Railroad Worm

3922

Railways

roads, Finance and Organization (1915) 5
William T. Jackman's Economics of Trans-
portation (1926); Stuart Daggett's Princi-
ples of Inland Transportation (1928); Ray
Morris* Railroad Administration (1930).

Railroad Worm, or Apple Maggot
(Rhagoktis pomonella), a small whitish mag-
got which is widely distributed throughout
the United States but is especially injurious
to the apple orchards of New England, East-
ern New York, and Southeastern Canada.
The fly, which is a little smaller than the
house fly, with the abdomen banded with
white and the wings with black, deposits
her eggs beneath the skin of the apple, early
varieties being most frequently chosen. The
eggs thus deposited—12 to 15 in a single fruit
—hatch after four or five days, and the small
white maggots, with their hooklike mouth
parts, burrow their way through the pulp,
leaving a small brown track or tunnel. After
they have completed their growth, they bore
their way out of the fruit and enter the
ground, where they remain during the win-
ter, the adult fly emerging in July. The only
measure for controlling this pest is to destroy
the affected apples as fast as they drop to
the ground.

Railway Brotherhoods, a name generally
applied to the four largest and most impor-
tant unions of American railroad employees,
namely the Brotherhood of Locomotive En-
gineers, the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Firemen and Enginemen, the Brotherhood of
Railway Trainmen, and the Order of Rail-
way Conductors. They are organized inde-
pendently of the general union movement,
as exemplified by the American Federation
of Labor, and have certain common char-
acteristics which distinguish them from other
trade unions. Each of the orders includes
practically all the men in its field, and each
is countrywide in its jurisdiction; all depre-
cate the sympathetic strike and advocate
the open shop, and all emphasize fraternal
and benevolent features as well as wage
schedules, hours of labor, gradations and
promotions, and other questions with which
labor organizations commonly deal They
lay special stress also upon the personal
character and conduct of their members,
and seek, so far as may be, to cultivate amic-
able relations between capital and labor.

Though, in common with other associations
of wage-earners, the brotherhoods seek the
most favorable conditions of employment for
tUcir members and occasionally expend large
sums for strike purposes, they devote byi

far the greater part of their revenues to the
payment of death and disability insurance.

Other beneficiary features include employ-
ment bureaus, pension funds, funds for the
care of dependents of deceased members,
and a Home for Disabled Railroad Men,
maintained jointly by the four organizations
at Highland Park, HI. Affiliated with each
of the brotherhoods is a ladies' auxiliary.

The oldest of the railway brotherhoods is
the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers,
formed at Detroit, Aug. 17, 1863, and re-
organized under its present name the year
following. The Order of Railway Conduc-
tors, the second oldest national association
of railway employees in the United States,
was instituted at Mendota, 111., July 6, 1868,
by representatives from local unions at Am-
boy and Galesburg. The Brotherhood of
Locomotive Firemen, next in age to the Con-
ductors, was organized in 1873 at Port Jer-
vis, N. Y. The Brotherhood of Railway
Trainmen was organized in 1883, and in-
cludes conductors, baggagemen, brakemen,
flagmen, and swtichmen in train and yard
service.

Railways, a term frequently used inter-
changeablv with railroads. For the purposes
of the present article it will be confined to
Electric Railways, Mono-railways, Mountain
Railways, and Military Railways. Electric
Railways include trunk lines on which steam
has been superseded by electricity, urban and
interurban surface lines (see STREET RAIL-
WAYS), and elevated and underground sys-
tems.

Elevated and Underground Railways.—
The problem of metropolitan rapid transit
has been largely met by means of overhead
and underground railways. Such lines are
intended almost wholly for the conveyance
of passengers and, as compared with trunk
lines, are characterized by shortness of length
and a high initial cost per mile.

The first elevated railway was begun hi
New York City in 1867, and in 1871 regular
service was commenced on the Ninth Avenue
line, a three-car train drawn by a steam loco-
motive being run as far n. as soth Street.
The distance covered was three miles with
no intermediate stops, there was a single
track, the fare was ten cents, and 53,912
passengers were carried from April 9, when
the road was opened, to Sept, 30. The ven-
ture having proved successful, the work of
doubling the track and extending the line
was actively carried forward, and by 1876
there was a double track from the Battery