= Ie 4 Jj d yy, ‘eS ere —_ VOL. 86 MARCH, 1963 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED ADELAIDE PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY'S ROOMS KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE Price: Three Pounds Three Shillings CONTENTS G. M. CurprenpaALe: Contributions to the Flora of Central Australia M. J. Tyter: A Taxonomic Study of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Central Highlands of New Guinea, with Notes on their pean de: and Bucleey I Anura: Microhylidae .. G. M. CurerenpALe: The Relic Nature of Some Central Australian Plants ze C. Spricc: Geology and Petroleum Prospects of the Simpson Desert R. C. Spricc anp J. B. Wootiey: Coastal Bitumen in Southern Australia, with Special Reference to Observations at Geltwood Beach, South- East South Australia ) i im = M. J. TyLer: A Taxonomic Study of Amphibians and Reptiles of the Central Highlands of New Guinea, with Notes on their nese and PEERS: If Anura: Ranidae and Hylidae x C. P. Mountrorp anp R. Epwarps: Rock Engravings of Panaramitee Station, North-Eastern South Australia .. = . WoMERSLEY: Two New SEeHes of Acarina from Bat Guano from Aus- tralian Caves ' a “se H. Womerstey: A New Species of Forcellinia (Acarina, Tyroglyphidae ) from Bee Hives of Western Australia x Z 2 A a R. V. Sourncorr: The Smarididae (Acarina) of North and Central America and some other Countries 3 * i Re 4 H. Worrner: Post-Winton Sediments of Probable Mb es Cretaceous cae in the Central Great Artesian Basin List of Lectures and Exhibits 1961-62 Balance Sheet Award of the Sir Joseph Verco Medal and List of Fellows, 1962 Index 11 31 67 105 131 147 155 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA BY G. M. CHIPPENDALE Summary A varietal combination is made for Lysiana exocarpi var. spathulata. New records are given for nine species, with notes on six species, while two species are deleted from the Check List of Central Australian Plants. CONTRIBUTIONS TO TIE FLORA OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA No, 3 by G. M. CurepenpaALe® [Read 12 October 1961] SUMMARY A varietal combination is made for Lyyiana exocarpi var. spathulata, New records are given for nine species, with notes on six species, while two species are deleted from the Check List of Central Australian Plants. GRAMINEAE Stipa scabra Lindl, 8 m. west-north-west of Ayers Rock, M. Lazarides, 7:5/1956 (Herb. Aust. ML6152). A new record for Central Australia. Triodia clelandii N. T. Burbidge. This species replaces Triodia sp. nov, aff, brizoides mentioned by Chippendale (1959). Triodia hubbardii N. T. Burbidge. This species replaces Triedia sp, nov. aff, pungens mentioned by Chippendale (1959). PROTEACFAE Takea purpurea Wook. This was originally inclided in the Check List on the basis of a specimen collected by Tietkens in 1889 between Lukes Amadeus and MacDonald. However, this specimen is not of H. purpurea, but has affini- ties with that species, and will need further collecting to clarity its position. LoRANTUACEAL Lysiana exacarpi (Behr. ex Schlecht.) Tiegh. var. spathulata comb, nov. Syn. Loranthus exocarpi Behr. ex Schlecht. var, spathulata Blakely in Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W. 30 (1925) 10. Recent records of this variety inchide: 7 m. north of Aileron, on Acacia voriacea DC,, R. E. Winkworth, 20/3/1955 (Herb. Aust. REW930), Ormiston Gorge, on Callitris hugelii (Carr.) Franco, G. Chip- pendale, 25/5/1956 (NT2095). Palm Valley, on Ficus platypada A. Cunn., D. J. Nelson, 15/8/1961 (NTS8355). Palm Valley, on Cullitris hugelit (Carr,) Franco, D. J. Nelson, 15/8/1961 (NTS356). Palm Valley, on Melaleuca glomerata ¥, Muell., D, J. Nelson, 15/8/1961 (NT8359)}. Palm Valley, on Mela- leuca linariifolia Sm., D. J. Nelson, 15/8/1961 (NT8362), CHEXOPODIACEAE Bassia biflora (B.Br.) F. Muell. Previously reeorded at Crown Point, Finke River, in 1913, hy S. A. White, this species has again been recorded, but 4 Animal Industry Branch, Dept. of ‘Verritories, Alice Springs, N,'l’. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, (1963), Vol. 86. 8 G, M. CHIPPENDALE is apparently a rare species in Central Australia. Burt Plain, 36 m, north of Alice Springs, G. Chippendale, 22/6/1961 (NT8053). Bassia glabra F. Mucll. Tanami, G. Chippendale, 10/4/1959 (NT5594). A new record for Central Australia. PORTULACACEAE Portulaca bicolor F. Muell. var, rosea Maiden et Betche, Paddy’s Rockhole, #m. south-west of Arltunga, G. Chippendale, 25/3/1958 (NT4087). Ooraminna Pass, G. Chippendale, 29/7/1956 (NT2376), A new record for Centra) Australia, MIMOSACEAL Acacia oswaldii ¥, Muell. 37 m., north-cast of Lake Mackay, G, Chippen- dale, 16/6/1957 (NT3378). 40-50 m. west of Haast Bluff Settlement, A. J. Mahood, 12/8/1961 (NT8378). A new record for Central Australia. EUPUORBIACEAE Euphorbia petala Ewart et L. R. Kerr. Wycliffe Well, A. J. Ewart, June, 1924, A specimen noted in the Melbourne Herbarium. A new record for Central Australia. ASCLEPIADACKAR Pentatropis linearis Decne. in DC. Prod. viii (1844) 536. Syn. P. kempeana F, Muell. in Wings Southern Science Record I (1882) 172. “Examination of types of these species at Melbourne Herbarium showed them to be of the same species, with the type of P. kempeana being depauperate. A further record of this species is 70 m. west-north-west of Mt. Singleton, G, Chippendale, 13/6/1957 (NT3348), Therefore, P. kempeana is deleted from the Check List. CONVOLYULACEAE Ipomoea polymorpha R. et Sch. James Range, I, Kempe, March 1885. A specimen noted while at interstate herbaria. A new record for Central Australia. VERBENACEAE Dicrastylis doranit F. Muell. var. doranii. 70 m. west-north-west of Mt Singleton, G, Chippendale, 13/6/1957 (NT3350). A new record for Central Australia, SOLANACEAE Nicotiana megalosiphon Heurck et Muell, Arg. Recorded by Buntidge (1960) as extending to Centra] Australia, and a further record is Long Hole, 30 m. north-west of Willowra H,S., G. Chippendale, 30/7/1958 (NT4754). FLORA OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA, No. 3 9 Solanum lasiophyllum Dun. Lassettcr’s Cave, Hull River, G. Chippendale, 24/6/1958 (NT4619), A new record for Central Australia. CoMPposirar Wedelia spilanthoides F. Muell. This is deleted from the list of Central Australian plants, as the only specimen on which the record was based (Herb. Aust. RAP3298) has now been determined as W. stirlingit Tate. Wedelia stirlingti Tate. Previously synonymised under W. cverbesinoides F. Muell, ex Benth. by J. M. Black (1934), but new considered to be worthy of distinction. The long peduncles and linear lanceolate leaves are consistent in this species in Central Australia. 25 m. north-east of Undoolya Station, R. A. Perry, 6/3/1953 (Herb. Aust. RAP3298). 3 m, south of Glen Helen, G. Chip- pendale, 4/2/1955 (NT779). Palm Valley, G. Chippendale, 15/4/1956 (NT2031). Standley Chasm, G. Chippendale, 17/11/1954 (NT523). Standley Chasm, R. A. Perry, 4/9/1955 (Herb, Aust. RAP5384). Wedelia verbesinoides F. Muell. ex Benth. Records of this species in Central Australia are of W. stirlingii Tate, as mentioned before. REFERENCES Buack, J. M., 1934. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 58 (1934), pp. 184-5, Buremwcr, N. T., 1960, Aust. J. Bot., 8 (October, 1960), p. 369. Curerenpa.e, G. M., 1959. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust,, 82 (1959), pp, 321-338. “Check List of Central Australian Plants”. Tate, R., 1896. Report of the Horn Expedition to Central Australia. Botany, 3 (1896). CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA BY MICHAEL J. TYLER Summary The present paper is based on the writer's observations on eight species of Microhylid frogs collected in the Central Highlands of New Guinea, of which Xenobatrachus rostratus and Metopostira ocellata are new records for the region. The eggs of Sphenophryne_ brevicrus, Asterophrys wilhelmana, Cophixalus darlingtoni and C. parkeri are described, and the method of hatching employed by Cuphixalus sop. is reported. Available data on all known eggs of the New Guinea subfamilies Asterophryinae and Sphenophryninae are tabulated revealing, contrary to previous opinion, that a mucilaginous cord does not connect the eggs of all species. From a consideration O F the diversity of the forms of development employed by congeners, it is suggested that biological data are unlikely to prove of much value in the determination of phylogenetic affinities. A TAXONOMIC STUDY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF NEW CUINEA, WITIL NOTES ON THEIR ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY 1. ANURA: Microhylidae by Micraun J. Tyner* [Read 12 October 1961] SUMMARY The present paper is based on the writer's. observations on eight species of Microhyhd frogs collected in the Central Highlands of New Guinea, of which Xenobatrachus rostratuy and Metopostira eeellata are new records for the region, The eges of Sphenophryne drevicrus, Asterophrys —wilhelmana, Cophixalus darlingtoni aud C. parkeri are deserihed, and the inethod_of hatching employed by Caphivalys spp. is reported. Ayailuble data on all known eggs of the New Guinea subfamilies Asterophryinae and Sphenuphryninae are tabu- lated tevealing, contrary to previons -apinion, that a mucilaginims eord does not connect the eggs of all species. From a consideration of the diversity of the fomus of development em- ployed by congeners, it is suggested that biological data ave unlikely to prove of mech value in the detennination of phylogenetic allinities, INTRODUCTION In a discussion of the various modes of development of the Microhylidac, Parker (1934) refers to the habit of metamorphosis within the egg, common to genera whose centre of origin and. distribution appears to be the Papuan region, and comments upon similarities between the deyelopment of New Cuimea Microhylids, and the Neotropical Leptodactylid genus Kleutheroductylus, Although the ecology of many Eleutherodactylus species has been established (Noble, 1926; Lutz, 1944, 1946; Adamson ef al., 1960; Vallet and Jameson, 1961), very little attention has been paid to the ecology of New Guinea Microhylids. Zweite] (1956a) emphasised the need for ecological information on New Guinea Microhylids, to facilitate the determination of phylogenetic alfinities, at present established solely by the comparison of morphological characteristics. The desirability of this combination of criteria for the amphibia had previously been recommended by Noble (1927). Since the publication of his 1956a paper, Zweitel has described Cophixalus shellyi (1956b), Xenobatrachus obesus (1960). CG, riparius and C, nubicola (1962), bringing the number of New Guinea Microhylids which he recognises to a total of sixty-three. The wppearance in life and habits of a dozen species are known from collectors’ notes, but a field survey on them has not previously been undertaken, The present paper records the writer's observations on the ecology and biology of eight species occurring in the Central Iighlands of New Gninea. It is based on the results of a survey conducted in the vicinity of Nonduyl (lat. * Department of Human Fhysiolagy and Pharmacology, The University af Adelaide. Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust. (1963), Vol. 26, 12 M. J. TYLER o°4u’S, long. 144*44°F.) in the Wahgi Valley, during the period January to July, 1960, and taxunomic studies at the British Museum (Natural Histary) from January to August, 1961, aud is the Hest of 9 series af papers on the herpetofauna of that region. GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL NOTES Future references to New Guinea will refer to the Australian Trusteeship Territory of New Guinea, previously known as “German New Guinea”, or the “Australian Mandated Territory”, unless otherwise stated, The term, “Central Highlands”, refers here to that ‘sector of the Western Highlands between Mount Wilhelm and Mount Hagen. The expression is not used by all the inhabitants, but it is employed here to prevent further confusion in the literature. The Wahgi Valley is situated at an overall altitude of approximately five thousand feet above sea-level and the climute is sub-tropical, Crass-cavered plains bordering the river terminate abruptly at the foot of the densely forested Wahgi-Sepik Mountain Divide to the north and the Kubor Range to the south, [t is the former range which comects. Mount Hagen to Mount Wilhelin and the highest peak in the vicinity of Nondugl is Mount Odan, estimated to exceed 12,300 feet. A sketch map of the area is depicted in Fig, 1, The herpetofauna of the area includes several species believed to be en- demie to the Central Highlands (Zweitel, 1956a, 1956b, 1958), Only two species of frous have heen celiably recorded on the Wahgi Plains (Tyla darlingtoni Loveridge and Runa grisea van Kampen), but at least sixteen Microhylids and Hylids are known to occur at higher altitudes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Field notes were compiled on details of habitat, colour in life, eall, eggs and development. Adult and juvenile specimens were killed by the injection of a 2-5 p.c. formalin solution into the abdominal cavity, and were preserved for nine months in a similar solution before being transferred into 40 p.c. alcohol, Eges were fixed in a 4 p.c, formalin solution to which cobalt nitrate and calcium chloride had been added. (For details sec Tyler, in press). Measurements quoted refer to these of preserved material unless otherwise stated, They were estimated to the nearest tenth of a millimetre with a Negretti and Zambra dial caliper. Body length : distance between tip af snout and anus. Ratio of the length of the tibia (measured from the convex surface uf the knee tu the tibio-tarsal joint, with the leg in the fMexed position), to the snaut-vent length (TL/S-V) is the reciprocal of that reecntly proposed and employed by Muore {1964 ), but follows the method of Zweifel, whose pipers are extensively referred to, Inter-orbital space : breadth of parietals at superior, medial borders uf orbits. Unless otherwisc stated, the shape of the canthus rustralis and snout is that seen when viewed from above. The ratio of the distance between eve and naris to interngrial distance is abbreviated as E-N/IN. In the original descriptions of several species the appearance of the tym- panum has been used asa characteristic, and is described as either “distinet® or “indistinct”. Use of the term “distinct” implies that the annulus surrounding the tympaaurn ts prominent, so that the tympanal region is raised. As the tympanum of specimens fixed in strong solutions of alcohol is often far more distinct than in a sevies of the same species fixed in weak formalin, the descriptions af this avea In the present paper are based on specimens fixed in both preservatives wherever this has heen possible. AMIHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM NEW GUINEA, 1 13 Although the collection was taken at the height of the breeding season, sex determination of specimens lacking distinct secondary sexual characters proved difficult, Sex ratios have therefore been omitted and the term “adult” is used to describe individuals regarded to be within the size range at whieh breeding occurs. The existence of native names for amphibians and reptiles vceurring in the Wahgi Valley has been reported previously (Tyler, 196la). The names used in the vicinity of Nondugl are of the Middle Wahi Dialect and are quoted when. they appear to be generally acecpted. The spelling of these names is purely phonetical and they are recorded here for the benefit of future field workers. The abbreviations of the names of institutions where the collection has been lodged are as follows: B.M. = British Museum (Natural History) A.M.N.H. = American Museum of Natural History Austral. Mus, = Australian Museum. SPECIES REPRESENTED Subfamily AsreRoPHrviInar Xenobatrachus rostratus (Méhcly) Choanacantha rostrata Méhely, 1898, Termés, Fiizetek, 21, p. 175. Material: Four specimens—Austral. Mus. B.16854; A.M.N.H. 67609; 1.M. 1961,877-878, Description: Single vometine odontoid beneath posterior medial margin uf each choana; snout obtusely pointed, distinctly prominent, twice as long as diameter of eye, smooth on all surfaces; canthus rostralig slightly rounded; loreal region oblique and concave; inter-orbital space less than three times as wide as an upper eyelid. Tympanum distinct, larger than diameter of eye; weuk supra-tyinpanic fold preseut. Fingers short, not dilated, second slivhtly shorter than the fourth. Toes with very slightly dilated discs, third much longer than fifth, inner metatarsal tubercle indistinct. Tibiotarsal articulation reaching the shoulder when adpressed. Anterior to the clayicles and parallel with them, are fwo pairs of thin dermal depressions. Skin of dorsal surface slightly tuberculose. Body length = 25-2-30-5 mm, (mean = 28-1 mm.). Colour in life of dorsal and Jateral surfaces of three specimens uniform slate, the fourth a dull orange. Tubereles black with light centres, forming distinct lingitudinal rows upon dorso-lateral surtaces. Extremely taint mid-dorsal stripe extends from the external nares to the anus, where it divides and continues along the upper surfaces of the thighs and posterior surfaces of the tibiae to the plantar surfaces which are grey in three specimens and black in B.M. 1961.877. Side of head slate; supra-tympanic folds black, tympanal urea dull orange. Ventral surface pale creamy-yellow marbled with slate, densely so upon the throat. Thin mid-ventral line extends from mandibular symphysis to omo- sternum and there divides, crosses approximately uver regiun of elavicles, and continues along posterior surface of arms to palms, This linc is paler than eeuund colour in B.M. 1961,877, but in others it is a narrow area upon whose borders the slate pigments terminate ubruptly. Palmar surfaces orange with Id M. J. TYLER grey patches, triangular in one specimen, but of no definite shape in others, Back of thighs and anal region black. No appreciable change in colonration has occurred in alcohol, Locality: All specimens were found beneath moss on 20.5.60 at the summit of a pass north of Banz (16 road-miles west of Nondugl), at an altitude of 9,000-9,500 fect upon the Wahgi-Sepik Divide. The pass was covered by low cloud, and the ground saturated with water. CE, "Dy re r , LL ‘®MINGENDE 4 A eee aes, EGE oO lO MILES Fig. 1. Wahgi Valley in Vicinity af Nonduyl, Remarks: In the original description by Méhely (1898) and the redeserip- tion by Parker (1934) the lightly pustulose nature of the skin was not mentioned, but the state of preservation of their specimens could have diminished the ap- parence of this feature. The yomerine odontoids are similar to their illustra- tions but the toes, although described hy Méhely as “Fecbly dilated” are not as dilated as in his plate, Parker mentions that the ventral surface of the snout is pustiJose. and Bonlenger’s (1898) illustration of the type of Choanacantha mehelyi (regarded to be conspecific with X. rosiralus by van Kampen (1923). and Parker (loc. cit.) ) depicts prominent pustules upon the anterier surface of the snout. Im the present series it is quite smooth vn all surfaces, The mid-dorsal stripe has been recorded by Burt and Burt (1932), van Kampen (loc. cit.) and Zweife) (1956a), to mention but a few authors and, where illustrated, is showa to be distinctive feature. Such a line is present in the serics under discussion, but so faint that it is hardly visible macrascopically, AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM NEW GUINEA, J 16 No mention has been made by any of the above authors of a mid-venteal line, and Dr. Zweitel, who kindly compared B.M. 1961877 with the only other specimen of X. rastratus then in the collection of the American Museum of Natural History (No, 23584), informs me that it differs conspicuously in the ventral pattern, L have examined the two specimens in the British Museum (®.M. 1921.11.11.5 = 1938.6.5.80), and find that the ventral surfaces of both ure white, densely marbled with pale brown—a difference that cannot be solely alhiibuted to the length of time they have remained in preservative. Neither of the specimens possesses 4 dark throat or a mid-ventral line. They would appear to he similar in this respect ta the ventral pattern of specimens examined by Vogt (1911), but Méhely mentions that there are more spots on the throat at the type than en the remainder of its ventral surface. Van Kampen states that the ventral surface is “flery red”, in life, and Parker alsu states. “red in life’, The present series is markedly different in this respect, and there is no appreciable change between colour in life and in preservutive. Development: The vegs of X restratus have not been found in their natural state, laut Path Parker and Méhely have reported that those within gravid fornales they examined were rmucrolecithal, The ovarian size of eggs from a 47 mm, specimen were found by the former author to have a diameter of 3-5 mm. Other members of the Asterophryinae lay eggs of large yalk size away from water and there is no free-swimming tadpole stage. Jt may be safely assumed that X. rostreatus undergoes a similar form of development, Distribution: Tt would appear from the literature that, although recorded from many localities upon the mainland of New Guinea this species is. rela- tively rare, for it has mevitubly heen recorded from single specimens, With the possible exception of X. macrops (van Kampen), this applies to other members of the genus, but the statement by Zweifel (19562) that X. bidens (van Kampen ) and X. ophiodon Peters and Doria are only known from single type specimens is at variance with Parker (1934), The latter author examined two specimens ot X. bidens and a specimen of X, ophiodon described as a cotype. This is the first time that X. rostratuy has been found in the Central High- lands und probably the highest allitide at which it has yet been recorded, Asterophrys wilhelmana Loveridge Asterophiys pansa 4ilhalmand Lovericlge, 1945, Bull. Mus. comp. Zool. Hary,, 101 (2), p. ATO, Material; Forty-nine specimens—Austval. Mus, R.16522-16629; B.M, 1961. 438-875. Twenty-six eggs — Austral, Mus. B,17605; A.M.N.H. 67614; BM, L961. BBL. Desecriplion: This sevies agrees im all respects with the description of the type series and, being symphygnathine, with the quulification of Zyveilel (1956a ). Body length ~ 17-1-58-5 mm. The only description of the colour in life of this species is Loveridge's note of “dark slate”, so the colour in life of the present series is recorded below. Dorsally dirk slate with a tint of violet (32 specimens), slate with brown patches (10), ue dark brown upon pale yellow (7). (The last mentioned form was predominant at altitudes above 9,000 feet.) Side of head darker than dorsal colour; behind the eye and travelling obliquely from the angle of the jaws to the forearm is a streak, yellow in the smaller specimens and slowly 16 M. J, TYLER deepening to a dull orange in these haviny a body length exceeding 45 mm. This pearking is common to all but eight specimens, and im four of these it has been replaced by small, spherical, white dots, most densely aggregated upon the tvinpanum, Ventral surface of body and limbs pale violet suffused with grey: palmar and plantar surfaces pale yellow; digits barred with brown. In one specimen the digits ure completely black, Jn alcohol the only change is thut the yellow or orange streaks have faded, Locality; The series was taken beneath rotting wood and in other damp situations in moss-forest on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide near Nondugl between 6,300 ft and 10,500 ft. during the period 1.4.60 to 9.6.60, Remarks: Fry (1916) erected the genus Aphantephryne for a series of six froys vollected by Mr. A. Guilianetti at 12.200 ft. on Mt. Scratchley, Papua, in 1898, and named the genotype pansa, The name of this monotypic genus was suppressed by Loveridge (1948) who demonstrated that, as the shape of the patalal ridges and terminal phalanges had been incorrectly depicted, the gencric characteristics were so slight that there were no longer grounds for maintaining Aphantophryne as distinct from Asterophrys, ta which he allocated pansa. Asterophiys wilhelmana was described as a sub-specics of A. pansa by Loveridge (loc. cit.), but was elevated to specific status when Zweifel (1956a} referted pansa to Cophixalus, Zwceifel pointed out that as pansa is eleutheroy- nathine, it could not be retained in.a genus which is essentially symphygnathine, The situation has therefore been reached where two representatives of different genera closely resemble cach other in their superficial appearance. ‘The present series compare favourably with a paratype ot twilhelmane in the Aus- tralian Museum (M.C.Z. 25919) and two further paratypes in the British Museum BM, 1947.1.3.90-91 }, Development; One 57 mm. female (Austral, Mus. R.16823) collected from betieath rotting vegetation on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide on 6.4.60, laid 53 eges in captivity on the same day, of which 26 were preserved. The eggs are of an extremely large size, the ova measuving 5-8-6:3 mm. in diameter and the albumen accounting tor no more than 0:2 mm. of these figures, In life and in preservative the colour of the ova is white, but not densely so—the appearance being like that of an wpaque glass. There is no mucilaginous connection between the eggs, each being laid separately. When freshly laid, the surface of the albuminous capsule is firm to the touch and the eggs de not adhere te one another, Additional eggs believed to be of the same species were found on several occasions, but rare y m aggre- gations of more than six. The smallest specimen knawn (M-C¥%. Paratype 25912 of 11 mm.) was collected by Capt. P. J. Darlington in the month of October, W944, Freshly Jaid eggs were observed by the writer in April, so this species is probably similar to other closely allied species in haying a developmental period estimated to range from eight to ten weeks, Although the habitats in which eggs were found were always saturated with water, it was discovered that total immersion of an encapsulated embrya inevitably caused death within a few burs. Eggs of Cophixalus pansus found by A. L. Rand in 1952. reported by Zweifel (1956a), were connected together in a bead-like string. Call: The call is very much like the grunt of a pig or, mure accurately, the inhalation of a human trying to imitate this sound, The duration of the cull is no mure than two seconds and it is repeated after long intervals. AMPHIBIANS AND RETILES FROM NEW GUINEA, J 1T Distribution: Asterophrys wilhelmana is apparently endemic to the Western Tlighlands, having only been reported from the type locality and Mount Hagen, The present material was therefore taken from an intermediate locality. Addi- tional specimens were recorded, but not retained, on mountains within a thirty- mile radius of Nondugl. Notes: The natives refer to the slate form as “Dort”, and the extreme brown forn as “Korga”. Specimens that are intermediate between these colour patterns may be known by either name. Metopostira ocellata Méhely Metopostira ooctlata Méhely, 1901, Termes. Fiizetek, 24, p. 100, Material; Ten specimens—Aushel. Mus. 2.16852, 17602, 17604; B.M, 1961, 831-837, Description: ‘The morphologica) characteristics of this series aeree with Parker's (1034) redeseription of the species, Body fength: 21-5-26-7 mm.; mean: 24:3 mm. The colour in life of dorsal and dorso-Jateral surfaces pale brown, Side of head from external nates, below canthus rostralis and eye, dark brown to black. Similarly coloured spot behind forclimb and above groin, connected hy dorsa- lateral streak which is continuous in four specimens und juterrupted in remainder. Throat grey, ventro-lateral body surfaces, thorax and upper abdomen pale red, profsely spotted with minute white spats, Lawer abdumen and thighs a pale olive green; back of thighs variegated with very dark brown in five specimens. Locality: All specimens were taken on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide at un alti- tude of 6,300 Ih. near the native village of Bilikep, three miles north of Nuudugl, One specimen wis found beneath uw flat stane near a stream on 4.4.60; six mare were taken at the same locality on the following day, and a Airther three be neuth rocks one hundred yards distant on 15,4.60, Remarks; A coloured plate included with the type description ( Méhely, 1901), depicts a distiuctly greenish-brown dorsal surface, aud a red and black ocellus above the groin. Van Kampen (1923) reports a red ocellus above the willa oF a specimen he examined and a yellow ocellus in the lumbar region. Parker (1934) also refers ta a red ocelhis, and this feature is still visible in a series of specimens in the British Museum collection (B.M. 1938,6.5,51-71), after over 20 years’ preservation. It was at first considered that this feature might be restricted to adult specimens, for those described by the former authors ave all in excess of 40 mm. body length The present series ave considered seinally mature, and alteration of the colow pattern of lrogs alter sexual maturity is unusual Brongersma (1953) reports an ovellis on a 24 mm, female lie examined, hut the presence or absence of colour ix not stated (Leiden Mus, 9536). Tt was noticed that the shape of the snout appeared cithér rounded or blunt winless particular care was taken to ensute that the head of the specimen was on a completely horizontal plane when viewed. When correctly positioned. the sniut tallied with Parker's description in being obtusely pointed. Denelopment: Van Kampen (10923) states, “the eggs in the avary are fow and large”. In the present series, a gravid female (B.M. 1961.836) was found to contain eg@s measuring approximately + mm. in diameter. The form of laid eggs and details of developmeit are unknown. is M. J. TYLER Distribution: Zweilel (1956a) refers to locality records scattered through- out the island of New Guinea. The present locality is at a slightly higher altitude than those at which this species has been previously recorded and is the first record in the Central Highlands. Notes; The stomach af one specimen (B.M. 1961.834) with a body length of 26+7 rn was found to contain wo earthworms measuring 55 mm, and 35 mm. in length. Subfamily SPHENOPHRYNINAE Sphenophryne brevicrus (van Kampen) Oxyelaciyla brevicrus van Kampen, 1913, Nova Cuinca, 9, p. 465. Material: Nine adult specimens, two juveniles and one egg. Austral. Mus. R.16855, T7601, 17603; A.M.N.H. 67615 (cee); B.M. 1961.1031-1039. Desoription: Agree well with the diaguosis of Parker (1934). Tympanum length/eye length = 0:601; TL,/S-¥ = 0-293, Body length: Adults, 21-0-23-0 mm.; mean 22-7 mm. Juveniles, 6-9 mm. and 7-0 mm, respectively. Colour in life of dorsal surface of lead, body and limbs brown, with in- distinet darker or lighter spots, Side of head yery dark brown, continuing as a broad stripe along the lateral surfaces to the sacral region where it descends wud beeomes much fainter, In three specimens the stripes are accompanied superiorly by a scries of faint spots, and inferiorly hy a greyish-brown line. Ventral surfaces generally grey, spotted with pale green on abdomen and orange on throat. Thin, pale m‘d-ventral line visible in one specimen. In aleohol the pattern is similar, but the colour of ventral surface much paler than in life. Locality: Collected at three localities on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide within 15 miles of Nondugl.at altitudes of 6,000-9,000 ft. during the period 4.4,60-20,5.60. All taken on saturated ground beneath moss. Remarks: The considerable differences in the relative tympanic size in three small groups of $, Brevicrys examined by Zweite] (1956a) resulted in that author's tentative suggestion that there might be a geographic trend. The ratio of 0-601 for the present series conforms to this suggestion. A similar trend was suggested for the (1L/S-¥V ratio with figures for Mt. Hagen and Mt. Wilhichn specimens being 0-295 and 0-267 respectively. The ratio of 0-293 for the present Wahgi-Sepik series is further evidence to support the theory of a trend und indicates a greater alfinity to the Mount Hagen group. The variation in colour has been discussed by Zweifel (luc. cit.) and Love- ridge (1948). The pattern of markings exhibited by the present series follows the illustration of van Kurnpen (1923). Development; Two specimens (B.M, 1961.1031-1032) found in small hallows beneath moss on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide at 9,500 It. on 21.35.60 were cach shelter- ing six yellow eges. The adults were squatting at the ends of their burrows eovermy the eggs with their bodies. The diameter uf each of the eggs was approximately 5 mm., and the albumen 0-2 mm. thick. They had been laid in the form of chains, cach egg being connected to its immediate neighbours by single cords of colourless mucilage. The cords were approximitely one milli- metre in diameter and five millimetres long. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILGS TROM NEW GUINEA, t 1g The eces were ut different stazes of development. Those of B.M, 1961,103) lad not yet formed limbs ov a tail, whilst the latter chain contained distinet piventten possessing fully-developed amd functional limbs and thin colourless tails, The adults were placed with the vygs in tins lined with moss until 27,5.60 when it was discovered that BM. 19617.1032 had eaten four eggs. The remam@der of the eggs of this specimen completed metamorphosis, The froglets emerged on 10.6.60 and, ufter preservation, were found to measure 6-9 mm. and 7-0 mm. respectively, At the time of emergence they were u pale eream in colour except for slight pigmentation on the head and anterior portion of the dorsal surfiece and the upper surface of the limbs. By 11.6.60 only one ex was found to be still alive and this wus preserved as A.M.N.H. 67615. Fourtcen eaus of this species were found on Mt, Wilhelm by Capt. P. |- Darlington, and these were also accompanied hy an adult specimen. Call: Loveridge (lo, cit.) records that a call heard by Darlington af alll- tudes of up to 13,000 ft..on Mt. Wilhelm and described as “a woodeny crouking call” was presumed to have been made by this species, The identity ol S. brevicrus as the species making this call must be regarded as. tentative. Distribution: This species has been recorded from many of the New Guinea mountain ranges and previous records include Mt. Wilhelm and Mt. ITagen, Notes: A specimen with a body length of 25 mm, was in the process of ingesting an earthworm when captured. Although in a contracted state, the earthworm was fuund to have a body Jength of 78 mm. when preserved. Cophixalus ateles (Boulenger) Sphenophrynd cteles Bowlenger, 1896, Ann. Mus. Star ual. Genova, 38, p. 708, Material: Twelve specimens — Austral, Mus, 8.16837, 16856; B.M. 1961. §S2-885, 945-946, 948: A.M.N.II, 6761()-67612. Description: Agree well with Boulenger's (i §98) deseription of morphology, but first finger less than one-half of the length of the second and finger dises twice instead of three times the breadth of the penultimate phalanx. Skin smooth but longitudinal dermal ridges extend along dorsal surface of all speci- mens. TL/S-V = 0-122 mean, Body Jength = 14:4-21:5 mm.; mean = 18-3 mm, Colour in life of dorsal surface of body grey, head darker. Interocular bar clearly present (two specimens ), faint (9), or absent (1); & narrow, cteam mid- vertebral suipe present (3) or absent (9). Side of head as dark as dorsal surface of head (3), or distinetly darker (9); tympanum masked by this dark patch (11), or clearly visible and grey (1). Ventral surface pale grey, Throat darker than thorax and abdomen (5), darkening Innited to lower jaws (6), or entire ventral surface the same colour (1). Groin and lower surface of thighs faint red in all specimens. Thorax stippled with white. Digits barred with grey, Dark patch armel anus. No appreciable change in colonration in preserved specimens, Locality; Taken beneath moss on ground in moss-forest between 1.4.60 and 20,5.60 at various localities on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide within 15 miles of Nondngl. Altitudinal range 6,300-9,500 ft. Remarks; Although Boulenger (1898) stated that his description of Cophixalus. (Sphenophryne) aleles was based on “several specimens” taken at 2n M. J. TYLER Moroka in eau by Dr. L. Lovin in 1893, it is only the two paratypes (orivinall cotypes) in the British Museum (b.M. 97,12.10.146-147 = 1947,2.19,6-7) whic have been the subject of any discussion in subsequent papers (Parker, 1934, Zweitel, 19568, 1956h), ‘Uhe latter anthar was in error when he stated (19562) that the species is known from only two specimens, for there are five additional specimens in the Museo Civico di Storia Nutorale at Genoa, which have becn esignated 3 Ioctotype (M.CS.N, 29116 A) aud four lectoparatypes (29116 B). hy Capucaceia (1957), Boulenger's illustration of the hand of one of the cotypes does not xpree favourably with the type specimens in the British Museum. As Parker (loc. cit.) pninted out, the first finger is shorter in the BM, types than is depictect, whilst the writer has found that the ratio of the width of the finger dises to the width of the penultimate phalanx is exaguerated and that the finger dises are net as abruptly truncate. Van Kampen (1923) suggested that the specimens of ateles might in Fact praye to be jnveniles of C. cerrueosns, tor he did not attach any particular im- partance tu the relative size-of the first finger. There is, however, no evidence to suggest that Me type specimens were immature, or thal growth of the digits is disproportionate if they had been. Zweitel (1956a) assigned a specimen of Cophixaluy from Mt. Hagen (A.M.N,I. 58170) to ateles, but commented that the tympanum was rather indistinct, wihvlst it was said to be distinct in ateles and that the finger dises were hot large and truneate as Parker (1934) had described them to be, Differences between two additional specimens collected hy the Rev. §, Shelly in the Wahi Valley and Parker's description were snch that Zweifel (1956b) deseribed the two specimens as shellyi and designated A.M.N.H, 58170 a paratype. Dr. Zweifel kindly examined three of the present scrics and opined (in litt,) that they agree well with the types of shellyi. In his description of shelyi, Zweitel states that it differs from the descrip- Hon. oF uteles in the following characteristics: “tympanum very indistinet: finer dises relutively smaller: side of head black, sharply contrasting with dorsal and lateral body surfaces”. The distinctness of the tympanum of the paratypes of ateles is mainly due to the fact that all pigments have now disappeared and the original pattern cannot he distinguished, A dark mask said to hs characteristic Of shellyi is absent in the uteles paratypes; but drawings of three of the lecto- paratypes supplied by Prof. EB. Tortonese reveal a dark streak running from the posterior carer of the eve, anterior to the tympanum, to the axilla ia two speci- mens, and scatterod dots on the side of the head of the third, The British Muscum paratypes lave body lengths of 12:5 mm, and 12.8 mm. respectively, and the TL/S-V mean is 0-415. The body lengths of the Genoa specimens are 13-)+ mm. (mean = 13-7 mm.), but their state of preservation is such that it is uot possible to obtain accurate measurements of the limbs. It does uppeur that shelly is even closer to ateles than originally suspected, hut until additional topotypre material of the latter iy obtained, the specific stutus of shellyi must remain suspect, and it seems prudent to assign the present material to ateles, Distribution: Cophivalus ateles is ouly known from the type locality of Morokn and shellyé from the Wahgi Valley- Notes: Foot items recoveredt from the present series include beetles, ants, spiders and mites of the family Parasitidae (Acari ; Mesostigmata), which ate predutiry npon small Arthropads and were presumably ingested with their hosts, AMPETWIANS ANT REPTILES PROM NEW GUINEA, T 21 Cophixalus darlingtont Loveridge Cophixalus bint darlitgtont Loveridge, 1848, Bull. Mus. coup, Zool, Harv, 101 (2). p. 42d- Material; Bight adults and three juveniles—Austral. Mus, B,17505-17595; B.M. L96L.B86-892, Description: Morphological characteristics agree completely with the de- soription Of Loveridge and, as a comprehensive description has also been given by Zweifel (195¢b). a further account here is unnecessary. The opportunity to recurd colour in life has been denied the above authors, so descriptions uf two individuals is given’ below to illustrate variation. B.M. 1961.889 — Dorsal and dorso-lateral surfaces black, with a thin white interocular bar and a faint trianyular patch on the back of the head. Single white ocellus on either side of the sacrum, Ventral surface of body and limbs immaculate cream, ventro-laterals with small faint red spots. Limbs black uboye, red at sides. Cream patel on heel; plantar and palmar surfaces white. Austral, Mus. R.17593 — Dorsal surface black with dark grey patches anc uw fainl interocular bar, Bright green stripes on lateral bedy surfaces, ut side of head (behind jind below eye), and on back of forearm. Ventral surface pale grey mottled with dark brown, most noticeable on the lower jaw, Limbs black abave spotted with grey, uniform grey below; a brilliant green stripe on the posterior surface of the thighs. Other specimens varied in colour from a dull green ground colour to pale brown with darker markings, Body length: Adults —14-4-25-6 mm, (mean; 20°38 mm.); juveniles — 4-4-5+] mm. Remarks: Cophixolus darlingtoni was described by Loveridge (1948) as a sub-species of C. birot (Mchely) from a series of fifty specimens collected by Capt, Darlington at Toromanbanau jn the Bismarck Mountains, and was clevated ty specific slatus by Zweifel (1956a). “weifel considered that as the third toe was shorter than the fifth and therefore the converse of the condition in biror and as the two forms were appareutly allopatric, specific status was warranted. The only other species of Cuphixulis found in the same area as darlingtoni wilh which it could possibly be confused is C, parkeri Loveridge, but they can he readily distinguished when the TL/S-V ratios are compared, for that of darlingtoni is considerably higher than parkeri. The present series compare favourably with the British Museum paratypes (B.M. 1947.1.3.92-93). Locality; Taken beneath moss in deuse moss-forest xt several localities on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide, between 1,4.60 ond 28.35.60. Altitude range: 6,500- 9.500 ft. Development: On 13.4,60 eighteen eggs were found in a hollow beneath a rothing Jog at Bamna in dense minss-forest at an altitude of 6,500 ft. Each of the cggs had a diumeter of approximutely tive millimetres and they were con- nected together in the form of a chain by single cords of colourless inucilage, approximately three millimetres Jong, The embryos possessed functional, pig- mented limbs and long colourless tails, but their bodies were still spherical and unpigmented, The chain was placed between layers of saturated moss and daily observations made upon. it- It was noticed that the developing froglets lay passively upon their backs. necasionally making spasmodic movements of their limbs, and frequently waving 23. M. . TYLER their tails. which were entirely {ree and not adposed to the imer surface of the egg capsule. On 19.4.60 one of the eges was opened and the motile juvenile removed ind preserved. Three days later the method of emergence from the eggs was observed. As this is the first record of the procedure employed by a New Guinea Microhylid, the following extract from field notes is quoted; “22.4.60—Whilst examining the eggs of C, darlingfoni this morning, | noticed that two of the froglets were very active. At short intervals both of them extended their limbs, distending the capsules in which they were enclosed. The movements were extremely violent and, within a few minutes, one of the froglets penetrated the capsule with buth arms. Gaining a purchase against the fhaer surtace of the capsule with both feet, it forced its bady through the split, and emerged within ten minutes. “The second froglet split the capsule with its hindlimbs, The process of emergence in this case occupied more than an hour, for it appeared to find it difficult to force its body backwards through the split.” The specimens described above were preserved as B.M. 1961,891-892. ‘The former died immediately it was exposed to bright sunlight. No further froglets emerged and, on 304.60, eighteen days from the date of collection, the remainder of the chain died when the albumen became covered with a growth of mould. Distribution: This species is known from the type locality of Toroman- banin, where fifty specimens were taken at 7,500 ft, and Kondiu in the Wahei Valley where fifty-six specimens were eallected by Rev. Shelly (Zweite), 1956b), approximately twenty-five miles west of the type locality. Kondiu is at an altitude of 5,000 ft., but it is probable that the Rey. Shelly's specimens were taken at an higher altitude in the nearby moss-forest, The loeality at which the present series was taken is slightly turther from the type locality than Kondiu. The fact that so few specimens were taken over a len period of extensive collecting would suggest (hat this species is ris tributed further to the east or normally exists in dense but localised communitivs. Noles: The native name for this species is “Kiris”. Cophixalus parkeri Loveridge Cophiaalus veriegalus parkevi Loveridge, 1948, Bull. Mus. comp. Zool Harv., 101 (2). p, Aus, Material, Sixty-five adult and juyenile specimens. Austral, Mus. B.169+4- 1685), 17596-17600; B.M. 1961.893, 899-944 and fourteen eges, Austral, Mus, K.17606; A.M.N.H, 67613: B.M, [961.944, Description; Canthus yrostvalis oniformly rounded (42° specirnens). or avugular (24) but extremely obtuse: inter-orbital space as broad as (53) or broader than (13) the breadth of an upper evelid; diameter of tympanum between one-half und two-thirds of eye diameter; third toe as long as (50) or slightly longer than (16) the fifth. “ Sub-articilar discs ure present and the tibio-tarsal articulation of the hind limb reaches the eye (44) or nearer to the eye than the tympanum (22). Body Icngth: 10-0-36-2 mm. The colour in life as seen in the present series reveals a cansiderahle amount of variation between the gromd colouration of the dorsal surface and the murkings upon it. Dorsal surface of body and limbs either v pale murky brown AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES PROM NW GULNILA, | 23 or green, Of bead paler, bounded by a transecular or interocular bar. Behind this bar, on the scapular region, is a W-shaped marking, quite frequently raised into « dermal fold, Other folds often projyet from the posterior termination of the head above the distal termination of the transyerse processes of the thoracic vertebrae to the lumbar region where they terminate abruptly. Remainder of the clorsal surface of hody and limbs pale lime green, pale yellow or grey, either so densely covered with intense brown spots that the ground colour is almost entirely obscured or with a few areas lightly stippled with brown, Gular region usually darker than thorax and abdomen, Remarks: At the time of writing, the only published records of GC. perkert are reports of three specimens taken singly (Loveridye, 1948; Zweifel, 1956a, {956b), but Zweifel states (in litt.) that Jarge mumbers have since been taken hy the Sixth Archbold Expedition, Cophixalus tariegalus parkeri was elevated ta specific rank by Zweifel (19664). Loveridge's material upon which the desoription of the new swh- species was based consisted of a single gravid femme of 28 mm. aud his com- parison with veriegatus was based ou a specimen of that species in the collec tion of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (M,C.Z. 9385) which had beeu received from the Berlin Museum as Hilophorbus boettgeri (Mébely). Parker, whu had redescribed warievatus (1934), oxamined the proposed new tonn_ but offered no opinion on the yalue of the chavacters which Loveridge selected tn distinguish it from naniegatus. Zweifel (1956a) found relutive legtength to snmout-vent length a useful churacter for distinguishing the species of Cophixalus. Although considcration must be paid to the fact that he had, at that (ime, only a single specimen of perkeri_ and two of variegatus at his disposal, the differences in relative leg length between these forms was found lo be less than that between any pair of eight species he examined with the exception of ateles and cheesmanae which are readily distinguished by other characters. Development: Three chains of egys were collected fram beneath rotting wood at Bamna. The first, on 6.4.60, consisted of cightecn eggs messuring 5-0 mm, in diameter, connected by mucilaginons cords in the same mayer as C. darlingtoni. Yhe second and third chains, consisting of thirteen and twenty- three eges respectively, were taken at the same lacality on the follawing day, The appearance of the eggs of parkeri and darlingtoni was found ta be very similar, hut jnveniles could he distinguished qnite readily by the ditference in the relative legtenyths, The vumber of mature ova dissected from seven gravid adults ranged from nverity-one td twenty-seven, suggesting that more than one chain may be laid hy each individual. From the three chains collected only one specimen emerged, ‘The remainder died in captivity as a result of mould forming upon the outer egg membrane. Emergence wis elected in a manner similar to that ab the previous species, Call: A short, low, moneotonal whistle: Distribution: Gophixalus parkert is only known from the Wahel Valley and the mountains at ils eastern and western erilrances. Notes: Although normally terrestrial in habits, parkeri is vceasionally sean- surial, Three specimens were foimd on a narrow, imoss-covered lodge, thirty feet up Ihe face of a vertical cliff, The natives zefer to specimens of parkert as either “Dem-boar-hoar’ ww “Pippy-a’. Dem means “wood”, and “baor" votlen. Repetition of boar enpha- 24 M. J, TYLER sises the condition of the wood and the name is therefore descriptive of the habitat where this. species is frequently found. _ Pippy-a probably means “quick-one”, but its derivation is rather obscure fox the title is not descriptive of the creature’s habits. A migrant kingfisher (Halcyon sancta Vigors and at be Sin was observed te accept a specimen of this species of frog. ull details of this observation have been published elsewhere (Tyler, 1961b). Cophixalus riparius ‘4weifel A large gravid female ineluded in the present collection (B.M. 1961.947) was submitted to Dr. Zweifel for his opiuion. Te reported {in litt.) that he cousidered it tu be a representative of an undescribed species of Cophixalus, und stated that similar matcrial had heen collected by the Sixth Archbold Ex- pendition to New Guinea. Dr, Zweifel subsequently named the new species C. riparius, and permitted the writer to examine the manuscript of the paper in which the description appeared. Description: Cophixalus riparius is described to attain a maximum size of upproximately 50 mm. snout-vent length and frequently reaches 45 mm.. whicti is greater than in any other known species in this genus. TL/S-V — 0-383 (0+35-0-43); E-N/IN — 0-877 (0-79-0:97). The present specimen, measuring 44-3 mm., agrees in most respects with Zweifel’s description but, whereas riparius is said to lack teeth, BM. 1961.947 possesses vomerine leeth. They are situated in narrow, diagonal rows con- siderably beneath and between the small, oblique, oval choanae. Also, the tympanum is quite distinct as opposed to the type description of; “Only the lower edge of the tympanum can be distinguished and that but faintly”. The TL/S-V and E-N/IN ratios of 0-433 and 0-946 respectively are well above the means of the type series, but within the defined ranges. Locality: Taken beneath debris on bank of River Gar at Bamna (6,300 ft), near Nondugl, on 24.4.60. DISCUSSION Metamorphosis The available imtormation on the development of the Asieraphryinae and Sphenophryninae is so limited that generalised statements about the entire subfamilies must be regarded as tentative. Ovarian eggs of thirty-six specics have been examined by various authors and many are deseribed by Parker (1934). All are unpigmented and the majority macrolecithal, the range of diameters being from 1-5 mm, (Oreophryne annulata (Stejneger)) to 6-5 mm. (Asterophrys Fiaeten (Boulenger) ). The majority of the members of the Microhylidae are smull creatures, so the increase in the size uf Ova has naturally been accompanied by a reduction in the numbers formed, The total of fifty-ive for Asterophrys wilhelmana reported in the present paper is the highes| number recorded ta date, The sites selected tor deposition by the ten species whose eggs have been found in the field are moist, unexposed situations which, with the exception of Cophixalus biroi, ave away from water. Chains of eggs of Oreophryne anthonyi (Boulenger) were found by Mr, A. L. Rand (Zweilel, 1956a) attached to the roof of cavities in the epiphyte Hydnophytum., AN other known eggs are quite AMPUIBLANS AND TEPITILES FROM NEW CUINEA, J a5 free and unattached to either animate ur inanimate objects. The manocr of fertilisation and oviposition is unknown, bul both presumably lake place at the site of deposition. The eggs are laid separately: connectéd directly together in a chain by the walls of the egg capsules: in a chain with each individual separated from its immediate neighbours by a mucilaginous cord, or ina chain witle some members connected by their capsule walls and others by cords, The eggs of O. anthonyi mentioned above were described as being in the form of a “clump”. Dr. Zweilel hay re-examined the eggs for the writer and describes them (in fitt.) as follows: “One group of five has cords separating some eggs, and others joined envelope to envelope, Another clutch has ten still joined in a string, again both with cards and direct contact, With the eges rather squashed logelhier, they could be deseribed as being in a lamp, but can be separated into a continnous string,” The presence of a mucilaginous cord between eggs of species known at the lime of Parker's (1934) monograph, led that author to state that this feature is a vharacteristic of the New Guinea Mierohylidac. Although a similar cord has not yet been recorded in other families, itis now apparent that jt iy net com- mun to all New Guinea genera, Data ipon laid ova is sumitnarised in ‘Table 1. Parker drew attention to similarities between the development. of New Guinea Microhylids and the nectropical genus Meutherodaclylus of the fansily Lepodactylidae (Ceratuphryidae). The eges of Eleutherodactylus: are macto- Ieeithal, joined in the form of a chain by the walls ol the egg capsules and laid away from, water, Jn the absence of information on the embryology af the Asteraphryinae: and Sphenophryninwe, comparisons betweer these subfamilies and Eleutherodactylus must be lacgely based on superficial appearances. Fleutheradaetylus spp. (ag. £. nasitus Lute (Lutz, 1946)) and C. biral (Méhely, 1898) possess non-muscular, highly vascular tails which are mem- branaceous and, being apposed to the inver surface of the ee capsule, serve as respiratory organs. In C. arlingtoni, C. parkeri, Sphenophryne brevicrus wuel Oreaphryne anthonyi the tail is cylindvical, muscular and free, und does not appear equipped to serve a specialised respiratory function. The mature embryos of Lleutherodaectylus possess an ectodermal ege-tooth, consisting of a cornified carnnele situated upon the tip of the snout, above the symphysis of the premaxillae (Noble, 1926). This structure, which aids the liberation of the juvenile from the capsule, lias not been recorded in the Mivra- liylidae. The extent to which the ege-tooth is utilised during liberation varies between individuals and the description of the emergence of one of a series of KL paresus Girard observed by Lutz (1944) is very similar to that of CO, dar- lingtoni recorded in the present paper. The duration of metamorphosis of RK nesutus is approximately four weeks and EF, guenthert slightly longer (Lutz, 1946), Although the complete period of development of any New Guinea Microhylid has yet to be established, the opinion drawn by the writer fran the present investigation is that metamorphosis extends over a period execeding cight weeks. The increase could be associated with the colder climate experienced in the Central Highlands. The environmental conditions necessury for the survival wl eos are critfeal, lt would appear that the medium upon which the eggs are laid must be saturated with water, and the development of muuld upon some of the eges may have resulted fram a reduction in the moisture content of their media, 26 M. J. TYLER parkeri iS w om = Cc ra — oO o a. © | iL O OO X. rostratus A.wilhelmana M. ocellata S. brevicrus C.ateles Fig. 2, Comparison of the distribution of Central Highlands Microhylidae at various altitudes. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM NEW GUINEA, 37 et Adamson ef al. (1960) injected chorionic gonadotrophin into the dorsal lymph sue of eaptive specimens of E. martinicensis (Duméril and Bibron), but were unable to induce ovulation. If the Microhylids respond. similarly, it is likely that details of their development will remain unknown until eggs collected in the field can be reared tmder laboratory conditions. The presence of an adult male or female frog at the site of a group of developing eggs has been recorded in Sphenophryne brevierus, Oreophryne anthonyi, O, flava Parker, Cophixalus pansus, C. darlinytoni and C. parkeri, Tt is not inconceivable that the adults guard the developing eggs from predators to compensate for the reduction in the number laid, and the recorded observa- tion of an adult S. brevicrns devouring four eggs may haye been induced by the deprivation of alternative fued. Parental care is uot a common phenomenon amongst frogs, and the majority of cases involve the transportation of develop- ing spawn by an adult. Protection of deposited spawau is of far rarer occurrence, but Fernandez and Fernandez (1921) record the female Leptodactylus ocellatus of Argentine guarding immature tadpoles. TABLE, 1 Deseripion of the cgus of New Guinea Microby lids, Max, eug No, Byg diam in mm. | Form Asterophriicae , Avterophrys robuste ? “large” cord 4, wilhelneanrs An) 5.5-6.3 Independent Anienophry nice Sphenophryne breciyrua § 5 eord Orcophr igen fev LOO i) cord ), bara? ? 4 y 1) nnthanyt 31 45-79 direst or Got) Cophiralus hirot 7 2 cond Ch penens 20 3.1-3.6 cheecl or cord (', davdingtont 18 ’ A | card 7", gurberi 23 . a crert, or cord It was observed that the tremendous force of the torrential rains which fell on the lower mountain slopes pulped aay expdsed clumps of spawn of the ylid genera Myla and Nyctimystes. At altitudes above 9,000 ft., where the moss-forests are replaced by montene grassland, there is no canopy to protect the frogs or their spawn from the rains, and the selection of an almost subter- ranean habitat by the Microhylids is their only means of survival. Feeding Unabits The cryplozaic Micrahylids have heen regarded as myrmecophagus feeders, but it is becoming apparent that their dict consists of a variety ar food items, of which some ure of substantial size. ZAweifel (1960) recorded the recovery of large earthworms from the stomachs of Asterophrys oxycephala (Schlegel) and Xenobatrachus obesus Zweifel. In the present paper similar prey were found to have been ingested hy Mefopostira ocellata and Sphenophryne brevicrns. Developmental Data us a Guide to Phylogenctic Affinities The diversity of the form of deposited ova within the genera Asteraphrys and Caphixalus suggests that phylogeny supplemented by developmental data could result in a complete systematic reorganisation. Information is so limited, however, that the extent of specific variation has yet to be established. Tf 18 al. J. TYLER specili’ variation proves to be as diverse as that fund on the generic level, it is unlikely that this form of data will prove of much value in determining pliylngenctic affinities, Distribution. The distribution of most of the species described in this paper is restricted, at least in the Wali Valley region, to the saturated moss-turests whose lower limits are slowly being raised as a result of deforestation by natives, At several situations secondary grasslands now reach altitudes exceeding eight thousand fect, and it may be sufely assumed that at least a few of the Microhylids were ouce distributed at lower altitudes than those at which they are found today. Associated with the changing environment, a reduction in the varicty and density of the populations of other vertebrates has heen reported by Mayr and Gilliard (1954). but it is unlikely that the uature of tle terrain will permit much further deforestation, aud an additional modification of altitudinal distribution as far as the amphibia are concerned, is unlikely to oecur. The present range of distribution npan the Wahyi-Sepik Divide (Fig. 2) reveals au almost constant pattern for the Sphenophryniuue, but considerable variation within the Asterophepinan: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS L wish to express my deep yratitnde ta Sir Kdward Hallstrom who made it possible for me to visit Non aa and to His Honour the Administrator of the Territory of Papua and New Gninea, Sir Donald Cleland, who graciously yave his approval to my programme of field studies. My thanks are especially duc to Miss A. G, C. Grandison of the British Museuni (Natural History), and Dr. BR. G, Zweifel (American Musenm of Natnra] History) who were closely connected with the field studies, and offered much valuable advice and encouragement during the preparation of this paper. Dr. “weitel also gave priority over other work to the description of Caphixalus riparius to minituise the delay im the publication of the present paper. Equipment was lent by the British Muscum (Natural History) and Aus- tralian Museum, und I am further indcbted to the trustees of these institutions und the Kingston Technical College. Kingston-upon-Thames, England, for the laboratory facilities extended to me. 1 also wish to thank Mr. and Mrs. I’. Pemble-Smith (Tallstvom Livestock and Fauna Station, Noncdugl) for their generous hospitality; Mr. 7. M. Shaw Mayer, whose expert advicc proved invaluable in the planning of field trips, Rev. J. Dunn who translated many of the native names of frogs; Capt. Wilding of the M.¥. Bulolo and Mr, J. 8. Womeusley (Division of Botany, Department ot Forests), who arranged the transportation of equipment from Sydney to Nondugl, and the safe transit of the collection on the return journey; Prof. E. Tartonese for information on specimens of Caphixalus ateles in the Museo Civica di Staria Naturale. Genoa, and Dr. O. Evans (British Musenm, Natural History ) for the identification of mites, REFERENCES Apanson, L., Hannison, R, G,, and Bayeey, I, 1960. The Development of the Whistling Prog, Eleutheroductylus martinicensis of Burbados, Proe. z00l, Soc. Lond, 138 (3), pp, 453-469. Bourrnorr, G. A,, 1897. An Account af the Reptiles and Batrachians Collected by Dr, L, Loria im British New Guinea. Ann. Mus. Stor. nat., Genova, (2), 18, pp. 694-710, AMPINBIANS AND REPTILES PROM NEW GUINEA, I ay Buoncensma, L, D,, 1953, Notes on New Guinea Reptiles and Aniphibians, 11, Koninkl, Neder!, Akud. Wetenschapp., Proc. €., 56 (4), pp. 472-587. Burr, C. E., and Burt, M. D,, 1932. Herpetological Restts of the Whitney Expendition VI. Bill. Amer, Mus. nat. Hist., 113, pp. 461-597. Cavocaccta, L., 1957. Catalago dei tipi anfibi del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale ili Genova. Ann. Mus. Stor, nat., Gettova, LXEX, pp. 208-222. VFonsvannes, K.. und Vernanvez, M. 1921. Sobre la biologia ¥ reproduccion de algunos balracios argentinos, I, Cystignathidae, Arm, Soc. Cient, Argentina, 91, pp. 97-193. Pry, D. B., 1917. Description of Apheantophriine, a New Batrachian Genus froui New Guinen; With Notes on the Pectoral Museulature, Prog. Linn, Soc, N.S,\W. XLT (4), pp. 770-785, Kampen, van. P. N., 1923. The Amplibions of the Indo-Australian Archipelege. Leiden, E. J. Brill Ltd, 304 pp. Lovinmper, A., 1948, New Guinea Reptiles and Amphibians in the Muscum of Comparative Zoology and United States National Museum, Bull, Mus. comp. Zool. Harv., 101 (2), pp. 304-430. Lutz, B. 1944, Observations om Frogs Without Aquatic Larvae. The Hatching of Bleutheradactylus parous Girird. Bol. Mus. Nav. Zoologia, 15, pp. 1-6. Luvs, B., 1947. ‘Lrends ‘Towards Non-Aquatic avid Direct Development in Fregs. Copeia, 4, pp. 242-252, Laurz, B., and Lyxsn, W. G., 1946. The Development of Eleutherodactylus naswéus Lutz. Bol, Mus. Nac. Zoologia, 79, pp. 1-30, Maya, E,, and Gituranp, F. T., 1954, Birds of the Central Highlands of New Gninea. Bull. Amer, Mus. nat. Hist., 103 (4), pp. 315-374. Mituieny, von, L., 1898. An Account of the Reptiles and Battachiang Collected by Mr. Lewis Bira in New Guinea. Termeés. Pugetek, 21, pp. 1-14. Mitasiy, von, L., 1901. Beitrage zur kenntnis der Engystomatiden yon Neu-Guinca, Terns. Fuzetek, 24, pp, 169-271, Maure, J. A,, 1961 The Frogs. of Eastern New South Wales. Bull, Amer, Mus, nat, Hist., 191 (3), pp. 153-385. Nosxe, G, K., 1926. Fhe Hatching Process in Alytes, Eleutherodactylus and Other Amphi- hians. Amer, Mus. Novit.. 229, pp, 1-7. Nouce, G. K,, 1927. The Value of Life History Data in the Study of the Tivalution of the Amphibia, Ann, New York Arad. Sct, 30, 99, pp. 31-126. Parker, LH. W., 1934. A Monograph of the Frogs of the Family Microhylidac. British Museuin Trustees, pp, 208, Parker, TI. W., 1936. A Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians from the Mountains of British New Guinea. Ann. Mag. nat, Hist, 10 (17), pp. 66-93, Tytrr, M. f., 1961a. A Preliminary Note on Herpetological Duta Obtained from Nutives in the Central Highlands of New Guinea. Brit. J, Herpet,, 2 (12), pp, 219-220- Tyner, M, J. 1961b, Food of Maleyon saneta in New Gninen. Ibis, 1034, p. 265. ‘Tyrer, M, J. Cin press). On the Preservation of Aturau Tadpoles. Aast. J. Sci, Varwer, BB. und Jameson, D. L., 1961. he Embryology of Fleutherodaetylus mipustl letrans. CGopeia, 1, pp. 1035109. Vowr, ven, T., 1911, Reptilicon und Amphibien aus Neu-Guinea. Sonder Abd_ Sitz. Gesell. naturt. Frennde Berlin, 9, pp. 410-420. Ywriren, WR. OG, 1956a. Mierohylid Frogs from New Guinea with Deseriptions of New Species. Results of the Archbold Expeditions, Na, 72, Amer, Mus, Novit,, 1766, pp. 1-15, Zweirer, Tt. G., 1956b. Notes on Microhylid Frogs, Genus Copliixalus, from New Guinea. Amer. Mus. Novit., 1785, pp. 1-8. Zwaurue, B. G., 1958. Frogs of the Papuan Hylid Genus Nyetimystes Amer, Mus, Novil, 1896, pp. 1-51. Yaweser., KR. G. 1960. A New Microhylid Frog from the Adelbert Mountains of New Guinea. Amer. Mus. Novat., 2012. pp. 1-7. Zwioren. BR. G., 1962. Frogs of the Mierchylid Genus Cophixalis from the Mountams of New Guinea, Results of the Archbold Expeditions, Ne. 83, Amer, Mus, Novit,, 2087, pp. 1-26, THE RELIC NATURE OF SOME CENTRAL AUSTRALIAN PLANTS BY G. M. CHIPPENDALE Summary THE RELIC NATURE OF SOME CENTRAI. AUSTRALIAN PLANTS by G. Mi. ChitermnpaLn® [Read 9 November 1961] When planning his trip into Central Australia with the florn Expedition, R. Tate hud visions of finding a mountain chain with “remnants of that pristine flora which existed on this continent in Paleocene tines— probably a beech, possibly an oak, clm, or sycamore” (Tate, 1896). However, Tate found the MacDonnells to be comparatively barren, with some “novelties” in the ravines. Crocker and Wood (1947) listed the MacDonnell-James. Bite system as one of the principal refuges of the arid period which insight be placed as about 4.000-6,000 years ago, Tt is agreed that this arid period largely destroyed the flora which had existed in a wetter Pleistocene period, and that survival foci such as the MacDounell Ranges have preserved some remnants of the Pleistocene Hora. Yet, Burbidge (1960) considers that the Pleistocene Hora was not deci- mated to the extent postulated by Crocker and Wood. The suggestion of recolomising elements persisting “eveu during the most arid stages hy occupying suitable habitats in the vicinity of scattered and temporary waters” does secm to be more realistic, So, here w relic area can he regarded as a place where plants of a former higher rainfall period have miei The ranges ot Central Australia which are concerned would include the MacDonnell, James, Krichaudf, George Gill, and possibly the Stuart Bluff range systems. Plants wineh fall Wuly into the relic category are very few, but discussion can be made on the status ot a number of species. In considering the Central Australian range system as a rechisinm, a most important point must be that the topography has: been Virtually umehanged for a very great period. Therefore, the plants to be considered as trne relies nf a past flora must only represent the flora which existed in the ranges in the past. This, perhaps, is a specific application of the Crocker and Wood suggestions. Whether these species have, in fact, been able to expand their area and for possible speciation to take place is highly problematical. Considering the unreliable, and often extremely lew muntall in mast. ot the Australian uric zones, it seems clear that Hie venus Triocdia which inhabits much of this area was able to resist the ages of uridity which are postulated by most authors. Burbidge (1953) postulated that Triodia must have existed dting the Pleistocene pluvial cycle, probably in a restricted arid zone, assuming same zonation in rainfall ay at present. The genus has since expanded its area, atid now shows a peripheral grouping of species with T. purngens as a Locus, T, hubbardii Burbidge (1960) is a recently described specics with a distribution in stony or rocky slopes in the central range system, extending to Vaughan Springs. T. clelandii Burbidge (1960) bas a similar distribution. Could these two species be remnants of the nucleus of the genns which is presumed to have existed in a dry central area during the plavial cycle? It can be agreed, however, that a species such as Macrozanmiia macdonnellii which is now found in comparatively few localities was probably more wide- spread in the ranges of the past. This species, together with some other true relic species, has little, if any, variation, and appears nuble to expand its area, This may indicate that it is really in the process of becoming extinct, and present- ? Animal Industry Branch, Territories Department, Alive Springs. Trans. Roy. Soc, Aust, (1963), Vol. 86, 32 G, M. CHIPPENDALE day ketivities are nut aiding its preservation. It mainly occupies tourist areas where the large, egg-sized seed is somewhat of a curiosity, an! is collected by muiny tourists. Also, nurserymen and others are constantly enquiring to offieral, cummercial and private sources for supplies of this seed. In the ease uf Livistona mariae, another true relic, there is some evidence that it has very slightly expanded its area, as sone young individuals are auw found at Running, Waters, which is about twenty-five miles [rom Palm Valley. This accurrence was not mentioned by Giles, Kempe, or Tate and this must be significant at least in the case of Tate whe recorded several other species, viz, Naias major and a species of Polamezetun at Palm Creck and Running Watees. Both of these are aquatic and are consequently restricled in area in the arid Central Australia, but it is problematical whether this occurrence. Which is so discontinuons with other occurrences of the species, is biolugical or historical. The ferns of Central Australia contain only two endemi¢ specics, Gysing- gramme reynoldsii and Cheilanthes vellea and these are restricted to ranges such us the MacDonnells, and also occur in the Flinders, Kverard, Birkseate and Musgrave Ranges of South Australia, These are yery hairy species and are rare In Qcecurrence, and have resisted desiccation by this adaption und by thetr lizhitat such as in gorges or on sheltered hillsides, Certain other ferns, ie. Cyclosorus gongylodes, Histiopteris incisa, Lindsaca ensifolia, Nephrolepis cordi- fulia, Adiantum hispidulum., and Pteris tremula, are contined, in Central Australia, te extremely small points of the ventral range system, and these habitats are widely separated from other vecurrences of these species. With the exception af Pteris tremula, which vecurs in southern and eastern Australia and New Zea+ lund, these species are pantropie in distribution, In Malesia they are found in oper places but under i comparatively high rainfall, Existence in the arid Centre has hwen reliant on their protection from the sun and hy being in a small micro- climate around more or less permanent rockpools or springs. For instanee, at Tallaputta Gorge, several of these ferns ave Common in a vrotte which is over- shadowed by high rock walls on three sides and overhting by rocks. A spring feeds down the walls to a pool in the grotta which ouly covers abnut 150 square fect The sun may anly shine directly into this grotto for an haur or so aily, Other occurrences of some of these ferns are on the southern side of the George Gill Range. At several of the rock holes in these ranges, in the drought since 1956, during several visits two years wpurt, an impression was gained of marked diminution of the amount of Adiantum felspidulum at Reedy Creek, and likewise bt Cyclosorus gongylodes at Kathleen Creek rockhole, However, are these ferns relic in Central Australia? Tt would seem impossible for thera to expand their area in the arid centre wider present day conditions, and it is perhaps a matter of comparatively shot time during a continuation of the present drought, or in a future one, that these occurrences may be completely desiccated. Psilotum nudum was recorded at Reedy Creek by Tate in “rocky clefts averhanging rock paul”. Typha angustifolia ig common in pools at Pah Valley and in gorges of the George Gill Ranues, Diplachne fusca, a grass, is only found near water in Palm Valley, and Oftelia