VOL. 73 — 1950 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED ADELAIDE PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide, for transmission by post as a periodical CONTENTS Simpson, D, A.: The Epiphyseal Complex in Trachysaurus rugosus Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. 45 .... Fenner, C,: Australites, Part V. Tektites in the South Australian Museum, with some Notes on Theories of Origin Jounston, T. H., and Ancet, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Freshwater Molluses. Part XIII Roprnson, E. G.: The Petrological Nature of some Rocks from the Mann, Tompkinson and Ayres Ranges of Central Australia Spricc, R. C.: Thrust Structures of the Witchelina Area, South Australia TuHomson, J. M.: The Nullarbor Caves System Krne, D.: Geological Notes on the Nullarbor Cavernous Limestone Corron, B. C.: An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at Glenelg, South Australia Corton, RB. C.: Fossil Oysters used for Road Metal .... Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Australian Hosts, together with a Note on Rhabditis allgent .... Spricc, R. C.: Early Cambrian “Jellyfishes” of Ediacara, South Australia and Mount John, Kimberley District, Western Australia Mountrorp, C. P.: Gesture Language of the Walpari Tribe, Central Australia .... Jounston, T. H., and Muirueap, N. G.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Fresh- water Molluscs. Part XIV ... Sreenit, E. R.: A Soda-rich Composite Intrusive Rock located in the Booleoomatta Hills, South Australia .... Womerstey, H. B. S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Australia. No. 3, Notes on Dictyopterts Lamourous Mawson, D.: The Elatina Glaciation. A Third Recurrence of Glaciation evidenced in the Adelaide System Jonns, R. K., and Krucer, J. M.: The Murray Bridge and Monarto Granites and Associated Rocks of the Metamorphic Aureole Womerstey, H. B. S.: The Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island II], List of Species I BonytHon, C. W.: Evaporation Studies Using some South Australian Data .... Cooper, H. M.: Stone Implements from a Mangrove Swamp at South Glenelg .... Mawson, D. W.: Basaltic Lavas of the Balleny Islands. A.N.A.R.E. Report .... HossFietp, Paut S.: The Late Cainozoic History of the South-East of South Australia Love, J. R. B.: Worora Kinships ..., Fry, H. K.: Aboriginal Social Systems .... 100 102 109 113 = SF ae aa ll SNR (aw use ¥ VOL. 73 PART 1 DECEMBER 1949 NS anes Sy TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED ADELAIDE PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE Price - - Fifteen Shillings Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide, fer transmission by post as a periodical THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN A TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS BY D. A. SIMPSON Summary Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and Legge 1897), describe the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the parietal eye appears to be a degenerate structure. Cyclodus gigas has a long, well-developed pineal organ, and a parietal foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found in the embryo only ; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal eye. A drawing of the parietal eye of Sincus officinalis, from Calvet (1934), is reprinted ; the nerve, lens and retina seem well developed, but the epidermal scale covering the eye is densely pigmented and quite opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is atrophied and purely vestigial. THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS By D. A. Simvson* (Communicated hy A. A, Abbie) [Read 14 April 1949] INTRODUCTION Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and Legge 1897). describe the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the parietal eye appears to be a degenerate structure. C'yclodus giyas has a long, well-developed pineal organ, and a parietal foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found im the embryo only; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal eye. A drawing of the parietal eye of Scincus officmatis, from Calvet (1934), is reprinted ; the nerve, lens, and retina seem well developed, but the epidermal scale covering the vye is densely pigmented and quite opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is atrophied and purely vestigial. -FRONTAL BONE _-- PARIETAL BONE PARIETAL FORAMEN ORAMEN MACHUM Fig, 1 A. Dorsal aspect af head of Trachasourius rugosis showing parietal Meck ant foramen (x 4). B. Dorsal aspeet of skull showine panetil foramen (» 4). The epiphyseal complex im its fullest development, us seen in Sphenodon, comprises the following structures: T. The pineal organ proper, a sac-like ependymal diverticulum, with an enlarged end-vesicle probably representing an eye which has failed to emerge from the cranial cavity. “he organ sends nerve fibres to the habenular ganglia (right nucleus in Siphenodon). II. The parietal eye, a simple vesicular organ lying in the parictal foramen. It shows: (i) a retina of three layers: an inner layer of cylindrical ncurosensory cells, a midile of plexiform nerve ffbres, and an outer layer of ganglion cells; (vi) a lens, of translucent columnar cells; (iti) a parietal nerve, ending in the left habenular ganglion in Sphenodon, but in the right in the Lacertilia, The parietal eye lies anterior to the pmeal organ; it is suggested that in the earliest vertebrates, both lay side by side as dorsal paired eyes (Dendy, 1911), It is of some interest, therefore, to find that all these structures noted in Sphenodon can be found in the skink Trachysaurus rugosus, Morcover, they are qititc as well differentiated. * Department of Anatomy, University of Adelaide, Traus. Roy. Suc. &. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949 2 MATERIAL AND METHODS The material comprised four adult lizards, and one 60 mm, foetus. These were investigated by gross dissection, and also microscopically, Both transverse and longitudinal sections were employed aud they were stained with haematoxylin and eosin, piero-indigo-carmine, Weigert-Pal, or De Castro’s silver stain, accord- ing to requirements. FINDINGS 1. The dorsum of the skull shows a parietal foramen, less than + mm. in diameter on the surface, but expanding to a ctip-like recess on the innet aspect (fig. 1). 2. fn the parietal scale Gver this foramen there is a depression, in some lizards markedly paler than in the rest of the seaie. E.R, Waite’s (1929) descrip- tion of the "pineal area’ as a group of nine small scales may prove a little mis- leading, since the actual scale covering the parietal eye is single, constant and relatively large. 3. Sagittal sections show a parietal eye, a vesicle of columnar cells lying in the inner part of the foramen, in loose and extremely vascular connective tissue (fig.2). The vesicle shows regional differentiation, The superior quadrant consists mainly of very tall columnar cells, with a few interspersed splenoidal cells not attached to either basement membrane, This arrangemen( provides a biconvex lens entirely free from pigment. The remainder of the vesicle forins a tetina, skarply defined from the iens aud heavisy pigmented. Thige rather indistinct layers, comparable with those described in Sphenodon, can be identified: an inner, of heavily pigmented columnar cells, sending irregular processes towards the centre of the eye; a middle of tangential fibres, and an ill-defined outer layer of ganglion cells, with strands of pigment, The hyaliie external limiting mens- brane is very well developed, Whether the black pigment of the retina was imtra- cellular cou.d not be determined, Some debris in the centre of the vesicle may represent a vitreous body. The epidermis oyer the foramen is less pigmented than elsewhere (in the section, fig. 2, the epidermis has slipped iu the left where the unpigmented area is clearly visible at *). The connective tissue filling the foramen belween eye and skin is devoid of pigment. This tisstic has a strongly lamellar structure in fixed material and seems comparable with ihe more massive parictal ping seen in Sphenodon, Connective tissue immediately around the eye is condensed to form an ill- defined capsule and in the region of the (oramen contains many melanophores. In the foetal specimen, the eye is represented by only a simple diverticulum from the roof of the third ventricle. extending up to the parictal region (hy. 4)- 4, The pineal organ proper, as distinct from the parictal eye, lies more posteriorly. It is a twisted cylindrical diverticulum, arising from the caudal end of the roof of the third ventricle, The cells are apparently ependymal, being clear and columnar, and they rest on a very clear basement membrane (hg. 3*)- The sac is contitimous with a spherical terminal vesicle, very closely resernb- ling the parictal eye; there is even a lens-lke thickening of the superior wall. However, the rest of the vesicle is almnst devoid of pigment and, unlike the parietal ¢ye, contains no true gangtion cells. There is no gap in the skull over this pineal vesicle, 3 The stalk of the pineal sac is related anteriorly to the dorsal sae, which reaches almost to the terminal vesicle; it is a thin walled diverticulum, adherent in its turn to the paraphysis. The paraphysis is lined with cuboidal ceils and is in continuity with the choroidal plexus of the lateral ventricles. In the foetal specimen the paraphysis was extremely well developed, 5, The nervous connections were not satisfactorily established, A nerve was seen to leave the parietal eve from its postero-ventral quadrant, but could not be traced to the habenular region, where presumably it arose. No nerves attached to the pineal sac could be found. The epithalamic structures, hahenular nuclei and commissures are, however, well developed, with a large median haberular nucleus. Nerve fibres ascend from these triclei in the direction of the parietal eye; but their destination could not be determined. The whole complex is embedded in a loose connective tissue which is enclosed within a tubular meningeal sheath (fig. 5). Bone Non-ProMeNTED Pomentco Bone EPIDCONIS EDIDEQMIS Ria ovEn FoRFBaAIn Pia oven TH ventgicee Fig. 5 Compc site figure to illustrate most of the features of the epiphyseal complex (x23 approx.), DISCUSSION Trachysaurus rugosus has thus a well-developed parictal eye, with na obvious signs of degeneration, and at least the equal of that in Sphenodon. Like other vertebrate parietal eyes, it is very primitive, with no eqiipment for focussing. Jt has been much disputed whether the pineal sac and the parietal eye are developed from two bilateral eyes—later becoming median (Dendy, 1911), or 4 from primarily median diverticula (Tilney and Warren, 1919), Both theories are equally compatible with the observations made in Trachysaurus, and this investigation does nothing to settle the controversy. lt is impossible in a discussion of forin to avoid speculation on function. Anatomically, the parictal eye of these lizards secms well adapted to uct as a simple light receptor, though most writers deny such function in living reptiles. The pineal sac may conceivably have a glandular function; ihe paraphysis is so evidently part of the choroidal system that it may be presumed to secrete cerebro- spinal fluid. No physiological proof of a pincal glandular activity in reptiles is available; the only real evidence for a photo-receptive function comes from the work of Clausen and Mofshin (1939). These authors studied the oxygen consumption of lizards (Anolis carolinensis) in the light and in the dark, before and after pinealectomy, and found that pineal “vision” makes a significant difference. TERMINAL PINEAL PARIETAL EVE VEBICLE PARIETAL NERVE(?) DORSAL SAC PANT GF PARAOHYSIS FOREBRAIN POSTERIOR er. ComMmissuRe rg ErewovMaA —— of HABENULAR #QueDucY Commi Sssuge Fig. 6 Diagratiinatie reconstruction of the epiphyseal camplex, The course of the parictal nerve atl the relations of the dorsal sac and paraphysis are parth: hypothetical. (Not drawn to scale.) Brom an anatomical yiew, one may say for Trachysaurus what Dendy (1911) said for Spkenodon: “T think we must adnut that the pineal eye of Sphenodon is no longer at the summit of its career as a light percipient organ, but the evidences of degeneration are very slight. ... It is impossible for me to believe that an organ which retains stich a complex histological structure ... ¢an be entirely fuictionless,” ACKNOWLEDGMENTS J am indebted to Professor A. A. Abbic, who first came upon this eye during an operation and suggested it as a subject for investigation; he has also assisted me with adyice throughout this work. Dr, Adey has helped me with the micro- photographs of sections kindly prepared by Mr. T, Canny. Miss G, Walsh was good enough ta make the drawings from my drait sketches. 1 wish to express my gratitude for all this assistance. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate I N Fie. 2 Photomicrograzh of parietal eye. Note overlying parietal foramen, pigmeniation in retina and com- meneement of nerve (N). Tlaematoxylin and eosin, x 55, N.B—During preparation of this section unpig- ise eae memed epidermis over parietal foramen has slipped Oe : : to the left (*). a _—— : — “Prcudcoparictal eye” or terminal vesicle of pineai organ (HH. and E., x 32). Note: (a) eye-like structure except for pigmentation and nervous connexion; (b) attached, saccular, pincal organ (*). (c) that the magnification is less than in fig. 2 in order to show the absence of a foramen in the overlying bone. Fig. 4 Sagittal section of the region in a 60 mm. foetus to show the dorsal diverticulum from the root of the third ventricle from the terminal portion of which the parietal eye (P.E.) appears ta differentiate (11. & I, x 52). 5 SUMMARY 1. The cerebro-epiphyseal complex in the lizard, Trachysaurus rugosus, 1s described. 2. Contrary to all previous opinion on this system in skinks, the complex in Trachysaurus equals in development the classical example found in Sphenodon. REFERENCES Carvet, J. (1934) L’Epiphyse, Paris (J. B. Bailliere et Fils), quoted by Glad- stone and Wakeley (1940) Crausrn, H. J. and Morstin, B. (1939) “The pineal eye of the lizard (Anolis carclitiensis), a photo-receptor as revealed by oxygen consumption stucies,” J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol, 19, (1), 29-41 Denny, A. 5. (1911) “On the Structure, Development and Morphological Interpretation of the Pineal Organs and Adjacent Parts of the Brain in tae Tuatara,” Philos. Trans., Ser. B., 201, 227-331 Giapstone, R. J., and Waxrey, C. P.G, (1940) The Pineal Organ, London (Bzilliere, Tindall and Cox) Tiuwey, F., and Warren, L. F. (1919) “The Pineal Body. Part I. Mor- phology and Evolutionary Significance.” Amer, Anat. Mem., No. 9 Warts, E.R. (1929) The Reptiles and Amphibians of South Australia, p. 140, Adelaide (Government Printer) ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY J. M. BLACK Summary EPACRIDACEAE Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp. — Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. Longa supra concava, infra 3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. Longa 2 mm. Lata ciliolata; bracteolis dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 1/2 mm. Longae cum filamentis prope basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari situm; fructus non visus. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA No. 45 By J. M. Buiacr, A.L.S. [Read 14 April 1949] TEPACRIDACEAE Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp.—Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. longa supra concaya, infra 3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. longa 2 mm. lata ciliolata; bracteolis dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 14 mm. longae cum filamentis prope basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari situm; fructus non visus. Hundred of Heddon, Kangaroo Island—The only species hitherto found in South Australia. Appears nearest to the West Australian C. planifolinm, F. v. M., but has much smaller leaves and flowers, bracteoles scarcely half as long as the sepals, a glabrous ovary and a prominent annular disk (C. planifolinm has no disk), Collector, J. B. Cleland. LEGUMINOSAE Acacia quornensis sp. nova—frutex gracilis circiter 2 m. altus; phyllodia plana, lanceolata, pallide viridula, 2-5 cm. longa, 4-5 mm. lata, uninervia, superne in mucronem inferne in petiolum brevem angustata; capitula numerosa, in racemis quam phyllodia brevioribus disposita; flores 8-15 in quoque capitulo; calyx cyathi- formis 4-5 lobis, petala 4-5, glabra; legumen planiusculum, super semina turgidum, 5-10 cm. longum, 8-10 mm, latun1; semina ovata, nigra, 6-7 unm. longa, funiculo duplicato cincta, in arillum parvulum desinentia, Hills near Quorn (Flinders Range). Nearest to A. retinodes, but has smaller phyllodes, fewer flowers in head and glabrous calyx. Collector, M. E. Groves, Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949 AUSTRALITES, PART V TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, WITH SOME NOTES ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN BY CHARLES FENNER Summary Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight, but ranging down to 0.15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found widespread and in considerable numbers in nine known localities in the world. The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the Indochinite collection; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is broken, but originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable to this is known from any other group. The source and mode of origin of tektites has puzzled the minds of a multitude of workers. Australites have, for the past century, attracted particular attention, perhaps because they are so abundant and widespread and because they are able to be classified within a small number of regular forms. Moreover, as will be shown later, the australite forms show distinct evidence of two phases in their development, as was recognised by some of the earliest investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898). 7 AUSTRALITES, PART V TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, WITH SOME NOTES ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN By Citaerns Fenner * [Read 14 April 1949] PRELIMINARY NOTE Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight, but ranging down to 0-15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found widespread and in considerable numbers in nine known localities in the world. The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the Indochinite collec- tion; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is breken, hut originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable te this is known from any other group, The source and mode of origin of tektites has ptizzled the minds of a imultitude of workers. Australites have, for the past century, attracted particular attention, perbaps because they are so abundant and widespread and hecatise they are able ta be dassified within a small ntumber of rerular forms. Moreover, zs will be shown tater, the australite forms show distinct evidence of two phases in their development, as was recognised by same of the earliest investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898), Barnes (1940) records that the first printed word regarding tektites (Moldavites) was a note by Joseph Mayer, 1787, and in the subsequent 160 years over 250 scientific papers have been written on these objects. must of the papers being published in the past 40 or 50 years. Charles Darwin (1844) was the first scientist ta theorize on the origin of Atstraliles; his theory, like many athers, has long, been discarded, The present writer was attracted by the australite problen about 40 years ago (1907), a time when research on these objects in Australia was very active and when the majority of Australian workers considered these glass blobs as heing originated by a vast shower of glass meteorites, Since then the study of auistralites has been linked up with analogous swarms of glassy blobs found else- where, and many fascinating facts have been collected and much interesting con- jecture put forward, The “accepted” tektite groups or swarms teferred to in this paper arc, in the general order of their discovery: Moldavites (Moldavia), Bilivonites (Buti- ton, etc, Fast Indies), Australites (Southern Australia aud Tasmania), Inide- chinites (Indo-China), Rizalites (Philippine Islands), Javanites (Java), South American icktites (Colombia), Ivory Coast tektites (Africa), and Bediasites (Texas, U.S.A.). Thus each content has its share, and though there are distinct differences between each group, the possibility of some overlap in south- eastern Asia and the adjacent is!auds must not be overlooked. In the “Rocks and Minerals Magazine,” September-Octoher 1949, there is Teference to green and blue objects found in North Queensland hy H, HH. Batchelor, of Htghenden, Queensland, and referred to by him as “Australian Tektites’ Mr, Batchetor has kindly presented io me two of these so-called tektites. On examination I classify thim as jaspetoid fragments, such as are found in many places on the gibber plains of Australia, particularly on those formed om tlie Cretaceous rocks. They reveul no signs of their being meltec| glass, as true tektites are, and there is no indication whatever of the internal flow-line structure that is one of the most striking characteristics of tektites, , * South Australian Museum, Tras, Rov, Soc, S, Aust., 73, (1). 16 December 1949 & Largely through the interest of Sir Douglas Mawson, a special etfort has been made by the Board of the South Australian Musetum to bitild up as com- prehensive a collection as possible of australites and other tektites in that institu- tion. The collection now ntimbers over 18,000 (March 1949), ineludimg 17,323 australites, 440 foreign tektites, and 364 other silica glass uobjecis, and it was considered worth while to describe the colection as a whole. One of the dangers that besets public and private eollections of these curious objects is that they tend to be dissipated by giits, loans and exchanges. For instance, the very fine Shaw collection, purchased by the South Australian Museum (Ferner, 1934), consisted originally af 3,920 pieces; it npw consists of only 3,370 pieces. The larger and more tecently piirchased Kennetr collection (Fenner, 1940) as originally deseribed contained 7,184 pieces, is now reduced to 7,155. It is probable that less than 10 per cent. of collected specimens are in registered collections, and maty of the latter are abraded, flaked or fragmentary. The total number of australites that [ell on Southern Australia has been estimated ag at least one million, and at most ten millions, spread over 2,000,000 square miles (Fenner, 1935, pp. 128-129). GENERAL DETAILS OF THE SPECIMENS DEALT WITH IN THLS PAPER 1, Australites, General Collection, 919 specimens.— This general collection includes smaller collections by Mrs. Leggitt, J. E. Johnson, J. 1. Johnston, A. Il. Warren, J. H. Nicholls, C. Fenner and other persons named in the register oi the tektite collections. 2. Australites, Florieton (Pent) Collection, 339 specimens. — These were collected in an atea north of Morgan, S. Aust., under the supervision of Sir Douglas Mawson, 3. Australites, Shaw Collection, 3,370 specimens, — These are from the Nullarbor Plains and southern Western Australia. They have been described in detail (Penner, 1934), 4, Atistralites, Kennett Culiection, 7,135 specimens —These are from a vast area of Central Australia, centred around Charlotte Waters. They have been described in detail (C. Penner, 1940). 5. Australites, Cook Collection, 5,186 specimens. — These ate from the Gold- fields atea of Western Australia, centred around Kalgoorlie, W. Aust. 6. Australites, Warren Collection, 368 specimens.— These are from the area surrounding Marree and Oodnadalia, South Australia. Torat AustramtFs: 17,323 specimens. 7. Other tektites, Moldavite Collection, from Bohemia, etce., 89 specimens, mainly from Prof. Slavik, Prague. §. Other tektites, Bilhtonite Collection, Billiton Island, 1 specimen from Dr. Shenton, F_.M,5, 9. Other tektites, Javan tektites, Java, 47 specimens, from Dr. G. yon Koenigs- wald, Java. 10. Other tektites, Indo-chinite collection, Indo-china, 42 specimens, from Prof, A. Lacroix, Paris, 11. Other tektites, Rizalites, etc., collection, Thilippine Islands, 212 specimens, mainly fram Prof. Otley Beyer, P.I. 12. Other tektites, Bediasite Collection, Texas, U.S.A., 39 specimens, from Proi- Virgil Barnes, Texas, and PW. W. Cassirer, Paris, ToraL Oriner Textives: 430 specimens 9 13. Other natural silica glasses; Darwin Glass Collection, Tasmania, 29 speci- mens (from Launceston Museum). 14, Other natural silica glasses, Libyan Glass Collection, Libya, 2 pieces (from Dr, L, J. Spencer). 15. Other natural silica glasses, Impactite Collection, Arabia and Australia, 4 pices, Irom various sources. Torat Orur:, Naruran Sittca GLasses: 35. 16. General related material, Straw Silica Glass, South Austraia, 11 pieces, collected hy the author, Trinityive (atom-bomb silica glass ). 17. General -elated material, Sand-tube fulgurites, 115 pieces, separately de- seribed (Fenner, 1949). 18. General elated material, Pseudo-tektites, smoke bombs from steam trains and steai-boats, etc, (ref. 8) (Fenner, 1938), 200 pieces. 19, General related material, plaster casts of ausiralites [rom the Walter Howchin collection, 103 pieces. Tora Genesat Reatep Matertan: 429 pieces, Granp Tota: op Preces Rerernen ro my rats Paver: 18,217. PROPORTION OF VARIOUS AUSTRALITE SHAPES Australis have been classified according to their various forms hy the writer (Feun:t, 1934 and 1940) (refs. 4 and 6), and this classification has been found to fit in with the various collections subsequently described. Nevertheless, it must he renientbered that only a small proportion of australites found are quite complete. ‘There are three outstanding reasons for this: (a) All australites have passed through two phases; in the first phase the glass. apparently cooled siowly. and that part is stable; the anterior portion, which was melted a second time, appears to haye cooled rapidly and is very hable to break or crack; in all forms execpt the medium aud small lenses this portion flakes off (see Fenner, 1935, p. 131, and 1938. pp. 200-204). “This double melting does not apply to any other tektites, as far as is known. (b) In the wetter areas of the strewn field, many specimens were swept by rain intu recent streams and have accordingly become somewhat waterworn ; many of these were recovered fram gold-bearing and lin-bearing gravels. (c) Im the sand-dune areas af the strewn ficld sand-blasting has played a part in the abrasion. Insolation and consequent fracture and flaking must also be considered. Round forms (flanged buttons and lenses) have been found ta be the most abundant in all collections hitherto described. Elongate forms are second in number, and there is a third group of unusual forms, mosily of small size. Of 17,000 specimens taken at random in the South Australian Museum collection, the following gives an idea of the proportion of the various best known types; apart from a number of broken chips, anyone familiar with large numbers of australites can readily detect the group to which a flaked or abraded form belongs. Those called “indicators” were originally larger lenses or ovals, with rims, the equatorial and anterior parts of which have flaked away, leaving just enough of the original rim to “indicate” the shape of the form when it finally cooled (Fenner, 1935, vide ref, 5). In the South Australian Museum collection there are maty specimens in which this flaking has proceeded far but has nat been completed, one in particular is a fine large flanged dumbbell, No. T, 512. An analysis of these 17,000 selected forms Round forms - Elongate forms Teardrops - Rare forms Unclassified fragments 10 TABLE A Flanged buttons, whole = - - - , 108 Flanged buttons, chipped - - - - 968 Flanged button fragments - - - - 397 Lenses, complete - - - - - 1914 Lenses, slightly chipped or abraded - 744 Lens cores, front and margins flaked off - 4147 Other round forms, partly broken - - 1505 Total common round forms: 9783 Ovals, broad - - - - - - $73 Ovals, narrow - - - - - - 674 Ovals, general - - - - - - 339 Boats - - - - - - - 600 Canoes - - - = + te is 146 Elongates, general = - - - - - 1514 Dumbbells, complete - - - - - 264 Dumbbells, broken = - - - - ~ 499 Ladles, and other unusual elongate forms - 115 Total common elongate forms: 4724 Teardrops, typical = - - - - - 331 Teardrops, unusual - - - - - 5 336 Pitted discs - - - - - - 5 “Spheres”, probably deep lens cores - - 9 Crinkly tops - - - - - ” 23 Helmets, trays and other small forms - 50 Pear-shape, ati asymmetrical dumbbell - 1 Flat-tops (special type of lenses) - = - 53 “Indicators” as elsewhere described - 74 Air-bombs - - - - - - 19 234 Australite fragments + - - - 1923 Grand Total: 17000 is given in the following table: Percent- Percent- ageof ageof round total forms collection 1-1 0-64 9-9 57 4-1 2-34 19+5 11-2 7-6 4+38 42-4 24-4 15-4 8-9 100-0 57-56 12-2 3°38 14-3 3:97? 7:2 2-0 12:7 3°52 3-1 0-86 32-1) §°9 5-5 1-55 10-6 2-94 2e4 0-68 100-0 27°8 98-6 1-95 1-4 0-03 100-0 1-98 214 0-03 3°85 0-05 9-83 0-14 21-42 0-30) O-4 = 22:04 Qed 31°62 0-43 8-1 O-d1 100-0 1-37 11-3 100-0 il An interesting comparison may be drawn from the three largest collections that have bven classified according to shape, namely, the Shaw Collection (Fenner 1934, ref. 4), the Kennett Collection (Menner 1940, ref. 6), and the South Australian Museum Collection, which includes the Shaw and Kennett Coltections, plus more than 7,000 additional specimens. The conclusion may be drawn that the various types shown in the following table occur throughout the strewn-field in about the same proportions. The absence of “tare and unusual forms” from the Shaw Collection may be due to the inexperience of the writer at that time, for many of the figured Shaw specimens (Tenner, 1934, ref. 4) would otherwise have been included in that group: Tanie B Shaw Wennett 5.4, Museum 1, Round forms - - + 1369 3935 9783 2. Wlonpgute forms - - - 400) 1140 4724 3. “feardrops - - - - 134 62 336 4. Rare forms - - - not clagsificd 102 234 5, WJnelassified fragments - - 1927 1943 1923 Total forms cousidered - 3920 7182 17000 There is anotlicr group of collectors about which fittle has been written. These are the native birds that wander over the tektite-sprinkled area, particularly emus and “plain turkeys’. So niany aitstralites were fotund in the crops and gizzards of emus that in earlier years the popular name given to australites by the people of the Outback was “emu-stones’, a tame which still persists here and there. The Australian Bustard or Plain Turkey (Eupodolis australis) was also a collector. Somewhere about 1940 or earlier one of these birds was shot and dressed by Mr, M. Kirkham, as seen and attested ta hy Mr. H. McDonald, of Port Augusta, South Australia. There were 49 australites and two other black stumes in the crop of the bird. The author has one specinjen irom this collection and a photograph of 41 others. Seven were retained as souvenirs by members of the party. The total weight of the specimiens was 44 ounces. Of these 42, round forms were in the majority, as follows: 31 rounds, 6 elongates, 1 probable teardrop, 1 unusual form, and 3 iragments, This collection was, of coiirse, a specially Selected] one, but it indicates the abundance of australites among the rock fragments of the salt-bush and mulga plains, and the predominance of round forms. The largest and least abundant of the round forms are those called “bungs”, 2-1 co 4:2 em. major diameter, 1°6 to 3°35 cm. minor diameter. Next in size and ahyiudance are the “small cores”, originally lenses as were the bungs, 1:6 ct, to 2.3 cm, major diameter, 1-1 cm. to 1°7 em. minor diameter, The beantitul and interesting group called “flanged buttons” cluster in the small range of 1-3 cm. to 1:9 cm. inajor diameter, ‘7 cm. to 1°1 em. minor diameter. The most alundant in numbers, and those which most comtnonly retain an unbroken shape, are the lenses, which are also the smallest of the round forms, -6 em. te 16 cm. major diameter, -3 cm. to 1:0 em. minor diameter, In weight, the smallest lenses arc less than -3 prams, and the Jargest bung is over 100 grams. 12 ‘The measurements and weighis shown in the foregoing paragraph and the graph (Fenner 1938, ref, 8, pp. 199-202) were dong in 1938 on a selected re- presentative series of VLU unbroken shapes, An application of these conclusions to the whole of the round specimens, over 9,000, in the South Anstrahan Museum Collection, confirms the sizes and relative abundance of these types in a large and comprehensive collection, +\ careful examination, without individual ieasurements, of the ovals, boats, lenses, fanged buttons, canocs, dumbbells and teardrops in the South Australian Museum collection also suggesis strongly that the variations in size and weight of the clongate types are in a practically similar proportion, There are very large, vety smal, and intermediate types of lenses. nvals, bouts, dumbbells, and teardrups, though there appear to he fewer very large canoes, end fewer very small teardrops, Lt will be uferstood thit rhe observations ulade and thre colelisigns reached in this paper are specially based a the 18,217 specimens in the South Austrahan Museum, but sot without consideration of the collections in other Australian, Furopean, British and Americaty Maseuins, OTHER NATURAL SILICA GLASSES Passing reference should be maze to the other natural silica glasses in the South Australian Museum Collection. Darwin Glass—This has commouly been accepted as a Lektite, but it presents peculiar differences of composition, form and distribution, Lt oceturs within the ‘Australite strewnfeld, but is limited to Mount Darwin, in North-west Tasmania. It consists of light-green, shapeless, small masses of flung glass. There is no evidence that itis an impactite and if oceurs much more abundantly than impac- tites do, and there is no sign of a crater, I has distinct differences [rom tektites (Fenner 1940, ref. 6), and though: it may he of cosmic ofigim it presents mary difficulties of inclusion among’ the tektites so far as our present knowledge goes. Libyan Glass—This has been fully described by Dr. L. J. Spencer, who visited the area and collected much material. Dr. Spencer docs not consider it a tektitt. It appears iudeed to present a more puzzling problem tham the accepred tektites. Its coriposition is much more siliceous and its shapes quite ditferent from those of tektites. Its distribution suggests a cosmic origin, but there appears tu be oo other fellowship with the tektites. Tmpactites—These are usually Fused country rock found in or m= close association with meteorite craters. Some microscopic forms figured by Spencer have the shapes of some tektites. There is no doubt of their origin either al Wabar, Henbury, or elsewhere. But their numbers and distribution show them to have uo bearing on the origin of the vast tektite swarms found in olher parts of the world. Straw Silica Glass—This is fund where haystacks or strawstacks have been burnt. ‘The silica of the straw accumulates in shapeless masses. Analyses sliows a high goda-potash eontent, ‘There is uo doubt of their origin (Fenner 1940, ref. 6), and they are mentioned only because they are included in the collection. Sandtube Fulgurites—Associated with these are rock-face fiilgurites, They are due to lightning and occur where sands or rocks are struck by lightning. Their forms are interesting, and their compositions ate those of the rocks or sands affected. There is no evidetice of their relation to tektites (Penner 1949), Smuke Botnbs—These are small siliccous. forms, mostly spherical, but also with many dumbbell and teardrop forms, They ure “coughed” up irom the farinels of steamtrains or steamships and may be found by careful looking oi railway tarpaulins and along beaches wherever steamships oy steattrains ply- 13 They are the product of the silica content of steam coal and are uf microscopic size. There is no doubt of their origin, and they have becn adequately described and figured (lenner 1938, ref 8). Pseudo-T'ektites—In evety collection examined by the author there has been a number of specimens which Took like tektites but which are waterworn pieces of lydianite or iroustone, or other curiously shaped gevlogical ar niitieralogical specimens, Their origin is undoubted, and they are of no apecral interest except that they persistently occur, even when the colfectors have been as keetr anc observant as awe the aboriginal folk of Australia. ‘Trinityite--This is the name given to the silica plass forimed on the desert sorface from the melt produced by the firing of the first test atom bomb near Alamogordo, New Mexico. Several small specimens were presented by Lincoln La Paz, Direvtor of the Institute of Meteorites, Albuquerque, New Mexico, To bring the col ection up to date, the Director nf the South Australian Museum, Mr. H. M, Hale, has. receives! from the Officer Commanding the british Com- monwealth Occupational Forces in Japan samples of Silica glass that resulted from the fusion of tiles and building stones by the atom-bomtb at Hiroshima, Taster wasts—The casts of the Mowehin collection prove ta be qunte typical, excep: that ane specimen has a very large central burst gas bubkic. The original How:hin collection, with a large number of other fine specinens, ts in the Tate Museum of the University of Adelaide, DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALLTES E J. Duan published a map in 1912, showing 70 spots where one or mahy australites had been found. Dr, Thorp, in 1914, showed 85 locality spots, Using these two maps and nmch subsequent information (Henner 1935, ref. 5, pp. 134, ete.) the writer published a map showing about 300 spots or lucalities, but with many spaces where it would appear that none had heen found. Since then, from an exanunation of thousands more specimens, and frome informa- tion received, it would appear that there are few, if any, spaces south of the line drawn on the 1935 map where no australites have been found. ‘This limitation is of special interest. With some hesitation the idea is put forward that there are many areas where australites are more abundant. such as Walgoorlie; Charlotte Waters, Nullarbor Pliins, Lake Eyre and district, Yorke Peninsula, Floricion, South Australia; Western Vietoria y Northern Tasmania; Port Campbell ( Victoria); and the goldfields of eastern New South Wales. On the other hand, collecting may have been easier or more carefully carricd out in these areas. y Tt is ctirious that the large collection made by Sergeant Nennett should consist of specimens so much larger than the average (x7 in some groups) of those collected by W. H. C. Cook mostly on the southern Nullarbor Plains: Yet large specimens, as well as very small, are found everywhere within the strewnlield. From the South Australian Museum collection one geis the idea that the very largest are found in the north and north-west areas, bnt this cannot be proven, for the very large ones of other more populated localities may have been retained as souvenirs or curiosities by the finders, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TEKTITES A large aumber of chemical compositions is available, as set out in Sum mers (Summers 1908; Barnes 1940) and several others, such as Suess, Lacroix and Michel. Summers, earlier, and Barnes, later, haye graphed these various analyses jn a number of informative ways. The definite facts that emerge [ram 14 these analyses is that the recognised ltektite swarms are very similar 10 each other within that swattn, and that differences oceur between the characters of one swarin and those of another, There may be discerned considerable differences between the accepted tektites and such glasses as Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass. Also there may be some overlap within the four groups that occur m South-east Asia, the Biililonites, Indo-chinites, Philippine Island tektites, and the Java tek- tites; this has never been suggested or proved, Specific gravity and refractive index comparisons do not contradict these findings. Summers held a belief, founded on a small number of analyses, that australites increased in density towards the west, and Baker and Forster suggested (1943) “that the extra- terrestrial body from which the australites were shed travelled from north of west to the south of east across the Australian continent, since the specific gravity values of atistralites decrease from north of west to south of east.’" That means, and it is a point of importance, the australite swarm travelled with the rotation af the earth. The writer has nothing to add to the excellent and comprehensive work done by Barnes (1940) and others concerning the chemical composition of tektites and related bodies, RADIOACTIVITY OF TERTITES In 1933, V. S. Dubey (Nature, 28 October 1933, p. 678) determined the radioactivity of several silica glasses, mostly tektites, He concluded that, apart from Darwin Glass, there was a significant correspondence in radioactivity, measured in radium and thorium per gram. His results were: Ra x i9-¢ Th «i0-* per grain per gram 1. Moldavite - - - - - 1-07 1-08 2. Moldavite (Habri) - - - 1-02 1:60 3. Moldavite (Probsch) - - - 0-78 1°40 4. Maldavite (Radomolice) - - 0-99 1:86 5. Billitonite - - - - - 0-96 0-96 6. Anstralite (Lake Fyre) - - 0-96 0-50 7. Australite (Victoria) - - - 0-85 1-84 8. Darwin Glass (Tastnania) = - - G50 1-13 9 Glass (old beads) - - - - 0-48 — Facilities were not available to carry out a radioactive comparison tn the terms of this iable, but excellent instruments were at hand to make a comparison in terms of beta particles, using whole specimens, and the restilt is set oul in the following report. The results cover a wider range than those af Dubey, and are somewhat similar except so far as Darwin Glass is concerned. Though the radioactivity in terms of beta particles is m general low, Libyan Glass is practically non-radioactive, The report by W. G. Fen- ner is as follows: “The examinations were carried out using a beta-particle counting tuhe, totally enclosed, plus specimen, in a lead-chamber. The background count was obtained in three separate runs of ten minutes each, distributed through- out the examinations, and was consistently within the expected random distribttion. “Because of limited time, and as it was not permissible to break or crush the specimens, several major causes exist for discrepancies and for some lack of consistency, and make it impossible ta take the figures at their face value. These causes are: "(i) Differences in geometry of the various tektites with rospect to the Geiger-Muller tubu 15 “(i) Possible variation in distribution of the radio-active material through the different specimens, “(iii) Varying densities between specimens and within cach specimen. No allowance hag been made for absorption. “The different weights of the specimens used is of little importance compared with the above irregularities. “Despite these drawbacks, however, it secms reasonable, on the actual results, to assign a general order of degree of radioactivity. More specimens, and proper control, are required to confirm this. TABLe C “Column 1 gives the weight in grams; column 2 gives the count per mimite; column 3 gives the duration of the test in minutes; column 4 gives the excess coint per minute for each specimen or group of specimens. 1 Z 3 4 Reg. No, Locality Background a 79 30 0-0 T. 806 Libya, Africa One picce of sand-polished 15°0 92 10 1-3 Libyan Glass T,899 Vexas, U,S.A. Two Bediasites 418-6 10-0 10 2-1 T, 424 N.W. Tasmania [our pieces of Darwin Glass 10-7 11-0 10 3] T. 264 Cential Australia Two medium lens core Atis- 62:5 10:7 10 2-3 T. 266 tralites T. 283 Cental Australia Two large narrow oval Aus- 73-5 12-3 10 4-4 tralites T. 692 Indo-China Large fragment of Indechinite 72-2 10 10 2:9 T. 685 Indo-China Large fragment of Indocliinite 30-4 12:3 10 4-4 T. 708 Philippine Three meditim Rizalites 21-2 10 36 Islands T. 857 Philippine Two large regular Rizalites 78:5 12-0 10 4-1 T. 860 Tslands T. 885 Lhatiice "Three Moldavites 172 13-2 20 5-3 Bohemia T. 821 Te Wairoa, Large piece of volcanic obsidian 56-4 15°7 30 7°38 New Zealand Taste D “Extracting certain of the above and combining them we get the follaw- ing results: the numbers at the heads of the columns have the same signifi- cance as in the preceding table. 2 3 4 T. 424 } Nth.-West Darwin Glass 11:0 10 3-1 Darwin Glass count Tasmania T. 264 Central Australites 1-5 200 36 Australite mean count T. 266 Australia T. 283 1.685 |) Indo-China Indochinites 11-6 20 3-7 Indochinite mean count T. 692 I T. 708 Rizalites. 11-8 20 3-9 Rizalite mean count T. 857 T, 860 Pailippine Islands “Conclusions— From these results there would appear to be a radio- active similarity between Darwin Glass, Australites, Indochinites, and Riza- lites. It would he of interest to compare their overall chemical compositions, particularly the rarer elements. 16 Libyan Glass is lacking in any positive radioactivity while the volewnis obsidian is positively radioactive ta the greatest degree of the specimens tested: all others lic between these extremes, It must be remembered huow- eyer that even the volcanic obsidian hay but a minnte trace wi radioactive material present; it must also be rermembered that in each cause the material iu a portion of the surface layer of about 1 mm, thick only has been Sulyeet to examination, due to the softness of the beta particles. Assuming it to be aranium in equilibrium, that present in the obsidian is certainly Jess than D039 U,O,. Many igneous rocks of the earth's surfice haye the sine and greater orders of radioactivity.” No spectroscopical analyses were available for inclusion. bul my atrenlion has been drawn to a separately published paper hy Ekkehard Preuss, ot Jena. Although not mentioned in the bibliographies quoted, this is a thorough and yalnable contribution to the tcktite problem. Incidentally, Preuss mentions Borneo tektites, which were to be expected but had not previously been reported. SHAPES AND STRUCTURES OF AUSTRALITES Australites have the most tegular shapes of all the tektites, and a= most af these shapes have been dealt with and figured fairly abundantly uy vurivus authors, little comment is necessary except to say that the greater the uum ber af specimens examined, the more remarkable appears the vegularity of the forms. Professor Skeats wrote about two unusual types, the ‘ise and the “pineseed” and Gearge Baker (ref. 1946) figured several special forms. Two of these (13 and 14) are abraded elongate indicators, and several of the others are variants of the teardrop form: there is always wt good deal of variety in thix group. The most interesting are Agures 3A and 3B. In the larger S.A. Museum collection there are about 50 such forms. They are all very small and very complete. The writer has called them helmets, tritys, scoops, ete. Mr. Baker calls the ones he figures “howls,” which tsa yery ap- propriate name for what have elsewhere been called “helmets”’ (n Fenster 1940, plate XIX, several of these small forms are figured, Before passing on to a brief comment concerning the shapes und struc tures of other tektites, mention should be made of a very Ineniitiftal tuned an formative series of photographs of sections, especially of Manged buttuns. published by George Baker (Baker 1944, plates I, U1, I11). Ina plonge inte the theary of the evolution of round forms (ref. 8) the author drew a dia- grain (fig. 2) and graphs (figs. 1 and 3), to illustrate his ideas, IL ts of much interest ta find the very definite (Beeke linc effect) internal How structure just as wauld have heen expected on the basis of the two phase (twire- melted) theory of origin, Other tektite forms show equally definite internal flaw lines, but no signs of two meltings, Apart from flanges; which mostly occur on buttons of the sizes already ctated. bul whieh also oceasionally but rarely eccur on ovals, dumbbells, ladles, and So on, there is little notable or characteristic external markings, ‘Abrasion is common, but erosion grooves are rare; the most notable of these erosion grooves which resemble arabic writing, and im some cases ennelfunn markings, which are generally considered ty be evidence of lomg berial in moist earth, are seen on those from the moister parts of the strewnheld. The curious and obviously incorrect belief that australites are still falling ig held hy a few people, who are unfamiliar with wall-known facts about tek- lite strewnfields (Fenner 1935, pp. 148-139). Other interesting exterior features ure the flow lines visilile an the un- rerior surfaces of many farms, Ue pitting of the posterior surfaces mainly Wv due to small barst gas bubbles, and the spiral or cincentrie flow-ridges that occur on the anterior surfaces of flanges, Jenses, ovals, ete Such markings are ubsent from flaked lenses or oval cores, Baker infers that australites with anterior concentric. Ayw ridges did not rotate in dlight; if this is true, the whole qtestion of fornr as evidence of ori- ain must be reconsidered. Practically every australilte, except very smalt forms has, or had, anterior ow ridges, here is a remarkabie and conyincing example of a fairly large flanged dumbbell indicator (No. T.512) im the South Australian Museum collection, as already mentioned. SHAPES AND EXTERIOR SURTACES OF OTUER TEKTITES Moldaviles have structures and heatty of colour found im no other tek- tites. A striking shape ig a flattish, dise-like, radially ridged rosette, Many are vesicular, som¢ appear to be considerably corroded, the greater number are practically shapeless, many are sharply broken across at right angles to the axis, sonie are tear-drops of a Jong and special type. The genera] charac- ier of the surfaces, with their wrinkles, grooves, and pits, is very charac- teristic. Im a large collection, as in that at Prague, one may detect groups or types, bur not in any way comparable with the regularity and symmetry uf ausiralites. Moldavites are possibly the oldest, as well as the first known of the tektites, Indo-chinites are extremely abundant, and in Professor Vacroix’ museum in Paris there may be scen the greatest part of the largest known tektite, as well as a remarkably fine collection of indochinites generally. The suriace is usually rough and vesicular. Beautifully round flat ovals oceur, alsu large teardrop forms. The surface structure is of great variety, as figured by Lar- roix (1935), Surface corrosion is ef much importance on the Inde-chinices, ag it is on the Moldayites, but it is not nearly so general nor so important on the Anstrilites and the other tektite groups. The Billitonites, of which the writer has examined only the British Museum collection and one ‘specimen in Adelaide, do mot reveal so much character as other groups. The Adelaide specimen is a flat oval, with bubble qats and possible corrosian marks, Although there may be some oyerlap between the Billitonites, Javan tektites, Indochinites, and Rizalites (PI.), yet in the well formed specimens they can be detected one from the other. All are shiay and pitchblack, with many forms approximating to spheres, orals, lenses and an secusional dumbbell. But the surface markings described and figured by Lacroix, Barnes, Beyer, Flodge-Smith, and von Koenigswald and those in the SA. Museum collection show distinct differences. The writer has handled specimens from the Ivory Coast and from Colombia, but has not considered them closely enough to justify comment. They are black, glassy blobs, quite foreign to the places where they were found. On chemical and physical tharacters they have been accepted by several leading European authnrities. On this evidence we also may Certa- tively accept them as tektites until such time as material is available for com- parison and enquiry. The latest group of tektites, the Bediasites, has been well described and figured by Virgil Barnes (1940). They are black, like all other tektiles except Moaldavives, and while many of the shapes approximate to flat rounds, ovals, rounded cylinders, and teardrops, many are shapeless and fragmentary... Many also have very deep U-shaped and V-shaped grooves. Though black. they have a light purple tinge, but are green jn transmitted licht, Both externally B 18 and in section, as well as in chemical composition and in distribution, they may well be accepted as ltrue tektites. Barnes did not regard them as costnic objects, but suggested a possible lightning origin. This, wrote Barnes, was an effort “to create enough interest to catise the investigation of all the ter- restrial possibilities before accepting the metearitie arigm with all its un- proven aud unprovable postulates.’’ In response to this the writer has pub- lished a paper (Fenner (949) on lightning-formed silica glass tuhes. The anpreven and unprovable postulates to a terrestrial origin for tektites have Leen closely considered and rejected by many high and competent au- thorities. Two groups, Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass, are so different in many ways fram accepted icktites that they are not considered in this paper. If the origin of tektites constitutes an cnigma, as has 50 often been stated, there are faets associated with Darwin Glass and Libyan Glass that are even more puzzling. Tinpactites are not considered, also, but for the very definite rea- sous that their origins and ilixtribution are su clear and indisputable; they are not Lektites, Yhe first people to collect and name australites were the Ausivalian aharigines. Ly these folk they were carried as curiosities, and also as objects of mystery and magic, as shown by the collection that had been thus tised, now displayed in the British Musenm at Bloomsbury. The aborigines called them ly various names meaning “staring eyes” or “emu eyes." N. BG. Tindale, ethnologist of the South Australian Museum, has poinled out (hatin some cases aborigines made small implements from this obsidian materitl, but so far as is known none was made from the larger specimens. It js significant that all such implements as are known, from the Broken Hill and Yorke Peninsula aveas, first appear in the Mudukian culture, This is the latest but one of the aboriginal ctillure sequences and lends support to the fact, indicated by all other available evidence, that the fall of the aus- tralite swarm was a comparatively recent occurrence. Different tektite swarms are of different ages, but the australites appear to have been one of the last to occur. Concerning the age of the australite fall, all the evidence is that this was a quite recent occurrence, though before the coming of the white men and probably alsa belore the coming of the aborigines. Practically all forms are lying on the surface of the rocks, or if buried they are under blown sand or shaliow recent alluvilinn, Early in 1949, Motinted-constabic Homes, then slationed at Marree, qiekecd up a “pickle-bottle full’ of typical australites on the dry flat surface of vasieru lake Myre. This area is a salt-pati ar playa, covered by shallow water only dt times of exceptional fladds, Constable Homes’s find thts provides additional eviderice of the recent origin of the australite swarm. In “Nature,” 50, 1894, pp. 184 and 206, Dr, Cater Sir) Edward Sticling described in detail the finding of skeletons of the giant extinct bird Genyornis newlant, at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, Associated with the skeletons, whieh were practically on the surface of the “lake.* were numerous “gizzard stones," totalling in weight 14 ounces. All these stones were of materials com- mon to the desert plains of the interior; but, thotigh carefully examined and recoride:|, include nothing resembling obsidian or australite tnaterial, The area where Genyornis lived was well within the australite strewn-field, and living birds (emus, plain turkeys, etc.) are well known, for their selection of ausiralives as gizzard stones. frewyornis was of yery late Meistocene to Recent io age, 50 that we have here another tem of evidetice stigeesting that the fall of the australites was post-Genyornis; that ia, ta Has been concluded from other avail- able evidence, “geologically recent but historically remote,” TINAT. CONSIDERATIONS There ig no need to include a bibliography, except where spect! re- ference has been made in this paper, as excellent lists haye been included in the publications referred to, the best and latest being that of Virgil Barnes (1940) where he lists about 250 references. Through all this hterature the “problem” remains, as it does in subsequent publications. The theories put forward muy be classified as terrestrial voleanic, meteorite impaci, lunar yoleanic, eluctrical, and tneteoritic, The exponents of terrestrial origin have shown mastetly ingenuity in their theories: Every conceivable possibility has been explored in the effort to avoid acceptance uf a cosmic theory, But three facts might be noted in this matter: (1) Robert Hooke (1665) quoted by Spencer (1937) discredited the fall of iron meteorites from the sky. Fourcrey (and Biot?) in 1803, quoted by Paneth (1940), found difficilty in persuading their French colleagues of the authen- ticity of slune tneteorites. (2) Most modern authorities who are familiar with the numbers and conditions of distribution of tektites (such as Lacroix, Suess, Michel, Paneth, Beyer, von Konigswald, as well as #l) Australian workers for the past 30 years) have accepted tektites as “ylass meteorites.” Virgil Barnes ix ap- parently an exception. (3) Lightning, meteoritie impact, and lunar theories (except thal of H, H. Nininger) would not account for distribution. Lightning and dust storms oucur all over the world, but tektites occur only in special areas and with definitely distinct form and distribution. Meteoritic impact is too weak ah agent to have done the work, except for the few small impactites re corded from Wabar and Henbury. Tektites, like meteorites, haye not been found in ancient geoluginal sys- tems, Doubtless they fell, and possibly they have devitrified, just as the ancient iran-nickel and stony meteorites have less slowly rusted away. The bibliography of tektites shows several interesting variations (f the cosmic theory, A most interesting paper by Hardcastle (1926) should not be overlooked; his paper embodies his theory in its sub-title: “Plastic sweep- ings of a meteorite.” Forty years or so ago most Australian workers thought of tektites as a swarm of glass blobs, part of the solar system, arriving upon the earth, Michel, Suess, Lacroix, and others brought in the idea of a hight- metal meteorite, shedding its silica content as it blazed across the skys this is a modification of Hardeastle’s theory, who thought oniy of stany meteca- rites, all of which have siliceous “skins,” and some of which may haye shed siliceaus blohs, Now, Fl, AH. Nininger, in a booklet entitled “Chips from the Maori,” (1940) puts forward the idea that the tektite swarms were formed by the impact of huge meteorites on the loose “hanite’’ chips of the moon, sending off showers, some of which reached the earth. Dr. Nininger does the writer the honour of saying that the cosmic theary advocated by this authar wauld, if true. explain the presence of the australites, with similar occurrences @x- plaining the presence of tektites in other parts of the world. The writer can doa no less than admic that Dr Niniger’s complicated and ingenious theory would, if teue, also explain the same puzzling facts. 20 But Lincoln La Daz writes of the “Chips from the Moon” theory (Popu lar Astronomy, No, 5, May, 141, p. 267), as follows: “Jf the lunar craters were known to be due to the impact of meteorites, and if such impacts on the surface of our satellite were known to produce molten misses, from which bodies with the chemical composition of the tektites could be derived, and to impart to these masses velocities sufficient to enable them to escape from the attraction of the Moon, and if certain other essential conditions were known to be fulfilled, then Nininger’s conjecture, ot his own words, “might indeed afford a very handy salution to many battling problems.” On the other hand, Lia Paz himself (Abstracts Geological Society of America, 1940, p. 1919) leans definitely ta the lightning hypothesis. To the writer, who bas written on lightning-aused racks and sands as well as oti tektites, this appears as a theery whieh is not only unsupported by evidence, but is quite beyond belief, Consider the australites alone, which occur almost everywhere over 2,000,000 square miles of southern Australia, south of a line going from 5.1L. to N.W., in a land where heavy duststorms and electri- cal sterms occur with at least equal frequency over the northern areas. Why should such storms always form one kind of object, in form and composition in the south, and never produce any such forms in the north? The writer falls back on Pateth’s comprehensive paper on “The Origin of Meteorites” and retains the theory of the Cosmic Origin af Tektites, re- calling the sapient words of de Fourcroy (1940, p. 6): “By climinating the absurd or impossible, one finds oneself compelled ta adopt what would pre- viously have appeared to be almast incredible.” Paneth’s authoritative paper is especially recommended to sceptics of the casmic theory. One may be pardoned, perhaps, for quoting oneself (C.F. 1940, p, 324): "The present job before students (of tektites), it seems to me, is tentatively to accept tektites on the (well-enown and accepted) evidetice of distribution, form, composition, ete., us being wlass meteorites, and to «devote atiention to a study of the details of their possible derivation (within the solur system), so far as this may be revealed by physical examination and facts of dlistri- bution,” In this way may be added something to “the camplete story of the origin of meteorites,” and to a wider knowledge of the solar system itself. Tlarrison Brown (1948) suggests that “in meteorites scientists possess a Rosetta stone that may well prove to be a major key in answering’ some of the problems of the solar system. and perhaps of the Universe itself. Brown makes no mention of tektites, but indicates that the earth’s compo- sition 15 probably equivalent to the mean composition of meteoritic or plane- tary matter. In this, the highly siliceous tektite swarms may well find their place, Careful consideration of the South Ausiralian Museum collection of tektites has strengthened the cosmic theory of the crigin of tektites. All the available evidence tetids to confirm the opinion that tektites are of extra-terrestrial origin, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks are due for assistance given by the South Australian Museum Board, W. R. Riedel, W, G, Fenner, and Miss Helen Moody. 1 Watcorr, R. H. 1898 “The occurrence of so-called Obsidian Bombs in Australia,” Proc, Roy. Soe. Vict, 11 (ns), {1}, 25-53, with plates and analyses. 2 Basnes, Vircww E. 1940 “North American Tektites." Univ, of Texas Publication 3945, 477-583, with plates and analyses, 21 Darwin, CHartes 1844 “Geological Observation on Volcanic Islands.” London, 44, (p. 38, 2nd ed., 1876), with figure, Fenner, C. 1934 “Australites, Part I. Classification of the W. H. C. Shaw Collection.” Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust. 52, 62-79, with plates and figs. Fenner, C. 1935 “Australites, Part Il, Numbers, fornis, disiribution anil origin.” Trans, Roy. Soc. 5, Aust., 59, 125-140, with maps and figs. Fenxex, C. 1940 “Australites, Part IV. The John Wennett Collection, wich notes on Darwin Glass, Bediasites, etc.” Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 64, (2), 305-324, with plate and figure. Fensus, C, 1949 “Sandtube Fulgurites, and their bearing on the Tektite problem.” Reeords Sth. Aust. Mus., with plates and figure, 9, No. 2. Fenner, C. 1938 “Australites, Part 1. A contribution to the problem of the origin of Tektites.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (2), 192-216, with plates and figures. Summers, H. S. 1908. “‘Obsidianites, their origin from the Chemical Standpoint.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 21 (ms.), (11), 423-443, with analyses. Baxre Geonce, 1946 “Some utvisizal shapes and features of Australites (Tektites)”, Mem. Nat. Mus., Mclb., 14, (2), with plates. Baker, Grorck 1944 “Flanges of Australites.” Mem, Nat. Mus,, Melb, 14, (1), with plates and figures. Lacro.x, Arperr 1933 “Les Tektites de 1’ Indo-chine et de ses abords et celles de la Cote d'Ivoire.” Archives du museum d’histoire naturelle, Puris, vol, du Tricenteniare, Tom XII, 151-170, with plates. Spencer, L. J. 1937 “Meteorites and the Craters on the Moon.” Nature, 139, 655, 17 April 1937. Paneru, KF. A, 1940 “The Origin of Meteorites.” Halley Lecture, 16 May 1940, Clarendon Press, Oxford, with plate. Harncastur, H. 1926 “The Origin of Australites: Plastic Sweepings of a Meteorite.” N.Z. Journ, of Sci, and Tech., 8, No. 2, 62-75, Nisixcer, H. H, 1940 “Moon as a Source of Tektites.” Geol. Soc. of Am. Bull., 51, Abstracts, p. 1936; also booklet, “Chips from the Moon,” Surss, Franz Ep, 1932 “Zur Beleuchtung des Meteoritenproblems.” Mit- teil. der Geol. Gesellsch, in Wien,” Band XXV, 115-143, with figure and analyses. Brown, Harrison 1948 “Meteorites, relative Abundances, and Planet Structures.” Scientific Monthly, U.S.A., 67, No, 6, Dec, 1948, Preuss, EKKEHARD 1935 “Spektralanalylische Untersuchung der Tektite.” Published at Jena, Mineralogical Institute, with Plates. LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART III BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND L. MADELINE ANGEL Summary Cercaria beckwithae n. sp. On 27 October 1948, 6 of 49 Planorbis isingis collected from a small artificial rock pool in the garden of Mr. G. Jaensch, Tailem Bend, were found to be giving off stylet cercariae of a type of not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed with water pumped from the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately once per fortnight during the summer months. It is several years since snails were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life span of Panorbis isingi appears to be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must have occurred in the pond itself. 22 LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART XIII By T. Harvey Jounsron and L. Mave.mve Anoun* [Read 12 May 194] Cercaria beckwithae n. sp. On 27 October 1948, G of 49 Plahorbis tsingi coliected [rom a small artificial rock pool in the garden of Mr. G, Jaensch, Tailem tend, were found to be giving off stylet cercariae of a type not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed with water pumped from the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately once per fortnight during the summer months. Tt is several years since snails were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life span of Penorbis ising? appears ta be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must have occurred in the pond itself. Vrom 27 October 1948 to 24 January 1949 C. beckwithae has been identified from 16 of 403 snails—approximately a 490 infection. It was not present in any of 431 Planorbis cotlected from the same pond at the end of February 1949, Ht ts of interest that the only other kind of gastropod present in the pond, imerianni sp., is evidently not a snitable hust for this cerearia since none of these snails was tound infected with it. This cercaria has not been found in Planorbis collected from the swamps along the lower River Murray. As will be discussed later, we expect to find that the adult is a frog lung fluke and experituents ta ascertain the life history will be continued. That the infection was not an isolated case is indicated by the following facts:—(1) that of 69 Planorbis col- lected on 30 November 1948 and apparently negative when tested then, and agaitl a week later, one was found to he giving C. beckwithae when next tested on 23 December; (2) that the one Plusiorbis which was positive from among 180 collected ot: 24 January 1949, wag not quite half-grown, ‘his iatler must cer tainly haye been extremely siiall when the original infection Cound hy us hail taken place, and would have been unlikely to survive at infection at that stage. Tue Crrcaria The cerearia is small, an average of 20 specimens fixed iu boiling 106 farma- lin in the standard manner being 1652 by 100 wide. The range (105p by 105). to 240» by 862) is considerable, because some cercariae are fixed in ereathy extended positian, while others are completely contracted, The tail averaged 162m by 324; range 1126 by 30% to 202” by 37%. The oral sucker averazed 47p long by 4 wine, while the aceialmlum was 296 hy 32,, giving an approximate sucker ratio of 5:3. The acetabulum les in the posterior half uf the body, The stylet is rather delicate in appearances length 322; width at base 5*3n; width at tim, formed approxinmtely at (he end pf tie anterior third, AD. The tail is inserted on the ventral surface of the body and is provided with a tramsparent fn- fold dorso-ventrally placed and extending a very little distance around the tip on the dorsal side, but for about a third of the length of the tai! on the ventral * University of Adelaide, In this regard we nuay state that observations on xiphidiacercariue examined il this department corroborate the observation of Brooks (1943) that he bas bean “impressed with the uniformity of the dimensiuns of the stylets of various species" aud believes that “greater use can be made both of the shane at Jength of the stylet in describing anil identifying cercarjac of this groupe’ Further, the size of the stylet in pot altered hy prolonged jiimuersion in Vormaliy, aa we have yerifed with at least {wo kinds of stihitlorercarlie, Veons, Roy. SanS. Auer, 71), 6 December 1949 23 (fig. 5). When the tail is at rest, the flange is fluted, Under coverslip pressure, the tail tends ta keel over to give the appearance of a laterally placed flange. The tail stains blue with nile bluc sulphate but is uncoloured with neutral red, The body is fairly clear; there are no coloured refractile granules as are scen in many xiphidiocercariae. ‘The surface is beset with mintte spines, though these are so small as to be indicated only under oil immersion magnification and under favourable conditions of imira-vitam staining. Ordinary methods recommended to show spincs, e.g., the use of picric acid and menthol, were ineffective. There was no indication of the fie protoplasmic hairs described by some writers tor related cercariae, Caudal pockets are not present, ro4mm Fir, 1; body of cercatia, outlines from camera fucida Grawing—letals of excretory system trom living: specimens. Vig. 2; sporocrst. ifig. 3: cercaria, gland cells and alimentary system. Figs, 4, 5, 6: sketches. 