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Society.

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3) ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS .
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YEAR ENDING JUNE 11th, 1902.

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1902.

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BRIGHTON AND HOVE

Natural bistorys Philosophical
Society.

—_— = DE Goes

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 11th, 1902.

INDE Zs:

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY... Fi ce ve ox nan

Excavatinc 1x Eoypr anp its Resutts—Proressor FLINDERS

Petrie, F.R.S., &e. ... oat i = = a:

Ponar Prosuems: Arctic anp Antarctic—Mr. MILier
Curisty, F.G.5. sae Bus “= A = re

British Veceraste Gatts—Mr. Epwarp T. Connoxp, F.E.S.
Insect ARcnitects AND Encineers—Mk. Frep Enoct, F.G.5., &e.

Tae Zones or THE CHALK NEAR Bricutron—Mr. WILiiaM
McPuersoy, F.G.S. ... om me ; aide oe

Some Prenistoric Camping GRounpS NEAR BricHTon—

Mr. Hersert §. Toms see ae 42 ae ar
Revort or Councin Aes a 2 = aes zee

Lrprarian’s Report i vA if ae a i

MerroroLocy oF BricHToN on ee Va woe =
TREASURER’s AccoUNT = ee 5a nok af. bse
Boranica Report... S6E be Pee es ae ie
AnnuaL General MEETING see wes dea Be a
SocreTmes AssoclaTED oe nes bets ee of: sae

List or Mempers ... <a ae xe se ae ie

PAGE.

19

38

53

54

55

56

57

57

58

60

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY,
1901-1902,

Kena $<

President :
E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

Past Presidents :

W. E. C. NOURSE. GEORGE DE PARIS.

F. MERRIFIELD, F.S.E. D. E. CausH, L.D.S.

A. H. Cox, Ald., J.P. A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P.,

L. C. Bapncock, M.D. M.O.H.

W. AINSLIE HOLLIS, M.D., E. J. PETITFoOURT, B.A.,
F.R.C.P. EClP:

J. Ewart, Kt., M.D., J.P. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.

J. E. HASELWOOD. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.

W. SEYMOUR BuRROWS, M.R.C.S.| W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

THE COUNCIL.
Ghe President.
Pice- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. Causu, L.D.S. A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P.,
J. E. HASELWOoD. M.O.H.
A. G. HENRIQUES, J.P. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
E. MCKELLAR, Deputy-Surgeon- J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
General, J.P. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.

W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

F, R. RICHARDSON. E. PAYNE, M.A.
W. W. MITCHELL. W. W. HARRISON, D.M.D.
R. J. RYLE, M.D.

Gonorary Creasurer :
_E. A. T. BREED, 32, Grand Parade.

Honorary Auditors :

J. W. Nias. A. F. GRAVES.
BGonorary Hibrarian : Gonorary Curators :
HENRY DAVEY, Junr. H. S. Toms and T. HILtTon.

Gonorary Secretary:
JNo. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Gonorary Secretary :
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

SESSION 1901—1902.

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 171, 1901.

Gxeabating in Egupt and its Results,
BY
Proresson FLINDERS PETRIE, F.RS., &c.

eae Lecturer commenced by pointing out to his hearers the
immense difference between the Egypt of the present, which
consists of a great canyon, going down in parts 1,500 feet below
the level of the dry, elevated plateau through which it cuts, and
the Egypt of ancient times, in which the plateau was green and
well-watered by rains and by numerous streams, running down
into that Nile which to-day is a sluggish river of brown, muddy
water, but which then was a lordly stream, with a level 30 feet
above the point to which it has shrunk at present. The Egypt
that the modern tourist sees is generally little but the banks of
the Nile and the immediate vicinity. The Egypt where he
carries on his persevering researches is the great dry plateau
above, where, in the beds of now empty water-courses, and in
the sides of the rocks, and buried under the accumulation of
millenniums of sand and rubbish, lie the relics of the remotest
human races of which we have any definite knowledge to-day.
To this bare sun-baked plateau no one goes now but the excava-
tor and the archeologist, with their trained bands of native
workmen. There is no life, of men or of animals, unless it be a
few birds who fly thither to prey upon the insects that the wind
sweeps up from the Nile basin. Yet everything in this dried-up
land testifies to the large amount of rainfall it once enjoyed,
when men lived there long before historic time began. It is
impossible to walk a quarter of a mile, said Professor Petrie,
without coming across some flint that has been worked by man,
washed down in the gravel of the long dry beds of streams.

