clue as to the nature of its apex. Janthina
is also a doubtful group.

There are Gastropods which, though having
a wide range, apparently give no clue to their
means of distribution.

Agadina is a genus name proposed by Gould
in 1852, with description—“Shell colourless,
pellucid, planorbular, one side showing five
or six whorls, the other a single volution
with a large umbilical pit; aperture oblique,
campanulate, and projecting beyond the last
whorl like a hood. The single species

Page Eight

(cucullata Gould) was found floating near an
iceberg in 60 degrees S. latitude and 106
degrees E. longitude. The animal is black,
with oval appendages, not lobed.” Iredale
refers to it as “that peculiar pseudo-sinistral
mollusc which we know to travel by means
of free-swimming larvae of a kind totally at
variance with the preceding [Sinusigera].”
He sought a solution and came upon an
“Agadina” commencing a_ post-embryonic
whorl, which indicated that it was going to
be imperforate of a peculiar kind. Research
revealed this imperforate ‘“Agadina” to be
Bullina scabra Gmelin, Bullaria was then
found to possess this Agadina protoconch,
and Umbraculum also apparently has it.

In recent years scarcely any scientific worker
has described a new minute shell without
carefully detailing the apical characters and
using them for classificatory purposes.
Grabau 1902, remarked “I believe it is not
too much to say that the protoconchs of all
the species within a given genus should agree
as to their essential characteristics, and that
no species can be considered congeneric in
which the protoconch shows a radical differ-
ence. The smaller the classified group the
more nearly identical must be the earlier
stages, since in a small group the members
have not become widely separated from their
common aneestor.”

Many species of the Volutidae have a proto-
conch which was at first horny. Here the
larva is clothed with a cuticular or horny
pretoconch; later on, but while still in the
egg-capsule, the deposition of limy matter
begins as a slender cone or elevated point
along the axis of the protoconch, and ag the
larva grows the posterior part of the mantle
secretes a shelly dome. The horny proto-
conch, being thus cut off, disintegrates, and
the apex of the hell presents a slightly
irregular dome, with a slender point rising
from the apical part—the “caricelloid”
protoconch. Cymbiola kreuslerae Angas has it,
and it is well seen in Pliocene genera. Cer-
tain others of the Volutidae have the “scaphel-
loid” proteconch, which is a somewhat
similar, slightly irregular dome but without
the slender point or sharp spike, as Ericusa
fulgetrum Sowerby, and Melo miltonis Gray.

A third group—the “cymboid” protoconch of
large size—is also apparently secondary to

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

December 1, 1942

a horny protoconch, and is illustrated by
Livonia roadnightae McCoy, and Cottonia
dannevigi Verco.

This calcareous cast of a‘ primitive horny
shell has been designated the pseudoproto-
conch, in contradistinction to the true proto-
conch which was secreted previous to the
veliger. Many true protoconchs are, however,
calcareous, as for example Amorena undulata
Lamarck, and all the species of families
Triphoridae, Trochidae, etc.

Irom our observations it appears that with
certain species of the Volutidae, the forma-
tion of early adult structure takes place
within the egg-capsule.

The capsule mass of Melo miltonis Gray, is
cylindrical. An example in the South Aus-
tralian Museum measures 165 mm. in length,
75 mm. in diameter, and was apparently
attached by one end. It contains forty-seven
individuals, all with their apices turned out-
ward and their anterior canals towards the
centre. Specimens, which entirely fill their
respective capsules, consist of a protoconch
of three and one-half whorls, uniformly
cream coloured, axially wrinkled, and finely
obsoletely spirally ribbed subsuturally—and
a half whorl of adult structure, with the
typical triangular white blotches on a light
brown ground. These average 26 mm. in
height, and 16.5 mm. in greatest diameter.

The crown of the spire is flatly rounded, the
nucleus being slightly depressed, The proto-
conch is but faintly defined from the suc-
ceeding structure by a slight and somewhat
abrupt thickening of the shell. It is probable
that this protoconch was cast inside a horny
individual, which was discarded at an earlier
stage.

The columellar plaits of Melo miltonis all
arise in the protoconch. The first to appear
is the anterior, and the last the posterior, this
last being subsequently aborted. The anterior,
which in this species is merely an emphasis
of the columellar edge, appears on the proto-
conch (pseudoprotoconch?) when only two
whorls have been formed; the third follows
so soon after the second that they may be
said to arise ‘simultaneously, on the comple-
tion of two and one-half whorls; the fourth
arises a quarter of a whorl later. The last
gradually degenerates after the formation of
about five whorls, and has sometimes dis-

a

December 1, 1942 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine

appeared by the time six and one-half whorls
are completed.

The nepionic stage or infancy of the Gastro-
pod molluse is that stage during which the
larval organs become aborted. It is a very
transitory one, and leaves, in most cases, no
conchylaceous (shelly) record.

There are three types of transition from
embryonic to adult shell structure, viz:—

1, Those in which the embryonic shell is
faintly, if at all, defined from subsequent
structure, as Melo miltonis, and the species of
family Triphoridae.

