S 570.6 $726 CONTENTS NORTHERN TERRI- TORY BIRDS FARMERS’ FEATHERED FRIENDS STRANDED WYNALES Volume 23. No. 1. MARCH 31, 1945. Registered at the G.P.O., Adelaide, for transmission through the post as 2 periodical. ee ie i 4 4 Mr, Net | OL att ee R Bs 2 fe : YY x NA \ AN hy: | hy, aX es N\ , ay: ve vy | he Ee id SEA FAN and BASKET STARS The South Australian NATURALIST JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Price : One Shilling. | PEETH » THE \( MININ f xX 5! vi 1 x KING K. E, March 31, 1945 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page One THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (Incorp.) ‘ OFFICERS 1944-45 Patron: LADY MURIEL BARCLAY-HARVEY Chairman: MR. W. D. WADE Vice-Chairmen: MR. G. PATTISON, MR. A. G. EDQUIST Hon. Secretary: MR. W. NIELSEN, 85 Victoria Street, Forestville (Phone: ron 3845.) Hon. Treasurer: MISS JARDINE, Adelaide Circulating Library (Phone C.2662.) Hon. Librarian: MRS. G. PATTISON Hon. Magazine Secretary: MR. A. K. BEASLEY, Harris Street, Marden. (Phone F.1984.) Hon. Auditors: MESSRS. W. D. REED, F.C.A. (Aust.) and F. GRAY, ALC.A. Committee: MISS L. HARRY, MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE, Mr. W. R. S. WALLIS, MR. L. C. ADCOCK, MR. F. GRAY, MR. W. F. STANDEN, MR. F. J. DAVARD, MR. W. G. BUICK. * CONCHOLOGY CLUB: Patron, B. C. COTTON Chairman: MR. G. PATTISON Vice-Chairmen: MR. L. K. MeGILP, MR. W. G. BUICK. Secretary and Treasurer: MRS. G. PATTISON, 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg. Committee: REV. H. A. GUNTER, MRS. H. HOLDEN, MR. A. K. BEASLEY. * BOTANY CLUB: Patron: J. B. CLELAND Chairman: MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE Vice-Chairmen: MR. W. R. S. WALLIS, MR. B. C. COTTON Secretary and Treasurer: MISS H. M. STOCKHAM Committee; MISS J. M. PAYNE, MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MR. L. RALPH * GEOLOGY CLUB: Chairman: MR. F, J. HAVARD Vice-Chairmen: MESSRS. W. F. STANDEN and A. MOLINEAUX Secretary and Treasurer: MISS A. A. MARTIN, 5 Henry Street, Croydon Committee; MRS. E. H. HERGSTROM, MESSRS. W. G. BUICK and C. M. J. NELSON * ZOOLOGY CLUB: Chairman: MR. W. F. STANDEN Vice-Chairmen: MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE, MR. A. G. EDQUIST Hon. Secretary and Treasurer: MR. J. W. McMILLAN Committee: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MR. L. RALPH, MR. J. MANUEL THE SOUTH’ AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Vol, 23 No. 1, ’ MARCH 31, 1945, JOURNAL Of THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION. ROYAL SCCIETY ROOMS: KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE. Published Quarterly (in normal times) HON, EDITOR: ‘BERNARD C. COTTON, South Australian Museum, Aeniniie.. Page Two THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST March 31, 1945 The Birds of the Northern Territory By H. T. CONDON. PART 2. Bird life is more numerous in the extreme northern coastal regions than in the central areas. Thousands of water fowl frequent the lagoons and swamps, while hosts of others live in the open forests and jungles. Large flocks of finches abound, and, in peace time, form the livelihood of many bird-trappers. With the exception of the Emu (Dromaeus novaehollandiae), which is prized as food by the natives, the birds have not been affected to any extent by the depredations of the aborigines. | The Emu roams in the open forest lands as well as on the plains, and is distributed throughout the mainland, but does not appear to be on any of the adjacent islands, One of the best-known birds in the Territory is the Plain Turkey or Bustard (Eupodotis australis). It is brown above and white below, with a black band on the chest and has long vellow legs with very small toes. It is’ in fair numbers in all parts of the State. Birds of prey are numerous. The commonest hawk is the Black or Fork- tailed Kite (Milvus migrans), which may be seen in most localities from Alice Springs to Darwin. The Black Kite is a dark-coloured bird with a deeply forked tail. It is a great scavenger and often gathers in flocks of thousands around killing yards and habita- tions. The largest hawk is the Wedgetailed Eagle or Eaglehawk (Uroaetus audax), but it is not numerous in all districts. One of the most unusual hawks in Australia is the Crested Hawk (Baza subcristata), which lives in the northern areas. It is a medium-sized bird, brownish in colour, with barrings on the breast and with a small crest. It fre- quently indulges in aerial acrobatics. The familiar Nankeen Kestrel (Falco cenchroides) or so-called “Sparrowhawk” of the south inhabits the central regions and is rare above Tennant Creek. ‘lwo species of Sea-eagles frequent the coast and river estuaries. The Red-backed Sea-eagle (Haliastur indus) is easily identi- fied by its white head, neck and breast and chestnut upper surfaces, but the young of the White-bellied Sea-eagle (Haliaetus leuco- gaster) is similar in colouration to the Wedge- tailed Eagle. The adult is dark grey above and white below. Another common bird of prey is the. Whistling Eagle (Haliastur sphenurus), a medium sized brownish hawk with a querulous whistling cry. In the northern jungles the Jungle Fowl (Megapodius reinwardt) may be met with. It is about the size of a domestic fowl, dark grey in colour, and is remarkable on account of the huge nesting mound or incubator which it builds. Some of these mounds have heen known to exceed 12 feet in height and have a circumference of 150 feet, Numerous eggs are deposited in the mound and are hatched by the heat generated by decaying vegetation placed therein by the birds pre- viously, Cockatoos and parrots of many species are numerous. The large Red-tailed Black Cocka- too (Calyptorhynchus banksi) occurs in most parts. It is usually seen in flocks and has a feeble cry which is not unmusical. The Pink Cockatoo or Major Mitchell (Kakatoe leadbeateri) is confined to the more central parts. Galahs (Kakatoe roseicapilla) occur in all districts. In timbered country through- out the State may be heard the harsh cries of the White or “Sulphur-crested” Cockatoo (Kakatoe galerita). One species of Roselia is found in the open forests of the north. It is the Northern Rosella. (Platycercus venustus), also called Brown’s Parrot or Smutty Parrot. It is a small species, with a black head and back (with pale yellow markings), white cheeks edged with blue, and red under the tail. It is nowhere very numerous. The Northern Territory is noted for its many species of smaller parrots. Most of these occur in huge flocks, such as the Bud- gerygah (Melopsitiacus undulatus), and the Varied Lorikeet (Psitteuteles versicolor). The lastnamed is confined to the more coastal regions, but may be met with several hun- dreds of miles inland in the open forests. March 31, 1945 Port weats, ‘ Wyndham, if Coe any ere i+4 Ww anceke’ Ck a “ 0 Uateeen ey Tanamti (iermacig) ALIA. o a “AUSTRI WESTERN 1 SAVANNA WooDLAND 2 4 TRoPICAL GRASSLAND Groote Eylandt ogy Roper €- Beatrice @Maria Is. Mataranko 2 Beatrice Is. Biedyim S + PL “ Y Anthony Lagoon , here een Te Mi jy ia’ Wy Ee Ny Ye re) Tennant + + , 7 et yeek 2{++_ Greek a bas os “VERLAND Re + “J tt ery + % 4 Comston 4%. + + Mt Stuart % 4 ets _ "hea hs ° t yea ty Diag et fag + Anthony Well +, a pao aaa f + SAV. WoCDLANPD AND GRASSLANDS 3 DESERT SCRUB 5S TANAMI DESERT 6 CENTRAL HIGHLANDS T SPINIFEX Page Threc Page Four THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN Beene rae 1ST [t has a red head, blue cheeks and neck with yellow stripes, and pinkish breast and a green back. In the early morning they may be seen feeding on the nectar an flowering eucalypts. Like most lorikeets they are very noisy in flight. The Crimson-winged Parrot (Aprosmictus erythropterus) is a beautiful bird, easily recognised by the rich crimson wings and bright green plumage. Another parrot about the same size as the Crimson- winged Parrot is the Red-collared Lorikeet (Trichoglossus rubritorquis), which has an orange-red breast, blue cheeks ‘and green back, with a narrow red collar, A small parrot which nests in termites’ mounds or “ant-hills” is the Hooded Parrot (Psephotus disstmilis). The male is greenish-blue below, with yellow on the shoulders and a black head. ,One of the rarer parrots of the interior is the Prin- cess Parrot (Polytelis alexandrae), which has delicate pastel shades of grey, green and pink, and a long tail. It thas) been taken at Howell’s Ponds, Neweastle Waters, Glen Edith, Deering Creek, Alice Springs, Crown Point, and on the Hale and Hugh Rivers. Water birds are common and occur in great flocks on all lakes, swamps and lagoons. Two large birds usually seen near water are the Jabiru or Black-necked Stork (Xenorhyn- chus asiaticus) and the Native Companion or Brolga (Grus rubicundus). The Jabiru ranges across tropical Australia and is also found in Malaya, New Guinea, Burma and India. It is usually seen singly or in pairs, and feeds on fishes, frogs, and other water creatures. It is white with a black neck and wings and long beak and legs. The Brolga often associates in large numbers on open plains, when it indulges in “corroboree many birds performing graceful dancing dis- plays, or “quadrilles.” ‘Tt is a tall grey bird with bright red naked skin on the head, and a long bill. One of the best known water- birds of the north is the Magpie- or Pied Goose (Anseranas semipalmaia), which is to be seen in thousands on swamps and lagoons. It may also perch in flocks in trees. It is black and white, and unlike other members of the duck tribe has the toes only partially webbed. Other ducks which have the unusual habit of perching in trees are the Tree Ducks (Dendrocygna). They are also known as whistling ducks on account of their curious whistling notes. A_ strikingly handsome March 31, 1945 species, the White-headed Shelduck (Tadorna radjah), is chestnul-coloured on the back, with a white head and breast with a chestnut band. Teal (Querquedula spp.) and Black Duck (Anas superculiosa), familiar birds in south- ern Australia, are also met with in the north. Pelicans, ibises, cormorants, herons and spoonbills are also commonly met with on lagoons and swamps. A rare species in the south, the Glossy Ibis (Plegadis jalcinellus) , is often met with in e tropics. From a distance they appear blackish and are some- what smaller than the other species of ibises. Actually the plumage is a rich brown. The Darter or “Snake-bird” (Anhinga novae- hollandiae), so-called on account of its long, “snake-like” head and neck, may be mistaken for a shag or cormorant by the uninitiated. It is a grey bird generally seen about rivers. [t has heen recorded from Central ‘Australia as well as the coastal river districts. Pigeons and Doves of several species are familiar birds in the Northern Territory. They usually have a monotonous, mournful call, and when flushed there is a loud flap- ping of the wings. The Common Bronze- wing (Phaps chalcoptera), a well-known bird in the south, has been recorded from all parts of the Territory, including Melville Is- land, Groote Eylandt, MaaAuuhins River and Alice Springs. It is generally found near permanent waters in the inland areas. The Flock Pigeon (Histriophaps histrionica) has been taken at the MacArthur River and at MacDonald Downs (north-east of Alice Springs). The small Green-winged Pigeon (Chalcophaps chrysochlora) inhabits the jungles of the north, as also does the diminu- tive Rose-crowned Pigeon (Ptilinopus ewingi). The Torres Strait or Nutmeg Pigeon (Myristicivora spilorrhoa) is a large white bird with black tail which has been seen as far south as Adelaide River and Katherine. Ground ge birds are the: Partridge Pigeons (Geophaps smitht)—-brownish in eplour and easily approached. Inland the beautiful - Crested Bronzewing (Ocyphaps lophotes) is a common bird. It may be recognised by its crest and the peculiar whist- ling ‘sound made by the wings when in flight. Three species of Doves occur. ‘The Peace- ful Dove (Geopelia placida) is met with March 321, 1945 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Five NS RED BREASTED Ac BABBLER CRESTED ? — r HAWK a me tes \ ff =" RED NECKED ROYAL . <2*- AVOCET SPOONBILL po a” 2a “A sitver CROwED aS FRIAR BIRD WHITE NECKED PACIFIC HERON MAGPIE LARK Mave AMD FEMALE Page Six THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Mareh 31, 1945 everywhere, but its close relative, the Diamond Dove (Geopelia cuneata), does not seem to occur further north than Katherine. The Diamond Dove is a small grey bird, with naked red skin about the eyes and fine white spots on the wing coverts. The largest Dove is the Bar-shouldered Dove (Geopelia humer- alis), a dark brownish bird frequenting the northern open forests and mangroves and timber bordering creeks. The small ground-frequenting Plumed Pigeon (Lophophaps plumifera) inhabits rocky country where spinifex grows. It is reddish-brown in colour with a crest, and usually escapes by running. Several species of Kingfishers are to be met with. The largest is the Blue-winged Kookaburra (Dacelo leachi), a relative of the familiar Laughing Kookaburra or Jack- ass of the south. It differs from that bird, however, in having more blue on the wings, and is somewhat smaller in size. It also has a different call, which is a poor rendition of the “laugh” of the southern bird, although a likeness can be recognised. Owls are often seen, in daytime as well as at night. The Barn Owl (Tyto alba) is a large white bird, and the Boobook Owl {Ninox boobook) is smaller and brown in colour. Both are common southern species. The Southern Stone Plover (Burhinus mag- nirostris) occurs in all parts of the State. Its skulking habits are well-known, and it relies on its protective brownish colouration to escape detection on the ground. At night a veritable chorus of these birds may be heard uttering their weird wailing cries, which may be rendered as “weeloo.” The Sea Curlew (Numenius cyanopus) has a long curved beak and brown plumage and _ frequents swamps and the seashore. The Stone Curlew does not build a nest, but lays its eggs on the bare ground. The Butcher-birds have clear, flute-like notes. One of our finest Australian song- sters is the Pied Butcher-Bird (Cracticus nigrogularus), which occurs throughout the Northern Territory. Another species, con- fined to the northern open forests, is the Silver-backed Butcher-Bird (Cracticus argen- teus), a beautiful bird which deserves to be better known, It is a fairly common species in the Darwin area. Many species of cuckoos may be met with, including a number not seen in the South. Most cuckoos have parasitical nesting habits, but one, the Pheasant-Coucal (Centropus phasianinus) builds a nest and has from three to five chicks. It is a large brown pheasant-like bird, with a long tail and is seen singly or in pairs. It has a most remarkable call, which is often heard at night and has been likened to the sounds produced by water being poured from a narrow-necked bottle. Soldiers have likened it to the warning sound of an air-raid siren. It tives in swamp places and is often called the “swamp pheasant.” ‘Another peculiar cuckoo of the north country is the Koel or Cooee-bird (Kudynamys orientalis). The male bird is black and the female brown. The call sounds like “ko-el” or “coo-ee.” The large grey Pallid Cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus), which is a familiar bird in the Spring in the South, may be recognised by its loud, persistent “scale call.” Its close relative, the Oriental Cuckoo (Cuculus optatus), is similar in ap- pearance to the Pallid Cuckoo, but has brown- ish barrings on the Jower breast, abdomen, and flanks. In the interior, the Black-eared Cuckoo (Owenavis osculans) may be recog- nised by the black stripe on the face and by its long drawn-out mournful call—‘‘fear.” The Horsfield Bronze Cuckoo (Chalcites basa- lis) has a mournful call, which may be ren- dered as “see you” uttered many times, while the Golden Bronze Cuckoo (Lamprococcyx plagosus) has a call like someone whistling up a dog. The Mallee Fowl] (Leipoa ocel- lata) occurs south-west of the MacDonnell Ranges. It builds a nesting mound which is much smaller than that of the Scrub Fowl. Several species of quails abound. The Stubble Quail (Coturnix pectoralis) has a loud call—“churchee-wit,” while the Brown Quail (Synoicus australis) calls “bee-e- quick.” The other species of quails are dif- ficult to identify in the field. Many species of Flycatchers inhabit the northern areas. The Restless Flycatcher (Seisura inquieta) may be distinguished from the Willie Wagtail by its white throat and peculiar call, which has been likened to the noise produced by someone grinding a pair of scissors. For this reason it is sometimes March 31, 1945 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Seven referred to as the “Scissors grinder.” The Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys) of the north is not as tame and confiding as its southern cousin, and this is possibly due to the fact that it is an unpopular bird with ihe aborigines, who kill it on every occasion. They say it listens to their conversations and regard it as an evil spirit. In the central dry areas the Bellbird (Oreoica gutturalis) is well known, Its call is very like the sound of a camel bell. The Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike (Coracina novaehollandiae) is met with in all parts. lt is a large grey bird with a black face, and often congregates in flocks. It has a peculiar cat-like “mewing” call. The Ground Cuckoo-Shrike (Pteropodocys maxima) is a sround-frequenting species with grey plumage _and long legs and of wary disposition. It may be seen in the inland regions. Babblers are likeable birds, usually seen in small parties on the ground or in low trees and bushes, The Red-breasted Babbler (Poma- tostomus rubeculus) occurs in all parts. These birds are very noisy, and have a whitish crown, curved bill and reddish-brown breast. Some of the most beautiful small birds of the Northern Territory are the “Fairy Wrens” of the genus Malurus. In the centre the Blue and White Wren (Malurus leucono- tus) is often seen. It is pale blue with white wings, and as in all members of the genus the females and young males are plain brown in colour. In the tropical north another species occurs as far south as Banka Banka. This is the Red- backed Wren (Malurus melanocephalus), which is entirely black in the male except for a brilliant orange-red “back.” A rarer species of Wren is the Purple-crowned Wren (Rosina coronata), which occurs in the vicinity of Birdum and has actions more like those of a flycatcher. The male has a purple crown, black face, brown back and pale blue tail. It is also larger than the other “Fairy Wrens.” Several species of Wood Swallows occur. Probably the commonest one is the Black- faced Wood Swallow (Artamus melanops), which is distributed throughout the State. It is a dull brown bird, with a black tail. A diminutive species, the Little Wood Swallow (Artamus minor) is of similar colouration but much smaller than the Black-faced Wood Swallow. Another common bird of the north is the Bee-eater (Merops ornatus). It is a bright green bird, with black and orange on the breast, and the central tail feathers have two long plumes. It has a graceful flight and a shrill note. It prefers more open areas and usually obtains its food (insects) on the wing. The Dollar-bird or Broad-billed Roller (Eurystomus orientalis) spends much of its time perched on the highest branch of a dead tree, from which it will dart in pursuit of insects. The name Dollar-bird is derived from the large round pale blue spot on each wing (about the size of a dollar), which is very noticeable in flight. The call is harsh and discordant. The bill is reddish and the wings and tail blue. The north is particu- larly rich in honeyeaters. In the open forests the largest and most numerous species are the Friar-Birds. These honeyeaters have the head bare and the skin is blackish. In actions they are similar to the Wattlebirds of the south. A noisy species is the Little Friar Bird (Philemon citreogularis), which has many harsh and loud calls. 15 0 O Flower Show Equipment 15 0 0 Amplifier .. .. 45 0 0) Outstanding Subs. estima- tO ted to realise .. .. 710 9 £290 1 3 £290 1 8 Signed at Adelaide, W. M. NIELSON, Hon. Secretary. August 21, 1945. W. D. WADE, Chairman. ‘October 15, 1945. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine oe Green este ( Chelone Midas, olinnaeus) in Deal oad, By HERBERT M. HALE, Director, South Australian Museum. The late Mr. Edgar R. Waite in his hand- book on the Reptiles and Amphibians of South Australia (Government Printer, Ade- laide, January 31, 1929) states, on evidence then available, that “it is uncertain if this northern turtle does occur, or ever has occurred, in our waters.” In 1932, however, confirmation of its occasional occurrence here was confirmed when Dr. J. E. Everard presented to the South Australian Museum a rib which was picked up south of Daly Head. Yorke Peninsula, South Australia; this was identified as belonging to the Green Turtle, More recently the Green Turtle here illus- trated* was found alive at Geltwood Beach, west of Millicent, in the South-East of South Australia (lat. 37° 50° S.), by Mr. Otto Watson; the animal was actually collected on VP Day (August 15). The Turtle was offered to the Director of the Adelaide Zoo as an exhibit, but on arrival in Adelaide it was found to be dead and so now reposes in the South Australian Museum. The carapace of this example is 18 inches in length, by 15% inches in width, and the whole animal weighed just 232 pounds when first received. Although this individual must be regarded as a stray from more northerly waters, it does constitute the first record of a living specimen from the South Australian coast. This occurrence stimulated one to make enquiries from the Directors of the Museums in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth, regarding possible southerly records of the species, and ihe following information has been kindly supplied from their registers. In the Australian Museum, Sydney, there is a small specimen of the Green Turtle which was caught in a fisherman’s net al Botany Bay, New South Wales, on June 12, 1913, and also another young specimen captured in August, 1943, at a beach to the south of Wollongong in the same State (lat. 34° 22' S.), Dr. A. B. Walkom, the Director of the Australian Museum, remembers a small specimen being caught in the surf at Manly, Sydney, about fifteen:years ago. - #—Cover Picture. The Director of the Western Australian Museum, Mr. L. Glauert, writes that “the Green Turtle is occasicnally met with in the waters off our South-West Coast. In fact, its young are picked up on our local beaches every winter, for the creatures lay their eggs on islands of the Abrolhos Group.” Mr. Glauert states further that examples have been collected as far south as Bunbury (lat. 33° 22° S.) on the Western Coast. Mr. R. T. M. Pescott, Director of the National Museum, Melbourne, reports that “the National Museum has no record of a Victorian specimen of the Green Turtle.” It appears, therefore, that the example of Chelone midas now noted represents the most southerly record of the species off Australian coasts. The Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbri- cata) was also included provisionally in Mr. Waite’s handbook, but in this case a definite record is yet to be made. Marine Turtles are by no means common in the seas off the South Australian coast. The species which has most often attracted the interest of fishermen and others during the last thirty years has been the Luth or Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), the largest of all the turtles found in the seas to-day. In May, 1938, a specimen captured at Port Pirie and with the carapace 6 feet in length was brought to Adelaide; this example weighed 12 hundredweight. Ocea- sional specimens of the Loggerhead (Caretta caretia) have been noted. LIST OF BIRDS OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. In the South Australian Naturalist, volume 23, number 1, March 31, 1945, page .9, column 1,- after Zonifer .tricolor,. Banded Plover, take in Charadrius mongolus, .Mon- golian Sand Dotterel, which was inadvertently missed out in the original list. In. the plate on page 5, Silver Crowed Friar Bird should read Silver-crowned Friar Bird. Cor- rect also White-necked (Pacific). Heron on the same page. ee ste Page Ten THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST October 15, 1945. OYSTERS — FREE By BERNARD C, COTTON. In “The News” of May 15, 1945, appears a picture of some Port Lincoln oysters fully grown, and apparently full of gastronomic appeal. Beneath, we are informed that Mr. J. B. Anthony, a resident of Grange, “has had fresh oysters delivered almost at hic door every morning since Friday.” Gn Wednes- day, May 16, “The Advertiser” tells us that Mr. Fred Skuce “picked up dozens—sufficient to provide a good feed for the company at Galway House on V.E. Day.” Altogether some hundreds of dozens were reported, so that an investigation as to the source of supply, age, and quality seemed desirable. With this object in view, a search of the beach from South Henley to Semaphore was made on June 14, when two or three dozens were obtained alive between Henley and Grange. The oysters were mature, about four years old, judged by the diameter and allowing the accepted growth of one inch per year. Numerous suggestions were made as to their origin. Some said they had been dumped by a boat, but this was ruled out, as many thousands would have to be dropped to provide a few hundred dozens on the beach, and they are still coming up. Others darkly hinted of depth charges being heard, and exploding shells, and some tales almost as amazing as that of the Loch Ness monster were volunteered, to say nothing of tidal waves and submarine disturbances. The obvious source of supply was an oyster bed. The requirements for such a bed are principally three. Firstly, it must be a hard surface above the sand or mud, such as a reef, accumulation of old shell, clinker, shingle, pebbles, or razor fish bed, since “‘mud oysters” will not live in mud, where they would simply suffocate. Sécondly, it must be at the right level, where there is an abundance of the microscopic life forming the food which is filtered out by the oyster, there being no mouth or jaws, teeth, or even head for that matter. Thirdly, for quick and luxuriant growth, there should be a certain amount of fresh water flowing into the area, either as seepage from the land, such as we have Port Lincoln Oysters from Henley CER on many of our beaches, or the output from a creek. The effect of this is to increase the diatom content of the sea water, and so provide extra food, which has a remarkable effect on the rate of growth and ultimate size of the edible oyster. This fact was forcibly demonstrated to us when experiments on the fattening of imported “Sydney Rock” oysters were carried out in the Port River. Through the courtesy of the State Fisheries Department, a boat was made available on July 3, and a search was made for an oyster bed. After patrolling the inshore waters, sufficient evidence in the way of razor fish heavily encrusted with oysters was found, and the location of the bed in deeper water roughly determined. Unfortunately, the recent gales had stirred up the water and rendered it cloudy, so that actual observation and tests of the bed were not possible on this occasion. The individual oyster lays some millions of eggs each season, but only odd ones fall on suitable calchment surfaces and _ hatch. The tale is probably correct about the mass of shell from the offspring of one oyster, if all survived, in three years being bigger than the earth—a tale, incidentally, which has been applied to a number of animals and plants, such as certain fungi, or mushrooms, with their millions of spores, After hatch- ing, the young oyster is free-swimming for a couple of ‘weeks, then settles down, and remains attached to some hard surface. There are seven well-known edible oysters found in different parts of the world. The October 15, 1945. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Eleven Port Lincoln oyster is much like the other mud oysters, such as the famous English Native, the New Zealand Stewart Island, British Columbian, Japanese, and quite dis- tinct from the rock oysters like the smaller Sydney Rock and New York Blue Points. The Sydney Rock lives in comparatively shallow water, between tide marks, can re- main alive sometimes for weeks out of water, and there is a definite male and female. The Port Lincoln lives in deeper water, does not remain alive out of water for more than a few days, and individuals may be male or femaie at various times. Oysters are found in the Carboniferous Age of something like 400,000,000 years ago, but they were very numerous in the Pleisto- cene Age only a few millions of years ago, and beds of these are to be found in the Murray cliffs, at places like Swan Reach, and on our more recent though “dead” coastal raised beaches. Primitive man ate them, the Greeks and Romans cultivated them, and they are spoken of by Aristotle, Chaucer, Shakespeare, La Fontaine, Samuel Pepys, John Evelyn, and others. An early oyster farm was situated at the present Lake Fussard, near Rome, first used in the time of Emperor Augustus Caesar. Some people, according to the following tales, are rather keen on oysters. Gibbon’s “beastly Vitellius’” ate oysters all day long. swallowing as many as a thousand at a sit- ting. In the reminiscences of George Pauling, the South African railway engineer, we are told: “I had a memorable breakfast at Delagoa Bay. Three of us—I refrain from mentioning the names of my companions— had a thousand oysters, with about eight bottles of champagne.” The writer of “The Oyster” records the story of a man who “made a bet that he could eat twelve dozen oysters . . . while the cathedral clock of the city was striking twelve. He won his bet by placing a dozen fresh oysters in twelve wine glasses, and having swallowed the oysters, he washed down each dozen with a glass of champagne.” There are many recipes, both elaborate and simple, for the culinary preparation of oysters, but all seem very appetising. Authorities tell me that the best oyster cock- tails are made with Chablis or Graves. Reptiles with Feathers? - The Position of Archeopteryx By H. T. CONDON, R.AAF., Melbourne. Proverbially and in the scientific sense we have become accustomed to saying “a bird is known by its feathers.” Recently, however, the British anatomist and ornitholo- gist, Dr. P. R. Lowe, has published a paper containing views which if generally accepted will render all current textbooks “out of date” (‘An Analysis of the Characters of Archeop- teryx and Archeornis. Were They Reptiles or Birds?’ Ibis, vol. 86, Oct. 1944, p. 517.) Dr. Lowe’s researches were made on two feathered creatures generally regarded as birds whose remains were preserved in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen in Bavaria. The first of these, Archeopteryx lithogra- phica, was found in deposits of Jurassic age in 1861. It was about the size of a crow, and had teeth in both jaws, a long “palm- like” tail with twelve vertebrae, and three fingers separated from the wing and provided with claws. This fossil is now in the British Museum. The second specimen, Archeornis siemensi, was discovered in 1877 and deposited in the Berlin Museum. The skull! was well- preserved and also exhibited teeth. There is an extensive literature on the anatomy of both species, but it was Richard Owen in 1861. who first concluded that Archeopteryx was a bird. Dr, Lowe maintains that Owen was handicapped through never having seen a skull of this creature, and bases his own conclusions on a consideration of the skeletal characters of both specimens. A German, Wagner, perhaps anticipated him in 1862, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Ser. 3, vol. 9), when he referred to Archeopteryx as “‘a new fossil Reptile supposed to be furnished with fea- thers.” There is little doubt that the structures imprinted in the slates are feathers, although, as Dr. Lowe points out, they are of a primitive kind. Close examination shows that the vanes on either side of the Page Twelve THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST October 15, 1945. central rachis are very narrow and of equal width, with weak and slender barbs. Also the individual feathers as a whole are rela- tively longer, narrower and more flimsy than the wing feathers of a modern flying bird of equal size. ‘At best they are “gliding remiges.” Lowe maintains that Archeopteryx was an arboreal climbing and gliding dinosaur. The chief objection to this view is that it is improbable that there was a diphyletic origin of feathers. But Lowe suggests that it might be justifiably concluded that there was resident in the early generalized ancestor of bids and dinosaurian reptiles (such as the Kosuchia of the African Pesuian; potenual genetic factors capable of evolving feathers and that these were liable to “crop up” at any lime in any descendant branch, Further, he suggests that ¢o close is the relationship between birds and cettain coelurosaurian reptiles that the possession of feathers in both would hardly be a case of diphylletism; indeed, he quotes the possession of those intricate leg-structures known as the tibio- tarsus and tarso-metatarsus by both birds and the bipedal dinosaurs. These do not occur in any other branch of the Vertebrates, although admirably suited for climbing, running and hopping. Archeopteryx is shown to be nearly 100 per cent. reptilian, or more precisely, dino- saurian, and Lowe believes that it would have heen impossible for it to have flown in the normal way without breaking the extremely leng and slender bones of the fore-limb. The structure of the tail also indicates that it was a gliding creature. In the paper under review, Lowe considers in detail such characters as the skull, vertebrae, ribs, shoulder girdle, fore and hind limb, and feathers. Typical reptilian features of the skull are the absence of a bill and the presence of a snout, large orbit and small brain-case, and very short premaxillary bones (these are long and slender in birds). Again, the presence of certain bones not found in modern birds, such as abdominal ribs and caudal veriebrae and the absence of others such as the sternum indicate the reptilian nature of the two fossils. Lowe considers that in seeking for avian ancestors, we “must banish from our minds” such gliding dinosaurs as Archeopteryx; they were at the “dead end of a blind alley” and represented the reptiles’ final attempt to fly. They should be placed not at the bottom of the avian phylum but at the peak of the reptilian. : ee ECONOMIC ROCK FORMATIONS (Continued from Page 6) These bricks are then baked in a Hoffman Kiln, and the product is a very good building brick. The Hoffman Kiln, by the way, is a con- tinuous process kiln, having a number of compartments arranged around a_ central furnace, some compartments being cooked while others are being loaded or unloaded. - Leaving the kiln, the party then examined the quarry face, where many good specimens of ferruginous quartz,: dendrites, and shale were procured. After lunch a short talk was given on the old Glen Osmond silver lead mine. © The silver ore being galena or lead sulphide, the ore is roasted to drive off the sulphur, leaving the silver and lead, these metals being in turn separated. Galena is associated with other minerals, namely zinc and cad- miumi, and sometimes gold. The partly then proceeded to a nearby quartz quarry, where a short resume of the importance of quartz in modern industry was given, The formation: was probably at one time a sea beach which has consolidated to a compact mass of quarizite rock, composed largely of the silica or sand derived from the granite after the dispersal of the clay mentioned -earlier, A short -description of the crusher was given, showing how the stone was crushed and graded to various sizes by means of perforated revolving’ cylinders. We then proceeded to the Unley Corpora- tion ‘quarry, about half a mile farther. on, where the leader described the methods ‘used by the gold prospector, that is, panning samples of dirt from a creek bed and when gold is found he éxamines and tests samples from all the outcrops in the vicinity for reef gold. Tf successful a shaft is sunk. Amal- gamation and cyaniding was briefly described. October 15, 1945. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Thirteen AUSTRALIAN KEYHOLE LIMPETS By BERNARD C. The Fissurellidae include the Keyhole, False, Shield and Duckbill Limpets, and this interesting family can be arranged in two series, those with and those without an internal plate. [Each series again displays a succession of species from those with apical “keyhole” to those with a marginal slit or undulation. The obvious abbreviations for localities, such as N.N.S.W., North New South Wales, and S.Tas., South Tasmania, etc., are used here. Some of the species mentioned here are figured inside the back cover of this publication. FISSURELLA BRUGUIERE 1789, The type of the genus is Fissurella picta Gmelin 1791 from the West Coast of America. w large species growing up to four inches in diameter, strongly concentrically undulate, with weak and numerous radial riblets, and central apical slit. Clench 1943 claims that Fissurella should date from Lamarck 1799 and that the genotype is Fissurella nimbosu Linne 1758 from the West Indies, again a fairly large shell up to two inches in dia- meter with central apical slit and numerous radial riblets. Clench 1943 introduces a subgenus Balboaina, genotype picta Gmelin from the Pacific coast of the Ameri- cas. A good description of Fissurella is given by Bruguiere Encyclopedie Methodique, Tome Second, 1830, p. 130, where he cites and describes Fissurella picta Lamarck as the first species and follows with the descriptions of twenty-four other species, The genus does not occur in Australia. Under this genus Hedley listed from Queensland. Fissurella calyculata Sowerby 1823, type loc. Natal, South Africa. Fissurella elongaia Philippi 1845, type loc. West Indies. Fissurella lanceolata Sowerby 1862, type loc. Moreton Bay, Queensland. Fissurella minuta Lamarck 1822, type loc. Bahamas. Fissurella octagona Reeve 1850, type loc. Philippines. The second species is Lucapina philippiana Finlay 1930 of the West Indies and_ the COTTON. Queensland shell so named may be one of the Eligidion species, as is also lanceolata. The remaining species are probably not represented in Queensland at all. SCUTUS MONTFORT 1810. Genotype, Patella ambigua Chemnitz = Sculus antipodes Montfort 1810, These large species are popularly known as Shield, Duck Bill Shells and Elephant Slugs, the Satter name from the large black animals enclosing the shells. Sculus antipodes Montfort 1810, N.S.W. (type), Vict.; anatinus Donovan 1813, S.W.A. (type), S.A. a wider species; howensts Iredale 1940, Lord Howe Island (type), a flattened, parallel sided, regular sculptured species with upturned posterior end. NANNOSCUTUM IREDALE 1937. Genotype, Nannoscutum forsythi Yredale 1937. Dwarf Shield Shell. Lowe Howe Island (type); a smal] shell with comparatively large and long animal. AVISCUTUM IREDALE 1940, Genotype, Scuius olunguis Iredale 1940. Wrinkled Shield Shells. Aviscutum olunguis Iredale 1940 Q. (type), N.A. N.W.A.; a range of this wavy sculptured species we have from Caloundra, Queensland, to Shark Bay, Western Australia: parunguts Iredale 1940, New Caledonia (type), is lower and broader with more pronounced wrinkling. TUGALIA GRAY 1843. Genotype, Tugalia elegans Gray 1813 from New Zealand. False Limpets. Tugalia par- maphoidea Quoy and Gaimard 1834, N.S.W. (type): cicatricosa Adams 1851, S.A. (type). W.A., Vict., N. Tas., differs from the former in the more depressed shell with apical scar. HEMITOMA SWAINSON 1840. Genotype, Hemitema tricostata Swainson 1840. There is only one representative of this genus, the Rough Notched Limpel, Page Fourteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST October 15, 1945. Hemitoma subemarginata Blainville 1819, S.A. (type), 5.W.A., Vict., Tas. EMARGINULA LAMARCK 1801, Genotype, Emarginula conica Lamarck 1801, Mediterranean. This genus has been used for the Indo-Pacific species placed by Pilsbry under “Group E. punctulata” of Emarginula. Emarginula is applicable to the tall species with well recurved apex, inhabiting the Mediterranean Region. For the Australian and New Zealand species the following new genus is introduced. Emarginula has been allowed a world-wide range and there are many subgenera. No doubt considerable dif- ference may be found between the animals of Emarginula and the Australasian species such as candida. ENTOMELLA gen, nov. Genotype, Emarginula candida Adams 1852, South Australia. Notch False Limpeis, Shell ovate, conic, depressed, apex posterior, turned backwards; radial riblets alternately large and small, latticed by concentric riblets, radials denticulating the margin; fissure long and narrow, fasciole filling raised in the genotype sunken in other species. Claude M. Torr 1914 described the radula of the genotype. Radula formula q, -1.