The archeologist in Egypt has to deal with continuous
written history handed down from an antiquity as remote as
5,000 z.c., while back over even that dim chasm of ages there is
a further period of about 2,000 years, of which we have, indeed,
no written relics, but which has left numerous traces, which

6

can be consecutively classified, in the shape of pottery, flints,
and tombs,—a period as remote from the classical ages as the
Ice Age and the Cave Men of Europe are from our own time.
Fragments of mummies of these far-off ages have come down to
us,—not straightly laid and bound as in the dynasties of historic
Egypt, but crouched up in their rude tombs in the sides of rocks.
Such mummies had nothing but skins thrown over them, while
in one case a little copper band was found, for fastening together
the skins, and this is the earliest use of metal that is known.
From these ancient sepulchres have been recovered flints, ivory
rings and spoons, figures of hippopotami, and mace-heads for
fighting, with sharp-edged disks that, as the Professor said,
could not help hitting something, as there was no way for the
edge to turn. The graves where these relics are found have
nearly always been already plundered for valuables long ago, and
it is very seldom they are found untouched.

These pre-historic Egyptians were remarkably skilful in
their handiwork and the use of their materials, and the
samples of their craft that have been recovered show in many
cases a delicacy of touch quite equal to, if not greater than,
the skill of a Sheffield file cutter of to-day. The Professor
threw upon the screen pictures of flint knives, beautifully
rippled and flaked purely for ornament. These knives, he said,
which were made entirely by hand, were often a foot long,
and no more than an eighth of an inch in thickness. Such
work is unequalled in any other country. Further evidence of
a high state of technical efficiency and culture was provided by
specimens of ornamented ivory spoons, with handles carved with
animals, by bracelets of flint, ground down to the thickness of a
straw, carved ivory hairpins, and by some wonderfully-worked
hardstone vases, entirely done by hand and eye, yet so perfect
in form that the most careful examination can rarely detect a
fault. ‘‘We have, altogether, opened four to five thousand
graves of pre-historic times in the past five or six years,”
said the lecturer. ‘‘ We have recorded everything that has
been found, and catalogued each article, and we could put back
into its exact position everything that has been discovered. We
have an exact record of each object.’’ One curious kind of object
found is disks of various sizes, carved with the figure of
serpents, and perforated at the top, evidently meant for hanging
on the person or the wall of a house. The Professor reminded
his audience that in historic Egyptian times we have the
guardian serpent of the temples, while even at the present day
an Egyptian native will not disturb a serpent beside his house.
Another interesting find was made in the grave of a child.
Here were found nine little stone knobs and four big stone
marbles, and with them three small stone sticks of such a shape
that a sort of little gateway could be made from them,—

7

evidently a game of ninepins. In Norfolk to-day, said Professor
Petrie, they still play skittles by bowling through an arch, so
that the game can be traced back to the respectable antiquity of
something like eight thousand years.

The audience were much interested in the lecturer’s explan-
ation of the system by which the comparative dates, though
not, of course, the actual dates, of these ancient relics could be
approximately determined. Certain classes of pottery and other
articles were always found together, and the problem resolved
itself into dividing them in sections, and gradually sorting out
by statistical methods. The last section was found to correspond
very closely with the objects found belonging to the earliest
historic times. The pre-historic Egyptians, said the lecturer,
were evidently closely allied to the peoples living in Syria and
Lybia. There was no practical difference between them, and the
earliest pottery of the Egyptians is almost exactly like that of
the Kabyles of the present day.

About 4,800 to 5,000 s.c. the historic times begin, when an
entirely new race of people came in and founded the First Egyptian
Dynasty. The Professor showed pictures of various utensils of
this time, whereon, easily recognizable, were carved such animals
as the giraffe, lion, leopard, ibex, and others, which have for
long ages been extinct in the land. Another instance of the
wonderful handiwork of the old Egyptian craftsmen was a
circular pot of syenite, two feet across, yet so thin (about a
quarter of an inch) that it could easily be lifted with one hand.
Continuous history begins at 4,800 s.c., with a record of ten
kings before that, which brings us to about 5,000 3.c. From
what we know, the probability is that the very earliest records
have only undergone a few copyings.