2. Those in which there is an abrupt change
from embryonic to subsequent structure, as
Mayena australasia Perry, Cymatiella verru-
cosa Reeve, Colus australis Quoy.

3. Those in which a varix is thrown up at
the conclusion of the proteconch before adult
structure is initiated, as Plerynotus triformis
Reeve.

Now the primitive shell-gland is distinct from
the area which secretes the shell of the adult.
In the first type therefore, it seems probable
that, parallel with the gradual cessation of
functional activity on the part of the primi-
tive shell-gland, there was a gradual assump-
tion of secretive activity on the part of the
epithelial cells of the mantle and visceral
hump. In Melo the acceleration of develop-
ment which the formation of adult structure
within the egg-capsule presents, points to a
correspondingly transitory nepionic stage,
consequently there is only a slight defining
line. It is evident from its weight and size,
as described above, that the veliger stage of
Melo miltonis is passed within the egg, In
the Triphoridae, on the other hand, there is
an extreme protraction of the veliger stage:
an example, as recorded ab~ve, has been taken
in mid-ocean with several adult whorls al-
ready formed. In this family the true
embryonic shell or protoconch is calcareous.
The explanation given above still applies, but
in this instance the transference of functional
activity from the primary to the secondary
shell-secreting area, took place some time
prior to the nepionic stage. The protracted
retention of the velum here allows a much
greater development of the other organs, so
that the mantle edge assumes its adult form
and secretes shell-structure which, although
genetically embryonic, is morphologically
adult. The other organs being well advanced

in development, the nepionic ‘stage is con-
cerned only with the degeneration of the
velum, in these instances also it will be very
brief. [From this it may be reasonably ex-
pected that this type of transition will prove
to be correlated with an extremely condensed
nepionic stage.

The second type of transition is illustrated
by Mayena australasia Perry. Here the true
protoconch is horny and contains practically
no calcareous matter. During the formation
of at least part of this, the organism is a tree-
swimming veliger. In due course rather less
than half a whorl of adult structure will have
been added. The protoconch has now de-
posited within it distinct traces of the pseudo-
protoconch in the form of an extremely thin
layer of calcareous lining; also the adult
structure is much thicker. The mollusc itself
will have become sedentary, having lost all
traces of the velum. The abrupt transition
from one structure to the other may be ex-
plained by the sudden functional activity of
the secondary shell-secreting area. It is
probable that during the nepionic stage, which
was slightly protracted, there was a complete
cessation of shell growth, and that the primi-
live gland had ceased its function before the
adult shell was initiated.

The third type of transition is illustrated by
Pterynotus triformis Reeve, and Torvamurex
denudatus Perry. A stout calcareous proto-
conch, longitudinally sculptured, is followed
by a prominent varix. The sculpture of
the protoconch is such as to prove conclusively
that it was not cast inside a horny mould
and is therefore a true protoconch. The
embryo thus had the ability to secrete a
calcareous shell, It seems reasonable to sup-
pose that during the nepionic stage (during
which there must generally be a longer or
shorter pause in the growth of the mollusc)
the secretion of shell was carried on by the
free edge of the mantle. The varix, there-
fore, may be looked upon as the shelly record
of ithe nepionic stage.

There are different types of protoconch. The
four general types here set out will cover
most of the field.

Cominella-type. Paucispiral, of one-and-a
half to two whorls, rounded and globose,
generally quite small but occasionally large,
everywhere smooth and polished, generally
marked off from adult whorls by a distinct

Page Ten

varix, but otherwise not differing anywhere
in texture or material from the normal shell,
the initial whorl rather bulbous and asym-
metrically placed; nowhere horny. This is
the simplest type of apex, and is seen in
Colus, Cominella, etc., and, in a modified
taller form, in many genera of the Pyrenidae
and Cancellariidae. Hypocassis bicarinata
seems to be a form of this type, in which the
initial whorl of the protoconch is of irregular
growth, being turned almost at right angles
to the plane of the next, the nucleus im.
mersed; it contrasts with the tropical Cassis
cornuta, which bears a large wide polygyrate
horn-covered embryo, a form of Neothais.
type,

Amorena-type. Turbinate, of about four
whorls, globose, rapidly increasing, usually
wider than high, the tip minute and plan-
orbid; set almost symmetrically on shell,
polished, white, and shining, with no trace
of a horny envelope, differentiated from
normal shell only by inception of adult sculp-
ture. Examples are—Cymatona kampyla
Watson, Cymatiella verrucosa Reeve, and
Amorena undulata Lamarck.

Lyria-type. Paucispiral, of about two whorls,
the last normal and much as in Amorena-
type, but the initial whorl quite irregular in
shape, roughened, and markedly differentiated
in texture from the polished succeeding
whorl, beginning in a lateral blob or point
which may be quite erect and sharp; the whole
appearance is that of a scar left by the loss
of some integral part.’ Examples are—
Ericusa fulgetrum Sowerby, Cymbiola exop-
tanda Sowerby, and Lyria mitraeformis
Lamarck. The scar seems to denote the loss of
a previous entirely horny part, which did not
envelope the whole embryo, calcification
proceeding before this was completed. The
chitin is easily and early lost. This type
of protoconch is very widely spread and
appears to have no climatic limitations,

Neothais-type. Tall, narrowly conical, pointed,
of about four whorls, set slightly oblique to
the axis of the shell, entirely coated with a
persistent brown horny envelope, strikingly
differentiated in colour from the rest of the
shell. South Australian examples are
Neothais textiliosa Lamarck, and Jlanthina
violacea Bolten. It is practically confined to
tropical and sub-tropical seas, where it is

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST December 1, 1942
common, and almost certainly, represents a
Sinusigera, free-swimming embryo. The
chitin is persistent.

