The Victorian Naturalist The Magazine of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated THE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA Vol. 93 January — December, 1976 Editor: Margery J. Lester T MELBOURNE: (9 JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD. 1-13 Abbotsford Street, West Melbourne, 3003 INDEX Compiled by James A. Baines ABORIGINES Aldo Massola, Italo-Australian Anthropo- logist of the Aborigines, 91 Frankston, Stone Age Camp Site at (illus.), 134-137 AUTHORS Alderson, J. 86-90 Alston, A. J. (etal.), 59-61 Anonymous, 197 Backholer, J. R. (etal.), 110-112 Baines, James A., 27-30, 68-69, 91, 118-119, 162-164, 182-184, 256-257 Bates, U., 133 Beattie, Susan, 43 Beauglehole, A. C. (with R. F. Parsons), 159-160 Bell, K. N., 194-195, (with R. Burn) 232- 236 Bennett, D. J. (etal.), 59-61 Bertuch, I. D. (with H. Brunner), 55-56 Bishop, Edith A., 224-225 Bishop, Harry H., 107-109, 132-133 Bridgewater, P. B. (with B. Wellington), 113-117 Brunner, H. (with I. D. Bertuch), 55-56 Burn, Robert (with K. N. Bell), 232-236 Carolan, Pat, 246-249 Camilleri, A. (etal.), 59-61 Churchill, D. M., 160 Corrick, Margaret G., 66-68, 95-96, 119- 120, 148-151, 176-179, 193, 250-252 Covacevich, J., 25-27 Currie, G. A. (reprint), 196-197 D'Abrera, Bernard (et al.), 21-24 Doggett, Victor (efal.), 21-24. Douglas, Colin, 147 Edmonds, J. W. (etal.), 110-112 Forster, Joan, 70 Galbraith, Jean, 161, 188, 231 Gibson, R. J. (with J. W. Wainer), 253-255 Gill, Edmund D., 92-95, 216-220 Jackson, R. (etal.), 110-112 Legler, John M., 40-43 Lester, Margery J., 158, 165-166 Macdonald, Ross, 174-175 McInnes, Daniel E., 228-231 Marshall, David F., 172-173 Monger, Alan E., 226-227 Morgenroth, Peter A., 62-63 Morris, I. C., 152-154 Morrison, lan, 188 Muir, T. Bruce, 180-181 Nield, John, 195 Nolan, I. F. (etal.), 110-112 Parker, Norman (et al.), 21-24 Parnaby, Harold, 190-193 Parsons, R. F. (with A. C. Beauglehole), 159-160 Pritchard, G. B. (posthumous), 4-20 Rich, Thomas H. V., 198-206 Rossiter, N. T., 84-85, 160 St. Clair, Rosalind, 223 Seebeck, John H., 56-58, 138-147 Shepherd, Rosamond C. H. (etal.), 110- 112 Smith, Brian, 71, 128-130, 130-131, 185- 188, 189 Spillane, A. E., 134-137 Stainforth, B. (etal.), 59-61 Strong, John, 231 Strong, Ken, 64-65 Synnot, R. N. (with G. C. Wescott), 97-107 Turner, Elizabeth K., 47-54 Wainer, J. W. (with R. J. Gibson), 253-255 Ward, G. M., 3, 223 Wellington, B. (with P. 113-117 Wescott, Geoffrey C. (with R. N. Synnot), 97-107, 237-245 Wheeler, Jack, 221-223 Whinray, J. S., 155-158 White, Laura M., 249 Willis, J. H., 207, 208 BIRDS Bower Birds, Satin, ‘Pecking order’ in, 188 Egret, Little (Egretta garzetta) (photo), 1 Goose, Cape Barren (Cereopsis novae- hollandiae), Increase of the, 195 Grebes, Little (Podiceps ruficollis), Nesting habits of, Observations on the, at South Wangaratta (photo), 81 Grebes, Little (Podiceps ruficollis), voung practise flying, 160 Lake Eyre (bird-list, 1975, after water- filling), 151 Rainbow Bird (Merops ornatus) in the Warby Ranges, Observations of the (illus.), 152-154 Swamphens (Porphyrio porphyrio), What do they feed on? (Botanic Gardens note), 158 Victorian Coast, Some Birds of the (illus.), 221-223 EXCURSIONS Grampians and Little Desert Tour, F.N.C.V., 17-22 October, 1975 (illus.), 47-54 Studley Park, Kew (boneseed eradication, B. Bridgewater), 18 July, 1976), 166 FIELD NATURALISTS’ CLUB OF VICTORIA Accounts and Financial Report, 73-78 Annual Report, — Editorials, 3, 39, 71 General Meeting Reports, 31, 32, 71, 72, 121, 122, 166, 210, 258 Group Reports: Botany Group, 119-120 Day Group, Entomology and Marine Biology Group, 257 Field Survey Group, 209 Geology Group, 209 Mammal Survey Group, 165 Microscopical Group, Trust Fund, Australian Natural History Medallion, 54, 96, 137, 208 Ringwood Field Naturalists’ Club, 46 Victorian Naturalists’ Clubs Association, — Western Victorian Field Naturalists’ As- sociation, 32-34 Club Reports: Donald, 32; Hamilton, Horsham, Maryborough, Mid Murray, Portland, Stawell, Sunraysia, Tim- boon, Warrnambool, 33 GEOLOGY, PALAEONTOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY Diprotodons: Batesford, 199-200; Bacchus Marsh, 200-201; Lancefield, 202 Fossil Discoveries in Victoria, Recent (illus.), 198-206 Geology Group, F.N.C.V., 209 Kangaroos, Fossil: Macropus titan at Lancefield, 202; at Morwell, 204 Lorne, Victoria, Large Waves at (illus.), 92-95 Pebbles, Palaeo-ecology of (illus.), 194-195 Sandringham-Beaumaris Coastline, Geo- logy of the (illus., and with map), 4-20 Shore Platforms, Channels in — a world of their own (illus.), 216-220 Upper Devonian Bones near Genoa, New Discovery of (illus., and with map), 59-61 Zygomaturus (family Diprotodontidae): Batesford, 199-200; Beaumaris, 203-204 INSECTS Beetles, Rose Chafer, Eupoecila aus- tralasiae Don and Diaphonia dorsalis Don, Behaviour and Larvae of (illus.), 86-90 Crickets, A Plague of (at Moggs Creek), 70 Entomology Group, F.N.C.V., 257 Gall Flies (family Fergusoninidae) (illus.), 64-65 Gall Fly on Eucalypts, Life History of a (reprint), 196-197 Swallow-tails, Trogon-wing, Trogonoptera brookiana Wallace, A new race of, from West Malaysia (illus.), 21-24 MAMMALS Antechinus, Swamp (A.minimus mariti- mus), Habitat of the, in Victoria (illus.), 253-255 Bat, Pipistrelle, Tasmanian (Pipistrellus tasmaniensis) (photo), 169 Bat, Pipistrelle, Tasmanian, Live Records for Victoria of the (illus.), 190-193 Cats, Feral, in the Western District, 147 x i sugar (Petaurus breviceps) (photo), Pigs, Wild, A Nest Constructed by (at Amos Bay, North Queensland) (illus.), 25-27 Pomonal area, The Grampians, Mammals in the (illus., and with map and tables), 138-147 Rabbits on Gippsland maps), 110-112 Rat, Broad-toothed, The, 56-58 Rat, Broad-toothed (Mastacomys fuscus) still in Sherbrooke Forest, A successful search for, 55-56 MARINE BIOLOGY AND INVERTEBRATES Animals that make Shells (illus.), 224-225 Crab, Rough Rock (Nectocarcinus tuber- culosus) (photo), 213 Crabs (3 intertidal zone species illus.), 105 Crabs, Intertidal, of Victoria, The (18 species illus., with full checklist and key), 237-245 Cuttle-bone (illus.), 223 Galeolaria caespitosa (Polychaete Worms, family Serpulidae) — the white, coral- like growth seen on rocks at low tide (illus.), 228-231 Limpets, Keyhole (family Fissurellidae): Two new Molluscs recorded for Victoria (illus.), 226-227 Marine Biology Group, F.N.C.V., 257 Molluscs, Cryptic, inhabiting Galeolaria in Victoria (illus., and with table of 28 species), 232-236 Molluscs, Gastropod (6 species illus.), 102 Rimulanax corolla (keyhole limpet new to Victoria) (illus.), 227 Scorpaenid Fish, Maxillicosta scabriceps Whitley, First Record in Victoria of (illus.), 62-63 Sea Urchin Spines, Cutting thin sections for microscope slides (illus.), 107-109 Sea Urchin Spines (those of 6 species de- scribed), 132-133 Slugs (family Limacidae): Victorian Non- Marine Molluscs No. 16: Deroceras (2 species) and Lehmannia (illus.), 189 Snail, Life History and Biology of a, Part 1: Aestivation and Reproduction (illus.), 128-130: Ditto, Part 2: Protection, Movement and Feeding (illus.), 185-188 Snail, Sand, Conical, Operculum of Poli- nices conicus (illus.), 249 Snails: Victorian Non-Marine Molluscs Islands (with 2 No. 15 (Chloritobadistes victoriae and C.brevipila) (illus.), 130-131 Zeidora tasmanica (keyhole limpet new to Victoria) (illus.), 226 Zonation at Flinders Reef, Westernport Bay (illus.), 97-107 MICROSCOPY Sea Urchin Spines, Cutting thin sections for microscope slides (illus.), 107-109 Why I enjoy Microscopy, 133 MISCELLANEOUS Blackburn Lake Classified by the National Trust, 197 Solar Eclipse — 23 October 1976, 172-173 Water in Lake Eyre (with map, bird-list and plant-list), 148-151 PERSONAL Ashby, Alison M., 1975 Australian Natural History Medallionist, 95-96 Collis, George (obituary), 31 Curtis, Winifred M., 1976 Australian Natural History Medallionist, 193 Hammet, Ivo (obituary), 31 Hooke, Barbara (marriage), 73 Massola, Aldo, Italo-Australian Anthropo- logist of the Aborigines, 91 Missen, Mrs. Effie (obituary), 166 Morrison, lan (Dick) (marriage), 73 Mueller, Ferdinand von, Baron (Biblio- graphy of works, compilation note), 160 Salau, Mrs. May (recovery after excursion accident), 73 PLANTS Botany Group, F.N.C.V., 119-120 Burwood-Alamein Railway Reserve in eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Aus- tralian Plants still survive on (with checklist of 42 species), 180-181 Bush-peas of Victoria — genus Pultenaea No. 1: P.daphnoides, Large-leaf Bush- pea (illus.), 176-179; No. 2: P.canalicu- lata and P.prolifera (illus.), 250-252 Dampiera scottiana, New Australian Plant (rare, Blue Mountains) for Victoria, at McMillan’s Lookout, 161 Distribution of Australian Plants, The (re- quest for information from naturalists), 159-160 Doughboy Island, Furneaux Group, A visit to (illus., and with map and plant list), 155-158 Endemic Flora of Victoria, The (list of 136 species), 174-175 Eucalypts along the Victorian Coast (with map), 246-249 Generic Names of the Victorian Flora, The Origin of — Part 2 (continued): Lycopodium to Mentha, 27-30; Men- yanthes to Micromyrtus, 68-69; Microseris to *Moluccella, 118-119; * Momordica to *Nicandra, 162-164; Nitraria to Opercularia, 182-184; Ophioglossum to Orthoceras, 256- 257 Lake Eyre (plant-list, 1975), 151 Leersia oryzoides, Rice Cut Grass, First Record in Victoria of (illus.), 66-68 Mueller, Ferdinand von, Baron (Biblio- graphy of works, compilation note), 160 Saltmarsh Plants, Some (including 3 species of Wilsonia), 231 Vegetation in the South-Eastern Suburbs, Melbourne, No. 2: Native and intro- duced plant communities in Damper Creek Reserve, Mount Waverley (with species lists of 3 associations), 113-117 REPTILES Tortoises, Care of (illus.), 43 Tortoise, Short-necked (Elseya dentata) (photo), 37 Tortoises, Short-necked, Australian, Feed- ing Habits of some (illus.), 40-43 REVIEWS ‘The Care of Sick, Injured and Orphaned Native Birds and Animals,’ by Jack Wheeler (published by Geelong F.N.C.), 223 ‘Flowers and Plants of New South Wales and Southern Queensland,’ by E. R. Rotherham, Barbara G. Briggs, D. F. Blaxell and R. C. Carolin (A. H. & A. W. Reed), 207-208 ‘How to Know Western Australian Wild- flowers' — Part IV, by B. J. Grieve and W. E. Blackall (University of Western Australia Press), 207 SPIDERS Wolf Spider and Her Eggs, 188 FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra. GENERAL MEETINGS Monday, 14 February (8.00 p.m.)— Speakers—Miss Mary Doery and Mr Ian Morrison. Subject —FNCV Bus Trip to NSW, August-September, 1976. Wednesday, 16 March (8.00 p.m.)—(Note: Monday 14 is Moomba Holiday)— Speaker—Mr Roy Wheeler. Subject—‘‘Birds in National Parks.” Wednesday, 13 April (8.00 p.m.)—(Note: Monday 11 is Easter Monday)— Speaker—Mr H. Alan Morrison. Subject —'"The Beauty of Nature." New Members—February General Meeting: Ordinary: Mrs Marie Booth, 2/58 Richardson Street, Essendon, 3040 (Botany, Birds). Miss Judy Gilmore, 155 Holden Street, North Fitzroy, 3068. Mr Brent Hall, 27 Ashburton Road, Glen Iris, 3146 (Birds, Mammals). Mr lan Hood, 186 Highett Road, Highett, 3190. Mr G.W.Innes, 43 Mangalore Street, Ascot Vale, 3032 (Mammal Survey). Miss Mary Monsbourgh, 11 Collins Street, Bulleen, 3105 (Botany). Mr Burke Ngaire, Unit 1, No. 5 Howard Street, Glen Iris, 3146. Mr Christopher J.Oates, 20 Lyell Parade, Greensborough, 3088 (Geology, Birds). Mrs Alison Oates, 20 Lyell Parade, Greensborough, 3088 (Botany, Anthropology). Mrs Shirley O'Neill, 77 Orrong Road, Elsternwick, 3185. Mr Dudley Ross, Unit 7, 217 Springvale Road, Springvale, 3131. Mr Paul Temple, Unit 1, 361 Highett Road, Highett, 3190. Joint: Mr James Hogarth, 3n Stuart Street, The Basin, 3154 (Birds, Botany, Insects). Mrs Christine M. Hogarth, 32 Stuart Street, The Basin, 3154. Country: Klim Gollan, Prehistory Dept. R.S.Pac. S. - P.O., Box 4, Canberra, 2600. Miss Heather E. Kelly, ‘‘Coongunyah’’, Maffra, 3860 (Marine Biology). Mr Brian J. Lacy, P.O. Box 81, Dunkeld, 3294. Mr John W.MacKenzie, Mountain Road, Cockatoo, 3781 (Geology). Elastern ——— aN FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday, 20 February—Coast Excursion. This will be largely a marine excursion led by Dr Brian Smith, but it is hoped to study some of the other aspects of natural history referred to in the coast issues of the ‘Naturalist’. The coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. and the first stopping place will be Rickett’s Point at approximately 10.00 a.m. Shallow plastic dishes (ice-cream containers) will be useful for examining marine specimens. Fare $4.00. Bring one meal and a snack. Saturday, 12 March-Monday, 14 March— Victorian Field Naturalists Clubs Associa- tion annual get-together hosted by the La Trobe Valley Field Naturalists Club. A coach has been chartered for the week-end and will leave from outside Gas & Fuel Corporation, Flinders Street, at 8.30 a.m. (Saturday). Members may stay at a motel near Drouin where accommodation has been reserved for bed and breakfast at $12.00 per person per day, or they may camp. Most of the campers will be staying at Glen Cromie Park, Main Neerim Road, Drouin West, 3818, phone Rokeby 26 8212, and those wishing to camp should contact the caretakers (Mr and Mrs Gillespie) to reserve a site. For the motel, book through excursion secretary. The coach fare of $20.00 should be paid to the excursion secretary by the end of February. Campers with small tents can travel by the coach. The programme is for an afternoon excursion on Saturday followed by the Annual General Meeting at 7.30 p.m. in Rokeby Hall, an all-day Sunday excursion, with another meeting in the same hall in the evening, mainly a ‘Communication-Session’ shared by all clubs. A short trip on Monday morning, then return to Melbourne in the afternoon. Members going should read the item on page 15 of this issue. Picnic lunches will be required for the three days and the excursion secretary would appreciate hearing who is going independently of the coach. (Continued on page 47) Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 ae ; NS QN. IAE. eo LIA ISOLA "— VIC TOR ^ A Ta The Victorian Naturalist Volume 94, Number 1 9 February 1977 i Editor: Margery J. Lester Committee: Margaret Corrick, Reuben Kent, Roland Myers, Brian Smith, Grif Ward Cliffs and Bluffs on the Victorian Coast IDY B.C.R Bird) s 1.3354 Rocks polished by wave agliom by A-A Baker o .. .. 3. 542/210 Preparing a Radula for the microscope, by KIOWOBESUFOnE 7. SeA Victorian Field Naturalist Clubs Association .. .. ata rac opos White Goshawk uses cockatoos as ‘cover’, by J.A.Alderson . .. 16 Fire at Waratah Bay — and Lyrebirds, by Ellen Lyndon . .. .. 18 Orchid of the Gippsland coast, Oy OC CAPS 171 uo el 90 Bush-peas of Victoria, by M.G.Corrick .. .. .. .. TOW ECHO [^ New Plantain in Victoria, by M.A.Todd.......... . ERA Generic names of Victorian Plora Dy A Baines ooe em ae Mammals in Mornington Peninsula, by B.Callanan & R.Gibson 31 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria: The Microscopy Group 44 Reports of meetings 45, Botany Group in the Grampians 46 —————————————————À Cover illustration: Oblique air view of cliffed coast at Lochard near Port Campbell, see page 4. Photo by Neville Rosengren. SONAL MUSS A ibo ( 29 Juv Ses High sectors of the Victorian coast are generally either cliffed, with rock outcrops exposed to marine erosion (Plate 1), or bordered by bluffs, with a soil and vegetation mantle that con- ceals underlying rock formations (Plate 2). Cliffed sectors are extensive on the volcanic rocks of the Portland penin- sula, on dune calcarenites near Warr- nambool, and on Tertiary and Meso- zoic formations along the coast to nd Bluffs on the Victorian Coast By E. C. F. Birp* Cape Otway. They are cut in Tertiary rocks between Airey's Inlet and Tor- quay, dune calcarenites at Point Lons- dale and on the Nepean peninsula, basalt from Cape Schanck to the south coast of Phillip Island, and Mesozoic rocks near Kilcunda and Cape Patter- son. At Cape Liptrap, and between Ram Head and Mallacoota in East Gippsland, there are cliffs cut into *Department of Geography, University of Melbourne. P Platel. í Retreating cliffs near Port Campbell. _ beach at Black Rock. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Palaeozoic formations. The granitic coasts of Wilson’s Promontory and some of the East Gippsland capes are steep and rocky rather than cliffed, but granite cliffs are seen at Cape Woolamai. Bluffs are found on the same range of geological formations as the cliffs. They are extensive around Port Phillip and the southern parts of Western- port Bay, including the south and east coasts of French Island. They also occur where cliffs pass inland behind coastal lowlands, as at Bridgewater and Dutton Way near Portland, at In- verloch, at Walkerville, and behind the dune-capped sandy barriers of the East Gippsland coast, where they fol- low parts of the northern shoreline of the Gippsland Lakes. Where cliffs pass laterally into bluffs there is often an intermediate sector with a composite ‘slope-over-wall’ profile. Before discussing why some parts of the Victorian coasts have cliffs and others bluffs it is necessary to consider briefly how cliffs evolve. Cliff evolution Cliff recession results from under- cutting by wave attack, wastage of the cliff face by rain wash and slumping, and removal of eroded debris offshore or alongshore by wave and current action. Where the coastal rock forma- tions are homogeneous and soft and eroded material is completely re- moved, it is possible for the transverse cliff and sea floor profile to retreat landwards, retaining its form as it migrates (Fig. 1, a). The Port Camp- bell coast may show this kind of ‘dynamic equilibrium’ as the cliffs re- cede (Plate 1). Alternatively, if the rate of cliff re- cession exceeds sea floor erosion, so that coastal waters become gradually shallower and wave action correspon- dingly less effective, subaerial pro- cesses (notably rain wash) will become dominant, and the cliff will be worn back into a sloping bluff (Fig. 17 by This is the ‘textbook’ explanation of bluff evolution, but it is difficult to find any example that fits it on the Vic- torian coast. The nearest would be Black Rock Point, where a shore plat- form of sandstone stands in front of cliffs of softer sands and clays. Gra- dual widening of this platform has led to a reduction in the rate of cliff re- treat and incipient degradation of the cliff profile into a bluff that can be colonised by vegetation (Bird, Cullen and Rosengren, 1973, Fig. 3). This, however, is a special case. The evolution of cliffs and bluffs on the Victorian coast is best analysed with reference to such factors as exposure to marine attack, the consequences of sea level changes, shoreline accretion, and the impact of artificial structures. Exposure From the distribution of cliffs and bluffs already described, it is clear that cliffs are more extensive on sectors of the Victorian coast exposed to high wave energy generated by the prevail- ing westerly winds in adjacent sea areas, and that bluffs are commonly encountered on more sheltered sectors with moderate wave energy. Low wave energy sectors of the Victorian coast are generally fringed by salt marsh, mangrove, or sandy depositional ter- rain. The relationship of cliffs and bluffs to wave energy conditions can ee a ee eee ee M NN +The term BLUFF is here used in the sense defined by the Scottish geologist A. Geikie in 1903; a bold but uncliffed coastal slope, typically concave below and convex above, formed by the abandonment of a former sea cliff and its degradation (i.e. wearing back to a gentler gradient) by subaerial (i.e. atmospheric rather than marine) processes. Unfortunately, some coastal cliffs have been named bluffs in Victoria: Demon's Bluff, near Anglesea, is one of the highest and most precipitous cliffs on the Victorian coast. January/February Figure 1. be seen in the course of a walk around the basalt coast at West Head, near Flinders, starting with the bold cliffs on the exposed ocean side and passing slope-over-wall sectors on the way to the rounded bluffs on the Westernport Bay shore, which extend behind an area of sandy deposition. Correlation of cliffs with high wave energy, and bluffs with moderate wave energy is not, however, a satisfactory explanation for these features, because the bluffs were once also actively- receding cliffs, and it is necessary to show why they have become degraded. There is no evidence for any recent shift in the direction of prevailing winds and wave energy along the Vic- torian coast, and so further explana- tion must be sought. Sea level changes Twenty thousand years ago, during the Last Glacial phase of the Pleisto- cene, world sea levels were more than 100 metres lower than they are now (Bird 1976). The approximate line of 6 Modes of evolution of cliffs and bluffs. a — cliff retreat with maintenance of transverse profile; b — cliff develops into bluff as wave attack diminishes through shallowing water; c — cliff develops into bluff following fall of sea level (or land uplift); d — cliff develops into bluff after shore accretion halts wave attack. the present coast was then marked by bluffs formed by subaerial degradation of cliffs that had been cut earlier in Pleistocene times, when the sea stood close to its modern level; the bluffs faced across the broad plain of the emerged sea floor, extending out to the lowered shoreline. Subsequently, the world-wide sea level rise known as the Holocene marine transgression brought the sea back up towards its modern level, at- tained about 5000 years ago, and wave action then rejuvenated the abandoned Pleistocene bluffs, reviving sea cliffs on the Victorian coast. Some sectors of Pleistocene bluff escaped this re- juvenation, either because of local land uplift, or because depositional terrain had formed in front of them. These persist as bluffs, for example near Seaspray on the East Gippsland coast (Plate 3), north of the Gippsland Lakes, and at the localities mentioned previously where sea cliffs pass inland behind coastal lowlands. Two Mile Bay, west of Port Campbell, is part Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 of an otherwise cliffed coast that re- tains the Pleistocene bluff, fronted by an emerged shore platform that has been preserved because of its associa- tion with a resistant rock formation. Some sectors that were rejuvenated as receding cliffs about 5000 years ago have since reverted to bluffs, notably on parts of the Port Phillip and Westernport Bay coasts. It is possible that they were cliffed during an epi- sode of higher sea level within Holo- cene times, and abandoned in the suc- ceeding emergence. The topic remains controversial, but emerged shoreline features described from many coasts have been taken to indicate that the sea rose a metre or two above its pre- sent level at some stage within the past 5000 years, and then fell back (Bird 1976). Such an emergence would have ` caused a shallowing of coastal waters and a reduction in the frequency and vigour of wave attack (Fig. 1, c). On high wave energy sectors the effects would be minor, and soon com- pensated by sea floor erosion: after a brief pause, active cliff recession would resume. On more sheltered sectors the reduction could have been sufficient to halt cliff recession and perhaps initiate deposition in front of the developing bluffs. Effects attributable to sea level changes could also have been produced by upward or downward movements of the land; the former being world- wide, the latter localised. January/February Plate 3. Bluff formed by degradation of Pleistocene cliffs behind Ninety Mile Beach at Seaspray. Accretion In some places where cliff recession has halted and bluffs have developed there has also been accretion, generally of sandy deposits, in front of the former cliffs (Fig. 1, d). As has just been noted, accretion could be due to coastal emergence; but it could also be the outcome of longshore drifting of sediment to a site of accumulation, quite independently of any sea level change. A good example of recent sand accretion is seen at Three Mile Beach, west of Peterborough, where dunes have formed at the back of a locally prograded sandy shore, in front of sandstone cliffs that now show stages in subaerial degradation to bluffs with concavo-convex profiles, in sharp con- trast with the vertical receding cliffs along the adjacent coast. Another example is Ricketts Point, Beaumaris (Fig. 2), where cliffs cut in Tertiary sandstone formations pass in- to bluffs to the rear of a multiple cuspate sandy foreland, built up across a broad shore platform. At some stage there must have been cliff recession and platform widening along the whole of this sector, and bluff development might be regarded as an example of the sequence shown in Fig. 1, b. However, there is evidence that cliff recession came to an end when sand drifting south from the eroding cliffs of Brighton and Black Rock began to accumulate on this part of the coast. 7 p A dore Y EC RICKETTS POINT U 0 100 200 300 Metres CLIFF Y Y Cvm C1. SANDY TERRACE quum SANDY FORESHORE ROCKY FORESHORE E Figure 2. Coastal features at Rickett's Point, Beaumaris. An excavation (X in Fig. 2) by John Newberry and his fellow third-year geography students in 1975 found traces of beach sand and gravel, with occasional shells, at the base of the bluff, about a metre above present high spring tide level, and overlain by 1.2 metres of downwashed sediment derived from the degradation of the former cliff. As the downwashed sedi- ment showed no clear soil profile it is probably of Holocene age. Further re- search is needed to obtain a precise date for the cessation of cliffing here, but the evidence so far available sup- ports the idea that local sand accre- tion, induced by a fall of sea level, halted cliffing and initiated bluff de- velopment at Rickett's Point. Impact of artificial structures Some formerly cliffed sectors of coast, notably at Hampton and Black Rock on Port Phillip Bay, have been stabilised by building sea walls and landscaped to form sloping, vegetated bluffs. Consequently, the bluffs at Quiet Corner (Plate 4), south of Black Rock, now look similar to the natural bluffs farther north (Plate 2), although until the late nineteen-thirties Quiet Corner had vertical, rapidly-receding cliffs. A similar effect can be produced where a breakwater has trapped drift- ing sand to prograde a beach in front of a cliff and thereby exclude wave attack. The former cliffs at Picnic Point, south of Hampton, are evolving into bluffs behind a broad area of sand formed where longshore drift has been trapped by the Sandringham harbour breakwater. Otways coast Having discussed cliffs and bluffs, it is necessary to mention the high, steep coast between Cape Otway and Eastern View, which is neither cliff nor bluff, although in places (e.g. Mount De- fiance) it shows basal cliffing to form a slope-over-wall profile behind narrow segments of shore platform. These long steep coastal slopes are the out- come of subaerial rather than marine erosion, and are essentially similar to steep valley sides inland. It is possible that this part of the Victorian coast developed as the result of uplift of the land, and that its subaerial features are preserved because its south-easterly aspect excludes the strong south- westerly waves that would have gene- rated bolder marine cliffing. The steep coast of the Otway Ranges is in many ways similar to steep coast sectors in northern Queensland. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Conclusion The distribution of cliffs and bluffs on the Victorian coast correlates well with the extent of high and moderate wave energy conditions, but as the bluffs were formerly also cliffed it is necessary to find an additional ex- planation. Some bluffs are inherited from Pleistocene phases of cliffing and subsequent degradation; others were cliffed earlier in Holocene times, and have become bluffs as a sequel to a Plate 4. Bluff of artificial origin behind sea wall near Quiet Corner south of Black Rock. fall in sea level which reduced marine erosion and in some places initiated protective depositional features. Acknowledgement I am grateful to Mr. H. J. Collier and Mr. R. Bartlett for drafting the diagrams. REFERENCES Bird, E.C.F., 1976. Coasts, A.N.U. Press. Bird, E.C.F., Cullen, P. and Rosengren, N.J., 1973. Conservation Problems at Black Rock Point, Vic- torian Nat., 90: 240-7. m Young Rock A cliff top near Jan Juc (near Torquay) was once apparently used as a push-off point for unwanted cars. Parts of engines, etc., of these cars have become firmly cemented into a ferruginous sandstone on the beach. A wooden wheel spoke would suggest a car age of the early 1900s, but presumably they would not have been dumped until their useful life was ended, so the time of the rock formation would be about 50+ 10 years. PAT CAROLAN, BRIGHTON. FNCV Subscriptions Now Due The financial year begins on 1 January 1977 and members are asked to pay subscrip- tions promptly. If unable to attend forthcoming general meetings, please send your subscription by post. See rates on outside back cover of this journal. Please attend to this matter promptly in consideration of our officers and the expense of sending out reminder notices. Thank you for your thoughtfulness. 3145. January/February Treasurer/Subscription Sec: Mr D.E.McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, A Study of Rocks highly polished by Wave Action BY ALFRED A. BAKER* Marine waves charged with pebbles and sand are one of the most destruc- tive processes of denudation along a rocky coastline. Their activity reduces rock masses to smaller dimensions con- verting them to sand and finally to silt. In the process reduced rocks are well rounded and acquire a smoothed, dull surface. However, in isolated places similar rocks exhibit a very high degree of polish or gloss; some of them are of large dimension, others of cobble size or smaller. The rock types studied Quartz, associated with vertically dipping indurated fine-grained sand- stones; coastline between Thurra and Mueller Rivers, Eastern Victoria. Ironstone, concretionary at Bird Rock, Waratah Bay, Eastern Victoria. Ironstone, massive at Balcombe Bay, Mornington, Port Phillip Bay. Greenstone, extensive outcrop at Waratah Bay, Eastern Victoria. Limestone, black fossiliferous at Waratah Bay, Eastern Victoria. Limestone, from aeolinite dunes east of Koonya Beach, Bass Strait. Granite, outcrop at Point Hicks, Eastern Victoria. Basalt, Older Volcanic at Shoreham, Western Port. In all these localities, polished rocks are not of common occurrence, as the process of polishing does not affect all similar rocks of a locality. The surfaces of polished rocks are irregular, with small or larger hollows and slight ridges. Large irregularities developed before polishing took place are. with other surface features, also highly polished. An example shown, is concretionary ironstone weathered in high relief (Pl. 1.2) having all the 10 ridges and hollows highly polished. Basalt rocks exhibiting a high de- gree of polish are not common; how- ever, a massive outcrop of Older Vol- canic basalt, of which Pl. 2.8 is a por- tion was located at Shoreham, Western Port, with the polished side facing the shore-line; the wave-beaten sides were not polished. Granitic rocks often show only slight gloss. A portion of the granite of Point Hicks (Pl. 2.7) shows very high polish on the felspars but less on the quartz, while the black mica has been almost entirely removed. This polished surface was also towards the shoreline, away from direct action of strong inshore waves. Assessing possible causes of polish This high polish cannot be attri- buted to slickensides — rock move- ments which produce smoothed, grooved or striated highly polished surfaces; or be due to glacial action, where rocks held in the ice mass are scored and polished during movement. They cannot be classed as gastroliths — pebble size rocks swallowed by ani- mals in the trituration of their food (Baker 1956). Nor do they appear to have been exposed on a land surface subjected to wind-blown sand or dust, or to have been coated with oxides of iron, manganese, or other mineral compounds, as is known of the occur- rence of Desert Varnish (Laudermilk 1931). Activities of marine animals produc- ing this high polish does not appear to be possible; although land animals, especially rock wallabies constantly tra- versing limestone in mountainous East *P.O. Box 164, Mornington. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Plate 1. 1, Quartz; 2, Concretionary Ironstone: half natural size. Photographs by author. Gippsland, produce a high degree of polish on uneven rock surfaces. Human agency produces a high polish in many ways. Reference may be made to a wood handrail, in the Naracoorte limestone caves of eastern South Australia, having very high polish produced by visitors negotiat- ing the wet stairway. A minute de- position of calcium carbonate and oily hands may be the reason for this high polish (Pers. 1955). Another example of human agency may be cited — The January/February 3, Massive Ironstone: 4, Greenstone. Approx. Pig with the Shiny Nose — a boar sculpture outside the Straw Market in Florence, Italy, “where the snout has been worn smooth and polished from being rubbed by millions of hands” (Stanley 1960). Certainly, the high polish produced on rocks subjected to wave action is not the result of human agency; although constant, gentle abrasion, as with oily hands and chemical dust, has similarities with the suggested process of marine wave polish. 11 Plate 2. Next of importance is the associa- tion of sea-weeds and algae in small or medium amounts. Large quantities of marine plants, either living or decom- posed, do not appear to have any significant polishing effect. Marine plants perish and soon decompose when removed from their normal en- vironment by strong wave action. The chemical constituents of sea water acting on decomposing marine plants assists the release of gelatinous matter, acids, and many forms of mineral 12 5, Black Limestone; 6, Dune Limestone; 7, Granite; 8, Basalt. Approx. half natural size. Photographs by author. salts. The remaining fibrous wall structure of the plants breaks down to microscopic size as abrasive material. All the rocks examined in this study were located in the mid-littoral zone, where incoming and outgoing wave action is restricted to gentle move- ment. This gentle movement of waves is most important to produce a high polish; in contrast, strong rough waves carry coarse abrasive material forming dulled, rough surfaces. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Probable causes of polish During this study, the following criteria is suggested as producing a very high polish on marine rocks. 1. A gentle wave movement of covering and uncovering rocks in sheltered positions away from strong wave attack. 2. Sea water containing mineral and chemical salts, gelatinous substances, microscopic size plant and animal residues, together with chemical wastes from adjacent land masses accumu- lating in areas restricted to gentle water movement constitute marine oozes and play the most important part in producing polished surfaces. A solvent action and a chemical altera- tion takes place on exposed surfaces of various rocks, and this is considered to cause the molecules near the surface of the rock to flow (Beilby 1921) pro- ducing an amorphous effect resem- bling that of a super-cooled liquid. 3. The prolonged process of wetting and drying of the rock surface is ob- vious in sheltered positions and assists the solvent action of marine oozes to be intensified, producing irregularities on the rock surface — a character which is common on all rock surfaces referred to in this study. REFERENCES: Baker, A. A., 1956. The EROR of stones by animals. Vic. Nat. 73: (6) 8 Beilby, G., 1921. d Sum flow of solids. London. Clarke, F. W., 1924. The data of geochemistry. 5th ed. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, U.S.A. Darbyshire, J. D., and Dixit, K. R., 1933. Nature of polish layers. Phil. Mag. 16: 961-976. Laudermilk, J. D., 1931. On the origin of desert varnish. Amer. Journ. Sci. 21: (Ser. 5.) 51-66. Prescott, G. W., 1969. The algae: A review. Thos. Nelson, London. Stanley, P., 1960. Travelling around. The pig with d shiny nose. The Age, Melbourne, 16 Sept. 1960 Williams, Lou., 1936-37. Classification and selected bibliography of the surface textures of sedi- mentary fragments. Report of the Committee on Sedimentation. Nat. Research Council, Washing- ton Preparing material for “The Victorian Naturalist When preparing material for publication, please have it typed with double line spacing and leave at least 3 cm (about 14”) clear margin at the left. Captions to figures should be typed on a separate page. Monochrome illustrations should be supplied, as it is costly and rarely satisfactory to reproduce from coloured material. If article is of a scientific nature, it is desirable to supply two copies of text matter. Nominations of FNCV Council Members and Officer Bearers FNCV Annual General Meeting will be on Monday, 9 May, and nominations may be received up to that date. Nomi- nations are required for Council mem- bers. Council consists of the President, Vice-President, Immediate Past-President, and ten other persons. The following offices are open for nomination: Presi- dent, Vice-President, Secretary, Minute Secretary, Treasurer, Assistant Treasurer, Subscription Secretary/Bookkeeper, Ex- January/February cursion Secretary, Librarian, Assistant Librarian, Editor. Such office-bearers might be members of Council or not. If you nominate a person for a particular office and he would also like to be a Council member, you must make the additional nomination of him as a Council member. Think now of the people you would like to see on our governing body, and ask them if they will accept nomination. 13 Preparing a Radula for the Microscope BY J. W. H. STRONG, Microscopy Group FNCV Editor's Note: The radula is a structure found in gastropod molluscs; it is used by the animal for rasping food, and its microscopic structure is important to the zoologist in determining species. John Strong is an amateur whose work on radulae in associa- tion with the National Museum is making a considerable contribution to science. For the purpose of this article we are concerned with the radulae of lim- pets, but the same procedure can be used for radulae of most gastropods. Equipment required Two pyrex test tubes, one inch dia- meter; wooden test tube holder; spirit lamp; fine-pointed forceps; dissecting needle; 3”x 1” microscope slides; square or rectangular cover-slips (thickness does not matter); mounting fluid — Canada balsam, Euparol, or a syn- thetic mountant; two small white dishes; small petrie dish for alcohol; small bottle of absolute alcohol; 1090 solution of sodium hydroxide; methy- lated spirits for the spirit lamp. Procedure 1. Having collected your limpets alive, leave them in fresh water over- night to kill them. 2. Take the animal from the shell, drop it in your test tube and cover with sodium hydroxide. About one inch depth is enough for a small animal such as a limpet from a shell with a diameter not more than an inch. 3. Light the spirit lamp — half-inch of wick protruding is sufficient. Put the test tube holder on the test tube and hold slightly above the flame. Now this is where the fun starts, and you learn the hard way if you are not careful. It is essential that the test tube be kept moving all the time it is 14 over the flame, otherwise the sodium hydroxide will shoot out of the tube when it comes to the boil. Wobble the tube from side to side, and up and down, all the time it is held over the flame; if you do that you should not have any trouble. But always keep the test tube facing away from your face; it would be disastrous if the sodium hydroxide shot into your eyes. 4. As soon as the tube contents have come to the boil, pour into your white dish. Teeth are necessarily hard, and you will find that every other part of the animal has obligingly disinte- grated, leaving a brown liquid in which wil be seen the radula like a small length of brown cotton. In our common limpet Cellana tramoserica, the radula membrane is remarkably long — about four inches for a half-grown specimen. In such a case you will use only part of it for your slide. 5. Lift out the radula with your forceps, put it in your other test tube, cover with water and bring to the boil. This is done to extract the sodium hydroxide. 6. Tip into your second dish, pick out the radula with forceps, and place in a small dish of absolute alcohol. This is done to remove the water, for alcohol has a strong affinity for water and extracts it from your radula very rapidly; a minute in alcohol is quite sufficient. 7. Remove the radula from alcohol Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 and place on a 3x1 slide which you have previously cleaned. Look at it under your microscope to make sure it is well positioned. 8. Let the radula dry. This is be- cause the mounting medium cannot be mixed with either water or alcohol. It usually dries in a couple of minutes. 9. Cover radula with mounting medium and place cover-slip in posi- tion. 10. It is advisable, but not essen- tial, to seal the cover-slip after a few days. This can be done with a small water-colour brush and clear nail lacquer. Rally of Victorian Field Naturalist Clubs The 1977 get-together will be over the Labour Day week-end March 12, 13, 14 at Warragul. The Annual General Meet- ing will be at 7.30 p.m., March 12 at Rokeby Hall, Warragul; at least two dele- gates are expected from each club but all members are welcome. In the evening of March 13, also at Rokeby Hall, there will be a special “communications” session; all members are urged to attend, and especially welcome will be those with ideas on how this Association can be made more valuable to the clubs and how it might increase interest in natural his- tory and conservation among the general public. The Latrobe Valley FNC will host the week-end. Information on accommoda- tion and camping facilities has been re- ceived by all clubs. A bus trip has been arranged from Melbourne, see page 2. The Victorian Field Naturalist Clubs Association has the following aims: to encourage communication between field naturalist clubs within Victoria so that the various clubs can have a greater understanding of the activity of other clubs, their problems and projects; to en- courage and assist the formation of new clubs; to provide a forum for debate and exchange of ideas; to increase public in- terest in natural history and conservation; to organise a yearly week-end gathering of club members from all over the State. The organising body of the Association consists of two representatives from each of five regions (North-east, South-east, Central, South-west, North-west) forming a Council of ten members. Five council- lors retire each year for a half Council election at each Annual Meeting. There is usually another Council meeting during the year. The present Council consists of: NE — Astrid Magnusson, Benalla; SE — Mr and Mrs Jack Brooks, Warragul; Central — John Hunt, Geelong; SW — Robert Missen, Colac and Albert Perry, Ballarat, President; NW — Alex Fisher, Mid Mur- ray, Secretary and Robert Moors, Ben- digo, Treasurer. There is a vacancy for a representative from the NE region and from Central. Affiliation fees: Clubs with less than 40 members $2.00, clubs with 40 or more members $4.00. Keep March 12, 13 and 14 free for the VENCA annual get-together at Warragul, and come with ideas to the communica- tions session on March 13. Labour Day week-end is the chance each year to meet naturalists from many areas of Victoria. A. FISHER, Nyah March and April FNCV meetings on Wednesday, not Monday Because Monday 14 March is Moomba and Monday 11 April is Easter, the FNCV general meetings will be on Wednesday 16 March and Wednesday 13 April. January/February 15 White Goshawk uses White Cockatoos as "cover" Record of the white goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae on the Plenty River in Victoria BY J. A. ALDERSON* In Victoria, the white phase of the grey goshawk Accipiter novaehol- landiae known as the white goshawk, is considered rare (Mathews 1915-16; Wheeler 1967; Condon 1970), and is chiefly confined to the coastal region. I have often seen white goshawks soaring high over valleys along the coast in the Otway Ranges south-east of Chapple Vale, but have never seen the bird at close quarters in those parts. During a study (started in 1970) on the feeding behaviour of birds on the Plenty River, 4km upstream from the Plenty and Yarra River junction, I observed a white goshawk at close range in May 1974 and on several occasions from March to August in each subsequent year. Although the white goshawk was reported by Con- don (1970) as being extremely wary, I have approached this bird as close as 18 m whilst it was perching on an open branch; and on many occasions have seen the bird flying low over roof tops (about 5m) while it was moving up- A goshawk presumably a large female (over 500mm) and pure white in appearance, photographed in this locality for record purposes. stream along the Plenty River front- age in the morning (09.00-11.00), and returning during the afternoon (14.00- 16.00). On the 27 March a white goshawk flew amongst a group of 15 sulphur- crested cockatoos Kakatoe galerita which were feeding on fruits of Eucalyptus viminalis. The goshawk’s flight resembled that of the cockatoos as they flew from tree to tree. The tail of the goshawk was held downward and fan-shaped during flight, making it difficult to distinguish between the two species of birds, particularly when viewed from behind. Mathews (1915- 16) records that “Mr. J. Rogers noticed that when the goshawk ap- peared amongst small birds it caused little disturbance. On the wing it somewhat resembled a white cocka- too, and this may account for it not being recognised as an enemy”. Each time the cockatoos took flight at the study site, the goshawk would try to join them by positioning itself either immediately beneath or in the middle of the group, but each time the cockatoos would disperse. However, the bird persisted, flying always in the company of at least one or two cocka- toos. This behaviour was repeated on several occasions whilst the birds visited nine trees of E.viminalis over an area of approximately 8 ha, but at no time did the goshawk attack any of the cockatoos. On one occasion the success of the goshawk's mimicry was such that no *Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Brown St, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 other bird species in the area at the time appeared to be aware of its pre- sence, although the goshawk and cockatoos flew as low as 8m above the ground. Finally, whilst flying im- mediately beneath the group, the goshawk dived to attack a blackbird Turdus merula and then flew to a dead branch with its prey. Distress calls given by the blackbird upon being captured immediately scattered other birds into hiding. Magpies Gymnor- hina hypoleuca, which in previous years have often attacked white gos- hawks during their visits to this area, quickly departed on hearing the dis- tress calls of the blackbird. REFERENCES Condon, H.T. (1970). Field Guide to the Hawks of Australia. Bird Observers’ Club. Condon, H.T. and Amadon, D. (1954). Taxonomic Notes on Australian Hawks. Records of the iA Australian Museum, Vol. XI, No. 2, p. 189- 46. Gould, J. (1865). Handbook to the Birds of Aus- tralia, Vol. 1. Fleay, D. (1950). Notes on the White Goshawk. Emu, 50: pp. 1-4. >: R. (1967). Australian Birds. Nelson (Aust.) ia Mathews, Gregory M. (1915-16). The Birds of Aus- tralia, Vol. 5. London, Whitherby & Co. Reid, A.J., Shaw, NJ., Wheeler, W.R. (1975). Birds of Victoria, No.6. Rare Species, Gould League of Victoria. Slater, P. (1970). A Field Guide to Australian Birds, Vol. 1. Rigby Ltd. Southern, H.N. and Seventy, D.L. (1947). The Two Phases of Astur novaehollandiae (Gm.) in Aus- tralia. Emu, 46: p. 331. Wade, P. (Editor) (1975). Every Australian Bird Illustrated. Rigby Ltd, Melbourne. Wheeler, W.R. (1967). A Handlist of the Birds of —————————Á—— —————————— 9 Record Appraisal Committee of the RAOU Established in 1975, The Record Ap- praisal Committee is under the control of and responsible to the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union. Its functions are to receive, appraise and accept or not accept unusual records of birds (sightings or photographs) that are submitted to it through the secretary of RAOU or the editor of “Emu”. Such unusual records might range from first Australian sight- ing of a species to records of a common Australian species outside its known range. Nine submissions had been received to November 1976, of which three have Victoria. Victorian Ornithological Research Group, Melbourne. been *'accepted", two “‘not accepted”, and four are under discussion. In reach- ing conclusions, the opinions of persons other than committee members have been sought in instances where specialised knowledge has been considered valuable. The RAOU has a standardised form for such submissions, and any naturalist who has made an unusual sighting is advised to apply for one of the forms. Also, reading the RAOU Newsletter No. 24 August 1975 could dispel possible ob- jections. Apply to the Secretary RAOU, 119 Dryburgh Street, North Melbourne 3051, or phone 329 9881. Seagulls in a Suburban Park My window overlooks a council park used for sports, etc. Every morning Silver Gulls arrive at the park; fly around for a while and then settle in the grass, usually in three groups. They stay until late in the afternoon, then all disappear flying southwards. There might be up to 300 birds, adults and immatures. The gulls seem to find food in the grass, and there are two schools nearby so they probably do some useful scaveng- ing on lunch left-overs. They are not easily disturbed but a dog can send them scattering and rising. In 1976 about January/February twenty crows arrived. (Or are they cor- rectly ravens?) At first the gulls avoided the crows, but later the two species seemed to get used to each other: each day they could be seen on the ground together, making a nice contrast of colour. Once a gull actually chased a crow! Other people have surely observed sea- gulls in parks and perhaps they could answer the inevitable questions: Where do the gulls come from and return to? Why is the park suitable to them only during the daytime? E. Dixon, THORNBURY. 17 Aftermath of fire at Waratah Bay — and Lyrebirds BY ELLEN LYNDON* In the autumn of 1971 a fire began near the settlement of Walkerville on Waratah Bay, in South Gippsland. It swept back through the heath- lands until it reached the road that bounds the western side. A bulldozer managed to cut a break each side of the burn and contained it, so that the fire did not affect the deep gullies that shelter the main creek gorges. No burn had occurred there for a long time, perhaps as long as fifteen years, and the waist-high scrub was nearly impenetrable, except for low game tracks. These scraped paths made easy entry for me when I began to explore the headwaters of the creeks in the winter of the same year, after heavy rains. Effects of the fire I found I was not the only traveller on these tracks. Kangaroo and wal- laby, fox and rabbit and wombat had left their footprints and their calling cards in the soft sand. Where they crossed steep gullies the 'dozer tracks had acted as waterways, dumping large deltas of sand at the foot of each slope. A hillside was honeycombed with the burrows of native rats, but they showed no sign of life while the ground was bare. More than two months after the hot fire no green thing showed except on the fat barrels of the king ferns T'odea barbara growing against running water. They were already unfurling sturdy fronds. But little brown toad- stools were there in millions: Laccaria laccata and another, possibly a Flammula. The wet depressions where the creek tributaries arose had supported 18 dense jungles of scented paperbark interlaced with masses of coral fern to the very tops. “‘The-centte. of these ferny billows is often dry and dead, and these probably burned fiercely. The dead tea-trees were left literally Standing on their tip-toes, for the sphagnum beds beneath them had burned away and left the branching roots exposed. As time went on the liverwort Marchantia replaced the moss beds with a living carpet of green and, by late spring, was producing a crop of the most robust fruiting heads that I have seen. McPherson’s Creek, the middle one of three draining into the bay in the vicinity of Walkerville, was flowing fast, coffee-coloured from the burn above, piling great heaps of creamy froth against every obstruction. Had such a combination of discoloured froth and water been encountered in open farmland one could have been forgiven for suspecting detergent pol- lution, but these creeks drain only un- cleared sandy heath and forest. Conditions were right on this warm and windless day for the fungi, and fungus-wise this was an enchanted gully. Pale pinkish strands of the coral fungus Clavariadelphus covered every- thing like some giant spider web, and in a tangle of fungus and ground fern I came on the old nest of a lyrebird, rotten and fallen in on itself. Probing it, I put my finger through the egg, weak of shell but still filled with an odourless liquid. A short distance up the narrowing gorge was a still older nest, only traces of it remaining. Over a fork in the creek the huge *Box 80, Leongatha, 3953. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 nest of a Wedge-tailed Eagle in the fork of a Messmate dominated the scene; judging by the pile of Sticks, the nest had been used many times. It showed no signs of recent use although a pair of eagles were seen soaring round above the bush. Lyrebirds Certain scratchings in the mould in- dicated some lyrebird activity, but no mounds were seen or birds heard. However, on one of the creek branches I came suddenly on a fresh nest located on the jutting bank of the stream, just over a deep pool. It was necessary to wade to examine it. The nest contained a cold fresh egg. At this moment a hen gave a faint alarm call somewhere above me. A month later the creek junction showed plenty of scratching but there was neither sight nor sound of lyre- birds, although at that time they were singing their heads off in the hill coun- try further north. The egg was cold and by November it was clear that nest and egg were abandoned. I can find no record for 1972, but that year we were away during the winter. In June of 1973 a new nest was located not far from that of 1971, but this time it was wedged against the butt of a small tree high on the steep bank, away from the water. This nest and egg were eventually abandoned. I came to the conclusion that this was a lone hen, the last of a colony on the creek, going through her yearly rou- tine by instinct. In the lyrebird world it is the hen alone that builds the nest, incubates the egg and rears the chick, a business that may take up the best part of three months. The male spends much of his time prancing around his terri- tory making song and display. It seems remarkable that any lyre- birds survive here so close to an in- creasingly crowded beachfront, for the whole area was stripped of its trees before the turn of the century to feed the fires of the villagers and the lime kilns. Traces of timber tramways may süll be seen along some of the creeks Lyrebirds have been reported to me from further round the bay in South Gippsland Shire, but so far I have been unable to verify this. By the winter of 1974 dense re- growth was making it difficult to get in to the headwaters of McPherson's Creek. Scrambling through the jungle of hop goodenia and fallen tree branches, I skirted something sus- piciously like a display mound. Almost at the same moment the clear ringing calls of a male lyrebird resounded from high on the opposite slope. Some- how from somewhere, my hen had found a mate. I would no longer need to enquire of startled F.C. or F. &W. officers if they happened to have a spare lyrebird rooster about them. Since that time display mounds and much working of the ground cover show the birds are active in the vici- nity, but so far I have been unable to find a nest. Perhaps the new bird favours the timber rather than the creek bed to raise its family. Author Index to ‘The Victorian Naturalist’ 1884-1976 Compiled by J.A.Baines, 368 pages, now available from FNCV Sales Officer, $11.00; postage 80c within 50 kilos, $1.20 within Victoria, $2.00 Interstate. January/February 19 Orchids of the Gippsland Coast BY RUTH CLARK* Like gold, orchids are where you find them, but some areas are likely to yield more than others. For several species one must go to the mountains, but Gippsland has a long coastline and the sand-dunes, the heathlands, the grass-tree plains, the occasional rocky outcrops, and the islands, peninsulas and shores of lakes and inlets all yield their harvest of these entrancing trea- sures. Sun-orchids An unforgettable sight is the lovely blue and pink Dotted Sun-orchid Thelymitra ixiodes open in the October sunlight, and extending for miles along the coastal heathland of East Gipps- land. Strange that such fragile-seem- ing flowers thrive in such harsh sur- roundings, with little or no shelter from the gales which sweep in from the ocean. The Tall Sun-orchid T.media, even a more beautiful blue and a taller, more robust plant, is never found in such spectacular num- bers and rarely in such open situations. The Great Sun-orchid T7.grandi- flora is often great indeed but seems mostly to dwell in solitary splendour. Much smaller and with fewer flowers, the Pink Sun-orchid T.rubra also opens in the October sunshine, and sometimes one may come across the still smaller, pale yellow Twisted Sun-orchid T.flexuosa hiding shyly in the sheltering shrubbery. Another yellow Sun-orchid is the scented Rabbit-ears T.antennifera with its curious, brown, ear-like appendages to the column; it also seeks the shelter of the shorter undergrowth to escape the strong winds off the shore of Wilson's Promontory. 20 Once, not far from Lake Victoria, a single specimen of the Pink Crested Sun-orchid T.irregularis was found amongst waist-high Tea-tree. Beardless Calochilus Calochilus imberbis BEN RUH Clan? Beard-orchids and Double-tails Those goblins of the bush, the Beard-orchids, usually like gravelly situations but the Brown-beard Calo- chilus robertsonii grows on the islands, and near Lake Reeve it is accom- panied by the Beardless Calochilus C.imberbis in sandy soil amidst pink feathery Calytrix, pink and white Tea- tree and other spring blossoms. The Double-tails don't mind grassy places and often the gay Tiger Orchid Diuris sulphurea occurs in large num- bers, but the Snake Orchid D.pedun- culata is not so prolific nowadays. And the bright brown and gold Wall- flower D.longifolia chooses more pro- tection amongst the trees. *8 Williams Road, Lakes Entrance, 3909. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Horned Orchid and Onion-orchids The curious Horned Orchid Ortho- ceras strictum is rarely found in pro- fusion, but in the Hedley churchyard they appear year after year. They will not be lost while the Hedley folk (who call them Crows) continue to look after them. Each year the grass is cut only when the orchids are dormant. The way they flourish bears out my contention that it is not fire which is necessary to bring up orchids but merely the cutting back of under- growth as it gets too heavy. This hap- pened where the scrub was cut on Wilson’s Promontory and also in the Colquhoun Forest. In some places the Common Onion- orchid Microtis unifolia grows with its fect almost in the salt water, while rare species — the Yellow Onion-orchid M.atrata and the delicately coloured brown and green M.orbicularis revel in the swamps along the coastline on the way to Pearl Point. Leeks and Midges Some Leek-orchids lift their heads high above the surrounding vegeta- tion, perhaps to watch the gannets dive! So the Tall Leek-orchid Praso- phyllum elatum is easily seen in the heathlands; the flowers vary in colour from quite yellow to such a dark pur- plish colour as to be almost black. The Austral Leek P.australe is another tall species holding its flowers aloft amongst the scrub of marshy places. The white labellum of the Sweet Leek P.odoratum is conspicuous against the dark green of Surrounding plants, but the smaller, also perfumed Green Leek P.brainei is infrequent. The Slender Leek P.parviflorum is listed as a coastal species and noted as "sometimes locally plentiful’? but, after ranging for years over all its recorded Gippsland habitats, I have failed to find it. Autumn is the flowering time for January/February some of our tiniest midge-orchids. Not for these the open country but the seclusion of forest is the home of the Sharp Midge P.despectans, and P.nig- ricans is recorded from the Lakes National Park. A trip across the lake and a fairly long but very pleasant walk on a bush track is necessary to find the dainty little Green Midge P.viride hidden away on a grass-tree plain surrounded by bushland. Several books say that P.viride flowers do not open widely, but that is not quite correct. Flowers have been found fully open, and very lovely they are too (under a lens) with the golden green colour and a little rosy patch covering the junction of the sepals. Perhaps they do not remain open very long as they are more often found in the closed position which evi- dently is retained for a good while: Op^n specimens were found in April, and in June closed ones were still to be found. Flying Ducks, Elbow, and Bird orchids Unlike their airborne counterparts, the flying duck orchids do not like the water but seek out sandy positions. The Large Duck-orchid Caleana major is more often seen than the Small Duck C.minor. The latter is more numerous a few miles inland, and it particularly favours roadside banks which render it liable to sudden exter- mination in several places. Another orchid which seems to be more frequent in the hills, is the minute and rather droll Elbow Orchid Spiculaea huntiana. But it has been found right down at sea level. The Autumn Bird-orchid Chilo- glottis reflexa is another sand lover, and often the ground under bracken is covered with its twin leaves but the flowers do not appear so readily. The rarer Dainty Bird-orchid C.trapezi- formis has been found almost at the water's edge. Rarer still, and until 21 recently recorded only from mountain country, is C.pescottiana which was discovered last October growing with C.trapeziformis just above the water of the lake in Mallacoota National Park. Which again goes to show that orchids are where you find them! Insect Orchids and Parson’s Bands The three Victorian species of the Strange little insect orchids are all coast dwellers: the Mayfly Acianthus caudatus, Mosquito A.reniformis, and the Gnat Orchid A.exsertus. The Mosquito Orchid is particularly pre- valent. Parson’s Bands Eriochilus cucul- latus grow just about everywhere. Beak Orchids and Lizard Orchid Both the Lyperanthus species frequent the coast. Red-beaks Lyperanthus nigricans are found on the flat land round Corner Inlet and also high above the wave at the Bluff where, in miles and miles of sand, the first rocky outcrop juts out into the ocean. The round leaves of Red-beaks are X ' $ Brown Beaks | Lyperanthus suaveolens i RAW Clark E 22 easily seen but do not fulfil their pro- mise for flowers are scarce. But the Brown-beaks L.suaveolens are dif- ferent, although their more grass-like leaves and habit of growing amidst a tangled mass of other plants make their attractive, gold and brown flowers rather hard to see. Open spaces and brisk sea breezes do not please the Lizard Orchid Bur- nettia cuneata, so it is rarely seen but it is known to be scattered along the coast from Walkerville to Sydenham Inlet. Its hiding place is often revealed after fire has destroyed the cover. Spider Orchids The coastal atmosphere suits the spider orchids and many species are to be found, but the Common Spider- orchid Caladenia patersonii is not really common at all. It used to be plentiful in South Gippsland with quite a diversity of colours and forms, in- cluding several hybrids with other species, but much of its habitat has now been destroyed. In the lakes region it is known only from one place near Lake Victoria, and there all the blooms are very light in colour. In lesser numbers but known over a greater extent are the Veined Spider C.reticulata, the Clubbed Spider C.clavigera, and the Fleshy-lip C.tes- sellata. The handsome Fringed Spider C.dilatata is the most common of all. The strong smelling Musky Cale- denia C.augustata is usually plentiful where found, but one may chance on only a few of the bright pink black- tongue Caledenia C.congesta. Pink Fingers C.carnea are every- where, ranging from large pink forms (some with a heavy musky perfume) down to the tiny rose coloured C.carnea var. pygmaea. Not often encountered but sometimes forming considerable colonies, the pretty pink and white Hare Orchids C.menziesii often cling to a gentle slope. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Pink Fairies C.latifolia are truly coastal and seem to revel in the salt- laden air right on the beach, and to enjoy the company of honeyeaters which call in the Tea-trees and Bank- sias above them. The sweetly per- fumed Blue Fairies C.deformis also inhabit the coastal belt and once, years ago, the rare Dark-blue Caledenia C.tutelata was found not far from the seashore in South Gippsland. The de- struction of its seaside haunts has made the delicate little Orange-tip Caledenia C.aurantiaca very rare too, although recorded from further inland. Waxlips, Helmets and Tongues The Waxlips Glossodia major are present nearly all over Gippsland, but the other member of this genus, G.minor, is confined to the east, and although found along the coast, is more at home a few miles inland. Winter may seem an odd time for those quaint little gnomes the helmet orchids to bloom, but actually the coastal winters are mild and calm, sunny days occur more often than in the spring. Seven species of helmet orchids are known in Gippsland and all except ‘one are to- be seen ‘at the coast, mostly cuddled down in sandy beds under bracken. The Fringed Helmet-orchid Corybas fimbriatus is the most widespread on the islands and shores. The Small Hel- met C.unguiculatus 1s not so common and prefers growing among the Bank- sias. The Stately or Veined Helmet- orchid C.dilatatus and the Purple Hel- met C.diemenicus like to grow tucked well under the tufts of rush-like plants. Some of the places where the Spurred Helmet C.aconitiflorus used to grow have now given way to farm- lands, but it can still be found in coastal districts. The smallest of all, C.fordhamii, was found at Mallacoota not so long ago and is known in a tangled swampy area not far from January/February 4 Kod CLark ia Bonnet or Tartan Tongue Cryptostylis erecta Sydenham Inlet. Shallow depressions and moist places are the choice of the Large Tongue- orchid Cryptostylis subulata, and it 1s often associated with the Horned Orchid which is inclined to grow in the margins of these localities. The Small Tongue-orchid C.leptochila is far less common and does not bloom as readily; its dark green, purple- backed leaves are more often seen than the dark red flowers. The beautiful Bonnet or Tartan Tongue-orchid C.erecta and the sel- dom-seen Furred or Leafless Tongue- orchid C.hunteriana are both rare species of the East Gippsland coast where a small reserve has been set aside for them; unfortunately the re- serve is much neglected, wires have been cut and cattle have entered. Luckily there are a few of these or- chids from Cape Conran onwards, but how long will they last if a coast road is built to Mallacoota? 23 Greenhoods The genus Pterostylis is a large one and the greenhoods are popular or- chids, perhaps because they are better known than some of the others. Many are found along our shores. The well-named Superb Greenhood Pterostylis grandiflora used to grow right in the township of Lakes En- trance but, alas, this tract has now made way for houses. However, a search among the Blady Grass round Lake Tyers and in sheltered places along to Lake Marlo will reveal this graceful orchid, and it still finds a haven on some of the islands of Corner Inlet. The South Gippsland populations of the Bearded Greenhood P.barbata have a bright yellow feathery labellum, while those of East Gippsland sport a green one! Not many orchids bloom in the autumn, but this is the time to find the Tiny Greenhood P.parviflora, the at- tractive little rosette of leaves appear- ing later on. Also at this season the Autumn Greenhood P.revoluta, al- though mainly an inland species, is found near Lake Victoria and Lakes Entrance, the blooms having a parti- cularly beautiful colour. Another richly coloured hood, the Leafy Greenhood P.cucullata nestles in the sand dunes, well sheltered from winds off the ocean but within sound of the sea. It sometimes has as com- panion the Slender Greenhood P.foliata. But not the sand dunes for the Sickle Greenhood P. falcata; wet places please this large, lovely green and white, perfumed hood. The Blunt Greenhood P.curta is one with Pink Fairies in appreciating the sea air, and they are sometimes to be found side by side. Many greenhoods grow well on Wil- son’s Promontory and on the islands, three of the rarer ones being the at- 24 Prawn Greenhood Pterostylis pedoglossa tractive Striped Greenhood P.alata, the very handsome Banded Green- hood P.vittata, and the pale dainty Dwarf Greenhood P.nana. Very abundant but none the less fascinating are the Nodding Greenhoods P.nutans (called Babes-in-the-cradle when we were children), Trim Greenhood P.con- cinna, and Maroon-hoods P.peduncu- lata; they may be found practically anywhere, and sometimes with the Tall Greenhood P.longifolia. The Al- pine Greenhood P.alpina descends to the coast in places, and P.alveata is a coastal species. The delicate little Prawn Greenhood P.pedoglossa is known to us only from Marlo, almost within a stone's throw of the sea. A little further inland but still within a few miles of the water, is a spot along a little creek where the Pointed Greenhood P.acuminata var. ingens may be found in close con- junction with the Sickle Greenhood and Giant Greenhood P.baptistii; the rather golden green of the latter shows up well against the others. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Potato Orchid and Hyacinth Orchid Occasionally, further inland, one may see a number of the Potato Or- chids Gastrodia sesamoides, but closer to the coast only solitary specimens seem to be found. Altogether different is the Hyacinth Orchid Dipodium punctatum whose tall pink spikes brighten up our road- sides over the summer months. This orchid usually has its petals reflexed, but now and then one may come ona specimen with the petals all widely spread and looking extremely beautiful. As the Gippsland coastline is varied, so varied are the entrancing little or- chids along it; entrancing too is the search for them as one never knows what might be found. Fox predation of the Brown Antechinus On 30 December 1975 I investigated the stomach contents of a juvenile male fox Vulpes vulpes killed that morning in the Black Hills, a 1000 hectare area of bushland north of and adjacent to the township of Toolern Vale in south-central Victoria. As well as a few crushed arthropods including a 6.5 centimetre centipede, some rabbit fur, a small quantity of black earth and a few feathers, the fox’s sto- mach contained a roughly masticated female Brown Antechinus Antechinus stuartii which I preserved as a spirit specimen. While I know of no mammal survey of the area, I have found the Brown Antechinus there previously, along with seven other species of terrestrial native mammal typical of the central Victorian ranges. The occurrence of Antechinus stuartii in the fox’s diet in the Black Hills ap- pears to concur with the findings of H. Brunner, J. W. Lloyd and B. J. Coman in their *Fox Scat Analysis in a Forest Park in South-East Australia" (1975) where Antechinus spp occur regularly in the diet of foxes inhabiting forested areas in south-east Australia. Owing to the lack of ground cover in the Black Hills com- pared to Brunner’s et al. study area in the Sherbrooke Forest Park, I think it might be reasonable to suppose that the fox might be a rather more serious pre- dator of Antechinus spp in the former area than in the latter. This could pos- sibly be determined by a similar intensive fox scat analysis in the Black Hills. SIMON TOWNSEND, PAsCOE VALE SOUTH. Natural History Medallion Trust Fund We will be pleased to receive donations from organisations that feel this Fund is worthy of their support. The following donations have been received and we thank the donors: Amount invested as at 30 December 1976 .. .. .. .. «- . Mr and Mrs North, Montmorency .. $369 5 Total $374 New Publication available from FNCV Sales Officer “Wildflower Diary” by Winifred Waddell, edited by Jean Galbraith, illustrated by Elizabeth Cochrane, published by the Native Plants Preservation Society of Victoria as a memorial to Miss Waddell, founder of the Society. 