4, stylct. §, tail in dorso-ventral view. 6, excretory cornua in mure extended position. Reference ta lettering’ ep = excretory pare. On either side of the body there is a group of glanil cells extending from the bifurcation of the oesophagus almost to the level of the posterior horder of the acetabulum. It is impossthic to determine the number accurately, but there are from 3 to 5 (perhaps more) pairs. Specimens stained with nile blue sulphate following neutral red show two pairs anteriorly and medially which are finely granular btit tincoloured, while the remaining gland cells take on a dirty purple 24 colour; these and their ducts, however, tend to contract inte an indeterminate mass. In unstained specimens the nuclei of the glands appear clear and are slightly tinged with pink. Throughout the body there are a number of other cells, which are presumably cystagenons, and wnder extreme coverslip pressure when the nucier become evident it is not possible to distinguish such nuclei [rom those of the gland cells in the same region. There is a short pre-pharynx, a quite circular pharynx and a very narrow oesophagus which biturcate: some distance anteriorly to the acetabulum. The angle of bifureation is characteristically acute (figs. 1, 3); the crura are very narrow, and in living specimens are not seen beyond the level of the posterior border or the acetahwlum, and rarely as far as its anterior border, Staining rendered them slightly more obvious, and in a few of the best preparations they could Le secu to extend almast to the end of the borly, ending level with the inser- tion of the tail Krull (1935) when deseribing the cerearia of Heematoloechus conplecus, indicated very narrow intestinal erura and noted that they were very diffiewll to see, even in the most lavourable specimens. The excretory bladder is Y-shaped; the arms of the Y ienminating normally below the level of the anterior border of the acetabulum, but in sone specimens (notably in those which had been swimming in a solution of basic fuchsin in normal saline) the arms were well above this region. There is, of course, a con- silerable margin of difference between the levels reached in the expauded and contracted positions of the bladder, he maitr excretory tubes are attached at the anterior fips af the arms, ‘The flame cell formula is apparently 2[(343+43)+4+ ($+44-}-3) |. This is extremely difficult to determine, and for a long time we thought that there were only two groups eath of three flame cells, attached to the anterior collecting tubule, When the third group [rom the anterior cnil was seen its pomt of origin from the collecting tubyies could not be determined, and we are assuming that it is attached to the anterior tubule, as seems Imost likely, Aguin, the point of bifurcation of the anterior and posterior collecting julnies has not been seen definitely, though we [eel satisfied that it is on a level jnst behind the anterior border of the acetabulum in a position where the conyolutions Of the main exeretory tubule rendered any closer elucidation impossible, In the postetiar groups not all the flame cells have been seen; the last two groups however ‘re clearly indicated by the capillaries, In the first of the posterior groups only two of the Clements have been scen, but we haye no doubt thara third ts present. ‘Lhe excretory pore opens at the base of the tail hy a crescentic slit on the ventral surface. There is uo caudal excretory tube as shown by Sewell for several xiphidiovercariae. In stained, fixed gpecimens the genital rudiment shows as an irregular undiffereitiated mass dorsal to the acelabulum, and of about the same size. EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS We have not been able to obtain the cyst stage, though a number of different animals have been used for experimental infections, Nepative results were obtained with Daphnia sp.; Dytiseid beetle larvae; dragonily larvae, Aeschine brewistyla and Austrolestus analis; the yabhie, Cherar destrucior; mosquito larvae; leeches (Glossifhonia spp.) ; the molluses, merionna spp. and the host species, Planorbis isingi; as well as with tadpoles and the fish, Gdmbusia affinis. Cereatia uf all frog iung flukes of which the life-history is known eneyst in larval insects, the majority in dragonfly larvae, In some species there is a corisiderable degree of specificity for the second inter'mediale host. Krull (1931) found that cercariae of Hacmalolocchus mediaplexus and H. parviplerus encysted in Gyo epecies of Syyupetrum but did not infect closely related dragon-flies. On “y= oo ihe other hand, he (1933) thought it probable that many species of diagon-flics, could serve as hosts tor A. complerus. Ingles (1933) suggested that the presence of the intection of Ostiolym oxyorchis in frogs collected from ponds and its absence froin ftogs of the same species collecled from small streams was due to the habits of the intermediate host sitice most of the natural infections of O. oxyorchis occurred in the pond-nhabiting dragon-fly, Sympetruim wah. Such a specificity may well explain the fact that C, beckwithae has been {ound only in a pond and not in the swarups, and also our failure to obtain jtg mera- vercaria in the only two species of dragon-fly larvae which were available to us fur experiment, and which had been obtained [rom the swamps. Krull (1932) reported thar the metacercaria of Puenmobites longiplexus whose atlult stage occurs in Kana sp, wus found in eysts or free in the body cavity of damsel Hies, Lestes sp. We have not found metacercariae in numerous dragon-fly larvae (Aeschua brvistyla) collected from swamps along the Lower Murray. THE Sporocysr The sperocysts are inconspicuous, and cannot be discerned as finite hudies when the sril is dissected after death. Numbers of cercariae are found in the liver; these apparently migrate from the sporocyst soon after the death af the host, leaving the sporocyst as an empty sac. Staining of some of the dissected liver material gave one good preparation of a sporocyst, a small body containing (and more or less fled by) three or four cercariae (fig. 2). TF we had had suffi- cient material ro sacrifice a living snail, the spurocysts would probably have been nore obvious. AFFINITIES C. beckwwithae belongs to the Cereariae Ornatae, a group defined by Ltihe (1909) as “distome cereariae with a stylet. in which the stender tail is furnished with a fin fold.’ Since 1914, when Cort deseribed C. hemilophura and included it provisionally im the “Ornatac.” workers have stressed the fact that the group is probably an unnatural one. Sewell (1922) created the “Prima” subgroup, and Faust (1924, table TL) in his “synoptic flame-cell formulary for digenetic trematodes” placed C, hemi- luphura Cort 1914 and C, frifwreata together in the “Hetilophura group,” as having a flame cell formula of 2[ (3-3) + (3+ 3+ 3) |. Tt may be noted thal Faust (1924) included Cercari prima with C. drdica LIM Sewell in the “Daswan” group, and thus denied the importance of the fin fold in the classifica- tion of cercariae, since C, indica L// has not this feature. In 1929 McCoy, who did further work on the exeretory system of C. hemi- bphura and ascertained the formula to be 2[ (34-343) +(3+3-+3) I. found it tecessary to remoye this cerearia from the group, thotigh he did not create one to contain it. In 1936, E. L. Miller divided the Cereariae Ornatae intu four subgraups, using the flame cell formula as the differentiating feature :— II. Sewell’s Prima group, with aa exeretory formula 2x 6 x 1 (te, 2£(03)+(3) 3. TT. Hemilophura (sic) group, containing only C. trifurceta Faust 1919; formula 2[ (3-|-3) + (3+3-+ 3) J. TIT. A third subgroup (formula 2[ (3--34+3)+(3+4+3+43) |) con- taining C. hemilophyre Cort 1914 and C. mesotyphla E. L. Miller 1935. To this can now be added Cerearia merchanti Rankin 1939 (the larva of Haematolocchus sp.), GC. herbert McMullen 1938 (qhoted in Zool- Ree 1938 Vermes, p. 94, as C, horbert) and C. becknuuthae, 26 IV, Subgroup four—Cercaria racemosa Faust 1917, the excretory formula of which was not worked out, but was “obviously quite different Sram other forms of this group” (Miller). MeCoy stated that “the exact location of the fame cells in C. hemilophura varied greatly in different individuals, prohably depending upon the way in which the animal was compressed. The second flame cell group from the anterior end was the most difficult to locate, and without careful study of abundait material miglit be entirely overlooked.” These remarks apply also ta C. beckwithae, excepting (hat it was the third group rom the anteriar end which snght have been overlooked. One wonders whether further study of C. irifurcata might not disclose another group of fume ceils, and thus place the cercaria in Miller's subgroup Il. McMullen in 1937 discussed the taxonomy ai the family Plagi- orchiidae Lithe and related trematodes, and used knowledge of the larval antl developmental stages to supplement classification of the adults, staiing that the exclusive use of adult characters for identification left much to be desired, On the other hand, classification of cercariae on their larval characters, without a knowleder of the life histories, could he only tentative. As to the importance of a fin fold on the tuil, he cited the genera Alleglossidiusn acd Macroderoides “which are evidently closely related?’ yet while the cercaria of Macroderoides iypieus has a fin fold, that of Alloglossidiwm carti has none (the only two life histories which were known for these genera); again, all cercariac of Jrog lung flukes and related trematodes with the exception of that of Iuplomelra cylin- dyvaeea have a fin fold on the tail. He concluded, therefore, that the possession of a fin fold on the tail (and other such larval wodifications) were of little more than specific value in the Niphidiocereariae. This confirmed the opinion held by most previous workers that the group Cercariae Omatae was an uniatural one. From the point of view of description of cercarme, however, the fin fold does provide a valuable means of separation from, or comparison with, previously deserihed forms, lt is evident that C. beckivithae resembles most closely the cercariae of Haematolocchus spp., as indicated by MeMullen (1937) in his composite diagrasn of Huematoloechus and Ostiolunt species. (Ostiolum is now given by Dawes, 146, as a synonym of Haemalolocehus). Among the characteristics of these cercariae of the troy lung flukes McMullen cites "a large oral sucker, four pairs of stylet glands” (though in the figure five pairs are shown, and C. herberi whiclr MeMullen described in 1938, has six pairs), “and a Y-shaped exerctory bladder which gous through extensive development in the maturation of the adult”; and (as mentioned previously) “all have a tin fob! on the tail with the exception of Haplometra eylindracea.” Tt would seem that to this description shauld be added “main excretory tubes attached to the tips of the arms of the bladder,” though this feature has not been indicated clearly im all of the ceseriptions, Tor C. herberi, McMullen stated that the origin of the wain callectiney tubule did mot agree with that given by Ingles (for Qstiohun oryorchis), ic, ladetal to the arms oi the ladder, and that thongh it was possible that the tibules did arise laterally in O. axyorchis, the same was at first beligved to be true of C, herbert, because the loop of the main tubule crossed ihe arm of the bladder and the rest of the tubule was difhcult ta see. As is shown in our figure, this is also the condition in ©. beckwithas, Ingles’ figure of the excretory system in the metucerearia i$ somewla? siticonyincing in that the anterior and pasterior collecting tubules appear to arise independently from ihe arms of the bladder, and we stiggest that tre origin of the main tubales should be similar to that in C. herberi and out cerearta, Although the life histories of several from lung flukes have been described (Tngies, 1933; Kroll, 1931, 1934), in none of these has the anatomy of the cer 27 cariae been dealt with in complete detail. So far as the descriptions go we can only say that none of them resenibles C. beckwithae as closely as do C. merchants and C. herbert, 1t is of interest that the sporocysts of our species appear to con- form to the type found in Haematoloechus spp—t.ec., they are small and contain few cereariae, whilst in C. hemilopkura and C. mesolyphia the sporocysts are elongated. Cercaria werchanti was shown by Rankin (1939) to be the larval stage of a species of Haematoloechus, but pending further study he deferred the specific description. “lhe general appearance of the alimentary canal, excretory system, arrangement of gland cells, ad fin fold of the tail in C. merchanti is simular to these structutes in C_ beckwithac, but the stylet of C. merchanti measures 40zp, the sucker ratid of the two forms is different, and C, merchant? has “fine proto- plasmic hairs’ on the bady, a feature which is lacking in our cercaria, Com- parison of ©. peckerithae with C. herbert shows that the length of the stylets is the same, the general sizes of body and tail seem to be comparable (although one is diffident about placing too much stress on meastirements of cercariae made by different workers and under different conditions) and the general appearance of the alimentary systems is similar. TJowever, the two cercuriae ditfer in the ratio of the suckers. probably in the extent of the fin fold of the tail (said to start at about the middle of the ventral surface for C. lerberi, and at the distal third for C. beckwithae) and the cuticular spines of C. herbori are evidently more obvious. McMullen stated that C. herberi was similar to cercariae of genera belonging to the Haplonietridae MeMullen 1937, ‘This family included the Haplometrinae Pratt and the Prosthogoniminae |.ithe, |he genera of which, as far as known, were parasitic in the lings of Amphihia and the reproductive tracts of birds respec- tively, Dawes, however, included the genus Macrodera (from lung sacs of snakes) in the Haplometrinae, and placed both subfamilies in the Plagiorchii- dae, The only life history of a member of the Prosthogoniminae to which we have a reference is that of Prosthoganimus macrorchis Macy 1934. Macy did not describe the cerearia in detail, but stated thal there was no fin fold on the tail and that the exeretory formula of the metacerearia wa's 2[(2+2-+42)4-(2+2- 2) }- Wf this formula is correct, then it seems that the Prosthagouiminae can scatcely be included in the Plagiorchiidae. We regard Cercaria beckwithae as the larval stage of Hoematoloechus, a parasite of the lungs of frags. Only oie species, WH. australis (S. J}, Johnston 1912), desetihed originally as Pnenmonocees australis, is known to ocour in Australian frogs, IZyla and Limnodynastes, and has been tentifiel by us in material belonging to these geneva from New South Wales, Victoria and South Agstralia, Cercaria tetradenoidea non. noy. In 1945 Johnston and Beckwith described a Turcocerearia, C. telradena, As the name had previously been given hy Miller (1935. 252) for a member of the Cereariae Armatae group, we siggest the renaming of Our cercaria as C. felyi- denotdea. Sum ar4ry 1 A new xishidiocerearia, C. beckwithac, with a fin fold on the tail is leseribed front Planorbis isingi, 2. This was fuund at Tailem Bend, Sottth Australia, in a rock pool in 4 private garden, Over a period of three months tt was found in 16 of 403 snails. but has not been obtained from natural sites on the River Muryay, The cyst stage has not heen frum, ww 28 4. The cercaria is considered to be the larval form of a frog lung fluke, Haema- toloechus (Plagiorchiidae, Haplometrinae). 5. A discussion is given of the classification of the group “Cercariae Ornatae” defined by Lithe, and later divided into sub-groups by several workers, the latest being Miller (1936), 6. Brooks’ observation (1943) regarding the uniformity of dimensions of stylets of various species is supported. Such measurements are unaltered by formalin. 7. An addition to McMullen’s list of characteristics of cercariae of frog lung flukes is suggested; namely, that the main excretory tubes enter the arms of the bladder at the tips, 8. C, tetradenoidea nom. nov. for C_ tetradena Johnston and Beckwith 1945 nee Miller 1935. We desire to acknowledge our indebtedness to Messrs. G, G., Fred, and Bryce Jaensch of Tailem Bend. The work was financed through the Common- wealth Research Grant to the University of Adclaide. The species is named for a former colleague in our work, Miss A. C. Beckwith, now Mrs. J. Hardy. Type material has been deposited in the South Australian Museum. LATERATURE Brooks, F, G. 1943 Jour. Parasit., 29, 330-339 Cort, W. W. 1914 Jour. Parasit., 1, 63-84 Dawes, B, 1946 The Trematoda, 644 pp. Faust, E. C. 1917 Jour. Parasit., 3, 105-123 Faust, E. C, 1919 Biol, Bull., 36, 322-339 Faust, E. C. 1924 Amer. Jour. Hyg., 4, 241-300 Incies, L. G. 1933 Uniy. Calif. Publ. Zool., 39, 135-162 Jounston, S. J. 1912 Proe. J.inn. Soc., N.S.W., 37, 285-362 Jounston, T. H., and Beckwith, A.C, 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 229-242 Keun, W. H. 1931 Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 50, 215-277 Krutit, W. H. 1932 Zool. Anz., 99, 231-239 Keutt, W. H. 1933 Zeit, f. Parasitewk., 6, (2), 192-206 Leen, W. H. 1937 Science, N.S., 86, 423 McCoy, O, R. 1929 Jour. Parasit., 15, 199-208 McMutten, D. B. 1937 Jour. Parasit.,, 23, 244-258 McMutten, D. B. 1938 Livr. Jub. Prof. Lauro Travassos, 299-306 Macy, R. W, 1934 Univ. Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull., 98, 7-71 Miiier, E. L, 1935 Jour. Parasit., 21, 244-254 Mitter, E. L. 1936 Ill. Biol, Monogr., 14, (2), 125 pp. Rankin, J. S. 1939 Jour. Parasit., 25, 309-328 Sewe ti, R. B, §. 1922 Ind. Jour, Med. Res., 10, (Suppl. No.), 370 pp. THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN, TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA BY E.. G. ROBINSON Summary The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a member of the Government Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903. He first published an account of the geology of the country traversed (Basedow, 1905) and late (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition. In his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on general lines only and many deserved fuller treatment. 29 THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN, TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA By E. G. Roprnson * [Read 21 July 1949] The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a member of the Government Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903. He first published an account of the geology of the country traversed (Base- dow, 1905) and later (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition. ln his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on gencral lines only and many deserved fuller treatment, Basedow’s specimens, what remained of thera wheu he died, are now housed in. the Geological Museum of the University of Adelaide, and because af the unusual nature of some of them, their further investigation by present- day petrological methods was suggested by Professor Mawson. Accordingly, the more sigrificant of them, but not including any from the Musgrave and Everard Ranyes, were selected and are dealt with herein. The omission of any examples from the Musgrave and Everard Ranges is cofisequent on Allan Wilson's (1947) recent detailed work in that area superseding earlier investigations. Rocks rrom THE TOmMPKINSON RANGES Page Nature of the terrain =... at cl i ai eit cae Olivine-augtte-hyperstlrene- wabbto (15. 4) Ge ui ats ait we gl Hypersthenitte (1548) —.... ry atlas wpe yay Jap by os ont aA Crushed chartiackite (1542) . us seth xe ats Hose fare utc! ee Garnet-magnetite- cuiphavitesstanalite (6178) 454 un hoe, Oe Porphyroblastic hornblende-garnet-mica-oligoclase-quiartz- “schist: ¢ 1544) a. Ad, Rocks Fram THK. Mann RANGES Nature of the terrai, ... ty Bi est a ye sai na ee et Sheared letco-granite (6181) ..,, one rf fx gust ua 4 Sheared garnctiferoas, gneissic, hornblende eriviite (6187) “a tes ede we «OD. Stressed and crushed granite (1543) it ee ope me py ~ 35 Mylonized gramte gneiss (6182) ve ha ve os oo ve ‘a oS Diopside peridatite (6199) ih has] ae silt Ce on a we = 86 Diapsidite (6197) ite tins ee “ine af ent we = 36 Sheared garnet-andesine- amphibolite (6179) py esl mt ys we 88 Charnockitic, tonalite (1541) nee 453 yotaeestiepe IEE. ai$t =i53 hae 37 Rocks rrom Ayres RANGES Nature of the terrain .... nae bebe ont esi suas rite gaze art 38 Aplitic granodiorite (1547) ae 5: re rote — =~ Bare w 38 Tlornblende-granddiorite (1546) a Su —_ yt pr wh: a (38 ROCKS FROM THE TOMPRINSON RANGES Referring to the Tompkinson Ranges, Basedow (1905, page 73) states— “Generally speaking, their dominant features are . . . . igneous intrusions within crystalline gneisses. In the case of the Tompkinson Ranges, the in- trusive rock consists largely of gabbro, accompanied hy diorite dykes. The Mount Davies chain includes, among others, a large intrusion of granular olivine-gabbro, varying in colour from dirty green, through shades of green * University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy, Soc, 5, Aust, 73, (1), 16 December 1949 30 ‘sIOquINy ansojejyrg Aq payeaipur suoyesoT YoY YA deyy Ayesory 21D ii pete ag ; Se 3 F __8 og tae’ ol $s evs) 2 eon WH UespL sey aot sy i SATIN i] iS * Li S ! Be) Viivyulsny IWYLN39 dO NOILYOd > = y \ ag avW ALMYOOI tiny i eae “4 | | | > oF Sth — se al 16 faint blue. In the last case the predominance of plagioclase feldspar, and the presence of only a small amount of olivine have produced the bluish tint- The intrusion trends east and west as a massive, rugged chain, flaked ly less conspicuous diorite dykes, Ihe latter, though individually smaller, are very numerous,” “North of Mount Davies, outcrops of hypersthene-bearing granulite which trend slightly east of north, present splendid examples of spherulitic weather- ing, The rock is compact and granular, with little or no evidence of foliation om freshly fractured suriace, though it is apparent on weathered faces. The rock has a peculiar olive-green, waxy appearance.” Red garnet (almandine) schists are a feature of the north-eastern area about Gosses Pile and Prominent Hill. Skirting the foot of Mt. Davies on the north side is a mineralised outcrop striking \W. 20°S, and extending westerly for same miles. This ferruginous and gossaneous outcrop includes chalcedonic and semi-opaline varitties of Quartz, some of which are bright green due ia chromium staining, Ouvine Avorrr-ByTownite-Gassro (1540). Collected from Mount Davies adjacent to Camp 28, Tampkinson Range. In the hand specimen this rock is dark grey and of an even-grained, saccharoidal texture. Lt consists ot highly weathered olivine, grey-green pyroxene ane light grey feldspar, the latter bemg the most plentiful. Microscopically examined it exhibits a hoeloerystalline, allotriomorphic, granular texture. The avcrage size of the grains in section is of the order of 1-25 mun. to 1:5 mm- Bytownite is hy far the most abundant mineral present, contprising about two-thirds of the rock. Jt is clear and usually cracked, The grains exhibit albite, Carlsbad and pericline twinning, It is biaxial negative, with 2V about 83°, extinction angle in the symmetrical zone is 52°. These properties confirm the mineral as bytownite with about 80% of the anorthite molecule, Augite is the next in order of abundance. It is light grey-brown, only faintly pleochroic and ocenrs as anhedral grains averaging about 1 mm, in length. It has the following optical characters: biaxial positive, 2V = 46", ZAc== 34°, RL. in sodium light is y= 1-702. These characters indicate an approximate composition of Wo35 FEn33 Fel3 corresponding to a typical augite. To a very limited extent the diallagic 100 cleavage is shown, Many of these monaclinic pyroxene individuals have a selvage of hypersthene, which is generally of darker colour than the augite. Next to augite in abundance is oheine, which occurs as greatly cracked, very pile pink individuals, Alteration especiaily along the cracks has developed iron staining and some tiny grains of iron oxide. In many instances marginal altera- tion has given rise to antigorite. IL is biaxial-posilive with 2V = 89°, correspond- ing to a maynesium-rich chrysolite. In some cases the olivine has borders of hypersthene, Hyperstiuene occurs to a limited degree as separate individtials but more so associated, as already mentioned, with the augite and to a lesser degree with the olivine. It ts faintly pleochroic; N= pale grey, Y=Z —pale grey-brown; biaxial negative, 2V is 88° and c==Z, These properties suggest an enstatile-rich hypersthene with about 20% of the ferrnsilite molecule, Accessory minerals are rare, consisting of a few grains of magnedite and some apatite. 32 HYpPersrHEN!ve (1548): from the west side of Mount Davics, Tompkinson Range. This is a dark grey-brown, holocrystalline, even, granular rock. In microscope slide the texture is observed to be holoerystalline, allotrio- morphic granular with a grain-size ranging from 2 to 5 mm. It consists entirely of hypersthene exeept for a few small grains of magnetite. The hypersthene occurs as pale greyish-hrown cracked, anhedral grains, — It is weakly pleochroic: X= faint pink, Y= pale greyish-brown, Z== pale greenish-brown, Other optical properties may be summarized as follows: 2V = 88°, RI, (sodium light) a= 1°673, 71682, According to Larsen and Berman these optical characters correspond to a hypersthene which has an Mg: Fe ratio of approxmnately 6: 1, The two prismatic cleavages are well developed. The orientation is length slow. While generally straight, sttain has itt some cases developed an undulose extinction. In some areag the larger hypersthene individuals are roughly rounded and set in fine granular interstitial hypersthene, apparently the result. of crushing. Black iron-ore in tity grains is distributed mainly around the borders af the hypersthene: some, translucent in brown colours, are evidently chromite, Qthers appear to be magnehic. Analysis of this rock was made with the result as stated on page —, CHEMICAL ANALYSES Norms Rock Number .... aw 1548 6199 Rock Number .... we 1548 6199 SiOz Rn Hee wee 94055 47-77 Orthoclase aes we O°556 nil TiO: we stn we O22 O12 Albite .., ~~ ae 6288 1+31 AbOs ..., on BBS 4-87 Anorthite = -. 6950 11-68 TesOq a, ‘ent van 1°85 1:42 Nepheline 1 0-99 FeO aig: viet we F208 321 Diopside _ 4168 55°16 MnO “3 sa) a O22 0-66 Hypersthenc .... eo. 73-468 —— MgO ren asis we 28723 23°27 Olivine nee ae 4252 20-40 CaQ ats on wee B48 16°50 Masucetite a, wa.) e784 20 NaO ..., ve, wae O73 0°37 Hmenite ng oe 0-456 0-30 KO ae sites ww. Q‘14 ()-02 Chlivoinite —_ _. O896 1-12 HQ+ us stn ay O32 0:58 Water + aa3 _. 6320 O58 HO- .... Aue wee O15 0-21 Water — a a. O-150 0-21 P20; ~~ acsa ajse a 0° OL —_ Creu ale ' we = 068 0-79 Total .... 100+298 99 +80 Total .,. 100:30 99-80 Crusnep Crrarnockire (1542) froim north of the Mount Davies Camp (31), which was located 3 miles north of Mount Davies, Tompkinson Ranges. An even, fine-grained, dark brownish-grey rock which in the field is reported to exhibit splendid spheroidal weathering. Feldspar and quartz are the more obvious minerals. lt is holoerystalline, allotriomorphic granular, with slightly uneven grain- size. In the microslide can be observed Jarger grains of microperthite and quartz which average about 1°6 mm, in diameter with a maximum of about 3-5 mm,, are distributed through an even-grained grantilar association of feldspar, quartz and hypersthene with an average grainsize of about 0°5 mim. a3 Microcline microperthite is by far the most abundant mineral, constituting approximately two-thitds of the rock. Ji occurs as both large and small indi- viduals. The microcline base and the exsolution albite, which is developed on a fairly coarse scale, are wsnally clear and unaltered but extibit undulose extinction. Oligoclase is present in very small amount in the form of small clear grains most of which exhibit albite twinning. Onarlz is much less abundant than feldspar. It occurs as anhedral indi- viduals often cracked and exhibiting undulose extinction, sometimes ta a marker degree, Hypersthene is nearly as abundant as the quartz. It occurs as very irregular grains which tend to form aggregations, frequently associaied with magnetite and apatite. The colour is pale brawn. Pleochroism noticeable with X = pinkish- brown, Y = yellow-brown, Z= green. Riaxial negative with a fairly high 2V, A very small amoutiit of non-pleochroic, pale green divpside is present. Magnetite is plentiful, generally associated with the hypersthenc. Apatite is very common, both associated with the magnetite and hypersthene as well as in che form of anhedral and subhedral grains dispersed throughout the rock, A few grains of zircon appear in the slide. Garnet-Macverire-Ompuacisi-GRranuite (6178), Collected on 20 May 1903 near camp 30, adjacent to Prominent IGM, North Tompkinson Ranges. A heavy, dark rock of an even, granular texture. The obvious constituents are a dark ferro-magnesian mineral, red-brown garnet, magnetite and a little greyish white feldspar. The light-coloured streaks of granular feldspar travers- ing the dark body of the rock appear to have developed under directed stress. In thin section it is observed to be granublastic and noticeably eveti-grained for a rock of this type. The predominant mineral is a diallagie pyroxene which occurs in grano- blastic individuals with an average grait size of 1-3 mm., arid a maximum ranging ta 3°5 mn; Schiller structure is. strikingly developed. Colour, very pale green, weakly pleochroic from a faint flesh colour to faint green, A few basal sections show cleavages: at 90°, alsa an additional rough parting parallel to the 100. Its optical character is negative, with a moderate to high 2V. A few individuals exhibit faint polysynthetic twinning, These characters suggest a diallagic pyroxene close to omphacite. Granular pink garnet is the next most abundant mmeral, occuring as indi- viduals similar in size to those of the pyraxene, Magnetil? is abundant and plays an important role in the make up of this rock. Hercynite, a green spinel, occurs to a notable degree included in some of the larger magnetites. Some of these spinels measure up to O14 mm. in length; they are a bright clear grecn. Another noticcable fcattire associated with the magnetite is the presence of clear yellow pleochroic anthophyllite which occurs only as a peripheral band on some of the grains of magnetite. Apatite, usually in association with magnetite is present as an accessory mineral. Feldspar, which plays a minor role, exhibits undulose extinclion indicating the effects of stress, Optical measurements detetmine it to be andesine of enm- pusition about Aby, Aityy. Cc 54 PorPHYROGLASTIC HorNe_eNbE - GAxNET ~ Mica-OLicaccase - Quartz - Scurst, (1544). Collected near Prominent Ilill, Camp 30, North-Eastern Tompkinson Ranges. In the hand-specimen this rock is a dark grey-brown schist, for the most part tinely granular but with larger porphyritic erystals. of hornblende and red- brown garnet. The hornblende porphyroblasts reach 10 mm. in length and the garnet to 8 mni. diaineter. Banding and schistosity are notable features. In thin-section the rock is seen to be schistose, with large porphyroblasts of green fernblende, pink garnet and sircon set in 2 fine even-grained base with average prain-size O-l mm, composed mainly of quartz and oligoclasc. Orienttated flakes of biotite, pleochroic ycllow to green are distributed through a granular base of clear quartz and oligaclase (An,,). Yellowish-green horn- blende and pink garnet are well represented both as parphyroblasts and fine flakes through the quartzo-feldspathic base. Fainlly pleochroic sphene is in notable quantity both in fine grains and as Jarger individuals. Other minor accessories are apatite, aircon and tiny wmagnetile and a yellow mineral conforming to allamite, faintly pleochroic in pale yellow to pale brown. ROCKS FROM THE MANN RANGES Rasedow (1905, p. 65) states, these Ranges “extend as ja more or less com- pact chain in a westerly direction... . a distance of some eighty miles ,... The western portion of the Mann Ranges, of no great width at this end, consists almost wholly of igneous rock exposures. In the centre, the core of the igneous intrusion is flanked on either side, namely the northern and southern boundaries, by complexes of green schist and gneissic quartzite; whereas on the eastern limits of the Ranges, by far the widest portion, the main intrusion lies hidden beneath the metamorphic series, into which it was injected, to appear once more at the surface to the eastward in the Musgrave Ranges” OF igneous rocks “An intrusion of granite has been by far the greatest, it continuing uninterruptedly as a backbone of the whole Range, to disappear under superincumbent gneisses on the east, and occurring as isolated outliers [or a con- siderable distance to the west. The character of the rock varies, frum a true granite (in portien porphyritic) to various metapyrigen gneisses,” At the western extremity of the Range, where there is a salt pai depression in the surface of the gneisses, erosion las developed yardangs on a tiotable scale along the outcrop. Causuep Lpuco-Grasire (6181), Collected 4 June 1903 from the main intru- sion at Meridian Hill, Western Mann Range. This rock is holocrystalline inequigranular, The larger individuals are grey feldspars usually seen to be embedded in finer material consisting essentially of granular feldspar and quartz. Microperthiie is the most abwndant mineral, occurring as large individuals. The orthoclase host is generally clear but cracked, displaying undulose extinction, Apart from normal exsolution spindles which characterise the perthite, inclusions oi oligoclase are numerous. Oligaclase (259% An) occurs usually as aggregations of small grains but larger individuals are not wncommion, Quartz is plentiful usually in granular aggregates, apparently the crushed remains of former large individuals. Garnet as tiny rounded grains, usually in aggregations, occur sparingly in the crush mosaics. In such locations also, hornblende in very small quantity and 35 occasional flakes of biotife are met with. Magnettte, though small in quantity but in comparatively large grains, at times with encrusting sphene, is a feature of this rock. Simiall grains of gircom are to be noted. In thin section it exhibits many similarities in both textute and mineral com- position to specimen (1343), and so may be assumed to be a leucocratic phase of it. However, the effects of stress are more marked in this rock, while the quantily of ferromagnesian minerals present is appreciably less. Smraren Horwe_eNpic GARNETIFEROUS Gweissic Granite (6187). Collected 6 Jurie 1903, just north-east si Camp 41; about 10 miles south-east by uorth of Mount Gosse, Mann Ranges, This is a coarse holocrystalline rock with a mottled appearance, duc to the ramifications of finer grained, darker uggregates ramifying through it. The most obvious constituent is greyish-white feldspar in large mdividuals up ta 3 cms. in diameter. Microscopically examined the rock is observed ta be holocrystalline and dominantly constituted of closely packed large feldspars embedded in tracts of fine, granular aggregates of feldspar, quartz and ferromagnesians. Orthoclasé forms large phenwerysts and perthitic intergrowths ate common. lt is also prusent as a constilucnt with quattz and plagioclase of the fine granular aperegates surrounding the Jarger feldspars. The large feldspars are bent and otherwise distorted by stress. Basic Oligoclase (about An,,) is present both as large individuals samewhat less in size than the orthoclase and as constituents. of finer-grained (0-1 mm.) vranoblastic aggiepates. One of the most interesting featurcs of this rack is the presence of aggrega- tions of garnet, hornblende, magnetite, sphene, apatite and biotite, in association with greater or less quantities of granular quartz and plagioclase. These aggre- gates result from granulation and recrystalliization under stress. The garnets ate small rounded light pink grains, present as tightly packed aggregations or strung ott like tiny beads, Associated therewith is green horn- blende and some clino-pyroxene, Brown biotite occurs m very small amount. Zircon, sphene, magnetite and apatite are also present as accessories. STRESSED AND Cruse Granite (1543). From the Mann Ranges at about 2 miles cast of Camp 41 and 11 miles south-east by north from Mount Gosse. Collected 6 June 1903, A coarse textured, somewhat crushed and recrystallised granitaid rock, composed mainly of large grey feldspars up to 2 cms. in length and smaller quartz grains. In micro-slide the large feldspars are secn ta he greatly cracked and slightly cloudy with marked undulose extinction, ‘hey are microcline as they give an off-centred cbtuse bisectric figure on sections parallel in the 010 face; contained in them are perthitic intergrowths of acid plagioclase. Irregular borders with embayment ire very prevalent, with fillings of crushed and recrystallized quartz and feldspar. OF the smaller dimensioned constituents, quartz showing marked strain effects is dominant. A small amount of basic oligoclase can be recognised. Still less abundant is hornblende pleochroic m green and yellow. Occasional granular aggregates of garnet usually strung out in linear arrangement is a feature of special note. Finally, there are present oecasional flakes of biotite and grains of apatile and zircon. 36 Mytonizep Granxrric Gnerss (6182), Described by Basedow as a compact, gneissic band in granite about 2 miles west of Hector’s Pass, Mann Ranges. A very fine, and cyen grained, compact, light-coloured rock with sheer larnellalions clearly marked. In thin section the rock is seen to be an excellent example of mylonization, crushing having been very regular and complete, resulting in granular lamellae, ranging from O-1 to 1-0 mm. thick, Latellae, constituted essentially of quartz grains, alternate fairly regularly with others dominantly of feldspar. The feldspathic bands, which on the average exceed the quartz bands in thickness, are chiefly orthoclase hut are usually sa fine-grained and show the effects of crushing to such a high degree that their exact composition is in doubt. Cloud~ ing of the orthoclase appears to be due to the development af sericite. Larger augen with associated mortar structure ovcur in the feldspathic bands, These ate usually perthitic. Jn these cracked andl highly strained lenticles there is present, in addition Lo orthoclase, some ofiyoctase (26% An), showing albite and pericline iwinning. The bands constituted of gnarts graius are readily distinguished, for the granules, though strained, are always quite clear. The lamellar structure of the rock ig further emphasised by strings of tiny gornels and some grains of magnefite and sphene, also grains and clongated crystals of sircon; these are usually associated with the feldspathic bands and lenticles. A little biotite as very tiny flakes is met with in certain of the garneti- ferous strings. The average size of the grains af garnet is about 0:03 smm. This rock has evidently résulted from the mylonization ahd apparently repre~ sents a sheer zone it the granite. Drorsipy. Pertporrrg (6199). Collected near Camp 27, about 6 miles south of Mount Whinham, Mann Ranges. A holocrystalline, granular rock of fairly coarse grain; the latter about 4 mm, diameter. In microscope slide it is seen to be holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular, and is composed essentially of two minerals. The more prevalent of these is diapside which occurs as anhedral, clear to pale grey-brown individuals showing cleavages (86°) and cracking to a marked degree. Some sections are so aricnted as to show a faint ploochroism from a faint flesh colour to very light green. Both normal and polysynthetic twinning are exhibited. Some of its optical properties are: DLR. fairly high, hiaxial positive, 2V=58°( RL. it sodium light is.a= 1°676 and y= 1:702, These characters indicate a diopside with about LO% of the hedenbergite molecule. The other abundant mineral, oline, contrasts strongly with the diopside, as it is more extensively cracked and is clearer, though it has a much higher degree of secondary iron staining. I[t occurs in anhedral individuals which are barely half as abtmidant as the diopside. Its optical properties are as follows: biaxial positive, 2V = 88°, RT. in sodium light is @—=1+651 and y—1-'688_ Ir is thus indicated that it has a compnsition af Mg: Fe — 88:12 approximately. Grains of magnetite and chromite are to be observable in the slides but are rare. So this is a Peridofite consisting of diopside (10% hedenbergite) and olivine (Mg: Fe = 88; 12) in the ratio of about 2:1, This rather striking rock was subjected to chemical analysis with the result tabulated on page 32. Diopsinite (6197). An even-grained, green holocrystalline rock almost mono- mineralic, for in the hand specimen only diupside is yisible There are slightly pleschroic biaxial positive, 2V = 58°, RI. (soditim ght) »—1'677, y—=1°703. a7 Labradorite distributed interstitially occurs in very small amount, Grains of magnetite are very rare. This rock appears to be related lo (6199) from the vicinity of Camp {27}, but is labelled “Camp 28, Mann Ranges,” this is immediately south-east of Mount Erwin. Suearpp Gaener-Aworsine-Ampurmonite (6179). Collected 11 June 1903 near Camp 51, Mount Cockburn, Mann Ratiges. This would appear to he from the “Diorite Dyke” reported by Basedow (1915), half-a-mile from the Camp. It is a dark, dense, fine-grained rock which under the microscope exhibits « roughly banded structure, richer and poorer in amphibole, and sce tw haye suffered consideralile chloritization and retrograde changes. Amphibole, pleochroic in light brown to green is the most abundan mineral. Garnet in cracked and rounded graing is. next, but andesine (33% An) closely approaches it in quantity, Maynotife is present both as tiny grains in aggregations and strung cut along shear lines. Throng) the reck run bands, sometimes well defined, samelimes tenuous, which have the appearance and character of pseudo-tachylite. CHarnocrreic Toxauire (1541). Collected 16 Juny 1903 near Camp 56 to tlic south-east of Mount Berry, Mann Ranges. In the hand specimen this rock presents a greasy appearance and is observed to be holocrysialline, coarse, granular, with feldspar as. the dominant taimeral, In microscope slide the texture is holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular. Andesine is by far the most abundant mineral, and with it is associated a little microcline, quartz, hypersthene, etc. “This rock consists chiefly of andesine which bas the following optical pro- perties: biaxial positive, 2V = 867, maximum extinction angle in the symmetrical zone of 20°, RI. (sodium light) «==1°552, y=1-560, ‘These characters indicate an aiidesine of compasition about 40% An. It occurs as anhedral indi- viduals showing marked undulose extinclion due ta strain, Crushed areas are to be observed along the borders of many individuals, and here oceur some myrmekitic quartz intergrowths, The albite twin lammelae are usually fine and pericline twinning is often superimposed resulting im a superficial resemblance to microsline. Tlowever, a litte microeling is recognisable. Orthoclase is present in very smell amount, some of it is antiperthite im (he plagioclase, Onariz, clear and cracked with wundulose extinction, is present in small ambunts, mainly playing an almost interstitial role. It alsa occurs as inclusions in the feldspar and as recrystallised mosaics. Next in abundance to andesine is hypersthene, which usually appears as rounded gritins whose colour is frequently masked by change praducts and schiller inclusions. The clezrer individuals are grey and pleochroic in faint green and pink, Clotdy grey-green altcration products, possibly anligorite are associated with if, ‘Lhis hypersthene is biaxial negative, with 2V of about 82°, pointing to the possibility of about 2095 of the fercosilite molecule in its composition, A erern diopsidic pyroxene is present in very small quantity: biaxial posi- tive, 2V —60°. Notable amounts of granular moaguetite ate usually associated with the hypersthene, slpalite is present in rounded grains. A fuller examination with chemical analysis may show this tock better classified as a charnockitic trondhjente, 3s ROCKS FROM AYRES RANGES A group of hills mare or less disconnected, The highest poi, though 2,200 feet above sea-level, stands only 300 feet abave the surrounding sea of scrubby, red sand plains, Basedow (1905, p. 77) states, referring to the higher hills of the Ranges! “All these prominences have been determined by igneous intrusions. The more northerly ones consist uf granite and the southern ridge of diorite dykes, Lyitig between these masses, disconnected rounded hills of metamorphic racks appear." Apiiric Granopiorite (1547): Mount Sir Henry, Ayres Range, This rock is probabiy a phase of (1546). This rock is light grey-brown with an even-grained granitic texture. It is composed largely of buft-coloured feldspars and grey opalescent quartz. he lack of ferroimagnesian mitierals is noticeable. In some respects it appears to be not a normal igneous rock. The silica percentage is too high to be considered as an aplitic tonalite. In this section the texture is holocrystalline inequigranular consisting essen- tially of anhedral individuals of feldspar and quartz. The average grainsize if about 1°5 mm., whilst some feldspars reach 4 mm. and quartz over 5 mm. in length. Quartz and plagioclase are present in approximately equal amounts. The Quartz is generaily clear with inclusions arranged in strings. Cracking and undulose extinction are evidenced, ‘he larger individuals have highly irregular shapes. Wermicular quartz, frequently associated with the plagioclase in the form of miyrmekite is plentiful. studesing im anhedral individuals is generally cracked but clear. Untwinned individuals are frequent but are easily distinguished from the potash feldspars by their optically positive character and their R.I, in the untwinned individuals the maxiniutn extinction angle measured in the symmetrical zone ig 20°, corre- sponding to a composition of 40% An, Some of these twinned members are optically negative, corresponding to a more albitic plagioclase. Several examples of antiperthile were noted; these have andesine as the host and exsolution spindles of clear orthoclase, Microcline is present in the fornt of small anhedral individuals which are generally clearer aud less cracked than the andesine. The microcline generally occurs in those areas of the rock which show the greatest strain effects and in such places it tends towards an intersticial role: with it is associated some mvrmckite, Occasional grains of magrctite are present, and associated with it are a few small fakes of highly altered biotite, The effects of strain are evident throughout in cracking and undulose extinction, as well as small areas that appear to have experienced a minor degree of crushing. HorssLenbe-Grawnonrorite (1546): Mount Sir Flenry, Ayres Range. A. light brown, even-grained, granular granitic rock, It is composed af quartz, buff-coloured feldspar and dark green to black ferromagnesian granules dispersed eventy throughout the rock. Tn thin section the texture is holvuerystalline, granular with boundaries highly irregular. The average grain-size is in the order nf 3 mm, although in extreme cases intiyiduals reach 9 mm. in lenyth, 39 Andesine (about An,,) in cracked and cloudy individuals, is by far the most abundant mineral present and constitutes the major portion of the rock. Plagio- clase also occurs in myrmckitic intergrowths with quartz. Microcline with perthitic intergrowths is a lesser feature. Antiperthite is also present. Quartz is next mineral in order of abundance but plays only a minor role, tending to become interstitial. Hornblende appears in notable amount as irregular grains. It is pleochroic: X=light brown; Y = green-brown; Z==grass-green, Biaxial negative, with moderate optical axial angle, Z Ac = 20°. Magnetite is plentiful and with it often embedded or adhering to it are grains of zircon and apatite, Crusts of sphene adhere to some of the magnetite. A patite is also met with plentiftlly elsewhere in the slide. REFERENCES Basenow, Hrrsert 1905 Geological Report of the Country traversed by the South Australian Government North-West Prospecting Expedition, 1903. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 29, 57-102 Basevow, Hursert 1915 Journal of the Government North-West Expedition of 1903. Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust,, S, Aust. Branch, 15, 57-242 Witson, At.an F. 1947 The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of North- western South Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, 195-210 THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY REG C. SPRIGG Summary Upper Precambrian (Adelaide System) sediments near the north-western margins of the Flinders geosyncline have been deformed very differently from the rest of the folded geosyncline. The tens of thousands of feet of sediments concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they include a massive quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local tectonics. 40 THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA By Ree, C. Spricc [Read 21 July 1949] ABSTRACT Upper Precambrian’ (Adelaide Systent) sediments near the north-western margin of the Flinders geosyncline have been deformed very differently from the rest of the folded geusyttcline. The tens of thousands of feet of sediments concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they include a massive quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local tectonics, Great faulted sheets of the quartzite with overlying sediments have moyed differentially to the south-east, resulting in Jarge scale high- and low-angle thrust faulting. The major faults have followed obvious zones of weakness such as steep regional fold axes, or the junctions of the ntassive quartzite with its enclos- ing relatively incompetent sediments; in one case horizontal translation is measured in miles. There are ho signs of “lubrication” horizons along any of the thrusts and generally the faults are loci of intense brecciation. One fault zone is intrided by doleritic plugs. Ty ts suggested that the thrusts constitute an example of tectonic sliding on the old continental platiorm induced by a rapidly rising continental foreland at the time of geosynelinal collapse, INTRODUCTION A group of remarkable regional thrust structures was recently discovered near Witchelina Station in the north-western Flinders Ranges of South Australia i younger Preeambrian or Adelaide System sediments (hg. 1), These sediments constitute the lower portion af the Flinders geosyncline and locally they have been folded in a manner which differs greatiy trom that of the main body of the sediments to the south and east. Instead of the simple folding along east-west ar north-south axes with coniplementary eross-warping and normal faulting, typical of the central portion of the geosyneline, there has been a great develop- ment of thrust faults, frequently with latge horizontal displacement, Before discussing some of these aberrant sttuctures, the broader geatectoric pattern of the whole of the Flinders geosyncline will be outlined briefly. THE GEOSYNCLINAL SETTING The Flinders geosyncline which exceeds 500 miles in length (longitudinally ) and 200 miles in width, borders the eastern margin of the older Precambrian shield of Austraha (fig. 1). During its growth it probably had direct connec- tions with the MacDonnell geocynclitie of Central Australia, although its. develop- ments in that direction are now obscured by younger deposits. The central deeper portion of the Hlinders geosyticline now constitutes the so-called “shatter belt” of South Australia. * Geological Suryey of South Australia. Trans, Rey Soc. 73, (13 4) During geosynclinal evolution, sedimentation was practically continuous throughout the Upper Precambrian and most or all of the Cambrian period. Significant sedimentary overlap occurred to the east of the basin during the depasition af the Stirtian tillites, and subsequently to the west, with the onset of Cambrian time. Altogether a maximum of more than 40,000 feet of sediments was deposited, including two stratigraphically widely separated quartzites each of which in the north attained 6.000 feet ar more in thickness. SOUTH AUSTRALIA LOCALITY OF WILLOURAN RANGE Classification of the Flinders Geosvnecline within the systems of cither Kay (1947) or of Dapples, Krumbein and Sloss (1948) is difficult. In many respects it has much in common with the Miogeosyncline of Kay. For example, sinking progressed extremely regularly with continued deposition, and volcanic activity was generally very restricted. Sedimentary facies typical of the rapidly sinking linear gcosynclines (eugeosynclinal or island are types) were notably absent. Lithalogically the sediments indicate unusually prolonged environmental stability during the period of depusition. Quartzites are remarkably well sorted and reworked in spite of occasional abnormal thickness; greywacks, or even sub- greywacks, cecur infrequently or are absent. Shales grade from true claystones tu silistones: limestones are frequently thick. Reddish and greenish colours reflect oscillating shoreline conditions over wide areas. Geosynelinal sedimentation closed in post-Cambriau times (? Tarly Cale- donian), following the “collapse” of the vast accumulation of sediments. Within the central meridional portion of the geosyncline, folding developed with major axes essentially north-south or east-west, and while the longitudinal set were most strongly developed in the south, the latittidinal set dominated in the north, In the neighbourhood of Wilpena Station the two-fold influences had approximately equal intensity with the result that large centripital fold structures were produced. Particularly fine examples of these are the Wilpena Pound (or basin) and the Bibliande dome, which have been described by Sir Douglas Mawson (1940). 42 Away from the central region the cross folding becomes less strongly developed, so that towards the north or south the major (almost isoclinal) folds show only gentle reverse of pitch along their major axes. In this way, in plan, a particular formation may outcrop as a narrow elongated ellipse perhaps 20 miles long, but only 2 or 3 miles wide. Faults oceur sparingly through the sediments and they are generally of the steep normal or reverse type with variable vertical throw, but without significant horizontal displacement. One normal fault in the Copley (or north) district has a stratigraphical throw of about 40,000 feet. In the south the faults usually trend meridionally in sympathy with the major axes of folding, but in the norik while the local fald influence is still important, the pattern of faulting is less regular, The Adelaide System sediments are relitively unaliered except along the eastern extensions of the geosyncline where intense metamorphism accompanied eranitization and/or granite intrusion. This igneous activity modified or aceentnated folding locally in most instances, In the more northerly areas doleritic plugs are intruded along a number of the larger fault zones. In relation to the foregoing generalised geoteclonic pattern, the thrust structiives of the Witchelina province (which forms the north-western extension of the geosyncline) can only be described ag erratic. THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA The fold and fault structures of this province are still inadequately known, but sufficient evidence is available to indicate that they are largely the outcome of regional thrusting. The local patterns of deformation have obviously been strongly influenced by a massive thick quartzite ericlosed in relatively very iticarti- petent slates and limestones (folded map), The quartzite belongs near the hase of the Adelaide System, but here it is underlain by some thousands of feet of slate carrymg minor horizons of sandstone quartzite. Where thrust faulting’ can be recognised, the main criteria indicating horizontal tnovement are the enormous drag structures evident in plan in serli- ments Which are steeply dipping. Tn cases where the thrust faults cross the strike of sediments, stratigraphical evidence also. supports this interpretation. general, translation was to the south-cast. Grecciation is extensive along the thrust planes, anil there ts no evidence of significant subaqtieots slumping within the area. Hence it is thought that the development of the thrusts was late or posi-geosynclnal, which is borne out hy the absence, so far as is known, of tmconformities within the overlying portions of ihe sedimentary system. In view of this, the great horizontal translation inferred may be an example of tectonic sliding. On this interpretation, during the foundering of the Flinders geosyncline, the rising foreland ta the west would have tilted marginal sediments appreciably towards the deeper portions of the basin, and under locally favourable circumstances sliding would have commenced Tf the sediments had been water- soaked and unconsolidated, slumping would have dominated bttt this was not so, the sediments behaved as if they were consolidated. Consequently in the sliding mass, where varjations jn secimentary competencies were great, excessive stresses accumulated locally, eventually to cause failure along zones of weakness produc- ing thrust nappes along large faults with vertical shears If this is correct, the Witchelina quartzite provided a local control while the assumed zones of weak- ness included (a) axes of developing or pre-existing regional folds, and (Bb) contacts between competent and incompetent beds. Pre-existing normal faults may also have aided failure locally, 43 The thrusting was generally to the south-east, but thete are several additional regional faults of undetermined significance. These are usually accompanied by wide crush zones and some drag folding. Minor fold structures of the region can usually be correlated closely with thrust movements aud are therefore probably contemporaneous, The Moun Nor-west vegivnal fold on the other hand was in existence or developing at the time of thrust faulting. THE WITCHELINA TIIRUST STRUCTURE (Fig. 2, and pl. ii, fig. 1) The mussive Witchelina quarizite outcrops vuxtensively to the north of Witchelina Station homestead. From a point approximately 17 miles north of the homestead where it is truncated abruptly by a cross. fault, the formation strikes uniformly south and displays conformable relations with its enveloping slates and limestones, The sediments dip east at a consistently high angle, Sigs, donee ¥ Manges. quartzite 4 sandstone MINS 4 Relatively incompelant aiatax lrestorag, ————— + interbedded mite quertzites yess Fig. 2 ‘The Witchelina Overthrust. Within four miles of the homestead the quartzite flattens aml spreads in outcrop and at the same time swings castward and then back on itself until almost paralleling its origital strike. In being deflected in this manner, the formation thins out rapicly, and unduly sharply fot normal sedimentary lensitig, until it cuts out in 4 mass of large white quartz reefs in a highly shattered zone, In shearing out, the yuartzite apparently preserved its coarser bedding structure, so that on aerial photographs particular horizons within the formation can be traced almost ta the point of cut-out At the nose of the induced fold, the quartzite resumes its stevp dip cven though underlying beds haye been faulted, broken and breeciated in @ manner suggesting low angle overthrust faulting to the sosth» soulh-east. 44 The crush zone in the sole of this assumed thrust includes “‘erratic” blocks, some of them quite extensive, of dotomites, shales and quartzites, and extends for at least two or three miles transversely ta the asstmed direction of movement. The zone abounds with crush breccias, minor drag folds.and quartz recls, and from the angular nature of the brecciation there can be little doubt that the rock was consolidated at the time of movement The zone of maximum disturbance is usually less than half of one mile im width, but faults and crush zones extending into the sole of the thrust are probably complementary TILE MOUNT NOR-WEST SINISTRAL TEAR FAULT (Fig. 3, and pl. if, fig. 1 and 2) Sediments in the vicinity of Mount Nor-west have been deformed. into a steep regional anticline with a north-west and south-east-trending axis, The lowest formation exposed ainog the axis is the Witchelina quartzite which is overlain by the dolomite and magnesite series of the lower Adelaide system, ~ YCorpetent " massive quartzite... and fillite, . , "leicormpetent” stares, limestends == = ic, 3 Vhe Mt. Norwest Sutistral Fault, This regional fold axis became the locus of large-scale regional faulting, and whereas the south-west limb of the fold is relatively undisturbed and stands vertically, the quartzite in the complementary limb evidences tremendous thrusting with relative movement to the south-east, Directly north of the Mount the northern limb of the quartzite was caught np on the great shear movement, and as it appears in plan, the quartzite standing on edge was “overtolded,” and secondarily thrist-faulted, Where these various faults have been studied in the field they are obviously very steep, and in support of this, the regional “axial” fait strikes almost per- 45 tectly straight for 30 miles even though topographic relief freyuently varies several hundred feel quite rapidly, “Lhe tault instead of being “overthrist” in type is therefore more correctly labelled ‘‘sinstral.” Adjacent to Mount Nor-west, the quartzite i ile north limb of the fold is missing over i distance of several uiiles and at first sight has che appearance of having been sheared or faulted-out Iocally, [lowever, this ts not sa, and the discontinuity is caused by a considerable degree of “dragging under” in the “oyer- fold’ structure which is not reflected very markedly in the overlying finer-grained sediments. Such selective overfolding of the quartzite has resulted in a great mashing of sediments bordering its upper face, particularly “overlying” the adlyancing aspect of the “lower” quartzile uapyie Along the major regional fault, crushing and brecciation has been most severe where opposing limbs of quartzite are in contact. Large masses of quartzite have been “quarrierl’”? mto the broken zone, and in ene locality the fault has become a locus of dolerite intrusion, A cluster of four plugs occurs to the north of Mount Nor-west, the largest measuring some hundreds ot yards in diameter, CALE ~~ a 4 MiLES 2 Handing ss Se Treth aeet"* Crush vane... 8° Fault... we “Competent” quartzite. cos cccsescecy seveiunrveessve ctnameen eri” sletes & llmestone ot *. incom Vig. # The South [hl Nextral Vault and Dray Structures. HE SOUTH HILL DEXTRAT. TEAR PAULT AND DRAG STRUCTURE (Fig. 4, and pl ii, fie, 2) Several. miles south-west af Witcheling Station, in a zone of tremendous erushing, the Mount Nor-west sinistral tault splits off another steep shear to the north-east. Unlike the foregoing fault, this South Hill shear is dextral, On its western side a relatively incompetent magresite series, which dips steeply ta the north, is preserved in its entitety, while the massive Witchelina quartzite lies on its eastern aspect. From the west, the magnesite series i8 almost undisturhed in its strike witil within about half-a-mile of the fault, froto where the beds become dragged and severcly attenuated. The drag has heen consistently to the north and the various formations haye been successively sheared off in thal direction, 46 East of the fault, the Witchelina quarizite stands vertically, and in spite of its relative ‘“competency” has been contorted into a pronounced drag fold. The quartzite did not fracture into individual blocks, bur folded perfectly in parallel manner with no thinning on the limbs of folds. As yet the attitude of the quartzite has not been determined satistactorily but evidence suggests that “face up” is away from the shear. The South Hill fault itself is a marraw zone of very intense mashing, rarely exceeding a score or more yards in width, which includes a wide range of breceia types. ‘he shatter zone alsa extends into the core of the South Hill drag fold which consists of resistant masses of broken and niineralized slates and dolo- mites. No igneous bodies were encountered cutting either of these broken zones, but silicification was well developed about many centres. SUMMARY AND TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS 1 The Witchelina province lies near the margin of the ancient Flinders geo- syncline adjacent to the older Precambrian shield of Australia. 2 [t shsplays structural features which can be observed nowhere else in this upper Precambrian and Cambrian geosyncline. 2 The local sediments are lower members of the Adelaide System which locally instance a remarkable vertical change in competency from slates, through a massive (6,000 ivot) quartzite, into mare slates with limestones, The relative competencies of the sedimentary members exercised a controlling influence in the development af local structural patterns. The sediments have been folded and faulted extensively. Regional folcing, in part at least, preceded thrust faulting. Thrust faulting is late or past-sediment consolidation, as brecciation pre- domninates. along the fault zones and evidence of significant subaquvous slumping is absent. The absence of unconformities above the thrusts also supports this, view. 8 Thrust faults in some cases followed obvious Hines of weakness, such as the axis of a steep regional anticline and the contact between competent and incompetent Tormations. 9 At least three of the regional thrust faults have large horizontal componerits, and relative movement has been to the south or south-east, apparentiy away from the inferred rising foreland of the old continental shield. “SO in fe (a) North of Witchelina, the Witchelina quartzite and iis associated magne- site series have over-tidden lower sedimentary members to the south. (b) The Mount Nor-west and South Hill faults appear to be complementary, enclosing a central block moving relatively to the south. The two faults lie almost at right angles and are respectively sinistral and dextral. 10 Additional regional faults are known, but their field relations have not yet been determined satisfactorily. 1) No “lubrication” ‘horizons have been met in association with any of the thrust faults, 12° The thrust structures described may constittite a case of tectonic sliding, and on present indications two major controls in deformation would appear to be; (a) Situation near the margin of the old geosyncline, In this position a rising continental foreland accompanying geosynclinal collapse wotild increase sedimentary dip towards the centre of the hasin and finally Initiate tectonte sliding, Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,1949 Vol, 73, Plate IT Rie 1 The Witehelis Thrust Structure Photo looking north towards the Lake Eyre Plains. ROA ALL. phot Ne. 54, run 337 LO, Lat. approx 30° 5S. Long. 138° UN" Fe. Seale in foreground, approx. 