Rome

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Rome

became alienated. Pompey was resolved that
Caesar should resign his provinces before
standing for the consulship in 48; Cffisar was
resolved to enjoy the full term of office given
him by law, and not to come home as a priv-
ate citizen. Pompey was murdered in Egypt,
in 48. For the rest of his life, however, Csesar
was in almost constant warfare, and could
only partly carry out his large schemes of re-
form. On March 15, 44, he was assassinated.

A second triumvirate was formed in 43 by
Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, to last five
years. Antony then went to Asia to govern
the East; while Octavian returned to Rome
to govern the West, Lepidus being allowed
Africa. But Antony met Cleopatra at Tarsus,
and falling under her influence followed her
to Alexandria. There he shocked Roman feel-
ing by seeming to wish to transfer the center
of empire to Alexandria. In 36 Lepidus was
deposed from the triumvirate, which had been
extended to a second period of five years
(37). Octavian's popularity grew as that of
Ant9ny decreased. He became to the Ro-
mans the guarantee of peace and safety.
After more-than one quarrel and reconcilia-
tion, the two men resolved on war. In 32
the senate formally deposed Antony from his
command and declared war on Cleopatra.
Defeated at Actium, both committed suicide
in Egypt. At the end of the year 28 the newly
devised constitution left Octavian Caesar head
of the state, with powers resting on decrees
or plebiscita.

4. The Principate and Empire (27 3.0305
A.D.).—Octavian Caesar now received the title
'Augustus' and proconsulate imperiitm, giv-
ing him practical command over all troops
in Italy and the provinces. In 23 Augustus
dropped the consulship, and received a con-
firmation of the tribunicia potestas for life,
by which he henceforth dated the years. He
secured peace in Italy, though there were
several wars. From this time the history of
the Roman Empire is that of her emperors.
Among these emperors, Tiberius (14-27 A.D.),
Caligula (37-41), Claudius (41-54), and Nero
(54-68) depended on their armies for power.
The Flavians (69-96) began with Vespasian,
and attempted to restore the senate to its
former power, to return to a simpler life,
and to promote the general welfare of the
people. Many of the emperors from about
200 to 300 were proclaimed by soldiers and
later killed by them. From 268 to 284 (Clau-
dius to Diocletian) there were some able
emperors who put .down pretenders and se-
cured the frontiers, Britain being recovered,

Egypt reconquered, and the Persians forced
to cede territory beyond the Tigris.

Constantine, in 323, ruling the empire alone,
adopted the Christian religion, thus making
it the state religion, and ending the severe
persecution of Christians. However, Julian
(360-363) attempted to supersede Christian-
ity by a restoration of Hellenism. From
about 370 A.D. the history of Rome was
marked by a series of barbarian invasions.
There was extreme poverty within the em-
pire, the populace being drained by excessive
taxation for the support of armies and the
court. By 439 the Western empire had
shrunk to Italy and Sicily and Sardinia. The
next invasion, that of the Huns, was repelled.
After ravaging the Eastern empire (441-450),
Attila, the 'scourge of God,5 was defeated at
Chalons by the Visigoths, and died in 453.
But in 455 Genseric and his Vandals from
Africa again took Rome. The Visigoths took
possession of Italy, and their leader Ricimer
put up and deposed whatever emperor he
chose. There was still an emperor at Rome
or Ravenna; but Ricimer called himself
king at Milan, and after his death (472),
Odoacer, having suppressed some rivals, took
the same position. In 476 he deposed Romu-
lus Augustulus (son of Orestes, his predeces-
sor in command of the army), and made
himself king of Italy; though Zeno, emperor
of the East, still regarded Julius Nepos, who
had been recognized in 474, as emperor till
his death in 480. The senate signified to Zeno
at New Rome that they were content w,ith
one emperor, and that 'the republic would
be protected by Odoacer.' The Western em-
pire, thus merged in the Eastern, was in a
sense revived by Charlemagne in 800 as 'the
Holy Roman Empire,5 and continued with
various developments till the resignation of
Francis n. in 1806. Its connection with
Rome ceased after Charles v. (1519). The
imperial pretensions were meanwhile main-
tained at Constantinople till 1453. For mod-
ern Rome, see ITALY,

Bibliography, i. Latin.—For early Roman
history there are no contemporary authori-
ties. Our chief source is Titus Livius, who
wrote a History of Rome from the founda-
tion to 9 B.C. Cicero's works give a vivid
contemporary picture from about 70 to 43 B.C.
For the conquest of Gaul (58-51 B.C.) and
the civil wars from 49 to 45' B.C. we have
the Commentaries of Julius Caesar. Another
history is by Aurelius Victor, The Origin of
Rome, Illustrious Men, and The Ccesars from
Augustus to Constantius n.