150 pp including excellent index; all text pages contain monochrome drawings. $2.00; members $1.50; post 50c. January/February 25 Bush-peas of Victoria — genus Pultenaea No.3 BY M. G. Corrick* Pultenaea gunnii Bentham in Annalen des Wiener Museums der Naturgeschichte Vol. 2: 82. Pultenaea gunnii occurs in southern, central and north-eastern Victoria and in Tasmania. It is common in several places close to Melbourne. Before the recent widening of Canterbury Road through Vermont and Heathmont it was very conspicuous along the road- side and may, at the time of writing, still be seen along the railway line near Heathmont and in the Ringwood hills. It appears to favour medium to open forested areas but is also found on heathland near Cranbourne. Bentham’s type description was based on a collection by Ronald Gunn in Van Diemen’s Land. In the same publication Bentham also described P.baeckioides but later (in Flora Aus- traliensis 2; 116 (1864) he synony- mised this under P.gunnii. The growth habit is variable, usu- ally quite slender, erect and up to | metre high, but some forms are pro- cumbent and spreading. A | aan du» 1 B as G ne A M P gunnii | | | v Coma ind Tu C A | ) R H M P stricta | a | D Fig. 44. Known distribution of Pultenaea gunnii and P.stricta. 26 The leaves are ovate to lanceolate, 2-6 mm long and 1-3 mm wide with an acute but not prickly tip. The margins are recurved and the under sides are paler with rather long, silky hairs. The stems, particularly the younger ones, are also hairy. The slender, dark brown stipules are about 1 mm long and often difficult to find on the older parts of the plant. The flowers are in loose terminal clusters on pedicels less than 3mm long. A few dark brown enlarged stipules, often with minute central lobes are clustered at the base of the pedicels, but even when the flowers are almost sessile the calyx is never hidden by these stipules. When the buds are very young they are tightly enclosed in the enlarged stipules. The bracteoles are 1-2mm long, lanceolate, dark brown and attached halfway up the calyx tube. The calyx is covered with silky hairs and some- times the tip and mid-rib of the brac- teoles are hairy. In Victoria this species shows con- siderable variation in leaf size, some of the larger leafed forms resemble P.stricta but differ from it in the minute bracteoles, the absence of bracts and in the acute leaves with re- curved margins and inconspicuous vein on the underside. SPECIMENS EXAMINED include: Victoria — Ringwood, M.G.Corrick 2295, 26.1x.1970 (MEL 03762); South Belgrave, M.G.Corrick 4805b, 12.x.1974 (MEL 503763); near Linton, M.G.Cor- rick, Oct. 1967 (MEL 503764); Cranbourne, E.O.Dawson, 11.x.1965 (MEL 504917); Black Forest, near Woodend, M.E.Phillips, 9.xi.1965 (CBG 033926); Tasmania — Gunn (MEL 504796, possibly Syn-type). *7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Fig.4. a-f. P.gunnii. a, habit from MEL 503762; b-e, from MEL 503762; b, calyx and bracteole, bracteole drawn a little larger; c, style; d, en- larged stipule; e, leaf with normal stipule; f, variation in leaves; i, Linton MEL 503764; ii, January/February Ringwood MEL 503762; iii. Belgrave MEL 503763. g-l. P.stricta. g, habit MEL 503766: h, calyx and bracteole; i, style; j, floral bract: k, leaf and stipule; 1, narrow leaf from Port- land MEL 503765. 27 Pultenaea stricta Sims in Curtis’s Botanical Magazine Vol. 38, plate 1588. Pultenaea stricta appears to be con- fined to areas on and south of the Dividing Range. Its distribution coin- cides to some extent with P.gunnii, but it favours moister sites and will usually be found on stream banks, close to drains or in moist depressions. It also occurs on the south-eastern coast of New South Wales, in south- eastern South Australia and Tasmania. The description and illustration of the type were based on a specimen cultivated in England. It is a slender, usually erect shrub up to 1 metre high. The stems are faintly ribbed and pubescent when young. The leaves are obovate or oblong, 5-10 mm long and 2-4.5 mm wide, flat with obtuse tips and a short recurved mucro. Both surfaces are usually glabrous; the mid vein is prominent on the under surface, and the slightly thickened margins are minutely lumpy on the underside. The stipules are less than 1mm long, dark brown and persistent. The flowers are clustered in heads at the tips of branches and surrounded with brown, papery bracts. The outer bracts are truncate, bilobed and some- times have a short point between the lobes. The margins are ciliolate, and the mid-rib and base are sometimes hairy. Most of the bracts have usually fallen by the time the flowers are fully open. The calyx is villous with long, silky hairs and the slender, lanceolate, con- cave bracteoles are attached in the upper half of the calyx tube and reach almost to the summit of the calyx lobes. This species is sometimes confused with P.gunnii (q.v.), but the flat, obtuse leaves with prominent mid-vein on the underside are distinctive, and a few bracts will usually be found still remaining at flowering time on the young buds. The distribution as shown in Fig. 4A varies from that recorded by Churchill and de Corona, as only records that can be confirmed by collections have been mapped. There have apparently been no collections this century from the vicinity of Mt Sturgeon or Dun- keld where it was found in 1857 and 1871 respectively. Its continued exist- ence in this area seems doubtful. In- formation and collections which ex- tend the range shown for this and the preceding species would be welcome. SPECIMENS EXAMINED include: Victoria — near Gorae West, H.Aston 717, 22.x.1960 (MEL 503765); Kentbruck, M.G. Corrick, 9.x.1966 (MEL 503766); Dunkeld, S.Fisher, 1871 (MEL 504919); Mt. Sturgeon, 1857 (MEL 504918): Wilson's Pro- montory, J.H.Willis, 14.x.1967 (MEL 503768). “The inter-tidal zone”—September *Victoria's Resources? Readers who have been particularly interested in these two coast issues of ‘The Naturalist’ will also be interested in the 1976 September issue of Victoria's Resources'. It has an article by Dr. E.C.F.Bird, articles on Westernport Bay, tidal salt-marshes, birds of tidal lands, and animal life of the inter-tidal zone. Available from NRCLV, Box 104, Springvale, 3171, 60c including postage, or 50c from a newsagent. 28 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 New Plantain in Victoria—Plantago indica L. BY Mary A. Topp* Plantago indica L. has now been found growing in and near Wyperfeld National Park. This constitutes the second record for Victoria, the first being a transitory occurrence at Tatura in July 1931. It looks as though this species has become, or is becoming, naturalized at Wyperfeld. It would be interesting : $t Herbarium specimen of Plantago indica L. collected in Wyperfeld National Park. About two-thirds natural size. January/February to know whether it is present in any other parts of Victoria. To obtain this information, the National Herbarium of Victoria will identify specimens of P.indica free of charge if Field Naturalists send in specimens with de- tails of the locality in which they were collected, abundance, name of collec- tor and date of collection. Collected by David Hart (then one of the National Park rangers) on 2 and 28 January 1976, the specimens of P.indica came from one patch at Wyperfeld of about two acres located about 400 metres (a quarter of a mile) north of Peg 6 on the ring road. It was in deep sand among Myriocephalus sturtii on the side of a sand dune, with Eucalyptus incrassata a little higher up along the top of the dune. Since then he has noticed that it is common on the edge of the road and in farm- land just south of the Park. Other rangers who have been at Wyperfeld longer recall having seen it in the Park for some years. P.indica is a native of central and southern Europe and south-western Asia, and has been naturalized in South Australia for some time. It is listed in Black’s Flora of South Aus- tralia, ed. 2, 793 (1957) as P.Psyllium L. (a nomen ambiguum — see Eichler, Suppl to Black’s Flor. S. Aust. 287 (1965)) and stated to be growing north of Port Wakefield and near Mullala. It differs from the Plantago spp previously known for Victoria in hav- ing branched stems which bear oppo- site leaves (see photo). Like our other Plantago spp it has dense flower spikes at the ends of the stems. *National Herbarium of Victoria. 29 Plantago indica L. is an erect or spreading glandular pubescent usually branched annual 10-30 cm high; leaves opposite or whorled, narrow-linear, 2-4 (or more) cm long, flowerheads ovoid or globular, 5-15 mm long, on axillary peduncles longer than the leaves; bracts lanceolate-acuminate, longer than the lanceolate sepals, all glandular-pubescent; capsule 2-celled with two oblong shining seeds, chan- nelled on the inner face. Flowering Oct-Jan in South Australia. Acknowledgements To Mrs. A. de Corona of Mon- ash University, who forwarded Mr. David Hart’s specimen and notes to the National Herbarium, Mr. David Hart, who collected the specimens and Mr. Bruce Fuhrer of the Monash Uni- versity, whose photograph of one of the specimens is reproduced here. The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora Part 2 — Latin, Greek and Miscellaneous (Continued from page 257 in the previous issue) BY JAMES A. BAINES Orthrosanthus. Gk orthros, dawn, day- break, morning; anthos, flower; be- cause the flowers open early in the day, hence the common name, Morn- ing Flag, for our sole species, O. multi- florus, the genus being close to Pater- sonia in family Iridaceae. This is an- other genus shared with Andean South America, Australia having five en- demic species. *Oryzopsis. Gk, ‘like Oryza’, the generic name of rice (the English word is descended from the same Greek word); -opsis, with the form of. Our introduced species, *O. miliacea, has a common name Rice-millet that exactly corresponds with its. scientific name (miliacea = like millet, Milium ). Oschatzia. Named by Walpers in 1849 after Herr Oschatz, whose surname comes from the town of Oschatz, be- tween Leipzig and Dresden in Ger- many. (The derivation from Gk oscha, a sucker, is erroneous, although oschos does mean a shoot or young branch.) Oschatz is a Slavonic place-name, from Polish osek, meaning woodland cleared ready for the plough. Oschatzia 30 is an endemic Australian genus, with only two species, one Tasmanian and the other, O. cuneifolia, Wedge Oschatzia, on the mainland; family Umbelliferae. *Osteospermum. Gk osteon, bone; sperma, seed; because of the hardness of the seeds. *O. clandestinum, our in- troduced species, is known as Tripteris, from the generic name by which it was known from 1831 till 1943. There is nothing clandestine about the plant, except that it hides its flowers — de- spite the name Stinking Roger in W.A., it is far from being the menace of its close South African relative Chrysanthemoides monilifera, which was formerly classified in Osteosper- mum, earning the name Boneseed therefrom. Ottelia. Latinized from the Malabar (Indian) name, ottel-ambel by Per- soon in 1805. O. ovalifolia, Swamp Lily, is our sole species in a genus of 40 species, mainly tropical and sub- tropical, in family Hydrocharitaceae. (To be continued) Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Mammal Survey Group Contribution No. 10. Mammals in south-western Mornington Peninsula BY B.A.CALLANAN* AND R.J.GIBSON* During the period from mid 1972 to late 1975 the mammal fauna of the south-western Mornington Peninsula was investigated. Most of the major habitat types of natural bushland re- maining in this part of the Mornington Peninsula were included in the survey. The area studied is shown in Fig. 1. It includes the southern Mornington Peninsula from Mt Martha to Point Nepean, and follows the general line of the Arthur's Seat ridge and Main Creek to Cape Schanck. A. total of 1307 trap nights and 65.5 *Mammal Survey Group, FNCV, C/- Secretary, 5 Prentice St, Elsternwick, 3185. Survey Localities 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 Totals Trap nights 164- 2.80 |. 107. 51 74 Spotlight hours 13 - 6 Species trapped (numbered as in ‘Notes on Species’) 5. Petaurus breviceps 7. Isoodon obesulus 8. Antechinus stuartii 9. Antechinus swainsonii 10. Sminthopsis leucopus 1 11. Rattus lutreolus 7 8 4 3 12. Rattus rattus 10 10 13. Mus musculus 2 3 11 1 Species identified during spotlighting 1. Macropus giganteus 2. Wallabia bicolor 2 3. Trichosurus vulpecula 4. Pseudocheirus peregrinus 4 10 5. Petaurus breviceps 15. Oryctolagus cuniculus 1s 16. Vulpes vulpes 1 Species recorded by chance during the survey 1. Macropus giganteus 2 2. Wallabia bicolor 2 5 3. Trichosurus vulpecula 4. Pseudocheirus peregrinus 3 6. Phascolarctos cinereus 9. Antechinus swainsonii 10. Smithopsis leucopus 14. Chalinolobus gouldii 15. Oryctolagus cuniculus 16. Vulpes vulpes 1 17. Tachyglossus aculeatus 1 1 0131-2067 "62°" "20 1307 cc s NR eae 65.5 1 1 1 4 58 8 3 7 alu 13 2 3 g WONPLSCTN 39 6 30 4 2 aS 29 ies 7 9 recorded 3 Deas 8 165 19 21 225 1 1 2 p 15 1 1 3 3 7 13 3 2 4 17 5 5 2 5 4 5 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 2 1 7 Survey localities: 1 Coastal dunes to Pt Nepean; 2 Boneo Swamp; 3 Cape Schanck; 4 Outlet of Main Creek; 5 Drum Drum Alloc Creek - Pine Ridge Estate; 6 Lightwood Creek and Main Creek at Longpoint Road; 7 Arthur's Seat; 8 Main Creek at Baldry's Road crossing; 9 Mt Martha. January/February 31 spotlight hours resulted in thirteen native and four introduced mammal species being recorded in the survey area. Table 1 lists all mammal species identified in each specific survey loca- lity, with the corresponding extent of oyiz w I» z « 9T - 3 s] e», E IF 0) o < za LL at 6 ut : © re > & = cS iy al Gren = i << D ura d sa ac q H O "m a = LL z [| E — ET O e D tc y 3 Jf E $i 32 survey effort expressed in numbers of trap nights and spotlight hours. This table also indicates whether the animals were taken during trapping, or seen while spotlighting or by chance during general work. Flinaers 9 + x T Së N E E ; : [v] P + Zz-4&4— —— b= «x Cc | (69) op) dp) « co Qo x M + ae © D 3 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The complete efficiency of the trap- ping and spotlighting methods for all native species is not fully known, thus the results are presented for species simply as recorded. Table 2 allocates the species re- corded to specific minor grids num- bered in accordance with Brook (1976). Methods Two basic methods of survey, live trapping and spotlighting, were usually adopted. (a) Live trapping. Traps used were wire cage traps of dimensions 12.5 by 20.5 by 35cm, fold- ing aluminium traps 10 by 9 by 32.5 cm, and on some occasions wooden "drop door" traps of approximate dimensions 15 by 18 by 26 cm. Results obtained with each type of trap are pooled in this report. Traps were usu- ally baited with a mixture of peanut butter, oatmeal and honey or treacle. Traps were prepared and placed out before 5.00 p.m. and recovered before 8.00 a.m. the following morning. It was usually possible during this survey to bring captured animals to the camp site for identification. (b) Spotlighting. Spotlighting was generally conducted in the same locality as trapping and was of necessity confined to tracks and defined pathways in the bush. The spotlighting party usually in- cluded three or more people, at least two with spotlights and one recording. Mammal species (Numbered 4 in ‘Notes on Species’) 11 (c) General. Daylight observations of mammals were recorded and skeletal remains, Owl pellets and similar materials col- lected. Survey work included a detailed de- scription of the trapping and spot- lighting habitats. The method deve- loped by Specht (1970) was used as the basis of vegetation description in the field. This classification divides plant communities into structural forms according to height and density of the dominant layer. Where a de- scription of the dominant layer alone is not a complete description of the subsequent layers in a locality, it has been necessary to use type descriptions of intermediate, shrub and ground cover layers of vegetation. General Description of the Study Area Physiography, Topography, Drainage. The granitic bulk of Arthur's Seat is the dominating physiographic feature of this section of the Mornington Peninsula. Resistant Devonian granites form the uppermost height of Arthur's Seat, 317 m above sea level. The coun- try descending south and east to the rocky coast between Cape Schanck and Flinders is developed on thick basaltic lavas weathered at the sur- face to dark brown clays. West of the basaltic and granitic formation the peninsula consists largely of hummocky dune terrain, of varying degrees of stability, with crests generally between 15 and 30m above sea level. In general, weathering Minor Specific grid survey location areas 1 AO M c eG. 7 STET 19 874 14.3 1 + 874 16.3 9 + + + + + + 874 24.1 2 + + + 874 24.2 SRI cote E mete ebat. xb 874 24.3 3 y + 874 24.4 4,6,8 de p~ a repre + + + No. of grids located in D S alt: Sed oy SR v2 1 2 7 January/February @ Fop + o4 + 12€ ASe aA 15 215917 $a 4 + + 5 Table 2. PE + 10 Minor grid + s location + D a ee v 15 Of species + + + + + 8 + + + + + 14 4 4 2 4 3 5 33 of the basic geological structures has left a landform of gentle relief. Streams are few in the short dis- tance from the main ridge to the bays and ocean. Main Creek to the south- east of the ridge is the major stream, whilst drainage of the western side in- cludes the perennial Drum Drum Alloc Creek and Waterfall Creek. Part of the drainage from the south- western slopes accumulates in an in- land basin between coastal and bay dunes at Boneo (or ‘Tootgarook) Swamp, which is now largely drained and used as pasture land. The 100m, 200m, and 300m con- tours included in Fig. 1 indicate basic ground relief. The geological features of the study area have been described by Bird (1975). Climate. The average annual rainfall varies from about 700 to 1000mm, with a slight winter maximum. The surround- ing bays and ocean give the area a year-round moisture availability and mild conditions. Frosts are rare in the study area. Table 3 gives rainfall and temperature figures for stations in and near the study area. Vegetation of the Nine Study Areas The vegetation of the entire Morn- ington Peninsula has been described by Calder (1975). In the following notes, the main vegetation is outlined for each of the nine localities in which survey work was concentrated. Each locality is stippled in Fig. 1. 1. Point Nepean. The basic seaward land form of the study area is a series of high sand dunes parallel to the ocean beaches. The foredune predominates and can be mobile, with shifting sand being blown to heights above older sub- sidiary dunes to the landward side. A series of depressions sheltered from the main force of ocean winds are formed in this series of dunes. The dune vegetation consists either of open hummock grassland, closed scrub, and herbland alternating with patches of closed heath. At Point Nepean on the western tip of the peninsula, the low closed heath and shrublands extend across to Port Phillip Bay. However, further east the vegetation merges into low open woodland with a heath or grassy understorey. The foredune vegetation is domin- ated by introduced marram grass Ammophila arenaria, and the native hairy spinifex Spinifex hirsutus. Further inland the dominant species of the closed heath-open woodland are moonah Melaleuca pubescens, coast tea-tree Leptospermum laevigatum, coast beard-heath Leucopogon parvi- florus, sea-box Alyxia buxifolia, coast bitter-bush Adriana klotzschii and in- troduced boxthorn Lycium spp. In the more open areas the herb- land and grassland layer includes spinifex, introduced buffalo grass Stenotaphrum secundatum, coast sword-sedge Lepidosperma gladiatum, tussock grass Poa sp, seaberry saltbush Jan Feb Mch May Jne Rainfall mm 60 78 106 1 69 77 108 32 39 48 Temperature 9C 52 43 57 53 53 73 Portsea Cape Schanck Red Hill 21.7 13.3 20.6 13.9 23.0 13.6 21.4 13,9 23.7 14.8 22.0 14.7 Portsea max. min. Cape Schanck max. min. 34 Table 3. Rainfall and temperature -— monthly means from all records Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Rhagodia baccata, climbing lignum Muelhenbeckia adpressa and small- leaved clematis Clematis microphylla. In the central areas of this locality, the closed heath gives way to areas of grassland and low woodland of moonah with tussock grass and sword-sedge in the hollows. The foreshore area along Port Phillip Bay consists of closed scrub dominated by coast tea-tree and coast beard-heath with wirilda Acacia re- tinodes and coast pomaderris Poma- derris oraria. 2. Boneo Swamp. The Boneo Swamp trapping locality was situated to the south of Brown’s Road 1.2km east of the Rosebud- Flinders Road. A large proportion of Boneo Swamp is treeless tussock grassland-sedge- land; however, some areas are dominated by woolly tea-tree Lepto- spermum lanigerum and swamp paper- bark Melaleuca ericifolia to 6 m tall. Amongst this open scrub at a shrub height of 1 to 2m, a dense cover is formed with common reed PAragmites communis, slender dodder-laurel Cas- sytha glabella, silky tea-tree Lepto- spermum myrsinoides, kangaroo apple Solanum laciniatum and small-leaf bramble Rubus parvifolius. Ground cover here is uniformly dense except for patches beneath taller vegetation. Dominant species are tussock grass and coast saw-sedge Gahnia trifida. Minor species include yam daisy Microseris scapigera and kidney-weed Dichondra repens. The more extensive swampy areas adjoining and interspersed among these alliances carry dense beds of common reed, with tussock grass more common near woodland and scrub. 3. Cape Schanck. Survey area 3 was situated in un- dulating coastal scrub on the steep January/February seaward escarpment to the west of Cape Schanck. The vegetation of this locality is coastal in nature and has two main forms. On the undulating sandy land it is a shrubland of regrowth coast tea-tree, moonah and coast beard-heath to ap- proximately 2m tall. This formation merges in places with low open-wood- land of coast banksia Banksia intergri- folia regrowth to 12m over a quite thick ground cover of bracken, tus- sock grass and sedge. The seaward escarpment carries a very dense cover including woolly tea- tree to 5m with coast tea-tree, moonah, coast beard-heath, sallow wattle Acacia longifolia and sweet wattle A.sauveolens. 4. Outlet of Main Creek. Survey Area 4 was located along Main Creek between the Rosebud- Flinders Road and its mouth at Bush- ranger's Bay. The eastern side of the creek has been cleared for grazing, while the western side has thick ground cover between the creek and the top of the escarpment. Trees in this locality are restricted to patches and isolated specimens, be- coming fewer near the coast. Tree species present are coast banksia Banksia integrifolia, coast tea-tree and blackwood Acacia melanoxylon. Shrubs are limited to small coast banksia and coast tea-tree inland, with coast beard-heath dominant near the coast. The ground cover is mostly tus- sock grass, bracken, sedges and nettle Urtica sp with patches of common reed near the creek. 5. Drum Drum Alloc Creek — Pine Ridge Estate. Survey Area 5 was concentrated near Rosebud in areas of woodland and closed sedgeland-heathland be- tween Browns Road and Drum Drum Alloc Creek, and in the Pine Ridge 35 Estate. The granite shoulders of the Main Ridge are drained on the southern side by a number of small creeks which have cut deep valleys on the higher ground but almost disappear in swampy depressions in finding their way through the low dunes bordering Port Phillip Bay. The vegetation along these creeks is typically a fern gully association in the higher ridges, merging to a heathy woodland on drier areas and to patches of closed sedgeland-heath in the damper areas of the lower reaches. The woodland and open forest here is a mixture of narrow-leaf peppermint Eucalyptus radiata, silver-leaf string- bark E.cephalocarpa and messmate stringybark E.obliqua with a variable, mid-dense canopy at 10-20m over a heathy scrub layer of austral bracken Pteridium esculeatum, silky tea-tree Leptospermum myrsinoides, prickly tea-tree Leptospermum juniperinum and prickly broom-heath Monotoca scoparia. Many large plants of the austral grass-tree Xanthorrhea aus- tralis are present in the woodland areas. Ground cover is sparse over grey light sandy soil and includes tussock grass and small herbs. The closed sedgeland-heath of the damper areas is dominated by bracken fern, sedges, and kangaroo apple. Manna gum Eucalyptus viminalis occurs commonly between the wet areas and the woodland-open forest. White Sallee Eucalyptus pauciflora occasionally associates with it in this situation. Locality five is the first described to include plants of the genus Eucalyptus. Eucalypts are not found in the study area west of an approximate line pro- jected north from Cape Schanck (Calder 1975). 36 6. Lightwood Creek and Main Creek at Longpoint Road. Survey Locality 6 was located in the vicinity of the confluence of Light- wood and Main Creeks and included much of the bushland running south to the Rosebud-Flinders Road in the vicinity of Long Point Road. This includes large areas of rela- tively natural bushland interspersed with cleared areas, some of which appear to have regenerated to a sub- climax heathy community. The vege- tation varies from an almost closed forest near the streams through re- generating — heathy-grassland inter- spersed with areas of woodland to patches of low forest. Along Main and Lightwood Creeks the canopy reaches an average height of 13m and a cover of 60 to 80 per cent. Two basic associations of manna gum with narrow-leaf peppermint, and messmate with narrow-leaf pepper- mint predominate. Patches of swamp gum Eucalyptus ovata are found in wetter areas. Close to the creeks silver wattle Acacia deal- bata and blackwood add to the canopy. Here Main Creek cuts a 3 to 4m trench. The streamside vegetation in- cludes many constituents of wet forest vegetation such as rough tree-fern Cyathea australis, musk daisy-bush Olearia argophylla, hazel pomaderris Pomaderris aspera, snow daisy-bush Olearia lirata, Victorian christmas- bush Prostanthera lasianthose and prickly tea-tree. The ground cover beneath the al- most closed understorey is restricted to ferns and leaf litter, and is quite bare in places. Where the ground cover near the creeks is exposed to sunlight it becomes a medium to dense association of tussock grass, sedges, wattle mat-rush Lomandra filiformis, wire grass and bracken, with common reed on the silt terraces inside creek Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 bends. The density of cover decreases from the stream terrace to eventually merge into a uniform cover of bracken fern. Where drainage is poorer away from the creeks and the soil is heavier than the light sandy soil elsewhere, a heath- land or heathy woodland community has developed. The upper storey here has a 20 to 30 per cent cover and a height of 3 to 6m, and is formed mainly of narrow-leaf peppermint, messmate, swamp gum and black- wood. The intermediate storey 1s low and merges with the shrub layer in dense patches of sallow wattle, sweet wattle, scented paperbark, prickly tea-tree, coast beard-heath and scrub she-oak Casuarina species. The ground cover of this associa- tion includes austral grasstree, prickly broom-hcath, common ground-fern Culcitia dubia, bracken, wattle mat- rush, with kidney-weed, tussock grass, wire grass T'etrarrhena juncea, angled flat-pea Platylobium | obtusangulum and golden bush-pea Pultenaea gunnii. On elevated level sandy areas, patches of open forest occur com- prised mainly of messmate with occa- sional narrow-leaf peppermint. The intermediate storey is open with groups of prickly tea-tree and paper- barks. The shrub and ground cover here is dominated by austral bracken to 1.5m high in an almost uniform strata with occasional patches of sedges and tussock grass. 7. Arthur’s Seat. Survey Arca 7 included the northern and south-western escarpments of Arthur’s Seat. Two basic vegetation types were re- cognised — that on the ridges and that in the stream gullies. The latter was less well defined on the drier north-western aspects. The higher ridges carry an open January/February forest vegetation with an upper storey dominated variously by silver-leaf Stringybark, cherry ballart Exocarpus cupressiformis and coast she-oak Casuarina littoralis. The flanks of the ridges carry a canopy similar to the above but with manna gum and swamp gum occurring occasionally. The understorey of the ridge vegeta- tion is generally open with some shrub patches including common dogwood Cassinia aculeata, swamp paper-bark, scented paper-bark, prickly moses Acacia verticillata, sweet wattle, tree everlasting Helichrysum dendroideum furze hakea Hakea ulicina and silver banksia Banksia marginata. Occasionally the vegetation tends to even out to heathy structure which includes scrub she-oak, sweet wattle, prickly tea-tree, silver banksia, and hedge wattle Acacia armata, beneath a few stunted narrow-leaf peppermints and silver-leaf stringybark. The ground cover is generally light, including wallaby grass Danthonia sp, angled flat-pea, kangaroo grass The- meda australis, grass-tree, wire grass and sedges Lepidosperma spp. The vegetation above the falls on Waterfall Creek is similar to the ridge vegetation described but with black wattle Acacia mearnsii common. Im- mediately below the falls where the steep sides of the gorge cannot carry large trees, only herbs, grasses and bramble cling to rock ledges. The vegetation includes woolly tea-tree, sweet bursaria Bursaria spinosa, bitter- pea Daviesia sp, hop goodenia Goodenia ovata, native geranium and native bramble Rubus parvifolius. The ground cover includes wire grass and Lepidosperma species. 8. Main Creek at Baldry's Road Crossing. Survey Area 8 was located in natural bushland in the damp gullies 37 leading down to Main Creek down- stream from the ford-bridge on Bal- dry’s Road. The vegetation here is an open forest dominated by messmate and narrow-leaf peppermint which co-exist with manna gum and swamp gum near the creek and its immediate terrace. Along several tributary gullies a dense middle storey of hazel poma- derris, musk daisy, soft tree fern Dicksonia antarctica and christmas bush form a dense canopy over a mainly ferny ground cover of common ground fern, hard water-fern Blech- num wattsii and native bramble. Elsewhere there is a sparse to dense mid-storey depending on aspect. Shrubs present include silver banksia, prickly moses, blackwood, and scented paper-bark which is dense in damp patches, woolly tea-tree, prickly tea- tree, tree everlasting, dogwood, and coast beard-heath. Ground cover plants include showy bossiaea Bossiaea cinerea, red-fruit saw-sedge Gahnia sieberiana, wattle mat-rush and tussock grass. 9. Mt Martha. Mt Martha is the most northerly area studied and is relatively isolated from the Arthur's Seat-Main Ridge- Main Creek area. The natural vegetation remaining at Mt Martha is restricted to Mt Martha Public Park, the scout camp and some semi-natural woodland on private land on the south-west escarpment. The major tree species are white sallee, manna gum and narrow-leaf peppermint, and these occur as low woodland or open forest with a light intermediate storey which is more dense in parts with silver wattle, coast she-oak, cherry ballart, blackwood and coast banksia present. Shrubs include kangaroo apple, coast tea-tree, hop bitter-pea Daviesia latifolia | and prickly tea-tree. 38 Ground cover consists of various grasses, rushes and sedges with kanga- roo grass prominent, especially in some areas of the seaward slopes. Notes on Species Recorded These notes are listed in accordance with the systematic list of Ride (1970). ORDER MARSUPIALIA Family Macropodidae l. Grey Kangaroo Macropus giganteus (Shaw) The grey kangaroo was recorded at localities 4, 5, 6 and 7. The species was usually seen in grassland and open heathland bordering scrubland and woodland. The greatest number of animals seen at any one time was 8 near Light- wood Creek, and usually only 1 to 3 animals were seen at a time. 2. Black Wallaby Wallabia bicolor (Desmarest) The black wallaby was recorded from 7 specific localities: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9. The species was seen in damp de- pressions and stream gullies and occa- sionally on tracks close to thick vege- tation in eucalypt forest and woodland. Outside the eucalypt zone it was re- corded in dense scrub and grassy sedgeland. The results indicate that this species is widespread in the study area. Specimen: skull. Nat. Mus.C16156. Family Phalangeridae 3. Brush-tailed Possum Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr) The Brush-tailed possum was seen in localities 6, 7, 8, and 9. Thirteen animals were recorded dur- ing the survey, and considering the amount of spotlighting done, this is low for an animal that is usually com- mon in woodlands and forests in Victoria. Sightings were from woodland and Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 forest habitats dominated by pepper- mint, manna gum and swamp gum. The species was not recorded from Survey localities outside the Eucalyptus zone. Family Petauridae 4. Ring-tailed Possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus (Baddaert) The ring-tailed possum was seen in eight localities: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. This species was the most frequently recorded mammal during the survey, and was also widespread. The largest number seen by one spotlighting party was 39 in 1.8 hours at locality 6. This species was common in pepper- mint dominated open forest, coastal tea-tree and melaleuca scrub, and in the understorey vegetation along creeks and gullies. One was seen feed- ing in the introduced Pinus radiata. At locality 6 on 1 July 1972, one female ring-tailed possum was hand- caught. Two young were found in the pouch, each having black fur, and measuring 4 cm in length. 5. Sugar Glider Petaurus breviceps (Waterhouse) The sugar glider was found in three localities: 6, 7, and 9, which indicates that it has a wide distribution through- out the Eucalyptus woodland and forest. It is unusual that one of the three specimens recorded was trapped — amongst white sallee woodland on Mt Martha. Another was sighted on the northern escarpment of Arthur's Seat at Eatons Cutting Road in habitat dominated by messmate and peppermint in associa- tion with manna gum, cherry ballart, she-oak and an understorey of scrub and heath. The third specimen was sighted in a coast banksia amongst woodland bor- dering the thick gully vegetation along Lightwood Creek. January/February Family Phascolarctidae 6. Koala Phascolarctos cinereus (Goldfuss) The koala was recorded at localities 5 and 9. This species was seen only by chance during the survey. A large male specimen was seen in a manna gum near the corner of Jetty and Duells Road, Rosebud, in March 1976. This is the sole recording outside the Mt Martha locality where specimens have been seen during the past five years from swamp gum, manna gum and hybrid woodland along Norfolk and Suffolk Roads near the proposed golf course, from manna gum wood- land along Hearn Road by the Joseph Harris Scout Park, and from open manna gum and coast she-oak wood- land along Somers Avenue near the State River and Water Supply Com- missions Basin Reserve. In September 1976 a mature male specimen was seen in almost pure white sallee woodland, with some scat- tered manna gum along Forest Drive bordering the Mt Martha Public Park. Family Peramelidae 7. Short-nosed Bandicoot Isoodon obesulus (Shaw) Four short-nosed bandicoots were captured at the Pine Ridge Estate and south-western Arthur's Seat, in survey localities 5 and 7. The vegetation of these areas is chiefly silver-leaf stringybark wood- land with bracken very common in a light sandy soil. Short-nosed bandicoot /soodon obesoulus. 39 MAT Swainson's Note the dark feet. Photo by Leigh Winsor. Family Dasyuridae 8. Brown Antechinus Antechinus stuartii (Macleay) The brown antechinus was captured in four survey localities: 5, 6, 7, and 8. With a total of 77 animals captured, it was the most frequently recorded terrestrial mammal. At locality 6, in the months of May and June, 37 were caught on three separate occasions and had a con- sistent ratio of male to female of 1:1. However, on 9 December, six ani- mals caught at Arthur’s Seat were all females. The species was caught in all the eucalyptus alliances except white sal- lee at Mt Martha. The ground cover or understorey was usually dense and varied from wet gully communities to dry heath. The species was not re- corded outside the Eucalyptus zone during the survey. Specimens: FWD 8239, FWD 8240, FWD 9013, FWD 9368. 9. Swainsons Antechinus Antechinus swainsonii (Waterhouse) Swainsons antechinus was recorded from three localities: 5, 6, and 7. Thirteen specimens were caught during the survey, but the pattern of capture was inconsistent. Six animals were taken in one night at Kings 40 ie, ^ anta EF DN at die! Fo P ^ d : sad Aeg Lol erdt Brown antechinus Antechinus stuartii. Note the light coloured foot. Waterfall Gully yet subsequent trap- ping, both there and elsewhere, yielded only low numbers. This irregular pat- tern did not appear to be correlated with annual reproductive cycles. The species was only found in damp, dense heath, herb and sedge complexes in open forest or woodland, and in the vicinity of streams within the eucalypt zone. Specimen: FWD 9014. 10. White-footed Dunnart Sminthopsis leucopus (Gray) Four specimens of white-footed dunnart were recorded at three widely separated localities: 2, 6, and 9. A male and female were captured in one night near the junction of Main and Lightwood Creeks amongst tus- sock grass, wattle mat-rush and sedges in open woodland. Another male specimen was cap- tured at Boneo Swamp in the tussock grassland-sedgeland, and subsequent work has resulted in other specimens from this locality. (T.P.Thwaites, pers. comm. ). The fourth specimen was found Vict. Nat. Vcl. 94 2 dac Pj. EORR COM." BO EOD prat Rattus lutreolus. Photo by Gary Lewis. dead on the road turn-table at the top of Mt Martha. The habitat nearby was a white sallee woodland over a grassy understorey. Specimens: FWD 8238, FWD 9867. ORDER RODENTIA Family Muridae 11. Swamp Rat Rattus lutreolus (Gray) The swamp rat was caught at all nine trapping localities. This species was caught in greatest numbers at Boneo Swamp where eight were taken in 80 trapnights; at all other localities the species was re- corded in lower numbers. Most animals were caught in damp grassy sedgeland, with smaller numbers being recorded in dryer areas with a low ferny understorey or heathy tus- sock grassland. The species was always found in areas of moderate to very dense ground cover. Specimens: Nat.Mus.C15736, FWD 9369. 12. Black Rat Rattus rattus (L) The introduced black rat was found in five localities: 1, 3, 5, 6 and 7. This species was recorded in greatest numbers at Point Nepean and Cape Schanck. The swamp rat was recorded at the same trapping sites in both these localities. Specimen: FWD 8241. January/February 13. House Mouse Mus musculus (L) Ihe introduced house mouse was found in five localities: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6. At Cape Schanck most house mice were caught in tea-tree and coast beard-heath scrub near the seaward escarpment. At Main and Lightwood Creeks and Boneo the specimens were taken in tussock grass and sedge areas. Specimen: FWD 8242. ORDER CHIROPTERA Family Vespertilionidae 14. Gould's Wattled Bat Chalinolobus gouldii (Gray) Three specimens of Gould's wattled bat were obtained from P.M.G. cable boxes. Two specimens came from Mt Martha and one from McCrae near area 7. Specimens: FWD 8119, FWD 8982, Nat.Mus.C15154. ORDER LAGOMORPHA Family Leporidae 15. Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus (Lilljeborg) The introduced rabbit was recorded in four localities: 3, 6, 7 and 9. The species was observed in greatest numbers at Cape Schanck where 12 animals were recorded. At area 6 only two animals were seen in a paddock near messmate stringy-bark woodland and scrub, where scats and scratchings were also recorded. One was seen on Waterfall Gully Road and one at Mt Martha. ORDER CARNIVORA Family Canidae 16. Fox Vulpes vulpes (L) The fox was seen at localities 3, 4, 6 and 7. In locality 7, three juvenile foxes were seen during a weekend survey in December 1973. One was seen in long grass while spotlighting near East- bourne Road, another on Waterfall 41 $ SEE A Echidna Tachyelossus aculeatus. Photo by John Wallis. Gully Road, and the third was seen the next morning on Eatons Cutting Road. All were about one-third adult size. The single sightings of foxes at the other three localities were of adults, in sparsely wooded areas at localities 4 and 6, and on a sand dune at 3. ORDER MONOTREMATA Family Tachyglossidae 17. Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus (Shaw) Six specimens of the echidna were sighted at five localities: 1, 3, 6, 7 and 9. All sightings were made in daylight. At Arthur's Seat both specimens were seen in heathy woodland habitat, one near Waterfall Gully Road and the other on Eatons Cutting Road, At area 6 the sighting was made in open wood- land, and at Cape Schanck in tea-tree scrub. Discussion This survey must be regarded as a set of highlights of knowledge upon which a more exact picture may be built. It is quite evident that some animals are more trap-shy than others, whilst some arboreal mammals tend not to look into the beams of the spotlight or are difficult to detect because of their evasive behaviour. These factors result 42 in the two problems; one, of deter- mining all the mammal species which exist in any area; and the second, less serious, of gauging the relative popu- lation sizes. Native mammals most frequently encountered were the ring-tailed pos- sum, brown antechinus, swamp rat and grey kangaroo. Native mammals seen less frequently were the black wallaby, swainson's antechinus and brush-tailed possum. The short-nosed bandicoot, sugar glider, echidna, koala and white- footed dunnart were recorded in rela- tively low numbers. Native species with a wide distri- bution in the study area are the swamp rat, ring-tailed possum, black wallaby and echidna. Given the nature of the light sandy soil and the ease with which the echidna can conceal itself, the wide spread of localities in which it was recorded suggest that this species occurs in most parts of the study area. A pattern in the distribution of species is apparent. Both the antechinus species re- corded were found only in eucalyptus woodland and forest, especially in the Arthur's Seat ridge and Main Creek Watershed. The brown antechinus was found consistently in all localities which had at least a moderate ground cover. Swainson's antechinus, while in generally lower numbers, was recorded more often from tangled heath, herb and sedge complexes and in the vicinity of stremas. The third Dasyurid recorded, the white-footed dunnart, is generally seldom captured during sur- vey work. This species was found in widely separated localities both in and outside the eucalypt zone and may be more abundant in the study area than is directly indicated by this survey. The bat fauna is most probably more extensive than recorded here. The only specimens were taken by chance. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The only native rodent recorded during the survey, the swamp rat, appears to occur in any part of the south-western Mornington Peninsula where there is a thick undisturbed ground cover which it requires to form runways and shelters. The complete absence of the Bush Rat Rattus fus- cipes and the wide distribution of the Swamp rat are probably related factors. The introduced black rat was con- sistently found near past or present domestic development and showed a preference for coastal areas where it sometimes co-existed with swamp rat. The black wallaby was apparently distributed between Eucalyptus and non-Eucalyptus areas with a slight pre- ference for non-Eucalyptus areas. This species was not recorded from Point Nepean during this survey, however, reported sightings (T.Sault pers. comm.) and faecal evidence strongly indicate its presence there. This species was also sighted south of Red Hill during the survey. With the exception of the Mt Martha, locality 9, the brush-tailed possum was seen in generally lower numbers in the survey area than could be expected in the forest and wood- land of southern Victoria. It was noted that the Mt Martha vegetation carried a more varied Eucalyptus flora than elsewhere in the study area. The Conservation Council of Vic- toria in its publication ‘“‘Westernport Region Conservation Survey" (Cham- pion 1974) has recorded details of mammals reported for the study area. Reports of wombat Wombatus ursinus are cited from the Red Hill-Red Hill South area. While no survey work was carried out in this locality, no evidence of wombat was found in the nearby Arthur’s Seat and Main Creek locali- ties or elsewhere in the study area. The CCV also cites evidence for the presence of short-nosed bandicoot in Greens Bush near localities 6 and 8; January/February however, although there is evidence of soil disturbance to support this, no direct trapping or sighting was made of this species here. The reports of brown antechinus from Mt Martha and echidna from the mouth of Main Creek cited in the CCV report are not directly supported by the results of this Survey but could be expected from a reasonable interpolation from the results. Ihe native mammal species re- corded during this survey are found in one of the main recreational areas close to the city of Melbourne. The habitat and general environment which supports them is the back- ground to the major recreational at- tractions. The continued existence of these species, while of immeasurable intrinsic value, is also an exact criterion which can be used in assessing the adequate location and extent of natural area reservations. Considering the pace of urban expansion here, careful and ur- gent preservation of all the remaining vegetation units is required to prevent range shrinking and disappearance of mammals from the peninsula. Fortu- nately this has commenced, notably with the formation of the Cape Schanck National Park, the nearby Green's Bush Block, the conservation park at Arthur's Seat and other smal- ler reserves. However, while these enclaves are absolutely necessary, a matrix or net- work of continuous or semi-continuous bushland is considered valuable to the conservation of native mammal species in the study area. Today, the broken set of vegetation units ranging across the peninsula in the study area is all that remains of a continuous linkage between natural vegetation alliances. Without rehabili- tation of roadside verges and of other linkages, the isolated nature of the re- maining bushland on public land 43 lowers its value for mammal conserva- tion below the actual percentage figure of its extent in this area. Preservations of links down the Main Creek water- shed, through Waterfall and Drum Drum Alloc Creeks to Cape Schanck, along the ocean coast and through Boneo Swamp are quite important. If separate localities are singled out for comment, the Boneo Swamp loca- lity must be considered important for the preservation of the white-footed dunnart, while the Mt Martha locality may have previously been over-looked (it is ranked only 3 by the CCV) for its value for native mammal conserva- tion, particularly of the sugar glider and white-footed dunnart. The area from immediately behind the township of Rosebud back to the foot of Arthur’s Seat is the only locality in which the short-nosed bandicoot was recorded during this survey. Little of this area is reserved as natural habitat, and its few links with other bushland areas are threatened. Acknowledgements The data presented in this paper is the result of the work of the following members of the Mammal Survey Group: B.Archer, W.Archer, K.Ball, D.Barham, P.Billingham, M.Blyth, B.Burbage, B.Callanan, C.Chandler, W.Clark, M.Coultard, G.Douglas, G. Dredge, P.Dredge, R.Forse, M.Gash, R.Gibson, D.Harrison, S.Harwood, M.Howes, H. Janssen, J. Jolley, L.Jolley, B.Kelly, D.Kelly, L.Kelly, P.Kelly, R.King, R.Lawson, E.Lawson, S. Mor- ton, N.Purdue, M.Rubio, T.Sault, L.Schaller, G.Smith, M. Taylor, T.Thwaites, H.Winsor, L.Winsor, P.Whitely. Special mention must be made of the individual contributions by Messrs T.Sault, R.Lawson and T. Thwaites. Protected species of mammals were handled under the provisions of a permit issued by the Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Ministry for Con- servation. Equipment used in the sur- vey was obtained with the help of a grant from the M.A.Ingram Trust. Messrs J.H.Seebeck and S.R.Morton provided much helpful criticism of the manuscript. REFERENCES Bird, E.C.F. (1975). The Shaping of the Nepean Peninsula, Victoria, Australia. Vic. Nat., Vol. 92. Brook, A.J. (1976). ‘‘Biogeographic Grid System for Australia." Search, Vol. 7, No. 5: 191-195. Champion, R. (1974). Ed. ''Westernport Region Conservation Survey.” C.C.V. Calder. W.B. (1975). Peninsula Perspectives. Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Mel- bourne. Ride, W.D.L. (1970). ‘‘A Guide to the Native Mammals of Australia.” O.U.P. Specht, R.L. (1970). Vegetation. In Leeper, G.W. (Ed.) The Australian Environment, 4th ed. C.S.L. R.O. and M.U.P., Melbourne. Brown antechinus Antechinus stuartii. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria The Microscopy Group, FNCV The FNCV Microscopy Group orgi- nated in the Microscopical Society of Vic- toria which was founded last century and incorporated with the FNCV in 1954. The Microscopy Group is unusual among FNCV study groups in that few meetings include a formal address. Usually, each member sets up his micro- scope on arrival and later each talks about his specimens while the others examine them. Often there are as many as 20 microscopes, for some members 44 bring more than one and the FNCV in- struments are also used; the different types enable a person to get the best possible viewing for his specimens. Examination of specimens always leads to discussion, and the exchange of ideas sometimes helps to solve a problem or trigger off a new line of thought. Some members concentrate on a par- ticular subject, while others are less specialist in their interest, but all aim to get the most value and enjoyment from Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 their microscopy activities. At every nature show, members of the Group have an extensive display with about 20 microscopes. These show vari- ous natural history objects at various magnifications and are always a great draw. The Group has also made exhibits for other organisations to illustrate the development and applications of micro- scopy; the microscope can be so very useful in a wide range of spheres. And members of the Group would be happy if their instruments and know-how were utilised more often by the other FNCV groups. Microscopy Group meetings are on the third Wednesday of the month at the Herbarium at 8 p.m. Any FNCV member is welcome as a regular attendant or as an occasional visitor, whether or not he/she owns a microscope. Members will be glad to help with technical matters or you can simply look at the specimens. The microscope opens up a whole new world; come and see for yourself. Reports of FNCV Meetings General Meeting Monday, 13 December 1976 Dr Elizabeth Turner gave us an absorb- ing address on the natural history of Santa Cruz, one of the islands in the Galapagos group which she visited in June-July 1976. These islands were visited by Darwin in 1835, and the differences between species from island to island were factors that led him to formulate his theory of evolution. The islands are volcanic in origin and some still have active volcanoes. Although astride the equator, climatic conditions are modified by the Humboldt Current which sweeps up from the Antarctic to Peru and then swings westward; there is even a Galápagos penguin! Only three islands are inhabited and the whole group is a national park administered by Equador. The Galápagos are not beautiful but tourists go there to see the unique wild life. Not that it is so “wild”? for most of the creatures seem to have as little fear of man as in Darwin's time. Dr Turner showed shots of marine iguanas basking in dozens on the rocks, quite close shots of birds and, as well as other creatures, the giant tortoise. Galápago is the Span- ish word for tortoise. Exhibits. Specimens of Galeolaria caespitosa were under low-power micro- scopes: one showed the opercula, one under water showed the fern-like waving tentacles, and a third the worms removed from the tubes. Insect exhibits included 2 cm black and yellow soldier beetles of family Canthari- dae; 2.5 cm bull ant kept alive on honey and water; large, brown “furry” cater- pillar of moth family Anthelidae — not to be handled as fine hairs can break off and enter the skin. A plant specimen was one that has not January/February been seen in Victoria for 50 years — Whorled Zieria Ziera aspalathoides from Melville’s Cave Reserve near Rheola. General Meeting Monday, 10 January, 1977 This was a Members' Night and Mr Ian Cameron chaired the programme pro- vided by five members. Miss Madge Lester spoke about pro- ducing the ‘Naturalist’ and displayed stages of the process: typescripts and illustrational matter received from authors and marked by editor with in- structions to typesetter and engraver, proofs from typesetter and from en- graver, editor's page layouts, page proofs from compositor, and one page of type and blocks locked up ready to go to the press. Mr Alan Morrison showed slides of folding and faulting of sedimentary rocks at Waratah Bay, a blob of ropy lava at Newport, ripples in sandstone at Alice Springs, basalt columns in NSW, and other fascinating geological features. Mr Ian Morrison spoke of the deaths- head or bird-dropping spider Celaenia excavata. It does not make an orb web but attracts moths by its smell, and we saw slides of a moth caught and then bound up in web like a mummy while the spider sucked its juices. More slides showed the spider laying eggs in a pale fibrous-looking mass which eventually turned brown and was strung up with the other three globular egg sacs. Mr Ray Gibson showed slides of Langwarrin Reserve, the habitats it pro- vides for native animals and some of the animals — bandicoot, brown antechinus, sugar glider, brush-tail and ring-tail pos- sums, swamp rat, and new holland mouse. Mr Cyril Henshaw showed slides of 45 various eucalypts, their habit of growth, buds, flowers and fruits. Exhibits. An extensive exhibit of insects included eggs, cocoon and live adult of emperor gum moth Antheraea eucaly pti; larvae of two snout moths (family Lasio- campidae), one that feeds on tea-tree, the other on eucalypts, and cocoons of a parasitic wasp of which the larvae feed on snout moth larvae; Narycia species of casemoth that covers its case with sand grains; etc. Blackellow’s bread, a formless grey- brown solid mass about 15 cm x 10 cm was the vegetative part of the fungus Polyporus mylittae. A tall stem of Dia- nella tasmanica was bearing several dark blue berries. Lemon-scented boronia Boronia citriodora from Tasmania carried a label “please smell"! There were rocks from Tasmania, agate from Calder Gravel pits Tas, and rock formed round old car parts at Jan Juc beach. Botany Group’s Weekend in the Grampians October 9-10, 1976 Members of the Botany Group had a very enjoyable and worthwhile weekend in the Grampians, although the weather was cold and showery. Comprehensive lists were made of the plants seen in each locality and these have been passed on to a person studying plant distribution and mapping in Victoria. Saturday morning was spent on the Mount William road where many acacias were still in bloom on the lower slopes. This road was one of the best areas for flowers that we visited. Some highlights were: Hairy Boronia Boronia pilosa, the prostrate pink flowered Boronia nana, and the Thyme Beard-heath Leucopogon thymifolius which is endemic to Victoria and found in the Little Desert as well as the Grampians. There were lots of the endemic Narrow-leaf Trymallium Try- malium d’altonii which had been flower- ing for some time. Hibbertia cistiflora with its red stems was found on the road- side; the only Victorian occurrence of this guinea-flower is in the Grampians. A beautiful sight was the Truncate or Notched Phebalium Phebalium bilobum covered with pink buds and cream flowers. Lunch was had at the Borough Huts, 46 then a quick walk and we were off to the Barbican Rocks where we found a very different habitat and new plants. Large patches of Fairies Aprons Utricularia dichotoma were blooming. The moss gar- dens also contained the Book Trigger-plant Stylidium calcaratum. The last area to be inspected on the Saturday was the Sundial Turntable. This was another good area for flowers and we found a third Boronia, Boronia latipinna, the Grampians Boronia. This is a tall bush with much paler flowers than those of the two species we had found earlier on Mt William. Pultenaea benthamii was just coming into bloom here; other Bush-peas were in bud and not yet out. On Sunday morning our first stop was made on the Pomonal-Halls Gap road where there were lots of plants in flower. Then on to the Fyans Lake area near the Wildflower Sanctuary. Orchids were our main interest here. The Crimson Sun- orchid Thelymitra macmillanii was almost out. The most abundant orchid was Rabbit-ears Thelymitra antennifera, and other plentiful species were the Leopard Orchids Diuris maculata and Waxlips Glossodia major. Less abundant species included Golden Moths Diuris pedun- culata, Bluebeard Caladenia Caladenia deformis, Pink Fingers C.carnea, Green- comb Spider-orchid C.dilatata, Common Spider-orchid C.patersonii and the Salmon Sun-orchid Thelymitra ruba. Amongst the orchids was a hakea smothered in cream flowers. It was Hakea rugosa, an uncommon one to Melbournites. The excursion was attended by fifteen field naturalists, some of whom camped, others stayed in overnight vans or a motel. Between us we identified about 140 species of plants. Our thanks go to Dick Morrison who led the excursion and shared with us his love and knowledge of the Grampians. B. MORRISON. Change of editor Madge Lester undertook to be editor for one year and that undertaking has been completed with this issue. We thank Miss Lester for her services, and wish satis- faction and success to the incoming edi- tor Mr Reuben Kent, 16 Papua Street, Watsonia, 3087. Mr Kent will serve for one or two years, when we hope there wil be another volunteer for a short term. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 (Continued from page 2) Sunday, 20 March—Wattle Park: ‘Birds’. Led by Miss M.McKenzie. Meet at Wattle Park Kiosk at 1.30 p.m. April 8-12, Easter—Mt Buller. Lodge accommodation has been booked and members will be responsible for their own catering and care of lodge; accommodation is in bunk rooms with mattresses and pillows, but sleeping bags or other bedding will be required, including pillow slips. Food will be needed, but crockery, cutlery and cooking utensils are provided. There is a well-equipped kitchen and lounge. Transport will depend on the number going, but cost of accommodation should be well under $20 for the four days. Further details at meetings or excursion secretary may be contacted. Deposit of $8.00 should be paid when booking. GROUP MEETINGS (All members are invited to attend any Group Meeting, no extra payment.) At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, at 8.00 p.m. First Wednesday in the Month—Geology Group. 2 March—“‘‘Victorian Coastlines” (Mr Nevil Rosengren). 6 April—‘‘Wilpena Pound” (Mrs Gabi Rosos). Third Wednesday in the Month—Microscopical Group. 16 February—Members' Exhibits and Discussion. 16 March—Club General Meeting on this night, Group Members to arrange display of microscope exhibits. Second Thursday in the Month— Botany Group. Each meeting includes a quarter-hour address for beginners—various subjects. 10 February—‘‘Members’ Night." 10 March— From the MacDonnell Ranges to the Hamersleys.”’ (Mr and Mrs A.Stirling.) At the Conference Room, The Museum, Melbourne, at 8.00 p.m. First Monday in the Month—Marine Biology and Entomology Group. 7 February—‘‘Members’ Night." 4 April. 2 May. At the Arthur Rylah Institute, Brown Street, Heidelberg, at 8.00 p.m. First Thursday in the Month—Mammal Survey Group. 3 March. 7 April. 5 May. GROUP EXCURSIONS All Members are invited to attend Group Excursions. Botany Group 26 February— Coastal Vegetation." Leader, Mrs B.Morrison. 26 March-— Combined excursion with NPPS to Toolangi. Leader, Mr Bleakley. Day Group— Third Thursday in the Month. Thursday, 17 February— Visit ““Rossneath” Garden. Meet at Kew Gardens, 11.30 a.m. Mont Albert Tram No.42 in Collins Street, alight at Kew Town Hall. Thursday, 17 March—“‘Schwerkolt Cottage", Mitcham. Meet Heatherdale Station, 11.30 a.m. Lunch at Antonio Park. Visit “Schwerkolt Cottage", 1.30 p.m. 20 cents admission. GROUP CAMP NOTICES The Mammal Survey Group—March Camp will be at Mt Torbreck. Details—Ray Gibson, 874 4408. January/February 47 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable Sir HENRY WINNEKE, K.C.M.G., O.B.E., (D.C. Key Honorary Office-Bearers, 1975-1976. President: Mrs. MARGARET CORRICK, 7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn, 3103. (857 9937.) Vice-President: Secretary: Assistant Secretary (correspondence): Mr. GARNET JOHNSON, 20 Sydare Avenue, Chadstone, 3148. (56 3227.) . 1:reasurer — Subscription Secretary: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Rd.; East Malvern, 3145. (211 2427.) M Editor: Miss M. J. LESTER, 4/210 Domain Road, South Yarra, 3141. (26 1967.) er iid Mr. J. MARTINDALE, c/o National Herbarium, The Domain, South ATIA. Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161. (527 27749.) Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3135. (211 2427.) Archives Officer: Mr. CALLANAN, ?9 Reynards St., Coburg, 3058. Tel. 36 0587. Group Secretaries Botany: Mrs. RUTH ANDERS, 7 Barrington Drive, Ashwood, 3137. (25 3816.) Day Group: Miss D. M. BELL, 17 Tower Street, Mont Albert, 3127. (89 2850.) Field Survey: R. D. SANDELL, 39 Rubens Gve., Canterbury, 3126. (83 8009) Geology: Mr. T. SAULT. Mammal Survey; Mr RAY GIBSON, 26 McCulloch Street, Nunawading, 3131 (874 4408). Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy St., East Brighton. (96 3268.) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Rates of Subscriptions for 1975 Metropolitan T A. od "f o a M | h. $1 Joint Metropolitan .. T d M. D T AA , m $1 Joint Retired Members : m » AA M. TJ an $1 Country Subscribers, and Retired Persons over 65 $ Joint Country - ;5 (A Jd» 2 T: um ^ "m $1 Junior WA / ae m ' ZE m $ Subscriptions to Vict. Nat. | Ut ipm 2" At i $ Overseas Subscription AR A sat ie iM 1, T A $1 Junior with “Naturalist” .. 2 PS - UM TR E! un E. $3.00 Individual Magazines hs "M $1.20 All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. ODNODONG OOUioOooOouo SXF OS Oe G9 JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Mol. 94, No. 2 March’ April 1977 Published six times a year by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Category “B” Registered in Australia for transmission by posi as a periodical. FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra. GENERAL MEETINGS Wednesday, 13 April, 8.00 p.m. (Note: Monday 11 is Easter Monday). Speaker: Mr H. Alan Morrison. Subject: “The Beauty of Nature." Monday, 9 May, 8.00 p.m., Annual General Meeting. Business: Minutes of 1976 Annual General Meeting. Receive Report of Council. Receive Balance Sheet and Statement of Receipts and Expenditure. Elect Council (President, Vice-President and 10 Council Members). Elect Office-bearers. Speaker: Mr David Lee, CCV Executive Member. Subject: “Retreat” —a talk on the general theme of conservation and the coastal strip. Honorary Membership presented to Mr Fred Barton. Monday, 13 June, 8.00 p.m. (Note: Meeting will be on Monday even though it is the Queen's Birthday Holiday). Speaker: Dr J.Peterson, Department of Geography, Monash University. Subject: “Searching in the Mountains for Evidence of Climatic Change." Honorary Membership presented to Mr F.H.Morley. New Members April General Meeting: Ordinary: Mrs K.J.Bartlett, 31A/2 Brownfield Street, Mordialloc, 3195. Mr A.M.Hicks, 4 Raynes Street, South Caulfield, 3162 (Fauna). Dr Lynne Selwood, Dept. Zoology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3083. Mrs A.E.Walker, 4 Moylan Street, East Bentleigh, 3165. Joint: Mr Ian Bentley and Mrs Jane Bentley, 14 Derby Street, Camberwell, 3 124 Mr L.C.Jones and Mrs S.Jones, 22 Beach Road, Hampton, 3188 (Marine Biology). Mrs N.R.Stewart, 15 Wynne Street, West Rosebud, 3940. Country: Mr P.Cheal, P.O. Box 92, Warburton, 3799. Mr Graeme M.Coulson, 82 Mitchell Street, Echuca, 3625 (Mammals). Dr Robert Goldsack, 82 Rosemead Road, Hornsby, NSW, 2077 (Botany and Microscopy). Mr F.Kingwell, 53 Service Street, Tatura, 3616. Mrs Margaret J.Rotheram, 1801 Geelong Road, Mount Helen, 3350. Mr Roger Thomas, Wirrimbirra Sanctuary, Bargo, NSW, 2574. Mr A.B.Waller, R.S.D., Iguana Creek, via Bairnsdale, 3875. Junior: Master Darren Frazer, Unit 4, 155 Buckley Street, Noble Park, 3174. FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday, 17 April—Healesville. Coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. Fare: $4.50. Bring one meal and a snack. Sunday, 15 May—Kinglake area. Fungi and general; leader, Mr Bruce Fuhrer. Coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. Fare: $4.50. Bring one meal and a snack. People going by car meet at FNCV Kinglake property at about 11 a.m. (Continued on page 91) 50 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Committee: Barry Callanan, Margaret Corrick, Ian Hood, The Victorian Naturalist Volume 94, Number 2 April 1977 Editor: Reuben Kent Brian Smith, Paul Temple A new species of Legless Skink, by Glen J. Ingram .. On the Victorian Coast — a Pacific Ridley Sea-Turtle, by C. J, Limpus and P. A. Roper i Housing in Pre-White Australia, by George rd CD " Rosellas feed on “Stinging Hair" CA HERUUARS Ps Gael Goldsack and Robert J. Goldsack hol oi rat New Names in Zoology, by Brian f Sain An Environmental Excursion to Flinders Tina by A. D. Ingamells and P. A. Hyland .. Bush Peas of Victoria, by M. G. Corrick ua JS A New Combination in Portulacaceae, by J. H. Willis " Some Comments on Victorian Landhoppers, by R. D. Sandell Generic Names of Victorian Flora, by J. A. Baines .. Richard Wallace Bond — an appreciation by J. H. Willis .. Paddling for Water Plants, by Elizabeth K. Turner .. Complications among Vegetable Caterpillars, by Ellen Divhdbh A List of Vertebrate Fauna of the Black Hills, dons Simon Townsend T. Y LU M Pigmy Possum, by dau Gaibeaith : Field Naturalist Club of Victoria: The Day Group Report of Meeting Financial Report for 1976 Cover illustration: Margery Lester, Metallic Skink, Leiolopisma metallica, from Cape Woolami, Victoria. Distributed throughout Tasmania, the Bass Strait Islands and parts of southern Victoria. Photograph from Mr J. Coventry, National Museum of Victoria. A New Species of Legless Skink Anomalopus pluto from Cape York Peninsula, Queensland $< ZONAL MOSS fv cA Te 7 N Cu 4. /. $ ~ 29 JUN1981 OF viete «7 —_—_— GLEN J. INGRAM* Arnold (1966) noted that the group Saiphos had undergone a bewildering array of changes in status and defini- tion and traced these through to Mittleman (1952). Cogger (1973, 1975) adjusted the lattcr's groupings by separating off Saiphos as a monotypic genus containing only equalis, and re- surrecting Anomalopus to include only the Australian species of Mittleman's Saiphos and Ophioscincus. This pro- posed classification is a pragmatic exercise and no methodology for the decisions is given. So beyond mention- ing that this new species keys out to Anomalopus in Cogger (1975: 242) and appears related to some of the in- cluded species, no justification can be offered for my generic placement. Grecr and Cogger (pers.comm.) are, however, investigating generic classi- fication in this group. The only specimen of this new species available was collected from a small patch of monsoon forest 115 km south of Bamaga, Cap? York, on Cockatoo Creek in July, 1975. Inten- sive searching to obtain other speci- mens was unsuccessful and because of the remoteness of the area, and short- age of time and finance, return to the area to obtain other specimens is not foreseeable in the near future. Thus the species description is based only on the holotype. This work was supported by a grant from the Australian Bio- logical Resources Survey to study eco- logy and biogeography in Cape York (Chief Investigator, J. Kikkawa). 52 Anomalopus pluto sp. nov. Holotype: Queensland Museum Num- ber J26261, McDonald Crossing, Cockatoo Creek, 115km S. of Bamaga, Cape York, 11^-33 55; 1427 ZOTE, collected by L. Webb, G. Monteith and G. Ingram, 14 July, 1975. Diagnosis: A limbless skink with parietals contacting behind inter- parietal, no supranasals, lower eyelid scaly and moveable. Distinguished from A.frontalis by lower midbody scale rows (20 vs usually greater than 28), absence of prefrontals, and from A.ophioscincus by the penetration of the second supraocular to the upper ciliaries separating the last two supra- ciliaries, and from both of these species by a lower number of supra- oculars (2 vs 3), paired and separated frontoparietals, and large nasal insert- ing between rostral and first upper labial. Description: Snout-vent length 7.6 cm. Tail (regenerated) 3.9cm. No supranasals. Nasal large, apparently fused with an upper labial such that it inserts between the rostral and the first upper labial. Rostral large, separating nasals and contacting frontonasals. Frontonasal about twice as broad as wide and contacts broadly the frontal, and narrowly the first loreal. Pre- frontals absent, or greatly reduced such that they may be the first supra- *Queensland Museum. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 eC Cap Fig.1. Head of the holotype of Anomalopus pluto (QM J26261). A. Lateral view. B. Dorsal ciliaries. Anterior and posterior loreals large. Frontal very large and bounded by the frontonasal, the first and second supraciliaries, the first supra- oculars, the frontoparietals and the interparietal. Frontoparietals paired, separated and reduced. Interparietal large. Parietals large and contacting on midline. Nuchals enlarged, two sym- metrical pairs. Temporals small. Two supraoculars, the second inserting be- tween and separating the last two supraciliaries. Four supraciliaries, the first are the largest and may be re- duced prefrontals. Three lower cilia- ries, lower eyelid moveable and Opaque, eyes much reduced. Four upper labials, no enlarged subocular, three lower labials. Two enlarged preanals. Ear not abvious and covered by scales. No external limbs. Midbody scale rows 20, dorsals not enlarged, lateral and dorsal scales smooth. Colour in preservative, brown with a darker tail. The nasals, rostral and mental are covered with a milky derrnis. Remarks: The hoiotype was un- March/April covered under leaf litter in a small patch of monsoon forest by Len Webb while he was looking for charcoal on the floor of the forest. A.pluto is ap- parently a very specialized burrowing skink as indicated by the loss, reduc- tion and fusion of head shields, ab- sence of limbs, and the small, reduced eyes. The large frontal and nasals and the separated frontoparietals are not shared with the other legless Ano- malopus, but the absent prefrontals are similar to the condition found in A.ophioscincus, while the penetration of the second supraocular to the upper ciliaries, displacing (or fusing with) a supraciliary is similar to A .frontalis. This species is named after the god of the underworld, Pluto. REFERENCES: Arnold, J.M. (1966). ‘A taxonomic study of the lygosomid skinks of Queensland’. Un- published M.Sc. thesis (University of Queensland: Brisbane). Cogger, H.G. (1973). Classification of Aus- tralian skinks Herpetofauna. 6(2): 7-14. (1975). Reptiles and Amphibians of Aus- tralia. Reed: Sydney. Mittleman, M.B. (1952). A generic synopsis of the lizards of the subfamily Lygosominae. Smith Misc. Coll. 117(17): 1-35. 53 On the Victorian Coast—a Pacific Ridley Sea- Turtle Lepidochelys olivaceae (Eschscholtz) BY C. J. LiMPUS* AND P. A. ROPERT Summary A sub-adult Pacific Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys olivacae from Victoria, the first Australian record from cool temperate waters, is described. The known Australian distribution 1s Summarised. The only published records of the Pacific Ridley Sea Turtle Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz) in eastern Aus- tralia are of sub-adults from north Queensland, Cape York (Brongersma 1961) and Cairns (Limpus, 1975). Breeding by L.olivacea in Australia has been reported only from the Nor- thern Territory and adjacent islands (Cogger and Lindner 1969). A beach-washed specimen of L.olivacea, see photograph, was found on 23 June 1974 at Point Henry, Corio Bay in western Port Phillip Bay (38*07'S, 144?26'E). The turtle was olive-grey dorsally, and yellow ventrally. It weighed 17kg and the carapace measured (over the curve) 49 cm in length and 53.5 cm in width. The tail extended 9cm beyond the plastron, 3.5 cm beyond the vent and 4cm beyond the carapace. The scutes of the^carapace were not imbricate. There were two claws on each front flipper, but the outer one on each flipper was very small. Its scute arrangement was: nuchal 1, vertebral 6, post-pygal 2, coastal 7/6 (fourth right coastal consisting of two fused scütes), marginal 11/11, post-ocular 3/4, prefrontal 4, inframarginal 4/ 4; The specimen is now in the National Museum of. Victoria, specimen num- ber D42238. Due to partial decomposi- tion, its sex and gut content were not recorded during preparation. 