In conjunction with the nervous system,
radula, operculum, and shell formation, the
apical features are a definite aid to classifi-
cation. It would be absurd to say that all
species which agreed in type of apex were
congeneric, but it certainly seems that species
which do not agree in type of apex cannot
be congeneric.

Evolution must proceed in the apex as well
as in the shell, and it has been suggested that
the course normally followed is from—Pauci-
spiral calcareous, Cominella-type; polygyrate
calcareous, Amorena-type; paucispiral, part
calcareous and part horny, Lyria-type; to
polygyrate horny, Neothais-type.

The horny parts may and mostly do have a
limy stratum underneath, but this when
exposed lacks the regularity and polish of
the normal shelly and horny surfaces,

FUNDS FOR RESEARCH.

The late Mr. W. Burdett, before his death,
appointed Sir Douglas Mawson and Professor
J. B. Cleland as Trustees to hold in trust a
fund of one hundred pounds (£100) from
which the Trustees may pay all or part to
any person or persons who may discover in
South Australia fossil remains of rare or un-
known marsupials, reptiles, or birds in Pleis-
tocene, Pliocene, Miocene, or earlier geologi-
cal deposits on condition that the specimen
or specimens are presented to the South Aus-
tralian Museum.

If one of the aforesaid trustees shall decline
to act or shall die, the remaining trustee shall
have the power to nominate a trustee to fill
the vacancy provided such nomination is
approved by the Director of the South Aus-
tralian Museum.

Mr. H. J. Tyackbake has generously placed at
the disposal of Professor Cleland £10/10/-
“to help in a small way some branch of pure
science . . . naturally I think of Natural His-
tory and Botany, but I am no narrow specia-
list.” The money is held by the University
of Adelaide.

December 1, 1942

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Eleven

The Platypus in South Australia

By H. M. HALE and J. D. SOMERVILLE.

Professor F. Wood Jones, whilst noting that
many writers had recognised six species in the
genus Ornithorhyncus, placed this unique Aus-
tralian animal under one scientific name,
Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Shaw, 1799).5

Tom Iredale and E. LeG. Troughton in the
Memoir VI of the Australian Museum, Sydney
(1934), adopted four geographical races:—
Ornithorhynchus anatinus anatinus, triton,
phoxinus, and crispus.° Troughton in his
“Furred Animals of Australia” (1941), fol-
lowing Oldfield Thomas (1923) as to the first
three and suggested the use of a race name
for the Tasmanian form, uses the same geo-
graphical races as in the Memoir, giving the
reasons for retaining such names and inter
alia said “the platypus, however named, is
just as interesting. To the reader these various
races are mainly of interest in emphasising
the extensive eastern range of these fascin-
ating creatures.”'* He gives the habitat of
the four races as:—Coastal area from north
of Sydney, southward through Victoria;
upper waters of the Darling and Murray;
Nth. Queensland; and Tasmania respectively."
The western limit is placed as the 138th
Meridian but Troughton makes no provision
for a race name for the South Australian
form. The recent River Murray specimen
comes under O. a, triton (Thomas 1923).
It is understood that when the article on the
platypus was written for the “South Austra-
lian Naturalist’ no other record of its
existence could be traced, however it is inter-
esting to notice that in a discussion prior to
the publication, Mr. N. B. Tindale, B.Sc., told
one of us that the natives on one part of the
Murray were able to describe the platypus
and said there was an aboriginal name for it.

At that particular time, H. M. Hale was
absent overseas. On his return, hearing of
the 1939-40 River Murray record, he instituted
an extensive search, and many old records
were discovered. It seems most desirable to
tabulate these for general information, pend-
ing the publication by Mr. N. H. Finlayson
of a monograph he proposes to write on the
platypus, when the list may be considerably
expanded.

No published substantiation of its past or
present occurrence in South Australia is given

by Waite (late Museum Director) or Wood
Jones (one-time Professor Adelaide Univer-
sity).

RECORDS.

1. Capt. (after Sir) George Grey, who was
Governor of South Australia 1841-45,
sent a specimen to the British Museum
(2, 16, 17.)

2. Lower Murray according to Krefft. (2,
19.)

3. River Torrens, numerous in, in the early
days according to A. Molineaux on the
authority of A. Zietz, (15, 16, 17.)

4, Onkaparinga River, Robert Davenport,

1867. (8, 15, 16, 17, 18.)

Onkaparinga River near Hahndorf, 1873,

quoted by the Misses Hill. (1, 11, 17.)