ovalifolia, an aquatic of reedbeds on the Australian mainland, is recorded from the Reedy Creek rackpool, Lomandra patens A. Lee is found only in several narrow, tocky ravines in the Krichaulf Range area, Trema aspera could be regarded as the “elm” sought by Tate, ‘This species has a diftuse disjonct distribution and in the separate areas where it is found the forms are identical, Also the plants are very tew in number, mainly at Standley Chasm, Emily Gap and Simpsons Gap. This wonld indicate that the specivs RELIC PLANTS. OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA 33 has not yet had time to change its form and therefore its discontinuity is not of extreme antiquity, Hakea multilineaty var. grammatophylla is found only at high altitudes at Standley Chasm, Mt. Sonder, Central Mt. Stuart, and perhaps other tike habitats, Burbidge (1960) suggests that this is the possible result of northward migration during an earlier pluvial period, Certain plants, viz. Polygonum altenuatum, Polyzonum lapathifoliam, Polygonum minus, Drosera burmannii, Drosera indica, and Myriophyllum verru- cosumn, are found only near or in water such as seasonal river pools or rockpools, and all but the latter species have a wide distribution in and out of Australis, always in similar hubitats. So, although these speeivs ace cure, with apparent diseontinuons distribution, this seems to be of biological causes. Burtonia polysyga has been found at only two localities, 50 far, both in the Haast Bluff area and is quite likely a true relic species, Daviesia arthropodda hes heen recorded only from Wild Eagle Plain and Mt, Olga and it seems clearly a relic; hoth of these are of endemic genera, Several Acaeit spp, via, A. strongylophylla and A. validinervia, occur in the MacDonnells, and also in similar areas tm northern South Austcalia. There, Acacia basedowit var. viridis is only found at Standley Chasm. Another unde- seribed Acacia sp. which has been eelated to A, dordtoxylow is fairly widespread in the central range system. Considering the wide distribution of Acacia, hinww- ever, it seems probable that these species arc adapted to the conditions due to hialogical reasons, such as edaphi¢ factors, True facts about such cases can only he revealed from a general study of the genus Acucia, Rriostemon argyreus has been found ouly at Mt. Sonder, and is related to Western Australian species. No other species of the family Rutaceac is fonnd in Central Australia, so that this Eriostemon ig quite isolated; it musyl he a relie species, Comesperma sylvestre and C. visetdulum: are of rare occurrence in the MiteDonnells but the former species is also found in Queensland and the latter al Victoria Springs. Diplopeltis stuartit is found in the ranges and also as far north as Wauchope (Northern Territory) and north-west to Tanamt and east to near Ooratippra. It is a rare species, with no wide collections to Link up its distribution, Other species of the genus are in Western Australia so that this species is at the edge of the genus distribution. Tas the stress of the: arid period prevented this genus from expanding? Was this species more common and is it now being gradually eliminated by droughts? Dodonaea viscosa var. spathulatum is confined to gorges in the MacDonnells. Spyridivm spathulatien occurs in the Krichauff Ranges and at Mt. Lofty and Kangaroo Ishind. Side eryphiopetata was described From a specinien from Brinkley'’s Bluft, aud its distribution ig only in gorges of the MacDonnells, at Mt. Olga and in the Flinders and Everard Ranges. Rulingia magniflora was dexeribed fromm Mt. Olga, hut his a similar distribution to the previous species. Hibbertia glaberrima, also, has a similar distribution. Bueckea polystemona was described from Brinkley’s Bluff und has only been found in the central range svstem, fucalyptus sessilis is only found on slopes in the ranges, but yet is very closely related to LE. pachyphyfla which grows on sandplains and extends to the southern part of the Barkly Taldeland, Is the restricted species moce primitive than its relatbon? Was it a form which separated from E, pachynfylla and has become a relic? Actinotus schwarzil is restricted to a tew protected localities in the Muc- *l &. M. CQUEPPRNDALE Donnells, and its nearest relative is A, helianthi which spows mainly on the Central Coast of New South Wales. Trachymene gillenae occurs only in the MuacNonnells, A few isolated plants of Plumbaga seylanica ure found in the MacDonnells with the nearest occurrence of this pantropical species being near Wave Hill, about five hundred miles north-west. Likewise, Jasminum calcarium is rave in the Ranges, und is found at Limbunya, a similar distance north-west. Plectranthys sp. all. parviflorus appears to be a restricted endemic species with u near relative extending to some Pacife Islands. Prostanthera sctult=it is found, so far, only on Mt. Sonder. Ruellia corynotheca and A. primulavea occur in the MacDonnells and at Burdekin im Queensland. Related ypecies, Goudenia grandiflora and G. horniana, are tound in similar localities in gorges of the central range system, Bidens bipinnatus, whieh is common in both hemispheres and occurs com- monly on the custern coast of Australia, is also found in protected arcas of the MacDonnells, Brachycame blackii from the MacDonnelis is of obscure origin according to Davis (1948) who disenssed the relationship within the genus. Helichrysum kempei is isolated from closely related species, and Burbidge ere) states that this “emphasises the refagial nature ol sume of the flora of the MacDonnell Ranges”, Olearia Jerrestt is in the central ranges and in the Everards and Musgraves. Senecio Jacerutus and Wedelia stirlingti are limited to the central ranges, While there are, then, some tne relic species in the Central Australian Hora, there are other possibly confusing elements such as those with a distri- bation which is entirely connected with the occurrence of natural waters, These cannot be relies, and there is no suggestion that they have ever uccurred in anv but their present type of habitat. This limited range of habitut dues not neres- sarily make the occurrences: discontinuous, but certainly leaves the species in a precanous position, There ix a group of species which aré confined to the presnmed refuge mountains in Sonth and Central Australia; these include Callitris huyelti, Sida eryphiapetala, Wibhertla glaberrima. Rulingia magniflora, Jasininum lincare, Heliotropium asperrimum, Pandorea doratoxylon, Olearia fervestt and some others, However, there is no evidence to suggest that these ure relic species. They are endemic species; undoubtedly representative of a Hora which is adapted to the mountain environment of the arid zone. Monographie studies of a number of genera such as Ptilotus, Bassia, Kochiv, inidiaofor, Cassia, Acacia, Eremephila and Goodenia are necessary to throw more light on discussions af the development of the Central Australian flora. The future of much of this fora is in doubt because of the present continued drought, even though this is of small time sequence historically. Stocking of new areas is proceeding and the forces of wind-drift are most marked in some eT, irs erat ata pa REFERENCES Bususupen, N, L, 1953, “The Genus Triodia” Anst J, Rat, lL. pp. L2L-1h4. Bunnmar, N. T., 1958, “A Monographie Study of the Helichrysum snbgenns Ozothanmnus and of ‘Uwe Related Genera Formerly Included Wherein’. Aust, J. Bot, 8, pp, 224-281. Burin, N. TL, 19608. “The Phytoeography ol the Australian Region Aust. f. Bot. 8, py. 75-211. ; - 7 Burwipan, No TL, 1960b. “Further Notes on Vriedia R.Br.” Anst, J, Bat, 4 pp, 38t-oud, Crocker. RK. L., and Woon, J. CG. 1997, “Some Wistoviewl Intiences au the Development af the South Australian Vegetatinn Cunntunities”. Trams Rov. Sac. 8. Aust. 71, pp. OL -SH, Davis, G. L., 48. “Revision of the Genus: Brachyweonie Cass. Part L, Australian Species”. Proe. Linn. See, N-8.W,, 73, pp, 142-241, Tare, B, 1896. Report of the Horn Expedition to Central Austrolia, Bolany, 8, pp. 117-204, GEOLOGY AND PETROLEUM PROSPECTS OF THE SIMPSON DESERT BY R. C. SPRIGG Summary The Simpson Desert of Central Australia until recently has been considered as one of the more formidable deserts in the world. With the advent of aircraft, soft-tyred and multi-wheeled vehicles and air-driven drilling equipment this attitude is changing. Because of their general lack of physical impediments other than problems of sand and spinifex mounds, alluvial deserts are not unattractive places to search for oil. They are by nature frequently the geomorphically “negative” parts of the earth's crust, and, in that the seas readily invade such low-lying areas, they are consequently also preferred habitats of petroleum. Until recently little was known geologically of the Simpson Desert area proper, except that it obscured part of the Great Artesian Basin, and that a complex of Palaeozoic basins projected into and beneath it from the west, north and south. The drilling of water wells on cattle stations in marginal portions of the desert has provided some new leads to geological understanding of the desert areas, but it is the geological and geophysical operations of Geosurveys of Australia Ltd., Delhi Australian Petroleum Ltd. and Santos Ltd. that have provided much of the new basic understanding. Flamingo Petroleum N.L. and the South Australian Mines Department have also entered the desert area in basic geophysical exploration. The Bureau of Mineral Resources are systematically attacking the geology from the north. GEOLOGY AND PETROLEUM PROSPECTS OF THE SIMPSON DESERT By BR. C. Spricc, M.Sc. [Read 9 November 1961] INTRODUCTION The Simpson Desert of Central Anstralia uutil recently has been considered as one uf the more formidable deserts in the world. With the advent of air- cruft, softtyred and multi-wheeled vehicles and air-driven drilling equipment this attitude is changing. Because of their general lack of physical inypediments other than problems of sand and spinifex mounds, alluvial deserts ure not unattractive places io search for oil, They are by nature frequently the geomorphically “negative” parts of the earth’s crust, and, in that the seas readily invade such low-lying areas, they ure vonsequently also preferred habitats of petroleum, Until recently little was known geologicully of the Simpson Desert area proper, except that it obscured part of the Creat Artesian Basin, and that a complex of Palacozoic basins projected into and beseath it from the west, north and south. The drilling of water wells on cattle stations in marginal portions of the desert has provided some new leads to geological understanding of the desert areas, but it is the geological and geophysical operations of Geosuryeys of Australia Ltd., Delhi Australian Petrolerm Ltd, and Santos Ltd. that have pro- vided mnehi of the new basic understanding. Plaminga Petroleum N.L. and the Suuth Australian Mines Department have also entered the desert area in basie geophysical exploration. The Bureau of Mineral Resources are system- matically attacking the geology from the. north, PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS Few investigations other than of geographical nature and which principally considered the mechanics of desert formation, had been carried cut im the main Simpson Desert area prior to about 1958. ©. T. Madigan, D, Mawson and A. Voisey had carried out the principal earlier yeologival investigations about the nurthera perimeter and these were of a broad reconnaissance nature. R. L. Jack of the South Australian Mines Department had earlier atterapted correlation of Artesian Basin Mesozoic sirali- graphy across the desert in its southern extensions, and T. W. E. David and W. Howchin had earlier visited und deseribed presumed Permian glacigene deposits near Finke, N.T. The first serious effort to map the desert geologically was made by Geo- surveys of Australia Limited in 1959 under the supervision of the writer. In this work, principal ficld mapping was carried out by J. Johnson and M, Audley- Charles. Previously R. Brunuschweiler and H. Woptner of Geasuryeys on behalf of Santos Ltd. had gealogically mapped considerable areas about Oodna- daitta on the westeru margin of the desert. Tn 1958-1959 the writer carried ont aerial geological mapping and air photo interprétation of about a third of one million square miles of the Great Artesian Trans. Roy. Soc, Aust. (1963), Vol, 56, 3b KR. C. SPRIGG Basin, and this included the whole of the Simpson Desert enviroument of ap- proximately 80,000 square miles. This project, along with very extensive low-level aerial reconnaissance carried out collectively by R. C. Sprigg, B- Brinpschweiler and Ti, Wopfner, on behalf of Santos Limited, greatly expanded the svuctural understanding of the Simpson Desert, and its immediate environ- ments, In 1958 the writer published in the American Association of Petroleum Geologists a summary report of the petroleum prospects of the Great Artesian Basin. This was the first publication to hint al oil prospects in and about the Simpson Desert area itsell. Duriug and since that time. campany explorations have been expanded into the area principally by: Santas Limited; Delhi Aus- tsilian Petroleum Co. Ltd.; Frame Broken Hill Co. Pty. Ltd.; Phillips-Sunray Petvolenm Companies: Three States Petwleum Ltd,; Associated Frency Oil- fickls N.L.; Flamingo Petroleum Co. N.L.; and Magellan Petroleum Corporation. Ta the Jute 1950's the Northern Territory Mines Department’s geological section extended bydralogical investigations into the northern and western desert margins to ussist local pastoralists in the search for stock water. By this time the Bureau of Mineral Resources had become interested in the area. and com- menced detailed geological mapping of 4-mile map sheet areas im about 1059, Their explorations have since been extended across the northern margins af the desert. Preliminary results (unpublished) of these surveys have been made ivailuble. The geologists in charge of these field operations were K, G. Smith, J, W. Smith, D. BR. G, Woolley, R. R. Vine and E. N. Milligan, under the super- vision of N. Fisher and A, Condon. The desert is practically completely lacking in outerops older than Recent alluyials over most of its arca,. Consequently, geophysics must continue to pro- vide most of the advance information relating to the probable depth, nature and structure of deep sedimentation prior to deep stratigraphic drilling. A summary we geophysical activities: is given later in this repart. ACCESSIBILITY Andado cattle station, the outermost desert outpost, occupies a series of low tists (Cretaceous shales) that form a “bridge” into the Simpsan Desert from the fiarth-west, Tracks have been extended from the homestead to the east, south and north, and it is possible to loop north-east to the eastern MacDonnell Ranges via Camel Plat, or the Hale River via Madigau’s Lookout. The advent of multi-wheecled vehicles and of hag-type and other low pres- site tyres, is making it possible to traverse desert areas more readily. Deserts are no longer serious obstacles, but in fact have much to commend them in expluration. Reconnaissance aircraft, inchiding helicopters, greatly facilitate operations, Andado has its own airstrip and (here arc numerous available sites where airstrips could he readily constructed. Gravity surveys iu progress by Ger- surveys of Australia Ltd. on behalf of Beach’ Petroleum N.L. arc currently establishing tracks completely across the desert from Finke to Birdsville. The Adelaide-Alice Springs vaihway traverses the desert margin on the west and provides a mumber of passenger and goods trains services per weck. The nearest regular airline service on the west operates through Oodnadatta en route between Adelaide, Alice Springs and Darwin. A weekly service operates through Birdsville on the east. The reygiun is served by the Flying Doctor network, and by regular wireless telegraph services at intervals through- aut the day, GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT PHYSIOCRAPHY The Simpson Desert is one of Australia’s largest desert areas (c. 80,000 squate iniles). It oceupies a general topographically depressed bell descending helow sea-level in the south where playa lakes attain quite large dimensions (Lake Eyre about 10,000 square miles}, Madigan (1936, 1937a, 19387b, 1939, 1945, 1946), Crocker (1946), and Bonython (1956) and King (1956, 1960) have been foremost investigators of these phenomena. The desert is characterised by remarkably parallel Jongitudinal or “seie” sand dunes tor which the desert is famous. The trend of the main body uf the dunes is N.NLW. in the direction of the existing and “sub-fossil” prevailing wind directions. These correspoud with the demunaling winter anticyclonic wind pattern, which brings the most persistent high-ipypact winds (20 m.p.h. or greater) from the south-southeast. The dunes are consequently the caster are of at sub-cirenlar pattern of atmospheric cireulation ventred a considerable distance west of Lake Eyre. The dominating regional traction of sand in Central Australia is thtts anticlockwise. : Not much translation of sand is ovenrring at present except in the environs af Lake Eyre, or where aborigines have burned extensively tor game, ov where the white man has overgrazed with stock, Mostly the dunes are “fixed” by bushy vegetation, and sand movement is restricted tu the unstable dune crests, The Simpson Desert consequently is largely “fossil” and its climatic development is now considered to relate to the glacial phases vf the Pleistucene (Sprig, 1961b ). The source of the sediment is practically entirely alluvial, the desert floor con- sisting of the relatively fine owtwash products from surrounding ranges ind plateaus. The dried-out interdune floors are deflated by high velocity winds. and also in more revent geological times under increasing arid conditions. The finer material winnows out as dust which may be transported enormons distances (Anstrulian dust has heen recorded causing haze in New Zealand duping the more violent duststorms in the 1930s). 'Vhe corventrated residual sand (with sub-rounded yeains averaging about 060 Tam.) is swept. into dunes. Tn this manner the interdune corridors are zones of shallow aeolian erosion (wind- rifts) with the result that there is.a tendency in some areas for the more stable dimes in slower alluviated areas to become isolated on “pedestals” one ta several feet in height, as interdune top soils continue to be deflated. Crocker (1946) has shown that the sands of the interdune corridor floars are relatively immobile. Two sizes of sand grains dominate that bear an approximate 10:1 diameter ratio, and this brings stability by the resullant more efficient packiny and sand grain interlocking: Clay-pans ure a prominent feature of the desert in that they are “sealds” representing the exposed surface of the soil “B", or cluy, horizon. This gives 4 invasure of the normal depth of ervsion (6 to 12 inches) from which the material te build the dunes to 30 to 150 fect high has been derived and concentratad, No deep erosion by wind is required to account for the dune accumulations, for the dunes are mostly only several himdred feet across ut the base but are usually separated by intervals of one-eighth to a quarter of a mile or more. Where alluvial deposition is in progress near debouchments of large “rivers”, far more massive sand accumulations develop but these: lack the characteristically open “sand-tree” corridors uf the desert proper. A suggestion of barchan development may also be @bserved in these zoues. Clay-pans occur more frequently to the south, culminating im the Take Eyre salina (saliferous deposits of sult and eypsum) occupying the lowest partion of the depressian. Ge =\ 38 k. G. SPRIGG GEOLOGY The Simpson Desert is a tupoeraplicully depressed alluvial area that obscures the junction of several intea-cratuic Palaeozoic basins emerging from the West Australian Pre-Cambrian shield, [t also envelopes the most north- westerly developments of the Mesozoic Creat Artesian Basin (Fig. 1), Basement rocks are Archacan metasediments and acid to basic igneous intrusives. “They are uverlain, aud/or separated. by thick sedimentary develap- ments of Cambrian, Ordovician, (2)Devonian, (?)Carboniferous, Permian aud Cretaceous ages. Trias-Jura may be present bencath the more ventral desert areas, (7) Triassic sediments have recently been recognised neur Tarlton Downs immediately north of the desert, These are overlain by Quaternary alluvial deqosits, incliding the extensive dune systems. Proterozoic, Cambrian, Ordovician and Cretaceons sediments were exten- sively marine. Upper Palacozoic sediments us they appear in outcrop marginal to the desert were dominantly continental. There is, however, reason to antici- pale more marine-ness in the structurally “negative” areas uow beneath the Simpson Desert. Permian sediments intersected in bores put down in marginal provinces to the desert to the south-west, for example, have recently (Ludbrook, 1161) been recognised to have penetrated such mariue intercalations. The basement compleacs are intensively folded, faulted and igneous- intruded. These were decply peneplaned and isolated by an enormous time break from [ater preservec sediments (the “ep-Archacan” interval and pene- planc). Several distinct cyeles of post-Archaean sedimentation can be recog- nised, accompanied or separated by orogenic and epeirogenic episodes of movement. A number of interconnected and semi-permanent sedimentary basins have evolved. Structural deformation within the Upper Proterozoie to Cambrian and Ordovician has accompanied gliding and décalloment formation. Jura-type anticlines, with near vertical limbs and separated by Hat-lying strata, developed, A feature of the tectonics of the northern Simpson Desert arca was the de- velopment of Palaeozoic folding across duminantly east-west axes, over which have been superimposed gentle cross-warps of Mesozoic-Tertiary ave with more nearly north-south trending axes, These latter probably developed in relation to oe or NNE-SSW trending fault linewments and/or lincamental fault ucks. A, STRATIGRAPHY Marginal to the Simpson Desert, sedimentary successions have preserved much of the geological record since Middle Proterozoic times. Evidence vf vulcanism is almost entirely absent, and with few execptions conglomerates are pourly developed. Tillites feature in the Upper Proterozoic; Permian glacio- Huvial boulder heds haye been “interpreted” in several widespread localities around the vorthern and western perimeters of the desert. Seme af these are possibly: outwash remanié eroded from the Proterozoic giaciofuviuls, 1, Archkawan Three provinces of Archacan igneous and metamorphic rocks converge on the desert from the north and west. The northernmost form a low barrier in this direction cutting off the desert from the Georgina Basin. a. The Arunta Complex which shelves beneath the desert in the north is vorposed of gneisses, schists and intrusive racks. Metasedimentary fold gxes are confused in direction in this zone, but become more Latitudinal in the west. GEOLOGY OF 'THE SIMPSON DESERT 38 b. The Musgrave Mountain Belt trends eastwards iuto the Simpson Desert at about its centre, and represents the deeply exposed easterly extension of the Westralian Pre-Cumbriin shield, In this area it is oumpesed principally of deeply Srapitised metasediments, intrusive graniles, charnockites, ind ultrahasi¢ cor- plexes, Major cust-west, crustal shear faults traverse the ranges, and in the ratreme west have Facilitated voluminous basic and ullrasbasic intrusive and extrusive activity. . This metamorphic complex has provided a major source of sediment supply ta the extensive basin areas about Centyal Australia sinee Proterozoic times. It is a geanticlinal area of great antiguity, (ce, the Arunta block which is con- siderably younger, and is of the nature of an uplifted and sediment-stripped plattorm. ) Metasedimentary fold structure is gencrally remarkably subdued, and an east-west grain dominates mosi of the ranges, In the more easterly extensions, hinvever, Jsoclinal folds with pronounced north-south axes (near Ernabella and Mt. Tieyon) ure developed; they incline to NE-SW about Umbearra. near the north-western edge of the desert. c. The Peake and Denison Ranges are inliers of gneisses and igneous rocks that protrude through Proterozoic, (?)Permian, and Mesozoic cover formations on the south-western margins of the Desert. A depressed und primarily sub- surface platform of these racks extends towards the south-west coast af Lake Kye, The foregoing basement exposures margin the desert as low ranges and inselbergs descending eventually beneath plains level. Doubtlessly the Musgrave Mountain Belt has been the most persistent “positive” geomorphic feature in Central Australia since Pre-Cambrian times. Tle presence of anajer crustal shear lineaments extending east-west in this zone (through Mt. Davies and seuth uf the Musgrave Ranges) imay have had much to do with this transesnding uplift factor, In Australia these and other major crustal zones of shearing have exerted w taajor influence and control on sedimentation since Middle Praterozaic times and earlier, All Archaean rocks are metamorphosed to a degree thal is in. strong contrast ta the practically unaltered Upper Proterozoic und later sediments which ciuver them. ‘The Upper Proterozoic and Archaean are separated from each other by the near perfect ep-Archaean buried “peneplane”. 2 Proterogole As with the Archaean complexes, three principal outcrop areas of Pratera- zoie rocks arc recognised which impinge on the Simpson Desert, These are the MacDonnell Ranges-Ferguson Kanges and their extensively pedimented extensions continuing eastward intn Queensland, north of the desert; the pied mont and pedimented areas which skirt the Musgrave Ranges in N.T,: na the Peake and Denison Ranges in S.A. There is practically no evidence of igueuus aclivity or metamorphism. An interbedded basalt How occurs west of Granite Downs near Indulkina. a. The Ferguson Ranges and lastward, This is a belt of thick Upper Proterozoie deposition extending up into the Cambrian, and which laps onte Archaean core rocks to the north. The basal Heavitree Quartzite is overlain by a succession of shales, saudstones, limestones and dolormites passing above into tillite developments, then into reddish shales and sandstones with included dolomiles, to the base of the Cambrian, The Upper Proterozoic-Combrian succession approximates 11,000 feet in thickness. Of this the hasal Heavitree Quartzite and the Bitter Springs Limestones attain about 2,000 feet opposite the " KR. C SPRIBG north end of the desert. The latter Jimestanes are frequently hivhly organic The overlying, Pertatataka Group, approximately 3,000 feet Uhick. consists of iiterhedded sandstones, limestones and shale, with 2 disconformity and sume evidence of glacial detritus low in the snecessian, ; b, Musgrave Range “Poothills". Upper Proterozoic sediments prinedpalfy sandstones, glaciofuvials, erey and red shales and inter-hedded Vepestiness nose around the plunging Musgrave Rauge promontory at the desert edve, Although the basal equivalent of the Heavitree Quartaite figures prominently along the northern course af this 400-mile long mountain belt in the west, there is evidence of its crosion trom the castern piedmont areas, and its replacement by the Jater “basal” etary) tillites, The most easterly outerop of Proterozoic sediments form the Mt. Kingston Ranges, aboat 25 miles north of Kulgara. These sediments strike E.N.E. zo Tlorseshone Bend, where they plunge beneath the desert in a flatapitching yuti- cline. The formations dip steeply surthward (50-7) degrees), but lolding finally drags thein inte a low anticlinal structure pitching eastward, Principally these ure sandstones, flagey and ripple-marked in part, aso glanconitic and micaceous, and purplish to whitish in colonr. Tillitic beds ure present. They are sliullaw- water products, and presumubly correlate with the Grants Klull Formation across the desert to the north-east (Smith ef al,, 1960, LUG), Near Granite Downs, a thick succession of purple shales with yellaw doto- mites overlie well-developed basal tillites. ce The Peake and Denison Ranges. A typical cross-section of Adelaide System sediments of great thiekness occurs in these ranges which margin cores of basement rocks, They include a thick shale and dolomite sequence, averlain by tillites and glaciofluvials, and finally by shales and dolomites. The Cambrian, however, does not outcrop in the area (Reyner, 1955 ). 3, Palaeozoic Avery extensive succession Of Palaeozoic sediments outcrop in the marginal areas af the Simpson Desert. Gaps in the sedimentary record relate to the Silurian, and possibly the Carboniferous. There is no known igneous activity or evidence of regional metamorphism in the area, Areas of practivally eon- tinuous Palaeozoic sedimentation may well be preserved bencath the more (leetonically) negitive zoues of the Simpson Desert, Lower Palueozoie sedimentation, principally marine, dorninates the Known sedimentary record, Considerable thicknesses of Cumbrian und Ordovician sedi- ments exposed ut the surface occupy elongate cast-west basins or “troughs” burdering the Musgrave Mountain belt on its north and south sides, and which Irend mto the province of the Desert. (2) Devoniun and Permian, coutivental and lacustrine sections, preserved in outcrop in the broader synelines, thicken towards the desert area, and are indicated to be more extensively preserved in this. direction, There is ample scope for marine facies to develop into this downwarped zone, a, Lower Palavozole Severul Lower Palueozoic troughs converge on the Simpson Desert. These are the Amadeus and Officer Basins from the north-west and central-west respec- tively, and the Adelktide Geosyneline from the south, The Amadeus and Georgina Basins provide the most complete Cambro-Ordovician successions, whercas the Cambrian is completely missing in outcrop in the poorly outcropping Officer Basin. An enormously thick Cambrian snceession is present in the Adelaide Geosyncline (16,500 feet thick) but Ordovician is absent in its northern areas, although it ts deyeloped in the Moatwingee area ueross the N.8,W, border, GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT Al (i) Cambrian; Cambrian sediments in outcrop about the Simpson Desert are restricted to the Amadeus and Georgina zones, respectively to the north- west and north. They also appear in the extreme south at the northern extremity of is Torrens. There is ample scope for their devclopment below the desert itself, . 5 3 : % 2 s 3 z 3 ef Et 5 £o% FS 3 eo RE 3 s = g = ae ge : = : &® Sa 5 = bt = & p =D Ky eo 2 $ wd == 7 = = & 26 Se s r= 5 z =2 BS : z = 5 3 . = & . : n s iad = 5 £ = = U = > rm 3 = 5 a = x a = g % = o68 = = ts is 33 . £ rz 2 . = 4 : a E iy ~<— cy i 2 re i = z ee = pa F & oe ay = i = s et . =e im 2 = ned “ 3 ¥ &z = Fa = ~ 9 > at Fs rs at = Pw 3 = re 2 = . = $s . : 5 . 5 Pe _ = = : g £ S as 8 et 4 © BS = ra ze & 3 & 2 S = . 4 cos > yoy = > ae . a = N a] 5 ss = a ~~ 3 : 2 = s a2 = ge £ = s = a ae = s £ B & S x Syne = a = = > z= S ‘ 4 = 3s = & im 5 2 5 = o¥- as = 2 ad a& = a ‘3 : 25 pe 8 -é Pe 4 fF = m+ 5 os cars “ = e = 3 s an ba ea a & pid we ok a 3 z = © = Ss 7% rh e n tt = rs 3 ae : : Ee “ z - at 3 ~ = x £ = £ é ~ g a & TE = 25 aba = = * 2 22 = 4 . Es - ee aed = A eS == Ee: if > ou FEE < 2 * ™ S = ag == wr = BEES .¥ > 3 ios «2 RS nae & Sag a x = . 4 = i a8 Zs : sires 2% 2 : na 6 08 z= L5 tSEe 73 & » 8 = 28 ¥ = 4 SEER PB ° = : ! as &e te ae Se ges os = FS i om — xr =~! NL tad NE urgua 9 ggu0erlugu a 2 a raddin, OVP. pt : saddn Oo — = oO rs 2 NY | ETAWS AeiBBWYo = Od _ TIO2OYILON NuaWwHoey Ou Tas 7 m 1 ead a 5 ose : SF ‘ : : : ~ o* > & 3: } =e § Re 3 : a ve) 7 = = e > 8 = 2 z ue uo ‘ $ > ob FE : Sz 8 : ay & x ¢ : 2s £ ESE s £ ge § S aye a 2 3 = p58 4 3 2 ‘ Es 5 ge 7 S “} 2 L 2 = > & rT e ® ; £ 5 4 2 “ i : : . S ee 5 ‘ a E 3 £ & 2 > a ’ S ‘4 5 es ; : E . é yw . = _ all @ a ¢ Fe é tg 8 48 es Li se 38 he fa rr rs | a TN a a " =| i " s fis matte - ae Tinting ane i a am CR ‘ bat Diptvyeay ie ' Mma t ye ) i in a SNM Typ yatta CURR Mi Hehe! hia Ht | seat coal RY A ie SAANYLOUI I ni i Hl f UE AA! = ho EE fairy Fawn: forks wytdieg may F8GAID ReoNs dary UOOH i ; ' | | sales, aNiatlavurt (SDTH2S, MWLHNOOWLHad . | ame] o jadi arn « ainapar ir Iwona : Madan : ' 49 UB ASLED | NVIMH Ne ol Fig, 12 R, C. SPRIGG Cumbrian successions everywhere appear to overlie the Upper Proterozoic conformably, ov very nearly so, There is little indication of any sedimentational break, and it is more a mutter of definition or convenience as to where the boundary is drawn. North of the Simpson Desert the Cambrian succession attains about 6,000 feet fh thickness, consisting in ascending urder of the Aroambera Creywacke, thie llugh River Shales, the Santa Teresa Lirnestone and the Pulya Pulya Sandstone (Smyth et al., 1960, 1961). The Arumbera Greywacke is believed to attain about 2,000 feet thick, and is predominantly a whitish or reddish brown felspathic sandstone. The Hugh River shales together with the Santa Teresa Limestones also attain almost 2,000 feet in. thickness, They are cssentially part of a single shale-limestone assucia- tion, The brachiopods Kutorgina and Nisusia in the lower Hugh River shales indicate a lower Cambrian age for the unit (Bureau of Mincral Reswurces, generul information ). The uppermost Pulya Pulya sandstone is generally a dense white clayey sandstone of uniform lithology. Fragmentary brachiopods and trilobites indi. cate un Upper Cambrian or Lower Ordovician Age. Higher members of Ordovician age may be obscured beneath the desert levels to the south in which direction the general succession phimges. Tn the Amadeus zone, Cambrian successions. may attain several thousand furt in maximum thickness (Pig. 2) Archaeocyatha bioherms are developed in the lower limestones, principally east of the N.