54 Discussion The turtle came to our notice in a discussion by Pescott (1974) of its dis- covery. At this time it was thought to be a Green Turtle Chelonia mydas. It is identifiable as Lepidochelys olivacea because of its two front flipper claws, the number of costal and prefrontal scutes and its colour (see Bustard 1972). Since the minimum carapace size recorded for nesting L.olivacea is 23 inches (58.5cm) (Pritchard 1969) this specimen can be regarded as a sub-adult turtle. McCann (1966) has misidentified a New Zealand specimen of L.olivacea (Dominion Museum specimen no. 849) placing it in Caretta caretta. This New Zealand specimen, collected on the 11 January 1956 in the Wellington District, weighed 541b (24.5 kg) and measured 61 cm and 56 cm in carapace length and width respectively. It was an adult female as indicated by its de- veloping ova. The costal count was 8/7. This description can only apply to L.olivacea and the re-identification of the specimen removes from McCann's data the anomaly of having a supposed C.caretta entering breeding condition when only 61 cm in carapace length. The smallest C.caretta recorded nesting in Queensland was 81cm iri carapace length. McCann (ibid) noted that the New Zealand L.olivacea had been feeding extensively on the plank- tonic Urocordates --(Pyrosoma and Salpa). The ease with which L.olivacea is confused with Caretta caretta, Che- lonia depressa, and small Chelonia *Queensland Fisheries Service. +5 Minnesota Court, Corio, 3214. Vict. Nat: Vol. 94 mydas, indicates the need for caution in accepting identification of sea turtles by persons not familiar with all the species. In this regard, the ready "identification" from verbal accounts by Scott and Mollison (1956) of eight turtles off Tasmania as Caretta caretta was unwarranted. Only identification of those specimens for which suitable preserved material and/or photographs are available should be accepted unless observation is made by experienced persons. Four other species of sea-turtle be- sides L.olivacea have been recorded from cool temperate east Australian waters, viz: Loggerhead Caretta Caretta, Green Chelonia mydas, Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea, and Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata (Green 1971). Of the Australian species only the Flatback Chelonia depressa has now not been recorded south of Queensland. Yet the Flat- back is the only sea-turtle endemic to Australian waters. From current knowledge of Aus- tralian sea-turtle biology, it must be assumed that this Victorian specimen March/April Sub-adu't Pacific Ridley Turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea from Corio Bay, Victoria. of L.olivacea has originated in the extreme north of Australia or in the islands beyond and has been carried by prevailing currents down the east Australian coast. The closest breeding area known for the species is the western Cape York Peninsula. The Queensland Museum has a newly hatched specimen (323927, straight carapace length 4.5 cm) collected from the Edward River area (14°44’S, 141° 34’E) of this region. The size of this eastern Gulf of Carpentaria breeding population is undetermined at present. Despite the paucity of knowledge of the distribution of the species in Aus- tralia, the Victorian specimen of L.olivacea, found approximately 3 300 km south of its previously known sou- thern limit of distribution, is best regarded as a waif. [D.coriacea is the only sea turtle species known to re- gulate its body temperature sufficiently (Friar et al 1972) to be able to sur- vive prolonged exposure to cool tem- perate waters.] That this was a waif is supported by the total lack of records for the species from sub-tropical Queensland where Dr Bustard and one 55 of us (C.J.L.) has been engaged in many years of intensive sea turtle research. On present knowledge, L.olivacea is apparently a rare turtle in eastern Australia. Acknowledgements We thank J. Coventry, National Museum of Victoria, for his assistance and co-operation. REFERENCES Brongersma, L.D., 1961. Notes upon some sea turtles. Zool. Verh. Leiden 51: 1-46. Bustard, R., 1972. Australian Sea Turtles, their natural history and conservation. London, Collins. Cogger, H.G. and D.A. Lindner, 1969. Marine Turtles in Northern Australia. Aust. Zoologist 15 (2): 150-159. Friar, W., R.G. Ackman and N. Mrosovsky, 1972. Body temperature of Dermochelys coriacea: warm turtle in cold water. Science 177: 791-793. Green, R.H., 1971. Sea Turtles Round Tasmania. Rec. Queen Vic. Mus. 38: 1-4. Limpus, C.J., 1975. The Pacific Ridley Turtle Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz) and other sea turtles in north-eastern Australia. Herpeto- logica 31 (4): (in press). McCann, C., 1966. The Marine Turtles and Snakes occurring in New Zealand. Rec. Dominion Mus. 5 (21): 201-215. Pescott, 1., 1974. A Rare Find, Green Turtle in Corio Bay. Geelong Advertiser, 3rd Oct.: 8. Pritchard, P.C.H., 1969. Sea Turtles of the Guianas. Bull. Florida State Mus. 13 (2): 85-140. Scott, E.O.G. and B.C. Mollison, 1956. The Indo- Pacific Redbrown Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta gigas Deraniyagala and the Leathery Turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (Linne) in Tas- pear waters. Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tas. 90: 59-63. A Short Note on a Specimen of Geocrinia Victoriana with Five Legs On the 25th September 1976 I collected a small frog which was unusual in that it had five legs. I identified it with the aid of Cogger (1975) as a specimen of Geo- crinia victoriana. It was found under a flagstone in a damp situation amidst rank pasture grasses 1.2 kilometres west of Creswick in central Victoria. This locality was consistent with the distribution of G.victoriana according to Brook (1975). A small “extra” limb was on the dorsal surface of the right hind leg, 4 millimetres above the knee. This appendage appeared non-functional and on examination its skeletal structure seemed cartilaginous since considerable bending of the femur did no apparent damage. The foot had four very small toes and displayed a club or bumble-footed appearance in life. Pos- sibly it was inflamed and swollen due to an infection since after spirit preservation it took on a proportionally normal size and shape. Unfortunately the specimen expired on the 29 November 1976 as a result of des- sication due to negligence in unusually warm spring weather. Prior to this dis- aster it had obligingly eaten a few spiders and small earthworms. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank Mr Roy Dunn, Curator of Reptiles at Melbourne Zoo for inspecting the specimen; Dr Angus Martin of the Zoology Department, Melbourne University, for giv- ing me a rundown on this sort of pheno- menon generally and encouraging me to write a note on it. REFERENCES Brook, A.J. (1975). * The Distribution of An- uran Amphibians in Victoria;" The Vic- torian Naturalist, Vol. 92, No. 6, pp. 104-120. Cogger, H.G. (1975). “Reptiles and Amphi- bians of Australia." A.H. and A. W. Reed, Sydney, Wellington and London. SIMON TOWNSEND, PASCOE VALE SOUTH. FNCV Subscriptions Now Due The financial year begins on 1 January 1977 and members are asked to pay subscrip- tions promptly. If unable to attend forthcoming general meetings, please send your subscription by post. See rates on outside back cover of this journal. Treasurer/Subscription Sec: Mr D.E.McInnes, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. 56 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Housing in Pre-white Australia BY GEORGE A. CRICHTON * Any mention of shelters used by the Aborigines at the time of the advent of the white invaders, brings to most minds the lean-to, mia mia or wurley; it consisted of two uprights and a crosspiece, against which branches or sheets of bark were leaned. Even this simple structure was dis- pensed with when weather conditions were favourable; many camps con- sisted only of family groups about their individual fires, or around col- lective fires when larger animals were on the bill of fare. In desert areas where branches or bark were unobtainable, a low wall of grass, turf or sand was heaped up, or small branches stuck in the ground, behind which each person scraped a depression, and this served to provide shelter from prevailing winds. For a nomadic life based on hunting and gathering, this type of shelter, or lack of it, must have been sufficient as evidenced by the length of time this continent was successfully occupied before the advent of sawn timber, con- crete and galvanised iron. References in early writings to huts, houses and villages in Aboriginal en- campments are often puzzling; the casual reader might wonder how any- one, even after prolonged absence from the white man's towns, could ascribe such terms to a bunch of lean-tos. But in actual fact, where climatic conditions or food supplies warranted it, the Aborigines did construct weatherproof, semi-permanent dwell- ings, and their construction and use was widespread throughout the continent. Grey, near Hanover Bay, W.A. March/April (Grey 1841: 1-72) states “found a hut built of a framework of logs, in shape like a beehive, about four feet high by nine feet in diameter . . . of very superior description . . . and its low and narrow entrance rendered access difficult.” Later, during his disastrous walk from Gauntheame Bay (Grey 1841: 2-P19-20) “followed it (the Hutt River) for two miles and in this distance passed two villages, or as the men termed them, towns, the huts of which they were composed differed from those in the southern districts, in be- ing much larger, more strongly built, and very nicely plastered over the outside with clay and clods of turf so that although now uninhabited, they were evidently intended for fixed places of residence . . . these superior huts, well marked roads, deeply sunk wells, and extensive warran grounds (native yam) all speak of a large, and comparatively speaking, resident popu- lation, and the cause of this must have been the great facilities for procuring food in so rich a soil." Other entries, 21swokipe ges the Greenough River (Grey 1841: 2P, 37-38) passed a large assemblage of native huts of the same permanent character . . two groups of these close together taken together would have contained at least one hundred and fifty natives." These appear to have been the same huts which, at a later date, gave wel- come shelter to Commander Lort Stokes and his party . . . “some neigh- bouring huts of a superior structure *6 Ainslie Park Ave., Croydon, Vic. 2/7 gave us snug quarters for the night." (Stokes 1846: 2-391.) Earlier at Bathurst Is., Stokes had written . . . “several native habitations, of a totally different and superior construction to any we had hitherto seen . . . stout poles, fourteen to six- teen feet high were brought together conically at the top; a stout thatching of dried grass completely excluded rain and wind." (Stokes 1846: 172- 173.) Further east, at the Albert River, Gulf of Carpentaria (Stokes 1846: 2- 311). . . “Some native huts built of sticks, and neatly plastered over, with doors so narrow that none of our broad-shouldered fellows could enter.” To the south of the continent, George French Angus was visiting the Coorong-Lake Albert district of S.A. (Angus 1847: 1-64) . . . "The people inhabiting the margin of the lake built for themselves winter huts, resembling beehives. . . . These are composed of turf and mud over a framework of sticks, and have small entrances on the leeward side. Along the Coorong they cover these huts with sand and shells, so as to form a hollow mound, im- pervious to wind." He later draws a comparison between the comfort of these huts and the discomfort he ex- perienced in some of the reed huts of the early squatters. Eyre (1845: 301-2-3) describes large houses of the Aborigines, **. . . At other times, large long huts are con- structed, in which five to ten families reside, each having their own separate fire." “. . . if large, or made in wet weather, they are formed of thick solid logs of wood, piled and arranged . . . but presenting an appearance of durability." He also quotes from Robinson’s letter, copied from papers . . . printed for the House of Commons, Aug. 1844, P.240: ‘“‘Tapoe’ the Mount Napier of Major Mitchell. . . . The 58 people who occupy this country have fixed residences; at one village were thirteen large huts, they are warm and well constructed, in shape of a cupola or ‘kraal’, a strong frame of wood is first made, and the whole covered with thick turf, with the grass inwards; those like a ‘kraal’, are sometimes double, having two entrances, others are demicircular . . . one hut mea- sured ten feet in diameter and five feet high, and sufficiently strong for a man on horseback to ride over." In this letter Robinson also describes the ex- tensive trenching carried out by the Aborigines in that area. Seemingly the earliest evidence of fish farming in Australia! Buckley also mentions, ‘two small turf cabins, in each of which . room enough for two persons to lay at length." (Morgan 1852: P.16.) Brough Smyth, in his monumental work, relates a number of accounts by explorers and settlers, of substantial huts throughout southern and other parts of the continent. (Smyth 1976: I: 125-28). Sturt, when north of the Stoney Desert (Sturt 1849, 1: 386) “. . . dis- covered a well of very unusual dimen- sion . . . twenty-two feet deep and eight feet wide at the top. Paths led to almost every point of the compass. . . I came to a village of nineteen huts of large size, to each of which two smaller ones were attached, open- ing into its main compartments." Later he had this to say — (Sturt 1849, 2: 139): “The native habitations, at all events those of the interior, with the exception of the Coopers Creek tribe, have huts of a much more solid construction than those of the Murray or Darling, although some of their huts were substantially built also. Those of the interior were made of boughs with a strong coating of clay over leaves or grass . . . entirely im- pervious to wind or rain . . . and it Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 seemed to be a singular but universal custom to erect a smaller hut at no small distance from the large ones, but we were unable to detect for what pur- pose they were used.”’ Early literature records instances of dwellings where some degree of com- fort was achieved. At the Reynolds Range, approaching the centre of the continent, Stuart records, (Stuart, 1865: 265) — * . a freshly built native wurley. It was thatched with grass to the ground. Inside was a quantity of grass laid regularly for a bed, on which someone had been lying. Round about was collected a large quantity of firewood, as much as would have done us for a night." There were eight men in his party! The Aboriginals made extensive use of stone in the construction of weirs or fish traps; in marking out designs on the ground for magical purposes. Gregory, while travelling the head- waters of the Victoria River, Northern Territory, states (Gregory 1884: 115) — “The country traversed was at first a stoney ridge, on which several small huts had been erected, but scarcely of sufficient size for a man to enter, and the roof was only formed of a few pieces of wood and a little grass. They consisted of a wall three feet high in the form of a horseshoe and about three in diameter inside; the entrance of some had been closed with stones and afterwards partially opened.” Gregory suggested they had been used as sepulchres! Archeological research may yet re- veal more extensive use of stone for building and other purposes. REFERENCES Angus, G. F. et eave Life and Scenes in Aust. and N.Z. Eyre, E.J. (1845). ares of Expeditions of Discovery. 2: 301-3. Gregory, A.G. (1884). Journals of Australian Expeditions. P.115. Grey, G. (1841). Journals of Two Expeditions. 1841: 1-72; Vol. 2, 19-20 and 37-38. Morgan, J. Life and Adventures of Wm. Buckley. 1852: 16. Stokes, J. Lort (1846). Discoveries in Australia. Vol. 1: 172-3; Vol. 2: 311 and 391. Stuart, J. McD. Journals of — 1865: 265. Sturt, C. (1849). Journals of — Vol. 1: 139; Vol. 2: 386. A Night’s Food for Orb-web Spider When a lad in Doncaster, one evening I Observed a large Orb-web spider Araneus productus building a web between the garage and the fowl pen. Thinking I would be a good scout and do my good deed for the day, I went to the stable where my father kept two draught horses, and where a piece of string, covered with flies, was hanging from the roof. Running my hand quickly down the string I caught a large number of flies, hurried over to the now completed spider's web and threw them into the middle of the orb. Down the web came Mrs Spider, March/April gathered in flies, web and all except the main threads, and carried the bundle to the shelter of the overhanging eave of the garage. Apparently she thought it was enough for the night. People ask why garden spiders some- times take in their web at dawn and sometimes not. I think the reason for this Is obvious: if the spider has caught enough, it will take in its webb at dawn Or before; if it has had a poor night, it will leave it there after daylight hoping to catch some day-flying insects. IAN MORRISON. 59 Rosellas feed on "Stinginghair" Caterpillars AN OBSERVATION ON A FEEDING HABIT OF THE EASTERN ROSELLA Platycercus eximius (Shaw) GAEL GOLDSACK AND ROBERT J. GOLDSACK* Early one September afternoon, we observed a pair of Eastern Rosellas avidly eating cup moth larvae Dorati- fera sp., which were infesting a Rusty Gum Angophora costata at Hornsby, N.S.W. We found this very surprising as it is well known that these caterpillars are armed with eversible stinging hair tufts (Fig. 1). Personal experience has shown us that bodily contact with these hairs can be quite painful. The methods that the parrots used to capture and eat the cup moth cater- pillars is interesting. First, the rosella grasps the leaf blade in its claws and cuts through the petiole with its beak. After transferring the leaf blade from the claws to its beak, the parrot re- moves the caterpillar from the leaf with its claws; the leaf is allowed to fall to the ground. This procedure ex- poses the larva's soft and unprotected underside, which is then ripped open by the sharp beak. After consuming the abdominal contents, the rosella drops the corpse and searches for more caterpillars. An examination of the ground beneath the tree revealed a very large number of disemboweled cup moth larvae. By means of this skilful feeding technique, the rosellas are able to avoid bringing their sensitive mouth and throat tissues into contact with the urticating hairs. Moreover, as an added bonus, the bird does not have to rid itself of an indigestible chitinous exoskeleton. We report the above observations 60 for two reasons. Although Macdonald (1973) states that even the most vege- tarian of parrots will eat insects if rearing their young, and Forshaw (1969) notes that psyllid galls and Paropsis sp. (a chrysomelid beetle) form part of the diet of Eastern Rosellas, the readily available literature contains little detailed information about the insect component of the diet of these birds. Because only the viscera are consumed, it would probably be a very difficult task to demonstrate from a post-mortem examination that Dorati- fera larvae constituted part of the diet of the Eastern Rosella. Trees of the family Myrtaceae (e.g. Eucalyptus and Angophora sp.) can be infested so severely with cup moth caterpillars that defoliation results (Hadlington, 1972). In such instances, it may be necessary to resort to tree injection (Anon.) as a control measure. This procedure requires the use of systemic insecticides that are poten- tially toxic to vertebrates. In view of Fig. — Larva of Doratifera limacodidae [S. Curtis] as illustrated in The Insects of Australia. Permission given by Melbourne University Press. *82 Rosemead Road, Hornsby, N.S.W. 2077. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 the fact that this could lead to poi- soned caterpillars being eaten by Eastern Rosellas (and other bird species), we recommend that tree in- jection only be used as a final resort. We think that if birds are given proper encouragement, they are capable of efficiently controlling infestations of cup moth larvae. REFERENCES Macdonald, J.D. (1973). Birds of Australia, A.H. and A.W. Reed, Sydney. Forshaw, J.M. (1969). Australian Parrots, Lansdowne Press, Melbourne. Hadlington, P.W. (1972). Common Insect Pests of Trees, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Sydney. Anon. (no date). ‘Tree Injection’ or Sapwood Treatment of Trees for the Control of Leaf Eating and Sap Sucking Insects, Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Sydney. Natural History of Rivers and Inland Waters In December we plan to publish a special issue of ‘‘The Victorian Natura- list", consisting mainly of articles relating to rivers and inland waters of Australia. It is desirable that material for this special issue should be received by the editor by 30 September. When preparing an article for publica- tion, please have it typed with double line spacing and leave at least 3cm (about 14 inches) clear margin at the left. Natural History Medallion Trust Fund We will be pleased to receive donations from organisations that feel this Fund is worthy of their support. The following donations have been received and we thank the donors: Amount invested as at 31 March 1977 .. .. . Mr Robin Sandell)... ... eara $374 10 Total $384 Nursery for wasps? At the FNCV meeting on 16 March, Mr F. Morley spoke about a caterpillar he had hoped to nurture through to the adult stage. It was about 5 cm long, black with tufts of black and white hairs; it fed on grass. After the glass lid had been accidentally left off the box for an hour, the hind part of the caterpillar was found to be covered with what appeared to be eggs — white eggs enmeshed in a wool-like substance that was rough to the touch. Mr K. Strong surmised that March/April they were not eggs but cocoons of a wasp, probably a species of Apantales; the larvae had been feeding inside the caterpillar and had emerged on the sur- face to pupate. The absence of the box lid was merely coincidental. The caterpillar died, but Mr Morley retains the eggs/cocoons and awaits the outcome. The result will appear in the next ‘Naturalist’ — unless the outcome is delayed until spring! 61 New Names in Zoology BY BRIAN J. SMITH * Every species of animal known to science has been given a special name which is unique to that species. This scientific name is in a Latin form and consists of two basic parts — it is a binomial. The first word of the name, beginning with a capital letter, is the genus name; the second word, begin- ning with a small letter, is the species name. For example the common gar- den snail is Helix aspersa, the species aspersa belonging to the genus Helix. Sub-genera can be included in names, in brackets after the genus name, and sub-species after the species name, but the basic pattern is still a binomial. I am frequently asked how new species names are introduced into the body of scientific knowledge and what procedures and safeguards are incor- porated into the naming process. This article is an attempt to answer these questions in simple terms. It should be understood at the out- set that the procedures described be- low are for erecting new zoological taxa; procedures in botany are signifi- cantly different in several particulars. The whole process of erecting a new name is governed by a strict code of procedure set down and enforced by the International Commission for Zoological Nomenclature. The Com- mission publishes a series of basic rules which must be observed before any new name is considered to be valid, and an accompanying series of recommendations which, while not being mandatory for all authors to follow, nevertheless are adhered to by the vast majority of responsible taxonomists as being essential in the proper erection of a new taxon. The procedure set out below is the 62 one generally recognised by most taxonomists as that which is necessary to properly introduce a new name. Anyone can describe a new species and erect a new name. However, the new description must clearly describe as completely as possible the new form; the description must point out why it is new and compare it to and differentiate it from all closely related taxa already described; the description must give particulars of the specimens upon which the description is based and their place of lodgement for reference purposes; and it must be published in a place judged to be reasonably accessible to other workers around the world. To be valid, a description must be published in a recognised publication. The international code describes this term, but in general it means a scien- tific journal with a reasonable circu- lation to libraries and similar places where data is catalogued and placed in a retrieval system. It is recom- mended that the title of the paper should indicate the presence of a new description. If it Is -a new'specles being de- scribed, then the part of the paper where the description commences should be headed with the new bi- nomial combination followed by n.sp. or sp. nov. to indicate a new species. When proposing a new species name, a search needs to be under- taken to verify that the name has not previously been used in combination with the genus to which it is pro- posed to refer it. * Curator of Invertebrates, / '" National Museum of Victoria. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94: Set out below is an outline plan of a description of a new species. Outline of a New Species Description Genus species n. sp. DIAGNOSIS: main characteristics of new species. DESCRIPTION: detailed description in- cluding all characters. TYPE MATERIAL: measurements and notes on primary and secondary type specimens. LOCATION OF TYPE MATERIAL: name of museum in which type series is lodged with registered numbers. TYPE LocarirY: full description of type locality including grid reference or lat. — long. co-ordinates. DISTRIBUTION AND OTHER MATERIAL: details if applicable. REMARKS: comparison with and dif- ferentiation from all other species with which it is closely related. Reasons for considering the species a new taxon. Origin or meaning of the new name erect. Any other salient points. FIGURES: photographs and/or draw- ings of the type series sufficient to adequately illustrate all the diagnostic characters. Of major importance is the erection of an adequate type series and the lodgement of the holotype and series of paratypes in a recognised regional or national museum, and the quoting of the museum registered number for the types in the description. In Aus- tralia it is the accepted convention to lodge the primary type in the State museum in the State in which the type locality is situated. Most recog- nised publications will not accept a new description for publication unless the types are lodged in a museum, and in Australia many journals insist, as far as possible, that types of new Aus- tralian species be lodged in an Aus- tralian museum. Adequate figures of the new species are another essential. These figures should show the diagnostic characters of the taxon and, where a group of closely similar species occur, figures of the differences in essential struc- tures are of considerable value. The days are long past when three or four lines of Latin sufficed to diagnose a new taxon. Today nothing less than a full description of all the relevant details, fully illustrated, will suffice. The trend is moving further towards a ‘proper’ scientific approach. The erection of a series of new names without reviewing the entire relation- ships of the group is becoming rarer. The modern approach is to attempt to review the generic or family group in which the new species belongs and to fully elucidate ll the inter- relationships within that group. There are many new species still to be described in the fauna of Victoria. Most of these are in the invertebrate field, where past neglect is coupled with the large and varied fauna to provide vast opportunities for much valuable study. Re-discovery in Victoria of a Rare Shrub At the FNCV General Meeting on 13 December 1976, DrJ.H. Willis ex- hibited a specimen of a very rare Vic- torian shrub Zieria aspalathoides (Whorled Zieria) which had been collected on 8 October near Rheola by Mr and Mrs Fred Watts. This plant was last seen in Victoria 50 years ago at Mt. Tarrengower March/April near Maldon, but it is more common in NSW. It is a heath-like shrub with leaves about 1 cm long and small cream or pink- tinged flowers. Like other members of the family Rutaceae, the foliage is rich in aromatic oils and gives off a very pungent smell when crushed. M.G.C. 63 An Environmental Excursion to Flinders Island A.D. INGAMELLS AND P. A. HYLAND* The Furneaux Group consists of a few larger islands (Flinders, 513 square miles, Cape Barren, 172 square miles and Clark, 44 square miles) plus some fifty smaller islands and islets, situated in Bass Strait off the north-eastern corner of Tasmania. As described by Murray-Smith (1969), Bass Strait is still “a frontier where men and women and children live a Hebridean existence between land and sea” (p. 19). It is a very special place, a micro- world in itself, with a unique history, evolved through hardship and tragedy. The islanders regard themselves as different from both the mainlanders and the Tasmanians. Settlement on the island is restricted and, in the last few years, laws have been passed to protect some of the islands' prolific wildlife. History The islands’ peaceful tranquility was first shattered after Matthew Flinders, returning from a sea rescue in 1779, told Sydneysiders of the vast numbers of seals in Bass Strait. The first invasion soon took place. Sealers came forth in droves, deci- mated much of the seal population and procured native women for their sel- fish desires. Death and destruction continued when the remnants of the Tasmanian aborigines were brought there in 1835. These people, numbering about 200 in all, had been gathered from various parts of Tasmania, exiled, and shunted from one island to another, ulti- mately to settle and mostly to die at Wybelenna, Flinders Island. A few people of mixed blood remain today, living on nearby Cape Barren island. 64 Most of these are descendants, not of the original Wybalenna tribes, but of others who were taken from both New Holland and Van Diemen's Land. The tragedy of the aborigines was followed by an era of shipwrecks. Well over one hundred ships foundered on the islands’ treacherous shores. These vessels were primarily involved in either the carriage of convicts, free settlers or provisions, or in bringing in a second invasion of sealers. Many of these sealers did not make the fortune they anticipated, but still managed to further deplete the seal population to unprofitable levels. Following this era, leases were taken up and farmers, fishermen and mutton birders moved in. The last were often just farmers, who took a month or so off to make a "quick killing" on the mutton birds once a year. Harvesting the birds is still an important industry on the island as the following table shows: TABLE I Numbers of Mutton Birds Harvested Over the Last Four Seasons 1971/ 72" 19727 T3. 197374. 1974/75 Lol goed OSST ZEO OLO AZE UNE, (Figures are approximate and taken from the Year Book, Municipality of Flinders, 1975/76.) The islands are steeped in history — both human and geographical. The chain of islands in the Furneaux group stretches to within 15-20 miles of both the Victorian and Tasmanian coast- lines. These are the remnants of a former landline which, until around the close of the Pleistocene era, con- *State College of Victoria at Frankston. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 C9 Leptospermum laevigatum i Exacarpus cupressiformis Fo 6-0 3-6 WW | A A awe Ci EX ZA — o Sarit: ST? A 2 3o 66 qo I?'0 € tanisi Legend: Eucalyptus globulus be Banksia marginata A, " x Xanthorrhoea australis XV Various sedges Figure 1. Vegetation profile through Sand Ridge, Flinders Island. nected both States. Before the seas rose, animals and humans must have roamed freely across the land bridge. Since the islands’ isolation, evolu- tionary divergence has occurred and there are now several groups of animals for which this is shown quite clearly via the fossil record (e.g. grey kangaroo, parrots). Flora and Fauna Nowadays Flinders Island still has a unique fauna and flora. The seals have not returned in any great num- bers, and there is only one breeding colony of mutton birds on Flinders Island itself. However, the numbers of Cape Barren Geese Cereopsis novae- hollandiae are growing steadily and March/April there are vast numbers of Bennett’s Wallaby Macropus rufogriseus, Tas- manian Pademelon Thylogale billar- dierii, Southern Potoroos Portorous apicalis, Tasmanian Wombat Vom- batus ursinus and Brush and Ringtail Possums Trichosurus vulpecula and Pseudocheirus peregrisus. The vegetation zones change con- tinually according to the different soil types, rainfall, salinity and altitude. Of particular interest on the island are the vast numbers of ‘“blackboys’’ Xanthorrhoea australis, the dense Casuarina forests Casuarina stricta, the gradually disappearing tree fern gullies Cyathea australis; Dicksonia antarctica; and a beautiful stand of 65 forest-form manna gums Eucalyptus viminalis. These brief notes indicate the wealth of information available on Flinders Island. A recent environ- mental excursion to the island of only three days' duration, proved to be un- expectedly rewarding. Originally some students had expressed doubts: “‘Will it be worth the expense? Will there be anything new to see? Couldn't we make the same investigations closer to home?" Their subsequent experience was to show that there are few better places for an environmental study. The following notes provide some in- dication of how much the students gained from this island's environment. Environmental Study The main subjects of study, of course, were the island's fauna and flora and their adaptations, with the students being required to make quan- titative assessments. Transect lines were set up in three areas; the first through a sand ridge (see Fig.1), the second along the perimeter of a Casuarina forest, and the third through the tree line of a hill-top. Quite different environmental condi- tions prevailed and were responsible for changes in vegetation, both among the three areas and along each transect line. A short list of the major plants found along each transect line is shown in Table 1. In addition, wherever the students travelled on the island they were re- quired to watch out for birds and animals and to keep detailed notes on numbers, types and habitat. Two night-spotting expeditions were also undertaken and proved to be very suc- cessful. The following is a list of the major native animals that may be seen on the island. Studying the flora and fauna did not occupy all the available time and ad- ditional investigations took place when 66 students undertook a sociological sur- vey of the Whitemark township. During this exercise they met with is- landers to discuss their ways of life, their origins, their occupations, their attitudes towards the island’s unique biota and their concern for the future of the island. Another highlight for the party was a visit to the area school, the island’s only educational institution. Some 200 children are taken by bus to the school daily from all parts of the island. Many of these are descendants of the Aborigines resettled on the island and on Cape Barren Island. Their educa- tion is now subsidized by the Aus- tralian Government, which virtually pays each family to send the children to school. Students were also given the oppor- tunity of travelling from Wybalenna Chapel and the Museum on the nor- thern end of the island to Lady Barron at the southern end. In the museum were seen some very interesting relics of the early days, telling some of the sad tales of the early settlers, of not only Flinders and Cape Barren islands but also several of the smaller, now uninhabited, outlying islands. Students were reminded of Aboriginal history at Wybalenna Chapel, and some brass rubbings were hurriedly made in the nearby cemetery. After leaving the museum, students were able to hunt for (and find) some very clear and almost complete quartz crystals around Walker’s Hill and for Killiecrankie diamonds, or topaz near Mt. Tanner. A few excellent samples were found. At Lady Barron, the wreckage of the “Farsund”? could easily be seen, only one of the hundred or more wreckages that surround this island. Summary It may be said that a visit to Flin- ders Island is a unique experience. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 TABLE 1 Major Plants Found Along the Three Transect Lines. SAND RIDGE Eucalyptus globulus Exocarpos cupressiformis Leptospermum laevigatum Banksia marginata Xanthorrhoea australis Correa alba Casuarina stricta CASUARINA AREA M elaleuca ericifolia Xanthorrhoea australis Leptospermum juniperinum Melaleuca gibbosa HILLTOP AREA Olearia argophylla Olearia lirata Helichrysum scorpioides Coprosma quadrifida Pomaderris aspera Poa spp. TABLE 2 Major Species of Animals Found on Flinders Island. COMMON NAME Silver Gull Pacific Gull Sooty Oystercatcher Pied Oystercatcher Cape Barren Geese Black Swan Pelican White-faced Heron Black-faced Cormorants Pied Cormorants Hooded Dotterel Red-capped Dotterel Mutton Birds Spur-Winged Plover ANIMALS Bennetts (Red-Necked) Wallaby Wombat Pademelon Brush-Tailed Possum Potoroos There are parts of the island almost untouched, where the native vegeta- tion abounds with a number of native animals. You can meet people with strong, but opposing views about how the island should develop and others who couldn’t care less. You might even meet a few environmentalists who think they know . ..! In the space of a few days our students were able to get a reasonably clear picture of the island, its history, its people, its de- velopment and its ecology . . . all this SCIENTIFIC NAME Larus novae hollandiae Larus pacificus Haematopus fuliginosus Haematopus ostralegus Cereopsis novae hollandiae Cygnus atratus Pelecranus conspicillatus Ardea novae hollandiae Phalacrocorax fuscoscens Phalacrocorax varius Charadrius cucullatus Charadrius alexandrinus Puffinus tenuirostris Vanellus miles novaehollandiae Macropus rufogriseus Vombatus ursinus Thylogale billardierii Trichosurus vulpecula Potorous apicalis and they had an enjoyable time, too. The secret, as any good teacher knows, lies in a well-planned programme — busy, purposeful and interesting. REFERENCES Municipality of Flinders. Year Book 1975-76. Whitemark, Flinders Island 1976. Murray-Smith, S. Bass Strait: Discovery and Exploration. In: Australian Broadcasting Commission, Bass Strait: Australia’s Last Frontier, Sydney, 1974. Ratcliff, P. Wybalenna. Bulletin, Royal Soc. of Tasmania, Northern Branch, No. 7, 1974. Smith, P. A. Moonbird People. Rigby, Sydney, 1970. Turner, E.K. Flinders Island Nature Notes. Victorian Naturalist, Vol. 91, 1974. Author Index to ‘The Victorian Naturalist? 1884-1976 Compiled by J.A.Baines, 368 pages, now available from FNCV Sales Officer, $11.00; postage 80c within 50 kilos, $1.20 within Victoria, $2.00 Interstate. March/April 67 Bush-peas of Victoria — genus Pultenaea No.4 py M. G. CORRICK* Pultenaea tenuifolia R.Br. ex Sims in Curtis's bot. Mag. 46: plate 2086 (1819). This is one ol a group of plants which occur both on the coast and on the sandy inland soils of the Mallee and Little Desert. This disjunct dis- tribution is a reminder that the cal- careous soils and dunes of north- western Victoria derived from an old coastal formation. Pultenaea tenuifolia was described by Robert Brown from specimens he collected along the south coast of New Holland. His original description and a coloured plate were published in Curtiss Botanical Magazine in 1819 by Sims, who also mentions having seen cultivated plants from the Ful- ham Nursery. The plant is a low, spreading, pro- la W Z WX tied ! R V S W Z MN X Fig. Sa. Known distribution of Pultenaea tenuifolia and P.prostrata. 68 cumbent shrub which, in inland situa- tions may be up to a metre high. On the coast it is often quite prostrate with rather weak, trailing branches. The alternate, terete leaves are 5-10 mm long, channelled above and usually hairy. The leaves are often crowded in widely spaced groups along the branches. The stipules are 2-3 mm long, rather pale in colour with a con- spicuous mid-rib and papery margins. The flowers are arranged singly or in pairs at the tips of short lateral branches and are surrounded by clus- tered leaves with enlarged stipules. The usually hairy calyx has slender, acuminate lobes which are longer than the tube. The bracteoles are light brown and papery with a conspicuous, and often hairy mid-rib. They are at- tached at the base of the calyx tube and reach almost to the top of the lobes. The colour and size of the flowers are very variable; coastal forms have pale yellow flowers only 5mm long, whilst those growing in the Little Desert have flowers often twice as large which may be either pale or dark. The Little Desert plants in full bloom are very handsome. Mallee plants also have large flowers which SPECIMENS EXAMINED include: Vic- toria — Little Desert, M.G.Corrick 5332, 27 ix.1975 (MEL 515494); Wilkin, M.G. Cor- rick, Oct. 1965, (MEL 515496); Wimmera, Dallachy, (MEL 515066); Grampians, Mueller, (MEL 515065); Portsea, T.Sault, 7 .xi. 1976, (MEL 515492); Corner Inlet, C.Wilhelmi, (MEL 515062), South Australia — Tintinara, D.J. Taylor ADW 23025, 10.xi.1960 (MEL 515497). *7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 5494. March/April MEL 515493. g, habit; h, calyx and bracteoles, bracteole drawn a little larger; i, style and ovary; j, floral bract; k, leaf and stipule; l-m, from MEL 515087; 1, pod; m, seed. 69 are generally very dark with brick red keel and wings. The var. glabra Benth. in Flor. Aust. 2: 140 (1864) was based on a robust, almost hairless form from the southern Wimmera. A smaller, glabrous form also occurs near Wilkin. Recent col- lections show an almost complete transition from the glabrous to the very hairy form. This suggests that recognition of Bentham’s variety is scarcely justified. Two doubtful old records from Malmsbury and the Grampians have been omitted from the accompanying map (Fig.5a) pending confirmation by further collections from these areas. The species also occurs in Western Australia, South ^ Australia and Tasmania. Pultenaea prostrata Benth. ex Hook in Flor. Tasm. 1: 89 (1856) Pultenaea prostrata occurs in wes- tern and central Victoria. In areas such as the Little Desert and the Wilkin district it will often be found in close association with Pultenaea tenui- folia. Both species flower at the same time. It also grows in South Australia, New South Wales and Tasmania. The type of the species was col- lected in Tasmania by Ronald Gunn, and Bentham's description was pub- lished in 1856 by Hooker in Flora Tasmaniae. It is a small, rather stiff shrub, generally less than 50cm high with erect or somewhat decumbent branches. The young growth is thickly covered with white hairs which give the plant a silvery appearance. The tightly inrolled, alternate leaves are about 4-8 mm long with a distinct petiole and obtuse tip. The older leaves may be slightly scabrous and hairy, or eventually quite glabrous. The pale, lanceolate stipules are about 2 mm long. On young shoots they are united and sometimes enlarged. The flowers are solitary at the tips of short branchlets; the yellow stan- dard has dark streaks in the throat; the keel and often the wings are deep purple brown, giving the whole flower a rather dark appearance. The calyx is covered with silky white hairs and almost hidden by the numerous per- sistent, broad bracts which are light brown, with ciliate margins and slightly hairy on the back. The brac- teoles are attached at the base of the calyx and are very similiar in size and form to the bracts. The ovary is hairy and the rather long style is hairy for about half its length. Pultenaea prostrata is sometimes confused with Pultenaea tenuifolia, particularly when found growing in the same area, but the broad, persistent bracts of the former are distinctive. This species appears to occur mainly in the western part of Victoria and does not extend to the coast. Churchill and de Corona record it from grids E. and N., but these localities have not been included on the map (Fig. 5a) as no voucher specimen from any of these grids has been seen. SPECIMENS EXAMINED include: Vic- toria—Maryborough— Timor Rd., H.I. Aston, 1.xii.1957, (MEL 515084); near Dergholm, A.C. Beauglehole 37952, 25.xi.1971, (MEL 515087); between Dartmoor and Wilkin, A.C. Beauglehole 40012, 8 Nov. 1959, (MEL 515085); Little Desert, M.G.Corrick 5336, 27ix.1975, (MEL 515493); Killawarra. T.B.Muir 1712, l.xi.1960 (MEL 515498); 3 miles S. of Dunolley, J.H. Willis, 23.xi.1975, (MEL 515086); Bie Desert, J. H. Willis, Sept. (1948, MEL 515083). AVAILABLE FROM FNCV SALES OFFICER *Readers Digest Complete Book of Australian Birds". 616 pages. Discount to members. Postage $1.25 in Victoria. 70 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 A New Combination in Portulacaceae BY J. H. WILLIS* Sedopsis filsonii (J. H. Willis) comb. nov. Portulaca filsonii J. H. Willis in Muelleria 3 (2): 89 (1975). In rocky parts of Central Australia grows a curious little prostrate suc- culent with round rubescent leaves and rose-coloured flowers. It was de- scribed by the writer as a new species, Portulaca filsonii, in the Melbourne Herbarium journal Muelleria (July 1975). Since this publication Mr Les Pedley, Supervising Botanist at the Queensland Herbarium, has kindly drawn my attention to a revisional study, “‘Die Portulaceae in Afrika" by ferred to the genus Sedopsis (Engl.) Exell & Mendonca, established in Con- spectus Flora Angolensis I: 116 (1937). Von Poellnitz also made the combina- tion Sedopsis armitii (F. Muell.) Poelln. based upon Portulaca armitii F. Muell. (1877) from North Queensland. If this view be accepted, and the writer now concurs that Sedopsis war- rants recognition as distinct from Portulaca at the generic level, then it follows that P.filsonii should also be von Poellnitz in Bol. Soc. Broter. 15 (sente 15141942). a this work, F. Mueller's Section Siphonopetalum of Portulaca [published for Australia but without any description] was re- transferred to the former genus. * 102 Male Street, Brighton. Collin's Field Guide to the Wildflowers of South-East Australia by Jean Galbraith. A complete guide to over 3,000 Australian wildflowers to be published in May. Over 670 species illustrated, 368 in colour. The book provides a comprehensive identification guide to all the native flowering plants, except eucalypts, in the temperate eastern region of the continent — from southern Queensland to Tasmania and from Brisbane and Sydney to Melbourne and Adelaide. Also included are the more conspicuous and common plants introduced from other countries. As the most nearly complete flora of the region yet published, this guide will be invaluable for the professional as well as the amateur botanist. The text. The plants are arranged in families. Over 3.000 are described with notes on their identifying characteristics, habitat and distribution. There is a guide to families on page 15 and there are “keys” to groups of plants throughout the text. The illustrations. For ease of identification the plants are broadly grouped according to their colour. White and green-flowered species are illustrated on black and white plates, and the plates are supplemented by line drawings in the text. — - The author. Jean Galbraith is a dedicated botanist in the best tradition of the British naturalists of the 18th century. She has made the study of Australian flora her life's work. Her achievements won for her the Australian Natural History Medallion in 1970. March/April 71 Notes from the Field Survey Group — No. 1 Some Comments on Victorian Landhoppers BY R. D. SANDELL* Editor's Note: The FNCV Field Survey Group suspended formal Group activities in July 1976, due to the fall-off in attendance at meetings and camps. The Group was involved in taxonomic and distribution studies of Victoria's invertebrate fauna. The studies were very rewarding to those concerned, and an on-going project is the publication of introductory articles of invertebrate groups that members have specialised in. This is the first of those articles. Introduction A common but not well-known in- habitant of the leaf litter of Victoria's wetter forests is the land amphipod or landhopper. Landhoppers are small laterally flattened crustaceans, usually less than 15mm long, which are quickly recognised by their habit of jumping away and burrowing when disturbed from under a stone or fallen log. Although closely related, land amphipods and beach amphipods (sandhoppers) comprise two distinct sets of species. This is contrary to the widely-held opinion that so-called ‘‘ter- restrial’” amphipods are seashore species that have strayed inland. Taxonomy All truly terrestrial amphipods be- long to the Talitridae, the family in which most beach amphipods are grouped. This is indicative of the minor nature of morphological changes evolved by amphipods in colonising forests from the seashore zone (Hurley 1959, 1968). Seven land amphipod species are known from Victoria and of these only two, Talitrus sylvaticus Haswell and Talitrus kershawi Sayce, have been described (Sayce 1909). There is a lot of room for further taxonomic research into the group in Australia, including a need for revision at the generic level. Distribution and Habitat Land amphipods appear to be con- 72 fined in Victoria to southern and north-eastern parts, but I would be happy to be proved wrong by country members on this point. Their apparent absence elsewhere in the State is prob- ably due to insufficient rainfall. In most areas, species are distributed sympatrically but it is normal for one to predominate. For example, 7.ker- shawi is the dominant amphipod species of the wet forests of West and South Gippsland and the Otway Ranges. It is rarely found elsewhere. The habitat types in which land amphipods are most plentiful are wet open forest, such as Eucalyptus dele- gatensis tall open forest and E.regnans tall open forest, and the patches of closed forest of the Otway Ranges and parts of eastern Victoria. In these forests, amphipods are a conspicuous component of the leaf litter fauna, although other micro-habitats, such as treefern heads, fern fronds and tree trunks, are frequently selected by some species. They are also abundant under fallen logs in E.pauciflora wood- land in sub-alpine areas. Amphipods are much less common in dry open forest, although in wet years the soil surfac? under logs is often a fruitful collecting site. Tree cover is normally needed to moderate temperatures and to preserve moisture under logs and litter, but specimens of *FNCV Field Survey Group, 39 Rubens Grove, Canterbury, 3126. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Fig. 1. Talitrus kershawi (after Sayce). T.sylvaticus have been found, after heavy rain, in grassland near Foster. More surprising was the presence of an undescribed amphipod species under large stones in dry grassland west of Cavendish (average annual rainfall: 660 mm) in the middle of a dry summer. Ecology Land amphipods feed on dead leaves. Published ecological research on the group is scarce compared with other soil arthropods, but two fine energetics studies in Australia by Clark (1954) and Friend (1975), show that the biomass of amphipod popu- lations in wet forests is significant. Clark estimated that a Z.sylvaticus population at a study plot in temperate rainforest near Sydney NSW, con- sumed 24 per cent of total leaf litter fall — a very high figure indeed. Friend (pers.comm.) believes this is an overestimate, but his own estimate of 5.7 per cent consumption by a T.tas- maniae Ruffo population at Mt. Wel- lington, Tasmania, does not belie the group’s importance. Little is known of the role played by amphipods in litter decomposition processes or their ef- fect, if any, on nutrient cycles. General Remarks An understanding of the working of forest ecosystems requires a knowledge of the systematics and ecology of soil March/April organisms. In Australia, where know- ledge in this area is very incomplete, research priorities must be established (Dwyer, 1976). The study of litter dis- integration surely has priority, and groups which seem to play an im- portant part in this process, such as land amphipods, should receive more attention from Australian biologists and field naturalists. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Dr E.L. Bousfield of the National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa, for invaluable as- sistance and encouragement over several years. Members of the FNCV Field Survey Group, notably Messrs L. Winsor, A.J. Brook and M. Howes, aroused my interest and have given support and advice. Mr J.A. Friend of the University of Tasmania kindly allowed me to mention some of his un- published research results. Mr W.F. Seed of RMIT read the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions. REFERENCES Clark, D.P. (1954). The ecology of the soil fauna in a rain forest with special reference to the amphipod, Talitrus sylvaticus (Has- well). Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney. Dwyer, P. D. (1976). Systematics, ecology and biological resources. Search 7(7): 294-298. Friend, J. A. (1975). A study of energy flow through a natural population of euterrestrial amphipods. Unpublished Honours Thesis, University of Tasmania. 29 Friend, J.A. and A.M.M. Richardson (in press). A preliminary study of niche parti- tion in two Tasmanian terrestrial amphipod species. In: Lohm, U. and T. Persson (eds.): Soil organism as components of ecosystem. Proc. V1 International Soil Zoology Col- loquium. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm), vol.25 (1977). Hurley, D. E. (1959). Notes on the ecology and environmental adaptations of the terrestrial amphipods. Pacific Science 13: 107-129. Hurley, D. E. (1968). Transition from water to land in amphipod crustaceans. Am Zool. 8: 327-353. Sayce, O.A. (1909). Description of two ter- restrial species of Talitridae from Victoria. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 22(1): 29-34, pls. 11- 12; Specht, R.L. etal., (1973). Conservation of major plant communities in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Aust. J. Bot. Suppl. Ser. No. 7. The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora Part 2 — Latin, Greek and Miscellaneous (Continued from page 30 in the previous issue) BY JAMES Oxalis. Name in Nicander (2nd Cen- tury B.C. Gk physician, author of an extant poem ‘Alexipharmaca’ on anti- dotes for poisons) for Rumex aceto- sella, Sheep Sorrel (from oxys, acid, sour, sharp). Victoria has two native species and six introduced, most known as different kinds of wood- sorrel, but *O. pes-caprae (the specific name of which means goat's-foot) is Soursob (not to be confused with Soursop, which is the fruit of the West Indian tree, Anona muricata, Or Prickly Custard-apple). *O. corymbosa, Pink Shamrock, is one of the plants known as shamrocks because of the shape and arrangement of the leaves; the Irish Shamrock being Trifolium minus (Irish seamrog = trefoil or clover), the plant worn as an emblem on St. Patrick's Day because adopted nationally by Ireland as symbolizing the Trinity. The genus Oxalis gives its name to family Oxalidaceae. Oxylobium. Gk oxys, sharp; lobos, pod; because the pods have a sharp appendage. Victoria's five species are known as different kinds of shaggy- pea, but Gardner and Bennetts in “The Toxic Plants of Western Australia’ list six species as Roe's, Granite, Net- leaved, Box, and Slender Poisons, and 74 A. BAINES the oddly named Brother-brother (O. tetragonophyllum). The West Aus- tralian species O. lanceolatum grows spontaneously at Langwarrin, Vic., along with Acacia saligna, W.A.'s Golden Wreath Wattle, both hav- ing found a congenial environment there. Ozothamnus. Gk ozo, to smell; tham- nos, shrub; many of the species be- ing fragrant or at least noticeable to the olfactory senses. This is a super- seded name for many of our species of Helichrysum, and appears frequently in botanical reports in early issues of the ‘Victorian Naturalist’. The generic name was established by Robert Brown. Pachycornia. Gk pachys, thick; Lat cornu, horn; name formed by Sir Joseph Hooker (son of Sir William) on the basis of differences from the re- lated chenopodiaceous genus Salicornia (Lat sal, salt; the branches are horn- shaped and taste of salt).Victoria has two species of both genera, all four known as different kinds of glasswort, so-called because species of Salicornia were formerly used in glass-making as they contain much alkali. (To be continued) Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Richard Wallace Bond (1914-1976) An Appreciation Byer. Over a span of 44 years, the writer enjoyed the privilege of friendship with the late Mr. R.W. Bond, a talented and genial scientist who died at his Box Hill home on July 6th last. He had joined our Field Naturalists’ Club as a country member in 1931; his first paper (“Ferns of the Creswick Dis- trict”) appeared in this journal, Vol. 50: 208-213 (Jan. 1934), and he was elected to Honorary Life Membership of the F.N.C.V. in April 1969. His outstand- ing botanical achievement was Vic- torian Ferns, written whilst a student at Creswick in collaboration with Charles Barrett and published as the Club's first fern handbook in October 1934 — preceding Norman Wakefield's Ferns of Victoria and Tasmania (1955) by 21 years. Dick Bond was born at Traralgon on 8 June 1914, and grew up in Won- thaggi where his father (Harold Wal- lace Bond) ran a drapery business. An early interest in the local flora, espe- cially ferns and orchids, was en- couraged by the father, and doubtless also by Mr. E.H. Homann of the Wonthaggi Technical School who sent many interesting orchid specimens to the late W.H. Nicholls. In 1932 Dick began his course at the Victorian School of Forestry, Creswick, where I first met him. There he succeeded in adding five orchid records to the known flora of Creswick; three of these species (Pterostylis cycnocephala, P.biseta and P.rufa) have never been found in the district again. March/April WILLIS During 1934, while I was a forestry Officer at Cockatoo, but without microscope facilities, Dick very generously made time to measure the spores of many fungi I was then examining — scores of spore-prints on glass slides went by mail to Creswick. After entering the service of the Forests Commission, he continued his studies at Melbourne University and gained the B.Sc. degree in 1941; later he received his Bachelor of Commerce (1953). In 1954 Bond quitted Victorian forestry to take up an appointment with the Snowy Mountains Hydro- electric Authority, at Cooma, working toward the solution of environmental and conservational problems. A dia- betic condition began to impair his eyesight, so much so that he was ob- liged to leave the Snowy Mountains in December 1965 and retire to Vic- toria — he was quite blind for most of the past decade. In 1971 he was made a Fellow of the Victorian In- stitute of Foresters. Despite his severe disability, Dick remained cheerful, mastered Braille, and took a very wide interest in the unseen world around him. One is grateful to his widow, Mrs. Joyce Bond, for some of the facts and dates mentioned above, ex- tending sympathy to her, to her son and four daughters. 72 Paddling for Water Plants An account of an Excursion of the FNCV Botany Group led by Helen Aston on November 13th, 1976. BY ELIZABETH K. TURNER Gum-booted and bucketed, the Botany Group first delved into the waters of the Willsmere Swamp, an ox-bow cut-off meander of the Yarra, just below the new motor freeway and approached through the viaduct from Kilby Road. Here Eucalyptus camal- dulensis lined the banks and a blue kingfisher contemplated the water from an overhanging bough, the water surface was covered with an intro- duced white flowering Nymphaeae sp. We noted here how the Water Rib- bons Triglochin procera had longer and thinner leaves, as the water be- came deeper; a cross-section of the ribbon was triangular or three-pointed as the name suggests and packed with air cells; the greenish flowers in a dense spike on a hollowed stem had three angular fruitlets in the centre of each. Nearby was the Slender Knot- weed Polygonum minus living up to it’s name and sporting forking spikes of pink, pearly flowers. Next we found a fine stand of the Tall Spike-rush Eleocharis sphacelata and were delighted with the delicate circular white boxes exposed when the green outer casing of the hollow stems was pulled off, and even more in- trigued by the way in which the male flowers ripened first and were thus able to shed their pollen on to the diminutive, but quite beautiful white female stigmas below. Next we found the Water Milfoil Myriophyllum | propinquum Greek Myrios, with very many divisions, of the leaves. The leaves above the water surface were whorled, and in the axils w^re b-autiful pinkish-red unisexual flowers, the male anthers were red- 76 rimmed and blew about in the breeze; below the water surface the leaves were still whorled but more pinnate. Around the edge of the swamp, our teacher-members busily collected Se/a- ginella uliginosa, the Swamp Clubmoss, which they complained was difficult to grow and yet so important for their botany pupils. Then we found the Water Starwort Callitriche stagnalis which belongs to a family very close to Euphorbiaceae, these had small rounded leaves in a rosette in shallow water, but changed in appearance in deeper water to much longer leaves. The flowers of the yel- low Marsh Cress were not spectacular, but their name made up for that — Rorippa islandica! Water Buttons Cotula coronopifolia grew along the swampy edge and we were interested to note the succulent collar formed by the leaf attachment to the stem; apparently this is one of the very few members of the daisy family to grow in water. The pointed lobes on the young leaves of the Nymphaea were another unexpected feature. This swamp seemed to have escaped much pollution from the hand of Man, but our talks and walks along the narrow tracks were rudely inter- rupted by boys on noisy trail bikes, in spite of a notice which prohibited these offensive weapons. Back to the roads and our cars, and our next stop was at the Warringal Swamp in the Heidelberg area; here the hand of Man has actually con- tributed to the formation of the swamp and some of its vegetation, so that it might become a sanctuary for water Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 birds, as indeed it was. We saw Black Duck, Grebes, Coot, Reed Warblers and a White Egret. There were four outstanding plants here, first Typha angustifolia, the Bul- rush, with leaves up to about five feet in height, and male (uppermost) and female cylindrical bright brown spikes. An elusive Reed Warbler kept calling from a probable nest in the rushes, but when I believed I had located the nest it proved to be nothing but a plastic bag. The second beautiful plant was a mat of reddish, ferny Azolla fillicu- loides (var. rubra) floating about in the shallows; also an illusory carpet of large green Nardoo with a brown centre Marsilea drummondii which has a swollen portion of the stem just under the floating leaf. This plant had been introduced. The next plants we saw had a lovely name Potamogeton which comes from the Greek Potamos — a river and Gei- ton — neighbour. The first one we examined had transparent leaves with curly margins, which when held up to the light revealed three main linear nerves and many small cross veins, this was P.crispus; the other species P.ochreatus had a broad central nerve and two smaller ones near the margin and fewer small cross veins and was not toothed, this was known as the blunt pond weed. Nearby were fine strands of an in- troduced Scirpus, the ubiquitous water grass with umbrellate, several-flowered spikelets. Carex apressa, a tall sedge was noted and large blunted leaves of Alisma plantago, the Water Plantain, which had a lovely generic name, but was not a very lovely plant (perhaps it will look better when the flowers come out in December). At this stage of the excursion, it being a hot day and our heads reeling with new and beautiful names from an unfamiliar element, we called it a day — or rather an afternoon! Baby Birds Learning We all know how young birds learn to collect their own food by imitating their parents when the latter decide that it is time to stop feeding them, and I see many instances of it. Young honeyeaters are brought to my bird table as soon as they can fly. They are fed by their parents for a little while, then the older birds ignore their pleading cheeps and keep on stolidly feeding them- selves. Very soon the young birds begin to imitate them, drinking nectar and rarely asking to be fed, and'at that stage the parents given them a mouthful now and then. I was interested to see another way in which young birds imitate their parents. In the spring I keep a supply of stringy- bark tied to a branch near the bird table. All the honeyeaters and often other birds use it for nesting material. Two hand- some White-naped Honeyeaters were pull- ing bark from it for a second nest, when March/April a young bird from the first brood came and followed their example, pulling out strands of bark. He had a beakful before he realised it was inedible and dropped it, returning with satisfaction to the nectar dish. (The young bird was brown all over and still fluffy in contrast to his parents in their trim black, white and green with scarlet eye-brows.) I described this to my sister-in-law who told me of an even more delightful in- cident. While watching a female Red- capped Robin building her nest, a young bird brought his parent a beakful of nest- ing material. She took it from him and wove it into the nest. The young robin came back time after time with building supplies, but always gave them to his mother. not once trying to touch the nest. As children learn by imitation so, ob- viously, do birds. JEAN GALBRAITH, TYERS. 77 Complications among Vegetable Caterpillars Cordyceps parasitized by another Cordyceps BY ELLEN LYNDON * | live in hopes of opening my “Naturalist?” one day and finding the first of an informative series on some branch or other of the fungi, such as would lighten the darkness of isolated students like myself. In the meantime I will try and pass along sometime I learned recently of a subject that deeply interests me. Last year the Forests Commission opened up a picnic area and a walking track on the head of the Little Mor- well River, just off the Thorpedale road near Mirboo North. It is prov- ing popular with student groups as well as with the general public. On the 28th May the Latrobe Valley Naturalists went there for their annual ''toad- stool trip" and thoroughly enjoyed it. The first months of this year have been extremely dry, but up here in the forest many kinds of the larger and more colourful fungi made the day rewarding. Groves of Silver Wattles line the fern-banked stream and under them we found an occasional Vege- table Caterpillar, the commonest one, Cordyceps gunnii, with greenish clubs that are difficult to see amongst the litter under the trees. Presently, how- ever, our searchers came on a dif- ferent kind, thin, dark and pointed, sometimes forked, with extraordinarily long stems. Many of these Cordyceps seemed to be parasitised in turn by another fungus, an off-white ex- crescence in varying stages of develop- ment from a simple patch to a much branched and contorted body. On careful examination these showed the typical fruiting heads of a Cordyceps! Here was a mystery. We knew that the genus Cordyceps included species para- sitic on insects and on certain other 78 fungi. But a Cordyceps on a Cordyceps? Sharp eyes searching the leaf mould soon located other examples of the white Cordyceps emerging individu- ally, a most curious plant, soft, fea- thery and much branched; as someone aptly put it, looking like a bleached clubmoss. We were unable to root out a specimen of the host insect, prob- ably the larva of the wattle moth, Oxycanus, due to the depth at which they were buried beneath the inter- lacing wattle roots. Specimens were later sent to Mr Bruce Fuhrer of FNCV, who con- firmed some of our theories and gave us the names of the two Cordyceps. The dark pointed one is C.robertsii and the fluffy whitish species C.cran- stounii, which is indeed, in some cases, parasitic upon it. Mr Fuhrer provided several intri- guing speculations about Cordyceps cranstounii. It seems that C.cranstounii can develop anywhere along the stroma or stalk of C.robertsii and might even prevent the fertile struc- tures of the host fungus from develop- ing properly. Or C.cranstounii can parasitise C.robertsii tissue within the caterpillar before C.robertsii has pro- duced a stroma. Or the two species might emerge separately from the one caterpillar, each fungus complete with fertile structures. These alternatives suggest that C.cranstounii is an obli- gate parasite on C.robertsii. However, Mr Fuhrer said that he has commonly found C.cranstounii growing alone, seemingly independent of C.robertsii, and taking its food directly from the host caterpillar. I am indebted to Mr Fuhrer for his help, but he stressed that too little Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 is known and there is room for other speculations until adequate research is carried out. For those who do not know Cordy- ceps in the field it may be as well to explain that certain fat caterpillars that live in wattle trees pupate in the ground when they are fully fed. The lucky ones, in due course, emerge as moths. The less fortunate are some- how invaded by a fungus that feeds on the tissue within the caterpillar with- out destroying its shape or general appearance, leaving its skin filled with mycelium, solid and firm and to all intents mummified. The ripened fungus then sends up a long stalk bearing a spore-producing head to con- tinue the cycle. Judging by the num- bers of these odd fungi in the forest this season they must act as a consider- able check on the wattle grubs. Pupa cases from which the moths had suc- cessfully emerged are rare indeed, Another point worthy of investiga- tion is the numbers of small diggings under the wattles made by some small animal. Either the fungus, the pupa or the moth about to emerge must figure largely in the diet of this un- known predator. *Leongatha. Rally of Victorian Naturalist Clubs The 1977 get-together of our clubs was very successful with about 100 people. On Saturday afternoon 12 March, Mr Jack Brooks showed us a few parts of the proposed national park on Moonlight Creek and Mt Worth. Members were distressed that not all the desired area has yet been approved. At the annual meeting in Rokeby Hall it was agreed that all clubs should receive duplicates of the minutes and reminders re sub- scriptions. The evening closed with supper. Sunday 13 March was a very interest- ing day to the Charlie Creek area west of Noojee. The Warragul Club provided Nominations of FNCV Council FNCV Annual General Meeting will be on Monday, 9 May, and nominations may be received up to that date. Nomi- nations are required for Council mem- bers. Council consists of the President, Vice-President, Immediate Past-President, and ten other persons. The following offices are open for nomination: Presi- dent, Vice-President, Secretary, Minute Secretary, Treasurer, Assistant Treasurer, Subscription Secretary/Bookkeeper, Ex- March/April’ us with duplicated notes and maps which added greatly to our enjoyment of the trip. In the evening, again at Rokeby Hall, some clubs reported on problems, future activities, etc., and others showed slides, followed by supper. On Monday morning we went to the very deep cutting which formerly carried the railway line to Noojee. The bush has overrun the cutting and has thoroughly disguised it. The area is now a reserve. All members thank our hosts, the Warragul FNC, for the stimulating and happy weekend they provided. M.J.L. Members and Officer Bearers cursion Secretary, Librarian, Assistant Librarian, Editor. Such office-bearers might be members of Council or not. If you nominate a person for a particular office and he would also like to be a Council member, you must make the additional nomination of him as a, Council member. .Think now of the people you would like to see on our governing body, and ask them if they will accept nomination. 