45 chains ta the ineh, Fig. 20 The South Hill Dras Strneture, Vertical plroto from 20400 feet ROAST phote, No. 31, run a7, Jegt HNO HOF & tanow 1270-504 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 140 Vol, 73, Plate TIL -_> ~ "= - rs “2s SS ev Abe ee v Moen OM ROTM HORIZON |'s's/*7 ~7 mex Guaae Tr) DF MAWSON. bats RELA ively, ImcomPpetentT |! DROWAENT Se Seared patestouey & Mudenes Se Sa an CAUSH RON ES see [\ ¥vl POLERITE) =LuUSsS__- _iv¥ vy nidebeepticw toate melet cetd — REFERENCE TO. Ssicgns— r c SOOLesic4a4e PCUNOARIES---~-— SECTION THROUGH «as _ NATURAL STCAL= FAULTS (Prewetle ves : STSINE & DIP OF BEDDING LAno lokaeie LOO A MY NOM West Wits uv =r SOW eazy) aI, LEE ASA ce aN BEG FecINGs____. = =. --_>-> FITC RTADINGS ,..- ee MOADS... 2... 555 fs oe a ees THRACE, ogden wou = - @- oe -s- ee a = “i —— SECTION THROVGH pip’ _ ATeMRSet ScHLE PALL AE 0 eo eo ee Sy ae yi OW $ [ srt, r rack ua B —$—— i tAK2 ToRNees sgl thowe PLAINS ‘end THNS STATIONS... --.,_____ & —NOTES— Geology by &.C, Sen faye f cchewad trom Panaiiten Prohographs Nowe dy RF MILES | a | = =. =a = 6 ? a 2 IG " 2 i3 'a 1S IG i? ia is 20 =! =2 23 MILES Oot aie 47 (b) The presence of a major competent formation, 6,000 feet thick, low in the sedimentary sequence, which during sliding concentrated stresses locally, to bring about severe local deformation. REFERENCES Mawson, D. 1942 The Structural Characters of the Flinders Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, (2) Dapetes, E. C., Krumpetn, W. C., and Stoss, L. L. 1948 Tectonic Control of Lithologic Associations. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32, No. 12 Kay, M. 1947 Synclinal Nomenclature and the Craton. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32, No, 7 THE NULLARBOR CAVE SYSTEMS BY J. M. THOMSON Summary The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934, 1935, 1939 and 1947) in order to study the vast cave system there. 48 THE NULLARBOR CAVES SYSTEM Ry J. M. Taomson [Read 21 July 1949] The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934, 1935, 1939, and 1947) in order to study the vast cave system there. The present paper details some of the results of the last expedition carried out in February 1947. Surveys by J, M, Thomson, Master Mariner, and F. E. Ellis (Licensed Surveyor). Geological Data by D. King. Caves on the Nullarbor may be classed in two distinct types—Shallow and Deep. Shallow caves may be again subdivided into four distinct classes according to the nature of the entrances, (a) Those having a narrow elclt or fissure-like opening. These are usually only as deep as the upper hard crust, 60 to 70 feet, and consist for the most part of yariotts short passages, never more than a few feet wide. They nearly always contain some dead stalagniites and stalactites: FExamples—FPlate y, fig. 1: One (unnamed), } mile north-west of White Weils Station. One, 3-7 miles north of Disappointment Cave. Mur- rioodna Cave (pl. v, fig. 2). (b) Caves and passages leading off from the bottom and sides of Blow Holes. These are seldom more than 100 feet in length or deeper than 40 ta 60 feet. ‘They nearly always contain some dead stalactites and stalagmites. Example—lvy Cave (see pl vy, fig, 4). Koomooloobooka Cave. Bildoolja Cave. The Catacombs (pl. iv, fig. 1), (c) Bottleneck Caves (Blow-hole entrance). These are always found in stony outcrops and invariably have several stunted quandong trees growing around the entrance and have been named from the fact that the interior is similar in shape to the interior of a bottle. At the base of the opening is always found the heap of mullock which ance formed the roof at this part. This heap of mullock is tiever found at the base of normal blow-holes. I have never found bottletteck caves to con- tain stalactites or stalagmites. They mostly consist of the one chamber only and rarely have passages leading off but often have inatiy small pipes a few inches in diameter leading into them at varying heights. They are generally about 40 fect deep, Examples —Cave; one mile south of No. 3 Murrawadginie Cave. One; 4 nile north-west of No. 1 Diprose Cave, (d) Small sink-hole entrances, i.¢., with sink-holes 60 to 70 feet across and 10 to 30 feet deep, and generally having long passages leading down from the bottom of the sink hole and usually deepening to between 50 and 60 feet. Examples—Diprose Caves. Disappointment Caves (pl, iv, fig. 3). Creck Tank Caves. Murrawidginie Caves. Trans, Roy Soc. 73, (1) ap DEEP CAVIS These have large sink-hole entrances, t.¢., sink-holes from 200 to 400 fect across, and as deep as the hard upper crust of the limestone, 60 to 80 fect. These large sink-hules are only found in the sparsely-timbered belt bordering the Nullarbor and have never yet been found actually on the Plain itself, probably because of the greater thickness of the limestone nearer the coast. These all penetrate the hard surface crust and invariably lead down through huge passages to the water table, approximately 300 tu 340 feel, some containing large lakes of water, These, from their enormous size, are the most spectacular of the Nullarbor Caves. Exomples—Koonalda (pl. iv, fg, 2), Warbla. Weebubbie (pl. vi, fig. 2). “KOONALDA CAVE- bead . - re Zs Z LYE yy YD till Ly , rl Fig. 1 Plan of Koonalda Cave A Description oF Koowaupa AS AN ExAmpLr or a DEEP CAVR Matin Sinx-Hoxe (pl. iv, fig. 2) 210 fect long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet deep at its deepest part (pl. iv; fig. 2). This sink-hole A has steep sides with overhanging lips from the north-west through west to the north-east portions the edge is slightly tilled, allowing reason- able access with a Jacoh’s ladder, At the bottom of the sinl-hole and ar the north-west corner an opening leads down to the ‘ower chaiubers, After a descent to 200 feet a huge chamber, B (fi. 1), with domed roof is reached. This cavern is 280 feet long and 120 feet wide with the roof 100 feet high. T.ong underground passages lead from the northern and western ends of this chamber, the northern one 1,650 feet long with the root an average height of 50 feet and approximately 60 feet wide. At 500 feet, C, a small pool of water 5 feet deep and extending 150 feet blocks the passage; then an “isthmus” 110 feet across, [allowed by a lake 475 feet long and 5 fect deep with an average width of 90 fcet. Analysis of this water shows salinity 372 grains to the gallon total salts. This corresponds to a good sheep water, The relatively good quality of this water 1s probably influenced by recent heavy rains. D 50 At the far end of this lake a huge fall again forms an “isthmus” 210 feet long in the form of a conical island, at its highest peak 85 feet above water level. This “isthmus” is also a fall from the roof and above it the roof is dome shaped, rising alinost to ground level. Past this “isthmus” is a further lake 180 feet long and 40 feet wide (depth unknown, but it appears to be very deep). Scattered along the centre and largest lake are huge boulders, fallen irom the roof, whose tops jut out above the water surface and could be very dangerous to the canocist. 480 feet along the main northern passage, near C, a passage forks off to the westward fpr 370 fect, ending in a lake of water 50 feet by 70 feet and about 10 feet deep at its farthest pomt. Analysis of this water showed salinity 493 wrains per gallon tatal salts, and the previous remarks may be applied to its freshness. The avcrage width of this passage is 90 feet and the root 40 feet high. Over the lake the roof rises and domes to 110 feet above water level. ‘The north-west passage commences at the north-west corner of the main chamber, B, at a point near the roof and continues. on for 640 feet, It is slightly undulating, the highest points being roughly 250 feet apart. This passage is roughly 30 fcet high aud between 40 and 50 feet wide. At the last high peak a steep slope of 45 degrees drops down to a narrow cat-walk barely a foot high which proceeds. through the limestone for 20 feet, ending at a narrow ledge 5 fect wide and 20 feet long. In 1935 when we first discovered this passageway our lights would not illuminate the far side of this further cavern, but on dropping stones we found they landed im water approximately 100 feet down (E). In January 1947, when we thoronghly surveyed this cave, we discovered that the north-westera passage ended in the domed roof at the end of the western passage, commencing at (C), and that it is exactly 90 feet above water level in the end of the western passage. This small ledge cannot be seen from ground level at the end of the western pissage. There is a possibility that further passages lead off from the main chamber, B. in a south-westetly direction as this is indicated by the depressions above reound, but considerable removal of earth and botilders would be necessary before entrance could be obtained. Particularly in the western passage and at about 20 feet above floor level several horizons of large nodular flints ornament the walls. A Descripmon or THE CATACOMRAS, TYVICAL OF THE SHALLOW CAVES J atitude 31 degrees 8 south; longitude 130 degrees 36’ cast, approximately- JJiscovered by Jones in 1880 and only partly explored, Entrance to the Catacombs is in a stony outerep (pl. iv, fig, 1) scattered with small quandong trees, the actual entrance being a blow-hole about 3 feet in diameter and 25 feet deep. The sink-hole or depression surrounding this blow hole is 70 feet long by 35 feet wide but only LO icet deep. After descending the blow hole a main north-west south-east passage 240 feet long by 50 feet wide is reached. The roof of this chamber is supported by a pillar 30 fect by 20 feet (it is not a Great Mite). This was described by Jones, but it appears that a very recent and quite heavy fall from the roof has blocked a considerable part of this passage which Jones penetrated. $1 the roof 5 to 6 feet high and reaches a point 60 fcet below ground level and directions, 85 feet from the entrance hole and in an easterly direction a cross passage is reached; position C, fig. 2, running north-east and south-west. From C, we continues on. Branching off from this main passage, as is also the case from the penetrated to D, a total distance of 150 feet. ‘This passage is 10 feet wide with centre chamber B, are innumerable passages and cat-walks leading off in all os, ~THE_CATACOMBS— ’ et te at os, - sb Cc ee \ ner r {ND ect \ _ ' 7 Moban ROC RHDLE ed Ses \ eo" f ; %, ct (7 2 ‘ Nae SS) } \ “ Pa rng, Of ry ral ey ‘ ‘ | fan 4 - ITH CATACONSA ae , ee nn arn) ® tht. ‘ ° Om ey “oY \ af Cre Mo 1 , pot s Of \ 4 ot \ , N 34 1 i 2°® 4 ° ’ / ' a ‘ 1 ; \ \ Zé { _———= cA 1 \ ‘ LOCALITY PLAN — \ 4 2 } arene (00 FEIT Fig. 2 Plan of the Catacombs Time would not permit further exploration in this cave, but we found slight evidence of drip stones, etc., and I belicve a thorough exploration of this cave might well be warranted. 12 miles north-east of the Catacombs is Kudna Rock-hole (see pl. v, fig. 2). It is really two holes capable of holding about 70 gallons of water. This was found and named by Delisser in 1876. Jones also watered here in 1880, 4 mile south-west of the Catacombs we discovered and named Knowles Cave, which is a kidney-shaped sink-hole 1,000 feet long running north-west and south- east. It is 100 feet deep at the north-western end and 80 feet deep at the south- eastern end. There are no branch passages from these deeper caverns, GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE BY D. KING Summary In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the Nullarbor caverns are discussed and theories put forward to explain their formation. The immense deep-seated chambers are attributed to solution of the the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the water table, i.e., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow holes and minor sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrosion by precipitated surface waters making their way down to the water table — Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the greater part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at a higher level. 52 GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE Ry D, Kinet ARSTRACT In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the Nullarbor caverns are discussed atid theories put forward to explain their formation, The immense deep-seated chambers are attributed to solution of the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the water table, ie., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow holes and minor sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrasion by precipitated surface waters making their way down to the water table— Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the greater part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at a higher level, In the stratigraphical portion uf the paper, a considerable thickness nf Upper Cretaceous bryozoal limestone is reported. THE ORIGIN OF THE NULLARBOR CAVES The fact that not one creek or watercourse of any consequence is met within the whole 30,000 sqtare miles of the Nullarbor Plain proper, reveals that the drainage oi the meag're rainfall of the area is cotnpletely restricted to underground waterways. The abundance and large dimensions of the caves suggest that they were developed during a highly pluvial period, and although tio direct evidence of their age was found, it is considered that they were for the greater part hollowed out during the Pleistocene, when Aust- ralia experienced a notably wet climate. Relics of an ancient river system, in the form of a stting of saline lagoons linked by partially sand-drifted de- pressions, occur in the Pidinga region on the eastern fringe of the plain, and present evidence of former high rainfall conditions, Precipitated guriace waters, making their way downward through the limestone as vadose streams, created both erosional and solutional passages in the rock, ornamented with dripstones. At the water table, and below, solution alone was responsible for the formation of immense horizontal caverns devoid of dripstones. The discussion of the origin of the caves thus resolves. itself into two categories. CAVERNS OF Pureatic Ontcin The large deep-seated caverns such as Koonalda, Weebabbic, Abra- kurrie and Warbla, ate confined to near the coast where the limestone is of greater thickness. The sinkholes of these range in depth from 60 to 100 feet. At ihe base of these sinks there are commonly found lateral passages, firstly with a down gradient and of cramped dimensions, but which pradu- ally open out into immense rounded chambers, with little or no gradient, and continue as stich for many hundreds of yards. The chambers meander, with gently rounded bends, but have a dominant north-south trend. In some cases there are off shoovs from the main caverns. The caverns end abruptly as an enlarged rounded amphitheatre. * Department of Mines, Sotth Arstralia. 53 At a depth of 300 feet the water table is reached and below this “under- ground lakes” of perfectly clear water extend for great distances, interrupted by islands of material fallen from the roof. The lower chalk horizon of the limestone (see stratigraphic notes) 1s extensively eaten out into such chambers. The possibility of access to them is only exceptional, necessitating the collapse of the overlying silicifed “hard crust”, and incomplete blocking of the charmbers. The writer's inter- pretation, of the structure of this type of cavern is illustrated in the accom- panying sketch. (Fig. 3). h) aN ‘sare eaves wea a ge. DA rss LS STA eave =f, Ox LOWER PLIOCENE Dense stltciied? dimsestone, large sossese cages. Saraminitera ~y~macgipegera rertebretrs. Gas fropore - weed ive Fomor JOKE, ae UPPER MIDDLE MIOCENE Lease sifigtived’ frmastone. foraminiters - opercuttag Peel arr ASS. fetcarina rercibalatea. —~—+-—----- UPPER CRETACEOUS Chathy Bryarceal frmestone. Foraminttere ~ 3 eroplectadtes erhe Marssoralie erytere: Fig 3 Sketch section showing a typical sinkhole entrance to a Nullarbor cavern, and the slratigraphical succession. From evidence outlined below, the writer contends that these caverns were produced and enlarged under completely phreatic conditions hy solu- tion effects along major joint planes, the underground water being supple- mented by vadose streams. The periodic addition of carbonated rain water from above would greatly enhance the susceptibility of the limestone to solution, the carbon dioxide bringing about the formation of the much more soluble calcium bi-carbonate. Assuming an annual rainfall of 20 inches at the time of formation of the caves, the amount of water which fell in the course of a year on one square mile of the plain would alone he capable of dissolving some 350 cubie feet or tore of rock as calcium carbonate, or even more as bi carbonate, 54 The concentration of the solvent activity in localised places, stich as along joint planes, made possible the formation of the very large caverns. As circulation in the phreatic zone is confined to lateral drainage, which does not extend far below the water table, it may be asstimed that solutional effects on sgich a great scale as observed would only be possible just below the water table. A. C_ Swinnerton (3) has demonstrated that solution in the upper part of the water table is quantitatively adequate to perform the task demanded, The data on which the phreatie origin of the caves is based may be summarised as follow :— (a) The cavern floors show little or no gradient. This is well illustrated in the section of Koonalda cave. (fig. 1), neglecting the material that has fallen from the roof. (b) The caverns have rounded cross-sections and, in general, there is no line of demarcation of roof and wall. The smooth and undulating surfaces of both toof and walls are diagnostic of solution effects. (See pl. vi, fig. 2.) (c) The occurrence of calcite crystals and calcite encrustations on the walls and ceilings, in contrast to the absence of dripstones, has an im- portant significance. Under wholly phreatic conditions, the absence af air would eliminate the possibility of the formation of dripstones, whereas the saturated condition of the water which must occur in deep- seated more or less stagnant “circulation”, would bring about precipi tation of crystalline mineral matter while the rock material was actu- ally being dissolved. (d) The general direction of the caverns (north-soutl) corresponds with the direction of water table drainage. (ec) The ends. of the caverns are as sudden at their commencement as sink- holes (pl. vi, fig. 1), and are rounded out perfectly in continuity with the roofs and walls, Such a phenomenon is not in accordance with the habits of vadose streams, The porosity of the chalky cavernous limestone, calculated to be 269, and the fall of ntaterial from the roof, would aid solutional effects in enlarging the caverns by exposing a larger surface area to attack. At this stage a quotation from the thesis of W, M. Davis (2) would not be out of place, He says, ‘It ig proposed . .. that large caverns are ordin- arily excayated by ground water solution duting an epoch when the body of limestone in which they occur lies below the water table of its district, and the change from this epoch of solutional excavation to the following epoch of depositional replenishment takes place when the water table sinks below the cavern level in consequence of regional elevation or other effective cause .. .”, The question arises, “What then has caused the draining of the Nullar- bor caves?”, There is no definite evidence that the plain 1g tising or has risen although there are indications in this direction. Inhabitants of Eucla say that the sea has receded gradually during the Jast generation but no scientific work has been done to verify this. The explanation of the drying out of the caves is more likely to be connected with the relative levels of the water table under changing climatic conditions. In consequence of a change from the pluvial Pleistocene to the arid present, it follows that the water table would stand at a much lower level today. The simultaneous draining of the caves and the change te arid conditions would also account 55 for the absence of dripstones in these deep chambers. ‘The collapse of the roofs with the production of sink-holes (fig 3) may have been prompted by the draining off of the water, which previously would have acted as a means of support. The common occurrence in the ceilings of perfectly developed domes by a partial collapse of the rock material seems to be a natural means of resisting further collapse. Most domes are smooth and merge gently into the roof proper. This suggests that the rock fell during or at the decline of the phreatic phase of the cavern’s history. Enlargement of the caverns is probably going on to a minor degtee at the present time, the bottom of some being below the water table, where water accumulates as underground lakes, The extent of solution under present conditions is discussed in a later section. Caverns or Vapose Orrcin The origin of the numerous shallow underground passages, caves, swallow- holes and blowholes, in contrast to the large deep-seated caverns, appears. to have been dependent on corrosional and solutional effects of surface waters making their way down to the water table. The erosive action of the water would be enhanced hy suspended silty material carricd in from the surface. The walls and roofs are angular and irregular and, in general, they have a fairly steep gradient. The blowholes are olten vertical. The occurrence of dripstones in these shallower caves is evidence that they were formed hy vadose waters. The writer contends that the dripstones are mainly relics of the high rainfall period (Pleistocene?) existing when the caverns were formed. In some localised parts of the passages, at the intersection of joints and along planes of weakness afforded by the bedding, more active erosion has taken place and larger openings have heen developed. This is well illustrated in the natrow passageways of the Catacombs which occasionally open up into large chambers (fig 2.). WATER ANALYSES Samples of water from the surface of pools in Koonalda Cave, forwarded to the S.A.G. Department of Mines, were analysed by T. W, Dalwood of the School of Mines Assay Department. The results are tecorded below. Koonalda Koonalda Locality Cave Cave san risii Western Northern Water Cut Passage Passare 198 ft. Tons and Radicles (gruins per gall.) Chlorine, Cl - - - - - - - 264-95 201-60 749-43 Sulphuric acid, SO, -— - - = = 4654 30-70 145-31 Carbonic acid, CO, - - - - - 3-15 4-20 4-50 Nitric acid, NO, - = - - - - ttace trace = Sodium, Na - - = < - - 145-70 410-8 414+21 Potassium, Kf - - - - - - ~ - —_ Calcium, Ca ~- eee 1674 12-37 46-95 Magnesium, Mg - - - - = = 16-72 12-52 47-15 Silica, SiO, - - - = = - + - “ 1:90 Total saline matter (grains per gall.) - 493-80 372-19 1,409-45 Total saline matter (qunces per gall.) - 1+13 0-85 3-22 56 Assumed Composition of Salts (grains per gall.) Calcium carbonate - “ - - - 5:25 7*0) Calcrum. stiiphate - - - - - 49°66 52-51 149-43 Calcium chloride - - - - - - - rm — Magnesium curbonate - - = - - - ® — Magnesium sulphate - - - - - 14-41 9-73 49-79 Magnesium chloride 54:16 41-32 147-21 Sodium carbonate - - - - - - - — Sodium sulphate - - - - - - - - — Sodium chloride - - 370-32 281-63 1,053*f2 Sodium nitrate - - - - - - trace trace — Silica - - - - - - - - 6 - 1-90 ‘ ' i} t ! The low lime content may be partly explained by the fact that the samples were taken after local heavy rains, and sufficient time may not have elapsed for appreciable solution of the limestone to have taken place. Nevertheless, samples fram bores on the Nullarbor Plain have shown a simular low figure for lime. The analysis of water from the chalk horizon in Muddaugana Bore quoted by Ward (4) has been listed for comparison... The conclusion is reached that ander (he existing arid conditions, a sufficient influx of carbonated surface waters essential for the large scale solution of the limestone is lacking, and consequently, the excavation of the caverns at the present time is restricted to almost negligible proportions. CAVE EARTTIS The floorg of the eaves are covered with a thick Jayer of red-brown clayey soil, pattly residual, and partly washed in from the plain, as well as large heaps of fragmentary limestone fallen from the roof. Other mineral matter is uncommon and the following only occur locally. Glauber’s Salty—Efflorescent crusts of Glauber’s Salts occur on the floor of certain passages of Koonalda Cave. The deposits are several feet thick. The lower portions are crystalline but promptly fall into powder on exposure to air. But Guano—A small sinkhole about one mile south east of Koonalda Cave contains abundant bat guano oozing out of fissures in the walls. The material is almast black in colotr, moist and sticky where broken, and of an unpleasant odour. The outside surlace of the guano is smooth and polished, On drying, it becomes imuch harder and brittle. The occurrence suggests that it oozed along the fissures and down the walls of the depres- sion at reduced viscosity, in the presence of abundant water. There are considerable amounts of ligncous matter, mainly twigs, included ity the guano. A qualitative chemical test showed the presence of phosphate. Gypsum—Long fibrous ctystals of gypsum commonly radiate from the flint nodules in the walls of most of the deeper cayes. The mineral was restricted to this occurrence. Ochre—Nodules of soft powdery red-brown hydrated iron oxide oecur in some parts of the limestones. They may represent a leached residual. There are only a few isolated oceurrences of the ochre, best seen at Watbla Cave. Carphosiderite—Minute yellow stains of this mineral are present in the lower horizon of Weebabhie Cave. The carphosiderite was determined by chemical spot tests. (The test was carried out because of its resemblance 1o carnotite stains). KY STRATIGRAPHY The horizontal undisturbed Jimestones of the Nullarbor Plain cover more than eighteen thousand (18,000) square miles at South Australian territory, and extend mto W.A,, north of the Great Australian Bight, The thickness as observed from water boring varies from five hundred tq seven hundred feet, the basin becoming shallower land. They overlie lacustrine sedi- ments, including lignite, and Precambrian granites and gneisses, An upper “hard crust " of silicified limestone from 40 to 60 feet thick, with abtindant casts of fossil shells (pl. vi, fg. +) abruptly passes down imto a soft white chalky horizon which continues down to a depth of at least 300 feet, In the upper horizons (100 to 150 feet) the chalk contains abun- dant echinvids (Cassidulus sp.). Ata depth of 150 to 200 feet Notestrea are cammon. Below this there are no large fossils. Thin horizons of nodular flints, clongated horizontally, and with longer axes measuring up to several feet, occur in the chalk at depths of 105, 140, 190 and 220 feet. The chalk has been the most susceptible to solution effects and the collapse of the overlying “hard crust” under gravily has given rise to sink lioles, Samples of the limestones were collected at regular depth intervals. ‘T\wenty-six thin sections were prepared by the writer and forwarded {o Miss 1. Crespin, Commonwealth Palaeontologist, for determination of age rela- tions. Detailed work on zonal foraminifera carried cut by Miss Crespin provided most interesting results, Of particular importance is the discov- ery that the lower chalk is of Upper Cretaceous age.) Previously the lime- stone had been referred to Tertiary times only, The sttface limestones apparently belong to two series, the Lower Pliocene and the Upper Middle Miocenc, and can be correlated with parts of the sections of the Adelaide Flains. Miss Crespin believes that the Lower Pliocene limestones represent a deeper water facies of the “Adelaidcan" which she is naw convinced is Lower Phocene, (but not Kalimnan) and which extends as far north as North West Cape in Western Australia. The chalky limestones from the caves are Upper Cretaceous, several well-known zonal foraminifera being noted in them. The nearest known Upper Crcta- ccous deposits are at Gin Gin in Western Australia. Miss Crespin's correlation is outlined as under: (Report No, 1947/68). The limestones came from three caves on the Nullarbor Plains, the Koonalda, the Abrakurrie und the Weebabbie, and from the surface erst in the vicinity of the caves. The surface samples are labelled Sl, 52 and S3, and were co'fected from the surface down to a depth of 10 feet. 1, Lower Purocenr (“Adelaidean")--0-10 ft. in thickness. Si and S3 are hard, dense, pink to cream-coloured limestones containing furaminifera. Marginopora verlebralis is common and is associated with Sarites mearginalis, Malvulina sp., Jilintina triquetra, Triloculina tricarinata atid Discorbis evcloclypeus, all of which are typical of the Lower Phocene (“Adelaidean”) of South Austrilia. The common (“Adelaidean”) gastropod Neodiastoma provist is also present itt S3. 2 Uerree Minn. Miocene—S0-90 ft. in thickness. Sample $2 is a hard, dense, dark cream-coloured limestone with numerous lyghter patches of the caleareous alga Lithothammium ramoassisimum. Numerous foraminifera are present in the rock, the commonest forms being Operculina wictoriensis and Calcaring vercibulata, Racer forms are Gypsma howchint and ~ ©) Later field investigations by the present wriler, how ever, stiggest that the chalky lunestone is of Middle Miocene age. 58 Crespinella umbonifera, This assemblage is typically Miocene and has recently been found at the top of the Miocene and immediately underlying the Lower Pliocene in bores in the Adelaide Plains. Present information suggests that this assemblage represents the uppermost portion of the Middle Miocene. 3 Upper CrETAcEouUsS—at least 200 ft. in thickness. The samples from the Koonalda Cave (C5-C9, C11, C13, C16-C19) were collected from the depth of 60 feet down to 300 feet, those from the Abrakurrie Cave (M5, M6, M8) from 150 feet down to 240 feet, and from the Weebabbie Caye (W10, W16) from 100 feet down to 290 feet. Except for C5 from the Koonalda Cave. which is a crystalline limestone of indeterminate age, all samples from the three caves consist of chalky white bryozoal limestones of Upper Cretaceous age, The limestones contain foraminifera and radiolaria, an associa- tion which is frequently found in rocks of Cretaceous age in Australia. The Zonal foraminifera recognised are Spiroplectotdes clotho, Marssonella oxycona and Globotruncana sp. Other typical species are Guembelina globulosa and Globigerina cretacea, Small rotalines are common but are difficult to determine in thin section. The radiolaria all belong to the Spumellarian group. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express thanks to Captain J. M, Thomson for the invita- tion to accompany him on the expedition to the Nullarbor Plain, and to Sir Douglas Mawson for the use af facilities at the University of Adelaide for the preparation of rock sections, REFERENCES 1 Cresrin, Miss I 1947 Notes on Samples of Limestones from the Nullarbor Plains, South Australia. Report No, 1947/68—Unpublished (1947) 2 Davis, W. M. 1930 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 41 3 Swryverton, A. C. 1932 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 43 4 Warp, L. K. 1946 The Occurrence, Composition, Testing and Utilization of Underground Water in South Australia, and the Search for Further Supplies. Geol. Surv. of S. Aust., Bull, 23 73, Plate IV Vol “QOLIEAP LO a LOLS Uts apelus E SOAR) dSOACICT DOYYUIS + 9ARD LVppeuooxp | “SLT p St] AaB) uo moddesicy ‘QOUBATUS TBAB) SylUOIEeY T° € Bld “eyo S,unsoq & UL Sulpuadsaq HONS JOqivyNN wo aARd yooualyjoq WF “BLY UONRIS sCqIeIINN Uo savy SAT $ “BLY Vol. 73, Plate V EIS JOqIeyNN wo sae) eupooranyy ‘QOURAJUS ]ya]o MOIIVN | “BY Aust.,1949 5. Soc, Trans. Roy. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Anst, 1949 Vol 74, Plate Lake es Weebubbis ? casts Pig. ones showing cdrip-st Lave, Abralarrie Cave, shawinge abrupt end of (he passive, Ivy | Piz, AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BY WAVE SCOURING AT GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY BERNARD C,. COTTON Summary On 17 June 1949 Mr H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broadway and Weewanda Street, Glenelg, and extends for a distance of about a quarter of a mile. At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed from almost the water’s edge for a distance of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an old quartzite pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of the present beach. 9 AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BEY WAVE SCOURING AT GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Ly Bernarp C. Corton* [Read 11 August 1949] On 17 June 1949 Mr. H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broad- way and Weewanda Street, Glenelg, and extends for a distance of about a quarter of a mile. .At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed from almost the water's edge for a distatice of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an ald quartzile pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of the present beach. Dead trunks, roots and pneumatophores of the mangrove, dwvicennia offictnals are to be seen in numbers planed off Jevel with the mud surface by gentle tidal action, leaving sections exposed, Numerous dead shells are embedded in the mud in their living position. They are species similar to those found at the Port River mangrove flats today. The bivalves are Macoma deltoidalis, Macoma modestina, Venerupis crebrelamellata, Penerupis crenata, Soletellina biradiata, Enmarcia fiusmigata, Notospisida parva, Pholas australasiag and Noto- feredo edax. Gastropods are Bembicinm imbricatum, Zeacumanius diomenensis, Ausirocochlea sebra, Selinator fragilis, Uber conicum, Fhasianella anstralis, Jn addition to these there are reef shells such as Cleidotheerus albidus, Ostrea sinuata, Brachyodontes erosus, Cominella eburnca, Trichomya hirsuta and Melanerita melanotragus. The reet shells apparently attached to or lived upon the hard sandstone capping, two or three inches thick, found in patches on top of the black mud. Odd samples of the sandstone are covered with young dead “Port Lincoln” oysters of the species mentioned above. Dvad specimens of the “shipworm’ Nototeredo eda are fond in practically every mangrove slump examined, Certain species of mollusca found im sift are larger than present-day livmg specimens, Bembricium imbricatum averages over twice the bulk of livmg examples, Austrocochlea zebra is taller and the mussel Brachyodontes is consistently slightly Jarger. Mangrove flats thronghottt Australia have a similar fauna and show little alteration in different faunal regions, except that produced by lower temperatures. The result is that the large species of the North are missing m the South, and even the apecies common to all mangrove areas become smaller in cooler waters. Therefore it is logical to expect that the mangrove mud-flat here exposed enjoyed a slightly warmer climate in its day, Mangroves are gradually retreating north in Gulf St. Vineet, Whereas there is every indication from fatal studies that the mangrove lived until.a comparatively short time ago on both sides of the present beach sand dune us far sunt as Port Noarlunga, it has now retreated north to the region of the Outer Harbour mud-flats. Here within the last twenty years silting has killed them Gyer most of the large area which is shortly to be reclaimed for harbour works. The recently exposed site was rapiilly desiccated by tidal action, Tt was first examined on 17 June. On 19 June tt was partly covered by weed ( Pasi- dona). By 24 June the pebble recf was mostly covered with sand over its full length, and the sand has already thinly covered a large portion of the man- rrove flat. *Sonth Austratian Museum. Trains Roy Soc. 73, 1) 40 By August 13th the scoured area was almost entirely covered with a smooth Jayer of fine sand like that so typical of Adelaide beaches. It was ascertained by digging on 3 Vebruary 1950 that a minimum average ol twenty inches of sand covered this site. ‘Nhe shells could not remain in situ very long when exposed for a weel aiter 17 June. They were already being washed out of the soft black mud. A fisher- man, Mr, F. Page, says that a small purtion of mangrove flat, about 50 yards long and 20 yards wide, was exposed in front of Weewanda Street in January 1949. Pebind the present sand-dunes, in the area known as New Glenelg, fresh water is struck at about 12 feet in a quartzite pebble bed, which is situated at about the same Jevel as the quartzite bed of the beach. This pebble bed evidently cartlinues almost to the foot of the old red sandhills, which stretch from Somerton tu Glenely in an almost uninterrupted sequence and are exposed near Brighton Koad, Sacred Heart College, and at the corner of the College playing fields near Walker's Road. ‘The western edge of the red sand-dunes runs north and south and a little west of Moseley Street. They were merely low ridges about 15 feet in maximum height, but buillings, roads and other influences have now obliterated traces in most areas. In June 1948 scouring took place at Brighton, and the surface sand was removed io a depth of four feet, exposing in places the top of the black mul, The vertebrae and rits of a whale skeleton were revealed in situ. The dis- covery was reported by Mrs. IE. M, Nairn of Rrighton, The Director of the Sout Australian Museum, Mr, H. M. Hale, identified the skeleton, which is in a poor state of preservation. as a whale-bone whale, probably a hump-back. It is possilie that the skeleton is contemporary with the mangrove fiat. It is suggested that the mangrove flat and quartaite reef may be con- temporary with the oll red sandhills. Te is difficult to decide whether the pebbles are of coastal origin or indicate an old opening of the Sturt River. The uceurrence of cross-béidded red sandstone typical of the Adelaide system favours an origin consistent with sea-shore transportation as rocks of this group outcrop in the sea-cliff regions from Marino South, Such rocks do not outcrop in the yalley of the River Sturt. It is interesting to note that. a sketch of this area by Colonel Light in about 1836 depicts the beach pretly well as at present, the coastal dunes probably bound with trne spinifex (Spinifex hivsutus), Olearia and other dune vegetation, as they are today. The dunes are 250 yards wide and up to 30 to 50 fect in height, sloping to high water level towards sea. Streets and buildings now cover portion of rhe immer edge of what is really an unbroken dune ridge. A test bore shows mangrove mud to be about two Feet in thicktess followed try glauconitic clay, then sand, but no rock. This suggests that the mangroves fluurished for only a comparatively short period. lt may be that the tmuotial scouring of the beach in this area first commenced when the artificial projection of the Broadway sea-wall was built in 1928, The liattom of this sea-wall is just below high-tide mark, The scouring was strongly accentuated during a heavy sea in April 1948 when IT,M-A.S. “Bareoo,” survey irigate, was driven ashore at Glenelg Nerth. From then on the scouring con- tinued for about twelve months, exposing the first small portion of mangrove flat in Janvary 1949, mentioned by F. Page. Mr. A. G. Edytist kindly directed my attention to the sequence of strata exposed in a recently excavated drainage well, Situated on a property in Farrell Streei at about 200 yards from high tide mark, the excavation has reached a depth of six Teet. The uppermost layer is of black swamp silt which may have heen 61 originally dune sand and vegetation, and is about twelve inches in thickness. Next follows a limestone band, six inches thick, apparently contemporary with that of the oyster bed in the mangrove flat. Beneath this is two feet of yellow sand, Under the sand is about six inches of light coloured mud and sand in which is an abundance of Coxiella shells similar to those found in such quantity in the Coorong and around inland salt lakes, Beneath is the black mud of the mangrove swamp with the cockle Katelysia and other marine shells of the mangrove suite. This sequence, situated in the swale behind the present beach-dunes, presents an interesting contrast to the wave-scoured site on the beach front. Some years ago a fresh water swamp existed here which accounts for the black swamp-silt resting above the limestone. The fine yellow sand beneath the limestone may be beach dune-sand. The Coxiella mud suggests a salt-lake with changing salinity as these molluscs flourish in changing salt concentrations, from water salter than the sca to almost fresh. Beneath this is the mangrove mud-flat. On 9 February 1950 a similar though smaller site at Ilenley Beach, just north of the River Torrens outlet, was brought to my notice by Mr. C. V. Fischer. He states that the scouring was first observed about April 1948, with which date the heavy scouring at Glenelg corresponds. H, M. Cooper intends to describe later some of the native stone implements and other material discovered by him on the site. CoNCLUSION The mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave-scouring flourished for a short period from, say, one thousand to three thousand years ago when the climate was a little warmer, and may have been contemporary with the old red sand- hills. The mangroves were comparatively quickly exterminated by sand-silting. This process is now proceeding at the Outer Harbour, and has previously killed the mangroves which once grew as far south as Port Noarlunga. FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL BY BERNARD C. COTTON Summary Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray. The photograph on pl. viii, fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made near the Swan Reach — Loxton road about two miles north of Swan Reach. The area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a compact mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thickness and extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine limestone. The matrix becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not beeen continued deeper than 15 feet. The oyster bed apparently continues further down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that the deposit may extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site being within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the face of the cliffs at this point as they are difficult of access and the normal section may have been covered by earth or sand falls. 62 FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL By Berwarp C, Corton * Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray. The photograph on pl. viii, fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made near the Swan Reach- Loxton road about two miles north of Swan Reach. The area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a compact mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thick- ness and extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine limestone. The matrix becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not been continued deeper than 15 feet. The oyster bed apparently continues further down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that the deposit may extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site being within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the face of the cliffs at this point as they are difficult of access and the normal section may have heen covered by earth or sand falls. Among the millions of oysters exposed only a few other Pliocene Molluscs were noted, There were two impressions of Proxichione cognata Pritchard, a Mimachlamys antiaustralis Tate and what may have been a Multhoidea hora Cotton, The common Gastropod of the Lower Pliocene (Adelaidean) Neadia- stoma provisi Tate was not seen during the brief examination. The oysters are being dug out im order ta surface about ten miles of the adjacent Swan Reach - Loxton Road and specimens spread on the road directly from the deposit are shown on pl. viii, fig. 2. It will be noticed that the shells vary from the narrow shliape of O. stwrttana which occurs in “the upper part of the River Mur- ray cliffs from Overland Corner to beyond Blanchetown” (Tate), to the rounder QO. grenicola Tate described from the “Upper Beds at Aldinga’ regarded as Lower Pliocene. A similar variation may be seen in the living Ostrea sinuata Lamarck or Port Lincoln Oyster. Another oyster bed of the same age is to be seen at Loxton at and below river level, exposed in the Murray cliffs in the new Engineering and Water Supply pumping station cutting. In this exposure occur Ostrea sturtiana Tate, Plebidonax depressa Tate, both originally described from the “oyster beds at Nor’-west Bend, River Murray,” Tylospira morwicki Finlay and Glycymeris (Tucetidla) rota Cotton from the ‘‘Adelaidean” and Uber balteatelium Tate, and Anapella variabilis Tate, both described from the Upper Beds at Halletts Cove and all common species of the Adelaidean and also Leiopyrga quadricingulata Tate and Cucullaea praelanga Singleton from the Upper Beds of Muddy Creek, all belonging to the Lower Pliocene. There is a large vertebra of a whale amongst the material examined from the Loxton site. * Palacontologist, Department of Mines. Trans Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949 ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate VII Fig. 1 Mangrove-flat looking north, showing the sea-wall projection at Broadway (top right), the sea, mangroye-flat, quartzite pebbles and present sand, Vig, 2 Mangrove stumps and shells embedded in mud. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate VIII Macowa deltoidalis Humarcia -fumigeta Zeacumantus _ diemencnsis 4 Hotetereda Sia ~. eden bering in ; atelysia Austrocochles 2ebra Vangroves, perond Cavetidens Coulnelia eburnes Brachyodontes erosus Fig. 1 Suite of shells from mangrove flat. Fig. 2 Oysters from excavation, spread on road near Swan Reach. SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS, TOGETHER WITH A NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON Summary The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth collection in the Zoology School of the University of Adelaide. They were, unless otherwise acknowledged, collected by the senior author. Included in the paper are references to some genera and species of Australian nematodes discussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948). 63 SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS, TOGETHER WITH A NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI By T, Harvey Jonwnston and Parricra M. Mawson* [Read 11 August 1949] The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth collection in the Zoology School of the University of Adelaide, They were, unless otherwise acknowledged, collected by the senior author. Included in the paper are references to some genera and species of Australian nematodes dis- cussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948). Types of the new species are being deposited in the South Australian Museum, We desire ta acknowledge assistance in regard to material from Messrs. V. Haggard, Director of the Adelaide Zoological Gardens; G. G, Jaensch and L, Ellis of Tailem Bend; H. M, Cooper of the South Australian Museum; Bruce Shipway of the C.S.LR.O., Western Australia; M. Blackburn, Fisheries Division, C.S.L.R,O.; as well as Dr, P, O. Flecker and Mr. J. Wyer of the North Queetisland Naturalists’ Club, Cairns. The work was carried out in connection with the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide, LIST OF ITIOSTS AND PARASITES FisH ARACANA FLAVIGASTER (Gray), Capillaria sp., Glenelg, S, Aust. Pacrosomus auratus Bloch. Cucwllanellus sheardi J. and M., Outer Harbour, S. Aust, OFPHTHALMOLEPIS LINEOLATUS C. and V. Cucullanellus sheardi J. and M., Kan- garoo Island, S. Aust. Lovetria sEALit (Johnston). Stomachus marinus L., Tasmania. AMPHIBIA Hyia Peroni (Bibron) Tschudi. Oswaldocruzia limnodynastes Johnston and Simpson, Strathalbyn, 5. Aust. Physaloptera confusa J. and M. (larval stage), Tailem Bend, S. Aust. LiIMNODYNASTES TASMANIENSIS Gunther. Physaloptera confusa J. and M., larval stage, Tailem Bend, S$. Aust. Birps Poptcers cristatus Linn. Cupillaria sp.; and Contracaecum podicipitis n.sp., Tailem Bend, S. Aust. AMNAs suPERciILIosA Gmelin. Tetrameres fissispina (Dies.), Tailem Bend, S. Aust. MamMMaLcs Potorous tTripactyLus (ApPIcALis) Kerr. Ausivestrongylus potoroo n, sp.; and Labiostrongylus eugenti J. and M., King Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania. MAcropus TASMANIENSIs Le Souef. Labiostrongylus longispicularis Wood, Tas- mania. Macrorus ocynromus Gould, Dtpetalonema roemeri (Linst.), South-western Australia. Macropus acitts Gould. Lahiostrongylus insularis (J. and M.); Cloacina digi- tata J. and M.; and Dipetalonema raemeri (Linst,), all collected by Dr. P. Flecker from Brooklyn Station, Cairns district, North Queensland, *University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 72 64 Bos Taurus L, Ontchecerca gibsoni Clel, and Jnstn., North-eastern S, Aust. Rattus Norvecicus Erxl, Trichosomoides crassicauda Bellingham; Cepillaria hepatica (Banecr.); Protospirura muris Gmelin; and Syphacia obvelata (Rud.), Adelaide, 5S. Aust. Rarrus ratrus Linn. Cupileria hepatica (Baner.); Protospirura mauris and Swphacia obvelata (Rud.), Adelaide, S. Aust. Mus muscurus Linn. balsam; thus corres- ponding to Andesine of composition Aby;An,,. Quartz is present as clear colourless anhedral crystals and contains lines of fluid inclusions often ag two sets at right angles. Biotite has a subhedral tabular habit. Strongly pleochroic: X = light golden yellow, Y = Z = dark brown (almost opaque). Biaxial negative with a very low optic axial angle so as to appear almost uniaxial. It exhibits slight alteration to chlorite in marginal areas. Associated with the biotite are small grains of magnetite and zircon. The small grains of zircon em- bedded in the mica are surrounded by pleochroic haloes. Sphene is present in stnall euhedral crystals with high relief. It is a weakly pleochroic, biaxial positive variety with birefringence masked by the depth of colour. Apatite occurs in the usual rod-shaped crystals, Zircon and magnetite are present but not common. The former appeats as small rounded grains of high relief and strong birefringence. No fluorite is contained in the sections examined but has been observed in other outcrops. The presence of fluorine is indicated in the analysis, An analysis of this granite (No. 7885) was made by one of us and is given below, TabLe A IT TI III IV SiOs - - - - 73°83 74-20 76°07 70-18 TiOs - - - - 0-30 0:29 0-11 0°39 Al:Os - - - - 12°45 14+53 13°96 14:47 FeO. - - - - 0-74 1-14 0-14 1557 FeO - - - - 1:64 0:90 0°42 1:78 MnO - - - - trace 0-03 trace 0-12 MgO - - - - 0-24 0-20 trace 0-88 CaO - - - - 1:04 1-00 0-68 1:99 NaO - - - - 4-29 3°06 3-90 3°48 K;0 - - - + 5°13 3°55 4°64 4-11 H:O+ - - - - 0-26 0-15 0-18 0-84 H,O- - - - - 0-02 0-15 0-07 — COs - - - - —_ O11 — — P.O; - - - = 0-09. 0-08 0-01 0-19 ZrOs - - - - 0-06 —_— trace _ BaO - - - - 0-05 — _ — Ss - - - - = 0-06 — — _ F - - - - - 0-11 0-19 0+10 —_ cl - - - - - — 0°03 — — FeSa - - - - _— 0-10 0-13 — 100-31 99-71 100°41 100-00 Less 0 for F & Cl - - 00-05 0-09 0:04 _ Total - - - - 100:26 99 +62 100-39 100-00 I. Murray Bridge Granite (7885), Quarry near Noske’s Mill. Anal. J. M. Kruger. II. Swanport Granite. Swanport Quarry. Anal, W. S. Chapman; fluorine by A. W. Kleeman. Ill. Aplite of the Swanport Granite Quarry. Anal. A, W. Kleeman. IV. Granite of all periods. Daly's average of 546 analyses. 126 TABLe B Norm of Rocks of Table A I II Ill Quartz - - Q 27-45 QO 41-40 Q 34-26 Orthoclase - 30°02) & 66-17 | re 21-13 297-24 Albite - - 36-15} ° SO°7} 93:62 | oy .6a F 49-31 | 95°40 || 33-01 |B 63-03 Anorthite ~ _ 2-50 2:78 Corundum—- — 4:69 C 4:69 1-33 C1453 Diopside Wo - 1+63 — 0-53 Fs - 0-50 — = En - 1-727 P 3-85 — ;-P 0:76 _ \P 0-53 Hypersthene Fs | 0-76 | Las En _— ir £ Magnetite = - = 0-98 t 1°62 ) ye 2.23 | 3-97 0-23 1 v4 9-38 Timenite « = ‘Ohi Ju 1s4l gar | oer} : ois Pytite - - 0-24 0-10 Apatite - - 0°34 0-20 0-13 | Fluorite - - 0°16 A 1-00 0°43. A 0-98 0-20 L A 0+33 Calcite - - — 0-25 = Zircon = - 0-18 — = Water = ~- 0:28 0-28 0:28 0-30 0-30 © 0-30 0-25 HsO 0-25 Total - - - 100-01 99-67 C,LP.W. Classification:— I, 1413 — Liparase-—Liparose II, 1.3 1 (2) 3’ — Magmatic name is Tehamose—Alaskose IIE. 1 (3) 4 1% 3’ — Alaskase- Liparose XENOLITHS IN THE Murray Brince. GRANITE The following two xenoliths were collected from the granite quarry and petrologically examined. Xenolith (7886) is a grey rock in which are set pink feldspars of porphyritic dimensions. Microcline-microperthite predominates over plagioclase. It is observed to be undergoing sericitization. The pagioclase, which has a composi- tion Ab,,Aty, is less altered than the potash feldspar. Quartz is in small grains with sutured margins and is easily distinguished from feldspar by its clarity. Biotite Is similar to that in the granite, Hornblentie with extinction angle about 16° and strongly pleachroic in green and brown, Sphene, light brown and weakly pleochroic. Zircon associated with the biotite but in small rounded grains and apatite in minute rods. In this xenolith there is a small development of myrmckitic intergrowth. of quartz and feldspar; the quartz is in yermiculate blobs and drops in the feldspar. Xenolith (7887) is a grey compact, fine-grained, equigranular rock composed mainly of quartz, feldspar and biotite. In microscope slide the quartz shows strain phenomena and bears abundant inclusions of iron ore, apatite and biotite. The feldspars are microcline-microperthite and andesine. LBiotite, showing some alteration to chlorite; sphene is fairly abundant. Fluorite is present in large, clear colourless individuals with high negative relief; these grains are associated with biotite, some are ptirple, 9882 1-24 0-25 100-31 127 Rocks or THe INNER Micmatitic Bett MARGINING THE Murray Brivncr Granite Schists, gneisses and pegmatites of the inner, severely metamorphosed belt margining the Murray Bridge granite mass on its west side are well exposed along Rocky Gully Creel: and north-north-west thereof, Hornblende gneiss and biotite gneiss were described from this locality by Woolnough. Herein the petrographic characters of selected rocks from this area are given. Actinolite-Cordierite Schist (7862). This is of a yellowish-green overall colour. Long needles of green actinolite in sheaves and bitndles stand out in relief on the weathered surface. The rock cleaves readily along foliation planes. Actinolite is abundant in idioblastic needles, present to the extent of 41% by volume ; its extinction angle is very small. Cordierite is present to the extent of 49% as xenoblasts forming a ground- trass mosaic. Pleochroic haloes are absent although inclusions of apatite are common, Biaxial negative with large optic axial angle, Rt. on cleavage flakes lies between 1°543 and 1-533. Occasional strings of granular quartz are seen on the face of the rock but practically absent in the micro-slide. Apatite as long needles is present as inclusions in the cordierite. Magnetite is common and zircon prescht in small amounts, Aclinolite-Albite-Quarte-Schist (J. K. 38). A very dark-coloured rock with schistosity developed by great abundance of oriented long needles of amphibole. Besides amphibole there is present some fresh albite (Ab,,An,), and a consider- able amount of granular quartz. Apatite 1s scarce. Aclinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Biotite-Schist (7865). In hand-specimen the rock is seen to consist of long needles of black amphibole, with well-marked pre- ferred orientation, set is a matrix of white feldspar and quartz. The mineral assemblage is controlled by the parallel alignment of the green actinolite. The interstitial feldspar matrix is crawded with fine rods and needles of apatite. It is fairly fresh and free from alteration. Actinolite with typical amphibole cleavage and extinction angle Z A c= 15°, Pleochroism strong; X—pale yellow, Y = greenish-yellow, Z—dark green. Gramular, interstitial oligoclase (Ab,, Angy) is abundant. Quartz occurs as xenoblasts in the matrix with feldspar. Biotite 1s sparsely represented; pleochroism strong; XM==light yellow, Y—=Z—=dark brown; included are small rounded crystals of zircon. Apatite occurs as small masses and as teds and needles throughout the slide, and as abundant minute melusions in the feldspar. Ouartz-Andesine-4 ctinolite-Epidole-Schist (7854). This isa dark grey, fine~ grained, schistase reck, on the face of which black needles of actinolite are apparent, The actinolite is similar to that in (7862), Quartz is fairly abundant as clear xenoblasts, Andesine (Ab, An,,), is abundant in association with the quartz; it exhibits good cleavage and albite twinning. Epidote is present only in small amounts in xenoblastie masses of high posi- tive relief: it is pleochroic from colourless to lemon yellow; biaxial negative, with large 2V. Apatite, zircon, iron ore and sphene are present in small amounts a5 accessories, Acsinofite-Andesine-Biotite-Schist (7872), This is a dense, black compact rock of fine grain and displays a poor schistose structure, 128 The plagioclase which is abundant is ah acid andesine (Ab,,An,,), Occa- sional grains of quartz may be present but were not distinguished with certainty. Biotite is well represented, Apatite and magnetite also present as minor accessories. Aibite-Actinohte-Quarts-Cordierile-Biotita-Schist (J, K, 87). This is a light-coloured rock composed of grey saccharoidal albite and quartz through which are greenish-black needles of actinolite which imparts schistosity to the rock. The actinolite is in sheaf-like bundles with individuals to 1 cm. in length. In section this rock displays a granoblastic texture, the result of the associa- tion of xenoblasts of cordierite, quartz and plagioclase; this being modified by the directional structure imparted by the pale green-brown amphibole and biotite. ‘The grain is fairly fine but oecasional porphyroblasts of plagioclase are present. Albite (Ab,,An,) is very abundant. The actinolite is strongly pleochroic, Quartz is not abundant but forms a mosaic with the albite, Cordierite in present in small amounts as xenoblasts bearing abundatit minute inclusions; it displays poor multiple twinning, has a biaxial character, and it is undergoing decomposition to give rise to chlorophyllite. Weakly pleochroic, yellow haloes surround crystals of zircon included in the cordierite, Riotite occurs as small highly pleochroic idioblasts, Zircon 1s a sparse accessory. Actinolite-Oligoclose-Schist (J. K. 85). A dark-coloured, friable, pro- nouncedly schistose rock. In section it is seen to be composed almost entirely of green amphilbole (50%) and turbid oligoclase (Ab,;,An.,) to the extent of 45%. As accessories, apatite is abundant; zircon, magnetite and haematite are in less arsount, the latter occurring as minute crystals in association with the amphibole. Biotite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Schist (7875). A fine-grained schistose rock of greenish-grey colour seen in the hand specimen to consist chiefly of grey salic mineral, shiny flakes of black biotite and needles (in bundles) of greenish- black amphibole. In order of abundatice, the minerals present are as follows. Biotite (some- what bronzy in the hand specimen) is a highly pleochroic variety; X = light golden yellow, Y—Z—=dark brown to opaque. Actinolite is abundant, present in long needles, Albite-Oligaclase (Ab,,An,,) is plentiful, Qtiartz is less abundant. Accessories are apatite, zircon and magnetite. Quarts-Feldspar-Anthophyllite-Schist (7866). A fawn-coloured rock cleav- ing readily in the direction of schistosity. Yellow needles of at almost colourless amphibole are set in a matrix of fine-grained quartz. The needles are in bundles and have a common orientation. In section, the granoblastic texture of the rock is seen to be modified by the strong directiotial structure of the colourless amphibole. Quartz is abundant, amounting to 50% by volume, Feldspar is in less amount, namely 25%, Anthophyllite is abundant to the extent of 24%, as long needles with a more or Tess common orientation; longitudinal sections show transverse fractures but transverse sections show poorly defined cleavage traces at 120°; extinction is straight in longitudinal sections; D.R. fairly high; RI. high; very weakly pleochroic ; the crystals are length slow; indistinct biaxial positive fgure displayed in transverse sections. Rutile is an abundant accessory, that shows true crystal cutlines; geniculate twins are fairly common; however, in most crystals the outlines are modified by a chatge to opaque ilmenite. Zircon and apatite are present in far less amount. 129 Tremalite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (7877), This is a striking rock show- ing a gradational transition from a white tremolite-oligoclase-quartz-granulite to a dark green, actinolite-rich schist in which there is little quartz or feldspar, In section, the rock is seen to possess a well-defined schistosity which con- trols the mineral assemblage. The colour of the treimolite becomes tinged with green until it merges into the iron-bearing member of this series—a green actinolite. Tremolite occurs as long colourless prismatic needles with positive clonga- tion; maximum extinction angle (Z Ac) is 12°, Oligoclase (Ab,, Any) is not abundant; it is more common in association with tremolite but dwindles when actinolite makes its appearance. Quartz is present as small xenoblasis im the tremolite phase but dwindles in the actinolite-rich variety. Acecssories are zircon and idioblasts of iron ore. Granulitic Cordiertte-Quarts-Qligoclase-Biottte-Schist (7858). This is a dense greyish-grecn, fine-grained, saccharoidal rock breaking with s conchoidal fracture, On the weathered surface are to be secn shining brown and black flakes of biotite with preferred alignment. In section the rock displays a granoblastic texture in which grains of quartz, cordierite and feldspar average about 0°25 mm. in diameter. Due to the align- ment of bintite fakes the rock has a rough schistosity. Cordierite, which is the most abundant mineral, occurs as clear, colourless xenoblasts that exhibit poor twinning in some sections. It is thus very similar to the quartz and plagioclase, fromi which it is distinguished by its yellow pleachroic haloes and biaxtal character. It has a high optic axial angle value, The quartz is clear and colouriess. Oligoclase (Ab,.An,,) exhibits. albite twin lamellae. Buiotite altering to chlorite ig in minor amount, Zircon crystals and also idioblasts of magnetite and pyrites are abundant as accessories, Bumica-Quariz-Albite-Schist (J. K. 50), A light grey, compact rack of granular quartz and albite, with both white and black mica whose preferred align- ment has developed schistosity. Albite (Ab,,An,,) exhibiting albite twinning is abundant. Quartz is present in approximately equal amounts to the feldspar. Muscovite is present in approximately equal amounts to the feldspar, Muscovite is present as clear colourless laths. The biotite is a strongly pleochroic variety; often it is associated with muscoyite and green chloritic material which encloses spindies and radiating needles of iron ore. Accessories in small amount are zircon, sphene, ilmenite and rutile. Quarts-Albite-Cordivrite-Schist (7860), A dense, compact, off-white coloured rock, it which black plates of oriented biotite impart a marked directional structure. Microscopically the rock displays a pronotinced schistosity which modified the otherwise granoblastic texture formed by the almost equi-granular aggregate of quartz and feldspar, and the alteration products of cordierite. Albite (Ab,, An,) is abundant. Clear quartz with fluidal inclusions is tn less amount, Biotite is abundant; a strongly pleochroic, pale yellow to brown Variety showing a little incipient alteration to green chlorite. The cordierite has suffered alteration and is now represented by change products amongst which is chloro- phyllite (pleochroic in greens), Zircon and iron ore are present as accessories. Quarts-Albite-Cordierite-Biotite-Granulite (7861). A light-coloured sacchar- oidal rock with narrow bands of black shining flakes of biotite with a marked directional trend; these bands are too few and tuo widely separated to impart a well-defined cleayage to the rock. t 130 “(Szt ‘d pue pzr ‘d waamjaq ‘] ‘Byaas :euewerjeg seat) a-3 pur (Ayn Ayoy ur) gy —Yy svase perads jo suonsas-ssoio yesoyoos osye {Aqns) AySoy jo asinod oy} Jo Joyd pasdiepug z 34 aniivevnin FER] eH arene EZ asimas snosikany E77] Q—) Noitoas (KO¥ddy) 4334009 NOID3S dO HLONIT a@—v NOILDaS Ty 7 7 ISM NM EE BS Hy Gilg Gre 1 ey hi t 7 if p y | Y fy = 2001NT AVEUNA OL WWAQ 34193700 nt In micro-section the rock is seen to be maitily a granoblastic, very fine, even- grained aggregate af cordierite, albite and quartz. Cordierite with yellow pleochroic haloes and the yellow-green change product chlorophyllite is fairly abundant, Quartz, in clear colourless grains, is the pre- dominant mineral, Albite (Ab,, An,) granules, some clear and others exhibiting lamellar twinning are plentiful. Buiotite with preferred orientation, in weakly pleochroic and partly corroded laths, ts sparsely distributed, restricted to certain bands in the rock. Accessories are magnetite, in fairly abundant, black, opaque idioblasts and sparse zircon, Quarts-Tourmaline-Migmatite (J. K. 100), A dark-grey, fine-grained rock composed of white granular quartz in which are sct “clots” of segregated granular tourmaline. These latter are slightly elongated and about 0°5 cm, in diameter. In section the rock is ohserved to consist essetitially of browh tourmaline and quartz. The “clots” which were visible in the hand specimen are seen to consist almost wholly of tourmaline with a little interstitial quartz, The tourma- line is strongly pleochroic, trom yellow to dark brown, Potkiloblasiic Andesine-H ornblende-Scapolite-Clinasorsite-Schist (7883). In the hand specimen this is dark, greenish-grey tock in which porphyroblasts of feldspar as much as 5 mm., but averaging 3 mm.,, are set in a finer grecnish-grey hase. Evidently this was originally a phaneric basalt subsequently scapolitized and zoizitized. In microscope section the feldspar ist most individuals is observed to be rimmed, and at times completely replaced, by colourless scapolite. The replace- ment has taken place along small veins through and along the margins of the plagioclase, Elsewhere clinozoizile is developing. The minerals present are Andesine (Ab,,An,,) considerably changed over to scapolite and clinozoizite. Pleochroic from light to dark green and exhibiting typical amphibole cleavage, Scapolite, colourless, uniaxial negative, straight extinction on longitudinal sections which lalter also yield flash figures. Clino- zolzite, slightly turbid; interference colours are anomalous (deep blue); biaxial positive, It displays one poor cleayage and extinction with reference to. this is inclined, Sphene isa very abundant accessory as brown xenoblasts, Another related metamorphosed basic igneous rock (J. K. 102) of somewhat coarser otiginul texture than (7883) was collected in the same locality. Thts can be described as a poeciloblastic albite-harnhlende-clinozoizite schist with accessory Inotite, notably sphene and sparse apatite and zircon, In this rock the albite is practically 100%. Ab. Porphyroblastic Andesine-Ilorablende-Schist (7884), This also represents a metamorphosed basic igneous rock, The feldspar is white, and occurs as porphyroblasts up to 2°5 cm. diameter set in a mass of green hornblende, In section it is seen to consist of colourless feldspar and green hornblende in approximately equal amount. The plagioclase, which is little altered, is andesine (Abg, Ang,). The amphibole is a strongly pleochraic hornblende; X— yellow green, Y = olive green, Z = dark green, A little brown biotite is in intimate association with the hornblende. Sphene is an accessory. PeomM ative INTRUSIVES OF THE. MiGmatriic Betr Tourmaline-bearing pegmatites were observed in Sections 508, 533, 535, and 175. These vary in width from Jess than one inch to many feet. They are intru- sive mto the schists. The vein fillings vary greatly in grain-size and composition but most contain black tourmaline, pink feldspar, milky quartz and muscovite. 