On the broken forearm of a Queen of the First Dynasty,
who had been dust for millenniums, his men had found a
beautiful group of four bracelets, of alternate beads of turquoise
and gold, threaded with ball beads. Every piece was numbered
in order, and the Professor said that these jewels showed the
highest technical perfection in the art of soldering. Each
bracelet was entirely separate in design, and every piece was
made for the place it had to occupy. ‘“ A far better idea of what
jewellery should be than any we have at the present day,”
commented the Professor. Gold wire and lapis lazuli are also
found in the jewellery. In the course of his excavations, the
Professor found examples of concentric brick arches dating back
beyond the Pyramids to about 4,200 .c., thus taking back the
history of the arch many centuries earlier than anything found
hitherto. He also found the oldest metal sculpture in the world,
dating about 3,500 B.c., in some small statues of the Sixth
Dynasty, all beaten out in copper, yet as free and life-like in
portraiture as if worked in clay.

8

About 1,400 s.c., a wonderful King, son of a Mesopotamian
Princess, ruled the land of the Pharaohs. He tried to ‘‘ reform
everything,” which could not be done in a generation in any
country, wore particularly in the East. He temporarily wiped out
the worship of the old Egyptian gods, and established the worship
of the Energy of the Sun,—a magnificent conception, and one
which, said the Professor, people could not even to-day, as
Nature worshippers, exceed the justice of. He also tried to
reform the art of the country, and encouraged Mycenean artists
and realism and naturalness in art, and tried in every way to
change the whole of the nation’s ideas. Such a change could
not last. He died young, and every monument of his was
thrown down, and every inscription erased. Yet the fact that
the man could arise with such different ideas was ‘‘ one of the
most astonishing phenomena in the whole history of thought.”
The Professor had been so fortunate as to find a plaster cast of
the dead face of this remarkable King, left by the sculptors who
made his funeral monuments. The face was noticeable for the
thoughtful expression it conveyed. A number of interesting
specimens of the art work of this reign were shown, all of them
remarkable for their fidelity to Nature. Some, indeed, such as
sketches on broken potsherds at the King’s Art School, might
have been done by young artists of to-day. A fresco of this
reign showed the earliest specimen of shaded drawing. After
this date the Egyptians again reverted to the conventional in art.

Among the pictures thrown on the screen was one of a
black granite slab, dating from about 1,400 8.c., in which occurs
the first mention of the Israelites,—a mention four or five
centuries older than any on the Assyrian monuments. It is not
very lucid, and simply records the enigmatical statement that
‘‘the people of Israel’s spoil was left without seed.”

Another thing the Professor showed was a group of the
oldest iron tools of which we know. They were part of the
stock-in-trade of an Assyrian armourer in Egypt about 670 B.c.,
and the chisels, saws, files, and rasp showed that the contents of
our carpenters’ shops have moved very little in 2,000 years.

Finally, Professor Flinders Petrie told his audience some
interesting details about the 80 trained Egyptian excavators who
were ready to follow him to any part of the country for his work.
He remarked that he got the best work from lads between 14 and
18, and that often these would do twice as much an ordinary
English navvy.

The lecture was illustrated throughout with a series of
admirable lantern slides.

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 14ru.

Polar Problems—Arctic and Antarctic,

BY

May NirLicER CHRISTY: F-G:S.,

With Lantern Illustrations.

aa the old-time voyages of plucky Martin Frobisher,

Columbus, and Magellan, through the long tale of daring
captains such as Hudson, Ross, Franklin, Davis, who have
dotted the realms of eternal ice with the record of their deeds,
and have left,—many of them,—their frozen corpses to wait
amid those awful solitudes until the crack of doom, the lecturer
came to speak of our modern giant, Nansen, and his record
yoyage within 227 miles of the North Pole without the loss of a
single man, and to the still later exploit of the Duke of the
Abruzzi’s sea-captain, who holds for the present the world’s
championship by his approach of yet another 20 miles nearer to
the coveted spot. By the aid of a number of interesting old
maps, Mr. Christy was able to show his audience very clearly
how, when men had as yet no notion of the existence of the
American Continent, and thought the earth was smaller than we
know it to be, minds of explorers were set on reaching the
eastern shores of Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic, and
how this idea prompted Columbus in undertaking his famous
voyage. To the day of his death, he said, Columbus had
probably no notion that the land he had come upon was other
than the outlying coasts of Cepango (Japan), Cathay, or India.
From this idea, of course, sprang the name West Indies as
applied to the great islands now called by that denomination.
When the mistake was discovered, the enormous extent of the
new territory was not yet known, and attempt after attempt
was made to round the northern coasts of America in order
to continue the journey. It was with the same view of
getting round the obstructing land that Magellan sailed south,
and, having’ brought his brave little vessel through the glacier-
bordered straits that bear his name, emerged among the
monstrous billows that make that part of the South Pacific a
terror to navigators of to-day. At the other extremity of the
American Continent the persistent attempts to find a North-
West passage led to discoveries and deeds of heroism too
numerous to mention. Among the discoveries was that of