79 A List of Vertebrate Fauna of the Blackhills Toolern Vale, Victoria, 1968-1976 BY SIMON TOWNSEND* The Black Hills are a bush-clad range running north-south for 6.5 kilo- metres in south-central Victoria, ap- proximately 40 kilometres north-west of Melbourne. The townships of Too- lern Vale and Couangalt form its southern and northern boundaries re- spectively, and Yangardook Creek and Toolern Creek have their headwaters on the eastern and western slopes of the Black Hills, making the area part of the watershed of the Werribee River. The southern aspect of the Black Hills is dominated by its second highest point, Flagstaff Hill, which is approximately 400 metres above sea level. To the north about 3.5 kilo- metres a point 500 metres above sea level occurs. The Black Hills are freehold land, with holdings running from 20 to 400 hectares and used primarily for grazing of domestic stock and some crops such as peas and a few orchards. The re- maining uncleared area of natural vegetation, constituting approximately 1,000 hectares, runs the length of the range, and is slowly though steadily disappearing before land improvement. The species listed below are the total number of species I have found in the area between July 1968 and January 1976. The list includes those species found in the numerous man- made dams and grassed clearings that occur throughout the Black Hills as well as in the remaining areas of native bushland, hence the number of wetland and open country species. The 80 following list can, of course, by no means be considered conclusive, so interested parties might have some- thing to add. years the soil surface under logs is “Species marked * are introduced “wild”? animals and species marked ** are either domestic stock or of domestic origins gone wild such as the cat and rock-dove.” Numerous anecdotal accounts of other species occurring in the Black Hills in the past, and some more re- cently include Geckoes (family; Gek- konidae), Goannas (family; Varanidae), Copperhead Austrelaps | superbus Tigersnake Notechinus scutatus, White Goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae, Rednecked Wallaby Macropus rufo- griseus, Goat Capra hircus, Fallow Deer Dama dama and Dog Canis familiaris. The last three species oc- curing supposedly as domestics gone wild, with the latter held responsible for considerable losses during lambing. While some of these species are likely to occur in the area to date I have seen no evidence of any of them inhabiting the Black Hills of Toolern Vale. REFERENCES Cogger, H. G. (1975). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Macdonald, J.D. (1973). Birds of Australia. Lawrence, M.J., and Brown, R.W. (1967). Mammals of Britain, Their Tracks, Trails and Signs. Ride, W.D.L. (1970). Native Mammals of Australia. *13 Parkstone Ave., Pascoe Vale South. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 LIST OF VERTEBRATE SPECIES OF THE BLACK HILLS, TOOLERN VALE, VICTORIA, FROM JULY 1968 TO JANUARY 1976. Class: AMPHIBIA Eastern Banjo Frog — Limnodynastes demerillii Brown Tree Frog — Litoria ewingii Class: REPTILIA Jacky Lizard — Amphibolurus muricatus Cunningham's Skink — Ergernia cunninghami Common Grass Skink — Leilopisma guichenoti Eastern Blue-tongued Lizard — Tiliqua scincoides Red-bellied Black Snake — Psuedechis porphryachis Eastern Brown Snake — Pseudonaja textilis Class: AVES Little Crebe — Podiceps novaehollandiae Little Pied Cormorant — Phalcrocorax melanoleucos Night Heron — Nycticorax caledonicus White Egret — Egretta alba White-faced Heron — Ardea novaehollandiae White-necked Heron — A.pacifica White Ibis — Threskiornis mollucca Straw-necked Ibis — T.spinicollis Royal Spoonbill — Platalea regia Mountain Duck — Tadorna tadornoides Black Duck — Anas superciliosa Grey Teal — A.gibberffrons Chestnut Teal — A.castanea Wood Duck — Chenonetta jubata Black Shouldered Kite — Elanus notatus Whistling Kite — Haliastur sphenurus Swamp Harrier — Circus approximans Brown Goshawk — Accipiter fasciatus Collared Sparrowhawk — A.cirrhocephalus Wedge-tailed Eagle — Aquila audax Kestrel — Falco cenchroides Brown Falcon — F.berigora Little Falcon — F.longipennis Peregrine Falcon — F.peregrinus Stubble Quail — Corturnix pectoralis Painted Quail — Turnix varia Spurwing Plover — Vanellus miles Japanese Snipe — Gallinago hardwickii Rock Dove** — Columbia livia Common Bronzewing — Phaps chalcoptera Musk Lorrikeet — Glossopsitta concinna Galah — Eolophus roseicapilla Sulphur-crested Cockatoo — Cacatua galerita Crimson Rosella — Platycercus elegans Eastern Rosella — P.eximus Red-rumped Parrot — Psephotes haemetonotus Fantailed Cuckoo — Cacomantis pyrropharus Golden Bronze Cuckoo — Chrysococcyx lucidus Barn Owl — Tyto alba Boobook Owl — Ninox novaeseelandiae Tawny Frogmouth — Podargus strigoides Spine-tailed Swift — Chaetura caudacutus Kookaburra — Dacelo gigas Sacred Kingfisher — Halcyon sancta Skylark* — Alauda arvensis Welcome Swallow — Hirundo neoxena Tree Martin — Petrochelidon nigricans Fairy Martin — P.ariel March/April Pipit — Anthus novaeseelandiae Black-faced Cuckoo-Shrike — Coracina novaehollandiae Blackbird* — Turdus merula Spotted Quail Thrush — Cinclosoma punctatum Blue Wren — Malurus cyaneus Reed Warbler — Acrocephalus australis Brown Thornbill — A canthiza pusilla Brown Flycatcher — Microeca leucophaea Scarlet Robin — Petroica multicolor Flame Robin — P.phoenicia Red-capped Robin — P.goodenovii Hooded Robin — P.cucullata Grey Fantail — Rhipidura fuliginosa Willy Wagtail — R.leucophrys Rufous Whistler — Pachycephala rufiventris Golden Whistler — P.pectoralis Grey Thrush — Collurincla harmonica Eastern Shrike-Tit — Falcunculus frontatus Orange-winged Sittela — Noesitta chrysoptera White-throated Tree-Creeper — Climacteris leucophaea Mistletoe Bird — Dicaeum hirundinaceum Spotted Pardelote — Pardalotus punctatus Eastern Silver-Eye — Zosterops lateralis White-plumed Honeyeater — Meliphaga penicillata Yellow-faced Honeyeater — M.chrysops White-eared Honeyeater — M.leucotis White-naped Honeyeater — Melithreptus lunatus Eastern Spinebill — Acanthorynchus tenuirostris Little Wattlebird — Anthochaera chrysoptera Red Wattlebird — A.temporalis Bed-browed Finch — Aegintha temporalis Diamond Firetail — Emblema guttata House Sparrow* — Paser domesticus Goldfinch* — Carduelis carduelis European Starling* — Sturnus vulgaris Indian Myna — Acridotheres tristris Mudlark — Grallina cyanoleuca White-winged Chough — Corcorax melanorhamphos Dusky Woodswallow — Artamus cyanopterus Grey Butcherbird — Cracticus torauatus White-backed Magpie — Gymnorhina hypoleuca Grey Currawong — Strepera versicolor Raven -— Corvus coronoides Class: MAMMALIA Eastern Grey Kangaroo — Macropus giganteus Black Wallaby — Wallabia bicolor Brush-tailed Possum — Trichosurus vulpecula Common Ring-tailed Possum — Pseudochierus peregrinus Sugar Glider — Petaurus breviceps Koala — Phascolarctos cinereus Brown Antechinus — Antechinus stuartii Black Rat* — Rattus rattus House Mouse* — Mus musculus Unidentified Bats — Family; Chiroptera 81 Fox" Vulpe vulpes Cat** — Felis cattus Rabbit* Oryctolagus cuniculus Hare* Lepus europaeus Horse** Equus caballus Cattle** Bos taurus Sheep** — Ovis aries Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Pigmy Possum “I was putting honey on a tree for the sugar gliders,” said a nature-lover near Mallacoota, “when there was a plop and a Pigmy Possum dropped into my hand." I was filled with envy. I had never seen a Pigmy Possum. How I wished one would drop into my hand, or feed at my bird table as the larger possums do. In his book “Naturalist Diary," Norman Wakefield says: “Cercartetus nana Pigmy Possum . occurs in forest areas of Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales. When full grown, it is twice the size of a mouse, about the same colour, with large eyes, large ears, and a pre- hensile tail." Pigmy Possums are fairly widespread in eastern Victoria, but probably not com- mon, for they are rarely seen. There is a record of some living in the walls of holidav cottages at Cape Conran and two or three are mentioned in ‘‘Naturalists’ Diarv," but in the last few years I have heard only of three: the one near Malla- coota, another found in firewood at Maffra. and one photographed in the Forestry Hut at Connors Plains (near Mt.Skene). That was until April 1976 when a fellow-member of Latrobe Valley FNC found a female in Mullandang Forest near Won Wron. He brought her home to photograph before taking her to Fisheries and Wildlife, and left her with me for other naturalists to photograph. Like all small marsupials I have seen, she was an endearing little creature. She was barely half the size of my hand, like a miniature Ringtail Possum, with a tail usually coiled like a watch-spring and noticeably fat at the base. She seemed friendly, sitting quietly on my hand, lick- ing honey from my thumb or enjoying nectar and small insects in the gum blos- som I gave her. One night she forced open the lid of her sleeping box and disappeared, but was caught in a box trap baited with honey. There were signs of much gnawing inside the sleeping box and another was being made when, next evening, with a quick twist she jumped from my hand and dis- appeared behind a built-in cupboard. 82 Pigmy Possum Cercartetus nanus. Photo by Rod Incoll. The box trap was left beside the cup- board for several days, and a picture knocked off a shelf indicated she had come out of hiding, but it was not seen again. After a few days I left the door open at night so she could go back to the outer world. Probably she did so. She might be dormant in some hidden place indoors, but that is unlikely; during the winter the room is warmed by an open fire and Pigmy Possums are normally dormant only when cold. Pigmy Possums used to be called Dor- mouse Possums and were described as Australia’s only hibernating animals, but they do not hibernate in the real sense of the word. Certainly they become dor- mant when cold, and live for the time on the fat stored in the thick base of the tail, but half an hour of warmth will revive a Pigmy Possum into temporary activity. That means its sleep is dormancy, not true hibernation. I have known a Sugar Glider to be- come dormant in the same way, but it too could be warmed into activity in half an hour or less. Whether it could survive dormancy for long periods as the little Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 possum can, I do not know — I did not dare to try for fear it could not, Pigmy Possums are fairly widespread in ‘astern Victoria but. probably not. com- mon, for they are rarely seen, I have heard of very few, but in April 1976 a fellow member of Latrobe Valley FNC found a female in Mullandang Forest near Won Wron, He brought her home and left her with me for naturalists to photograph, and then she was to be taken to Fisheries and Wildlife, JEAN GALBRAITH, I YERS, Field Naturalists Club of Victoria The Day Group, FNCV Editor's Note: ln each of the last five issues there has been an account of one of the ENCV Study Groups to inform members of their purpose and activities, AIL Club members are welcome at all Groups; there is no extra fee, Accounts have appeared of the Botany Group, Mammal Survey, Geology, Marine and Entomology, and the Microscopy Group; this one completes the series, for the Field Survey Group has recently suspended formal activities and the proposed Bird Study Group has not. vet materialised. Members interested in forming such groups should contact the President, What Group? First, it is a social group while all others have a special subject of study. Second, it never asks its members to go out at night; hence its name. What then is the justification for its existence? Let us go back five years. Our convenor, Mr Alf Fairhall, was concerned about those elderly Club members who timidly walked across the Shrine lawns to attend night meetings or stayed at home because of their fears. Something had to be done to cater for these people, something that would maintain their interest in the Club and prolong their membership. Thus the Day Group was born on 23 March 1972, and its pleasant outings have been success- ful from the start. We have no permanent meeting place but, set against this seeming disadvantage, we have a good working committee which is so different about the Day considers the limitations of members and . their comfort when planning Group out- ings. Lunch together is almost an in- variable feature. Our outings have a strong bias towards natural history, though some would won- der what we found in this line in St Paul's FNCV Kinglake Property Members are welcome to camp at the Club's property near Kinglake, providing they first contact lan (Dick) Morrison (Tel, 848 1194) or, failing this, Robin San- dell (Tel, 83 8009). A minimum donation of 50 cents per head for each night stayed is requested, Campers and day visitors may March/April Cathedral! The Group was designed for the leisured and retired but members of any age are welcome to join us even for the odd day, We are also glad to see country, interstate or overseas nature lovers, We have had members come in from as far as Lilydale and Warburton, so why not you? New members of the Club will find among us experienced naturalists who are willing to assist or advise; several Day Group members are also members or were formerly members of one or more of the other FNCV Groups, so there is à variety of natural history knowledge among us, Day Group outings are on the third Thursday of each month, See page 91, Some places visited. Botanic Gardens thrice (fresh area of interest each time), Maranoa Gardens, Cheltenham Park, Wil liam Rickett’s Sanctuary, Dandenongs, Warrandyte, our three Universities, Burn- ley Horticultural College, ‘Tintern Girls’ School farm and sanctuary, Parliament House, Meteorological Bureau, Plane tarium Natural History Museum, Yarra Cruises (upstream, and downstream for port facilities). borrow keys to the shed and the McMahons Road gate from Dick or Robin for the duration of their stay, Tank water and a toilet are available, A management committee of five has been formed which, among other activities, is planning a nature trail through the block. 83 General Meeting Monday, 14 February This evening, the President especially welcomed Mr and Mrs Brewster from Gippsland; they have not attended an FNCV meeting for more than 30 years! Miss Mary Doery and Mr Ian Morrison gave us a slide-illustrated talk on the FNCV trip to NSW in August/September. They travelled more than 1,800 miles, and this address showed us interesting aspects of the natural history revealed during the trip. Miss Doery ended by expressing the appreciation of all participants to Miss Marie Allender for her organisational work before and during the excursion. Change of Editor. Dr Brian Smith, chairman of the Editorial Committee, thanked Miss Madge Lester for her year's service as editor and welcomed the new editor, Mr Reuben Kent. Exhibits included a rock section of dolerite from Devil's Gullet, Tasmania; two garden-grown Kangaroo Paws Anigo- zanthos ruga and A.pulcherrima; Lam- bertia formosa from NSW; a dodder para- sitic on Water Parsnip Sium latifolium; and the European wasp. Information on the wasp will form a nature note in a later Issue. Slides of Solar Eclipse. Mr Brewster showed fascinating slides of the eclipse of October 23; he used a telephoto lens for all of them. General Meeting Wednesday 16 March Mr Roy Wheeler spoke about six Australian National Parks — Mallacoota and Wyperfeld in Victoria, Flinders Chase on Kangaroo Island, Warrum- bungle in N.S.W., Lamington and Atherton in Queensland. With infor- mative commentary, he showed beautiful slides of some of the birds in each park. At Mallacoota, two of the world’s rarest birds can be seen — the Ground Parrot and Eastern Bristlebird. Wyperfeld still has water-filled lagoons since the overflow from Lake Albacutya in December 1975; the Mallee-fowl has a secure home there. At Flinders Chase the Western Whipbird has been found to be abundant instead of rare, and the park gives fine protection to Cape Barren Geese. The Warrumbungle ranges of volcanic origin have many birds, Tur- quoise Parrot being the prize. Lamington, with its sub-tropical forest, has the hand- some gold and black Regent Bower-bird. Although Atherton is too small, it pro- vides sanctuary for Victoria's Riflebird and the Cassowary. Exhibits. Third Wednesday of month is the Microscopy Group meeting night and the Group had a fine display under 18 microscopes. Specimens included the liverwort Lunlaria with its half-moon cups of tiny “buds”? that look like miniature eggs in a miniature nest, tiny shells from beach sands near Adelaide, highly magnified diatoms with immense variety of shapes and patterns, fossil sponge spicules, foraminifera, silicified wood, biting parts of mosquito, proboscis of blow-fly, and other specimens at various magnifications, each well labelled. Mr Paul Genery, chairman of the Microscopy Group, spoke of the Group's plans to give a series of talks and demon- strations on some special use of the microscope on six consecutive monthly meetings, the first beginning in April. FNCV Financial Report as at 31 December 1976 Auditors’ Report to the Members of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria In our opinion — (a) The attached balance sheet and income and expenditure account are properly drawn up in accordance with the provisions of the Companies Act, 1961 of Victoria as amended and so as to give a true and fair view of: (i) the state of affairs of the Club at 31 December 1976 and of the results of the Club for the year ended on that date; and (ii) the other matters required by Section 162 of that Act to be dealt with in the accounts. (b) The accounting records and other records, and the registers required by that Act to be kept by the Club have been properly kept in accordance with the provisions of that Act. Richmond, 22nd February, 1977. 84 DANBY, BLAND, PROVAN & CO., Chartered Accountants. R. M. BLAND, Partner. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Report by Executive Council The members of the Executive Council submit herewith balance sheet as at 31 December 1976 and income and expendi- ture account for the year ended on that date, and report as follows:— Lp The Net Surplus of the Club for the year ended 31 December 1976 was $856 which added to the Surplus brought forward at 1 January 1976 of $8,044, together with a transfer of $23 from Club Improvement Account resulted in a surplus to be carried forward to next year of $8,923. The members of the Executive Council took reasonable steps to as- certain, before the income and ex- penditure account and balance sheet were made out, that all known bad debts were written off and adequate provision was made for doubtful debts. The members of the Executive Council took reasonable steps, before the income and expenditure account and balance sheet were made out, to ascertain that the current assets, other than debtors, were shown in the accounting records of the com- pany at a value equal to or below the value that would be expected to be realised in the ordinary course of business. At the date of this report, the members of the Executive Council are not aware of any circumstances which would render the values attri- butable to the current assets in the accounts misleading. No charge on the assets has arisen, since the end of the financial year to the date of this report, to secure the liabilities of another person. No con- tingent liability has arisen since the end of the financial year to the date of this report. No contingent or other liability has become enforceable or is likely to become enforceable within the period of twelve months after the end of the financial year which in the opinion of the members of the Executive Council will or may affect the ability of the Club to meet its obligations as and when they fall due. At the date of this report the mem- bers of the Executive Council are not March/April 10. i aware of any circumstances not otherwise dealt with in the report or accounts which would render any amount stated in the accounts mis- leading. The results of the Club's operations during the financial year, in the opinion of the members of the Executive Council, were not affected by any item transaction or event of a material and unusual nature. Since 31 December 1976, and to the date of this report, in the opinion of the members of the Executive Coun- cil, no item transaction or event of a material and unusual nature has occurred, which would affect sub- stantially the results of the Club's operations for the next succeeding financial year. No member of the Executive Coun- cil, since the end of the previous financial year, has received or be- come entitled to receive a benefit by reason of a contract made by the Club with the member or with a firm of which he is a member or with a company in which he has a sub- stantial financial interest. The principal activities and objects of the Club are to stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian Fauna and Flora. No significant change in the nature of those activities occurred during that period. The names of the members of the Executive Council in office at the date of this report are as follows: Mr P.Kelly Mrs M.Corrick Mr T.Sault Miss M.Allender Mr B.Callanan Miss W.Clarke Miss M.Lester Dr B.Smith Mr J.Martindale Mr R.Sandell Mr R.Kent This report is made in accordance with a resolution of the Executive Council dated 22nd day of February, 1977. M. Corrick, President. D. McInness, Treasurer. 85 880'8$ 09€ 9L6I uloow uinosn] pu& 2ArTeqFI- —HeH = Jo wey uorteijounulow ,SIO]rpn v Là 9OUE]SISS V eon pue suldÁ T, (Sr$ pun, ulo1J js219]u] sso[) sosuod -Xq uoim[epe]N ALO SIF, [e1njeN JUDY qnjD Jone uroy Mey | quay qn[) ioruny uojse1d suoreuoq pug suondrosqns * Soo UOrjei[uT V sosuadx; [e1ouor) 938910]S IO] UIOO JO juo M ÁIouOIje]S pue S3urnuliq '" euoudo[o L pue o3e1soq — soesuoadx SuD[10 A, (£ 910u 99g) Áinseoi JURID 9/61] — 1sni], Weisuy STULL ) == SS 5 [VH OHpE sSurngojedso(q SUNENSNIJJI SUIJULIg — jsHeJn]eN| UBIIOJOIA IINJIPUIGX | cl vel I9 Ov 66i 6Ic$ Sv8'L$ (£I D 8€0'6$ C68 876 SIZ L$ €L61 I99A 96 TOS t6l t6 $$ € 6c ttr'6$ LEC £86'8 6LI$ Áo9839'] I9X[£AA "IA 'O — spuog _ AowdaT IYUSIIA "JA. — spuog S OCZSDUOH uqi[peo^uoululo?) junoooy »ueg '" pun d Areiqry —pe4re»ow 1so19ju[ " QJSHpe1njeN UPLIOJDIA,, ur SursrnijoApy — 90] JSI[E3njeN| UPLIOJOIA,, JO SVS p9p surnioddng yua np SI&ƏJIŲV — pə41399 Y suonduosqns ouro2ug "HHSINJOSG IE GHANA AVAA AHL OH AANALIANAdXA ANV HINOONI AO LNAWALVILS LNOOOV NAANI VIWO.LOIA AO JATO SLSTIVYNALVN QTAIA 6LE6$ 807 £86'8 881$ SL6I I&A Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 86 89 Uo 077 7 gyefo1q edoosoJoHw 69 9v0'9$ OLL T$ Be €9 sospeg ZOI c E o9: — SOx 1? pug uo Sx9201gS 000€ '" '* pueH ur jue1r) Áinseoi, — ESG es TE sem ct SOAN PES ccc SI pueH ur JULIN jsni], ureau] V "JA gI 000°C * 180) i spuog yyeomucwuoo 000°Z TVET eec 088 eS? SOUPS): ADDED c80'I 990 T$ yueg ye yse) ESHS 989$ '" gouvape ul pred suondiosqns L99$ SJ3SSV SJUƏILMJ sontiqery JUALIN S.LASSV eLet SALLI' IIS VII SL6I I€9AX TIR 9/61 *IH38INHOSG I€ LV LHAHS AONW IVA VIWOLOIA AO JATO SESIIVWOLLVN QAI ‘]IOUNOD a4rnooxq ou) JO Joquiowl Aue 0j qno oy} Aq pred ərəm sjuoum[OUd ON 7C 'OLGL CV T€ 18 oungpuodxo 'qn[) 9u1 01 SIDAS 1Iouj JO joedso1 ur sroypny jsurese padde useq jou savy mq paAro2sJ u29q JAY dy} AQ poaro221 919^ sjgouoq 194370 ON ‘KJUO S9OIAIOS LL6I/9L6L pue 9L/SL6T 10} S}UPIH Áinsvo1l] 3181S `E Sunrpny 0) soje[o1 ‘ÇL JO uonwreunuros ,SIOJpny `I :$2/0N "CS ZES‘OIS pre MIS CE8'OIS dd Ny. We ce 9 MPO 1voÁ 10} sn[ding — [/€$ 00£'Z 919 C$ ee was ea a E = a cro SL See a UOT}RIDOSSY ITE 0c xopu[ JOYyINY ,,jSHVINJVN UEHOJOIA,, — Wold = Jo soppiy pue umpuelOulojq CLE I 098 = 0} suorje1oj[y 10} sosuoadxq [eso] eae o Ivl 50 i aunat pd UENHSUD A 8r 7t pung digsroquiojN 9JVT E «5 ** eoedg go Jo OY 99 6t€r '* ++ psodəq Jenmy euoneN 8S7°9 $C0'8$ OOP 00r 00€ 000p 00€ 000'I 00c'$ 001$ COT OSP £61 8cv'c JusueuMoq . [enjnJq [PUOTIEN SOD Je o1njuoqo(q "piT epuesq — Pun uor[epo]q Árojsrg [einjeN SOD j€ 21njuoqo(q PIT epuesq — puny digsroquiojq ojrT SOD 3 o1njuoqo(T ‘PII epuesq — pun ssuupsypy "qq SOD Je spuog uj[eo^uoururo? — junoo2y »xoog JaMoypy OD 3 orinjusqo(qqp "Avg TAUIN — PUNT pIe OOM ^) po1jAA SO) 38 spuog uj[eo^uoululo;) —J9XIe A P'S Aoe3o7] SOD 18 spuog uj[eo^uouruio; — SL AV "WW 917153 ALZI SOD Je spuog uj[eoAuoulrulo? — puny Areiqry spun, jo juourjsaAug exe[Sury WYLIO pore uSnoioqAie]A *oAIoSOW 9nsso) S PEU | s :$ 211. MO DOTEM Sarr LoS =? c. Q900 bug pue 2oInjnung Areigiy SOD 78 Sjassy poxrq Xopu PANS ,.jsipe1njeN U€LIOJOIA,, — juswAedsig xopu[ TOYINY ,jsr[eTn]eN| U?LIOJOIA,, S AE NE, SXooq 1o^o[q 9[€S 10} syoog Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 88 SOT $$$ £76 8 9€7 OF pun drys -I9quioJA 9jrT] 0} Potiojsuel] ssaT Ieak 10J sn[dung uonduosqns digysrequiojq oI] '* puny juoureAo1duI] qn[) ulo4j 19]suei T, ae WOR hee, Serd soni[IqerT 1940 sjossy jo snjding junoooy joosfo1q exXe[sSurw pund uor[[epojw KIO]SI] [&In]eN ia pun, diqgsioquioJA 9jrT uoxiq AA] SSIJA 910154 E EHOW PISUSSTPAA'V'N '" junoooy Joell junoooy »xXoog 19^0[4 junoooy joefoug adoosodoTJA pun seuu[oIvN'd'd pun pJe[[OOAA D PAIJEM '"" woso S A 9}8ISA KoeSo' IƏJIEMA WO 215€ AoesaT xouy H I SSIN 2338 JUNODDY IIH SLLIOJAU d Aes T IYUSIIAA IN 91€18H '" punj uorsInoxg amoy JUDWIDAOICWY] qno i pun, Áre1qrT pung uomneormqnq pun surp[mng sjunoo»y pue spun, [Eroodg t9s 8t$ Pro ss (007) 6vL'8C$ SOT SSS 96c € O0€'€I 9cc v 001'8I SEE 1€9°9$ SIS'€ ITT E$ SI STEETS L8S CYL Irt CV £08 008'0I$ 9c 006 00£'€$ 000'9 S1O0jrpo1) AIpung $527] yueg 1? use?) | yueg "ZNUC V — 401g 1150doqq puny uois1nox^q IOPI AIpung ssaT yquergd 1€ use) s101q9(q AIpuns sauouopue(T] 2u] Jo spg Á10]uOUIOJd S,UuOS[I AN — SISAOBPITAA xieq p[ojJj9SdÁA, JO UOHE19389A '" suiooiugsnjq pue S[oojspeog, VIUEUIS? J, PUP BIIOJIA JO SUID — 3802) 1® SX201S xXoog '* 4300 1? spuog ui[e9A^uoUululo?) puny suoneorqnq yueg 1? use?) '* 18309 1? o1njuoqo(qq ‘PVI epuesq ]$0)) 1? spuog uj[eo^uoululo;) puny Surp[ingq ysodəq — A1eroos uppg EOS 8t$ sor’ | 008'£$ 6c8 €$ 6c 009 00c €$ 00t tIS 000'€ ON co March/April FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA BUILDING FUND Amount of Fund at 31 December 1975 ERE ORE ORAL ER Interest on Investments and Bank Accounts a €. wo "o Beh CX 397 Amount of Fund at31'Decémber 19769. oE 5: Lic. RB ou 522b PUBLICATIONS FUND Amount’ of Fund at 31 Beecémber-19758 S gc... Gas Seo. umm a Interest on Investment and Bank Account 2c: 2.2 Sse $.59 2295.0 19 419 Surplus (Loss) for the year from — Ferns of Victoria.and Tasmania; —..7.9,7. 9," 9. = ORE. E m 20 P57 Victorian Toadstools and Mushrooms : ub E 2 Vegetation of Wyperfeld National Park ye ty ae os r She (2) Wild Flowers of Wilson's Promontory National Park . .. .. 26 Birds: of the Dandenones: w, z^. =... oe ae aW (109) Lo e 3,074 Amount of Fund at 3isDecember1976 .9 $09 20 a eom b $13,300 CLUB IMPROVEMENT ACCOUNT Amount of Account: at 31 December 1975: A-s ai- otek noun n d MUSS Booksales-Account- Profit a se & dae BO aa e Mk m eG 12335 Profit on Nature Show i Mil. cnl hl MMC “es: RE EOD ox ORRÉLE 10 Less— Purchase Library Books and Equipment transferred to Surplus Account 23 Amount of Account at 31 December 1976 .. .. .. .. .. ee .. «+ $2,554 EXCURSION FUND Amonntof Fond:at.3] December [975 |. ^", i i Ux eee $200 Add— Balances in hand in Excursion Account at 25.6.76 transferred to Club .. 4,960 Interest Received -On Investment Sat MES ec. de SB 4, 3h Sere 77 Surplus On- Louisi «hi bye ie ox — 039 RS eon ee eae 59 Amount ot Fond.at. 31 DiecemBerd9 7 6... we- ocu eb) VRAC (oo ECRIRE NE $5,296 Statement by the Members of the Executive Council In the opinion of the members of the Executive Council of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA, the accompanying Balance Sheet is drawn up so as to give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the Club as at 3] December 1976, and the accompanying Statement of Income and Expenditure is drawn up so as to give a true and fair view of the surplus of the Club for the year ended 31 December 1976. Signed in accordance with a resolution of the Executive Council on 22nd February, 1977. M.Corrick, President. D.McInnes, Treasurer. Statement by the Principal Accounting Officer I, Daniel E. McInnes, being the officer-in-charge of the preparatior of the accompany- ing accounts of the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA for the year ended 31 December 1976 state that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, such accounts give a true and fair view of the matters required by Section 162 of the Companies Act 1961, to be dealt with in the accounts. Signed at Melbourne on the 22nd day of February, 1977. D.E.McInnes. 90 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 (Continued from page 50) GROUP MEETINGS (All members are invited to attend any Group Meeting, no extra payment.) At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, at 8.00 p.m. First Wednesday in the Month—Geology Group. 4 May, “Fossils”. Mr E.Nimmervoll. 1 June, “Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics”. Members’ Discussion. 6 July, “Geology of the Earth, Moon and Mars (a comparison)". Dr Chris Gray. Third Wednesday in the Month—Microscopical Group. The Group is starting a sezies of monthly talks commencing in April to introduce microscopy as a recreation and to demonstrate the various types of microscopes available. The most effective methods of using them will be shown. The talks will assist people to select the most suitable type of microscope for their own use. 20 April: A demonstration of types of microscopes, historical and modern. Simple home-made microscopes, student types, research microscopes, stereo- microscopes, projection microscope. A simple explanation of optics of micro- scopes. Discussion of most useful magnifications. 18 May: The various methods of illuminating an object to see the most detail. This talk will explain top lighting, bright field, dark-ground illumination, Rhineberg illumination, and the use of Kohler illumination and of polarised light. Second Thursday in the Month—Botany Group. Each meeting includes a quarter-hour address for beginners—various subjects. 14 April, “Coastal Environment". Miss B.Terrell. 12 May. To be announced; contact Group secretary. 9 June. “Relationship of plants to their environment and use of this for conserva- tion purposes". Mr F.R.Gibbons. At the Conference Room, The Museum, Melbourne, at 8.00 p.m. First Monday in the Month—Marine Biology and Entomology Group. 2 May. 6 June. 4 July. At the Arthur Rylah Institute, Brown Street, Heidelberg, at 8.00 p.m. First Thursday in the Month—Mammal Survey Group. 5 May, “The breeding of endangered species in captivity (with reference to Lead- beater's Possum)". Mr Peter Brown. 2 June. 7 July. EMO MUALEMLEuM uai Lune. LM GROUP EXCURSIONS All members are invited to attend Group Excursions. Botany Group Saturday, 30 April, “Fungi”. Combined excursion with NPPS. Leader: Dr J.H.Willis. Saturday, 28 May, Half day to Maranoa Gardens. Leader: Miss L.M.White. Day Group—Third Thursday in the Month Thursday, 21 April, Williamstown. Meet at Williamstown Beach railway station at 11.38 a.m.; train leaves Flinders Street at 11.13 a.m. We proceed to Williamstown Gardens for lunch, etc. Thursday, 19 May, Zoological Gardens, Royal Park. Meet 11.30 a.m. at Zoo front entrance. Take tram no.18, 19 or 20 in Elizabeth Street, alight at stop 23 (Walker Street). Thursday, 16 June, Fairview Park, Hawthorn, and probably Burnley Horticultural Gardens. Details later. GROUP CAMPS Mammal Survey Group, 21-22 May camp at *Glenewart". Details from Barry Callanan, phone 36 0587. Mammal Survey: Mr MICHAEL HOWES, 10 Palmer Street, Fitzroy, 3065. March/April 91 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable Sir HENRY WINNEKE, K.C.M.G., O.B.E., Orie Key Honorary Office-Bearers, 1975-1976. President: Mrs. MARGARET CORRICK, 7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn, 3103. (857 9937.) Vice-President: Mr. DAVID M. LEE, 15 Springvale Road, Springvale, 3171. Secretary: Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. Assistant Secretary (correspondence): Mr. GARNET JOHNSON, 20 Sydare Avenue, Chadstone, 3148. (56 3227.) Treasurer — Subscription Secretary: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Rd., East Malvern, 3145. (211 2427.) Editor: Mr. R. D. KENT, 16 Papua Street, Watsonia, 3087. (435 8664.) Librarian: Mr. J. MARTINDALE, c/o National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra. Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161. (527 2749.) Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. (211 24275 Archives Officer: Mr. CALLANAN, 29 Reynards St., Coburg, 3058. Tel. 36 0587. Group Secretaries Botany: Mrs. RUTH ANDERS, 7 Barrington Drive, Ashwood, 3137. (25 3816.) Day Group: Miss D. M. BELL, 17 Tower Street, Mont Albert, 3127. (89 2850.) Field Survey: R. D. SANDELL, 39 Rubens Gve., Canterbury, 3126. (83 8009) Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, c/o National Herbarium, South Yarra, 3141. Mammal Survey: Mr RAY GIBSON, 26 McCulloch Street, Nunawading, 3131 (874 4408). Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy St., East Brighton. (96 3268.) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club’s reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Subscription rates for 1977 Metropolitan de $10.00 Joint Metropolitan .. ; $12.50 Joint Retired Members ; $10.00 Country Subscribers, and Retired Persons over 65 . $8.00 Joint Country : I be 4 $10.00 Junior $2.50 Subscriptions to Vict. Nat. $8.00 Overseas Subscription $10.00 Junior with “Naturalist”. $8.00 Individual Magazines $1.20 All subscriptions should be uina Sans to "T Field VITIO Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. G JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE Eu. E T i ) -— — Vol. 94, No. 3 May/June, 1977 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which Is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria $1.20 Category “B” Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical. FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS | GENERAL MEETINGS At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra Monday, 13 June, 8.00 p.m. (Note: Meeting will be on Monday even though it is Queen's Birthday Holiday). Speaker: Dr J. Peterson, Department of Geography, Monash University. Subject: ‘‘Searching in the Mountains for evidence of Climatic Change. '' Honorary Membership presented to Mr F. H. Morley. Monday, 11 July, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Dr Brian J. Smith, National Museum of Victoria. Subject: "Australian Molluscs.'' Monday, 8 August, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Mr Alan E. Monger, President of Benalla FNC. Subject: ‘‘Activities of a Country Club." New Members—June General Meeting: Ordinary: Miss Sue Beattie, c/o 32 Longs Road, Lower Plenty, 3093. Mr Warick R. Chapman, 50 Porter Street, Templestowe, 3106 (Fauna & Flora). Mr David Hart, 5 Pippin Avenue, Burwood East, 3151. Mr Stephen Henry, Menzies College La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3083. Mr David W. Jenkins, 1/91 Barton Street, Reservoir (Botany). Mr Keith McDougall, 95 Tucker Road, Bentleigh, 3204. Mr Ian J. Smales, 27 Mangarra Road, Canterbury, 3126 (Herpetology). Mr Neville Walsh, 8 Clarence Street, East Malvern, 3145. Joint: Mr Barry Parsons and Mrs Margaret Parsons, 7/37 Melby Avenue, Balaclava, 3183. Mrs J. Alderson, 32 Longs Road, Lower Plenty, 3093. Mrs Anne Douglas, 42 Sunhill Road, Mt Waverley, 3149. Country: Mr D. G. Stewart, 42 Hopwood Street, Echuca, 3625. Mrs Shirley Grass, 6 Neade Street, Lorne, 3232. Mr J. A. Wall, 156 Kay Street, Traralgon, 3844. Miss Linda Lumsden, Synan Road, Fish Creek, 3959 (mammal survey). Subscriber: Castlemaine Field Naturalists Club. C/o Mrs R. J. Mills, 118 Blakely Road, Castlemaine, 3450. FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday, 19 June— Geology and history of the Old Sydney Road; leader Mr Graeme Love, Geology Group chairman. We will go through Broadmeadows along the Old Sydney Road through the “toll gate" ' and up Pretty Sally with stops en route at places of geological and/or historical interest, returning home via the Hume Highway. Coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m.; fare $5.00. Bring one meal and a snack. Sunday, 17 July—Annual Boneseed weeding day at Studley Park; leader Mr Ian Cameron. Please support this Club project—give a whole day's work, half day, two hours, one hour, everything helps. Our previous two years have had encouraging results; those areas will be checked and the range extended. Meet at the Pioneer Monument at 10 a.m.; lunch at the boatshed area. (Continued on page 135) 94 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Victorian Naturalist Volume 94, Number 3 June 1977 Editor: Reuben Kent Committee: Barry Callanan, Margaret Corrick, lan Hood, Margery Lester, Brian Smith, Paul Temple Blasktellewes dread. by. Nigel Eb. Sinnott «52 zo icy DIR ee 96 Observations on the Skink (Anomalopus reticulatus), by K. R. AVES) tado (LO vise cie ver M UST XR ML A NE 99 NoleanesliommDS; OY C APOWASBeasley m4 cee us pa Rt pc oe Byes 104 Jivpey Pe O1 oh 21 (Wo) g Were ON ofan Cub tg To Wl DAs Gk Eee eor nen e eee een ae 108 GenercsNames of Victorian: Flora, by J. A: Baines 5.12... 0.20. 11] SUS ee dss Ole Ne tORlas Dy MAG PC Orrick (Flea wir. a E ei 112 Cuttle Bones on Victorian Beaches, by K. N. Bell and Phyllis J. Plant MS The Effect of Forest Fire on the Ecology of Leaf Litter Organisms, by B. ILLI aE UPON UO A cs coc ark o UN Seon, Beal PD ac 119 A Survey of Vertebrate Animals in the Stradbroke Area of South GD DON IVA ORE T users cence t goa soe eas ER wee 123 Preventive Marsupalian Paediatrics, by Elizabeth K. Turner, MD .. t29 Field Naturalist Club of Victoria Report April Meeting and General AEA cet vo a ek cM E TE ETES T 132 Cover illustration: Beech Orange, Cyttaria gunnii a fungus which is parasitic on Myrtle Beech Nothofagus cunninghamii. Fruiting Nov.-Jan. Magnified approx. 2x. Photograph from Mr H. Alan Morrison. "25 JUN | 98 i / Blackfellows' Bread Ic TRANK: and possible zoöchory of the fungus, Polyporus mylittae. By NIGEL H. SINNOTT* Doubt has arisen in recent years as to whether Aboriginals did, or even could, eat ""Blackfellows' Bread’’ — sometimes cal- led **Native Bread’’ — the sclerotial stage (M ylitta australis Berk.) of the basidiomy- cete Polyporus mylittae Cooke & Massee. The writer, who until recently had only seen rather old herbarium specimens of this fun- gus, had begun to wonder whether the con- sumption of these sclerotia was not one of the colourful myths with which nineteenth- century and late eighteenth-century Euro- peans were wont to weave around the habits of the “‘noble savages’’ with whom they came into contact. Apart from old accounts, often rehashed, recent evidence for 'M ylitta australis’ being palatable to Aboriginals is relatively scanty. Massola (1969:71), for example, mentions it being sought by Victorian Aboriginals in a paddock near Lal-Lal (about 20 km south- east of Ballaarat), on the road to Clarendon. However, in a detailed résumé of the litera- ture, and after examining a good deal of sclerotial material, Willis (1967:204) came to the conclusion that *'it is almost incredi- ble that such hard sclerotia could be eaten at all — in the young fresh state they have somewhat the consistency of very rubbery gristle, while dried examples are always as hard as horn. "' It is easy to understand how Willis formed this opinion. The present writer has in his possession an old sclerotium, of about 150 mm maximum diameter, which re- sisted efforts to section it with a knife and two saws. It now functions as a door-stop and would undoubtedly ‘‘work good execu- tion’’ if ever needed as a cannonball. Nevertheless, it would seem that Willis's "young fresh'' material may have been older than he supposed. 96 Tasting tests In late December 1976, whilst at the Vic- toria Archaeological Survey's summer school in the Western District, two mem- bers of the Survey's staff were given con- siderable quantities of sclerotia which had been turned up by ploughing on Mr. H. Rowbottom's property near Broadwater. They in turn gave some of them to the writer. The largest of these had a maximum diameter of 250 mm, though T. Kirk re- ported seeing specimens of about 400 mm diameter. Although the sclerotia had been left for some time after excavation, they were still in a very fresh state. They could easily be carved with a knife, or even broken with the fingers. Tasting tests were carried out, both at the Archaeological Survey's summer school headquarters at Yambuk, and sub- sequently (early January 1977) in the Mel- bourne area. In all about a dozen men and women, of both European and Aboriginal extraction, ate the fresh, raw, inner alveol- ate portions of the Mylitta-stage. It was unanimously agreed that the material was by no means unpalatable, and that it would certainly not be refused by anyone who was really hungry. Its consistency (but not ap- pearance) was similar to that of over-boiled white rice, though impressions of flavour varied from *'rather bland’’, and ‘‘reminds me of tripe"', to *'slightly sour’’. It seems clear, therefore, that the hard- ness of '"'Blackfellows' Bread’’ is highly variable, but related to the age and degree of desiccation of the sclerotia. When very fresh it is clearly esculent, and so the M ylitta-stage of Polyporus mylittae can be *45 Henry Street, Kensington, Vic., 3031. Vict. Nat. Vol..94 reinstated as a probable, if occasional, in- gredient of the diet of a hunter-gatherer economy before European contact. AI- though Aboriginals are sometimes popu- larly regarded as living primarily on animal foodstuffs, Witter (1976:2) has pointed out that their diet in pre-contact times ‘‘would have been basically plant foods supplemented by various game animals" [also insects (and larvae), molluscs and fish, where plentiful]. Indeed, Blackfellows' Bread appears to have continued as a food resource well into the post-contact period. T. B. Kirk (pers. comm.), for example, remembers the Aboriginal community of South Burnett, Queensland, searching for and collecting sclerotia up until about twenty years ago. May/June Polyporus mylittae (Blackfellows’ Bread). à Photo by courtesy John Walker, Plant Pathologist (Dept. Agric., Rydal- mere, N.S.W.), of a specimen collected by him at Robertson, bet- ween Kiama and Moss Vale, N.S.W., May 1957. An adaptation for dispersal by animals (zoóchoric* adaptation)? In January 1977 one of the entire sclerotia from the Western District was buried in a well-watered spot in a vegetable garden in the Melbourne area to see if it would pro- duce basidiocarps. Another, slightly dam- aged specimen was left exposed in a shady place and regularly wetted. The former has so far shown no sign of activity; the latter has shrunk.t Other material was cut up for herbarium specimens and various purposes, but, unbeknown to the writer, some of the *From zoon animal and chorein to spread. tAfter this paper was written, this specimen sub- sequently produced a mature basidiocarp in early March 1977 (Sinnott, 2208[K, herb. Sinnott]). The buried material remains inactive. 97 fragments were also buried, and a few weeks later he was rather astonished to find a basidiocarp of Polyporus mylittae appear- ing where he least expected it. The fact that a fragment, not an entire sclerotium, produced a basidial stage might be regarded as insignificant were it not for the fact that Cunningham (1965:81) con- firms what previous authors have suggested: "'Pilei are rare and seldom develop under natural conditions." And Cleland (1935:209), moreover, goes further: On several occasions now, after the ""Blackfellow's Bread'' has been gathered, sectioned and probably kept moist, pore-bearing fruiting bodies have developed. It seems doubtful whether any one has yet met with the caps developing under natural conditions. [My italics — N.S.] Although whole sclerotia are known on occasions to produce the fruit body of the fungus, the behaviour of the fragments seems to suggest, albeit inconclusively, that growth of basidiocarps may be stimulated by division of the sclerotia. Controlled tests, using statistically significant quantities of material, are needed to establish whether this is really so. If it is, then an explanation of the phenomenon is required. If sectioning or fragmentation of the M ylitta-stage encourages the production of basidiocarps, a suggestion can be made which would also explain why the fungus has rarely been found in the perfect stage in situ, namely that its fruiting behaviour rep- resents an adaptation to disturbance by ani- mals. There is clear dispersal value in the sclerotia being able to fruit after they have been scattered or transported about and fragmented, even if large portions are eaten in the process. An animal that might well be investigated in this context is the wombat Vombatus ursinus: its distribution is broadly overlapped by that of Polyporus mylittae; it is a vegetarian with mycophagous pro- clivities, and whilst it could probably con- sume sclerotia immediately after digging them out, it is feasible to suggest that por- tions might be taken back to wombat bur- 98 rows which would provide conditions not uncongenial to a largely subterranean fun- gus requiring water. D. C. Witter (pers. comm.) also suggests that species of rat- kangaroo Bettongia might be examined as possible dispersal agents. Conclusion The very fresh sclerotial stage of Polyporus mylittae can reasonably be re- garded as a food resource for human hunter-gatherers and doubtless also for other Australian animals. There seems some evidence, as yet incomplete and inconclu- sive, to suggest that zoóchory plays a part in the life-cycle of the fungus. MATERIAL EXAMINED. (1) Sclerotia turned up by ploughing from field, east of Bartlett Swamp, approx. 3 km south-east of Broadwater, Western District, Victoria, 29 xii 1976, Kirk, Parsons & Rowbottom [Sin- nott 2163]. (2) Sclerotium: Victoria, un- localised, Feb: 1977., Kirk; s. no; (3) Basidiocarp: from sclerotial fragments (part of 2163) buried in soil under Zea mais, in garden, Kensington, Melbourne, Victoria, 6 i1 1977, Sinnott 2195. (All in Herb. Sin- nott; parts of 2163 in K, VPRI; part of 2195 MERG) Acknowledgements I should like to thank Miss Deborah Par- sons and Mr. Thomas Kirk for specimens and related information; Mr. Dan Witter for additional suggestions; Dr. James Willis for generous gifts of background literature; and finally Mr. Allan Hargreaves — whose ac- tivities in my garden gave me considerable food for thought. REFERENCES Cleland, John B., 1935. Toadstools and Mushrooms and other larger fungi of South Australia, 2. Adelaide: Government Printer. Cunningham, G. H., 1965. Polyporaceae of New Zea- land. (N.Z. Dep. sci. industr. Res. Bull. no. 164) Wellington. Massola, Aldo, 1969. Journey to Aboriginal Victoria. Adelaide, etc.; Rigby. Willis, James H., 1967. A bibliography of ‘‘Blackfel- lows’ Bread”, Polyporus mylittae Cooke & Massee. Muelleria 1 (3): 203-212. Witter, Dan C., 1976. The Prehistory of the Aborigines of the Warrnambool Coast. (Vict. Archaeol. Survey pamphlet) Melbourne. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Observations on the Skink Anomalopus reticulatus (Gunther) (Lacertilia: Scincidae) BY K. R. MCDONALD* Introduction In 1873 Gunther described Chelomeles reticulatus , a species of skink with rudimen- tary limbs from the Clarence River in north-east New South Wales. Since then little has been written on the species except taxomic reviews by Boulenger (1897), Mit- tleman (1952) and Cogger (1973, 1975), although some distributional and habitat notes have been presented recently by Czechura (1974) and Cogger (1975). Anomalopus reticulatus (Gunther) is dis- tinguished from other species of the genus by the characteristic 24-28 longitudinal midbody scale rows and the presence of tridactyl limbs which are reduced and weak. The species is vermiform in appearance with the tail slightly flattened dorso- ventrally. The following are additional observations on the species gathered as part of field work for fauna conservation purposes. Materials and Methods The colours, sizes, distributio, diet and breeding of A. reticulatus were obtained from examination of 21 species in the Aus- tralian Museum, Sydney, and the Queens- land Museum, Brisbane, together with data obtained during field surveys by the Na- tional Parks and Wildlife Service of Queens- land. The following body measurements were used: Snout to vent length (S VL) — from tip of snout to vent; tail length (TL) — from vent to tip of tail on specimens with original tail; mid-body scales — number of longtitudinal scale rows at mid-body. Vegetation types were based on Walker (1972). Results Colours Although fading occurs after material has May/June been in alcohol for some time, and although few specimens were examined alive, specimens examined showed marked varia- tion in colour. Five colour forms were defined:— Type A. Where the dorsal surface of the body exhibited distinctive irregular black and white markings (two specimens); the dorsal surface of the tail consisted of smaller patterns than the body; a broad black patch was present on the head with extensions of the patch covering the eyes; the snout was white from the frontal forwards; the scales of the ventral surface were white with indi- vidual scales heavily marked in dark brown along each lateral edge with a dark band running long the base of the scale; the throat was mainly white with irregular dark mark- ings. These were juveniles (Figure 1). Type B. Where specimens were not as distinctly marked; scales around the eyes were dark; the snout was paler from the frontal scale forwards; five individuals showed brown coloration dorsally with dark brown bands across the body at regular in- tervals (Figure 2); the bands were irregular or as blotches on the tail; the regenerated tail portion was not banded; the tail of one indi- vidual (female from Lamington Plateau, Q., November 1974) was orange-tinged on the ventral and lateral surfaces; the ventral part of the body of these banded specimens was white with dark edges to each scale and the lateral part of the head had a pale creamy coloration (yellowish when alive). These specimens were 7.0 cm and sub-adult and adult in ages. *National Parks and Wildlife Service of Queensland, Animal Research Institute, Fairfield Road, Yeerongpilly, Q. 4105. 99 h2 M39 FO IRD. RS MOS KO ORO RS RO eo ee ae oF SON 4d t9 MN) -— C9 (OO CO -J €D cn | diii Hom amd dmn FC ID ti j BESESEERE T Ln Type C. Where specimens (eight) were paler brown than in type B and had a single dark brown band on the nape; three addi- tional specimens exhibited irregular blotches on the dorsal surface immediately behind the nape band; these specimens lack- ing general banding of the body had indi- vidual ventral scales with dark edges; the 100 | | | "e OP OD CTI. UMS ho ho «ceo wo ~3J GO cn 4A Cr) Fig. 1. — Type A colora- tion A.reticulatus (cen- timetre scale). l [ [ I [ n —À Coot CO Qo TIT Tm mm mM CR SS IEN, E i A ERT M nm d +4 A PLA S, E wis E ne eui A prom Fig. 2. — Type B colora- tion A.reticulatus (cen- timetre scale). throat in all specimens was whitish with occasional dark markings and the side of the head was creamy; scales around the eye were dark; faded specimens were whitish or pale brown dorsally and the single dark brown nape band was still discernible. These were adult specimens. Type D. Where the specimens were un- Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 banded (two): these were pale to dark brown dorsally; the ventral surface was darker than other types although individual ventral scales still had the predominantly dark lat- eral markings. These were adult specimens. Type E. One specimen (a male from Cooloola, Q., January 1973) was uniform bluish-grey on the dorsal surface and white on the ventral surface; several old scales adhered in parts; the ventral scales had the typical darker edges; other A. reticulatus observed in the field (also Cooloola, January 1973) had the similar coloration with bands absent. The specimen was an adult. Juvenile specimens thus exhibit a dis- tinctly marked pattern as in other reptiles, e.g. Tiliqua gerrardi (Gray), Notechis scutatus (Peters), Pseudonaja textilis (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril) and Hyd- rophis elegans (Gray). Sizes The specimens ranged in snout vent length from 6.8 cm to 23.1 cm. (Table 1). Worrell (1970) stated that the length of A. reticulatus is over six inches (= 15 cm) total length, whilst Boulenger (1887) and Loveridge (1935) give the SVL of speci- mens from New South Wales as being 20.5 cm (30.0 cm minus regenerated tail 9.5 cm) and 14.7 cm. Of nine specimens with intact tail, eight had the tail longer than the snout vent length, while a juvenile male had the tail similar in length. Distribution and Habitat Specimens were examined from the fol- lowing localities (see Figure 3). Lamington National Park and Mac- pherson Range (11 specimens): The eight specimens with habitat data were collected in closed forest; most under leaf litter during the day. Tamborine Plateau (one specimen): Vegetation on the plateau is closed forest and tall layered open eucalyptus forest (in national parks). Cunningham’s Gap (national park) (one specimen): Collected in tall open layered eucalyptus forest (a photograph of an addi- May/June oN e m A / » 7p \ dj i ; Nen "T è ; » 2i BRISBANE : Toowoomba T ). / y f Q L ] ), [7 * e ~ y Ne P. A ut SALA ¥ LE v js -i ay ai A Ai ee | ia j é Murwillumbah d / EA ( l ae ae ay s 4 SI l Y à ips | IN gu Mm " d / i ^ J Fig. 3. — Map showing distribution of A.retic- ulatus in eastern Aus- tralia. tional specimen taken by B. Baldwin, Forestry Department, Brisbane, in January 1972 was examined also). Cooloola (state forest) (one specimen): Collected in a logged closed forest of Tris- tania conferta R. Brown, Agathis robusta (C. Moore ex F. Muell. ), Ficus species, and other softwood closed forest species overly- ing silica sand (Coaldrake 1961); several other specimens were observed. Blackall Range near Maleny (one specimen): Habitat was disturbed closed 101 TABLE | — Measurements, sex and reproductive data of Anomalopus reticulatus (SVL = Snout vent length, TL = Tail length, R = regenerated tail, * = large ovarian follicles present) Ratio SVL/ TL (in Reproductive Condition No. Oviducal Left testes Scales cm) cm) PE Eggs length (cm) Location Collection Sex Mid SVL Date Body (in Lamington Plateau 19,111.74 M 25 7.0 15.91.37 M 24 10.1 - 4i. 73 M 24 13,7 M 23.1.74 M 25 17.0 Cooloola 28.1.73 M 26 Z5 Blackall Range 4.v.74 F 26 13.0 ? ? F 24 13.5 fe ? F 25 14.5 Lamington Plateau -.X1,67 F 26 14.6 Tweed R. ? F 25 15.6 Clarence R. ? F 26 16.4 Lamington Plateau ? F 25 16.5 Tamborine Mountain 20:X,29 F 24 16.7 Richmond Range ? F 28 b Lamington Plateau 31.xii.74 F 25 18.0 Lamington Plateau 12.x11.67 F 24 19.2 Lamington Plateau 6.x1.74 F uU. 10.0 Clarence R. ? indet. 24 6.8 Cunningham’s Gap 22.xii.71 indet. 26 VIRS Lamington Plateau 2 indet. 26 15,1 Lamington Plateau -.x11.72 indet. 26 18.5 6.8 1.03 X ie R — 4] 16.9 0.81 .68 24.6 0.69 1.36 R — damaged 14.2 0.91 oviduct not distended R wt * 14.5 .96 x R — o R — Nil 20.5 0.80 * R — Nil R — 6 R — Nil ZF.) 0.85 Nil R — 6 R — 4 14.4 0.77 De! 19.8 0/77 — R Det ni. (rain) forest (Czechura 1974). Richmond Range (one specimen): No habitat information. Clarence and Tweed Rivers (three specimens): No habitat information. A specimen has recently been collected by Dr. A. E. Greer, c/- Australian Museum in Wiangarie State Forest, N.S.W., other records are from Palmer's Island, N.S.W. (Loveridge 1934) and Clarence River (Boulenger 1887). Clearly, the species is distributed throughout north-eastern New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland (Figure 1). The species has been recorded in all in- stances in moist vegetation types, elevated except in the dense vegetation of the Cooloola sand dunes. The limited range and habitat types as well as a vermiform appear- 102 ance suggesting burrowing habits may cause individuals to be overlooked. The bluish-grey coloration of the Cooloola specimen may represent a cryptic adaption for living in the pale-colored silica sands of the area where the density of leaf litter on the forest floor is low. The colour of the other sub-adult and adult specimens ranged from pale brown to dark brown with the presence or absence of bands. This also may represent cryptic coloration in closed forests where the soil is darker. Breeding Females were sexually mature when snout vent length was at least 14.6 cm (Ta- ble 1). Clutch size varied from 3-6 eggs. A male, 7.0 cm in SVL, had a 1.5 mm remnant yolk sack attached to the intestine. Juveniles were present in March whilst Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 females had oviducal eggs present from Oc- tober to December. Diet Stomach contents were found in only four of the 18 specimens examined. These com- prised (a) one earthworm Digaster gwongerellae (Jamieson); (b) two earth- worms Oligochaeta plus mud; (c) one col- eoptera larva plus mud; (d) one insect (inde- terminable) plus mud. Three additional specimens had rectal contents of mud. Ani- mal remains were not found in the mud when this was removed for microscopic examination. A.recticulatus would encounter earth- worms on the forest floor at night and in the loose upper soil horizon through which it could burrow. Acknowledgements Mr. C. J. Limpus, National Parks and Wildlife Service of Queensland, supervised this study. The Directors of the Australian Museum and Queensland Museum loaned specimens and Dr. B. Jamieson, University of Queens- land identified the earthworm. Drs. H. G. Cogger and A. E. Greer, Australian Museum, and Ms. J. Covacevich, Queens- land Museum, provided most helpful en- couragement. Specimens were collected by staff of the National Parks and Wildlife Ser- vice of Queensland. This assistance is gratefully acknow- ledged. REFERENCES Boulenger, G. A. (1887). Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum (Natural History). Vol. 3. (Taylor and Francis: London. ) Coaldrake, J. E. (1961). Survey of the coastal lowlands (wallum) south-east Queensland.C.S.I.R.O. Bull. 283: 1-138. Cogger, H. G. (1973). Classification of Australian skinks. Herpetofauna 6: 7-10. Cogger, H. G. (1975). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. (Reed: Sydney). Czechura, G. (1974). A New South East locality for the skink Anomalopus reticulatus. Herpetofauna 7: 24. Gunther, A. (1873). Notes on, and descriptions of, some lizards with rudimentary limbs in the British Museum. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 12: 145-8. Loveridge, A. (1934). Australian reptiles in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 77: 243-383. Mittleman, M. B. (1952). A generic synopsis of the lizards of the subfamily Lygosominae. Smithson. Mis. Coll. 117: 1-35. Walker, J. (1972). In ""Shoalwater Bay Area Queens- land’’.C.S.1.R.O. Div. of Land Res. Tech. Mem. 72: 10. Worrell, E. (1970). Reptiles of Australia, Second Edi- tion. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). ST TE E R E ELI UN LE a LE OT TEE TE LE eese EAL ES cue rnfeeg enm EST Nursery for Wasps? Yes! On page 61 of the April ‘Naturalist’ there was a report of what appeared to be white eggs on the body of a caterpillar kept by Mr. Fred Morley. Mr. Ken Strong surmised they were not eggs but cocoons of a wasp, probably a species of Apan- teles , and that the larvae had been feeding inside the caterpillar and had emerged to pupate. Mr. Morley reported that after 16 days the box of cocoons was alive with tiny wasps. The wasps were dark reddish brown, 2.5-3 mm long, each having emerged from a 3 mm cocoon. There were 200-300 of them. M.J.L. Errata In the article ‘‘Paddling for Water Plants’’, by Elizabeth K. Turner (Vict. Nat. Vol. 94:2 Apl. 1977): Page 77, par. 3, line 6 — for Marsilea drum- mondii read M. mutica. May/June Page 77, par. 2, line 2, for Typha angustifolia read Typha sp. Page 77, par. 3, line 6 — for Marsilea drum- mondii read M. mutica. Page 77, par. 4, line 6 — for Alisma plantago read Alisma plantago-aquatica. 103 Volcanic Bombs Bv DR. A. W. BEASLEY* Although there are no active volcanoes in Australia now, a number of volcanoes were active in geologically Recent (Holocene) times, that is within the last 12 thousand years. Volcanoes of such a young age erupted on the Atherton Tableland and bet- ween Einasleigh and Mt. Garnet in northern Queensland, near Gayndah in southern Queensland, at Mt. Porndon, Tower Hill, Mt. Rouse, Mt. Eccles, Mt. Napier and elsewhere in western Victoria, and at Mt. Gambier and Mt. Schank in South Au- stralia. The youngest known volcanic rocks in Victoria are about 6000 to 7000 years old; the Mt. Eccles volcano (near Macarthur) erupted not much more than 6250 years ago. The Mt. Napier volcano (south of Hamilton) and the Tower Hill volcano (between Warrnambool and Port Fairy) were active about 7300 years ago. Some volcanic tuffs from Mt. Gambier have been dated at 4830 years old, and others even as young as about 1400 years old. During the Pleistocene period, which precedes the Recent and extends back about two million years, volcanic activity was common in certain areas of northern Queensland and western Victoria. It also occurred in the southeast of South Australia. The volcanic hills of Recent and of Pleis- tocene age that dot the countryside in the Western District of Victoria are composed mainly of volcanic ash (fine fragmental material) and scoria (rough, angular pieces of very vesicular basalt averaging about two centimentres across), thrown out from the erupting volcanoes by the explosive action of steam and other gases. Many of the vol- canoes erupted with violent explosions, and the cones were formed comparatively quickly. Volcanic bombs Volcanic bombs may be found among the ejectamenta in many of the volcanic hills in *Honorary Associate in Geology, National Museum of Victoria. Plate 1. Spindle-shaped volcanic bomb with twisted ‘tails’, from Mt. Shadwell, near Mortlake, Victoria. 104 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Plate 2. Anakies, north of Geelong, Victoria. Length = 38 cen- timetres; weight = 15.4 kilograms. Victoria’s Western District. They have been found less commonly in the Quaternary (Recent and Pleistocene) pyroclastic de- posits of Queensland and South Australia. As well as being of scientific interest, they form interesting collector’s items. Most volcanic bombs consist of basaltic rock which was thrown out from the crater as blobs of semi-molten lava; the ejected material rotated rapidly as it flew through the air, taking on a spindle-shaped or a spherical form like a bombshell. Many of the bombs were hurled into the air to fairly great heights by gas explosions, and the lava cooled and solidified fairly quickly. Most bombs fell not very far from the volcanic crater, and they are commonly associated with scoria. Volcanic bombs found in Victoria range in size from about three centimetres to more than one metre, but usually the maximum dimension is somewhat less than 30 cen- timetres. Many are spindle-shaped, roughly spherical in the middle and tapering towards each end, and they commonly have twisted May/June Spindle-shaped volcanic bomb from The ‘tails’. Most of the bombs contain a nucleus of some material other than basalt, and this may form a large proportion of their mass. Frequently the nucleus or core consists of the ultrabasic igneous rock called lherzolite, which is composed largely of olivine grains. Because of this they are, somewhat col- loquially, known as olivine bombs. Lherzo- lite is really a peridotite containing both clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene in addi- tion to olivine. The lherzolite cores of Victorian bombs are occasionally up to 60 centimetres in diameter, but commonly range from 10 to 20 centimetres. Some of these cores are extremely well-rounded, presumably from abrasive action within the volcanic vent and from partial melting; others show plane joint faces in process of rounding. In certain bombs the core can be detached fairly easily from the basaltic covering. The lherzolite is greenish in colour, due to the abundance of olivine, which is an olive-green mineral. Grains of minerals other than olivine are present in small amounts; they include en- 105 statite (pale green), chrome diopside (emerald green) and spinel (dark brown). Sometimes part of the olivine has altered to a reddish-brown mineral called iddingsite. The lherzolite in volcanic bombs from Victoria and other places is considered to have come from the upper part of the Earth’s mantle, the zone below the crust, having been brought up in a solid state within the molten rock-material generated at depth and subsequently erupted upon the surface through volcanic activity. These solid pieces of rock generally carried some lava around them when they were hurled into the air by the force of the eruption. Sometimes an outer skin of solidified lava formed quickly, and this cracked when the bomb landed, giving what is called a breadcrust bomb with an appearance like an overbaked loaf. 106 Plate 3. Spherical volcanic bomb broken in half, show- ing a core of lherzolite, from Mt. Shadwell, near Mortlake, Victoria. Nodules of lherzolite which are not lava- encrusted also occur among the scoria in western Victoria, as well as in certain other regions of late Cainozoic volcanicity in eastern Australia. Dr. D. H. Green of the Australian National University has referred to them as ‘‘clean bombs’’. These ejected bodies are usually less than 25 centimetres in diameter. In Victoria, Mt. Leura (near Camper- down), Mt. Porndon (east of Camperdown), Mt. Noorat (north of Terang) and The Anakies (north of Geelong) are old volcanic cones that contain numerous bombs. Vol- canic bombs appear to be not quite so plenti- ful at Mt. Shadwell (near Mortlake), Mt. Franklin (near Daylesford) and in other scoria cones. Many of the bombs contain a core of lherzolite, but some contain cores of basalt, the local country-rock, or a rock in Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 which pyroxene predominates. The closest place to Melbourne for collecting good vol- canic bombs is The Anakies, a group of three scoria cones 60 kilometres southwest of the City. Scoria is quarried there for use in road-making and in lightweight concrete, and the bombs can readily be collected from among the scoria. Scoria cones containing volcanic bombs occur in northern Queensland between Einasleigh and Mt. Garnet, and on the Atherton Tableland, as well as west of Cooktown. Most of the bombs contain a core of lherzolite, and they are popularly referred to as olivine bombs. The basaltic tuffs and other pyroclastics near Tully Falls contain bombs up to 90 centimetres in diameter. East of Gayndah in southern Queensland, volcanic bombs containing fairly large inclusions of lherzolite occur in poorly consolidated volcanic agglomerate and tuff on the slopes of Mt. Le Brun; this volcanic hill is believed to be of Recent age. Mt. Schank and Mt. Gambier in the southeast of South Australia are composed largely of tuffs, and only sporadic bombs have been found. Volcanic bombs are seen to be hurled to great heights in present-day volcanic erup- tions. For example, in the eruption at Paricutin, a village in Mexico, incandescent volcanic bombs were projected to a height of some 2000 metres when a new volcano was born there in 1943. The ultrabasic rock cores of volcanic bombs are of considerable interest, as they provide samples of valuable study material brought up by Nature from beneath the Earth’s crust. The lherzolite is believed to have crystallized under conditions of high temperature and pressure in the Earth’s mantle. The presence of this rock as inclu- sions in many volcanic bombs indicates that the original source of the associated lava was from deeper than the crust, which in eastern Australia typically extends down 22 to 45 kilometres. An appreciable amount of the Quaternary basic volcanic rocks in east- ern Australia thus appear to have had their source in the Earth’s mantle. Radioactive isotope dating of certain lherzolite speci- mens from western Victorian volcanic bombs, carried out by Australian National University scientists, gave them an age of more than two billion years. They are inter- preted as being residues of the Earth’s man- tle which remained after the basalt was melted out during a much later period. Olivine is an important rock-forming mineral which occasionally occurs in grains of sufficient size and quality to be suitable for use as a gemstone; the clear green gem is usually called peridot. Unfortunately, the olivine grains in the core of volcanic bombs are generally too small and too cracked and friable to be used for gem purposes. Moreover, they are frequently clouded, and only rarely does one find a clear piece that is large enough to cut into a gem. However, some of the olivine in the core of volcanic bombs from Mt. Shadwell in western Vic- toria has been cut and polished for jewellery purposes. Unfortunately, olivine is not a very hard and durable gemstone, and when exposed to much wear, the cut stone does not keep a good polish or sharp edges. Volcanic bombs are interesting geologi- cal specimens, and it is fascinating to pri- vately possess a well-shaped bomb as well as a broken one that reveals a vivid green core of lherzolite. Volcanic bombs from Victoria are the best-shaped ones that have been found in Australia, and many good specimens have been sent to other States for display and teaching purposes. Author Index to ‘The Victorian Naturalist’ 1884-1976 Compiled by J.A.Baines, 368 pages, now available from FNCV Sales Officer, $11.00; postage 80c within 50 kilos, $1.20 within Victoria, $2.00 Interstate. May/June 107 Landslip at Lorne, Victoria, Australia By EDMUND D. GILL* A rift valley existed across southern Vic- toria in the Lower Cretaceous period, within which some 3 km thickness of non-marine sediments were accumulated. A segment of this infilled rift valley was later uplifted to form the Otway Ranges. Slopes of up to 30° characterize the coastal edge of this block. As a result, many slips occur. In the town- ship of Lorne, in September 1976, a slip occurred on a 25? vegetated slope at the corner of Minapre Street and Belvedere Ter- race. The slip crossed the street corner, a fence and garden, then shifted a house named **Driftwood’’ five metres (Plate 1). It took 2/5 days to clear away the slip mate- rial, which came from a pear-shaped area approximately 18 m by 18 m. The rock under the slip is a weathered siltstone which, while still water-saturated, gave penetrometer readings of 4-12 tons/sq. ft. (= kg/cm?). The slip material consisted of weathered clayey decomposed siltstone plus an overlying sandy to gravelly loam. These two materials contrast strongly, the lower being Pleistocene fine-grained and yellow, and the upper being Holocene coarse- grained and grey. A youthful thin uniform *1/47 Wattle Valley Road, Canterbury, Victoria 3162. Plate 1. The house moved 5 m by the slip, so that it contacted the next house. The slip material has been removed. 108 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 lm Mid-grey sandy and gravelly loam Little compaction 2m Compact light-brown to orange siltstone with close-spaced vertical joints with black psilomelane Fig. | Section at head of slip area at Lorne. Ed 2 m Yellowish siltstone (bedrock) with some mottling Slip face Plate 2. The area from which the slip came. Note that it is well vegetated. The slope is 25°, and the soil continues round the whole area, showing that it has been stable for a long time. May/June 109 grey soil overlies most of the countryside, and varies in grain-size according to the material from which it is derived. Obviously the coarse-grained soil of the slip site could not be derived from the fine-grained rock below it. Its origin is in Tertiary river sedi- ments higher up the hill. The Holocene soil is youthful but has an age of some date B.C. Before the slip it covered the whole slope. As it was stable for so long, surviving times both wetter and drier than now, the cause of the slipping is to be sought in the recent activities of man. It seems to me that two factors are involved. An excessive amount of water somehow found its way into the soil, and during roadmaking the toe of the slope was cut away. Thus in spite of the long stability and the well vegetated condition, the slope failed (Plate 2). The addition of excess water was probably the main cause, as the narrow end of the pear shape was at the toe, and only part of the toe collapsed. Above the slip is a flat area where sand and gravel have been mined, and this is the source of the gravel in the topsoil. Where this flat area was sectioned by the highest part of the slip, the following section was measured (Fig. 1): | m — Mid-grey sandy and gravelly loam, little compacted. Disconformity 2 m — Well compacted light-brown to orange siltstone with vertical joints blac- kened with psilomelane. 2 m+ — Yellow siltstone with off-white and orange mottles. This is interpreted as decomposed Cretaceous siltstone (bed- rock). The grey soil in this section is three times as thick as on the slope. In this section there were three things of particular interest. 1. The Fossil Soil In some time long past there was very deep leaching that created a soil profile some metres in depth. Present conditions could not evolve a soil of that depth in that area. The topsoil of that profile has been washed and/or blown away. The modern soil has been formed in hillwash from higher up the hill, that came down after the fossil 110 soil was truncated. Australian soils often have the stumps of older profiles preserved beneath them. For example, further along the coast at Port Campbell, a soil profile was studied in detail by archaeological methods to discover australites in place (Gill 1965). It was discovered that the topsoil had been winnowed in a drier period 4000-6000 years ago, so that the australites, heavy minerals and such were concentrated. Later a new land surface was established on top, shown by fossil rings of grasstree resin that dated 3800 years. Above that the present topsoil accumulated. In the winnowed material aboriginal implements of the microlithic culture were found, while above the grasstree rings were modern scrapers. Thus an archaeological succession was disco- vered out in an open paddock. 