(4.1.4).1. gp. Small, bilaterally assymmetrical; median tooth of centrals broad; outermost tooth narrower than the three adjoining it, and with a flange overlapping the next inner tooth near its base; the single lateral bi- cuspid, blunt, and larger than the cenirals; marginals, of two rows, each of twelve long fine teeth, serrated at the end, with their bases fixed to the side of the plate through two parallel rows of minute plates, and parallel to the length of the radula. Dr. Paul Fischer, Man. de Conch. fig. 604, p. 859, regards the large plate to which the marginals are joined as an extra tooth. Distribution, ‘Australia, New Zealand, Philip- pines. Remarks. The New Zealand representatives are Emarginula striatula Quoy and Gaimard 1834 and the subspecies sériatula valentior Finlay. There are also Tertiary fossils be- longing to this genus in the Australasian Region such as Emarginula transenna Teni- son Woods 1877 from Table Cape. Recent species are Antomella candida Adams 1852, S.A. (type). W.A., Tas., Viet.; dilecta Adams 1852, W.A. (type), S.A.. with the filling of the fasciole depressed; patula Cotton 1930, S.A. (type), W.A., from 200 fathoms, with a spreading base; subtilizexta Verco 1908 S.A. (type), W.A., from 110 fathoms, smaller with the base not spreading; flindersi Cotton 1930, S.A. (type), from 130 fathoms, a minute shell; other species are bajula Hedley 1913, N.S.W. (type): superba Hedley and Petterd 1906 N.S.W. (type); curvamen Ire- dale 1925 Tas, (type), from 128 fathoms; amitana Iredale 1925 N.S.W. (type) from 74 fathoms; convexa Hedley 1907 Mast Head, Q. (type); incisura Adams 1852, Q.; micans Adams 1852, Q.; variegata Adams 1852, Q.; hedleyi Thiele 1915 N.S.W. (type), Vict. probably a deep water form of bajula. MONTFORTULA IREDALE 1915, Genotype, Emarginula rugosa Quoy and Gai- mard. Rough Notch Limpets. The shells of this genus are distinguished from Entomel- la by the rough sculpture and very short notch. Montfortula rugosa Quoy and Gaimard 1834, W.A. (type), S.A.; conoidea Reeve 1842 N.S.W. (type), Q., Vict., is taller; Clathrata Adams and Reeve Q.; cumingi Sowerby, 1863 RIMULA DEFRANCE 1827. Genotype, Rimula blainvilli Defrance, a fossil. Fissure False Limpets. Rimula exquisita Adams 1853 Philippines (type), Q., a large oval shell with the slit closed making a hole situated half-way up the front slope. COSMETALEPAS IREDALE 1924, Genotype Fissurella concatenata Crosse and Fischer. Pitted Keyhole Limpets. Cosmetale- pas concatenatus Crosse and Fischer 1864 S.A. (type), W.A., Vict, N.S.W., Tas. Dis- tinguished by the peculiar sculpture like the depressions on a thimble, There are Aus- tralian Tertiary fossils of this genus. AMBLYCHILEPAS PILSBRY 1890. Genotype, Fissurella trapezium Sowerby = javanicensis Lamarck. Saddle Keyhole Lim- pets. Amblychilepas javanicensis Lamarck 1822, S.A., W.A., Tas. (type), N.S.W., Vict., a large, square, rayed shell; omicron Crosse and Fischer 1864, S.A. (type), W.A., Tas. Vict., a smaller and thinner shell. SOPHISMALEPAS IREDALE 1924. Genotype, Fissurella nigrita Sowerby 1834. Calloused Keyhole Limpets. Sophismalepas October 15, 1945, THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Fifteen nigrita. Sowerby 1835, S. Tas. (type), S.A., W.A., Vict., N.S.W., oval a little longer than broad; oblonga Menke 1843, W.A. (type), 5.A., oval, twice as long as broad; cructs Beddome 1882, Tas. (type); compressa Thiele 1930, S.W.A. (type). AUSTROGLYPHIS COTTON AND GODFREY 1934, Genotype, Diodora lincolnensis Cotton 1930. Carved Keyhole Limpets. Austroglyphis lin- colnensis Cotton 1930, S.A. (type), W/A.; heavily frilled; rugosa Thiele 1930 W.A. (type), less heavily frilled. ELIGIDION IREDALE 1924. Genotype, Eligidion audax lredale 1924. Lat- ticed Keyhole Limpets. Fligidion audax Jre- dale 1924, N.S.W. (type); occiduus Cotton 1930, W.A. (type); plictfera Thiele 1936, W.A. (type); ovalis Thiele 1930, W.A. (type); gropunctata Thiele 1930, W.A. (type); jukest Reeve 1849, N.A. (type); quadriradiata Reeve 1850, Q. (type); corbi- cula Sowerby 1862, Q.; galeata Helbing 1779, Q.; incit Reeve 1850, Q., N.A. (type); proxima Sowerby 1862, Q.; ruppelii Sowerby 1835, Q.; singaporensis Reeve 1850, Q.; ticaonica Reeve 1850, Q.; some of these species may be the basis of incorrect records of Fissurella from the East and West Coasts of Australia. Thiele’s three species are not figured and must remain something of a problem until re-examined. FORALEPAS IREDALE 1940, Genotype, Macrochisma tasmaniae Sowerby. Slot Limpets. Foralepas tasmaniae Sowerby 1866, Tas. (type), S.N.S.W., S.A. with fine radial sculpture; bakeiet Sowerby 1866, S.W.A. (type) with coarse radial sculpture. DOLICHOSCHISMA IREDALE 1940. Genotype, Macrochisma producta ‘Adams. Narrow Slot Limpets. Dolichoschisma pro- ducta Adams 1850, S.A. (type), Vict., Tas., N.S.W. with normal anterior ridge and fora- men; munita Iredale 1940, W.A. (type) with anterior ridge developing into a spout and the foramen excavating the posterior margin. MACROCHISMA SOWERBY, 1839. Genotype, Fissurella “maxima” Adams. Large Slot Limpets. In this genus, which in many ways resembles Foralepas and Dolichoschisma, the slot is half as long as the shell. Macro- schisma enopa Iredale 1940, Lord Howe Island (type): madreporaria Hedley 1907, Mast Head Island, Q. (type). ZEIDORA ADAMS 1860. Genotype, Zeidora calceolina Adams 1860, Japan, Shelf Slit Limpets. Zeidora legrandi Tate 1894, S.A. (type); lodderae Tate and May 1900, N.S.W. (type), Tas., Vict. Q.; distinguished from the former by the tendency for the apex to overhang the base, instead of being within the extent of the basal peri- phery. SUBZEIDORA IREDALE 1924. Genotype, Emarginula connectens Thiele 1915, Kermadec Islands. Small! Shelf Limpets. In this genus the internal shelf well developed in Zeidora is here reduced. Subzeidora devota Thiele 1915, N.S.W. (type). VACERRA YREDALE 1924, Genotype, Puncturella demissa Hedley 1904, New Zealand. Slot Limpets. Vacerra menda Tredale 1924 N.S.W. (type): harrisoni Bed- dome 1882, Tas. (type): galerita Hedley 1903 Q. (type): kestevent Hedley 1900, N.S.W. (type). RIMULANAX TREDALE 1924. Puncturella corolla Verco 1908. Crown Slot Shell. Rimulanax corolla Verco 1908, S.A. (type), from 130 to 300 fathoms off the South East Coast of South Australia. a comparatively large thin shell with an in- ternal shelf and retaining the apex. RIXA IREDALE 1924, Genotype, Glyphis watsoni Brazier 1894, In this genus there is an internal shelf and persistent apex and the sculpture is pro- nounced. Rixa watsoni Brazier 1894, N.S.W. (type), Vict., dredged in 50 to 70 fathoms. FISSURISEPT A SEGUENZA 1863. Genotype, Fissurisepta granulosa Seguenza 1863, Atlantic. Slot Cap Limpets. Fissuri- septa fumarium Hedley 1911, S.A. (type), taken in 100 fathoms off Cape Wiles, this seems to be a typical Fissurisepta but an examination of the animal may prove its dif- ference or its aflinity to probably Vacerra. Page Sixteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST October 15, 1945. KEY TO GENERA OF FISSURELLIDAE a No internal shelf 6 Fissure marginal e Fissure a shallow indentation d YWissure a shallow marginal undulation e Shell internal f Shell large and smooth ae < 2 = se; .. Seutus ff Shell small g Shell smooth . as — “i ip ls .. Nannoscutum gg Shell wrinkled .. e + he ae 7 .. Aviscutum ee Shell external ays : ie. re oh _ i .. Tugalia dd Fissure forming an pect groove. A oe 4 .. Hemitoma ec Fissure forming a distinct slit or notch Ah Finely sculptured, slit rather long an a .. Entomella hh Coarsely sculptured, notched only no me .. Montfortuiu bb Fissure subcentral or submarginal i Fissure a hole in the anterior slope... so .. Rimulu zi Fissure not a hole in the anterior slope j Fissure subcentral, normal k Sculpture concatenate Ase 5 .. Cosmetalepas kk Seulpture of radials and eckeatartee 1 Low sculpture m Shell broad or saddle shaped, extremities not elevated . .. Amblychilepus mm Shell long and oval. extremities elevated rt .. Sophismalepas il Elevated and elaborate sculpture yn Internal callus truncate posteriorly a , .. Austroglyphis nn Internal callus not truncate posteriorly ag he a .. Lhgidion j7 Fissure submarginal and long o Slot less than half the length of the shell p Anterior margin of shell in front of foramen not produced .. Foralepas pp Anterior margin of shell in front of longer foramen produced ah, .. Dolichoschisma oo Slot half the pene of the shell .. .. Macrochisma aa With an internal shelf q Marginal fissure r Shelf developed . .. Zetdora rr Shelf reduced. . .. Subzeidora gq Central or subcentral fissure s Fissure on dorsal slope t Shell minute .. Vaeerra tt Shell medium to large .. .. Rimulanar ss Fissure subeentral uw Sculpture of beaded axial ribs Riva uu Sculpture weak .. Fissurisepta 3 ee [os ee a? 8a 6° EXPLANATION OF PLATE Scutus anatinus Donovan 181%. Robe, S.A. Tugalia cicatricosa Adams 1851. Port Lin- coln, S.A. rie an oh re Hemitoma subemarginata Blainville 1819. Marino, S.A... 3 es ee Entomella candida Adams 1852. Marino, Rimula exquisita Adams 1853. Hope Island, Queensland ae ae a on Cosmetalepas concatenata Crosse & Fischer 1864. Marino, S.A. . me ie Amblychilepas javanicensis Lemarck 1822. Marino, S.A... Mins a ne Sophismalepas nigrita Sowerby 1835. Der- went, Tas. oe Arti ee 8 Austroglyphis lincolnensis Cotton 1930. Port Lincoln, S.A. 1 a 10. il. 12, 138. 14. 15. 16. 17. Eligidion occiduus Cotton 1930. Shark Bay, W.A. : . 4 Foralepas tasmaniae Sowerby 1866. Der- went, Tas. ae a oa oe Dolichoschisma producta Adams 1850. Marino, S.A... Se ae ae Macroschisma madreporaria Hedley 1907. Mast Head Reef, Q. Zeidora legrandi Tate 1894. Corny Point, S.A. Vacerra harrisoni Beddeome 1882. Brown’s River, Tas. an a a6 : Rixa watsoni Brazier 1894. Port Jackson, N.S.W. Fissurisepta fumarium Hedley 1911. Cape Wiles, S.A., 100 fms. ise ns X 15 XK 14 X 1.4 xX 3 X 3 . X 10 x7 xX 15 Ie THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Field Naturalists’ Section of the Royal Society (of South Australia,) Inc. Publications The National Parks of Australia—by W. H. Selway. (Out of print.) Geological and Botanical Notes on the Victor Harbour District—by Prof. J. B. Cleland and Prof, Walter Howchin. wo Botany and Geology of the Coast from Outer Harbour to Sellick’s Beach—by Prof. J. B. Cleland, M.D., and Dr. C. Fenner, D.Sc. Price 1/6. National Parks of South Australia. Vari- Price 1/-. McAlister Print. (Out of print.) ous authors. MOTION PICTURE THE TOOLACH WALLABY, being a record of the last known living specimen of the Toolach Wallaby (Macropus ereyi), Copies, £4. FILM ' MALACOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF S.A. PUBLICATIONS, A Systematic List of South Australian Gastropoda—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1/6. A Systematic List of the Pelecypoda, Seaphopoda, Cephalopoda, and Crepi- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1/6, A Systematic List of the Echinodermata, Foraminifera, Hydroida, and _ Brachio- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1G CONTENTS URANIUM DEPOSITS BEADED TOP SHELLS SOUTH AUSTRALIAN BATS TOOLACH WALLABY SIMPSON DESERT BIRDS Gwen D, Walsh SADDLE AND WINDOW PANE OYSTER The South Australian wes os NATURALIST FEBRUARY 15, 1946. Pennants G.P.0., JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE Adelaide, for transmission ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. through the post as a : ate periodical. Price : One Shilling. ARM CHAIR CREEK, MT. PAINTER ON RIGHT THESE PLATES ILLUSTRATE R. SPRIGG’S PAPER ON THE MT. PAINTER DISTRICT THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (Incorp.) OFFICERS 1945-46 Chairman: MR. G. PATTISON. Vice-Chairmen: MR. L. C. ADCOCK, MR. W. R. STANDEN. Hon. Secretary: MR. W. M. NIELSEN, 85 Victoria Street, Forestville. (Phone C.8845.) Hoi. Treasurer: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, c/o Circulating Library, Adelaide. Hon, Librarian: MRS. G. PATTISON. How, Magazine Secretary: MR. A. K. BEASLEY, Harris Street, Marden. (Phone F.1984.) Hon. Auditors: MESSRS. W. D. REED, F.C.A. (Aust.) and F. GRAY, A.LC.A. Committee: MISS L. HARRY, MESSRS. W. D. WADE, A. G. EDQUIST, A. J. MORRISON, J. FERRIES, F. J. HAVARD, F. GRAY, and K. W. T. DUNSTONE. a eee ne Oe — CONCHOLOGY CLUB: Patron: MR. B. C. COTTON. Chairman: MR. W. G. BUICK. Vice-Chairmen: MR, A. K. BEASLEY, MR. F. L. SAUNDERS. Seeretary and Treasurer: MRS. G. PATTISON, 68 Partridge St., Glenelg. Committee: MR. G. PATTISON, MRS. H. HOLDEN, REV. H. A. GUNTER. apie Ons ae BOTANY CLUB: Patron: PROF, J. B. CLELAND. Chairman: MISS J. M. PAYNE. Vice-Chairmen: MR. L. RALPH, MR. W. M. NIELSEN. Seeretary and Treasurer: MISS H. M. STOCKHAM, 12 Kyre Ave., Kingswood. Committee: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MISS L. HARRY. — - 10: GEOLOGY CLUB: Chairman: MR. W. F. STANDEN. Vice-Chairmen: MR. F. W. SWANN, MR. F. J. HAVARD. Secretary and Treasurer: MISS A. A. MARTYN, B.A., 5 Henry Street, Croydon. Committee: MRS. E, H. HERGSTROM, MRS. B. H. KELSEY, MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE. oS ZOOLOGY CLUB: Patron: PROF. T. HARVEY-JOHNSTON. Chairman: MR, K. W. T. DUNSTONE. Vice-Chairmen: MR. R. H. COLE, MR. L. RALPH. Secretary and Treasurer: MR. J. W. McMILLAN. Committee: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MR. W. F. STANDEN, MR. J. G. MANUEL. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST No. 3. JANUARY 31, 1946. JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION, ROYAL SOCIETY ROOMS: KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE. Published Quarterly (in normal times). HON. EDITOR: BERNARD C, COTTON, South Australian Museum, Adelaide. (Phone: C. 4481 or F°.4354.) Vol, 23, Page Two THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. URANIUM DEPOSITS AT MOUNT PAINTER By REG. C. SPRIGG. It is a generally accepted fact that the world has changed more rapidly in the last two centuries than in the preceding two thousand years. This change, which all of us may not be willing to call Progress, was due in large measure to the harnessing of new forms of energy, namely, those gene- rated from coal and petroleum. To-day, however, we are experiencing an industrial revolution far more stupendous than that which began with James Watt and his kettle. The utilisation of energy released from the “splitting” of the atom opens up a completely new epoch in human history. For many years we have been diverted by the writings of H. G. Wells, H. Nicholson, and others who foretold the harnessing of atomic energy, but mot even the most far- seeing of us took their prophecies over seriously. The last twelve months has served to pull us up with a jolt. What was only recently regarded as fantastic has now become possible and inevitable. Man in this new conquest of his environment enters a period i which possibilities of human advancement exist side by side with the gravest and most terrible threats to all civilisation. Until September of this year when the first public announcement was made, in the form of the atomic bomb, of the degree to which atomic research had progressed the general public, in spite of whispers of “things to come,” regarded their economy as basically a coal and petroleum one. We now learn that the next ten years may render these two sources of power virtually obsolete. At first it was believed that the comparative rare- ness of the uranium isotope (U.235) used in the earlier successful work on the produc- tion of atomic energy, would prohibit its large-scale use. Such beliefs have been shat- iered by the announcement that other com. pletely new elements (plutonium, neptunium and probably another) have been made from ordinary uranium, which is relatively plenti- ful. There seems no end to the possibilities of the new complex and unstable elements whieh can be “manufactured” by the cyclotron or atom smasher. Obviously then, uranium, a hitherto relatively unimportant element, will become the world’s most sought after mineral. South Australia has the unique fortune of being the only State in the Com- monwealth to possess uranium deposits. The chief occurrences are located at Mount Painter in the Flinders Ranges and at Radium Hill near Olary. They have been inten- sively surveyed in the past two years. THE HISTORY OF THE MOUNT PAINTER FIELD. The original discovery of uranium minerala in the vicinity of Mount Painter was made in 1910 by Mr. W. B. Greenwood. Green- wood, unlike most prospectors who are at- tracted first and foremost by the lure of gold and copper, sought the more unusual minerals. Obviously a keen naturalist, he spent many years of his life in the- inhos- pitable granite country cenlred about Mount Painter. The region presented disheartening problems for even the most hardened pros- pector. Waterholes were few and far between and the rugged topography presented a formidable barrier, but somehow the country appealed to Greenwood as inevitably such country must to the adventurous, He was employed and subsidised periodically by the South Australian Government as a prospector for the district. The yellow and green minerals which he found on an outcrop on Radium Ridge were identified as uranium minerals by the Department of Mines and Sir Douglas Mawson. Interest in the find was very quickly aroused and three companies were formed to explore the field. The object was to secure radium, a by-product of uranium dis- integration. In the first twelve months seven “shows” were opened up, but only a few tons of ore were raised. The No. 6 deposit proved to be most highly mineralised, and some beautiful specimen ore was recovered from these workings. These found their way into museums all over the world. (See qictures inside covers) February 15, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Three SLAND as | Wek aia J MUScRavE JRANGE i \ j { MAP 0 F SOUTH AUSTRALIA SHOWING PRINCIPAL OCCURRENCES OF URANIUM LOCALITY MAP SHOWING IMPORTANT OCCURRENCE OF URANIUM ORES AT RADIUM HILL AND MT. PAINTER Page Four THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. The uranium minerals—autunite (yellow hydrated calcium uranium phosphate) and torbernite (green hydrated copper uranium phosphate)—are very spectacular in appear- ance and won great favour as exhibits. Unfortunately, after starting very well, the main shoot in No, 6 Workings cut out very abruptly and since that time no comparable shoots have been located. In the years which followed, the radium companies experienced great hardships and financial loss. By 1917 the field was deserted and remained so for a number of years. Then in 1924 a keener market for radium led to renewed interest in the deposits and four companies, financed in Victoria and South Australia, were formed. However, this new activity was also doomed to failure. Low grade ore, the lack of permanent waters and the extreme cost of transport killed the venture. Many ‘lodes’ had been proved to carry uranium, but none of sufficient grade to cover the exorbitant expenses incurred in development, All activity at the field ceased onee more in 1934, the total value of radium ore produced at the field being estimated at £10,000. THE 1944-5 INVESTIGATIONS. In May, 1944, the British Government approached the Commonwealth Government requesting immediate investigations into the uranium resources of Australia, The Com- monwealth communicated with the South Australian Government and in a very short period the relevant geological departments were planning a large and ambitious mineral search to be made with the shortest possible delay. The project was to be undertaken without regard to economic considerations, the urgency of the situation rendering them rela- tively unimportant. The reason for the survey was kept a close secret, but the venture came to be known as the Mount Painter Project. The establishment of camps in the inhospitable terrain about Mount Painter and the procuring of personnel proceeded with a minimum of delay. Following an inspection of the old work- ings by the South Australian Director of Mines, plans were formulated for a thorough examination of the Mount Painter Field iy a team of experts and later for the testing of more favorable deposits by a group of competent miners and mining engineers. Plans submitted to London covered the following tasks: 1. Construction of serviceable roads into a hitherto trackless, rugged terrain. 2. The establishment of camps, the set- ting up of mining machinery and the exploration of the most promising deposits. 9 3. If warranted the erection of a mill to treat 100 tons of ore per day, and to further develop the mines. All this was to be done at an estimated cost of slightly less than £100,000. The third stage mentioned was never realised, with the result that the total expenditure was much less than the full estimated cost. It was realised from the outset that the record of previous mining operations within the area indicated that chances of worthwhile suc- cess were slight. However, as we can all see now, there was very good reason for investigating even the poorest uranium deposits. Allied Intelligence had shown that the enemy was well advanced in the vital race to tap atomic energy, and the United Nations, therefore, had not a moment to lose in assessing all matters apper- taining to uranium as the war’s super secret weapon. In the closer examination of the Mount Painter Field which began late in June, 1944, many governmental and military bodies co-operated in close secrecy and with the greatest of speed. Miners were flown in to the field from all parts of the Pacific war zone. THE SURVEY. In the ear1y days of the Project it was evident that quick geological surveys were needed to formulate a programme of mining development in readiness for the day of com- pletion of the roads into the area and with the consequent arrival of heavy mining machinery. The first geological camp established néar Mount Painter received its supplies by camel from the “road” head near Arkaroola Sta- tion. All water had to be carted to the camp, in addition to food and other essen- tials, The original camps were rough, but later when the Mount Painter road was com- A February 15. 