132 Dr. Woolnough described several pegmatites from Rocky Gully. He states that the feldspars of the pegmatites are remarkable for their variety, including orthoclase, microcline, anorthoclase, albite and oligoclase, Woolnough mentions that in one of the pegmatites two small crystals of beryl were observed. This occurrence is interesting, for beryl is a feature of granite pegmatites occurring at Mount Crawford and also in the suite of the Boolcoomatta granite bathylith. Bastc Dyxes or THE Micmatitic BEeLt As already mentioned two clearly defined dykes outcrop in the bed of Rocky Gully, Section 514, Hundred of Mobilong. In the fresh unweathered state these are dark grey rocks; both discordantly intrude the schists, They possibly post- date the granitic intrusion. Meta-Dolerite (7859). The doleritic intersertal structure is still well pre- served. Minerals present are labradorite in interlaced laths, chlorite and mag- netite resulting from the breakdown of original pyroxene. A little biotite and sphene, apatite and pyrite as accessories, Meta-Lamprophyre? (7858). This is more basic, there being very little in the nature of feldspars or their change products. The principal minerals observable are chlorite and black iron ores. It is possible that the rock was originally a basic lamprophyre, Monarto GRANITES Adamellite (7867) is an even, medium-grained, light grey, granitic rock. The obvious minerals are quartz, greyish-white feldspar, small black flakes of biotite and some silvery flakes of muscovite. A chemical analysis and the norm are tabulated herewith: I If Ill IV SiOs - = 73+20 72-40 84°25 90°73 Norm or I, Rock 7867 TiO, - - 0-23 0+22 0-18 0-13 Quartz - - - ~ 33:30 ALO. - - 15-46 15-49 8-64 4-01 Orthoclase - - = 19546 Fes, - ~ 0-64 0-44 0-18 0-68 Plagioclase: Ab 33-01 \ 41-38 FeQ_ - - 0-80 1-03 1-10 0:26 An 834 MnO - - tr 0-02 tr. tr. Corundum - - - 245 MeO - - 0°48 0-20 0:23 0-05 Hypersthene: Fs 1-20 | _ 4.93 caQ_ se ~ 1°73 1:44 0-19 0-18 En 0-53 if NaO- - - 3-90 4+30 4-06 3-66 Magnetite - - - 093 KO - - $34 3°78 0-84 0-31 Ilmenite - - - ~ 0°46 HsO+ - - 0°22 0°12 0+36 0-03 Apatite - - - - 0-13 H.O- - - 008 018 0-02 0-05 Zircon - - - - O18 P.O; - - 0-08 0-19 0-04 0-04 Water - - - - 0:30 ZrO. - - O11 — 0:04 0-05 — BaO - - 0:06 — tr, tr. 99-99 S - - - 0-02 — 0-12 +13 FeS, - - —_— O-1L — — 100-35 99°98 100-35 100-29 T. Adamellite from Monarto (7867), Anal; R, K. Johns. II. Monarto “granite”. Anal.: W.S. Chapman. See R. LL. Jack (1923). III, The more basified part of rock (7871). Anal: J. M, Kruger. 1V. The less basified part of rock (7871). Anal.; R. J. Johns. 133 Jn the micro-seclion, potash Jeldspar as microcline appears to be a little less abundant than plagioclase; these with qnariz constitute the bulk of the rock, The feldspars are somewhat turbid and show the effects of strain, Quartz, next in abundance, is clear and free from cracks but shows strain shadows, There are present a few stall myrmekitic intergrowths—these are of quartz and plagioclase, such developments taking place on the borders of microcline crystals, due to the replacement of that mineral by plagioclase. Buiotite is Fresh; it is the essential ferromagnesian mineral but often associated with clear plates of muscovite. The disposition of the micas defines a rough directional structure, The average grain- size of constituent minerals as seen in the slide is about 0-6 mm. The plagioclase is faintly zoned; individuals are twinned on the albite and combined albite—Carlsbad laws. Maximum extinction angle measured in the zone 1010 is 5° corresponding tw oligoclase on composition Ab,,An,,. Biotite is a normal variety, strongly pleochroic; X—=—light yellow, Y = Z= almost opaque; it hears pleochroic haloes surrounding small crystals of zircon. Muscovite eceurs as broad tabular flakes, Zircon, as an accessory, is abundant in smull rounded grains. Apatite in rod-like forms is a sparse constituent. The mode of (7867) was obtained by a Rosiwal measurement on a single small slide is as follows: qiartz, 42°49; microcline, 21°5% plagioclase, 26°5% ; muscovite, 2'2% ; biotite, 7*3%; accessories, O'1%. By the relation of the feid- spars, the rock js thus to be defined as an adameliite. Granite (7856), This is the most typical and widely developed of the plagioclase than does (7867). It exhibits an obvious directional arrangement of minerals. Average size of constituent grains as measured in the slide is about 0-2 to O3 mm., although they attain to 1 mm. in diameter. .A micrometric determination of the mode in a single slide gave the composition as! quartz, 50°19; microcline, 33°3% ; plagioclase, 6°79; biotite, 7:7% ; muscovite, 2-0% ; accessories, 02%, Microcline is abundant, ay also is quartz {which bears abundant rods of apatite as inclusions), Plagioclase, which is an oligoclase (Ab,,An,,) is sparse. Biotite and muscovite are present im association, Accessories are apatite, mag- netite, zircon; the latter relatively abundant. Adamellite (7878). Another of this granitic suite with marked directional features. It is somewhat coarser grained than (7867). In this the oligoclase is predominant over nticrocline: it is also irregularly zoned. Granite (7856). This is the most typical and widely developed of the Monarto granites. It is coarser grained than the preceding types and exhibits a well-defined gneissic structure in which the bands of biotite are more widely separated. It is of an even graim-size, the latter averaging 0-80 mm. as viewed in the micro-section. Quartz and microcline are both abundant constituents, the former as atihedtal individuals bearing fluid inclusions and also small apatite crpstals. The plagio- clase is an Olignclase {Ab,, An,,); Biotite is strongly pleochroic from yellow to almost opaque; it shows slight alteration to green chlorite; ratio of elongation of flakes 2:1. Muscovite is not abundant. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are accessory mincrals in stall amount. The mode obtained by micrometric measurement gave: quartz, 42°9%; microcline, 359% ; plagioclase, 16°7% hiotite, 4°0%; muscovite, 0-49; acces- sories, 11%, Adamellite (7876), This rock was observed in the ficld to grade out into a coarse biotite-quartz schist, in which biotite is predominent as coarse flakes impart- ing a pronounced schistosity. 134 In microscope slide it is scen to have an allotriomorphic granular lexture, with average size of grain about 1 mm. but with a few individuals as much as 2-2 mm. in diameter. Feldspar is represented by approximately equal amotints of microcline and oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Other notable minerals are quartz, biotite and mus- covite itt small amounts and accessory zircon. Scuists, GRANULITES AND Basirtep ARENITE ASSOCIATED WITIT THE Monarto GRANITES The belt of rocks bounding the Monarto Granite on the north, west and south 15 constituted of a range of fine-grained quartz-plagioclase-biotite schists. In this area fresh exposures ate scarce: those showing least weathering were obtained from dam excavatiotis and water-main tretiches. Outcrops of such rocks were met with in sections 213, 214, 524, 528, 529, 330 of the Hundred of Mobilong, and in sections 43, 45, 219, 220, 222, 228, 229, 430, 231, 232, 233, 249, 250, 257, 260, 461, 462 and 464 of the Hundred of Monarto, In these schists the original bedding and stratification planes. have been almost obliterated, Regional foliation of these schists is 347° with dip 65° west. Basified Arenite (7871). This is a white, compact, fine-grained, granular feldspar-quartz rock without obvious schistose features. It is suggested that it originated from an arenite by feldspathization. An irregular schlier in the hand specimen is somewhat darker coloured and contains obvious tiny flakes of biotite feebly oriented towards a parallel arrangement. This schlier appears io be an area which has suffered a more advanced degree of basification, Specimen (7870) appears to be intermediate in composition between the two phases exhibited in (7871). The rock slide exhibits a granoblastic texture with prainsize averaging 0-20 mm.; xenoblasts of quartz and feldspar constitute the bulk of the slide. The quartz displays undulose extinction. The plagioclase is albite (Aby, Any). Microciine-perthite is present in small amount. Hiotite is sparse but more abundant im the more highly basified patch, Accessories are muscovite, zircon and magnetite, Chemical analyses of both the less basified and the more basified portions of (7871) are given in the table on page 132, Comparison of these analyses with each other and with that of the Monarto granite (7867) reveals progressive loss of SiO, and S but demonstrates additions to the content of Al,O,, MgO, CaO, Na,O, K,O, Ti0,, P,Q, and ZrQ, in the passage from original (?) arenite to granite. This strengthens the view that the Monarto granite has in fact developed as 8 migma (see page 136)- Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (J. K. 62). A dark-grey, fine-grained rock. In section it is seen to be a granoblastic aggregate of quartz and feldspar, shot through with a bundant biotite fakes im parallel alignment. Quartz is present to the extent of 59°4%, The larger individuals exhibit undulose extinction, Biotite to the extent of 30°5% is the next most abundant constituent: pleochroic from yellow to brownish-red. Pleochroic haloes are com- mon. Muscovite is present only in very small amounts, about 0-4%. Plagioclase to the extent of 9°7% is distributed throughout the slide as slightly clouded xeno- blasts, It corresponds to oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Zircon is abundant as rounded individuals, Apatite is sparse. Magnetite as black opaque octahedra js also sparse, 135 Rock (7869) is a dark grey, fine-grained, schlieric rock consisting essentially of quartz and biotite—closely similar to (J. K. 62), Tourmaline in small crystals is present in appreciahle amount. Rock (7881) is similar to (J, K. 62) and (7869) except that plates of white mica are visible in ihe hand specimen. Contains a little tourmaline as one of the uccessories, Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (7880). A fine-grained, grey schistose rock, Microscopically it displays a fine, even, granvblastic texture somewhat modified by the more or less parallel alignment of the micas. Mineralogically it is very similar to (J. K. 62). Rock (J. K. 97) is also very similar but here the plagioclase is an albite (Ab), Any). Bimica-Quarta-Plagioclase-Schist (7879) is another rock of this group in which muscovite appears in larger amounts. Ilere the plagioclase comes into the range of the oligoclase (Ab,. An,,). Rock No. (J. K, 92) is an even-grained, grey schistose variety that grades from a biotite-quartz schist (rich in biotite) into a rock that has the appearance of a schistose granite of the Monarto type. The average grain-size is 0°20 mm. The plagioclase is an Albite (Ab,,An,), Quarts-Plagioclase-Bietite-Gneiss (7873), This is a fine-grained foliated rock in hand specimen. It consists of greyish leucocrats and oriented biotite flakes. Jn section it is seen ta be composed of a granoblastic association mainly of quartz, with abundant olioglase (Ab,, An,,) and little orthoclase, with consider- able biotite, a very little muscovite, abundant black iron ore and small rounded zircons, Quartz-Playioclase-Biotite-Schist (7864). A light grey rock with pro- nounced schistose structure due to the parallel alignment of biotite flakes. The majority of the slide is constituted of a granoblastic aggregate of quartz (grain- size 1o O-4 mm.) and turbid albite (Ab,,,). The latter is clouded with minute flakes. of scticitic mica, There is present just a little granular orthoclase, a very small amount of muscovite and occasional zircon grains. Playioclase-Quarts-Biatite-Schist (7855). A rock similar to but not so coarse as (7864). In hand specimen it has the appearance of a fine-grained schistose granite, The section displays a granoblastic texture modified by oriented mica flakes. Quartz with undulose extinction is next in abundance to oligoclase. Micro- cline is present in lesser amount in xeoblasts displaying poor polysynthetic twin ting. Biotite is plentiful. Muscovite, apatite, zircon and black iron ore are accessories. SUMMARY The broader geological features of the older rocks of this region as delined in the foregoing are as follows:— (1) The existence on the eastern side of the area, at Murray Bridge, of a large scale granite intrusion, part of a batholythic mass which has been traced as extending towards the Victorian border in the south-eastern corner uf South Australia. ‘The granite of this batholyth has all the characters indicating it to have heen originally a mobile magma. (2) The schists and gneisses bordering it on the west, well exposed in Rocky Gully and neighbourhood, are of a high grade of metamorphism and in part mnigmatitic. They include types common in the inner zones of granite aureolts. 136 (3) Further west, in the Monarto area, away from the Murray Bridge granite mass are schists of a lower grade of metamorphism, much of which it would appear could have originated from the basification of original arenites, The field mapping indicates that rocks of a large part of this latter area were originally quartzites of a synclinal basin, since metamorphosed to a greater or less degree. In this locality the Monarto granite is met with, The nature of this granite, patticularly in its physical characters, varies greatly in the different outcrops. In some small areas it is without directional features but elsewhere its minerals exhibit preferred orientation which appears to be a relic of an earlier schist stage. Two examples are given with chemical analyses illustrating intermediate stages in the basification of arenite in the development of a granitic migma of the general character of certain of the varieties of Monarto granite. It thus seems apparent that part at least of the Monarto granite has developed as a migma. The variable chemical composition of the Monarto granite outcrops and variability in size of grain and structure, have been demonstrated in this con- tribution. In some areas it is within the range of the alkali-granites, elsewhere it is an adamellite. It is mostly fine-grained, but locally may be coarser. All graduations may be traced from a feldspathic, somewhat basified quartzite through schist, to a mineral assemblage and structure typical of “granite”. As may be expected of a granite that has been derived from the feldspathization in situ of arenite, xenoliths are absent in the Monarto outcrops Furthermore, the Monarto granite is concordant with the surrounding schists. REFERENCES Jack, R. L, 1923 The Building Stones of South Australia. Geol, Survey of S. Aust., Bull. 10 Kireman, A, W. 1934 The Murray Bridge Granite. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 58 Mawson, D., and Seenit, E, R. 1945 Granites of the Tintinara District, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69 Reap, H. H. 1943 Meditations on Granite, Proc. Geol. Ass., 54 Reap, H, H. 1944 Meditations on Granite, Proc, Geol. Ass., 55 Wootnoucn, W. G, 1908 Notes on the Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges, chiefly the portion east of the Onkaparinga River. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 32 VOL. 73 PART 2 DECEMBER 1950 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED ADELAIDE PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE Price ; . Fifteen Shillings Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide, for transmission by post as a periodical THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND HI. LIST OF SPECIES BY H.. B. S. WOMERSLEY Summary Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, together with comprehensive references, and notes on many species. 137 THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND Til, LIST OF SPECIES 1 By H, B. S. Woxwersiry* SUMMARY Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo Island, South Australia, together with comprehensive references, and notes oan many species. INTRODUCTION This paper records 40L species of anarine algae (Cyanophyta 26, Chlorophyta 46, Phaeophyta 96, Rhodophyta 233) from Kangaroo Island. Records derived from a small collection from the “south coast,” made by J. Cork in the winter of 1939, and also records given by Cleland and Black from Sou’ West River mouth, December 1934 (determined by A, TI. S. Lucas) have been incorporated. Turther species will be recorded in a second list, as over 100 remain undetermined, some of which are as yet undescribed. Kangaroo Island is a very rich region tor marine algac, and although extensive collections bave becn made during the last five years, doubtless inore species remain to be discovered in localities which haye not been thoroughly investigated. Over 100 species comprise new records for the State of South Australia, but as Southern Australia forms a distinct geographic region (with probably 35-40% of species occurring from ‘Tasmania to Western Australia), and so few localities have been thoroughly examined, such new records have little signif- cance for the present and have not beet indicated. The specimens on which this list is based are deposited in the Algal Her- barium of the Rotany Department, University of Adelaide. Visits were made ta Kangaroo Island at the following times: 1944, January: 1945, January, May; 1946, January, August; 1947, January, April, May, June, July, October, Novernber; 1948, January, September, December; 1949, January. In determining the species in this list recourse has been made wherever possible to original literature, and to authentic specimens in Australian Herbaria, especially the Melbourne National Herbarium. Unfortunately, few type speci- mens of Australian algae exist in Australia, making sure determinations very difficult in many cases; and many other specimens in herbaria are incorrectly named, so that comparisons with specimens other than the type have to be done with caution. Melbourne National Herbarium fortunately possesses O, W. Sonder’s Australian collection, including his type specimens, and also a set of W. H. Harvey’s Australian algae, J, G. Agardh’s “Algae Muellerianae’’ and duplicates of J. B. Wilson’s collections. The Adelaide University Herbarium possesses a few of T. Reinbold’s cotypes from Investigator Strait. It is evident, however, that extefisive series of nearly all Auistralian species should be checked with the type specitmens, and also with related species to define limits of variability. Maty other species, such as those of Zanardini, are very poorly known, and require re-examination of the original specimens. Until this can be done some determinations must necessarily be provisional, and description of new species must await comparison with authentic material of closely related species. In this list notes on the habitat of each species are piven where possible. The ecological terms used haye been defined in Pt. I of this series ( Wommersley 1947), and references to Pt. I and Ft. I apply to this and the second paper (Womersley 1948). Where a species is hsted as. from the drift (ie., found cast up or floating), it almost certainly grows in the sublittoral, as the littoral and * Department of Botany, University of Adelaide, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc, 5. Aust, 73, (2), Dee, 1950 138 upper sublittoral have been extensively collected in most localities and are listed as such, The month (abbreviated) and year of most collections are given, as this gives positive evidence of the seasonal occurrence of many species (and also facilitates future reference to the specimens in the herbarium), In many cases, especially at Pennington Bay and American River inlet where the seasonal occurrence of many species is comparatively well known it has bee possible to generalise and give the period of their occurrence. Ilowever, probably the majority of species known from a few records.are present during all seasons, Although positive records only ate given, generalisations about the distribu- tions. ai many species atotnd the island can be made. Thus species found at Pennington Kay or Vivonne Bay probably occur in similar habitats anywhere along the south and west coasts. In fact, the formations and subformations described in Pt. J are usually broad habitat regions, No attempt has been made to give a complete list of references to the species, nor in some cases is the reference to the original description given, A selection has been made of the more important and useful references, especially those available to the author, and De Toni in most cases gives fairly complete lists, Throughout this series of papers Recommendation XLII of the 1935 Eotanical Rules referring to the use of capital letters for patronymic and certain other specific names has not been followed. I am in full agreement with the reasons expressed for this in the Journal of Ecology, 31, (1943), p. 93- The following authors have been followed in the classification adopted: Cyanophyta (Fritsch 1942), Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta (Smith 1938, Papen- fuss 19472), Rhodophyta (Kylin 1924, 1931, 1932, Falkenberg 1901, and Fritsch 1945). The localities have been abbreviated to the first letters of the names, as in the list below. The order of localities is from American River mlet along the north, west, south and east coasts and back to American River inlet (see fig. 1, Pt, I). Briel notes on the areas examined are also given below, and reference should be ntude to Pt. I and IT for further details. Norra Coast— 4K, American River inlet: an extensive tidal inlet (mot a river) with small islands (Shag Rock, Pig, Wallaby Islands) in Pelican Lagoon. BH. Ballasr Head; a rocky headland immediately north of American River inlet. The east side only has been examined, K. Kingscote. BS. Bay of Shoals: a shallow sandy bay with ealm conditions. HA. Emit Bay: the rocky coast near the old jetty was examined. SB, Stokes Ray, J7R, Middle River: the mouth is normally closed by a sand bar and rocky coast occurs at both ends ofa sattdy beach. WF, Western River: the river mouth is also usually closed by a sandy bar. AR, Harvey's Return: about four miles east of Cape Borda. West Coast— WB. West Bay. SourH CoastT— CC_ Cape Condie. VB, Vivotme Bay: rock platforms occur within the bay while the western extremity—Ellen Point—is of stceply sloping rock. Pools i and 2 are referred to in Pt, 1, p. 245. DB. D’Estrees Bay: reefs briefly examined are at the eastern end of the bay. P&B, Pennington Bay: see Pt, I] Ci’, Cape Willoughby, East CoastT— A&B, Antechamber Bay: The rocky area at the north end of the bay was examined. HB_Hog Bay. 139 Nortu Coast— RP. Rocky Point: “drift” specimens from here were mostly collected between Rocky Point and American River inlet- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In addition to the acknowledgments made in Pt. I, I would like to thank further Mr. A. W. Jessup. of the Melbourne National Herbarium, for the loan of specimens and literature. Dr. G. F. Papenfuss, of the Department of Botany, University of California, has also kindly made information available and giyen opinions on certain species. Both Dr. C Bliding, of Sweden, and Dr. V. Je Chapman have given opinions on the species of Enteromorpha. CYANOPHYTA CHROOCOCCALES — CHrancoccacEAE COCCOCHLORIS Sprengel Coccocutoris CasTAGNEr (Kiilzing) Drouet and Daily 1948, 77. Pulmella castagnei Kiitzing 1846, t. 9. Aphanothece castagnei, Rabenhorst 1932, 171. Tilden 1910, 31, pl. 2, f. 13. — AR, Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan. 1948. ENTOPHYSALIS Buitzing Entoruysatis peusta (Meneghini) Drovet and Daily 1948, 79, Glovocapsa deusta, Kiitzing 1949, 224. Rabenhurst 1932, 190. — AR. Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946, PLEUROCAPSALES — PLEUROCAPSACEAE DERMOCARPA Crouan DERMOcARPA scHOUsEOET (Thuret) Bornet. Xenacoccus schousboet Thuret in Bornet and Thuret 1880, 74, pl. 26, f. 1, 2, Tilden 1910, 50, pl. 3, £. 7, Rabenhorst 1932, 335, f. 170 — EB. In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. NOSTOCALES — OsciLLaTORIACEAR HYDROCOLEUM Kitzing Hyprocoteum canTHariosmum (Montagne) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 336, pl. £2, f. 647. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, £57. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, £. 755, Calothrix limbata Ularvey 1863, syn. n. 792, Alg, Aus. exs. n. 596. — PB, Lower littoral, on well washed rock, Dec. 1948, Hyproconeum comomes (Ilarvey) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 335, pl. 12, £. 3-5, Tilden 1910, 134, pl. 5, £. 56, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, {. 756. Calothrix comoides Harvey 1863, syn. n. 793, Alg. Aus. exs. n. 597, 598. — FB, Edge of rock pool, south side of Ellen Pt., May 1945, TlyprocoLeuM cLuTixosum (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 330. Tilden 1910, 136, pl. 5, £.59. Newton 1931, 29. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,149. — LR. As irregu- lar masses on Hormosira (Aug. 1948) and Zostera (Sept. 1946) on the tidal fats. MR. On Cystophyllum muricatum and Cladostephus verticllaius, upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. VB, On rocks near jetty, mid littoral, and on reef in bay, Jan. 1947, PB, On Jedge, main reef, all seasons, and on Coral- lina cuvieri in sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1946. CW. On rocks and on H armosira, lower littoral, Jan., Aug. 1948. Hyproco.eum Ly¥Nonyaceum Kutzing 1849, 259. Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 337; pl. 12, f, 8-10. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, f. 58. Setchell and Gardner 1914, 85, pl. 1, £. 10, Newton 1931, 29, f. 20, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,150, f, 757. — PB. Forming tufts at the constrictions of Hormusira, lower littural, Jan. 1946. AB, On Cystophora subfarcinati, lower littoral, Jan. 1947. 140 LYNGBYA Agardh Lywenya CONFERVOrDES Agardh. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 136, pl, 3, £.5,6, Tilden 1910; 119, pl. 5, f. 39. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 77. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,061, £. 672b. — AR. In a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan, 1946. ZB. Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. Lyngaya Lures (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 141, pl. 3, f. 12, 13, Tilden 1910, 114, pl. 5, f. 30, 31. Rabenharst 1932, 1,057, f. 670 a.b, — MR, Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. LYNGBYA MAJUSCULA (Dillwyn) Haryey. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IT), 132, pl. 3, f. 3,4, Tilden 1910, 123, pl. 5, f. 42. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,060, f, 672 c,d. — FB, In shaded part of pool 1, south side of Ellen Pt, Dec, 1945, Lynonya semircena (Agardh) J. Agardh. Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 138, pl. 3, f. 7-11. Tilden 1910, 118, pl, 5, £. 38. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 78, Rabetuhorst 1932, 1,061, {. 672a. — ATR. In scrapings from a shallow pool, Jan, 1946, Lyncpya sornipa (Zanardini) Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 126, pl. 2, f. 21. Tilden 1910, 118, pl. 5, £. 37. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,039, £. 657 b. — PB. In a shaded pool, rear littoral of main reef, Jan, 1948, PLECTONEMA Thuret PLECTONEMA BATTERSIt Gomont 1899, 36. Tilden 1910, 211. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 79, pl. 1, f. 1. Newton 1931, 25, f. 18. Rabenhorst 1932, 684. — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946, PiEctoNEMA NoRVEGICUM Gomont 1899, 34. Newton 1931, 26. Rabenhorst 1932, 684, — AR. Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946, SYMPLOCA Kiitzing SYMPLOCA HYDNOIDES Kiitzing 1849, 272. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 81, pl. 1. f. 12, 13, Newton 1931, 21, f, 16. Rabenhorst 1932, 1, 1,119, £. 724. — AR. On tidal flats, May 1945. PR, In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. VB. In pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1949. PB. On sloping and vertical tock in the rear littoral, all seasons. CW. Littoral, Jan. 1946. RIVULARIACRAE CALOTHRIX Agardh CaLOTHRIX AERUGINEA (Kutzing) Thuret 1875, 10. Tilden 1910, 261, pl. 17, fF, 1. Rabenhorst 1932, 599, £. 3754. — MR. On Lnteromerpha and Clado- phora in littoral pools, Jan, 1948. PB. On Polysiphonia on littoral sloping rock, Dec. 1948, CH’, On Chuetomarpha acerca in littoral pools, south side Jan. 1948, CALOTHRIx CoNFERVICOLA (Roth) Agardh. Tilden 1910, 256, pl. 16, f. 6-8. ‘Raben- horst 1932, 601, f. 376, Epiphytic on other algae in the littoral zone in most localities, all seasons. Often dense on Junia fustigiata (VB, PB, AB), Centrocerus clavulatum (VB, Jan, 1946), Ilyvimenocladia polymorpha (DB, sublittoral Iringe, Jan. 1947) and Chaetomorpha aerea (CW’, littoral pool, Aug. 1948). CaLoTurix crusracks Thuret, Tilden 1910, 264, pl. 17, i, 2-6. Rabenhorst 1932, 601. — EB, MR, WR, WB, On littoral rock, sometimes forming extensive slippery patches, all Jan. 1946, 28. Upper littoral, Jan, 1945. 141 CaLoTuRIx scoptLorum (Weber and Mohr) Agardh. Bornet and Thuret 1880, 159, t. 38. Tilden 1910, 258, pl. 16, f. 11, 12. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 96. Rabenhorst 1932, 600, f. 374, f, ¢ — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat on‘buoys near American River jetty, Jan, 1946, ISACTIS Thuret Isactis PLANA (Ilarvey) Thuret, Hornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 343, Setchell and Gardner 1919, 104, pl. 1, f. 8,9. Womersley 1946a, 128, f. 1A. — VB. Edge of rock pools and om the mollusc Cellana tramoserica, south side of Ellen Pt., Jan. 1946. PB. littoral, main reef, all seasons. HB. Lower littoral, Jan. 1944, RIVULARIA. Agardh Rivunarra atka Roth. Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 353. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 107, pl. 8, £. 1, 2, Womersley 19462, 132, f. 1B. — AR. On dead Posidonia and shells, Jan. 1946. SB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946. VB. Edges of rock pools and on molluscs, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945. PB. Littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948. Rivurarra AusTRALIS Harvey 1854, 566. Bornet and Flahault, 1886, (Pt. 11), 362. Womersley 1946a, 133. — IR. Upper littoral, west side, Jan. 1948. Rivucarra FIRMA Womersley 19462, 130, f, 2A, B. — Fast, south west aud rougher parts of the north coasi, in middle and upper littoral, all seasoits, but variable in occurrence and amount, RIVULARIA NiTIpA Agardh, Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. I1), 357. Womersley 1946a, 133, £.1C. — AR. On rock in mid littoral, Pelican Lagoon, Jan. 1946, Rivucarta potyoris (Agardh) Bornet and Flahauli 1886, (Pt. II), 360. Womersley 19462, 134, f. 2C. — AR, On Posidonia, Zostera and larger algae on the tidal Hats and floating, mainly summer. BS. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. STIGONEMATACEAE BRACHYTRICHIA Zanardini BracuyrricuiaA ouoyr (Agardh) Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 373. De Toni 1907, 680. Tildeit 1910, 294, pl, 20, f. 18. — SB and MR, Upper and mid littoral, Jan. 1947 and 1948. IB. Edge of pool, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945. CHLOROPHYTA ULOTRICHALES — UlLorricnacrar ULOTHRIX Kutzing Unormeix impnexa Kiitzing 1849, 349. Sctchell and Gardner 1920, 283. Smith 1944, 34. — AR. As a green band along the waterline on boats anchored fear Atnerican Rivér jetty, Aug. 1948. Seasonal occurrence (from local information), March to Nov. These specimens agree well with the ahove descriptions, but | have not seen authcntic material, There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the marine species should be known as U, implexa or U. subflaccida Wille. Setchell and Gardner are followed in referring it to U, wnplexa. ULVALES — ULvackar ULVA Linnaeus Unva tactuca Linnaeus. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 265. Smith 1944, 45. Taylor 1937, 75 — AR. On tidal flats (low littoral and upper sublittoral), 142 common, all seasons. Souw'-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). PB. Less rough parts of the reefs and rear littoral, all seasons. Also found in almost any suitable habitat elsewhere around the island. In AR specimens the thallus is 35-70 thick, with the cells in transverse section 1-15 times as high as broad. In PB specimens the thallus is 40-60. (-70,) thick, cells as high (-14 times) as broad. In size and form the AR speci- mens often approach var. /etissima De Candolle, while the PB specimens are similar to var. vigide (C.Ag.) Le Jol. Mowever, the great variation in size and form between specimens in the same and different localities (from expanded plates to elongate undulate ribbons), prevents any valid separation of varieties. ENTEROMORPHA Link This genus ig notoriously difficult, and oly some of the more distinct forms from Kangaroo Island are listed here. I haye receiyed opinions on the species from Dr. V. J. Chapman and also from Dr. C. Bliding whose culture experiments in Sweden have shown that some species include a number of forms. Until it is possible to carry out similar culture and copulation experiments with Kangaruo Island Ateromorpha’s, the limits of some specics must remain tncertsin, ENTEROMORPHA ACANTHOPHORA Kiitzing 1856, t. 34, £. 1. J. Agardh 1883, 158, De Toni 1889, 135. — PB. Rear littoral on reefs, all seasons but best developed in winter. These forms are only 1-4 em, high, but resemble Kiitzing’s figure and New Zealand specimetis in form and structure, ENTEROMORPHA CLATHRATA (Roth) J, Agardh, Bliding 1944, 331. Doty 1947, l6. Kylin 1949, 28. — AR, Lower littoral and upper sublittoral through- nut the inlet, all seasons, AZ. Lower littoral pools, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC. Rock pools, Jan. 1948. FB. On a punt in mouth of Tiarriet River, Jan. 1946, AB. Rock pool, fan. 1947. JP. Mid littoral, Jan, 1945. The material from American River inlet is very yariable and is referred hy Dr. Chapman to a number of forms. The variations seem, however, to be ecological in nature, depending on degree of exposyre and water moye- ments, and probably nearly all the American River forms are best placed under one species, as Dr. Bliding would do, Culture experiments with these forms are necessary for a full understanding of the problem. The form af Bliding’s Types I, It, and II] are represented at American River inlet. ENTeERoMorritA comrressa (1...) Greville. De Toni 1889, 126. Doty 1947, 14. Bliding 1948, 128, Kylin 1949, 22, {, 14, 15. — AAR, On buoys near Ameti- can River jetty, Jan, 1946. BH, Lower littoral, Oct. 1947. ENTEROMORPHA INTESTINALIS (L..) Link. Doty 1947, 14. Bliding 1948, 123. Kylin 1949, 22, — MR, In lower littoral pools, Jan, 1946. BLIDINGIA Kylin BLIDINGIA MINIMA (Kiitzing) Kylin 1949, 30. Enteromorpha minima Kitzing 1856, t, 43, ITT, Bliding 1938, 84. — AR. On jetty steps, mid littoral, Sept. 1946, Aug, 1948, AP. Mid littoral, amongst Zuteromorpha clathrate, Jan. 1945. Original det., C. Bliding. CLADOPHORAT.ES — CranorHoracuat CLADOPHORA Katzine CLADUPHORA CERATINA Kiitzing 1849, 401; 3854, 5, t. 21, f. 1. — AR. Epiphytic on Zostera muelleri and in tangled masses on the tidal dats near the mouth of the inlet, Feb. 1946, Jan. 1948. 7B. On punt and stakes at mouth of Harriet River (braclsish). Jan. 1946. Ma CLADOPHORA DELICATULA Montagne. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 220, Smith 1944, 6L. De Toni 1889, 326. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. CLADOPIIORA FASCICULARIS (Mertens) Kiitzing 1843, 268, 1849, 393. De Toni 1889, 316. Borgesen 1946, 21. — AR. Widely, but often sparsely, dis- tributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, and on the buoys near American River jetty, all seasons. Bid. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947. PB, In mid littoral rock pool on western terraced reef, Jan. 1946. The branching of AR specimens is very much looser, and they appear more slender than those from. BH and PR. Filament widths, however, are similar in all specimens, and the fasciculate branching is well developed in all. CLADOPHORA FRREDAYAE Harvey 1858, pl. 47; 1860b, 339. De Toni 1889, 323. — CH’, Rock pool, south side, Aug. 1948, Crapopuoea REvENS (J. Agardh) Harvey 1871, pl. 236. Kaiitzing 1854, t, 70, i, 2. De Toni 1889, 345. — }'B. Edge of reef (sublittotal fringe), north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. PR. Drift, April 1947. CLADOPTIORA VALONTOIDES Sonder 1846, 149. Harvey 1859, pl. 78. De Tomi 1889, 308. — HB. Driit, Jan. 1946. CC, Rock pool, Jan. 1944, drift, Jan. 1947, WB, Drift, and on reefs in bay, Jan. 1949. PB. On reefs, littoral, all seasons. Specimens cast up from the sublittoral are much looser and larger than those growing in rough conditions on the reefs, CHAETOMORPHA, Kittzing CHarromorrita AcREA (Dillwyn) Kitzing 1849, 379; 1853, t. 59. De Toni 1889, 272. Smith 1944, 56, Taylor 1937, 80. — SA, Lower littoral, as a mat on boulders, Jan. 1948. He, In rock pools, Jan. 1949. 4’R, Lower littoral on a Jan, 1946. PB. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. CH’. In rock pools, Jan. CHAETOMORPHA DARWINT (Hooker) Kiitzing 1849, 380. De Toni 1889, 271. Conferva clavata vat, darwiniti Hooker 1847, 187, pl. 192, £. 1. — FB. Sub- littoral fringe on reefs in bay. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, CH’, Lower littoral, south side, All seasons. At PA, commonly epiphytic on Zonaria spiralis, Halopteris pseudospicula, Cystophora paniculata and Ballia scoparia. CHAETOMORPHA LINuM (Mueller) Kitzing, De Toni 1889, 269, Taylor 1937, 80, — BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947. CHAETOMORPHA VALIDA (Ilooker and Harvey) Kiitzing 1849, 379. De Toni 1889, 274. Conferva valida Hooker and Harvey 1847, 416 — AR. Upper sublittaral on Rabbit Island and elsewhere in Pelican Lagoon and near Muston, not common, May 1947, Aug. 1948. This agrees well with a specimen from Tasmania of Conferva calida H, & H..in Melbourne National Herbaritim. The platit is dark green, forin- ing rather coarse tangled masses, not readily collapsing our of water; fila- ments 350-450» thick, cells mostly 14-24 times as Jong as wide, slightly inflated. It is a distinctly more robust plant than C. linum, readily dis- linguished in the field. STPHONOCLADALES — YVaroniacrean DICTYOSPHAERTA Decaisne DicTYeSPHAERIA SERTCEA Harvey 1860 b, 339, pl. 196 A. J. Agardh 1887, 118; 1896, 61. De Toni 1889, 371. — MR, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs in bay, Jan, 1947, PB, Pools in sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons, 144 SIPHONOCLADIACKAE APJOHNIA Harvey APJOHNIA LAETEVIRENS Tarvyey 1858, pl. 5. J. Agardh 1887, 108. De Tomi 1889, 382. — MR. Dnit, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and in pools of sublittorat fringe on reefs in bay, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, and in pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. Speci- mens growitig in pools in the sublittoral fringe are usually stunted, often with only the basal part developed. STRUVEA Sonder STRUVEA PLUMOSA Sonder 1846, 151. Harvey 1858, pl. 32. De Toni 1889, 364- A single specimen [rom “North of Kangaroo Island, 1893.” Collector and further details are unknown, BoOoDLEACEAE MICRODICTYON Decaisne Micronictyon uMBILIcatum (Velley) Zanardini. Setchell 1929, 503. Micro- dictyon agardhianum, Harvey 1858, pl. 50, — AR, In Pesidonia beds near Strawbridge Point, May 1945; drift, Dec. 1948. Apparently rare. DASYCLADACEAE ACETABULARIA Lamouroux ACETABULARIA PENICULUS (R. Brown) Solms-Laubach 1895, 27. Puolyplvsa peniculus (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 11. De Toni 1889, 421. — AR. Low littoral and upper sublittoral at head of the lagoons (dense iti patches) and in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, BS, Lower littoral, June 1947, SIPHONALES — Bryorsmacrkae BRYOPSIS J atnouroux Brvopsis BACULIFERA J. Agardh 1887, 21. De Toni 1889, 428. — PR, Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1949. PB. Shaded pool, rear littoral, tiain reef, Jan, 1948. Rare; The few specimens collected have been sterile. They agree well in form and structure with cotype specimens of J. B. Wilson's in Melbourne National Herbarium except that the thallus of Wilson’s specimens are nearly twice as wide (340-510 against 120-350,). Bryopsis cupressomes Lamouroux. Kitzing 1856, t. 79, f. 1. J. Agardh 18387, 20, TDe Toni 1889, 435 — AR. On bnoys, Jan., Sept. 1946; upper sub- littoral near American River jetty, July 1946. Best developed in winter. Dr. V. J. Chapman considers these plants are referable to B. cupressoides, though they seem to be softer plants with longer pinnules than those figured by Kitzing. Bryorsts pLumosa (Hudsworth) Agardh. J. Agardh 1887, 24. De Toni 1889. 431. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 161, pl. 14, £.1, 2. — WB. In rock pools. south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 1948. DERBESTACEAE DERBESIJA Solier Dernesta CLAVAEFoRMIS (J. Agardh) De Toni 1889, 425. Bryopsis clavacfornits J. Agardh 1887, 20. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946, PB. Shaded pool, rear littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948. Rare. These spectmens agree well with those of J, B, Wilson’s in Melbourne National Herbarium. The WR specimen is rather thicker, but identical in form and position and size of zoosporangia. 145 CopIACEAE CODIUM Stackhouse Coprum careatum J. Agardh 1887, 42, t. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1889, 494, Lucas 1936, 54. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, occasional, all scasons. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. DB. Sub- littoral fringe on reef, Jan. 1947, PB, Drift, and in sublittoral Fringe, all seasons. RP. Drift, and pools of lower littoral, all seasons. Most of the speci- mens placed under (, galeatum show a distinctly but moderately thickened top to the utricles, Some, such as those from American River, are very slightly thickened. Some specimens from Victor Harbour and other parts of the South Australian coast have extremely heavily thickened tops to the utricles, which tend to be narrower and contracted a short distance below the apex, All these specimens are identical in external form (stout plants, thallus 4-6 mm, wide), and the variation in utricle thickness between young and old parts of one specimen, and between different specimens, is very con- siderable, Even when most utricles are scarcely thickened at all, an occa- sional natrower one occurs with heavy apical thickening, Although the extremes in utricle thickness are very distinct, and such characters have been largely sed in segregation of species within the genus, it seems impossible to delimit the extremes as species ar even varieties, On the othet hand this may be an ecological variation, as plants with heavily thickened utricles seem io occur mainly in deep water on exposed coasts. A slender dichotomous Codiwm, 2-3. mm. in thickness, and with very slight utricle thickening has been found in ihe drift at Pennington and Vivonne Bays. This may be another form of C. galeatinm, or Indy prove to be a distinct species. Copium Lucasm Setchell ia Lucas 1935, 200. Lucas 1936, 50, — PB, Rear littoral on an eastern recf, 1944, Rare. Coprum MAmiLtosum Harvey 1854, 505; 1858, pl. 41. J. Apardh 1887, 39. De Toni 1889, 491. Lucas 1936, 52. — RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948, EB, Mk, and PB, all drift, Jan. 1946. Apparently this species occurs only in the deeper sublittoral, sometimes very commonly in slieliered bays. Near Rocky Point enorniots numbers of this species, (. pomoides and (. Sposniv- sn, were cast up after a storm in June 1947, Coprum MUELLERTI Kiitzing 1856, 34, t. 95, #. 2. J. Agardh 1887, 42. De Toni 1889, 493. Codium schnudti Vouk 1935, 9, pl. 1. — RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, XK. Drift, Jan, 1948. This species is distinguished by the presence of hemispherical thickenings on the internal side of the apical membrane of the utricles. This was first recorded in Vouk’s Codinm schmidti (from Bussleton, Western Australia, and Lefevre Peninsula near Adelaide, South Australia, not New Caledonia as given by Vouk), but Setchell (1940, 444) pointed out the type specimen of C. amuelleri Kittzing Shows the same feature although Kutzing does not figure it. Cotype speci- mens of C. muelleri in Melbourne National Ilerbarium show the thickenings distinctly. The plants are slender (2-3 mm. wide) and soft, becoming flat and membranous on drying out. Most specimens in Australian Herbaria named as C. mwelleri do not show the! internal thickening, and are not this species; some are probably forms af C. galeatwar. Copium PERRINAR Tatcrs 1935, 203, f 4. — DB. Outer teet pools, Jan, 1950. 146 Copium Pomorpes J. Agardh 1894a, 100. Lucas 1936, 53. — RP. Drift, Jan. 1944, June 1947. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Upper sublittoral at end of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946. PB. In rock crevices of sublittoral fringe on reefs, occasional, all seasons. Conium sponciosum Harvey 1854, 565; 1858, pl. 55, J. Agardh 1887, 38; 1894a, 99. De Toni 1889, 489. Lucas 1936, 51. — AP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948. AR. Upper sublittoral in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, tare. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 4B. Drift, Aug. 1948. Common in drift, near RP after storms. RHIPILIOPSIS A, and E. S. Gepp Rutpriiopsts PELTATA (J. Agardh) A. and E, S. Gepp 1911, 45, f. 118-J22. Udatea peltatu J. Agardh 1882, 74. De Toni 1889, 509. — PB, In shaded pools, rear littoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949, also in deeper pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1948, 1949, Not common, CAULERPACEAE CAULERPA Lamotroux CAULERPA pRownir Endlicher. J. Agardh 1872, 28. De Toni 1889, 468, W. v. Bosse 1898, 306. Lucas 1936, 42. — General in the lower littoral and sublittoral fringe within the exposed rocky coast formation (ATR, west and south coasts to 4B). Also drift from deeper water. All seasons, but often not common. CaAuLerra cactorpes (Turner) Agardh, Harvey 1858, pl. 26. De Toni 1889, 485. W. y. Bosse 1898, 390. Lucas 1936, 48. — AP. Drift, June 1947. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944. Rare, CAULERPA ETHELAE. W. v. Bosse 1898, 384. Caulerpa siimplictuscula yar. vest- culifera, Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f. 3, 4. Caulerpa vesiculifera Harvey, Lucas 1936, 47. — MAR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948; drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945 This species has been commonly known as C. vesiewlifera. W, v. Boose showed that Harvey included two algae in his var. vesiculifera of C. simpliciuscula, one of which is a loose form of that species, while the other has very much larger vesicles; this she renamed C. ethelae. CAULERPA KEDLEVI W. v. Bosse 1910, 1-2. Lucas 1927b, 559; 1936, 43. — This species was “dredged in 8 fathoms off Kangaroo Island hy the fisheries’ trawler Endeavour in 1909." [I have not collected it, The pinnate fronds. are densely covered with minute, several times dichotomous, ramenta which are similur but slenderer on the surctilus. CauLerpa HypNompts (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 84. De Toni 1889, 470, W. y. Bosse 1898, 342. Lucas 1936, 44, — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, July 1947, WH, Drift, Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. Sou’-West Riyer mouth, Dee, 1934 (Cleland and Black). WB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PR. Pools on reefs, all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Driit, June 1947, Aug. 1948. var. MUELLERI (Sonder) W. v. Bosse 1898, 342. Caulerpa muelleri Sonder. Harvey 1858, pL 2, — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WE. Drift, Jan. 1946, FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe, all seasons, but not common, AB, Drift, Jan. 1948. CAULERPA LoNnciroLia Agardh, J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889, 455, C. harveyi F. v, Mueller in Harvey 1859, pl. 95. De Toni 1889, 455. Lucas 157 1936, 41. W. v. Bosse 1898, 209, — HW’B, Drift, Jan 1946. CC_ Drift, Jan, 1948. VB. Wrift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, Only found in the sublittoral, var, cRISPATA (Harvey) comb, nov. C. harveyi var. crispata Harvey 1859, pl. 95. W. + Bosse 1898, 300. C. longifolia Agardh in Lucas 1936, 38. C. curvifalia J. Agardh in Wilson 1892, 188 (nomen nudum). — 1B, Under ledge in sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan. 1947; drift, Jan. 1948. PB, In pools of sublittoral fringe on reels, probably all seasons. Usnally found in lower littoral or sublittoral fringe rock pools. Considerable confusion has existed in the position of C. longifolia and C. harveyi, In Australian herbaria they have usually been regarded as dis- tinct species, as did Lucas (1936). W. v. Bosse (1898, 299) examined the authentic (probably type) specimens of C. longifolia of C, Agardh, in the Paris Museum, and found it to be identical with C. harveyi F. v. M, W. v. Bosse conserved the name C, harveyi as Agardh's original diagnosis was slightly erromeous, There is, however, no provision for this in the Botanical Rules (1935), and the name must therefore revert to the earlier C. longifolia C. Agardh. The var, crispata Harvey of C. harveyi F. v. M. has been conimonly known in Australia as C. longifolia Ag, Most specimens are very distinct from typical C. harveyi; they are smaller, tmich less robust, and have the ramenta recurved inwards ahove atid irregularly placed on the stem. Var. crispata is an inhabitant of rock pools, while C. harveyi (now C. longifolia) inhabits deeper water. Frou W. y. Bosse’s description it appears that speci- mens of both C. longifolia and var- crispata are present on the type shect. Most specimens of var, crispata are very distinct from the species, but intermediate forms do oveur, and Harvey claimed to have seen connecting stages between the deep water and rock poo) forms. Several intermediate specimens occur in the algal collection of the Melbourne National Harbarium, C. curvifolia J, Agardh from Port Philip (Wilson 1892, 188) is identical with var crispata, but is a nomen ntidum as no description has ever heen published. Several specimens of Wilson’s are m the Melbourne National Herbarium. CAULFRPA onscurA Sonder 1846, 550, Harvey 1860b, 337. Kutzing 1857, t. 17. W.. v. Bosse 1898, 301. C. sondert HF. v. M. in Sonder 1852, 661, Harvey 1860a, pl. 167. De Toni 1889, 456, — AR. Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan, 1948, WP. Drift, June 1947. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, Only found in the sublittoral, CAULERPA REMOTLEOLIA Sonder 1852, 660. Harvey 1859, pl. 107. W_-v. Busse 1898, 286. De Toni 1889, 448. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout lagoons, especially at edge of channel and in deeper holes, all seasons. XK. Drift, Jan. 1945. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. This species shows great seasonal variation in density of the lateral pinnae along the branches. In summer (Dec.-April) the pinnae are few, sometimes completely absent. In winter more pinnae develop, until in late winter (Avg.-Oct.) they are sufhciéatly close to just overlap. Harvey’s figure shows an intermediate stage. The alga occurs as dense intertwined masses, often 1-2 ft, across. CAULERPA SCALPELLIFoRMIS (R. Erown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 17. De Toni 1889, 449, W-.v. Bosse 1898, 286. Lucas 1936, 34. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. 1B. Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1944, 1948, 148 CauLkepa skpomes (R. Brown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 72. De Toni 1889, 480. W. v. Bosse 1898, 387. Lucas 1936, 47. — AR. In Posidonia beds near Strawbridge Point, May 1945. MR. and WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. V8, Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan, 1947, PB. Pools of subfittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948, CAULERPA SIMPLICIUSCULA (Turner) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f, 1, 2. De Toni 1889, 482, W. v, Bosse 1898, 377, Lucas 1936,47. AS. (no data), PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons. var, VESICULIFERA Harvey 1859, descr. of pl. 65. W. v. Bosse 1898, 377. —~ AR. Upper sublittoral in lagoons, especially on edge of chammet, all seasons. Under C, ethelae I have commented that Harvey confused two plants under his var. vestcuhfera, W. y. Bosse renamed one C_ ethelae and kept a form with more loosely placed vesicles (but of similar size ta thase of the species) as var. vestcultfera, CAULERPA TRIPARTA Harvey 1863, pl. 261. J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889. 454. W. v. Bosse 1898, 299. Lucas 1936, 39. — South coast, cvilected by | Cork, winter 1939 (probably drift), PB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1948 (No. A9469). PB. Shaded pools, rear littoral, main reel, Jan. 1948 (No, A7019), The specimens under A9469 and A7019 are 1-2" high and show two regular rows of ramenta, never three. They are morphologically identical with C, sertularioides (Gm.) lowe. (C. phunaris Forsk). However, specimens of C. trifaria sometimes have only two rows of ramenta in parts, and this may be a feature of juvenile plants (as the VB and PB specimens prohably are). C. trifaria also differs from C. sertularioides in having spines on the sureulus. These are absent in these specimens, but this again may be » feature of young C. trifaria, Tor the present I prefer io leave these specimens under C. trifaria, though the possibility of their being C. sertuarioides cannot be excluded. In the Herbarium of the University of Adelaide is a specimen (A96) collected by Dr. Englehart at Lacepede Bay in 1897, identified as Cawlenpa Plumaris var. elegans (see Rembold 1897, 44). This is also recorded by Lucas 1936, 35. Underneath the specimen is written: “Examined and identi- fied by Madame Weber van Bosse,” probably in Reinbold's writing, as he dealt with Engelhart’s collection generally. W. v. Bosse (294) states in a footnote that she made the determination and adds: ‘“‘Cect repose sur une erreur, car l’alzue de M. Reinbeld est le C. plumaris, mais un échantillon tres ramifie.” he specimen, however, is a typical C. trifaria, with three rows of ramente in most parts, C. sertulariuides is characteristic of tropical waters, and on geographical grounds it would he unlikely to occur along Southern Australia. PHAEOPHYTA ISOGENERATAE — ECTOCARPALES — Eerocarpacrar ECTOCARPUS Lynehye Ectocarreus conrervorpes. (Roth) Le Jolis. Seichell and Gardner 1925, 412. Taylor 1937, 109. May 1939, 537-554. — AR. Common throughout the inlet, growing epiphytically on other algae (especially Hormosira) in winter { June-October), €C. In a rock pool, Jan. 1944. PB, Common in the rear littoral, winter (May-Nov.). PYLAIELLA Eory PYLAELLA FULVESCENS (Schousboe) Bornet 1889, 8, pl. 1, @. 1. De Toni £895, 536, Borgesen 1920, 431, f. 408, 409. -—- BH. Mid littoral, east side, Jan, 149 1948. PB. Rear littoral, summer {Nov.-April). CH’. In a rock pool, south side, August 1948. HZ. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. RP. Low littoral, Jan, 1948. SPHACELARIALES — SPHACELARIACEAE SPHACELARIA Reinke SPHACELARIA BIRADIATA Askenasy 1894, 15, pl. 2, £. 12. De Toni 1895, 507, Sauvageau 1914, 163-166, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Epiphytic on Sar- gassum, drift, Jan, 1946, VB. On Cyslophora subfarcinata and Cystophyllum muricatum in littoral pools, south side of Elen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan. 1946, PB. On stems of Cystophora weifera and Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral on reefs, Nov, to Feb. (? all seasons). SPHACELARIA FURCIGERA Kiitzing 1855, 27, t. 90, De Toni 1895, 506. Sauya- geau 1914, 145-156, Taylor 1937, 129. — PB. On Cystophora uvifera and Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral, on reefs, all seasons, SPHACELARIA PYGMAEA Lenermund in Sauvageau 1914, 29-31. — CC. On Carpo- glossum. confluens, driit, Jan. 1948. SPIACELARIA TRIBULOTDES Meneghini. Kiitzing 1855, t. 89, £. 2, De Toni 1895, 502. Sauvageau 1914, 123-130. — PB. On Myriodesma latifolia var. duriuscula in littoral pools, south side of Ellen Point, Dec, 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. Also in shaded part of pool 1, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. PB. In mid httoral pools of western terraced reef, Jan, 1946. STYPACAULACEAE HALOPTERIS Kiitzing HALOPTERIS. FUNICULARIS Sauvageau 1914, 402-403. Dickinson 1933, 255, £. 2 (for ball forms). Sphacelaria muelleri Sonder 1853, 507. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, IB, Drift, Jan. 1949, MALOPTERIS PSEUDOSPICATA Sauvageau 1914, 411. — BH. Upper sublittoral, east side, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. SB, Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB. In pools on reefs, upper sublittoral, all seasons, CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946, AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1947, HALOPTERIS HORDACEA (Harvey) Sauvageau 1914, 416-433. — CH’. Driit. Jan. 1946. A single sexual plant_ IlaLovreris spicicera (Areschoug) Moore in Reports of the 7th Pacific Science Congress, 1950, Sphacelaria spicigera Areschoug 1854, 365, Sauvagean 1914, 418-420. — BH. Upper sublittoral, cast side, Oct. 1947, PR. In a low littoral pool, just west of main reef, Dec: 1948, Jan. 1949 (fertile). CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946, PHLOEOCAULON Geyler PHLOECAULON SPECTABILE Reinke 1890, 213. De oni 1895, 520. Sauvageau 1914, 457-463, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. W’B. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1947, 1948. Also in pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948. CLANOSTEPHACEAE CLADOSTEPHUS Agardh CLADOSTEPHUS VERTICILLATUS (Lightfoot) Agardh. De Toni 1895, 513, Lucas 150 1936, 105. Taylor 1937, 135, pl. 17, £. 9-11. — In the upper sublittoral zone within the Rocky Coast Formation, in well washed bit not extremely rough places (often saridy), all seasons. Common at KP, K, EB, MR, PB, CW, HB. CUTLERIALES — Cwurreériacean CUTLERTA Greville CuTLeria MuLtirma Greville. Kiitzing 1859, t. 45, £. 1. De Toni 1895, 302. Newton 1931, 197, f. 125. — AR, Sublittoral, on edge of channel, especially near Muston, Nov, 1947, Aug, 1948. On cockle hank near Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949, RP. Drift on beach, Aug. 1948. This is mainly a late winter form, rarely seen in January. The thallus is mostly 2-3 mim, wide, DICTYOTALES — Diucrvoracear DicTYOTEAE DICTYOTA Lamouronx DicryoTa APIcULATA J. Agardh 1894a, 67, De Toni 1895, 262. D. dichotoime Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs., 1, 70 in part, — BH, Very low littoral, Dec. 1948. VB. Shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Poimt, Jan. 1949, The terminal segments of 72), apiculata are acute, not obtuse as in D. dichatoma, The VB specimens agree well with specimens of D. apiculata in Melbourne National Herbarium; the BH specimens are very similar but show a slight tendency for the tetrasporangia to become aggregated into sori. DictyoTa Birurca J. Agardh 1894a, 79, De Toni 1895, 279. — KP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, HH, Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1947. These specimens agree well with Wilson’s (catypes?). in Melbourne National Herbarium. Dictyors vicnotomA (Huds.) Lamouroux, Harvey 1871, pl. 103, f. 1. J, Agaaah 1 1882, 92; 1894a, 67, Newlon 1931, 212, f. 134° Lucas 1936, 91, f. 31 BE, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, CC, Sublittoral fringe and lower littoral in the sheltered inlet. Jan. 1948. CH’. Lower littoral, south side, Jan, 1946, var. intricata (Agardh) Greville. Harvey 1871, pl. 103, 1.2. Papenfuss 1944, 338, — AR. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, ali seasons. PB. In sandy pool, main reef, fan, 1945. Although this is a common alga in American River inlet, no fertile plants have yet been collected, It agrees very well, however, with Harvey’s figure and specimens from Europe, Dictryora pirmENnsiIs Sonder in Kutzing 1859, 14, t. 34. De Toni 1895, 266, J. Agardh 1882, 97; 1894a, 69. D. naevose, Harvey 1862, pl. 186. — BH, Drift, Dec, 1948. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, In shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Driit, Jan. 1948. These specimens agree well with the figures of Kutzing and Harvey, although the fronds ate narrower. A few specimens have ill-defined sori, DicryvotTa PURCELLATA Apardh. J. Agardh 1848, 90; 1&94a, 80. De Toni 1895, 280. Not D, furcellata Harvey, — KP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. BH, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. This species is regularly dichotomous, in contrast to the more lateral branching of Pachydictyon furcellatum 5! (D. furcellata. of Harvey). Older parts of the thallus are typically Dict'eta in section, Our specimens agree well with some in Melbourne National Herbarium. Dicryora Latiravsa J. Agardh [8%4a, 65. De Toni 1895, 261. Lucas 1936, 90. — WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 146, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948, An extensive range of specimens, undoubtedly belonging to the one species, has been examined, and they shaw considerable variation in charac- ters which are accepted as being of getieric significance in the Dictyotaceae. The thallus width ranges from 1 to 5 cm., the number of dichotomies. from L io 4 or 5. The small surface proliferations densely cover well developed fronds, but the upper parts and older fronds are often largely or almost completely denuded. The transverse section of the thallus in most specunens js that of Dictyota, Old parts of A3299{, however, show two rows of internal cells, though only one in younger parts (c.f., Dilophus). The tetrasporangia and sexual sori in most specimens are scattered over the thallus but not on the proliferations. Some specimens (¢.g., A3299d) show spofangia on both thallus and proliferations, while in others (A3299q and [) they are only on the proliferations (c.f. Glossophora). Similar varia- tions have been observed in specimens of this species in Melbourne National Herbarium. Kutzing (1859, 6, t. 12, f. 1) described a Dictyota latifolia from the Atlantic which has been relegated to a synonym of D. dichotome (see De Toni). As J. Agardh’s D. latifolia was described in 189+, his name is invalid, and if the species is to be maintained it must be renamed, J. Agardh 1882, 94, described D. nfgricans, which differs from J. loti- folia J. Ag. mainly in degree of branching, Specimens of these two species in Melbourne National Ierbarium (some were probably named by J. Agardh) are very doubtiully distinct. he degree of branching is variable, and specimens under both names show the variation in cellular structure described above. If the two species are to be combined, D. niyricans has priority and appears to be a valid name. In showing very few dichotamies, the Kangaroo Island specimens are of the D. latifolia form, Until the type specinyens of D, latifulia J. Ag. and D_ nigricans J, Ag. can be re-examined, in light of the above remarks, it seems best to leave the position as it is, rather than renaming PD. latifolia J, Age. and adding a name to the literature which may have to be relegated to the synonym of D, nigricaas later, Dicryora kapicans Harvey 1854, 536; 1859, pl. 110. [Kutzing 1859, t. 36, 1, 2. J. Agardh 1882, 92; 1894a, 74. De Tom 1895, 273. Lucas 1936, 91. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. FB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PAR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948. PACHYDICTYON J. Agardh Pacnyuictyon rurcenLAtuM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 83. De Toni 1895, 282. Dictyota furcellata, Warvey 1858, pl. 38 (not D, furcellata Ay.). — EB. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, Jan. 1945, 1946, AB. Drift, Jan, 1945, Harvey, in describing OD. furcellata, recognised that some specimens show characters intermediate between this species and P. pavticululuin, The main distinction lies in the wider and more robust frond of P. paniculutwon, Most specimens are quite distinct, but some intermediate forms are very difficult to place. Ilarvey doubted whether his plant was distinct from Dictyota minus Sender, but from specimens of Sounder’s in Melbourne National [erbarine PD, minus js probably identical wilh PL pantexlalinan, 152 In his description Harvey referred to, and figured, “spores” which he thought might be antheridia. A specimen of Harvey’s No. 67B in Melbourne National Herbarium shows the structures figured by Harvey. They are not reproductive organs but intracellular thickenings. Fig. 1 shows their charac- teristic form. I have observed similar thickenings m occasional specimens of Dictyota dichotoma and Dilophus fastigiatus also. Fig. 1 Intracellular inclusions in some Dictyotaceae, as seen lying in. the medullary cells (cortical cells not shown). A, In Harvey's specimen of Pachydictyon furcellatum. B. Ina specimen of Dictyota dichatoma, C and D. Two typical inclusions, PAcHYDICTON PANICULATUM J. Agardh 18944, 84. De Toni 1895, 283. De Toni and Forti, 1923, 73, pl. 8, f. 8. Levring 1946, 218, f. 3. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1948, 1949. AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945. WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. CC, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948, VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, probably all year. PB. Poois of sublittoral fringe, all seasons. CH’. In rock pools, Aug. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. RP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. Probably present in all seasons in the upper sublittoral and low rock pools within the Rocky Shore Formation. DILOPHUS J, Agardh Dinroruus Fastictatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1882, 107; 18944, 92. De Toni 1895, 288. Dictyota fastigiate Sonder 1846, 155. Harvey 1859, pl. 82. — MR, WR, and WB, all drift, Jan, 1946, CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Jan, 1948, DitopHus Fotiosus J. Agardh 1894a, 94. De Toni 1895, 290, — BH. Driit, Dec, 1948. MR. Driit, Jan. 1946. — J. Agardh placed D. faliosus in the section Marginatae, with two ruws of internal cells in the median part and four at the edges, The BH specimens show one row of internal cells and two at the edges in ihe youngest parts, with the number of rows increasing in older parts to four rows all through, the margin being very slightly if at all thicker, In the presence of small proliferations, general form and posi- tion of sori they closely resemble some af Wilson's specimens of D. foltosys in Melbourne National Herbarium, Wilson’s specimens also vary in number of rows of internal cells. 153 DICTYOPTERIS Lamovroux DicTYOPTERTS NIGRICANS Womersley 1949, 115, f. 8, pl. 22, £. 2. — WB. Driit, Jan 1946, 1B. In pools on reefs in the bay, Jan. 1948, drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, In pools of the sublittoral fringe and calmer parts of the reefs, all seasons. (Previously reported in Pt. II as D. aerostichoides?) Dicryvorrerig “MUELLERr (Sonder) Schmidt 1938, 218. Haliseris muelleri Sonder 1852, 665. Harvey 1860a, pl. 180. De Toni 1895, 255. Lucas 1936, 89, f. 49a, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VA. In shaded parts. of large littoral pool south side of Ellen Point, jan. 1949. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948, LOBOSPIRA. Areschoug Lopospira BicusrpipaTa Areschoug 1854, 364, Harvey 1858, pl. 34. De Tom 1895, 292. J. Agardh 1894a, 98. Lucas 1936, 93, — BH. Upper sub- littoral, Dec, 1948. MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WR, Drilt, Jan, 1946. HR. In a low rock pool, Jan. 1949. IB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. WB. In large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947, 1949; drift, Jan, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe and drift, all seasons. CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946. ZONARIEAE CHLANIDOPHORA J. Agardh CHLANIDOPHORA MICROPHYLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 18, t. 1, f. 3-5. De Tom 1895, 238. Lucas 1936, 87. Levring 1940, 2. Zanaria microphylla Harvey 1862, pl. 195, — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1949. POCOCKIELLA Papenfuss PecocKIELLa VARIEGATA (Lamouroux) Papenfuss 1943, 467, f. 1-14. Gyinno- sorus variegatus (Lamour). J. Agardh 18944, 11, pl. 1, f. 1-2. De Toni 1895, 227, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB, Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947. PAR, In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947, 1948 (as Gymnosorus in Pr. IL). RP. Drift, Jan, 1944, June 1947. TAONIA J. Agardh TAONIA AUSTRALASICA J. Agatdh 1894a, 30, De Toni 1895, 242, Lucas 1936, 87, — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, and drift, Dec. 1948. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Agardh's description, and certainly belong to Taonia, In Melbourne National Herbarium there are no specimens of Wilson’s under this name, but some labelled Vaonle atomaria which are identical with the Kangaroo Tslaiid specimens. These are probably atithentic specimens of T. australasica, and had been originally referred to by Agardh to T. atomaria, T. anstralasica resembles T, atomaria in form, but is a mucli smaller plant (4-8 cm. high). Spatoglossiim australasicum Kitzme 1859, t, 48, which J. Agardh doubt- fully refers to his T. avstralasica, is a quite distinct plant. Cotype (and probably type) specimens are in the Melbourne National Herbarium. ZONARIA Agardh ZONAWA CRENATA J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895, 230. Lucas 1936, 86. — MR. Drift. Jan. 1948. YB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 1948, CH’. Drift, Jan. 1947. 4B, Drift, Aug. 1948. 