2. The Hillwash The Otway coast from Eastern View to Apollo Bay has received a good deal of attention from geologists, e.g. Edwards and Baker 1943; Jutson 1949, 1954; Edwards 1962; Medwell 1971; Gill, Segnit and McNeill 1977. Recently, some attention has been given to the colluvium or hillwash so clearly exposed in the cuttings along the Ocean Road (Gill 1977). It occupies fossil gullies. The existing gullies are usually at the junction of the colluvium and the bed- rock. It should be noted that these wide- spread colluvial fans are now fixed, with a Holocene soil on top. There are two kinds, (a) Sandy colluvium with angular blocks of sandstone (greywacke). The colour is usu- ally light brown, but occasionally orange to reddish. (b) Silty colluvium, generally light grey, but sometimes mottled with light yel- low patches. The sandy colluvium is de- rived from the Cretaceous greywacke, and the silty colluvium from the siltstone. Thus they can be used for recognizing the pre- sence of formations hidden by soils and forest. In strong contrast is the colluvium higher up the hills as seen in the Lorne sandpit, the golf course and the slip site. 3. The Disconformity The distinct break in time between the fossil subsoil and the grey modern soil at the Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 slip site hides a lot of history. It represents thousands of years, during which the topsoil of the former profile was washed away. The top 2 m of the brown fossil soil has closely- spaced vertical cracks or joints | cm or less apart, which are very obvious because they are black, due to the presence of manganese dioxide (psilomelane). This old land surface must have suffered severe drying out to pro- duce all these shrinkage cracks in the siltstone. Widespread round the world is evidence of a drier period from about 20 000 years ago until 11 000 to 8000 years ago, according to locality. In Western Vic- toria the windblown loess from lake floors began to gather about 20 000 years ago, and about that time calcrete was deposited in the calcarenites in the Warrnambool district. Perhaps it was this dry period that is respon- sible for the disconformity revealed by the Lorne slip. The slightly drier period 4000 to 6000 years ago was probably not severe enough to cause the deep cracking seen at Lorne. As yet we have little understanding of past climates and their effects, but if relevant features are recorded, the pattern of climatic change will someday emerge. REFERENCES Edwards, A. B., 1962. Notes on the geology of the Lorne district, Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 75:101- 119. Edwards, A. B. and Baker, G., 1943. Jurassic arkose in Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 55:195-228. Gill, E. D., 1965. Quaternary geology, radiocarbon datings, and the age of australites. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 84:415-432. Gill, E. D., 1977. Evolution of the Otway coast, Vic- toria, Australia, from the Last Interglacial to the pre- sent. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 88 (In press). Gill, E. D., Segnit, E. R. and McNeill, N. H., 1977. Concretions in Otway Group sediments. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 88 (In press). Jutson, J. T., 1949. The shore platforms of Lorne, Vic- toria. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 61:43-59. Jutson, J. T., 1954. The shore platforms of Lorne, Vic- toria, and the processes of erosion operating thereon. Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 65:125-134. Medwell. G. J., 1971. Structures of the Otway Ranges. Spec. Bull. Geol. Surv. S.A. Vict., pp. 339-359. The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora Part 2 — Latin, Greek and Miscellaneous (Continued from page 74 in the previous issue) Byy JAMES A. BAINES Pachymitus. Gk pachys, thick; mitos, thread. An endemic Australian genus of only two species set up by Schulz in 1924. Victoria's species, P. cardaminoides. Sand Cress, was placed by F. Mueller first in Sisymbrium and then in Blennodia, family Cruciferae. Panax. Gk panakes, all-healing (cf. panacea), from which came Lat panax, name of a herb claimed to heal all diseases. P. sambucifolius was the name of Elderberry Panax from 1930 until 1905, when Van Tieghem was honoured by the French botanist Viguier when he set up the new genus Tieghemopanax. Our other May/June species, named T. multifidus by Wakefield in 1957, is Ferny Panax. Panicum. Lat name of Millet (P. miliaceum), the grain of which was mixed with bread (panis) in early times; Gilbert-Carter claims that the Roman Panicum was Italian Millet, *Setaria italica (syn. P. italicum). The latter species is accepted as naturalized in Victoria, and the former in N.S.W. Victoria has five native species, all known as kinds of Panic Grass or Panic, and two introduced, one of which, *P. coloratum, from South Africa, is called Coolah Grass after the town of Coolah, N.S.W. (a name of Aboriginal origin). (To be continued) 111 Bush-peas of Victoria — genus Pultenaea No. 5 Bv M. G. CORRICK* Pultenaea tenella Bentham in Flora Australiense 2:122 (1864) Several species of Pultenaea occur in the highlands of eastern Victoria. Some are widespread and quite common, and apar- ently tolerant of some diversity in habitat. Pultenaea tenella, however, is much more restricted in distribution, being exclusively alpine and confined to the herbfields border- ing bogs, particularly on Mt. Buffalo. The species was described by Bentham from material collected by Mueller in March 1861 in the Haidinger Range, an old name for the Buffalo Range. It also occurs on Mt. Wellington and Mt. Nunniong. It is usually listed among Victoria's endemic plants, but there is a specimen in the National Her- barium, Melbourne, collected on Mt. Kos- ciusko by J. H. Maiden in 1898. The plant is rather inconspicuous and could easily be overlooked when not in flower. It is usually less than 30 cm high and the slender, trailing stems mingle with other herbfield plants so that it is not easy to see it as a whole. The young branches are covered with silky, appressed hairs. The ovate-elliptic leaves are 3-5 mm long, 1-2 mm wide and glabrous except for a few Scattered hairs on the undersides of new growth. They are in whorls of three which is Fig. 6a. Known distribution of P. tenella and P. cun- ninghamii. 112 an unusual arrangement in Victorian Pul- tenaea species. The minute, lanceolate, brown stipules are less than 1 mm long. The flowers are on pedicels 5-6 mm long in the axils of the terminal whorls of leaves. Occasionally these are reduced to enlarged stipules, with the leaf appearing as a vesti- gial central lobe. The upper calyx lobes are broader and not so deeply divided as the lower lobes which have slender, lanceolate tips. Both the calyx and pedicel are pale and covered with short, white appressed hairs. The slender brown, lanceolate bracteoles are less than 2 mm long, attached at the base of the calyx tube and shorter than it. The flower is quite large compared with the total size of the plant; including the calyx it is about 10 mm long; the open standard is 10 mm broad and is a rich yellow with purple-brown streaks in the throat. The ovary is densely covered with soft, short, white hairs, and in mature flowers the glabrous style is curved at the tip. SPECIMENS EXAMINED included: jh Plains, A. C. Beauglehole 36993, 23:11:1971 (MEL 515108); Mt. Buffalo, M. G. Corrick 3861, 5.11.1974 (MEL 515366); Mt. Buffalo, M. A. Todd 128, 2T i 1973 4 NIEE:515329). *7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 — Ig €——Ó—€ N EN YO "ON Viel) th H ^ UE E ry Fig. 6. a-e. P. cunninghamii: a-d from MEL 5 15365; a, habit; b, calyx and bracteoles, bracteole drawn a little larger; c, style and ovary; d, leaf and stipule; e, seed from MEL 515235. f-k, P. tenella: f-i from MEL 515366; f, habit; g, calyx and bracteoles, bracteole drawn a little larger; h, style and ovary; i, leaf and stipule; j, pod from MEL 515329; k, seed from MEL 515108. May/June To Pultenaea cunninghamii (Bentham) H. B. Williamson in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. 35999 (1922) Pultenaea cunninghamii occurs in Vic- toria's north-eastern highlands; it is not an alpine species but favours timbered hills and lower mountain slopes, often in rather rocky places. It is plentiful on Mt. Samaria, south-east of Benalla, and can also be seen on Tolmie Heights and Powers Lookout above Whitfield. It also occurs in New South Wales and Queensland. It is perhaps the most distinctive and showy of all Victorian Pultenaeas, and would be unlikely to be overlooked even when not in flower. It is a slender, glabrous and slightly glaucous shrub, usually erect and about 1! to 2 metres tall. The stems and some of the young shoots are often tinged with red. As in the previous species the leaves are in whorls of three. They are flat and ovate to broadly rhomboidal, varying from 10- 20 mm wide and 8-20 mm long, with the mid-vein produced into a conspicuous, pungent point. The acuminate, papery, brown stipules are 1.5-2 mm long with a distinct mid-rib. The flowers are solitary in the leaf axils on pedicels up to 7 mm long. The calyx is glabrous, 7-8 mm long and the tips of the lobes are often tinged with red. The upper two lobes are broader and less deeply di- vided than the lower three. The slender, lanceolate bracteoles are attached at the base of the calyx and are about as long as the tube. There are no floral bracts. The stan- dard is pale orange with a tinge of red in the throat and may be up to 15 mm broad and 10 mm high. The wings are also orange and the keel is a rich brick red. Both ovary and style are glabrous, the latter is about 12 mm long and forms a dis- tinctive sickle shaped tip to the young pods. A small, ovate-leafed form of P. cunnin- ghamii (described as var. pubescens H. B. Williamson in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. 35:100 (1922)) occurs in the Warby Range, the Mitta Mitta valley and upper Murray reg- ions, but the majority of Victorian popula- tions have very large, rhomboidal leaves. Intermediate leaf sizes occur throughout the range of the species in New South Wales and Queensland and most modern authors do not recognize any varieties. SPECIMENS EXAMINED included: Mt. Samaria, M. G. Corrick 4880, 16.xii. 1974 (MEL 515365); Mitta R. Valley, J. H. Willis, 3.vi.1962 (MEL 516153), Buf- falo Range, F. Mueller (MEL 515235). Silver Gulls and Soldier Beetles The Silver Gull (Larus novaehollandiae) is a common sight in Melbourne. Almost all the popu- lar outdoor lunch areas round the city have a few attendant gulls on the look-out for scraps. They are normally seen on the ground or perched on nearby vantage points. Flocks of various sizes are continually on the move over the city, usually in apparently purposeful flight and presumably travelling between feeding grounds. Walking across the lawns near the Shrine of Remembrance one warm afternoon in late March this year I noticed a flock of about fifty gulls which were in continual flight over the area at about tree top level. No picnic parties were about and the birds were obviously not looking for food on the ground, nor were they simply passing over in the one direction. After watching for a few moments I saw that large numbers of Soldier 114 Beetles (Chauliognathus pulchellus) were also on the wing and that the gulls were feeding on them in the air. These beetles have been plentiful this summer, and are particularly active on warm, humid days such as this was. The Silver Gull is apparently adapted to a wide range of food and is a notorious scavenger around cities and ports. In certain conditions insects, including beetles and grasshoppers, are an impor- tant item of diet. D.L. and Vincent Serventy and J. Warham in ''The Handbook of Australian Sea-birds” (A. H. & A. W. Reed 1971) refer to aerial feeding of gulls, particularly on flying ants. I wonder how often opportunities for this method of feeding occur close to the centre of a city the size of Melbourne? M. G. CORRICK Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Cuttle Bones on Victorian Beaches K. N. BELL* AND RHYLLIS J. PLANT** Most people are familiar with the cuttle bones washed in on the Victorian open ocean beaches. These *'bones"' are the internal shells of specially adapted molluscs known as "cuttle fish’’. Cuttles belong to the molluscan family of Cephalopods which also includes the octopus, squids, Spirula and Nautilus. Live cuttles have eight short arms and two longer club-ended tentacles, all of which bear rows of suckers. The two long tentacles are used for catching food, usually fish, and can be rapidly shot out and then retracted into pouches when the food has been drawn within reach of the shorter arms. The cuttle **bone'' or sepion lies just beneath the surface of the dorsal side with the softer parts underneath. The sepion aids in bouyancy of the living animal as fluids can be pumped into or out of it thus changing the hydrostatic balance of the cuttle. Live cuttles can be easily distinguished from squid in that the body is fringed on each side with one long undulating fin and also by possession of a calcareous sepion whereas the squid has two broader fins at the posterior end and a chitinous internal shell. Although little is known of the live cuttles, the sepions have characteristics which enable them to be easily distinguished. (See Figs. | and 2.) On the basis of studies on the collections of Sepia in the National Museum of Victoria a key to the adult species found in Victoria was compiled. We follow Adams and Rees (1963) in placing all the local species in the genus Sepia. *Honorary Associate, National Museum of Victoria. **Assistant, Invertebrate Department, National Museum of Victoria. May/June CUTTLE-BONE Fig. 1: Living cuttle showing position of sepion. Ventral sulcus (furrow in centre) S i tA Hl ‘Hy NS ANN EN Fig. 2: Diagrams showing sepion structure. 115 KEY TO THE ADULT SPECIES OF SEPIA IN VICTORIA. ‘Cuttle-Bones’’ Sepia spp. Le eplon.with SPINE so. ew oa a xa ERR OE tae Ny gate esa ec MEL IR sepion without spine (may be smal now.. T e AE AAAA apama. 2. Spine with keel. A M TEM M ques AUSTIN MEE hedleyi. Spine-without keel (round) 2; dU SEV TU or NT Hn ene ole p COM Di Jo NEL CONS prese d ^ vae duode. c c M E cd novaehollandiae. ier cone absent or 4 ndgescses 25$ cs NI OESTE a a 4. 4. Sepion. small, Very Marr Ow. jis, jc veces S eur ee ea ae ee en ee braggi. Sepion of moderate size and width seria UU 1p, ea oS UT T rex. Fig. 3: Ventral view of the sepions of the Victorian species. (Scale line with each drawing — 50 mm). 116 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Fig. 3 shows outline diagrams of the five species represented in our collections. Macpherson and Gabriel (1962) record seven species for Victoria but of these S. gemellus from the Betka R. has not been seen — the specimens labelled such in the N.M. V. collections are here referred to S. hedleyi, and those of S. limata are considered to be identical with S. braggi. When extensive collections are made from the far East and the far West of the State additional species may be found. Table | gives the measurement data for all species. The width, thickness, length of striated zone and spine length are given as a percentage of the length which is measured in mm. Full measurement data for each specimen may be obtained from the N.M.V. The following notes are given as an aid for identification of species. Sepia apama (Fig. 3a (adult), 3b (juvenile); 4a.) The most common and the largest species on our coast. The sepion is quite variable between the juvenile and the adult specimens. Table 1. Species Length (mm) Width (96) 11.9-420 28.6-50.4 novaehollandiae 19.8-42.6 45.1-117 hedleyi 44.1-74.5 32.3-40.5 braggi 175123878 May/June Juvenile: sepion ovate; outer cone small, not flaring; inner cone small; a wide but not deep ventral sulcus. Dorsal side apricot-brown; flat with just a suggestion of a dorsal ridge; posterior quarter finely pustulose. Spine is a very small nob. Adult: Very elongate due to extensive increase in length of the outer cone beyond the posterior end of the juvenile sepion. This extension is very thick (2-5 mm) giving the sepion a ''shovel-like"" appearance. The inner cone thickens and becomes a strong raised ridge at the junction of the striate zone and the outer cone. On the dorsal side this extended area is not pustulose, but the earlier pustules coalese and form low digitate ridges. There is no spine on the adult. Range: Port Fairy, Parker R., Anglesea, Ocean Grove, Wilsons Prom., Lake Tyers. Sepia novaehollandiae (Fig. 3d; 4b). Sepion is long, elliptic, with a prominent ventral sulcus. The inner cone is well formed. The dorsal side is a pale rose-pink; there are two very faint and shallow dorsal ribs; it is coarsely pustulose d Fig. 4: Cross-sections of the sepions of the Victorian species. (All to the same scale.) Thickness (96) : Striate Zone Spine Length Length (96) 45.6-73.7 50 - 77.6 59.1-76.6 65.1-71.2 56.3-81.8 near the spine only. The spine is sharply pointed, straight (rarely curved) and placed on a smooth raised base. Range: Fitzroy R., Parker R., Anglesea, Ocean Grove, Flinders, Wilsons Prom., Lake Tyers. Sepia rex (Fig. 3f; 4c) Sepion is an elongate diamond shape, with a wide but not prominent ventral sulcus. The outer cone is well developed; the inner cone is present as a ridge between the outer cone and the striate zone. The dorsal side is rose-pink; finely pustulose on the posterior third; a prominent median dorsal rib bounded by two shallow grooves. The spine is bluntly pointed, usually curved dorsally. Range: Parker R., Anglesea, Ocean Grove, Wilsons Prom., Lake Tyers, Betka R. Sepia hedleyi (Fig. 3c; 4d) This 1s a rare species, only 10 specimens found in over 800 specimens collected. The sepion is elongate, with a greatly attenuated anterior end. The ventral surface is smooth and gleaming white; there is no ventral sulcus; the surface is usually quite flat but a few specimens show a decided hump at the end of the striate zone. The dorsal side is apricot-brown, smooth with a very slight dorsal ridge but no grooves. The spine is usually straight, but may curve slightly dorsally; it has a pronounced ventral keel. Range: Parker R., Anglesea, Ocean Grove, Betka R. Sepia braggi (Fig. 3e; 4e) Sepion very narrow, elongate. There is a narrow ventral sulcus. The outer cone is only a small platform at the posterior end. Dorsal surface pale pink, with a small ridge. The spine is small, pointed and almost perpendicular to the dorsal surface. Range: Parker R., Lorne, Anglesea, Ocean Grove, Wilsons Prom., Lake Tyers. REFERENCES: Adams, W. and Rees, W. J., 1966. A review of the Cephalopod family Sepiidae. John Murray Expedition, 1933-34. (British Museum (Natural History)). 11(1): 1-165. Macpherson, J. Hope, and Gabriel, C. J., 1962. Marine Molluscs of Victoria. M.U.P. Jean Galbraith's new book now available "Collins Field Guide to the Wildflowers of South-east Australia" is now available from our F.N.C.V. Sales Officer, $14.95, discount to members. More than 300 colour illustrations, 300 delightful line drawings, and Miss Galbraith's inimitable descriptions combine with the handy size to make this book an invaluable companion to bush ramblers and amateur botanists. Wasp Runs Backwards During the 20 February coast trip, several of us watched a wasp making a hole in the sand- compacted track among the scrub on Beaumaris headland. The hole had a diameter of about one centimetre. The wasp entered the hole head first, remained hidden for a short period varying from 3 to 10 seconds, then emerged tail first and moved away from the hole backwards. After travelling in reverse for 10-20 cm, the wasp shot out the dirt from its hind legs, the dirt occasionally going as far as 25 cm, but usually 12-15 cm. Perhaps the pause and throw took half a second. The creature promptly moved forwards to return to the hole and repeat the process over and over again. The 118 remarkable feature was the economy of effort and time in making no turn, and the rate of progress forward and backward seemed to be the same. One onlooker surmised that when the hole was sufficiently deep, the wasp would bring a paralysed caterpillar and lay an egg in it. But how deep is ''sufficiently deep’’? Not one of us (naturalists all) thought to measure the present depth of the hole or to determine its angle! It seemed to be almost vertical. The wasp was about 2 cm long, black, with some small white dots on the head and with pale brown wings. M. J. LESTER, SOUTH YARRA Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Effect of Forest Fire on the Ecology of Leaf Litter Organisms By B. LEONARD* Introduction The litter in Australian dry forests con- tinually builds up until usually a fire re- moves it once again. The fire may be intense when the litter build-up is large and so the Forest Commission has a policy of burning off litter in rotation in order to minimize the damage done by wild fires. It is thought that fire has always been common in these forests, and if so, then the animals of the forest may be expected to have evolved techniques to avoid these fires. The following is a description of a study to investigate the effect of fuel reduction fires on the ecology of small litter or- ganisms. Sampling of the Fauna Small samples of litter and loose topsoil (0.15 m?) were collected before and after fuel reduction fires. Area of litter and not volume of litter was used as a basis of com- parison because 80 per cent of the fauna occurs at the true soil surface. The samples of litter and topsoil were placed into Berlese funnels (see Fig. 1) and slowly heated from above for several days. This procedure dried and heated the litter and forced the fauna out of the litter and into a funnel and a jar of alcohol below. Numbers in the Litter People walking through a forest pass over huge numbers of small arthropods that re- main unseen. For instance, in the drier forests around Melbourne, you might ex- pect to find 17,000 arthropods per square metre. Most of these would be too small to see easily without a microscope. lead from globe to socket socket e 100 watt globe — — —— canite box yrs I e Fins ry ct + 5 Dir + sample ——— — ——— wire mesh tray Fig. 1 — Berlese funnel. metal funnel air intet — ——-coilecting jer — —— — 1095. ethanol *Department of Applied Biology, Royal Melbourne In- stitute of Technology. May/June 119 Phylum Arthropoda Class Arachnida Order Pseudoscorpjonida Order Araneae 15 mm pseudoscorpion - no long tail spiders - soft abdomen with with a poison gland at the end spinnerets to spin the web. like a true scorpion, but poison glands in the pincers instead. Order Opiliones Order Acarina 10 mm O.T5 mm not spiders, because abdomen is nites - body not greatly hard and segmented and there are divided into segments. no spinnerets. Class Diplopoda Class Chilopoda Se 7 mm millipedes - two legs per centipedes - one leg per segment on most segments. segment and poison claws near mouth. 120 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Class Symphyla Class Pauropoda / Pi / CTT S 15 mm OC T mm twelve leg-bearing segments and minute animals related to the bead-like antennae. millipedes. Class Insecta Order Collembola Order Coleoptera NE 7 mm springtails - springing organ beetles - the form shown is very short in some. common in the litter. The wing covers found in all beetles are shortened in this species, and the wings are folded beneath these. Order Hemiptera Order Thysanoptera 9c. 2 mm 2 mm bugs - have sucking mouthparts. thrips - mouthparts directed backwards and are asymmetrical. May/June 121 Taxonomic Groups in the Litter The arthropod group is composed of ani- mals having a jointed exoskeleton and in- cludes the mites, spiders, scorpions, in- sects, millipedes, centipedes and a number of less well known sub-groups. Some of the forms that might be found in the leaf litter are shown in the accompanying diagram. Mites and springtails are by far the most common animals present, making up 90 per cent of the fauna. Larvae of moths, beetles and flies and adult beetles are also common. Many other groups, usually the larger ani- mals, are also present, but occur in much smaller numbers. Seasonal Fluctuations The number of animals fluctuates from a peak in winter, to the lowest numbers in summer. There is also a difference in num- bers with vegetation type, highest numbers occurring where the ground 1s damp and the understorey is dense. Effect of Fire There is substantial mortality of fauna following fires of even low intensity. How- ever, some organisms move ahead of the flames to unburnt refuge areas and then rapidly recolonize the burnt areas. Less mobile fauna can also survive fire by de- scending into the soil. The soil is a very good insulator, and if the surface tempera- ture was 213°C during a fire, then the temp- erature would be about 60°C at a depth of 25 mm. Some mites and springtails have been known to descend into the soil to a depth of 4,000 mm during the hottest part of the day. Recovery after the fire is probably related to the density of vegetative cover. There- fore, numbers of litter organisms should re- turn to pre-fire values in about 2-6 years in the drier forests, because this is about the time taken for the vegetation to return to the pre-fire condition. The European Wasp At the F.N.C.V. meeting of 14 February, a specimen was displayed of the European wasp Vespula germanica, and Miss Jean Woollard spoke of some of its habits. The wasp is about the length of an ordinary bee but with the typical wasp waist, black with yel- lowish scalloped bands across the back of the abdomen. It seems to be increasing in Victoria, has a dangerous bite and can be aggressive. The nest is very intriguing and part of one was displayed by Mr. Dick Morrison at the April meeting. Mr. Morrison found the nest in a com- post heap, a typical enough place for it usually occurs on the ground among rocks or leaf litter or under buildings. The nest can be up to a metre across and several centimetres thick. It consists of layers of a bee-like honeycomb but papery in texture, not waxy, and not two-sided like a bee comb. The honeycomb is about 15 mm thick and 122 there’s a shallow space between each layer. The many layers of honeycomb are covered with a loosely compacted sheet of overlapping, irregu- larly shaped, paper-like pieces. The whole nest is a parchment colour, but in the displayed speci- men some of the cells were covered with a white waxy substance; presumably they contained pupae. At one time there was a nest of European wasps under Miss Woollard’s house in Mont Albert and she spoke of the continual rustling noise — like an animal moving quietly. Miss Woollard assumed it was caused by the wasps ventilating the nest. Mr. Morrison reported that he has seen as many as six of these wasps feeding together on bird- pecked apples and peaches in the Doncaster dis- trict. M. JE. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 A survey of Vertebrate Animals in the Stradbroke Area of South Gippsland, Victoria By A. M. GILMORE* Introduction A survey of terrestrial vertebrate animals on public land totalling approximately 30,000 ha in South Gippsland was con- ducted between 15 September and 3 Oc- tober 1975 and on 13-14 January 1976. The survey area (Fig. 1) was bounded by the South Gippsland Highway on the east, the Highland Way on the west, the Stradbroke-Gormandale Road on the north and the Napier-Woodside Road on the south. The area has little topographic relief and slopes gently from an altitude of 400 m in the north-west to 60 m in the south-east. Soils are chiefly leached sands but gradat- ional soil occurs in a high area south-west of Toms Cap (Land Conservation Council 1972). Methods Seven different vegetation associations, each characterized by a numerically domin- ant eucalypt species, were recognized and are used to discuss the distribution of verte- brate species and to reveal any restrictions in habitat. These associations (lettered A-G) were further grouped into two formations, woodland and open forest. Trap sites within each association are numbered 1-5 (Table l). Lists were made of the bird species seen in each of the associations. Mammals were captured in wire cage-traps, Elliott sheet- aluminium traps or breakback rat traps. Ob- servations on nocturnal species were made by spotlighting from a slowly moving vehi- cle (17 h) and on foot (6 h) (Tabie 3). Heliothermic reptiles were observed while they basked and thigmotherms were found under logs and litter. Most amphibians were located by their calls but some were found under logs. Results and Discussion A total of 65 bird species, 22 mammal May/June species, 16 reptile species and 7 amphibian species were recorded from the survey area. Species Distribution Some of the more noteworthy results of the survey include: (1) the discovery of another colony of Pseudomys novaehollan- diae between known colonies at Loch Sport and Wilsons Promontory; (2) the westward extension of the range of Uperoleia mar- morata, which had been previously re- corded east of Lakes Entrance (Brook 1975); (3) the first record of Leiolopisma coventryi south of the Eastern highlands, in Gippsland, where it occurs in montane wet sclerophyll forests (Rawlinson 1975); and (4) the first record (apart from an old record from *'South Gippsland’’), of Cryptophis nigrescens south of Maffra in the Gippsland area. The trap success rate (number of animals caught per 100 trapnights) in associations A, B and C (woodland) each averaged less than 5, compared with a success rate of greater than 10 in associations D, E, F and G (open forest). More small ground-dwelling mammal species were present in the wood- land than the open forest sites. Exactly the opposite situation exists for arboreal mam- mals, all of which were seen in the open forest. Areas of restricted wildlife habitat 1. Two relatively small patches of heath occur along Harrap Road | km and 2.5 km south of Thirteen Mile Road (sites Cl and C4). New Holland mice, heath wrens, mourning skinks and White’s skinks appear to be restricted to this habitat. 2. The highest part of the study area, centred 2 km west of Toms Cap Road and 3 km north of Lay Road including site F1, *Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg. 3084. 123 un M aa if, 4 w” F he heo 9 ou AY SR q^ ' dl ^s ^: Oly, oo PATH ge has gradational soils and plant species re- flecting a relatively high rainfall. This area was important for wombats and Coventry's skink. The latter species typically occurs at higher altitudes and probably just extends into the survey area here. 3. Toms Cap is the only patch of outcrop- ping rock in the area and is noteworthy for the presence of the small-eyed snake. 4. An extensive area of swampy heath with scattered E. cephalocarpa is centred on Monkey Creek Road between | km and 2.5 km east of North South Road (site A1) and was the only area where southern emu-wrens and brown quail were seen. 5. The larger swamps appear to be impor- tant for some anurans, e.g. Limnodynastes dumerili and Geocrinia Crinia haswelli. These swamps may also be important for waterbirds during droughts, although only a few ducks and cormorants were seen during the present survey. Considerations for wildlife management Evidence of recent fires was seen throughout the survey area. The effect of different fire regimes on different com- munities is still unclear but micro-habitats for reptiles which inhabit logs are invariably lost. Some species of reptiles favour dry logs with hollows and splits; others select logs that are largely decayed; but charred logs are uninhabitable to all reptiles. There- fore, although a variety of reptilian species 124 Eastern Grey Kangaroo Macropus giganteus Photo by R. A. Incoll inhabited the area, few individuals of each were found. Vegetation association C, exhibited an apparent post-fire succession at the sites C2-C5, where the understorey was domi- nated by a thicket of Leptospermum myr- sinoides, L. juniperinum and Acacia oxycedrus to 2 min height, in contrast to the low heath of site C1. Burning may be neces- sary to maintain the plant and animal diver- sity present at site C1. Posamentier and Re- cher (1974) found that the **. . . optimum habitat for P . novaehollandiae is a dry heath which has been disturbed by fire and is ac- tively regenerating.’’ The poisoning of mammals with sodium fluroacetate (1080) in the young monterey pine Pinus radiata plantations surrounding the survey area may pose a threat to the small number of red-necked wallabies and brush-tailed possums present. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following staff of the Fisheries and Wildlife Division for their assistance during various stages of the sur- vey: R. Bilney, G. Barnes, J. Seebeck, D. Bennett, S. Craig, I. Hastings, P. Goldstraw and R. Austin. I would also like to thank A. C. Beauglehole for identifying some of the plants. Also D. Evans, J. Seebeck and W. Emison for critically read- ing the manuscript. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 ANNOTATED LIST OF MAMMALS Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus. Four animals were seen; evidence in the form of diggings was widespread. Brown Antechinus stuartii. This widespread and common species (Table 1) was least abundant where trees were sparse. Long-nosed bandicoot Perameles nasuta. Two indi- viduals were captured at site Gl in a thicket of Leptos- permum phyllicoides (Table 1) but evidence in the form of conical pits dug by these animals while searching for food was widespread wherever thickets of L. phyl- licoides occurred. Wombat Vombatus ursinus. One animal was sighted near the junction of Jeff Road and the Old Rosedale Road; all other evidence, burrows and droppings, was in an area bounded by Toms Cap in the north, Jeff Road in the south and the Old Rosedale Road in the east. Koala Phascolarctos cinereus. This species was widespread throughout the taller stringybark and gum forests, but was not recorded in woodland areas of Eucalyptus nitida and Banksia serrata. Brush-tailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula. Surpris- ingly this species was not seen by spotlighting, although its presence was evident from hair remaining in a cage trap at the BCE ectone site. Ring-tailed possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus. This species was seen throughout the survey area wherever a dense second storey of Melaleuca ericifolia occurred along drainage lines. Also in the forest south-west of Toms Cap. Sugar gliderPetaurus breviceps. One animal was seen beside Jeff Road near trap site E2 and another in the forest south-west of Toms Cap, near trap site F1. Greater glider Schoinobates volans. The species was widespread in the taller stringybark and gum forest but was not recorded in E. nitida or E. consideniana. Feather-tailed glider Acrobates pygmaeus. Mr. R. Austin of the Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Yarram, has a record of six animals obtained by F. A. Palmer from a dead stringybark tree that was felled on 30 July 1963, 6 km west of Giffard West. Eastern pigmy possum Cercartetus nanus. One was captured while it was crossing Kangaroo Swamp Road 2 km east of the Old Rosedale Road. Eastern grey kangaroo Macropus giganteus. A wide- spread and common species in areas with a low, open understorey. Red-necked wallaby Macropus rufogriseus. Three were seen together on Boodyarn Road just west of the Grasstree Swamp Road junction on several different occasions. It appears that this species may have a re- stricted habitat within the area and occurs only in low numbers. Black wallaby Wallabia bicolor, This species was widespread and abundant throughout all forests and areas having a dense cover of Leptospermum spp. or Pteridium esculentum. Lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi. A single specimen was collected near the junction of Froud Road and Thirteen Mile Road. Gould’s wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldii. One specimen was collected near the junction of Froud Road and Thirteen Mile Road. European rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus. Although widespread, numbers were very low. Bush rat Rattus fuscipes. This species was widespread and abundant in all areas except the low and sparse heath. Swamp rat Rattus lutreolus. Along drainage lines amongst dense sedge (Gahnia spp.), this species was common. Black rat Rattus rattus. One specimen was collected in Melaleuca ericifolia near a small swamp at site D4. May/June House mouse Mus musculus. This species was re- corded from all low heathland sites, i.e., C1, CA and El. New Holland mouse Pseudomys novaehollandiae. The species was recorded at C1 and C4, two patches of heath along Harrap Road between Froud Road and Thir- teen Mile Road (Table 1). Red fox Vulpes vulpes. One fox was seen near Jeff odes | km east of the Old Rosedale Road during the ay. ANNOTATED LIST OF BIRDS Emu Dromaius novaehollandiae. A pair was seen on two occasions. Emus appear to be few in number but widespread. Black cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo. One was seen circling over the survey area. Little pied cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos. One was seen on a swamp. Black duck Anas superciliosa. Four were seen on a swamp. Grey teal Anas gibberifrons. One was seen on a swamp. Australian goshawk Accipiter fasciatus. A pair were seen circling above Harveys Road. Little eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides. One was seen above heath. Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax. A pair was seen several times at widespread localities. Swamp harrier Circus approximans. One was seen near the north-east boundary of the survey area. Brown hawk Falco berigora. A pair was seen near the junction of Froud and Thirteen Mile Roads. Brown quail Synoicus ypsilophorus. One was seen in wet heath near site Al. Brush bronzewing Phaps elegans. One was seen near junction of Old Rosedale and Thirteen Mile Roads. Yellow-tailed black cockatoo Calyptorhynchus funereus. A single specimen was seen in Banksia serrata near heath site Cl. Gang gang cockatoo Callocephalon fimbriatum. Pairs were widespread in forest. Sulphur crested cockatoo Cacatua galerita. About 12 were seen in open forest near site F1. Crimson rosella Platycercus elegans. This species was widespread in forest. Eastern rosella Platycercus eximius. Two small groups were seen near sites A2 and Cl. Pallid cuckoo Cuculus pallidus. Widespread. Fan-tailed cuckoo Cacomantis pyrrhophanus. Wide- spread. Horsfield bronze cuckoo Chrysococcyx basalis. Widespread. Golden bronze cuckoo Chrysococcyx plagosus. Widespread in forest. Boobook owl Ninox novaeseelandiae. This species was heard at widespread localities in forest. Tawny frogmouth Podargus strigoides. Widespread in forest. White-throated nightjar. Eurostopodus mysticalis. A pair was seen near site E2. Spine-tailed swift Hirundapus caudacutus. Many were seen circling over woodland in January. Kookaburra Dacelo gigas. Widespread wherever trees occurred. Sacred kingfirsher Halcyon sancta. This species was heard calling at two woodland localities. Welcome swallow Hirundo neoxena. Two pairs were seen in heath and forest clearing. Black-faced cuckoo-shrike Coracina novaehollan- diae. Widespread. Australian ground-thrush Zoothera dauma. Wide- spread in areas with dense understorey. 125 Spotted quail-thrush Cinclosoma punctatum. Wide- spread on ridges with sparse ground cover. Superb blue wren Malurus cyaneus. Widespread. Southern emu-wren Stipiturus malachurus. Restricted to wet heath, specifically Casuarina paludosa, at site Al. Striated thornbill Acanthiza lineata. Widespread. Brown thornbill Acanthiza pusilla. Widespread. Buff-rumped thornbill Acanthiza reguloides. Wide- spread in areas where understorey was sparse. Yellow-rumped thornbill Acanthiza chrysorrhoa. Seen in clearings adjacent to forest. White-browed scrub-wren Sericornis frontalis. Wide- spread. Heath wrenHylacola pyrrhopygia. Restricted to heath near sites Cl and C4. Jacky winter Microeca leucophaea. Widespread where trees were sparse. Scarlet robin Petroica multicolor. Widespread. Southern yellow robin Eopsaltria australis. Wide- spread but few in number, usually in dense second storey. Grey fantail Rhipidura fuliginosa. Widespread. Golden whistler Pachycephala pectoralis. Wide- spread. Rufous whistlerPachycephala rufiventris. Two sight- ings one in each of heath and forest. Grey shrike thrush Colluricincla harmonica. Wide- spread. Shriketit Falcunculus frontatus. One was seen in Eucalyptus muellerana forest. Eastern whipbird Psophodes olivaceus. One pair was seen in Leptospermum phyllicoides thicket at junction of Old Rosedale and Boundary Roads. Orange-winged sitella Neositta chrysoptera. Two groups were seen in forest. White-throated tree-creeper Climacteris leucophaea. Widespread. Spotted pardalote Pardalotus punctatus. Widespread. Yellow-faced honeyeater Meliphaga chrysops. Two were seen in Eucalyptus consideniana Banksia serrata woodland. White-eared honeyeater Meliphaga lecotis. Wide- spread in heath and second storey thickets in forest. Brown-headed honeyeater Melithreptis brevirostris. One group was seen at site D2. Crescent honeyeater Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera. A few were seen in heathland. New Holland honeyeater Phylidonyris novaehollan- diae. Widespread but most abundant in heathland. Eastern spinebill Acanthorynchus tenuirostris. Wide- spread, but most abundant in heathland. Red wattle bird Anthochaera carunculata. Two were sighted in heath and forest. -Red browed firetail Aegintha temporalis. A few were seen in Eucalyptus consideniana, Banksia serrata wood- land. Olive-backed oriole Oriolus sagittatus. Widespread in forest. Dusky wood-swallow Artamus cyanopterus. Wide- spread in forest clearings. Grey currawong Strepera versicolor. Widespread in forest clearings and pasture. White-backed magpie G ymnorhina hypoleuca. Wide- spread in forest clearings and pasture. Australian raven Corvus coronoides. Widespread in forest clearings and pasture. Little raven Corvus mellori. Seen on pasture at junc- tion of Old Rosedale and Jeff Road. ANNOTATED LIST OF REPTILES Tree dragon Amphibolurus muricatus. One was seen in heathy woodland and one in open forest. 126 McCoy's skink.Anotis maccoyi. One was seen be- neath a decomposed log in open forest. Delicate skink Leiolopisma delicata. Common be- neath logs in open forest. Garden skink Leiolopisma guichenoti. Common; usu- ally seen basking on the ground in both open forest and woodland. Weasel skink Leiolopisma mustelina. Common be- neath decomposed logs in open forest. Three-lined skink Leiolopisma trilineata. Common; usually seen basking in heathy woodland or grassy clear- ings in open forest. Coventry's skink Leiolopisma coventryi. Three seen basking on logs near trap site Fl. Water skink Sphenomorphus tympanum. (cool temp- erate form). Widespread in both woodland and open forest; frequently seen basking on logs. Mourning skink Egernia luctuosa. A lizard about 20 cm long, dark in colour and with a relatively long tail was probably this species. It disappeared down a burrow in a swampy patch of heathland at site C1. White's skink Egernia whitei. Common; usually bask- ing in heathy woodland. Blotched blue-tongue Tiliqua nigrolutea. One was caught in open forest and another was seen dead on the road in a woodland area with a dense bracken Preridium esculentum understorey. Tiger snake Notechis scutatus. One was seen near site C3 in woodland. Small-eyed snake Cryptophis nigrescens. One was found beneath a slab of sandstone at Toms Cap. Copperhead snake Austrelaps superba. Two were seen in heathy woodland near site C1. Brown snake Pseudonaja textilis. One was sighted in the B/C/E woodland ecotone near cleared land. Black snake Pseudechis porphvriacus. Frequently seen basking on tracks through the open forest. Annotated List of Amphibians Brown treefrog Litoria ewingi. Frequently seen and heard around fire dams throughout the forest. Verraux's tree frog Litoria verrauxi. Frequently seen and heard around firedams throughout the forest. Haswell's frog Geocrinia haswelli. Commonly seen floating and calling in the larger swamps throughout the survey area. Smooth froglet Ranidella signifera. Frequently seen and heard around fire dams. Bullfrog Limnodvnastes dumerili. Heard calling near the edges of some of the larger swamps. Spotted marsh frog Limnodynastes tasmaniensis. Common beneath logs and bark in low-lying intermit- tently flooded areas. Southern toadlet Pseudophrvne semimarmorata. Found beneath sandstone slabs at Toms Cap and beneath a log at the junction of Thirteen Mile Road and Holland Road. Yellow-spotted toadlet Uperoleia marmorata. Two were found, calling from burrows in the bank of a fire dam, near the junction of Old Rosedale Road and Kan- garoo Swamp Road. Plant Species Recorded at Trap Sites Al Eucalyptus cephalocarpa, Casuarina paludosa, Hibbertia stricta, Leptospermum myrsinoides, L. juniperinum. BI Eucalyptus consideniana, Banksia serrata, Pteridium esculentum. B2 Eucalyptus consideniana, Banksia serrata, Pteridium esculentum. CI Eucalyptus nitida, Banksia serrata, Banksia mar- ginata, Acacia oxycedrus, Leptospermum myr- sinoides, L. juniperinum, Epacris impressa, Bos- Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 C2 C3 C4 C5 saia cinerea, Hypolaena fastigiata, Pimelea linifolia, Leucopogon virgata, L. ericoides, Dillwynia glaberrima, Hibbertia acicularis, H. virgata, Melaleuca squarrosa, Gahnia radula, Lomandra glauca, L. filiformis, Xanthorrhoea minor, Selaginella uliginosa. Eucalyptus nitida, Banksia serrata, Xanthor- rhoea australis, Leptospermum myrsinoides, L. juniperinum. Eucalyptus nitida, Banksia serrata, Acacia oxycedrus, Leptospermum myrsinoides, L. juniperinum, Ricinocarpus pinifolius. heath; see C1. Eucalyptus nitida, Banksia serrata, Zanthor- rhoea australis, Leptospermum myrsinoides, L. juniperinum. B /C /E (ecotone) Eucalyptus nitida, E. consideniana, E. cephalocarpa, Acacia oxycedrus, Leptospermum myrsinoides, L. juniperinum. TOMS capO ul m < Q ul [^] o œ May/June Eucalyptus ovata, Melaleuca ericifolia, Gahnia sieberana. Eucalyptus ovata, E. radiata, Acacia dealbata, Pteridium esculentum, Gahnia radula Eucalyptus radiata, Leptospermum phyllicoides, Juncus procerus. Melaleuca ericifolia surrounding small swamp. Eucalyptus muellerana, Leptospermum phyl- licoides, Cassininia longifolia. Eucalyptus muellerana, Pteridium esculentum, Xanthorrhoea minor, Gahnia radula, Lomatia ilicifolia. Eucalyptus muellerana, Banksia serrata, Pteridium esculentum. Eucalyptus st. johnii, E. obliqua, E. dives, Acacia melanoxylon, Acacia mucronata, Culcita dubia. Dicksonia antarctica. Eucalyptus bridgesiana, Melaleuca ericifolia, Leptospermum phyllicoides, Lomandra lon- gifolia. Fig. 1. Survey Area. Stradbroke Al-G1 Trapping Sites. 127 TABLE 1 Mammal Trapping Results in Woodland Site No. of Species traps set Ae eaten Pees EHE Drs (No. of Name : No. caught per day days). darte PEEL MET Ist 2nd 3rd Al 74 (2) Tachyglossus aculeatus l 0 Rattus fuscipes 3 2 Mus musculus 0 ] Bl 23 (2) Antechinus stuartii l I Rattus fuscipes 2 ] B2 100 (2) Rattus fuscipes 3 0 CI 95 (2) Antechinus stuartii l 0 Rattus fuscipes 2 0 Mus musculus l 0 Pseudomys novaehollandiae 2 0 G2 50 (2) Antechinus stuartii 0 ] Rattus fuscipes 4 6 C3 10 (2) 0 0 C4 80 (3) Antechinus stuartii 0 l 0 Mus musculus 2 l 0 Pseudomys novaehollandiae I 2 0 C5 60 (2) Antechinus stuartii 0 | Rattus fuscipes 5 3 B/C/E ecotone 75 (2) Antechinus stuartii 3 l Trichosurus vulpecula 0 | Rattus fuscipes 6 9 Rattus lutreolus ] l TABLE 2 Mammal Trapping Results in Forest Site No. of Species traps set No. caught per day (No. of Name days) Ist 2nd DI 17 (2) Rattus fuscipes 0 Rattus lutreolus 2 D2 44 (1) Mus musculus l 17 (2) Rattus fuscipes 2 D3 15:(2) Rattus fuscipes 3 D4 20 (2) Antechinus stuartii 0 Rattus fuscipes 2 Rattus rattus l El 10 (2) Antechinus stuartii 0 Rattus fuscipes 2 E2 50 (2) Antechinus stuartii 3 . . Rattus fuscipes 2 E3 10 (2) Rattus fuscipes l Fl 24 (2) Antechinus stuartii l F2 12 (2) Rattus fuscipes 2 GI 30 (2) Perameles nasuta 0 Rattus fuscipes 5 Rattus lutreolus 0 TABLE 3 REFERENCES -WUNA OOR U= = ON—RNOOW Spotlight Observations Species Number seen Vombatus ursinus l Phascolarctos cinereus 18 Pseudocheirus peregrinus 5 Petaurus breviceps 2 Schoinobates volans 11 Cercartetus nanus l Macropus giganteus 19 Wallabia bicolor 22 Orvctolagus cuniculus 7 Podargus strigoides 14 128 Brook, A. J., 1975. The Distribution of Anuran Amphi- bians in Victoria. Victorian Nat. 92: 104-120. Land Conservation Council, 1972. Report on the South Gippsland Study Area (District 1). Melbourne. Posamentier, H. and Recher, H. F., 1974. The status of Pseudomys novaehollandiae (the New Holland Mouse). Aust. Zool. 18: (2) 66-71. Rawlinson, P. A., 1971. The Reptiles of West Gipps- land. Proc. Roy.: Soc. Vict. 84: (1) 37-52. Rawlinson, P. A., 1975. Two new lizard species from the genus Leiolopisma (Scincidae : Lygosominae) in IR Australia. Mems. Nat. Mus. Vic. No. 6, 1-15. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94. Preventive Marsupalian Paediatrics By ELIZABETH K. TURNER, M.D. During a visit to Zumsteins in the Victo- rian Grampians in 1975, I was present when numerous semi-wild grey kangaroos (Mac- ropus giganteus) came down from the hills to the roadside to be fed stale bread. There was one rather pathetic, undersized kan- garoo whose eyes were both white with cataracts and who appeared disorientated and more easily approachable due to his lack of vision. I was puzzled about this tragic little creature and imagined that he must have been involved in some trauma, e.g. a bush-fire, until my attention was drawn to an article in the Medical Journal of Australia (Stephens et al 1974) entitled ** The Case of the Cataractous Kangaroo'' in which the eitiology of this condition is explained and has been shown to be due to the feeding of cow's milk to the very young joey, usually an orphan, by well-meaning humans. Young marsupials, including kangaroos, wallabies, possums and wombats, should never be fed the milk of eutherian mammals as they have a deficiency in all the enzymes required for galactose metabolism; their own milks are completely free of lactose, and if fed lactose-containing milks they de- velop the symptoms of a disease known in human babies as galactosaemia. There are several forms of this condition, one severe and two fairly benign, depending on which of the three main enzymes involved in galac- tose metabolism is deficient. Galactose is the sugar found in eutherian milks, it is absorbed from the gut and phos- phorylated in the tissues by means of a (1) galactokinase enzyme to form galactose- l- phosphate. This compound reacts with U.D.P. Glucose in the presence of (2) a transferase enzyme to produce U.D.P. galactose and some glucose-1-phosphate. The U.D.P. galatose is converted directly into U.D.P. glucose by an (3) epimerase enzyme. This U.D.P. glucose may liberate more glucose-1-phosphate by reacting with more galatose-1-phosphate in the presence May/June of (2) the transferase enzyme. Rarely some infants have been shown to have a (1) galactokinase deficiency and if given milk galactitol accumulates in the tis- sues producing cataracts, but not mental de- ficiency. There is a racial polymorphism in the ability to phosphorylate galactose, for instance pregnant black women have a much lower galactokinase enzyme than pre- gnant white women. The commoner and more severe form of galactosaemia is due to a deficiency in en- zyme (2) transferase. This is known to be inherited in a recessive manner, that is, both parents carry the defective gene, yet have no symptoms. However twenty-five percent of their offspring will develop the full-blown disease with symptoms, which if untreated may lead to death in infancy or mental defi- ciency in those who survive. The treatment is to use milk free of galactose of which there are several varieties on the market. When transferase deficiency exists the toxic galactose-1-phosphate plus galactitol accumulate in blood producing deleterious effects on the liver, kidneys and nervous system. The affected infant may appear normal at birth, but soon after the baby begins to take milk, vomiting, weight loss and jaundice occurs with enlargement of the liver and spleen. If the condition is not rec- ognized in time and if a galactose free milk is not substituted at once permanent brain and kidney damage and cataracts may occur due to the accumulation of galactose which is converted in the lens into a sugar alcohol which exerts an osmotic effect. Strangely enough, the normal brain needs some galactose which in the form of U.D.P. galactose is broken down by the enzyme (3) epimerase and produces some of the essen- tial amino acids for brain growth. Very rarely children are born with a deficiency of the enzyme (3) epimerase, but this condition is much more benign. 129 Even amongst the marsupials there is a range of galactokinase and transferase de- ficiencies. Stephens (1976) states “The family macropodidae and brush-tailed pos- sums have low levels of both galactokinase and transferase; koalas and. wombats are particularly deficient in transferase. The Tasmanian Devil and bandicoots have high levels of both enzymes. Note that these last two are carnivora and mixed feeders, whereas the others are herbivorous. (Stephens et al 1975)’. Apparently, although enzyme de- ficiencies may exist, cataracts develop in young animals in the pouch stage only, for as soon as the young are able to leave the pouch and ingest solids the ruminant-like stomach of the adult begins to form, within which increased bacterial action occurs with the production of volatile acids, and galac- tose no longer accumulates. Thus it is 1m- portant in rearing young marsupials to en- courage them as soon as possible to take solid foods, such as grass, fruit and vegeta- ble materials. Young koalas are extremely hard to rear as they have a pouch life of about 7 months, but are weaned to solids from about 6 months onwards by ingesting the mother’s faeces. This method of Nature which must alter gut flora as well as provide particulate matter is used by veterinarians in the treat- ment of diarrhoea in baby macropods. In young macropods, if diarrhoea occurs at the time of weaning, faeces from other kan- garoos are given in water, care being taken first to ensure that no pathogenic organisms or parasites are in the faeces. Diarrhoea is common in older milk fed infants even after emergence from the pouch because marsupial milk has a higher fat, protein and ash content and less water than eutherian milks (Stephens 1975a). The pre- dominant carbohydrate is not lactose as in eutherian milks, but maybe a pentose. Thus young marsupials have low intestinal lac- tase activity and the giving of high lactose- containing milks produces diarrhoea due to the osmotic effect of undigested lactose. Sucrose or table sugar should not be given either. The same effect is produced in in- 130 fants who have lactose intolerance, this into- lerance also varies in different human species and occasionally appears to be facul- tative depending on the amount of lactose- containing foods habitually used by that par- ticular species. Thus the sending of COW'S milk products to peoples who have had long periods of malnutrition with little milk may result in disastrous results. Not only are solids higher in marsupial milks than in eutherian milks, but protein and fat increase as lactation proceeds and iron and copper are obtained from the milk. (H. Tyndall-Biscoe et al 1973). In the human baby, iron crosses the placenta and is stored in the foetal liver and other storage areas in the last few weeks of the pregnancy and must be sufficient to last the infant until weaning. This is why premature human in- fants are often deficient in iron and need iron supplements for at least the first year of life, or longer depending on the degree of pre- maturity. Marsupials also can produce milks of dif- ferent compositions from adjacent teats, the amounts of all the constituents varying with the age of the offspring being suckled. The joey who is large enough to eat grass and suckle at the long teat while remaining out- side the pouch receives milk of a different composition to the tiny naked ‘foetus’ which has just negotiated its difficult wriggling climb from the birth canal to the pouch. Thus in rearing orphaned kangaroos, wal- labies or possums, it is important to know the date of natural emergence from the pouch as around this time cow’s milk pro- ducts may be introduced without fear of cataract formation. Although different species have different lengths of time of emergence from the pouch, e.g. the red kangaroo begins to graze around 190 days and emerges from the pouch at 237 days (approximately) while the grey kangaroo takes 240 days in the pouch before tempor- ary emergence and 260 before full emergence, the quokka young leaves the pouch after 180 days; thus it is probably a safe rule if rearing marsupials to give sugar free milk to very young joeys under 6 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 months, such as one teaspoon Glucose Nut- ramigen (Mead Johnson) per 120 mls water plus a polyvitamin preparation and a drop of iron mixture daily. Persistence and patience are necessary to get the young animal to suck on a small soft rubber tube, e.g. a fountain pen rubber at- tached to a doll’s or puppy’s feeding bottle at first. Four hourly feedings are given ini- tially and the time gradually extended to 6 or 8 hourly intervals. In Nature, feeding pro- ceeds almost constantly and the infant mar- supial is able to suck and swallow whilst he respires due to the prolongation of his epig- lottis up through the soft palate into the nasal cavity with extension of his buccal cavity around this glottis on each side, com- municating with the oesophagus (H. Tyndall-Biscoe 1973). It is important to encourage joeys in lap- ping their fluids and also to get them on to solids as soon as possible. After the age of about 5-6 months cow’s milk products may be introduced as well as the additives men- tioned above. . In conclusion, it is heartening to realize that enough scientific investigation has been done in Australia to formulate a few simple rules re diet of our own fauna so that the stunting growth and loss of vision due to cataracts need not be the lot of human- hand-reared marsupial orphans, such as the pathetic little creature whose sightless eyes seemed to gaze at me in the Grampians in 1975: REFERENCES Stephens, T. L. (1975). Australian Veterinary Journal 51:453. Stephens, T., Irvine, S., Mutton, P., Gupta, J. D. and Harley, J.D. (1974a). Deficiency of two enzymes of galactose metabolism in kangaroos, Nature (London). 248:5448. Stephens, T., Irvine, S., Mutton, P., Gupta, J. D. and Harley, J. D. (1974b). The Case of the Cataractous Kangaroo. Medical Journal of Australia. 2:910. Tyndall-Biscoe, H., Arnold, E. Life of Marsupials. London 1973. 82-83. Young Blue Wren playing? During a wet day when perched on a down ward-sloping eucalypt stem, an immature blue wren found itself sliding downwards. The slide seemed to be quite accidental. A few mo- ments later the bird was again perched at the upper end of the sloping stem; it edged cautiously along, then again slid down to the stopping twigs. The youngster returned to repeat the slide another two times. The eucalypt stem was 2 cm in diameter and at a peculiar angle of about 35? to the horizontal. There were no shoots on the upper surface for some 70 cm, and the rain had made it quite slip- pery. The eucalypt itself is of considerable in- terest for it is an unusual procumbent form of Eucalyptus cinerea. I. C. MonRis, SOUTH WANGARATTA Snakes Galore You can possibly imagine the reactions of a party of Naturalists who, when walking through the bush, came upon at least 30 Red Bellied Black Snakes, Pseudechis porphyriacus , lying together in what may be termed a ‘‘large heap of snakes". This remarkable spectacle was witnessed by members of the Mammal Survey Group F.N.C.V. during their Christmas camp-out at Er- rinundra, East Gippsland. Errinundra is the name of a pioneer property, long deserted, which is reached by a track along the Errinundra River May/June which leaves the Club Terrace-Bendoc Road a few miles north of Club Terrace. The road to Combienbar also branches off this road a little further south. At an old mill site formerly oc- cupied by the Errinundra Timber Co. a large pile of sawdust is practically all that remains of the milling operations. On this sawdust pile this ex- traordinary spectacle was seen. Some possible explanations can be given. Firstly, snakes must eat like any other creature, therefore they must certainly have left the sawdust pile, probably at 131 night, to catch their prey. The Green Tree Frog, Litoria phyllochroa, was extremely plentiful in the area and very active during the night. So it may be assumed that the snakes hunted away from the sawdust pile during the night returning in the early morning to their home. Observation over a couple of days showed that the snakes were in their greatest numbers in the mornings particu- larly if it was sunny indicating that the snakes were building up their body heat after a cool night. If disturbed, they would move one by one into the network of holes along the crown of the sawdust pile. The odd snake lying around the perimeter of the pile would not make for the holes but would move into the thick blackberries stretching around three sides of the pile. One interesting question remains, how did the snakes find their way back to the sawdust pile after hunt- ing? Have they any navigating mechanisms? Au- thorities tell us that snakes are very sensitive to small temperature changes which helps them lo- cate live prey such as small rodents, therefore it may be reasonable to believe that heat generated within the sawdust pile could guide them back after each hunting trip. The snakes were ex- tremely large, all at least 5ft in length and as thick as a man's wrist, and the flickers of light from their irridescent black upper surface contrasting from their striking red under-surface made a very impressive sight. A somewhat similar situation was also witnes- sed by members of the Mammal Survey Group at a campout near Tangil Bren a couple of years ago. Here the snakes were the small mountain variety of the Copperhead, Austrelaps superbus, quite different in size, colour and general appearance to its lowland counterparts. The area where these snakes were observed was a small cleared area of about an acre in a tall heavy forested area. This clearing was probably an old logging site. At least 10 of these snakes, all about 2ft long, were ob- served taking in the sun on a large mound of granite sand which had been heaped up by a bulldozer. The snakes seemed reluctant to move out of the sun into their holes, even as photo- graphers moved in as close as 2ft. It could be seen that the surrounding thickly vegetated area would not give continuous sunlight at ground level, hence the reason for the snakes being in the cleared area. Also the coarse crystaline nature of the Granite sand would give off heat, making it a very suitable daytime habitat. Here again it must be assumed that the snakes moved away at night in search of food, returning by morning. It would be of interest if any other readers have observed this gregarious habit of snakes and could, perhaps, give further information on their be- havioral patterns. T. SAULT. Natural History of Rivers and Inland Waters In December we plan to publish a special issue of ** The Victorian Naturalist"' , consisting mainly of articles relating to rivers and inland waters of Australia. Itis desirable that material for this special issue should be received by the editor by 30 September. When preparing an article for publication, please have it typed with double line spacing and leave at least 3 cm (about 1% inches) clear margin at the left. Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of F.N.C.V. Meetings General Meeting Wednesday, 13 April 1977 Mr. Alan Morrison showed superb colour slides of landscapes, flowers, fungi, insects, etc. on his theme ‘The beauty of nature’’. Perhaps some of his most fascinating shots were the close-ups that brought attention to features that many of us might miss. Exhibits included several specimens under miscroscopes — the fresh-water plantVolvox and 132 animal Hydra, Apanteles wasps and cocoons, Simulidae larva and pupa with explanatory draw- ings, Blephariceridae larva, pupa, and suction caps with explanatory drawings and later explained more fully by Mr. Paul Genery (this will probably form a nature note in a later ‘‘Naturalist’’). Other exhibits included Olane Azure Butterfly with the larvae, pupa case and adults of its fly parasite ogyris olane, Jewel Beetle, small black Cicada, the European wasp Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Vespula germanica and part of its honeycomb nest. There were specimens of the Apanteles wasps that had developed from the cocoons on the caterpillar described at March meeting. Natural History Medallion. The Club en- dorsed the nomination by Geelong F.N.C. of Mr. Jack Wheeler for this award. Annual General Meeting Monday 9 May 1977 Annual Report for 1976 was read by the Pres- ident. The main points were: Membership for the year again showed a slight increase; a pleasing number of new members were admitted but this was offset by a correspond- ing number who failed to renew subscriptions. Most of the Study Groups had an active year. The Field Survey Group has temporarily sus- pended activities but results of past surveys are being processed and one report was published during the year. The Club was represented at the Annual Meet- ing and excursion of the Victorian Association of Field Naturalists’ Clubs. For the second year in succession a *'Boneseed Day’’ was held at the Yarra Bend Park and beneficial results have been noted. The usual programme of monthly bus trips has continued and the spring trip to Gosford and Cronulla was well attended. The affiliated Junior Groups have remained active with assistance from a few senior members On excursions and in organization. The year saw major changes in the Victorian Naturalist. Publication was reduced to alternate months and six enlarged issues were produced, the final one being a special Coast Issue. These changes have been very well received and it is apparent that the larger and more varied nature of each edition is popular with members and sub- scribers. A slight increase in casual sales has also been noted. The stocks of the book stall have been enlarged and profits on the year’s trading have been gratifying; a mail order service is available to country members. Excellent sales of the revised edition of ‘‘Ferns of Victoria and Tasmania’’ have also added to the Club’s funds. The complete Author Index to the Victorian Naturalist was published during the year and the initial small printing is now almost sold out. Work on the Subject Index, a much larger and more complex publication, is progressing slowly. The Natural History Medallion for 1976 was awarded to Dr. Winifred Curtis of Hobart. Sev- eral donations to the Medallion Trust Fund have been acknowledged but it is still considerably below its target. A Committee of Management for the Kinglake property was appointed during the year; facilities have been improved and the area is now available for overnight camping by arrangement with the Committee. May/June In May the Excursion Trust was wound up and the balance of their account transferred to the Club. For many years the financing and organisa- tion of excursions was arranged independently of the Club’s business, but all excursion affairs are now wholly managed by Council through the office of Excursion Secretary. In conclusion the President thanked Office- bearers, Council members and others for their services to the Club, and expressed the hope that the members would ensure that all offices were filled at the forthcoming elections. Treasurer’s Report for 1976. Financial mat- ters were printed in the ‘Naturalist’ April 1977. Treasurer Mr McInnes reported that member- ship subscriptions were about the same as last year, that sales of back numbers of the ‘Naturalist? were down $170; but interest on in- vestments were up $500. On the expenditure side, 1976 ‘Naturalist’ of six issues with 260 pages was about the same cost as 1975 eleven issues with 276 pages, but the cost of one copy of the De- cember ‘Naturalist’ was $1.50 although the sel- ling price was $1.20! The Ingram Trust Grant provides a subsidy of about 14 cents per ‘Naturalist’. The Excursion Fund and Miss Marie Allen- der. Mr McInnes reported that FNC V excursions used to be financed by the Club until March 1967 when a new treasurer ruled that all excursion accounts should be kept outside FNC V books. So an Excursion Trust was formed and Marie Allen- der was responsible for all Club Excursion monies until the recent transfer to FNCV Excur- sion Fund; a substantial sum was transferred to this Fund. Then followed a motion that was carried with acclamation: ‘‘The Club places on record its ap- preciation of the integrity and careful manage- ment of Miss Marie Allender as the sole person responsible for all receipts and payments for all Club excursions and tours during the period of the Excursion Trust 1967-76, resulting in a substan- tial transfer of funds to the FNCV Excursion Fund''. Election of Office-Bearers and Council Members. The following were elected: President Mr David Lee, Editor Mr Reuben Kent, Librarian Mr John Martindale, Excursion Secretary Miss Marie Allender, Programmer Dr Brian Smith, Archives Officer Mr Barry Callanan, Minute Sec- retary Miss Madge Lester, Duplicating Officer Mrs Elma Gardener. As well as President and Vice-President, Council Members are M.Allen- der, Susan Beattie, Paul Genery, M.Lester, J.Martindale, Robin Sandell Tom Sault, B.Smith. Volunteers are required for the five (!) vacant offices: Secretary, correspondence secretary, treasurer, assistant treasurer, and subscription secretary/bookkeeper. 133 Speaker for the evening was Mr. David Lee. His subject was **Retreat’’ and he showed slides from 20-25 years ago to note the change in en- vironmental policies. Later Mr Lee spoke about the Barmah Forest and the effects of regulators on the water in-flow. Exhibits included two insects: female moun- tain grasshopper Acripeza reticulatafrom Mt Buller — about 4cm long, black with small white spots; and a 2cm moth Thaloina clara from Kew — lovely silver white with a few narrow diagonal gold strips edged with black. **Killert beans’ Abries pracatorius of the East Indies (recently in the news) were displayed in a small transparent bag — scarlet seeds about !2cm long, each with a small black stalk. A specimen of the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii had black spines to 6cm long, but cross sections of the spines under a microscope looked like beaded ruby rings. A mic- roscope slide of basalt was under polaroid light and the viewer turned the microscope eye-piece to obtain remarkable changes of colour. Addresses by the Microscopy Group On 20 April the Group started its series of addresses on miscroscopy. Mr. Dan McInnes gave a very clear explanation of the principles of the microscope and displayed some simple inex- pensive miscroscopes that could be of great value tothe beginner. Mr. John Dawes told us about the development of the microscope from the tiny glass ball used by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century to the complex models of today. Mr. Paul Genery spoke of some of the advantages of the complex more costly microscopes and about magnifications. For details of this continuing series see page 135. Everyone welcome. Speakers for other Clubs Sale F.N.C. asked our Club for speakers for their meetings (accommodation provided) and Dr. Brian Smith volunteered to give an address. Carey F.N.C. asked for lunch-time speakers; Mr. Paul Genery and Mr. lan Morrison have offered their services. 134 Erratum On page 89 of April ‘Naturalist’? the two col- umns of the Balance Sheet are in the wrong posi- tion. The column beginning **3000 Building Soc- iety — Deposit 6000” should be on the right hand side of the page under the overall heading ‘*As- sets". The column with the sub-head *‘Special Funds and Accounts” should be on the left side of the page under the overall heading *'Liabilities ' WANTED PART-TIME SUBSCRIPTION-SECRETARY BOOKKEEPER Subscription-secretary/bookkeeper re- ceives subscriptions, keeps membership records, keeps all account books, and prepares an annual balance sheet. Book- keeping experience would be helpful but the essentials are easily learned. This could be an interesting activity for a retired person or one with time on his/her hands, and is essential to the club. The position carries an honorarium of $1000 p.a. Please contact the Treasurer. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 (Continued from page 94) Saturday, 1 October to Friday 7 October—Casterton. Accommodation has been booked in self-contained holiday flats, each with its own facilities including kitchen and laundry. Casterton is a good centre for day trips, probably including a day to Mt Gambier. Cost will depend on numbers attending and mileage on day trips but will be approximately $75.00 for the week's accommodation and coach; meals extra. Please book as early as possible in case additional accommodation is required. Preliminary Notice. Instead of the usual Christmas excursion there will be a week at Mt Buffalo from Friday, 27 January to Friday. 