6. River Murray, Overland Corner, early
1890-ies, article by Miss ‘A. E, Harwood,
probably from information of Mrs.
Miller, Wudinna, West Coast. (14.)

7. Torrens Lake, Adelaide, on the River
Torrens, W. Forester found a dead one,
say 1892 or 3. (3, 17.)

8. River Murray, near Murray Bridge, 1894,
found by B. J. Jarman. (8, 12, 13, 16,
17, 18.)

9. River Murray, near Tailem Bend, no par-
ticulars. (7, 8, 9, 17, 18?)

10, Skin of one from near Strathalbyn sold
at auction say prior to 1895 to 1900, that
is more than 40 to 45 years “ago” in
1940. (15, 16, 17.)

11. River Murray, where it enters Lake Alex-
andrina about four miles below Welling-
ton, 1904. Caught by J. Braunsthal and
forwarded to Adelaide by Mounted Con-
stable F, Gardner. (12, 13, 15, 16, 17.)

12. Deception Creek, near Copley, rock carv-
ing which Dr. Basedow interprets as
strongly suggestive of a platypus. Base-
dow also states, natives and bushmen
describe an animal at Dalhousie Springs
which may refer to the platypus. (4,
16, 17.)

13. In the interior recently (i.e., before
1925) seen by an informant of Hale and
Tindale. (6, 17.)

14. Glenelg River in the South-East, no
particulars. (8, 16, 17, 18.)

wn

Page Twelve

15. Finniss River, near Myponga; Mount
Compass; and Nairne. Ron Minchin re-
ceived reports that the platypus was seen
near each of these places. (17.)

‘Back Valley branch of the River Inman,
seen by Mr. J. W. Crompton over a series
of years up to 1938. (17.)

17. River Murray, location not divulged,
found by a fisherman, 1939. (12, 18,
16, 17.)

18. “Six pairs of platypuses are being
brought to Adelaide from Victoria,”
1940. (16.)

19. In Party Paper 71 of 1929 Fauna & Flora

Board Report 1928-29, when 2 male and
1 female specimens were received from

Tasmania. :

In Fauna and Flora Board Report for
1941, where it is stated that on February
19, 1941, 5 pairs were received from
Victoria.

Notes:—Nos. 4 and 5 may possibly be the
same record, although the years are so
divergent. The Misses Hill went to the Lakes
with a party of which Mr. (later Sir) Samuel
Davenport, a brother of Robert Davenport,
was a member.

Nos. 6, 9, 12, 13, 15 may be regarded as
doubtful records.

REFERENCES.

1. What We Saw in Australia, by Rosamond
and Florence Hill, 1875, p. 57.

2. Brit. Mus. Cat. of Marsupialia and Mono-
tremata, 1888, O. Thomas, p. 387 et. seq.

3. The Province of South Australia, by J.
D. Woods, 1875, p. 57.

4. Journal of the Royal Anthrop. Institute

16.

20.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

December 1, 1942

XLIV, 1915, pp. 202 and 205 and F.N.
2, pl. V.B, fig. 4., Dr. H. Basedow.

5. Mammals of South Australia, Prof. F.
Wood Jones, part I, 1923, pp. 46-55.

6. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. III, 1925, p. 56, Hale

and Tindale.

7. Rec. S.'Aust. Mus. HI, 1925, p. 17, Edgar

R. Waite.

8. The Platypus, Harry Burrell, 1927, p.
J41.

9. Reptiles of South Australia, Edgar R.
Waite, 1929, p. 41.

10. ‘The Australian Museum, Sydney, Memoir
VI, 4/5/1934, Tom Iredale and E. Le G.
Troughton, pp. 1 and 2.

11. The South Australian Naturalist, Dec. 30,
1939, Vol. 20, part 1, p. 16.

12. The Advertiser, South Australia, 7/3/
1940, p. 16, col. 8.

13. The Advertiser, South Australia, 8/3/

1940, p. 25, cols. 1 and 2.

The Advertiser, South Australia, 12/3/

1940, p. 17, col. 1.

15. The Advertiser, South Australia, 13/3/
1940, p. 21, cols. 1 and 2.

16. The News, South Australia, 16/4/1940,
p- 4, col, 8.

17. Confirmation of the Occurrence of the
Platypus in South Australia. Draft
article by H. M. Hale in 1940 now en-
closed in Museum Department Docket
32/1942.

18. Furred animals of Australia,
Troughton, 1941, pp. 1-8, pl. 1.

19. Cat. Mamm. Aust. Mus., Krefft, p. 56
(1864), id. Vert. Lower Murray (1865),
p. 22 (see p. 389 in No. 2 above).

Ellis

The Public Library

of South Australia

By H. C, BRIDESON
(Library Research Officer, Public Library of S.A.)

The Public Library on North Terrace houses
a wealth of information for the naturalist,
the extent of which probably is not fully
realised. The collection of books on Natural
History is a large one; in addition the Library
files many periodicals of absorbing interest
to nature lovers.

The Library’s history has been long and
eventful, The object of this paper is to

trace briefly the growth of the institution
from its very humble beginnings to its pre-
sent position.