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Five pleted galvanised-iron huts and mess rooms were erected and a refrigerator installed. Geological examinations were made on all known occurrences of uranium minerals, and at a later stage a geological survey was carried out over an area of 140 square miles of rugged mountainous country in an attempt to limit the potentially uraniferous area. This object was realised satisfactorily, and in the course of operations several new uranium deposits were found. In the East Painter area many small “finds” and one more important deposit which tends to rival the famous No. 6 Workings to the west were located. Unfortunately the pro- gramme of investigation was curtailed before this deposit could be well tested. To carry out the survey for uranium minerals with the most modern means avail- able, geophysical experts from Canberra per- fected a portable Geiger-Muller apparatus for use in the field. This measures the intensity of gamma rays (amongst other things) given off by disintegrating uranium, and, therefore, provides a means of locating areas with high radio-activity which can be tested further for uranium mineralisation. Unfortunately a number of complications are associated with the use of such instruments in the Mount Painter Field, and so the results obtained were not quite as good as was anticipated. In the reconnaissance geological survey over the large reserved area, the conditions experienced by earlier prospectors were re- lived for a period of two or three months. Long treks over almost waterless rugged coun- try traversed by deep gorges more than a thousand feet deep provided many discom- forts, especially in hot weather. However, the experience was unique, and none of the geologists on the survey would have missed the opportunities of really getting to know this inhospitable but fascinating country. GEOLOGICAL SETTING. The northern Flinders Ranges is largely an area of ancient sedimentary rocks which were laid down in a vast depression, probably occupied for the most part by a great lake. although at intervals the sea undoubtedly entered the depression. Climate during this period of deposition varied from frigid to arid. A tremendous volume of rock debris was carried into the basin by icebergs and dumped, later to become tillite, which is typically a fine-grained rock “flour” in which large boulders, usually scratched, faceted and angular, are set irregularly. Later the climate became mild, and then warm and arid, About Mount Painter volcanoes were active during the period of deposition of the sediments, but the greatest activity by volcanic agencies occurred later. Towards the end of this deposition period. which occurred between 400 and 600 million years ago, great stresses had accumulated within the earth’s crust in the vicinity of the depression, due largely to the accumu- lation there of thousands of cubic miles of sediment, weighing many trillions of tons With this instability great pressure forced the strata into great foids, and in the Mount Painter area granite was forced in from below. The extreme temperatures from the invading igneous magma altered many of the sedimentary rocks and formed new minerals. It is with this granite that radio-active minerals are associated. The uranium was concentrated during a later stage in the cooling of the granite in the form of a mineral called fergusonite, and possibly also as pitch- blende, although the latter mineral has not yet been found in the region. Later than this there was another period of volcanic activity, and then the area became stable, and except for great inroads by erosion little appears to have happened to the rocks for several hundred million years. A member of the Adelaide University Staff has recently analysed the fergusonite, and by measuring the ratio of uranium to lead present has found that it is about 440. million years since the mineral crystallised in the eranite. This agrees with other geological evidence found during the Survey. The most promising uranium prospects in the area have a more complex history than that outlined for fergusonite. They are secondary deposits which have formed from the original or primary deposits by the action of circulating waters. The uranium at some relatively recent time was apparently dis- solved from great zones of crushing in the granite and redeposited in crevices near the land surface, Unfortunately through deep (Continued on Page 9) Page Six THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. AUSTRALIAN BEADED TOP SHELLS By BERNARD C, COTTON. The Beaded Top Shells belonging to the family Stomatellidae are distinguished by the prickly, granulate and sometimes coarsely fenestrate sculpture developed on spiral ribs. The whorls are few, rapidly enlarging to a big body whorl and round aperture. The aperture may be very large, as in the typical Beaded Wide Mouth, Stomatella imbricata, or reaching its smallest expression in the peculiar Beaded Window Shell, Herpetopoma fene- EUCHELUS PHILIPPI 1847. Genotype, Turbo atratus Gmelin. Tropical. In this genus the shell is typically large and umbilicate. The Black Beaded Top Shell. Euchelus atratus Gmelin 1791, Philippines, N.A., Qld.; rubrus Adams 1853, China, Qld., N.A. The Red Bead Shell. TALLORBIS G. & H. NEVILL 1869 Genotype Tallorbis roseola G. & H, Nevill. Figs. 1 and 3.—Stomatella imbricata Lamarck, shell, x 1.25, Marino, S.A. Kig. 2.—Stomatella imbricata Lamarck, radula teeth. strata, The outer lip is thickened and crenu- late within, the operculum corneous, pauci- spiral or multispiral, rapidly increasing. The animal resembles that of the Trochidae, an affinity which is also supported by the radula features. The species are dispersed through the Indo-Pacific, Southern Australia and New Zealand. In South Australia these molluscs are quite common, crawling on the underside of reef boulders just below low tide mark at such places as Marino. The localities are abbreviated, S.W.A.=South Western Austra- lia, etc. The key to genera will help the student in diagnosis. This family is quite distinct from Stomatiidae containing the true Wide Mouth Stomatia and False Far Shells Gena and similar genera. STOMATELLA LAMARCK 1819 Genotype, Stomatella imbricata Lamarck. “Java” error. Beaded Wide Mouth, Stomatella imbricata Lamarck 1816, figs. 1—3, S.W.A. (type), S.A, Vic., N.S.W., Tas. Rose Dotted Bead Shell Tallorbis roseola G. & H. Nevill 1869, Ceylon (type), Qld.. N.A., Duke of York Group, Uln Island. VACEUCHELUS IREDALE 1929 Genotype, Kuchelus angulatus Pease 18067. Polynesia. Toothless Bead Shells. Vacen- chelus ampullus Tate 1893, N.W.A. (type), S.W.A., W.Vic., N.W. Tas., QId., N.S.W.; profundior May 1915, Tas. (type) 100 fms.. S.A., S.W.A., W.Vic. HERPETOPOMA PILSBRY 1890. Genotype, Euchelus scabriusculus Adams and Angas. Beaded Top Shells. In the genus the shell is imperforate or typically minutely umbilicate. Herpetopoma _ scabriuscula Adams and Angas 1867, fig. 4, N.S.W. (type). Vic., S.A., Tas.; vixumbilicata Tate 1893, fig 5, S.A. (type), W.A., a broader shell with well developed sculpture. Both these species are typical examples of the genus, both being consistently minutely umbilicate, The next ee February 15, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Seven Fig. 4.—Herpetopoma scabriusculus Adams & Angas, x 10, Robe, S.A. Fig. 5.—Herpetopoma vicumbilicatus Tate, x 10, Marino, 8.A. =\ Fi Ta 4 DOF Fig. 6.—Herpetopoma fenestrata Tate, x 15, Reevesby Island, S.A. Fig. 7.—Herpetopoma pumilio Tate, x 15, Fowler Bay, S.A. Fig. 8.—Herpetopoma annectans Tate, x 10, Reevesby Island, S.A. Fig. 9.—-Hernetopoma aspersus Philippi, radula. Fig. 10.—Hernetopoma aspersus Philippi, shell, x 3, Marino, 8.A, Page Eight THE SOUTH” AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST o February, 14, anaes three differ from the type in the coarser fenestrate sculpture and imperforate shell; Herpetopoma fenestrata Tate 1893, fig. 6. W.A. (type), S.A.; pumilio Tate 1893, fig. 7, S.A. (type), W.A.; annectans Tate 1893, fig. 8, W.A. (type), S/A., this has not been figured before. The Fine Beaded Top Shell, Herpetopoma aspersa Philippi 1846, figs. 9, 10, W.A. (type), 5.A., Vic., Tas., N.S.W. again difters from the type in being large, finely sculptured and imperforate, but all have a basal tooth on the columella. These differences are expressed in the form of a key. DANILIA BRUSINA 1865, (type) 100 fms., Tas. 80 fms. The Thick Lip Bead Shell. BASILISSA WATSON 1879. Genotype, Basilissa lampra Watson 1875, Mid-Pacific, East of Japan, 2,050 fms. Slit Top Shells. Basilissa bombax Cotton and Godfrey 1938. S.A. (type) 130 ims., also 300 fms.; bilex Hedley 1905, N.S.W. (type) ; superba Watson 1879, Qld. East of Cape York 1,400 fms. (type). SEQUENZIA JEFFERYS 1876. Genotype, Sequenzia monocingulaia Sequenza, Genotype, Monodonta tinei Calcara, Mediter West ranean, Danilia telebatha Hedley 1911, S.A polita Verco 1906, S KEY TO GENERA OF STOMATELLIDAE a. Shell ear-shaped .. .. .. aa. Shell turbinate. b. No sinus in the outer lip. c. Outer lip not variced. d. No tooth at base of columella. e. Columella truncate and three plicale anteriorly ee. Columella not truncate or plicate .. .. .... 2... dd. Tooth at base of columella. f. Imperforate or very narrowly umbilicate .. ff. Umbilicate .. ce. Outer lip variced .. bb. Sinus in outer lip. Sinus wide and shallow 8: gg. Sinus deep KEY TO SPECIES OF HERPETOPOMA. a. Shell minutely umbilicate. b. Whorls flatly convex, shell rather high... .. 2.0... 0. 0. 0. 0.0, bb. Whorls convex, shell wider aa. Shell imperforate . co Spirerelevated-: ce gene ea me ve ee cc. Spire normal. d. Shell small, under 5 mm. spiral lirae comparatively e. Two stout lirae on the penultimate whorl .. .. ee. Five lirae on the penultimate whorl .. Glossy Slit Top. ‘A. (type) 300 fms. . Stomatella . Fallorbis . Vaceuchelus . Herpetopoma . Euchelus . Danilia . Basilissa Sequenzia scabriuscula . vixumbilicata . fenestrata . pumilio - annectans dd, Shell large, about 15 mm, in length, spirial lirae oe al numerous .. aspersa Sequenzia ~« ee February 15, 1946. PREVIEW OF A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SHELLS South Australian naturalists need no intro- duction to Mr. B. C. Cotton and his important contributions to our conchological literature. A new publication, South Australian Shells, by this author is designed for the beginner in conchology and as a preliminary to higher study such as is provided by the Science Guild Handbook. The introduction gives that information which all beginners desire to know, viz., where to find, how to clean and preserve, and how to store the shells which they collect, ‘The hook itself contains descriptions of all the shells likely to be found during the early days of collecting on local beaches, as well as those shells which are especially important because of their rarity or conchological in- terest. About 120 species are described and information of interest is included together with hoth common and scientic names. All the species listed are ably illustrated in half- tone by Miss Gwen Walsh. There is but one criticism—the attempt to employ common names for all species whether they are, or are not, currently in use by conchologists and laymen. Mr, Cotton, with his familiarity with amateur collectors, has no doubt considered this advisable. The whole set-up of the booklet, which will soon be available from the S.A. Museum at a price of one shilling, is highly commend- able to all those interested in S.A. natural history. W. G. BUICK. URANIUM DEPOSITS AT MT. PAINTER (Continued from Page 5) erosion by streams much of these concentra- tions of uranium minerals have been eroded away. Those which remain are apparently merely the roots of former valuable deposits. deposits. If this general theory is the correct one. then the future of the secondary uranium deposits about Mount Painter is not bright. However, the great strategic value of uranium and its probable use for the production of energy for industry render any deposits, even though small, very significant. The search for new deposits and the more complete testing of the known ones will be prosecuted with increased vigor in the near future. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine COVER PICTURE. WINDOW PANE AND SADDLE OYSTER. The Saddle Oyster, Ephippium ephippium Retzius 1788, is a delicate thin shell about six inches in diameter when fully grown, and lives loose on the coral reefs of Tropical Australia. The two valves of the shell fit so closely that one wonders where there is room for the animal, which must be very thin. The interior is lined with mother-of- pearl and the colouration is something like tortoise-shell. The hinge has two raised rib- like teeth in the form of an inverted V in the upper valve and there are two correspon- ding sockets in the lower valve. The Saddle Oyster belongs to the family Placunidae and is the only species of the genus Kphipptum. The Window Pane Oyster belongs to the same family, but to the genus Placuna, of which there are four species. The common Window Pane, Placuna placenta Linne 1758, is common on the beaches of North Queens- Jand, where it lives buried just below the surface of the sand. The shell is round, flat, thin, and looks like a piece of frosted glass. The space in which the animal lives between the valves is even less than in the Saddle Oyster. Both species have the shell flat in the juvenile, though it is saddle shaped in the adult of Ephippium, and both have a similar type of hinge. Neither the Saddle Oyster nor the Window Pane belong to the true Oysters. B. C. COTTON. oe NOTICE If financial members do not receive their copy of “The Naturalist” will they please communicate with the Hon. Magazine Secretary, Mr. A. K. Beasley, Harris Street, Marden, Adelaide, Tele- phone F 1984. February 15, MGB Page Ten THE StOAeIs AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST NOTES ON SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN ‘BATS—No. oe By E. F, BOEHM. RED FRUIT-BAT (Pteropus scapulatus Peters 1862): Prof. F. Wood Jones (“Mammals of South Australia,” III: 385; 1925) mentions that several stragglers of “Flying Foxes” have been reported in South Australia, but he does not give any details concerning species and lpoalitiont The only specimen in a Pteropus from this State known to have heen examined by a naturalist was found about 100 miles east of Leigh’s Creek, and was exhibited at a meeting of the Royal Society of South Aus- tralia on August 5, 1902, by the late A. H. C. Zeitz. Although the species does not appear to have been determined, it was most likely the Red Fruit-Bat, of which stragglers have been reported from on the Darling River, N.S.W.. and Longreach, Q. However, its occurrence in South Australia needs confirmation. ORANGE HORSESHOE BAT (Rhinonicteris aurantius Gray 1845): The inclusion of this Northern Australian species in the fauna of the State by Wood Jones (ibid., 446-49) without adequate con- firmatory evidence raises the question whether this course can be justified. F. G. Water- house, in William Harcus’ book “South Aus- tralia: Its History, Resources, and Produc- tions,” p. 283; 1876, lists it for the “Northern tropical portion of the Colony.” One doubts the alleged occurrence of what seems to he an essentially tropical form in the arid interior, where E. J. Eyre is said to have seen it. GEOFFROY’S LONG-EARED BAT (Nycéto philus geoffroyi Leach 1821): Two races of this Long-eared Bat are found in South Australia, and their ranges meet somewhere about the southern extremities of the Flinders Ranges. NV. geoffroyi pallescens Thomas 1913, which inhabits the arid and desert regions in the north of the State, is * The first contribution in this series appeared in “S.A. Naturalist,” 21; 15; 1942, both smalier and paler than the form which occupies the moister country to the south. It is an interesting example of the effect of humidity and temperature on a_ sedentary species of Bat. BALSTON’S BROAD-NOSED BAT (Scotet- nus balstoni Thomas 1906) : In my previous note (“S.A. Naturalist, 21: 4; 1941) on a specimen from the South-East of the State read “Radius 35 mm.” instead of “Expanse 35 mm.” in col. 2, line 9. BENT-WINGED BAT (Miniopterus blepotis Temminck 1840) ; Some of the caves in scrub-covered ranges in the Hd, of Joanna, near Naracoorte, South- East South Australia, are inhabited by greal numbers of Bent-winged Bats. The animals cling in clusters to the rock in dark holes in the roof of the caves, where they spend the day. A series of specimens obtained by Mr. J. B. Hood in 1932-34 were the very dark form described by Wood Jones (loc. cit. pp.431-33). As in the case of Geoffroy’s Long-eared Bat, the form inhabit- ing the interior of the continent is much paler in colour. Wood Jones calls the species “Schreiber’s Long-tailed Bat (Minioy:- terus schretbersi Nattorer 1819),” which latter species, however, would seem to be purely extra-limital in its distribution, The countless thousands of bats once observed by Dr. Charles Fenner (“Mostly Australian,” p. 78; Melb. 1945) emerging one evening from a cave near Naracoorte were probably JM. blepotis. It may be of interest to mention here that a minor limiting factor in bat populations is the predations of certain kinds of birds which attack and kill the animals when they appear too early in the evening or stay out too late in the morning, or are disturbed by man and forced to fly during broad daylight. In South Australia the Little Falcon (Falco longipennis), White- backed Magpie (Gymnorhina hypoleuca), and Grey Butcher-Bird (Cracticus torquatus) are known to have killed small bats on rare occasions. A. H. Chisholm (“Bird Wonders of Australia,” p. 103; 1934) records seeing February 15, 1946. what must be an exceptional case of a Wedge- tailed Eagle (Uroaetus audax) killing a sma!l bat in an undisclosed Australian locality. WRINKLE-LIPPED BAT (Chaerephon colo- nicus Thomas 1906): As Wood Jones (loc. cit. pp. 397-99) does not give adequate confirmatory evidence for the inclusion of the Wrinkle-lipped Bat in the Microchiropteran fauna of the State, some doubt remains regarding its occurrence THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST _Page Eleven so far south. Old specimens, if labelled “South Australia,” possibly came from what was known in the early days as the Northern Territory of South Australia, situated beyond the northern boundary of our State. In the Gulf Country, Queensland, the species is exceedingly numerous, for Albert De Lestang (“Australian Zoologist,” 6: pp, 106-107) states that “thousands” were once flushed by. him when a large hollow tree was felled at ‘Adel’s Cove, Bourketown. Discovery of the Oaths or Grey's Wallaby [Wallabia Greys) (J E! Gray, 1843; Waterhouse, 1346) By H. M. WHITTELL, O.B.E. No locality in South Australia was desig- nated when this species was first named and later described; specimens sent to England by Captain (later Sir) George Grey consti- tuted the type-specimens when the animal was first named by J. EK. Gray as Halmaturus Greyt, in List of Specimens of Mammals in the British Museum, page 90, published on May 13, 1843. Gray merely gave a name to the species and added no description, so it was a nomen nudum. and the scientific naming of the species dates from 18416, when Waterhouse’s Natural History of Mammals was published wherein Waterhouse, [. page 122, in adopting the name previously given by Gray, but under the genus Macropus, eave also a satisfactory description. It is from a record in G. French Angas’s Savage Lije and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand London, 1847, that the type-locality has been determined as ‘the Coorong.’ On Page 41, Vol. I, Angas wrote ‘Soon after my arrival in Adelaide [January 1, 1844], I started for the Lake Country’; and on page 70 [a party which included Angas was examining the country around Lakes Alexandrina and Albert] ‘we proceeded from the Coorong across the extremity of the limestone country covered with scrub, known as the Desert, towards Bonney’s waterholes. From these limestone hills, the entire surface of Lake Albert is seen, form- ing a landscape peculiarly Australian. Num- bers of brush-kangaroo (Halmaturus greyit) were pul up constantly, and though our dogs took after them, these elegant little kan- AND J. D. SOMERVILLE, earoos always outstripped them from their extreme swiftness. ‘Phis new and beautiful species, named after his Excellency Captain Grey, who procured the first specimen, is remarkably local in its distribution, being exclusively confined to the desert-scrub bor- dering on Lake Albert and the north-west end of the Coorong.’ Subsequent investigations revealed that its habitat was much more extensive than stated by Angas. But when did Grey collect the type- specimens ? In April and May, 1842, Grey was ‘shoot- ing along the Coorong’ with Deputy Surveyor- General Thomas Burr; it is not known how far they went, but at least as far as Latitude 36—say Salt Creek. See Account of Governor G. Grey's Exploratory Journey Along the South-Eastern Sea-board of South Australia. By Mr. Thos. Burr, Dep. Surv.