3 February. 1978. GROUP MEETINGS All members are invited to attend any Group Meeting. no extra payment At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, at 8.00 p.m. First Wednesday in the Month—Geology Group 6 July, "Geology of the Earth, Moon and Mars'"' (a comparison). Dr Chris Gray. 3 August, ""Kronotsky National Park U.S.S.R."' (an introduction). Mr Graeme Love, Geology Group Chairman. Third Wednesday in the Month—Microscopical Group. 22 June. Simple methods of mounting objects for examination under the microscope. Making dry mounts butterfly wings, insect parts, parts of flowers, small shells, forams. How to arrange flowers to view parts. Looking at rocks and crystals, Making slides of chemical crystals. 20 July. How to prepare objects that need to be mounted in a medium such as Balsam, Glycerine Jelly, Euparel. How to make Fluid mounts. How to make rock sections. How to make and stain plant sections. Second Thursday in the Month—Botany Group. Each meeting includes a quarter-hour address for beginners—various subjects. 14 July. **Mosses''. Dr I. G, Stone, 11 August. To be announced. At the Conference Room, The Museum. Melbourne, at 8.00 p.m. Good parking area—enter at Latrobe Street First Monday in the Month—Marine Biology and Entomology Group. 4 July. "Introducing Echinoderms’ —starfishes and sea-urchins. | August. ''Insect Slide Night". Members bring your slides. 5 September. '"Polycheate Worms’’. What are they? At the Arthur Rylah Institute, Brown Street, Heidelberg. at 8.00 p.m. First Thursday in the Month—Mammal Survey Group. 7 July 4 August. 1 September. GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group Excursions. Botany Group Saturday, 15 June. Eucalypts. Leader Mrs Bárbara Morrison. Saturday, 9 July, Wallaby Creek catchment area. Leader Mr Tom Sault. Day Group Thursday, 16 June. Burnley Horticultural Gardens. Meet at the gates at 11.30 a.m. Wattle Park tram No. 70 in Batman Avenue. Bumley will provide a guide, and hot water will be available for lunches. Wednesday, 20 July. Note: this is Wednesday, not Thursday. The Planetarium, Meet at 1,45 p.m. in foyer of main entrance of the National Museum, Swanston Street. Geology Group Sunday, 10 July. ‘‘Ancona in the Tatong area". Meet at Yea Municipal Offices at 10.45 a.m. GROUP CAMPS—Mammal Survey Group 11-13 June. Buxton area. For details phone Ray Gibson 873 4408. à 9-10 July. Wallaby Creek catchment area. For details phone Ray Gibson 874 4408. May/June 135 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable Sir HENRY WINNEKE, K.C.M.G., O.B.E., Q.C. Key Honorary Office-Bearers, 1975-1976. President: Mrs. MARGARET CORRICK, 7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn, 3103. (857 9937.) Vice-President: Mr. DAVID M. LEE, 15 Springvale Road, Springvale, 3171. Secretary: Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. Treasurer — Subscription Secretary: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Rd. , East Malvern, 3145. (211 2427.) Editor: Mr. R. D. KENT, 16 Papua Street, Watsonia, 3087. (435 8664.) Librarian: Mr. J. MARTINDALE, c/o National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra. Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161. (527 2749.) Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. (211 2427.) Archives Officer: Mr. CALLANAN, 29 Reynards St., Coburg, 3058. Tel, 36 0587. Group Secretaries Botany: Mrs. RUTH ANDERS, 7 Barrington Drive, Ashwood, 3137. (25 3816). Day Group: Miss D. M. BELL, 17 Tower Street, Mont Albert, 3127. (89 2850.) Field Survey: R. D. SANDELL, 39 Rubens Gve., Canterbury, 3126. (83 8009.) Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, c/o National Herbarium, South Yarra, 3141. Mammal Survey: Mr. MICHAEL HOWES, 10 Palmer Street, Fitzroy, 3065. Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy St., East Brighton. (96 3268.) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C.V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Subscription rates for 1977 Matrapalitá. carrat, Er ARA Aik oes thane ECT Joint Metropolitan er n E uE Joint Retired Members -eraan rarem ee aa Na Country Subscribers, and Retired Persons over 65 IL Jóint Country cuisse a ed ia eer esi rd oe Boe REED A O SJUPOLS T, A Ecc pes ee Subscriptions to Vict. Nat. Overseas Subscription . . Junior with “Naturalist” ... Individual Magazines onen nae A All subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. 6) JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE hol. 94, No. 4 July/August, 1977 Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA in which is incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Category "B" Registered in Ausrralia for transmission by post as a periodical FNCV DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra Monday, 8 August, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Mr Alan E. Monger, President of Benalla FNC Subject: ‘‘Activties of a Country Club'' Monday, 12 September, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Dr Neil Hallum, Senior Lecturer in Botany, Monash University Subject: *'Seeds from the Tombs” Monday, 10 October, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Dr Bill Birch, Curator of Minerals, National Museum of Victoria Subject: '' Victorian Minerals" New Members, August General Meeting: Ordinary: Mr lan P. Dunn, 6 Champion Crescent, Glen Waverley, 3150. Miss Margaret Dwerryhouse, 1/11 Moffat Street, South Caulfield, 3141 (Geology). Mrs Leslie Feather, P.O. Box 360, South Yarra, 3141 (Fauna & Flora). Miss June Polglaze, 12 Wilsons Road, Doncaster, 3108 (General). Joint: Mr Peter D. Chambers, 18 Horseshoe Bend Road, Keilor, 3036 (Botany & Mammal Survey). Mrs Catherine Chambers, 18 Horseshoe Bend Road, Keilor, 3036 (Botany & Mammal Survey). Country: Mr A. W. Bartlett, Station Street, Bright, 3741 (Conservation). Dr Colin Piggin, ‘Oakleigh via Corowa, N.S.W., 2646. Mrs Josephine Piggin, ‘‘Oakleigh"’ via Corowa, N.S.W., 2646. Mr P. J, Feehan, c/o S.C.A., Pyke Street, Bairnsdale, 3875. FNCV EXCURSIONS Sunday, 21 August. Cheltenham Park. Leader Mr A. E. Brooks. The Park is by the railway station so there will be no coach. Meet outside station at 11.05 a.m.; there is a train leaving Flinders Street at 10.29 a.m. which arrives at Cheltenham at 11.03 a.m. Native vegetation still exists at the Park and a section has been planted with Australian flora. Barbecue available. Sunday, 18 September. Serendip Wildlife Research Station. The coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m.; fare $5.00. Bring own meal. Serendip is a farm that was acquired by the Fisheries and Wildlife Division in 1960 and part of it has been developed as a research centre for a wide range of wildlife including Magpie geese, Brolgas, Rat kangaroos, etc. See page 176. Saturday, 1 October—Friday, 7 October. Casterton. Accommodation has been booked in self- contained holiday flats, each with its own facilities including kitchen and laundry. Cost will depend on nurgbers attending and mileage on day trips, but will be approximately $75.00 for the week's accommodation and coach; meals will be extra. Casterton is a good centre for tours, probably one to Mt Gambier. $20.00 deposit should be paid when booking and the balance by 12 September, The coach will leave Batman Avenue at 8.30 a.m. Bring a picnic lunch. Friday, 27 January—Friday, 3 February, 1978. Mt Buffalo. This will replace the usual Christmas excursion. The party will travel by train and coach to The Chalet at Mt Buffalo where full board is provided including picnic lunches if required. Cost based on a party of 30 will be about $165.00 with a slight reduction for pensioners using rail vouchers. $20.00 deposit should be paid when booking. Bookings for all general excursions should be made with the Excursion Secretary and cheques made out to FNCV Excursion Fund. (Continued on page 179) 138 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 ee —a a SEX NAL MG d. Z A Vo ^N. t Wh a B Nu victor Eas = z” ee The Victorian Naturalist Volume 94, Number 4 July/August, 1977 Editor: Reuben Kent Committee: Barry Callanan, Margaret Corrick, lan Hood, Margery Lester, Brian Smith, Paul Temple Berds muy tliat sD yar aul Merle a so. ce ee fen te otic 140 Introduction to the Earthworm, by Brian Smith................-- 144 Generic Names of Victorian Flora, by James A. Bains............ 147 BisheheasofeVIctor asaya Mes MCOMICK e crew seit LET 148 FNCV Excursion to Tasmania, by Mary Doery.............--.-- 152 Legless Lizards of the Little Desert, by Clive Crouch............. 156 More Observations of Rainbow Bee-eaters, by I. C. Morris........ 158 A Note on Eggs and Hatchlings of the Blind Snake Typhlina nigrescens Gray, by J. D. Miller and K; R. McDonald..................--- 161 Mammals in the Melbourne Metropolitan Area, by J. H. Seebeck... 165 BOOkIRC Vic Wary AH WALLIS. a) USES cu. pp PME TEE rates s 171 The Coming Centenary of the FNCV, by James A. Baines ........ 173 Field Naturalist Club of Victoria, June and July Meetings ......... 177 Cover illustration: Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus Photograph by Paul Temple. A OF VICT WZ — RTI CH "How much more there is now to living! Instead of our drab slogging forth and back to the fishing boats, there's a reason to life! We can lift ourselves out of ignorance, we can find ourselves as creatures of excel- lence and intelligence and skill. We can be free! We can learn to fly! —Jonathan Livingston Seagull. During the December 1976 Mammal Survey Group Camp to Club Terrace, the daylight hours were mostly spent on free activities, whether these be walking, tour- ing by car or sleeping. During one of these periods several of the party visited the Bemm River settlement, some 40 miles from Club Terrace. The area turned out to be a haven for many water birds, including pelicans, cormorants, gulls and swans, to name just a few. It was a naturalist photo- Ulna Primaries Secondaries fig. 7. 140 | Birds in Flight Bv PAUL TEMPLE grapher's paradise and provided the inspira- tion for an article on birds and flight. The first fossilized recording of a bird with similar characteristics to the modern bird was that of the Archaeopteryx from about 150 million years ago. Since that time, the bird has undergone only a few anatomical changes. The Reptilian-like long tail has been lost, the long fingers sup- porting the wings of archaeopteryx have disappeared and the teeth given way to the modern beak. All of these changes result in a decreased skeletal weight (an aid to flight), although the loss of teeth was most likely a functional feeding adaption. The present structure contains very few moving parts, namely the wings, legs and neck, The main body is an immovable struc- ture since it is an anchor for the powerful flight muscles and must be rigid. Figure | — The Wing Shoulder Membrane Humerus Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Wing The feathered wing (Fig. 1) is an appen- dage which is exclusive to the bird. Its basic bone structure is similar to the foreleg of other vertebrates, consisting of humerus, ulna, radius and hand. The hand is much modified however, due to its use in flight. The Feathers Feathers are the main external feature which separate birds from other animals, Several groups of feathers are present as external characteristics of the bird. i) The tail feathers — used in flight ii) The body feathers iii) The primary and secondary feathers which are together known as the flight feathers iv) The tertiaries and scapulars which are attached to the humerus and skin respectively. The primaries are attached to the hand and are, in conjunction with hand move- ments, responsible for the propulsion of the bird. These feathers are stiffened for this purpose and vary in number for different birds. The secondaries are attached to the ulna and are a sustaining area or ''parachute"" to keep the bird aloft. These vary greatly in number allowing a large variation between different types of birds. The tertiaries and scapulars are again to increase the sustaining area. Variation in Wing Shape Variation in wing shape occurs due to the different methods of flight used by different species of bird. For fast, vigorous flight a long hand reg- ion is required (for propulsion) and a com- paratively short upper arm and forearm. The swift*, wnich cruises at 70 mph and may reach speeds of 200 mph. has a long hand area with long. stiff primaries and a short forearm with few secondaries. Due to its 10 wing beats per second, the swift also has *(6) Stillson July/August very powerful flight muscles necessitating.a deep keeled breast bone. ( For gliding and soaring flight, a large sustaining area is required and as a result the upperarm and forearm are lengthened com- pared with the hand. Birds of prey such as the eagle and vulture have this typical wing structure as does the pelican. The Albatross, one of the greatest known gliders, has very narrow wings which appears to be an anom- ally to the above theory. However, the area is made up by the tremendous span of the Albatrosses wings which may be up to 12 ft. With a body weight of only about 16 Ib. , it is ideally built for gliding. How Breast Muscles Flap a Wing Since up to half of a birds weight may be taken up by the weight of the wing muscles, their importance is quite obvious. The mus- cles used to raise and lower the wing are situated below the wing and are attached to the sternum (keel) (See Figure 2). The wing is raised when the pectoralis minor pulls on the tendon which passes up- wards through the shoulder joint (where the coracoid, scapula and humerus meet). Rais- ing the wing is therefore brought about by a pulley system, the tendon being attached above the wing and the musclewhich oper- ates it attached below. Lowering the wing is more simple in theory since the muscle used for this pur- pose. the pectoralis major, is a direct at- tachment from the lower wing surface to the sternum. [n practice, however, much more energy is required for this process since much more resistance is met. This of course is necessary for the bird to sustain its al- titude. Normal Flapping Flight and Take-Off During the downstroke, the wing is fully extended and is moving at right angles to the long axis of the body. At the end of the downstroke, the wrist is flexed inaugurating the upward swing. The whole organ then starts up, the inner half pulling the hand section along, the primaries partially sepa- rated. The wing is usually at a greater angle to the horizontal during the upward stroke, 141 Humerus Scapula Pectoralis Miner Coracoid Sternum, Peckoralis Major fig.2. so that a smaller resistance occurs, At the end of the upward stroke, the hand in a sudden, powerful throb, flaps up and out and resumes the position for the next down- ward drive. When a small bird takes off, the wings move downward and forward on the downstroke. Since the trailing edge of the wing is less rigid than the leading edge, it bends upwards under air pressure and forms the entire wing into a propellor which pulls the bird through the air. On the return stroke the wing moves upward and backward. The upstroke is largely a passive recovery stroke since little or no propulsion occurs. In larger birds, with their slower wing action, the upstroke cannot be wasted since a much greater body inertia must be over- come in take off. In rising then, the wing bends slightly at the wrist and elbow and the whole arm rotates backward at the shoulder joint to such a degree that the primaries now push against the air with their upper surfaces and drive the bird forward. The downstroke is then similar to that for a smaller bird. Take-off often requires more than a var- ied use of the wing to become a possibility, especially with the heavier birds. Most land birds are capable of take-off by a quick upward spring into the wind combined with rapid wingbeats. This involves the greatest expenditure of energy put forth by a bird at any one time, as it tries to reach in the 142 Figure 2 — The Muscles shortest possible time a height at which it may maintain flight with the least possible effort. If a bird is forced to take-off re- peatedly from the ground at short intervals, it will become exhausted after five or six trials and will remain on the ground. To overcome such problems, many birds alight upon the ground as little as possible and prefer trees or cliffs from which they may easily become airborne. All of these take-off problems are amplified when water birds are considered, since they must overcome the problems of water resistance as well. Waders are proba- bly an exception since their bodies are held above the water surface by their usually long legs, thus eliminating the problem of water resistance. Other birds have overcome this problem in the following ways:— a) Some ducks such as the Mallard and Pintail are able to leap up directly from the water. The upward spring throws the body almost upright and the wings are then used in a horizontal beat and take on the action of a helicopter. b) Many birds acquire the necessary momentum by running along the sur- face of the water thus using the feet as paddles and the wings for lift to enable the bird to become airborne, e.g. Peli- can and Cormorant. Changes of direction may be carried out by beating wings at different rates or by Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 using the tail or a combination of the two. The Swift is thought to be able to flap its wings alternately which may account for its ability to change direction instantaneously while chasing prey. Gliding and Soaring Flight A gliding bird, coasting downward, is simply using its weight to overcome the air resistance to its forward motion, A soaring bird is one that maintains or increases its altitude without flapping its wings. It can do this either by gliding in rising currents of air (static soaring), or by exploiting adjacent air currents of different velocities (dynamic soaring). Soaring land birds, which are essentially static soarers, keep aloft mainly by seeking out and “‘riding’’ rising air currents. These birds essentially need short broad wings — short wings for low inertia and quick, sensi- tive response to changing air currents; broad, slotted wings for high lift capacity. To suit demands of the moment, a soaring bird can alter the shape and expanse of its wings by fanning or folding its feathers, by changing the wing-spread. camber, sweep-back or angle of attack. Soaring sea birds, dynamic soarers, are specially equipped with long, narrow wings which give a light wing-loading, low drag and a relatively high but variable speed. This allows them to utilise the air velocity gradients which exist between the air near the ocean surface and that higher up. The wind just above the waves may be only half the speed of the wind, say about 20 metres above the surface. The Royal Australian Ornithologists Union is compiling an Atlas of the distribution of all birds occurring in Australia — the continent, its coasts and islands. For success, they need widespread community support. Any information, no matter how sketchy on bird distribution — and espe- July/August Landing Landing is one of the most difficult man- oeuvres. The tail is spread in a fan-like fash- ion and the wings must beat hard to give maximum lift but at the same time they must break the bird's forward movement. The primary wing feathers and the alula, on the leading edge of the wing, are separated to prevent stalling at low speeds. The feet are thrown forward to take the shock. On water of course, the shock is less pronounced as the bird virtually skis to a stop. We are indeed very fortunate to live at a time when the slow motion movie camera and the high speed still camera techniques enable us to see all of the above stages in great detail. Although man has always been fascinated by flight, it is only in this century that the wing ofthe bird has been *'stopped'' for critical study. The above is a general description only of a very complex form of motility, and further details may be obtained from the references below. REFERENCES 1. Bourke, P. A.. 1955. “Elementary Bird Study". 2. Burton, R., 1975. "How Birds Live”. 3. Headley, F. W.. 1895, *'The Structure and Life of Birds". . MacDonald, J. D., Goodwin, D.. Adler, H. E.. 1967. ''Curiosities of Bird Life™’. . Marshall, A. J., 1961. "Biology and Comparative Physiology of Birds’’, Vol. 2. 6. Stillson, B., 1955. "Wings: Insects, Birds, Men". 7. Welty, J. C., 1962, “The Life of Birds" '. 8 9 p un . Worden, A. N. “Functional Anatomy of Birds". , Bach, R., 1970. “Jonathan Livingston Seagull”. Atlas of Australian Birds cially breeding distribution — up until the end of 1976, is needed. If anyone can help in this matter please contact Dr. David Peters, 19 Rawson Court, Heathmont, Vic. 3135, or R. A.O.U. Tel, (03) 329 9881. 143 Introduction to the Earthworm Bv BRIAN J. SMITH* This general article on the biology ofthe earthworm is prompted by several specific enquiries by members of the FNCV plus the many requests received in the Museum for information on earthworm culture techniques. Earthworms are segmented worms belonging to the phylum Annelida and are specially adapted for carrying out their whole life-cycle away from water. Many people, who take for granted the uniqueness of Australia's mammal fauna, are greatly surprised when they are told that the invertebrate fauna of Australia is just as unique to this Continent. As with many other sections of the fauna, the earthworm fauna consists of a wide variety of native species, living mainly in bush areas, with restricted distributions and specific habitat requirements, plus a few widespread, in- troduced species found mainly in the highly modified suburban garden habitats. Onginally, as with all animal groups, the ancestors of the earthworms lived in the sea and used the salt solution medium to assist in many of their life activities. The body fluids were in salt-balance equilib- rium with the outside water, the soft body was supported and locomotion assisted by the water and oxygen. waste products, food and reproductive products were car- ried to and from the animal by water movement. When they left the sea and took up life in the soil they faced similar prob- lems to other soft bodied animals which have made the same transition, such as snails, slugs and flatworms, and have sol- ved many of these problems in similar ways. They lost most of the advantages of life-style provided by a salt water environ- ment and replaced them with the problems *Curator of Invertebrates, National Museum of Victoria 144 of dessication, external support of the body, living in an abrasive environment with little water, having to protect all stages of the reproductive cycle and many others. The counter-balancing advantages of this move were probably a relatively uninhabited environment with plenty of food, and little competition or predator threat. Earthworms are a very homogeneous group of segmented worms, all with more or less the same structure and body form and all with grossly similar life styles, Within the earthworm group all are bur- rowing, soil or debris dwellers and all are detrial feeders. No other life or feeding pattern has been evolved, as can be seen in the terrestrial molluscs. The criteriaused in differentiating the species and in dividing the earthworms into genera, families, or- ders etc. are the differences seen in various anatomical characters, such as position of the external genital openings, structure of the reproductive and excretory organs and many others. Feeding Earthworms extract their nourishment from decaying vegetable matter in the soil. They are therefore found in situations close to abundant plant growth where leaf and root material enter the soil. By their bur- rowing activity worms can incorporate dead leaves etc. into the upper layers of the soil. Feeding is accomplished by ingesting soil, a mixture of mineral and organic par- ticles. The mineral particles assist in the mechanical breakdown of the organic par- ticles. The digestive system is a simple, largely undifferentiated tube running the length of the body. This simple mode of life means that complex sense organs such as eyes are unnecessary. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Locomotion Earthworms are coelomate animals, having a fluid filled body cavity and a complex muscular system for the body wall and the digestive tract. This provision of separate muscular systems for the body wall and gut and the separation of these two structures into two separate tubes, one in- side the other with a fluid **cushion’’ be- tween them means that for the first time in the animal kingdom (evolutionarily speak- ing) an animal can use its body muscles for locomotion without squeezing its gut con- tents, Locomotion in earthworms is achieved by a series of rhythmic contrac- tions being propelled down the body of the worm. Three structures and properties of the earthworm combine to make this possi- ble. These are;— (a) Possession of transverse and longi- tudinal muscles in the body wall enabling independent constriction and elongation of different parts of the body. (b) Possession of a fluid-filled body cav- ity separated into independent body units by partitions or septae. This en- ables the fluid to act as a hydrostatic skeleton as the body wall can contract against fluid under pressure. If the septae were not present then when the body wall contracted at one place it would simply force all the fluid to the other end of the body. This does not happen. (c) Possession of chaetae — small mov- able spines which gives the worm purchase on the outside of the bur- TOW. Movement through the dry abrasive soil is made possible by the secretion of a visc- ous mucus over the whole body surface. To progress through a burrow the worm con- tracts the longitudinal muscles at the post- erior end of its body (Fig. la). This in- creases the diameter of the body and *'locks"' that part of the body against the walls of the burrow, aided by the chaetae. The worm then contracts the transverse muscles in the body wall of the anterior end July/August 1c la 1b Fig. I. Diagram of earthworm locomotion (Drawing by Rhyllis Plant) of the body. This decreases the diameter of the body and causes the anterior end to elongate (Fig. 1b). As the posterior end of the body is ‘‘locked’’ onto the burrow the anterior end is forced forward. A few seg- ments right at the anterior end are then "locked" in this new position, the post- erior end is released and the back of the body is then drawn up (Fig. 1c), and the whole cycle starts again. Reproduction In general principle, reproduction in earthworms is very similar to that process in land snails in so far as both are hermaphro- dite. Hermaphroditism, the ability of one individual to produce both sperm and eggs and thus enable every individual in the population to be a reproductive unit, is an advantage to groups of animals in a hostile environment where low population density 145 clitellum reproductive Fig. 2. General diagram of ventral view ofan earthworm showing the main external features (After Lee). (Draw- ing by Rhyllis Plant.) and limited breeding opportunities are the normal situation. Unlike snails, earthworms have separate male and female reproductive systems and the mating process is not true copulation where an intromittent organ is used to insert sperm within the body of the partner. Mating in earthworms takes the form of a pseudocopulation where partners come together but no intromittent organs are used, the sperms being passed down exter- nal grooves to be stored in blind ended sacs,the spermathecae. The mating process necessitates the two partners coming to- gether in exactly the right way and being held together until the sperm transfer is completed. This is achieved with the aid of a structure unique to earthworms, the clitel- lum (Fig.2). This is a thickened collor of mucus secreting tissue, the position of which is also a taxonomic character. At copulation the worms secrete a great deal of 146 mucus and the clitellum secretes a viscous mucus which “‘sticks’’ the two worms to- gether. The accurate location of the two worms together is also assisted by special genital chaetae. Once the sperm transfer has taken place the worms separate with sperm stored in the spermathecae. A short time later the eggs mature. Again large amounts of mucus is secreted, the eggs are passed out of the ovary along the outside of the body in special grooves. They are passed over the spermathecal pores where sperm is expelled and fertilization takes place. They are then enveloped in mucus and a special secretion from the clitellar glands. The worm then withdraws from the cocoon secretion which is encircling the body like a collar leaving the cocoon to close up and'harden. A large series of cocoons are layed over several months and each cocoon contains several eggs, though usually only one embryo sur- vives in each cocoon. The rate and number of cocoons layed is dependent on soil temp- erature and food supply. Culture Techniques Specimens of the common earthworm must be gathered at night and preferably between 10.00 and 12.00 o'clock during or following a drizzling warm rain when the ground is thoroughly soaked. The worms come to the surface of the ground in large numbers at such times and may be captured easily with the assistance of a strong flash light. The best collecting grounds are closely cut lawns where the soil is rich. When the worms have been collected they may be left for the remainder of the night in a cool place in a pail containing a small quantity of freshly cut grass. The next morning the worms should be carefully sorted, and all injured or abnormal speci- mens should be removed. If they are washed and placed, a few ata time, in adish of water those that are injured may be easily de- tected. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Earthworms feed very largely on dead and decaying leaves and, like chickens, they digest their food better if there is a certain amount of grit in their diets. Best results are obtained by keeping earthworms in large boxes filled about 12 inches deep with ap- proximately equal parts of old leaves and leaf loam gathered in the woods. Under no conditions should heavy clay soil be used. The worms need no other food as they feed on the dead leaves. The material should be kept moist but not saturated with water. Unless extreme care was exercised in re- moving all injured worms, the boxes should be inspected after a week and all dead and dying worms removed. Should it happen that the worms are not keeping well those that are healthy should be removed and placed in a fresh box of leaves and loam. A thick layer of dead leaves on top of the mixture helps to prevent it from drying up. Earthworms also keep well in very light, loamy soil. If this is used it is often advisa- ble to feed the worms. Breadcrumbs or corn meal make excellent food. The food should be moistened with water, spread sparingly over the top of the soil every 2 or 3 weeks and covered with about an inch of loam. Feed sparingly and not too often or the food will spoil and the worms may die. Avoid trying to keep too many worms in one box. A cubic foot of culture material, after it has settled, will be sufficient for about 50 worms. Cover the boxes with panes of glass and keep cool. Temperatures above 16°C usually prove fatal. While cocoons of earthworms are not eas- ily obtainable, a few of them may usually be found by carefully sorting over the loamy material in the boxes after the worms have been stored in it for a month or so. The young worms emerge from the cocoons in a few weeks and thrive under the same treat- ment as that given to the adults. The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora, Part 2 — Latin, Greek and Miscellaneous (Continued from page 111 in the previous issue) By James A. BAINES Papaver. Lat name for the poppy, from papa, pap or thick milk, because of the milky juice that has narcotic properties. The English word is de- scended from the same Latin word, with loss of ending. Victoria has one native species (Bristle Poppy) and four introduced (including *P. som- niferum, Opium Poppy, the specific epithet meaning ‘putting to sleep’, and *P. rhoeas, Field Poppy, of Flanders fields fame). The genus gives July/August its name to family Papaveraceae. Parahebe. Gk para, beside, used as a prefix to denote close relationship, in this case to the genus Hebe, the headquarters of which is New Zealand. See note on page 568, ‘A Handbook to Plants in Victoria’, Vol. II, by J. H. Willis, who retains the names Veronica derwentiana and V. perfoliata for two species transferred to Parahebe. Family Scrophulariaceae. (To be continued) 147 Bush-peas of Victoria — genus Pultenaea — 6 Bv M. G. CORRICK Pultenaea largiflorens F. Mueller ex Bentham in Flora Australiensis 2: 134 (1864) Apart from two localities in Gippsland, near Bruthen and Lake Glenmaggie, Pul- tenaea largiflorens occurs north of the Dividing Range and is most plentiful on auriferous country round Bendigo, Heath- cote and Rushworth. There are one or two old records from the Grampians, but it does not appear to have been seen there in recent years. It is also found in New South Wales and South Australia. P. largiflorens was described by Bentham from material collected by Muel- ler at Forest Creek, near the present town of Chewton, in December 1852. It is a rather Eee Fig. 7b. Known distribution of P. laxiflora. 148 rigid. divaricate shrub to about 50 cm high and often has asilvery appearance due to the silky hairs on the young shoots. The leaves are alternate, but often rather sparse and irregularly arranged, occasionally appear- ing to be opposite or clustered. They are 1.5 to 2,5 mm wide, obovate to narrow cuneate with the edges turned up or almost folded. The upper leaf surface is glabrous and the lower is darker with appressed hairs. The stipules are closely appressed to the stem, triangular, about 1 mm long and rather inconspicuous, particularly on older stems. The comparatively large flowers are in heads at the tips of branches. The standard is pale orange and the keel and wings dark purple. The calyx is silky with pale, closely ap- pressed hairs; the upper lobes are falcate, giving a hooked appearance to the buds, The bracteoles are slender with slightly curved tips, hairy and similar in texture and colour to the calyx lobes, but often with a brown, papery margin towards the base. Bentham and subsequent writers describe them as at- tached high on the calyx tube, but careful examination of many collections, including some cited by Bentham, shows them to be attached below the middle of the tube. The bracts are brown and papery, with hairs on the base and upper edge, which is obtuse and often split; most bracts have fal- len by the time the flowers are fully open. The ovary and style are densely covered with short, pale, silky hairs. Flowering time in Victoria is usually from the midldle of October to early November. Mature pods have an elongated tip formed by the persis- tent style base. They protrude well beyond the caylx and are covered with pale hairs. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Fig. 7. a—1. P. largiflorens: a-f from MEL 516368; a, habit; b, calyx and bracteole, one draw a little larger; c, style; d, floral bract; e, leaf and stipule; f, leaf, upper surface; g-l from MEL 35199; g, pod; h, seed. i. P. laxiflora var laxiflora, habit from MEL 516369. j. P. laxiflora var. pilosa: habit from MEL 516370; k-m from MEL 516364; k, calyx and bracteole, bracteole drawn much larger; |, style; m, floral bract with central leaf; n, leaf and stipule from MEL 516369; o-p from MEL 515499; o, pod; p, seed. July/August 149 SPECIMENS EXAMINED include: Forest Creek, F. Mueller, Dec. 1852 (MEL 516361), Syntype; Rushworth Forest, M. G. Corrick 5599, 2.x,1976, (MEL 516362); near Toolien, M. G. Corrick 2577, 24.x.1971, (MEL 516368), Goulburn R., Putney, 21.x.1976, (MEL 35199); Heathcote-Colbinabbin Rd., J. H. Willis, 20.x. 1966, (MEL 35209); Fairy Dell Rd., near Bruthen, J. H. Willis, 10.xi.1973, (MEL 516362). Pultenaea laxiflora Bentham in Flora Australiensis 2; 133 (1864) Pultenaea laxiflora is widely distributed in the drier arcas of western and central Victoria, mainly north of the Dividing Range, but with an isolated eastern occur- rence near Licola. It is also found in South Australia and the Australian Capital Terri- tory. Bentham’s original description, pub- lished in Flora Australiensis, was based on collections from South Australia and west- ern Victoria, It isa low, spreading shrub, usually about 50 cm high, The stems are rounded with appressed hairs on the young growth. The leaves are 4-12 mm long, and in most forms terete, channelled above and broader at the tip, which is blunt and slightly recurved. They are usually scabrid and may also be hairy, particularly on young shoots. The brown stipules are triangular, 14-2 mm long with a distinet mid-rib. The flowers are axillary, either almost sessile or on pedicels upto 5 mm long. They are clustered towards the tips of the branches and often so crowded as to appear in heads. The colour is predominantly orange with a variable amount of red-brown on the throat of the standard and on the wings. The ovary is densely covered with white hairs which extend along the style for about half its length. The calyx is usually covered with rather stiff, pale hairs and its three upper lobes are longer than the tube and taper to slender points. As in the previ- ous species this gives the young buds a somewhat falcate appearance. The green, leaf-like bracteoles are attached at the base 150 of the calyx tube and usually have distinct stipules, occasionally these are reduced to papery margins at the base of the bracteole. Bracts are also present, clustered at the base of the pedicels but they have usually fallen by the time the last of the flowers are open. In Victoria flowering time is generally be- tween late October and the middle of November. The pod does not protrude far beyond the calyx and is covered with pale hairs. The var. /axiflora has flowers on distinct, usually reflexed pedicels 3-5 mm long. These are hidden by the bracts when the flowers are young and they also appear to lengthen as the flower matures. This variety occurs in western Victoria and South Au- stralia. The var. pilosa H. B. Williamson in Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. 33: 141 (1922) is the common form in Victoria; it ranges across central districts eastward from the Little Desert. It is distinguished by the crowded, almost sessile flowers and rather more hairy calyx. Itis also found in South Australia. On the northern and western fringe of the Grampians, the Black Range and parts of the Little Desert both var. laxiflora and var. pilosa occur, with some populations appear- ing intermediate between the two. Very few fruiting collections have been seen, and further study of the extent to which the pedicel Jengthens is needed to properly de- termine some of the intermediate forms. Main flowering time of both these varieties in Victoria is late October to early Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 November, but may be as early as Sep- tember in the Little Desert. A third variety, confined to South Aus- tralia, var. procumbens H. B. Williamson l.c., has broader, flatter leaves with the brighter green upper surface visible. ' Dried specimens of P. laxiflora and P. largiflorens are sometimes rather similar, but they are unlikely to be confused in the field when in flower. The crowded axillary flowers, the stiff calyx hairs and the leaf- like stipules of P. laxiflora are distinctive, while P. largiflorens has generally larger flowers which are quite distinctly in heads. SPECIMENS EXAMINED included: var. laxiflora: Grampians, F. Mueller (MEL 515889), Syntype; Black Range, A. C. Beauglehole 30055, 12.x.1968, (MEL 516364); Glenelg Shire, WSW of Digby, A. C. Beauglehole 38152, 17.1.1972, (MEL 515499); Grampians, Victoria Gap, M. G. Corrick, 1.x.1967, (MEL 516369); var. pilosa: Mt. Mclvor, Ross, (MEL 515886), Syntype; 10 mls NW of Nhill, D'Alton, Sept. 1884 (MEL 515895), Syntype; Little Desert, E-W Track, M. G. Corrick 1923, 26.x.1969 (MEL 516370); S.E. shores of Glenmaggie Res., J. H. Willis, 16.x.1973 (MEL 516366). Pultenaea paludosa J. Thompson — First record for Victoria This Pultenaea was first collected in Victoria by A. C. Beauglehole in January 1970 from East Gippsland, near Cabbage Tree Creek. Further collections were made by Beauglehole in October 1970, near Bemm River and in November 1970, near Cape Conran. He determined them as P. subumbellata Hook. and donated all the collec- tions to the National Herbarium, Melbourne. These collections have now been recognized as P. paludosa, a species thought to occur only in New South Wales. It is found in swampy areas, usually among thick vegetation, and is a slender under-shrub less than a metre high with very small flowers. A full description will be found in Contributions from the N.S.W. Herbarium, Flora Series No. 101 Pt. RH, P. paludosa is likely to be found in other areas of Victoria, particularly to the east of Melbourne, and further collections would be most welcome. Although very similar to P. subumbellata it may be distinguished by the very small flowers with calyx densely covered with silky, white hairs. It will be described and illustrated later in this series. M. G. CORRICK Distribution of Victorian orchids Bruce Muir, National Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, South Yarra 3141, is compiling distribution records of Victorian orchids for re- search purposes. He is particularly interested in July/August species which are endangered for any reason such as loss of habitat. If you can help him in this work please contact him at the above address. 151 FNVC Excursion to Tasmania 1-9 January, 1977 By MARY DOERY Forty members of the FNCV Melbourne were guests of the Burnie FNC. Memories will last long for the warm welcome at Wynyard Airport, friendliness throughout our stay, generous refreshments at various places, and the kind farewells from our hosts and hostesses. For the main organisers of this Interstate Excursion, our special thanks go to Mr. and Mrs. Douglas Hawkes of the BFNC, and to Miss Marie Allender of the FNCV. On arrival each of us was given a folder with pamphlets of the north-coast areas from the Tasmanian Tourist Bureau. After settling in at the Club Hotel, Burnie our introduction to the local bush was an after- noon at Fern Glades on the Emu River, Mr. Laurie Brasch, a member of the BFNC, gave a welcome speech before we started on a walk through the area. Here we found pockets of rainforest with Beech, Leather- wood, Tree Ferns on which grew epiphytes, including the Rock-fern Tmesipteris elon- gata. Lucky were those who escaped from a leech on some partof their anatomy! It was a surprise to suddenly walk from the moist, dimly lit closed forest into sunshine of the open forest. Then we were driven to Round Hill, and from an Observation Tower Cradle Mountain 152 viewed the city of Burnie, and its port, and beyondto the west, Table Cape at Wynyard, and to the east the contours of Dial Range. The evening was a meeting in a lecture room of the CAE headquarters. Members of the BFNC showed beautiful Kodachromes and gave an interesting narration of the Cradle Mountain area where we were to visit the following day. Two coaches with approximately eighty Field Naturalists left the coastal towns in sunshine, but on reaching the mountains inland, low clouds precipitated showers and sleet. The rugged peaks of Cradle Mountain shrouded in mists were invisible one min- ute, then partially exposed in mysterious beauty, revealing a sprinkling of snow down their slopes. Walking tracks ran with water. Petals of a prostrate Guinea Flower Hibber- tia procumbens, were bruised from hail and sodden, but not so the waxy flowers of the Boronias B. citriodora, B. rhomboidea, which remained perfect. Alongside the road we observed the bronze coloured new growth of the Alpine Coral Fern Gleichenia alpina. Bauera rubioides had white flow- ers, and the Honey-myrtle Melaleuca squamea, both white and pink inflores- cences. Dove Lake is glacial in its origin. At Waldheim we found Richeas, r. scoparia, R. pandanifolia and Archeria comberi with pink bells, another indigenous Epacris. Here, three species of Gymnosperms were seen, King William Pine Athrotaxis selaginoides, Pencil Pine Athrotaxis cup- ressoides, Celery Top Pine Phyllocladus aspleniifolius. Beech Oranges or Cyttaria species of galls, were growing on some Beeches, commonly known as Myrtles Nothofagus cunninghamii. Bennett's Wal- labies Macropus rufogriseus, hopped into the open, which gave opportunity for some photos. On the Cradle Mountain National Park Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Native Laurel Anopterus glandulosus road we were thrilled to see Waratahs Telopea truncata, in flower, Lomatia tinctoria, and another member -of the Pro- teaceae family called Mountain Rocket Bel- lendena montana. On the return journey the billy was boiled at Weaning Paddock Creek where a sub-alpine meadow was carpeted with flowering plants, some of which were Composites, Podolepis jaceoides, Helip- terum albicans, Helipterum anthemoides, Celmisia species; Gentianella diemensis; Euphrasia species; Trachymene humilis; Veronica species; to mention a few plants. In late afternoon, approaching Sheffield, Mount Roland's.western face in sunshine with Lake Barrington and cows on pasture in the foreground, gave us rewarding photos of a beautiful scene. The next day our itinerary involved the environs of Wynyard. Hunting for Lace Agates in the Calder Gravel Pits was an unusual experience. Oldina Forest Reserve proved a pleasant place for a lunch stop, with time to walk and bird watch. In the afternoon we were taken to Table Cape which is volcanic in origin. In the vicinity crops of peas, potatoes, and poppies for opium extraction, were seen in farmlands July/August with Rocky Cape coastline further west- ward. To the southeast we sighted St, Val- entine's Peak of à pyramidal shape, and Companion Hills which were to be one of our destinations the next day. A visit to famous Fossil Bluff at low tide, was of par- ticular interest to the geologists. Mr. Laurie Brasch explained the geological history of the area. In the vertical cliff face strata of several ages are in sequence, together with non-fossiliferous rock of Permian Ice Age on the lowest stratum. At Somerset we vis- ited the home of Mr. and Mrs. Barry Dud- man to admire a large collection of exotic orchids, and many native plants in flower in the garden. 4th January. Mr. Charles Turner, a Re- search Scientist with APM, was our leader. From Bumie via Upper Burnie, Ridgley, Highcleve and Hampshire to APM Pine Forest, we drove to one of the two Compan- ion Hills. Here a panorama was rewarding with identifiable profiles of Cradle Moun- tain, Barn Bluff and other peaks on the hori- zon, This view was looked upon by the first white man, Mr. Henry Hellyer, explorer, from the 3,000-foot St. Valen- tine's Peak 150 years ago. We were grateful to Mr. Turner for giving us duplicated sheets of notes on exploration and vegeta- Tasmanian Waratah Telopea truncata 153 Devil's Gullet tion of the area. We found green Bird Or- chids Chiloglottis muelleri, both Smithton Peppermint Eucalyptus nitida, and Tallow Wood Phebalium squameum in flower. The chosen place for a lunch break was in a delightful part of the upper reaches of the Leven River surrounded by both Beech Forest and open heathy Eucalypt Forest. Christmas Tree Prostanthera lasianthos was in perfect blossom. The endemic Epa- crid, Cheeseberry Cyathodes glauca was photogenic with plenty of pink and red fruits. In the Beech Forest some of us photographed flowers of the endemic Laurel Anopterus glandulosus , and several types of Lichens. There was the Horizontal Shrub Anodopetalum biglandulosum, Cascade Everlasting Helichrysum species was heavy with flowers. We found fruits on the Leath- erwood Eucryphia lucida. At an evening meeting Mrs. Margaret Stephens had a dis- play of named plant specimens, On all ex- cursions we were grateful to Mrs. Stephens and to Mrs. Maisie Melbourne for their help in identifying plants. Mr. Trevor Waite showed superb slides of bird life in the Rocky Cape National Park, and Mr. Townsend projected a movie film on this 154 area. Rocky Cape National Park consists of over 6,500 acres and of the approximate 90 species of birds recorded there, 70 species were shown to us on Kodachrome slides. The BFNC have a special and continuing interest in this National Park. The next morning we were driven to Gunn's Plains which compose a picturesque agricultural valley surrounded by hills. Near the entrance to Limestone Caves there is a stone memorial to Ronald Campbell Gunn, noted botanist and explorer of early Tas- mania, 4/4/1808 to 13/3/1881. Then we went to Leven River Gorge for lunch and exploratory walk, and in the afternoon to Penguin Point, the home of Mr. and Mrs. Bob Macey. On the beach below their gar- den, agates were found, and as it was low tide we were able to explore outcrops of rocks where Silver Gulls were nesting. In the rookery, nests of two and three eggs were found, as well as newly hatched chicks. From the cliff top garden view there were Three Sister Islets beyond the rookeries, and the coastline towards UI- verstone and Devonport in the distance. 6th January was ahighlight for our excur- sion to Rocky Cape National Park, near Sisters Beach. On the way we called at Mr. Trevor Waite's five acre property of natural bush, and partly planted with flowering shrubs to attract birds. At Sisters Beach there was a chance to swim in both sea and river. The white quartzite sands were attrac- Newly hatched Sea Gull chick Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 tive and gave glorious colours of aqua with varying depths of seawater. In the afternoon Mr. Charles Turner led a party to Wet Cave Point, and he explained the exciting discov- ery of aboriginal caves in the area. We walked around route seeing the magnificent acres of white to red flowers of Common Heath Epacris impressa, with the red col- ours dominant, and the famous Giant Banksias B. serrata. En route we stopped to photograph the beautiful Christmas Bells Blandfordia nobilis, and observe an adult Sea Eagle with a fledgling in the nest, high up in a Eucalypt. At the evening meeting two of our members showed Kodachromes of the mainland Alpine areas and plants, and some birds, reptiles, insects and spiders of the mainland. Friday, 7th January, was a free day when most members visited Launceston, a small group explored the western approach to Rocky Cape National Park in the vicinity of the BFNC Hut, while another group drove to Boat Harbour, Smithton and Stanley. The next day, two coaches took a party to the northern part of the Western Tiers, to Western Bluff, Fisher's Look-out, and the Devil’s Gullet, approximate altitude 4,000 feet. As on all high mountains in Tasmania, columnar formation of dolerite of Jurassic age, has resisted erosion, Here we were amongst the organ pipe rocks at Devil’s Gullet, with dramatic sheer drops from the July/August Sisters Beach plateau. Again we discovered alpine plants, Orites revoluta, Richeas, Cushion plants, Oxylobium ellipticum, Cyathodes with flowers and fruits on the same shrub, Epa- cris paludosa, waratahs and many other plants in flower. En route we enjoyed lunch at the BENC Forestry Hut. At a lower al- titude on the banks of Union Creek, we found the indigenous Narrow-leaf Blanket Tree Bedfordia linearis , with clusters of in- florescences just at the fruiting stage. Here we found the Tasmanian Snow Gum Eucalyptus coccifera (an endemic species) and Woolly Butt Eucalyptus delegatensis , growing at altitudes lower than as Vic- torians we should expect to find them. Of special significance for our last night, a bar- becue was held in a rural setting of Mr. and Mrs. Rhodes’ holiday cottage within the **shade’’ of Mount Roland, near Sheffield. Sunday, 9th January, was departure day by air from Wynyard for most of the party. Two members joined a group of nineteen from Christchurch, New Zealand, the Can- terbury Botanical Society, and Dr. and Mrs. J. H. Willis were with the group from the start of their successful fortnight’s camping tour around chiefly alpine regions of Tas- mania. We travelled with them on a two day camp to both Cradle Mountain and to Ben Lomond. For everyone, the highly success- ful Tasmanian Excursion proved most stimulating and interesting. 155 Legless Lizards of the Little Desert by CLIVE CROUCH* Legless lizards belong to the Pygopodidae family, and because of their snake-like appearance often suffer savage attacks by man, who mistakenly believes that they may be dangerous. Nothing could be further from the truth since all are small, and non-venomous. In fact, apart from the Burton’s Legless Lizard, none is capable of even biting a human. All Legless Lizards feed on small insects, beetles, grubs, etc., with the excep- tion of Burton's which also eats small skinks. Differences between Snakes and Legless Lizards Although having a remarkable re- semblance to snakes there are several gen- eral differences between snakes and Legless Lizards. |, Most species of lizards have an external Ser. opening; snakes do not, 2. Most lizards have flat tongues; snakes have forked tongues. 3. All lizards have legs of some sort, small though they may be. In the Legless Lizards there are no signs of any front legs, but small scaly flaps can be found in place of the back legs. Within these scaly flaps are the bones of degenerate legs and feet. Snakes have no legs at all. 4. Most lizards have moveable eyelids; snakes have a fixed transparent scale over the eye. 5. Legless lizards have the ability to shed their tails when attacked. In fact, only about one-third of the total length of a Legless Lizard is made up of its body; the remainder consists of the tail, which may break up into several pieces if the lizard is attacked. After shedding its tail, the lizard will, over a period of time, grow a new tail, but it is never quite as long as the original one. *Flat 2/518 Tooronga Road, Hawthorn East. 156 Legless Lizards of the Little Desert Four species of Legless Lizards occur in the Little Desert. The largest, and most striking, is the Common Scaly Foot (Pyzopus lepidopodus) which grows to over 50 cm in length. It is usually slaty- grey in colour, with orange and black spots and stripes, and it has a black head. The most abundant species in the West Wimmera is the Common Legless Lizard Delma inornata. This is the only local species which is found outside the desert area; indeed it is much more commonly found in the open grassy plains of the Wimmera, D. inornata grows to 40 cm in length, and is olive-green with creamy-yellow underparts. The Spinifex Lizard Delma australis lives mainly, as its name suggests, in the clumps of spinifex. It is similar in ap- pearance to D. inornata but is only about half as big, and has four of five vertical black bars on the sides of its neck. The smallest, and most beautiful of the deserts Legless Lizards is the Pretty Snake-lizard Aprasia striolata. This small creature, growing only to about 12 cm long, is a burrowing lizard, spending most of its life underground, where it feeds on termites. It has a white body, attractively marked with gold and black lines. Be- cause if its subterranean habits it is very rarely seen, and all the specimens I have obtained came from farmers who have been ploughing or bull-dozing on desert blocks. It is a pity that so many of these small, harmless creatures suffer such a violent death, but few people will examine a specimen closely enough to determine whether it is a snake or a lizard before delivering the fatal blow. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 ey : d - LORS > 3 go MAS ee eee ^ Delma inornata Pretty Snake-lizard Aprasia striolata owen Ae a vex c camelis ud Natural History Medallion Fund Donations from any organisation or person wishing to help this Fund will be appreciated and acknowledged. Amount invested as at 30 April 1977... $384.00 Illawarra Natural History Society (second donation)................. TOT 20.00 Mrs. N. A. Wakefield (second donation) ..........e 10.00 PSE cs aera ye oe asics LER Im. $414.00 July/August 157 More observations of Rainbow Bee-eaters Merops ornatus in the Warby Ranges September 1976 to March 1977 By I. C, Morris* These are additional notes to follow last year's article in ** The Victorian Naturalist’ July/August 1976, They include observa- tions made during the 1976-1977 breeding season of Rainbow-birds, or more correctly Rainbow bee-eaters. They are called bee- eaters to indicate they belong to the same family (Meropidae) as the African bee- eaters. In spite of this name I seldom see them eating bees although there is a beehive within one of their nesting colonies on my property. Arrival of the birds The birds were first seen in the area to- wards the end of September 1976. They were in small flocks of 6-10 birds, and dur- ing a week built up to a total of approxi- mately 50 birds. It is interesting to note that a month previ- ously (28th August) while visiting the Queensland coast near Fraser Island 100 miles north of Brisbane, I saw several flocks of Rainbow bee-eaters (200-300 to each flock) travelling southwards low over the sea and close to the shore. Feeding habits Arrival of the Rainbow bee-eaters seems to coincide with prolific hatchings of dragonflies and these insects appear to be their favourite food. They also eat moths, beetles, grasshoppers, various small insects and occasionally bees. After catching a large insect on the wing, the bird flies to a nearby tree to perch, then repeatedly bashes the insect on the twig or bough. *South Wangaratta Roadside, 3678 158 During the first weeks after arrival they would sometimes feed on the ground among very low grass (5-10 cm high). On occasions they were observed on pathways eating small pieces of gravel. Also they would fly across the dam making a shallow dive with a small splash and ap- pear to take something from the water, pos- sibly tadpoles or small insects. Colonisation For about three weeks after their arrival the birds stayed mostly in the tall trees on the ridges nearby, then they moved down to the semi-cleared open slopes of last year's nest- ing area. They then formed two loose colonies with seven to ten pairs in each, though by the end of the brooding period these were reduced to five nesting pairs in each colony, because some nests were abandoned or destroyed by goannas and other predators. However, al- though I could find only ten nesting burrows in use, there were considerably more than 20 Rainbow bee-eaters in the area. One colony had a large dead tree as its focal point, while the other colony was near a small dam with a clump of trees Eucalyp- tus blakelyi at one side. Both had suitable dead twigs and boughs for the birds to perch on. Territorial behaviour By 3rd October pairing off was ac- complished and was followed by territorial skirmishes. First the pairs chose their perching twi gs, jealously guarded, at the focal point (e.g. the old dead tree) and then they chose their territory radiating outwards from that point. In this chosen territory (usually a long Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 narrow triangle with a main perching tree at each of its corners) the female would perch while the male swooped at and chased off intruding birds. Sometimes both birds would join in these aerial squabbles. Nest digging By the first week of November some ac- tivity in digging nesting burrows had begun, or perhaps they were only practice digs as they were often abandoned after a few days digging and another started. Rainbow bee-edters appear to dig a new nesting burrow each year quite close to last year's nests. However, this season I ob- served one of last year's nests cleaned out and re-used, Although this nest was ready much sooner than all other nests, the nesting pair did not start brooding any earlier than the birds which had spent a month or more preparing their nests. I do not know whether the same birds return to the same nesting areas each year, but I hope to find out over the next few seasons with the help of ornithologists cap- turing banded birds on site. The female appears to dig for much longer periods than the male, although he would be nearby on a low observation twig constantly looking around and would give a warning call if a predator, such as a falcon, appeared in the vicinity. On my property the nesting burrows are made in hard granite gravel soil, but in the Wangaratta area further north they are usu- ally in sandy banks of rivers. Brooding (sitting period) It is impossible to see into the burrow as far down as the nesting chamber because of the slope of the tunnel. This makes it very difficult to pin-point the time when the female starts laying eggs and brooding them. Males apparently assist with brood- ing, for captured males had brooding patches on their abdomens the same as females, Brooding probably takes between 2% and 3% weeks. Helpers at the nest In last year's article I referred to multiple July/August feeding at one nest, i.e. more birds than the original nesting pair were feeding the young birds in the nest. Ornithologists call this ‘helpers at the nest". Not all nests appear to have helpers. However, I observed helpers at four nests and this was positively confirmed for two of them by visiting ornithologists who banded the birds as they left the nest after entering with food, and three adult birds were cap- tured this way at each of two nests. As the young birds grew and became more demanding for food, the numbers of helpers at the nest appeared to increase. This interesting behaviour of the Rain- bow bee-eater requires many more years of attentive observation. Young leave the nest Young birds leave the nest when they are approximately four weeks old. This is ac- companied by what I call **the coming out ceremony": parent birds and helpers circle round the nest entrance giving a special call until the young leave one by one. They come to the entrance and look around care- fully before either retreating back into the burrow or flying off into nearby trees es- corted by adult birds. In their first flight they look a bit awkward, particularly when bank- ing and turning, but they quickly acquire aerial skills. For two to five following evenings at sun- set the young are driven back into the nest for the night, but the adult birds appear to spend the night perched in nearby trees. For the next two weeks or so, the adults feed the young birds while perched in trees. The young can also be observed trying to catch insects on the wing. Migration By the end of March when the young birds are 3-344 months old, all Rainbow bee-eaters assemble in flocks. Finally they migrate northwards to spend our winter months in the warmer climates of New Guinea, Philippines, etc. They will not be seen in the Warby Ranges until the follow- ing September, and the air is strangely quiet without their constant calls. 159 Calls Rainbow bee-eaters are pleasantly noisy birds and they have a variety of calls. Lack- ing a musically trained ear. I have devised words which sound like some of their calls. |. "Churr churr churr’ evenly spaced frequent calls made while flying and possi- bly used to keep in touch with each other. 2. “Peer peer peer’ ' urgent and loud calls used when defending their territory. 3, "Clip-lip-lip-lip " very fast and loud and frequently repeated as a warning when predators (e.g. falcons or goannas) or in- truders come too close. 4. **Tookie tookie tookie"" a very soft quiet call used before entering the nest when young are in it. 5. ""Churr ' (slow) *"Churr churr churr’’ (fast) calling to other adult birds to come and help with feeding the young. 6. "Cleep cleep cleep’’ repeated loudly to call youngbirds in various circum- stances, e.g. to come out of nest. Acknowledgements I am grateful for help given by or- nithologists Mrs. K. Hough, Dr. D. Peters and Dr. W. Filewood who spent several days in late December 1976 banding Rain- bow bee-eaters from the two colonies men- tioned above, By this means they estab- lished the fact that there were ''helpers at the nest ' at two nests. This banding will also help in determining whether the same birds return to this same area each year. Editor's Note; Last year's article on Rainbow bee-eaters contained information on the nesting burrow, observation twig, etc., and interested readers should turn to Vic. Nat. 93, 4, That article was the cause of the skilled activities of or- nithologists as stated in the acknowledgements above. Clearly, the observant amateur living in sympathy with his/her environment can con- tribute greatly to the knowledge of our native creatures, and can sometimes indicate worth- while fields for specialists with their professional techniques and equipment. FNCV supports Project Jonah At the FNCV meeting on 13 June Mr Jon Martindale read a letter supporting the current protest against the whaling industry and moved that it be signed by the President and sent to the Minister of Primary Industry. The motion was carried. Other accepted motions declared that the letter should be published in the August ‘Naturalist’ and that similar letters should be sent to the embassies of the USSR and Japan. Following is the letter prepared by Mr Martin- dale on FNC'V notepaper, approved by the meet- ing, signed by the President that evening, and sent to the Rt. Hon. lan Sinclair, Minister of Primary Industry, Parliament House, Canberra. Dear Sir, At the general meeting tonight a motion was passed instructing me to write expressing this Club's alarm at the effect of the Australian, Rus- sian and Japanese whaling industries on the popu- lation of whales in Australia's off-shore environ- ment. As you will be aware, the harvesting of whales is totally unnecessary as substitutes for all pro- 160 ducts derived can be obtained from other sources, and countries such as New Zealand and the Uni- ted States have already banned whale imports. This Club strongly requests that you use your influence and position to immediately discon- tinue the Australian whaling industry, place a ban on the import into and use in Australia of all whale products, and take whatever action is possible to influence other whaling nations, particularly the USSR and Japan, to similarly cease all whaling operations as soon as possible. Yours faithfully (Signed) Margaret Corrick President. Later in June the International Whaling Com- mission announced a reduction to the whale quota, but Australia was allotted a greater share! Just ten years ago this journal published an illustrated account of Victorian whales: '' Whales and Dolphins recorded for Victoria" by N. A. Wakefield, Vic. Nat. 84, 9. M.A.L. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 A Note on Eggs and Hatchlings of the Blind Snake Typhlina Nigrescens Gray By J. D. MILLER* AND K. R. MCDONALDT Introduction Little has been reported in the literature about the reproduction of the Typhlina. Waite (1918) notes that some species repro- duce oviparously. Subsequently Cogger (1975) considered all Avstralian species to be oviparous except Typhlina bramina (Daudin) because McDowell (1974) con- cluded this species was parthenogenic. The eggs, incubation, hatchlings and rate of survival from one clutch of Tvphlina nig- rescens Gray are reported. Methods A female T. nigrescens was collected on 17 February 1976 at approximately 2100 hours in tall open eucalypt forest with an undergrowth of rainforest species on the Springbrook plateau, south-eastern Queens- land. Eggs subsequently produced were incu- bated at room temperature (19. I*C-27.0?C) in a plastic bag containing moist soil. Bags were ventilated to drain excess moisture from the soil, on the surface of which the eggs were placed with a covering of dry leaves. The humidity was maintained so that droplets of water formed inside the bag each morning. The incubation chamber was shielded from direct sunlight at all times. Observations of the eggs were made throughout the period of incubation and dur- ing hatching. Each egg was candled to ob- serve the position of the embryo. After hatching, each animal was examined for colour and scale configuration of the body and head, and measured for total length, snout-vent length and tail length. *P.O. Box 619 Aitkenvale, Q. 4814. +National Parks and Wildlife Service of Queensland. Yeerongpilly. Q. 4105. TAI colours described in the text are after Kornerup and Wanscher (1963). July/August Fig. l, —Embryonie position within the egg of T. nigrescens Results The number of eggs in the single clutch, laid from midnight to 0600 hours on 19 February 1976, was 19. The eggs averaged 25 mm in length and 19 mm in width im- mediately prior to hatching. All eggs were yellowish-white in colourt. Blood vessels of the embryonic membrane and the posi- tions of the ready-to-hatch embryos were visible by candling (Figure 1). The duration of incubation was 65-70 days. Hatching occurred during a period of six days (22-27 April 1976). Each juvenile remained within the shell for between | and 16 hours after bursting the surface (Figure 2) and several more holes were made before emerging. A viscous, clear fluid extruded from each hole and each egg lost the turgidity which had developed during incubation (Figures 3 and 4). During the time of emergence, the umbilicus re- ceded. Those specimens which did not sur- vive to hatch exhibited increasing umbilical resorption with age. 161 TABI. T STANDARD MEASUREMENTS OF THE FEMALE PARENT RND PROGENY FROM ONE CLUTCH OF EGGS OF T. NIGRESCENS. Total Length (cm) Non-surviving Non-developed young Developed young Parent The numbers hatching on each day were one, one, two, five, one, one. Five individuals died during early stages of incubation while another three fully de- veloped embryos failed to hatch with the rest of the clutch. 162 Snout-Vent (cm) Tail (cm) The first group (five specimens) died be- fore developing skin pigmentation and were less than 7.0 cm in total length. The second group (three specimens) died after develop- ing skin pigmentation and were more than 7.0 cm in total length. Each individual in Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 k the second group exhibited a dorsal boss posterior to the eyes, probably non-encased brain tissue (Zehr 1962), and malocclusion of the mandibles. Measurements are given in Table 1. All surviving young were bluish-grey on the dorsal surface and pale yellowish-white July/August Fig. 2.— Juvenile T. nigrescens within an egg which has lost turgidity Fig. 3.— Juvenile T. nigrescens emerging through embryonic fluid on the ventral surface (colours after Kor- nerup and Wanscher 1963) and exhibited no other colour making; that is the appearance of the female parent. Scale rows at midbody numbered 22 on all specimens. The nasal cleft was in contact with the first supralabial in all individuals. 163 Comments The duration of incubation may be shorter or longer than the reported 65-70 days as a result of differences in temperature and moisture. Because the nasal cleft joined the first supralabial scale in the adult female and all its progeny, the placement of the nasal cleft may have taxonomic value as suggested by some authors (Waite 1918, McDowell 1974). Fig. 4.—Fully emerged juvenile T. nigrescens, REFERENCES Cogger, H. (1975). ‘Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia’. (Reed: Sydney). Kornerup, A., and Wanscher, J. H. (1963). **Methuen Handbook of Colour''. (Methuen: London). McDowell, S. B. (1974). A Catalogue of the snakes of New Guinea and the Solomons, with special refer- ence to those in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. Part I. Scolecorphidia. J. Herpetology 8: 1-67. Waite, E. R. (1918). Review of the Australian blind snakes (Family Typhlopidae). Rec. S. Australian Mus. 1: 1-34. Zehr, D. R. (1962). Stages in the normal development of the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis. Copeia 1962: 322-329. i Natural History of Rivers and In- land Waters To date the Editor has received few promises for our special issue in December, and we would like our **Rivers and Inland Waters’’ to be as successful as last December's special on coasts. We look forward to receiving material on pond life and insects associated with water, river fish, water birds, mammals, water plants, plants along river banks or on inland salt marshes, geology and 164 physiography, etc., etc. There are so very many aspects on the natural history of rivers and inland waters. Please have your material typed with double spacing and leave at least 3 cm (about 114”) clear margin at the left. Material for the special issue should be with the Editor by 30 September. MAL Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Mammal Survey Group Contribution No. 11 Mammals in the Melbourne Metropolitan Area by J. H. SEEBECK*T Introduction The wide range of wildlife habitats for- merly present in that part of Victoria which now comprises the metropolitan area of Melbourne has been altered dramatically since 1834. Forest and scrub have been cleared, swamps drained and filled, rivers straightened and creeks converted to con- crete drains. Much of the area has bécome "*built-up'' as residential, commercial and industrial zones. Despite these changes, some of the original mammal fauna has sur- vived, either in relic natural habitat or in man-made or man-modified situations. This paper presents information about the pre- sence and distribution of mammals within the metropolitan area. Definition of area The area considered is that within the Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works Town Planning Boundary as at May 1963. This boundary was extended in 1968 but the smaller area was considered to con- tain most of the land altered by urban and suburban development. Methods The distributional data presented have been accumulated from a number of sources. These are: 1. Organised searches of likely habitat by members of the Mammal Survey Group, FNCV. 2. Incidental records, mainly of road-killed *Mammal Survey Group of Victoria c/o Hon. Secretary, Mr. D. Hanson, 336 Glenferrie Rd., Malvern 3144. TFisheries and Wildlife Division Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Vic. 3084 July/August specimens, collected by the Mammal Survey Group FNCV and the Mammal Survey Group of Victoria. 