-S, railway, Trilobitie limestones (Redlichia) are conspicuons in the Middle Cambrian. These latter are mostly darker-coloured and may he bituminous; they are set iu thicknesses of shales. Sandstones are also present in the section, and one that is more conspicuous marks the basc. Red beds are also well-developed at some levels. The Georgina Basin Cambrian may attum 5,000 feet or more in thickness, and is made up extensively of limestones (Fig. 3), the middle und upper sections of which may be prolifically fossiliferous, Sandstone developments increase in the upper section and there are some shales, Tn the wpproaches to the Musgrave mountain belt (southern Amadeus and northemn Officer Basins) the Cambrian may be thin or entirely missing. These levels are occupied by an internal unconformity that reveals extensive contem- porary erosion prior to depasition of the Ordovician, Late, or epi-Cumbrian, diastrophism is indicated by stronger folding in the carlier beds, At Deep Well (on the railway south of Alice Springs), for example. Lower and Middle Cambrian beds were extensively and contemporily croded and further to the couth they were entirely removed. This situation intensifies also along the northern margin of the Officer Trough, where the broadly folded (?) Ordovician sandstones overlic relatively tightly folded uppermost Proterozoic in the imme- diate Musgrave piedmont zone, Cambrian formations almost certainly occur widely beneath the Simpson Desert. for they form the cores of spectacular Jura-type folds which crop up at the desert’s immediate northern margin. Seismic surveys indicate deep sedi- mentary sections in the coextensive desert areas, (ii) Ordovteian; Sedimentation during this interval in the Amadeus was dominantly arenaceous, but thin, highly fossiliterous shaley limestemes are inter- bedded. Three to four thousand feet ar more of cross-bedded and reddish sands dominate De section, Across in the Georgina Basin, limey sediments assume GEOLOGY OF ‘THE SIMPSON DESERT 43 greater eae an and the section appears to be best developed against (on the north side of ) the MacDonnell-Winnecke basement “ridge” (Fig. 3). Fossil assemblages of the Amadeus basin appear to be dominated by the ubiquitous (? )Scolithes * ‘worm burrow” or “pipe-rock” (Upper Cambrian to Ordovician) in the great sandstone formations, and by the Horn Valley fauna in the narrow shaley limestone interbeds, This latter fauna includes Orthoceros, Raphistoma, Orthis and Dalmanites in super abundance. r _ J <——. a —— COMPOSITE LOG OF STRATA Formation outcropping on Winnecke divide ( Offer KG Smith , RR Vine, EN Milligan. — Bur Min Res 1961/65.) ae | ay ea “if x AAW Waning : -_ ; ‘ pny 3 Nora ‘sy |= as Sitstone , sandsiona , shoie eave sronstone ane Form ferruginoes somastare . inlerbecded linvestore’. aandsfone and sition (eassiliverous }: Fossiliferous fire grained sucuceaus Sandstene sori pige rock") haley ond sandy Jimestoqes anch dotornley, Sardsione . while, cateersous in part Aussi! fish bees . placedernrs, Duicie Sandst, | Tomahawk Beds | Sandstone darn, Hyolithes Alga firesiores . Arrinthrunga Form. i r Lark tue grey tinestone , cdolomple ond oafitic himesfane CAMBRIAN Flaggy dotomite Soidy oblamite Dotoniite auth cher’ Doboamte arth trifabsles. Velliae Brow henestorie, dolomile Archaeocyatha' af fap. DAstone, Ceeey and nvieaceous | I i} | Arthur Ck s | — Dolenile in part aofitie. + & Beds § Mt, Baldwin-> Form. § ) Field Rive === Sitistonas and shales | Bed PROTEROZOIC Eu Titite batpas. = GEO. 81 WwW R. C, SPRIGG In the Toko syneline (southern Georgina Basin) rich fossil assemblates inchide tnlabites, niuutiloids, pelecypods, gastropods, sponges and bryozoa. South of the Musgrave Ranges in the Offcer Basin massive sandstones characterised by “pipe rack” are coarsely cross-bedded and slump-bedded; they appear ta be broken wnly by thin red and grey limestones and grey shales near the base. This formation overlies the uppermost Proterozoic red shales section with strong angular unconformity; its Cambro-Ordovician age requires verifi- cation, Fast of the Musgrave Ranges, Ordovician sandstones with rich mollusean fauna have heen found in the Mt. Kingston Range north-east of Kulgera. These appear to be coextensive with the “pipe rock” sandstones recorded by Opik and Sullivan (1951) at Rumbalara. These Ordovician stritu, Hatdying, appear lo dip gently beneath the Simpson Desert from this direction. in the Jast out- crop at the edge of the alluvial pliting near Cranite Downs, to the south, they are Glled to 45 degrees to the north, Much of the deeper seismic reflections below Andado in the desert area may be from these beds. None of the local water bores in this Andada avca have penctruted below the fat-lying Permian, bh. Upper Palaeozaic Detailed regional mapping by the Bureau of Mineral Resourees (Smith ef (i. 1959, 1960 and L9GL) and geological recounaissance by Frome Broken Hill Company and by Geosurvevs, hive disclosed the presence of considerable developments of Upper Palaeozoic sediments about the margins of the Simpson Desert These give the strong impression that Upper Palaeozoic sections, (?) Upper Carboniferous to (?)Permian, bencuth the desert muy be not ineon- sequential, Whereas (?)Permian scclions in these marginal outcrop areas are all con- thientul, revent checking of bore cores by the South Australian Mines Depart- ment (Ludbrook, 1961) demonstrate that Permian sections buried beneath Mesnroie cover, south of the Peake wod Denison Ranges, include also marine developments. [t is not unreasonable, therefore, to suspect an increasing marine clement in any or all Upper Palaeozoie successions as they pass into the struc- hurally more “negative” yones of the Simpson Desert area that had developed st that time. Dullingari Well ncar Innamiricka (Delhi-Santos) has disclosed several thousand feet of conUnental to marine Permian tn a sub-basin immedi- ately east of the desert. Prioy to World War ID, presumed (?)Permian “rillites” aud eomelumerates had been recognised in the Missionary Plain (west «if Alice Springs, Madigan, 1932), and at Crown Point (near Finke; David anc) Howehin, Toor , but other. wise the Upper Palaeozoic was considered to be represented by an extensive geological hiatus, Devonian fish heds have recently been reported from a deep synclinal “basin” on the immediate northern margin of the desert, and possibly alsy (?)Carboniferous leaf beds, These appear to be cormparable with similar de- velopments in the Dulcie Ranges of the southern Georgina. Within the Simpson Desert, in Maleulms Bore (30 miles N.-E. of Andado) Tower Permian (Artin- skian) shales rich in pollen were encountered below about 600 fect to the bottam at the hole at approximately 1,800 fect. TYhere is now reason to suspect that a reasonably complete Palaeozic snevession may indeed be present beneath some parts of the Simpson Desert. (i) (?)Siurian to Devontan: Fish beds of undoubted Devonian age (Tills, 1959) are reported (Smith, L860 and 1961) in the south-western Georgina Busin. GEGLOGY OF TILE SIMPSON DESERT We They oveur in thick sandstones deposited in fresh water .as the thick Dulcie Sandstone, In the Amadeus Basin the Mereenie Sandstone, 900-2,000 feet thick ane wvoilyng the Ordovician seotian in Ellery Creck west of Alice Springs, may passibly be uf this age (Quinlan, 1962). Wells et af. (1961) recognise a discon- foxmity separating the Merecnie Sandstone from the underlying (Ordoviciun) upper portion of the Larapinting Group. The Mercenie Sandstone is overlain unconformiubly by massive “Aysch” conglomerates (8,000-21,500 feet thick aceording to various estimates) of the Missionary Plains syncline. Early writers (David and Brown, 1950) referred these “Post-Ordovician” Pertujara conglomer- utes to possible Permian. Quinlan (1962) places them in the Upper Palaeozoie. The Pertnjara are the accumnlutions of w tectonic enviroment (Sprigg, eb al, 1860; Quinlan, 1962: Wells, ef al, 1962). ‘Che houlders are of unsorted imixed types that were rapidly accumulated. Metamorphic and igneous rocks from Archacan basement predomimate in the uppermost conglomerates, whereas successively younger (Proterozoic to Ordovician) rock fragments predominate in the lower horizous. The rapid erosional stripping of an actively uplifting lawer Palaeozoic landscape suggests itself, No fossils have yel been found in these sediments. Vhe beds are described by Madigan (1932), Chewings (1935) and Pritchard and Quinlan (1960), Quinlan (1962), Wells et al. (1961), The large diapirie Mt. Goss structure (two to three miles in diameter) of the Missionary Plains syoeline bas presumably penetrated a geeat thickness of Perinjara beds, but its vertical walls. and also the horizontal cap strata, are of Ordovician sediments. The origin of the structure is undetermined but is pre- sumed to be a sult; ¢vypsum, or mobile clay plug from the deeply buried Cambrian or Upper Proterozoic, both of which are known to include red beds of saliferous affinities. It is possible that similar incampetent strato lave permitted extensive slippage (décollement formation) in the northern Simpson Desert area, the cores of the folds of which may alse he diapivie, (See under subsequent dis- cussion of structure.) In the extreme south-eastern Georgina Basin. and immediately across the haseiment divide from the Simpson Desert, the Dulcie Sandstone (1.690 | feet) is oF Upper Devonian age. Smith ef al. (1961) report that “fragments of fossil fish were obtaincd fram a bed 1,640 feet aboye the hase. The fossiliferous haxizon, about 60 feet thick, is a unit of white calcareous sandstone which sso underlies the horizon where Upper Devonian placoderms were obtained in 1958, They were deseribed by Hills (1950)." Diseuntormable relations with the underlying Ordovician are apparent, Ub is possible that comparable syn- clinal infillings Iving immediately north of the Simpson Desert, are of this Devonian age and ussuciition, (ii) Permian: Presnmed eoutinental und glaciofuvial secirments referred to this age have been recorded ocewring widely about the northern and western perimeters of the Simpson Desert. These have been described from the Peake and Denison Banges (Chewings, 1928: Reyner, 1955; Parkin, 1956}, from Finke (David and Heweohin, 1924: Ward, 1925; Sprige and Brunnschweiler, 1958, Sprigg. Johnson and Audley-Charles, 1960), and fom the Hay and Wield River Headwaters (Condon and Smith, 1959; Smith et al, 1960), Undoubted (fossiliferous) Lower Permian Jiave been recorded from the worth eental Simpson Desert in Maleolms Bore (on Andado Station) beluvy 44 R. C. 5FRIGG ubout 600 feet of Cretaceous shales (Sprigg, Johnson and Audley-Charles, 1960; Balme, 1960). More recently (Ludbrouk, 1961) has shown the Permian to he in part marine in the adjoining Stuart Range Area. Ludbrook (1961) has provided the following stratigraphic sequence for these beds (principally from J.. Phillipsan Bore): (2) Lower Artinskian to Upper Sakmarian fresh water mudstones with coal and fine sandstones —. __ . ae 264 fest (b) Sakmarian fresh water carbonaceous siltstones and mudstones with some sandstone ._,, a te nr . 1,830feet (¢) Lower Sakmarian marine mudstone and siltstones 7” 280 fect (¢l) Glacigene boulder clays of presumed lowermost Sakmurian age —- 766 Feet Total . 3,140 feet Much confusion bas surrounded the assessment of Permian glacigenes in Central Australia, Tectonic (piedmont) breccia-conglomerates of the Missian- avy Plains have been tentatively included in this category, and there is high probability that many of the “tillilic” sands in marginal desert areas are rewashed (remanie) concentrations from earlier (Upper Proterozoic) fuvioglacial boulder beds, The confusion carries into the Cretaceous where “glacioHnvial” tillites have been described widely to occur about the south-western Artesian Basin. Here the pebbles could be re-eroded from neighbouring Proterozoic tillites, or Pennian glaciofluvial deposits. ; Near Tarlton Downs Hornestead on the northern margin of the desert, thin prestimed ground moraines, considered to be Permian (Condon and Smith, 1959), have since been found to carry a Hora (Linguifolinm denmeadi, ete.), indicating a Triassic or Lower Jurassic age (Smith e/ al,, 1961), Tt is not unlikely that 2 number of so-called Permian glacigenes in the peri- phery area will be of these or other ages, and that the glacial impression has been misinterpreted or exaggerated. The beds are generally conglomeratic sandstones, often with ohvious cut- and-fill structures and slump- and cross-hedding attesting to fluviatile depasition. Doubt as to the “tillitic” interpretation has long existed in many localities because of the local outerop of Upper Proterozoic tillites and glaciofluvial deposits. (rom which some of the striated and facctted boulders conta equally well have been derived hy erosion, There is also good evidence (Sprigg et al., 1960) that many of the boulders at best are likely fo be products of periglacial activity beyond mountain glaciers, us could huve developed in the higher and more distunt ancestral Musgrave Ranges. Mostly the matrix of the “conglomerates” is sandy and nat comparable with the “rock flour” or normal tillites. In the Finke-Crown Point localities the boulders are principally locally-derived quartzites; occasiouul granite and felspar porphyry pebbles indicate more distant origins, or they may be remanie from locally outcropping Upper Proterozoic. Pebbles of red Jime- stones similar to beds within the (?)Ordovician near Granite Downs verify the post-(?) Ordovician age of these Finke occurrences. (iii) General Observutions: Uncertainty continues to surround the under- standing of the stratigraphy of a number of sandstone formations descending gently below the desert from the vicinity of Finke and Qodnadatta (Glaessner CEGLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESTRT 47 and Parkin, 1958). About Finke, at Horseshoe Bend, the incomplete succession measures several hundred feet in thickness. Lt is as follows: Sandstone, current bedded and micuccous; some interbedded red shale. Conglomerate, intrafurmational, with cut-and-fill structure, Disconformeity Shales, red or chocolate; mivaceous. Sandstones, current bedded, pebbly and gritty in part; locally argillacoous; severe local slurping, Basal conglomerates. Unconformity (on U. Proterozoic ) To the east of Pollys Corner, near Horseshoe Bend on Finke River, con- glumerates occurring at higher levels appear to pass below the De Souza Sand- stone (Opik, 1954) of Rumbalara. Fossil leaves reported to have been discoy- ered in this vicinity by Frome Broken Hill Co. seologists are believed to have indicated a Lower Permian or Carboniferous age. Further to the east in the Simpson Desert, sands encountered in the Yardhole Bore (100 miles distant) beneath 600 feet of Mesozoic sediments are typically gurmctiferous and ligniti- ferous Artinskian developments (Ludbrook, 1960). Grey shales were also well developed, and the formation was not penetrated at the cessation of drilling at 1,800 fect, Beds possibly of the Finke sequence are also exposed about Mt. Ticyon and Umbearra, and eastwards to the Finke River between Lilla and Goyder Crecks. Where these overlup granites, bonlder conglomerates are developed, They are capped by Cretaceous shales with siliceous and/or lateritic cappings. A single sub-circular outerop of hard siliceous conglomerate forming Mt. Alive and dipping outwardly occurs 50 miles NNW. of Oodundatta, "The out- crop is surrounded by low, ontwardly-dipping Lower Cretaceous shales, and the sediments are dubiously related to the Permian, Brunnschweiler (1937), in a Santos Tid. company report, has suggested correlation with the Algebuckina Sandstone bordering the Peake Ranges on their north. Of particular interest was the encountering in the base of the Santos Oodna- datta Bore No. 1 of steeply dipping porous sandstones of unknown age. A single core taken at 1,292 feet revealed a steeply dipping (55 degrees) clean, very white saridstone, notable for its high mica content. The sediment was only lightly lithibed, but otherwise there was no cluc to its age which could he anywhere in the range from uppermost Palacozoie down to Upper Proterozoic. Lifhologically, similar sandstoncs occur locally in the Finke sequence and also in the (2) Ordovician, and in the Upper Proterozoic (the latter along the narthern margin of the Indulkina Ranges). e, Trias-Jura Until recently sediments of Ubese ages had not been recognised in the desert environs. Previously-presumed “Permian placials” occurring immediately south of Tarlton Downs Homestead (at the north end of the desert), have now been found to contain a probable Triassic or Lower Jurassic fora (Smith e¢ al., 1961). A collection of plants examined by Mary White (1961) notes the ypre- sence of Linguifolium denmeadi, Dicroidium odontopieroides and Elatacladus sp...etc. The preservation of the impressions is not good, but the weight of the evidence fayours the foregoing early-middle Mesozoic ages. 48 KC. SPRIGG d. Cretaceous The Simpson Desert depression forms part of the Great Artesian Basin or epcirogenic duwnwarp. Westward tilting of the basin during Mesozoic times led fo progressive westerly overlap onto the Pre-Cambrian shield, with the result that carly Mesozoic sediments do not appear to underlie the Cretacerius shales iv extreme westerly areas to any significant extent, Roma-Tambo (Aptian-Albian) marine shales blanket all earlier deposits in the desert area, Vhey lap onta the “Permian heds” about Finke and Algebuckina, either disconformably, or with gentle: non-conformity. (i) Blythesdale Sandstone; Unconsolidated and highly permeable sands are present in bores about Oodnudatta where they agyregate 310 feet in thickness in Santos Ltd. Oodnadutta No. | well, and rest on steeply dipping micaceaus sundstones of probable Pulacozoic age (see above), A chert band was en- eguntered at the uncoutonnity, The aquifer sands presumably thicken ta the cast in the direction of the Simpson Desert. but the available bore information in this direction is linited and unreliable, _ _ (it) Rema-Tambo Formations: Typically monotonous shale sections of these beds are relieved only by thin limestones, and sandy glauconitiec silty develnp- ments. They are highly fossiliferous in the Oodnadatta region. Sand stringers and gravels have developed only in basal overlap, in contact with granites in the extreme west, In outerap the shales bleach white, or are mottled white, yellow, mauye, reddish or brownish by laterization. At Rumbalara, near Finke. the shales are yellow with ochre developments. About Mt. Dare and Dalhousle the shale section has been deeply eroded at the top of a broad fold-arch. Nodular limestones in grey shales and gypscous beds are exposed, The deepest well to penetrate the Roma-Tambo is at Mt. Dare just inside South Australia, A thickness of about 1,000 feet of shales was cut, beeuming sandy and glauconitic towards the base. They rested on porous sands of inde- terminate age. At the Rumbalara ochre mine the shales averlie the De Souza Sandstone of Opik and Sullivan (1954) which is variously reported as of Mesozoic or Palaeozoic age. Twelve miles south of the ochre mine a bore hole penetrated several hundred feet of shale, presumed to be Cretaceous, before cntering a sandstone aquifer, Shallow water sandy and glauconitic shales have been intersected in drilling for water on New Crown Station from where the Cretaceous shale boundary swings west to about LO miles north of tilla Greck. Presumed Creta- cevus shales oyerlie the Finke River sandstones immediately north of Bloodwood bore. The shale boundary continnes souih-cast past Tievon to Mt. Irwin and disappears beneath the edge of the desert, and is last see trending south towards and just east of Mt. Joha. These shales curry occasional Maccoyella valves as shells or casts. They can be traced at intervals in outuop north abont the margins of the Simpson Desert into Queensland, The Santos Lid, Oodnudatta No. 1 stratigraphic bore put down three miles NNE. of Oodnadatia township cored a fairly complete section of the Roma- Tambo. Ammonite fanna (R, O, Brunnschweiler in a Santos Ltd. company report) indicated the Aptian-Albian boundary at 100 feet, and the (?)Aptian- Neocomian at 960 feet, The well entered the artesian aquifer at 1,292 feet. Ludbrook (1958) confirmed these findings in the microfauna. GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT 49 The succession proved to be lithologically rather uniform throughout the Aptian and Albian, with highly carbonaceous mudstones dominating the section. The sediments are typically marine shallow water, in which a rich foraminiferal fauna existed. Mollusea, brachiopods (particularly in the sandier bands), echinoids, ostracods, and fish teeth were all very abundant. Inaceramus and Log of Strata santos cto OODNADATTA No! STRATIGRAPHIC BORE Located lOmiles N.W. of Oodnadatta | Dritied (957 , continuously cored, Shale with muner sanostones and yyrsur- Swstona usih froceranns. fing grammed sandstone ; verbecded muds { Tambo marine ) Dark grey mumisfene ; /ugtily dessiteraus, peecypods ; belenimmres - Sandstane ° fassiitenaus - with tmestune dards Noles fated ffearescense at #bts feet Dark gray shole - fossiiiferaus. Limesione denies Dark yreay shale - occastanas fossils Note > of showing and #lorescanve. at Fier, APTIAN ( Roma marine) Glauconiiic Sendslutre. Derk grey shole ; feu ftasstls Note : week of showing af 932 Fees. oote sand > pooriy sarfed ; Hiucacenss, Sanoly sity arudstere toose , gritty Sand > poorly sorted > eecasronot NEOCOMIAN > Biythesdale songs) MuUestore Berns, herdy fayer’- thneartorrt ty Hine grained sly sandstone » (? Aoleeozer: } / Scegle 200 400. —j feet, ? PALAEOZOIC Logged by R.O. Brunnschweiler , Geosurveys Aust. Ltd- 50) R. C, SPRIGG ammontes were common. Brunnschweiler’s lag of the Santos Ltd. Oodnadatta No. 1 well is as follows: 0- 182 feet Siltstones, silty sandstones and argillaccous limestones. 182- 422 feet Duark grey mudstones, 422- 450 feet Dark grey sandstone with limestone bands. 450- 981 feet Dark grey mudstone with siltstone then limestone and sandy mudstane. 981-1,007 feet Interbedded tight limestones, shale and sand. 1,007-1,292 feet Principally unconsolidated water sands with some shaley partings and silty section (ave uncertain; (2) Blythes- dale), 1,292-1,330 feet Pre-Mesozvic micaceons, soft white, sandstones dipping at 55 degrees ((?)Palacogoie . . . B.C.S.). The Yardhole bore on Andadu Station drilled in 1959 indicated a middle Albian fauna at 660 to 680 feet equivalent to that at 260-300 feet in Oodnadatta bore (Ludbrook, 1960). This suggests a total Cretaccous shale depth of the order of 1,300 fect in this vicinity (sce later). An outcrop of bleached sandy shale beneath a “duricrust” (silerete) capping 90 miles dne cast of Andado, and named “Geasurveys Hill”, appears to be of Lower Cretaceous affinities, It is the only known outerop in the central desert aren. e. Tertiary Pebble conglomerates, claystone beds and sandstones as veneers are distri- buted widely about the margins of the Simpson Desert in Northern Territory. The pebbles are small (up to 1 inch), well-rounded and polished. Cementing material is usually siliccous or lateritic. These are commonly “duricrusted” by advent of silica, and form protective cappings to mesas. About Mt. Tieyon on the $.A,-N.T. border these beds may attain 30 to 40 fect in thickness. They include clay lenses interbedded with sands, and cul-and-fill conglomerates. The sediments are presumed to be Lower Tertiary in age, but the evidence is inconclnsive. Denudation has stranded many of the deposits high on mesa pedestals. Thicker Tertiary accumulations ure expected to be present im the lower- lving desert areas, Jn this connection recent drilling carried out by the South Australian Department of Mines in the Lake Evre region (Johns, 1962) is of interest; an early Tertiary sequence of Carbunaceous sands and silts is overlain disconformably by (?)Miocene dulomites, dolomitic mudstone and clays (Ftadunna Formation ). {. Quaternary Alluvial “drift” forms the floor of nnuch of the desert area. Sand coneen- trated from the shallow soil layers in the process of wind deflation has formed the striking parallel dune system for which this desert is famous, and the finer silty products have been winnowed out and removed as dust. Crocodilian teeth ((?)Pallimnarchus) were found in deep alluvial clays of this assyciation in Mothers Well south of Mt. Tievon. CEOLOGY OF THR SIMPSON DESERT 34 B, STRUCTURE The Shopson Desert is a continuing structurally and geomorphically “nega- tive” section of the Australian continent of great antiquity, UL coincides with the intersection, or meeting. of several ancient basin and geosynclinal trends. Several prominent crustal shear lin¢aments trericl ilo the desert area from boarder regions, and these have exercised a decided influence in structural de- formation from time te time thronghont geological history. Crustal readjust- ments were fucilitated by movement along the weaknesses, lL. Archaean Struclure Bordering the Simpson Desert The Westralian Shield attuins the northern and western edge of the desert in the gcomorphically depressed easterly extensions of the Musgrave and the MacDonnell Range mountain belts; In both cases the Archaean geunticlinal cares pitch gently eastwards with the result that Proterozoic, Cambrian and/or Ordovician sediments tend to nose around them. The Musgrave mountain belt is one of greatest antiquity, It has provided a@ major source of sediments supplying surrounding relatively depressed areas during and since Upper Proterozoic times. Fold structures within this hase- ment complex range from E.-W. to N.-S., but it is evident that the principal scomorphic control has been maintained by movements (vertical and/or hovi- zontal) along major fault shear lineaments which confront. the Mann_ and Musgrave Ranges along thei southern margins for at least 300 miles. Near the W.A. border they are loci of ultrabasie intrusion and extrusion of the magni- tude of a “Buschveldt Complex” (Sprige and Wilson, 1959). Despite the dominating east-west expression of the Musgrave mountain belt aad parallelism of Proterozoie-Palaeozole intra-cratemia hasins, the fold» axial trends within the gneissic complexes lic in marked contrast in castern outerop area, At Mt. Tieyon, the folds preserve N-S. trends, whereas near Umbearra the trend is N.E.-S.W. Further to the west, near Ernabella, isoclines ure stil aligned north-south. The Arunta Complex near Alice Springs is, by contrast, a latitudinally aligned “raft” of ancient igneous-infhuded metasediments that has only sub- sequently been extensively stripped of its Proterozoic and early Palavozoic cover, (By compurison much of the Musgrave helt is a far more ancient geant- clinal zone, and has heen the dominating source of sediments feedings wio Central Australian basins), A major K-W. cristal Jineament confronts the MacDonnell Ranges in the south. This is a complicated fault and monvctinal fold zone, and a Jocus of a steep gravity weadient (Sprigg, L96la). As in the Musgrave Ranges, fold axes in more westerly arcas trend cast- westerly, but become irregular in the extreme east to the north of the Simpson Desert, (A comparable change is noticeable also in the Amadeus Palaeozoic fold pattern: sce later.) The Arunta complex shelves gradually belenw the Simpson Desert. South of Oodnadattu, Archaean complexes form intlers within the Great Artesian Basin principally as the Peake and Denison Ranges. Their positive geomorphic expression is againia consequence of uplift movement along a fall lineament (Sprigy, 1961la) or geosuture, Archaean structural trends in this area run broadly eust-west, At one lime the Upper Proterozoic sediments cornpletely enveloped the presently exposed “raft” of basement rocks in this zone. oe KC. SURIGC 2. Proterozoic to Palaeozoic Structure Elongate basinal belts that Hank the Musgrave geanticline accumulated many thouswnds of feet of Upper Proterozoic, Cambrian, Ordovician and later stliments prior to extensive structural deformation. Cambrian sediments that could have been present in the southern or Officer Basin were extensively eroded and cemoved prior to Ordovician deposition, To the north, in the Amadeus Busin, by cemparison the succession is practically complete, and. still yormger Palueozale sediments are extensively infolded with them. The Upper Proterozoic to Ordovician section of the Amadeus Basin in the extreme north lacks marked internal nneemformities, although geutle breaks ave recognised near the top of the Cambrian. These became acceutiated in the south in the approaches to the active Musgrave geanticlinal zone, (?)Devonian sandstones (Mereenie Sandstone) follow with little more than a disconfortmity break. The overlying Pertnjara tormation, hawever, includes flysch-type sedi- mentary conglomerates that evideuce murked instability at this time, principally in the newly developing MacDonnell geanticline along the northern side of the MacDonnell lineament, This was the first major Palaeozoic orogeny in this zone und developed across (E.W.) the trend of the main depasitional belt, The lurge Missionary Plains syncline sagged to perhaps 20,000 feet or more In the MucDonnell frontal zone, further to adorratellate the latest piedmont-like deposits. Possibly due to these superencumbent loadings the diapiric Mt. Gosse structure developed by salt, gypsum or mobile shale intrusion, Considered broudly, the older Palaeozoic structures in the Amadens zone, west of the Alice Springs railway, display strongly east-west alignment, the mdividual fold axes trending N.N.W, in an en echelon arrangement, ‘Yo the east, folding avrosy N.-S, and E.-W. axes has introduced 2 centripetal tendency (basins and domes), This is the zane which lies north-west of the Simpson Desert, but the suueture refurns to more decidedly “cast-west” in the low ranges immediately abutting the vorthern desert margins. ‘The latter folds are mostly of the “Jura-type”, but sharp pinch-folding and tendencies to thrusting against the Arunta block, point alsa to block faulting and shear faulting in the basement. The nature vf folding in the Amadeus Basin is still.a matter for conjecture. Although the basin is relatively deeply sedimented, its sediments are well sorted, and arc of platform type. Rapid aceumniation has occurred only in restricted zones that ace related ito localised uplift wud erosional stripping, There is no evidence of yoleanicity, folds tend ta be symmetries] and broad in many areas, but elsewhere the anticlines in particular appear to he sharp and separated by broad Hat syaclines, A meusure of diapirism seerns indicated in these latter instances. Fold axes may pass into faults along the erests. This is nowhere better illustrated than about the northern Simpson Desert (Fig. 5), Jt would appear that in these areas a measure of wliding along preferred layers has taken place by déeallement formation, The energy for this. gliding presumably would be gravi- tational and caused by uplift in zones of the north and/or south, The gliding undoubtedly has taken place low in the sedimentary section, possibly at about the level of the Bitler Springs limestone where interbedded saliferous formations are suspected. In typical cases the anticlines which have 60 to 90 degree Jimb- dips are separated by broad flat synclines. The anticlinal fold planes pass into high-angle thrusts, ‘e SI ze 025 aay |__| vicas [DDI psaA coo'si oodol coos 2 58 —— BIETH | | DFUOZIICY c) ¢ z 2 atv3s “AyMWIO,UGIUL) { Uo Dwi) muojsmui) sBulds seeiig ¢& UTubm) guns Buipy® pun 4jnoy yaniys a EN ‘se4z0mAeiS enc smpoug aeary YON 79 3 ecUenbes auojmau! “yuauesng piydimuDpau pun snowUs) 1S BYE} 7 WS "38165, OXD{DIOJe4 puD — evosewit ssuluds Jeiig tel rion esliacey ng buayspuDs voligiiog weddn iQ "4 30t0ia;s0ig 4addn ) euolsew!; sOulids saijig sy} ,f& uoTSEYy “ nae LoBOYI Ig OO KO 59S WPUUidbiby puo Ryd COD)JAY ~4pIdisODUN FIQMOD GS avojspunS eluBelaN LL eur sees, papluyieg dzq ¥, «2 H en assoine r [a i snopo0 819 oy Buolspues osneS ag sayoys 9Ulsou gqn3a937 ul pasingso sapedio Burpijs —JLON LON INAWdO1SASG LNAWST10040 LY¥3Ssaa NOSdWIS NYAHLYON H+ K. ©. SPRIGG in the southern portions of the Amadeus Basin, repetition of the basal Proterozoic sandstones about the Western Australian border (Juklik, 1959) has heen referred to as thrusting against the Musgrave mountain helt. They con- fmm to a pattern of probable imbricate faulting, Comparzhle movements appear to have taken place in the Deep Well zane bordering the Simpson Desert, and in which case an uppet- or epi-Cambrian age may be assigned to these TuWwements. iu the immediate Simpson Desert border regions between Deep Well and Finke, the Cambrian is more strongly folded than the Ordovician, and has been extensively removed by pene-contempurancous erusion before Ordovician leposition. Lxtensive uncontormities, as a consequence, were developed on the Upper Proterozaie and Cambrian in this situation. ‘This state of affuirs extends into the eastern Officer Traugh. In both regions the Proterozoic sequences (“Sturtian” to “Marinuan”) were relatively stceply folded (40 to 80 degrees) in the Musgrave piedmont zou, prior ta deposition of the thick Ordo- vietan sands across well-develuped crosion surfaces, The Ordovician also was subsequently folded, but the fold patterns appear to depart considerably from Hw caurlier imprints in the region south of the Indulkina Ranges and Granite Downs, The Mt. John syncline in Ordovician sediments, tor example, is 20 miles weruss, whereas the loeal Proterozaic exposed on eithee dank is tightly folded, exhibiting a number of fold axex in comparable widths. 1 The mast easterly evidence of folding of the Proterozoic at the desert margin is abserved in the Mt. Kingston Ranyes (west of Finke). Here a resistant sandstone formation forms the north limb of a regional anticline. Dips of 60-70 degrees in the west flatten to 20 degrees in the cast as the formation occupies the nose of a Hat-pitching (5 degrees) anticline lunging beneath the desert at forseshoe Bend. his rather sharp fald may Fe a décollement expression. Overlving Permian beds ure unaflected by the folding, Proterozoic sediments north-east of the desert are influenced strangly by hasement faulting (principally striking N.W.-8.f. or N.N.W-E.S,L.). Feld axes which are gentle approximate these directions, hy the Peake and Dension Ranges the rather broad folding of the exposed Upper Proterozoic sediments display N.N.W. trending axes, aligned sympathetic ully with and in genetic relation to the N.N.W. lineament on the eastern margin of the Ranges. The pattern of Palacozoic fulding beneath the desert is known indirectly in the north-west. Jost over 100 line miles of discontinuous seismic reflection traversing has been completed in the Mt. Dare-Andado-Came! Flat area in Northern ‘Territory, and un ineomplete traverse has been curried acrpss the northern end ot Like Fyre where the sediments are probably shallower. Re- connaissance gravity surveys have been completed in these same arcas, and airborne magnetometer surveys have suhsequently covered most of the desert area in S.A. and N.T. The results of these surveys remain the property of private oil perceuy compunies for the present, hat some general inforrution has been relensed_ Airborne magnetometer surveys curried out on behalf of Delhi Australian Petroleum Company suggest decp magnetic basement in the south-eastern portion of the desert (ten to fiftecn thousand feet), and the trend 1s continuing inta Northern Territory east of the Finke. In the Andado area (N.T,) gravity surveys (Denton and Sprige, 1962) indicate medium Jow gradients for much of the acea (0'3 ty 1 milligal per mile or less) except in the New Crown and Malecolms Bore yicinities, wheré steeper GROLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT 3a gradients and more complex patterns reflect shallowing bedrock. Reconnais- sance selsmi¢ taverses in thiy region confirm the indication of deeper base ment underlying Andada and extending tu the 8.A-N.T. border, A shyllowing of bedrock towards Maleolms bore (region of Jat, 25°00" and long. 123°3{¥ ) is also evident. Eight to twelve thousand feet of sediments are indicated im the Andado zone, but depths appear to be less near Malcolms bore. This uppre- ciation of rather fut-lying and muderately deep section (5,000-10,000 feet plus) carries into the more northern limits of the desert (by courtesy of Flamingo Petro- leum Co. Ltd.) where broader sections of only gently undulating sedimentary succession occupy the fats between the sharp anticlines that protrude alwaptly along the general desert urea in the region of Camel Flat, The impression, now fortified, is that the Prateraznic-Palacozoie section shelves gently semthwardly off the Arunta divide (dips af only a few degrees near the Tale headwaters), but that gliding of the main mass of the section lias resulted in development af Jura-type (andlok diapivic) anticlines at intervals where the succession passes beneath the desert. A series‘of re-opened N.W.-S.E. faults haye complicated the pattern somewhat but may have also initiated or assisted décallement development. Ta recapitulate: the Palacozoic era witnessed several somewhat Jocalised episudes uf gragenic deformation, Erosional truncation of detormed pre-Ordo- vieian strata in the eastern foothill regions of the Musgrave mountain helt indi- cates diasttophism associated with uplift in thase regions, The Ordavician appears to have been an interval of broader stability with the evolytion of great sandy platforms. Late in Ordovician times diastrophistn developed the MacDonnell Ranges as a segional plattonm uplifted in the north, and which was accompanied locally by piedmont (ivsch-type) sedimentation into deepeniny synelines to the south. A measure of décollement formation nay have oceurred at this time or subsequently by gravitationally induced gliding, The principal deformation uf the Amadeus geosyncline appears not to haye occurred before Middle Palaeozaic times, Dating of this episode remains uncertain, but may be epi-Devonian. Post-Ordovician orogeny in the Officcr Trough lying south of the Musgraves superimpused a new degree of folding over the (?)epi- Cambrian developments also in this region, Folding in the two deep secli- mentary basins developed on either side of the Mnsgraves was not necessarily contemporancous, nor was that of the northern and southern portions of the Amadeus Basin. 3. Permian-Mesozoie Structure: Permian and Cretaceous sediments outcropping in and about the Simpson Desert, everywhere are flatlying, or they dip at low angles. Permian strata mxlend beyond the Cretaceous cover principally to tle north nd north-west, Dips are predominantly regional and gently desert or basin-ward. Cretaceous strata outcrop practically continuously along the Simpson Desert margin. Dips are gently basin-ward for the most part and define a sub-basin (200 wide by 400 miles long) within the Great Artesian Basin as a whole, Stratal dips in outcrop west of the Georgina are directed gently westward so thal the Cretaceous shales disappear bencath alluvial cover, not to re-appear until beyond the desert segment af the Finke River almost 300 miles to the west. Warping and folding within the Cretaceaus is apparent principally from hore data (Jack, 1930) and from the deposition of Tertiary “duricrusted” (sil- erete or fossil soil) surfaces upon them (Sprieg, 1855), These ancient surfaces clearly have heen deformed, and have developed gentle, but uridoubted fold patterns along zones of pre-existing folding and/or along lines of reactivated AB R. C. SPRIGG emustx! lincamental faulting, The silicified surfaces are not stratigraphic tn a depositional sense, hut aré mappable surfaecs of flat unconformity. East of the Simpson the surface is developed on Winton shales; to the west if passes froin Tasmbo down onto Roma, and eventually onto the Permian and older beds. The distwwibution of the surface indicates that basining, cvincident with the Simpsan Desert depresstan, has continued during the late Tertiary. Uplift and concomitant erosion has ocenrred about the margins, particularly on the west. Deposition af the erosional products has transterred centrally into the desert regian.. Structural deformation climaxed during the early mid-Tertiary period, when gentle arching and folding developed groups of low, arch-like anticlinus along either murgin of the principal desert depression, The western group represents in part the northern extension of the Peake and Denison Ranges in the direction uF the circular Mt, Alice. These strictures appear lo be in the nature af buried untivlines that ave “baldheaded” at the Palaeozoic or older interface. At Oodna- duttu. core-rocks of steeply dipping (?)Palacozvic sandstones were encountered at L300 teet, nomediately below the Mesazoic. This Jines up generally with the projected Denison Range fault lincament. A secondary structural trend diverges more or less duc northerly [rom the nor-nor-westerly Dennison line, This meorporates the M¢. John and Dalhavtsie structures. Limb dips at the surface average 1 tu 3 or 4 degrees; numercus artesian water miaund springs cscape at the culmination of the Dalhousie domal structure, This latter road “arch” also diverts the Finke River into. the mar- giniung Simpson Desert, and is responsible for the sharp elhow in the course of the Finke at the N,T.