10

the North Magnetic Pole. One valiant explorer was found,
long after his death, sitting hard frozen in the cabin of his
ice-bound ship, his fingers still grasping the pen with which he
wrote his last message,—a dramatic figure for the imagination
to fasten upon. Though the North-West passage has been dis-
covered at last, ‘‘ through peril, toil, and pain,” their lives not
the man who has ever passed by it from ocean to ocean, and
the dream of the Passage as a roadway for the wealth of the
East has long faded away. The race for the Poles has, of
course, no material ends to gain, but Science wants to know
many secrets, meteorological, geological, and biological, which
mother earth still hides under her polar ice-caps. In the
Antarctic, navigators have yet to discover the magnetic curves,
without a knowledge of which safe navigation in those regions is
impossible. Mr Christy spoke of the vast ice cliffs, 200 feet in
height, which render landing on the supposed Antarctic Con-
tinent a practical impossibility, and he complained of the
slackness of the British Government in subsidising scientific
expeditions for Polar discovery. Yet the story he had to tell
was full of the names of bold British sailors of the past, who,
more than those of any other nation, had brought honour to
their country by their discoveries. The lecture was illustrated
by lantern slides.

11

WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 11ru.

Parasites—Vegetable and Animal,

BY
Mari Po CAUSH, 1:D-S.;

With Lantern Illustrations.

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 15ru, 1902.

An Ghening for Exhibition of
Specimens.

—_—————_—_.

A Short Paper was also read by
Mr. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST

ON

Some Optical Illusions,

With Illustrations.

12

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20rx, 1902.

Dritish Wegetahle Galls,

BY

Mr. EDWARD - T:“CONNOLD, Ee

With Lantern Illustrations.

ALL is from the Latin ga//a, and is used to signify the

excrescences or unnatural growths of vegetable substances

which make their appearance in Spring, Summer, and Autumn as
deformities on various parts of many trees, shrubs, and plants.

Early writers on the subject of gall growths did not seem to
have been able to determine how the gall fly contrived to produce
the galls, each of which enclosed an egg. Some thought the
grub itself caused the growth by eating, when nearly hatched
through the cuticle of the leaf, and remained until the juices
flowing from the wound hardened around it. Others supposed
the eggs were deposited in the ground and being drawn up with
the sap were carried throughout the tree until, having reached a
certain point, its course was arrested and the formation of gall
structure then began; and until some few years ago it remained
more or less a mystery. Rennie, writing in 1845, “‘ was aware of
the fundamental fact that the mother gall fly makes a hole in the
plant for the purpose of depositing her eggs,” but he does not
appear to have penetrated the mystery of the development of
their growth.

It may now safely be said that a vegetable-gall growth is
in general an abnormal growth of piant tissue, caused by the
presence of one or more larvee which have emerged from an egy
or eggs that have been deposited in a perforation made by the
parent insect in the roots, bark, and leaves of various trees,
shrubs, and plants, the vegetable cells which accumulate around
the larvz providing them with nourishment and shelter.

The flowers, leaves, buds, shoots, branches, bark, stem, and
even the roots of a large number of plants, shrubs, and trees are
affected and attacked by various beetles, gall-wasps, saw-flies,
gnats, moths, aphides, mites, and wormlets. The productions
caused by this little army of invaders vary in size from very
minute specks to swellings which attain to the size of an ordinary
fist, the colours and shapes being equally as variable.