3. Records of specimens and sightings of mammals held by the Fisheries and Wildlife Division (FWD). 4. Records of specimens held in the National Museum of Victoria (NM V). 5. Records of two species of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula and Pseudocheirus peregrinus) from Mr. L. Ryan of Lalor, formerly a professional possum trapper. 6. Literature records. Most of the data concerns the two species of possum indicated above. These were col- lected from all sources between 1956 and 1971, but the organised searches were car- ried out in 1968. These searches normally involved examining likely habitats at night with the aid of a portable 6-volt spotlight. The raw locality data were plotted on overlays on a MMBW base map at a scale of 6000 ft to 1 inch. Subsequently a 0.5 km grid was drawn up with latitude/longitude base lines, and the data were transposed on to the rectangles thus formed. The resulting maps (which have been photographically reduced) merely record presence or absence of animals, not numbers. The original maps are held by the Fisheries and Wildlife Divi- sion. Notes on the Species recorded In the following notes, references to the Mammal Survey Group refer to both MSG/FNCV (to 1972) and the Mammal Survey Group of Victoria (1972-76). Echidna Tachyglossus aculeatus Echidnas occur in the less intensively de- veloped outer suburban areas. Some records from more inner suburbs seem likely to have 165 resulted from the escape or release of illeg- ally captured and transported animals, but some creek valleys may still provide suita- ble habitat close to the city. The Mammal Survey Group records include several sight- ings at Eltham, Warrandyte and Lower Plenty, which are probably natural occur- rences. The continued survival of the species in areas of high density urban de- velopment seems unlikely. Platypus Ornithorhynchus anatinus The platypus is still found in major waterways in the metropolitan area. Once found right to the sea, platypus no longer occur in the tidal reaches of streams, pre- sumably due to the pollution of creeks and rivers. Over many years a group member, A. E. Howard of Fairfield, has observed platypus in the Yarra River upstream from Dights Falls, Collingwood. In December 1966 during a canoe trip of some 22 km from Heidelberg to Dights Falls he saw only 2 platypus. Another member, I. Temby. when resident in Lower Plenty, made ob- servations of platypus in the Plenty River at Yallambie on 35 occasions between June 1967 and February 1970. These observa- tions, made mostly at early morning or in the evening, record many facets of their behaviour including swimming, playing, grooming and feeding. The summer of 1967/68 was a very severe drought in Vic- toria and platypus were seemingly absent from the observed stretch of river between November 1967 and July 1968 when some re-appear despite a still low river level. Again, in February 1970, platypus were present in an *'*almost stagnant™ river. Quoll Dasyurus viverrinus The quoll is now considered extinct in the metropolitan area and possibly in the re- mainder of the State. A well-known colony lived along the Yarra River at Studley Park, Kew (Fleay 1945, and many NMV speci- mens — 1911, 1914, 1917, 1935-7, 1946, 1949) but this apparently died out in the early 1950s. The species is also reported from Auburn (Cole 1907) and Ivanhoe (C.B. 1925), and was reported *'plentiful" at Somerton and Springvale in the 1880s 166 (Brittlebank 1948). The NMV has speci- mens from St. Kilda Road (1901, 1902), Coburg (1902), Caulfield (1905) and Fair- field (1944), Fat-tailed dunnart Sminthopsis cras- sicdudata This animal of the basalt plains is still found in open farmland on the western side of Melboume. Recent investigations by S. Morton (pers.comm.) indicate that popula- tions of this species are fairly stable, even in grazed areas of improved pasture. The Fisheries and Wildlife Division has speci- mens from Altona and Laverton. The record of S. murina at Broadmeadows (Ward 1966) is considered to be an error for S. cras- sicaudata. The change from farmland to industrial and residential use in the western areas will inevitably reduce the range of this species. Short-nosed bandicoot /soodon obesulus Formerly widespread in the south-eastern suburban areas, the short-nosed bandicoot is now encountered rarely. Suburbs where specimens (FWD, NM V) or sighting occur- red between 1960 and 1970 include Clayton, Springvale, Glen Waverley, South Oakleigh, Mordialloc, Carrum Downs, Dingley and Rowville. The residential de- velopment of farmland and market garden has apparently reduced the range and num- bers of this species quite dramatically, al- though public parkland, including golf courses, provide some refuges. Long-nosed bandicoot Perameles nasuta The NMV has a specimen from the Plenty River in 1867. This may have originated outside the study area boundary as the exact locality is not reported. Other NMV speci- mens are from Yarra Bend (1960) and Cran- bourne (1908). I consider the recorded provenance of these specimens to be un- likely. A reference to Perameles nasuta in the south-eastern suburbs by Ward (1966) is an error for Isoodon. Wombat Vombatus ursinus Probably now extinct in the study area, small numbers of wombats were present along the river at Lower Pyenty until urban development in the 1960s. The nearest Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 populations are now in the Hurstbridge-St. Andrews district and in the foothills of the Dandenongs. Koala Phascolarctos cinereus Now very uncommon in the study area. A few records exist from the Frankston-Mt. Eliza area, and one was found at Campbelltown in 1963. The species is still found in the Whittlesea-Kinglake area north of Melbourne. Brushtailed possum Trichosurus vulpecula , and Ringtailed possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus The suburban distribution of these pos- sums is shown in Figs. | (Trichosurus) and 2 (Pseudocheirus). The brushtailed possum is more widely distributed throughout the metropolitan area than is the ringtailed pos- sum. Most of the records are in the eastern sector, to which Pseudocheirus is restricted. Trichosurus however is widespread in the west. This difference reflects the relative abundance of suitable vegetation, and in particular the differing topography with far fewer creek gullies being present in the western part of the city. Pseudocheirus is wholly vegetarian (Thomson & Owen 1964) while Trichosurus is omnivorous, and thus better adapted to survival in an unnatural situation. Both species readily nest in build- ings in lieu of natural nest sites. It is probable that absolute numbers of both species are higher than the original bush would have supported. The introduc- tion of exotic decorative and fruit trees, to- gether with the ready availability of food scraps has provided an ideal habitat, espe- cially for Trichosurus. There is considera- ble nuisance damage done to gardens by both species, and their control is the basis of a thriving industry. Of interest is the occasional occurrence of albino or part-albino brushtailed possums in the suburbs. This phenomenon is apparently widespread though uncommon thoroughout the State. Albinism in ringtailed possums is much rarer. A family group of albino ringtails was present in Blackburn in the mid-late 1960s but the killing of the female by a cat in 1968 has apparently eliminated July/August this group. Sugar glider Petaurus breviceps There are many scattered reports of this species in outer suburban areas. Often the first indication of their presence is the find- ing of dead, presumably cat-killed. animals. Suburbs from which sugar gliders have been recorded include Eltham, Warrandyte, Diamond Creek, Ringwood, Heathmont, Vermont, Mitcham, Wantirna South, Keysborough, Frankston and Mt. Eliza. Feathertailed glider Acrobates pygmaeus Feathertailed gliders may still occur in parts of the Frankston-Mt. Eliza area and at Warrandyte. The only other nearby localities known are the Kinglake-St. An- drews area and The Dandenongs, where these animals are frequently killed by cats. Eastern grey kangaroo Macropus gigan- teus Although the Yan Yean Reservoir area supports a large number of grey kangaroos there are few reports from within the study area. A small colony is reported still to exist in the Jumping Creek Reserve at Warran- dyte, on the boundary of the metropolis. Black wallaby Wallabia bicolor There are a few records from the Yarra Valley near Warrandyte. Black wallabies were formerly present in gullies between Warrandyte and Templestowe but the species has disappeared from that area within the last 10-15 years. Wallabia ap- pears to be very sensitive to human distur- bance, particularly the increase in motor traffic. Red fruit bat Pteropus scapulatus A specimen collected at Burnley in 1942 is reported by McKean and Simpson (1967), and Pizzey (1963) records the same inci- dent. The NMV has a specimen from **Melbourne'' collected in January 1976. Grey-headed bat poliocephalus A few stragglers of this species visit in the Melbourne area in most years, and are occasionally electrocuted on power lines. The most recent large influx was in April- May 1972. fruit Pteropus 167 145°E Wollert y^ Bulla. , f "ix 4 : all : . - 4 a | : ae , a i ms ‘e? fe FE = pot . 5 je tet yt | ( "o + F Bayswater \ . \ ts ya Distribution of Trichosurus vulpeculo : ds, d Melbourne Metropolitan Area Y , ? 1956-1971 "Point : Cook ` . B Dandenong Bo) — N 38 S | \ J b o 0 — 20 40 i 4 KILOMETRES de ^ Mt. Eliza Figure 1. 145°E "T _Wollert J Se Bulla ^ x Í Hurstbridge y ) \ " DR 2^ Distribution of Pseudocheirus peregrinus Melbourne Metropolitan Area 1956-1971 10 20 KILOMETRES Figure 2. 168 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Yellow-bellied bat Taphozous flaviventris There are only four metropolitan records of this apparently rare bat. The NMV has specimens from Frankston (1909), St. Al- bans (1932) and Sandringham (1971). A Mammal Survey Group member fround a dead specimen in East Burwood in 1962 (FWD collection). Large-footed bat Myotis adversus This is considered to be a rare species (Hamilton-Smith 1965), There is one record from the metropolitan area, a dead animal collected in North Melbourne; however, M, adversus shares wintering roosts with Miniopterus schreibersii (Seebeck & Hamilton-Smith 1967) close to Melbourne and it is probable that small numbers of M. adversus occur in the outer north-eastern part of the study area. Little bat Eptesicus pumilus Gould’s wattle bat Chalinolobus gouldii Bent-winged bat Miniopteris scheibersii Lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi These four small insectivorous bats are all relatively common in southern Victoria and there are numerous records of their occur- rence in suburban areas. Bats are often seen hawking for insects in the beams of display lighting at used-car yards along the Maroondah Highway in the Blackburn- Ringwood areas (W. Barber, pers.comm.). The natural roosting sites of forest bats include tree hollows or under loose bark. In the Frankston-Mt. Eliza area a number of bats of several species were found by Mammal Survey Group member R. Lawson to be roosting in PMG junction boxes situated at heights of about 4 m up telegraph poles. This use of artificial shelters, for example old bags or clothing on the walls of outbuildings, is apparently widespread among bats. A maternity colony of 14 Nyc- tophilus was found in a bag in a shed in Oakleigh in 1962. White-striped bat Tadarida australis There are no recent records of this species in the Melbourne area, but the NMV has specimens from Kew (1869 and 1907), Oak- leigh (1887) and Croydon (1920). T, aus- tralis is uncommon in Victoria. July/August Hare Lepus europaeus Hares are present in paddoeks in outer suburban areas, The Group has records from Somerton, Lower Plenty, Eltham, Heidel- berg (Banyule) and Dingley. In recent years, hares seem to have increased in num- bers in the south-western parts of the study area towards Werribee, Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus Moderately common in the outer subur- ban zone, a few are still found closer to the centre of the city. A colony of rabbits was present in the Botanic Gardens until About 1969. Black rat Rattus rattus Sewer rat Raitus norvegious House mouse Mus musculus These introduced rodents are universally regarded as vermin in urban and suburban environments. All are well established in Melbourne and no doubt cause a considera- ble loss of foodstuffs, The sewer rat seems to be less widespread than the other species and is perhaps more dependent on the cen- tral city area, docks and creek and river systems. Recher (1972) comments that these pests constitute only a minor nuisance in Sydney but acknowledges that their pre- cise status in that city is undetermined. Eastern water rat Hydromys chrysogaster The Mammal Survey Group has reports of Hydromys in the Yarra and Plenty Rivers, but numbers in the Yarra seem to be decreas- ing, at least downstream from Heidelberg. The same effects of pollution and re- alignment of rivers and creeks must be felt by the water rat as by the platypus. Grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis The grey squirrel was introduced in Mel- bourne suburbs in the late 19th century. Its history until 1934 has been documented by Barrett (1934) who lists the following sub- urbs in which colonies lived: Ripponlea, Elsternwick, Caulfield, Balaclava, East St. Kilda, Malvern and Toorak. The Caulfield colony, in the old Repatriation Hospital, apparently died out in the mid-1920s, and the final remnants disappeared from “‘Rip- ponlea" sometime in the 1940s (Barrett 1952). 169 Dog Canis familiaris Pet dogs form an important component of the mammal fauna of Melbourne as in other cities. Despite legislation concerning their control many dogs are ''unowned'' and therefore effectively feral. Recher (1972) has drawn attention re- cently to the importance of pet dogs and cats in the Sydney area ($15 million each year in pet food alone) and the situation can be little different in Melbourne. Fox Vulpes vulpes Foxes are widespread, particularly in the semi-rural and rural zones within the study area. Some near-city sightings are also re- ported. The Mammal Survey Group has re- cords of foxes from Footscray, Maribyr- nong. Moonee Pónds, Essendon, Strathmore, Royal Park, Preston, Lower Plenty, Eltham, Hurstbridge, Doncaster, South Warrandyte, Nunawading, Croydon, Kew, Burwood, Syndal, Wheelers Hill, Scoresby and Dingley. Ferret Putorius putorius Ferrets are kept by many people as work- ing pets to catch rabbits. A few escape and are found wild in suburban areas. The species does not appear to be capable of survival either in suburbia or the bush. This may be related to its genetic make-up. Most domestic ferrets are albino or part-albino. Cat Felis catus An unknown number of domestic pets and stray cats are present in Melbourne. Municipal legislation for the control of cats varies widely (Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board 1975) and the problems of control are not yet solved. Cats are often considered undesirable because they kill birds (both native and introduced) and cer- tainly many possums are killed or injured each year. Discussion It is apparent that although the metropoli- tan area as defined presently supports a wide range of native species, very few are capa- ble of continued co-existence with urban and suburban development. Decline of populations and eventual local extinction of 170 some species due to close settlement has already occurred, for example, the quoll and the wombat. Others, like the sugar glider and short-nosed bandicoot, are becoming more and more restricted to the remaining bushland areas on the outskirts of the city. A number of species — including. species which are abundant elsewhere, such as the das yurid marsupials Antechinus stuartii and A. swainsonii, and the native rats Rattus fuscipes and R. lutreolus— have, in fact, disappeared without record from the subur- ban sprawl. These species require dense un- dergrowth for shelter and food production — the undergrowth that is so frequently removed even in the most conservation- conscious outer suburbs. The range of the aquatic species, platypus and water rat. has been reduced by pollution or re-structuring of many streams or both. There may be competition from the intro- duced sewer rat for home sites or food, Probably it is too late to plan for the retention of all the species now found. Some at least appear to be highly sensitive to the presence of urban man and his camp follow- ers, and could never co-exist under man’s rules. Our urban life experience is the poorer for this. Urban wildlife is a desirable factor in the life of many city dwellers. Smith (1965) believed that most urban people want a "contact with nature”’ as part of their daily lives — a kind of preventative medicine for suburban neurosis. I believe that the continued existence of a diversity of mammals within the city boun- daries can help to fill that prescription. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge help in compiling the above data by members of the Mammal Survey Group of Victoria, members of the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, Mr. L. M. Ryan, Staff of Government House, Staff. of the Botanic Gardens, the Administration of the Christian Brothers Monastery at Lower Plenty, Mr. R. M. Warneke and other colleagues from the Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Miss J. M. Dixon kindly allowed access to records in the National Museum of Victoria. Mrs. W. Tomlinson Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 drew the maps. R. M. Warneke and D. Evans offered constructive criticism on drafts of the manuscript. Some of the equipment used was pur- chased with a grant from the M. A. Ingram Trust, and protected species were handled under the provisions of a permit from the Fisheries and Wildlife Division. REFERENCES Cole, C. F. (1907). Exhibition of native cat speci- mens. Victorian Nat. 24:68. "C. B." (1925). Native cats near Melbourne. Victorian Nar, 42: 180-1. Barrett, C. (1934), The grey squirrel in Melbourne.Vic- torian Nat. 51:108-10. ER C. (1952). Notes and specimens. Wildlife 16: Brittlebank, T. A. (1948). Native cats. Wildlife 10:85. par D H. (1945). Native cats at home. Wildlife 7: Hamilton-Smith, E. (1965). Distribution of cave- dwelling bats in Victoria. Victorian Nat. 82: 132-7. McKean, J. L., and Simpson, K. G. (1967). A Vic- torian specimen of the little red flying fox. Pteropus scapulatus. Victorian Nat. 84: 180-1. pneu (1963). Little red peril. Animals 2 (24): Recher, H. G. (1972). The vertebrate fauna of Sydney. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 7: 79-87. Seebeck, J. H., and Hamilton-Smith, E. (1967). Notes on a wintering colony of bats. Victoriam Nat. 84: 348-57. Smith, L. C. (1975). Urban Wildlife — is it wanted and needed? Canad. Fld. Nat. 89: 351-3, Thomson, J. A., and Owen, W. H. (1964). A field study of the Australian ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus.) Marsupialia: Phalangeridae). Ecol. Monogr. 34: 27-52. Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board (1975). jay rm cat problem in Victoria. Pamphlet No. 53 pp. 6). Ward, G. M. (1966). Once in the suburbs. Victorian Nat. 83: 157-67. Book Review Collins Field Guide to the Wild Flowers of South-East Australia by Jean Galbraith 19 x 12.5 em, 450 pp., 670 illust. (368 in colour) William Collins Sons & Co., 1977 Retail price $14.95. Discount to FNCV members The south-eastern portion of Australia is at once the most populous and the most well-provided with floristic handbooks. South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, the A.C.T., Sydney-Blue Mountains area and New England all have various contempor- ary texts on the vascular plants of their re- spective regions, but there has existed a need for some simple, popular, yet well- illustrated account of the flowering plants occurring within this whole important séc- tor. Miss Jean Galbraith's long-awaited field guide will undoubtedly contribute much to the bridging of this gap. Admittedly the eucalypts, grasses and sedges have been deliberately excluded, but who could de- scribe them as ‘‘wild flowers" ' anyway? July/August A brief preliminary notice on the book, with some information about its author, has already appeared in The Victorian Naturalist (94: 71, Mar./Apr. 1977); it re- mains now to round off the assessment. One cannot speak too highly of this excel- lent, very readable and easily understanda- ble volume, in which the knowledge and enthusiasm of its author (and her artistic friends) are so happily blended with the ex- pertise of a publisher whose natural history handbooks are of superb quality — e.g. Collins Pocket Guide to the Sea Shore (J. H. Barrett & C. M. Yonge) for the benefit of British beach-combers. Everything about the present Field Guide is designed for maximum use: it is compact and meaty, 171 with no waste space; binding is strong, with thick covers and durable paper; format and typography are well-chosen while the col- ourful front cover, featuring our FNCV emblem (Correa reflexa) and two other Vic- torian flowers, is most attractive. End- papers are devoted to a tinted map of the 14 floral regions into which S.E. Australia has been conveniently divided. The descrip- tions of genera and more than 3,000 species are crisply to the point, with brief indica- tions of habitat and distribution, and they should be adequate for anyone to identify most native flowers, whether found on an excursion to Kangaroo Island, the Gram- pians, Hobart, Mount Kosciusko, the Blue Mountains or Lamington National Park. The book concludes with a select bibliog- raphy, glossary of terms and full index, the final four pages being left blank for field notes — altogether an admirable compen- dium that all Australian plant-lovers will want to own. Congratulations go, not only to Jean Galbraith for her notable achieve- ment, but also to Mrs. Camilla Jakobson whose 300 odd lucid line drawings add im- mensely to the beauty and utility of the work. It is a little unfortunate that the text was so long in press (several years) that a few re- cent changes in nomenclature could not be incorporated in the body of the work; thus the name Acacia genistifolia is taken up in the index (p. 415), but this species appears under its old name of A. diffusa on page 191 of the descriptive text. Also, on page 405 (line 16) of the bibliography, the remark that Vol. 2 of Handbook to Plants in Victoria **will complete’’ should now read *'com- pletes’’, while on page 406 A. H. & A. W. Reed's very important Flowers and Plants of New South Wales and Southern Queens- land (1975) has no entry. The selection of species for description evinces some lack of balance in that very rare and localized plants are often included, such as Borya nitida and Thelymitra mur- dochae which no one has set eyes upon for many years, whereas certain widespread or common kinds are not mentioned at all — e.g. Velvet Tobacco (Nicotiana velutina), Yellow Bladderwort (Utricularia australis) and the remarkable Tall Groundsel (Senecio runcinifolius). Regional distributions are occasionally erroneous, as in the citation of '* VIC.'" for Fuchsia Heath (Epacris longiflora) on p. 291 (line 8 from bottom). Thanks to meticulous proof- checking, slips in spelling seem to be sur- prisingly few, but the following are noted from a quick perusal of the Field Guide: Page 21 (line 2 from bottom)— ‘‘Dac- hrydium'' should read Dacrydium; p. 101 (lines 10 and 6 from bottom) — *'Quan- dung" should be Quandong; p. 193 — inthe running head, ‘‘Noonface’’ should be Noonflower; pp. 331-333 — in the running heads, *‘Mint’’ should be Kangaroo Apple and Tobacco (but, as a general heading, would not Nightshade Family be prefera- ble?); p. 405 (line 9 from bottom) — *'Bur- bage'' should be Burbidge. All such minor blemishes, however, do not detract from the value of a splendid production that, one believes, will be in constant demand by many inquirers for years, if not generations, to come. J. H. WiLLIS (3/6/1977) Jean Galbraith's book reviewed above by Dr. Willis is available from our FNCV Sales Officer, $14.95, discount to members. 172 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Coming Centenary of the FNCV (Founded 1880) By JAMES A. BAINES The centenary of the foundation of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria is now less than three years away, as it was on 6th May, 1880, that the inaugural meeting was held in Melbourne Athenaeum to form the club, the first office-bearers being elected at the adjourned meeting eleven days later in the same hall. The first historian of the club was Francis G. A. Barnard, who was a foundation member and an office-bearer continuously for 42 years (notably as editor for 33 years and secretary). In his presiden- tial address to the club at the 1906 annual meeting he reviewed the first quarter of a century of the activities of the FNCV (Vict. Nat. 23: 63-77), and continued the history at the 40th anniversary (The FNC V, 1905- 1920: A Retrospect’, Vict. Nat. 37: 71-78), then the 50th ("The FNCV, 1920-1930', Vict. Nat. AT. 39-50). The second historian was Edward E. Pes- cott, whose copy of Volume 47 of "The "Victorian Naturalist’ was bought by the wri- ter of these notes at Se ward's natural history bookshop and included an insert of the printed menu of the Jubilee Dinner held by the club on 16th July, 1930, autographed by such stalwarts as F. G. A. Barnard, Charles Barrett, Frederick Chapman, James A. Ker- shaw, F. Erasmus Wilson, Charles French Snr., William M. Bale, F. Pitcher, Charles Daley, L. A. Adamson, Stanley R, Mitch- ell, L. L. Hodgson, W. T. Kendall, Pescott himself, and a number of others, including wives. Pescott wrote beneath his own signa- ture the word ‘Compiler’, who, tongue in cheek, made the gastronomic treat most ap- propriate! Hors d'Oeuvres Cordyceps Grub Brown-snake Patties July/August Soup Ichthyosaurus Soup Pterodactyl Broth Entrees Turnix on Toast Joints Fricassee Eupodotis Megascolides and Erica Sauce Vegetables Salicornia Salad Microseris Yams Livistona Cabbage Sweets Viminalis Manna Barnard's Sweets Geebung Tart Drinks Pitcher Ale French Cup Rockpool Aerated Waters Wattle Grub Native Bread Note.— Hafted Stone Axes supplied on request to break up the provisions. In May, 1940 (Vict. Nat. 57: 4-31), ap- peared E. E. Pescott's historical résumé: ‘Sixty Years of Work: The Story of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria, Year by Year’. It began with information about each of the key foundation members, including the initiator of the idea, Charles French, the first president, Professor (later Sir) Fre- derick McCoy, Dudley Best, Dr. T. P. Lucas, Rev. J. J. Halley, Edward Howitt, W. T. Kendall, J. R. Y. Goldstein, T. A. Forbes-Leith, J, G. Luehmann, and Joseph Wing, publisher of ‘Southern Science Record' , in which for the first four years the club's transactions were recorded. Then fol- lowed summaries of each year's activities, making use of the data already recorded by F. G. A. Barnard. The story was continued by Pescott for 173 each year from 1931 to 1940, and was illus- trated with photographs of six leading con- tributors to the club’s activities (four of those previously mentioned, and also George Coghill and Charles French Jnr., both of whom joined as junior members, as did Coghill's son Eustace in turn). The summary for club year 1938-9 in- cludes this sentence:— ' A fossil whale, dis- covered at Torquay, was found to be of a new genus, and was named after our ener- getic secretary, Mammalodon collivert . Mention of F. Stanley Colliver, so active in the FNCV in his young manhood, serves to draw attention to the fact that he was the ‘prime mover’ in the original plan to com- pile an index to the ‘Victorian Naturalist’ (although E. E. Pescott, in his obituary ap- preciation "Francis G, A. Barnard, J.P.” in Vict. Nat. 49: 69-73. July 1932, states that Barnard completed such an index after his retirement as editor). The writer of these notes sought information from Stan Col- liver, now very active in so-called retire- ment after a long career in the Geology Department of Queensland University, about those who had helped in this work, and extracts from two of his letters should be allowed to speak for themselves, as a con- tribution to the history of the Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria. 113 Enoggera Tce., Paddington, Old. 4064. 27-3-TT. . . . The whole affair came about thus. I was secretary for some 17 years if I re- member rightly, and quite early even before I was married a group of club members used to meet at my mother's home, and somehow this group became known as the 'Gang'. When I married and moved over the road to 37 MeCarron Parade (Essendon) more people came into the gathering and the monthly Sunday meetings became more or less a fixture. There was quite a group of young marrieds, with a few (e.g. F. H. and Mrs. May Salau) of the older generation, and the reason for coming to my place was that there were big rooms, a fair number of books and specimens, and it was relatively 174 easy to get to. We organised a discussion or some con- tribution on a natural history subject for the evening after tea, and the afternoon was just in the main a friendly get-together with a chance to talk, look at books, specimens, or even perhaps go for a walk somewhere or visitsome area, such as Keilor, the Tertiary beds in Essendon, etc. . . . Gang members often brought visitors, and on one occasion there were 60 people together in the house. Charles Barrett, Phil Crosbie Morrison, Prof. `g rA ———— E d E My vò CE FES, Published by the FIELD NATURALISTS CLUB OF VICTORIA In which Is Incorporated the Microscopical Society of Victoria Category B" Registered in Australia for transmission by post as a periodical FNVC DIARY OF COMING EVENTS GENERAL MEETINGS At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra Monday, 12 December, 8.00 p.m. , J The topic of this meeting will be the activities of the Hawthorn Junior Field Naturalists Club, given by various members of the Hawthorn Juniors. Monday, 9 January, 8.00 p.m. j Members’ Night. Members who wish to speak or show slides should contact Dr. Brian Smith 663-4811 ext. 279 (or A.H. 560-8358). Monday, 13 February, 8.00 p.m. Speaker: Mr. Robert Burn, Honorary Associate in Invertebrates, National Museum of Victoria. Subject: ** Victorian Nudibranchs" New Members — December General Meeting: Ordinary: Mr Jon Nevill, P.O Box 160, Hampton, 3767 (Wildlife conservation). Mr Kym Hoad Crowe, 12 Specimen Hill Rd., Golden Square, 3555 (Botany). Lesley June Hodgskiss, Blyth Rd., Mt. Dandenong, 3767 (Marine biology, Mammals). Joint Members: Mr and Mrs M. H. Griffiths, 19/166 West Toorak Rd. , South Yarra, 3141 (Day Group, etc.). FNCV EXCURSIONS Friday, 27 January—Friday, 2 February—Mt. Buffalo. Albury express will leave Spencer Street at 4.45 p.m. and passengers for Mt. Buffalo will transfer to coach at Wangaratta. All payments should reach Excursion Secretary by 12 December. Sunday, 15 January—Ocean Grove. After receiving the Natural History Medallion at our November meeting Mr Jack Wheeler spoke of the progress at the Ocean Grove Reserve and it was felt that many members would appreciate an opportunity to visit the Reserve. The coach will leave Batman Avenue at 9.30 a.m. Bring two meals. Fare $5.00. (Continued on page 267) 226 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 WAL | M A a) JU \ C, AN [^ 29 ! ) F | M, 3 JUN 198] ) Wa y M f NS The Victorian Naturalist Volume 94, Number 6 November/December, 1977 Editor; Reuben Kent Committee; Barry Callanan, Margaret Corrick, lan Hood, Margery Lester, Brian Smith, Paul Temple Aquatic Invertebrate Fauna of the Mitta Mitta Valley, Victoria, by Brian J. Smith, Helen E. Malcolm and Penelope B. Morison 228 The Murray-Darling River System, by Edmund D, Gill 239 Morphometry of Lake Elingamite, Western Victoria, by B. V. Timms 242 Ferns that carpet quiet waters, by Margery J. Lester 244 Limnology of a farm dam in Gippsland, Victoria, by T. J. Parker and R. L. Wallis 247 Two new species of frogs by D. S. Liem and G, J, Ingram 255 The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora, by James A. Baines — 263 Cover Illustration: j . Sampling in a lagoon in the Lower Mitta Mitta Valley, ae Photo — Darmouth Invertebrate Survey, National Museum of Victoria, ^Aquatie ‘invertebrate Fauna of the Mitta Mitta 9 JUN 198) Introduction This work formed part of the Environ- mental Study of the Mitta Mitta Valley in North-eastern Victoria in association with the building of the Dartmouth Dam and was carried out under the auspices of the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission of Victoria for the River Murray Commission. The finance available for the Environmental Study enabled a comprehensive survey of the invertebrate fauna of the valley and ad- jacent areas to be carried out with particular reference to the aquatic fauna of the inunda- tion area and downstream of the dam, The first phase of the study, on which this report is based, was carried out between January 1973 and January 1975, and was intended to describe the fauna and to provide base-line data upon which a subsequent quantitative study and environmental monitoring could be based. This paper is a condensation of the aquatic results extracted from the full report submitted to the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission. During the period of study, eleven col- lecting trips were made to the area and over 80 separate localities sampled in all seasons. All the main habitat types in the area were sampled and a variety of collecting techniques was used to ensure that a general picture of the fauna was obtained, Sub- merged stones, logs, etc., were searched and clinging animals picked off; aquatic vegetation was sampled using a dip net, and mud and gravel substrata were sampled using sieves. Flying insects were collected using the Malaise standing net or a400 watt mercury-vapour lamp for night-flying in- sects. Only those insect groups with aquatic life stages are included in this paper. *National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne. 228 Valley, Victoria f; MITH, HELEN E. MALCOLM AND PENELOPE B. MORISON* Study Area The main area of interest for the study was the inundation area of the Dartmouth Dam and the Mitta Mitta River and its flood plain downstream from the dam. However, collections were made throughout the catchment as it provides refuge areas for many species. The main features of the study area are shown in Fig. 1 The inundation area of the new Dartmouth Dam is a narrow, steep-sided valley widening out towards the northern end. Several small creeks, and one or two major tributaries, enter the main river in the inundation area, giving rise to gullies and several marshy places. Where the valley widens out, around Eight and Six Mile Creeks, Granite Flat and the site of Old Dartmouth at the junction of the Dart and the Mitta Mitta Rivers, extensive areas have been cleared and put down to pasture. The Mitta Mitta Valley downstream from the dam can be considered in two parts with increasing modification of the environment as one goes downstream. The section of the valley between the dam and Mitta Mitta township is essentially similar to the north- ern part of the inundation area, with sections of steep-sided valley with dry sclerophyll forest interspersed with flatter land cleared and used for grazing. Below Mitta Mitta the valley widens out into a flood plain where the river slows and follows a wide, mean- dering course. Associated with the river is a series of flood-filled lagoons. Most of the land is cleared and used for farming except for the creek and river banks and gullies, where pockets of native vegetation remain. The various aquatic habitats are charac- terised by the flow regime, the quantity and depth of water, and the amount and type of aquatic vegetation present in each. There is Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 or NA EU ^ re A NS 7 y ye t d E, A Cis re NCC Lo g B % el » `~ 2 Nn cr PN. * ^ e. SASSAFRAS ws GAP D ADEL - TUE “ʻa % / i í i) s A i 4 LN ' / Wb I A 7 f v ks / YA / RSS yz i n y j = \ EM "ML í , EE, R P, - \ Acap NS WS f N s &, q* Y. a A LS © U^ Ie N NE d A à GIBBo wv -J/ eS 1 N V um. rà ! [Y u ed x XÀ * ‘eens, s 0 NI |. a A NEL p= Tracks ANN AJ 3% D (P ai A AMO: penteyr — A ^ Wa) C. 1000m. w/ | [| BENAMBRA | Fig. 1.—Map showing various features of the Upper Mitta Mitta Valley including the position of the Dartmouth Dam November/December 229 a very large natural variation in both the level of the water and the rate of flow in the various aquatic habitats, maxima being reached in both of these parameters during the spring as a result of snow melt in the catchment. Flood conditions occur sporadi- cally at other seasons because of heavy rain- fall in the catchment, but sustained long- period high flows are normal for this system in the spring and early summer. This season is one of high reproductive activity for many aquatic species (invertebrate) and particular attention was therefore given to these habitats in the spring. The Mitta Mitta River, like most of the major streams in the area, is fairly shallow and swiftly flowing through a forested, steep-sided valley. It consists of riffle-rapid regions alternating with stretches of un- broken water. Riffle-rapid zones are those regions where the bed of the river slopes sharply and consists of large boulders and cobbles. The water flows rapidly over this region and the fast flow rate over the irregular substratum causes the water to become broken with waves and eddies. Between these regions are stretches where the slope of the stream bed is much less and the water is deep, forming pools of unbroken water. Here the substratum consists of a fine gravel grading to a silty mud, as the stream energy is much less and even fine particles carried by the water body through the riffle-rapid sections are dropped in these unbroken water stretches. The Dart and Gibbo Rivers are two major tributaries which join the Mitta Mitta River within the inundation area, and the Snowy Creek is the largest tributary to join the Mitta Mitta River between the dam and the Hume Weir. The width and depth of these tributaries is less than that of the main river and the volume of water they carry is cor- respondingly less. They show the same riffle-rapid pool characteristics as the main river, though large boulder beds are less common, There are many small creeks which flow into the main streams in the area through a variety of habitats in the catchment. Above the dam most creeks are very small, local 230 drainage channels from a small area of slope. Large creeks, such as Larsen’s Creek and Six Mile Creek, occur in the flatter areas of the catchment, draining large areas of land, After heavy rain, flood flows in these creeks are substantial, The creeks, in the main, are very shallow with a bed of pebbles and gravel, and silt banks. They are often in steep-sided gullies and usually very overgrown with terrestrial and semi-aquatic plants. The creeks are very susceptible to drought conditions, when many dry out completely, and others con- tract to a series of small, stagnant, sheltered pools. There are many places in the study area where shallow bodies of standing water, usually in hollows and local drainage ba- sins, provide a very distinct and different aquatic habitat. These are high in both dis- solved and suspended organic matter and have a dense and diverse flora of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants. They fall into two main categories, lagoon and marsh communities, depending on their relationship to the river, In the lower Mitta Mitta Valley where the river winds through a wide alluvial plain, there exists an intricate system of lagoons and billabongs, separate from the river in times of normal flow, but filled and re- plenished by river water in time of flood, either directly by overtopping or through the aquifers and ground-water system. Above the dam and in the few Kilometres immediately downstream before the valley widens out, there are several areas where flat places and hollows in the terrain hold bodies of standing water, creating marsh communities. These are separate from the river system and rarely if ever receive water from the river, even in times of massive flood. They are fed by stream inflow from the surrounding country and have an outflow creek to the river in most cases. Many of these are very small and tempor- ary, partly or totally drying out every sum- mer. However, there are several large swamps with permanent water, aquatic flora, and a significant area where the ter- restrial vegetation is totally absent. The most significant of these is 0.5 km east of Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Yankee Point where a swamp of an esti- mated 1-2 hectares occurs. The water is less than | m deep and completely overgrown by reeds, sedges and many aquatic species. Main Fauna Elements Detailed species lists are given in the ap- pendix. Porifera (Sponges) Many specimens of an unidentified freshwater sponge were collected on the un- dersides of submerged logs in the river and major creeks — wherever there was sufficient width and depth to guarantee that the animals would be submerged in flowing water throughout the year. The sponges have tentatively been referred to the penus Spongilla and it is thought that only one species is present. Annelida Several freshwater oligochaete species were taken from the silty part of river backwaters and creeks where organic debris had accumulated. No specialist was availa- ble to identify the oligochaete material so no statement can be made about its ecological significance. Small, round, aquatic leeches belonging to the family Glossiphoniidae were col- lected on submerged timber in the river and major creeks and in the lagoons in the lower Mitta Mitta Valley. A large population of the long, green and yellow striped leech Richardsonianus australis was found in the swamp 0.5 km NE of Yankee Point on the Eustace Gap Road. Small populations of this leech were found in one or two other small bodies of water. Mollusca The aquatic molluscan fauna is very ex- tensive and several species are of interest and importance. Several specimens of the large freshwater mussell Velesunio am- biguus were found in the river, which also supported large populations of the pea mus- sel Pisidium sp. in the fine gravel. Two November/December species of the family Hydrobiidae were col- lected from the river and major creeks. These constitute extensions of range of the species into the alpine and sub-alpine areas of north-east Victoria. Large populations of freshwater limpets were found in the creeks and backwaters of the river. The freshwater snail fauna is large and varied with several ecological associations being displayed. The lymnaeids are found mainly in the lower reaches of the river and the associated lagoons. Of the two genera of planispiral planorbiids, Seenitila sp. is largely confined to the lagoon and swamp situations whilst the rare Gyraulus sp. appears to be confined to the river and major creeks. One record of particular interest is the very narrow, elon- gate, pointed form of Physastra sp., an ecomorph, found in very large numbers in the swamp by Yankee Point. Insecta The aquatic insects collected on the sur- vey reflect very well the diversity of aquatic habitats found in the area. Five orders of insects have wholly aquatic sub-adult stages in their life-cycles. These are the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Odonata and Megaloptera. A further five orders, the Diptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Mecoptera and Lepidoptera, while not wholly aquatic, have a few species with aquatic larvae and so are included in this section of the report. Approximately 5000 specimens of aquatic insects were collected during the survey. Many of these were adults in the flying stages, though a great variety of insect larvae was also collected. Specimens of the order Trichoptera (caddis-flies) were the most abundant in the collections of aquatic insects, comprising about half the material. This gróup was also the most completely identified of all the insect groups, being the subject of a special study by Dr. A. Neboiss, Fifteen families of caddis are represented in the collection with the family Leptoceridae having the most species present. The group is of prime im- portance in water-quality monitoring work as a great deal is known about the require- 231 ments of many of the species with regard to physical conditions in the water in order for them to survive and breed successfully. The next most ubundant order, the Ephemeroptera (mayflies) was represented by large numbers of both adults and larvae, Species of the three Victorian families were all present with the Leptophlebiidae pre- dominating. The order Plecoptera (stone-flies) was poorly represented in general collecting. Ten families of aquatic Coleoptera (bee- tles) are represented in the collections. One interesting occurrence was a species of the family Hydrophilidae which had previously been recorded only from Central Australia. The aquatic Hemiptera (true bugs) were represented by ten families —% of the Aus- tralian families recognised as having aquatic stages, Many families of Diptera (flies) have aquatic larvae although none have aquatic adults. Habitats in which larvae were caught varied from flowing water to stagnant pools. Mosquitoes (Culicidae) are well known from this latter environment and Chironomidae also live in these places. Dixidae on the other hand occupy vegeta- tion at the edge of flowing water, and Simuliidae are found attached to stationary objects in running water and there are specific differences in rate of flow tolerated and type of substratum preferred. The order Odonata (dragonflies, dam- selflies) was well represented in the survey with 11 of the 16 families from the two Australian sub-orders being identified. Both larvae and adults were caught, the larvae from stones and vegetation in rivers, creeks, dams and swamps, and the adults flying near those bodies of water. Crustacea The Class Crustacea is divided into eight sub-classes, four of which were recorded from the survey area. Seven orders were identified and the small number of speci- mens obtained indicates that the collecting techniques were not geared towards obtain- ing the mostly minute terrestrial Crustacea 232 or the various aquatic species. The species collected ranged from minute ostracods in the sand of the river-bed to large free- swimming crayfish; from the smaller land- hoppers in the soil and leaf litter to the larger slaters. A notable occurrence was the large popu- lation of Lepiduris viridis (shield shrimps — Notostraca) in Lake Omeo in October. Faunal Associations In this section an attempt is made to draw together the findings of the various taxonomic studies and present a co- ordinated picture of the invertebrate fauna of the various major habitat divisions of the survey area, It is felt that the presentation of the faunal data as faunal associations in habitats will be of more practical value. River and Major Tributaries The Mitta Mitta River and its major tributaries the Dart and Gibbo Rivers above the dam, and the Snowy Creek downstream, are relatively shallow, fast-flowing streams of clear, high-quality water (Fig. 2). They are composed of alternating sections of riffle-rapid areas and deeper pools of unbro- ken water, with à mainly boulder and gravel bottom. There are also small areas of backwaters along some of the banks where the flow rate is very low and the bottom is composed of silt with a high content of de- caying vegetable matter, The fauna of these streams consists either of species capable of living in areas of swiftly-flowing water or species which prefer low-flow regimes such as those found in the backwaters. The species from the high-flow areas have struc- tural and behavioral adaptations and specialisations which prevent them being swept away, The majority of the free-living, non-attached forms, such as most of the insect larvae, have flattened bodies and very efficient holding structures, and are cryptic in habit, living in crevices and under stones, away from the main current. Freshwater sponges are attached to submerged logs in this area. The freshwater limpets are found in great numbers attached to the undersides Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 of stones in the stream, while the minute hydrobiid gastropods are found in crevices in the stones and submerged timber. Large numbers of insect larvae inhabit this environment, including representatives from most aquatic orders, but the main families and/or orders are as follows: larvae and adults of Helminthidae (Coleoptera), larvae of Chironomidae (Diptera) Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera, and Hyd- racarina (water-mites). These groups are all found in the main part of the river, attached or clinging to submerged rocks or branches. Helminthidae, in particular, characterises this fast-flowing section and there are specific differences in the rate of flow toler- ated by these beetles. In the deeper pools of the river, the large crayfish Euastacus armatus is à notable in- habitant not found in the shallower, more turbid sections. The backwaters and sandy areas also have their typical inhabitants — the former a wide variety of aquatic larvae and adults, the latter a very limited fauna — mainly numerous ostracods. The finer sub- stratum of the pools and backwaters also provides for a number of infaunal species such as the large freshwater mussel Vel- esunio ambiguus and the small pea-mussel Pisidium. The high organic-detritus content of the backwater areas and the good growths of aquatic vegetation, provide suitable habitats for several gastropod molluses, for November/December Fig, 2.—Mitta Mitta River at the junction with the Dart River amphipod and decapod crustacea, such as the shrimp Pararya, and fora greater variety of insect larvae and adults, particularly groups like the Hemiptera. Creeks The creeks of the area are small, shallow bodies of flowing water with a great deal of aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation and a substratum composed largely of rocks and organic debris, They are able to exist in this form by virtue of the low flow rate through- out most of the year, with high flows only of short duration after heavy rain. Many of the creeks are subject to periodic drying out and contraction into a series of isolated pools. This further restricts the fauna able to in- habit this habitat (Fig. 3). In the parts of the creeks which can rely on a permanent aquatic habitat, a large fauna of aquatie species is found, closely similar to that found in the backwater areas of the river. Large populations of freshwater limpets are found under pebbles, with other eastropods on the aquatic vegetation, and the small pea-mussel buried in the silty mud. Most insect orders are represented, but the species content differs from that of the river fauna. Larval species present are characteristic of a mud-bottom habitat. in- cluding several species of chironomids, Odonata, Ephemeroptera and Hemiptera, of 233 Fig. 3.—Small creek in the Upper Mitta Mitta Valley. Fig. 4.—Yankee Point Swamp in the central part of which the water striders, Gerridae, are common. Flies of the family Ephydridae are found commonly hovering above the water surface. As these creeks often dry up and become almost non-existent, their inhabitants are often those adapted to completing a rapid life-cycle when conditions are suitable after rain has re-established the flow, an example of this being mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. Similarly, larvae of the black fly Austro- simulium pestilens can develop only in the turbulent waters of flooding streams. 234 the inundation area. Lagoon and marsh communities The lagoons and marshes in the survey area are shallow still-water habitats, with very heavy aquatic and semi-aquatic vegeta- tion cover. The substratum is decomposed vegetable matter which has a very fine parti- cle size, almost like a flocculent precipitate, which renders the water acid and brown. The two communities have very similar faunas but differ in some aspects of their faunal associations, which is a reflection of. their different geographical positions in the survey area and of their physical natures. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The lagoons are found in the lower Mitta Mitta Valley only and are topographically part of the river system. They are largely filled and replenished directly by flood wat- ers from the river, principally in the spring and early summer. Many have some stretches of open water and can be deep in parts where they have been formed from an old river course. The lagoons have large populations of aquatic Hemiptera and a wide variety of Diptera. They also have a variety of larvae and adults of the order Coleoptera with the Dytiscidae being an ob- vious example. Several Trichoptera are also found in the lagoons. Ostracods and cladocerans occur in large number and a variety of freshwater gastropods are in evi- dence on the vegetation. Freshwater limpets occur on the rushes and lymnaeid snails are found on the mud surface. Poulations of sphaeriid bivalves live in the coarser sedi- ments, and large populations of nematodes and oligochaete worms live in areas of high organic content. Marshes are regions of shallow water, mainly upstream from the dam site, which are not directly connected with the river and are not replenished by flood waters. They are usually shallower than the lagoons and have little open water, having complete vegetation cover. Like the lagoons, the marshes also have large populations of adult and larval insects. The aquatic bugs, par- ticularly the Corixidae and Notonectidae, are very common, together with large popu- lations of Diptera and Coleoptera. Yankee Point Swamp is the large swamp of approximately 1-2 hectares on the Eus- tace Gap-Yankee Point Tract, near the mid- dle of the inundation area, about 0.5 km from Yankee Point (Fig. 4). It is situated in a large depression, well above river level and fed by small creeks and general ground run-off, It has a maximum water depth of 1.0 to 1.5 m and even in very dry seasons has permanent water. There is very little open water, the whole area being occupied by dense growths of rushes and sedges, and aquatic plants which inhabit the areas where water will remain all year. It is an open area with no tree canopy cover, though it is sur- November/December rounded by dry sclerophyll forest. The water is brown and acidic, with a high level of dissolved and suspended organic matter. The most notable members of the fauna of the swamp are the large population of dra- gon flies Diplacodes spp. and the red and blue damsel fly /schnura aurora. Large populations of the leech Richardsonianus australis are present in the water, together with large numbers of ostracods and three species of freshwater gastropod molluscs, Lymnaea tomentosa, Segnitila sp. and an unusual elongate ecomorph of Physastra sp. No other swamp with this range of fresh- water invertebrate life or the character of Yankee Point Swamp was found in the sur- vey area. Conclusions This study has probably been one of the most comprehensive studies of an inverteb- rate fauna carried out anywhere in Aus- tralia. It has been a unique opportunity to carry out extended collections of the fauna over at least one full year, thus ensuring complete sampling at every season. Even with all the difficulties of collecting and identifying the very broad spectrum of ani- mal forms, a good overall picture has emerged of the fauna inhabiting the area before the major construction work of instal- ling the dam has imposed its effect on the environment. The whole area of study, and in particular the area upstream from the dam site, is largely unspoilt, in the sense that the influence of man has not been very severe and many native plant and animal as- semblages are still present. Nevertheless, it has to be recognised that the entire area has undergone extensive environmental modi- fication due to the influence of European man over the last 100 years. No part of the study area can be classified as untouched, because there are extensive introductions and natural colonisation by many species of exotic animals and plants. However, by the general standards of environmental clas- sification in Victoria today, the survey area would rate fairly high on the list of relatively 235 for this project and the Council of the Na- tional Museum of Victoria for its support. Thanks are also due to Dr. Neboiss, Ms. Rhyllis Plant and Ms. Cheryl Kohlman of the National Museum for their assistance with this project. unspoilt areas with a wealth of natural species and a good ecological balance. Acknowledgements We would like to thank the River Murray Commission and State Rivers and Water Supply Commission for providing finance APPENDIX Below are detailed the aquatic invertebrates from the Mitta Mitta Valley, Victoria. Many of the species could not be identified to species and these are in- cluded as species or generic groups. MOLLUSCA: Chlorolestidae Synlestes sp. RCM DD 5 Lestidae Austrolestes sp. Hydrobiidae Potomopyrgus nigra ; . j 1 i Pupiphrix grampianensis Amphipterydidae Diphlebia lestoides 1 D. nymphoides Lymnaeidae Lymnaea tomentosa L. lessoni Coenagrionidae Ischnura aurora Flanonbidse Physastra sp. Gomphidae Austrogomphus guerini Bulinus (Isidorella) sp. Unidentified larvae Gyraulus sp. Megapodagrionidae Argiolestes icteromelas Segnitila sp. Kii Libellulidae Diplacodes sp. Ferrissiidae Ferrissia (Pettancylus) D. bipunctata tasmanicus D. melanopsis F. (P.) petterdi Nannophya delei Unidentified larvae BIVALVIA: Hyriidae Velesunio ambiguus Aeshnidae Aeshna brevistyla Sphasriidae Pisidium sp. Acanthaeschna spp. A. longissima INSECTS: Unidentified larvae ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA: Protoneuridae Baetidae Centroptilum spp. Synthemidae Cloeon sp. Coloburiscoides spp. ORDER PLECOPTERA: S.F. Baetinae Gripopterygidae Trinotoperla nivata Tasmanophlebia sp. T. yeoi Mirawara sp. Dinotoperia serricauda Leptophlebiidae Caenidae ORDER ODONATA: Corduliidae 236 Bungara narilla Atalophlebioides sp. Atalophlebia sp. Jappa sp. near Massartella sp. Kirrara sp. Tasmanocoenis sp. Hemicordulia tau Unidentified larvae Eustheniidae Austroperlidae ORDER HEMIPTERA: Notonectidae D. christinae Stenoperla sp. Enitharea woodwardi Anisops sp. A. theinemanni A. gratus A. deanei Unidentified nymphs Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Corixidae Diaprepocoris barycephala Micronecta sp. M. australiensis M. gracilis M. annae annae M. annae illiesi M. robusta Sigara (Tropocorixa) sp. S. (T.) truncatipala S. (T.) sublaevifrons Agraptocorixa spp. A. parvipunctata A. eurynome Unidentified nymphs Naucoridae Veliidae Hydrometridae Naucoris congrex Microvelia sp. Hydrometra sp. H. risbeci Belostomatidae Ochteridae Sphaerodema eques Ochterus sp. O. marginatus Gelastocoridae Nerthra nudata Nepidae Laccotrephes tristis Ranatra dispar Gerridae Mesoveliidae Pleidae ORDER MEGALOPTERA: Corydalidae Archichauliodes guttiferus Unidentified larvae ORDER COLEOPTERA Hydrophilidae Berosus spp. B. near majusculus B. nutans B. involutus B. australiae Paracymus pygmaeus Paranacaena lindi Limnoxenus zelandicus L. mastersi Helochares sp. H. australis Enochrus sp. E. elongatulus E. eyrensis Helodidae Macrohelodes princeps M. lucidus Cyphon spp. Psephenidae Sclerocyphon sp. ? Spercheidae Spercheus mulsanti November/December Hydraenidae Gyrinidae Helminthidae Dytiscidae Hydrochidae Heteroceridae Hydraena luridipennis Aulonogyrus strigosus Austrolimnius spp. . Victoriae . Victoriensis . montanus . diemensis . waterhousei Notriolus sp. N. allynensis Simsonia spp. S. purpurea S. wilsoni S. leai Kingolus sp. BBRBRBB Bidessus sp. B. bistrigatus B. amabilis Necterosoma sp. N. penicillatum var. costipenne Antiporus femoralis A. blakei Rhantus pulverosus Lancetes lanceolatus Eretes australis Homodytes scutellaris Platynectes decempunctatus Chostonactes gígas Macroporus hamatus Hyphydrus decemmaculatus Sternopriscus sp. S. hansardi S. meadfooti Hydrovatus sp. Batrachomatus burnsi Hydrochus sp. Heterocerus sp. ORDER MECOPTERA: Nannochoristidae Nannochorista sp. ORDER DIPTERA: Blephariceridae Simuliidae Chironomidae Culicidae Dixidae Tanyderidae Ceratopogonidae near Atrichopogon sp. ORDER TRICHOPTERA: Limnephilidae Archaeophylax carnarus Unidentified larvae 237 Sericostomatidae Helicopsychidae Tasimiidae Odontoceridae Calamoceratidae Philorheithridae Leptoceridae Hydropsychidae Polycentropodidae Psychomyiidae Philopotamidae Rhyacophilidae Glossosomatidae Hydroptilidae In the article ‘‘Bat Survey of the Daylesford Area, Victoria" by Harold Parnaby (Vict. Nat. Vol. 94: 5 Oct. Costora sp. Lingora sp. Hampa patona Helicopsyche sp. Unidentified larvae Tasimia sp. Atriplectides dubia Morilia sp. Anisocentropus latifascia Unidentified larvae Kosrheithrus tillyardi Aphilorheithrus stepheni Austrheithrus dubitans Ramirheithrus virgatus Triplectides 3 spp, Hudsonemar sp. Notalina 3 spp. Oecetis sp. O. inscripta O. australis Triaenodes volda Lectrides varians Leptorussa russata Cheumatopsyche spp. Asmicridea edwardsi Unidentified larvae Plectrocnemia australis Nyctiophylax sp. Ecnomus sp. Unidentified larvae Hydrobiosella waddoma Chimarra sp. Unidentified larvae Taschorema sp. T. nigritum T. evansi Ulmerochorema 3 spp. Apsilochorema gisleum Unidentified larvae Agapetus sp. Unidentified larvae 3 species ORDER LEPIDOPTERA: Pyralidae S.F. Nymphulinae NON-INSECT ARTHROPODA: CLASS ARACHNIDA: ORDER ARANEAE: Tetragnathidae Pisauridae Lycosidae ORDER ACARINA: Lebertiidae Hydrachnidae CLASS CRUSTACEA: Tetragnatha sp. T. demissa Geolycosa pictiventris Lycosa sp. Trabea sp. ?Trochosa sp. Frontipoda sp. SUB-CLASS BRANCHIOPODA: ORDER CLADOCERA: ORDER ANOSTRACA: ORDER CONCHOSTRACA: ORDER NOTOSTRACA: Apodidae Lepiduris viridis SUB-CLASS OSTRACODA: ORDER OSTRACODA: Cypridae SUB-CLASS COPEPODA: ORDER CALANOIDA: UNIDENTIFIED ORDER: Boeckella sp. SUB-CLASS MALACOSTRACA: ORDER AMPHIPODA: ORDER ANASPIDACEA: ORDER ISOPODA: Oniscidae Janiridae ORDER DECAPODA: Atyidae Parastacidae Errata Porcellio laevis lais pubescens Paratya australiense Euastcaus armatus 1977) the graph on page 192 should be Fig. 2 and the graph on page 193 should be Fig. l. 238 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Murray-Darling River System By EDMUND D. GILL Introduction Rivers are threads of history. Before man built bridges, a river was a divider (that which rives), and the people on each side were rivals. The Murray River, for exam- ple, was a dividing line between Aboriginal tribes, and it is the border (for a long dis- tance) between New South Wales and Vic- toria. Fords were places where people could cross, and so were very important. Villages grew up beside fords, and then forts were constructed to protect the crossings. In time towns and cities occupied these strategic sites, as many of their names bear witness. In the early days of Victoria the Hopkins River was a serious barrier, but near Warrnambool a basalt flow provides a hard floor over which carts could cross. Captain Allan built a bluestone house there (still standing) and so the place was called Al- lansford. On a recent trip to England | went first to Cambridge (bridge over the River Cam), and then via Thetford (ford over the River Thet) to the Norfolk Broads where Yarmouth is at the mouth of the River Yar. Rivers are the threads of history. Rivers and Terrain Rivers are a product of the kind of country they traverse, and its climate. The largest river system in Australia is the Murray- Darling. Why two rivers? They are channels for quite contrasting masses of water. The Darling drains summer monsoon water from the tropical/subtropical zone of the Great Dividing Range, while the Murray carries winter rain and spring thaw from the temp- erate zone of that range. These rivers begin with a dendritic pattern of streams in the mountains, but on the plains they are re- duced to a single course. This is because of the semi-arid country. The rivers become canals like the Nile does in Egypt. If the Darling River flowed out on to a sandy plain like that in N.W. Victoria it would die out and never reach the Murray, but it flows November/December through clayey country that prevents loss. Roughly speaking, the clays in Queensland are Quaternary ones of the swelling type (montmorillonite) while those further south are Tertiary ones of the non-swelling pipe- clay type (kaolinite). Because Australia is the flattest continent and the river courses are long, the declivities of these streams are remarkably low. As a result, water move- ment is slow and it takes two months and more for the water to flow from the moun- tains to the sea. Evaporation is high, and so the water volumes are small for so large a system. Under natural conditions the rates of flow were also very uncertain. In times of drought the rivers could become strings of waterholes with somewhat salty water, whereas in times of flood they could become torrents of fresh water up to 100 km wide. In 1945 I walked dry shod across the floor of the Murray River near Koondrook. Now that the river is controlled by dams, such conditions are unlikely to occur again. The great variation in river flow killed the ship- ping industry. An extreme case is that of a boat that sailed to Bourke on the Darling River, but could not get back until three years later. The Biota Because the river system is unusual, the flora and fauna are also unusual. They have to be able to withstand fresh to rather salty water, and considerable ranges in tempera- ture and turbidity. The low declivity results in extensive weed beds, and a fauna proper to such an ecology. The invertebrate fauna is more lacustrine in character than fluvistile. The fish have many unique characteristics. The lungfish Neoceratodus is a living fossil. When Europeans first came to Australia it lived only in the Mary and Burnet Rivers in Queensland, but in Plio-Pleistocene (Blan- chetown Clay) times it was common bet- ween Mildura and Renmark, and probably throughout the river system. Its ancestors 239 date from the Cretaceous. Under natural conditions, flooding took place in most years, and this triggered off the reproduction cycle of the whole ecosys- tem. This process has been changed by the building of dams. Some compromise now needs to be worked out to conserve water, yet flood the rivers enough to maintain its life at a more natural level. Lack of flooding appears to be the chief cause of the small fish populations. Evolution of the River System The river system has a long history. It has been vastly different in character in the past. In Cretaceous times the sea covered much of Australia, as (for example) the opalized marine shells and plesiosaur bones from White Cliffs in Central Australia show. It was the retreat of that sea which created the terrain on which the proto-Murray/Darling could flow. At that time Australia and An- tarctica were united as a single continent, but when in the Eocene (or a little later) Australia separated from Antarctica, a coast was created on to which those ancient rivers could flow. There is much yet to be learnt, e.g. the Darling north of Cobar may have been added to the system later, and just where the Murray entered the sea in the different geological periods is uncertain. However, it is known that the sea invaded the Murray Basin in the Miocene and 240 The Murray River at Kulcurna Station near the Victoria/South Australian border, The low declivity, the resultant fine sedi- ments, and the massive red gums lining the banks are typical. Photograph by the author, reached as far as Deniliquin. This is proved by the marine beds in the Murray Gorge in South Australia, and the marine beds of the same age met by bores in western New South Wales and northern Victoria. The Murray and Darling then entered the sea as separate rivers. The sea retreated in the Pliocene, and so the present course of the lower Murray is essentially a Quaternary one, i.e. a novelty from the point of view of geological time. As the sea was finally re- treating, a block of country in South Aus- tralia east of the Mount Lofty Range was uplifted, providing a dam which developed a vast lake (called Lake Bungunnia), or series of lakes upstream. Nature built a Chowilla Dam before man thought of it. So the flood of the sea in the interior was fol- lowed by the flood of the inland freshwater sea. In this body of water the ancient lungfish flourished. When the soil survey of the Riverina was first undertaken by CSIRO, the pedologists were puzzled by the fact that although this was a flat plain the soil type kept changing so rapidly. When sufficient mapping had been done it became clear that the substrate was a series of ancient river channels ("prior streams’’) with levees and flood- plains, The Murray River has had many different channels, and it once flowed much further north than it does now. Just as the terrain has changed, so has the Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 climate and the flora and fauna. In the Lower Tertiary rainforests were widespread and brown coals accumulated because Aus- tralia was further south with a colder and wetter climate. In the Middle Tertiary when the Murray Basin was a marine embayment, the climate was subtropical. The Queens- land kauri Agathis and such trees grew there. The soil was that of a monsoonal climate (laterite). Large crocodilians were present in Victoria and South Australia. The marine fauna of the embayment contained many genera that now occur only further north in warmer waters. Prior to the formation of the laterite, the copious waters that drenched the terrain leached it deeply (up to 30m and more). This left a legacy both useful and harmful. It was useful in that it created the kaolinized rocks widely used for ceramics, tiles, bricks, pipes and the like; also the deeply leached auriferous terrains led to ready ero- sion and concentration of the gold in the deep leads (ancient river valleys). It was harmful in that the soils were impoverished, and this is why Australia has so many infer- tile soils compared with Europe or North America. The Murray/Darling river system has a long and rich history, which only now are we beginning to decipher. In October 1977 the Royal Society of Victoria held a sym- posium to bring together the work of many researchers on the Murray/Darling system, and it is expected that the volume containing their findings will be published in mid- 1978. Native Plants Preservation Society — Photoflora ’78 Entry forms for Photoflora ‘78 , a photographic competition for colour slides of Australian flowers, birds and wildlife, are now available from the Competition Secretary, Miss B. C. Terrell, 24 Seymour Avenue, Armadale, 3143. Public screenings will be held between 6th March and I 5th April, 1978. The following screenings have already been arranged: Dates of Public Screenings Kew, 6th March — Native Plants Preservation Society. Croydon, 8th March — Croydon Conservation Society. Hamilton, 10th March — Hamilton Field Naturalists’ Club. Ringwood, 14th March — Ringwood Field Naturalists’ Club. Geelong, 15th March — Geelong Field Naturalists’ Club. Montmorency, 17th March — Montmorency District Junior Field Naturalists’ Club, Sale, 18th March — Gippsland Native Plant Society. Ballarat, 20th March — Ballarat Field Naturalists’ Club. Rye, 21st March — Southern Peninsula Garden Club. Blackburn, 22nd March — Blackburn and District Tree Preservation Society. Seymour, 29th March — Rotary Club of Seymour. Bendigo, 30th March — Bendigo Field Naturalists’ Club. Horsham, 31st March — Horsham Field Naturalists’ Club. Maryborough, Ist April — Maryborough Field Naturalists’ Club. Malvern, 3rd April — Native Plants Preservation Society. Malvern, 4th April — Native Plants Preservation Society. Ferny Creek, 5th April — Ferny Creek Horticultural Society. Wangaratta, 7th April — North Eastern Field Naturalists’ Club. Benalla, 8th April — Benalla Camera Club, Ripponlea, 11th April — National Trust Photographic Committee. Clayton, 12th April — Waverley Group of the Society for Growing Australian Plants. Boort, 13th April — Boort Camera Club. Swan Hill, 14th April — Mid-Murray Field Naturalists’ Trust. Mildura, 15th April — Sunraysia Naturalists’ Research Trust. Full details of halls and times will be advertised locally. November/Demember 241 so that the ratio mean depth: maximum depth (Table 1), an expression of the form of the basin, is low. Although this profile is known for maars (Ollier, 1968) it is unusual for Western District examples. Lakes Gnotuk, Bullenmerri, Purrumbete and Keilambete are all flat-floored with ratios > 0.6. Perhaps Elingamite’s present profile is not original — extensive crater slumping and swamp encroachment could have changed it. The lake is round. The parameter, Shoreline Development which is the ‘ratio of the length of the shoreline to the length of the circumference of a circle equal to that of a lake’ (Bayly and Williams, 1973) reflects this in that it is almost minimal, However, this is partly due to chance, as the uneven inward slumping from the crater rim (see Fig. 1) has been smoothed by swamp en- croachment. By contrast, in many other maars in the area, e.g. L. Keilambete, in- ward slumping has been relatively uniform so that the lake shoreline and present crater rim outline are similar in form. Mean lake diameter is 1930 m (Table 1), so it seems that, like many other Australian maars (e.g. L. Purrumbete, Timms, 1976) it exceeds the upper limit of 1.6 km suggested by Williams (1941) for maars. However, in Elingamite's case much or all of the differ- ence of 330 m can be accounted for by in- ward slumping from the crater rim. In overview, it seems that unequal and extensive slumping of the crater rim and especially swamp encroachment are unusu- ally important in Elingamite and that, as such, the lake represents an intermediate Table | Morphometric Parameters of Lake Elingamite Area (A) 294 ha Volume (V) 8.9 x 10%m? Mean Diameter 1930m Maximum Depth (z) 9.2m Mean Depth (z) 3.05m Ratio z : z 0.33 Length of Shoreline 6350m Shoreline Development (D,) 1,04 between Lake Purrumbete, where both of these processes are unimportant and Cob- rico Swamp, a remnant lake in the swampy floorof adegraded maar5 km to the north of. Elingamite. Acknowledgements I wish to thank R. Halford of Camper- down and Professor Warren of Monash University for arranging logistic support, and Nikolai Smirnov for field assistance. REFERENCES Bayly, I. A. E. and Williams, W. D. (1973). Inland Waters and Their Ecology. Longman, Melbourne, Australia. Currey, D, J. (1970). Lake systems: western Victoria Bull. Aust. Soc. Limnol. 