-8.A. border. To the north and cast the “sileretc” surface developed on the Cretaccous plunges gently below the desert level. To the north, repetitive upwarping, in Cretaceous shales bas developed the low-lying Andado “ridge”, from which the silerete layer has been extensively stripped. To the south-east of this ridge the duricrust dips gently basin-ward in a qurving line of low cuestas. Remnant mesas preserved by silcrete form a secondary line of hills still further to the west (Rumbalara). To the east the silerete is last seen in the desert at Geosurveys Till 90 miles due west of Andado where it is gently south dipping, Thirty miles north of Andado the full Cretaecous section is only 600 fret thick ( Maleolms Bore). At Yardhole Bore, 12 miles west of Andado, the Creta- ceous shales are probably thicker than 1,000 feet, whereas on the Rumbalara ridge still further to the west the shales are preserved merely as cappinys on meyas. A broad syncline may be present between Andado and Rumbalara, but seismic evidence indicates a general regional dip south-easterly beneath the desert (Denton and Sprigg, 1962). oor The Peake and Denison Ranges possess marked fault escarpments along their east borders, and these faults have been re-opened during Mesozoic and Tertiary times. This is evidenced by stratal drag and cscarpment formulion, Tlorizontal and/or vertical movements, along such fanlts buried beneath the Mashesiic cover would readily develop én echelon and/or monoclinal folds in the latter. Along the latter projected strike the Mt. Alice structure appears te be plug-like in that Cretaceous dips radially away from a (?)Permian core. Other- wise the nature of the structure is not known. GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT Sv It is not improbable that gentle fold warping in the Andado urea trends to centripetal development as this overlies the intersection of two older folding tendencies (viz. post-Cretaceous superimposed un Palaeuzvic). Dast of the southern Simpson Desert the silerete again displays. upwarping aver the Kopperamanna-Gason Arch. Dips in the sector wee ill Jow (1 fo 3 clegrees ), 4. Late Cainosoie Warping, Crustal sagving in the zone of the elongated Simpson Desert continued inte late Cainozoic vnc modem times. in the extreme south (Lake Eyre) zone, tilting has brought the desert to below sea-level with the development of preat playa lakes lucking drainage outlets, Hivers entermg these depressed areas form part of a highly asymmetriv drainage net. Take Eyre extends 40 feet below sea-level, and is itself still citing to the south where flaod waters now cmeentrate, Tweally intensified sinking near Poeppels Corner ($.E. Northern Territory ) is suspected. Anomalous ereck patterns are obvious in this zone. The Diamen- ting and deserted seyments deflect strongly N.W, towards this depression before deflecting back finally into Lake Eyre, HMYDRODYNAMICS Investigation of the lrydrodynamics of the principal reservoir formations within the Simpson Desert sub-basin of the Great Artesian Basin will undoubt- edly have increasingly important bearing on the search for commercial oil. R. L. Jack (1930) and F. W. Whitehouse (1954) and others have pre- viously demonstrated the south-westerly and westerly flow of artesian waters within the principal Mesozoic aqnifers of the Great Artesian Basin, Juck wats also able to show that the two principal generations of these waters, namely, the carbonate waters {rom the intake areas in Queensland and New South Wales, and the sulphate waters from the western basin margin, in central South Aus- tralia and Northern Territory actually mixed somewhere in the Lake Eyre line of depression, Jack and others also summarised data concerning the highly saline waters (at times brines) in the Cretaceons marine shale sections, These were believed tu be extensively “connate” waters, but concentrations of the order of brines presumably indicate a large degree of stagnation within the sands concerned ar the retention and filtering by semi-permeable formation “membranes”. Many of the sands are thin and lenticular. Jack and Whitehouse both noted escape outlets in the Form of motnd springs about the southern and western basin margins, The outlets idwiys aeenr in low-lying areas, and mostly within 200 feet or so of sealevel, and extend to 40 or more feet belaw sea-level on Lake Eyre, Attention was drawn by Jack to the fact that many of the outlets are now extinct, and that the alder mounds are generally considerably more elevated thaw those now tune- tions, The whole problem of investigation of artesian waters is now complicated by the development of more than 5,000 Howing or snbartesian bores principally within Queensland and northern N.S.W. These have greatly lowered and modi- fied the principal hydraulic surface and reduced artesian flows. Pressure head data in new drilling situations, consequently is hard to relate to the earlier defined and/or predicted hydraulic surfaces. In the Simpson Desert area af 58 fi. C. SPRTIGG present interest, few beres are availahle for reference, and a central area of abont 40,000 square miles is devoid of bores of any description. In that the Simpson Desert is a zone of continuing sinking, it is not imprub- able that a pressure “sink” has developed in this zone, and as such js a potential trap far hydrocarbons, even though the area is presnmed to be broadly synclinal. do this vespect the observation of minor amounts of hydrocarbon guses emitted along with artesian water flows in many of the bores along the Maree- Budsville track, ancl east into Queensland, becomes significant when it is recug- nised that no such escaping gases ave observed at the mound spring outlets in the ilirection of dominating westerly How. The most probable explanation seems to be that hydrocarbons are being retained and concentrated in presumed luw pressure and synelinal arcas coincident with the central Lake Eyre-Simpson Desert depression. Investigation of this phenomena can be pursned anly if all possible water-bearing horizons in new bore holes are accurately gauged for fluid pressures and salinity. Recent investigations, particularly in the United States, demonstrate that single bore holes, if accurately gauged at all reservoir fMluid-bearing levels, can provide invaluable leads for the prediction of hydracarbon concentrations. “Subgradient” pressure-differences in depth, and in particular pressore-reversils, have great significance where fluids are traversing semi-permeable barriers. These aids must be applied increasingly to the investigation of the Great Artesian Basin, iid particularly in relation to deeper Formations, and in the search for hydrodynamic and combination traps. In the Simpson Desert. the non-escape of detectable hydrocarbons via marginal mound springs lying in the direction of flow provides valuable Jeucls ta possible hydrocarbon accumulation in the central desert depression that must be pursued seriously. CEOPITYSICAL WVIDENCE Gravity and scismic surveys of the Andado area carried out by Geosurveys of Australia Limited in 1960-1961 were the first serious geophysical exploration carried cut in the Simpsun Desert. Associated Freney Oilfields NL. undertook helicopter gravity surveys in early 1961 in the extrerne south-east corner of Northern Territory. and scismic suryeys by Flamingo Petroleum Co, Ltd. were completed to the north of Andado Jate in 1861. In northern South Australia the Mines Department has partially completed a reconnaissance seismic line from Ovdnadatta across the north of Lake Evre to Cuwarie to link with previous recunnaissance surveys alone the Bedeura>Birdsville-Maree Track. Delhi Arts- tralian Petroleum Co. Ltd, have completed several phases of a comprehensive airborne magnetometer survey of the central Great Artesian Basin across tt Lake Eyre in South Anstralia, extending into Queensland. This work is being extended westward via South Australia almost to the foot of the Musgrave Ranges. The private company surveys have all beey swhsidised by the Com- menwealth Government. At the present time little of the basic geophysical data ts yet availuble in reduced form. Gravity Bouger anomaly plans ly Ceuseismic (Australia) Lad. have been prepared for the Andado aves and alsy rellection seismic sections. The gravity data indicates sedimentary depths of the order af 10,000 or more fect and this is also borne out by the results of the seismic reflection surveys. North-east of Andadu station a well-developed “positive” gravity Bouver anomuly hus been defined, suggesting a shallowiug bedrock in this viecnity. Preliminary seismic investigations indicate that this is the case, and that sedi- ments plunge steeply to the south and to the south-east, GEOLOGY OF ‘THE SIMPSON DESERT ag du the direction of New Crown Homestead (viz. south-west) increasing Bouger gravity values and narrower anomalies confirm shallowing (rising) hedrock in this direction. OIL AND GAS PROSPECTS Several alleged oil seepages have been reported within the Simpson Desert. One was reported downstream along the Finke River from Finke siding, an- other in the Hay or Mulligan River near the Quceensland-Northern Territory border, and a third in the canegrass “Micki” country wear the north-west corner ot Lake Eyre. All were brought to the attention of whife men by nomadic aborigines. carlier in the century, None have been positively identified as the localities are all relatively ini#tecessible and difficult to pin-pomt- If any credence can be given lo these reports, principal interest is in that the locations all are about the edac of the Great Artesian Basin where cseape of Huids under pressure could be reasonably expected. A, POTENTIAL PE'TROLEUM SOURCE-BEDS AND RESENVOIR STORAGE POTENTIAL Sonree-beds for petrolenm in the Simpson Desert enyiraiment are pre- dicted to vecur in the Cambro-Ordoyician and Cretaceous and possibly also in Devonian and Permian. “The Upper Proterozoic Bitter Springs Limestones are potentially petroliferous and the possibility will only be mentioned here, ‘The zone of ancient crostal sug that now constitutes the Simpson Vesert is expected to have been more prone to marine invasion than may appear from marginal sedimentary vuterops, Such tendencies to marineness within the Permian in Central Austvalia have only recently been recorded fram drill cores cxumined by the Mines Department in South Anstralia from the Lake Phillipson—Anna Cieek area, and more recently i the Delli-Santos Dullingari No, 1 Well on the S.A-N.S.W, border, lL. Cambrian Cambrisn sediments, gently to moderately strongly folded, but quite un- metamorphosed, aré widely distributed throughout the Amudeus Basin extend- iug throngh to the Simpson Desert margin. In the nearby Georgina Basin they are flatter-lying, possibly thicker, and containing rather’ more marine organic matter. Cambrian seas in Anstralia enveloped the continent more extensively than during any other interval in geological history, The seas were shallow, epeivic, warm and fayourable to rich organie life. Extensive thicknesses of sediments were deposited in some arcas (e.g. 15,000 + feet near Wirrcalpa in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia; Mawson, 1939). Farly Cambrian seas followed still carlier Upper Proterazoie marine ireucly in many areas that liad developed great sand platforms (the “Pouud” formation and its equivalents), Cambrian bia- hiermal limestone accumulations of the primitive sponge-like Archacovyatha simulated coral reefs and meadows, and south of the Simpson Desert (in the Flinders Ranges} limestones of this association attained 3,000 feet in thickness over areas of several thousand square miles. North-west of the desert Arclicen- cyatha limestone aceumulations were considerably thinner (Pritchard and Quindan, 1959). Limestones that developed higher in the Cambrian sequences were tastly still richer in organic matter. Black foetid limestones which provide bitu- mingus chemical reactions are particularly prevalent in Middle and Upper i) Ki. CG. SPrmice Cambrian of the Amadeus and Georgina Basins. Limestone facies generally incerease to the east. Both the Lower and Middle Cambrian in the central longitudinal belt extending through South Australia ine! Northern Territory have produced show- ings of ail and/or petroliferqus gas in the few deeper bures that have been drilled into them. At Wilkatarma (Luke Torrens Basin, South Australia) ozeker- ites and paraffinic oils were encountered by Santos Ltd. in drilling dolomitised and porous Lower Cambrian Archacocyatha limestone (Sprigg, 1959), At Minlaton (Yorke Peninsula, S,A,) the Mines Department drilled the comparable horizons with the discovery of oil and gas traces (Johnson, 1960). At Wirreulpa (Mawson and Dalwitz, 1939) acidised frev oil from Redlichia (Middle Carn- brian) limestones. Tn a water bore on Ammaroo Station in the south-western Georgina Basin, Middle Cambrian limestones produced small amounts of petro- liferous gus (MacKay and Jones, 1956), and, allegedly, also traces of free vil From Middle Cambrian limestones. Cambrian sediments are undoubtedly rich in organic proto-bitrminons organic mutter in Central Australia, In view of their widespread development abuut the Simpson Desert. and the consideruble thicknesses kuown te le present, these sediments must rank prominently for petroleum potential. Reservol’ developments within the Cumbrian are likely to take the form of dalonntised zones within limestones; porons clear white sands are extensively developed at some higher horizons, 3, Ordovician Ordovician sedimonts are widely distributed heyond the north-western margin of the Simpson Desert and partiowarly in the sonthern Georgina Basin to the north and north-east across the upwarped basement divide, They are also well developed north and south uf the Musgrave Ranges striking into the desert. They are nat known in outcrop in Central Australia south af about the latitude of Ocodnadatta, Ordovician sediments in the Amadeus Basin tend to be finer-grained and toure calcareuus ta the east, but westward grade into extremely thick and wide- spread sands. Sane development also dominate the known section in the Officer Basin and the upper section of Georgina sequence in the more south-easterly areas, Finer-grained Ordovician sediments are mostly durk coloured, vrganic lime- stones, dolomitic limestones and shuley limestones, The beds are fossiliforous and they are frequently rich in organic materials as such they constitute: pronsis- ing source-beds for hydrocarbons. Thicknesses of several thousands of feet of these sediments ure developed in the Georgina and eastern Amadeus Basins, and if present beneath the Simpson Desert would constitute excellent source material for the generation of petroleum, In the Queensland area (Boulia) investigations by the Bureau of Mincral Resources haye revealed Ordovician limestones to be bituminous through con- siderable thicknesses and these strata plunge beneath the Great Artesian Basin dlomg the eastern margins of the Simpson Desert. The great platform sands that make up most of the sedimentary section in the central Amadeus Basin and also in the outcropping portion of the Officer Husin appear to offer ideal storage potential for hydrocarbons. The (?)Scolithes (pipe rock) sandstones of the Wuterhouse Ranges (south-east of Alice Springs, N.T.) and also aubont Mt, John (near Granite Downs, S.A.) similarly tend to be lucally highly permeable, Sandstone developments in the Upper Ordovician GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT OL of the Toko Rauges likewise offer promising reservoir stofage potential. Super- positicn of these more easterly sands over thick and richly organic Cambro- Ordovician limestones and shale developments would appear ideal for the aeeumulution of petroleum if and where these beds ure suitably capped. This my be the case heucath the Great Artesian Basin in the zone of the Simpson Desert. 3. [yiper Palacosoic No Upper Palaeozoic marine deposits have been located in the immexliate Simpson Desert environment. Considerable thicknesses of Devonian fresh water beds have recently heen mapped immediately north-west of the desert, ancl ulso in the southern Georgina. Permian fresh water beds about the northern desert margin are also lnown to be widespread (Smith et al,, 1960, 1961). Following the discovery of traces of foraminifera iu the Lake Phillipson Bore by Mr. J. Harrison of Delhi Australian Petroleum Ltd., systematic work hy Lud- brook (1861) on this and several other bores has established the presener of marine Permian in the arew west and south of the Peake and Denison Rauges. This is the first record of marine Permian in Central Australia. It is now reasunuble to predict that marine Permian may be present in some zunes beneath the the central Simpson Desert. The reported occurrerice Of a thick grey shale section helow pollen-bearing, fresh-water sands of Lower Permian (Artinskian) age in Maleohis Bare, 30 miles north-east of Andado humestead, is promising in these regards. Thore is good reasun to believe that these will pass below into Sakmarian marine developments. Similar predictions of facics changes from coutinental intu open marine conditions are equally permissible in relation to Devonian deposition that ger- tuinly has extension into the northern Simpson Desert. With the possible exception of the above-mentioned shules in Maleulms Bore, sediments of Upper Palacozuic age outcropping about the Simpson Desert margins are predominaally siliceous, purous sands, They appear te be excellent reservoir media for accumulation of hydrocarbons migrating across underlying unconformities, or up-dip fror marine souree beds which accur in lateral con- timiity beneath the desert. 4. Lower Mesozoic Trias-Jura sediments may well extend beneath much of the Simpson Desert below the murine Cretaceous (Roma-Tambo) shale formation. Nowhere lave they yet been intersected in drilling for artesian water, for practically all sutoess- ful’ water bores ure completed within the highly permeable (?)Blythesdale (Lower Cretaceous) water sands. Triaus-Jura sands do not appear to extend far heyoud the Cretaceous limits as occurs in eastern Australia. There lias been prouressive westerly tilting af the basin during deposition. Younger sediments tend to overlap more extensively lo the west. Trigs-Jura sands do, however, extend onto bedrock to the north near Tarlton Downs and possihly also Rum- halari (nurth-west), 5, Cretaceous Cretaceous seas oeeupled most af the Simpsoti Desert area, Roma-Tambo (Aptian-Albian) shales and minor limestones in the better known westerly arews were Completely marine and/or estuarine, Locally they are highly fossiliferous (Oodnadatia Bore; Ladbrook, 1959). They are fine-grained deposits of shallow epeirie seas, There is scope for considerable thicknesses of these sediments beneath the central sag of the desert, and, as this sub-basin may have been 62 R. C. SPRIGC var‘ously cut off from time to time duving the Cretaceous, a variety of marine depositional environments can be postulated. Where shaley and organic marine sectiments are buried deeper than ahout 2,000 feet they must constitute potential suuree beds for petroleum. ‘ Sands within the Roma-Tambo are usually thin and Jentionlar and as such are not particularly attractive as reservoirs for commercial oil or gas, ‘These sands cammonly carry strong brine concentrations suggesting restricted ciren- lation or osmotic filtering via semi-permeable barriers, a condition presumed to be favourable to oil acenmulation in hydrodynamic traps. In the Oodnadatta region the sediments have produced showings of oil (fluorescence in cores). Sand beds are more prevalent towards the base of the Roma Formation, and eventually dominate in the underlying Blvthesdale Formation. These latter cunstitute the major artesian aquifer over much of the Great Artesian Basin. Oi} and gas showings are not infrequently encountered within the upper- most transition members of the Blythesdale Formation. ‘Traces of petroliferdus gs accompany fowing bore witter tapped on the Mt, Gasom and other stritetures long the castern margin vf the desert (north-east of Lake Myre). A geologist of Delhi Australian Petroleom Ltd, has drawn attention to the prominent “fish scale” horizon near the Aptian-Albian boundary in Oodnadatta well (sce also Ludbrook, 1939), which in the Mornington Vsland drill holes (1961) far to the north-east reyealed traces of hydrocarbons and may be worth investiguting in this regivn, 6B. THE POTENTIAL FOR STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS Cambro-Ordovician sediments outcropping about the north-western Simpsan Desert margins are moderately to strongly folded along Tocalised zones and are also faulted. These tendencies almost certainly continue beneath the desert. (?) Devonian sediments at the north-west edge of the desert evidence com- purahly deformation, being infolded with the Cambro-Ordovician, Permian sediments appear to post-date the principal fold eycles that have defoymed earlier strata. The sediments lic flatly but dip desertward. Princi- pally, they will have been affected by the gentle fold-varp movements that have also defermed the Cretaceous, Geutly-\ rarped, deep, sediments that also enclose internal unconformities are indicated seismically ta be present below Andadu. They provide seope for Permian developments suitably deformed to produc structural traps tor oil. Cretaceous sediments are gently deformed along certain well-defined zones abont either descri margin. The fold structures appear to be quite atbactive to oil exploration and the thick shale developments form ideal “eup rock” to deeper reservoirs. On the west, the Mt. John and Dalhousie anticlinal upwarps appeir to be “closed” domally in vuterop, although the former is breached by mound springs. The Mt, Gason anticlinal wary along the south-east desert margin is punctared by several water bores (3,500-4,000 feet deep) which also bleed small amounts of petroliferous gas from the Lower Cretiecous artesian water-hearing sands. The Andado region is viewed favourably in the structural sense as aecupy- ing the zone of intersection of the older Palaeozoic 1-W. fold trends with the foyegoing younger Cretaceous-Terliury N.-S, trends. GEOLOGY OF THE SIMPSON DESERT 63 The western Artesian Basin is a region of Cretaceous overlap from the east. Cretaceous shales consequently blanket earlier (?)Mesozoic and Palaeo- vole development progressively and there is marked tendency to stratigraphic wedging and/ur erosional truncation io westward. CONCLUSIONS The Simpson Desert is an ancient “negative” geomorphic structural element of the Australian continent. It isa continuing repasitery of sediments and an urea where deep sedimentary sections are postulated, much of them likely to be more marine than in areas marginal to the Basin. Petrolenm source-bed potential is predicted particularly within the marine Cambrian, Ordovician and Cretaceous, but may well held for Devonian and Permian developments in the structurally more “negative” reaches of the desert basin which are likely also to be more “marine”, _ Potential reservoir beds are expected ta be widespread in depth. Structural deformation and stratigraphic variation is likely to provide a wide range of traps for hydrocarbon accumulations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Warm appreciation is expressed to geologists R, O. Brunnschweiler, M. Audley-Charles, J. Jobuson and H. Wopfner of Geosurveys of Australia Limited who carried out much of the more detailed geological exploration on behalf of Ceosurveys of Australia Limited and Santos Ltd, in the western Simpson Desert maryinal areas. Geophysicists, E, R. Denton, R, G. Dennison and F. de Custillejo of Geoscisrnic (Australia) Limited, supervised seismic and gravity geophysical operations and interpreted data. The Northern Territory Department of Mines staff have assisted whole- heurtedly in supplying watér-bore drilling data, and Mr. C. Pritchard has been particularly helpful in discussing Amadeus Basin stratigraphy. The Bureau of Mineral Resourecs have at all times made the results of their extensive “4-mile” mapping programme freely available, and the prelimin- ary reports of Mr, K. G. Smith's parties have heen an invaluable assistance to regional investigations. The work of C. E. Pritchard and T, Quinlan in the Amadeus urea have heen particularly helpful. The Commonwealth Government, in supplying generous aid by way of subsidy for geophysical operations carried ont by Geosurveys of Australia Limited in the Andado vicinity, and by Flamingo Petroleum Co. Ltd. to the north, are ewrently greatly aiding the preliminary investigations of the Simpson Desert potential for oil. The results of geological mapping published by the South Australian De- partment of Mines in the Peake and Denison Ranges has been of great assistance, as have also been the preliminary reports of the Bureau of Mincral Resources describing the geolagy of the Hay River and other 4-mile areas in the extreme north, K. E. Balme, Palaeohotanist of the University of Western Australia, and N. H. Ludbrook, Palaeontulogist of the South Anstralian Mines Department, have assisted hy examining bore sumples collected from Andado Station, Assistance in editing of the text was provided by B. P. Webb and J. B. Woolley. a4 Rk. €. SPRIGG REFERENCES Batam, B. E., 1957. Upper Palaeozoic Mioryforas in Sediments from ithe Lake Phillipson Bore, South Australi, Aust, Journ. Sci., 20. BonrtHoy, C, W., 1956. The Salt of Lake Eyre—Its Occurrence in Madigan Culf and its Possible Origin. ‘lrans, Roy. Sac. §. Aust, 79, Brown, H. Y. L.. 1805, Report on Geological Explorations in the West and North-West of South Australia, Parl. Pap. S. Aust, No, 71, LY05. Brunnscuweiter, R, B,, Spruce, R. C., and Wrason, R, B., 1959. The Great Artesian Basin Tn South Australia. Santos Ltd., Gornpany Report (unpublished). Casey, J. M., and Ginsent-Tomuimson, J., 1956. Cambrian Geology of the Huckilta-Marqua Region, Northern Territory. Rep. Internat. Gvol. Congr, 20th, Mexica, 1956; El Sistema Cambrico, Sn Paleogeovratia Y él Problema de su Buse, 2. Crrwings, €.. 1928. Further Notes on ific Stratigriphiy of Centrat Australia. Trans, Ray, Sov. S, Aust, 52. Cuewines, C., 1935. ‘The Portatataka Series in Central Australia with Notes on ihe Amadeus Sunklind. Trans. Roy, Sac, §, Aust., 59, Coxpon, M. A,, and Syartiz, K, G., 1959, Permian Glacials in Central Australia. Bur, Min. Resour, Aust. Rec, 1959/29 (unpublished). Crocker. K, L., 1946. The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939. Seientific Reports: No, & The Soils and Vegetation mf the Simpson Desert and its Borders, Trans. Roy. Sac, S. Aust, 70, p.2, Dunrvon, E, f,, and Seno, WH. C., 1962, Gravity Survey in the Andado Ares, Simpson Desert. Geornrveys of Australia Ltd., Company Report ( unpublished). Davin, T. W, E., ancl Howey, W., 1933: Report of Glacial Research Committee. Aust, Assov, Ady. Sei), 16, yp. 74-94. Davin, T. W. E., and Browne, W. ht, 1950. The Geology of the Commoiiwealth of Aus- fralia: Arnold, London. Granssnen, M. W., and Pankous, L, W. (Md,), 1958. Geology of South Australia. J. Geol. Soc. Aust, 5, p. 2. Hus, E. $., 1959. Record of Batherolapis aud Phyllolepis from the Northern Territory of Australia, Trans. Ray. Sac. N.S,W., 92, Hossrierm, P., 1954. Stratigraphy and Structure of the Northern Territory of Australia, Trans, Roy. Sac. 8, Aust. 77. Jack, ROL, 1930. Geological Structure and Other Factors im Relation to Underground Water Supply in Portions of South Australia, Geol, Surv. S. Aust., Bull, 14, Jonns, BR. K, 1962. Lake Eyre Inveslipation, Geol. Surv. S$. Aust. Quart, Geal. Notes, 3. Jounson, 'W., 1960. Future Oil Exploration—Galf St. Vincent Region, §. Aust. Dep. Min, Min. Rey., 110. Jornm., CG. P., 1952. Geological Reconnaissance of the South-Western Portion of the Northern Verritory. Bur. Min. Resour. Aust., Rep, 10. Joxic, ©. F,, 1955. The Geolagy and Mies-fields of the Hharts Range, Oentral Australia, Bur, Min. Resour. Aust., Bull, 26. Kune, D., 1956, ‘The Quaternary Stratigraphic Reeord al Lake Eyre North and the Eyalition of Existing Topographia Forms. ‘Trans. Thay. Soc. S. Aust... 79. Kine, D., 1860, The Sand Ridge Deserts of S.A. and Related Acalian Lindforins of the Quaternary Arid Cycles, Trans, Roy. Suc. §. Anst., 8%. Lrosroos, N. IT. 1959, Santos Oodnadatta No. 1 Well, Micro-palaeontolagical Examination, Geol, Sury. 5. Aust. Pal. Report, No. 3/39 (umpublished). Lupsroox, N. H., 1960. Palaeantological Examination Collected frum Yardhole Bore at 660-680 Feet. Special Rept. 2078/57. Dept. al Mines, S. Aust. (unpublished ). Luprrook, N. H., 1961. Permian to Cretacenis Subsurface Stratigraphy Between Lake Phillipson und Peake and Denison Rianyzes. South Australia, Trans. Roy. Sac. S$. Aust. 85. Mavican, C. 'T., 1932. "The Geology of the Westem MacDonnull Ranges, Central Australia. Quart. J. Geol. Sac, Lond., 88. CEOLOGY OF TITHE SIMPSON DESERT 65 Mamcaan, G.'E., 1932b, The Geology of the Eastern MacDounell Ranges. Trans, Roy, Soe. S. Aust., 56. Manreax, ©. T., 1937a, Additions ta the Geology of Central Ausiralia, Rep. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., 23. Manican, C, T., 1937h. Simpson Desert and its Borders, Prou, Ruy. Suc, N.S.W., TL Manican, ©. 'T., 1939. ‘Lhe Siinpson Desert Expedition. Aust. J. Sei. 2, p. 2, Mavican, C. 'T., 1945, The Simpson Desert Expedition, 19399—Scientific Reports. Introdiue- tion Narrative, Physiography and Metcorolugy. Trans, Roy. Sec. S. Aust, 6Y, Manican, ©. T., 1946. The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939. Scientific Reports; No. 6, Coology—the Sand Formations. ‘Trans, Roy. Soe. 8. Aust, 70, p. 1. MacKay, N, J., and Jonrs, N. O., 1956, Report on a Gas Ovcurrence: in a Bore on Animaroa Station, N.T. Bur, Min, Resour, Aust, Ree. 1956/7 (Canpublished ), Mawson, D., 1939. The Cambrian Sequence in tie Wirrealpa Basin. Trans. Roy, Soc, 8. Aust., 63, Op, A. A., und Scieran, C. P., 1951. Ovlire Deposits: at Timbalara, Northern Territory. Bur. Min, Resour, Aust. Bull, 4. Pamon, L. W., 1956. Notes on the Younger Glacial Remmants of Northern Sonth Australia, Trans. Hoy, Soe. S. Aust, 79, pp. 146 LSI. Purrenary, C, F., and Ovrscan. T., 1960, Lhe Geology of the Southern Part of the Her- mannshurg 4-Mile Sheet, Bur, Min. Resour. Aust, Rec. 1960/ 104 (unpublished), Revarn, M. L.. 1955. ‘he Geology of the Peake and Denison Region, $.A. Geol, Surv. Rept. Invest., Na. 6. Susirn, K. G., ev an, 1960. Second Progress Report pn Geology of the Huckitta Area, N.T. Bar. Min, Resour, Aust., Ree. 1960/66 (unpublished ), Sau, K. G., 1960. Summary of the Geology of the Hay River 4-Mile Sheet, N/T. Bur. Min. Resour. Aust, Ree, 1960/73 (unpublished). Saara, K. C,, Vosn, BR. TL, andl Mincigax, &. N., 1961. Revisions to Stritigraphy of Flay River. Huckitta and Tobermory 4-Mile Shects.. Bur. Min. Resour, Aust., Ree. 1961/65 (ampiiblished ). Sani, K. G., Sarr. |. W., Woorrey, D. B., and Pununy, J. M., 1960, Pragress Report on the Geology of the Marshall River Area, N.T. Bur, Min. Resour. Aust., Ree. 1960/34 {aopublished }. Spa, R. C., 1958. Petroleum Prospects of Western Parts of the Great Artesian Basin, Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 42 (10). Smmace, B.C. 1961a. On the Structural Evolution of the Great Artesian. Basin, 1961 Con- ference (m the Geul. of South ane Fastern Aust., Aust, Pet, Expl. Assoc.: Melbourne. Spnice, BR. -G.. 1961b. The Pleistocene Subfussil Deserts of Australia, Arid Zone News- letter, C.S.ELO., Canberra. Spire, BR. C.. Jounsox, J., and Acneey-Cranues, M,, 1960, Petroleum Possibilities af the Simpson Desert Area, Central Australia. Geosurveys of Aust, Ltd., Company Report to Department of Mines, X.T. (March, 1960). Succ, RB. C.. and Winsos, BR, B,, 1950. ‘he Musgrave Mountain Belt in South Australia. Geol. Rundschau, 47. Tave, Band Wary, J. A. 1896. Tere Expedition to Ceniral Australia Geology and Botany: Londen and Melbourne. Vouey, A. H,, 1939. A Contribution to the Geolazy of the Dustern MacDonnell Ranges (Central Aust.). J, Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 72. Wetts, A. T., Fouwax, D. J, and Ranneorn, L, C., 1961. Geological Series, Sheet SP 52-15, Mt. Rennie. Wire, Mary E., 1961. Mesozoic Phint Hossils from the Tarlton Range, Northern Territory, Bur. Min. Resour, Aust. Ree. 1961/32 (unpublished ). Wurrerousr, F. W., 1936. The Cambrian Vaunas of North-easter Anstrala. Parts | and 2; Qd, Mus., Vol, 11. Warn, L. K., 1925. Geological Steneture of Central Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust, 49. p. 61. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OBSERVATIONS AT GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH-EAST SOUTH AUSTRALIA BY R. C, SPRIGG AND J. B. WOGLLEY Summary "Coastal bitumen" is stranded annually at a number of well-known centres along the southern Australian coast. This mostly accompanies and follows winter storm activity, but lesser standing may continue at intervals throughout the year. These natural biiumens mosily originate in shallow ocean coastal waters within reach of storm wave turbulence and/or near shore rip-current activity. The weathered crudes which constitute coastal bitumen, upon stranding appear to include both naphthene and paraffin-based oils of low A.P.I. gravity and moderately high sulphur. They are inspissated and varyingly weathered. They include ozokerites. Associated light chocolate-brown coloured and highly oxidised crudes also come ashore from time to time in these localities. It is thought to be eroding from flat-lying sea floor fossil scepage deposits that way have been subacrially exposed during the Jow sea-level periods of the Pleistocene, Care must be exercised to separate these crudes from tanker spillage which is a more recent complication. The crudes of interest are locally derived. Evidence is cited to demonstrate that the oils. which strand during storms, are not far-travelled, nor are they the products of occan-going tankers. The crudes have certainly not originated in the vicinity of Antarctica or South America as has previously been widely claimed. Association with localised storms which stir up the immediate subcoastal shallow sea-bottom, and alternatively, with recorded earthquakes epicentred in the sea near Beachport. is considered to demonstrate local origin quite conclusively. Although superficially, the stranded crudes look almost identical, spectrographic investigation of the minor element constitution of a series of samples has indicated that the crudes from the Geliwood area are distinctively different from those from Sleaford Bay (Eyre Peninsula) or from Cape Northumberland, More data, however, is required. Geltwood Beach, approximately 20 miles south of Beachport. South Australia, has long been recognised by local residents as a favoured site for the stranding of coastal bitumen. The locality is now being closely investigated and seepage activity was extensively investigated and documented during much of 1961. The crude oil is believed to seep via deep-seated faults from marine Tertiary and Cretaceous sediments wedging m from the Continental Shelf. Evidence indicates that the more pronounced scepage occurs following the actiye erosion of submarine outcrops of bituminous material which seals fault fissures, or by superficial breaching of diapiric bituminous plugs and/or other seafloor deposits. Temporarily greatly increased stranding of bitumen after the recorded Beachport submarine carthquakes of 1898, 1915 and 1948, accords with the theory of invasion of the crude oi] along fault planes, or via fractured anticlinal structures. A major fault or monoclinal (Beachport-Kalangadoo) hingeline trending W.N.W. trends out to sea beyond Beachport in the direction of the earthquake epicentres of 1898 and 1948. which were estimated to lie 10 miles N.W. of that town. Several other related fault lines cut the coast in this vicinity. The Gambier sub-basin which is co-extensive with the continental shelf in this region, is one of deep Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary deposition. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OBSERVATIONS AT GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH-EAST SOUTH AUSTRALIA hy Ri. GC, Spice ano J. B. Wootnry [Read 9 November 1962] SUMMARY “Coastal bitumen” is stranded annually at a number of well-known centres. along the southern Australian coast, This mostly accompanies and follows winter storm activity, but lessor standing may continue at intervals throwhont the year. These natural bitumens mostly originate in shallow ocean coastal waters within reach of slarm wave turhulence and/or vear shore rip-current notivity. The weathered eruces which constitute coastal bitumen, upon stranding appear to inchide both naphthene and paraffin-based oils of low APT. gravity and moderately high sulphur. They are inspissated and varyingly wenthered, hoy include ozokerites, Associated light chocolate-brown coloured and highly oxidised erndes alscy come ashore from time ta tine in these lovalities;, Lb is thought to be eroding froni Mat-lying seu floor fossil seepage deposits that may have been subserially exposed during the low sea-level periuds af the Pleis- lovent. Care must be exercised to separate these crudes from tanker spillage which is a more recent complication. ‘Vhe crudes of interest are locally derived. Evidence is cited to demonstrate that. the oils, which strand during storms, are not far-travelled, nor are they the pracets of ocerm-voing tankers. The erndes have certainly not originated in the vicinity of Antarctica or South America as has previously been widely vlained, Association with localised storms which stir wp the immediate siub- coastal shallow sea-bottom, and allermutively, with recorded earthquakes epi- centrecl in the sca near Beachport, is considered to demonstrate focal origin quite. conclnsively. Although superficially, the stranded ernmdes look ylaiost identical, spectro- graphic investigation of the minor element constitution of a series of samples has indivated that the crudes from the Celtwood area are distinctively different from those from Sleaford Bay (Myre Peninsula) or from Cape Northumberland, More clata, however, is required, Geltwood Beach, approximately 20 miles south of Beachport, South Aus- tralia, has long been recognised by local residents as a fuyoured site for the strandhg of coustal bitennen. The locality is now being closely investigated and seepage activity was extensively investigated and docnmented during much. of LOGL. The exude oil is believed to seep via deep-seated faults from amarine Tertiary and Cretaeeous sediments wedging m from the Continental Shelf. Eviderice indicates that the move pronwunced seepage oecurs following the active erosion uf subinarine onterops of bitwuninous material which seals fankt Assrires, or by superficial breaching of diupiric bituminons “plugs” and/ov other seatoor deposits, Temporarily greally increased stranding of bitumen after the recorded Reachport submarine earthquakes of 1898, 1915 and 1948, aceords with the theary of invasion of the eviide oil along fault planes, or via fractured anti- elinal structures, A major fault or wonoclinal (Beachport-Kalangadoo) Ihinge- ling Wending W.N.W. trends ont to sua beyond Beachport in the ditection of the earthquake epicentres of 1898 and 1948, which were estimated to lie 10 milous N.W, of that town, Several other relwted fault lines cuf the coast jn this vicinity. The Gambier snb-basin which is coextensive with the continental shelf in this region, is one of deep Tertiary ancl Mesovoig sedimentary deposition. , Trans, Roy. Soc. Aust, (1965), Vol. 86. 6% kK. C. SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY Much of the scdimentation is marine. Petroliferqus. (gis) neeumulations have recently been demonstrated in more eastetly extensions of the basin. Sinilar sediments probably imake up much of the wide continental shelves of the southern Australian coast. It is concluded that these Muity constitute one of the imeat “Tarbelts” of (he world. INTRODUCTION The frequent stranding of crude bitumen and ozokerite along the southern coasts of Australia from Southwest Cape in ‘lasmania and Lorne in Victoria iy ihe cast, across to Fremantle in the extreme west has raised and maintained a long-standing controversy amongst Australian geologists, Bitumen in lumps, blocks and sheets, mostly sticky with heavy erude oil, has been reported from high tide level on open sandy beaches and from rocky headlands, almost since the white man first arrived in southern Australia, The first published record was in 1869 in Victoria. Fishermen, farmers and other local residents have frequently reported iliscoverics af Iresh coastal bitumen anil forwarded samples ta Government agencies for determination, Surprisingly little serious sciontifie investigation uf these phenomena has resulted, From time to time local interest has been excited to the extent that locations for drilling have been proposed: in a tew instances shallow diilling has been camvied out. Most of these local observers became convinced that there was an. oil seepage nearby, and not infreqnently fishermen have declared positively that they had seen oil “erupting” a short distance off-shore; while others asserted that they had seen it “ozing” from the base of sea cliffs. For instance. Mr, T, W. V. Bates, of Penneshaw, Kangaroo Island, wrote in the Adelaide “Advertiser” (March, 1961) as follows: “It is a well kiown fact, that in the vady days of Kangaroo Island, a fantily by the name of Thouas, und several other old pioneers, who lived at Antechumber Bay, made yeadly pilgrimage by bort to a small beach at the month of what is now known us Hog Bay River. Here they would collect hanps of bitumen that were strewn slime the beach. This was uelted clown, and the bouts given several coats. of this tarry substance, which made thent quite watertight, | remember Mrs, Seymour, wha was ia daughter of Mr, Nut Thomas, telling yne that the thiek, oily substance ised to bubble wp from the sea bed from a depth of several feel, On calm days, this substance: used to form lamps on top af the water: and when the weather beeame rmgh these wrrulel browk away, aud be cast up on the beach,” Where official investigators subsequently visited various of the alleged seep- ages lnrther reliable evidence was rarely forthcoming; the discoverer expressed the view that the seepages were temporarily inactive, and the visitors were left to ponder the situation, to theorise, and generally to caution against drilling without further evidence. No effort was mude systematically to observe these areax continously and over a period uf time, and te document the phenomena scientifically, Too often visits were made during fine weather, and for reasons which will be appreciated later, much compelling evidence was never gathered, A, Coastal Bitumen Localities Coastal bitumen has been reported very widely along the southern Austra- lian coast (Fig. 1). Some of the earliest reports came from near Nelson (Vie- ioria): from the west coast of Tasmania and King Island; from Cape Leenwin (Western Australia), from Neptune Island: and from Hog Bay on Kangaroa Island (South Australia), GOASTAL KITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 69 The known examples are listed as fallaws: Tasmania: West Coast: From Cape Sorell to Point Hibbs prolific stranding was observed in 1913; also New River to S.E, Cape. Fast Coast: King Island; officially recorded near Pass River mouth (1929); frequent strandings are believed to continue to the present day. Victoria: Otway Peninsula; Lorne and Cape Otway, various reportings. Portland Vicinity: Cape Nelson aud Cape Bridgewater: frequent strand- ing of bitumen on the headlands, Reported seaward “eruptions” 1o- gether with big artesian water flows approximately two miles $.S.E. of Cupe Nelson. Nelson Vicinity: Mt. Richmond, Swan Lake, ete. (E. of Nelson); Glenelg River (upstream from Nelson), Tr 1908 a spectacular “eruption” was reported in this river. South Australia: Extreme South-east Province; Maines Landing seepage (on Glenelg River, 4 miles upstream from Nelson) considered probably authentic by F. Reeves, and 2 miles upstream from that reported in 1908 at Nelson, Cape Banks and Cape Douglas (near Pt. MacDonnell) fre- quent reportings, including 1960 and 1961, Carpenters Rocks and Pelican Point; almost annual occurreuce reported by ald identities; certainly operative in 1961. Principal activity reported to have stopped following the 1898 Beachport earthquake, resumed again after that af 1915, und greatly increased temporarily after that of 1946. Beachport Vicinity: Devils Gap (south-west of Millicent) northwards via Geltwood Beach to South End, semi-continuous activity throughout the year, with principal activity during sturms. Greatly heightened strand- ing al crude immediately following the Reachport carthquakes of 1898, 1915 and 1945, Encounter Bay, Port Elliot (1920, 1962) and Victor Hurbor (1920), Kangaroo Island: Hox Bay, 14 miles to west of Hog Bay River mouth: in earlier days local fishermen made annual visits to waterproof their boats, infrequent strandings still recorded, Also Penneshaw, Nobby Island: West Bay; Middle River. Yorke Peninsula: Stenhouse Bay (recently sampled by Mines Depart- ment; Pi. Vincent (2 miles north of). Cape Spencer (1961), Eyre Peninsula and Adjacent Islands: Neptune Island several reportings this century; Mt. Greenley (1873, 1926, 1961). Coffin Bay and Slea- ford Bay (1961, and probably annually since earlicst occupation). Western Australia: Cape Leeuwin: Mandurah (Fremantle): Bunbury. Cheyenne Beach (1929, 1941). B, The Nature of the Material Investigated The material is most commonly a brown-black bitumen, varying, in con- sistency from a sofl, viscous or pasty semi-solid, to a brittle solid with con- choical fracture. The S.G. of different samples has been recorded (L. K, Ward, 1913, Bulletin No. 2, Geological Survey of Sonth Anstralia) as ranging from 10041 for the softer, pasty specimens, to values between 1-075 for the Fu RK. 0. SPRIGG ayy J. BO WOOLLEY harder specimens. The softer specimens may give off a valatile substance, smell- ing like gasoliue. A piece of medium density was distilled and yielded 0-6 per cent. of a kerosene product wud 11-7 per cent. of an oil of the consistency of kerosene. The analyses suggests that the material was a mixture of bitumen aud heavy oil that had been extensively weathered. As seen by the writers on Celtwood Beach (south of Beachport, South Australia) the fresh material strands in seycral forms. ‘The most spectacular is brownish-black himpy crude bitumen usually rolled and somewhat incorporated with beach sand on the outer surfice. This wasy hitmen when broken open contains “pockets” of liquid oil and may ooze seu water. When dried ont it may develop an impertect conchoidal ‘fracture. Blocks of 30 Ibs. or mure have heen reported and some have pedicular barnacles attached. Almost hall a ton of this material was collected hy the writcrs and friends following a single sturm during LO6L. The lumpy mruterial all appears to be weathered and exten- sively inspissated with the loss of lighter Hydeucastvon fractions. By far ihe greater proportion of the “lumpy” crude is thrown on to the local beaches during winter storms, or during periods of high rip-current activity. Semi-liquid (tacky) black bitumen has been noted ( 196L) to deposit news Devils Gap and along Geltwood Beach (and also at Qape Northumberland. although less is known of this) during periods of somewhat more moderate seus folluwing storms. This muterial collapses and Mows under its own weight when freshly stranded. Light brown, extensively oxidised and “flakey” crude alsa strands during these periods, Another association of the Geltwood Beach occur renee Is brownish ovokerite. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATION In wow Of the frequency uf reports of coastal bitumen stranding and the fact that samples are usually supplied, it is a matter of eoncern that so little scrious attention was: previously awakenced in scientific and exploration circles in these phenomena. A prime problem in the past has undoubtedly been the relative inaccessi- bility of the seeps and their intermittent character (to be described later). Visits by trained observers have been few, and have usually coincided with fine summer weather, Material that has stranded on rocks and subsequently melted in the sun has mistakenly been deseribed as “auzina™: when the rock is voleanic br metamorphic, scepticism has understandably been aroused. Dr. Ward's remarks (1913) when referrimg to various. accaunts of asphaltic springs near Hog Bay (Kangaroo Island) and Mt. Greenly (Eyre Peninsula) are typical. “The old residents of Kangaroo Island and Evre Peninsula responsible: for these statements are undoubtedly honestly conyinced that their interpretation of the facts js correct; but thear fialure to convinve selentifie abservers of the fennine charucter of their claim and geological features presented by the Incalities al which these discoveries are said to have been made, are more than sufficient lo discormt the value of the state— jnents made.” Ikowever, the presence of strunded bitumen was mostly uttested hy samples, sit thal Ward. who had always rejected the evidence for Jocul seepage, was led (1913) to develop the theory of distant sources in Antarctica or South Ameren and involvement of ocean currents. In this he was followed by Loftus Hills in discussing Tasmanian occurrences in 1914, and by Twelvetrees (1915) in disens- sing Western Australian reportings. Sprigg and Boutakoff more recently (1951 | repeated these views without serious questioning, COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA ree Dr. Arthur Wade (1915), the Commonwealth Government Gvolowist, first suggested Jocal submarine origin, and was followed by Dr, Mclntosh Reid (1931), who was convinced that the point of origin was local, These two men bor the first geologists ta devote scrious attention to the investigation in the iui. Samples of bitumen were collected by the Scnth Australian Mines Depart- mene in 1920 at Victor Harhor, where considerable amounts were found stranded between tide levels, The results of analysis are viven in Appendix 1 (Part 1) and it was concluded that— “there cart ba ne doubt that the oil is a erudé petraleurm oil It may be, therefore, thit (this) off touncd on the beach at Vietor Harbor las cone ashore from some vensel, bnt looking at the question oly from the chemical point of view, if is just as possible that the oil is derived from a natural source not very far away.” Dr, Ward then stated his opinion that it was not possible with any certalnty ig dee'de the scurces of any of the stranded bitumen along the southern ¢oasts af Australia. He continued: “By plotting the positions of all known sourecs of petrolemmy and asphaltum ie inap of the world, showing alsa the surface ocean currents, no certain solution Of his problewn is yet vbtainable. The main diritt of the gceani¢ waters is known to be from weat to cast in the Southern Ocean; ime this easterly drift is modified! by an eclcly which produces w current amuving from south-east to north-west along the Sonth Australian vouwt, Henee jetsam having a somrce to the westward of amy point ou the coast of this State may in turn be brought eastwards until near the shorcg, to he caught jn the retin guirrent wae swept along in 2 north-westerly direction until stranded. The posi- tion at which any material finds a resting place is dependent not mcrely on its place ef origin, but also on the ever varying meteorologicul changes whieh alleet the eorrents.” Dr. A. Wade, however, was not so convinced of the need to invoke distant soutecs. His conclusions are worth quoting: “The fact that it (asphaltun) comes ashore at times ia a viscons conihtion snggests that it had not travelled amy great distances: Lan firmly convinived by ihe evidence that the rnaterial originates trom beds now covered by the sea, beds thrown dawn by the great fault system, known to exist, protected to some extent by the deep sea deposits and lying south of the continental shelf. As a surmise, T should say that, just as the yreat trough faults of the Dead Sea area bave exuded bition mi places: sewn by nyse’, so the bitomen found on these cousls may be nt present escaping Fenn yinilar fanit planes mentioned. Te would be interesting and useful to diseover whether ile presence of asphaltum in these becomes ure pronounced after the evcthynaky shacks which sometimes affeet them. Rumour has said that there 4s @ councetion, but scientific observations have sot confirnied it as yet.” Dr. Mcintosh Reid (1931) was the leading geological proponent (m the loval origin, Despite the strong criticism he has received a his outspoken opinions, he appears to have been by far the most realistic, and presumably lias suffered by being “ahead of the times”. His case for local seepage along Gssures (faults) ou the local continental platform, and also for esexpe via fracturing assuciated wilh vuleanic oulpourings was stronuly made. Melntosh Reid noted that during winter, stranding of asphallum is a more or less weekly ocenrrence in restricted segments of some beaches, particularly along Discovery Bay (between Nelson and Portland — for analysis of these crudes see Appendix A, Parts 2 and 3). He collected much material and noted that— “the viseous asnhaltym is a shedding from pre-Tertiary beds through the murginnal faulty of the southern coast, and the stranding at two plates only on tha shore uF Dis- covery Bay is due indivectly to the effects of transverse faulting or to tracteree! clomes.~ [ce records that S. Jenkins and J. Vance of Portland (Victoria) declared thal in the early 1920's, they «tw wil issuing from the bed of Bridgewater Bay in lunpe quantities, Also that on August 12th, 1931, he received from S. Johnson of 72 Rk. C, SPRIGG anp J. B. WOOLLEY Richmond settlement, large blocks of hard asphaltum which had only reeently been cast up on the shore of Discovery Bay— “this find of asphaltum of greater density than sea waler suggests that the material had been broken off from the fissure in that condition, sud that it hal not been trans- ported far from its source.” He then quotes and agrees with Wade (1915)— “The fresh condition of the material at the time of its arrival at the shore, and its yiseous condition indicate a sherl period of expusute and a short distdnee of travel. Winter and summer the fresh asphaltim possesses similar qualities. Exposet) on the beach a fow days the material becomes hard aud hrittle.” Finally, MoIntosh Reid conjectured with snrprising insight, as only now is heing proved by drilling twenty years later, that south of the Robe bore— “it is possible and even likely that marine Cretaceous wall intervene between Tertiary ancl the Jurassic formations , - . and be the sontee of these crude petruleunis. . . 2” Undoubted marine Cretaceous was located on drilling in the area only a few years ago, and _practieally all wells which have cut it have produced Hows or showings of condensate gas. Loftus Hills (1914) provides a description of the material occurring along the coast of Tasmania from Cape Sorel to Point Hibbs, which is fairly typical-- “Along practically the whole ol the sea coast of this region there ure found frag- ments of black bituininous substance, These fragments vary in size from about ihre fevt lon by two feet square down ta small fragments a few inches in diameter, The shape varies, some Ininps beimg roughly cubieal with romneded ees, but the greater number being quite Ayt, One piece, for example, measured abont iree feet hy iwa fect with « thickness of about two inches. "The bitumen or asphaltum is jet black ia colour. Some fragments are hard and brittle, while other blocks, althongh Tard on the outside, are soll and plastic in the centre, A fresh fructure gives the odour of gasoline and kerosene. Those fragments Which haye been exnosed to the sun develop a series al cracks on the surface. Sometimes, also, there occur water-worn pebbles of the brittle variety.” ‘To this should be added the experience of other observers (and the wriicrs) that in very localised areus, fresh seepage material (as compared with solid material presumed torn from seals to fissures) is more of the nature of a very viscous Huid. CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL SEEPAGES IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD Walter Link (1952) has provided the most exhaustive study of oil and gas seeps throughout the world in relation to oilfields that has yet been published. According to him— “A took at the exploration history of the important oil areas of the world proyes wonelusively that oi] and gas seepy gave the first elucs to most oil-producing regions, Many great oilfields are the direct result of seepave drilling... . Oil and gas seeps fill ome of the pre-reqnisites of a region it it is to produce oil, namely, source rocks, since large scops generally result from pool destruction, they alsa indicate reservoir rocks and structure,” He also noted that— “Depending ou the type, location and size of Ure secpages, 2 good guess ean ulso be made concerning the possibility of reservoir rocks and snitable oil traps.” Natural bitumen may occur at the surface of the carth in one of four ways: 1. As the inspissated product of large sceps of heavy crude oil: 2. as diapiric cores; 3. as tar sands; 4. as fillings in joints or faults. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 73 The mode of occurrence of “Coastal Bitumen” of the south coasts of Aus- tralia may be compared with the famons “bilumen fishery” of the Dead Sea, the two sets of phenomenu appear to have much in common. In neither case is it elear from what formation the slabs seen in the water are derived, although this is iu Question of the utmost importance in the search for oil. A good account of the Dead Sea occurrence ts given by Ball and Ball (1953) who quote two writers ot antiquity who both deseribe very vividly the foul smell and tarnishing of metal vessels which heralded the dischurge of the bitumen. No eruptions of sour gases Lave been reported im modern times, One of the largest—and best known—examples of the inspissated heavy oil seep is the Pitch Lake of Guanoco, in castern Venezuela. Before exploftation, the lake covered an area af about 340 acres, but was nowhere more than 12 feet deep. A striking feature is the wholesale contamination of the surrounding area hy aay oil, Streams of heavy oil feed intu the lake and youts of unsolidified wil Hoat in the surface waters, Liike most yery heavy crudes, the Guanoco crude is very sour, and the adour is extremely stvong, We can quite safely rule out this type of occurrence at Geltwood Beach, Sea and beach would be a sticky, tarey mess; and the smell of sulphur would be «phite strong with an onshore wmd. No smell has been noticed. The Great Pitch Lake at Brighton in Trinidad is a diapitie vore of bitumen, Jt was very probably formed by the burial of a lake of Guanoco type; followed ¥ piercement and ascent of the bitumen in a manner analogous to that of the salt in a salt dome, In plan, the lake is quite circular and covers nn area of about 42 acres; the depth (proved by drilling) execeds 250 feet, The lake smells strongly of bitumen but docs not smell sour. Sulphurous eases and waters were apparently discharged into sands during the ascerit, tor in qrirts of the nearby Brighton Field, and at Point D'Or. very sour conditions were enconntered and a number af fatal accidents pecurred., The surface vf the Cuanocu Lake is featureless, but the Brighton Lake is covered by circular structures in the asphalt, some tens of feet in diameter. The centre of each circle is soft aud sticky bitumen, the biturmen gradually bevames harder as one approaches the periphery, Wach circle is ringed with a peculiar brownish bitumen, which does not soil the fingers, and is almost as elastie as rubber. . A comparison with the diminution of the volume of the lakes with the amounts of asphilt extracted, shawed that seepage into the Brighton Jake fs at least seven times as fast as into the Guanoco lake, Activity varies greally at Brighton, both in space and time; on one occasion a lurge fossil tree Munk appeared from the depths and later sunk away again, The ahsence of sourness, and especially the yariation in activity, accord well with the way in which bitumen has been reported in Australia, [ft there ure, in fact, a number of diapiric bitumen cores (possibly distributed along lines of major faulting) then the origin of the bitumen must probably be sought in the Cretaceous, for a certain depth of burial is necessary before ascent and piercement take place. It is not known if the “rubber bitumen’ is an essential feature of this type of occurrence, Certainly such rings of the Brighton lake as were observed all possessed it; it has never been reported in Australia. Tar sands can originate in three ways. Manjak can be deposited in a sand- stone: sand can be drifted into a bitumen lake, either by water or wind action (the latter is supposed by some to have caused the McMurray sands); a sand- 7A f. CG. SPRIGG ann 3, B. WOOLLEY stone can be impregnated by tar in the subsurface, as in the sands of the tar belt of northern South America, «und the Morne JEnfer tar sands of Trinidad. The distinction is quite casily made; tar as grains; sand grains separated by tur: vy all in contact, with interstitial tar only. The Morne l'Enfer tar sands show occasional activity, which may be violent, At one place, an accumulation of heavy oil was found, several commercial wells were obtained, one of which blew out, Llalf a mile away, slightly higher beds were being quarried for road metal. la another place, between two visits about three weeks apart by one of us (J. Woolley), a stream of tar about ten yards wide and three feet thick issued from a hilltop and rolled for several hundred yards through the scrub overwhelming saplings and blocking an old road, On another oecasion, an eruption of bitnmen took plave on a newly-graded lucation, In the course of a few days after the first movements. a ridge of bitumen abont five feet high built up and after a few weeks the whole location and the aecess road had been overwhelmed. In bath these cases, the mass which issued was almost pure bitumen, not tar sand, At the location, either the excavation operations or the vibration of heavy earthhmoving machinery. or both, started the ernption, The flow from the hilltop may have been started by the passage of a ear over the old road, which was very seldom used. In the southern Australian occurrences, it could be that eruptions of coastal hitumen were from tar sands in the shallow subsurface, and that very slight tremor along faults might set off the larger flows. The tar sands wonld then probably be Tertiary xs least in the Geltwood area) but the original source of the oil could also be Cretaceons. (The Morne FEnfer is certainly mat a mother formation, and the tar sands lie a thousand feet stratigraphically ahove the main commercial oilsands of the area.) Joint, fissure and/or fault in-fillings could provide the considerable volume OF inaterial, only if the asphalt was actually ascending, when it would be classed as u diapiric occurrence. Static asphalt or ozokerites cemented in fissures cold ouly become free through erosion or breuking away of the containing rock, This possibility cannot be ruled out. The evidence would appear to favour fissure eruptions or diapiric intrusions aloug structural weaknesses, perhaps with same invasion of sea-foor sediments. Movements alony faults causing earthquakes arc presumed ta temporarily trigger accelerated extrusion. Coastal bitumen would be the product of both sea-Aloor erosion of diapiric cores ur fissures infillings and/or sea-Hoor deposits. THE GELTWOOD BEACH SEEPAGES (South-East South Australia } According to residents of the Millicent-Rendelsham district, evidence of submarine oil seepages off the Canunda, Geltwuod and Devils Gap Beaches (extending 15 to 20 miles south of Beachport, S.A.), hax been recognised since well before this century. Visiting experts had. however, displayed Tittle interest in this phenomena until recently. Stranded bituminous crude vils and ozokerites have been collected from about Canunda Rocks intermittently for many years despite the fact that this coast, until the recent advent of jeep-type vehicles, hus heen isolated and little visited. Recent investigations have been complicated m turn hy the, COASTAL BIYUMEN IN SOUTIL AUSTILALIA 75 al limes, speclaailar upwelling of “brown water” in these xoties, that has been *. “ y ' \ . shown to involye “floods” of micro-pliankton (Ludbroak, 1981). This presum- ably fortuitons relationship is discussed later. Geltwood Beach is so named because of the foundering of the ship Gelt- wood a few miles south of Canunda Rocks: It is a windswept ocean sand heach terminating in the north against outcropping acolianite heartsalidated dune lime sant), It lies several miles north of a more accessible beach at Devils Gap. In July, 1960, geologist R. Twist, of Geosurveys of Australia Limited was detailed to visit Geltwood beach following requests frony Messrs. D, Schultz and M, Schinkel. Fresh oil was collected from the beach that appeared to be a natural crude. The presently detailed investigations commenced during March, 1961, when the customary small amounts of bitumen were collected on the beach and the “brown-water flows” (phytoplankton) were first investigated. Over u length uf beach extending almost a mile south of Canunda Rocks honey-yellaw to almost brown-black discolouration of watcr (Plate 1) was observed fur periods of a day or more at a time during the first autumn months, As many as fitteen, or more, Ineulised “points of origin” were documented and the varying activity plotted. The “brown-water” was eventually successfully sampled over the must northerly “centre” within 50 yards south of Canunda Rocks, A small amount of what was then felt to he possibly “lignic” material (? peaty or lignitie) was sampled and the filtrate sent for analysis to the Microchemicul section of C.S.L1.0. in Melbourne (Appendix D), Only carbon, hydrogen and ash were determined, The analysis was not that of lignin or petroleum substance, although certainly organic (see later section), At the time of sampling a gallon uf sea water was skimmed from immedi- ately above the hrown water “point of origin” (in about 10 fect of turbulent surf) and sent for analysis. A very considerable (45 per cont.) dilution beluw normal oceanic salinity was indicated (see later). A subsequent sample from unother “brown-water™ area 200 yards south, however, indicated no such dilation. During these and subsequent visits to these beaches an inspection of the strandline for several miles to the north and south was carried out as a routine measure. Small amounts of fresh crude oil (a few pounds) was found to he stranded in preferred situations, the most persistent being opposite two of the more pronounced “brown-water” ureas, viz, “Old Faithful” about 200 yards south of Canunda Rocks, and at Devils Gap, four miles further to the south, and dine south-west of Millicent. Other than the increasing brown-water (phytoplankton) activity in re- stricted zones, as winter approached, no significant increase in bitumen stranding was noted until on May 30, 1961, immediately following the first sturm of the winter seusun. D. Schultz (and later with C. A, Sprigg) collected several hundred pounds of freshly stranded crude bitumen from the beach extending a few himdred yards to the south from “Old Faithful”. During the sext few weeks several liindred puunds mare of such material, generally becoming in- creasingly “weathered” due to exposure on the beach, were collected hy one of the writers (R,C.S_) aceompanicd by J. M. Dwyer, H, LeMessurier, L: Ack land and numerons other helpers. L.W. Parkin, Acting Director of Mines, then made a short visit to the area ane also sampled sume of the stranded crude and also the brown-water. Crorocturisti¢ of. ~, Paretfin Ofte — SPRIGG ann J. B. WOOLLEY Bromotic or Cut Jw? Carponyl “GC C-H Srretch! P- OH 3 L Bards at G85 & 725 Characturistic of A CoH St, Aromatic © =¢. Carbonyl ‘CeO GELTWOOD BEACH 5.4 DEVILS GAP sa, ut eek 4 E ' | DISCOVERY BAY VIC ;* - wt 1 hme BRIOGEWATE? BAY vic tal a a Microns Epargerursric of Porntfin is ——= CAPE SPENCER $.4_ H 7 Ss Aromolic of 0=6 4 C= Straten e-H Streter Aramatie ar Seo. ape Seed LA. Hiner. d be 4 SLEAFORD Asay SAL a e a 7 s 3 Micrans BITUMEN SEEPAGES FROM COASTAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND VICTORIA (A BCD) ( EFGHIS) SAMPLES SAMPLES TAKEN TAKEN JULY NOV 96) (961 By RC SPRIGG BY RC_SPRIGG Caz COASTAL BLILUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA iT Periodic cneampinents at the beach have since resulted in considerable new data, Particular attention was directed to the incidence of rough seus, and due in no small measure to the ev-operation uf D, Schultz of Rendelsham, an wnder- standing of the réle and impertance of local storms in the overall phenurnuna M “coastal bitumen” has emerged. At the same time, one of the writers took the opportunity to delay 4 visit te another reported occurrence of coastal bitu- men at Sleaford Bay near Port Lincoln (300 miles north-west) until immediately following a lucal winter storm, In this case, a looal beach that had been rela- tively free of lumpy eride on Saturday, 12th August. was found to be littered with it on ‘Thursday, L7th, following the storm of the imervening Tuesday. Much dlder material was also noted that had melted im to the beach sand at extreme storm tide level. The réle of storms and/or rough seas also in this inistanee wus again demoustrated. Also following the season's first storm, Mr. und Mars, J. Altorfer, of Port MacDonnell, on 12th June brought in several pounds of yiscous oil from Cape Ranks. This they claimed was part of a recurring phenumena in this situation since about L905 to their knowledge. Once this storm factor was clearly established, local fishermen and various old identities verified this to be the only notable association of “coastal bitu- men" beyond the occurrence of earthquake shocks, of which there hack been several within living memory in this district, A search of the literature dis- closed that Melntosh Reid was also fully aware of this relationship with storms, as was also the Inte R. Altorfer, senior. of Mt. Gambier, wha was one nf the preponents of “oil in the south-east”. A point of concern that arose was that no. sizeable deposits of stranded bitumen had accumulated on the loeal sea enasts in these south-east areas, The explanation was not hard ta find. The beaches of interest are all sturm beaches, the back-shore dune aceumulutions of which are breached hy wind-lane “blow outs”. Tu winter time seas flood through the gaps and spread Hotsam for several hundred yards inland, Drift bitumen can be collected in most of these situations, From here, as the material dries out, winds may transport it onto and over dune sand accumulations 100 to 200 feet high and extending a mile or more inland. “Fragments” of bitumen have, in fact, been observed buried in sand aceumu- latiuns for more than hal! a mile inland, The fate of drift bitumen, ending in burial, is clear. Continued observation of Geltwood Beach has permitted ducumentation of the stranding of “oxidised” light brown erude, urd of fresh “tarry” black viscous bitumen during periods of moderate scas, Along the four miles af beach between the “Old Faithful” locality (uf “brown-water”) and Devils Gap, at least six or eight locations have favoured deposition of choclate brown “oxidised” crude and a Tesser number also of the Viscous fresh black crudes, “These crudes have been observed in the process of stranding Jaw to high on tho beach during a range al tides. Stranding of the fresh black crude has been observed mostly durmg periods af moderate sea. In most cases “brown-water” (phytoplankton) activity has been observed nearby, and this ustially in relation to very obvivus rip-qurreuts. It is noted, for example, that moderate to heavy seas may temporarily impound many hundreds of tons of excess water shoreward of the innermost sandbars, locally to inercase the depth of water on the beach by as much as five or six fect and for periods of a minute or more. Lt is during these intervals Uhat must of the fishing accidenty aceue along this coast, and some rather warming situations developed even during the lociul siunpling operations. ) B.C. SPRIGG ann J, B, WOOLLEY Once massive volumes of water lave been thrown on to the beach in this way, rip-curren(s carrying water back via channels through interveniny sand- bars becume greatly accelerated and turbulent. “Brown-water” floods frequently “surface” spectacularly under these conditions, It is evident that the phyto- plankton responsible for this discolouration wells up from the bottom under these distarbed conditions and appears as outpourings to the surface, particu Jarly in the