History.
The colony of South Australia was established
in London in August 1834, and in the same
month in that city a group of gentlemen
founded “The South Australian Literary and

December 1, 1942

Scientific Association” for the purpose of “the
cultivation and diffusion of useful knowledge
throughout the colony.” From this beginning
has grown the Public Library of South Aus-
tralia.

The first collection of books, 117 in number,
were sent to the Colony in the “Tam O’
Shanter,” which sailed from Plymouth on the
20th of July, 1836, three days before the
departure of H.M.S. “Buffalo” with Governor
John Hindmarsh aboard.

Shortly after arriving in the colony the books
were housed in a wooden shanty (shown in
the wood cut at No. 19) near the present
site of the Adelaide Railway Station; the
name was now’ changed to “The Mechanics’
Institute.” It is interesting to note that even
in this small collection, a number of books
were included which were of value to natu-
ralists.

The early history of the Library was one of
constantly recurring difficulties, not least of
which was finance. It suffered several changes
of name, and a number of other collections
were at various times incorporated with it.

Due mainly to the efforts of Mr. John Howard
Clark a Bill was passed by the Legislature
in 1856 for the establishment of a National
Institute. “The South Australian Institute”
was the title adopted, and the Library was
now placed on a sound footing.

In 1859 the Adelaide Philosophical Society
was incorporated with the Institute, and this
association lasted until 1884, when the Public
Library, Museum, and Art Gallery were
placed under one board of governors.

From the very modest beginning of 117
volumes the collection has grown steadily
until to-day it numbers 222,167.

Public Library Extensions.

During the last 25 years the Library has
made considerable expansion, necessitating
the formation of special departments.

In 1915 a Children’s Library was established.
This section now contains 8,619 volumes, and
is open on public school holidays, and Satur-
day and Sunday afternoons.

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Thirteen

Five years later the Archives Department was
opened.

The Country Lending Service was initiated in
1938. This service has proved a boon to
people outside the city, and its growth has
been most encouraging. The collection, num-
bering 8,980 volumes, contains many recent
publications on Natural History.

Early this year the Libraries Board instituted
the Research Service. The formation of this
Department had long been contemplated, but
lack of funds had prevented its formation.

The war, however, with its accompanying in-
dustrialisation of the State, was occasioning
such a great demand for scientific and techni-
cal literature that the Board felt that the
institution of thig department of the Library
could be no longer delayed, and special finan-
cial assistance was received from the Govern-
ment. The work of the service may be
outlined briefly as follows:—Bibliographies
on any technical or scientific subject are pre-
pared, covering the periodical literature
available in the various libraries of Australia;
photostat or microfilm copies of articles
available only in libraries outside South Aus-
tralia are obtained on request; firms, or
scientific and technical men can be kept
posted with supplementary lists of current
articles dealing with the subject in which they
are working.

This service thus makes available to scientists
and technicians practically the whole of the
technical and scientific periodical literature of
Australia. It is helping these men to solve
problems and to keep in touch with latest
developments in their particular subject.

Bibliography.

South Australian Institute: addresses de-
livered at the laying of the foundation stone,
1879.

Langham, W. H.—In the beginning. (In
Desiderata, August, 1936, pp. 5-11.)

Purnell, H. R.—lLibrary development in
South Australia. (In Aust. Institute of Lib-
rarians—Second Annual Conference Proceed-
ings, 1939, pp. 53-56.)

Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery
of S.A.—Annual Reports.

December 1, 1942

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST

Page Fourteen

‘asnoH JUsWUIGAOYy ‘gg ‘fpesnoy SBA oyNzZI4SUT ,SOTUBYDO_] 3Y7

WIA Ul ‘SuIpjng s,AJel0g Jooyog “y's ‘ET fuoTye4g solfog ‘g—T {yoanyD jeuoTyeSei3u0D ‘LT ‘asno} uopusreyD ‘ST

e0YQ sAusdwop uvyperysny yynog ‘OT ‘exyo ysog “6 “eerig WeNIM Bury ‘g ‘feyexsny yynog Jo queg ‘,

sAqojoey ‘9g ‘yomnyQ AULT ‘g ‘yaeng yeydsoyy ‘p ‘oouepisey syyeydioyy ‘g {[e}0HT Aoupég ‘g faqywouy, ‘T
(yao ‘fp Aq Yoyays & UOIy SOTTEY ‘O “f 4q Auravssuq)

aero) ase SuNyoo] ‘3981197 YWON

December 1, 1942 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Fifteen

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC

SOCIETY
(LONDON, 1834)

ADELAIDE MECHANICS’
INSTITUTION
(1838)

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
SUBSCRIPTION LIBARY
(1844)

MECHANICS’
INSTITUTE
(1847)

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
LIBRARY AND MECHANICS’
INSTITUTE
(1848)

MEDICAL SOCIETY
OF ADELAIDE
(T)

SOUTH ee

INSTITUTE
(1856)
LAIDE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF
~~ SOCIETY ARTS
(1853) (1856)
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
INSTITUTE
a (1859)
YAL SOCIETY PUBLIC LIBRARY, MUSEUM, ——___ ADELAIDE
(1884) AND ART GALLERY CIRCULATING
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA LIBRARY
(1884) (1884)
|
= INSTITUTES’ ASSOCIATION
OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA
(1910)
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN
MUSEUM PUBLIC LIBRARY NATIONAL GALLERY
(1940) (1940) (1940)
i
,
COUNTRY
CHILDREN’S RESEARCH
ARCHIVES LENDING
LIBRARY (1b28) SERVICE SERVICE

(1915) (198) (1942)

Page Sixteen

THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

NATURALIST December 1, 1942

Plants Of Fleurieu Peninsula (cont.)

