Perugino

3688

Petain

sity was founded in 1308 by Pope Clement
v. (1307). Perugia, one of the 32 Etrurian
republican cities, was incorporated with the
Papal States in 1512, and annexed to Italy
in 1860. In the isth century it became the
center of the Umbrian school of painting;
p. 81,000.

Perugino, properly Pietro Vannucci
(1446-1524), Italian painter, head of the
Umbrian school, master of Raphael. He
painted in Florence, Rome, Venice, and Cre-
mona, At Rome, whither he went about
1483, Sixtus iv. employed him in the Sistine
Chapel; his fresco of Christ Giving the Keys
lo Peter is the best of those still visible. In
1499 he painted the beautiful frescoes in the
Sala del Cambio of Perugia, the city of his
adoption. Perugino led a wandering life, but
after 1502 worked mostly in Florence.

Peruvian Bark, the dried bark of the stem
and branches of various species of cinchona.

Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481-1536), Ital-
ian architect and painter, was born near
Siena, In 1516 he designed the Villa Farne-
sina, remarkable for its graceful design and
the delicacy of its detail. In 1520 he suc-
ceeded Raphael as architect to St. Peter's,
but his design for its completion was not
carried out. At Siena, he executed a num-
ber of frescoes and panel paintings, the prin-
cipal being The Sibyl Announcing the Na-
tivity to Augustus, in the church of the Ma-
donna di Fontegiusta. He died at Rome, and
was buried by the side of Raphael in the
Pantheon.

Pescadores, or Hokoto, group of about
twelve islands off the w. coast of Formosa,
China Sea. The group was ceded by China
to Japan in 1895. Area, 70 sq. m.

Peshawar, capital of Northwest Frontier
Province, India, near the entrance of Khyber
Pass. It is the terminus of a railway, and
commands the caravan route between Af-
ghanistan and India. Its bazaars form an im-
portant market for Afghan and other mer-
chants; p. 104,452.

Peso, a gold or silver coin current in many
of the South American states, vary hag in value.

Pessimism is the doctrine that on the
whole the world is bad rather than good. It
may mean either (i) a mood or attitude to-
ward life'in which men despair of attaining,
or regard life as incapable of yielding, any real
happiness or satisfaction; or (2) a philosoph-
ical theory in which such a view of life is jus-
tified by psychological and metaphysical rea-
soning.

Pessimism* as a comprehensive philosophical

theory, is modern and even recent, bein^ con-
nected with the names chiefly of Schopenhauer
and Hartmann. For these thinkers the mis-
ery of life is only nn outcome or expression of
a profound irrationality in the very nature of
the world principle itself. In Schopenhauer's
philosophy, for example, the world principle
is conceived as a blind will, whose restless
striving can bring only dissatisfaction and mis-
ery to the beings that arc its unite embodi-
ments, so that the only hope for man lies in
negating, as far as possible, this will in him-
self. And this negation, he holds, is best
achieved in that passionless or disinterested
contemplation of beauty and truth which art
and science open up to us, because in such
contemplation we are freed for the time be-
ins from the bondage of desire, and raised
above the cravings and disappointments and
miseries of our ordinary life into the rest and
peace of an ideal world.

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich (1746-
1827), Swiss educational theorist, was born in
Zurich. About 1775 he gathered together a
number of destitute children, and put into
practice his educational theories, which were
based largely on Rousseau's return to nature.
After a five years' struggle, Pestalozzi with-
drew from practical life, to think out the edu-
cational problem. His Evening Hours of a
Hermit was the first unit ot his meditations.
Then came a social novel, Leonard and Ger-
trude, which attracted much attention. Under
the patronage of the Swiss government, he
opened an experimental school at Berthoud.
While there he published IIow Gertrude Edu-
cates Her Children, which is the recognized
exposition of the Pestalozzinn method. In
1805 Pestalozzi moved his school to Yverdcm,
which here drew upon him the eyes of all
Europe. Pestalozzi awoke men to a sense of
responsibility to childhood. The many foreign
teachers who came to him for training spread
abroad his theories, which have become the
commonplaces of the science of education.

Pesth. Sec Budapest.

Pestilence, in the Italian medical schools
of the Renaissance, meant any dangerous, con-
tagious, infectious disease. Later, black death
or bubonic plague, smallpox, and typhus were
described under the term pestilence, pest, or
plague. The name is not now used to signify
any. specific disease.

Petain, Philippe (1856- ), French
dictator, was born near Calais, and entered
the military academy of Saint-Cyr in 1876.
He was assigned to the famous Chasseurs a
Pied; was made a captain in 1890; passed