neighbourhoad of the more obyious current+ips, Some of these unduubtedly powerful currents also erode bituminous: sea Hoor deposits by tearmg off the brown “oxidised” veneers to sea-lloor deposits, or to outcropping biluininous seals or ozokerite veins, thereby also facilitating the seepage of less viscous oil from below. ‘This phenomena will be discussed in more detail latee. ~- Another ohservation werthy of note is thal at a few minutes tu 5 pan, on Friday, March 31st, 1961, while observing “brown-water” activity from about S00 vards south of Canunda Rocks (R.C.S,) a large “block” of black material appeared suddenly in the centre of one “brewn-wuter” area, several hundred yrds out to sea, This is one of the Few occasions on which sueh “brawn-water™ activity Was observed so far out. The tlde was high ut-this time. The material floated partly submerged and. uppeared through binoculies to possess blucky edges. The block moved northwards several hundred yards by nightfall, Next moming several lurge lumps (several pounds) were found stranded at hich tide level in this same direction near Canunda Rocks. This was the first snassive piece pf coastal bituinen found by the writer (R.C.S.) clicing 1961 and was definilely not present in this area on the previous day when this strand-line had been searched dilivently by a party of four. One final observation is that, without prompting, Mr. Syd. Smith of Rendel- sham, volunteered the information that following the MMS earthquake epi- ceritred in the sea off Beachport (Sprigg, 1952, 1959), abnormally large quanti- ties of bitumen were washed ashore south of Cape Buffon (a tew miles north of Canunda Racks), He also remarked that stranding of coastul bitumen de- clined almost completely thereafter, “Chis is an important observation and one which answers Dr. Wade's question (see above) that activity should climax following an earthquake. Other Jucal residents have also confirmed this. It brings to mind that such carthquake relationships have been obseryed elsewhere in the world in the great oil provinces. Edward Tliteheuck, an American gea- logist, reported tn 1840 that after the earthquake of 1834 and 1837 about the Dead Sea, large quantities of asphalt deilted ashere, and one mass, “like an island or house rose to the surface, and drifted in (Ball and Ball, 1953). A The Composition of Coastal Bitumen with Particular Reference lo the Geltwood Crude A number of analyses have been carried cut on bitumen crudes found stranded on southern Australian ocean beaches. Some of the analytic data und conchisions have been published (Appendix A, Party 1 to @ inclusive), Un- douubtedly a range of crude bitumen and ozokerites is represented, hut mostly the analyses are incomplete and lack standards for comparison. ‘They are all elassed as nutaral crudes. In most cases it is conceded that it is extremely difficult to distingnish by analytical methods natura) seepage bitimens from industrial waste products. for example, one of the mast widely used bitumens, “Trinidad Lake Asphalt’, ix simply dug out of the luke, melted by as. gentle a heating as will induce How and poured into drums. At Oxnard, east of Ventura, California, very heavy il is raised by steam litt and fowed directly onto rock chips, Even a wide range COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 74 af Iviling points would not be couclusive; for 2 small topping plant on a heavy allfield might do Tittle more than take off the lightest fractions, ‘The possibility that coastal bitumen is not of “mineral” origin is distinctly remote. Metaholic waste products of large animal colonies can resemble bitu- men in appearance, but on heating they char rather than burn and melt with yrout difficulty, In the process they give off a foul foetid odour quite unlike the smell of oi! Distinction can be made in the laboratory by \etermining oxygen, nitrogen, phospliorous apd acid number, but the simple heating test is fust as conchisive. Analyses of Geltwood crude made by the Shell Company (Appendix A. Part 6) reveal that its saponification value, high sulphur content, characteristic appearance, odour and burning qualities clearly exclude animal and vegetable oils as well as coal products: Ludbruck (1961; see later), on the other hand, has attempted to relate the coastal bitumen to phytoplankton “floods” that appear spectacularly in local nearshore waters, particularly during winter time. The evidence is udmitted to be weak. The fact that the living diatoms concerned contain minute oi] globules in their protoplasmic make-up (like most other organisms) cannot be used as evidence for the formation «f massive amounts of natural crude oil devoid of all the other substances present in these organisins. The phytoplanktow swarms are definitely not oily in theimn- selves. hey sink in standing sea water. they do not give the normal solvent Toeuctions tor petroleum, ner do they adhere to objects in the manner of oil, Analyses of the oil (see appendices) all poimt to the coastal bitumen being natural crudes and to their being short-travelled. Understandable caution has led some analysts to draw inferences that the oils may, therefore, be from tankers, jettisoned during cleaning vperations at sea, The opinion expressed by the Director of Chemistry in Adelaide (see Appendix A, Part 1, 1920) is quite typical; “Tt may be, therefore, that the oil found on the beach uear Victor Harber, South Australia, has come ashore from some vessel, but Jookingg at the qoeston fram the ehemlesT point af view, it is just as probable that the oil is derived trom a nataral aauruc not very far away.” Coastal bitumen has been stranding alony the southern sea coasts since lung hetore ocean-going tankers were developed. Direct relationships of coastal bitumen “stranding” with the action of storms that effectively ste up and erode the loval sea hottam does away with the necessity for oils to originate about Antaretica or South America, as suggested by Ward (1913), Marine biologists have expressed the opinion that marine organising destroy seaborne oil far tuo sapidly to allow of long distance occan transport via slow-moving vccan currents The analyses quoted (Appendices) are undoubtedly those of natural crude petrolenm, varyinuly weathered and inspissated. They range from paraffin- based to nuphthene-based mineral oils with medium to high sniphur cantent. The oils are reported by oil company laboratories to he specifically different Fram vay of the erades regularly imported into the country. As wu consequence, the «rndes rust be from a very extensive southern Austrilian oil provinee, immediately under and beyond the sea enast B, Comparison af the Geltwood Cruces with those of Port Lincoln and Port MacDonnell An attempt has heen made hy trace clement analysis to establiyh relatlion- ships between ails found along various parts of the South Australian coasts. The anilyses (Ajpendix E) were earsied out by K. Norrish and "U. B. Sweatmun af the Commeil fie Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Division of Soils. 80) R. €, SPRIGG ann J. B. WOOLLEY Relative figures representing spectrographic analysis of five oil samples for eleven trace elements have heen determined. The sumples included Uiree fram the Geltwood Beach vicinity (ie., Geltwood Beach, Canunda Roeks and Rivoli Bay), one from Cape Northumberland lying 30 miles to the suuth-cast, and one fram Pt. Lincoln, 300 miles to the north-west: The analysts report that: “The results indicate that the oils from Geltwood Beach, Cununda Rocks and Rivoli Bay are sunilar. The oil fron Cape Northamberland is distinetly hivher in S$. & ¥. and lower in Cl, Ca, Fe, Ni, Gu, and Zn than the abave three samples. The other sumple, from Port LinciIn, appears ta haye an intermediate composition.” Tt is further noted by the analysts that Cr and Mo were not detected in any of the oils, The scatter results were also given since they showed differences in the oils. The scatter is probably dependent on the density and hydrogen content of the ails, These support the previous inferences as to possible rela- tionships of the oils. Undoubtedly more such analyses (in time and locality) are required before definite conelusians can be drawn, but it appears that the vils from immediately south of Beachport are of a particular suite, and may be distinet from those stranding near Port MacDonnell, southern Yorke Peninsula or Port Lincoln. This certiinly is in direct cuntict with the theory of distant origin ucross the ocean. A wumber of distinctive sources ure suggested lying close by the respective coasts. C, Associated Phenomena In coastal bitumen localities other processes are Bpetative that may in some way be interrelated, ‘hese include the aetivily of fresh-water submarine springs and the possible association of “brown-water™ (phytoplankton } Hooding, 1. Submarine Fresh-water Springs: Possthle Relationships with Oil Seepage Deep-seated submarine springs have previowy heen suggested as a possible mechanism for escape of hydrocarbons from Tertiary and/or older sediments along the continental shelf in southern Australia, Enormous volumes of fresh-water are known to issue via low-lying spring outlets from the Gambier Basin in coastal and suwh-coastal zones principally in South Australia. At the foot of the Mt, Burr (marine erosional) escarpment, for example, spring flow has been gauged at about 20 million gallons per day, The outlets represent crosional “nick points” cutting the local ground-water table within the highly permeable Gambicr J.imestone. Similarly, surface springs debouching into the “Fiftecu-mile” peat swamps (cast of Port Mac- Donnell) issue from the cavernons Gambier Limestones, Others are known or suspected immediately across the burder in Victoria, A number of submarine fresh-water springs have alsy been reported, The mast spectacular appears tu be one lying approximately two miles off Cape Nelsen (Portland, Victoria) which appears on fhe days as an area of peculiarly calm water. According to the Portland Lighthousekeeper (Sprigg anc Boutu- kot, 1049), local fishermen have replenished their fresh-water supplies Feorm these springs even though the sea is thereabouts probably 200 feet deep, Fishermen have veported “eruptions” of oi] along with these spring water flows, aud the area is One of frequent reporting of coastal bibymen. In South Australia, E, P, O'Driscoll (1961), Senior Geologist with the South Australian Mines Department. recently reported on similar phenomena wt Southend (six miles perth of Canunda Rocks). He records that 8. S. Smith COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTIT AUSTRALLA Sl of Hendelsliam had observed numerous fresh-water springs at the hase of aedlianite clills along this stretch of coast; others have been reported in shallow water by speur-fishermen. Mr, Smith reported that it is passibc lo drink from some of them, and some appear to flow quite strongly and to carry eritrained gast’s. Jt is claimed that oil slicks have been noted in some cases, O'Driscoll observed the lanes of smooth water extending ont to sea from near the bases of the cliffs, hut was unable to sample them. Tle concluded that from the “knowledge of the groundwater hydrology of the area, and from local reports there is no dowht that they do exist, although it is not possible to say with absthite certainty whether they have their source in the deep pressure waters or the higher won-pressure water's”. He added that the evidence favours a nor-pressure water origin, us the static water level of the Gambier Limestones and younger sediments ts slightly above sea-level and, therefore, only to be expected to form springs in the eoustal “one, The possibility that such walers could contain traces of oily material is eon- sideréd unlikely but not impossible, These problems are complicated in the immediate beach vicinity hy the presence of downward and outward percolating rain waters representing a low lead of groundwater within the adjacent highly porous dune sands and aeolia- nite. Springs of the nature deseribed can be readily observed at the immediate west end of Port MacDonnell Bay beach. Water issues quite freely from the bases of aeolianite cliffs in this situalion and has been reported as carrying ail slicks. The writers have not seen the latter, but the springs are genuine. Almast certainly they represent escaping of water from local swamps and/or the saturated Gambier Limestones which outerop at sea-level hereabouts. It is considered unlikely that waters in these situations will be sufficiently uncontaminated and diagnostic upon analysis to allay demonstration of their origin from une or other more deeply buried secimentary formation; however, at least four or five classes of water can be predicted in the province which justify recapitulition in so far as any of them may eventnally be detected eseuping via outlets along the coast. They are: L. Contaminated rainwater from the dine systems and backswamps 2. Non-pressnre “carbonate” waters from the nbiquitous and shallow-lying Gambier Limestones, which have “high level’ intakes concentrated in the Dismal Swamp and Mt. Burr Ranges. 3. Pressure waters from the Knight Formation. ‘These are iso “carbonate” waters in the lower south-east, but extensively will have a more distant origin in the Casterton area of western Victoria, 4, Pressure waters from the Gretaceous; these are predicted in be more saline und consequently o£ “chloride” type.* 5. Formational waters frorq the “Jurassic” likely to be saline because of known low permeability of the formations concerned, It is felt that there is Insufficient evidence to reject the possibility of sub- marine escape of deeper pressure waters at the coast at this juncture. The evidence of differing hydraulic surfaces for the various waters suggests otherwise. O'Driscoll (1960}, for example, has demonstrated quite clearly that the hydraulic surface for the Knight Formation waters does net confurm to the free grmund- water sutface of the overlying Gambier Limestones. Ife notes (negative) * Forniation water recayered from the Cretiecis at 9.200 fect in Mt, Salt No. L Well west of Mt. Schank (1962) analyzed 3:2 per cent. sall, and consequently is « brine. bz RK, ©. SPRIGG ann |. B. WOOLLEY discrepancies relative to the Gambier Limestones hydraulic surface in the Mt. Gambier area that point clearly to separate intakes and the obvious separation of the respective water horizons by intervening impermeuble (2clay) layers, Despite this, the hydraulic surface for the Knight Sands also reaches the coast almnst at sea-level, suggesting pressure loss by escape in the immediate coastal Zune IL is expected that faults would greatly facilitate localized escape of pressure wuters from deeper sedimentary horizons. In this respect the Tartwarp fault, passing E.S.E.-W,N,W, immediately to the north of Mt. Gambier, would eventu- ally strike out to sea beneath about Beachport. (The Beachport earthquake epicentre also lies along this W.N.W, trend to seaward.) In parallel fashion the Nelson en echelon system of folds and faults passes W.N.W. bencath the coast at about Cape Banks, und &.$.4. approximately along the Vieturian coast in the general direction of Swan Lake, Another W.N.W.-E.S.E. line of disturb- ance coincides with the coast about Cape Douglas, Seismic surveys (1962) huve recently demonstrated a (?)line of anticlines extending E.§.E.-.W.N,W. be- weath Geltwood Beach, The presence of reputed ail sceps and submarine spriugs in zones where lines of structural disturbances (G.E.A, 38A) cross the enasHine consequently cannot be disregarded. A direct relationship may well exist. Wade (1915) and others have also stressed this possibility. 2, Phytoplankton Floods Patches of “brown-water", sometimes many acres in extent and almost myariably close inshore, have been reported in ayeas of coastal bitumen strand- ing down through the years almost sitice the white man first settled in southern Australia. They have been broadly described in the literature by Melntosh Reid (1932), but seem never to have been seriously investigated. They are known to have been observed by N. Osborne of Frome Broken Hill Company as far back as 1934, and were sighted at the Ilead of the Bight by RB. Sprigg and R. Beunnschweiler from low-lying aiteralt in 1956. They appear tu be well- known to fishermen and local resiclents mostly along eelatively uninhabited sandy geean heaches certainly from Bridgewater Bay in Western Victoria to the Head of the Bight. They are ulso reported along the west coast of New Zealand and elsewhere in (he world. McIntosh Ruid (1932), discussing the local examples, reasoned that the brown colouring matter came fram lignitic lake material (? peaty), Samples were taken from Geltwood Beach in April, 1961, by R. Sprige und again during July, 1961, when the phenomenon was iore pronaunced, in company with L. W. Parkin, Deputy Director of the South Australian Mines Department, The Jater samples were [ound to contain “foods” of phytoplankton; N. TL, Lud- brook (1961) whe exumined the saruples reported thai— “the diseolauration is dua to phytoplankton, mainly @_rectansular-shaped diatom with zonspicnons chloroplasts which is present in great muuibers. Other diatoms, dinnflagel, lites, and various planktonic: orginisms are also present.” When this material strands on the beach it leaves a yellowish to brownisli- Blick stain in summer time, but in winter time may be quite greenish to greenish-brown. “Browt-water" or phytoplankton “floods” haye been noted throughuul the vear at Geltwood, but are far moe prominent and persistent during the winter, The Hoods wax and wane over intervals of a few minutes to many hours, On occasions, a score of such “Hows” have been observed Hooding in from a few tens Of yards ant to sea to rarely several Londred yards out, along a single mile COASTAL, BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 83 of beach. Practically without exception the beaches are sandy and the mist pronounced activity appcars to be associated with current-rips, Mostly the swarms appear to well-up out of deeper channels (10 to 20 feet deep) between the shore and the first off-shore bar. Mostly the material moves rapidly shore- ward to the beach in spectacular floods that are maintained and intensified in the surf, although remarkably Jitde phytoplankton actually strands, Even where prominent current-rips are operating, little phytoplankton remains at the surface bevond the first sand bar. This is despite the fact that the rips are travelling scaward. Presumably the plankton slowly sinks and the floods are dissipated in deeper water. Not unreasonably, local opinion has tended to associate the swarms with the cvastal bitumen phenomena, Regions of pronounced brown-water activity are not infrequently ulso situations of pronounced coastal bitumen stranding, and the rather foreboding brownish-hlack water in itselE suggests oil with its quite spectacular und apparently (at a distance) “greasy” frothing (Plate 1). Contrary to thiv. latter suggestion of oily churacter, the brown suspension does not stick to the body, and being denser than sea water, it settles out on standing. The material rather more resembles humic acid in peal swamps, or other lignie material in suspension, The material does not readily give the standard solvent (ests for ail, although Ludbrook has deseribed “waxy” products along with it (the phytoplankton) that are “partially soluble in carbon Fetra- chloride”. The present writers have now viewed these planktonic Hoods frequently and under many conditions, They have never considered them to be directly related to coastal bitumen, although originally it was felt that the material may be “lignic’, possibly having been carried up by ascending spring waters from the underlying ‘Tertiary. This hypothesis advanced independently alsa hy MeIntosh Reid (1932) is no longer tenable, Microanalysis af the plankton by C.S.LR.0, (Appendix D) indicates a high hydrogen content in relation to carbon—viz. Carbon 13-6 per cent, Hydrogen 2:5 per cent. This gives a C:H rativ 100:18+5 which compares with- C:H Peotoplasri 7 fe if 4 . 100: 18 Phytoplankton (Geltwoor ) . 100; 18-5 Average paraffin-based oils. 100: 16 Average mixed or naplithene-hase oils 100; 14 Wand . 1 100: 12-5 Peat. . . 100: LL3 Liguite 4. . 100: 7-2 Bituminous coal . 100; 6-6 Anthracite 100: 3-0 There seems no reason to suggest genetic relationships of the phytoplankton with the present coastal bitumen as inferred by Ludbrook (1961). The latter are quite normal oilfield crudes, whereas the phytoplankton is living material in nwo way behaving like oil other than in its very superficial resemblance in dis- colouring sea water. This opinion is borne out in examinations carried out by Shell Company of Australia Ltd. (Appendix A, Part 7) which “exclude animal and vegetable oils as well as coal products”. The phytoplankton “brown-water” activity and the coastal bitumen pheno- mona do bear certain casual relationships. Tt is presumed that the same currents which stir up the phytoplankton may also erode the focal sea bottom. Any M4 R, C. SPRIGC ans J. B, WOOLLEY biluminous deposits present in these zones will be subjected to this same erosive action. ‘These phenomena call for further investigation out of scientific interest and In relation to fishery research, It is not entirely unlikely that the local seas are enriched in nutrient solutions either from spring waters or other sources that could help proliferate phytoplankton, On the other hand, oceantfacing coasts in temperate latitudes are known to facilitate upwelling of deeper oceanic waters during the cold winter season (i.c,, ternperature-density inversion) that replenish the nutrients in shallower waters in which most of the microscopic plant life must exist. A PROBABLE MECHANISM OF “COASTAL BITUMEN” ESCAPE FROM SUBMARINE SOURCES Documentation of coastal bitumen activity in a “sample locality” during late summer through to spring in 1961 has provided an understanding of the phenomenon not previously possible. Several important factors now stand out: . Specific relationship with local storm activity. Apparent concentration of seepage poiuts in ocean surf zones. Possible association of seepages in some cases with coastal fresh-water springs. Apparent relationship with predicted faults. Direct relationships with carthquakes, Possible casnal relationship with phytoplankton Mooding, Presence of highly “oxidised” (ight chocolate brown) crudes amongst stranded bitumen suggesting previous sub-aerial exposure of bitumen “lakes”, that now lie beneath the sea. The stranding of natural crudes during and immediately following local storms is undoubtedly a dominating characteristic of the coastal bitumen phenu- menon. This selationship has now been observed specifically in ihe case of particular storms that hit beth the Port Lincoln and Geltwood localities during 1961. The arrival of any excessively rough scas against these coasts apparently may bring its harvest of “coastal bitumen”. The first violent storm of the seuson normally strands more than others later in the season, because there wonld be more seafloor exndations to be eroded or plucked off at the carlier state, The local storm relationship demonstrates fairly conclusively that the crudes originate locally and in relatively shallow water. Depths of Jess than 100 fret (possibly 35 feet ar less) are considered to be the probable limit of effective scouring and/or wave: disturbance in an average winter storm, While waye motion undoubtedly tuay carry to still greater depths, the erosive power would be severely limited. Refraction of waves is the first indication of transfer of wave energy to the bollom and the beginning of appreciable geological work by the waves. Dvitz und Menard (1951) have pointed out that since refraction of waves occurs only where the water depth is considerably less than half of the wave length, then the effective waye base nist be Jess (han LO metres off most coasts, Be- tween this depth and the highest shore level reached by the waves, nearly all wave erosion and most bansportation and deposition uf sediment takes place. It is concluded then that cradable oil seeps likely to be affected by storm activity will fie in water depths less than about 40 foot depth. which in the Geltwood beach restricts the zone to a few hundred yards from the beuch. ig — o- =I ot COASTAL BrFUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALLA 85 Fresh-water spring seepages are believed to oceur plentifully along the south-vast coast of South Australia. Wiydraulic surfaces of both the Gambier Limestones ground waters aud the Knight Formation pressure waters both descend to sea-level in the immediate coastal zane. This points strongly te escape outlets in this zone for both these aquiters, Diluted sea water sampled against Canunda Rocks (Appendix C) and other reports confirm this activity, Where pressure waters are escaping it is also possible that these will include seepave points for petroleum. Geltwood Beach and Devils Gap overlies a N.W.-S.E. line of seisinically demonstrated anticlinal structnres ag it passes heneath the local coast. Another Nelson) line of (en echelon) Caniting and folding would cross the coast near Carpenters Rocks, and a third coincides with the coast about Capes Douglas and Northumberland. The latter are W.N.W.-ELS.E. structures and where they pass bencath the sea coast are ulso preferred points of coastal bitumen activity. These relationships with geological structure are unlikely all to be fortuitous, Local earthquikes are kivwo to have greatly stimulated the temporarily inereased stranding of bitumen, The earthquakes of 1898, 1915 and 1948 all epicentred offshore from Beachport along the projected extension of the Beach- port-Kalangadoo hinge-line greatly stimulated fecal stranding, and it is reported that activity declined to insignificance in the Carpenters Rocks vicinity following on the 1898 earthquake, but re-appeared after that of 1915. ‘The association of earthquakes with fauluny and with temporarily aceclerated coastal bitumen activity seems inescapable. The relationship of coastal bitumen deposition with phytoplankton “Houd- ing” if other than casual is unexplained. The resulting “brown-water” appears particularly frequent in the Geltwood (and Swan Lake and Port Lincoln) sreas vt preferred oil stranding, Although only a circumstantial relationship [s sus- pecled, this sometimes spectacular biological phenomenon could be usefully further investigated, Tt is remutely possible that the diatoms and other organ- istus ure Feeding on nutrient-cnriched spring waters or seepaye solutions in these situations, and in which cease the resulting “brown-water” may constitute an exploration aid. Dilution of the sea water has been noted in the New Zealand example also (Cassic, 1960), It is considered more likely, however, that the prolific hlooming of phytoplanktun is 4 consequence uf the upwelling of mineral- rich wevan waters during winter times hy convection, as is commonly the case along exposed ocean coasts in middle and Jower latitudes. The appearance of light brown “oxidised” crude, as “Hake-like” fragments striumling on Gellwood beaches at intervals uver several miles, and more nuticc- ably ducing jatervals of moderate winter seas may have importunt implicatiuns. ‘the material appears to have been subacrially oxidised at same stage; it is usually observed to be strandiug opposite some of the more powerful nearshore cuirent-rips, It appears also ib be relatively widespread in the Celtwood Bese) vicinity. By comparison the more “lumpy” crude found on these beaches is relatively fresh, and not uncommonly carries pedicular barnacies. This latter is viewed rather to indicate “secretion” or vozing of viscous material above sea Hoor level, whether sand ur reck, from where it may be broken off during accentuated Wave ov rip-current activity. Such action would in turn rupture local seals and temporarily release the Jess viscous bitumen fractions that appeur for some time after storms, The lighter brown “oxidised”, and more “flaky”, material would appear to be from flat-lying evusts on sea floor deposits, 86 KR. SPRIGG ann J. B. WOOLLEY Some important deductions now seem justified in relation to coastal bitumen. These are: 1. A shallow submarine “origin” in coastal waters less than 40 teet deep, 2. Association with lines of steuctural weaknesses (faults, folds and earth- quake zones), 3. Possible relationships with submarme springs. d. Secretion of viscous bitmnen, 3. Possible presence of flatlying submarine bituminous deposits that were subaerially exposed at some time durmg Quaternary geological histury (glacial low and sea-level phases); during which times exposed sea floor deposils were more deeply weathered and oxidised. It wonld seem from these deductions that coastal bitumen is likely to be principally a scepage product emanating via deep-seated fractures and/or faults. The deposits are viewed as possibly diapiric, and as such their submarine out crops would be being continually, but intermittently, eroded in zones of shallow marine wave and rip-current activity, Tn the case of the Geltwood example, the spread of activity for several miles along the local beaches which lic obliquely across the projected line of the Devils Gap line of anticlines, suggests a nurmber uf outlets ar extensive sea Hoor deposits or outcrops. Observations by the Thomas family at Hog Bay on Kangarow Island, that pitch deposits have been observed building up above sea-level during calm weather may provide an additional clue to the probable seepage pressures and the vent-like nature of outlets, The appearance of brown “oxidised” oil suggests that some of the sea floor deposits may have been subacrially exposed during the last Quaternary low sca- level (ec. 30,000 years B.P.), It is not impossible that the relatively increased formational hydraulic head under conditions of reduced sea-level would have facilitated crude oil seepage into subaerial pools or lakes that were subsequently inundated by rising modern seaevet. CONCLUSIONS The stranding of weathered natural erude oi] as “coastal bitumen” is a eal ay and important phenomenon along the southern coast of Australia possibly for more than 2,000 miles. The crudes include both paraffinic and naphthanic types, but spectrographic investigations have demonstrated wide varistions in trace element constitutions, possibly characterising different pro- vinees which require further study, Special precautions must be taken to avoul confusion with tanker spillage. Maximum stranding accompanies local storm activity, when wave action in shallow water and rip-currents in the surl zone most actively erode the local sea buttom. Tons of crude may strand annually along the coasts, but greatly in- creased quantities appeared following the Beachport earthquakes ot 1898, 1915 and 1948. Disturbance of lractuce infillings. and other deposits presum- ably occurred on these vecasions. Tault fracturing is believed tw have channelled and otherwise: facilitated auch of the vil seepage escape. In this and other respects the weight of the evidence new favours diapitism of bitumen in these zones. Brown “oxidised” ¢rudes also stranding along with the fresher bitumen sue- gest a degree of subacrial expasure of erude oil deposits in Quaternary times. The development of fossil pitch-lakes during periods of lowered seatevel is also implied, COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA KT The ultimate source of the petroleuri is believed ta be from the marine Tertiary or Crefaceaus lying at depths of 2,000 feet or more below sea-level. The local sedimentary section is known to attain 10,000 feet deep locally. The writers submit that the carefully documented observations which form the basis of this report provide grounds for accepting many of the previvus observations of coastal bitumen by other witnesses. The regional spread of the coastal bitumen localities and alsa the frequency and persistence of stranding suggest that we are in the presence of one of the great “tar-belts” of the world, comparable in size to the McMurray Tar Sands of Canada or the tar belt of northern Seuth America. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The present investigations have resulted largely from the persistent efforts of Messrs. David Schulz of Rendelsham and Mel. Schinckel of Millicent to youse interest in the persistent stranding of bitumen on the Geltwood heaches, Suhsequently, Messrs, R, Altorfer of Port MacDonnell, Horace Aberle and Syd. Smith of Rendelsham have also been of assistance, To these people we are doeply indebted. Grateful acknowledgment is accorded to geologist Ray Twist, who made the first visits to the area on behalf of the General Exploration Company of Aus- trulia Lid, which has made these investigations possible. Vacuum Oil Company of Australia and the Shell Company of Australia have assisted materi- ally in carrying out analyses and by showing general interest. The State Mines Department of South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and Western Australia have also provided records of previous investigations of the coastal bitumen phenomena. Appreciation is expressed to geologists Messrs. Ray Twist, Chris yon der Borsch and Ron Brown, and geophysicist Bob Dennisun who assisted carlier sampling operations at Geltwood Beach. Particular acknowledgment is extended to General Exploration Company of California Ltd, and to Santos Limited for permission to proceed to publica- tien of the new information, REFERENCES Bacr, Max, W., and Barn, D., 1953. “Oil Prospects of Israel”. Bull. Amer, Assoc, Petrol, Geal., 37 (1). Bates, TW. V., 1961. “Oil in Sea at Kangaroo Island”, Adelaide “Advertiser”, 16th March, 1961, Botrraxorr, N., 1956. “Oil Search in Victoria, Australia”. Symposium sobre yaciminntys tle petroles y gas. Tomo LL, Asia y Oceania. 20th Internat. Congress, Mexico, Baoucu-Samorn, BR, 1869. “The Goldfields and Mineral Districts of Victoria”. Vietorian Mines Department Report. Cass, M. and V., 1960. “Primary Production ina New Zealand West Coast Phytoplankton Bloom”. NZ. Oceanog. Inst, D.S.LR.O., Wellington, Drive, TR. §., and Menann, H. W., 1951. “Origin of Abrupt Change in Slope at Continentil Shelf Margin”. Am, Assoc, Pet. Geul., 35, Lowrus Hinus, 1914. “Geol. Reconnaissance of Conntry between Cape Sorrell and Pajnt Hibhs”. Geol. Survey Tasmania Bull, 18, Linx, W. K., 1952, “Signifeance of Oi] and Gas Seeps in World Oil Exploration”, Bull, Amer, Assoc, Petr. Geol, 36 (5), LuvsHoox, N. H,, 196l. “Report on Material from Alleged Offshore Seeps dnd Biluowo Strandings”. Pal, Rept, 10/61, Dept. of Mines, South Australia. 88 R. C. SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY McJniosaH Rew, A., 1931. “The Oilfields of South-Western Victoria and South-East South Australia”. Western Petroleum Exploration Co. N.L., Hamilton, Victoria. O'Darscect, E. P., 1961. “Reported Oil Seepages, South End Rd., Rivoli Bay”, Hydrological Dept. 1055, Dept. of Mines, South Australia. Reap, H. H., 1936. “Rutleys Mineralogy”, Thomas Murby and Co., London. Simpimrp, R. C., 1959. “Lincoln Basin Investigations; Preliminary Report”. Mining Review No, 111, Dept, of Mines, South Australia. Sprics, R. C., 1952. “The Geology of the Sunth-East Province, South Australia, with Spécial Reference to Quaternary Coast-line Migrations and Modem Beavh Developments”. Bull, 29, Dept. of Mines, South Anstralia, Serica, R. C., 1959. “Presumed Submarine Volcanic Activity neur Beachport, South-East South Australia”, Trans. Roy, Soo, S. Anst., 82. Spricc, R. C., 1961. “Petroleum Prospecty of the Mesozoic-Lertiary Basins of South-Eastern Australia”, Aust. Oil aud Gas Journal, 7 (10), July. Spricc, R. C.. and Woorrky, J. B. 1961. “Coastal Bitumen in Southern Australia with Special Reference to Observation at Geltwoud Beach, South-Rast South Australia.” Geosuryeys of Australis Ltd, (Company Report), June, 1961, (Copy lodged with Dept. of Minés, South Australia. } TWELVETRERS, W.- H., 1915. “Rectmnaissance ef Country between Recherche Bay and N,W. River, Southern Tasmania”. Bull. 24, Survey of Tasmania. Twist, R. F., 1960. “Investigation into Reportecl Oil Seepage on Coast South-West of Rencdelsham (Geliwood Beach), South-East South Australia”, Company Report to Dept of Mines, South Australia (17/6/60), yon ver BorscH, C,. ond Brown, K, G., 1961. “Observations at Geltwoud Beach, Friday, 17/3/61". Company Report ta Dept. of Mines. South Australia, Wann, A, 1915, “Lhe Supposed Oil-bewring Arcas of South Australia’. Bull. 4, Geol. Survey of South Australia. Wann, L. K., 1913. “Possibilities of the Discovery of Petroleum on Kungaroo Island and the West Coast of Eyre Peninsula’. Boll, 3, Geol, Survey of South Australia, APPENDIX A (Parr 1), Extract from “Report on fhe Nature and Origin of Oil Matter Found on the Shore at Encounter Bay and. Kangaroo Island’, Min. Rev, No, 32, 1920 (L, K. Ward). Report by Director of Chemistry: Bach of the samples consisted of sand, seaweed, water and black oil. The quantities of of] in the different samples varied from § per cent. to 14 per cent. A portion of one of the samples distilled from u brine bath gave no distillate ill the temperature of the boiling water was reached when water came over with a small quantity of oil similar in character to kerosene. By contimsny the distillation from 100° C. up ta 315° C. a further quantity of oil distilled over. This treatment “cracked” the petrolene and asphaltene bases, The whole of the oils thus obtained in this distillation were redistilled and fraectioned, with the following results: Distilling up to 150° C. . . 