SANTALACEAE :—Exocar pus cupressiformis
Labill., Native Cherry; Choretrum glomera-
tum R. Br.

POLYCONACEAE:—* Rumex pulcher L.,
Fiddle Dock; R. Browniit Campd.; R. crispus
(?) L., Curled Dock; R. acetosella L., Sheep-
sorrell; Polygonum serrulatum lLag., in
swamps.

AIZOACEAE :—Disphyma australis (Soland.)
J. M. Black, Round-leaved Pigface.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE :—Cerastium glome-
ratum Thuill., Mouse-ear Chickweed; Stel-
laria palustris Ritz., Swamp Starwort.
RANUNCULACEAE:—Ranuneulus rivularis
Banks et Sol.; R. lappaceus Sm., Buttercup;
R. parviflorus L.

LAURACEAE:—Cassytha glabella R. Br.,
False Dodder; C. pubescens R. Br.
CRUCIFERAE :—* Nasturtium officinale R.
3r., Watercress; *Sisymbrium officinale L.,
Hedge Mustard.

DROSERACE AE :—dresera binata Labill.; D.
Whittakert Planch.; D. pygmaea DC.; D.
peltaia Sm.

PITTOSPORACEAE: — Bursaria spinosa
Cav., Native Box; Marianthus bignontaceus
F.v.M.; Billardiera cymosa F.v.M.
ROSACEAE :—Rubus parvifolius L., Native
Raspberry; *R. fruticosus L., Blackberry;
*Rosa rubiginosa L., |Sweetbriar; Acaena
ovina A. Cunn.; A. Sanguisorbae (L.f.) Vahl.
LEGUMINOSAE :—Acacia armata R. Br.,
Kangaroo Thom; A. rhetinodes Schlecht.; A.
myrtifolia (Sm.) Willd.; A. pycnantha
Benth., Golden Wattle; A. melanoxylon R.
Br., Blackwood; A. verticillata (L’Herit.)
Willd.; Gompholobium minus Sm.; Sphaero-
lobium vimineum Sm.; Viminaria denudata
Sm.; Daviesia corymbosa Sm.; D. ulicina
Sm.; D. brevifolia Lindl.; Eutaxia micro-
phylla (R. Br.) J. M. Black; Pultenaea daph-
noides Wendl.; P. scabra R. Br., Deep Creek;
P. largiflorens F.v.M. var. latifolia William-
son; Phyllota pleurandroides F.v.M.; Platy-
lobium obtusangulum Hook.: Bosstaea pros-
trata R. Br.; *Ulex europaeus L., Furze, Tor-
rens Vale, C, Jervis; *Trifolium procumbens
L., Hop Clover; *7. dubium Sibth; *T.
subterranean L.; *T. augustifolium L., Tor-
rens Vale; Lotus australis Andr.; L. corni-
culatus L., Bird’s-foot Trefoil; Indigofera
australis Willd.; Kennedya prostrata R. Br.,
Scarlet Runner.

GERANIACEAE :—Geranium pilosum Forst.
var. australe Ostenf.; Pelargonium australe
Willd. var. erodioides Benth.
OXALIDACEAE:—Oxalis corniculata L.
LINACEAE:—Linum marginale A. Cunn.,
with rust.

RUTACEAE :—Boronia parviflora Sm.: Cor-
rea reflexa Labill., Deep Creek.
TREMANDRACEAE: — Tetratheca
Labill.
POLYGALACEAE:—Comesperma calymega
Labill.

EUPHORBIACEAE: — Poranthera micro-
phylla Brongn. and var. diffusa Muell. Arg.;
P. ericoides Klotzsch; Micrantheum demis.
sum F.v.M.

STACKHOUSIACEAE :—Stackhousia mono-
gyna Labill.

pilosa

SAPINDACEAE :—Dodonaea viscosa L.;
*Melianthus comosus Vahl., C. Jervis.
RHAMNACEAE: — Pomaderris racemosa

Hook., C. Jervis; Spyridium spathulatum
F.v.M., near Porpoise Head; S. thymifolium
Reiss.; Cryptandra hispidula Reiss.

MALY ACEAE :—* Modiola caroliniana (L.)
G. Don., Yankalilla.
STERCULIACEAE :—T homasia
Fv.M., C. Jervis.
DIELENIACEAE: — Hibbertia sericea (R.
Br.) Benth. var. scabrifolia J. M. Black, C,
Jervis; H. stricta R. Br.; H. acicularis (La-
bill.) F.v.M. var sesstliflora J. M. Black; H.
Billardieri F.v.M., on ironstone ridges.
GUTTIFERAE: — Hypericum gramineum
Forst. f.