-Gen. Journal Royal Geographical Society of London 15, 1845: 160-184. There is no other record of the 1842 trip beyond Burr’s reference to it on pages 165 and 181, but it must have been on that occasion that Grey collected the two animals which became the _ type- specimens of the species. According to F. Wood Jones (Mammals of South Australia, 2, 1924: 244), “the Toolach has always been confined to the south-eastern portion of South Australia . .. and many people can remember the time when Toolaches swarmed in the neighbourhood of Kingston.” When. did Grey send the type-specimens to England? Page Twelve On August 13, 1842, Grey wrote (see Kmu, 38, 1938: 217-226) from Adelaide to John Gould that he had sent by the ship King Henry, via Launceston, a box containing 42 specimens of natural history (34 being birds) to the Trustees of the British Museum. Were the type-specimens of the Toolach among the eight other specimens? On October 31, 1842, Grey wrote again to Gould, this time specifying that he had three or four new kangaroos of which he would send him specimens, such specimens to be handed over to the British Museum when Gould had ‘used them’—presumably ‘described and named them.’ Owing to shipping difficulties the consignment of specimens, which appears to have been large—five cases!—did not leave Adelaide until the Suéiana and_ the Taglioni cleared for London 9th and 25th January, 1843, respectively. The consign- ment contained at least 19 skins of kangaroos, several of which Grey believed to be new. Grey asked Gould to ‘name and describe any that you may find which have hitherto been unnoticed.” (Emu, 38, 220.) The assump- tion is that the two skins and skulls of the wallaby to be named as Halmaturus greyi were among those sent by the Sultana and Taglioni, but we shall probably never know how it came about that Gould himself was not the first to name and describe them Gould may have been preparing to name and describe them when J. EK. Gray’s List of Specimens of Mammals in the British Museum anticipated him when it appeared on May 13, 1843—a month or so after the arrival of Grey’s skins in England. The above records were, however, not the earliest dates on which the Toolach wes noticed, for the following interesting particu- lars quoted by Gould in his Mammals oj Australia, 2, plate 19, [1845 to] 1863, from Frederick Strange, must have been gathered in 1839-40. “Mr. Strange informs me that he met with this animal ‘between Lake Albert and the Glenelg (River?). The kind of country in which it is found consists of large open plains intersected by extensive salt lagoons and bordered by pine ridges. On fine sunny days it is to be found in the salt- water scrub around the lagoons and amid the long grass of the plains. I never saw any- thing so swift of foat as is this species: it does not appear to hurry itself until the dogs have got pretty close, when it bounds away THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. like an antelope, with first a short jump and then a long one,* leaving the dogs far behind il. In wet weather it confines itself to the sandhills. I have had twenty runs in a day with four swift dogs and not succeeded in getting one.” Strange was one of the earliest, if not actually the earliest, collectors of specimens of natural history in South Australia—an account of the collecting he did in the Colony is in course of preparation. He appears to have been employed with sur- vey parties at or near Lakes Alexandrina and Albert during portions of the years 1839 and 1840, but removed from South Australia to New South Wales probably during the latier vear, some little time prior to the arrival of Governor Grey. Did Strange collect and submit specimens to Gould with the above particulars prior to leaving South Australia (he visited Eng- land in 1852 and was sure to have come in contact with Gould whom he had already met in South Australia in 1839), or did he give the particulars to Gould when on the visit to England? Up to the present no answer has been found to these questions. (See Addendum. ) Strange refers to Lake Albert by name in connection with the Toolach, but it is inter- esting to note that Lake Albert was not 50 named until Governor Gawler made a visit to the Murray Mouth in August-September, 1840. However, although Governor Captain George Grey did not arrive in South Aus- tralia until May, 1841, specimens sent by him constitute the type-specimens when the ‘Tvolach was first named by J. E. Gray in 843, and they were probably collected when the Governor and the Deputy Surveyor- General were in the neighbourhood of the Coorong in April and May, 1842. 1_The manifest of the Taglioni shews that 4. cases were consigned by His Excellency Governor Grey to G. (sic) Gould. It is interesting to notice that by the same boat there were 19 other cases consigned by different consignors. - (S.A. Archives 768. ) : 2_F Wood Jones, Mammals of South Aus- tralia: 245, says two short hops and one long one. Since the text was written and in print some further particulars regarding Gould’s work have been ascertained. As is generally known, Gould’s Mammals of Australia was issued in parts between 1845 and 1863. When completed the plates were rearranged into generic order and bound into three volumes, with the date of 1863 shewn on the title, which gives no criterion as to when any particular plate was originally issued. By courtesy of Messrs. Troughton, of the Australian Museum, Sydney, and White, of the Parliamentary Library, Canberra, atten- tion was drawn to the little known but valu- able book by I. H. Waterhouse, The Dates of Publication of Some Zoological Work of the late John Gould, 1885, which lists all the major works of Gould except Birds of New Guinea. Therein it is shewn that Macropus (Halmaturus) greyi appeared in part VI, the issue date being 1852. Frederick Strange arrived in England in June, 1852, but up to the present it has not been ascertained whether part VI was issued prior to, or after, his arrival. The following particulars of some of Gould’s books may be of interest to field naturalists. Mammals of Australia.—There are appar- ently no copies in Australia of the individual parts. In the bound volume I there are two lists of plates. The first list (pp. iii—vi) THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Thirteeri should be disregarded, the correct list being that shewn on pp. xxili—xxxix. Reference to F. H. Waterhouse’s book quoted above will shew the part number and the year of issue for any particular plate. Birds of Australia.—There are apparently no copies in Australia of the individual parts. The plates were rearranged in generic order when binding into seven volumes. Refer- ence to Waterhouse’s book quoted above is necessary to ascertain the part number and the year of issue for any particular plate. Birds of New Guinea.—The completicn of this work was subsequent to the issue of Waterhouse’s book quoted above. Like all of Gould’s major works, it was issued in parts and subsequently bound into volumes. Strangely, two systems for arranging plates were adopted. In one the plates were left in the same order as originally issued in parts, and in the other the plates were rearranged into generic sequence, The Mitchell Library and/or the Public Library, Sydney, have a copy of the parts as originally issued, a set of hound volumes with plates in sequence as the original parts, and a set of volumes with the plates arranged in generic sequence. In the set of volumes in the Public Library, Adelaide, the plates are in the same sequence as in the original parts. The Public Library, Melbourne and Perth, have the plates rearranged into generic sequence. BIRDS COLLECTED BY THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION (1939) By H. T. CONDON, South Australian Museum. Through the courtesy of Dr. C. T. Madigan, leader of the Simpson Desert Expedition (1939), a small collection of bird skins pre- pared by Mr. H. O. Fletcher, biological collector, have been deposited in the South Australian Museum. The .expedition travelled from Charlotte Waters to Andado Station, thence northward to the junction of the Hale and Todd Rivers. From the junction the party journeyed east- ward across the Desert to the Queensland border, and thence south-east to the Mulligan River and Birdsville. From Birdsville they followed the Diamantina down to Lake Eyre, and thence round the east side of this lake to Marree. The trip commenced on May 28 and finished on August 8, 1939, EPTHIANURA TRICOLOR GOULD 1841 Epthianura tricolor Gould, 1841, Proc. Zool. Sec. Lond. 1840, p. 159. South Aus- tralia. A single specimen of the Crimson Chat, a male, was taken al Camp No, 8, 14 miles east of Camp 7. Page Fourteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. S.A.M. No. B22319; Field No. 565; exposed culmen 11 mm.; wing 68; tarsus 16. APHELOCEPHALA NIGRICINCTA NORTH 1895 Xerophila nigricincta North 1895, Ibis, p. 340. Missionary Plain, Central Australia. The Banded Whiteface was one of the finds of the Horn Expedition, and has since been recorded from all parts of the inland from Landor Station on the Gascoyne River, Western Australia, to Tanami in the Northern Territory, Mt. Kintore and Moorilyanna in the far north-west of South Australia, and about Lake Eyre and Lake Frome. Details of specimens obtained by Mr. Fletcher: S.A.M. Field No. No. Culmen Wing Tarsus B22320 aYo\6) 8mm. Dot 16 B22321 960 8 5908 led B22322 501] 8 590 8 B22323 562 8 555 17 B22324, 563 8 557 8 B22325 564: 8 306 17 B22326 580 8 506 17 Loeality of B22326: Camp 11, one mile east of Camp No. 10. The remainder were all taken at Camp No. 8. MALURUS LEUCONOTUS GOULD 1865 Malurus leuconotus Gould, 1865, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1865, p. 198, interior of South Australia. Malurus cyanotus Gould, 1865, Handb. Birds ‘Austr., vol. i, p. 331. New South Wales. The Blue and White Wren was seen each day throughout the trip by members of the expedition. Details of specimen: 5.A.M. No, B2233] Field No. 579; sex male; culmen 8 mm.; wing 49; tarsus 18. Locality: Camp No. 11. one mile east of Camp No. 10. MALURUS LAMBERTI MASTERSI MATHEWS 1912 Nov. Zool., xviii, p. 360. Northern Territory. Four specimens of the Purple-backed Wren were obtained. The tops of the heads of the two males have some grey feathers. Alexandra. Details of specimens: CERTHIONYX VARIEGATUS LESSON 1830 Certhionyx variegatus Lesson, 1830, Traite d’Orn, livr. 4, p. 306. Timor, error equals Western Australia. One Pied Honeyeater, a female, was obtained towards the eastern border of the Desert. Plumage is fresh and unworn and of some- what darker appearance than in worn speci- mens. 5.A.M. No. B22332; Field No. 587: culmen 17 mm.; wing 81; tarsus 18; locality, Camp No, 13, thirteen miles east of Camp No. 12. The following notes have been supplied hy Mr. Fletcher: “The bird life noted in the Simpson Desert during the menths of June and July, 1939, exceeded in numbers what one would expect for this central desert region. The birds noted daily consisted of the following species:— Budgerygar (Melopsittacus undulatus), Crim- son Chat (Epthianura .tricolor), Banded Whiteface Wrens (Malurus spp.), Pied Honeyeater (Cer- (Aphelocephala _ nigricincta), thionyx variegata), These species favoured the sheltered spinifex and mulga growing in between sand ridges. The species collected are by no means the only birds found in the Simpson Desert. They are representatives of the more common forms, but from time to time other small drab coloured and very swift flying species were noted. Occasional crows and hawks were seen almost daily but not in great numbers as experienced in other parts of Central Australia. “At the Hay River, on the eastern edge of the desert, the birds increased as we entered more or less timbered country.” S.A.M. No. Field No. Sex Culmen Wing ‘Tarsus Locality B22327 do7 male 7mm, 48 20 Camp 38 B22328 558 female AG 20 Camp 8 B22329 559 male 46 20 ( Camp 15, Hay B22330 600 female AG 20 ( River, flood ( plams _ February 15, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN | NATURALIST Page Fifteen RECENT ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF THE SPECIES By H. T. CONDON. Zoologists working in museums are pri- marily concerned with the sorting of the unending diversity of animal fone received by them. This involves, firstly, separating certain forms considered to belong to dil- ferent species, and secondly the comparison of these with all other known similar forms so that eventually the species may be deter- mined. This law of order or classification. with the use of “scientific names” is known as taxonomy or systematics. In the past this “sorting” was often carried very little further—the worker was a “‘cataloguer” rather than a biologist. Even to-day in the lesser- known groups, it may not be possible to go beyond this cataloguing phase. At this stage of unrefinement, taxonomy may be regarded merely as the servant of other branches. of biology, without much general interest or application. However, as certain groups become better known it is apparent that the simple Linnaean concept of a static and morphological species is inadequate. The intensive pursuit of prac- tical aims in some fields often reveals taxono- mic facts unavailable to museum workers, and genetics, field natural history, ecology, biogeography, and medical biology all con- tribute to a broader concept of the subject. Linnaeus regarded each species as the pro- duct of a separate act of creation and quite distinct. Groups of similar species he placed in genera, each species bearing two names, one to designate the species, the other the genus. This is known as binomial nomen- clature, and is the basis of all present-day zoological nomenclature. With the realisation that species everv- where are subject to variation, it has been found that there are many kinds of species, and it has been found necessary to introduce several new terms, At this stage it may be advantageous to quote one of the most recent definitions of a species (Mayr, 1940). “A species consists of a group of popula- tions which replace each other geographically or ecologically and of which the neighboring ones intergrade or interbreed wherever they are in contact or which are potentially capable of doing so (with one or more populations) in those cases where contact is prevented by geographical barriers.” The question may he asked “Are species real?” It is now generally concluded that such a unit is real only if it is delimited against other units by fixed borders or definite saps. Sympatric species are those which occur together. that is, their areas of dis- tribution overlap or coincide. Allopatric species exclude each other geographically, and the gap between them is often gradual and relative. Synchronic species are con- lemporary species, while allochronic species do not belong to the same time level and would be indistinguishable if the fossil record were complete. Szbling species are sympa- tric species which are morphologically simi- lar or indistinguishable, but do not inter-breed and possess other specific characters. SUBSPECIES AND CLINES The museum zoologist soon notes the amazing correlation between geographical distribution and “infra-specific categories,” that is, local races, subspecies, and so on. Impatience with the specialists who often discriminate subspecies on almost impercep- tible differences of size and color is some- times expressed. Only from an examination of scores of museum specimens can one be convinced of these distinctions, which usually reflect precisely the degree to which the geographical range of species is governed by topographical and climatic fac- tors. Thus, nowadays the importance of the species is lessened, since most work is done on its subdivisions, the subspecies and popu- lations, \Adequate samples of these sub- divisicns, known as “series” in museums, are the real taxonomic units. The subspecies has been defined as a “geographically locai- ised subdivision of the species which differs genetically and taxonomically from other subdivisions of the species.” They are usually indicated by adding a third name to the binomial nomenclature. “Subspecies are Page Sixteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST February 15, 1946. of the utmost importance in studies of migra- tion, distribution, the origin and development of faunas, etc.—problems entirely apart from the systematic listing and cataloguing of eggs or skins, or the study of life histories.” (Witmer Stone 1927.) Prof. Julian Huxley (1939) recently in- troduced the term celine or character gradient to indicate regional adaptation of a continuous population. In the Adelaide Rosella (Platy- cercus) a cline involving plumage colour may be recognised amongst even a small series of specimens which become progressively vellower from the dark red race fleurievensis about Cape Jervis, the race of the Adelaide hills adelaidae, to the pale yellow form sub- adelaidae of the Flinders Ranges. SUPERSPECIES AND SEMISPECIES Many species which exclude each other geographically are strongly specialised and merely “glorified” geographical races. It is therefore possible to combine them into a single species and the term Formenkreis was introduced in 1900 by Kleinschmidt, a Ger- man. Another German, Rensch (1929). introduced the term Artenkreis as more spevi- fically applying to these forms. An alterna- tive English term superspecies was later introduced by Mayr (1931), who says “A superspecies consists of a monophyletic group of geographically representative (allopatric) species which are morphologically too distinct to be included in one species.” Semispecies are those which have attained species rank on the basis of morphological criterea, but which are merely geographical representatives of other species. Australian examples include the Southern, Northern and Western Yellow Robins (Eopsaltria). POLYTYPIC AND MONOTYPIC SPECIES The polytypic species is a group of geo- graphically-intergrading populations, or sub- species. It has also been termed Rassenkreis (Rensch 1929). Over eighty subspecies are known at present of the Golden Whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis), which occurs in the East Indies, Papua and ‘Australia. For- menkreis is a term which has also been applied to the polytypic species. In contrast with polytypic species, those species which have such a small range that within it there is no opportunity for geogra- phic variation or else are exceedingly stable (for some reason unknown) are termed monotypic species, i.e., those which do not break up into races (Huxley, 1940). The German term is Art (Rensch, 1929). The majority of species are polytypic, and it is significant that monotypic species are more numerous amongst groups which are not so well-known, and their numbers are constantly heing reduced. ECOTYPES OR PHENOTYPICAL RACES In certain groups, such as the mollusca and insects, it has been found that wherever similar ecological conditions re-occur in widely separated places, similar modifications of the species (ecotypes) occur. These can- not be regarded as ecological races, but merely an expression of the same or a similar combination of environmental factors wher- ever they occur, and modifications of a prac- tically identical genetic background. True subspecies differ genetically. THE GENUS. This is difficult to define. Different workers have different ideas, but it is now generally agreed that the genus (an artificial concep- tion) to be convenient must in general be “neither too large nor too small.” It includes one species or a group of species of pre- sumably common phylogenetic origin, sepa- rated by a decided gap from other similar eroups. The tendency nowadays is to recog- nise wide (and fewer) genera comprising many species, Ornithology is in a peculiar position to render service to other branches of zoology because no group is better known taxonomi- cally than the birds. Comparable results have been obtained in some groups of mam- mals, molluses, butterflies and beetles, but in other fields our knowledge is very incom- plete, NOOLDOO NOOLDOO WATERHOLE ON YUDNAMUTANA GORGE ARKAROOLA CREEK ARM CHAIR ROCK, A MASS OF ; MOUNT PAINTER COARSE GRANITE THESE PLATES ILLUSTRATE R. SPRIGG’S PAPER ON THE MT. PAINTER DISTRICT Iw CONCHOLOGY CLUB PUBLICATIONS. ae A Systematic List of South Australian Gastropoda -by Bernard C. Cotton and Mrank K. Godfrey. Price 1/0. 1/6 THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Field Naturalists’ of the Koyal Society (of South Australia,) Inc. Section Publications Foraminifera. Hydroida. and Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. A Systematic List of the Echinodermata, ; Brachio- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. “MOTION PICTURE FILM \ Systematic List of the Peleeypoda. Scaphopoda, Cephalopoda, and Crepi- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank Kk. Godfrey. Price 1 ‘6, THE TOOLACH WALLABY, being a record of the last known living specimen of the Toolach Wallaby (Macropus ereyi), Now extinet, Copies, £1. AUSTRALIAN NATURE STORIES (by the late Ronald Munro), largely illustrated beautiful bird phote- graphy. 10/6; postage 6d. BIRDS OF THE SOUTH-WEST PACIFIC (Mayr). 23/6; postage Sd, HERITAGE OF STONE (Chas. Barrett). Stvury of Early Colonial Architecture of Tasmania, 23 drawings, very attractive. 4/-; postage 3d. CITY CHILD’S NATURE BOOK (Henriques), of Australian interest. Colored plates. 7/6; postuge 4d. HORTUS SECOND (Bailey). Concise Dictionavy of Gardening and General Horticulture. 31/6; postage 1/6. THE ARUNTA: A Study of a Stone Age People (Spencer postage 1/-. THE ROTIFERA (Hudson & Gosse), 1886, iNustrated. BIRDS OF THE MALAY PENINSULA (Robinson), THE SUCCULENT EUPHORBIEAE (White, Dyer & Sloane). postage 4/-. PLANT PROPAGATION (Hottes). 