97 per cent, 150° C,.-270° C, ' . . 49-2 per cent. 270° C,-290" C . . 20-8 per cent, Residue and loss » 20-3 per cent. 100-0 per cent. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 89 The flash point of one of the original samples was found to be over 100° C., but the exact flash point could not be determined owing to the presence of water, The oil from a representative sample was extracted by solvents and the re- sulting solutions analysed. From the results obtained the following constituents of the oil are estimated: Naphtha Nil Kerasene 26-6 per cent Lubricating Oil 27-8 per cent Petrolene 89%, Paraffin Wax 2-8 per cent Piteh 21-5 per cent Black Oil | inedotormined & loss 6+3 per cent Asphaltene 15%, Asphaltum 15-0 per cent The above analysis is to be regarded as only an approximate estimation and should be checked when larger and purer samples of the oil are available. From the results of the analyses there can be no doubt that the oil is a crude petroleum oil. Crude petroleum oils and petroleum residual oils are largely used nowa- days as fuel, both for internal combustion engines of the Diesel type and for firing steamboilers in place of coal fuel. Many steamers now use oil fucl and most sailing vessels carry auxiliary engines, for which black oil is frequently used, It may be, therefore, that the oil found on the beach near Victor has come ashore from some vessel, but looking at the question from the chemical point of view, it is just as probable that the oil is derived from a natural source not very far away. APPENDIX A (Pant 2). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN Sample No. 828: Bitumen Asphalt. Discovery Bay, Western Victoria. Mines Department, Melbourne: May 21st, 1931. Analysis by J. C. Watson. Properties Colour; Black. Lustre (outer exposed portion): Brilliant. Lustre (minor portion): Dull. Hardness; Less than 1. Odour: Petroliferous, characteristic of asphaltic petroleum. Condition (outer exposed portion): Brittle, hardened. 90 R. C. SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY Condition (inner portion); Soft plastic. Inorganic impurities: Sand, calcium carbonate. Behaviour on heating: Melts readily, burns with long luminous flame. Fractural Distillation Fraction Boiling Point Per Cent Remarks A. Water Trace B. Light Oil to 150° C. Nil C. Intermediate Oil 150-230° C, Nil D, Heavy Oil over 230° C, 20-8 Brownish yellow viscous E. Bitumen residue 79-0 Black brittle Total 99-8 SM Sample is classed as a Petroleum Bitumen. APPENDIX A (Parr 3). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN Sample No. 829: Waxy Material. Discovery Bay, Western Victoria. Mines Department, Melbourne: May 2lst, 1931. Analysis by J. C. Watson. Properties Colour: Dark brown. Lustre: Dull, waxy. Hardness: Under 1. Odour: Characteristic suggesting that of petroleum, Consistency: Soft, waxy. Behaviour when heated: Crackles, melts and burns with long luminous flames. This material consists mainly of unsaponifiable hydrocarbons, The sample contains only a slight amount of inorganic impurities, such as sand, ash, ete. It is classed as a mineral wax, which contains moisture and a heavy, dark brown oil. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA $1 APPENDIX A (Parr 4). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN — GELTWOOD BEACH Samples collected by R. Twist, Geosurveys of Australia Limited, on Celtwood Beach, 8th July, 1960, in company with Mr. G. Crawford, South Australian Department of Mines. Analysis by Avery and Anderson, Industrial Chemists, Collins House, Melbourne, 17th August, 1960. “Re Coastal. Bitumen”. Results of analysis indicate definitely that this very dark brown viscous material contains approximately 45 per cent. of heavy petroleum oil and 35 per cent, of watcr. e balance of the sample consisted of inorganic substances, mainly sodium chloride and other salts normally found in sea water. A small amount of mineral residue resembling fine sand was found to consist principally of calcium carbonate. Presumably this residue consists chiefly of shell fragments. The results were as follows: Percentage by Weight. Sample collected near high tide mark Geltwoud Beach, near Rendelsham, South-East South Australia, 8th June, 1960. Water .. ' 35-0 Mineral Matter .. 19-6 Petroleum Oils . Ad-4 (completely soluble in carbon tetrachloride). The residue obtained on extracting the dried material with carbon. tetra- chloride consisted wholly of inorganic matter. No carbonaceous matter remained. On evaporating the solvent a dark brewn oily residue resembling crude petro- leum romained: Tests applied to this residue showed that the oil was derived from petroleum. We were tunable, however, to ascertain any definite information about its origin. The original matter was actually an emulsion containing sea- water and oil. (Sgd.) V. G. Anderson, F.R.1.C., F.R.A.C. APPENDIX A (Pant 5). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN SAMPLE FROM GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Ref. X10: July, 1960. Analysis by courtesy of Vacuum Oi] Company of Australia, Melbourne. Appearance: Blackish-brown heterogeneous mixture of oil and inorganic matter. 92 R. C. SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY Specific Gravity; 1:23. U.Y. Florescence: Positive. Water Content: 28 per cent. (salt). Solubility: Hexane: 98 per cent. residue on evaporation of hexane gave a waxy material with ASTM melting point of 120° F. approximately. Also present, inorganic matter (salt) carried over with water present in the samples. Specific gravity 0-902, Ethyl Alcohol; 1 per cent. Isopropyl Alcohol/Benzene Mixture: 50/50. Ninety-seven per cent. residue on evaporation of solvent giving a resinous material and inorganic matter (salt) carried over with water present in sample. Neutralisation Number: 2-0 mgm. Steam Distillation; 5 per cent. refractive index of material distilled 1-493. Saponification No.: 4. Organic matter extracted with chloroform compared with average natural petroleum. Average Petroleum Chloroform (a) Paraffin | (b) Mixed or Mixtract Fuel Oil Base Naphthene Base Carbon ve 91-9 87-0 84-55 85-4 Ilydrogen % 10-09 11-1 13°55 11-8 Nitrogen %, 1-71 — —_ 84 Oxygen % 1-86 = —_ 1-5 Sulphur %, 1-70 -— — 1-2 H/C Atomic Ratio 1-48 1-63 1-92 1-66 Conclusions The low saponification and neutralisation numbers together with the ulti- mate analyses indicates that product is of petroleum and possibly slightly oxidised. Hydrogen: carbon atomic ratio approached that of a fuel oil or naphthene base mineral oil. These results when considered with the 5 per cent. volatile material indicate the sample submitted could be slightly oxidised heavy mineral oil or weathered crude oil together with solid inorganic material or water. It is also possible that the oil could originate from oil residue obtained by the hot washing of crude oil tanks on board tankers, though regulations provide that such “slops” be discharged when the tanker is well out to sea. COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 93 APPENDIX A (Parr 6). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Analysis by: E, W. Saybolt and Co. Inc., Inspectors of Petroleam, Wilmington, California: Signed J. E. Sheiman. Date: 29th March, 1961, Submitted by: General Exploration Company of California, 29th March, 1961. Marked: Engler Distillation. Initial Boiling Point .. we ee ROP CE: Approximately 10 per cent, yield to .. 650° F. Note: Mr. Clayton of Saybolt and Co. Inc., who performed the distillation, noted that the sample was very waxy, that it was derived from crude oil, and could very likely have come from a submarine oil scep. He considered it un- likely to be from residual clean-out of oil tankers due to the 10 per cent. content of the lighter ends which would be extremely high for such an occurrence when considering the effect of weathering. APPENDIX A (Panr 7). ANALYSES OF COASTAL BITUMEN SAMPLE FROM GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Analysis by courtesy of The Shell Company of Australia, Melbourne, April, 1961. The following is the laboratory report on above. A laboratory analysis of the black, heavy-vil deposit found at Geltwoud Reach, South Australia, has heen carried out and the following conclusions have been reached:— The oil is the weathered residue of éither a predominantly waxy-base, medium sulphur content mineral crude oil or that of waxy fuel oil. Its saponi- fication value, high sulphur content, characteristic appearance, odour and burn- ing qualitics exclude animal and vegetable oils as well as coal products. Since there are numerous possible sources of oil contamination of sea pas- sages (particularly in the vicinity of harbour or industrial installations) which could lead to oi] accumulations on adjacent beaches or shores, the origin of this deposit cannot be determined with any certainty on the basis of an analysis. However, the analysis may be of value as a basis for a local investigation. 94 R. C, SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY Analytical Results: Appearance o - . Pr .. Black, waxy solid Melting Point (deg. C.) .. 7 7 . 72 (sharply defined) Sulphur Content D.1551 (% WT) re . 18 Paraffin Wax Content SMS. 1769 (% WT) .. 40 Congealing Point (deg. C.) me ed ont GER Burning Characteristics ws o rn .. Non-smoky, luminous flame Asphaltenes (% WT) .. We “A Less than 1-4 Saponification Value IP MG KOH/GM Less than 15 APPENDIX B (Parr 1). VICTORIAN CRUDE OILS LAKES ENTRANCE CRUDE OIL (Extracted from N. Boutakoff, 1956) 15-7 per cent. A,P.I, Gravity. S.G. 0-961. Asphaltic base crude devoid of gasoline or kerusene. Distillation tests show 17-92 per cent. gas oil. Remainder is heavy lubricating oil and petroleum residue. Analysis by Canadian Oil Co., Petrolia, Ontario, is as follows: % 5.G. A.P.T. Viscosity at Light gasoline Nil Total gasoline or naphtha Nil Kerosene Nil Gas oil 7-9 0-902 25-4 Non viscous lub. distillate 14:9 0-902-0-939 22-3-19-2 50-100 Viscous lub, distillate 11:8 0-939-0-954 19-2-16-3 100-200 Residium 23-8 0-954-0-984 16-3-12-3 above 200 Med. Inb. distillate 31-6 1-010 8-6 — Distillation loss 4-0 — — — COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 95 (Part 2). WOODSIDE CRUDE OIL (After Boutakoff, 1956) The Woodside oil appears to be a mixed (paraffinic-asphaltic) base origin. Resembles Lakes Entrance oil greatly in that it lacks the gasoline and kerosene fractions. S.G, 0:92-0-93. It is a dark brown like Lakes Entrance oils and possesses the peculiar odour of those oils. APPENDIX C (Parr 1). SEA AND SUBMARINE SPRING WATER ANALYSES GELTWOOD BEACH, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Normal Ocean Water Location; Four miles south of Cape Buffon, South-East S.A. Sample by: R. C, Sprigg, Date: 4th April, 1961. Analysis by: Australian Mincral Development Laboratory, T. R. Frost, Chief Analyst. Analysis: Radicle Grains/gall. p-p-m. Chloride 1365-4 19,506 Sulphuric acid (radicle) 180-9 2,584 Carhonie acid (radicle) 4-8 69 Nitric acid (radicle) Nil = Sodium (-+potassium) 743-0 10,614 Caleium 30-2 1.490. Magnesium 104-3 1,490 Silica — — Total saline matter 2428-6 g.p.g. 34,694 p.p.m. Assumed Composition of Salts Sodium chloride 1888: Sodium nitrate | Potassium chloride Calcium carbonate 7-0 100 Calcium sulphate 91+] 1,358 Caleium chloride _ — Magnesium carbonate a — Magnesium sulphate 142-7 2,038 Magnesium chloride 295-3 4,218 Sodium carbonate o — Sodium sulphate — — 5 26,980 a 96 R. C. SPRIGG anp J. B, WOOLLEY APPENDIX C (Parr 2), “SEA WATER” ANALYSIS Location: Geltwood Beach—50 yards south of Canunda Rocks in surf zone in area of intense phytoplankton activity. Sample by: R. C. and G. A. F. Sprigg, Date Collected: 2nd April, 1961—10 a.m. Analyte Pv: Australian Mineral Development Laboratory, T. R. Frost, Chief Analyst. Analysis: Eee Radicle OGrains/gall, p.p.m. Chloride 700-0 10,000 Sulphurie Acid 182-0 2,600 Carbonic Acid 7-5 107 Nitric Acid Nil Nil Sodium 333-9 4,770 Potassium N.D. — Calcium ee 460 Magnesium 93-2 1,331 Silica N.D. N.D. Total saline matter 1348+7 g.p.g. 19,268 p.p.m. Assumed Composition of Salts Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulphate Calerum Chloride Magnesium Carbonate ao io oe her cs Magnesium Sulphate 6 2,094 Magnesium Chloride “8 3,555 Sodium Carbonate — Sodium Chloride 7 12,124 Sodium Nitrate 12 92 146 248 Sodium Sulphate — 848 Nil Potassium Chloride N.D APPENDIX D. GELTWOOD BEACH SAMPLE MICRO-ANALYSIS OF PHYTOPLANKTON MATERIAL IN AQUEOUS SUSPENSION IN MIXED SPRING AND SEA WATER (Sample labelled ?“lignic” or “humic” material ) Date Sampled: 2nd April, 1961—10 a.m. Analytical Report— Sample submitted by: Geosurveys of Australia Ltd. Sample designated: Residue from Water off Geltwood Beach, S.A. Our Number: M 1783. COASTAL BITUMEN IN 50UTH AUSTRALIA ST Results: Residue by drying at 90° C. 6-32% We found in the dry-resicdue; C 13-86%, H 25% Ash 63-71% The ash consists of SiO, 1-2 Al,Oy 3-5% Fe,O, Ca. 1-4% My 2-24 Na 17°0% & 29:6% 3 } Present, but very small amount (Sed.) R. W. Zimmerman, 27th April, 1961. Australian Microanalytical Service, Div. of Industrial Chemistry, C.5,1.R.0, and University of Melbourne, C/o Chemistry Department, University of Melbourne, Carlton N.3, Victoria. APPENDIX E, C.S.L.BR.O,, Division. of Soils Technical Memorandum 3/61, TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSES OF OILS by K. Norrish and T. R. Sweatman The aim of this work was to try and establish by trace element analyses the similarity or otherwise of crude oils found along various parts of the coast. Normally, trace element analyses of oil are made on the ash. However, to obtain a reasonable amount of ash a large quantity of oi] must be purified and ashed, and if there are not to be losses during ashing the comparatively tedious wet methods must be used. It was therefore decided to analyse the oil direct. The sensitivity attainable could not compare with the ash, but if sufficient this method would be simple and quick. Prior to analyses, to eliminate contamination, Mr. R. Grasso dissolved the oils in benzene and filtered the solution to remove solids. The oil was recovered by evaporation on a hot plate and final-drying at 110° C. The accompanying table shows the results of anulysing the five oil samples for eleven elements. The figures in the table are relative only as no attempt was made to obtain absulute percentages. However, the data is sufficient to compare the oils. Two elements, Cr and Mo were not detected in any of the oils. The scatter results 98 R. C. SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY are given since they show differences in the oils. The scatter is probably depen- dent on the density and hydrogen content of the oils. The results indicate that the oils from Geltwood Beach, Canunda Rocks and Rivoli Bay are similar. The oil from Cape Northumberland is distinctly higher in S and V and lower in Cl, Ca, Fe, Ni, Cu, and Zn than the above three samples. The other sample, from Port Lincoln, appears ta have an intermediate composition. ANALYSES OF FIVE OILS Relative values only. Cape Canunda Geltwood Northumber- Rivoli Port Rocks Beach land Bay Lincoln 8 ii ll 160 11 63 Cl 20 1] 2-5 13 1+3 K 8-7 6:7 6 77 2-0 Ca 59 48 23 42 29 Vv 1:3 9-6 21-2 1-1 9.9 Or 0 0 0 0 Ve 42 19 3 22 0 Ni 96 88 19 85 77 Cu 21 45 4 34 0 Zin 146 114. 25 112 ) Mo 0 0 0 0 Scatter 123 121 100 120 lil Ratio Ni/V 74 9°38 0-9 78 7-8 APPENDIX F (Pant 1), SOME CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF SAMPLES ANALYSED FROM GELTWOOD BEACH Analysed by Shell Development (Aust.) Pty. Ltd., September 26th, 1961. Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Test Method Unit (Apr. 61) (8 gall. drum) (quart tins) Appearance Black, waxy Black, waxy Black, waxy solid solid solid Pour point ASTM °F, 160 15 125 D.97 Sulphur content | ASTM D155) or awt 1:8 0°25 0-50 Paraftin wax content SMS.1769 Cywt 40 — — Congealing point | SMS.1769 *C, 78 — — Burning Non-smoky Non-smoky Non-smoky characteristics luminuous lumimous Tominoug flame flame flame Asphalienes IP.143/57 wt, <1:4 = — Saponification IP.136/58mg | KOH] <1 — — value gm ey COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA APPENDIX F (Parr 2). U.O.P. Distillation Analysis. 99 (1). Sample ex 5 gall. drum. Yield (% val.) Temp. (°C.) Preas. (mmHg) Temp. (corr. for atm. press) 5 130 6-5 277 10 150 6-6 302 20 192 6-7 351 30 226 6-8 390 40 254 7-0 424 50 284 6-2 463 55 310 7:4 489 (2). Samplo ex quart tin 5 148 5-2 306 10 168 7:3 321 20 220 7-6 380 30 228 7-6 390 40 268 8-0 436 47 304 7-6 480 Analysis of Sample ex 5 gall. drum Analysis of Distillate boiling below 350° C. (TRP) Aromutivs Griffiths Method 8 “val, Olefins Griffiths Methed 0-5 “vol. Sulphur content ASTM D.1551 0-15 wt. Alkly phenols SMS 246 124 ppm Analysis of Residue boiling above 350° C. Sulphur ecntent ASTM D.1551 0°25 wt. Inorganic ash i 0+98 owt. Analysis of Ash Fe 2-52 oowt on ash Ni 0-08 Ywt on ash Cu 0-05 owt on ash Vv 0-001 oh wt on ash 100 R. C, SPRIGG anv J. B. WOOLLEY APPENDIX F (Parr 3). T.B.P. CURVE FOR GELTWOOD BEACH DEPOSIT a | Ace, %, Fract- |Temp| Press [Temp| No, of | wt. of wt_of) wt. of | Accum, | wt. on no |Reflux tions | °C. | mm | Corr.| Flask | Flask Wt.7 | H,O | Fract. wt. loss base | ratio, He | °C. L.P.B + +2 ] 162 92 238 5 90-60 106-50 | 9-0 6-90 6-90 0-93 TOL 2 173 92 252 6 80-+30 95:35) O-1 | 14-95 21-85 2-95 10+] 3 169) 51 266 7 78-60 93-75 | — | 15°25 37-10 5-01 10-1 4 190 45 204 8 80-25 96-35 | 1-1 | 15:00 62-10 7°04 Med 5 | 187 38 296 9 78-45 94-00 | 0-2 | 15°35 67-45 9-11 10°] 6 196 38 306 10 88-05 103-60 | 0:2 | 15+35 82-80 11-18 TO+1 7 206 38 317 11 83-85 99-10 | — | 18-25 98-05 13-24 10-1 & 214 38 326 12 88-20 10360 | 0-3 | 15-10 | 118-15 15-28 10°] 9 205 18 340 13 91-70 107-05 | — | 15:35 | 128-15 17:30 10-1 10 212 18 846 14 84:25 99-50 | — | 15-25 | 143-75 19-41) | W-1 am | 21) 13 355 15 $3-25 98-60 | — | 15-35 | 159-10 21-21 10-1 12 | 220 13 366 16 90 +75 106-00 | ~— | 15-25 | 174-35 23-4 10-1 13 229 13 376 17 82-40 97:95 | — | 15-55 | 189-90 25-64 | 10-1 14 252 26 384 18 7°76 93-05 | — | 15-30 | 205-20 27-71 10-1 16. 261 25 394 19 86-50 102-15 | — | 15-65 | 220-84 29-82 1o-] 16 267 | 25 401 20 81-90) | 97-35 | — | 15-45 | 236-30 31-91 10-1 17 263 19 405 2] 77°+65 92°75 |} — | 1h-10 | 251-40 33+95 10-1 18 267 18 412 22 80-60 95°75 | — | 15-15 | 266-55 35-99 10-1 19 255 D: 418 23 76-65 92-06 | — | 15°40 | 281-95 38°07 10-1 20 242 9 415 24 86-60 90-20 | — 3-60 | 285-55 38-56 10-1 | i — ee " Total Dist. 285-55 Residue 455 Loss 16-45 Intake 757 APPENDIX G REPORT ON STRANDED CRUDE PETROLEUM taken from tide level RIVOLI BAY, SOUTH-EAST SOUTH AUSTRALIA Sample Received: July, 1961. Forwarded by: Mr. D. Schulz, Rendelsham, S.A. Sample Description: “Pellets and balls of waxy crude petroleum !-inch to two inches in diameter.” COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALTA 101 Results of Analysis: Colour: Mostly black, but some pellets possess a brown exterior (due to oxidation) but black interior. Odour: Slight petroliferous. Microscope Characteristics: Shell fragments and other calcareous grains are abundant. Solubility: In chloroform; Readily soluble In carbon tetrachloride: Readily soluble In acetone: Only partly soluble In benzene: Readily soluble In sulphuric ether: Readily soluble In carbon disulphide: Readily soluble. Extraction of Hydrocarbons: The sand was separated from the hydrocarbons by using a soxhlet extraction. Less than 5 per cent. of the sample is made up of sand grains; the remainder being hydrocarbons. Distillation; Approximately 72 per cent. of the bituminous material distils off in the following manner: Fraction Boiling Point Percentage 1 90°-125° C, 13% 2) 125°-155° C, 12% 3 155°-230° C. 24% 4 230°-260° C. 32% 5 260°-300° ©. 1% Aniline cloud. points: Fraction Temperature 1 not tested 2 48-3° C. 3 62-8° C. 4 77-8° C. 5 86-0" C. Coke residue: Approximately 20 per cent. Wax residue: Approximately 8 per cent. Remarks; The aniline cloud points show that the crude is paraffin base. The fact that 72 per cent. of the crude (which must have lost most of its light fraction due to exposure) is distillate at 300° C. makes it attractive as a source for petro- leum products, R, Grasso, M,Sc., Geologist-in-charge of Laboratory Investigations. Geosurveys of Australia Limited 15th September, 1961. 102 R. C. SPRIGG ann J, B. WOOLLEY APPENDIX H. REPORT ON OIL IMPREGNATED BEACH SAND taken. from AVOID BAY, EYRE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA Sample received: 13th August, 1961, Supplied by; Mr. H. F. Blacker, Port Lincoln, S'A. Sample description: “Beach sand impregnated with petroliferous material,” Results of Analysis: Colour: Light greyish-brown. Odour; Slight petroliferous. Phaceeeeepm Under long ultra-violet rays (3660A) fluorescence is light awn, Microscopic characteristics: The sample is almost entirely composed of cal- careous fragments coated with brown petroliferous matter. Grains, which are fossiliferous, are well rounded. Solubility: (a) In chloroform: Readily soluble (b) In carbon tetrachloride: Readily soluble (c) In acetone; Readily soluble. (d) In benzene: Readily soluble (e) In sulphuric ether: Readily soluble (£) In carbon disulphide: Readily soluble. Extraction of Hydrocarbons: Twelve soxhlet extractions were necessary to extract 45 grammes of hydrocarbons. Specific Gravity: 0-95. A.P.I. Gravity: 17-45 degrees. Distillation; From the 45 grammes of crude a total of 11 grammes of distillate was produced at a final temperature of 240° C. OF this, approximately 60 per cent. is a low temperature fraction (kerosene- dicsel), while the remainder is heavier oil and wax which distilled over in the absence of a fractionating column. A second distillation was made using a fractionating column (A.S.T.M. specifications) and selecting the sand containing the most oil. The following fractions resulted: Fraction Boiling Point Range Percentage 90°-125° C, 3 125°-230° Cy 7 230°-250° (©, Il 250°-300° C, Th 300°-310° C. 3 OT he OO bo ee COASTAL BITUMEN IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA L103 Aniline Cloud Point Fraction Temperature not. tested. 59-9° C. 62-3° C. 70:8° C, not tested oe Ww bo Coke residue: 55 per cent. of bituminous extraction. Remarks: The aniline cloud points clearly show that the crude oil is a paraf- fin base one. The paraffin wax content of the pctroliferous material is approxi- mately 5 per cent. This was left as a rusty-coloured residue together with the coke after the distillation was completed. R. Grasso, M.Sc., Geologist-in-charge of Laboratory Investigations. Geosurveys of Australia Limited. 15th September, 1961. A TAXONOMIC STUDY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF NEW GUINEA, WITH NOTES ON THEIR ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY 2. ANURA: RANIDAE AND HYLIDAE BY MICHAEL J. TYLER Summary In the present paper two new species, Hyla micromembrana and Hyla mintima, are described and of the thirteen Hylidae included two additional species are new records for the Central Highlands of New Guinea. Observations on Rana grisea van Kampen, the only representative of the Ranidae found in this region, are also recorded. The tadpoles of Hula angularis Loveridge, H. darlingtoni Loveridge and H. iris Tyler are described, of which the first-mentioned is shown to be structurally adapted to montane conditions in a manner previously associated solely with Nyctimystes spp., and the spawn and early development of H. iris is reported. Notes on habitat, diet, call, parasites and habits are included, and native vernacular names listed. Distribution is discussed, and eight species are shown to be endemic to the Central Highlands. The record of N. humeralis (Boulenger) from this region is excluded from the check list prepared as it probably refers to another species; the current recognition of N. flavomaculata Forcart as a synonym of H. darlingtoni is supported, and H. pratti Boulenger is restored to specific status. It is tentatively suggested that the position of the proximal margin of the nuptial pad may provide a further method for distinguishing male Nyctimystes from Hyla. A TAXONOMIC STUDY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS OF NEW GUINEA, WITH NOTES ON THEIR ECOLOGY AND BIOLOGY 2, ANURA: Ranidae and Hylidae by Micuar. J. Tyten® [Read 12 April 1962] SUMMARY in the present paper twa new species. Hyla mierdmembrana and Hyla minfina, ate deseribed and of the thirteen Hylidac included two additional species ure new records for the Central Highlands of New Guinea. Obsvrva- tions on Rend grisea van Kampen, the only representative of the Ranidae found in this region, are also recorded, The tadpoles of Hyla angularis Loveridge, H. darlingtoni Loveridge and W, iris Tyler are described, of which the first-mentioned is shown to be struc- furally adapted to montane conditions in a manner previously associated solely with Nyctimystes spp., and the spawu and early development of H. tris is re- ported, Nates. on habitat, diet, call, parasites and labits are included, and nalive vernacular names listed, Distribution is discussed, and eight species are shown to be endemic to the Central Tighlands. ‘The record of N, humeralis (Boulenger) drom this region is exeluded from the check list prepared as it probably refers to another species; the qureat recognition of N. flavomaculata Forcart as a synonym of FT. derlingtoni is supported, and H. pratti Bonlenger is restored to spocific stittus, Tt js tentatively snzgested that the position of the proximal nvargin of the moptial pad may provide a further method for distinguishing male Nyctimystes from Hyla. INTRODUCTION The amphibians of the Central Highlands of the Australian Trusteeship Territory of New Guinea represent the Anuran families Ranidae, Hylidae an Microhylidaé. The first paper describing the herpetofauna of this isolated region was written by Loveridge and published as recently as 1945. Since that date the Microhylidae has been the subject of most attention (Zweifel, 1956, 195G6a, 1962: Tyler, 1962d). Of the six species of Runa currently recognised from New Guinea, only one, R. grisea van Kampen, has been found in the Central Highlands. Loveridge (1948) commented wpon four specimens collected at Kandiawa in 1944, and Forcart (1953) stated that two had been taken at Mingende in 1949, The Hylidae inhabiting the Central Mighlands are members of the genera Hyla and Nyctimystes. Loveridge (1945) described H. angularis, H. becki and H. darlingtoni, Foreart (loc. cit.) listed H. arfakiana Peters and Doria, and H. angiane Boulenger, and described N. flacomaculatu. More recently Zweitel (1958) in revising the genus Nyctimystes recorded N. papua (Boulenger) and ° Department of Human Physiology ind Phormacolory, the University of Adelaide. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. (1963), Vol. 36, 106 M. J. TYLER N. humeralis (Boulenger), and described N. kubori and N. narinosa, whilst the writer has described H. iris (1962a). The present paper is the second of a series on the herpetofauna of the Central Highlands of New Guinea. It is concerned with the results of a survey conducted in the vicinity of Nondugl in the Wahgi Valley, during the period January-July, 1960, and taxonomic studies at the British Museum (Natural His- tory) during the corresponding period in the following year. Geographical and ecological notes, and a sketch map of the Wahgi Valley in the vicinity of Nondugl are included in the first paper in the present series (1962d). Details of the rainfall recorded at Nondugl are illustrated in the form of a graph in Fig. 1. I6 14 |2 lO IN INCHES RAINFALL oO Su 2eatsenntnoza Fig. 1. Rainfall in Central Highlands. (Prepared from data obtained by the Hallstrom Livestock and Fauna Station, Nondugl.) AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM NEW GUINEA, IL 107 MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials used and methods of measurement of specimens closcly follow those previously employed for the Microhylidae. The ratio of the distance between eye and naris to internarial distance is abbreviated as E-N/IN, and tibia length to snonl to vent Jength at TL/S-V. Sex was determined by the presence of secondary sexual characters in males and by dissection in the case of females. The abbreviations of the names of institutions where the collection has been lodged are as follows: A.M.N.H, = American Museum of Natural History, New York. Austral Mus. = Australian Museum, Sydney. B.M. = British Museum (Natural History), London. K.T.C, = Kingston Technical College, Kingston-apon- Thames, England, $.A.M. = South Australian Museum, Adelaide. SPECIES REPRESENTED Family RANIDAE Rana grisea van Kampen Rana. grisea van Kampen, 1913, Nena Grinea, 9, p. 460. Material: 33 specimens (unsexed)—Austral. Mus, R.16808-16815, B.M. 1961.806-830, Description; Distance between thickened corso-lateral folds immediately behind eyes: slightly greater than (19 specimens), or equal to (14), distance from external nares to posterior border of eye: tympanum approximately 4% diameter of eye, from which it is separated by a distance of approximately % of its own diameter, Adpressed heel reaches external nares (7). between external nares and tip of snout (9), or bevond tip of snout (17); toes fully webbed except for fourth which has only a narrow fringe on terminal twa joints. Body length: 22:+6-80-4 mm. Colwur in life: Dorsully and laterally 4 uniform pale brown with a metallic greenish-vold tint (14). A dark brown patch (24) extends from tip of snout to just posterior to tympanum, descending from canthus rostralis to margin of upper lip; tympanum obscured by this patch (28) or flecked with gold (5). A few clearly defined black spots above the eye and less prominent ones posterior to it. Dorso-lateral glandular folds paler than ground colour in juveniles, but merge with it in adults. Three or four bars on upper surface of thighs hecome darker, and assume a blnish tint in adults. Ventral surface of body and forelimbs grey (3), cream (24), pale pink (4) or pale green (2), becoming obscured by chocolate patches as specimens reach sexual maturity. Ventral surface of hindlimbs pink in adults. In small juveniles abdomen and thighs are a brilliant yellow. By the time a bndy length of 40 mm. has been attained, the yellow has become much paler and Tess extensive anteriorly. At 50 mm. it is restricted to posterior 4 mm,, and indistinct patches on thighs, By 60 mm, the yellow markings have completely disappeared. 108 M. J, TYLER Locality: Thirty-two specimens were collected between 26.3.60 and 24.4.60 in Jong grass beside ditches on the Hallstrom Livestock and Fauna Station at Nondugl, and one from a creek named Mingende, at a village of the same name, in the Chimbu region, on 1.6.60. Remurks: Specimens of R. grisea have occasionally been mistaken for R. papua Lesson. A brief key to distinguish these species was prepared by Parker {186}. who stated that the distance between the dorso-lateral, glandular skin olds on the occiput of R. papua is, “scarcely, if at all, greater than the distance between the nostril and the posterior corner of the eye”. In R. grisea the dis- tance between the folds is “as great as the distance fram the nostril to the tympanum’. The present series of specimens agrees with the above diagnosis of grisea, but none approach the maximum snout-vent lengths recorded: ¢ 3 80 mm., 9 2 120 mm, Development: The number of ripe ova dissected from two grayid females totalled 620 and 622 respectively, The mouthparts of tadpoles referred to R, wrisea by Parker (loc. cit.) possess three upper rows and three lower rows of labial teeth, of which the innermost two ol the upper are widely divided in the midline. The tadpoles of R, papua are described by Parker to have four or five rows of upper labial teeth, and three rows of lower labials. Diet: Stomach contents included large beetles of the families Curculionidae and Carabidae; Orthoptera (Acrididae), Lepidopterous larvae and adult moths and millipedes. Notes; The native name most commonly applied to this species is “Gem-boa- gal’. Occasionally it is called “Missil”, Specimens of Rana vrisca in the British Museurn collection include a series collected at Minj in the Wahgi Valley by Mr. F. M. Shaw Mayer in 1952 (B.M. 1953.1.7.36-46 ). Family HYLIDAE Nyctimystes kubori Zweifcl Nyctimystes kubori Zweifel, 1958, Amer. Mus. Navit.. 1896, ip. 18. Material: 17 @ &,1 2, 2 juveniles—A.M.N.IL. 67616-87619: Austral. Mus. R.16831, 16853, 17589-17592; B.M. 1961. 1155-1164. Description: The present series conform closely to the recent deseription. The TL/S-¥ and E-N/IN ratios of the males are tabulated in Table 1. Body Length: Juveniles 19-8-21-1 mm.; 3 ¢ 38-3-47-0 mm,; 7 56-0 mtn, Tn lite the eves ure prominent, the iris is blue-black and the shape of the pupil circular, elliptical or vertical. Male with vocal sacs, which are apparently internal communicating with mouth by puired slits at side of tongue, and rngose nuptial pads. The nuptial pad of B,M. 1961. 1163 is ilhistrated in Fis. 2. The colour of the dorsal surface of the body is pale brown with patches of grey, orange or black, or any combination of these colours, upon it. The ventral surface is pale pink. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM NEW GUINEA, JI 109 Locality: Twelve specimens were taken from low herbage in moss-forest at 6,300 ft, near Bilikep, on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide on 26.3,60, A further six were collected at Bamna at the foot of the Divide on 16.4.60, and the remaining two specimens at the same locality on 24.4.60. Remarks: Nyctimystes kubori shares certain similarities of proportions with N, humeralis (Boulenger), but the males lack the humeral spine which is charac- teristic of inale N. humeralis, and do not exhibit immaculate green dorsal coloura- tion of that species. N. kubori has hitherto been known solely from the holotype and two para- types, which are all gravid females, and a juvenile tentatively referred to it. Notes: The native name of N. kubori is “Deg-eh”. One of the juveniles (B.M. 1961. 1161) was found to be infested with a small Jeech, situated subcutaneously beneath the ventral surface in the pectoral region. A note on the endoparasitic infestations by leeches of this and other species of New Guinea frogs will be the subject of a future publication, The specific name was based upon that of the type locality: the Kubor Mountains. Fig. 2. Nuptial pads of Nyctimystes, A=N_ narinosa (B.M. 1961.1151); B=N. kubori (B.M, 1961.1163); C = N. papua (BM, 1961.1124). Nyctimystes narinosa Zweifel Nyctimystes narinosa Zweifel. 1958, Amer. Mus. Novit., 1896, p. 26. Material: 5 adult ¢ 4, 2 adult ¢ 9, Austral, Mus. R. 16830, 17635, 17636; B.M. 1961. 1151-1154. Description: The present series agree so closely with the recent description by Zweifel (1958), that the inclusion of an account of their morphological charac- teristics would only be an unnecessary repetition. The E-N/IN and TL/S-V 110 M, J. TYLER ratios are compared with those of the type series in Table 1. The male possesses a nuptial pad on the first finger as depicted in Fig. 2, the pupil shape is a hori- zontal slit in life, Body Length: 55-5-59+8 mm., 54-0-69-8 mm. Dorsal and lateral surfaces of body and limbs a dark grey, with large, irregularly shaped patches of cream upon them, Dorsal and lateral surface of limbs uniform grey, with small, white tubercles upon posterior surface of forearm. Ventral surface of body and limbs a light shade of grey. Granular surface of lower abdomen and thighs stippled with black. Locality: One specimen was taken fram low herbage on the summit of a pass (9,500 ft.) on the Wahgi-Sepik Divide near Banz on 28.5,60. Five more were taken in dense moss-forest ut 8,700 ft. on Mt. Odan, ten miles cast, on 9.6.60, and a further specimen at 10,500 ft. on the same day. Remarks; When comparing N. narinesa with other species, Zweifel pointed out that the shape of the snout and reduced webbing of the fingers was similar to N. papua (Boulenger) and N. gularis Parker, but stated that they could be differentiated from these species by the form of the palpebral venation. Although the writer's examination of the types of N. gularis confirm the distinction of N. narinosa from that species (Tyler, 1962c), the pattern of the palpebral venation of the former is quite unlike Zweifel’s figure and definition, whilst the results of an examination of the types of N, papua indicate that not all the members of the type series are conspecific. (Discussed in the account of that species. ) TABLE 1. A comparison of ijbia length to snout to vent longth (TL/S-V), und of eye ta naris distance to internarial distance (E-N/IN) between the present series of Nyetimystes and the types. _ —:: 2 oOmO