VIOLACEAE:—Viola hederacea Labill.; V.
Sieberiana Spreng.
THYMELAEACEAE:—Pimelea glauca R.
Br., C. Jervis; P. spathulata Labill.; P.
serpyllifolia R. Br., C. Jervis; P. octophylla
R. Br.; P. phylicoides Meisn.
LYTHRACEAE:—Lythrum Hyssopifolia L.,
Lesser Loosestrife.

MYRTACEAE: — Baeckea ramosissima A.
Cunn.; Leptospermum scoparium Forst. et f.,
Prickly Tea-tree, near swamps; L. pubescens
Lamk., Silky Tea-tree, in wet places; L.
myrsinotdes Schlecht, in sand with Euc. Bax-
teri: Kunzea pomifera F.v.M., C. Jervis;
Melaleuca decussata R. Br.; M. pubescens
Schau., Black Tea-tree, C. Jervis; Eucalyptus

petalocalyx

obliqua L’Herit., Stringy-bark; EF. Baxteri
(Benth.} Maiden et Blakeley, Brown Stringy-
bark; &. odorata Behr et Schlechtd., Pepper-
mint, C. Jervis, near the sea; FE. cosmophvlla
F.v.M., Serub Gum; £. viminalis ‘Labill.,
Manna Gum, near C. Jervis; £. rubida Deane
et Maiden, Candlebark; EF. ovata Labill.,
White Swamp Gum; £. leucoxylon F.v.M.,
Blue Gum: £. fasciculosa F.v.M., Pink Gum;
Calythrix tetragona Labill., Second Valley.

OENOTHERACEAE:—Epilobium glabellum
Forst.; /. pallidiflorum Sol.

HALORRH AGIDACEAE :—Halorrhagis teu-
eriodes DC.; H. micrantha (Thunb.) R. Br.;
H. heterophylla Brongn.; H. Browniti (Hook.

f.) Schindler; Myriophyllum amphibium
Labill.

UMBELLIFERAE :—Xanthosia pusilla Bun-
se; Hydrocotyle pterocarpa V.v.M.?; H. cal-
licarpa Bunge; Lilaeopsis probably L. aus-
tralica (F.v.M.) A. W. Hill, in pools in Deep
Creek; Hryngium vesiculosum Labill.; *Bup-
leurum semicompositum L.; Daucus glochi-
diatus (Labill.) Visch., Mey et Ave-Lall.,
Native Carrot; Trachymene heterophylla
F.y.M.; Sium latifolium L. var. univittatum
J. M. Black, Water Parsnip; Apium australe
Pet-Thou., Sea Celery; *Foeniculum vulgare
Mill., Fennel, Torrens Vale.

EPACRIDACEAE :—Astrolonia humtifusum
(Cav.) R. Br., Native Cranberry; A. conoste-
phioides (Sond.) F.v.M., Flame Heath; Leu-
copogon australis R. Br.; L. hirsutus Sond.,
in swemps; L. concurvus F.v.M.; Actrotriche
serrulata (Labill.) R. Br.; Epacris impressa
Labill., White, Pink, or Red Heath; Sprenge-
lia incarnata Sm., in swamps.

PRIMULACEAE :—* Anagallis
Scarlet Pimpernel.
LOGANIACEAE :—Mtitrasacme paradoxa R.
Br.; Logania recurva J. M. Black.
GENTIANACEAE :—* Erythraea Centaurium

Pers., Common Centaury; Villarsia exaltata
(Sims) F.v.M., in swamps.
CONVOLVULACEAE :—Dichondra
Forst. et f.

LABIATAE :—Mentha gracilis R. Br.; Lyco-
pus australis R. Br.; *Marrubium vulgare L.,
Horehound, coast; Seutellaria humilis R. Br.
SOLANACEAE :—Solanum nigrum L., Black

Nightshade; *S. sodomaeum L., Apple of

L.,

arvensis

repens

Sodom, C. Jervis; *Lycium ferocissimum
Miers, African Box-Thorn, C. Jervis.

SCROPHULARIACEAE :—Gratiola peruviana
L.; Euphrasia collina R. Br.; *Bartsia lati-
folia (L.) Sibth., et Sm.; *B. viscosa L,

LENTIBULARIACEAE:—Utricularia dicho-
toma Labill,

MYOPORACEAE:—Myoporum viscosum R.
Br.; M. insulare R. Br., Blue-berry Tree.

PLANTAGINACEAE :—Plantago
Br.; *P. lanceolata L., Ribgrass.
RUBIACEAE:—Opercularia varia Hook. f.;
Asperula scoparii Hook. f.

CAMPANULACEAE:-—Wahlenbergia Sieberi
A.DC.; Lobelia anceps Thunb,

GOODENIACEAE: — Goodenia primulacca
Schlechtd.; G. ovata Sm.; G. amplexans
F.v.M., with rust, coast; Scaevola miucrocar pa
Cav.; Dampiera sp.

varia R.

BRUNONIACEAE:—Brunonia australis Sm.,

Blue Pincushion,

STYLIDIACEAE:—Stylidium graminifolium

Swartz.