The shapes are most fantastic. Some are rough and gnarled,
while others are smooth and soft. Some are so hard that it is

13

with difficulty that a pocket knife can cut them, while in contrast
to these others can be easily compressed within the hand. One
kind, which grows at the end of an oak bough on the catkins and
young leaves, resembles bunches of red currants,—a tempting
morsel on a hot May day,—while another kind away up amongst
the top branches of a birch tree resembles a rook’s nest. One
kind assumes the form of a hop-strobile or a miniature artichoke,
and is named accordingly. Two others resemble fruit, one
taking the shape and appearance of an apple, the other exactly
like a cherry minus the strig; another is like a small pea covered
with downy hairs, while another kind reminds us of a number of
percussion caps neatly arranged on the bark of a small oak
bough. Further examples might be given, but these kinds arrest
our attention most speedily.

Two of the most beautiful as regards wealth of colouring are
the cherry gall on the oak, and the bedeguar gall on the wild
rose, both of which, where touched by the sun’s rays, turn a
bright red.

The purdominant colour, however, is green, very delicate
shades of which may be seen at various stages in the growth of
the gulls ; in fact, as may be supposed from the positions they
occupy, they are all more or less green in colour, changing only
as they approach or attain maturity. The common oak marble
may be used as an instance. When growing in June it is a
golden yellow if it be in the shade, but green if more exposed to
the action of light. By September, however, it has changed to
brown, becoming darker as winter draws near.

This is equally applicable to another species, 7.e, green at
first, brown at last.

One of the most noticeable, and certainly the prettiest of
the galls on the sallow trees, is the

Rosette Gall.

This gall is caused by the larve of a small two-winged fly
called Cecidomyia rosaria. ‘Vhe fly, according to Theobald, is
rather pretty, the general appearance being dusky black with
silvery hairs, the wings grey and iridescent, and the antennz as
long as the body. The cluster of withered leaves at the end of
the boughs of the willow tree bear a very close resemblance to a
rosette, and hence its name It is a very pretty form of gall, the
appearance being most uncommon. No doubt it is frequently
reyarded as a mere cluster of withered leaves. Each larva
inhabits a separate gall, and they undergo all the changes within
the rosette. It is an example of the monothalamous group.

They may be seen at best during the months of March or
April, depending upon the climatic conditions of the spring in

14

causing the sallows to throw out foliage early or late, and before
the new leaves are fully developed.

These galls are of a woody nature, and appear near the end
of the boughs and twigs of some four or five species of salix, and
are found during April or May.

The Bulbous Gall.

The swelling takes place very rapidly, and assumes a more
or less bulbous shape, having a smooth surface, except where the
outer skin of the twig has been unable to compete with the
growth of the gall; the outline is then very uneven and ragged.

One noticeable feature of this gall is that although the
growth is of such an enormous size in Comparison with the twig
on which it appears, the circumference of the twig is the same
just beyond the gall swelling as it was before it reached the gall ;
in fact, the deformity produced by this growth rises so abruptly
from the surface of the twig and returns to it in a like manner,
that it bears a striking resemblance to the kernel of a cracknut,
with a little brown stick passed through it from base to apex.

If one of these gall be cut open, there will be found a
considerable number of oblong cavities wherein lie the larve.
The cells are arranged in a very irregular manner, some near
the centre, others close to the exterior walls of the gall, and in
such close proximity that one grub often eats into the domain
of its nearest neighbour. The larve are rather. pretty in
colour. The body is more or less cylindrical in shape, divided
into 13 or 14 segments, and, when fully grown, not quite an
eighth of an inch long. The head is furnished with a pair of
powerful black jaws. They do not appear to have any terminal
outlet of the alimentary canal, therefore the cell is always quite
clean.

As many as fifteen to twenty larve inhabit an average size
gall growth, each one having a separate cell. They undergo
their transformations in the gall, the flies issuing forth during the
month of June, leaving a round hole on the surface of the gall,
through which it has made its escape. This gall is one of the
polythalamous species.

The common bramble furnishes us with the next example of
gall growth. It is produced by the puncture of a little fly called

Lasioptera Rubi.

The larvee are much the same kind as those of the genus we
have just considered, resembling them not only in colour but also
in size and shape, and likewise in attacking plants in much the
same way.

15

The several species of wild rose, whose beautiful blossoms
adorn the highways and hedges, are subject to the attack of three
or four gall-producing wasps.