14 ZONARIA DIESINGIANA J, Agardh 1848, 109; 1872, 46; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895, 229, Lucas 1936, 86. Levring 1946, 216, f. 1. — SB, In littoral pools, Jan. 1948. PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Dec. 1948, The SB specimens show concentric zones of long hairs on one suriace. Germinat- ing spores had apparently become entangled in the hairs, forming numerous young plants which appeared like proliferations. ZONARIA SPIRALIS (J, Agardh) Papeniuss 1944, 341. Homoeostrichus spiralis J. Agardh 1894b, 89. De Toni 1895, 237, Lucas 1936, 86. — MM, Drilt, Jan. 1948. Rock pools, Jan. 1946. HAR. In rock pools, Jan. 1949. V8. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, In pools of sub- littoral fringe on reefs, and drift, all seasons, CH’. J.ower littoral, east side, Jan, 1946, I am in full agreement with Papenfuss im not recognising Hoimoeo- strichus as distinct from Zonaria, The “twinning” of cortical cells in both Z spiralis and Z. stuposa is very variable, Most specimens of Z. spiralis are readily distinguished from 2. subarticulata, but intermediate specimens with only slight spirality of the upper parts of the thallus occur, and are difficult to place, Zonaria sturosa R, Brown in Kiitzing 1849, 564. J. Agardh 1872, 50. Homovo- strichus stuposus (R. Br.) J. Agardh 1894a, 15. De Toni 1895, 236. Lucas 1936, 86, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Homeocosirichus m Pt. UU, 161). ZONARIA SUBARTICULATA (Lamiouroux) Papenfuss 1944, 339. Z. turneriana J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 14. De Toni 1895, 232. Lucas 1936, 86. Z. itervrupla, Harvey 1862, pl, 190. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948; lower rock pools, Jan. 1946. 1B, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe on reefs in bay, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, May 1945, and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons, AB, Drift,Jan. 1948, Aug. 1948; low littoral, Jan, 1945, 1947, 1948. Very variable in size, and usually stunted when in the sublittoral fringe. This was reported in Pt. I as Z. turneriana, HETEROGENERATE — CHORDARIALES — MvyrronemataceAr MYRIONEMA Greville MyxItONEMA STRANGULANS Greville. Kiitzing 1857, t, 93, f. 1. De Toni 1895, 399, De Toni and Forti 1923, 78. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 471, pl. 40, f, 51. Smith 1944, 106, pl. 15, f. 5. MM. leclancheri, Harvey 1863, Syn, No, 134, — AR. Epiphytic on Ulva lactuea, upper sublittoral on Shag Rock in Pelican Lagoon, July 1947. Harvey recorded this species as M, leclancher) from Georgetown, Tasmania, De Toni and Forti also refer Haryey’s speci- mens to M, strangulans, CorYNOPHLAEACRAE CORYNOPHLAEA kiitzing CoRYNOPHLAEA CYSTOPHORAE J, Agardh 1882, 22, +. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1895, 421. Lucas 1936, 102. — WR. On Cystophora spartioides in the upper sublittoral, Jan, 1946. CC. On Cystophera intermedia in sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1945, PB. On Cystophora intermedia Jan. 1945, 1947, 1948 and Cyst, siliquosa, Noy, 1947, in sublittoral fringe. Often very dense on these species ot Cystophora where aeration is mgh. Kuckuck (1929, 40) refers this species to Myriactis as M. eystophorae (J, Ag.) Kuckuck, 155 CHORDARIACEAE CLADOSIPHON Kiutzing CiaposiptHon FiLum (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 29. Mesogloia filwm Harvey 1854, 536. Bactrophora filum (Harv.) J. Agardh 1882, 24, t. 1, f.4. De Toni 1895, 409. — MR. Low littoral, west side, Jan. 1947. VB, Littoral on reefs in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, Littoral on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Nov. 1947. AB. Littoral pools, Jan. 1945, The thallus is usually simple or sub-simple, with a few branches from a common base. Some MR specimens show numerous lateral “prolifera- tions”, but all grades to the simple forms occur in the same area. CLAposIPHON yERMICULARIS (J. Agardh) Kylin 1940, 30, t. 5, £.12, Bactrophora vermicularis J, Agatdh 1882, 25. De Yoni 1895, 409. — MR. Driit, Jan. 1946. CC. Mid littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Pools on main reef, Jan., Dec. 1947, MYRIOGLOIA Kuckuck Myxrociora scturus (Harvey) Kuckuck 1929, 63, £. 81. Kylin 1940, 12, f. 8A. Myriocladia -sciurus Harvey 1858, pl. 58. J, Agardh 1882, 19, — WB. Littoral on a small reef near beach, Jan, 1946, POLYCEREA J. Agardh PoLYCEREA NIGRESCENS (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 36, f. 20 A-B, t. 7, f£. 16, Clado- siphon nigrescens Harvey, Aig. Aus, exs. n, 94, Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. Kucktick 1929, 58, {. 73, 74. Cladosiphon nigricans Harvey 1860b, 292. Polycerea ramulosa J. Agardh 1882, 48, t. 3, f. 3. — AR, Upper sublittoral on cockle bank, Jan. 1946, BH. Drift, Jan. 1948. ZEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, and upper sublittoral in the bay, Jan, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. PonycerEa zosTeRIcoLaA (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 37, t. 7, f. 17. Cladosiphon gostericola. Harvey 1863, Syn No. 130. Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. J. Agardh 1882, 43. Kuckuck 1929, 58, f. 75, —- MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1949. AB. Drift, Jan. 1948, These two species of Polycerea are yery similar in habit, and both grow on Posidonia in similar localities. The figures of Kuckuck illustrate well the differences hetween them, P. nig’escens having large inflated terminal cells on the assimilatory filaments, while P. sostericola has not. J. Agardh’s figure (1882, t. IL, f. 3a) of P. zostericola is incorrect in this respect. TINOCLADIA Kylin TinocLabDIA austratis (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 34, t. 6, £. 14. Liebmannia australis Harvey 1860b, 291. Alg. Aus. exs., Nr. 88. Eudesme australis J. Agardh 1882, 32. — V'B, Dritt, Jan. 1948. SPERMATOCH NACEAE STILOPSIS Kuckuck Stitopsis HARVEYANA Kylin 1940, 50, t. 8, f. 22. Stiluphora lyngbyei Harvey Alg. Aus. exs. Nr. 65; 1863, Syn n. 118 — AR, Upper sublittoral in Pelican Lagoon, May 1945, Nov, 1947. SPLACH NIDIACEAF SPLACHNIDIUM Greville SPLACHNIDIUM RUGOSUM (Linn.) Greville, Harvey 1858, pl. 14. Kiitzing 1860, t. 8 Lucas 1936, 83. Kylin 1940, 55. — CC Mid littoral, Jan, 1945, 156 VB. Upper littoral, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper littoral, Jan, 1944 (very rare). CH. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (common, on granite rack). SPOROCHNALES — SprorocHnackar SPOROCHNUS Agardh : SPoROCcHNUS HARVEyANUS J. Agardh 1896, 32. Sporochnus comosus, Harvey 1859, pl. 104 (not C. Agardh), — MR. Drift. Jan, 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, Aug. 1948 (as Sp. comosus in Pt. I, 161). Examination of a range of specimens may show Sp. harveyanus is not distinct from Sp. comosus C, Agardh, SPOROCHNUS RavicirorMis (R. Brown) Agardh, Harvey 1862, pl. 225. De Toni 1895, 382. Lucas 1936, 100. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, FB. Shaded part of large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1949. SPOROCHNUS ScopaRIUsS Harvey 1854, 535; 1862, pl. 226. De Toni 1895, 383. Lucas 1936, 100. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. CW. Drift, Jan. 1946. Sporachnus radiciformis and Sp. scoparius may well be forms of one species, Sp. scoparius is a more robust plant, usually with a prominent main stem; Sp. radictformis is less robust, usually with several slender stems from near the base. Harvey separated them on robustness, angle of branching (wider in Sp. radiciformis) and form of receptacles. The slight differences in these features are of doubtful specific distinction, depending on the age of the plant, state of development of receptacles, and habitat, Kuitzing’s species Sp. sphaerocephalus, Sp. abovatus and Sp. crypto~ cephalus belong to the radiciformis-scoparius complex, and are doubttiuily distinct species. ENCYOTHALIA Harvey ENcYOTHALIA cLirtont Harvey 1859, pi. 62. De Toni 1895, 379, Lucas 1936, 99, #.55. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, BELLOTIA Harvey BELLOTIA ERIOFHORUM Harvey 1859, pl. 69; 1860b, 288, t. 187, f. 1-3. De Toni 1895, 377. Lucas 1936, 97, £. 54. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948, 1949, PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949, PERITHALIA J. Agardh PERITHALIA INERMIS (R, Brown) J. Agardh 1890, 4. De Toni 1895, 378. Lucas 1936, 100, Carpomitra tnermis, Harvey 1862, pl. 238. — MR. Drift, Jan- 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1949, PRB. Two to three feet over edge of main reef (and pro- bably deeper), all seasons. NEREIA Zanardini NEREIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1860b, 289, pl. 187. Stilophora ? australis Harvey 1844, 453; Alg. Aus. exs., n. 66. J. Agardh 1848, 86. — IB. Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, CARPOMITRA Kiitzing CARPOMITRA COSTATA Batters. Newton 1931, 137, £. 84. C. cabrerae Kiutzing 1849, 569; 1859, t. 89, f. 1. Harvey 1871, pl. 14. — CW’. Drift, Jan. 1946. 154 DICTYOSIPHONALES — PuNCTARIACEAE ASPEROCOCCUS, Lamouroux ASPEROCOCCUS. BULLoSuS Lamouroux. De Toni 1895, 493. Newton 1931, 172, f. 107. Lucas 1936, 104. Kylin 1947, 75, t. 11, £. 38. A. turnert, Harvey 1871, pl. 11; 1863, Syn. n. 119. — .AR, In the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, usually epiphytic on Posidonia, all seasons. In summer the plants are 2-5 em. high, increasing in size in late winter (Aug-Nov.) to up ta 60 cm. high and 10 cm. wide, and then becoming very common in the Posidonia beds. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. -4B, Drift, Jan. 1948. COLPOMENIA Derbes and Soher Cotromenta stnuosa (Roth) Derbes and Solier. De Toni 1895, 489, Setchell and Gardner 1925, 539, pl, 45, f. 82-86. Lucas 1936, 103, Smith 1944, 128, pl. 20, f. 1. A. sinuasus, Harvey 1863, Syn. N. 120. — AR, Upper sub- littoral in the lagoons, mainly winter (Aug.-Nov.), with small plants on the buoys most of the year. EB, Lower littoral on rocks, Jan. 1945. MR, Lower littoral, Jan. 1947, WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. In the sublittoral fringe and littoral on reefs, Jan,, Aug. 1948, HYDROCLATHRUS Bory HyprocLaTHkus CLATHRATUS Bory. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 543, HW. can- cellatus, Harvey 1859, pl. 98, De Toni 1895, 490. Lucas 1936, 103, — AR. On red buoy, Dec. 1948. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, AB, Drift, Jan. 1948. SCYTOSIPHON Agardh ScyTOsSIFHON LOMENTARIA (Lyngbye) J. Agardh. De Tonj 1895, 485, Setchell and Gardner 1925, 531, pl. 44, f. 72, 74. Newton 1931, 178, f. 111. Tucas 1936, 103. Smith 1944, 129, pl. 19, f.1. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub- littoral, and on the buwys, winter (July-Nov.). M2. In rock pools, Jan. 1946. PB, In pools and on rock in rear littoral, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Sept. 1946, Nov, 1947. LAMINARIALES — LrssonrAcEAk MACROCYSTIS Agardh Macrocyst1s pyrirera (Linn.) Agardh. De Tom 1895, 372. ‘Setchell and Gardner 1925, 627, pl. 64, 65, Lucas 1936, 95, f, 53. Smith 1944, 144, pl. 31, f. 3-4. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. Several fragments which may have drifted from sonie distance away. No beds exist along the coast as far as is known, ALARTACEAE ECKLONITA Eorneman Ecxionra xramiata (Agardh) J. Agardh, De Toni 1895, 354. Lucas 1936, 95, f, 52. Papenfuss 1944, 341. — MR. Upper sublittoral. CC. Sublittoral fringe in sheltered inlet and more exposed parts. Sou'-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black). VB. Drift. PB. In the sublittoral fringe on reefs, occasional. CH’, Upper sublittoral, east side, occasional. RP. Upper sublittoral, common, Present in all scasoms in all localities. Papenfuss (1940, 210) considers that £. biruncinala (Bory) Pap, (E. exasperata (Turner) J. Agardh) and £, richardiana J, Ag. are specifically distinct from E, radiata, being separated on form and presence of marginal and surface spines. Degree of spininess and furm are, however, both very variable features, depending on habitat, and in South Australia all the ahove species must be combined. At Cape Coudie, in a small inlet (50 metres long 158 by 5-10 metres wide), relatively sheltered at the inner end and exposed at the outside, gradations in spininess and form are found, Sheltered plants are simple, consisting of a main elongate lamina with small marginal out- growths, but no spines. In tougher parts a few marginal spines appear, and in the rough condtiions at the end of the channel spines densely cover the surface and edges, the plants being dense and stout, These variations can only be regarded as ecological formis of the one species, and in view of the gradations between them it seems useless to give them even varietal names, Stephenson (1948, 284) has come to a similar belief concerning the South African forms of this species. I suspect that E, lanctloba. Sonder is only another form of E, radiata. CYCLOSPORAE — FUCALES — Nors#eracrar HORMOSIRA Endlicher Hormosira BANKS (Turner) Decaisne. Harvey 1860a, pl, 135. De Toni 1895, 187. Lucas 1936, 80. Osborn 1948, 47-71. — AR. Lower littoral through- out the inlet. BH. Lower littoral MR and WR. Low rock pools. VB. Lower littoral on reefs in bay. PB. Lower littoral on reefs. RP. Lower littoral. Present in all seasons and likely to be found anywhere around the island except in very rough places on steep rock. H. banksii shows a variety of ecological forms. On the whole each form is characteristic of a particular habitat, but gradations between them occur in intermediate habitats. The following forms occur around Kangaroo Island. f. Jabillardieri (Bory) Harvey. American River Inlet, f. sieberi (Bory) Harvey, Pools and reefs on north-west and south coasts. f. pumila Sonder (in Kitzing 1860, t. 4, f. 2). Rocky Point and Ballast Head, NOTHEIA Bailey and Harvey NOTHEIA ANOMALA Bailey and Harvey. Harvey 1862, pl. 213. De Toni 1895, 224, Lucas 1936, 82, f. 48. — FB.On Hormosira banksii on reefs in bay. PB. On H_ banksti on reefs. All seasons. Notheia is usually parasitic on Hormosira banksii, but has only been found on f. sieberi on reefs on the south coast, where wave action is strong. IUCACEAE MYRIODESMA Decaisne MyRIopesMA INTEGRIPOLIA Harvey 1860b, 286, pl. 186. J. Agardh 1890, 6; 1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 191. Lucas 1936, 79, f. 47. — IB, Drift, Jan 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, MyriopesMA LATIFoLIA Harvey var. purruscuta J. Agardh. Tlarvey 1858, pl. 24 (for species). J, Agardh 1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 192. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948. VB. In shaded parts of large rock pools, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1945, 1949, Myriopesma QuERcIFOLIUM (Bory) J. Agardh 1848, 192; 1890, 7; 1894b, 93. De Toni 1895, 193. — South'-West River mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945. VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec. 1948 (as M, calophylhim in Pt. I, 161). J. Agardh (1894b, 94) described M. calo- bhyllum from Port Phillip (J. B. Wilson), differing from guercifolium. in 139 having ah entire (not spinous) margin. The Kangaroo Island specimens are mostly entire, sometimes with one or two small marginal spines, Most of the specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium under M, quercifalinm and M. calophyllum are entire, some with a few marginal spines. Without examining the type material, together with a range of specimens, it is difficult to judge whether these two species are distinct or not, but I suspect they are not. M. quercifolium has been recorded generally in the Southern Anstra- lian region, and the type locality is somewhere in this region. Should M. calophyllum ptove to be distinct from M, quercifolium, the Kangaroo Island specimens will probably belong to the former. SCYTOTHALIA Greville ScCYTOTHALIA porycarea (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 9. De Toni 1895, 132. Litcas 1936, 69, f. 42, — WR. Drift, Jan, 1946. Sou’-West River mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945. UB. In shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, fan. 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons, SEIROCOCCUS Greville Serrococcus AXILLARIS (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 4. De Toni 1895, 131. Lucas 1936, 68, f. 41. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, June 1947. CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946, XIPHOPHORA Montagne XIPHOPHORA CHONDROPHYLLA (R, Brown) Montagne var. mixus J, Agardh. De Toni 1895, 213. Heine 1932, 558, pl. 17, f. 2, 3. Lucas 1936, 81. — MR, WR, CW and AB. Growing in patches in the upper sublittoral, pro- bably all seasons. PB, Small patches in the Cystophora-coralline association on the main reef, all seasons. This species was at first confused with Acretylus qustralis (see correction in Pt. IL). It grows to 8 or 12 em, high, and has rarely been found fertile, Kangaroo Island is probably the extreme west of the geographic range of var. mins, CYSTOSEIRACEAE CARPOGLOSSUM RButzing CakpoctossumM coNFLUENS (R. Brown) Kiitzing. Harvey 1860a, pl. 159, De Toni 1895, 182. Lucas 1936, 78, £. 46. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. WB. Drift, fan, 1946. VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1948. Only found in the sublittoral. CYSTOPHORA J, Agardh Some authors have used the generic natne Blossevillea Decaisne, Cystophora J. Agardh appears in the “Nomina Generica conservanda proposita’” of the 1935 edition of the International Rules, and it is to be hoped this well-known name will be adopted at the next Botanical Congress. Cystopiora Borryocystis Sonder 1852, 670, Harvey 1858, pl. 56. De Toni 1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 72. — RP. Drift on beach near AR inlet, Jan. 1944, May 1945, June 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably growing in several meters in Eastern Cove). £8. Drift, Jan, 1946. CysropHorA BRowNu (Turner) J. Agardh. Tlarvey 18604, pl. 169. De Toni 1895, 146, Lucas 1936, 73. — MR. In littoral pools and upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1948. IB. In large littoral pool, south side of Ellen 160 Point, all seasons, PB. In littoral pools on a reef, Jan. 1947, and drift, June 1947 CYSTOPHORA CEPHALORNITHOS (Labilladiere) J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 116, De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas 1936, 70. — AR. Upper sublittoral at head of lagoons, Jan. 1948 (probably all seasons), and drift near American River Jetty, June 1947. Not common, K.. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945. CystopHora pumosa (Greville) J. Agardh 1870, 444. De Toni 1895, 142. Blossevillea dumosa, Kiitzing 1860, t. 73, f£. 1, — WB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, all seasons. CYSTOPHORA GREVILLEr (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1862, pi. 183. De Toni 1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 73. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, April 1947, Dec. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, CYSTOPHOKA INTERMEDIA J. Agardh 1897, 102, — Im the sublittoral fringe throughout the Exposed Rocky Coast Formation, all seasons (see Pt, 1), CysSTOPHORA MONILIFERA J. Agardh 1848, 241. Harvey 1863, pl. 245. De Tont 1895, 146. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB, MR, WR, WB, CC, VB, PB, CW, AB, all drift from sublittoral, all seasons. Widely distributed in the sublttoral around the island, Rarely on rock in the channel at AF inlet. CYsTOrmoRA PANICULATA (Turner) J. Agardh, Harvey 1863, pl. 247. De Toni 1295, 149. Lucas 1936, 74. —- WR, MR, and CC. Drift. FB. Drift and in the large littoral pool, south side of Elen Point. PB. In the Cystophora- coralline and sublittoral fringe associations on reefs, and sublittoral. CH’. Drift. All seasons in all localities, CYSTOPHORA PECTINATA (Greville and Agardh) J}. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 139. Lucas 1936, 71. Blosseviliea pectinata, Kiitzing 1860, t. 74, £, 2, — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, May 1945, Jan, 19-46, 1948, Restricted to the sublittoral, CystorHorA PLATYLoBIUM (Mertens) J. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas 1936, 71. Cystophora lyallit Harvey 1855, 214, pl, 108. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, April 1947, Jan. 1948. Cl. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. Restricted to sublittoral. CYsTOPHORA POLYCYSTIDEA Areschoug in J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1893, 148. Lucas 1936, 74. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral within the Sheltered Rocky Coast Subformation, all seasons, Also in very sheltercil pools at PB and CH’, all seasons, CysToPHORA RAceMOsA Harvey. Alg. Aus. Exs, n. 5. J. Agardh 1870, 441. Le Toni 1895, 140. Lucas 1936, 71. Blossevillea racemosa, Kutzing 1860, t. 85, f, 1. — PB, Drift, Sept. 1946, June 1947. CYSTOPHORA RETORTA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 243; 1870, 443, De Toni 1895, 141, Lucas 1936, 72. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. P#. Drift, May 1945, July 1947, Jan. 1948. Cystoruora sitrovosa J, Agardh 1870, 445. De Toni 1895, 143. Lucas 1936, 72 — In the upper sublittoral and in low, large littoral pools throughout the Rocky Shere Formation. Common on reefs on the south coast. All seasons. 161 Cysroprora spArTiomes (Turner) J. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 76, De Toni 1895, 145. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB and MR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and sublittoral im bay, Jan, 1946, 1947. PB. In pools on the sublittoral fringe, all seasons. CW. Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB, Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1947, CyYSTOPHORA SUBFARCINATA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1895, 147, Lucas 1936, 74. — Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral and low littoral pools within the Rocky Coast Formation. Very common on south coast reefs, All seasons. The north coast form (MR to AB) bears vesicles. CystorHorA uvirera (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860a, pl. 175, De Toni 1895, 137. Lucas 1936, 70. — South-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black), VB, Littoral on reefs in bay, all seasons, PB. Littoral on reefs and occasionally drift from deeper water, all seasons. The seasonal variation in vesicle formation at PB has been described previously (Pt. U, 154). AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. This species probably occurs on all the reefs along the south coast. CYSTOPHYLLUM J. Agardh CysropuyLLuM mukICATUM (Turner) J, Agardh 1848, 231. De Toni 1895, 154. Lucas 1936, 74. — AR. Occasional in the upper stiblittoral, mainly near the channel edge. K, Drift. EB, WR and MR. Upper sublittoral. PB. Littoral pool association on reefs. RP. Low littoral, All seasons in all localities, Widely distributed in the Sheltered Rocky Coast Formation. SARGASSUM SARGASSUM BIFORME Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 75, pl. 23, £. 3. De Toni 1895, 34. Lucas, 1936, 67. — AX, Sublittoral and upper sublittoral on rock along chan- nel, occasional, all seasons. Also cast up (from Eastern Cove), May 1945, Sept 1946, SARGASSUM BRACTEOLOsuUM J. Agardh 1889, 67, pl. 4, pl. 19, £. 2. De Toni 1895, 28. Lucas 1936, 66. — WR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black) and drift, Jan. 1945. WB. Upper sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point and in the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. DB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs and sublittoral, all seasons. SARGASSUM CRrIsTaTUM J, Agardh 1889, 84, t. 25, f. 5, De Toni 1895, 44. Jucas 1936, ra — EB, Driit, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, April 1947, Dec. 1948. SARGASSUM LACERIFOLIUM (Turner) Agardh. Harvey 1862, pl, 208 J. Agardh 1889, 74, t. 23, =. 2. De Toni 1895, 34. Lucas 1936, 66. — PB. Drift, April 1947, July 1947, Dec. 1948, SARGASSUM MERRIFIELDIt J. Agardh 1889, 115, pl. 30, f. 4. De Toni 1895, 96. Lucas 1936, 68. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. The species is somewhat variable in form but agrees well with J. Agardh’s description and figures, SARGASSUM MuURICULATUM J. Agardh 1872, 58; 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 2. De Toni 1895, 10. Lucas 1936, 63. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, FB. 1n the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan, 1949_ PB. Littoral on reefs, 162 all seasons, (Seasonal variation described in Pt. II, 155.) CH’, In rock pools, south side, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948, SaRGassuM SONDERI J. Agardh 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 1-2. De Toni 1895, 10. Lucas 1936, 63. Cystophora sonderi, Harvey 1863, pl, 243. — PB. Drift, May 1945. SARGASSUM TRICHOPHYLLUM J. Agardh 1889, 52, pl. 17. De Toni 1895, 16. Lucas 1936, 64, — Ak. Drift (probably from Eastern Cove), June 1947- PB. Driit, all seasons. SARGASSUM VARIANS Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 49, pl. 16, f. 1-8. De Toni 1895, 14. Lucas 1936, 64, — J¢R. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift May 1945, Sept. 1946, April, July 1947. SCABERIA Greville ScABERIA AGARDHII Greville. Harvey 1860a, pl. 164. De Toni 1895, pl. 179. Lucas 1936, 76. -—— FEB, Upper sublittoral. VB and PB. Drift. ARP. Upper sublittoral, Common, all seasons. Scaberia rugulosa J. Agardh is only a slenderer form of this species: RHODOPHYTA BANGIOIDEAE — BANGIALES — Banciaceag BANGIA Lyngbye Bancia FuscopuRPUREA (Dillwyn) Lyngbye. De Toni 1897, 11, Newton 1931, 238, £.145. Taylor 1937, 218, pl. 28, f. 10-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125. f_ 4. — AR, On black buoy, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1947. CH’. At the edge of exposed rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948. This scems to be mainly a winter form, and has usually disappeated at American River by January. PORPHYRA C. Agardh PorPavrA umapriicatis (Iinnaeus) J, Agardh, Newton 1931, 240, £, E46. Taylor 1937, 221, pl, 30, f. 1-3. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125, £. 5, 6. Wilde- mania wubilicalis (L.) De Toni 1897, 20. — AR. Upper littoral on Shag Rock and Pig Island (probably elsewhere in the lagoons), Sept. 1946, July and Nov. 1947. — CW. Upper littoral, south side, Aug 1948. This 1s a winter form, occurring in American River inlet from, June to early Novernber. FLORIDEAE — NEMALIONALES — AcrocHAETIACEAE ACROCHAETIUM Naegel: ACROCHAETIUM BOTRYOCARPUM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 10. Papenfuss 1945, 313. Callithamnion botryocarpum Ilaryey 1854, 563. — PB. Drift, on Polyceria nigrescens, Jan. 1948. BonNEMAISONIACEAE ASPARAGOPSIS Montagne ASPARAGOPSIS ARMATA Harvey 1854, 544; 1862, pl, 192. De Toni 1900, 772. Feldmann 1942, 82, 102, 109, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 244. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct, 1947, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1948. Feldmann has presented evidence, based on culture experiments and morphology, that Falkenbergia (Rhodomelaceae) is the terasporic phase of Asparagopsis armata, Falkenbergia has not yet been found around Kangaroo Island. 163 ASPARAGOPSIS TAXIFORMIS (Delile) Collins and Hervey. Feldmann 1942, 81, Asparagopsis sanfordiana Harvey 1858, pl, 6. De Toni 1900, 771. — North coast (no details). This single specimen in the Adelaide University Her- barium agrees with others from Port Willunga, in Gulf St. Vincent, which are referable to 4, sanfordiana Harvey, Veldman and others consider this species identical with A, tariformis, any differences being due to the habitat, BONNEMAISONIA C. Agardh GONNEMAISONIA ASPARAGOIDES (Woodward) Agardh var, HyPNomnes Reinbold. De Toni 1900, 768. Newton 1931, 269, fig. 164. Reinbold 1899, 47 (for variety). Lautcas and Perrin 1947, 243, — PB. Drift, Aug. 1948. A single specimen, identical with a colype of Reinbold’s var. hypzoides in Adelaide University Iferbarium, and which seems to agree closely with figures ol ‘B. asparagoides. DELISEA Lamotiroux DeLisea wypNeowes Harvey 1860a, pl. 134. De Toni 1900, 761, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 241, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1948. IWR, MR and HB, all drift, Jan, 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947. ‘These specimens are rather denser than Harvey’s figure, and were reported as 1), elegans in Pt. I, 244, DELISEA PuLCHRA (Greville) Montagne. Harvey 1858, pl. 16. De Tom 1900, 763. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 241. — WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, WB, Drift Jan. 1945, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947. HELMINTHOCLADIACEAE LIAGORA Lamotroux LIAGORA HARVEVYANA Zeh 1913, 270, De Toni 1924, 92. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 134, Liagora viscida, Harvey Alg. Aus. exs. n. 348B; 1863, Syn n,, 477, — PB, Littoral and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons but variable in occurrence. CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Jan. 1948. LIAGORA WILSONIANA Zeh 1913, 269. De Toni 1924, 94, Laicas and Perrin 1947, 134. — PB. Littoral, on sloping rock, Jan, 1948. No authentic specimens are ayailable for comparison, but the specimens agree very well with Zeh’s description. NEMALION Targioni-Tozzetti NEMALION UukLMiNTHOIDES (Velley) Batters. Cotton 1912, 133. Newton 1931, 256. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 131, f, 7. N. lubricum Duby. Smith 1944, 186, pl. 41, £. 5. — AR. Mid littoral on a post on Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949. BH. Mid and lower littoral, Jan., Dec. 1948. ZR. Mid littoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. PR. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan. 1947. In form this species ranges from plants with a few simple branches from a common base to ones dichotomously or even proliferously branched many times. (see fig. 2). These latter dichotomous forms are included by most authors under N. multifidum (Weber and Mohr) J. Agardh, but such a great variation in degree of branching is found, even in the same situation, that only one species can be maintained around Kangaroo Island, Some of the forms found in ane colony at Ballast Head are shown in fig, 2, The Middle River specimens are usually rather simple, those at Pennington Bay with numerots branches. Cotton also found difficulty in separating N. Aclininthoides and N. multi- 164 fidium at Clare Island, Ireland, and suggested they may be forms of the one species. N. helminthoides has priority as a specific name over N. multifidum if they are to be united. May 1945, 122, recorded N. multifidum from New South Wales, noting that there were few branches in her specimens, I have seen plants of Nemalion at Harbord, N.S.W., which show very simple thalli, which are best referred to N. helminthoides, Fig 2 The range of form in Nemalion helminthoides on Kangaroo Island. A. A typical specimen from the coast at Middle River. B, C, D, F. Specimens from Ballast Head. The form shown in A also occurs here. E. A specimen from Pennington Bay. Approx. } natural size. 16S CHAETANGIACEAE GLOTOPHLOEA J, Agardh GLoToPiLora scixarorpes J. Agardh. De Tomi 1897, 107. Setchell 1914a, 112. Scinaig. furcellata, Warvey 1863, Syn. n. 458; Alg, Aus, Exs. n. 348. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Dec, 1948. GALAXAURA Lamotiroux GALAXAURA SPATHULATA Kjellman 1900, 74, t, 12, #. 5-12; t. 20, £. 35. De Toni 1924, 132. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, These specimens agree well with Kjell- man’s description ahd figures of G. spathulata. The Australian species which Kjellman described need re-examining with abundant material, as Howe (1918, 191) has shown that tetrasporic and sexttal individuals of the same species may differ considerably in their anatomy and have been placed in different groups as distinct species by Kjellman, The Kangaroo Island specimens are sterile. In Pt. II, 161, they were reported as Brachycladia mar ginata, GELIDIALES — GrLiprackar GELIDIUM Lainouroux GELIDIUM AUSTRALE J, Agardh 1876, 550. De Toni 1897, 153, Lucas and Perrm 1947, 143. — MA, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. 1n shaded parts of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 and drift, Jan, 1948, PB, In the sublittoral fringe and to half a meter over edge of the reef, all seasons. Gruinium pusttium (Stackhouse) Le Jolis, De Toni 1897, 147. Dawson 1944, 258. Acrorarpus pusillus, Kittzing 1868, t. 37. — AR. Upper littoral in shaded patts of low cliffs, occasionally in the lower littoral, throughout the inlet, all seasons. EB. Lower littoral, in a dense mat, all seasons, MR. In Hormosiva-Cystophora pools (sometimes heavily epiphytic on the mollusc Neothais textiliosa), Jan. 1946. WB. Littoral on reef near beach, Jan. 1945, 1946. WB. Lower littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and in pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. P#. Rear littoral, on sloping and vertical rock, all seasons, CH’, Mid littoral, south side, Jan, 1946. RP- Lower littoral, all seasons. Original determination by Miss V. May. This plant shows considerable ecological variation, At AR and RP it forms dense entangled mats, to lcm. thick; at PB it forms a thin mat on shaded rock, but when growing in pools may reach a height of 2 cm., with less branched, rather tufted [ronds. PTEROCLADIA J. Agardh Preroctapia caPrtLacea (Gmelin) Bornet and Thuret. De Toni 1897, 162. Moore 1945, 336, pl. 45, £. 1-4, pl. 46. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. CC. Lower littoral in sheltered inlet, Jan, 1948, CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Oct. 1948, RP. Upper subiittural, Jan. 1947, PrerocLapiA Lucia (R. Brown) J. Agatdh, De Toni 1897, 162. Moore 1945, 338, pl. 45, f. 5-10; pl. 47, 48, 49, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 144, £. 19. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan, 1948. CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. CRYPTONEMIALES — DumMowtTIAcEAr DASYPHLOEA Montagne DAsvypHLoEA TASMANTCA Harvey 1859, pl. 115. De Toni 1905, 1,629. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 384, f, 193. Nizsophloeca tasmanica (Uartvey) J. Agardh 1876, 256. — FPR, Drift, Jan. 1948. 166 RHIZOPHYLLIDACEAE RHODOPELTIS Harvey RHODOPELTIS AUSTRALIS (Sonder) Schmitz, Harvey 1863, pl. 264, De Toni 1905, 1,671. Amphiroa australis Sonder 1846, 188. Harvey 1859, pl. 77. — CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, The position of this algae is uncertamm. Sonder first described it as Amphiroa australis, and later Harvey (1863, pl. 264) figured the fertile areas as an epiphyte which he called Rhodopeltis australis. W. van Bosse (1904, 104) fater renamed it Litharthron australis on vegetative features, Yamada (1931b, 75) has described a second species of Rhodapeltis, with similar fertile areas (nemathecia) on the thallus segments, SQUAMARIACEAE ETHELIA W, v. Bosse ETHELIA AUSTRALIS (Sonder) W.-v. Bosse. W. v. Bosse 1921, 300. De Toni 1924, 594. Peyssonnelia australis Sonder, Harvey 1859, pl. 81. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 388, f. 196, — WH. Drift, Jan. 1946. Reported in Pt. If, p. 161, as Peyssonnelia australis. PEYSSONNELIA Decaisne PEYSSONNELIA GUNNIANA J, Agardh 1876, 387. De Toni 1905, 1,698. W. v. Bosse 1921, 272. P, rubra, Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n. 327, — AR, Upper sublittoral near Muston, Jan. 1946, July 1947, Jan, 1948. BH, Upper sub- littoral, Oct. 1947, PB. In a shaded pool, rear littoral, Jan. 1947. CORALLINACEAE — CORALLINEAE AMPHIROA Lamouroux AMPHIROA ANCEPS (Laimarck) Decaisne. Harvey 1847, 98, pl. 37. De Toni 1905, 1,815. W-. v. Bosse 1904, 93, pl. 16, £. 6-8. — CC. Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1948. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll. J, Cork. CORALLINA Linnaeus CoRALLINA cUvierr Lamouroux. Harvey 1847, 106, De Toni 1905, 1,848. Manza 1940, 279. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 399. — AVR, WR, CC and IB. Lower littoral and drift. PAR, Cystophora-coralline association, sublittoral fringe and deeper pools. CW and AB, Lower littoral and drift. Present im all seasons, and common, though often stunted in the lower littoral throtigh- out the Rocky Shore Formation, This is a very variable species, especially in the development of slender lateral ramelli which arise from the main stems. The articulations of the main stemi are relatively constant in shape and size and provide a good specific character. The following forms are included under C. cuvieri by De Toni: Janta granifera Sonder, Cor. crispata Lamx., Cor, gracilis Lamx.?, J. subulata Sonder. In addition the following are probably only forms of C. cuvieri: Jania rosea Dene (Haryey 1847, 105, pl. 40), Cor. calliptera Kiitz, (1838, t. 72a-b), Cor. plumifera Kiitz (1858, t, 71 ed) and probably Cor. clavigera Kutz. (1858, t. 75) and Cor. frichocarpa Kiitz. (1858, t. 74) (although Lev- ring 1946, 221 considers it distinct). Possibly Cor. denudala Sonder in Kiitz, 1858, t. 72, is only another denuded form, Most Kangaroo Island specimens belong to var. crispata (Lamx.) Areschoug. ‘This is a short stunted form, due to strong wave action, atid grades into olher forms im different habitats, 167 CoRALLINA LENORMANDIANA Grunow. De Toni 1905, 1,851. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 400. Corallina ? nana Lenormand, Harvey 1863, Syn. n. 346; Alg. Aus. exs, n, 452. — VB. On Cystophora subfarcinata in the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1949. PB. On Cystophora dumosa, drift, Dec, 1948. These specimens ate identical with Harvey’s No. 452 in Melbourne National Herbarium. CoRALLINA OFFICINALIS Linnaeus. De Toni 1905, 1,840, Newton 1931, 313. Taylor 1937, 271, pl. 36, £, 1-5. Manza 1940, 275, — CW’, Ina shaded rock pool, south side, Aug, 1948, Corattrna pruirera Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1858, t. 74e-d. De Toni 1905, 1,848. Manza 1940, 280. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 400. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J. Corl. JANIA Lamouroux JANTA FASTIGIATA Harvey 1863, pl. 251. De Toni 1905, 1,854, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 397, f. 201. — WR. Lower littoral, Jan. 1946. /B. Epiphytic on Cystophora subfarcinata, C, paniculata, occasionally on C. siliguosa and on rock in the sublittoral fringe and especially in the Cystophora-coralline asso- ciation, all seasons, CW’. On Cystophora subfarcinata and Cladostephus werticillatus, upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Low littoral, on Cysto- phora subfarcinata, Jan. 1947. JANIA MIcRARTHRODIA Lamouroux, De Toni 1905, 1,855. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 397. J. tenuissima Sonder and J, antennind Kiitzing in Sonder 1846, 186. — AR. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, especially near and just out- side mouth of the inlet, Aug, 1948. &. Drift, Jan. 1948. Janta NATALENSIS Harvey 1847, 107. Kiitzing 1858, t. 79, LI, De Toni 1905, 1,856. — #P. Lower littoral, Jan. 1948, AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, occasional, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Kiitzing’s figures and Harvey’s description. METAGONIOLITHON W. v. Bosse METAGONLOLITHON CHAROTDES (Lamoyroux) W. v. Bosse 1904, 102. Manza 1940, 310. Amphirow charoides, Harvey 1847, 96, pl. 39. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC. Drift, Jan, 1947, and lower littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and deeper pools on reefs, all seasons. CW’, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. .4B. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945, 1947, Aug. 1948, MeraconiorarH0N GRAcILE (Harvey) Yendo. Manza 1940, 311. Amplirod gracilis Harvey 1862, pl. 231. De Toni 1905, 1809. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394, — K. Drift, Jan. 1948. METAGONIOLITHON STELLIGERA (Lamarck) W. v. Bosse 1904, 103, pl. 15, £, 9, 13. Manza 1940, 311. Amphiroa stelligera, Harvey 1862, pl, 230. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 394, £. 199. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948. ‘MASTOPILOREAE METAMASTOPHORA Setchell METAMASTOPHORA FLABELLATA (Sonder) Setchell 1943, 131, Mastaphora flabellata, Harvey 1847, 108. Mastophora lamourouxt, Harvey 1863, Syn. n. 367. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 391, — HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork, 168 LITHOTHAMNIEAE A number of species of crustaceous corallines have been collected from Kan- garoo Island, but as no authentic material of this group is available in Australian Herbaria for comparison, identification of most has not been possible, LITHOTHAMNION Philippi LiITHOTHAMNION PATENA (Hooker and Harvey) Heydrich, De Toni 1924, 622. Melobesia patena, Harvey 1847, 111, pl, 40. — WB. On Bollia callityicha, drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast. On Ballia callitricha, winter 1939, coll. J. Cork. GRATELOUPIACEAE HALYMENIA C. Agardh HalyMENIA HARvVEYANA J, Agardh 1892, 55, De Toni 1905, 1,539. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 375, 1, 188. Halymenia floresia, Harvey 1862, pl. 214. — PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, THAMNOCLONIUM Kiitzing THAMNOCLONIUM CLAVIFERUM J, Agardh 1876, 168. De Toni 1905, 1,614. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 381, £, 192, Thamnocloniaim hirsutum Harvey 1863, pl. 293. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, (CCALLYMENTACEAE CALLOPHYLLIS Kiitzing CALLOPHYLLIS CERVICORNIS Sonder 1852, 678. De Toni 1897, 276, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 158. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948, These specimens agree well with some of Sonder’s in Melbourne National Herbarium, CALLOPNyYLLis coccINEA Harvey. Hooker and Harvey 1847, 404. Kiitzing 1867, t. 92. J. Agardh 1876, 234. De Toni 1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 159, f. 31. var. cARNEA J, Agardh. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948. vat. CORYMBOSA J. Agardh. — W8. Driit, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948. These specimens seem to agtee well with J. Agardh’s descriptions of the above two varieties. CALLOPHYLLIS HARVEYANA J. Agardh 1876, 230. De Toni 1897, 277. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 158. Callophyllis obtusifoia, Harvey 1862, pl. 193 (not J. Agardh), — AB. Drift, Jan. 1946, FB. Drift, Jan, 1947. CALLOPHYLLIS LAMBERTIT (Turner) Greville. J. Agardh 1876, 233, De Toni 1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 159, f. 30. — CC, Driit, Jan. 1948. Sou’-West River mouth, Drift, Jan. 1945. PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948, CALLYMENIA J. Agardh CALLYMENTA CrTBROSA Harvey 1859, pl. 73. J. Agardh 1876, 219. De Toni 1897, 295. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f, 33, 35. — Eastern Cove. On underside of buoys, rare, Jan. 1946, 1948. North Coast (no details), IB. Drift, Jan. 1948. GELINARTA Sonder GELINARIA ULvomEA Sonder 1846, 172. Harvey 1859, pl. 85. De Toni 1897, $11. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 163, f. 36, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Driit, Jan, 1944, 169 POLYCOELIA J. Agardh PoLycurLia LacinuaTA J. Agatdh 1851, 306; 1876, 228, De Toni 1897, 293. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f. 32. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. These speci- mens agree well with Agardh’s description, but I have seen no anthentic specimens. It is closely related to P. fastigiata Harvey from Tasmania and may be conspecific, GIGARTINALES — Nemastromacpak NEMASTOMA J. Agardh NEMASTOMA FRREDAVAR Harvey 1860b, 327, pl. 195A. J. Agardh 1876, 126. De Toni 1905, 1,663. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 386, f. 195. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, Dec, 1948. The Pennington Bay specimens growing in the sublittoral fringe are 5 to 10 cm. high and greenish-purple in colour; those cast up from deeper water at Vivonne Bay are up to 20 cm, high and dark red in colour, GRACILARIACEAE CURDIEA Harvey Curpiga LAciNiata Harvey 1858, pl. 39. Kiitzing 1869, t. 33ed. De Toni 1900, 424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 54, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. Curpiza opesA (Harvey) Kylin 1932, 61. Sarcoctadia. obesa Haryey 1862, pl. 217. De Toni 1900, 426, —- PB. Drift, Jan. 1949, GRACILARIA Greville GRACILARA cONFERVOIDES (Linn.) Greville. De Toni 1900, 431. Newton 1931, 429, {, 258. Taylor 1937, 293, pl. 38, f. 1. May 1948, 18, f. 1, 2, pl, 1, — AR, On the tidal flats throughout the lagoons, scattered hut common in some areas between American River jetty and Muston, all seasons. GRACILARIA FURCELLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 286 (excl, syn.). De Toni 1900, 441. May 1948, 53, f. 9. — BH. Lower littoral, Oct, 1947, H’B, Littoral, Jan. 1945. VB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1949. DB. Littoral, Jan. 1947. PB. Littoral on well washed rock, Jan, 1948, 1949 and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, May refers this form to f. furcellata (Harvey) May, The thickening towards the base which is characteristic of this form is dependent to some extent on habitat. MELANTHALIA Montagne MELANTHALIA cancINNA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1876, 404, De Toni 1900, 421. Kylin 1932, 58. Lacas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 52. — VFB, Drift, Jan, 1949. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J, Cork, MELANTHALIA OsrusarA (Labillardiere) J, Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl, 25. De Toni 1900, 422. Kylin 1932, 58. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 183, £. 51, — PB, Upper sublittoral under cast edge of main reef, Jan. 1948. TYLOTUS J. Agardh TyLotus optusatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1876, 429. De Toni 1900, 463. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 189, Curdicu oblusata Sonder, Watyey 1962, pl. 210. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1945, MB, Drift, Jan, 1949, 170 PLOCAMIACEAR PLOCAMIUM Lamouroux Procamiom costatum (J. Agardh) Hooker and Harvey. Kautzing 1866, t, 52d-e. J, Agatdh 1876, 344. De Tont 1900, 597. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 212, §. 77. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1945. VB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PB. Sublittoral fringe, on rocks off east edge of main reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. The laciniae are usually strongly serrate, but this is a very variable character. Procamium cract.e J. Agardh 1876, 345. De Toni 1900, 598. Liicas and Perrin 1947, 213, f. 78. Plocamium augustatum Kitzing 1866, t. 48 c-e, — BH. Upper sublittoral, Dec, 1948, A7R, WR and WB. All drift, Jan, 1946, C€. Drift, Jan. 1948. FH. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948. These specimens, although all sterile, agree well on vegetative features with a specimen of J. Agardh’s of P. gracile from Tasmania (‘Algae Muel- lerianae’’), in Melbourne National Herbarium. FP, gracile is closely related to P. augustum (J. Ag.) H. and H., the Australian specimens of which are included by Yendo (1915, 111) under P. felfairiae Harvey, These may all prove to be the same species when a large range of specimens is examined. The PB specimens were recorded in Pt. 1I as P. angustum. PLOCAMIUM LEPTOPHYLLUM Kitzing 1866, t. 45a-c. J, Agardh 1876, 338, De Toni 1900, 589. Yendo 1915, 113. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 210, {. 74. — BH, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, VA. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift, May 1945, AB. Drift, Aug, 1948. PLocAMIUM MERTENSIID (Greville) Harvey 1847, 122; 1863 syn. n. 491a._ J.- Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 215, £. 8D. — PB. Drift, May 1945. P. mertensii differs from P, procerum (J. Agardh) Harvey in having serrate laciniae; otherwise the two species are identical. A range of speci- mens, however, shows considerable variation in degree of serration of the Jaciniae, even on the one plant, und these rwo species cannot be separated satisfactorily. P, costafum also varies greatly in serrations on the laciniae. Although this has been used as a specific character in these species, it is of little use when large numbers of specimens are examined. P. nidificum has heen kept separate here, but may well be only a form of P, mertensit, It differs in forming clusters of multifid dichotomous ramelli im the branch axils, but these are often developed only to a slight extent at the base of the plant, and would not appear on juvenile specimens. Harvey (1863 syn, n. 491) included P. midificum and P, merfensii as forms of P. procernim, but P. mertensii is the earliest name. PLocaMium nipiricum (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 213. P. procerum var, nidificum Marvey 18653, syn. n. 491b, Thamnophora mertensit, Kittzing 1866, t. 55 d-h. — WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Driit, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and upper sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift, all seasons, See notes under P. imertenstt, PLOCAMIUM PREISSIANUM Sonder 1846, 192. Harvey 1859, pl. 63. J. Agardh 1876, 342. De Toni 1900, 594. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 211, £. 75. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, jan 1946, Sou'-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black). FE, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB_ Drift, all seasons 171 PHACELOCARPUS Endlicher and Diesing PHACELOCARPUS LARILLARDIERY (Mertens) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860.a, pl. 163 De Toni 1900, 391, Kylin 1932, 52, £. 14D, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181, £49. — WEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. CC Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. Son’-West River mouth. Drift, Jam. 1945, PB. Dritt, May 1945, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948; in a shaded pool, Jan. 1944; about 2-3 feet below east ledge of main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948, CW’, Drift, Jan. 1946. Rather variable in stoutness, depending on habitat. P. apodus J. Agardh (1876, 400) is probably only a form of P. labillardiert. Kylin (1932, 52) states it is very close to P. labdillardicri, and specimens of J. Agardh’s in Melbourne National Herbarium are not distinct. PHACELOCAUPUS sEssiLis Harvey in J. Agardh 1876, 400. De Toni 1900, 392. Kylin 1932, 52, t. 19, £. 46. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. STENOCLADIA J. Agardh SrenocLapra conserTa (Harvey) J. Agardh. Kylin 1932, 50, f. 13. Areschougia conferta Harvey 1860.4, pl. 166,-— VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. South Coast, Winter 1939, coll, J. Cork. J. Agardh (1876, 440-441) described four species of Stenocladia (St. corymbosa, St. cliflont, St. harveyana, St. sonderiana) on specimens pre- viously placed under St, conferta, but dropped St. conferte as a specics name. Kyin (1932, 50), however, considers these are only forms, and places them all under St. conferta, The Kangaroo Island specimens are of the same form as shown in Harvey’s plate. SARCODIACEAE NIZYMENIA Sonder NizyMewta AvsTRALIs Sonder. Harvey 1860a, pl, 165. De Toni 1900, 408. Kylin 1932, 57. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 182, f. 50 — Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934. Recorded by Cleland and Black (1941, 248). SOLIERLACEAE SOLIERIA J. Agardh Sorrerra RonUsTA (Greville) Kylin 1932, 18. [cas and Perrin 1947, 174, f. 44. Solieria australis Harvey 1860 a, pl. 149, Rhabdonta robusta J. Agardh 1852, 355. Ff FLAGELLIFORMIs J. Agardh 1876, 592, Kylin 1932, 18, t. 5, £. 9. — AR. Sublittoral, Nov. 1947, Jan, 1948, 1949. K. Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan. 1947. THYSANOCLADIA Endlicher THYSANOCLADIA LAXA Sonder 1852, 689. Kiitzing 1869, 1. 30. De Toni 1897, 383. (Not Harvey 1862, pl. 211.) — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper sub- littoral east side of main reef, Jan. 1948 and drift, Jan, 1946, THYSANOCLADIA opposiTrFoLIa (Agatdh) J, Agardh 1851, 617, Tlarvey 1862, pl. 187. De Toni 1897, 383. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 176, f. 46. — FB. Drift, Jan. 1949, RHABDONTACEAE ARESCHOUGIA Harvey Kylin 1947, 49, has resurrected Areschougia Meneghini 1844 for a brown algal species previously well known as Elachista stellaris Areschoug, This 172 gerlus antedates Areschougia Harvey 1855, and if Areschougia Menegh. is to be retained, the red algal genus must be renamed, However, the Austra- lian Areschougia Harvey is a well-known genus of about five species, and to change this name would cause needless confusion, It would seem far better to retain 4reschougia Harvey as a nomen conservandum, rejecting 4Areschou- gia Menegh,, and it is proposed this should be done. ARESCHOUGIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1854, 554: 1858, pl. 13. Kylin 1932, 37, Areschougia ligulata J. Agatdh 1876, 282. De Toni 1897, 377. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 174, £. 45. — WB. Dritt, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. ARESCHOUGIA LAURENCIA (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1854, 554; 1860 b, 321. De Toni 1897, 376. Kylin 1932, 37. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 174, — VB, Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, ERYTHROCLONIUM Sonder ERYTHROCLONIUM ANGUSTATUM Sonder 1852, 692. Kiitzing 1869, t. 37. De Toni 1897, 354, Kylin 1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — FB. Driit, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drifi, Jan, 1948. ERYTHROCLONIUM MUELLERY Sonder 1852, 692. Harvey 1863, pl. 298. De Toni 1897, 355. Kylin 1932, 36, f, 8 A-B. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 170, §..41, — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, December 1948 (rare). MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB. Duft, occasional, all seasons, and in pool of sublittoral fringe, Nov. 1947, AB. Drift, Jan. 1948. ERYTHROCLONIUM soNDERI Haryey 1859, pl. 86. De Toni 1897, 354. Kylin 1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, RHABDONIA Harvey RHABDONIA coccInEA Harvey 1858, pl. 54. De Toni 1897, 358. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 171, £. 42. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, RHARDONIA CLAYIGERA J, Agardh 1876, 594. Kylin 1932, 36, t. 14, £. 45. — 7B. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1950, RHABDONIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 299. De Toni 1897, 359, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 172, £. 43. — PB, Driit, Jan. 1944, May 1945. RHODOPHYLLIDACEAE GRUNOWIELLA Schmitz GRUNOWIELLA BARKERIAE (Harvey) Schmitz, Engler and Prantl 1897, 375. Kylin 1932, 43. Rhodophyllis ‘barkeriae Harvey 1863, pl. 276. Gloiophyllis barkeriae J. Agardh, 1890, 29. De Toni 1897, 338. Lucas and Perrin 1947. 164. — FB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. The habit of these specimens is rather variable, but close to Harvey’s figure, RHODOPHYLLIS Kiitzing RUGDOPHYLLIS MULTIPARTITA Harvey 1860 b, 318. De Toni 1897, 346, Kylin 1932, 42, t. 16, =. 39, — FB. Drift, Jan. 1949. RHODOPHYLLIS TENUIFOLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 367. De Toni 1897, 347, Kylin 1932, 43, t. 17, £.42. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 167, Callophyllis tenyi- folia Harvey 1863, syn, n. 549. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 173 HYPNEACEAE HYPNEA Lamouroux Hypnea EptscoPaLis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1858, pl. 23. De Toni 1900, 473. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 191, f. 58. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1944. J7B, Drift, Jan. 1949. PA. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948. Hiyvpngea Muscirormis (Wulfen) Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1868, t. 19. De Toni 1900, 472. Taylor 1937, 291, pl. 37, £. 2. — AR. In the upper sublittoral throughout the lagoons, often common, all seasons. A variety of forms of Aypnea occur in American River inlet, most of which are probably referable to H. musciformis, The crozier tips to the branches are not developed in these forms. RHODODACTYLIS J. Agardh Ruonopactyiis RuBRA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 568. De Toni 1900, 486. Chondria rubra Harvey 1863, pl. 280. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946. A single specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure. Kylin (1932, 48) suggests Rhododactylis is doubtfully distinct from Hyfrea, MYCHODEACEAE MYCHODEA Harvey Mycnopea carnosa Harvey 1860a, pl. 142. De Toni 1897, 263. Kylin 1932, 64. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 156, f. 27. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948, MycHopea compressa Harvey 1862, pl. 201. De Toni 1897, 265. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 and sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1946, 1948 (these reef specimens ate very stunted). Mycwoora rasticiata (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 570. De Toni 1897, 264. Kylin 1932, 64, t. 26, £.65. Hypneu fastigiata Harvey 1863, syn. no, 457. — VB. Dritt, Jan, 1948, 1949. These are small and rather compact specimens which apptoach M, pusilla (Harvey) J. Agardh, The branches are slenderer and mnre densely covered with lateral spinous branchlets than in M. pusilla. MycuopEA roniosA (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 573. De Toni 1897, 266 Gymnogongrus foliasus Harvey 1862, pl, 194. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948 PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948 (often epiphytic on the stems of Cystophora paniculata), MycHonga HAMATA Harvey 1860h, 323. De Tomi 1897, 264. Kylin 1952, 64, Acanthacoccus ewingit Harvey 1860.a, pl. 141. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. Mycuovesa Terminatis Harvey 1860 b, 323; 1862, pl. 200. De Toni 1897, 262, — FB. Drift, Jan. 1948. DICRANEMACEAE DICRANEMA Sonder DICRANEMA GREVILLEi Sonder 1846, 173. Harvey 1859, pl. 120. De Toni 1897, 269, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 157, §, 29. — IB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949 DickRaNEMA REVoLUTUM (Agardh) J. Agardh 1876, 435. Harvey 1859, pl. 74, De Toni 1897, 269. — PB. On Cymodocea, upper sublitloral near jetty in bay, Jan. 1947. i74 ACROTYLACEAE ACROTYLUS J. Agardh Acrotytus austrants J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 99. De Toni 1897, 170. Kylin 1932, 68, fig. 20. A, B, 21B, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 147, f. 20. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. [B. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948, GIGARTINACEAE GIGARTINA Stackhouse GIGARTINA BRACHIATA Harvey 1860hb, 325. J. Agardh 1876, 191. De Toni 1897, 200. — AR, Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Dec. 1948. BH. Lower littoral, Oct. 1947. The specimens are stertle, but agree well with Harvey’s specimen from Georgetown, Tasmania, and other specimens from there. GIGARTINA DIstIcHA Sonder 1846, 175. Harvey 1863, pl. 297. De Toni 1897, 208. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 150, f. 22. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1948 PB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946. RHODOGLOSSUM J. Agardh RHODOGLOSSUM PROLIFERUM J, Agardh 1884, 27, Iniduea prolifera (J. Agardh) De Toni 1897, 190. Levring 1946, 222, f. 5. — WB, Low littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1948. PR. Pools in the sublittoral fringe, rare, Jan. 1944, 1948, 1949. (as J/ridaea prolifera in Pt. M1). RHODYMENIALES — RuHopyMENIACEAE — FAUCHEAE BINDERA Harvey BINDERA KALIFoRMIs J, Agatdh 1896, 75. De Toni 1900, 549. Kylin 1931, 7, t. 1, f. 1. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 204. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, GLOIODERMA J. Agardh GLOIODERMA AusTRALTS J. Agardh 1851, 244. De Toni 1900, 496. Horea puly- carpa Harvey 1860 b, 329, pl. 1948. — PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, GLOMERMA FALYMENIoInES (Harvey) De Toni 1900, 497. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 194, £. 61. Horea halymenioides Harvey 1854, 555; 1859, pl. 67. — AR, On red and outer buoys, Jan. 1946, 1948, and on anchor of red buoy, Jan. 1948. GioroperMa sreciosa (Ilarvey) nov, comb. Horead speciosa Haryey 1860b, 328, pl. 194A. J. Agardh 1876, 292. Gloiaderma tdsmanica Zanardini 1874, 503. De Toni 1900, 497, Kylin 1931, 7. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 194, f, 62. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948. This species has usually been called G, tasmanicum, and was reported as such in Pt. II, 162, of this series. G. spectosa, however, has priority, GLoroperMA wiLsonis (J. Agardh) De Toni 1900, 496. Kylin 1931, 7, & 1, f. 2. Horea wilsonis J. Agardh 1884, 38. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, A single tetrasparic specimen which agrees well with Kylin’s figure of the type, and with Wilson’s specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium. Rony MENIEAE BOTRYOCLADIA Kylin BoTryocLapIa oBovaTaA (Sonder) Kylin 1931 18. Chrysymenia obovata Sonder 1846, 176. Harvey 1858, pl. 10. De Toni 1900, 544. Lucas and Perrin 175 1947, 203, f. 67. — AR. Drift, near American River jetty, Sept. 1946, Aug. 1947, K. Drift, Jan. 1948, MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1B. Upper Sublittoral on reef in the bay, Jan. 1947, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948. COELARTHRUM Eorgesen COELARTURUM MUELLERT (Sonder) Borgesen 1931, 9, Kylin 1931, 15, Chylo- cladia muelleri Harvey 1860a, pl. 138. Erythrocolon muelleri, J. Agardh 1896, 91. De Toni 1900, 585. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 208, {. 73, — K. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. ERYTHRYMENIA Schmitz ErvTuryMEnia mInvTA Kylin 1931, 13, t. 4, £. 10, — PB, Sublittoral fringe of main reef, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and drift, Jan. 1946. In Pt. I, 159, this species was recorded as the juvenile state of Hymena- cladia conspersa (Harvey) J. Agardh (c.£., Harvey 1862, pl. 237, juvenile plant). The specimens, however, agree very well with Kylin’s description and figure of Erythrymenia minwta. In Melbourne National Herbarium are specimens of Chrysyutenia meridithiana J. Agardh (= Erythrymenia meridi- thiana (J. Ag.) Kylin) which appear identical with the Pennington Bay specimens. They were collected by Wilson at Port Phillip, and on the sheet the name has heen changed to Hymenocladia conspersa by Wilson. The adult of H. cunspersa is very different in forny (see Harvey 1862, pl. 237) ta £. minuta, Kylin described E. minuta fram specimens recorded by j. Agardh as juveniles of FE, weridithiana. Tetrasporangia are not known, and these species clearly need a thorough investigation, GLOIOSACCION Harvey GLorosaccion srowntt Harvey 1859, pl. 83. Kylin 1931, 19. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 202, £, 66, Chrysymenia brownti, De Toni 1900, 545, — AR, Sub- littoral neat Muston, Jan. 1948 and on buoys, Jan, 1946, 1948. MR, WR and H’B, All drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. The. American River specimens are smaller, with thinner and softer membranes than those from rough coasts. The former were referred to var, a membranaceum by Harvey, the latter to var. B firminn, These are ory ecological variations. RHODYMENIA Greville RHOpYMENIA FOLILPERA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 508. J. Agardh 1876, 331. De Toni 1900, 517. Kylin 1931, 21, t, 7, f. 17. — AR. Upper sublittoral near Muston, Nov, 1947. BH. Dredged in 2-3 fathoms, Jan. 1946. )’B. Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec, 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947. This is a variable species, closely related to Rhodymenia australis Sonder. In the type and other authentic specimens of FR. australis in Melbourne National Herbarium, the segments taper from about the centre to the tips. In #. foliifera the terminal parts of the thallus are usually as wide or even wider than the lower parts, and spread at a wide angle. Many variations occur, however, and tips of specimens from the Pennington Bay reefs which I have referred to R. foliifera are sometimes narrow and almost laciniate. A range of specimens from different habitats may show that these species are not distinct. 176 HYMENOCLADIA J. Agardh HIYMENOCLADIA POLYMORPHA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 315. De Toni 1900, 504, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 198, f, 64. Rhodymenia polymorpha Harvey 1860 a, pl. 157. — WB. On Codium galeatum, drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949, and on the base of Myriodesma latifolia yar. duriuscila in a low littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947 and in sublittoral fringe (stunted }, all seasons. AYMENOCLADIA USNEA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1863, 772. Harvey 1859, pl. 118. De Toni 1900, 502. Kylin 1931, 24. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 197, f. 63. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CHAMPIACEAE — LOMENTARIEAE LOMENTARIA Lyngbye LOMENTARIA AUSTRALIS (Kiitzing) Levring 1946, 223. Chondrothamnion australis Kitzing 1865, 29, pl. 82. — AR. On buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1948, and in upper sublittoral on Zostera on the cockle bank and near Muston, Jan. 1948. These specimens agree very well with Kiitzing’s figures. Levring con- siders it distinct from L, clavellosa, to which De Toni referred it. CIAMPIEAB CHAMPIA Desveau CHaMPIA aAFFINIS (Hooker and Harvey) J, Agurdh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900, 559, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 206, f. 71. Chylocladia affinis, Harvey 1847, 79, pl. 29. — AR. Upper sublittoral on flats near mouth, Noy. 1947, Aug. 1948, WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. CW. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948, CnamPra opsoLeTa ITarvey 1860b, 307. J. Agardh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900, 559, Kylin 1931, 28, t, 15, f. 35. Lneas and Perrin 1947, 206, — AR. On the buoys, Jan. 1946, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1948, and upper sublittoral on cockle bank and near Muston, Jan. and Aug. 1948, and drift, May 1945. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB, Littoral and sublittoral Fringe on reefs, all seasons, but variable. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948. Kylin doubts whether this species is distinct fram C. affinis, Most specimens can be separated readily on the much heavier and more extensive thickening of the stem and branches in C. obsoleta, thus obscuring the dia- phragms. A few specimens, however, show intermediate characters. CHAMPIA TASMANICA Ilarvey 1844, 407, pl. 19, De Toni 1900, 563. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 207, £. 72, — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. CERAMIALES — CerAmrAceaE — GRIFFITHSIAE GRIFFITHSIA C. Agardh GRiFFITHSIA ANTARCTICA Hooker and Harvey, J. Agardh 1851, 87; 1876, 68. Kiitzing 1862, t. 23.a-b. Laing 1905, 390, pl. 25, f. 2. Bornetia antarctica, De Toni 1903, 1,297. — AR, Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1847, Jan. 1948. K, Drift, Jan 1948. WB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Bornetia sp, in Pt. 1). PB. Sublittoral fringe on main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948, Dec. 1948 and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948, RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, Jan. 1949. 177 GRIFFITHSIA FLABELLIFORMIS Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 61. De Toni 1903, 1,278. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — AR. Upper sublittoral between Muston and the mouth of the inlet, May 1945, June, Oct., Noy. 1947, Jan. and Aug, 1948. KP. Drift, Aug. 1948, This is chiefly a winter form and is rarely found in January, GRIFFITHSIA MONILIS Harvey 1854, 559; 1860b, 332, pl. 195 B. De Toni 1903, 1,283. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — PR. In the sublittoral fringe and Cystophora-coralline association, May 1945, Jan, 1947, Aug, and Dec. 1948. GRIFFITHSIA OVALTS Harvey 1854, 559; 1862, pl. 203. De Toni 1903, 1,277. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 325, f. 156. — A. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, MoNOSPOREAE NEGMONOSPORA Setchell and Gardner Setchell and Gardner (1937, 86) have pointed out that Monospora Solier is antedated by Monospora Hoclistetter, a genus of Angiosperms, and have te- named the algal genus Neomouospora. The following species were reported as Monospora in Pt. I and IL, and they are now transferred to Neomono- Spora, NEOMONOSPORA ELONGATA (Harvey) nov. comb. Callithamnion elongatum Harvey 1860b, 336. Monospara elongata, De Toni 1903, 1,302. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC- Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, May 1945, PB. Sublittoral fringe and Cysto- phora-coralline associations (often epiphytic on larger algae), May 1945, jan., Nov. 1947, Dec, 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. The sub- littoral fringe plants are stunted and more compact than those cast up from deeper water. NEQMONOSPORA GRIFFITHSIOIDES (Sonder) nov. comb. Calithamnion griffithsioides Harvey 1860a, pl. 160. Monospora griffiths- wides, De Toni 1903, 1,302, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, CW. Drift, Jan. 1946, NEomonospora LicMorHorA (Harvey) noy. comb. Callithamnion licmophara Harvey 1859, pl. 90. Monospora licmophora De Toni 1903, 1,301. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 329, f. 160. — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. CALLITHAMNIEAE CALLITHAMNION Lynebye CALLITHAMNION LarIcINUM Haryey 1854, 562; 1862, pl. 218. De Toni 1903, 1,330, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 332, f. 161. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC, Drift, Jan. 1948. VB, On Perithalia inermis and Laurencia elata, drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. On Laurencta elata and other algae in the sublittoral fringe, all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948, SPONGOCLOWIEAE HALOPLEGMA Montagne HALOPLEGMA PREIssit Sonder 1846, 171. Harvey 1859, pl. 79. De Toni 1903, 1,366. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 336, £, 163. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and sublittoral fringe on a reef in the bay, Jan. 1947, PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, in a shaded littoral pool, Jan. 1944, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948, 178 SPONGOCLONIUM Sonder SponGocLONIUM BROUNIANUM (Hatvey) J. Agardh 1892, 41. De Toni 1903, 1,358. Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 28, 29. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 334. Calli- thamnion braunianum Harvey 1854, 561. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. SponcocLonium FascicuLatum J, Agardh 1894a, 118. De Toni 1903, 1,358. Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 27, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. These specimens agree well with J. B. Wilson’s specimen in Melbourne National Herbarium (Licas, pl. 27). The type species of the genus, S. conspicuwm Sonder is poorly known, and the differences between it and S. fasciculatum need careful study, PTILOTEAE EUPTILOTA Kitzing Eupriwora AxticutaTa (J, Agardh) Schmitz. De Toni 1903, 1,370. Levring 1946, 224, £. 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 338, {. 164. Philota articulate J. Agardh 1876, 78. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB_ Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948. Euptinota coracLomwes (J. Agardh) Kiitzing 1849, 672, De Toni 1903, 1,371. Lucas atid Perrin 1947, 338, Ptilota coralloidea J, Agardh 1876, 78. — South coast. Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork. PERISCHELIA J. Agardh PERISCHELIA GLOMERULIFERA J. Agardh 1897, 34. De Toni 1924, 530. Thantno- carpus ? glomeruliferus J. Agardh 1885, 6. [.ucas and Perrin 1947, 372, — FB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. DASsYPHILEAE DASYPHILA Sonder DasvPHILA PReIsst1 Sonder 1846, 169. Harvey 1859, pl, 66. De Toni 1903, 1,387. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 342, f. 169. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. MUELLERENA Schmitz Mvurcterena rnstents (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,389. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 346, £.171. Crouania insignis Harvey 1860 b, 331, t. 193 B. J. Agardh 1876, 87, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef (often on Phacelocarpus labillardieri), Jan. 1946, Jan., Nov, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948. Specimens growing on the reefs are much more compact and stouter than those from deeper water. GULSONIA Harvey GULSONTA ANNULATA Harvey 1860-b, 320, pl. 193 A. J. Agardh 1894 a, 122, t. 2, £. 13; 1897, 56. De Toni 1897, 66. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1948. The position of this genus is uncertain and needs thorough investigation. CROUANIEAE ANTITHAMNION Nacgeli ANTITHAMNION DISPAR (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,405. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 353, £. 176. Callithamnion dispar Harvey 1862, pl. 227. — PB. Drift, May, 1945. 179 ANTITHAMNION HaNowsores (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,398. L.scas and Perrin 1947, 352, Callithamnion hanowioides Sonder 1852, 674. J. Agardh 1876, 55. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WB. On Lauwrencia elata, drift, Jan, 1946, PB. On Laurencia heteroclada, L. elata, Gelidium australe, Rhodymenta, Caulerpa brownii and other species in the sublittoral fringe, all seasons. ANTITHAMNION MuCRONAaTUM (J. Agardh) Naegeli. De Toni 1903, 1,410. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355, Callithamnion mucronatum J. Agardh 1851, 29; 1876, 19. Harvey 1863, syn. nu. 688. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, 7B. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, ANTITHAMNION NODIFERUM J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,404. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 353. Callithamnion nodiferum J. Agardh 1876, 25, Calli- thamnion simile Harvey 1862, pl. 207 (excl. syn.). — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB, Driil, Jan. 1948. BALLIA Harvey BALLIA cCALLITRICHA (Agardh) Montagne. J, Agardh 1851, 75. Kiitzing 1862, t. 37, Harvey 1863, syn. n, 656. De Toni 1903, 1,393. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 350, f. 174. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, Sou’-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black) and atte Janu. 1945. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948. BALLIA ROBERTIANA Harvey 1858, pl. 36. J. Agardh 1876, 588, De Toni 1903, 1,394. Litcas and Perrin 1947, 349, f. 173. — CC, Drift, Jan. 1945. BALLIA SCOPARTA Harvey 18604, pl. 168. De Toni 1903, 1,395. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 351, f. 175. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. 7B. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, Jan., Aug. 1948 and in the sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons (stunted). CROUANIA J. Agardh CRoUANIA AusTRALIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 85. De Toni 1903, 1,418. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355. Crouania attenuata var. ausiralis Harvey 1863 syn. n. 635, — AR. No details, This specimen agrecs well with Harvey's 485 B in Melbourne National Herbarium, Specimens from the upper sub- littoral near the mouth of the inlet, Aug. 1948, are probably a form of this species. CROUANIA MUELLERT Harvey 1863, syn. n. 638. J. Agardh 1876, 85, De Toni 1903, 1,419 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 356. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB. On Cystophora intermedia, C. siliquosa and C, spartioides in the sublittoral fringe, Jan, anid Nov, 1947, Jan. and Dec. 1948, Crovania vestita Harvey 1860a, pl. 140. J. Agardh 1876, 86, De Toni 1903, 1,419, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 35, £. 177. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. LASIOTHALIA Harvey LasroriAt.ta FoRMOsA (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,421. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 357. Callithamnion formosum Harvey 1863, pl. 281, — VB. Driit, Jan. 1948, PB, Drift Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948. PTILOCLADIA Sonder Prinoc.apta PULCHRA Sonder 1846, 170. Tlarvey 1862, pl. 209. De Toni 1903, 1,424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 360, f. 180. — WB. Drilt Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, 180 SPYRIDIEAE SPYRIDIA Harvey SPYRIDIA BIANNULATA J. Agardh 1876, 267; 1897, 13. De Toni 1903, 1,426. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, all seasons. K, Drift, Jan. 1944. BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947, WB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1947, RP. Low littoral pools, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948, Spyripia opposita Harvey 1860 a, pl. 158. J. Agardh 1876, 270. De Toni 1903, 1,431, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363, £, 182. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. DB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB. in pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948, CW’. Drift, Jan. 1946, CERAMIEAE CENTROCERAS Kiitzing CENTROCERAS CLAVULATUM (Agardh) Montagne. J. Agardh 1876, 108. Smith 1944, 328, pl. 84, f. 5-6. Ceramium clavulatum, De Toni 1903, 1,491. — AR, Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, often epiphytic on larger algae, all seasons; in late winter (July-Nov.) forming dense red-brown tufts to 12 cm. high on pebbles along the shore (mid-littoral) near American River jetty. CC. In rock pools, Jan. 1944 and lower littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Mid littoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, and in rock pools, Jan, 1946. PRB. Rear littoral, May 1945, Also found amongst other algae almost any- where around the island, CERAMIUM Wiggers CERAMIUM I8socoNUM Harvey 1854, 55; 1862, pl, 206 B. J. Agardh 1876, 96. De ee, 1903, 1,469. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 369, f, 186. — PB. Drift, May 1945, CERAMIUM MINIATUM Suhr. Harvey 1862, pl. 206A. De Toni 1903, 1,454. Lucas and Petrin 1947, 367, f. 185. — AR. On black buoy, Jan., Sept. 1946, Jan. 1947, 1948. Mk. On Corallina, lower littoral, Jan. 1947. B, On Laurencia heteroclada in tock pools, sauth side of Ellen Point, May 1945. PB, On Laurencia heteroclada in the littoral and drift, May 1945. AB, On molluscs in the mid littoral, Jan. 1947, The Australian species which passes under this name needs careful checking with authentic material from Peru, the type locality. CERAMIUM NoBILE J. Agardh 1894b,41. De Toni 1903, 1,480, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 369. — FB. Driit, Jan. 1948. PR. On Spyridia opposite, Lawrencia heteroclada and other algae in the sublittoral [ringe, all seasons. CERAMIUM PUBERULUM Sonder 1946, 167. J. Agardh 1876, 102. De Toni 1903, 1452. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 367. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub- littoral, all seasons. EB, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. On Posidonia, drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. RP, On Posidonia, drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948 WRANGELIEAE WRANGELIA Agardh WRANGELIA CLAVIGERA Harvey 1863, pl. 287. J. Agardh 1876, 621. De Toni 1897, 132. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 140, £. 13. — PB. Sublittoral fringe {mainly i-2 ft. down side of main reef), all seasons. 181 WRANGELIA CRASSA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1860b, 308. J. Agardh 1876, 620. De Toni 1897, 131. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. FRB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, and in a shaded pool, Jan. 1944. Orig. Det, V. May. WRANGELIA HALURUS Harvey 1859, pl. 170. J. Agardh, 1876, 619. De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrm 1947, 138. — WA. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB, Drift. Jan. 1948. WRANGELIA MYRIOPHYLLOIDRS Harvey 1854, 564; 1862, pl. 224. J. Agardh 1876, 617. De Toni 1897, 128. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drifi, Jan. 1944; Jan., Aug. 1948. WRANGELIA PLUMOSA Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni 1897, 136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143, f. 16. — /LR. On black buoy, Sept. 1946, and upper sublittoral along channel near buoys, Nov. 1947. — MR. Lower littoral, Jan. 1947. HR. lower littoral, Jan. 1946. Hi. In a low rock pool, Jan, 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and littoral pools on reefs, all seasons, but variable, AB. Lowet littoral, Jan. 1947. WRANGELIA PRINCEPS Harvey 1862, pl. 234; J, Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni 1897, 136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143. — PR. Drift, Jan. 1946 (on Codium galeatum) and Jan. 1949. WRANGELIA PROTENSA Harvey 1860 b, 308, J, Agardh 1876, 619, De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 137, £. 10. — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel from Muston to American River, Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948. WRANGELIA VELUTINA Harvey 1854, 546; 1858, pl. 46. J. Agardh 1876, 617. De Toni 1897, 128 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136, f. 9. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948 and im a shaded pool, Jan. 1944, WRANGELIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 332. J. Agardh 1876, 619. De Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 11. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PR. In a littoral pool, Jan. 1944. WRANGELIA WATTSIT Harvey 1862, pl. 233. J. Agardh 1876, 620. De Toni 1897, 131, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 12. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. DASYACEAE DASYA C. Agardh DASYA CAPILLARIS Hooker and Harvey, Harvey 1847, 60, pl. 19; 1860hb, 302. Kiitzing 1865, t. 73. De Toni 1903, 1,200. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947. DASVA FEREDAYAE Harvey 1860 a, pl. 173, £.1, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,211. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, DasyA HAFFIAE Harvey 1860b, 303; 1860a, pl. 143. De Toni 1903, 1,193. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 311. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. DAsya NAccARTOIDES Harvey 1844, 432; 1847, 63, pl, 22. J. Agardh 1863, 1,217. De Toni 1903, 1,198. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946 and in a deep pool on main reef, Nov. 1947, DAaS¥YA SCOPULIFERA Harvey 1863, pl. 271. De Toni 1903, 1,185. — PB. Drit, Jan, 1946. A single specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure, 182 Dasya urcronata Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n, 217. J. Agardh 1863, 1,208. De Toni 1903, 1,209. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314 — PB. On C ystophora intermedia and occasionally on C. subfarcinate im sublittoral fringe on main reef, May 1945, Noy, 1947, Aug., Dec. 1948. Checked with one of Harvey's specimens from Point Fairy. Dasyva vintosa Harvey 1847, 61, pl. 20. J. Agardh 1863, 1,215. De Toni 1903, 1,203. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314, — AR. 5-6 feet below low water near Picnic Point, fan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948. DASYOPSIS Zanardini DASYoPsis CLAVIGERA Womersley 1946 b, 137, f, 1, 2, pl. 27. — WB, Drift, Jan 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, IB. Lower littoral, south side af Ellen Point, May 1945, Dec. 1945. PB. Sub-littoral fringe on reefs, all seasons. HALODICTYON Zanardini Hatopictyon aRAcwNoipeuM Harvey 1858, pl, 37 A. De Toni 1903, 1,246. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 322. — AK. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov, 1947, Jan. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948, Hatovicryon ropustum Harvey 1858, pl. 37B. De Toni 1903, 1,245. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 322. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948. HETEROSIPHONIA Montagne Hererosrpnonra curpirana (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 716. De Tom 1903, 1,236. Laicas and Perrin 1947, 318. Ddsya curdigana Harvey in J. Agardh 1863, 1,189; 1890, 87, — FB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, HETEROSIPHONIA GUNNIANA (Haryey) Falkenberg 1901, 651. De Toni 1903, 1,231. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316, f, 153, Das ya gunniana Harvey 1847, 59, pl. 17; 1860 b, 301. — AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1949, MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, PE, Sublittoral fringe and outer pools on reefs, all seasons. HerexosrPHoNta MicRocLAvioipEs (J. Agatdh) Falkenberg 1901, 637, t. 19, f. 3. De Tom 1903, 1,224. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316. Dasya microcladioides J. Agardh 1890, 83. Dasya pellucida Harvey 1854, 543. — VB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1947. A few specimens which agree well with Tlarvey’s D. pellucida from King George’s Sound {in Mel- bourne National Herbarium, HETEROSIPUONIA MUELLERL (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,237. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 319, 1. 154, Dasya muelleri Sonder in Harvey 1858, pl. 31 (partim)- J. Agardh 1890, 84, t. II], f. 1. —- PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs in the bay, Jan, 1949. DR. Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1947. PB. “Sublittoral fringe on mam reef, Jan, 1947, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. Eastern Cove, On sinker of buoy (12-15 feet below low water), Jan. 1948. None of these specimens is cystocarpic, so it is possible some may be H, struthiopenna (J. Agardh) De Toni, which has terminal cystocarps instead of the lateral, sessile ones of H. muelleri, THURETIA Decaisne THURETIA QUERCIFOLTA Decaisne, Harvey 1858, pl. 40, Falkenberg 1901, 668, t. 17, £. 1-9. De Toni 1903, 1,175. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 308, £. 147. — M°B, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Driit, Jan, 1948, 1949. PR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, CH. Drift. Jan. 1946, 183 Tuuretia TERES Harvey 1862, pl, 191. Falkenberg 1901, 674. De Toni 1903, 1,176. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 309. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. In Cystophora-coralline and sublittoral fringe associations (on Cystophora sub- forcinata and C. paniculata), all seasons but rare. DELESSERIACEAE —- DELESSERIEAE 1 APOGLOSSUM J. Agardh APOGLOSSUM TASMANICUM (F. y. Mueller) J, Agardh. De Toni 1900, 702, Kylin 1924, 23. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 231, £. 94, Delessersa tasmanica F. v. Mueller in Harvey 18606, 311, t. 190B. J. Agardh 1876, 494. — V8. shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. A few small sterile plants only, CHAUVINIA CHAUVINIA coRUFOLIA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 376. Kylin 1924, 13. Tucas and Perrin 1947, 230, f. 93. Delesseria corwfolia Harvey 1860a, pl. 150, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, CLAUDEA Lamouroux CLAUDEA ELEGANS Lamouroux. Harvey 1858, pl. 1. De Toni 1900, 748. Lucas anid Perrin 1947, 237, §. 101. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1948 (rare). HEMINEURA Harvey Hemineura rronposa (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1847, 116, pl. 45. Kylin 1924, 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 232, f, 95. Delesseria frondosu, Harvey 1860, pl. 179. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, HYPOGLOSSUM Kiittzing Hyrocrossum revoLurum (Harvey) J. Agardh. De Toni 1900, 692. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 228, £. 91. Delesseria revoluta Harvey 1860a, pl. 170. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug. 1948, Jan. 1949. HyrociossuM spATHULATUM (Kiitzing) J. Agardh, De Toni 1900, 689. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 227, Delesseria spathwlaia Kiitzing 1869, t. 12c-e. Deles- seria hypoglossoides Marvey 1859, pl, 87. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Noy, 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug, 1948, PHITYMOPHORA J. Agardh PuitymMornora mprtcata (Arcschoug) J, Agardh. Kylin 1924, 13. Kuehne 1946, 35, pl. 2, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 230. Chauwinea imbricata Harvey 1862, pl, 240. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. VR. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948. SARCOMENTA Sonder SARCOMENIA DASYorDES Ilarvey. J. Agardh 1863, 1,263; 1896, 134. De Ton 1900, 738. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, f. 96. — WB. Driit, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, PB. In pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1946, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948, Jan, 1949, SARCOMENIA DELESsERTOIDES Sonder. Ilarvey 1860, pl, 121. J. Agardh 1896, 137. De Toni 1900, 742. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 236, f. 100. — CC, Drift, Jan. 1948. VB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PB. Drili, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 184 SARCOMENIA MUTABILIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 134. De Toni 1900, 736. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel, July, Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably a winter form), SARCOMENIA TENERA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 136. De Toni 1900, 740. Poly- siphonia tenera Harvey 1863, pl. 257. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, pl. 99. — aR. Upper sublittoral near the mouth, May 1945, July, Nov. 1947, Aug, 1948 (probably a winter form). NITOPHYLLEAE CRYPTOPLEURA Kiitzing CRYPTOPLEURA ENDSVIAEFOLIA (Hooker and Harvey) Kylin 1924, 91. Delesseria endividefolia Hooker and Harvey 1847, 403. Kittzing 1869, t. 11. Nito- phyllum endiviaefolinm J. Agardh 1876, 461. De Toni 1900, 637. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, HYMENEMA Greville TIYMENEMA CURBDIEANA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 79. Nitophyllum curdieanum Harvey 1860 a, pl. 151. J. Agardh 1876, 458. De Toni 1900, 658. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 223, f. 89, 90. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1949. MYRIOGRAMME Kylin MyriocRAMME eRosA (Ilarvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllwm erosum Harvey 1859, pl. 94. J. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 639. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. MYRIOCGRAMME PRISTOIDEA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllum pristoideum Harvey 1862, pl. 229. Jj. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 640, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 222, {. 86. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Driit, Jan. 1949, RHODOMELACEAE — POLYSIPHONIEAE CHIRACANTHIA Falkenberg CHIRACANTIIIA ARBOREA (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 179, t. 19, f. 18-23. De Toni 1903, 971. Acanthophora arborea Harvey 1860 b, 296; 1860a, pl, 132. — AR, Sublitioral near and outside the mouth of the inlet, all seasons. LOPHURELLA, Schmitz LopruRELLA PERICLADOS (Sonder) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 154, t, 19, £. 24- 26. De Toni 1903, 855. Rhodomela periclados, Harvey 1858, pl. 28. — PB, Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1947 (rare), POLYSIPHONIA Greville PonysipHonta AnscissA Hooker and Harvey, Hooker 1847, 480, pl. 183, f. 2. De Toni 1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267. — PB. In rear littoral pools, all seasons, CH’, In low rock pools, Jan. 1948, POLYSIPHONIA CANCELLATA Harvey 1847, 51, pl. 15, De Toni 1903, 928. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 273. — AR. Sublittoral along channel, often on Postdonia, all seasons. 1B. (no details). POLYSIPIIONIA DAsyoIpES Zanardini 1874, 489. De Toni 1903, 954. Lucas and Perrin 1947; 266. — CC. In rock pools, Jan, 1944, VB. Upper littoral (splash area), south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. In littoral pools, 185 Jan. 1944, Nov. 1947, and sublittoral fringe, May 1945, Jan, 1946, April 1947, (often epiphytic on larger algae), No authentic specimens of this species are available in Australia, but agreement with Zanardini’s description is very good. PotystPHoONIA DAVYAE Reinhold 1899, 49. De Toni 1903, 913. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, — AR. On Posidonia in upper sublittoral, all seasons but not common, PB. Drift, Jan, 1946. RP. Drift, Aug, 1948, POLYSIPHONIA FRUTEX Ilarvey 1847, 52; 1860b. 301. Kittzing 1863, t. 66 d-e. De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 273, £. 122. — IRB. Mid littoral on reef in bay, Jan, 1946, DB. Lower littoral on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB. Littoral, and in pools, all seasons. 8. Lower littoral, Jan, 1947, Poiysivnonta Fuscescens Harvey 1847, 52; 1860b, 301. Kiitzing 1863, £, 67 a-d. De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 273, — AR. Sublittoral and upper sublittoral along channel and throughout lagoons, all seasons, RP. Drift, Aug. 1948. This species is very closely related to P_ frutex, and pos- sibly only an extreme ecological form. P. fuscescens 1s more loosely and distantly bratiched, and a slenderer plant than P, frutex, and grows in much calmer conditions around Kangaroo Island. PoLYsIPHONTA ttooKeRT Ilarvey 1847, 40, pl. 12; 1860b, 299. Kiizing 1864, t. 17. De Toni 1903,905. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 263, fF. 119, — Ai, Sub- littoral near Muston, Noy, 1947, PB, Drift, Jan, 1947. POLYStPHONIA HystrIx Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 41, pl. 14; 1860h, 299. Kiitzing 1864, t. 18a-c. De Tont 1903, 906. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, f. 120. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, POLYSIPHONTA MALLARDIAE Tarvey 1847, 40, pl. 13; L860b, 299. Kiitzing 1864, t. 22c-e. De Toni 1903, 908. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, f, 121. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, and in a shaded pool, Jan, 1944. POLYSIPHONIA Nicrita Sonder 1846, 181. Harvey 1847, 51. Kiitzing 1863, t. 67 e-h. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 274. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. PR, Sublittoral fringe, all seasons (epiphytic on other alyae), CW, Lower littoral, Jan, 1946. P. nigrita differs trom PF. cancellata in not having the pericentral cells arranged in distinct rows, as seen in face view. POLYSIPHONIA PATERSONTS Sonder, Kiitzing 1864, t. 18 d-f. Polystphenia spine- sissima Harvey 1860a, pl. 155. Brongniartella spinasissima, Falkenberg 1901, 548, t. 19, f. 11-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, — AR. Lower littoral on the tidal flats, all seasans. The trichoblasts in this species are con- fined to the ends of the branches as in Polysiphonia. POLYSIPHONIA SUCCULENTA Harvey 1860b, 300. J. Agardh 1863,969. De Toni 1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267, — AR, On Posidenia in the tipper sublittoral throughout the lagoons, all seasons, common. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948, LOFHOTHALIEAE RRONGNIARTELL.A Bory BRONGNIARTELLA austratis (Agardh’) Schmitz. Falkenberg 1901, 546, t. 19, f. 6-7. De Toni 1903, 1,010. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, f. 130. Poly- stphonia cladostephus Warvey 18604, pl. 154. — AR. Sublittoral along 186 channel, all seasons but commonest in winter. VB. Mid littoral on well- washed rock in bay, Jat. 1946, 1948. DB. Drift, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, all seasons. AP, Drift, Aug. 1948. The American River form is a larger, looser and softer plant than those from the south coast, BRONGNIARTELLA FEREDAYAK (J. Agardh) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,014, Dasya feredayae J. Agardh 1863, 1,235, Harvey 1860 b, 303, — VB. Lower littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe on a western reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. BRONGNIARTELLA SARCOCAULON (Harvey) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,013. ILucas and Perrin 1947, 285. Dasya sarcocdulon Harvey 1863, pl. 278. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CH’, In an exposed pool, south side, Aug 1948. DOXODASYA Schmitz Doxopasva putgocuarte (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 538, t, 13, £. 21-22. De Toni 1903, 1,021. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 286, f, 131, Dasya bulbochaete Harvey 1847, 65, pl. 25. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Dnit, Jan, 1944, 1946. LOPHOCLADIA Schmitz LopHocLapia HaRvevr (Kiitzing) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 553. De Toni 1905, 1,016. Dasya harveyi Kiitzing 1864, 26, t. 71 e-f. Dasya lallemandi, Harvey 1854, 543. — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, April 1947, and on the cockle bank near the mouth, Jan, 1948, and drift, May 1945, BosTRYCHTEAE ROSTRYCHIA Montagne BostrycHia mixta [looker and Harvey, Harvey 1860, pl. 176A. De Tomi 1903 1,150. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock throughout the inlet, mixed in small amourit with B. simpliciuscula, all seasons. PB. On shaded rock in rear littoral, main reef, Aug. 1948, Jan, 1949. RP. Upper littoral, all seasons. Bosrrycura stMPuiciuscuLa Harvey. J. Agardh 1863, 854. Falkenberg 1901, 152. De Toni 1903, 1,155, Liicas and Perrin 1947, 306. Bostrychia rivu- laris, Harvey 1860a, pl. 176R. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock throughout the inlet, all seasons. PB. On shaded rock, rear littoral maiti reef, May 1945 (rare), AB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1945. RP. Upper littoral, all seasons. CHONDRIEAE CHONDRIA C. Agardh Cronpeia DASYPHYLLA (Woodward) C Agardh. De Toni 1903, 842. Newton 1931, 342, #.211, Taylor 1937, 359. — AR. Upper sublittoral on tidal flats, Feb. 1946, April 1947, J, Agardh (1892, 148-160) described a number of species of Chondria from. southern Australia, some of which had previously been placed under Ch. dasyphylla. At least three species of Chondria occur at American Riyer, and oné species in the sublittoral fringe at Pennington Bay; but without examining authentic specimens of J. Agardh’s it is difficult to place these. The specimens determined as Ch. dasyphylla agree well with Newton’s figure. CLADURUS Falkenberg Cuapurus evatus. (Sonder) Falkenberg 1901, 223, pl. 22, i. 1. De Toni 1903, 814. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 251, f. 111. Rytiphloea elata, Harvey 1862, pl. 236. — MR-. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946. 187 COELOCLONIUM J. Agardh CorLoctonrum oruntiomes (Ilarvey) J. Agardh 1876, 640. Falkenberg 1901, 211, t. 22, f. 32-34, De Toni 1903, 825, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 256. Chondria opuntivides Hatvey 1860 b, 297, pl. 189, — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel, especially uear the mouth, May to Nov. (a winter [otm). VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 4B, Drift, Aug. 1948. KP, Drift, Aug, 1948. LAURENCIEAE JANCZEWSKIA Solms JANCZEWSKIA TASMANICA Falkenberg. Engler and Prantl 1897, 432, t. 243. Falkenberg 1901, 257, t. 24, £. 18-19. De Toni 1903, 812. Setchell 1914b, 16. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 250. — PB. On Laurencia elata in the sub- littoral fringe, Jan. 1948, Dec. 1948, and on Lonrencia heteroclada in the rear littoral, Sept. 1946. CW’. On L. heteroclada, lower littoral, Jan, 1946. Rein- bold (1899, 47) lists a J, australis Falkenberg from Investigator Strait. De Toni lists this nomen nudum with a query under J. fasmanica, and Setchell (p, 18) comments that it may be distinct from J. tasmanica, The Kan- garoo Island specimens seem to agree well with J, tasmanica, and J, australis is probably the same species. LAURENCIA Lamouroux LAURENCIA Borrvopes (Turner) Gaillon. Harvey 1862, pl. 182. De Toni 1903, 802. Yamada 1931 a, 230. — BH. Very low littoral, Oct, 1947. CC. Lower littoral, Jan, 1948. PB, Sublittoral fringe and Cystophora-coralline associa- tions on reefs, all seasons. CW’. Rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948. L. botryoides is very variable in size and stoutness, but fertile specimens are distinctive in the peculiar wart-like, crowded, tetrasporie receptacles. The PR specimens were teported in Pt. IT, 159, under the ms. name of L. robusta; fertile specimens show that they are only a stunted form (2-5 cm. high) of L. botryoides. The BS specimens are robust plants, to 20 cm. hizh, with the tetrasporic receptacles almost completely covering the branches. ‘LAURENCIA cLAvaTA Sonder 1852, 694, Yamada 1931a, 228. Chondria clavate Harvey 1860a, pl. 189. Corynecladia clavata, De Toni 1903, 810, — AR. Stiblittoral near Muston, Jan. 1948, K. Drift, Jan. 1945. RP. Drift, June 1947. Laurencta evata (Agardh) Harvey 1847, 81, pl. 33, De Toni 1903, 803. Vamada 19314, 241, pl. 26a, b. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 249, #. 110. — HR. Low pools, Jan, 1949, PR. Sublittoral fringe and to 3 fect down the sides of reefs, all seasons. LAvRENCcIA GRAcItis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84, De Toni 1903, 780. Yamada 193la, 212, pl, 12b. — AR. Low littoral on Pig Island, Dec, 1948; upper sublittoral on Wallaby Island, July 1947, and on cockle bank, Jan. 1948. BS. Sublittoral on Posidonia, June 1947. EB. Upper sub- littoral on Posidonia, Tan. 1945. LAURENCIA TIETEROCLADA Harvey 1860a, pl. 148. De Toni 1903, 782. Yamada 1931 a, 238. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 247. — WR. Lower littoral and pools, Jan. 1946. CC. Rock pools, Jan, 1944. WR, Rock pools, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1948. PB. Littoral on reefs, all seasons. CW and AB. Lower littoral, Jan. 1947. L. heteroclada probably occurs throughout the 188 Exposed Rocky Coast Subformation, in the littoral and low rock pools. It is a variable species, and the relations between it and L. filiformis and L, forsteri need careful examination, LAURENCIA Majyuscus.a (Harvey) Lucas 1935, 223. Laurencia obtusa var. majuscula Harvey 1863, syn. n. 309b. Yamada 1931 a, 223, pl. 16C, — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948. LAURENCIA TASMANICA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84. J. Agardh 1876, 654. De Toni 1903, 795. Yamada 1931a, 234, pl. 21. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 249. — AR. Upper sublittoral behind Wallaby Island, Aug. 1948. BH, Lowest littoral, Oct. 1947. These specimens agree well with Yamada’s plate of an authentic specimen, and with Harvey's from Tasmania. PTEROSIFHONIEAE DICTYMENIA Greville DictTVMENIA HARVEYANA Sonder 1852, 698. Harvey 1860 b, 296, Kiitzing 1864, t. 95a-b, Falkenberg 1901, 283, t. 19, £. 17.” De Toni 1903, 983, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 282, 1. 129. Dictymenia tridens Harvey 1847, 28, t. 7, — AR. Upper sublittoral between Muston and the mouth, May 1945, Nov. 1947, Jan. and Aug. 1948, VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, DictyMEeNIA TRIDENS (Mertens) Greville, Kiitzing 1864, t. 94f-g. Falkenberg 1901, 287. De Toni 1903, 985. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 281, f. 128. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, JEANNERETTIA Hooker and Harvey JEANNERETTIA LOBATA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 20, pl. 4; 1858, pl. 33. Papenfuss 1942, 448. Pollexfenia lobata, Falkenberg 1901, 295. De Toni 1903, 979. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278. — IB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift Jan. 1946, 1948, and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1948. JEANNERETTIA PEDICELLATA (Harvey) Papenfuss 1942, 448, Pollexfenia pedi- cellata Harvey 1847, 22, pl. 5. Falkenberg 1901, 291, t. 4, £. 14-19. De Toni 1903, 979, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278, — AR. Upper sublittoral through- out the inlet, June to Novy, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948. This seems to be mainly a winter form, and is extremely variable in thallus width (from 4 to 15 mm.). LOPHOSIPHONIEAE LOPHOSIPHONIA Falkenberg LoryosiPHONIA scopuLORUM (Harvey) comb. nov. Polysiphonia scopulorum Harvey 1854, 540; Alz Aus. Exs. n. 186. J. Agardh 1863, 940. Kiitzing 1864, t. 37 a-c. De Toni 1903, 1,065, — PB. Forming brownish red patches on rock in the rear littoral on recfs, all seasons, This material is identical with Harvey’s 186a from Fremantle of P, scoputorum (in Melbourne National Herbarium), but the species is clearly a Lophosiphonia, PoLYZONIEAE CLIFTONAEA Harvey CLIFTONAFA PECTINATA Harvey 1859, pl. 100. Falkenberg 1901, 375, t. 5, £. 17-25; t. 10, £. 14; t. 24, f, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,039. Lucas and Perriy 1947, 289, f. 135. — WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. CH’, Drift Jan, 1948. 189 EUZONIELLA Falkenberg FEUZONIELLA FLACCIDA (Ilarvey) Falkenberg 1901, 365, t. 5, £. 10. De Toni 1903, 1,029. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 288, f. 134. Polyzonta flaccida Harvey 1858, pl. 42B. — PB. Drilt, Dec. 1948, A single cystocarpic specimen which agrees well with Harvey's figure. EuzonteLta twersa (J. Agardh) Falkenberg 1901, 361, t. 5, f. 2-8, 11; t. 14, f, 28-32, De Toni 1903, 1,028. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 287, £. 133. Poly- eonia imcisa, Harvey 1858, pl. 42 A. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946, AMANSIFAE AMANSTA Lamourcux AMANSIA KUETZINGIOIDES Harvey 1858, pl. 51. Falkenberg 1901, 420, t. 7, . 5. De Toni 1903, 1,085. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296, £. 140, — PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AMANSIA PINNATIFIDA Harvey 1862, pl. 222. Falkenberg 1901, 419. De Toni 1903, 1,090. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. CH’. Drift, Jan, 1946. ANEURIA (J. Agardh) W. v. Bosse ANEURIA LATIFOLIA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 169. De Toni 1924, 429. Lenormandia latifolia Harvey 1847, 19. — IB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, all seasons. Previously (Pt, I, 244) this species was recorded as Lenormandia spectabilis, Harvey considered this and 1, lattfolia to be forms of one species, but they appear to be quite distinct, LENORMANDIA Sonder LENORMANDIA MURBLLERI Sonder. Harvey 1858, pl. 45. Falkenberg 1901, 467, t, &, f. 13-16. De Toni 1903, 1,116. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 300, f. 142. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. B. Drift, Jan 1948. PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948. LENORMANDIA SMITHIAE (Hooker and Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 464, t. 8, f, 18-21. De Tom 1903, 1,120. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 303, £. 143. Poly- phacum smithiae, Harvey 1847, 17, pl. 3. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1949, PB, Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. LENORMANDIA SPECTARILIS Sonder, Harvey 1862, pl. 181. De Toni 1903, 1,117, — VB, Dritt, Jan, 1946, 1949. A Jarge range of specimens may show that this species is not distinct from L. muvellert. OSMUNDARIA Lamouroux OSMUNDARTA PROLIFERA Lamoutoux. Falkenberg 1901, 469, t. 8, £. 24-26, De Toni 1903, 1,109. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 299, f. 141. Polyphacum pro- liferwm, Harvey 1862, pl. 188. — P&. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948, PROTOKUETZINGIA Falkenberg PROTOKUETZINGIA AUSTRALASICA (Montagne) Falkenberg 1901, 475, t. 9, £. 6 and f. 8B. De Toni 1903, 1,076, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 295. Rytiphloea australasica, Harvey 1858, pi. 27; — VB, Drift, Jan, 1949. DB. Sublittoral fringe of western terraced reef, Dec, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948. RP. Drift June 1947. 190 VIDALIA Lamouroux VIpaALIA SPIRALIS Lamouroux. Falkenberg 1901, 428. De Toni 1903, 1,106. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 298. Epineuron spirale, Harvey 1847, 25, el 9,— VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. HETEROCLADIEAE TRIGENIA Sonder TRIGENIA UMBELLATA J. Agardh 1890, 116; 1899, 122, t. 2, f. 1-6. Falkenberg 1901, 583, t. 12, f. 14-15. De Toni 1903, 1,125. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 305, £. 145. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946. Acetabularia - Acrochaetium Acrotylus - Amansia - Amphiroa = - Aneuria - - Antithamnion Apjohnia - Apoglossum - Areschougia - Asparagopsis Asperocaccus Ballia- - Bangia - - Bellotia - - Bindera - “ Blidingia - Bonnemaisonia Bostrychia = - Botryocladia - Brachytrichia Bronguiartella Bryopsis - Callithamnion Callophyllis - Callymenia - Calothrix « Carpoglossum Carpomitra - Caulerpa - Centroceras. - Ceramium— - Chaetomorpha Champia - Chauvinia - Chiracanthia Ciilanidophora Chondria - Cladophora - Cladasiphon - Cladostephus Cladurus - Claudea ~ Cliftonaea = - Coccochloris Codium - Coelarthrum Coeloclonium Colpomenia - 191 INDEX TO GENERA Page Page - 144 Corallina - - 166 - 162 Corynophlaea - 154 - 174 Crouania - -179 ~ 189 Cryptopleura - 184 - 166 Curdiea - = 169 + 189 Cutleria - = 150 -~178 Cystophora - - 159 - 144 Cystophyllum - 161 ~ 183 ar Dasya - - = 18l _ 157 Dasyopsis - = 182 > Dasyphila - = 178 Dasyphloea - = 165 Delisea - ~~ 163 ; pi Derbesia = - 144 x ¢ - 186 Dermocarpa - ~ 139 174 Dicranema - 178 - 142 Dictymenia - - 158 - 163 Dictyopteris - - 153 _ 186 Dictyosphaeria - 143 - 174 Dictyota - - 150 al Dilophus ~ - 152 - 185 Doxodasya - - 186 - 144 Ecklonia - - 157 - 177 Ectocarpus - ~- 148 ~ 168 Encyothalia - —- 156 ~ 168 Enteromorpha ~- 142 - 140 Entophysalis - 139 ~ 159 Erythroclonium - 172 - 156 Erythrymenia - 175 - 146 Ethelia - - 166 - 180 Euptilota - -~178 - 180 Euzoniella - - 189 - 143 - 176 - 183 Galaxaura - - 165 -~ 184 Gelidium - - 165 ~ 153 Gelinaria - - 168 = 186 Gigartina - - 174 = 142 Gloioderma - - 174 - 155 Gloiophloea - - 165 - 149 Gloiosaccion - 175 ~ 186 Gracilaria - - 169 - 183 Grifithsia - - 176 - 188 Grunowiella - - 172 ~ 139 Gulsonia - +178 - 145 - 175 Halodictyon - - 182 - 187 Haloplegma - - 177 - 157 Halopteris - - 149 Halymenia - Hemineura - Heterosiphonia Hormosira- Hydroclathrus Hydrocoleum Hymenocladia Hymenema - Hypnea - Hypoglossum Isactis - 7 Janezewskia - Jania- - Jeannerettia - Lasiothalia = - Laurencia - Lenormandia Liagora - Lithothamnion Lobospira ss - Lomentaria - Lophocladia - Lophurella - Lophosiphonia Lyngbya - Macrocystis - Melanthalia - Metagoniolithon Metamastophora Micradictyon Muellerena - Mychodea - Myriodesma - Myriogloia - Myriogramme Myrionema - Nemation - Nemastoma - Neomonospora Nereia - - Nizymenia = - Notheia - Page 168 183 182 158 157 139 176 184 173 183 141 187 167 188 179 187 189 153 168 153 176 186 184 188 140 157 169 167 167 144 178 173 158 155 184 154 163 169 177 156 171 158 192 Page Page Page Osmundaria - - 189 Rhipiliopsis - - 146 Symploca ~ - 140 Rhododactylis - 173 Rhodoglossum = - 174 Pachydictyon - 151 Rhodopeltis - - 166 Taonia - - + 153 Perischelia - - 178 Rhodophyllis - 172 Thamnoclonium - 168 Perithalia - - 156 Rhodymenia - - 175 Thuretia - - 182 Peyssonnelia - 166 Rivularia - - 141 Thysanocladia - 171 Phacelocarpus - 171 Tinocladia = - - 155 Phitymophora - 183 Trigenia - - 190 Phloeocaulon - 149 Sarcomenia - - 183 Tylotus - - - 169 Plectonema - ~- 140 Sargassum - ~- 161 Plocamium - - 170 Scaberia - - 162 . Pocockiella - - 153 Scytosiphon - - 157 Ulothrix 5. =I Polycerea - ~- 155 Scytothalia - - 159 UWA; = Hal Polycoelia = - - 169 Seirococcus - - 159 Polysiphonia - - 184 Solieria - +171 Vidalia - -~ . 190 Porphyra - - 162 Sphacelaria - - 149 Protokuetzingia - 189 Splachnidium - 155 Pterocladia - - 165 Spongoclonium - 178 Wrangelia - - 180 Ptilocladia - - 179 Sporochnus - ~- 156 Pylaiella - - 148 Spyridia ade 180 Xiphophora - - 159 Stenocladia - - 171 Stilopsis - - 155 Rhabdonia - + 172 Struvea - - 144 Zonaria - - 153 193 REFERENCES AcarpH, J, G, 1848, Species, Genera et Ordines Algarum 1; 1851, Ibid, 2, pt. 1; 11852, Jbid, 2, pt. 2. 1863, Zbid, 2, pt. 3. 1870, “Om Chatham — Oarnes Alger.” K. Vet. Akad. Forhandl. No, 5, 435-456; 1872, Till Algernes Systematik I, II, Til.” Lund Univ. Arsskr. Bd 9; 1876, Species, Genera et Ordines Algarum 3, pt. I, (“Epictisis”) ; 1880, [bid, 3, pt 2; 1882, “Till Algernes Systematik 1V, V.” Lund Univ. Arskr. Rd. 17 1883, “Till Alg. Syst. 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Avd. 2 Bd. 20 N. 6; 1931, “Die Florideenordnung Rhody- metiales,” Ibid, N. F. Avd. 2. Bd. 27. Nr. 11; 1932, “Die Florideen- ordnung Gigartinales.” Jbid, N. F. Avd. 2, Bd. 28, N. 8; 1940, “Die Phaeophyccenordnung Chordariales.”” Jbid, N. P. Avd. 2. Bd. 36, N. J: 1947, “Die Phaeophyceen der Schwedischen Westkuste,” Ibid,, N. F, Ayd. 2 Bd, 43, Nr. 4; 1949, “Die Chlorophyceen der Schwedis- chen Westkuste," Ibid, N. F. Avd. 2 Bd. 45, Nr. 4. Lainc, R. M. 1905, “On the New Zealand Species of Ceramiaceae.” Trans. New Zealand Institute 37, 384-408, pl. 24-31. Levatnc, T. 1940, “Die Phaeophyceengattungen Chlanidophora, Distromium und Syringoderma.” Kungl. Fysigrafiska Sallsk, i Lund Forhandl, Bd. 10 Nr. 20: 1946, “A list of Marine Algae from Australia and Tas- mania.” Géteborgs Bot. Tradgard. 6, 215-227. Lucas, A. H. S. 1927a, “Notes on Australian Marine Algae 1V. The Aus- tralian species of the Genus Spongoclonium.” Proc. Linn. Soc. 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ZANARDINI, J. 1874, “Phyceae Australicae novae vel minus cognitae.” Flora, 57, 486-490, 497-505. Zen, W. 1913, “Neue Arten der Gattung Liagora.” Notizbl. Bot. Gard. Ber- lin, 5, 268-273. EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA BY C. W. BONYTHON Summary The most common instrument for measuring evaporation — the tank evaporimeter — may give erroneous readings as the effect of several different causes. The feasibility of such readings being supplanted by calculated evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily standardized instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation of calculating evaporation is quoted, and its derivation is given. 198 EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA By C, W. Bowyruon * [Read 13 April 1950] SUMMARY The most common instrument for measuring evaporation—ihe tank evapurimeter—imay give ertoneous readings as the effect of several different causes, The feasibility of such readings being supplanted by calculated evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily standardized instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation for calcylating evapora- tion is quoted, and its derivation is given. This equation is tested experimentally, using some South Australian data, first against two eyaporimeters at Dry Creek for a period of six months, and next for shorter petiods in comparing evapodrimeters at three different sites near Adelaide. Goad correlation between the curves for measured and calculated evaporation is shown, bit there are differences between the re- spective absolute values. It is suspected that there are irregularities duc to differences in exposute, etc., of the evaporimeters, and it is concluded that comparisons of the evaporation characteristics of different localities can pos- sibly be more reliably made by using the equation and its relevant data rather than evaporimeters, Camments are made on how the mean values of the basic data should be used in the eyaporation equation, and on the apparent lag in phase in one instance of meastited behind calculated evaporation. Finally there is a discussion upon whether there is a likelihood of varia- tion in the asstimed fixed relationship between the coefficients of heat and mass transfer in the air film above the evaporating surface—the basis of the evaporation équation—and how such a variation will affect the accuracy at evaporation calculated by means of the equation. INTRODUCTION The tank evaporimeter is still the most widely-used instrument for the measurement of the potential evaporation of a locality, although it is recely— ing increasing criticism, The definition of evaporation varies according to the field in which the evaporation data are to be used. Prom the point of view of the physical meteorologist it is the mean rate at which water vapour is actually being carried into the atmosphere from what may be a wide and heterogeneous area of country. To him this will be the only definition, The bio-climatologist, however, may recognize more than one definition, terming the foregoing the water loss dtic to ‘evapo-transpiration.” From another viewpaint evaporation is the rate at which water would he lost from the sur- face of a hypothetical—and perhaps large—sheet of water centred upon the site of an evaporimeter to the reading of which it is supposed to bear some relation. The bio-climatologist would term this “evaporation from a free water surface.” Sheppard has stated (18) the requirements of an ideal evaporimeter, viz. ., the necessary condition to be satisfied by the surface of the evapori- meter is that it shall be flush with the surrounding land (or water) surface, that its roughness parameter should be identical with that of the surround- ings, and that the vapour pressure at the surface shall be maintained the same as at the surrounding surface,” He adds, “Such requirements are ex- cessively diffictilt to meet.” * 1.C.L Alkali (Australia) Pty. Lu, Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950 199 Priestley (14) has cited some figures to show that the total natural evaporation of the Australian continent cannot be greater than one-fifth of that indicated by Foley’s (9) map of evaporation based on tank imeasure- ments. Sutton (21) has shown theoretically that the rate of evaporation [ram ani exposed water surface should vary with the dimensions of the surface, The experimental work of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17) has shawn con- siderable apparent change in evaporation rate with the size of the evapori- meter in which it is measured. (However, this statement will be qualified further on). Other work, including that of Field and Symons (7) at as early 3 date as 1869, has shown that exposure matkedly influences evaporimeter readings. It can be seen from the foregoing that since there may be different definitions of evaporation an evaporimeter will not (except in very special cases) yield a measure of it appropriate to all the definitions. All that can be expected of an evaporimeter is generally a rough indication of one of these evaporation fates, and specifically a precise measurement of the evapo- ration rate for an identical vessel of water identically exposed. Even the second expectation may be difficult to realise in practice: part of the purpose this paper is to show up difficulties in the reproducing of evaporation con- tlitions. STANDARDIZING EVAPORIMETERS The shortcomings of evaporimeter measurements for predicting large scale natural evaporation have beem enlarged upon by Sutton (22), Shep- pard (18) and others, and these are admitted by the author. However, the tank evaporimeter has yet to be supplanted in practice for the purpose of comparing the evaporation of different localities, countries, ete., so no fur- ther excuse is offered for it in this paper which deals with obtaining improved practical data based on evaporation losses from small, specified areas of exposed water surface. It is undesirable to add to the existing mass of empirical data on the effect of variables like dimensions, radiation absorbing power and exposure upon the rate of evaporation from evaporimeters, when these data are to be used to convert such evaporation rates fnto so-called “true evaporation.” Many of the early investigations were concerned with this aspect. The empirical data presented in this paper are here only for the purpose of re- vealing the failings of evaporimeters. Evaporimeters are usually small tanks of water set in, on or above the ground and exposed ta sun and air, There are many designs, but the simp- lest and most common one is a stnall, circular metal tank, with depth roughly equal to diameter, buried in the ground almost to the rim. Different designs often yield different results when similarly exposed. Consequently, standardization is important. In choosing a suitable design, the following points should be borne in mind :— (a) There should be the minimum interference with the nornial hori- zontal wind movement over the surface, and the wind directivn should not affect the rate of evaporation. Hence a tank set more or less Aush with the ground and of circular shape would appear sutt- able. (b) The size should not be so great that difficulty in supplying sufficient miuke-wp water is met in dry localities, nor so small that accidental depletion of water by animals and birds can amount to an appre- ciable part of the normal evaporation loss. 200 (c) The supply of radiant heat has a controlling influence on tank evaporimeters exposed in the open. Therefore a design minimizing variations in radiation absorption should be sought. A surface of low reflecting power is desirable, and since the characteristics of such an absorbing surface are hard to standardize, an evaporimeter holding a reasonable depth of water and of such shape that it at least approximates to a cayity absorber should be chosen. A black evaporimeter with depth equal to width would meet these require- ments. (There ts, however, evidence against the use of a surface of low reflecting power on parts of the tank, since the projecting tim may absorb an unduly large amount of radiation relative to that entering through the water surface). {d) Gain or loss of sensible heat through the sides and bottom should be minimized. While insulation may be impracticable, a buried tank of dimensions giving minimum outside area relative to holding capacity should be chosen. (e) An evaporimeter must function also as a rain gauge, since total (or “gross'") evaporation must be derived in practice from changes in water level and from gaugings in a nearhy rain gauge. Evidence has been produced (2) showing that an evaporimeter may not be a reliable rain gauge. The statement “more water splashes out than splashes in” briefly explains haw an evaporimeter may behave in rain. The larger the evaporimeter is the better is the likely approxi- mation to a perfect rain pauge. The Australian Standard evaporimeter (1) consists of a cylindrical, sheet-metal tank, 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, set inside a similar tank 4 ft. in diameter sunk in the ground with its rim level with the surface. The rim of the inner tank is 2 in, above that of the outer one. The inner tank is filled with water to within 3 in, of the top, and the outer annular space is filled to the top. It would appear to mect most of the requirements set out. The outer jacket is thought to act as a “guard ring’ to the inner vessel in which evaporation is measured, producing uniform canditions over the sur- face of the latter, and tending to bear the brunt of water depletion caused by animals and birds. While most Australian Standard evaporimeters are made of galvanized jtun sheet, normaily left unpainted, the addition of a coat of black paint might be considered an improvement under headitig (c), although there is also the disadvantage referred to, and while it might seem that this latter objection could be met by painting the tank black below water level and the rim above it white, this would introduce the uncertainty of the destination of radiation reflected from the white part. In general it is easier to prepare and main- tain a suriace reasonably good as an absorber than as a reflector. Perhaps, then, weathered galvanized iron, having a short-wave radiation absorption coefficient of the order of 0.9 (4), will be as satisfactory in practice as any other material for evaporimeters. An example of a design permitting a wide variation in total energy-ab- surbing power is the U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Plan. This is cir- cular, 4 ft. in diameter and 10 in. deep, and set on wooden supports a little above the ground. The author has experimented with one of these at Dry Creek, South Australia, and he has found the following variations in evapora- tron rate with different surface treatinents of the metal — (4) Evaporation in this paper is defined as measured fall in water level plus rain gauged during the same pericd. This is sometimes termed “gross” evaporation. 201 Taste I Stirface Treatment Relative Eyaporation Rate Plain galvanized iron 100 Painted “flat white” 85 Painted “lead grey” 104 Painted black 109 The comparisons were carried out in simmer over periods ranging from 9 to 90 days. Young (24) in the U.S.A. has reported similar results from not-dissimi- lar tanks painted several colours. The author has experimented with evaporimeters of the Anstralian Standard pattern to obain these results: Taste II Construction and Finish Relstive Evaporation Rate Plain galvanized iron sheet (16 g.) 100 Black-painted steel plate (7 in.) 103-104 Such results are likely to vaty with season and expostite, but the above should hold for the neighbourhood of Adelaide in summer, lt is felt that the radiation absorptive power of the projecting metal rims of the Australian Standard evaporimeter may influence its readings, Refer- ence will be made to this further on. An important factor not so far dealt with is the working level of the water surface. The distance that this is below the tim has an appreciable effect pon evaporation rate, The author experimented at Dry Creek, South Australia, during the 1948-9 and 1949-50 summers with two identical Aus- tralian Standard evaporimeters (of plain galvanized iron), employing dif- ferent working levels in the one relative to the other. (The roles of reference and subject tank wete reversed regularly to eliminate any effects of unequal exposure or construction). The following results were obtained :— TasLe III Mean working level below rim Evaporation rate of subject, Reference Subject taking reference = LOD, 1.5 in. 2.5 tn. % 1.5 in. 3.5 in, &5 Another interesting fact is that the use on the Dry Creek evaporimeter of a bird screen made of l-inch mesh wire netting caused a reduction in evaporation of approximately 64%. These restilts are quite empirical, but they can probably be related to the respective coefficients for diffusion of water vapour to the air. Impurities on the water surface may affect evaporimeter performance. Dust, and other forcign matter often oily in nature, ysually accumulates in quite a short time. Heymann and his associates (10), (11) have shown that, while theoretically (and also in practice in the laboratory) the presence of a | thin oil film on the strface can cause a greatly increased resistance to evaporation, such a film is probably unstable under conditions lke thuse of outdoor exposure. The present author experimented by adding a drop or two per day of one of Heymann’s oil compositions to the surface of an evaporimeter, keeping an oil-free evaporimeter for reference. ‘The results were erratic and inconclusive, the relative windiness possibly having some influence. On some days a reduction in evaporation of up to 10% was found, Foley (9) lists some other factors affecting evaporation from evapori- meters, 202 Many sources of variation in results from evaporimeters have thus been made apparent. THE CALCULATION OF EVAPORATION Sitice evaporimeters are hard to standardize, it appears possible that cal- culated evaporation, based on readings of meteorological variables taken from several more-readily standardized instruments, could be used for the same purpose with better effect. If these variables are ones already measured in normal meteorological practice, it will be possible to calculate evaporation fer localities where such observations are or have been taken but where no evaporimeter exists. The calculation of evaporation from open water surfaces has been at- tempted by Cummings and Richardson (6) on the basis of energy balance, . Other approaches have followed the Imes of “sink strength’—the diffusion of water vapour considered as a driving force versus a resistance—a com- bination of sink strength and energy balance, and aerodynamical treat- ment. (These have been summarized by Penman (13) ). A yersion of the combined sink strength and energy balance method will be considered here, Four meteorological variables are used :-— (i) Net gain of radiant energy. (ii) Air temperature. (iii) Humidity. (iv) Wind speed tear the ground. Penman (13) gives the general form of such an equation, but the one used here is that developed theoretically in England in 1945 by Ferguson'?), hased partly on the chemical engineering concept of the imter-relation be- tween heat and mass transfer through a common gas film. The equation has not previously been published“, so its derivation will be described briefly. Nett gain of radiant energy is defined as the total short wave solar radia- tion, both direct and diffuse, penetrating the water surface (which may be regarded as being in an evaporimeter), less the nett loss of long wave radia- tion by the water, The first can be measured by solarimeter, and allowance made for reflection from the water surface. The second can be calculated with sufficient accuracy from air temperature, humidity and relative hours of bright sunshine. (As a first approximation it is assumed that the tempera- ture of the radiating water surtace is the same as that of the air). Air temperature is dry bulb temperature “near” the evaporating surface. Humidity is the partial pressure of water yapour in the air “near” the surface. Wind speed is the horizontal speed “near” the surface. It can be measured by anemometer, Now in the conditions considered there is a nett inward flow of radiant energy to the water and an outward flow of water vapour (taking away energy as latent heat of vaporization), while there may be a flow of sensible heat from water to air or vice versa. @) Dr. J. Ferguson, then Director of Research, I-C.I. Ltd., Alkali Division, Narth- wich, Cheshire. ©) It is now probable that Ferguson will publish this work during 1950. 203 The sink strength basis is the Dalton equation, which, in appropriate terms, is w =k (pw —Pa) () where w == wt. water evaporated per unit time from unit area of surface k = diffusion coefficient of water vapour to air Pw = vapour pressure of water at the evaporating surface Pa == partial pressure of water vapour in the air “neat” the surface Next, from the energy balance aspect, the latent heat used in evaporat- ing water of weight, w, is L k (pw — Pa) where L == latent heat of vaporization. Sensible heat exchange in unit time between unit atea of water surface and air is h (Oy — 4) where h = heat transfer coefficient Ow = water surface temperature 6. = air temperature It is further assumed that no rise or fall in water temperature is taking place — that @y is constant —, and that there is no flow of heat between the water and its surroundings (other than through the air-water interface). Hence the nett gain in radiant energy (Q) should equal the sum of these two heat flows, viz: Qe= Lk (pw — pa) +h (Ow — a) (2) This may be simplified by introducing the relationship between mass and heat transfer taking place through the same air film. Such a relationship is treated in the theory of the wet bulb thermometer: regardless of changes in the film resistance the coefficients k and h remain in a fixed relation to one another. Walker, Lewis and McAdams (23) give the relation for water as being h — | «- =_~—_—-.00 (3) Lk where temperatures are in deg. C., vapour pressures are in mm, of mercury, and the tinits of mass aud energy are gm. and cal. respectively. Using (3) to eliminate k in (2) converts the latter to Q = 2h (pw —Pa) + bh (Ow —fa) (4) where the variables may now be defined specifically as Q = cal./em*/hr. h = cal./em?/hr./deg. C. k = gm./em?/hr./mm. of Hg, Pw:Pa = mm. of Hg. Oy0a = deg. C. Since py, the vapour pressure of water, is a known function of Oy, the temperature, the equation can be solved for Oy. Re-arranging (4) gives Q Spe Ep ice Fibs tha (5) For water the values of (2 pw -+ 4w) for different values of 6y (or of py), can be obtained from vapour pressure vs. temperature tables. 204 Since pw is fixed for a given value of (2 py + 6y) we may write Pw = f (2 py 4- @w) (6a) Q =f (42 pa + 6) (6b) where f is a functional sign. Evaporation per unit area per unit time is given by w in (1). When w is in gm./em?/hr, it is numerically equal to E, where E is em,/hr. water evaporated. Hence E =k (py — pa) (7a) 2h = — (Pw — pa) (7b) L when relation (3) is brought in. Finally, combining (6b) and (7b) we obtain 2h Q Earle +2 tm | (8) L h From (8) evaporation may be calculated without 6y being known in ad- vance. It is, however, necessary to know h. Published data on heat transfer between moving air and flat planes are available, and k (which is, of course, interchangeable with h) can be measured over, for instance, an ¢yaporimeter. Penman (13) gives figures showing the relationship between k and horizontal wind specd, V, and Raman (16) has measured the h — V relationship for certain conditions, After deriving (8) Ferguson points out that it is based on steady state conditions, and that it cannot necessarily be used with average values of the variables when the latter do not remain constant. QO, #4 and h at least are continually changing with time, some in a periodic manner, However, after a study involving the solution of differential equations in the Manchester University differential analyser, Ferguson concludes that, provided the water is of reasonable depth—say 6 in. or more—and provided moderate periods of time are taken—say at least 2 or 3 days—equation (8) can be used with the average values of variables, Ferguson later introduces a minor modification to correct for the fact that the return long wave radiation from the water to the air is controlled by the tnknown temperature, @, and not, as assumed for simplicity, by the known temperature, @a. He shows mathematically that the correction can be introduced into the sensible heat change quantity in (4) by substituting for the coefficient of heat transfer, h, a fictitious one, h’, (4) now becomes Q = 20 (py — pa) — hl (ye — &) (2) where h’ is the value substituted for h, so making allowance in the calcu- lated sensible heat change for an error in the calculated return long-wave radiation. He then re-writes (5) as r Q r 2 pw + Ow (1 + —) = — + 2pa + @ (1 + —) h h h (10) 205 where h’ = h +r, {11} in which r = 4 & 3600 0 T (12) where in turn « = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, and Ta = ait temperature, deg. K. {The mathematical derivation and proof of (12) will not be given here)- In solving the modified evaporation equation, py is found graphically by plotting the straight line connecting py and @y in (10) and reading off its intersection with the known curve for water of py vs. O, The derived tw is used in (7b) to determine evaporation, It is to be noted that only that value of h related to sensible heat ex- change is altered to h’. The h used as the denominator for Q in (10), and that used in (7b) finally to calculate evaporation is not so altered, This correction somewhat complicates the simple method of equation (8) for calculating evaporation, and in many cases it is negligible, However, the correction involving r has been used in the caleuwlations given subse- quently in this paper. PRACTICAL TESTING OF THE THEORY The Ferguson equation has been checked experimentally by the author at Dry Creek, South Australia, where there is a meteorological station at- tached to the solar saltfields of ICI, Alkali (Australia) Ply, Ltd. The first check was carried out in 1947, and while a brief reference tu it has been made (3) details were not published. The details differed slightly from those now to he given, mainly concerning the derivation of h. The results were, however, very similar to those found in 1949, In the latter check solar radiation was measured by a Kipp & Zonen solarimetric thermopile with recorder, and hours of bright sunshine by a Camphell-Stokes recorder. These records, together with those of tempera- tare and humidity, enabled nett loss of long wave radiation to be calculated. (This involved a-modified form of the Baur & Phillips [ormula (5) together with a relationship like that given by Penman (13) connecting relative hours ef bright sunshine with radiation loss from skies of different cloudiness). A loss of short-wave radiation by reflection at the air-water interface of 4% was allowed. From the above the nett gain of radiant energy was found. Air temperature and humidity (expressed as partial pressure of water vapour) were measured at normal Stevenson screen height by an aspirated wet and dry bulb thermograph. Horizontal wind speed was measured at 3 ft. above the ground hy cup anemometer. From wind it was necessary to derive h, the heat transfer coefficient. The simplest and most appropriate way seemed to be via the measured diffusion coefficient, k, for the evaporimeter concerned. Three feet seems a suitable height for wind measiirement, although | or 1.25 m. would comply with international standards. It is sufficiently near to the ground (or evaporimeter) level to avoid large errors due to failute of the 1/7 power law of variation of wind with height when extrapolating down wind speeds measured at a meteorological station height like 10 m,, but yet not closer ta the ground than the characteristics of the anemometer justify. tt would seein that an anemometer should be set at a height of at least several cup diameters, The procedure adopted by Rohwer (17) of mounting an anemometer ina small pit with its cup bottoms close to ground level in order to measure “ground wind” is misleading, since the cups are rigid while the air layer at this level is undergoing considerable shear. 