COMPOSITAE :—Vittadinia triloba (Gau-
dich.) DC.; Olearia grandiflora Hook.; O.
extllaris (DC.) F.v.M., C. Jervis; O. ramulosa
(Labill.) Benth; 0. teretifolia (Sond.)
Iv.M.: O, ciliata (Benth.) F.v.M.; Seiges-
beckia orientalis L.; Cotula coronopifolia
L.; Hrechtites arguta (A. Rich.) DC; E.
quadridentata (Labill.) DC.; Senecio odora-
tus Hornem var. obtusifolius J. M. Black,
coast; “Cryptostemma calendulaceum (L..)
R. Br, Cape Dandelion; Gnaphalium luteo-
album L.; Gn. japonicum Thunb.; Cassinia
spectabilis (Labill.) R. Br.; Ixiolaena supina
Iv.M., coast; Helichrysum bracteatum
{Vent.) Andrews; AH. Baxteri A. Cunn.; A.
rutidolepis DC.; HH. apiculatum (Labill.)
DC., C. Jervis: Ixedia achilleoides R. Br.;
“Inula graveolens (L.) Desf., Stinkwort;
Calocephalus Brownii (Cass.) F.v.M., coast,
Second Valley; Craspedia unijlora Forst. f.,
Bachelor’s Button; *Cirsium lanceolatum (L.)
Scop., Spear Thistle; *Hypochoeris radicata
L., Rooted Cat’s-ear; *Sonchus oleraceus lle
Sow-thistle; *S. asper Hill, Prickly Sow-
thistle—By J. B. CLELAND. ;

Field Naturalists’ Section of the Royal Society of S.A., Inc.

STATEMENT OF PAYMENTS AND RECEIPTS TO JULY 31, 1942.

EXPENDITURE. ' INCOME.

Lis: de i SeaSHull:

To Printing the “S.A. Naturalist” 23 17 1 ; By Balance in Bank, 31/7/41 ..... 6) lg) Fp
», Blocks, Programmes, ete. _..... 1113 7 » Subscriptions ..... .... £48 17 6
», Postage ..... eran) s Wonationsa.)... 0. Dp lL 0

» Transfer to “Colored Plates” ——_—— 53 18 6

PeNETONM OE," eerciry | veecy eee ae ee 610 6 », Sales—

» &xcursions and Conversazione 35 14 4 | CON UmAlisteweu ues 2c. 20 eLo 26

», Honorarium to Hon. Secretary 5 0 0 | Other Publications 013 6

» Film and Paioepee Weimer. amie linea () | Badges 0. on : 017 6

ys Ldbremy Gress pees BO ela , Excursions and Conversazione 53 7 6
>, Sundries Hea at) | i Interest from Life Member-

» Balance in Benk, 31/7/42 ...... 43.18 1 ship Account .... .. 1 o6

» Interest from General ‘A/c. 0138 6

» Refund . Ree ci cher chtty ten lel (oy MM

S139) i 7 | £139 11 7

We have examined the books and vouchers setting forth the transactions of the Field
Naturalists’ Section of the Royal Society of §.A., Inc., for the year ending July 31, 1942, and
certify that the above account of Income and Expenditure is correct.

(Signed) WALTER D. REED, F.C.A. (Aust.), ) : 9
(Signed) BEVIS B, BECK, ) Auditors. smediee 27, ide.

‘LIFE MEMBERSHIP ACCOUNT. oi

- S8..d.
Balance as at BLE Interest Transferred to General
Interest . Account .. ci ag logs Wass
Balance in Bank as “at July “31,
1942 .. eee eee LOD = <0
li], | eee £17 4 6
Examined and found correct. WALTER D. REED, ) Amato
August 27, 1942. BEVIS B. BECK, es ;
COLOURED PLATES FUND.
cred. os. de
Transferred from General A/c. 610 6 Balance in Savings Bank ..... ... 6 11 6
Interest cic eas aise eae wee tee Os 0)
aie il
£6 11 6 | £6 11 6
Examined and found correct WALTER D. REED, ) baal ot
August 27, 1942. BEVIG B:-BECK, Haters:
STATEMENT OF ASSE TS AND LIABILITIES. :
ASSETS. LIABILITIES.

; Ho ee, le £ s.d.
Balance in Bank wn. wn ce sees see 18 1 | Subscriptions Prepaid for 1942-3 3 16 3
Life Membership .A/c ... 5 15) 0) Balance of Assets over Liabilities 127 10 10
Colored Plates A/c ..... 5 11 6 |
Cupboards ...... .. a 176
Film, “Toolach’ “Wallaby” Saito sare lem OL
Outstanding Subscriptions to re-

lise; 38a te eee PEE esis aN Aali2 86
New Badges ...... .. dh Ben 6
“S.A. Naturalists”. it ee 410 0
Library .. Wo. Gageee cite aero eons -O
; sigh 71 Fotos ig oer
August, 1942. % BERNARD CG. COTTON, President.

M. EMERSON, Hon. Treasurer.
Printed by E. J. McALISTER & CO., 24 Blyth Street, Adelaide.