The most familiar, perhaps, is that called

The Bedeguar Gall,

which is produced by the energies of a very tiny and most
brilliantly coloured gall-wasp, named Lhodites Rose. ‘VYhe word
Bedeguar is from the French, the exact meaning of which I have
yet to learn. ‘This gall is more or less familiar to all who observe
nature while walking in the country during the summer months.
Occasionally, on a hedgerow, may be seen a long runner of a wild
rose bush towering high above all the surrounding foliage, and
upon it is the gall. - ‘This is not the only situation in which they
are found, but it is a typical one.

When viewed from a short distance it has some resemblance
to a reddish brown tuft of moss, of a globular shape. Variation
in size is considerable, but they seldom exceed six inches in
circumference. Upon close inspection, we find it composed of a

“mass of fibrous bristles, which are branched from their base to
their point. One fibre of about an inch and a half long will
throw off as many as 30 or 40 of these branchlets.

In common with many other varieties, it is the abode of
numerous larvee, and is a perfect illustration of the polythalamous
division ; as many as fifty larve may be found in one cluster.
Mach larva inhabits a separate cell. The cells, or woody
tubercles, as they are technically termed, are of various sizes,
small ones being about the size of a little lead shot, others ten
times larger. All the tubercles are fused together more or less
strongly ; some will fall apart with a mere touch, while others
require the use of a knife to separate them. The walls of the
cells are thicker in the small ones than in the larger ones, some
of which may be crushed with pressure by the finger and thumb,
whereas the smaller ones can only be opened with difficulty.

Mingled with the other foliage of a hedgerow there may
often be seen the leaves of the common maple. ‘Lhe attention is
frequently arrested by the bright red appearance of the upper
side of the leaves, rendered more conspicuous because of the
sombre colour of the underside, as well as the greener colour of
surrounding leaves. After a shower of rain, when the sun shines
on them, they are very brilliant and attractive; some of the
leaves are entirely coloured, others only partly.

A careful examination of a leaf will show that the redness of
the upper surface is due toa number of small swellings, which
take the form of pimples, in size about that of the head of a small
pin.

16

These tiny semi-globular elevations cause the leaf to appear
as though it had been sprinkled with some kind of tiny dark red
seed. When once these leaves have been examined they can be
recognised again without difficulty. The underside of the leaf
presents a striking contrast to the upperside ; it is of a very pale
green, almost bordering on a yellowish colour. With the aid of
a tolerably powerful magnifying glass it will be seen that there are
numbers of minute pits, the mouths of which are slightly swollen
above the plane of the leaf. These depressions exactly
correspond to the pimples on the other side. A few of the
pimples develop on the underside, in which case the opening of
the pit is on the upper side of the leaf.

The leaves do not appear to be diminished in area from their
normal size, because of the growth of these galls, nor are they
contorted in shape ; indeed, their appearance is enhanced rather
than otherwise. These swellings are produced by a gall mite.

The mischief which these insects do is very considerable
when compared with their minute size. They are seldom
observed moving about during the day, and it is still a matter of
speculation as to how they spread themselves so easily all over
the buds of a tree and along a hedge row, seeing they are
destitute of wings, and do not jump. Being semi-transparent in
colour and of a very restless nature, it is most difficult to study
them microscopically when alive, and when dead they become
flaccid, whereby increasing the difficulty of a correct delineation.
They are very minute ; several hundreds may he found inhabiting
one ordinary size bud of a currant bush, and considerable
numbers in each swollen gall on the leaves.

Time has not allowed a review of such interesting topics as
the life history and delineations of the insects which cause all
these growths, the methods these insects employ in depositing the
eggs, and the way in which the various structures are built up
until they form the perfect gall; as also the phenomena of
parthenogenesis, and the alternating generations of the species.
On all these points they furnish unique illustrations.

The object of this paper has been, firstly, by describing the
shapes, appearances, and the usual positions scme of the most
common and familiar kinds of vegetable galls occupy, to enable
you, when collecting, easily to recognise them ; and. secondly, in
so doing to create such an interest in them as will lead to
thoughtful and patient study, a study which would be materially
helped by collecting, preserving, and mounting as many examples
as possible, and I trust that within the past hour the first has
been attained, and during the coming year the second will
result in the acquirement of a new pleasure to many who have
been most kind and patient listeners this evening.

17

TUESDAY, MARCH 4rx.