14/+; postage Colored plates and B/W. Illustrated. 9/6; postage 4d. AUSTRALIAN BIRD LIFE (Chas, Barrett). NATURE PROBLEMS (Thistle Harris). Netural other illustrations. 12/6; postage 6d. & Gillen). 2 vols. 63/- reduced to 38/-; Half leather, £13/10/-; postage 4/-. Colored plates. 4£9/9/-; postage 7/6. 2 vols. Largely illustrated, 4£5/14/-3 4 Young Australians. Colored plates and BUSH WAYS (Archer Russell), for all Natuie-loving Australians. 9/6: postage 6d. PACIFIC PARADE (Frank Clune). 6/-+; postage 4d. ESPALIER FRUIT TREES (Edinunds). 5/-; postage 2d. AUSTRALIAN INSECTS ‘(‘MckKeown). 12/6; postage 6d. N. H. SEWARD PTY. LTD., 455-457 Bourke Street, Melbourne, C.1 McAlister Print Gwen D. Walsh VEGETABLE CATERPILLAR CORDYCEPS GUNNII CONTENTS VEGETABLE CATERPILLAR NATURAL HISTORY AND GREEK COINS THE SPINIFEX OF THE EXPLORERS SOW-THISTLES AUSTRALIAN LIMPETS The South Australian NATURALIST JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Volume 23, JUNE 1, 1946, No. 4. Price: One Shilling. Registered at the G.P.O., Adelaide, for transmission through the post as a_ periodical. NATURAL HISTORY AND GREEK COINS, BY J. HUNT DEACON. (See Page Seven.) Page One June 1, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (Incorp.) OFFICERS 1945-46 Chairman: MR. G, PATTISON. Vice-Chairmen: MR. L. C, ADCOCK, MR. W. R. STANDEN. Hon. Secretary: MR. W. M. NIELSEN, 85 Victoria Street, Forestville. (Phone C 3845.) Hon. Treasurer: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, c/o Circulating Library, Adelaide. Hon. Librarian: MRS. G. PATTISON. Hon. Magazine Secretary: MR. A. K. BEASLEY, Harris Street, Marden. (Phone F 1984.) Hon, Auditors: MESSRS. W. D. REED, F.C.A. (Aust.), and F. GRAY, A.LC.A. Committee: MISS L. HARRY, MESSRS. W. D. WADE, A, G. EDQUIST, A. J. MORRISON, J. FERRIES, F. J. HAVARD, F. GRAY, and K, W. T. DUNSTONE. 10: CONCHOLOGY CLUB: Patron: MR. B. C. COTTON. Chairman: MR. W. G. BUICK. Vice-Chairmen: MR. A. K, BEASLEY, MR. F. L. SAUNDERS. Secretary and Treasurer: MRS. G. PATTISON, 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg. Committee: MR. G. PATTISON, MRS. H. HOLDEN, REV. H. A. GUNTER. 10: = BOTANY CLUB: Patron: PROF, J. B. CLELAND. Chairman: MISS J. M. PAYNE. Secretary and Treasurer: MISS H. M. STOCKHAM, 12 Kyre Ave., Kingswood. Committee: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MISS L. HARRY. —_—_—_——— :0: —_—_______- GEOLOGY CLUB: Chairman: MR. W. F. STANDEN. Vice-Chairmen: MR. F. W. SWANN, MR. F. J. HAVARD. Secretary and Treasurer: MISS A, A. MARTYN, B.A., 5 Henry Street, Croydon. Committee: MRS. E. H. HERGSTROM, MRS. B. H. KELSEY, MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE. £0! ————______ ZOOLOGY CLUB: Patron: PROF. T. HARVEY JOHNSTON. Chairman: MR. K. W. T. DUNSTONE. Vice-Chairmen: MR. R. H. COLE, MR. L. RALPH. Secretary and Treasurer: MR. J. W. McMILLAN. Committee: MISS B. Y. JARDINE, MR. W. F. STANDEN, MR. J. G. MANUEL. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Vol. 23. No. 4. JUNE 1, 1946. JOURNAL OF THE FIELD NATURALISTS’ SECTION. ROYAL SOCIETY ROOMS: KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE. Published Quarterly (in normal times) HON. EDITOR: BERNARD C. COTTON, South Australian Museum, Adelaide. Page Two THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN Ne NATURALIST June 1, 1946. THE “VEGETABLE CATERPILLAR” CORDYCEPS| GUNNII By J. R. HARRIS The frontispiece of this issue shows a re- production of a specimen of the so-called Australian Vegetable Caterpillar found near Kingston in the South-East of this State, and sent in for identification by Mr. H. H. Pillar, of Kingston Public School. Medieval naturalists were not altogether sure whether to regard these curios as ani- mals, plants, or both; hence we have the Chinese rendering for one of them as “in spring grass, in winter worm.” Others in- dulged in much ponderous and pointless philosophy (coloured, of course, by current beliefs in astrology, alchemy and spontan- eous generation, and well steeped in tradi- tions of theology and witchcraft) citing these strange, club-like or branching outgrowths from what appeared to -be the mummified bodies of insects as evidence of a transmu- tation from animal to vegetable kingdom. We now know, however, that the relaticn- ship between the plant and the animal is a parasitic one, the susceptible insect host either consuming the fungus spores, which then germinate and invade the alimentary tract, spreading thence to all paris of the body, or else the insect comes into direct contact with mycelium of the fungus in the soil and so infection begins externally spread- ing throughout every organ until death re- sults. Ultimately, such a dense mass of hyphae has been produced that the insect body remains mummified in situ and is actually a sclerotium, a resting or storage phase in the life-cycle of the fungus, dry, pithy and rather brittle, but still conforming to the general outline of the insect host which, although a little puffed out, is not unduly distorted and is still recognisable in good specimens. It is from this sclerotium that the fungus pro- duces its above ground fruiting body, the stroma. Fungi may propagate themselves in either or both of two ways. When food and en- vironmental conditions are favourable to rapid growth, reproduction may occur by a simple process of constricting or budding off spores at the tips of upright hyphal filaments all over the mycelium, as, for example, the powdery green mould which grows on oranges and rotting fruit and vegetable matter. Such a stage is termed the asexual or conidial stage, and the spores, conidia. On the other hand, with sexual reproduction a compacted fruiting body may be formed which appears above ground, as, for example, with toad- stools and mushrooms. Thus, under different environmental conditions, reproduction may occur in entirely different ways. The fungus parasitising the caterpillar may produce spores scattered over the weft of cottony my- celium covering the insect body, or it may produce a long, slender, club-shaped or branching mass of compacted hyphae rising from the buried sclerotium out above the ground. This stroma may he variously coloured, black, green, grey or red, delicate and slender from a few millimetres to stout and club-shaped or branching reaching up to twelve inches overall. The mycologist may describe and name hoth these stages without realising that they may merely constitute different phases in the life-history of the same fungus, and so two names come into use for the one fungus. It has long been a recognised principle in ho- tanical taxonomy that the best classification, the one approaching most nearly to a natural classification, is one based upon sexual repro- duction characteristics and criteria. Thus, amongst the fungi, where the association of two stages is recognised, the name of the perfect stage prevails over the name of the imperfect or conidial stage. This leads us often, however, to the surprising state of affairs where fungi grouped into the same genus on lhe grounds of possessing very simi- lar perfect stages may possess quite unrelated imperfect stages, providing an example of the artificiality of classification based on asexual characters. And so it is in the genus Cordy- ceps (Fries) Lk., the genus which includes the vegetable caterpillars, where conidial stages of Isaria, Hirsutella, Hymenostilbe, Stilbella, Cephalosporium and Sporotrichum are produced by different species. Although for the Australian species of Cordyceps so far described a true conidial stage has never been obtained for sure, it is believed that if existent it is most likely to be an /saria stage June 1, 1946, THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Three appearing as a mass of cottony hyphae ex- ternally enveloping the insect mummy, and would be underground in soil cavities. Just as the toadstools and mushrooms of the Basidiomycetes produce a prominent per- fect stage above ground level, the fruiting body of Cordyceps arises from the buried sclerotium as a club-shaped, slender to stout, branching or unbranched stroma consisting of a sterile stalk (stipe), fertile spore-bearing surface, and sometimes terminating in a short sterile tip. The spores are not borne naked on basidia over the surface of a gill (eg, toadstools) or lining a pore (e.g., Poly- pores) or over a smooth or wrinkled hy- menium as in other Basidiomycetes, but a careful examination of the fertile area of the stroma shows it to be covered with a mass of tiny raised papillae which are actually the protruding necks of tiny flask-shaped cavities embedded in the stroma, and it is lining the insides of these cavities that the spores are produced in packets of eight or multiples thereof enclosed in slender cylin- drical envelopes, the esct. Thus these fungi belong to the Ascomycetes, and so are re- lated to the cup-fungi, differing from them in that, instead of producing their asci lining a large saucer-shaped fruiting body, they are found lining the insides of flask-shaped peri- thecia. At maturity the apex of the ascus ruptures and the long, slender, filiform as- cospores are diszorged into the hody of the perithecium from which they exit through the mouth or ostiole. The shedding of these slender, hyaline spores frequently cloaks the dark coloured fertile portion of the stroma with snowy floccules. The genus Cordyceps, which was estab- lished by Fries in 1849, but had its definition later emended by Link, belongs to the tribe Cordycipiteae of the family Hypocreaceae (perithecia immersed wholly or partly in a stroma), order Hypocreales (perithecia and stromata brightly coloured, soft and fleshy. not carbonaceous) of the Pyrenomycetes, the group of Ascomycetes in which the asci line perithecial cavities. According to Kobayasi (1941) the genus is a cosmopolitan one con- taining some 137 valid species, although there were previously some two hundred odd specific names in use, but even so, Cordyceps are for the most part rather rare and about half of the species are still only known from their type collections. Almost all of them are entomogenous. i.e., parasitising insect hosts either in adult, larval, nymph or pupal stages, but two are found on the sclerotia cf Claviceps (ergot) and five on the fruiting bodies of the fungus Elaphomyces (i.e.. these seven species are mycogenous), while five others are known on spiders. The only species so far recorded from this State is C. Gunnii Berk., which was first de- scribed by Berkeley (1848) from some ma- terial collected a few years previously in Tasmania by a Mr. Gunn, who in a letter states, “The caterpillar and stipes varied from five to eighteen inches in length, and were white, except about lwo or three inches which projected aLove the surface of the ground. and were shaded off from the white colour below ground tc vellow at the surface, and thence to a deep olivaceous black at the ex- tremity.” As Cooke’s (1892a) description of the fungus was considered to be rather in- adequate, Tepper and McAlpine (1897) drafted a more complete description based on seven South Australian collections. Cooke (1892a and b) records C. Gunnii from Tas- mania, Victoria (near Melbourne) and New South Wales (Hunter River), but states that the largest number of specimens were found near Launceston. Olliff (1895) mentions its occurrence in South Australia as well as the other three States, but he is not any further specific in his locality, and so this record is a doubtful one. The first authentic record comes from Tepper and McAlpine (1897), of whose material four specimens were col- lected at Sellick’s Hill by Mr. Gratwick and three at Kingston by Dr. A. Engelhardt. Since then the only other collections known to have been made in this State have been found dur- ing June and July of 1942 and 1943 in the neighborhood of Kingston. The fungus parasitises the larvae of Lepi- doptera of the family Hepialidae. Olliff (1895) claims that Pzelus is the genus in- volved with Trictena also a possibility. Tep- per and McAlpine (1897) claim that their specimens do not appear to be on Pielus, but that the form of the larvae is suggestive of that of families Lasiocampidae or Agrotidae. In these latter two families the larvae are not underground root feeders as are the Hepia- lidae, the Ghost or Swift Moths, but feed above ground and descend into it only to pupate. The same suggestion has been made fer certain Cossidae. The fact is that en- Page Four tomologists do not agree on the hosts para- sitised, and in any case, there is no sug- gestion that the fungus is extremely specific in its host range. The insects which only enter the ground to pupate are there for such a short period that it is questionable whether infection by the fungus and sufficient inve- sion of organs and tissues to cause death could occur in that time. Thus it is more likely that the usual host of C. Gunnit is a member of the Hepialidae, probably a mem- ber of Pielus, Porina or Trictena. There is a good deal of variation amongst the stromata of C. Gunnii, but the size and form of the ascospores is reasonably regular as long, narrow, slender, filiform spores which after emergence from the ascus break up into a large number of small, truncated, rather quadrate spores. Occasionally two o1 more stromata may spring from the same sclerotium. Such stromata may arise from either the head or the anal segment of the insect, depending on which is uppermost, for the insect always assumes a more or tess ver- tical position in the soil. In Mr. Gunn’s original account of the Tasmanian specimens he mentions their appearance in sandy soil after.a heavy rain, but Olliff’s (1895) speci- mens were obtained in gullies with “rich black soil consisting largely of leaf-mould overlaying shale,” and then always close to black wattles (Acacia elata Cunn.). The Tep- per and McAlpine (1897) specimens were obtained in “verv rich black soi! during wet weather.” Probably one of the most interesting species of Cordyceps, interesting on account of the uses to which it is put rather than its mor- phology, is C. sinensis Berk., the celebrated “Chinese Plant Worm.” It is highly esteemed by the Chinese and Tibetans as a valuable tonic, and many of the virtues attributed to it make the advertisements for our modern proprietary medicines seem amateurish. “It is sweet. Jt is good for protecting the lungs, enriching the kidneys, stopping the flowing or spitting of blood, decomposing the spittle and for curing consumption” is the transla- tion from one Chinese work pertaining to its uses. while Stuart’s Chinese Materia Medica claims, “Jt is considered to he restorative and tonic and is used in jaundice, phthisis. and in cases of injury of any serious nature.” Its antiquity in Chinese medicine is pro- bably of the order of two thousand years. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIS® June 1, 1946. Western attention was first drawn to it when in Bretschneider’s Early European Researches into the Flora of China mention is made of it being sent along with other drugs to the Paris Academy of Sciences by Father Paren- nin in 1723. In 1726 de Reaumur figured it in a French periodical, but was unable to explain the mystery of its production. Ten years later, Du Halde (1736) mentions it as being scarce, but found in small quanti- ties in the province of Se--tchuen bordering on Tibet, and known as “Hia Tsao Tchone” (literally summer herb, winter worm). In 1841 Prof. Westwood exhibited specimens at a meeling in London of the Entomological Society, and claimed that its proper name was “Hea Tsaon Taong Chung.” In 1842 Dr. Pereira sent an account of it to the Phar- maceutical Journal and later embodied this in his Materia Medica of 1855. Eventually (1843) it was examined by the prominent mycologist, Rev. M. J. Berkeley, who named and described it. ‘According to Gray (1858), who prepared the first monograpk on the entomogenous fungi, the Lepidopterous caterpillar para- sitised belongs to the family Noctuidae, pro- bably being a Gortyna in the larval stage. The whole plant measures up to five inches long, generally about three, of which about half consists of the swollen, mummified cater- pillar, generally a light yellowish-browa, with a slender, club-shaped stroma arising from either the head or the anal segment, swollen over the fertile portion and terminat- ing in a tapering sterile tip. The fungus is gathered with an elongate digging instrument which is thrust into the soil, twisted and withdrawn, bringing out the insect sclerotium. The superficial dirt is shaken free and the fungus tossed into a sack. The sacks are sent to coastal merchants who brush them free of dirt, grade them and tie them up in bundles of a dozen or so individuals for marketing in Chinese medicine shops where they are sold by weight. One authority states that the best variety is produced in Kiading Fu in Szechuen Province, while that of Yuanan and Kweichow is considered second class. By the time they are marketed the bundles have been so battered and damaged through hand- ling that it is almost impossible to tell much from them at all. The relative value placed upon these seems June 1, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Five to vary considerably from time to time depending upon how scarce or abundant the Cordyceps may be. Du Halde (1736) stated that the plant-worm was of such scarcity that it was used only by the physicians of the Emperor, while black, old and rotten specimens cost four times their weight in silver. Ramsbottom in an appendix io Chaudhuri’s (1931) article indicates the great value placed upon it by a Chinese general. Stuart’s Chinese Materia Medica states that it is not so rare as in the days of Du Halde, nor is it so highly esteemed. Gist Gee (1918) indicates that it was quite cheap in Soochow medicine shops. Chow (1936) states that C. sinensis occurs in profu- sion in Sikang Province from which some 10,000 kilos are exported valued at $7. Mexi- can per kilo (ie, about ten tons of dried fungus of total value of over eight thousand pounds). There is also some slight confusion in the literature as to the principal sources of the so-called ‘Chinese Plant Worm.’ Du Halde (1736) claimed it came from Se-tchuen (or Szechuen or Szechwan) Province (the pro- vince of which Chungking is the capital) , and Ramsbottom’s (1931) material is claimed also to be from this province, but Gist Gee (1919) claims that the source is not Szechuen but Chinese Tibet, from which Chaudhuri (1931) also obtained his specimens. The bulk of the available evidence suggests that C. sinensis is probably quite widespread in the western uplands, being noted especially in Szechuen, Sikang and Eastern Tibet. As a tonic, the action of preparations of the Chinese Plant Worm are claimed to be comparable to that of ginseng. It is appar- ently of widespread use in Asia, being known as ‘Yartsa Gungbu’ (lit. in spring grass, in winter worm) in Tibet and as ‘Totsu Kaso’ in Japan. Medicinal preparations of it may be made in any of three ways, viz. (a) eaten dry, (b) incorporated as an ingredient with other compounds in certain tonic prepara- tions, (c) stuffed in meats or poultry, and in this form, as well as being considered a great delicacy, special benefits are claimed. “Boiled with pork it is employed as an anti- dote for opium poisoning, and as a cure for opium eating. Also with pork and chicken it is taken as a tonic and a mild stimulant by convalescent persons, and rapidly restores them to health and strength.” The virtues are said to be greatly increased by stuffing it before cooking into the head of a drake or body cavity of a duck and roasting slowly when the effects are supposed to spread to all parts of the body. In this form it is known as “T'song Tsao Yah Dz’ and is eaten twice a day for eight or ten days. The orientation of the worm to ihe stroma of the fungus is considered to be most im- portant in its medicinal applications, since when the stroma springs from the head end of the worm it is especially potent for ail- ments of the upper part of the body, while when arising from the anal segment for ail- ments affecting the lower part of the body. Early naturalists were not quite certain whether the caterpillar was attracted to the plant and attached itself to its roots (so- called), or whether the ‘roots’ of the plant reached out and captured the caterpillar. One ancient Chinese author gives his account as “In winter it lives in the soil and can move like a silkworm. Its body is partially covered with hair, When summer comes the hair grows up out of the surface of the soil. and the whole worm turns into grass. Ii it is not taken, the grass will again turn into a worm in the winter.” The mycophagy of Cordyceps, however, is not restricted to the Chinese. The Maoris of New Zealand gathered C. Robertsit, Hook. (syn. C. lavarum Westd.), a large slender species measuring up to twelve inches over- all, for culinary purposes. This ‘vegetable caterpillar’ was gathered chiefly around the roots of the ‘rata’ tree (Metrosideros robusta) and known as “Pepeaweto’ or “Hoteto,” but was also found in ‘Kumara’ (sweet potato, Contu!- vulus batatas) beds and known as ‘Aweto.’ It was also found in the open bush, where no rata grew, and the names ‘Weri’ and ‘Anuhe’ were also applied to it. Gray (1858), Cooke (1892b), and Lloyd (1915) state that this Cordyceps parasitises the larval stage of Hepialus virescens (syn. for Charagta vires- cens Walk.), but Hudson (1928) states that this is based upon a misunderstanding on the part of earlier investigators, who referred all large larvae to this species, when in reality the parasitised larvae belong to the genus Porina Walk., of which nineteen species are known from New Zealand, and quite a number of these, if not all, are susceptible io the fungus. Although this New Zealand species is one Page Six of the largest in the world, it is eclipsed only by an Australian one, C. Taylori Berk., which parasitises the larvae of large Ghost Moth caterpillars, probably a Pielus or a Trictena, and which was first discovered on the banks of the Murrumbidgee in 1837 and which, according to Willis (1941), is also occasionally found in the Otways in Victoria. The stout fruiting body divides into numerous stout, rough branches suggestive of the antlers of a stag, and the whole may attain an over- all length of twelve inches. Also in Aus- tralia we have the scarlet to orange C. mili- tarts L., which is also familiar to English naturalists, and several other species, but as yet so little work has been done upon the Australian representatives, coupled with the fact that Cordyceps is never a very common fungus, that our knowledge of the group is most imperfect. Therefore, should any naturalist happen to chance upon any speci- men of Cordyceps or anything resembling a fungal outgrowth of an insect body, he or she is strongly urged to send in the specimen for further identification. Appendix: Descriptions of South-East collections from notes made by Profes- sor J. B. Cleland. CORDYCEPS GUNNII, Berk. Caterpillar shrivelled and mummified, 5.0— 6.5 cms. long, 0.7-1.0 cm. diameter, earthy brown with white fungus mycelium growing out from between the integuments and en- meshing soil particles; context firm, fibrous, whitish, consisting of tightly packed fungal hyphae replacing the animal organs; usually found to be vertically placed in the soil, but occasionally horizontal from depths of a few inches to as much as two feet below the surface. Stromata vertical, always arising from anal integument in these collections, 13.0—-15.5 cm. overall length, almost cylindrical in sterile stipe, about 1.0 cm. diameter with the distal 7-8 cm. fertile portion broadening to as much as 1.4 cm., finally tapering somewhat at the tip. Fertile portion smooth, furrowed or granular to papillate at maturity due to protruding necks of perithecia. Stipe rugose to striate, pale yellow contrasting to dark olive green to black clubs beset with white floccular spores. Mr. Edquist believes that Cordyceps is rela- tively common in the South-East of this State. He has received from time to time numerous THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST June 1, 1946. specimens from schools e.g. Wangolina (July 1913), Frances, etc., and these are probably C. Gunnit. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. BERKELEY, M. J. (1843). Hooker’s Lond. Journ. Bot. vol. ii, 1843, p. 207. 2. BERKELEY, M. J. (1848). Hooker’s Lond. Journ. Bot. vol. vii, 1848, p. 563. 3. CHAUDHURI, H. (1931). Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. vol. xvi, 1931, pp. 203-4. 4, CHOW, C. H. (1935). Bull. Fan Inst. Biol. Peking, vol. vi, No. 2, 1935, pp. 30-36, 5. COOKE, M. C. (1892a). Australian Fungi.’ 6. COOKE, M. C. (1892b). ‘Vegetable Wasps & Plant Worms,’ London 1892, 364 pp. . GIST GEE, N. (1918). In Lloyd’s Mycol. Notes No, 54, 1918, pp. 766-768. 8. GIST GEE, N. (1919). In Lloyd’s Mycol. Notes No. 62, 1919, p. 913. 9, GRAY, G. R. (1858). ‘Notices of Insects that are known to form the bases of Fungoid Parasites,’ London 1858, 22 ‘Handbook of ~j Oo pp., 9 pl. 10. Du HALDE (1736). ‘Gen. Hist. of China,’ vol. iv, 1736, p. 41. 11. HUDSON, G. V. (1928). ‘The Butterflies and Moths of New Zealand,” Wel- lington 1928, 386 pp. 12. KOBAYASI, T. (1941). Sci. Rep. Tokyo Bunrika Daig., B, v, 84, 1941, pp. 53-260. 13. LLGYD, C. G. (1915). Mycological Notes No. 39, Dec. 1915, p. 527. 14. OLLIFF, A. S. (1895). Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, vol. vi, 1895, pp. 402-414. 15. PEREIRA (1843). Pharmaceutical Journ. vol. ii, 1843, p. 590. 16. RAMSBOTTOM, J. (1931). Appendix to Chaudhuri’s (1931) article, p. 509. 17. de REAUMUR (1726). Mem. de I’Acad. Sci. 1726, p. 302. 18. TEPPER, J. G. O., & MoALPINE, D. (1897). Agr, Gaz. N.S. Wales, vol. viii, 1897, pp. 138-140. 19. WESTWOOD (1841). Journ. Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1841, pl. 6. 20. WILLIS, J. H. (1941). ‘Victorian Fungi,’ F.N.C.Vic., 1941, 72 pp. iednned li 1, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIS oe Page Seven NATURAL HISTORY AND GREEK COIN ‘DESIGNS By J. HUNT DEACON, M.A.A.N. Throughout the whole series of Greek coins, the greater part of their designs were drawn from Natural History. Of this subject those selected from the flora and fauna are indeed most interesting, being treated, of course, realistically. | Preference is shown to full figures, but nevertheless a great number are made up of some portion of an animal, bird, or plant. The reasons for the choice of such types are many and varied, as will be seen in the illustrations accompanying this short note. Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 10, 13, 15, 16, 19, 21, 24, 25, 26, 29 and 30 all have allusion to some god or goddess; 3, 22, 25 to animals peculiar to some area; 18, 19, and 23 to production within some State; 4 and 14 to the legend concerning the foundation of the State; 9 and 23 to the name of the town; 17 as a ‘canting’ type; 8 is a representation of the god Poseidon in human form; and 28 portraits a monarch. With Nos. ll and 12 opinions differ widely as to the reasons for selection; and with 7, 20, 26 and 31 no satis- factory explanation has been proffered. Artistically the coins are most interesting, as they belong to a period before the advent of Christianity, and show how superior in the technical work of die-cutting and striking the Greeks were to those artists and workers of more modern times. To them the coin was a work of art, a thing of beauty, and intended as a memorial, for all time, of the culture of the Greeks. Comparing the artistry dis- played upon these coins and those of modern issues, one realises that even with the crude appliances at their disposal, the Greeks could and did produce coins more artistic and more pleasing to the eye than are being manufac- tured at the present time, despite the advan- tages of modern machinery. Many forms of artistic expression were either of late invention (as painting), or, those whose history was broken during the Dark Ages—but, not so the coinage. This important economic factor in our lives pre- vailed despite any disturbing influences, domestic or foreign. Not only do we learn of the knowledge of the ancients in Natural History, but in their economic, political, and religious his- tory, their art, their knowledge of metals, standards and weights, but in many other such subjects. Truly Numismatology is a very wide and far-reaching science. (It is hoped that at some future date Mr. J. Hunt Deacon will supply us with other illustrations jointly combining numismatics and natural history.—Ed.) ILLUSTRATIONS. (Inside Front Cover) 1. Hare (Messinia) .. .. .... .. 480-396 2. Tortoise (Aegina) .. .. .. .. 404-348 3. Lion attacking a bull ae Macedoniae) .. .. .. 000424 4. Horse’s head (Zeugitana) .. .. 410-310 5. Crab (Agrigentum Sinan: . 472-413 6. Eagle (Egypt) . .. 285-246 The ian (Velia Datta) . 400-285 8. Human (Macedonia) . 306-285 9. Lion’s head (Leontini Satie) 466-422 10. Owl (Athens) . F .. 490-407 11. Bull (Thurium lence . 400-320 12. Cock (Himera Siciliae) . 482-472 13, Wolf (Argos Argolidis) . 322-229 14. Horse (Zeugitana) . 340-342 15. Bee (Ephesus Ioniae) . 207-133 16. Eagle on a dolphin (Sinope Paphlagoniae) .. .. 333-306 17. Palm (Zeugitana) .. . .. 410-310 18, Silphium plant (Cyrenaica) .. 435-375 19. Grape vine (Mende Macedoniae) 450-424 20. Deer (Stag) (Caulonia Bruttii) 430-388 21. Eagle devouring a rabbit (Locri Epizephyrii) . 332-268 22. Octopus (Eretria Rnb aay . 511-490 23. Parsley (or Celery) (Selinus Siciliae) pre 466 24, Wheatear (Metapontum Lucan- jae) .. Seb eee ou 300 25. Rose (Bhadaal, &8— 43 26. Lion devouring a prey (Vella Tineaning! Fes 400-268 27. Mule (Ass) (Mende nS Nertoee doniae) .. .. .. 500-450 28. Man’s head (Syria) .. 150-145 29, Swan (Clazomenae Ioniae) . .. 387-300 30. Woman’s head (Zeugitana) .. 410-310 31. Serpents (Tralles Lydiae) .. .. pre 133 Page Eight THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST June 1, 1946. THE ‘SPINIFEX’ OF THE EXPLORERS By J. B. CLELAND. The ‘Spinifex’ of the explorers and of popular nomenclature is, of course, not a Spinifex at all, but embraces species of the genus Triodia of the Fescues. How came about the adoption of this quite descriptive name of ‘spinifex’ to designate the Triodias, better and quite as aptly also called Porcu- pine Grasses? Sturt (Narrative of an Expedi- tion into Central Australia . . . during the Years 1844, 5, and 6, published in 1849) seems to have been the first to call Triodia ‘Spinifex.? He uses the word on at least four occasions and in terms that leave little doubt as to what plant was meant. In Vol. I, p. 251, he writes: ‘The (sand) ridges were covered with spini- fex, through which we found it difficult to force a way, and the flats with salsolaceous productions alone.’ On p. 353: ‘Spinifex generally covered the sand ridges, which looked like ocean swells rising before us, and many were of considerable height.’ On p. 354: “We passed over high ridges of sand, thickly covered with spinifex, and a new polygonum.’ (This was four days after leaving the Depot for the North-West. Was the polygonum Mr. Black’s Muehlenbeckia coccoloboides?). And on p, 407: ‘They (the natives) had even been amongst the spinifex gathering the seed of the mesembryanthemum (probably one of the large flowered Calandrinias), of which they must obtain an abundant harvest.’ From these extracts there is no doubt that the ‘spinifex’ of Captain Sturt was a Porcu- pine Grass (Triodia). Strange to say, a grass, later known as Spinifex paradoxus and now as Zygochloa paradoxa, was collected by Sturt and described by Robt. Brown as ‘Neurachne paradoxa,’ the male flowers, which grow on separate plants from the female, not having been available, says Bentham, so that the relationship with Spinifex was not recognised. This plant, of course, under the circumstances could not have been in- tended by the word ‘Spinifex’ used by Sturt. A clue to Sturt’s mistake is perhaps to be found in Peron’s account of Baudin’s Expedi- tion (Voyage de Decouvertes Aux Terres Australis, Vol. J, p. 112, 1807). At the end of June, 1801, they were at Bernier Island, near Shark Bay, and found on it three re- markable plants. ‘The first of these three plants is a kind of Spinifex, at least it was thought to be so by our botanists. It grows in the most barren places, and displays a sort of moss that sometimes spreads over the ground to a considerable extent, and which describes a thousand agreeable forms, here spreading into long regular walks; these again present- ing a number of little waving paths, describ- ing at the same time divers figures that are more or less whimsical, resembling, in a word, the most picturesque and diversified parterre. This extraordinary plant is composed of an innumerable quantity of leaves, capillary, radical, sessile, inflexible, and so thorny, that it is impossible to touch any of these thickets of verdure without being immediately pierced with a number of small darts, which remain in the flesh and cause a considerable degree of pain. The prodigious thinness of these leaves, or rather of these thorns, makes them liable to a decomposition as rapid as absolute; and this plant may be a princi- pal cause of there being so small a quantity of vegetative earth in some parts of the island.” (The quotation is from an English translation of Peron’s Voyage of Discovery published in London in 1809, p. 91.) J. Lort Stokes (‘Discoveries in Australia,’ II, 1846, p. 209), in 1841, noted that on Barrow Island ‘in the valleys was a little sandy soil, nourishing the spinifex.’ Now there is a Spinifex longifolius with prickly leaves growing along the N.W. Coast of Australia, and Bentham says extending to ‘narrow, rigid, often 1 ft. long, but not so pungent as in the Asiatic Spinifex squarrosus.’ Was this the plant referred to by Peron and by King, or was it really Triodia? Bentham states that the Asiatic Spinifex squarrosus is a prickly plant, and probably — F =, ad June 1, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Nine from this the name of spinifex was derived. If Sturt had read Peron’s account—-and it is very likely that he had done so—one can quite understand his inferring that the in- tensely prickly grass he met with was surely the same as Peron’s. Mr. C. A. Gardner, Government Botanist of Western Australia, in answer to a query of mine, has kindly replied as follows:— ‘The name “Spinifex” was first given by Linnaeus to an Asiatic species (C. squarrosus) inhabiting the sandy coasts of India, Burma, Ceylon, Java and China—a tussocky plant with glaucous, rigidly pungent leaves, hence the name. S. longifolius, R. Br., is very closely related to the Asiatic species, and is common all along the coast from King George’s Sound to the shores of Admiralty Gulf. It is cerlainly very common around Shark Bay. The genus T'rtodia was named in 1810, and early travellers encountered both T. pungens and T. irritans in quantities in the eastern interior of the continent. A similarity in the habit of both of these species to Spinifex longifolius (not S. hirsutus) might easily have resulted in the application of the name “Spinifex” in a popular sense, although the species of Triodia were early known as “Porcupine grasses.” The vege- tation of Bernier and Barrow Islands probably includes a fair proportion of Triodia pungens and Plectrachne bynoe: is also probably pre- sent. When not in flower these might easily be mistaken for Spinifex longifolius, for even to-day pastoralists lump species of Triodia, Plectrachne and some species of Eriachne under the general term “Spinifex.” Peron was accompanied »y a botanist, and thus it is probable that his reference to “Spinifex” was in all probability to the true Spinifex. The reference to Spinifex on Bar- row Island by Stokes, on the other hand, might apply to any of the above. [| think it fairly safe to assume that Triedia occurs on both Barrow and Bernier Islands.’ Sturt’s account of his explorations in Cen- tral Australia must have been read by most of his successors in exploration. His use of the word ‘Spinifex’ for Triodia, not as yet called ‘porcupine grass,’ would seem descrip- tive and appropriate, and so would be freely used in their journals and would he also accepted by the pastoralists as they advanced into the arid interior. It is still much more frequently used for the Triodias than the term porcupine grass, and probably has come to stay. SOME ITEMS OF BOTANICAL INTEREST IN THE EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA * By J. B. CLELAND. The first systematic botanist to gather plants in South Australia was the great Robert Brown, whom Humboldt described as facile princeps botanicorum, easily the first of botanists. His opportunities for collecting were few—at islands in the Bight, on Kan- garoo Island, at Port Lincoln, and when he climbed the mount near Port Augusta which Flinders named after him. No plants had been collected before this visit of Flinders— and Robert Brown’s collection cannot have comprised more than a few hundred. When Mr. Black completed the 4th Part of his Flora on June 30, 1929—127 years after Robert Brown’s visit—2,064 native plants were known from this State. His Revision of Part I has added another 103 to the number, and some more will appear in Part If. At the time of Robert Brown’s visit in 1802, none of course were known. With the completion of the Revision of Mr, Black’s Flora, nearly all the native plants existing in South Aus- tralia will have been described. There will be no room then for any further systematic magnum opus dealing with our native flora and including any large number of plants new to science. This, of course, does not mean that all the work that can he done on the systematics of our plants has been done—. there is much still to elaborate in the descrip- tions, some species are known imperfectly, distributions should be recorded—and there * Part of an Address given in honor of Mr. J. M. Black, A.L.S., on the presentation to him of the Natural History Medallion by the Field Naturalists’ Section on behalf of the Victorian Committee. Page Ten THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST must be some hundreds of new species still to be added. __Black’s Flora marks the end of an epoch in South Australian botany— the solid work is mostly done—the founda- tions surely laid by Robert Brown, a massive superstructure erected thereon by the labors of Baron von Mueller and Tate and Rogers and J, M. Black. It remains for their successors chiefly to elaborate and adorn and supplement here and there. It is interesting now to look back botani- cally to those early days when as yet there was no South Australia. Even New South Wales extended in 1788 only to the 135th degree of east longitude running through Elliston and west of Oodnadatta. In 1627, says a Dutch recital, ‘the South Coast of the Great South Land was acciden- tally discovered by the ship the Gulde Zee- paard, outward-bound from Fatherland, for the space of a thousand miles.’ This dis- covery, Flinders estimated, took these early voyagers, Peter Nuyts amongst them, as far as the Isles of St. Francis and St. Peter, near Fowler Bay, in the west of the waters of this State. In 1792 the French Admiral Bruny D’En- trecastcanx reached South Australian waters from the west but not quite so far as the Dutch in 1627. In 1800, Lieut, James Grant in the brig Lady Nelson (‘His Majesty’s Tinder Box,’ as she was called, when in the Thames, from her size and appearance) on his way to Port Jackson discovered our South-East and named Mt. Gambier, Mt. Schank (after Admiral John Schank who had invented the sliding keels with which the Lady Nelson was fitted), Cape Banks and C. Northumberland. None of these three nations, the Dutch, the krench or the English, had as yet set foot on our shores, so botanical collecting was impossible. Somewhere towards the end of Januarv, 1802, Flinders entered what are now South Australian waters from the west, naming the Great Australian Bight when he was at its head on Wednesday, January 27. One can imagine Robert Brown looking over the ship’s side at the cliffs of the Bight and then later at the sandy coast-line, and judging this to be a desert shore, interesting no doubt but poor in plant life. A point on the mainland was named Point Brown, ‘in compliment to the naturalist.’ A little further on ‘the June 1, 1946. water was much discoloured in streaks, at less than a mile from the ship,’ so Flinders called it Streaky Bay. Point Westall was named ‘in compliment to the landscape painter.” On February 7, still in Nuyt’s Archipelago, Flinders mentions the botanists going ashore—and here probably Brown col- lected his first South ‘Australian plants. He himself on St. Peter’s Isle found the soil on top little better than sand, but it was overspread with shrubs, mostly of one kind, ‘a whitish velvety plant—(atriplex reni- formis of Brown, nearly similiar to what is called at Port Jackson, Botany-Bay greens).’ Now this reference to Atriplex reniformis, which is now considered to be merely a form of our common A. paludosus, is the first record in print of a plant with a South Australian locality. It is true that Flin- ders’ account of his voyage was not published until 1814, and that Robert Brown’s ‘Prodro- mus Florae Novae-Hollandiae et Insula van Diemen’ appeared in 1810, In the Prodro- mus are described a number of plants that Brown collected within the boundaries of this State, but definite localities for them are not given, merely a letter of reference showing whether the plants occurred on the west coast of Australia, the south coast, and so on, and the south coast included, of course, the southern end of Western Australia as well as our coast-line. This absence of specific localities was rectified by the publication of Bentham’s Flora Australiensis, 1863-1878, as Bentham had access to Brown’s specimens and records the actual localities. Tn the Investigator Group Flinders noted on Flinders Island that there was little Atriplex or of the tufted wiry grass and that the only trees were a few small Casuarinas. This reference to Casuarinas, the second plant recorded with certainty for South Australia, is also of unusual interest. This sheoak was named Casuarina bicuspidata by Bentham, who records that it was collected by R. Brown on Flinders Island. The plant is still only known by the type specimen that Brown collected and by a specimen found by Helms in the Victoria Desert of Western Australia in 1891. I presume the tree or shrub has long disappeared from the type locality, as otherwise more specimens of il would surely be available. The only other references in Flinders’ Voyage to plants are Eucalypts and Casuarina (stricta) on Thistle Island and at Port Lin- dune 1, 1946. coln, and mangroves at the head of Spencer Gulf. James Backhouse, the Quaker, visited South Australia in November and December, 1837, and in ‘A Narrative of a Visit to the Austra- lian Colonies,’ 1843, pp. 508—521, has given us some short accounts of the indigenous flora. Mr. Black in his chapter on the ‘History of Botany in South Australia’ in the First Part of his Flora has given an account of the visits and the work of succeeding botanists and collectors, so that there is no need for me to deal with them in detail. There are, however, some items of botanical interest in Captain Charles Sturt’s ‘Narrative of an Expedition into Central Australia... . during the years 1844, 5 and 6’ that are quite naturally not referred to by Mr. Black. This work was published in 1849, and Robert Brown, now ‘F.R.S., F.L.S., D.C.L., ete.,.’ con- tributed a Botanical Appendix some 47 years after his visit to South Australian shores. Of particular interest to the Field Natu- ralists’ Section, whose badge is Sturt’s Desert Pea, is that this handsome plant was amongst those collected by Sturt and one of the twenty- six described by Robert Brown in the Appen- dix to the Second Volume, With justice, Brown refers to it as ‘one of the greatest ornaments of the desert regions of the interior of Australia, as well as of the sterile islands of the North-West Coast.’ This reference to the North-West Coast is of special interest, as Clianthus speciosus, the oldest valid name for the species, was seen by Dampier in 1699 and specimens were saved and described by Woodward and figured in the account of the voyage in Tab. 4 Fig. 2. The description in the Appendix to the Voyage is: —‘Colutea Novae Hollandiae floribus amplis coccineis, umbellatim dispositis macula purpurea nota- tis. There being no leaves to this plant, ’tis hard to say what Genus it properly belongs to. The flowers are very like to the Colutea Barbae Jovis folio flore coccineo Breynii; of the same scarlet colour, with a large deep Purple Spot in the Vexillum, but much bigger, com- ing all from the same Point after the Manner of an Umbel. The Rudiment of the Pod is very woolly, and terminates in a Filament near 2 inches long.’ The Desert Pea had next been found in 1817 in Western New South Wales by Allan Cunningham who in 1834 called it Clianthus Page Eleveri ONE HUNDRED POUNDS (£100) REWARD I HEREBY APPOINT SIR DOUGLAS MAWSON and PROFESSOR J. B. CLELAND as Trustees to hold in trust a fund of One Hundred Pounds (£100) from which the aforesaid Trustees may pay all or part to any person or persons who discover in South Australia fossil remains of rare or unknown marsupials, reptiles, or birds in Pleistocene, Pliocene, Miocene, or earlier geological deposits ON CONDITION that the specimen or specimens are presented to the South Australian Museum. The amount of the reward if any to be paid to the discoverer shall be left to the discretion of the aforesaid Trustees PROVIDED THAT the amount of the sum paid be approved by the Director of the South Australian Museum. If one of the aforesaid Trustees shall de- cline to act or shall die the remaining Trustee shall have power to nominate a Trustee to fill the vacancy PROVIDED such nomina- tion is approved by the Director of the South Australian Museum. (Sed.) W. Burdett. 26/1/39. Witness: (Sed.) Herbert M. Hale. 26/1/39. ———:0: CLARKE MEMORIAL MEDAL South Australian naturalists will he pleased to learn that Mr. John McConnell Black, of North Adelaide, South Aus‘ralia, an honorary member of the Section, has been awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal by the. Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales. Members of the Section are delighted to know that this distinguished botanist has received yet another honour.—B.C.C. Dampieri, but Don had already called it Donia speciosa from specimens collected by Captain King from the North-West Coast during his survey between ihe years 1815 and 1822. Eyre had seen it in the Gawler Ranges in 1839, and now Sturt had collected it in the Barrier Range in his Expedition of 1844-6, Page Twelve THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST June 1, 1946. ARE THE SOW-THISTLES (Sonchus oleraceus and asper) INDIGENOUS TO AUSTRALIA ? By J. B. CLELAND. J. M. Black in his ‘Flora of South Austra- lia’ considers both Sonchus oleraceus and S. asper as introduced species but the maritime species, S. megalocarpus, as indigenous. G. Bentham in ‘Flora Australiensis’ under Sonchus oleraceus says that this ‘weed of cul- livation . . . now distributed over the greater part of the globe . . . (is) perhaps iruly indigenous in Australia.’ He considered S. asper as a variety and stated that both occurred in Australia. Is there any evidence to show or suggest that either or both species occurred in Aus- tralia before British colonisation in 1788? The evidence available may be considered under three headings:— (1) Native names for the sow-thistle. (2) Use of the sow-thistle as food by the natives. (3) The record of sow-thistles by explor- ing parties in country far away from civilisation. (1) Native names for the sow-thistle, if these were real names and not merely descrip- tive terms, would strongly support the view that they were indigenous. It must be remembered, of course, that a native when asked what the name was might be merely giving a description of the plant, just as we might say a ‘green weed’ or a ‘milk thistle.’ R. Brough Smyth in “The Aborigines of Victoria’ gives two references to sow thistles. In a list of plants received from Coranderrk he mentions ‘dalurp,’ identified by Baron von Mueller as Sonchus oleraceus (II, p. 171). (2) R. Brough Smyth quotes Dr. Gummow (L, p. 214) as mentioning that the sow- thistle was used as a kind of salad by the people of the Lower Murray in Victoria. I remember, as a boy, about 1895, being very much surprised at seeing an insane abori- ginal in the Parkside Asylum eat a sow- thistle. As I have never seen white people eat these, he could hardly have learnt to eat this plant from whites, and his doing so may have been a relic of his earlier days. (3) On May 2, 1844, within sight of Rivoli Bay, G. French Angas (‘Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand, London, 1847, I, p. 155) says that ‘some of the swamps were covered by an exceedingly rich black soil, and produced luxuriant sow- thistles and other rank vegetation.’ Sir George Grey’s party, of which Angas was a member, was one of the first to explore this country, though they met near here a Mr. Arthur and his men with sheep and dogs who had arrived some months before. In March, 1944, nearly a hundred years later and near the same spot, | saw some luxuriant examples of Sonchus asper, and it was prob- ably this species, rather delighting in swampy ground, that Angas saw. John McDouall Stuart, in his ‘Journals’ (p. 40), near Smoky Bay in the Great Aus- tralian Bight in August, 1858, wrote: ‘Yesterday we obtained a few sow-thistles, which we boiled, and found to be very good.’ Ernest Giles (‘Geographic Travels in Cen- tral Australia from 1872 to 1874,’ Melb., 1875, p. 18) noted on September 7, 1872, that his horses had ‘generally had green sow- thistles all along the river, where they grow in the lateral channels’ on his way up the Finke when he found the Glen of Palms. On September 27, 1873, near the Mann Range in the N.E. corner of South ‘Australia at a spot which Giles called Stevenson’s Creek, the party came upon ‘water bubbling up from the ground below, and running down the channel which was set with reeds and great quantities of enormous thistles.” In my copy of Giles’ “Geographic Travels,’ which belonged to Thomas Gill, is a note on the fly- leaf by the author stating that ‘many errors in type and grammar exist in this book . . . I had no opportunity of revising the proof- sheets.’ Ernest Giles made many correc- tions and additions in this copy, some in ink, some in pencil. He inserted before the word ‘ihistles’ in the above quotation, the word ‘sow’ in pencil. These two records of Giles of finding sow-thistles in abundance in newly discovered country far removed from civilisation suggest that this plant is either indigenous there, or else that it has out- stripped all other species of introduced plants in their spread in Australia—a thing it might easily do. June 1, 1946, THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Thirteen In South Australia, Sonchus asper is found in two forms. One is in habit very like S. oleraceus, only the leaves are more rigid and rather prickly. The other is a tall, robust plant with very long narrow leaves and is usually found on low-lying ground swampy in wet weather or in rather shaded situations. It was this form that I found recently near Rivoli Bay and these plants were probably the descendants of the ‘luxuriant sow-thistles’ that Angas saw. Thinking that this might be a variety peculiar to Australia, I submitted specimens to Miss C. Eardley for examination. In a note to me she told me she consulted the European Floras on the subject, viz., Hegi, ‘Flora von Mitteleuropa’; Coste, ‘Flore de France’; Fiori, ‘Flora Anali- tica d'Italia’; Bonnier ‘Flore complete de France, Suisse et Belgique’; besides Engler and Prantl which is not detailed enough. Have you ever stopped to think how much a modern community relies on the printed word for its well-being? Indeed, it is not easy to find many activities which do not depend directly or indirectly on information obtained from books. Of the things men do, sleeping and eating do not require books, but, in these days of calorie-consciousness, even eating is often determined by recipe books and “diet-charts.” The naturalist and the scientist know well the value of accessible books which soon become their pleasures and _ indispensable tools. But do you know that South Austra- lians are able to borrow books on every subject, except fiction, quite free of charge? The Country Lending Service of the Public Library of S.A. lends books to people out- side the metropolitan area. Books go as far as the Northern Territory, remote islands off our coasts, to the South-East, the West Coast, as well as nearer places such as the Adelaide Hills. From all directions come requests for books about every conceivable subject. A list of the various ways in which these books are dispatched shows vividly the transport systems of South Australia. Some borrowers return their books personally, others by service car and carrier, some by post, and some of the books travel part of BOOKS FOR COUNTRY READERS By W. G. The various authors give 45-70 as the number of species in the genus and these are distri- buted in Europe, Africa and Asia, and natu- ralised elsewhere. I have only examined European literature, and think this is definitely some form of S. asper. Each of the authors above mentioned has a_ different group of varieties and forms described under S. asper (Linnaeus himself included S. asper under S. oleraceus). Bonnier describes S. asper Vill. v. gracilis Albert as having leaves quite entire, but finely denticulate—spiny on the edge; he does not state the size. I suppose one might label this S. asper v. gracilis for the little that may be worth.” The evidence available suggests therefore that this form of S. asper is indigenous to Australia. BUICK their way even by camel. Ships and planes are also used, while the greatest number of books travel by train, as a special concession rate is operating for Public Library books. An average rail parcel costs threepence or fourpence. Incidentally, the reader pays only the return freight—the library pays the outward. Three books are allowed at a time. The normal reading time allowed is one month, but, if necessary, this can often be extended, At present the Country Lending Service has 25,000 books, but purchases in England, America, as well as in Australia, continu- ally increase the stock. Special attention is paid to books presenting an Australian aspect, so that students can keep up with local affairs. | Anyone interested in natural history will appreciate this. The books of most interest to field natu- ralists are those which belong to Class 500 (Natural History) of the Dewey Decimal Classification, which is used throughout the Public Library to arrange its quarter million books. This class includes astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, palaeontology, biology, botany and zoology. The agricul- ture, gardening and travel sections will also be of interest. The officers of the service believe that good Page Fourteen THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST reading habits should be started in child- hood. The children’s section is therefore considered at least as important as the adult. Many books are sent two at a time to chil- dren living in the country. The same con- ditions apply as for adult books. Quite often whole families are members—-large parcels with books on farm buildings and travel for father, books on weaving, cooking and biography for mother, horsebreaking and drawing for big brother, and, say, “The Golden Book of Animal Stories” and a school story for the little girl, are typical dispatches. Schools, too, receive attention, They are sent in boxes of ten or twenty books each term, according to the size of the school, on the same general principles as the individual borrowings. Since 1938, when the service commenced, over 216,000 books have been lent. If you June 1, 1946. or your friends in the country are interested in this free service, write to the Principal Librarian, Country Lending Service, Public Library of S.A., Box 386A, G.P.O., Adelaide; or call at the libeary on North Terrace: SIZE OF RED GUMS AT STONYFELL Seedling Red Gums (Eucalyptus camulden- ensis-rosirata) were planted at Stonyfell from the stable east along the vineyard fence in the season 1862-3. The circumferences of the six trees at about 4 feet 6 inches from the Ergun on January 27, 1945, were-—(1) 11 ; (2) 8 ft. 44 ins.; (3) 10 ft. 3 ins.; (4) : “ft. 11 ins.; (5) 12 ft. 7 ins.; (6) 15 ft. This last tree had its roots apparently in the silt of an old dam.—A. Crompton. AUSTRALIAN LIMPETS OF THE FAMILY LOTTIDAE By BERNARD C. COTTON. The limpets of this family are distinguished from the typical limpets of the Patellidae by the non-iridescent interior of the shell and the defined internal border of the aperture. In Patellidae the gills form an almost com- plete cordon surrounding the foot. In the Lottiidae there is a simple, plume-like gill. The shell may be large and limpet-like or range to minute, thin and hyaline shells. A key to the genera and species of Southern Australian representatives is given here, and the whole of the Australasian species are listed with genotypes, type localities and distribu- tion. The distribution for Australian locali- ties is abbreviated in the obvious manner, N.N.S.W. = Northern New South Wales, W. Vict. = Western Victoria, etc. Al South Aus- tralian species are figured, the external and internal view, showing the spatula, is given, or the ventral and lateral view. Figure numbers and comparative sizes are given in the explanation of the plate. FAMILY LOTTIIDAE. Limpets. Shell patelliform, conical, apex a little anterior; protoconch conical, not spiral. Animal usually having eyes; a plumose, cervical, external gill with or with- out a marginal cordon. Radula with median tooth rarely present, lateral teeth three on either side. PATELLOIDA Quoy and Gaimard 1834. (Patelloida rugosa Quoy and Gaimard 1834) —rugosa Quoy and Gaimard 1834. Amboina. (type) . —nigrasulcata Reeve 1855. WA. (type). —alticostata Angas 1865: S.A. (type), Vict. —alticostata complanata Iredale 1924. N.S.W. (type), 5.Q. (smooth). —alticosiata antelia Iredale 1924. N.S.W. (type), 5.Q. — corticata Hutton 1880. Dunedin, N.Z. (type). —corlicata corallina Oliver 1926. Wellington, N.Z. (type). —corticata pseudocorticata {re- dale 1908. Lyttelton, N.Z. (type). —hamil- tonensts Chapman and Gabriel 1923. Vict., Muddy Creek (type), fossil Lower Pliocene. COLLISELLINA Dall 1871. (Patella sac- charina Linne 1758) .—saccharina Linne 1758. Philippines (type). Andamans, Japan, Funa- futi = stellaris Bolten 1798. -—lanx Reeve. Japan (type). —stella Lesson 1830. N.A., N.W.A., New Ireland (type), Fiji. = stellaris Quoy and Gaimard 1835. New Ireland (type). —latistrigata Angas 1865. S.A. (type), Tas., Vict. —submarmorata Pilsbry 1891. N.S.W. (type), Vict., Tas., 5$.Q. CHIAZACMEA Oliver 1926. (Patelloida June 1}, 1946. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Page Fifteen flammea Quoy and Gaimard 1834) —flammea Quoy and Gaimard 1834. Tas (type), 5.A., Vict. —conoidea Quoy and Gaimard 1834. W.A. (type}, S.A. —mixta Reeve 1855. Tas., S.A., Vict. cavilla Iredale 1924. N.S.W. (type). —minula Iredale 1924. N.S.W. (type), Tas. —queenslandiae Oliver 1926. Q. {type). —mufria Hedley 1915. N.S.W. (type). —-heteromorpha Oliver 1926 Q. (type). ASTERACMEA Oliver 1926. (Helictonis- cus illibrata Verco 1906).—illibrata Verco 1906, W.A., S.A. (type). —mellila Iredale, 1924, Tas. (type), N.S.W. —suteri Iredale 1907. N.Z. (type). —axtaerata Verco 1912. W.A. (type). —stowae Verco 1906. W.A., S.A. (type). —crebrisiriata Verco 1904. W.A. S.A. (type). —roseoradiata Verco 1912. S.A. (type). RADIACMEA Iredale 1915. (Aemuea cin- gulata Hutton 1883) -—inconspicum Gray _ 1843. N.Z. (type). = cingulata Hutton 1883. —rubiginosa Hutton 1873. Chatham Island, N.Z. (type). —intermedia Suter 1907. Bounty Islands, N.Z. (type). —mac- quariensis Hedley 1916. Macquarie Island, N.Z. (type). NACCULA Iredale 1924. (Patelloida punc- tata Quoy and Gaimard 1834). —punctata Quoy and Gaimard 1835. W.A. (type), 5.A. —compressa Verco 1906. S.A. (type), W.A. ACTINOLEUCA Oliver 1926. Patella camp- belli Filho] 1880).—campbelli Filhol 1880, Campbell Island (type), Auckland Is- lands, N.Z. —calamus Crosse and Fischer 1864. S.A. (type), Vict., Tas., N.S.W., W.A. —polyactina Verco 1912. S.A. (type), W.A. —multiradialis Chapman and Gabriel 1923. Vict. (type), fossil Balcombian. NOTOACMEA Iredale 1915 (Patelloida pileopsis Quoy and Gaimard 1834) —pileopsis Quoy and Gaimard 1835. N.Z. (type). —stur- nus Hombron and Jacquinet 184]. N.Z. (type). —cellanoides Oliver 1926. N.Z. (type). —subantarctica Oliver 1926, Camp- bell Island, Auckland Island, N.Z. (type). —mayt May 1923. Tas. (type), Vict. —sep- tifermis Quoy and Gaimard 1834. W.A. (type), S.A. = elongata Quoy and Gaimard 1834 (=septiformis juvenile), W.A. (type). —sctbrilirata Angas 1865. S.A. (type), Vict., Tas., N.S.W. —petterdi Tenison Woods 1877. N. Ta. (type), Vict., N.S.W., 5.Q. PARVACMEA Iredale 1915. (Acmaea daedala Suter 1907).—daedala Suter 1907. N.Z. (type). —subtilis Suter 1907. N.Z. (type). —nukumaruensis 1926. N.Z. fossil Pliocene (type). —helmsi Smith 1894. N.Z. (type). —virescens Oliver 1926. N.Z. (type). CONACMEA Oliver 1926. (Acmaea parvi- conotdea Suter 1907).—parviconoidea Suter 1907, genotype. N.Z. (type). —corosa Oliver 1926. Tas. (type). —subundulata Angas 1865. S.A. (type). =alta Oliver 1926. 5.A. (type). THALASSACMEA Oliver 1926. (Notoac- mea badia Oliver 1926) —beadia Oliver 1926. Dunedin, N.Z. (type). SUBACMEA Oliver 1926. (Notoacmea scopulina Oliver 1926).—scopulina Oliver 1926. N.Z. (type). —corredenda May 1919. Tas. (type). ATALACMEA Iredale 1915. (Patella fragi- lis Sowerby 1823).—fragilis Sowerby 1823. N.Z. (type). KEY TO THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN GENERA OF THE LOTTIIDAE. a Radula with two marginal teeth on each side 4 Shell radiately ribbed ce Strong radiate ribs d Regular prominent ribs .. .. .. a dd Seven ribs more prominent than tha aie pect abs Come cokmandmlowe Tadiate Tbs 2... 4. ut ae EM es av adams bb Shell smooth .. .. .. aa Radula with no areinal: fei. . Patelloida . Collisellinu Chiazacmea . Asteracmiea e Central and lateral teeth diverging in two rows from the median line .. .. Naccula ee Central teeth in advance ‘of Isterals gpharee are ina : eae ee row f Shell porcellanous throughout .. . Actinoleuca ff Shell with internal thin hyaline hagen g Shell medium, moderate in height .. .. .. .. 1... .. gg Shell small, highly conical .. .. Notoacmea . Conacmea ils THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN NATURALIST Field Naturalists’ Section Royal Socie ty (of South Australia,) Inc. Publications CONCHOLOGY CLUB PUBLICATIONS. A Systematic List of South Australian Gastropoda—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1/6. 2. A Systematic List of the Pelecypoda, Scaphopoda, Cephalopoda, and Crepi- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1/6. os A Systematic List of the Echinodermata, Foraminifera, Hydroida, and Brachio- poda of South Australia—by Bernard C. Cotton and Frank K. Godfrey. Price 1/6, MOTION PICTURE FILM THE TOOLACH WALLABY, being a record of the last known living specimen of the Toolach Wallaby (Macropus sreyi). Now extinct. Copies, £4. McAlister Print. NOTICE If financial members do not receive their copy of “The Naturalist” will they please communicate with the Honorary Magazine Secretary, Mr. A. K. Beasley, Harris Street, Marden, Adelaide. Telephone: F.1984.