3: 1-13, Hussainy, S. U. (1969). Ecological studies on some microbiota of lakes in western Victoria, Ph.D. Thesis, Monash University. Ollier, C. D. (1968). Maars: Their characteristics, var- ieties and definition. Bull. Volcan 31; 45-73. Ollier, C. D. and Joyce, E. B. (1964). The physiography of the Western Plains of Victoria. Proc. R. Soc. Vic- toria 77: 357-376. Timms, B, V, (1976). A Comparative Study of the Limnology of Three Maar Lakes in Western Victoria I Physiography and Physicochemical Features. Aust, J, Mar. Freshwater. Res. 27: 35-60. Timms, B. V, and Brand, G. W. (1973), A Limnologi- cal survey of the Basin Lakes, Nalangil, western V ic- toria. Bull, Aust. Soc. Limnol. 5; 3240, Williams, H. (1941). Calderas and their origin. Univ. Calif, Publs, Bull. Dep. Geol. 28: 239-346, Natural History Medallion Fund Donations from any organisation wishing to help this Fund will be appreciated and acknowledged. Amount invested as at 30 September 1977 Mr E. D. Gill November/December $444.00 10.00 12.00 $466.00 243 Morphometry of Lake Elingamite, Western Victoria By B. V. Timms* Abstract Lake Elingamite, a maar near Cobden is 294 ha area and 9.2 m maximum depth. It lies in a round funnel-shaped basin much modified by inward slumping from the cra- ter rim and swamp encroachment. Introduction The 1965 Victorian Yearbook lists about 260 natural lakes for Victoria; of these some 9 are maars, i.e. lakes produced by phraetic explosions (Ollier and Joyce, 1964). These lakes occur in a belt from Colac to Warrnambool and are readily distinguished by their large (1-3 km diameter) round crat- ers which extend below general ground level and whose rims are constructed of material ejected from the crater. The craters are much wider than deep, though often the lake within the crater is comparatively deep Victoria's deepest lake, L. Bullenmerri (maximum depth — 66 m) is a maar. Many of the maars of the Western District have now been mapped (Bowler, In. Prep.; Hussainy, 1969; Timms 1976; Timms and Brand 1973), but although Lake Elingamite near Cobden is large and supposedly deep, no bathymetric map is available for it. It is the purpose of this paper to provide such a map and to comment on the morphometric parameters derived from it. Methods and Results An enlarged aerial photograph was used to provide an outline of the shore; its scale was checked against ground measurements. In late January, 1976, a grid of 6 transects was established and a boat, equipped with a *Sciences Department, A vondale College, Cooranbong, N.S,W. 2265. 242 500m Figure | Morphometric map of Lake Elingamite. Depth contours in metres. The dashed line beyond the shoreline repre- sents the edge of the crater, 'Koden' SR 385 Echo Sounder, moved along each transect at near constant speed. The Sounder was calibrated with a line weighted so that its end would sit on the bottom but not penetrate it. A bathymetric map (Fig. 1) was drawn from the data obtained and various morphometric parameters (Table 1) determined by direct measurement or by calculation by planimetry. Discussion The maximum depth is 9.2 m, much less than local opinion would have it! However, it was deeper in the past (12 m in 1966 Hussainy (1969)) and in 1841 it probably overflowed its rim at a time when other maars in the area, e.g. Bullenmerri, were exceptionally full (Currey, 1970). The underwater basin is funnel-shaped, Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Ferns that carpet quiet waters By MARGERY J. LESTER* OF F.N.C. V. BOTANY GROUP We know that ferns like lots of water but few of us think of them as actually living in water, Yet there are two fern penera in Vic- toria that have that unusual habit. Both are reasonably abundant and both tend to form extensive spreading mats over the surface of still water. One group will die if the water dries out, but the other can survive quite readily in moist mud and often spends its entire life in mud. Azolla Azolla is the more abundant of the two and can be seen on quiet backwaters and lagoons, or on dams that are no longer used for watering stock. Usually Azolla has a reddish colour ranging from pink to crim- son, and if you see a quiet stretch of water covered with reddish growth you can be fairly sure it is Azolla. But in deeply shaded areas the Azolla plants are usually a light bright green. The generic name Azolla is derived from the Greek a without, zoe life, because plants are killed by drought. Each Azolla plant is only a couple of centimetres across and has tiny overlapping leaves. Although each plant is so small, countless numbers of them pack closely to- gether and sometimes cover a hundred square metres or more. Azolla plants rest on the water surface with long roots hanging below and are free-floating. A wind might sweep the plants to one end of the lagoon, then a few days later they might be at the other end. In fact, they can serve as a guide to recent wind directions! Although living in water, an intriguing feature of Azolla is that the plants are non- wettable, If you push them under water they pop up again quite dry. There are two species of Azolla, Pacific *4/210 Domain Road, South Yarra. 244 Azolla A filiculoides is wide-spread in Vic- toria, while Ferny AzollaA.pinnata is more abundant along the Murray but does occur elsewhere, Plants of Pacific Azolla are ir- regularly branched, but Ferny Azolla is con- spicuously regular in its branching — pin- nate as indicated hy the specific name. The hanging roots of Pacific Azolla can be 5 em long and are unbranched, while those of Ferny Azolla are shorter and have many fine side-roootlets. Azolla plants increase mainly by frag- mentation: a small branch breaks off, grows bigger and develops a branch which breaks off, and so on. Like all ferns however, A. Pacific Azolla 4 filiculoidey and B. Ferny Azolla A.pinnata, each x 2. Plants viewed from above; roots arise from the under surface and hang freely in the water. Matchstick to same scale. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Azolla also reproduces by spores, but unlike most ferns, Azolla has two kinds of spores in separate containers. The minute spore capsules are carried on the under surface of the leaves but are rarely found, Neverthe- less, it is always worth looking for them. (Ferns, like all the higher plants, exhibit a remarkable *'alternation of generations”? and in many ferns it can be easily observed. Most ferns have one kind of spore which develops into a 5-12 mm plant — the sexual generation. This inconspicuous ground- hugging plant produces both male and female cells. Union of a male cell and a female cell is the beginning of a new spore- gearing generation — the fern plant as we know it. Azolla has two kinds of spores. One develops into a microscopic plant that produces male cells, and the other into one that produces female cells. Union of a male cell and a female cell is the beginning of another spore-bearing Azolla. Sexual re- production permits variation that ts unlikely to occur in the vegetative reproduction by fragmentation that is Azolla’s more usual way of increasing.) Next time you find yourself passing a reddish stretch of water, stop and examine the cause of the un-watery colour. Nardoo or Clover Fern Nardoo is an aboriginal name for some plants that white Australians tend to call Clover Fern because they look very like a four-leaf clover. Botanists know Common Nardoo as Marsilea drummondii. In Victoria, Nardoo occurs mostly in the north and west but is found throughout the drier regions of Australia. The clover-like frond of Nardoo can be up to 5 cm across and consists of four fan- shaped leaflets. Sometimes the outer edge of the leaflets is scalloped — crenate. A good spread of Nardoo on water is quite a fascinating sight, for the interestingly shaped fronds vary in size and in colour, with whitish greens, browns and browny- greens. The stalk to each frond can be as long as 30 cm and arises from a more or less hori- zontal stem — rhizome. Roots also arise November/December Common Nardoo Marsilea drummondii, natural size. Stalks to the frond can be a great deal longer and would naturally lengthen if water depth increased; leaves must reach the surface. 245 from the rhizome and enter the soil. Because Nardoo fronds spread out flat on the water surface, they suggest a free-floating plant (as Azolla is), but try to lift out a plant and you find it necessary to give a good pull. Nardoo cannot be blown from one part of the water to another unless a storm or other agent has uprooted the plants. As well as living in water, Nardoo does very well in moist mud. In such conditions the fronds are smaller and the stalks short and fairly stiff, unlike the long flexible stalks of water-dwelling specimens. Most ferns produce spores in thin-walled spore capsules on the under surface of leaves, but with Nardoo the spore capsules have hard thick walls and are carried on short stalks that arise from the rhizome. Like Azolla, Nardoo has two kind of spores but they are both contained in the same capsule which is an easy-to-see size about 8 mm long. The aboriginals used to pul- verize the capsules for food, and members of the Burke and Wills expedition recorded their efforts to survive on Nardoo *‘seeds”’ along Coopers Creek in 1861. Oddly enough, the spore capsules are rarely produced by plants in easy water- living conditions, but prolificly by those in drying mud. The plants are likely to die, and that seems to stimulate them to reproductive activity so that the species will not be lost. The capsules with their living contents re- main viable for several years. There are three other species of Nardoo (genus Marsilea) that occur in Victoria but they are rare, while Common Nardoo is moderately abundant in the north and west of the State. REFERENCES Aston, Helen I. (1973), Aquatic Plants of Australia (Melbourne University Press). Wakefield, N, A. (revised 1975). Ferns of Victoria and Tasmania (Field Naturalists Club of Victoria). “River Improvement?"" available from FNCV Sales Officer "River Improvement?" is published by the Conservation Council of Victoria. The cover il- lustration depicts the reason for that question mark in the title: in the background a stream with snags in the water and natural growth along its banks, is contrasted in the foreground with an "improved" stream that has been ‘straightened and cleared of snags and bank vegetation. The "improvements" are often more subtly deleteri- ous as the text of this booklet reveals. Available from FNCV Sales Officer; $1.50, discount to members, Readers interested in river management should also refer to the March 1977 issue of ** Victorian Resources'' on "Problems of Streams and Stream Frontages''. Available from NRCLV, Box 194, Springvale 3171; 60c including postage. FNCV Subscriptions due on 1st January Our financial year begins on | January 1978 and members are asked to pay subscriptions promptly. If unable to attend forthcoming meetings, please send your subscription by post. See rates on outside back cover of this journal. Please attend to this matter promptly in consideration of our officers and the expense of sending out reminder notices. Thank you in anticipation. Subscription Secretary: Mr F. J. Koth, 21 Smart Street, Hawthorn, 3122. 246 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Limnology of a farm dam in Gippsland, Victoria By T. J. PARKER* and R. L. WALLIS* Summary Monthly changes in percentage light pene- tration, pH, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen and temperature profiles, surface water temperature and rainfall were studied in a small farm dam over a year. The dam is fed from a nearby underground spring, an intermittently flowing creek and run-off from surrounding cleared catchment. Some data suggest the dam may be warm monomictic although bottom waters re- mained anaerobic at most times. The dam appears chemically very similar to other fresh-water lakes in south-eastern Australia. Seasonal variation in numbers of cyclopoid copepods is described, together with the oc- currence of some other organisms at dif- ferent times. Introduction Despite their ubiquity farm dams have received scant attention from Australian limnologists (Bayly and Williams, 1973), Some studies which relate to specific as- pects of the fauna of farm dams have been published (e.g. Weatherley, 1958 a,b; Mor- rissy, 1970) and Timms (1970 a) investi- gated the chemistry and zooplankton of 103 large farm dams, lagoons and reservoirs in New South Wales but only visited his sites twice. However, no limnological study has reported on the biological and physico- chemical characteristics of an Australian farm dam which has been regularly sampled over one year. This paper presents the results of such a study of a small, ten-year old farm dam in Gippsland, Victoria, which could be clas- sified as a man-made permanent pond ac- cording to the criteria of Bayly and Williams (1973), *Department of Environmental Studies, Rusden State College, Clayton, Victoria. 3168. November/December Description and Locality The dam lies 283 m above sea-level and is 3.6 km south-east of Mirboo North town- ship, central Gippsland. The dam occupies a gully that was widened and the excavated material used for a dam wall on the western side. An outflow exists in the north-western corner. The dam is fed from two sources — a ground spring which flows all year and a small creek which flows only after heavy rains. The surrounding catchment has been cleared and is used for cattle grazing, al- though stock have access to the dam at very few sites. The dam has an area of 0.42 ha and a maximum depth of 3.6 m recorded when data were collected for the contour map (Figure 1) on 6 February, 1976. At this time the water level was unusually low since water had been removed for irrigation of a recently planted potato crop. Methods The site was visited fourteen times at reg- ular intervals and water samples, physical measurements and biological collections taken in the early afternoon. Dissolved oxygen (DO) was measured polarigraphically with a Yellow Springs Meter model 54, accurate to + 0.1 ppm. The probe contained a thermistor so temper- ature could also be read from the meter (to + 0.1°C). Percentage light penetration was measured with a photo-sensitive cell con- nected to a galyometer. The meter was calibrated to read 100% above the water then the water-proof cell was lowered verti- cally to predetermined depths. pH was mea- sured with a Corning portable pH meter. A water sample was taken each time by lower- ing a polyethylene bottle 0.25 m below the surface in open water. Total dissolved solids (TDS) were determined gravimetrically. Ionic concentrations of sodium, potassium, 247 Outflow 10 m FIGURE 1: Contour map of the farm dam. / n dis Contour intervals 0,5 m. The solid line is the site of the plankton tow; cross-hatched area is that occupied by macrophytic vegetation. calcium and magnesium were measured by a Varian model 1100 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Chloride, nitrate, sul- phate and dissolved orthophosphate con- centrations were determined by methods de- scribed in A.P.H.A. (1971). A conical net with reservoir and tap (net 25 cm diameter, 40 cm long, mesh size 200 um) was used to collect plankton. Sur- face and depth (0.5 m below surface) tows were made at constant speed over a distance of 25 m. The contents of the net’s reservoir were emptied into sampling jars and sam- ples preserved in 5% formalin. Counts of larval and adult copepods were made by taking a 5 cm? subsample of the collected material and examining in a perspex count- ing tray under a binocular microscope. Re- producibility of sub-sampling was confirmed to enable a form of quantitative comparison to be made between months. The presence of other zooplankton was de- termined by emptying the entire contents of the sampling jar into a petrie dish and ob- 248 serving microscopically. Results a) Physico-chemical The variation in surface water tempera- ture (Tsw) and air temperature (T4) with season is given in Figure 2. Generally Tsw — T4 with the difference greatest in summer. Exceptions were, however, observed. Thus on 12 February, 1975 Tsw > Ta by 6.0°C. Figure 2 also shows seasonal variation in pH, TDS, average monthly rainfall and the depth to which 5046 of surface light penet- rated. Data on changes in water temperature and DO with depth are given in Table 1. Mea- surements of these parameters could not be taken on a number of occasions due to faulty equipment. Tsw generally exceeded tem- perature at three meters with a maximum difference (2.3°C) occurring in summer and minimum difference (0.2°C) during winter. With three exceptions, the DO in bottom waters was < 1.0 ppm. DO values of sur- Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 350 300 200 TDS RAINFALL ppm mm 100 7.6} 2.0 T2 15 pH DEPTH m 6.8} ito 6.4 0.5 TEMP. SG À Tow 5 [UE TS we Ta RS Cc TTRCE: FIGURE 2: A. Variation in surface water temperature (Tsw) and air temperature (T4) with time. B. Variation in pH and depth at which 50% light penetration with time. C. Variation in TDS (ppm) and rainfall (mm) with time. face waters in ppm and percentage satura- tion tended to be higher during winter than summer. During winter, water at two metres depth was much more highly oxygenated than water at the same depth during spring and summer. A single determination of cationic abun- dance revealed Nat (148 ppm) > Mg?* (21.6) > Ca?* (14.0) > K* (3.7). Of the November/December anions tested, the order was CI- (73.1) > NO; (2.0) > SO,?- (0.79) > PO4?- (less than 0.05). This sample was taken during February 1976 when TDS = 330 ppm. b) Biological The dam had a wide border of rushes and marsh plants of Juncus usitatus (common pinrush), Juncus spp. (tussock rush), Echinochloa sp. (barnyard grass), Polypo- 249 TABLE 1. Variation in dissolved oxygen in ppm and percentage saturation and temperature with depth. DATE DEPTH (metres) 0 0.5 iF 2.0 3.0 ppm Bi, — — 1.0 28/i/75 % sat. 92.5 — — — 10.2 B 17.3 17.1 15.9 15.2 15.0 a 4.9 0.5 0.2 0.1 12/ii/75 60.8 55.2 5.6 2:2 $1 21.0 20.5 20.5 20.2 19.0 9.2 8.5 8.3 7.9 0.4 Tliv/75 84.2 78.0 74.1 70.5 3.5 10.0 9.9 9.3 9.0 9.5 9.6 94 8.8 8.0 0.9 28/vi/75 81.8 80.3 77.8 67.8 7.6 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.8 6.8 9.1 83 8.0 7.0 0.6 26/vii/75 81.2 72.6 69.6 59.8 51 8.6 8.2 7.6 7.1 6.9 10.1 9.6 9.2 8.0 1.0 29/viii/75 87.8 82.0 78.6 66.7 83 75 7.0 6.9 6.0 6.0 8.6 8.2 315 Sr 0.2 21/ix/75 78.9 75.2 68.2 48.7 1.8 10.0 9.9 9.5 8.5 7.8 7.0 6.6 5.2 1.0 0.8 1/xi/75 70.0 66.0 SES 9.7 9 14.2 14.0 13.5 124 11.9 5.2 3.8 1.8 1.6 — 6/1/76 62.7 45.2 20.7 17.8 — 23,5 20:2 21.2 19.0 a= gon monspeliensis (beard grass), Typha orientalis (cumbungi), Polygonum sp. (smartweed), and Paspalum paspaloides (water couch). Other plants which were common in the dam included Potamogeton ochreatus (blunt pondweed), Spirodela spp. (duckweeds), Azolla sp. and Spirogyra sp. Table 2 lists the organisms found in the dam with an indication of the more impor- tant ones. No calanoid copepods were found. The two cyclopoid copepod species which were found differ greatly in size and presumably niche. Four species of cladocera were re- corded, although most are probably littoral and/or benthic in habit and not truly planktonic. Figure 3 indicates the presence or absence of some selected invertebrates and flora with time of year. Mesocyclops hyalinus was perennial but Tropocyclops prasinus adults were not recorded during 250 winter. Maximum numbers of cyclopoid copepods were obtained during autumn (see Figure 4) while cladocerans were most abundant during winter, spring and summer (with the exception of Simocephalus elizabethae), Keratella valga was the most common rotifer present in the dam and was most plentiful during the warmer months. K. cochlearis was less common and found on fewer occasions. The species of Brachionus and Keratella spp. generally occurred to- gether, while Asplanchna sp. was present some of the year, its abundance being di- rectly related to those of the other rotifers. Discussion a) Physico-chemical Temperature fluctuations in a pond de- pend on geographical position, its mor- phometry and the degree of shading and Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Fe ee ne, oe I dad l(a eee a C Wanne = |!) 1 > 0 HEEEEEEEEEEEENI 9 Me —— $0: o0 8 BEER 8 o NEG a 7 [| [| ae 6 az | | eee me D Es ——— 0! [s] 4 Uo DARMENEUEMUINCTOONEE US c MEET e sni] p AST HMM ee eee E a] 2 ll 00! ee 1 | MM CURT XCTI cb ONT ME —-— S D———— pone EC Be EM EAGM aAA oS. c9 ENE UD FIGURE 3: Occurrence of various planktonic species from tows at different times of the year.— . Volvox sp. . Closterium sp. and Closteridium sp. . Cymbella sp. . Keratella cochlearis K. valga Brachionus quadridentata . Asplanchna sp. . Austrochiltonia australis . Simocephalus elizabethae . Chydorus sp. . Alona sp. and Graptolebris sp. RUPN— LS w6o-ou TABLE 2. Fauna collected. Important species asterisked. Phylum PORIFERA Phyllum PLATYHELMINTHES — Class: Turbellaria Phylum NEMATODA Phylum ANNELIDA — Class: Oligochaeta Phylum ASCHELMINTHES — Class: Rotifera Phylum ARTHROPODA — Class: Insecta — Class: Insecta — Family: Spongillidae — Dugesia sp. — unidentified sp. — Tubifex sp. — Keratella valga* K. cochlearis, Brachionus quadridentata, Asplanchna sp. — Chironominae — Chaoborinae — Anisops thienemanni* — Ostracoda — Cypridae — Copepoda — Mesocyclops hyalinus*, Tropocyclops pracinus* — Branchiopoda — Cladocera — Simoncephalus elizabethae*, Chydorus sp.*, Alona sp., Graptoleberis sp. — Malacostraca — Amphipoda — Austrochiltona australis Phylum CHORDATA — Class: Osteichthyes — Class: Amphibia — Anguilla sp., Salmo trutta — Litoria raniformis protection from wind (Bayly and Williams, 1973). The farm dam studied is exposed to most of the prevailing winds, is poorly shaded and has a variable depth not exceed- ing3.6 m. On most occasions Ta > Tsw, but the reverse occurred twice. Such a phenomenon has been described elsewhere November/December (Byars, 1960; Bayly and Williams, 1973) and can be attributed to differing specific heats of air and water. Some evidence may suggest that this dam thermally stratifies over the hotter months. A maximum difference between surface and bottom temperatures was recorded during 251 1000 100 100 10 10 1 ace bd e | 5 c a E 2 E 3g E MS AD Me NE UM ASS MO. IN, GDM IUE FIGURE 4: Changes in numbers of copepods with time of year. Combined totals for 25 metre trawls at 0 and 0.5 metres. a) adult Mesocyclops hyalinus b) egg-bearing female M. hyalinus c) adult Tropocyclops prasinus d) egg-bearing 7. prasinus €) copepodites of both species November and January and the minimum difference during June. Such findings have been described for another Australian farm dam by Morrissy (1970). From the data in Table | it appears that the epilimnion oc- cupies a depth of about 1.7 m, the metalimnion about 0.3 m and the hypolimn- ion about 1.6 m. There are insufficient data to establish the precise depth of the thermo- cline. During winter, holomixis presumably occurred since i) during June the surface and bottom temperatures were very similar, and on 7 June 1975 the temperature at 3 m ex- ceeded that at 2 m; ii) on 7 June 1975 the pH of the surface water was 6.8, perhaps as a result of respiration and CO» production or the 252 uprising of humic acids from the bottom layers. Thus evidence exists for classifying the dam as warm monomictic, even though the thermal stratification of ponds is not as per- manent or pronounced as in deeper lakes (Bayly and Williams, 1973). An alternative explanation of the maximum difference between surface and bottom temperatures occurring during summer is possible.This phenomenon may be a result of diurnal heating which would have its most pronounced effect during the summer. The severe depletion of DO observed at lower depths in the Gippsland farm dam is not unusual (e.g. Weatherley, 19582). Bayly and Williams (1973) note that large Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 farm dams in which thermal stratification persists may develop severe oxygen deple- tion in the hypolimnion during the period of stratification. One would expect reoxygena- tion of the lower waters during holomixis and although this did occur in this dam in waters to2 m depth, the very bottom waters (at 3 m) still maintained low oxygen levels during winter, probably as a result of high respiration demand of bottom mud. The highest DO (ppm and percentage saturation) levels in surface waters were obtained dur- ing winter. Again, this contradicts most findings for ponds (Bayly and Williams, 1973), although care must be taken with the units used in measuring DO. Thus Byars (1960) found that although oxygen concen- tration in ppm was highest during winter in a New Zealand pond, the percentage satura- tion was actually a maximum during sum- mer. The dam has a variable but generally low turbidity (for a farm dam) as measured by percentage light transmission. This may be related to the steep sides of the dam's im- mediate catchment and the resultant limited access to stock which only occurs close to the outlet. The extensive submerged and emergent macrophytic growth also contrasts the ‘typical’ farm dam situation (Bayly and Williams, 1973). Morrissy (1970) considers turbidity important in producing thermal stratification, but this dam shows some evi- dence of stratification with low turbidity. The dam showed much variation in salin- ity which is in accord with Timms’ (1970a,b) work on New South Wales dams. There was an apparent inverse relationship between rainfall and salinity (see Figure 2). Thus prior to 21/ix/75 heavy rain had been falling for one week in Gippsland and the salinity reading was the minimum value ob- tained over the year. Also on this day turbid- ity was high and pH 7.0 which is less than the mean pH obtained for the year. Such changes after rainfall have also been de- scribed for four reservoirs in New South Wales (Timms, 1970b). Although Bayly and Williams (1973) note that farm dams fed from underground sources are likely to differ chemically from those not so re- plenished, this is not the case for the Gipps- November/December land dam, Its cationic dominance is typical of lentic waters of south-eastern Australia (Timms, 1970b). From calculations of m-equiv./1 of each ion, bicarbonate con- centration would be expected to be similar to chloride, so that anionic dominance is probably typical too. b) Biological Timms (19702) found in his study of 103 reservoirs and lakes in New South Wales that the mean number of species of limnetic copepods and cladocerans in any locality were 2.2 and 1.1 respectively. The larger number of cladocerans present in the Gipps- land farm dam may be explained by their straying into the limnetic zone from their normally littoral habitat, Certainly Chydorus is known to be a littoral genus (Timms, 19702). Small dams and lakes are thought to lack consistent plankton cycles (Pennak, 1949; Weatherley, 1958a; Timms, 1970b) and thus the copepod abundances cannot be re- garded as predictable annual events, Nonetheless, Timms (1970b) described en- tomostracan blooms commonly occurring in spring and autumn in five small reservoirs in New South Wales with **bloom"' sizes be- tween 100 and 1000 times '* normal" levels. The data for the cyclopoid blooms in the Gippsland dam are in agreement with this factor. M. hyalinus was present all the year but T. prasinus was absent during the winter, Largest population densities of the two copepod species occurred during spring and autumn. (Numbers of adults, egg- bearing females and copepodites of both cyclopoid species were similar from the sur- face and depth tows and have been com- bined in the graph in Figure 4.) The diversity of rotifers is high but not unusual. The three genera found in this dam have been described in association in five reservoirs in north-eastern New South Wales (Timms, 1970b). There Keratella and Brachionus occurred during summer and autumn only, however they only appear together in the Gippsland dam during spring and autumn. Byars (1960) also showed Keratella to be absent during winter from the New Zealand pond she studied. Keratella valga was the most common 253 rotifer found in the Gippsland dam and was most abundant during the warmer months. K. cochlearis was less common and occur- red in fewer months of the year. The popula- tion size of Brachionus sp. and Keratella Spp. seem to be inversely related to each other. Asplanchna sp. occurred most of the year, its abundance being directly related to those of the other rotifers. The amphipod Austrochiltonia australis was not recorded in autumn but was fre- quently captured at other times of the year, particularly amongst filiamentous algae in the littoral region. Of the phytoplankton taken by net, Clos- terium sp. and Closteridium sp. were pres- ent at all times and common. Volvox sp. occurred spasmodically and often in very high numbers, while the diatom Cymbella sp. was absent only during February, 1975. Acknowledgements We wish to thank Mr. A. Johnston for access to and use of the dam, Mr. G. Duke for some chemical analyses and an iden- tification (amphibia), the Bureau of Meteorology (Melbourne) for rainfall figures, Mr. J. Dean for suggestions about the work, identifications (Cladocera) and criticising the manuscript, and Prof. W. Williams (Amphipoda), Dr. R. McDonogh (Hemiptera), and Mr. D. Morton (Copepoda) for identifications. We would also like to thank Dr, B. Timms for his useful comments on the manuscript. REFERENCES A.P.H.A. (1971), ‘Standard Methods for the Examina- tion of Water and Waste Water' , (American Public Health Association: New York). Bayly, I.A.E., and Williams, W.D. (1973), ‘Inland Waters and Their Ecology’ , (Longman: Melbourne). Byars, J.A. (1960), A Freshwater Pond in New Zealand, Aust. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 11 , 222-40. Morrissy, N.M. (1970), Report on marron in farm dams (Cherax tenuimanus). Report V, Dept. of Fisheries and Fauna, Western Australia, Perth. Pennak, R.W., (1949), Annual limnological cycles in some Colorado reservoirs and lakes, Ecol. Monorg. 19, 233-67, Timms, B.V. (19703), Chemical and zooplankton studies of lentic habitats in north-eastern New South Wales, Aust. J. Mar. Freshwar, Res. 21, 11-33, Timms, B.V. (1970b), Aspects of the limnology of five small reservoirs in New South Wales, Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 95, 45-49, Weatherley, A.A. (1958a), Tasmanian farm dams in relation to fish culture. CSIRO Division of Fisheries and Oceanography Technical Paper No. 4 , 24 pp. Weatherley, A.A, (1958b), Growth, production and survival of brown trout in a large farm dam, Aust. J. Mar, Freshwat. Res. 9, 159-66, How Big Do They Grow? One autumn day in 1950 a small echidna came marching into our farm garden. Echidnas are still common in our countryside, even on the outskirts of the town. They love to fossick among piles of bricks or timber for the small black ants. This small one was special for it weighed only one pound. It soon became used to us as wé each went about our daily chores and it disappeared only at the onset of winter. We had never before seen such a young specimen and still think it strange that they are so seldom seen, even in the bush, at this age and size. For some time after this I carried a bag and scales in the car and weighed any of the wild ones I could pick up, and some of them were very wild. The ideal place for this exercise is to catch them crossing a bitumen road. Generally the adults weighed between six and seven pounds. Last summer we passed a fine large echidna freshly killed on the road. It was unmarked as are so many except for the crushing of the bill and was still warm and flexible. This one was a beautiful animal and weighed eleven pounds. ELLEN LYNDON, Leongatha Errata In the article "Australian Natural History Medallionist for 1976 — Dr. Winifred M. Curtis” by J. A. Baines ( Vict. Nat. Vol. 94: 5 Oct., 1977) delete “and the Tasmanian Field Naturalists’ Club" from last paragraph page 214. Dr. Curtis is the Patroness of the Launceston Field Naturalist Club. 254 Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Two new species of frogs (Anura: Myobatrachidae, Pelodryadidaoe) from Queensland and New South Wales D. S. LIEM* G. J. IINGRAMT Abstract Ranidella weserticola sp. nov. is closely related to R. parinsignifera, R. tinnula and R. sloanei and differs from all Ranidella spp. by its small size, robust hind limbs, rounded snout and chirping male call. Litoria olongburensis sp. nov. is alligned with the Litoria dorsalis species group which consists of five species, dorsalis, microbelos, timida, olongburensis, and adelaidensis. A new species of Ranidella In reviewing the myobatrachid frog gen- era Heyer and Liem (1976) redefined the genus Ranidella. Yt included three species from Queensland — R. signifera (Girard), R. parinsignifera (Main), and R. tinnula (straughan and Main). The biology of these species and of Assa darlingtoni (Loveridge) was studied by Straughan and Main (1966). At that time all four species were placed in the genus Crinia which, in Queensland, was restricted to the south-eastern part of the state. Specimens easily referred to Ranidella (sensu Heyer and Liem 1976) but differing from any known species of the genus, have been recently collected in western Queens- land. The following abbreviations are used for adult measurements: SVL, snout-vent length; TL, tibial length; HW, head width at broadest part; EN, distance between the external nostril and anterior border of eye; IN, distance between the two external nos- trils; ED, eye diameter between anterior and posterior borders of eye; SE, distance *Department of Natural Resources, Wild Life Branch, Boroko, Papua, New Guinea. +Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia. November/December from tip of snout to anterior border of eye; TW, tympanum width. Ratios are given as percentages. Specimens with a number prefixed by the letter J are housed in the Queensland Museum, and by DSL in David S. Liem's collection. Ranidella deserticola sp. nov. Holotype: Adult male, J22654, Char- leville, southwestern Queensland, David S. Liem 13.ii.1971. Paratypes J22655, DSL 4710, same data as holotype; J25000-2, 42 km E. of Thar- gomindah, G. J. Ingram and C. J. Corben, 26.xii.1974; J31601-3, Thargomindah, R. Raven, 8.xi.1976; J28925, 130 km E. of Birdsville, R. J. McKay, 1.1x.1976; J27237, Polygammon Creek on Middleton-Hamilton Hotel Road, C. Cor- ben, A. Smyth and G. Roberts, 27.x.1975, Diagnosis This species is distinguished from other Ranidella by combination of the following characters: 1. small size, 2. robust hindlimbs, 3. snout rounded in profile, 4. characteristic male call, which sounds like the chirping of a young House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Description of Holotype SVL 15.6 mm; TL 7.2 mm, 46.2% of SVL; HW 5.1 mm, 32.7% of SVL; IN 1.5 mm; EN 1.5 mm; IN/EN ratio 100.00; ED 1.9 mm; SE2,2 mm; ED/SE ratio 86.4; EN/SE ratio 68.0. Tip of snout bluntly rounded (fig. 1A); canthus rostralis evenly rounded, not distinct; loreal region sloping outward; head bluntly pointed in dorsal view (fig. 1B); tympanum obscure; sup- 255 Fig. 1.—Crinia deserticola, holotype (J22654) A. dorsal aspect of the head, B. lateral aspect of the head, C. ventral aspect of the right foot, D. ventral aspect of the left hand, E. tadpole of Crinia deserticola at stage 37 , F. mouth parts of Crinia deserticola, Line equals to | mm. ratympanic fold absent; tongue elongated, free posteriorly; vomerine teeth absent; upper jaw toothed; vocal sac present with two slit-like openings on floor of buccal cavity. Distal segment of fingers blunt, not ex- panded; length of fingers from shortest to longest 1-2-4-3; phalangeal formula 2-2-3-3; subarticular tubercles roundish, one each on Ist and 2nd fingers, and two each on 3rd and 4th fingers; supernumerary tubercles present on palm; two metacarpal tubercles present, a rounded outer and an oval inner tubercle; fingers without a trace of webbing (fig. 1C); nuptial pad absent; subcutaneous glands present on base of 1st finger. 256 Hind limbs robust; distal segment of toes blunt; toes with broad fringes; subarticular tubercles roundish, one each on Ist and 2nd toes, two each on3rd and 5th toes, and three on 4th toe; supernumerary tubercles absent; outer and inner metatarsal tubercles rounded (fig. 1D). Skin of dorsum shagreen to smooth; ab- domen and throat coarsely granular; pupil horizontal with ventral angle. Colour In life dorsum light brown with V-shaped olive marking on the head, two roundish olive markings in the posterior coccygeal region, olive crossbands on fore and hind limbs; abdomen cream, and ventral surfaces Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 of thights flesh colour; throat and chest dusted with dark brown pigmentation. In preservative, dull grey-brown dorsally, fore and hind limbs light brown with dark brown crossbands; ventral surfaces of abdomen and hind limbs cream white; throat and chest heavily dusted with dark pigmentation. Variation The ten paratypes are similar to the holotype: SVL 13.0-18.4 mm (mean 15.7 + 0,526); TL/SVL 39.9-49.4 (mean 45.57 + 1.037); HW/SVL31.441.6 (mean 34.68 + 1,009); IN/EN 84.6-107.7 (mean 34.68 + 2.333); ED/SE 60.7-91.3 (mean 74.78 + 3.387); EN/SE 54.2-66.7 (mean 60.67 + 1.194). Breeding The mating call is a melodious chirping similar to the call of a young House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). A sound spectrograph of this call is given in Figure 2.: This is based on recordings by C. J. Corben at Polygammon Creek, south- western Queensland on the 27th October, 1975. It shows a dominant frequency of 4000 HZ, a duration of 128 milliseconds, and a call rate of 59 per minute. It is com- posed of two pulses, with an individual du- ration of 60 milliseconds. The three calls of decreasing energy and quickening rate are the terminal sounds of a calling period of an individual, which then pauses for an interval before resuming calling. The call of R. deserticola is readily dis- tinguished from the short creeking call of R. sloanei, the long, more drawn out call of R. parinsignifera, the lower-pitched call of R. tinnuwa, and the grating call of R. signifera (see Straughan and Main, 1966, plate 6, for sound spectograms of these species). R. de- serticola males call from land, under tus- socks, or on exposed mud along the banks of temporary water. Life history Small eggs (black animal and cream veg- etal poles) are laid in water, suspended on submerged vegetation. Tadpoles are indis- November/December tinguishable from R. parinsignifera or R. signifera; dextral anal opening, sinistral spiracle, blunt tail, labial papillar row inter- rupted on anterior and posterior portions, and labial tooth row I, 1/1, II (figs. IE and F). Habitat R. deserticola occurs throughout all habitats in the areas in which it has been recorded (from brigelow and mulga to ashy soil plains). At Charleville it was found syn- chronosympatric with Litoria rubella, L. latopalmata, and Limnodynastes tas- maniensis; at Windorah with Cyclorana novaehollandiae, C. verrocosus, C. platycephalus, Litoria rubella, L. caerulea, L. latopalmata, Limnodynastes tasmanien- sis, and Notaden sp.; and at Thargomindah with Litoria rubella, Limnodynastes tas- maniensis and Notaden bennetti. Distribution From Charleville west to the Betoota area, north to Polygammon Creek and south to the Thargomindah area. Comparisons with other species Comparing R. deserticola with all cur- rently recognized Ranidella, only three species are apparently closely related — namely R. tinnula, R. parinsignifera and R. sloanei. R. deserticola differs from R. tin- nula by the rounded snout in profile, slightly smaller SVL, belly plain without darker mottling and no distinct mid-line of white dots down the throat; from R. parinsignifera by slightly smaller size, robust hind limbs, and only throat and chest dusted with brown pigmentation; and from R. sloanei by its smaller size, narrower eye diameter (ED/SE less than 91.3 as opposed to 104.2 in R. sloanei), narrower eye-nostril distance (EN/SE less than 68.0 as opposed to more than 73.9 in R. sloanei) and tubercular palm. The only other described Ranidella in Queensland is R. signifera, and R. deser- ticola differs from it by the following characteristics: smaller SVL (less than 18.5 mm as opposed to more than 257 KHz mel Oo .T uiar de te mot He eta iet niii Site P SP aue itl 2 Fig, 2.—Sonogram of the mating call of Ranidella de serticola, Seconds 18,6 mm), lack of black and white mottling on the ventral surfaces of thighs and post erior portion of the abdomen, and uniformly dark throat and chest, Tyler and Parker (1974) described R, remota from the south western district of Papua New Guinea. It differs from R., deserticola by its ornate dor sal pattern and by its long, pulsed, buzzing call, Judging from morphology and the struc ture of the male call, R. deserticola is inter mediate between R, parinsignifera and R, sloanei, Etymology The specific name is derived from the 258 latin desertus meaning waste, and the lating suffix, cola, meaning an inhabitant, The name refers to the habitat of the frog. Other material examined Ranidella sloanei (DSL 6814-5), R. tin- nula (DSL 4739-42), R. parinsignifera (DSL 4311-2, 4268-70, 4350-1, 4465-6, 4736, 5353, 5413-6, 6275-6, 6382-3), R. signifera (DSL 5176-80, 6374-9), A new species of Litoria An undescribed treefrog in the wallum (sensu Coaldrake, 1961) of southeast Queensland and northeast New South Wales has been well known for several years. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 EJ (Liem 1974; Ingram 1975; Ingram and Cor ben 1975; Gravatt and Ingram 1975; Ben sink 1976; Barry and Lear 1976; Campbell & Barry 1977), This frog with its small size, slender body, pointed snout, and vestipeal finger webbing does not resemble any other treefrog from that area, After comparing il with currently recognized Australo-papuan pelodryadids, four species showed potential resemblance, These were Literia dorsalis (Macleay), L. microbelos (Copger), L adelaidensis (Gray), and Litoria timida Tyler and Parker, These are grouped here as the Litoria dorsalis complex. Litoria adelaidensis is placed in this species group because it shares a number ol characters with that group, e.g. pointed protruding snout, sharp canthus rostralis, unwebbed fingers, bifid distal subarticular of 3rd and4th fingers, presence of loreal and head streaks, and a cream maxillary streak Copper (1966) gave an excellent and de tailed review on the history and status of Litoria dorsalis, The new form differs from dorsalis andmicrobelos by a more extensive finger webbing (reaching by a narrow fringe the 2nd subarticular tubercle of 3rd and 4th fingers), more extensive toe webbing (reaching the base of penultimate phalanx of 5th toe; on outer margins of 2nd and 3rd toes; and on distal subarticular tubercle on outer margin of 4th toe), a distinet broad cream maxillary streak from below the eye November/December wee Pee Fig, 3 n individual of Litoriu olongburensis trom North Stradbroke Island " A rug to halfway down along the Hank, and a prominent brown loreal streak from nostril to eye (Fig. 4B) It differs from adelaidensis by its smaller size (less than 29 mm as opposed to 50 60 mm inadelatdensis) less extensive web bing on lst toe (reaching base of proximal phalanx as opposed to 's to % along that phalanx), and the absence of a brown pateh with cream blotches on disto- posterior por ton of the thighs Phe new form is readily distinguished Irom timida by the straight canthus rostralis, shorter tibia CEL/S V L ratio less than 58, 1 as opposed to more than 60.5), and the pre sence of loreal and head streaks Litorta olongburensis sp, nov Litoria sp. nov, Ingram & Corben 1975; Gravatt & Ingram 1975; Bensink 1976; Barry & Lear 1976; Campbell & Barry 1977 Litoria sp. ^. Bensink & Burton 1975, Holotype Adult female, 122652. from Coomboo Lake, Fraser Island, southeast Queensland, R. Shine, 10,1,1972 Paratypes SE Queensland; J27480 Teewah Creek, Cooloola, C, Corben & A, Smyth, 259 Fig. 4.—Litoria olongburensis Holotype (J22652). A. Dorsal aspect of the head, B. Lateral aspect of the head, C. Ventral aspect of the left foot, and D. Ventral aspect of the left hand. Line equals 1 mm. 29.xii.1973; J27500 Ditto, xi. 1973; J27493 Teewah Creek, Cooloola, G. J. Ingram & G. Czechura, 30.xii.1973; J28230-1 Teewah Creek, Cooloola, G. J. Ingram & R. Raven, 13.vii.1973; J28229 Bribie Is- land, southeast Queensland, D. Barry, 30.x1.1976; J22954-5 3 km from Pt. Look- out Dunwich Road, North Stradbroke Is- land, C. Corben & G. J. Ingram, 10.11.1973; DSL 713 Brown Lake, North 260 Stradbroke Island, C. Corben, 25.iv.1972; NE New South Wales: J28433 Tick Gate Swamp, nr. Woolgoolga, B. Timms, 25.iii. 1977. Diagnosis A small, slender treefrog with pointed protruding snout. It can be distinguished from any other Australo-papuan treefrogs by the following combination of characters: Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 1. small, slender treefrog, less than 22 mm in SVL; 2. pointed protruding snout; 3, pre- sence of vomerine teeth; 4. prominent brown loreal streak from nostril to eye; 5. prominent brown streak from behind eye through tympanum to halfway down the flank; 6. prominent cream whitish streak from below the eye to halfway down the flank, lying ventral to the brown head streak. Description of holotype SVL 21.4 mm; TL 12.0 mm, 56.1% of SVL; head narrow, HW 6.0 mm, 28.0% of SVL; EN 2.2 mm; IN 2.3 mm; IN/EN 104.5; SE 4.0 mm; EN/SE 55.0; ED 2.5 mm; TW 1.5 mm, 60.0% of eye diame- ter. Tip of snout pointed (fig. 4 A); snout prot- ruding beyond lower jaw (fig. 4B); canthus rostralis sharp, angular in cross section; loreal region flat, vertical; dorsal view of head pointed; tympanum more or less dis- tinct; supratympanic fold absent; tongue oval, free posteriorly; vomerine teeth in short rows at level of anterior edge of choanae; upper jaw toothed. Distal segment of fingers expended into disc; its diameter is approximate by half the tympanum width; length of fingers from shortest to longest 1-2-4-3; phalangeal for- mula of hand 2-2-3-3. Subarticular tuber- cles present, one each on Ist and 2nd fingers, two on 4th finger, and three on 3rd finger; distal subarticular tubercle of 4th finger, and the two distal subarticular tuber- cles of 3rd finger are bifid. There is one inner and a small indistinct outer matacarpal tubercle; supernumerary tubercles present of palmar region and on the metacarpals. Fingers slightly webbed between I st and 2nd fingers free of web; web between 2nd and 3rd fingers reaches the proximal subar- ticular tubercles; web between 3rd and 4th fingers reaches the 2nd subarticular tubercle of the 4th finger and halfway down the pro- ximal phalanx of the 3rd finger (fig. 4D). Hindlimbs long; distal segment of toes expanded into disc with ventrol-marginal groove; length of toes from shortest to November/December longest 1-2-3-5-4; subarticular tubercles present, one each on Ist and 2nd toes, two each on 3rd and 5th toes, and three on 4th toe; supernumerary tubercles arranged in rows along the metatarsals; inner metatar- sals tubercle oval, and the outer one is small rounded. Toes moderately webbed; reaching the proximal subarticular tubercle of Ist toe, base of penultimate phalanx on outer margin of 2nd, 3rd and inner margin of Sth toes; it teaches the 3rd subarticular tubercle on outer margin, and the 2nd subarticular tubercle on inner margin of the 4th toe; it reaches the proximal subarticular tubercle on inner margin of 3rd toe, and halfway along the inner margin of the metatarsal of the 2nd toe (fig. 4C). Dorsal surface shagreen; abdomen and postero-ventral surfaces of the thighs coarsely granular; throat lightly granular. A skin fold across chest present. Pupil hori- zontally oval. Colour In life uniform light brownish; a dark brown loreal streak runs from eye to nostril, and a brown head streak from behind the eye through tympanum to halfway down the flank; the head streak is bordered ventrally by a cream maxillary streak; ventral sur- faces of body and limbs cream; throat pep- pered with brown pigments. In preservative the dorsal colour is dull brown, limbs greyish brown, and ventral surfaces white cream; throat peppered with brown. Variation The ten paratypes differ little from the holotype: SVL 13.6-28.8 (mean 24.24 + 1.580); TL/SVL 50.7-88.1 (mean 53.77 + 0.838); HW/SVL 27.1-33.8 (mean28.49 + 0.696); IN/EN 73.4-100.0 (mean 88.0 + 3.564); TW/ED 48 .3-74.1 (mean 58.97 + 2.938); EN/SE 63.8-68.8 (mean 65.15 + 0.695), The one juvenile specimen differs from the adults by a markedly brownish pigmented throat. 261 Call To the ear, the call of L. olongburensis is an uneven trill similar in effect to the call of L. bicolor. Habitat Litoria olongburensis occurs along creeks and in marshy or swampy lowland habitats amongst emergent vegetation and reeds in the low pH waters of the wallum. Ingram and Corben (1975) termed it an “‘acid’’ frog, along with L. freycineti, L. cooloolensis and Ranidella tinnula, because these species are confined to the sandy heaths and their acidic waters. Remarks Based on morphological evidence L. olongburensis is more closely related to L. dorsalis and L. microbelos than to L. adelaidensis. The presence of vomerine teeth is shared with L. dorsalis and L. adelaidensis, and the distinct head streak and body colouration are shared with L. microbelos. The occurrence of L. olongburensis in SE Queensland and L. adelaidensis in Western Australia suggests that the Litoria dorsalis species group originated in Australia. Not until more information is known could satis- factory phylogenetic relationships within the Litoria dorsalis species-group be de- ducted. Distribution Southeast Queensland and northeastern New South Wales, Fraser Island and Cooloola, south to Caloundra, Beerwah, Moreton and North Stradbroke Island in Queensland. In New South Wales, Evans Head south to Iluka (G. & R. Czechura pers. comm.), Lake Hiawatha near Grafton (B. Timms pers. comm.) and Woolgoolga nr. Coffs Harbour. Etymology The specific name refers to the aboriginal 262 tribe, Olongbura, who once lived in the Northern half of Fraser Island. Other material examined: L. adelaidensis (DSL 3016-19, 4719, 4723-24), Acknowledgements This study was supported by an ARGC grant, and a Department of Zoology, Uni- versity of Queensland grant to D. Liem. Chris Corben provided material for these descriptions and along with Jeanette Covacevich and Bruce Campbell read the manuscript critically. We also thank G. Czechura, D. Barry and B, Timms for their contribution. LITERATURE CITED Barry, D. H. and Lear, R. G. C. (1976), The vertebrate fauna of Moreton Island. In Morton Island: Environ- mental impact study and strategic plan. A. A. Heath & Partners: Brisbane. —— & Campbell, D. R. (1977). A survey of the mam- mals and herptiles of Fraser Island with comments on the Cooloola Peninsula, North Stradbroke, Moreton and Bribie Islands. Occasional Papers in Anthropol- ogy 8: 147-78, Bensink, A. H. A. (1976). The freshwater ecosystem of Moreton Island, In Moreton Island: Environmental impact study and strategic plan. A. A. Heath & Partners: Brisbane, and Burton, H. (1975). North Stradbroke Island: a place for freshwater invertebrates. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qd 86: 29-45, Coaldrake, J. E. (1961). The ecosystem of the coastal lowlands (‘‘Wallum’’) of southern Queensland. C.S.I.R.O. Aust, Bull, No. 283, Cogger, H. G. (1966). A new hylid frog from Australia. Aust. Zool. 13: 220-7, Gravatt, D. and Ingram, G. J. (1975), Comments on the brevis of Cooloola. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. : 321-5. Heyer, W. R. and Liem, D. S. (1976). Analysis of the intergeneric relationships of the Australian frog fam- ily Myobatrachidae. Smith. Cont. Zool. 233: 1-29. posta ae J. (1975). Cooloola. Wildlife in Australia 12: and Corben, C. J. (1975). The frog fauna of North Stradbroke Island, with comments on the “acid” frogs of the wallum. Proc. Roy. Soc. Od 86: 49-54. Liem, D. S. (1974). A new species of the Litoria bicolor species group from southeast Queensland, Australia (Anura: Hylidae). Mem. Qd Mus. 17: 169-74, Straughan, I. R. and Main, A. D. (1966), Speciation and polymorphism in the genus Crinia Tschudi (Anura, eoa ais) in Queensland. Proc. R. Soc. Qd 78: Tyler, M. J. and Parker, F. (197 ). New species of hylid and leptadactylid frogs from southern New Guinea. Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 98: 71-7. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 The Origin of Generic Names of the Victorian Flora Part 2 — Latin, Greek and Miscellaneous (Continued from page 197 in the previous issue) By James A. BAINES Paspalum. Gk paspalos, millet (from pas- pale, the finest meal, a tasty morsel). Pas- palum is the latinized form, and the accent should be on the first syllable, despite the almost universal stressing of the second in Australia by farmers, home gardeners and others. Victoria’s native species, P. dis- tichum, Water Couch or Slit Grass, is al- most cosmopolitan, and *P. dilatatum, in- troduced from Argentina, is known in the vernacular by its generic name or, less commonly, Golden Crown Grass. Passiflora. Lat passio, passion; flos, geni- tive floris, flower (Flora was goddess of flowers). Passion-flower was in 16th Cen- tury Lat flos passionis, flower of the Pas- sion, because of the fancied resemblance of the central parts of the flower to elements of the Crucifixion. Our native species, P. cin- nabarina, Red Passion-flower, has a specific name meaning vermilion red, from the red pigment obtained from cinnabar, the crystalline form of mercuric sulphide. *P. caerulea, Blue Passion-flower, introduced from Brazil, escapes occasionally from Vic- torian gardens; this plant has been used as a stock on which to graft commercial Passion-fruit vines, P. edulis. The genus gives its name to family Passifloraceae. (To be continued) Sharp Midge-orchids — and How to Mark the Spot For a considerable time some of us were puz- zled by little orchid leaves which appeared in the Colquhoun Forest in the spring; they looked like the leaves of a small Prasophyllum. Several years ago I marked a spot where a few of these leaves grew together and I went back every month or so to see them. In the autumn the leaves had gone but there appeared flowers of Prasophyllum despec- tans. Each year since then I have observed them, and each spring there are the leaves and each autumn the flowers. Once an Aunt from Town went with me to look at the plants. ''How far is it?” she asked. About tn miles" I replied. When we pulled up she asked ''Why are you stopping here?’’ ''Because this is where the orchids grow’’ was my response. All the bush looked alike to her and she could not understand how I knew one part from another. But, to anyone with a knowledge of the bush, a place once fixed in the mind's eye is as easy to find again as a city landmark. However, like everything else the bush changes, so here is a little bit of bushcraft; a piece of bracken fern stuck in a stump is an excellent marker as it is conspicuous only to the person who placed it there. When my aunt saw the minute Sharp Midge- orchid Prasophyllum despectans, she exclaimed "Do you mean to say you have come ten miles just for that!" RUTH CLARK, LAKES ENTRANCE. Goanna versus Dog My large labrador dog chased a goanna (1.50 m) until it ran up a tree, but before the goanna was safely out of reach, the dog pulled it down to the ground by the tail. The goanna hastily started climbing again, and again the dog yanked it down, After this performance was repeated sev- eral times, the goanna remained on the ground and with much hissing confonted the excitedly November/December barking dog. For some minutes they circled round and round, making a terrible commotion. Even- tually I was able to distract the dog's attention long enough for the goanna to make its escape high into the tree. The dog is not a destroyer of wild life but he does enjoy the excitement of a chase. ME 263 The Golden Dodder found in Wilson’s Promontory One of the most enjoyable excursions open to Gippsland Naturalists Clubs in the summer months is a trip ‘‘down the bay’’, in this case, Corner Inlet. On 13/2/77 Traralgon members hired a fishing boat at Port Welshpool and set out for Chinaman's Bay on Wilson's Promontory, a place we had long wished to visit. We were to be disappointed, however, for, due to a strong breeze from the wrong quarter our skipper put us down at a spot he called Biddy’s Cove, opposite Snake Island and not far from the entrance to Corner Inlet. This beach is sheltered on the one hand by a high granite headland, while on the other the long flat shore, littered with dead trees that have been eroded from the edges of the beach, extends round the point in the direction of the open sea. Behind the belt of banksia, bursaria and boobialla that fringes the beach we found exten- sive open swamps intersected by game tracks. Kangaroos and emus were disturbed here and a clutch of emu chicks seen. Typha, the reedmace or cumbungi, occupied the wettest part of these depressions. As the ground rose toward the edges there was a variety of rushes and sedges, herbs, grasses and scrambling plants, notable among them Sium latifolium , the water parsnip, with its umbels of lacy white flowers. All of these de- clined in height until they merged with the well *Lunderstand this Cuscuta was sentin to the Herbarium from Jack Smith's Lake near Woodside in late January. A first record for Gippsland grazed grassland of the swamp borders, Dominat- ing all the higher ground and any openings in the wooded borders was a fantastic crop of ragwort in full bloom, surely the aftermath of settlement of some sort in the early days, A small waterhole, obviously manmade, seemed proof of this. Anything uncommon in the way of plants usu- ally comes to light when numbers of budding botanists are wandering and wondering in new territory. Someone spotted a peculiar yellow- stemmed twiner among the low herbage, and, although we had never actually seen the plant before it was recognised as the Golden Dodder. Cuscuta tasmanica*, so far unrecorded for the promontory, although we didn't know it then. It was quite abundant here. The dodders grow from seed like other flower- ing plants, but being parasites, soon after fasten- ing on a suitable host plant they are able to dis- pense with the ground connection altogether. Tentacle-like stems develop rows of suckers in the best octopus manner, drawing nourishment from the host, in this case chiefly the water parsnip, although a variety of small neighbours were also infested, including willowherb, ver- onica and pennywort, all gloriously tangled to- gether. Leaves are reduced to scales but the dainty white translucent flowers are borne on relatively long stems, five petalled with five prominent gol- den stigmas. Ripening seeds are packed in rounded club-like bodies. Except for the petals the whole plant is golden yellow and most attrac- tive when in flower. It certainly made our day. ELLEN LYNDON, Leongatha Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Reports of FNCV Activities There was no General Meeting in October due to the power strike and most Group meetings were also cancelled. General Meeting Monday 14 November 1977 Presentation of 1977 Natural History Medallion Especially welcome at this meeting were several visitors from Geelong FNC, mem- bers of the Medallion Award Committee and former Award winners. Mr Neil Douglas, noted conservationist 264 and painter, presented the 1977 Natural His- tory Medallion to Mr Jack Wheeler. Cameras flashed. Mr Wheeler said he felt greatly honoured, thanked those people who had helped him so much in his work, and those who had proposed him and prepared his dossier for the prestigious Award. Speaker for the evening was the 1977 Award winner. Mr Wheeler showed slides with commentary on the Australian Gannet, then spoke of his continuing project — Ocean Grove Reserve — the great de- velopments that had been made and plans for the future. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 Mr Wheeler held up a handful of his booklet **Care of sick, injured and orphaned native birds and animals” each autographed and dated, and offered one to every person present. This booklet was financed by businesses and clubs and has already been distributed free to more than 20,000 schools and libraries in Australia. Exhibits were numerous and included fossils, several rock specimens, desmids under microscopes, mosses from the Dan- denongs, homegrown native plants, Her- barium sheet of W.A. rush that fruits under- ground, nest of mistletoe bird, etc. Affiliation of Wodonga-Albury FNC. Prior to this meeting there was an Extraordi- nary General Meeting at which the Wodonga-Albury FNC was elected an af- filiated club to the FNCV. Excursion to Werribee Gorge Tuesday 1st November 1977 This Cup Day outing was particularly worth while for we had Mr Jack Myers as our leader; he is National Parks Officer for the Gorge area. Mr Myers first led us to a rocky viewpoint where we realised the great depth of the gorge and its spectacular, rugged formation. During the walk we noticed a single Duck- orchid but lots of Tiger orchids Diuris sul- phurea , Daphne Heath and Clustered Ever- lastings. At the view-point the party divided, some returning to the coach and others walking through to Picnic Point where we all gathered for lunch. Here was the lovely river, cool and clear as it tumbled over its rocky bed. After lunch we walked by the river. Overhead were some Wedge-tail eagles, and Mr Myers pointed out the nest of Pere- grine falcons in the sheer vertical wall of the opposite side of the gorge. Here also was a good example of an anticline. Mr Myers spoke of geological matters and of animals in the area. During the walk we came on lots of Rock Fern, Bluebells, Dianella and Snowy Mint-bush Prostanthera nivea. November/December Black Wattles and the hop-bush Dodonea cuneata carried its reddish fruits. We were glad to have several members from junior clubs with us, and our thanks go to Mr Jack Myers for such a very informa- tive and enjoyable day. JEAN ZIRKLER Fresh-water Life On Monday 7 November, members of the Entomology and Marine Biology Group re- ceived a very informative address from Dr Brian Smith. He spoke of the factors that influence animals and plant life in fresh- water habitats. These factors are: rate of water flow, water quality and source, sub- strate type, suspended solid load, dissolved salts and oxygen, temperature, whether sub- ject to drying out. Dr Smith showed slides of various habitats in Australia from saline lakes to mountain rivers, Exhibits included tardigrads (water bears), desmids and snails. Slides were shown of desmids and diatoms from Mt Buffalo. All Club members are welcome at Group meetings and there is good parking space ín the courtyard at the Museum Conference Room. Salt Plugs — technically known as Diapiric Structures On Wednesday, 7th September, mem- bers of the Geology Group listened to a fascinating address on diapiric structures — aterm new to many members although a few such structures occur in the Flinders Ranges. Mr. Ron Player explained that rock salt can sometimes be overlaid with deposits to a depth of 2000 feet or more, Such pres- sure and heat causes rock salt to become plastic. If there is a dent downwards in the salt layer, the surrounding salt will move towards that depression which eventually heaps up as a sort of pillow. Being lighter than other rocks, salt tends to move upward so the “‘pillow’’ becomes taller and can eventually come to the surface to form a salt plug. It's rather more complex than that and 265 has complex effects on the surrounding sed- iments, all being clearly explained by Mr. Player with diagrams. Mr. Player had worked in Iran for several years as a geologist, and he showed colour slides of salt plugs in the Zagros Mountains east of the Persian Gulf. Some of the salt plugs are up to six miles across. Many of the shots were taken from the air and gave us an idea of the desolate ruggedness of the region as well as illustrating the diapiric structures. The Geology meeting of 5th October was cancelled due to the S.E.C. strike. All F.N.C.V. members are welcome at all Group meetings. Melbourne Botanical Gardens Eucalypts in Victoria Botany for Beginners Mr. Alan Gardiner, Superintendent of the Melbourne Royal Botanic Gardens, gave a talk on the Gardens at the Botany Group meeting on Thursday, 11th August. The first site for botanic gardens in the city plans of Robert Hoddle was swallowed by rapid development, and in 1845 a small area was obtained in the north-east corner of the pre- sent Gardens. John Arthur was put in charge. John Dallachy was the next direc- tor, followed by Dr. (later Baron) von Muel- ler who seemed to regard the Gardens merely as a place in which to group species. In 1873 William Guilfoyle became director. During his term of almost 40 years there were great improvements. The Yarra was straightened and a former swampy part was incorporated in the Gardens and developed as the main lake; a few Melaleucas and River Red Gums are survivors from the orig- inal vegetation of the old river course. One of the gums carries the plaque denoting the separation of Victoria from New South Wales in 1851. More areas were gained, and it is undoubtedly Guilfoyle’s landscaping skill that has placed these Gardens among the most beautiful in the world. Mr. Gardiner talked about some of the modem equipment in the Gardens. A new Herbarium is to be built soon and the old building will be developed as an education 266 centre. Then he spoke of the 452 acres at Cranbourne used for growing natives, and of the gardens at Werribee Park. On Thursday, 8th September, the Group received an address from Miss Pat Carolan on ‘*‘Hunting Eucalypts’’. The speaker talked of the influence of rainfall, soil and aspect, and of the species one might expect or not expect to find in certain localities. Then Miss Carolan showed colour slides of eucalypts in a varied range of Victorian areas, each slide accompanied with helpful information. Recognition and firm iden- tification of eucalypt species is not easy, but with such guidance members felt they could advance considerably. At each Botany Group meeting there is a 15-minute session for beginners. At the Au- gust meeting there was a practical test in the use of botanical terms for leaves. In Sep- tember there was a 4 hour talk on the botany of leaves; wall diagrams showed the out- ward form and the internal structure which is largely determined by the main function of leaves — to make the plant’s food, At other meetings there have been short talks for beginners on the flower, fruit, stem and on ecology. All F.N.C.V. members are welcome at Group meetings. Another active young member leaves Victoria Robin Sandell has left us for better oppor- tunities in Canberra. Robin was an en- thusiastic member of the Field Survey Group, and his article on Landhoppers was published in this journal in April. Until his departure in October he was a Council Member and the driving force in the Kinglake Management Committee. The re- cent improvements at our K inglake property were initiated by Robin, while the earlier improvements were carried out by our former secretary Garnet Johnson. The prop- erty owes much to both of them. All good wishes to Robin in his new un- dertaking, but we will miss his alert activity and kindly generous nature. Vict. Nat. Vol. 94 (Continued from page 226) GROUP MEETINGS All FNCV members are invited to attend any Group Meeting, no extra payment. At the National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, at 8.00 p.m. First Wednesday in the Month—Geology Group. No Meeting in January. 1 February: Members’ Night. Third Wednesday in the Month—Microscopy Group. No Meeting in December. 18 January: Members’ Exhibits. Second Thursday in the Month—Botany Group. 8 December: Members’ Night. No meeting in January. At the Conference Room, The Museum, Melbourne, at 8.00 p.m. Good parking area —enter from Latrobe Street. First Monday in the Month—Marine Biology & Entomology Group. No Meeting in January. 6 February: ‘‘Moths & Butterflies’. At the Arthur Rylah Institute, Brown Street, Heidelberg, at 8.00 p.m. First Thursday in the Month—Mammal Survey Group. 1 December. No Meeting in January. GROUP EXCURSIONS All FNCV members are invited to attend Group Excursions Day Group—Third Thursday in the Month No meeting in December. No meeting in January. Thursday, 16 February: Parliament House. Meet at 11.30 a.m. in the Treasury Gardens at the Pond. Proceed to Parliament House at 1.30 p.m. Botany Group—Geology Group Each month there are excursions by the Botany Group and the Geology Group, but notices of excursions in December and January have not been received; probably there are none. Phone the respective Group Secretaries for information. GROUP CAMPS—Mammal Survey Group December 26 onwards: Big Desert. November/December 267 Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Established 1880 OBJECTS: To stimulate interest in natural history and to preserve and protect Australian fauna and flora. Members include beginners as well as experienced naturalists. Patron: His Excellency the Honorable Sir HENRY WINNEKE, K.C.M.G., O.B.E., Q.C. Key Honorary Office-Bearers 1977-1978 President: Mrs. MARGARET CORRICK, 7 Glenluss Street, Balwyn, 3103. (857 9937.) Vice-President: Mr. DAVID M. LEE, 15 Springvale Road, Springvale, 3171. Secretary: Correspondence to: FNCV, National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra, 3141. Treasurer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145 (211 2427). Subscription-secretary: Mr. F. J. KOTH, 21 Smart Street, Hawthorn, 3122. Editor: Mr. R. D. KENT, 16 Papua Street, Watsonia, 3087. (435 8664.) Librarian: Mr. J. MARTINDALE, c/o National Herbarium, The Domain, South Yarra. ] Excursion Secretary: Miss M. ALLENDER, 19 Hawthorn Avenue, Caulfield, 3161. (527 2749.) | Sales Officer: Mr. D. E. McINNES, 129 Waverley Road, East Malvern, 3145. (211 2427.) Archives Officer: Mr. CALLANAN, 29 Reynards St., Coburg, 3058. Tel, 36 0587. Group Secretaries Botany: Mr. CAMERON McCONCHIE, 158 Warrandyte Road, Ringwood, 3134 (870 9986). Day Group: Miss D. M. BELL, 17 Tower Street, Mont Albert, 3127. (89 2850.) Field Survey: Mr. R. D. SANDELL, 39 Rubens Gve., Canterbury, 3126 (836 8009.) Geology: Mr. T. SAULT, c/o National Herbarium, South Yarra, 3141. Mammal Survey: Mr. MICHAEL HOWES, 10 Palmer Street, Fitzroy, 3065. Microscopical: Mr. M. H. MEYER, 36 Milroy St., East Brighton. (96 3268.) MEMBERSHIP Membership of the F.N.C. V. is open to any person interested in natural history. The Victorian Naturalist is distributed free to all members, the club's reference and lending library is available and other activities are indicated in reports set out in the several preceding pages of this magazine. Subscription rates for 1977 MstrobotllBieos essayist, ieee ERE AL $10.00 Joint Metropolitan ........ $12.50 Joint Retired Members ..... $10.00 Country Subscribers, and Reti $8.00 JN AREF Sire ng ME DIET agi gad ao $10.00 SUE Obert TEE ie Shae nn ný , $2.50 Sameer enna 40 Wie NARI Ir Ls exe AS CM e: H $8.00 Overseas SubscHptbN toe od S A AS RUPES » <. $10.00 Junto NAUTAE A SS SL Tae ince who, erect, CIA eet CIRCE DERE MR E MM $8.00 | Individual Magazines forme aac ee cs COELI: NES SAEC DAE RURALES E Ali subscriptions should be made payable to the Field Naturalist Club of Victoria and posted to the Subscription Secretary. (9 JENKIN BUXTON PRINTERS PTY. LTD., WEST MELBOURNE