Insect Architects and Gngineers,

BY

Mr. FRED ENOCK, F.G.S., &c.,

IN

MUSIC ROOM, ROYAL PAVILION.

ry. men could keep a roomful of Brighton people interested

for two hours, listening to descriptions of just two varieties
of insects. For a triumph like this Mr. Enock owes much to
his really wonderful illustrations. With loving care for the
minutest detail, he has drawn his subjects from life under the
microscope, in their natural colours, and has perfected a series
of lantern slides illustrative of insect life which must be almost,
if not entirely, unique. In many cases, by most ingenious
mechanical processes, he so manipulates the slides as to show
the actual movements of the insect of which he is treating. It
was of two insects, the leaf-cutter bee and the tiger beetle, that
Mr. Enock set himself to talk, taking the former as a specimen
of the insect architect, and the latter as an insect engineer. The
leaf-cutter bee, whose Latin family name is Hymenoptera,
receives its English name from its way of walking off with
circular or oval slices of the leaves of various plants,—with a
preference for Marshal Niel roses,—to make cells withal. He,
or rather she, burrows a little tunnel in sand or any other
suitable soft substance, and with the bits of pilfered leaves
builds up in a wonderful way first one cell and then another,
filling each cell with honey as it is completed, and laying one
egg, so that the grub, when hatched, can feed upon the honey
until it develops to the chrysalis stage, and thence to the bee.
The whole history of the leaf-cutter bee’s life Mr. Knock showed
by his wonderful slides, from the act of cutting off the pieces
of leaf, to the final exit of the young bee from its tunnel to the
open air. Mr. Enock waxed enthusiastic over the bee’s delicate
antenne, in which are situated its nerves of smell, hearing, and
touch, and over its simple and compound eyes, while he grew fairly
ecstatic on the subject of its hair. Showing a portrait of a male
bee with its tongue out, he said it might be a satisfaction
to some of his audience to know that the tongue of the male bee
was longer than that of the female, but on the other hand the

18

female was compensated by possessing a far stronger jaw.
Then, by one of his ingenious contrivances, he showed the bee’s
jaws working. In case any of his audience should be troubled
by having their rose trees used too extensively as a quarry by
the leaf-cutter bee, Mr. Enock gave the useful “tip” that all
they had to do to protect the trees was to plant a border of six
inches of ‘golden feather,’ which this bee will on no account
cross. So intently has Mr. Enock studied the bee that he
assured his audience he could tell the hum of one kind of bee
from another, and he explained how, in one instance, he
was successful in catching a rare kind of bee through having
his attention arrested by the note of its hum, which he had not
heard before.

The life history of the tiger beetle (family Coleoptera), of
which some more wonderful illustrations followed, took Mr.
Enock fifteen years to find out. He explained it to his audience
in about an hour. One of the cleverest of his mechanical

adjustments of slides showed the tiger beetle springing at its
prey, and dragging it down into its hole.

Mr. Enock was careful to impress on his audience that
anyone with perseverance and ordinary intelligence can watch
for themselves the life-work of the wonderful little creatures he
had been speaking of. Each year he felt himself more impressed
with our ‘‘ miserable ignorance’’ of insect life. In museums we
had thousands of specimens of insects stored, but naturalists
knew the life history of very few indeed.

19

THURSDAY, APRIL 10rx.

Che Zones of the Chalk near Brighton,

WITH AN

Introductory Sketch of the Existing Zones of Life
in Britain,

BY

Mr. WILLIAM McPHERSON, F.G:S.

‘lid order to make perfectly clear what is meant by the terms I

have used, “ Zones of Life,’ I shall begin with an example
of the application of the term to existing conditions of life,—
Animal and Plants. This will enable you better to understand
the significance of the zones in the chalk, to the determination
of which I have devoted the last four winter and early spring
months.

The term Zone, as used in this Paper, is an arbitrary
Horizon of Life. They more or less overlap each other, and the
animal or plant chosen to represent the zone is one that has a
small vertical range; and where they are most prolific, they
encroach upon the zones above and under, but in diminished
numbers. .