206 In measuring diffusion coefficients for evaporimeters, pa at screen height provided one of the two partial pressures whose difference constitutes the driving force of the process. The other pressure, py, was that at the water surface, and it was found from the surface mean temperature assumed to be the same as the mean temperatute measured at 3 in. below the surface, The assumption must have been approximately true, as a number of measure- ments at different depths using a thermometer with a fine bulb failed to show differences between the surface and the 3 in. level of more than 0.5°C, at the most. Diffusion coefficients were determined from py, pa and measured E, using (7a), Periods of single day’s and single month’s duration were con- sidered, using the figures from two evaporimeters. 0 05 9 15 Fig. I h vs. V for the Dry Creek evapornmeters. The plots of k vs. mean wind speed showed considerable scatter, even though results for rainy days were excluded since these were known to be erratic. Penman (13) reports a similar scatter. The best straight lines were drawn through the plotted points. The scatter of k yalues and the limited range of wind speeds covered were such that no curvature—such as would occur if k varied with V°7® (see Sutton (21) ) was delectable, The best lines for two eyaporimeters are shown in fig. 1. The two evaporimeters will now be described. The first was the “standard” eyaporimeter of this site, which, while having the dimensions— the only clearly defined details—of the Australian Standard, was made of 4 in. mild steel plate and painted black. The outer jacket stood a little over 2 in. above ground level, and was encircled by a shaped annulus of concrete a few inches wide. The surrounding earth was covered with coarse stone screenings. The inner tank stood 2 in. higher than the outer one, The second was a circular, black-painted mild steel tank 10 ft. in diameter by 3 ft. deep, buried in the ground with its rim projecting 4 in. above the surface. They are shown in plate | fig. 1. Measurements of evaporation from these two eyaporimeters and of the four basic variables were taken for the calendar months of January to June, eet and used to check the Ferguson equation. The Jaiter was used in the orm EB, = 2.30h (pw — pa) (13) where E, = cm./28 days. tw calculate evaporation, after having found py using (10). (Values of h appropriate to each evaporimeter were tead from fig. 1). 207 Taste IV Measurep AND CaLcuLaTEn EvaporaATION Fork Dry CREEK (a) Standard Evaporimeter h Deriy, Cale, Meas. Period cal./ 6 Py Vv cal, / p Deriy. yap. Evap Meas ero cm?/ a a n./ cm? / min. Oxy cm,/ cu./ Our hi oc sf Bec hr./ of 28 28 oc rr. Be oc He. days days Jan,, 1949 - 21,8 20,9 9.2 2.85 1.16 18.6 20.0 25.0 30.4 21,7 Feb, 5 . 15.8 19.0 9.4 3,95 1,19 16,2 18.7 18.6 21.75 20.4 Mar 4; : 14.5 17.9 B.f 2.45 1.04 15.5 18.0 16.5 21.15 20.0 Apt. oy : 84 15.4 7.5 2.25 0.98 12.5 14.6 11,3 14.4 16.5 May . - 4.3 12.9 8.1 1,75 0.83 11.0 12.4 5.5 7.1 13.7 June 4, - 3.5 5.0 6.7 17 O81 8.7 9.3 3.7 5.65 10.8 (b) 10-ft. Diameter Evaporimeter n ¥ 7 , Deriv. Deriv wale seat Mi, i a . . vap. 7 tas. Period pauls 83 am mt./ cat / Par Oy em / cai Boo: r oi sec, oc 2k. hr. cc OHg. te He days days ec Jau., 1949 - 21.8 20.9 92 2.85 0.93 20.0 22.1 23,1 22.8 21,5 Feb, 5, - 15.8 19.0 9.4 2.95 0.95 17.2 19.7 17.1 17.65 20.2 Mar, wv - 14.5 \7.9 8.6 2.45 0.84 16.4 18.9 15.1 17.25 20.2 Ayre te . 8.5 154 7.5 2.25 0.79 13.0 15,3 10.6 11,2 14.3 May - 4,3 12.9 $.1 175 0.68 11.2 13.0 4.9 5,85 13.4 June, - 35 3.0 6.7 1.7 0.67 3.9 9.5 3.4 4.1 10.3 The measured and calculated evaporation rates are given in Table 1V and plotted in fig. 2. While the two rates do not agree closely for the standard evaporimeter, they agree better for the 10 ft. tank, and in both cases the correlation between the curves over the six-month period is very good. That there is such good correlation over a wide range of meteorological con- ditions is distinctly encouraging. The calculated values are low by 20% and 65% for the standard and 10 ft. evaporimeter respectively, but it cannot be concluded that it is the cal- ctilated figures that are wrong. It could well be that the calculated figures are on a sounder basis than the measured ones. Now according to Fergtu- son's treatment, it is possible to calculate the mean water temperalure, 4y, as this is directly related to the vapour pressure, py, Values of #y correspond- ing to pw have been shown with the other January to June, 1949, figures in Table IV, as also have measured values of @y for 3 in, helow the surface. (Suspended maximum and minimum meteorological thermometers fitted with max. + min. radiation shields were used. = means were reduced to the basis of true means using a smali correction determined practically), Tf measured and calculated @y are not the same, it is fair to assume that either the equation is wtong or the data used in it are wrong. Of the latter, h and Q are those tiost likely to contain errors. In the case of the standard 208 evaporimeter, if a value of h is taken to make calculated E, the same as measured E,—this calls for an increase of h—then derived @y will be lower, increasing the discrepancy between derived and measured 6,. If h is taken to make measured and calculated 6, the same—this calls for a decrease in h—then the disparity between measured and calculated E, is increased. (An all round increase in the values of h by 0.6 cals./em?/hr./°C. will bring cal- 30 —e— AUST. STAND. TANK — MEAS. -O-- a « " - CALC. —h— {0 FT. DIA. TANK — WEAS. -v7-- * “ « ~ CALC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN. 1949. Fig, 2 Measured and calculated eyaporation rates for Dry Creel. culated E, for the standard tank up to the corresponding measured E,, with good correlation over the whole range. It is hard to believe, however, that h can be this much in error), It would seem that correction of h alone cannot bring about a simul- taneous agreement between the measured and calculated values of E, and @y respectively. Errors in Q can quite well account for the discrepancies in E,. There is a distinct likelihood of errors here, for interchange of heat between evapori- meter and soil is possibly quite significant, and the presence of the project- 209 ing tank rim may render the calculated absorption of radiation uncertain. The Dry Creek data for January-June, 1949, have been, used to back-calculate # and pa have been taken as correct, but fictitious values of h have been used so as to bring about the sitnultaneotis mutual equality of measured and calculated E, and measured and calculated 0,. This has involved first the use of equation (13) to calculate h, and then (10) to find Q from h and the other variables. Results for both evaporimeters are shown in Table V with certain former results :-— Tatty V Stancard 10-ft. diameter Period heal. /om/hr./OC, Q— cal. fem hr, bh cel. /eni?/hr./OC, Q - cal./em*/hr. Orig. Recale. Orig, Reoasle. Orig. Recale, Greig. Recale, Jan, 1949 - 1-16 1-28 21°8 277 0°93 0-98 21°8 20-6 Feb,, 1949 ~ 1-19 1-10 15-8 21-2 O-95 0-92 15-8 17-0 Mar., 1949 - 1-04 1:03 1445 21-5 0-34 0-82 1465 18-1 April, 1949 - 0-98 O95 85 14-1 0°79 0-76 8:5 16-9 May, 1949 - 0-83 08S 4-3 7+1 0-68 0°72 4-3 5-6 June, 1949 - 0-81 0+82 3-5 7-2 0-67 0-66 3°5 5-0 Re-calculated and original h are seen to be in tolerable agreement, as must be expected from the mode of derivation of original h, Hence the E, and Oy discrepancies may be explained by assuming Q alone {o be in error. No practical tests have been made? of possible sources of error in Q, but it is significant that evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is likely to be preater for the smaller evaporimeter which is the one showing the greater discrepancies between original and re-calculated Q. The effect of rim absorption must also be considered. These facts are relevant — Taste VI Standard 10-ft, diameter Evapormecer. Evaporimeter. Area m contact with soil/area of water surface ~- - 38/1 2-1/1 Area of vertical cross-section of rim/area of water surface 006/19 0-04/1 @ only outer rim considered. The difference between original and re-calculated Q is more or less steady in each case throughout the six months, being very approximately 5 cal./em?/hr, and 1.5 cal./em?/hr. for the standard and 10 ft. diameter evaporimeters respectively. No soil temperattires were taken, so there is na evidence with which to seek correlation with evaporimeter-soil heat exchange, but rim absorption of radiation might correlate with Q discrepancy, and this possibility will now be explored. UH it is assumed that the rim has the same absorption coefficient as the water, and that it is in full thermal commuinica- tion with the water and is hence at the same temperature, then the problem is to find the extra absorbing surface, over and above that of the horizontal water surface; presented to sun and sky by the rim. Taking clear days with the sun between the limiting altitudes of the absolute zenith and, say, 5°-10°, the semi-circumference of the rim nearer the sun will merely shade part of the water surface, and will not pick up extra radiation but only that which the water would have received in the absence of the rim. The semi-circum- ference further from the sun will, however, intercept radiation that the watet surface would not normally have absorbed. This part of the rim will behave _ _© Experiments with a thermally insulated evaporimeter are to be started at Dry Creek early in 1950. 210 approximately as a vertical plane normal to the sun’s compass direction, of length equal to the tank diameter and of height equal to the rim height, i.e. the vertical cross-section of the rim, The surface presented notmal to the sun's beam will be proportional to the cosine of the sun’s altitude. Caleula- tions based on cloudless days reveal the interesting fact that daily mean tim absorption is nearly constant from mid-summer to mid-winter at 30. - 27 cal./hr./cm® of vertical rim cross-section as against the absorption of 34 - 11 eal./hr./cem? of horizontal water surface. Application of these results to the Dry Creek evaporimeters is now possible. According to the above treatment the inner rim of the standard tank merely picks up radiation that would m its absence be absorbed by the water with the sun at all but low altitudes, sa that the projecting rim of the jacket—which should not project, however, according to the specification (1)—presents the only effective absorbing sur- face. The increase in Q caused by rim absorption for the range mid-summer to mid-winter is of the order of 1 cal./hr./mean cm* surface area for both standatd and 10 ft. diameter evaporimeters for cloudless skies. It will be less for cloudy skies. It is apparent that rim absorption of radiation cannot, on these theareti- cal grounds, explain all of the Q discrepancy for the standard tank, nar is it likely to for the 10 ft, diameter tank when the prevalence of cloudy skies in winter months is taken into consideration, Errors in the variables a and pa can conceivably be connected with the disparity in measured and calculated evaporation, but no discussion on such possibilities will be entered into, While no solution can be offered here for the problem of possible Q dis- crepancy, note should be taken of the related problem of whether the ap- parently steep change of evaporation rate with evaporimeter dimensions 1s real. The observations of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17), and also those at Dry Creek, show rough agreement with Sutton’s (21) predictions in this inatter. Sutton shows that there should be a decrease in evaporation with increase in extent of evaporating surface, but he bases his theory on change in what is virtually the diffusion coefficient, Now the sink strength—energy balance theory holds that any change in the diffusion coefficient brings about an adjustment in water temperature which largely, but not wholly, compen- cates for the coefficient change as far as. overall evaporation rate is concerned, so that the decrease in the latter is much less than one of direct proportion to the decrease in the diffusion coefficient, Hence there should not be sich a steep change of evaporation rate with evyaporimeter dimensions as available observations tend to show. It is now suggested that though there should be such a gradient, the observed one is not real, and that some factor at present unidentified is exaggerating it. EVAPORATION COMPARISONS OF THREE DIFFERENT SIES There ate several evaporimeter stations on the Adelaide plains, and those of the Adelaide Weather Bureau, the Waite Agricultural Research Institute and Dry Creek, having a maximum separation of about 10 miles, record widely differing evaporation rates. The 1948 totals were :— Taste VII Adelaide 64.3 in, (163-2 em.) Waite Institute 54.7 in, (138.9 cm.) Dry Creek 82.9 in. (210.7 cm.) 211 It was thought that the Ferguson equation might explain these differ- ences, SO comparisons were made between Adelaide and Dry Creek during November and December, 1948, and between the Waite Institute and Dry Creek during January and February, 1949. During these periods a solari- meter and an anemometer (at 3 ft. height) were set up alongside the appro- priate evaporimeter, which, at Adelaide was an Australian Standard one of galvanized iron set in a small area of lawn, and at the Waite Institute was DRY GREEK ADELAIDE WAITE INSTITUTE —S— MEASURED [stanoAaol te MEASURED —M@- MEASURED —o— CALCULATED =z CALCULATED —f CALCULATED 7 0-2 : STRADDLING bre 13 20 27 4 fi 18 oh { B NOVEMBER, 1948 DECEMBER1948 JANUARY, 1945 FEBRUARY, (949 Fig. 3 Measured and calculated evaporation rates for Dry Creek, Adelaide and the Waite Institute. an Australian Standard one of sheet copper also set in a lawn (see pl. I. fig 2 and pl. II.). Temperature and humidity measurements were available, being normally taken at these places. Simultancous observations were made at Dry Creek using the standard evaporimeter. The observations were reduced and used to calculate evaporation by the Ferguson equation for comparison with that actually measured. h for all stations was read from fig. 1. Air tempera- tures were available as truc daily means for Adelaide and Dry Creek, while max. -- min. those for the Waite Institute, available as-————_________—- means, were 2 corrected empirically to the same basis by a factor given by Foley (8) as applying to Adelaide. Table VIII shows the summarized obseryations and calculated results. Means for overlapping periods of 7 days’ duration have heen used to give both the necessary length of time and -at the same time a sufficient number of results for comparing. Evaporation was calculated from E, = 0.082 h (py — pa) (14) where H, = cm./day. Measured and calculated values of E,, are plotted in fig. 3. (a) Dry Creek and Adelaide 212 Taste VIII—Merasurep anp Catcu.atep Evaporation rok THRree Locacirties DRY CREEK ADELAIDE Pp. Vv a Calc, Meas.|| Q p Vv h Calc. Meas. Staddted o; 6 smi m./ cal.’ Evap. Evap.|) cal,/ @. mm, m/ cal/ Evap. Evap- by period «= em of, of Hg- sec. cm!/ ©%/ om,/ || cm*/ oe, of He. sec, cmi/ cm tml hr. hr./ day day hr, hr./ day day oc, 9G, 13/11/48. ~ 19.8 19.6 8.0 3.95 1.37 0.90 0.955)) 17.9 19,0 77 1,9 0.87 0.69 0,66 14/11/48 - 18:9 18.7 ud 4.8 1.44 0.84 0.95 17.9 19.1 79 3.0 0.40 0.69 0.66 15/11/48 19.2 18.7 8.3 3.55 1.37 0.382 0.9395}! 18.5 18.9 7.9 1.95 0,88 0.49 0.655 io/il/43 - 19,4 19,1 8.5 3.35 1.51 6.83 0.915|) 18,5 18,9 g2 1.75 OBS 0,49 0,63 W/LL/48 20.0 18.4 a7 3.2 1.26 G79 0,88 19.4 18,3 a7 17 0,82 0.66 0,635 IW/LL/48 + 19.6 13.3 8.7 3.1 1,24 0.76 0,875|| 19.0 18,1 8,8 17 0.82 0.64 665 19/11/as ~ 19.5 17.6 8.6 29 1.18 0.73 0.89 19.2 17.3 B.5 1,55 0,07 0,62 O.63$ 20/14/48 « 20.9 13.1 8.6 2,65 1,09 0.76 0,84 19,8 17.5 8.5 14 O71 0.62 0.63 21/11/48 - 21.5 19,3 "BB 2.45 1,03 0.80 0.90 20.2 IB.7 B.4 1.25 0,67 0,65 0.65 ga/lisae - Zz? 19.5 6.9 3.75 113 0.83 0.965} 19.4 16.8 8.5 1.3 0.69 0.65 0,68 BU/W1/4B 22.1 19,2 8,7 28 a.d4 0.84 0.975}| 20.0 18,5 Rs 1,8 0,69 0.65 0.685 24/11/48 - 22.1 19.2 87 29 14% 0.85 1.00 20.0 18.4 7.9 L5 0,70 0,06 0.71 25/11/48 — 22.1 18.7 8.7 3 1,44 0.84 1.015]] 19.0 17.8 7.9 14 O71 0.63 0.695 26/11/48 ~ 23.3 16.2 8.8 BO 3,21 0.k2 O.975}) 19.2 17.6 7.9 1.4 0.71 0,62 0.675 27/48 22.1 18,3 9.1 5.0 1.21 0.81 0.95 |) 179 175 a! 14s 0.73 0,59 0.665 28/11/48 - Bug 18,8 9.2 3.2 1.26 0.83 U,98 |} 17.9 18,1 Riz 1.5 0.75 0.6! 0.675 2O/11/4B - 31.5 18.6 91 %1 1,24 0.81 0.95 17.3 18,5 4.4 1.5 0,75 0,60 0,665 BO/11/47— 21.2 18.5 9.1 3.0 1,21 0,79 0,945}| 17.3 18.3 45 1.55 O77 0,60 0.67 1/12/48 - 2.5 19.0 8.9 3.15 14.25 0.84 O98 }] 17.9 18.8 2.5 1,55 0.77 0.63 0.68 2/12/48 - 22,1 19.0 8.7 3.2 1.26 0.87 1.07 }} 19,0 19,1 8.6 7,45 0,80 0.67 0.71 3/12/48 - 21,6 19.2 8.6 3,85 1,31 0.88 1.03 |} 18.7 191 Bo 7? 0,82 67 0.725 4/12/48 - ‘21.6 13.4 8.1 3.3 1,29 DBS 1.02 |} 20.0 18.5 8.4 165 0.80 0.09 0,72 5/12/48 - 22.5 17.7 7.5 31 1,24 0,86 4.00 }) 20.0 Ws as u7 0.83 0.07 0,74 6/12/48 + 22.7 19.0 7,7 a3 1,29 0.93 1.07 20.6 18.9 4.0 1.75 O83 0.73 OTR 7/12/48 «22.70 19.7 1320.94) = 4,09 [1 20.9 «= 19. B73 BSE LFS af12/48 - 227 185 77 31S 125 090 1.04 || 202 i186 80 7 0.82 072 0.775 b) Dry Creek and Waite Institute DRY CREEK WAITE INSTITUTE Q : Vv ig Calc. Meas. Vv h Calc. Meas. Steaddied cal./ 6, mm. ™f gal) Evan, Evap, en) a ny, m/ cal.é Evyap. = Evap. by period = cm?/ ot, of He: sen. ocm/ ocm./ ocm./ jiom®/ OC. Sof Hg. sec. 9=ocm®/ cme/ em. / br, hr. day day hr. hr,/ day day eC. oc, n/rjas - 20.5 Z1,1 8.8 2.6 1,08 0.87 §.975)) 18.1 20.4 10.0 1,6 0.79 0.65 0.625 13/1/49 - i340 210 Yl 2.95 1.19 0.85 0.955|| 16.9 24.0 10.3 1.5 0,76 0.63 0.985 13/1/49 - 179 207 81 3.0 1.20 0.80 oO.92 |lis6 202 167 15 0.76 O55 0.565 w4/1/4s - 306-2000 BY. 122 0.79 0895/4156 19.0 104 455 0.77 O53 0.555 I5/1fao - 18,3 18.8 8.9 3.05 1.22 0.74 0.875]| 15.4 17.7 10.0 1.55 0,77 0.50 0.54 16/1/49 = 392 184 89 285 1.16 073 O.865|/ 163 178 99 4.55 0.77 O52 0.935 47/1/49 « 21,0 19.6 8.6 315 1,25 0.86 0.995]! 79,9) 13.9 3.1 1,7 O.R2 0.66 0,66 18/1/49 - 202 19.1 B11 3.05 122 O08 «60,9751 19.0 3S Sb OZ O82 0.66 0.66: 19/1/49. 20,9 iggy 7.7 2.6 1.08 0.81 0.985]! 2050 3B 06 O83) 076 ©0659 ~—-0.67 20/1/49 22.1 19.7 7.8 2.6 1,08 0.88 1.03 || 21,7 8 7.9 1.5: 0.76 0,76 0.72 21/1/49 « 319 20.7 81 2.7 111 0.91 1.07 21,5 21.0 8.0 1,65 0,80 0.81 0.755 22/1/4@ - 21,7 24 B82 2.75 wis 6093) 05|] 218 «BLS «8285 ORS OBE 0795 as/i/ag « 21,7 22.3 8.8 2.85 1.34 0.97 1.12 217 21.6 8.2 1.9 0.87 0.86 0.785 24/4/49 « 21.2 25.1 9.2 2.7 TL 0.96 1.69 || 21,3 22.7 91 1.75 0.83 0,84 0.755 25/1/49 « 21,4 25.3 99 2.7 11 1.04 1.155]| 21,9 24,9 a4 1.75 Al 1.92 0.87 26/1/49 - 21.9 26.8 10,8 2.75 ys 1.08 1,22 21,9 24,3 5,9 1.85 0.85 0.97 G.8+5 a7A1/49 - 21,0 26.7 143 2.95 1.19 1.06 1.215|| 21,5 26.3 10.9 1.85 0.85 0.93 0.835 28/1/49 - 0 0625.8 «611,20 2D 4170 4,02) 1,205]/ 21,3 25.6 td 17 O82 0.89 0.81 29/1/49 « 20,0 25.4 11,3 2.85. 1.16 0.97 1,145]| 20.5 35.0 11.3 15 0.76 0.82 0.755 36/1/49 - 20.2 24.0 11.0 2.75 1.13 0.91 1,115]| 20.2 33.8 1) 1.45 0.74 O76 O75 31/1/49 - 20.0 22.2 10.6 3.7 Lil 0.84 1.05 20.0 21.9 I10 1.45 G74 0.70 0.69 1/2/49 - 202 207 103 2.6 LOR 0.79 0.985/1 19,6 9202 Ta 45 0.76 0.65 0.63 a/2/49 « 18.5 19.3 9,9 2.6 1.08 0.73 0.88 17.5 3.7 0 (tha 1.5 0.76 0.54 0.56 VW3/49 - 13,5 19.9 9.7 3.45 1.04 0,73 0.845|| 16.5 132 «104 1,5 0.76 0.52 0.525 4/2/49 + 14,3 20.5 10.0 24 4.02 0,73 0.825|| 16.1 8.6 610.6 1A O72 0.52 0.48 u/3/49 - IF = 20.2 10300 4 1.02 0.69 0,815! 15.8 182 11445 OMS AS 213 Both the Dry Creek sets of values are higher than those for Adelaide and the Waite Institute. Measured exceeds calculated evaporation consider- ably at Dry Creek and only slightly in the mean at Adelaide, while calcu- lated exceeds measured evaporation in the mean at the Waite Institute. Cor- yelation between fluctuations in the pairs of curyes is generally good, There is little difference between the respective values of Q, @. and pa for the pairs of stations, but there is disparity in V, the mean wind speed. V for Dry Creek is higher than for Adelaide and the Waite Institute, while it is roughly the same for the latter pair of stations, While it is conceivable that the Dry Creek h ys. V relationship might not be correct whet extra- polated to the lower wind speeds of Adelaide and the Waite Institute—and the closer approximation to one another of the respective measured and cal- culated evaporation values might be so explained—this argument cannot explain why on the one hand measured exceeds calculated evaporation at Adelaide and on the other calculated exceeds measured evaporation at the Waite Institute, This effect may be related to evaporimeter construction. On the basis of material and surface finish, the Dry Creek evaporimeter could be expected to give an evaporation some 3-4% higher than that at Adelaide. The copper Waite Institute evaporimeter could be expected—on the basis of some data given by Young (24)—to give an evaporation compatable with that at Dry Creek. This argument would make the apparent discrepancy between Adelaide and the Waite Institute even greater. The effect may be related to operating conditions: the working levels in the evaporimeters are here set out: TABLE IX Distance below tank rin Evaporimeter Wormal Range Mean Level Dry Creek (Standard) = - 1-4-2-4i5n, Zin, Adelaide - - - - ~ 1O-2-5in. 1-73 in Waite Institute - - - - 25+4-5in. $-$in The data of Table III. show there to be a potential source of large error in these level differences. Subsequently, in December, 1949; a check was made upon the actual h vs. V relationship for the Waite Institute and also for a pair of Australian Standard evaporimcters for Dry Creck using different working levels as in Table II]. At the Waite Institute h for V of 1-2 m./sec. was about 25% lower than fig. 1 would show, and simultaneously at Dry Creek h for V of 2-4 m./sec. for the evaporimeter with working leyel 3.5 in. below the rim showed a similar depressian. No comparative evidence on possible evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is available except that the effect of insolation on the stone-covered ground at Dry Creek would have been greater than that on the lawn-covered surfaces at Adelaide and the Waite Institute. The conclusion to be drawn from the data for these three stations is that the calculated evaporation rates are quite possibly more reliable that those meastuted in the evaporimeters, and that a comparison on the former basis should give the truer picture. MEANS OF VARIABLES FOR USE IN THE EQUATION Priestley (14) points out that the mean temperature to be used in, cal- culating evaporation should not be the simple mean of tetuperature taken at regular intervals, but one which should be weighted according to the cycle 214 of values assumed by the diffusion coefficient, k. Such an argument has more force for localities with a pronounced diurnal wind cycie, like Dry Creek, Some data from 7 days’ continuous observations made at Dry Creek in fine weather in January, 1947, will be used to illustrate this, Fig. 4 shows averages of the 7 days’ readings for each hour of day for dry bulb air tem- perature (@,), wind speed at 3 it. (V), and water temperature (6,,) measured at 3 in, below the surface of the standard evaporimeter. 28 24 22 20 08-00 12-00 16°00 20:00 2400 0400 08-00 Fig. 4 Means of variables at Dry Creek for 7-day period in January, 1947 The simple means of 63 and #y for the whole period were first worked out. Irom the simple mean of #, 22.9°C., and that of #,, 22,7°C., it was possible to calculate the sensible heat gained by the water from the air, sing h, 1.15 cal./em?/hr./°C. It worked out at 5 cal./em2/day. Inspection of fig. 4 will show, however, that there is apparently a relatively large G3, — Oy difference at times of day when V (and hence h) is itself large. The use of weighted means of 4, and @y might therefore be expected to yield a truer value for sensible heat exchange. Means were then worked out for #, and @, weighted according to the magnitude of the heat transfer co- efficient (h) which had been derived from V, when they became 24,1°C, and 29.5°C. respectively. The temperature difference, 0; — @y, which was 0.2°C. for the simple means, now became 0.6°C., and corresponded to a calculated sensible heat gain by the water of 17 cal./om*/day, The difference between the two calculated heat exchange quantitics of 12 cal./em?/day amounts to 215 only approximately 2% of the corresponding value of calculated QO. The substitution of weighted mean @, for the simple mean in equation (14) to caleulate the respective evaporation rates for the 7 days in January, 1947, will not necessarily show the same per cent. ditterence in E, for calculated Q and the probable real O (which determines the real Oy used in the preced- ing discussion) are stispected to differ considérahly for the standard tank, In fact, using for the yatiables Q = 21.9 cal./em?/hr, (for #, = 22,9°C.) and 21.8 cal./em2/hr. (for #2 = 24,1°C.), pa = 84 mm. of He, h = 1.15 cal,/em?/hr./°C., and @4 = 24.1°C. for the one case and 22.9°C, for the other, and calculating E, (em./day) for the two cases gives respectively 1,05 cm./day and 1,01 cm./day for weighted and unweighted mean #3. This is a difference of 4%. The size of the difference in E shown by the two tmiethods of approach is enough to justify using for Incalities like Dry Creek a mean 44 weighted according to h or V. Aw interesting point here is that the more-teadily available form of mean air temperature in most Icealilies is that of max. -+ min. rather than the integrated mean. The sormer is biased 2 slightly towards the maximum temperature—by 09°C. for Adelaide for January as shown by Foley (8)—so that, as a result of this convenient coin- max, -+ mit. 2 may enable a truer evaporation rate to be culculated, while simplifying the ‘lerivation of mean 43. cidence, the use of mean @, in the Ferguson equation PHASE LAG It will be noted that from Table VIII. and fig. 3 that during the Dry Creek-Waite Institute evaporation comparison, evaporation and the related variables rose and then [ell in some sort of natural cycle: There seems to be a phase lage between measured and calculated F for both stations, and this is more apparent when one of each pair of curves is moved close to the other by scaling each individual value of E using a suitable fixed factor. This has been done for the Dry Creek curves in fig. 5 where changes in measured E are seen to lag behind those in calculated Z. The effect can, however, he largely explained by changes in sensible heat sturage in the practical case, for these are neglected in calculating E, All values of © for Dry Creek have now been corrected for heat storage changes determined from changes in measured #,, and E valies re-calculated on this basis have been scaled as before and plotted in fig. 5. This shows the effect of the Jag to have been much reduced (although there is an anomaly in the parts of the curves covering the first few days). The effect of neglecting heat storage changes over 7-day periods is noliceable, though small, but if it is desired further to minimize this effect, then periods of longer than 7 days should be taken when appreciable changes in 6y, level are taking place. DISCUSSION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN h AND k Some doubt hag been cast recently on the validity of the fixed relation- ship between mass and heat transfer in the lower almosphere against a com- mon resistance, which is the basis of the Ferguson and similar equations. ¥ 216 Priestley and Swinbank (15) have discussed this matter at length, while Pasquill (12) has demonstrated practically that the relationship between k and h in the turbulent boundary layer undergoes a change with atmospheric stability. Here h is shown to increase relatively to k as the atmosphere be- comes more unstable, or, more precisely, as the Richardson number becomes negative and numerically larger. —— MEASURED —--— CALCULATED x SCALED. HEAT STORAGE NEGLECTED. Fig. 5 Phase lag effect with Dry Creek evaporation rates in January and February, 1949 h Consider the effect of this in equations (3) and (8). In (3) will no longer be fixed at 0,50, but may obey the relationship h = 0.50x (15) Lk where x varies with Richardson numbet. A modified equation, (8) of this form would now hold :— Zh Q 2 (16) E= | + — pa +) pel x h x 217 The variable relation between h and k in the turbulent boundary layer need not necessarily render E calculated fram equation (&) very erroncous. The resistance against which the driving force (pw — pa) acts is not only that of the turbulent boundary layer, where matter and heat are propagated hy eddy diffusion, but also that of the laminar sub layer in contact with the water surface, where molecular diffusion prevails. [It is a well known prin- ciple that if in a series of resistances one is considerably greater than the other or others then this resistance “controls” the rate of the process. If it is the laminar layer that controls in the evaporation process considered, then the effect on evaporation of changes in h relative to k in the turbulent layer may be negligible. It is a distinct possibilitiy—for small evaporating surfaces at least—that the resistance of the laminar layer forms a substantial proportion of the total resistance. It can, be observed that the value of pa in the air an inch or so above the surface of water in an evaporimeter is little different from that measured in the free air at screen height, showing that by far the greater patt of the total pressure difference, and hence resistance, is confined to this shal- low layer, While this observation as it stands does not prove that most of the resistance is in the laminar layer, it at least shows that what eddy diffu- sion resistance there is over small evaporating surfaces is limited to a very challow layer of the atmosphere. Sherwood and Woertz (19) studying the diffusion of water vapour across a turbulent air stream between the two parallel walls of a duct 5.3 em. apart found 43-72% of the overall resistance to be in the two laminar layers at the surfaces of the side walls when Reynolds’ number ranged from 6,000-70,000, Diffusion of water vapour through an air layer is controlled by the driv- ing force or water vapour partial pressure difference across the layer and the resistance to diffusion in the layer. I{ different parts of the thickness of the layer are considered the fraction of the pressure difference across each part of the layer will in all cases he propurtional to its resistance. Above an evaporating surface the lower of the partial pressures, pa, will deerease with increase in height, the pa decrease being proportional to the re- sistance of that part of the air layer over which the decrease has occurred, The decrease of px with height is known as the “Hydrolapse.” When a certain height, z, over the evaporating surface is reached the hydrolapse will become negligible—a state to be arbitrarily assessed aceord- ing to the particular conditions concerned. Only while diffusion is actively taking place across the whole of the layer thickness considered will pressure difference be proportional to the resistance of the air layer, and since at heights preater than x the air layer still has a theoretical resistance to diffu sion, total pressure differcnee and total theoretical resistance aver the total wit layer reaching the heights greater than z will cease to bear the previous steady relationship, It is apparent, then, that the resistance to diffusion of the atmosphere over an evaporating surface is confined to that layer of air whose upper boundary is the level z where the hydtolapse first becomes negli- gible, z will be small for a small evaporating surface, and will increase as the strface is extended. « will always he above the boundary of the laminar layer and somewhere in the turbulent layer where resistance to diffusion has been shown to vary with the logarithm of the height above the effective sur- face. Therefore as z increases. so will that part of the total resistance con- fined ta the turbulent layer increase. The resistance nf (he laminar layer will, however, remain constant, so that qualitatively it may be concluded that as the evaporating surface is extended so will the total resistance iucrease, and 218 so will the resistance of the turbulent layer increase relative to that of the laminar layer. It seems that the lantinar layer resistance is much more likely to control the evaporation rate from smal! evaporating surfaces than [rain jarge ones. The practical work of Sheppard and Pasquill cited by Sutton (22) as showing the lack of correlation between evaporation from a small surface and the conditions in the turbulent boundary layer—notably the temperature gradient itt the latter—lends support to the belief that the resistance of the laminar layer controls evaporation from small surfaces like those of evapori- meters. Priestley‘*) points out that h/k probably becomes more constant as the gtound sutiace is approached—provided that this 1s not too rough—since eddies will become steadily smaller and will have less chance to realize the “buoyancy” effect that he has deseribed (15). ‘This argument does not in- voke the laminar layer. From the foregoing discussion it seems that the Ferguson equation in the form of (8) is more likely to be true for smal! evaporating surfaces. It is possible that ideal evaporimeters belaw a certain size will give results complying with the equation, while above it there will be an increasing dis- crepancy. The hypothetical and indeterminate limiting size will itself vary with the particular evaporation conditions, since z will vary somrewhut with the latter. It is probable in the case of both the Australian Standard evaporimeter and one 10 it. in diameter that z will be below the level at which normal meteorological measurements of pa are made. z must be the greater for the 10 ft. diameter evaporimeter, meaning that the total diffusion resistance for this evaporimeter must also be greater. The practically-cetermined diffusion coefficients for the two Dry Creek evaporimeters dealt with are different, but from the evidence at present ayailable it cannot be determined whether the difference is due to differences in the level of z. to ditferences tn exposure (re- sulting from height of rim upstand, diameter, etc.j, or to a combination of the two. CONCLUSION If the Ferguson equation can. be shown to give accurate results in pre- dicting evaporation on the evaporimeter scale over a wide range of meteoro- logical conditions, figures so determined would supersede those now obtained from evaporimeters, [t is rather desirable ta eliminate the effects of variations in exposure to which evaportmeters are now subject. Evaporation values for thé whole country could be calculated on the basis of a fixed average wind speed, or at least on wind specds extrapolated down from those measured at a level well clear of the ground, such as at the 10 m. level, so avoiding the micro-climatelogical differences in wind near the pround that now so aifeci the characteristics of individual evaporimeter sites. An evaporation map based on the Ferguson Equation and covering the whale of Australia, say, would possibly be more representative than one based vn the readings of tank evaporimeters, Thanks ate due to Prof. J. A. Prescott and Mr. C. H. B, Priestley for reading the manuscript and for helpiul suggestions, to the Adelaide Weather Rureau and the Waite Agricultural Research Institute for co-operation in abtaining some of the data used, to Prof. Sir Kerr Grant for help in dealing with a radiation problem, to Dr. ). Ferguson for permission to quote his equation, and finally ta 1.C.l Alkali (Australia} Pty. Ltd. ior permission tu publish this paper. ) Personal communication. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plaie XXIIT Fig. 1 The evaporimeters at Dry Creek. Vig, 2 The evyaporimeter site at Adelaide during November aud December, 1948, I x Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 1950 Vol, 73, (2), Plate XXIV The evaporimeter site at the Waite Institute during January and February, 1949, 219 Novtation evaporation, cm./hr. ditto, em./28 days. ditto, cm./day, heat transfer coefficient, specifically cal./em?/hr./°C. modified heat transfer coefficient in equation (11), cal./em?/hr.°C. diffusion coefficient fur water vapour, specifically gm, fem? /hr,/mm. of Hg, latent heat of eaporeation for water, specifically cal./gm,. partial pressure of water vapour in air, specifically mm. of Hg. vapour pressure of water, specifically mm. of Hg. nett tadiant energy penetrating water surface. specifically cal./. em?2/ht. variable defined by equation (12), meat air temperature, °K. mean horizontal air speed at 3 ft, height, specifically m/sec. weight of water evaporated, specilically gm./em?/hr. variable relating h/k relationship to Richardson number. height where hydrolapse first becomes negligible, mean air temperature, specifically °C. mean water temperature, specifically °C, Stefan-Boltzmann constant, REFERENCES Australian Meteorological Obseryer’s Handbook 1925, 96 Brruam, E.G. 1931 British Rainfall, M.O, 345 (1V), 268 Bonytuon, C, W. 1948 Aust. Jour, Instr. Tech., 4, (5), 209 Brooks, F. A. 1936 Univ. of Calif, Agric. Exp. Stn., Bull. 602 Brunt, D. 1944 Physical and Dynamical Meteorology, 2nd Edn., Cam- bridge Univ, Press, 137 Cummines, N. W. and Ricarpson, B. 1927 Phys. Rev., 30, 527 Fienp, R. and Symons, G. J. 1869 Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 39th Meet- ing, 25 Fotey, J. C. 1945 C'wealth of Aust, Bur. of Met., Bull. No, 35 Fotry, J. C. 1947 Proc, Aust. N.Z. Adv, Sei. (Perth) Giuny, A. R.,.and Heymann, FE, 1948 Aust. J. Sci. Res., 1, (2), 197 Heymann, E., and Yorre, A. 1945 J. Phys. Chem., 49, 239 Pasouin, F. 1949 Proc. Roy Soc., A., 198, (1052), 116 Penman, H. L. 1948 Proc. Roy. Soc., A., 193, 120 Priestiey, C. H. B. 1949 Specialist Conference in Agriculture—Aus- tralia Pee ©. i. B. and Swrypann, W. C. 1947 Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 189, Raman, P. K. 1936 Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 3, (2), 98 Rouwer, C. 1931 U.S, Dept. of Agric., Tech. Bull. No. 271 Suepparp, P. A, 1947 Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 73, 277 ( Discussion) Srerwoop, V. K. and Woertz, B. B. 1939 Trans. Am. Inst. Chem, Eng., 35, 517 Suergut, R. B, 1917 J, Agric, Res., 10, 209 Sutton, O. G. 1934 Proc, Roy. Soc., A., 146, 701 Sutton, O, G. 1947 Q. J. Roy. Met, Soc., 73, 257 Waker, Lewis and McApams 1927 Principles of Chemical Engineer- ing, 2nd Edn., New York and London, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 443 Wu | a Al Wo We Younc, A. A. 1947 Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 28, (2), 279 STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH GLENELG BY H. M. COOPER Summary This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the surface of an estuarine mangrove mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour, following a heavy south-westerly gale experienced during April, 1948. It is suggested that the implements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site. Established by natives upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later overwhelmed the former living mangrove swamp. 220 STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH GLENELG By H. M. Cooper * [Read 11 May 1950) SUMMARY This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the sur- face of an estuarine mangrove mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour, following a heavy south- westerly gale experienced during April, 1948, It is suggested that the ir- plements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site estab- lished by natives upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later overwhelmed the former living mangrove swamp. CAMP SITE AND MATERIAL Stone implements, and certain other relics of aboriginal occupation, were found on the re-exposed mangrove muid-flat described by Cotton (1949), The implements exhibit somewhat crude workmanship, but they are nevertheless of interest because of their existence, for a considerable period of time, upon a site which is now situated below the level af high water mark on an open coast exposed to gales. The implements are identical with types obtained on camp sites which existed on the Adelaide Plains and the coast southwards ta Cape Jervis, formerly occupied by the now extinct Kaurna tribe and associated groups. No specimens of smaller and more finely executed impleiments were found, but their absence may be due either to the action of the sea which swept theni away after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour and subsequent exposure of the Swamp, or because the camp was of a temporary nature and thus merely utilised by the aborigines as 4 cofivenient spot when searching for fish or shellfish and other food. An examination of similar material which occtirs plentilully on temporary sites amongst the recent coastal sand dunes tends to confirin the latter view, Since the surface of a mud swamp, even if uncovered at law tide, is totally unsuited for such a purpose, a camping place, eyen a temporary one, would not have been established thereon until the encroaching sand had he- Run to accumulate, thus providing over it a dry surface suitable for the needs of the native inhabitants. With subsequent erosion the implements would he deposited upon the surface of the mud stratum beneath, or if the accumu- lating layer of sand were still thin during the aceupation of the site, they may have worked down and thus become embedded in the swamp. The presence of a fragment of somewhat heayy wood—portion of a small limb or branch—partly burnt, and embedded in the mud surface, together with several small heaps of embers, apparently derived from the same type of timber, possibly Eucalyptus sp., suggests the existence of a former camp fire. Nearby was discovered a piece of sheoak tree (Casuarine stricta}, in an excelient state of preservation, clearly exhibiting the distinctive grain of that timber, together with its characteristic ribbed outer bark. * Assislant in Ethnology, South Australian Musenm. Trans. Roy, Soe. §. Aust., 73, (2), Dee. 1950 221 A successful attempt was made to burn the stump of a mangrove tree (Avicennia officinalis), extracted in situ from the swamp, aiter it had been thoroughly washed and then exposed to atmospheric action for several months. With the addition of a small quantity of spirits to commence com- bustion, the wood was completely consumed, leaving the typical white ash derived from this timber. Description of implements shown in the accompanying drawings :— Figs. 1-4: Fabricator or hammerstone, showing end flakes broken off during usage, Fabricators were utilised in shaping and trimming large implements similar to those shown in Figs. 9-11. Figs. 5-8: Small trimmed adze-stone of conventional type. These implements were mounted at the extremity of a wooden handle by means of gum. 222 Figs.9-11: Large chopping implement (held in the hand during use) ; trimmed from a water-worn pebble. The rock in these three specimens is a fine-grained bluish quartzite. Other material recovered :—Two pebble chopping implements, somewhat similar to Figs. 9-11; Large core derived from an angular block; Three large flakes struck from pebbles; One piece of yellow ochre; Two pebble cores. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is extended to Mr. R. W. Searles, master boat-builder, of Birkenhead, for his assistance in determining the character of the various species of trees to which reference is made, and to Miss M. Boyce, South Australian Museum artist, for the excellent drawings accompanying this paper. REFERENCE Corton, B. C. 1949 An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at Glenelg, South Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1) BALSATIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS A.N.A.R.E. REPORT BY D. MAWSON Summary Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in 1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949, are all of a basic volcanic nature. It now seems certain that the entire group is a balsatic volcanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic to Recent age. The rock types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in composition from olivine-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute development of nepheline is suspected. 223 BASALTIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS A.N,A.R.E, REPORT By D. Mawson * [Read 1! May 1950] SUMMARY Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands hy the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in 1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949, are all of a basic yolcanic nature, It now seems certain that the entire group is a basaltic voleanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic tu Recent age, The tock types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in coniposition from olivinc-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute development of nepheline is suspected. THE RALLENY ISLANDS — HISTORICAL In 1838 the Enderbys in association with other Londow merchants fitted out the schooner Eliza Scott, 154 tons, with John Balleny in charge, and the cutter Sabrina, 54 tons, under H, Freeman, for the purpose of sealing and exploration in the southern seas. Early in 1839, after sealing operations on the coast of southern New Zealand and Campbell Island, they proceeded south on a voyage of discovery. When in latitude 69° further progress south was prevented by drift ice. They then proceeded westward, working along the margin of the heavier pack-ice. On February 9th (1839) a group of five islands were sighted which Balleny distinguished, each by the name of one of the partners of the firm of Enderby Brothers. Steam and smoke were reported as rising from one of the islands, and they were all regarded as of a volcanic nature. Efforts made to reach the land were impeded by drift ice. Eventually a passage was worked in te one of the islands and both cap- tains proceeded to attempt to land in the Subrtna’s boat. On reaching what Balleny deseribed as the only accessible place along the ice-ridden, cliff- bound coast, Captain Freeman jumped from the boat on to a heach of a few yards wide, uncovered only momentarily as the ocean waves withdrew; in that time, however, he secured a few beach pebbles as evidence of land, They did not linger longer, but pursued their voyage to the west in search of mare hospitable shores. Sad to relate, on March 24th when riding ont a gale, some hundreds of miles further to the west, the Sabrina was lost with all hands. The Eliza Scott alone returned to tell the tale. With Capiain Freeman were lost also his specimens. Only recently with the visit of the Australian National Ant- arctic Research Expedition, has a second landing been made and rock speci- mens secured for examination. In the years that have elapsed since Balleny’s visit, these islands have been sighted by very few expeditions operating in ncighbouring Antarctic waters, They are comparatively inaccessible, for they are located in the pack- ice belt encircling the Antarctic Continent and their presence there obstructs the free movement of the pack-ice in its orderly drift from East to West in the off-shore waters around the Continent. As a consequence, these islands are usually embedded within an impenctrable icce-jam; thus only rarely have ships an opportunity of penetrating to their shores. Actually, the whole of the sea-ice which forms each winter in the Ross Sea to break up and driit * University of Adelaide. Traus Rey. Sac. 5. Aust., 73, (2), Dec, 1950 wofeet Conspic Bluff gp Conspic. Blut & ROW ISLAND BORRADAILE ISLAND “Beale Pintacle landing Oat. 66° at's . at LONG. 162° 57-2'E ‘ Remar precipitous jul YOUNG ISLAND ‘ * ROW ISLAND “BORRADAILE ISLAND BUCKLE ISLAND 1 SABRINA ISLAND STURGE ISLAND Eliza Cove & Eiey | * breaks Macnab Adalin Penguin Rooksty SABRINA Micah 1D) brexks 3) SCALE 4 23. a SaaS Z $MILES{steruTe} \ * 62" 50'E Saioce ez iFekd The Balleny Islands and their Geographic Location. 225 away to the north-westward in the ensuing simmer has to neyotiate this ice- jam. Only in favourable years is this ice congestion relieved and then only in the late summer. Sir James Clarke Ross, in 1941, engaged on the memorable expedition which discovered the Ross Sea, sighted the Balleny Islands across the pack- ice but only at a great distance from them. Actually he believed this land- fall to be the discovery of new islands south of Balleny’s find and gave to them the name of Russell Islands. Much later, on the return voyage of the Discovery during the operations of the British National Antarctic Expedition of 1901-04, Scott set a course ta reach and check Balleny’s discovery. That was a favourable year and they sighted and fixed more accurately the position of four of the islands. They tid not, however, effect any landings, On. several occasions in subsequent years, whaling vessels operating in the neighbourhood of the Ross Sea have, late in the summer season, come within sight of one or more of the islands. Tn the summer of 1934 when returning from the Ross Sea in foggy weather, the exploring yessel Discovery 1/, obtaimed a glimpse of one or more of the islands, but was unable to land. Later, during her 1936-38 cruise, Discovery {1, under coommand of Lieut. L, C. Ill, R.N-R,, retutned to the region and under better weather conditions charted the four more northerly islands, fixing their position accurately. More recently, in February 1948, the Hyatt Earp of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition found most of the islands of the Group to be sufficiently accessible to allow Commander K. Oom, R.A.N,, ta effect mare detailed charting and to permit Wing Commander Stuart Camp- bell, Expedition Leader, ta make a couple of landings for the purpose of securing tock specimens, The ice conditions did not permit access to Sturge Island, the most southerly of the Group. More recently still, in the summer of 1949, the French exploring vessel Cemmandant Charcot, in command of Captain Max Douget, made a landing on Sabrina Island. This expedition succeeded in reaching Sturge Island. GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES, The Balleny Islands form a chain directed from the south-east towards the north-west, extending over a length of about 140 statute miles. These islands Jie about 165 statute miles to the north of the Antarctic Continent at its nearest approach. Deep water, about 1500 fathoms, separates them from the mainland. Equally deep water exists at only a few miles to the north of the island chain. The Group consists of three large islands (Young, Buckle and Sturge Islands), three smaller islands (Borradaile, Rowe and Sabrina) and some isolated reefs and rock pinnacles. Sturge Island, the most southerly, is some Z9 statute miles long. Buckle Island has a length of about 14 miles and Young Island 21 miles. Borradaile Island is m the vicinity of two and a half flrs in length, while Rowe Island and Sabrina Island are but a fraction of # tttile. With rare exceptions, the islands are cliff bound, thus limiting the pns- sibilities of landing; hence rock collections thus far secured are but meagre. The height of Sturge Island is now taken to be about 5600 fect. Young Island, once reported ic be extremely high, has lately been found to be very 226 little over 3000 feet. The other islands are considerably lower. They are all capped with ice, and rock appears only on the cliff faces or in rare and very limited exposures as pebble banks at sea-level. The active volcanic pheno- mena reported hy Enderby have not been observed by recent visitors. Haw- ever, the rack collections hereinafter described indicate a Jate Cainozoic to recent volcanic origin for the entire Group. ROCK TYPES COLLECTED A description af the rocks collected in 1948 by the Australian Expedi- {ion is the special subject of this contribution. As an addendum thereto, reference is also made to:a small collection of rocks obtained during the 1949 cruise of the Commandant Charcot. These latter were secured through Mr. N. Lutthowitz of Melbourne University, whom Commander Liotard kindly gave permission to accompany the French Expedition on that voyage. The A.N.A.R.E. collection consists of some 14 specimens from two localities; the first, Borradaile Island, the second Buckle Island. These sange from a boulder of about 15 lbs. weight to quite small pebbles. Additional specimens obtained through the kindness of the Commandant Charcot Expedition are also 14 in number and were secured from two other islands, namely Sabrina Island and Sturge Island. All these, with the exception of one only, are basic volcanic rocks. The one exception is specimen No, 12, composed of coarsely crystalline epidote in- timately associated with grains of quartz. As this was not found ia sito, at may be assumed that it is a transported erratic or is of the nature of a xenolith derived from an underlying formation brought up from below in the volcanic uprush, The rock types obtained from each of the localities where collections were made are listed herewith, Rorradaile Island. A landing from the HW*yalt Karp was made on a spit at the north-east end of the Island and two Jarge specintens (Nos. 2 and 3) of the prevailing rocks were sccured. These are both olivine trachybasalt, and represent lavas which congealed at or near the surface. Buckle (sland, The remaining 12 specimens (Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14) collected by the Wyatt Earp party, were obtained from the surface of old sea-ice, some 50 yards from the shore cliffs, at a point abant half-way down the east coast. All these boulders are taken to have been derived from Buckle Island, avalanched down from the overtowering rock cliffs. Most of these specimens while they exhibit some faceting show very little other evidence of glaciation. Some of the pebbles suggest initial shap- ing by ice with subsequent water wear. They are divisible into three groups. Firstly, fresh, grey olivine trachy- busalts and basalts, most being slightly vesicular (Nos. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10), Secondly, scoriaceous plagioclase basalts reddened by the penecantem- poraneous attack of escaping volcanic steam and other gases (Nos. 4, 11, and 13). Finally, a coarsely crystalline epidotic rock, already metitioned, not obviously of the volcanic suite and apparently of foreign origin (No. 14), Sabrina Tslund, The French Expedition landed at the Adelie penguin rookery neat the north-east corner of the Island and secured specimens irom that location and from the Monolith. Of the material brought back by Lotthowitz and added to our set of rocks illustrative of the Balleny Islands, Nos {5 and 16 tecorded as common sea-shore stones of Sabrina Island, are 227 ulivine-angite-plagioclase-basalt that has been subjected to slight reddening by solfataric attack, Nos. 22 and 23, secured in sil, are almost identical grey olivine-plagioclase-basalts. Nos. 18 and 26, referred to as characteristic red stones of the Island, are reddened scoriaceous basalt, No, 17, a beach stone, 1s a black pumiceoits basalt with micro-phenocrysts of olivine and abundant labradorite needles in a dusty glass base. No, 25 is a tiffaccotis hasaltic agglomerate. No. 24, from the Monolith, 1s a grey vesicular olivine- plagioclase-basalt. No, 27 represents the finer gravel from the shores; it con- sists of water-worn basalt particles of a dominantly grey colour, Sturge Island, The French Expedition collected specimens fram the surface of free floating sea-ice near the north end af the west coast. Though doubtful these pebbles may represent sheddings from the lofty cliffs nearby. With them is some gritty morainic sludge. No. 19 is a basic volcanic breccia, No. 20 is a propylitized, highly scoriaceous basalt. No, 21 is a glaciated pebble of vesicular feldspathic basalt which has undergone paulopost changes with development of chlorite, cal- cite, etc. No. 28 is a uniform grey morainic mud originating from the glacia- tion of basaltic rocks. PETROLOGY The following petrological descriptions of rocks of the Balleny Island collection deal only with the morc important types. As there is a close simi- larity in composition and type among the unaltered rocks, it will suffice to describe in detail only two of them, namely No. 1 from Buckle Island and No. 2 from Barradaile Island. Briet reference will be made to others. OLIVINE TRACHYBASALYT FROM Buckie IsLanp This specimen, No. 1, is a large plaly block of a dark ash-grey voleante rock. It is perfectly fresh, with the appearance of heing, in all probability, of Reeent or near-Recent age. This was collected on the adjacent sea-ice within 50 yards of the shore cliffs at about the middle of the east ¢enast of Buckle Island. In the hand-specimen, it is somewhat rough to the feel, and with the aid ef a pocket lens, same minute irregular steam-hole cavities can be detected. Ti is almost entitcly of a very fine, even-grained nature in which the mineral constitients cannut be distinguished with the naked eye: embedded therein, however, are occasional very small olive-coloured phenocrysts of olivine, the maxinuim size of which is 4mm. In the rock slide, microphenucrysts of olivine and to a less extent augite, are observed to be embedded in a microcrystalline groundmass. The latter features. a striking development of plagioclase in fresh clear laths, markedly oriented in flow lines distributed through a dark base in which mintite grains ol augite and magnetite are discernible. The olivine phenocrysts which, in the slide, do not exceed 3rmm- are quite fresh and unaltered: the interference figure is that characterising olivines of high magnesia content. Augite micro-phenocrysts do not exceed Imm. in diameter and are clear and fresh: zoning is abseryable in some, and in these an outer zone is notably pleochroic. The non-pleochroic central area has the higher extinction angle, 44°, and an optic axtal angle of about 60°, thus indi- cating rather normal augite: the pleachroic zone has a 2V of abunt 40° characteristic of a sub-calcic augite. 228 The most obvious mineral of the groundmass is plagioclase in tiny laths and sieedles up to 1 mm. in length, but averaging only about 0-6 mm, Some are without twitinitig, the remainder rarely exhibit more than a single albite twin. The optical characters of the laths indicate a range from andesine to medium labradorite, Other components of the groundmass are much fine granular augite of a similar composition as the outer zone of the phenocrysts, tiny grains of olivine and minute particles often perfcct cubes of magnetite or ilneno-magnetite- Minute glassike residuals are discernible but only to a_very limited extent; these are of low R.I. and exhibit faint, anomalous D.R. These may be analcile- Tiny euhedral apatites are not uttcommon. The analysis of this rock illustrates a lower magnesian and higher alkali content than is normal with basalts, Mineralogically the feldspar content is greater and the ferromagnesian minerals fewer than is the casé in normal basalt, In view of the plagioclases having a higher albite content than is normal for basalts this rock may be classed as olivine-trachybasalt. A chemical analysis and the norm derived therefrom are given on page 229. The general character of the rock is illustrated in the thin-slide microphotograph (fig. 3) appearing in the accompanying plate. Otwine TracuypasaLt (No, 2) rrom BorrapaiLe Iscanp This is a fresh medium to darkish grey microcrystalline, yoleanic tock in which are observable a few small phenocrysts, the largest bemg 4mm. in diameter, of alive-green olivine. It is a watet-worn boulder collected on a spit at the north-east end of Borradaile Island, Occasional tiny vesicles are observable on the fracture face. The microscape slide reveals a microcrystalline base dominated by plagioclase laths exhibiting marked flow structure: embedded in this hase are simalf phenocrysts of olivine and augite. The larger plagioclases have the characters of acid labradorite with 2V of about 80°, Small porphyritic olivines are abundant as well formed crys- tals, occasionally reaching 4mm. diameter; much of the olivine is fragmented. It is biaxial negative with 2Y about 35°, thus a sub-calcic augite approaching pigeonite. As regards the groundmass the streaming structure of the plagioclase laths and needles is the most notable feature: of these the larger of them average 04mm. in length. There are occasional abnormally large individuals and these exhibit well developed twinning. Albite twin extinetion angles in- dicate labradorite (Ab,,An,,). Microlites and some untwinned laths with lower RL are apparently andesine or even more albitic. Other minerals of the ground- mass are well formed olivines and augites averaging 0°3 mm, diameter as well as tiny irregular grains of augite associated with plagioclase needles and abundant tiny cubes and specks of magnetite and ilmenite; also a very little brown glass. From the above description and the chemical composition stated in the table of analyses, this rock also may be classed as an olivine-bearing trachy- basalt. Included in the table of analyses is the chemical composition of the Bal- jeny Island rocks numbers 1 and 2, As both of these are very similar types the mean of their chemical analyses is also given in column III, Also For comparison is included the analyses of each of two trachybasalts from Pos- session Island (Crozet Group) referred to by Tyrrell*. The norms are also stated below. *BAN.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition Reports, Series A, vol. Ii, pt. 4 229 I. II. IIL. IV. SiO, - - 47.73 45.06 46.395 44.255 TiOs - - 2,39 2.69 2.540 2.400 AlsOs - - 16.87 18.76 17.815 17.705 Fe:On - = 2.52 0.23 1 375 4.665 FeO - - 878 9.94 9.360 7.005 MnO - - 018 0.19 0.185 0.125 MgO - - 5,80 7,33 6.565 5.935 CaO - - 8.64 9.72 9.180 10.735 Na:O - - 4,90 4,19 4.545 2.990 K:0 - - 1,99 1.57 1.780 1.295 H:O+ - - 6.14 0.12 0.130 2.420 HO- - - 0.02 0.02 0.020 } ‘ PrOs - - 0.65 0.65 0.650 0.395 5 - - -~ 0.09 0.05 0.070 _ BaO - - 0.06 0.06 0.060 — 100.76 100.58 100.660 99.825 less O for S - 0.02 0.01 0.015 —_ Total - - 100.74 100.57 100.645 99.825 . Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Buckle Island (Balleny Group), by A. P. Wymond (University, Adelaide), . Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Borradaile Island (Balleny Group) by R. B. Wilson (University, Adelaide). . Mean of analyses I, and II. - Mean of analyses of (a) olivine-trachybasalt from American Bay, Crozet Island, (analyst, Herdsmen) and (b) the olivine-trachybasalt from Christmas Bay, Crozct Isiand (analyst, Reinish), both quoted by Tyrrell (1937). Norms or BALLENy Istanp Rocxs Rock No.1 No.2 Orthoclase - - 11°68 9-45 Albite - - 21-48 10°48 Anorthite - - 18-07 62°02 27°52 61-11 Nepheline ~ - 10°79 13-63 Diopside - - 16-35 13°66 Olivine - - 11-96 18°72 Magnetite - - 3°71 (+23 Ilmenite = - 4°56 3842 5-17 39-41 Apatite - - 1-68 154 Pyrite - - 0-16 0-09 Water - - 0-16 0-14 100-60 100-63 C.LP.W. Classification - Tl & 3 Ti, 5. 3-4. 4. 230 Specimens 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 14 bear a general similarity im the hand speci- men, though some are vesitular and others not. The greatest difference in texture is to be noted only in the microscope section. here it becomes vb- vious that certain of them are more highly feldspathic than others and some have been more quickly chilled than others, Also some exhibit flow struc- ture highly developed while in others evidence of flow is negligible, In the case of several, at least, chemical analysis would undoubtedly re» veal them to contain less alumina and alkalies with corresponding increase in magnesium and calcium: thus a more normal type of basalt. In the fol- Iowing notes reference is made to only the more prominent characteristics of each of these. No, 3 is a very large boulder of medium-grey rock which, in part, is ob- viously vesicular, the vesicles being small, irregular and flattened. There is a paucity of olivine and augite micro-phenocrysts. Occasional white glassy inclusions as recorded in No, 8 are observabie in the hand-specimen, Micre- scopically there is a great similarity to specimen No, 1, there being a great development of labradorite laths usually markedly oriented by flowage of the unsolidified lava. No, 5 is another grey, water-worn boulder similar in appearance ta Nos, 3 and 14. Occasional tiny olivines are observable in the hand-specimen, No. 6 in the hand-specimen, is somewhat darker prey than No. 8, but otherwise petrologically very similar, It differs from the type represented by No. | in that plagioclase laths ure much less abundant and there is less flow orientation. Microporphyritic olivines and augites, the latter more abundant, are a feature. The plagioclase has the optical characters of an acid labradorite. ‘The alivyine answers to the magnesian-rich variety. The pyroxene lacks colour, is biaxial positive, and has an extinction angle ¢ A Z of about 40°; it thus appears to be a pigeomitic augite. No. 8 in the hand-specimen is a grey rock which, like certain others (No 9 for instance) has shadowy, quick chilled areas within it. An unusual fea- ture is that-of clear colourless glassy inclusions up to lcm, diameter. These blebs are remnants of partly resorbed crystals whose optical characters appear to indicate a plagioclase of the cliguclasc-andesine range, Ti addition, small phenocrysts of olivine and augite up to 0°5 ci. diameter are in evidence, The general character of this rock is very similur to that of No, 9 im that plagioclase Jaths and needles are suppressed and no outstanding orientation evidenced. The base also js quite like that ot No. 9. No. 9 is externally of very similar appearance ta No. 14, except that it ts traversed irregularly by streaks and patches of a quicker chilled darker phase, An absence of strongly deyeloped and oriented plagioclase laths is notable in the microscopic slide. Obvious clivines are rare in the hand-spceei- men and their place is taken by microporphyritic augites. The slide under low pawer exhibits a dark and speckled base which, when more highly mag- nified, ts Seen to be a dense assemblage of microcrystals of pyroxene and magiietite embedded in a clear glassy base. No. 14 is another medium to dark grey, microcrystaline rock in whoch are occasional small porphyritic greenish-yellow olivines up to 3nim. m dia- meter. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. ast, 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plate NXYV 231 Under the microscope the fine-grained base is dominated by a (rachytoid arrangement of plagioclase in laths to 0.75imm long and in needles; there are occasional microporphyritic olivines. The general groundmass is constituted of small augites and to a Jess extent olivines with much irresulvable dark base in which euhedral magnetites and magnetile dust are abyious. Titanatigite microphenoctysts, in part slightly pleochroic, is biaxial posi- tive with 2V about 60°, The olivine is generally quite fresh and has a high optic-axial angle. The larger plagioclases show some zoning and have the characters of an acid to medium labradorite, Specimens 4 and 11 are basaltic lavas that have undergone fumaroli¢c gas attack. No. 4 is a coarsely vesicular, reddish-brown lava. Ln microscope section it is seen to be basalt which has undergone chvmical changes from the aitack nf volcanic gases. It has been subjected to considerable changes with the development of secondary miuerals including some haematite, hence the colour. Originally it was a basalt with well developed laths of labradorite and microphenocrysts of olivine and augite, evidently quite similar to others of the specimens already described. Mainly as a tesull of late-valeanic ac+ tivity subsequent to solidification, a considerable proportion of the steam holes have been filled by secondary minerals, mainly calcite and analcite- No, 11 is another vesicular lava that has suffered penecontemporaneous gas attack resulting in partial breakdown of original minerals and reddening of the rock. A feature as seen in microscope slide is the abundance of well developed stocky plagioclase laths in flow arrangement which, with some micropor- phyritic olivine and angite, are embedded in a yellowish glassy base charged with feldspar needles, The plagioclase ranges from imedium andesine to labradorite (Ab,An,). Prisms of apatite are to be noted.’ The glassy base appears to be palagonitized, DESCRIPTION OF MICROPHOTOGRAPHS Fig. 1 Microphotograph of a thin section of rock No. 6, magnified 40 diameters, The larger individuals. especially a group on the left centre are oliyities. Aagite is in smaller andividuals, nat conspicuous. Narrow laths and needles of plagioclase are obvious but not very noticeahly developed. The bulk of the section is a base of minute granules of augite and dusty glass, Among the latter are minute patches and cavity fillings of what appears to be analcite. Fig, 2 Microphotograph of a section of rock Ne. 11, magnified 40 diameters. The field is dominated by comparatively large and well formed plagioclase laths exhibiting fow orientation. A later more albitic generation of plagioclase appears us minute needles in the groundmass, which otherwise is mainly hrownish dusty glass. Studded through this base are small olivines, grains of black iromote and occasional well-fomed apatite, crystals. Fie. 3 Microphotograph of a section of rack No. I, magnified 40 diameters. A large part of the rack is observed to be composed of plagioclase laths in streaming atrangement Olivine and augite in more granular form are both in evidence, the former in larger clearer crystals. The aigite is in smaller graniiles and less conspicuous, Though im very tiny particles, there is much magnetite studded throughout the base in ecuhoidal and ocirahedral formis, These recognisable constituents are embedded ju a clear to dusty Mescstasis, most of which is glass Wit in which theve are ncedles of andesine anel suggestions of mepheline. G THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY PAUL S. HOSSFELD Summary The late Cainozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely one of repeated recessions and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal dunes. Investigations support the view that the shorelines were unstable and the dunes were not formed in the sequence in which they exist today. 232 THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA By Paut S. HossFeip* [Read 8 June 1950] CoNTENTS SUMMARY a. . J as INTRODUCTION ee 4 ToroGraPHy T General... és * vst ana 196 _ Il The calcareous dunes . aus aut eat fee sad ue IIf The siliceous sands... shge vest enn fine «live JV Lutnettes ,... as “ee “ass ants As hs ine V_ Volcanic hills f.29 tf wt ix. ni VI Marine escarpments VIL Drainage VITL The coast GEOLOGY General .... oe Il Pre-Murrayian Ill Murravian IV Post-Murravian a. Caleareous dunes iat eae sts b. Siliceous sands .... am oanss ante c. Waterworn quartz gilt ‘and pebbles vers mn d. Waterworn flints sie ne, eats nee ae c. Fossil shells " f. Lacustrine limestone .... g. Swamp deposits— Blacksoils, peat, shells, coorongite, lime biscuits h. Volcanic accumulations mer an rat 1. Lunettes ny j. Kunkar travertine k. Laterite Discussiox eute ae wats sats aid The basement ith sat Glacial custatic oscillations of, ea level Vulcunism mac Chronology eats Diastrophism nied ata ett pate aH Tsostasy ...- seca bass anes Sips sees pees Extinet rivers . Sits ier dees eed Human occupation ate bans a =P CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Tah BIBuiocRArFHY The late Catnozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely one of repeated recessions and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal dunes. view that the shore ines were unstable and the dunes were not formed in the vee tee weer ote wees eee ste SUMMARY sequence in which they exist today. A provisional chronology has been compiled in which the various shorelines are corrclated tentatively with the positive and negative movements of sea-level during the Pleistocene Ice Age. The vulcanism and other phenomena have been assigned places in the chronology. * School of Geology, University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950 Page 232 233 234 235 237 238 238 238 238 240 241 242 243 245 245 249 250 251 251 252 252 252 253 253 254 254 255 275 276 Investigations support the 233 It is emphasised that the instability of the region during the period under review makes definite correlation with other areas in Austral'a cir other countries impracticable at present. The investigations carried out show that here is an area which, owing to the very low gradients of its basemen’, has been a sensitive indicator of changes in sea-level and on which is preserved a large part of the geological record from the Upper Pliocene to the present day. Not only will a study af this region provide a detailed picture of that time, but the results obtained by such an investi- gation will assist matcrially in the development of a clearer Understanding of older epochs and periods of which a smal! proportion only of teie original record has been preserved, INTRODUCTION The area to be described includes the greater part of the region usually referred to as the South-East of South Australia and more specifically as the Upper and Lower South-East. The region is the most southerly province of Sonth Australia and comprises roughly that part of the State situated be- tween the coast south and east of the Murray Mouth and the Victorian harder. Fenner (1930) gave the names Ninety Mile Plains and South-East Plains to his regions 14 and 15, which correspond approximately to the generally accepted though ill-defined concept of the Upper and Lower South- Easi respectively. Recent official division of South Australia has resulted in the establishment of wo regions, the Tatiara and Gambier Regions, which depart considerably, however, from the former sub-divisions. ‘The terrain described in this paper includes the greater part of the Gambier and the western part of the Tatiara Division. The area dealt with comprises approxi- mately 6500 square miles and includes the greater part of the Counties of Grey, Rohe, Macdonnell and Cardwell and the south-western part of Buck- ingham. Owing to their use by previous authors, the terms Upper and Lower Sauth-East are being retained in the present paper. The varied and interesting problems presented in this region have not atiracted in the past the attention which they merit. It is true that previous investigations inctude geological, geographical, soil survey, land utihzalion, butanical, palacontological, economic and anthropological research of se- lected and limited areas; but such of the work as deals with the region as a whole is highly generalized and any detailed surveys that haye been made cover «mall sectors only, The more impurtant contributions include those of Tenison-Woods, Fenner, Ward, Campbell, Wade, Mawson, Tindale, Tay- lor, Stephens, Crocker, Cotton and various State Government Departments, Others are listed in the bibliography. The present paper has been written as the restilt of fieldwork by the aiiihor, commenced in 1931 and continued at intervals:as opportunity offered, until November, 1949. Recent intensive work has been made possible by facilities eranted by the University of Adelaide. The investigation embraces the study of all available bore and well re- cords; the detailed mapping on a seale of 40 chains per mile of some areas using the published maps of the Department of Lands and Survey; the close stercoscopic examination of thousands of aerial photographs lent by the De- ferice Department, and wf others made available by the C.S.L.R.O, and mapping on the scale of these photographs, the largest scale being 20 chains per inch. Since the above was written, advice has been received of a paper by R, C. Sprigy on Stranded Sea Beaches of the Sonth-Mast of South Australia, ta be published in Vraus. (Sih Geol. Congr., London, 1948. 234 The use of thousands of Jeyels made available by the South-Eastern Drainage Board, and the detailed contoured maps of special areas surveyed by the above as well as by the Woods and Forests Department, made it possible to construct a provisional contoured map of the basement of the greater part of the region. The aerial photographs now available and the increasing wealth of sur- vey data becoming available in recent years, have made it possible to exainine and map the area in much greater detail than could be done pre- viously, and has resulted in the modification or rejection of some of the hypotheses formulated hy previous investigators. lt will be shown that the writer gecepts in principle the glacial eustatic origin of the calcareous dune ranges (Tindale, 1933, 1947) as against crustal warping (Ward, 1941), Never- theless it is evident that crustal deformation has played an important rile ii the development of the region. The writer cannot accept the greater part cf Tindale’s reconstruction of the Pleistocene history of the region and con- siders that in the present state of our knowledge, correlation of glacial eus- tatic terraces of the South-East of South Australia with thoae of the Atlantic Coast of the U.S.A. or of the Mediterranean is impossible. An attempt has been made by the use of such evidence as could be ob- tained to compile the chronological sequence for each of the calcareous dune ranges, Jlowever, this rests so largely on inference that it must be regarded as tentative only. h Reference could be made in the text to but a small proportion of the publications consulted. Those which have a direct bearing on some of the problems discussed in this paper and which are not specifically mentioned in the text are ineluded in the Bibliography. In addition the writer was able to examine unpublished maps and reports made available through the gene- rosity and co-operation of the Directors of Oil Search Ltd, The assistance is gratefully acknowledged of Professor Sir Danglas Maw- son of the School of Geology, and of Dr. T. D. Campbell, University of Ade- laide; Mr. D, Schulz, of Rendelsham; Mr. A. J. S. Adams, Chief Forester at Mount Burr Forest; Messrs. R. N. Campbell and H. F. Kessall, of Mount Gambier; Mr. C. Willshire, of Millicent: Mc. Jackway, of Blackfellows Caves, and the officials of the Commonwealth Department of Defence at Keswick and of the State Departments of Woods and Farests, Mines, Lands and Sur- vey, the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the South Australian Harbours Board. TOPOGRAPHY I Generar. The region is a low level terrain which slopes very gently seaward. Owing to regional warping, the inclination of this terrain varies in different sectors both in amount and direction. In the most northerly area the slope is south-westerly, in the central portion it is westerly, changing gradually further south until southerly near the Victorian border. Although this re- gion possesses very low and uniform gradients over a very large proportion of its surface, there are many areas of diversified relief both above and below the general level. Features above the general level are inliers of ancient rocks, xeolian deposits and voleanic accumulations, as well as escarpments produced by former marine erosion. Features below the general level include lakes, swamps and claypans, creeks, sinkholes and closed depressions (tvalas). The inhiers of ancient rocks occur north of the Kingston-Naraccorte Rail- way. Most of them are Jow and only a few of them reach heights of over 100 feet (Mawson 1943, 1944, 19453, LO45b), 235 The aeolian deposits ate of three types|—the ealcarcous dunes, the sili- ceaus sands, and lunettes. Tl Tur Carcareaus DUNES These are the predominant type of surface relief, Their peenliar arrange- ment, location and origin, as well as their economic significance attracted attention from the beginning of exploration and settlement of the region (Woods, 1862). This interest hag became more pronounced in tecent years, both from scientific and econamic aspects. Their adverse influence, both direct and indirect, on the cconomic development of the region has becn far reaching. Their general direction, though variable, has a north-westerly trend, andl is approximately parallel to the present coastline and at igh angles but not at right angles to the general slope of the region. T heir fronts or seaward edges exhibit a small but consistent drop in height both north and south of the Mount Burr area. Failure by some previous investigators fo observe these progressive variations in altitade has led to serious errors in the inter- pretation of the history of the region. A traverse normal to the present coastline crosses the dune ranges at high angles and at progressively increasing heights above sea-level. Although exhibiting great variations in shape and size, they have a roughly sub- parallel arrangement with north-westerly trends, As they ate followed in a rorth-westerly direction from {he Mount Burr area, all hut a few of the mnter- dune flats decrease steadily in width until many of the ranges coulesce sa that it is no longer possible to distinguish them individually. Rarely do they rise to heights as much as one hundred feet above the adjacent plains, anc as a rule their summits are considerably short of thal figure. Tlowever, be- cause of the low relict of the intervening areas, these dunes are known aa “sanges” and owing to their separation in the central part ot the region by wide, extensive plains, bear distinctive names. Those for which no local games could be discovered have been named by the writer the Canunda (Campbell, 1946), Woolumbool, Peacock, Lucindale anc Neville Ranges, The furthest inland tange is known as the Naracoorte Range, This has been divided by the writer into the Fast and West Naracoorte Ranges. In the central portion of the South-East the East Naracuorle Range is the more inland and rises from a higher part of the basement than docs the West Naracoorte Range. To the north and north-west of the town al Nata- coorte these two ranges coalesce and at some distance beyond this conver- gelice the range divides again. One branch turns to the north-west and farms the Black Range whicli apparently trends more anid more westerly towards the southern margin of the Mount Boothby inliers of ancient igneous rocks. This branch is being identified by the writer with the East Naracoorte Range. The other branch, the more easterly, consists iu its southern sector where it diverges fram the combined range, of a series of ifregular discton- nectedl dunes, but further to the north exists as a well+leyeloped continuous dune system. The further continuations of this system are being investigated by other workers. This branch is being identified here as the continualion cl the West Naracoorte Range, Such identification implies that in the northern sector of the region the West Naracoorte Range is the furthest in- land and at the highest level, whereas in the central sector this position 1s: occupied by the East Naracoorte Range. The continuation further ta the south-east extends into Victoria and does not exist im the southern sector of the South-East Region of South Australia. 235 Just to the south of the town of Naracoorte, the western edge of the East Naracoorte Range is 54 miles ffom the coast, but altitude and distance de- crease continuously to the north-west, until near Chifaman Wells the cor- responding part of the range is only 26 miles from the coast and at a very much lower level. This range, known in the Hundred of Laffer as the Black Range, has been mapped over a length of 96 miles and continues to an unknown distance to the north-west and south-east. The greatest Jengths recorded are those of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges which have been traced over a distance of 166 miles without their north-western or south-eastern limits having been reached. Other ranges, however, are nol as persistent and their total lengths vary considerably. Some terminate abruptly; others lose height gradually towards their extremities; others consist of a series of disconnected ridges; others decrease almost to nothing then increase again in height and width; still others, particularly in the Upper South-East, are partly or com- pletely covered by drift sand so that their location is difficult to determine. Although a rake pattern is exhibited by some, most of the ranges possess straight or smoothly curved western or seaward edges for considerable pro- portions of their extent, but have deeply indented or embhayed eastern or in- land margins. In some areas no defined ranges are discernible, and the pat- tern displayed by the dune limestone outcrops is extremely irregular, though exhibitmg in most instances a subordinate but nevertheless definite trend, (See General Map). Because of these factors, the complete succession is not encountered in any traverse normal to the ranges. Detailed investiga- tions by the writer have shown that the general belief expressed by previous authors, of the existence of seven to eight or even fewer ranges iS erroneous. It has been possible to distinguish and map eighteen distinct ranges, each of which either already bears a local name or has beet named herein. For reasons giyen above and others which will be discussed later, it was found necessary to begin the critical examination of the regiou and deter. mine the initial classilication of the stranded dune ranges in the central sec- tor, In this sector, commencing with the dune range at the greatest distance from the coastline and therefore rising relatively from the highest parts of the jundamental plain, the complete list in a seaward direction as now deter- mined ig ;— 1. East Naracourte 1) East Avenue 2. West Naracoorte 11 West Avenne 3. Harpers 12. Reedy Creek 4. Stewarts or Cave 13. Neville 5. Waolumbool 14+. East Dairy 6. Peacack 15, West Dairy 7, Bakers 16. East Woakwine 8, Liucindale 17, West Woakwine 9 Ardune 18. Canunda The recent naming of dune limestone ridges in the extreme Lower Sunth- East (Crocker 1946a) appears to have been unnecessary. It is true thar Crocker was correct in abolishing the term Kongorong Range used locally for the southern part of the Woakwine Range, and that giving ihe name MacDonnell Range to the double limestone range near Allendale can be jus- tified. His Burleigh and Caveton Ranges howeyer, are identical with and are continuations of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges respectively, and his Mount Gambier Range is almost certainly a continuation of the East Avenue Range. 27 Unless specifically mentioned, the present coastal dines are not included in the description and general discussion of the calcareous dunes. Despite their low altitudes, the rocky outcrops, dense scrub, and deep drift sands of many seclors have made of these ranges a series of barriers to trafic between the coast and the interior, The obstructions they placed across the natural fow of surface waters, impounded these against the eastern or inland flanks of the ranges. Ag a result, white sandy beaches were formed in many sectors of the inland margins of the ranges wherever permanent or semi-permanent lagoons still exist, or existed before the present artificial drainage schemes came intu operation. Much of the impounded flood water moved in a north-westerly direction, As the resultant gradient in that direc- tion is less than one foot per mile in must sectors, movement was sluggish and ill-defined except when floodwaters had raised the level of the water sificiently to produce a temporary and adequate stecpening of the Jocal gra- djent. Considerable amounts of water but varying greatly in different locali- ties, sceped through and beneath the ranges, emerging as springs, permatient or intermittent, on the next series of interdume flats, As a result, roads and (racks over most of the region were confined, unless specially constructed, for the greater part of each year almost entirely to the ranges and chiefly to their flanks or to the very natrow zone, not present everywhere, which marked the transition from range to flat, Even today when artificial dramage has improved the surface run-off in many areas, trouble is experienced in wet years, and roads and embankments are heing vaised in a number of localities. Despite the poverty and general lack of depth of soil in many parts of the ranges, their relative dryness as compared with the inter-range flats, de- termined their use as winter quarters for stock. Observations show that many areas now exhibiting bare stony hillsides completely devoid al vegeta- tion, that have brought to that condition by wind erosion after removal oi the vegetation by overgrazing or rabbits. Costly drainage schemes have been carried out and more are proposed to remove Stitface waters from such swampy inter-range areas as are considered suitable for development. As the highest surface gradient is nearly at right angles to the average trend of the ranges and natural gaps are few, excava- tions of considerable magnitude wete necessary in seme instances, The longest aad deepest excavations are those of Drain L which terminates near Robe and which bas a maximum depth of 54 fect through the Woakwine Range, MII Tor Suaceous Sanps Enormous accumulations of this material exist in the region and their fixation by veetation ensures their stability while the plant cover remains, Although isolated deposits exist in the Belt Range near Hatherleigh anid in other localities to the west of the Reedy Creek Range, in general they ocenr further east. These sands cover completely or in part, many sectors of the calcareous dune ranges, but do not of themselves form large dunes af great linear extent. The greatest accumilations arc low, gently undulating or level expanses which in many instances were former interdune flats and swamps. They occur piled up against and on top of pre-existing hills and ridges and in general have the appearance of windsorted material distributed over an irregular landscape. In the Lawer South-East they have been utilized largely for pine plantations, The resulting forest cover adds to the diffeulties. not only of determining their limits but also of mapping any outcrops of pire- existing formations. A study of the planning of the plantations and of the growth of the pines give in many instances chies to the subjaceit rocks, but do not enable accurate geological boundaries to he drawn, 238 IV JuNettes In numerous localities, but especially in the areas east of Kingston and cf Robe, and in the wide interdune Hats between the Caye and Ilarper's Ranges and the Naracoorte Range, both to the north and squth af the town of Naracoorte, the flats contain very large numbers of small, shallow depres- sions which are filled with water during and for considerable periods after the wet season. A notable feature of very many of these is the existence on their eastern margins of crescent-shaped dunes generally varying in height and size with the adjacent lagoon. These dunes are known as luncttes and have been described elsewhere (Hills 1939, 1940), (Stephens 1946). V Vorcaste Hits In the southern part of the region accumulations of volcanic material, chiefly of tuff with some basalt flows, form a number of elevations, the largest and most extensive area being the Mount Burr Range, culminating in Mount Burr, 802 feet above sea level and approximately 700 feet aboye the plains to the west. ‘The Mount Burr Range contains within it or is adjacent te Mounts Muirhead, Graham, Muir, MacIntyre, Sinclair, William and Ed- ward, Day's and Campbell’s Hills, The Lookout, Frill, Wateh and Bluff. Further to the south the isolated cones of the smal extinct volcanoes of Mounts Gambier and Schank form conspicuous landmarks on the low level plateau. VI Marre EscarpmMents In several localities cliffs and escarpments praduced by former wave- action occur inland at various levels, Somte of the more conspicuous are the Up-And-Down Rocks near Tantanoola, a scarp between Mount Sehank and Port Macdonnell, the north-eastern flank of Mount Graham, the vicinity of tackfellow’s Caves, Robe, and Nora Creina Bay. VIT Dratnace Within this region surface drainage is immature and crecks and natural drainage channels are few in number. In the eastern sector the chief streams are the Mosquito, Naracoorte and Morambro Creeks which dse in Vittoria and flow westwards into South Australia but spread out om the flats west of the Naracoorte Range. In the western sector the chief crecks are the Reedy, Avenue, Salt, Cattle and Maria Creeks, and in the southern sector the Stony, Benara and Eight Mile Creeks. None of these were important drain- age channels and even Reedy Creek, by far the largest, was merely a chain of swarups and small lagoons which drained slowly to the north-west during and after heavy rains. The location of the successive dune ranges, being icatly at right angles to the average slope of the region, together with ihe porosity of the subjacent rocks, prevented the development of a defined drainage pattern and resulted in the banking up of foadwaters on the eastern flanks of the ranges. To some extent sub-surface drainage effected the re- moval of surplus waters, but a very large proportion travelled slowly it a rorth-westerly direction to Alfred Flat and beyond, supplying some water to the Cattle, Maria and Salt Creeks; evaporation accounted for the re- mainder, The Sonth Australian Government, through the South-Eastern Drainage Board, has done and is doing much to drain the more fertile ateas by providing artificial channels through the blockading ranges. Lakes, lagoons, swamps and claypans ate very plentiful in some sectors, notably im the areas adjacent to the coast, ay well as in the areas east of Kingston and of Robe and in the wide inter-dune flat west of the West Nara- 239 coorte Range. While some are salt the overwhelming majority of the inland basins contain fresh water, The largest basins are those adjacent to the coast and include the Coorong, appreximately 90 miles long, Lakes Eliza, St, Clair and George, all of which are salt, and Lake Bonney approximately 22 miles long which contains freste water and, as is to be expected, has an outlet to the ocean, Other lakes and swamps will be referred io in a later section, hut brief mention must be made here of the Dismal Swamp, a collection of partly connected and irregular swamps which extends to the Victorian border and from the eastern portions of which surplus waters are staied ip drain slowly into the Glenelg River, a stream which at present flaws almost entircly with- in the boundaries of Victoria. The underlying porous limestanes, as well as the porous limestones of the dune ranges, in preventing the development of a Uelinite sutface drainage, produced a region of largely “cryptoreic™ drainage (Penner 1930), As a re- sult, caves, sink-holes, and closed depressions (uyalas) indicative of the col- lapse of former solution chambers, are plentiful in the southern part of the regiot, a arca of relatively high rainfall. In order to obtain a true picture of the configuration of the basement on which the aeolian and volcanic deposits rest, a contoured map is essential. Since none was available, the writer has attempted to remedy this defect. With the nid of all available levels and contoured plans of such areas as had been surveyed by the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the Woods and Forests Department, a map of the major part of the South-east has been pre- pared. Insufficient levels are available for the extreme north and south af the region, but a large enough area has been contoured ta supply much needed information of the morphology and history of the South-East, As the acolian and yoleanic deposits have no structural connection with the basement it- self, and since the contour mapping of these highly irregular and in places convoluted areas would have served no useful purpose, they have been dis; regarded and the contoured map purposes to show the actual floor of the basement plain. This floor coincides in many areas, notably in the Lower South-East, with the upper surface of {he Miocene limestones and in the northern sector of the Upper South-East with the Precanshrian and Miocene pavement, the surfaces in both areas being the results of marine planation, There are, haw- ever, large ateas in which the marine plane is covered by later deposits of matine, lacustrine, aeolian or volcanic origin, Although this cover is thin except in the Mount Burr Range, its presence must be allawed for in the determination of the contours which are intended as neatly as possible to represent the planed-off surface of the basement rocks. It has not been pos- sible to determine the necessary values in all localities, and to that extent the final figures used must be approximations only, In order that such cover, which is irregular in occurrence both as to area and thickness, should pro- duce the minimum amount of distortion the scale of the final may was re- duced considerably, The original one font intervals were rediiced to ten- foot contours, and the horizontal seale of 2 miles per inch was reduced to 8 miles per itich. It will be noted that, except for a few areas in the north-eastern sector ajjacent to Victoria, the haserment is ai higher levels beteath the Mount Burr Range and in the Dismal Swamp area than in any other part of the region, A map has been prepared af the Mount Rurr area, showing the actual sufface contours. The greater part of this map is based on detailed contour plans surveyed and drawn by the Woods and Forests Department, These 240 were extended where possible by the use of other survey data, and where these were not available, by sketch contours especially in the vicinity of The Bluff. MUNDRED HUNDREG oF < + ~N Bipoocn MDUNT MU/RHEAD } \ ‘ ase _ ‘- Tota Claas EI By aoa! 1 Ne anor - 40, agile 4) soe pee) 1 +s. t a gr irow GBB a A » 2 WUNDRED OF nINDMARSH Pepe Jeoe Ry f am ec? ' oi . HUNDNED oF 5, MAYURRA, a ‘ or ‘Bei \ t Sh CAVES acs s s , x %: Mount _Gamnrga | % ‘ x : . : Ate 4 aN aS % N FGWNG. GENERALIZED CONTOURS at the MOUNT BURR RANGE and adjacent Areas basad largely. on {Off contour intervals surveyed by Woods & Forests Dept Cantours shown thus —— |O0/t or multiples A ; gocw SOU, mlermediate contours a kneel F——= sketch contours Boundaries of Hundreds —.— — —.—--— SCALE 2 4 zener Fig, 1 VITI Tre Coast North of Kingston the present shoreline is apparently prograding with the development of coastal dunes, probably an offshore bar initially, and im- pounding the long narrow lake known as the Coorong. To the south of Kingston the coast appears to be one of submergence with an advancing shoreline. The history and development of these features will be dealt with in a subsequent section of this paper. 241 GEOLOGY T GENERAL. The region is a sector of the former Murrayian Gulf which in South Australia extended far to the north, included the greater part of the present Mount Lofty Ranges and covered extensive areas in New South Wales and Victoria. This gulf was formed by the advance of the sea during the Miocene Epoch wr perhaps even earlier, The sea finally retreated from the greater part of this Gulf at or near the close of the Lawer Pliocene, and formed a new shoreline which is believed to have coincided approximately with the present East Naracoorte Range. Further palacontological work is expected to result in definite age determinations both of the submergence and eter- gence of the Murravian Gulf. Betore its submergence, the greater part of this area appears to have been continuous with and a part of the Great Australian Peneplain which in South Australia appears to have reached its final stages and greatest development towards the close of the Mesozuic Era. Within the region described in this paper, the rocks immediately under- lying the surface of the peneplain belonged to two granps. North of the vicinity of Kingston they appear to have consisted of Precambrian and pos- sibly Palaeozoic sediments and tgneous intrusions (Mawson 1943 and 1944). To the south of Kingston they consisted as far as is known, of Mesozoic sediments apparently lacustrine in origin. As stated in another paper, not yet published, the writer considers that the available evidence indicates titat the dismemberment of the peneplain in ihe region now known as the Mount Lufty Ranges commenced during the Cretaceous or very early in the Tertiary Period. In sore sectors warping and faulting ended the peneplanation cycle, and as a result, terrestrial de- posits such as grayels, sands and Jignitic clays were formed in yarious paris of the region, li the age determination of the lacustrine Sediments penetrated in the lower section of the Robe bore as Jurassic (Ward 1941), is upheld by subse- (juehl research, it is possible that the diastrophisin which affected parts of Southern Australia during the later siages of the Cretaceous Period and in the Cainozoic Era was active also in the Lower Sotith-East, an area in which diastrophism appears however, to have begun earlier, It lollows that deposi- tion, largely and probably entirely of terrestrial material, may have con- tinued through the Cretaceots and into the Tower Tertiary Period until during the Oligocene or Miocene Epochs the sea advanced aver the region end formed the Murravian Gulf. There would in that case be little or na hrealc in deposition in the area to the south of Kingston. In the terrain north of Kingston the terrestrial deposits formed immediately above the Precam- brian-Palacozoic floor will date from the beginning of diastrophism in any given locality and will vary probably from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Ter- tiary in different places, While it is true that no definite break in deposition is expected in the area tu the south of Kingston, this is alter all only a smal! fraction of the total area of the former Gulf, The great expanse of this gulf in South Australia north of Kingston, and also in New South Wales and Victcria, exhibits a sharp time and crosion break between the Cretaceous to Lower Pliocene sedi- ments and the floor of Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks on which they were deposited. Although the greater part of the South-Fast remained submerged probably to the close of the Pliocerie Epoch, and lence deposits of Upper Pliocence Time were formed and probably still exist in protected areas, the 242 emergence of the Murravian Gulf as such is considered by the writer to have been completed when the sea finally retreated to the East Naracoorte shore- line at the close of or during the Lower Pliocene Age. The writer therefore has divided the rocks and formations of the South-East into three groups which will be referred to as:— PRE-MURRAVIAN, MURRAVIAN, and POST-MURRAVIAN II) Pre-Murkavian The Pre-Murravian rocks are those which formed the peneplain and which over the greater part of the South Australian portion of the Murravian Gulf are of Precambrian and early Palaeozoic age. Ax stated above, to the south of Kingston the basement rocks are believed to be of Mesozoic age, but as they do not outcrop, httle is known of them. In the region north of Kingsten large numbers of inliers of the ancient rocks otttcrop. Many, including the more important ones, have been mapped and described in recent years (Mawson 1943, 1944, 1945a and b). As most af them do not make conspicuous outcrops, and in fact many are close to or Jevel with the general surface, and since much of the terrain is sparsely settled and difficult of access, it is possible that some outcrops still await ALPAED a ehit FueeraTtTacen ry q tava Pine Liar 3 f morpmpeay nv tambe rsbety VOID » / (owes, ral nonce ry y Veron teas) =. f aff) ar aff f / SO ruesanainne 10" oem YAcangIONe woe . F hess inpiviein 7 Peppa dee elon Scag Smet HEE OER T, SCALE Sable FEET Fiz. 2 Sketch Section from Mount Boothby to Taratap Quarry, north of Kingston, discovery. An examination of the general map accompanying this paper, and ou which are shown all known outcrops, suggests, however, that these inliers of aticient rocks are restricted to two separate areas. In an area bounded approximately by a line drawn from a little south of Keith and a little north of Tintinara respectively in a south-westerly direction, no outcrops of these rocks have been recorded, The evidence of the Alfred Flat and Tintinara bores (Howchin 1929) as well as of a number of bores in the vicinity of Salt Creck (Ward, 1944) supports the view that this area is underlain by a hasin cr valley excavated in the Precambrian rocks. The depth of this feature ts shown to be about 350 and 250 feet respectively in the Alfred Flat and ‘Tin- tinara bores (Fig. 2). In the other bores of the district, those near Salt Creek and adjacent areas, the Precambrian rocks were reached apparently at depths of 190, 400, 518, two of over 600 feet and one of 924 feet. (Ward op, cit), In the latter bore, the drill entered tillite at 503 feet and continued in that for- mation to a depth of 924 feet. This tillite was encountered in one bore only and that one which reached the greatest depth before penetrating the Precambrian floor. Such a valley could have been an erosion feature or be of tectonic origin. In view of the stage to which peneplanation appears to have progressed in this part of Aus- tralia before the formation of the Murravian Gulf, its origin as a river valley cannot be supported, nor could it be supposed that marine erosion after sub- 243 mergence would have excavated it in the resistant ancicnt racks, The sug- gestion (Ward 1944) that the tillite probably is of Permo-Carboniferous age indicates that this valley, like the Inman Valley further to the west, may be the result, in part at least, of Late Palaeozoic glacial erosion. On the other hand, this glacially filled valley could have been tectonic, originating in Early Tertiary times, but the available evidence does not support this. On the whole, the evidence appears to favour the existence of an old glacial valley, probably Permo-Carboniferous, in which the soft glacial de- posits were preserved at the level which subsequent peneplanation of the adjoining areas achieved. If that is the correct explanution, then the ad- vance of the sea in Tertiary times to form the Mtirravian Gulf would have resulted in the removal, partial or complete, of the boulder elay from the greater part of the valley; then would follow the gradual deposition, on the tillite where such remained and on the Precambrian rocks where these had been exposed, of the sediments of Miocene age encountered in the various bores, The subsequent retreat of the sea during the later part of the Pliocene Epoch to the East Naracoorte shoreline would expose the Lower Pliocene deposits to erosion in the shallowed seas and effect their complete removal and partial removal of the Miocene sediments. It is highly probable that during Upper Pliocene times when the sea still covered the region to the south-west of the East Naracoorte Range, a deptes- sion persisted in this area and was filled with, and still contains Upper Plio- cene deposits protected from erosion during the Pleistocene Epoch. This supposed deposttion of Upper Pliocene and some Pleistocene sedi- nients would thus account for the sharp break between the Miocene and the Upper Pliocene or Pleistocene sediments as recorded tn some of the bores, Ik] Murravian The Murravian deposits are defined here as those which were laid down on the surface of the former peneplain from the time that diastrophism began to dismember it; deposition continued during the period of submergence by the sea and until the sea retreated finally to the East Naracoorte shoreline, 4a total time range, as stated earher, of probably from the Upper Cretaceous tu the close of the Lower Pliocene. As stated above, the older stages appear to have been terrestrial and were succeeded during ihe Miocene and Lower Pliocene by marine sedimentation. No marine deposits of Lower Pliocene age have been recorded to the south-west of the East Naraeoorte Range but as will be shown later, are believed to have existed and to have been removed from this sector by subsequent marine erosion. Deposits of marine origin of Miocene age occur throughout the region, at the surface in the southern art of the area and at variable shallow depths in all except a few limited localities in the northern part of the area. Detailed descriptions of these rocks are available in the literature, and investigations being carried out by the Geological Survey of South Australia will add considerably tu our knowledge of these sediments. They consist predominantly of limestones, some af which have heen dolomitized. This dolomitization appears to haye affected some beds over considerable arcas and it may be found that some horizons have been changed completely. One of the most spectacular can be seen at the Up-and-Down Rocks near Tanta- noola. Here the resistance to weathering and erosion of the locally dalomi- tized limestones has produced a cliff formed by wave action during a former higher sea level, and has enabled this cliff, described by some writers as a fault scarp, to withstand erosion sufficiently to remain a prominent feature. 244 In many places the soft Polyzoal Miocene limestones contain vast num- bers of flints. Exposures are particularly good along the coastal cliffs be- tween Capes Banks and Northumberland, but outcrops showing these flints can be seen at a number of localities inland, especially in quarries, sinkholes and eaves. Whether these flints occur on definite stratigraphical horizons was not determined, but they do occur at intervals in ihe sequenee. ‘They vary considerably in size, colour, shape and texture, ranging from large tabu- lar masses to small nodules, and exhibiting a wide range of colour with dark- grey to bluish-black predominating. While it was found that under certain conditions these fiints weather and disintegrate rapidly, their relatively greater resistance to erosion has resulted in the accumulation, during former stillstands of the ocean, of numerous deposits which testify to former marine action. Their occurrence in many localities and in large numbers as residual beach pebbles, as well as in immense banks on parts of the shore, made them the natural and predominant material in the manufacture of artefacis by the aborigines, who have left enormous numbers of these stone tools on their former camping grounds. In some areas weathering of these flint artefacts has affected the whale of the object and although it still bears the shape given to it by the native, ir is naw a white porous material and in some instances ermubles when struck. There are many artefacts, however, in which weather- ing is incomplete and which on being broken show a zone of weathered material surrounding a core of unweathered flint, the core mheriting approxi- mately the shape and faces given io the original fragment by the maker (Mitchell, 1943; Campbell, 1946), The Miocene sediments have undergone slight folding movements. Evi- dence of this folding can be seen in the gorge of the Glenelg River, on the surface near Mount Salt station and near Burnda Railway Station, and may, although other explanations are possible, account for the dune paitern near Cape Banks and Narrow Neck. The Miocene limestones as secn on the coastal cliffs between Cape Nor- thumberland and Cape Banks appear to have a very slight dip northwards. There is also, as stated earlier, the regional warping which has produced a general west-north-westerly tilt of the surface in the terrain north of Mount Burr and a south-south-westerly slope in the area to the south. Whether the folding and warping occurred at subsequent times or whether they were con- temporaneous is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss, Reference must be made, however, to two major faults which have been referred to repeatedly im) the literature. These are the Naracoorte and Tartwaup Faults, The Naracoorte Fault is stated (Fenner, 1930) to coincide approximately with the Naracoorte Range. This fatilt may exist, but the present writer has seen no evidence which would support this contention and considers that all the fuatures observed by him can be explained more satisfactorily as haying been produced by marine crosion. ‘The Tartwaup Fault (Ward, Crocker, Tindale, Fenner, Stephens) which jg stated to pursue an arcuale course to the south and west of the Mount Burr Range, is another instance for the acceptance of which the writer te- quires additional evidence. It is true that the evidence cited by Ward (1846) cf change in hydraulic jevel is strong, but it is not conclusive. The other features considered Ly Ward and others as evidence in support, namely the steep front of the Up-and-Down Rocks and the springs to the west of the Mount Burr Range are, it is believed, due to other factors. The Up-and- Down Rocks appear to be a wave-cut cliff im relatively resistant rocks. The existence of a sea-caye (Tindale, 1933) and the discovery by the writer on 245 top of the cliff of calcareous dune limestone similar to that forming the other stranded dunes of the region, support this view. The springs to the west of the Mount Burr Range do not exhibit a linear arrangement except for short distances and many other springs occur elsewhere. These springs appear to Le part of the natural drainage through and beneath the dune ranges as described earlier, If the Naracoorte or Tartwaup Faults do exist, and this has to be proved, then it seems probable that they are at least of Tertiary age and pre-dale the oscillating retreat of the sea from the East Naracoorte shoreline. TV Post-Mugravian These ate grouped as follows >— a, Calcnreous dunes g. Swamp deposits h. Siticeous sands h. Voleame accumulations c. Waterworn quartz grit arid pebbles i. Lunettes d. Waterworn fits j. Kunkar travertine e. Possil shells k. Laterite f. Lacustrine hmestones a. The Calcareous Dunes These, the dominant form of surface relief of the region, have been described and their origin discussed by several observers. The impression gained from the literature is that of a region consisting of a pla sloping gently seaward in a south-westerly direction, and bearing upon it a series of dune ranges parallel or approximately so to the coastline, each dune rising from progressively lower parts of the plain as one travels towards the coast, This over-simplification of what is actually a complex pattern has led io serious misconceptions and errors itt altempls to reconstruct the geological development of the region. The. tendency to group together a number of individual dune ranges without determining whether they have had situilar or different histories, the failure to realise the importance of those areas in which the dune ranges so far from being parallel to the coastline intersect it, the neglect of the variations in direction, horizontal and vertical spacing of the ranges, and of lhe great diflerences in amount both of erosion and chemical processes, have prevented hitherto a proper consideration and detai‘cd study of the problems itrvolved. It is generally agreed that these ranges were [ormed as the result of still- stands of the sea and correspond approximately to the shorelines thus produced, The ranges possess in gencral a north-westerly trend and approximately at right angles to the prevailing wind. Although acctimulation and modification by wave action was an important and probably the only factor in the carly stages of development of most if vot all of the dunes, wind sorting and piling became the dominant process once these accumulations projected above sea-level. As ts to be expected in acolian deposits of this type, they exhibit to leeward, that is on the inland and nottheastern flanks, the usual intricate pattern. On the wind- ward or seaward and south-western side they have, over considerable distances, straight or smoothly curved edges. In other sectors the elges vary Jrom a regular sawtooth or rake pattern to highly irregu'ar meanderings and conyolutions. Further, the ranges from the East Naracoorte seawards 4s tar as and meluding the East Avenue Range, exhibit im general an arcuate trend concave towards the south-west. Irom and including the West Avenue Range, the arcuate trend persists but is cuncave towards the north-east. This latter tendency becomes less marked as the coast is approached and in the Woakwine and Canunda Ranges it appears to be a minor [eatire only.. During the present investigation it was found that the region could be divided rouglily into three sectors, The north-western sector in which inhers 246 oi igneous rocks are numerous but separated into two groups by a filled valley probably of glacial origin, contains a large number of relatively closely spaced dune limestone outcrops, Many of these are very irregular in form and obscured considerably by more recent drift sand, so much so [hat their delimitation must be regarded as approximate only in many instances and others probably exist ef which no indications were observed. Erosion, considered to be partly marine and partly lacustrine, has played a large part in the removal of evidence of former continuity of individual dunes and hence makes it difticult to identify and trace some of them, The increasing effects in a north-westerly direction of downwarp and probable isostatic movements, and the almost complete absence of surveyed levels, indicate that this sectur was unsuitable for the initial study of the develop- ment of the dune ranges, In the south-eastern sector the presence oi volcanic accumulations, the large amount of marine erosion in the southern and western portions, the effect of downwarping as shown by the relatively much steeper gradients of the basement as compared with the areas to the north-west, and the scarcity of available sur- veyed levels were factors which made this sector unsuitable for the intitial study of the dune limestones. The central sector, where the basement gradients are very low, the dune ranges relatively widely spaced, comparatively regular and continuous, and no igneous outcrops are known, is also the sector in which surveyed levels are sufficiently numerous for the construction of a provisional contour map of the basement on which the dines wete deposited, It is in this Sector therefore that the various dune ranges and their development were studied initially, and from which the mapping and investigation were extended to the north-west and south-east. The north-western and south-eastern sectors yielded much additional evidence relevant to the problems investigated, but it is the central sector, in which the general evidence is much clearer and less confused by other features, which was used primarily in the grouping and classification of the dune ranges, The grouping of these ranges by various observers has resulted generaily in the recognition of seven stages, the Naracoorte. Cave or Stewart's, Baker’s, East Aventie, West Avenue, Reedy Creek and Woakwine Ranges, Although recognising the existence of the above seven ranges as well as of the Dairy Kange, Tindale has related all of them to five terraces, the Naracoorte, Cave, East Avetite, Reedy and Woakwine Terraces, This grouping of numbers of ranges may have been influenced by the remarkable tendency of most of the ranges as they continue to the north-west tu approach each other and in many instances. to merge so completely as ta he mseparable, The presenr examination and mapping of the region and study of thousands of survey levels milicate that such simplified grouping is not in accordance with the individual histories of the varjous ranges. The writer has been compelled, in listing the various ranges, to name some for which no names could be discovered, namely the Canunda, Neville, Lucindale, Peacock and Woolumbool, and also io separate others into their components. These are the East and West Naracoorte, the East and West Dairy and the East aud West Woakwine Ranges, which are believed to have succeeded each other and formed partly on the eroded remnants of their predecessors, Thus the number of existing ranges mapped 1s eighteen, which with the two carlier Woakwine Ranges now eroded gives a total of twenty separate ranges to be accounted for (see fig. 3. The evidence, which is particularly noticeable cn the acrial photo- graphs, of remmants of beach and dune ridges in several arcas where no dtines exist today or where they do exist but possess trends at variance with those of the remnants, as well as the oceuryetce of isolated dune remnants in the wide flats separating the dune ranges, can be regarded as evidenve thar other ranges 247 have existed which have been eroded and removed almost completely. By follow- ing the beach ridge remmants along the strike some are found to disappear gradually, some terminate abruptly and others such as those north of Kingston can be traced to gradually rising ridges until they form the Neville Range. Other examples can be seen in the Reedy Creck and West Avenue Ranges and else- where, It is reasonable to suppose therefore that some at least of those low dune limestone outcrops and ridges which cannot be followed to \an existing range, EWE NARACOORTE ‘WOOLUMBDOL Va] HARPERS REEDY CR. EAST AVENUE A FEACOC WEVILLE | WEST AYEMUE BA RORIZ SCALE £2 sh re Fig. 3 Diagrammatic Section from Cape Rabelais to Naracoorte, may be the last remnants of former dune ranges which have been denuded. This raises the question of how many ranges may have existed, of the location of which not even traces remain. If transgression of the sea took place very slowly, of sea-level remained stationary for a long period at a level at which erosion of a former dune could occur, or if such advance of the sea took place before the cementation had time to produce a resistant shell, thet erosion could remove rapidly the whole or ihe greater portion of the dune and leave only a shoal or eras¢ it completely, That such has occurred in the past is showz by the numerous remnants scattered throughout the region and supported by the number of eroded surfaces exposed by two drain cuttings of the Mount Tope and L drains, in which it can be seen that several successive dunes were formed and partly removed by marine crosion on the present site of the Woakwine Range, leaving fossil shells and rounded pebbles on the erosion surfaces (fig. 4). SURFACE OF CALCAREOUS DUM ay POINT OF SECTION seria sa fier AMOVE SEA LEVER — nS Loe 2S WOE ERNIE LEE aa LEQ LL. EE LEW PP NGS wt hy SANS LEE NN E ay REN CAE Qk: Le ee. OSE ae XN cn IIIS ESS LO . a HORIZON” 5 ape LEN o Se _— : eS to = -f ove . _ — aww = 2 SSS ~~ —_ ary 2 ee a ; NADA CS oS HORIZON B. — Se = Se Se) SS ee eae -- ae OS eee rae See —— s hi WOR ee Cis LLL Lf Yj tee ae LILI ODL OLE Ss aS Z oe ———— =" AQUEOUS EROSION SURFACE 5. OL EE WOARWINE Re SSNS = GF DRlIN pretax joon aanve seb ivan A < scale VERT, & a Fie. 4 Section of purt of Deain L through the West Woakwine Range (Current bedding diagrammatic.) 248 Tt niust be noted alsa that formation of these dunes did nut cease at the present shoreline which is at a much higher level than during past glaciations, during some of which world sea-level is believed to have been lowered by several hundred feet. When this occurred many dunes probably formed at the variuus shillstands. Close bathymetric survey of the continental shelf adjacent to the region may supply some evidence which, if it could prove the existence of sub- merged dunes or their remnants, would support the belief that in this region the dune ranges were formed as a result of eustatic variations of sea-level due to glaciation and deglaciation. The succession of ranges [rom the East Naracoorte seawards exhibit great differences in degree and ameunt ef erosion, Some appear to have suffered little, others show planed-off summits or wave-cut platfarnis, sea caves, blowholes and eroded channels, and others are merely ciscontintious remnants of former long camtinuous ranges, such showing in many places low level platforms of dune liine- stone between their still existing higher segments, Keighr and width vary greatly in some, while others presetve relatively even summuts for long distances. In the southern part of the region the ranges can be classtiied as little eroded, con- stlerably croded, very much eroded and remnants, In the northern part of the tegiou north of Kingston. erosion appears to have heen general and intensive. Chemical processes affecting ihe dune ranges have been chiefly those of solu- tion and redeposition,of calcium carbonate. The solution within the surface zone and deposition of the calciunt carbonate, the chief constituent of the dunes, had the twofold effect of producing an upper terra rossa and a lower cemented zone, the latter resulting in solid limestone of variable degrees of perfection and thick- ness. In some localities such as near Kongorong, some of the limestone hag the appearance of coursely crystalline marble, whereas in the Canunda Range, the youngest of the existing ranges, the result is a loosely compacted material, just ceherent enough to withstand wave action sufficiently to produce cliffs and seastaclts. The depth and degree to which such cementation has developed will depend on a munber of factors, The original material which consists of shell debris, commurnulted Miocene limestone and other minor constituents, is generally similar throughout. Rainfall must have varied considerably from time to time during the existence of the ranges, so that probably all gradations from light to heavy aunual precipitation have been experienced by them. The chief variable factors therefore appear to have been the Iength of tine over which these chemical pro- cesses have operated and the freedom from or alternatively the sttbjection to erosion, chiefly marine, which the dune ranges have experienced. Any lengthy perod wf marine erosion weuld remove all or at least considerable portions of ally cetiented crust that may have been formed, and therefore atiy such removal would result in not only a thinner erust today in the dune remnants, but because of djfferential erosion would add another factor to those responsible for local yaridlions in the penetration and consequent depth of the cemented layer. The absence of deep cementation aud its irregular variaiions in depth can be observed or inferred in the cuttings for drains passing through the ranges, The necessity to face with stone large portions, especially the deeper sections, as well as the incoherent material visible in some sections that have not been faced, shaw clearly the superficial nature of the cementation in many scctors, lt Follows from the above that those ranges which ate the oldest and have in addition not been exposed to marine erosion, will exhibit the greatest depth and extent of cementation, It is important therefore ta note that of all the ranges only the East ati) West Naracoorte and the Cave Ranges appear to have developed cementatiun to depths sufficient for the subsequent formation of extensive solu- 249 tion chambers and caves whenever the water table, which no doubt experienced considerable fluctuations in level, was favourable for stich a development. In addition to the dune ranges and remnants af these which have been described at length, there are other dune limestones which have not formed, nor do they form ranges, but are deposits on other hills and elevations. They occur on nearly every voleanic hill examined, and the localities itclude Mounts Muirhead, Graham, Muir, Maclutyre, and Burr, The Lookout, Bluff and Campbell's Hull, some unnamed hills in the Mount Burr Range, and the Up-And-Down Rocks. On the western face of Mount Burr they occur up to a height of over 650 Leet above sea-level, and despite the cover of pines can be traced almost continuously down to the foot of the hill to-a height of approximately 200 feet above sea-level. This occurrence of dune limestone is helieved to have formed a continuous dune, piled up in sheet form against the seaward face of Mount Burr. It may and probably does represent the net accumulation during several pauses in the retreat of the sea during the development of several glactations. Subsequetit erosion, chiefly marine, appears to have rermoyed the dune limestone along the frant oi the hill, leaving a “window” of volcanic material partly framed by the remaining dune limestone (fiz. 5). t SUHWIT. &. SM. oF Mr OUIm Our LIMESTONE tite ouine LIMESTONE Dn VOLCANIC “ASH (2 2 SSE tae Oe SS eee — MIOCENE LIMESTONES SCALE g=) 2 Fig. 5 The dune limestone on the vatious volcanic hls and on top of the Up-and« Down Rocks occurs at such widely different elevations as to precluile elevation by Liock fanlting, but suggests rather aeolian accumulations against convenient resting points on former shorelines, Some work had been done on the beach ridge systems fringing Guichen and Rivoli Bays, when ihe author was iiformed that these were being examined in detail hy other workers, The present paper therefore records merely the existence of these relatively recent deposits. bh. Siliceous sands The residual terra rossa would, no doubl, as pointed out by Crocker (1941, 1946a), give rise, especially during an atid period, to deposits of siliceous sand winnowed from the residue left after the removal by solution of the calcium carbonate. The subsequent distribution of the sands inland over the region is held to have been responsible (Crocker op. cit) ior the vast accumulations of these siliceuuz sands throughout the region, These deposits, except for small isolated arcas stich as the Belt Range north of Hatherleigh, occur on and [o the east of the Reedy Creel Range, as is to be expected if that is their origin, atid if the prevating winds which are [rom the west-south-west at the preset Ume had a simiar ortentation during mos{, if mot the whole of the Pleistocene Epoch. However, to attribute the enormous amounts of these sands existing in the region to the winnowing, during one arid period, of the siliceous fraction From the terra rossa developed on the dune ranges, appears to the writer incredible. When the total area covered by these sands is considered and compared with that of the dunes from the former surface soils of which it is said to be derived ( and that implies only those dunes to windward, that is, west-south-west), it would appear that other factors must be considered as well. It seems that several other processes acting titlier separately or cumulatively may have contributed materially to these deposits. Keble (1947) has postulated repeated periods of atidity or of low rainfall during corresponding phases of 250 glaciation in the Pleistocene Epoch. During each period of aridity the terra rossa produced during the intervening period would be winnowed and supply its quota of siliceous sand, probably greatest after the initial cementation of the dune limestone, but varying as well with the duration of each period during which downward transference of calcium carbonate took place. Several such fierinds of aridity, if their occurrence is confirmed, could supply a more satisfactory explanation for the Jarge accumulations of siliceous sands than does the one period generaliy postulated. The discovery by the writer of specimens of Anadara trapesia ( Arca) on a fossil beach (fig. 4), which is overlain by the present Woakwine Rance of dune limestone, indicates a warmer climate than that of today (Crucker, 1946a). The statement hy Crocker (op. cit) that the Woakwine Range is pre-Arid, and the suggestion (Crocker, 1946c) that these warmer seas may have heen co-incident with the last great period of aridity, indicates that there could have been more than one such period. The rises in sea-level, indicated by the fossil beaches and erosion surfates shown im fig. 4, and produced, tt is believed, by reduction of the ice-caps during warner intervals, suggest the possibility that arid climatic conditions may have recurred during the Pleistocene Epoch. The possibility must be admitted that winnowing of the surface soils of other dunes on terrain new submerged by a subsequent rise of sea-level could have con- tributed to the supply of acolian sands, but this must be regarded at present as a possibility only, Consideration of the problems involved indicates that detailed bathymetric and palacoclimatological research is necessary for a discussion of this aspect. Further, the erosion by marine action of former dune ranges, and the pro- bability that accumulations of siliceotis sands could result, must be considered. Finally, the occurrence of large deposits of quartz grit and pebbles, as in the Mount Muirhead area, which appear to have been transported to this district by river action probably from Victoria, suggests another source which could, and no donbt did, supply large quantities of siliceous sands. The above detract in no way from Crocker’s recognition of the responsibility of an arid period for the distribution of the sands, but it appears probable that there were several arid periods during which the winnowme action occurred and that other factors assisted greatly in supplying the material for such distribution. In many areas the siliceous sands mask the subjacent dune limestones so completely that their existence is observable only in a few small isolated outcrops emerging fram the sand eover. Mapping in those sectors must be approximate only. The sands also cover very large parts of the Maunt Burr Range and adjacent arcas and obscure both volcanic and calcareous dune accumulations, c. Waterwvoarn quarts arit and pebbles Althougit deposits of waterworn quattz grit and pebbles have been found ou the surface ina tew places only, chiefy on the eastern flank of the Mount Burr Range atid to the south of Maynt Muirhead, the discovery of iuimerous perfectly rounded quartz pebbles from a bore to the west of Mount Muirhead suggests the passibility of the existence of other deposits of this type now obscured by more recent accumulations, This material could not have been derived from the local limestones, basalts or tuffs, but could in part at least have been derived irom the subjacent sunds.and grits. Much of it appears to have been of fuviatile origin and probably from Victoria, brought to this area by streams which later were captured and formed the present Glenelg River. The presence just over ihe border in Victoria of rocks from which this detrita] ywartz could have beer derived, Jends support to this view, which will be discussed later, 251 d. Waterworn Flints Waterworm flint pebbles are abundant i many localities and are so numerous {hat individual reference to all occurrences is impracticable here. As these flints were released in large quantities by marine erosion of the Miocene limestones, their presence as waterworn boulders, especially if in large numbers, 1s of great assistance in determining the location of former shorelines and also the presence, generally in close proximity, of the parent rocks. For instance, the separation af the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges on the western flanks of the Mount Burr Range was difficult because the relatively high gradient of the basement in this sector when these ranges were formed, resulted in their close proximity, and the absence of the wide interdune flat which divides them further to the forth where the basement had and still has a gentler slope. The two ranges, consisting as they do of a number of parallel ridges, could not be separated on morphological evidence, The existence, however, of a relatively long swale, :n appearance little different from the intradune swales, which is Hoored wiih water-worn flints and contains a few boulders of polyzoal limestone (Miocene), was reparded as sufficient evidence for placing the dividing line along this valley. Crocker (1946a) expresses the view that his Site 9, apparently the same as the one just described, “is probably clasely correlated with the Joyce Flat between East Avenue and Baker’s Ranges.” The present writer considers that the available evidence does nat support Crocker’s view, Similarly, Crocker's Site 5 marks an old shoreline which continues along the corridor between two dunes referred to by him and divides the dunes into two distinct zroups, the Reedy Creek and the West Avenue Ranges. The occurrence of flirts on the flats immediately to the east of Mount Graham (Stephens, 1941) led the writer to search for and locate the Miocene limestones on the hillside above, Flints occur on the planed-off stummils. and in the swales of the Reedy Creek Range near Butrtingule, indicating its. former submergence. They occur plentifully on the flats between Burrungule and The Bluff where Miocene litnestones outerop or lie just beneath the surface. Similar examples could be cited for numerous localities, Many of the older flint accumulations have been buried by drift sand, as can be seen in a number of places where they can be followed from areas clear of cover, towards areas in which they become obscured more and more, until no. stirface evidence of their existence cat) be seen. There must therefore he many more areas than are known at present where deposits of this type occur, The ocenrrenice of flints along the present shoreline and also at slightly higher levels. inland, in enormous quantities at intervals between Cape Banks and the Victorian border, has heen utilized extensively for industrial purposes. ce, Fossil Shells Deposits of shells marking the locations of former beaches occur both on the surface and buried by more recent deposits. A nuimber have been described (Crocker, 1946a). As is to be expected in 4 vegion which has experienced suc- cessive advances and recessions of the sta, deposits of fossil shells are very numerous, In view of the large number of these depusits ocevrring at the surlace, the Jarge areas covered hy more recent matesial and the number discovered beneath the surface by pits and wells put down for other purposes, il ig veason- able to assume that very many more exist than have been discovered. The oecurrenre of these shells at widely different levels has been interpreted variously in the past, both uplift of the land or rise and fall of séa-level having teen held responsible, The freshness Booleooraria Hills, South Australia. ; ( Wawene ry, H.B. Bey Studies: “our tie- ‘Marie "Albse Ze Soutien: Australia, “No. ge : _ Notes’ on Dictyopleris Lamourbiise > ers mie Maws0y, Dew The Piatind Glaciation, nok Third Recurrence. of + Glaciation evidenced in. Sethe. Adelaide “System, | ates og WPS Sa Tike Pwr A are age m seee ates “Jor, R.K.,-and KRUGER, FM: he nineee Bates anid: Monarto- foassstes aris s = Associated: Rocks of the. Msancrniy porehter: pind ties ee Stee sere - - + ‘ er + - PART 1 zi = 53 “-Bonvitnox: 6. Wee Evaporation: Stasis ne some South Australia Data par: _Coores, HM: Stone Implements Troi a Mangrove Meine ‘at South. Glenelg Mawson, D Wer Basaltic Lavas ofthe Balleny lands. A.NA.R.ED Report 1. Seer Pawn! S.: The Late Cainozoic History. of the South-East ab South, Australia “Love, “hs R. aa a Teriahtns +S aoe