I have selected the game birds and animals of Britain and
their characteristic food plants, as they represent very distinct
and well-defined zones, from the highest mountains down to the
sea level. Latitude in Britain affects the zones ; for example,
the red deer is found in Inverness-shire at an elevation of 1,200ft. ;
in the Island of Lewis in the outer Hebrides it comes down to
200ft. Everywhere we find an adaption to their surroundings,
in regard to altitude, latitude, and temperature. Moisture and
cold play important parts in the distribution of life. Moisture
in temperate latitudes, with its increase of vegetable food, where
the monthly rainfall is fairly equally distributed, produces a
greater number and variety of genera and species of animal life
than is found in warmer climates with an irregular rainfall.
Beginning with the highest zone of life in Britain, that of white
hare and ptarmigan. The white hare (Lepus albus) inhabits the
upper parts of the mountains of central Scotland. It was formerly
found in Cumberland and Westmoreland, but is now extinct in

20

England ; it is not present in the islands of the outer Hebrides
or in Orkney and Shetland; the vegetation on these mountains
is scanty, the surface is full of large grey boulders. This
animal is a beautiful illustration of adaptation of its colour to
the surroundings. The summer fur is of a dull grey colour,
resembling the boulders; when the winter snows are on the
ground the fur changes to a pure white. The ptarmigan (7’etrao
lapogus) is now found only in a few mountains of central
Scotland, and, like the white hare, is extinct in England. The
summer plumage is dull grey, corresponding with the boulders”
in summer, becoming with the snows nearly pure white. When
disturbed it has a low flight, bobbing about the boulders.
I refer to the summer flight (this was observed on Mount
Schiehallion in Perthshire, Anglicé, ‘‘ Mountain of storms”’).
The white hare has a wider vertical range than the ptarmigan,
but the geographical range is more similar. Like the white
hare it is not found in the Western Hebrides or Orkney and
Shetland. It is difficult to account for this absence, for some
of the mountains of the Islands of Skye and Shetland are
similar to those which it frequents in Scotland, and they are
much nearer their chief habitat, Norway and Iceland. It may
have been caused by the islands remaining longer glaciated ;
this is more probable by the absence of other forms of life—for
example, frogs, &e.

The ptarmigan is found in North America, slightly different
from the Scandinavian variety. The latter is the species abun-
dantly exhibited in the shop windows in Brighton, and is rather
smaller than the Scottish variety. The food of the white hare
is represented on the diagram by Poa alpina. They feed mainly
on the tender shoots and seeds,—the flowering plants, Sawifraya
nivalis and Silene acaulis,—and all the representatives of this zone
are entirely of an Arctic origin, survivals of the close of the
Glacial Age in Britain.

The next zone on the diagram, that of the red deer
(Cervus elephas) and the red grouse (/ Tetrao scoticus ), is also of an
Arctic character, though not exclusively so, as in the zone above.
The red deer was formally abundant in England and Ireland in
a wild state, it now only survives under the protection of man.
It is the only survivor of a numerous species that inhabited the
United Kingdom and Ireland (all destroyed, with this exception,
by the approach of the Glacial Age). Their fossil remains,
mainly teeth, are numerous, and have been found at the Black
Rock, Brighton, along with the reindeer. They are protected in
Scotland and in Exmoor, Devonshire, for sport. One forest in
Scotland was leased for £8,000 per annum, but the sport is only
for six weeks. The term deer forest is misleading; the word is
used in the old Saxon meaning, as an enclosed place, for there is
scarcely a tree in all their habitat.

7

, <7,

=

:

Land Zones Existing.

|

ELEVATION. ANIMALS. BirRDs. PLANTS.

4,000’ to 1,000’| White Hare. | Ptarmigan, S%’/raga nivalis, Poa alpina, and
pale Red Deer. Red Grouse. Calluna vulgaris and Erica cinerea.
oh ys Brown Hare. | Black Grouse. . Agrostis canina.

800’ to . : Partridge—Cereals and Insects.
sea level. Rabbit. / Partridge. Rabbit— Vegetables and Grasses.
300’ to Deer— Cultivated Grass.
a. local Fallow Deer. | Pheasant. | Pheasant—Cereals and Cultivated
Br Roots.
Marine Zones Existing.
DEPTH. INHABITANTS. REMARKS. LocaLity. RANGE.
Barnacle.
Limpet.
Inter-tidal. | Mussel. British Coasts.
Rissoa. }
Cerithium.
Star Fish.
Crab, Lobster.
To 100’ | Flounder, Haddock. British Coasts.
hens At maximum.
Cod. an Wize : 0’ to 700!
100’ to 300’| Ling. { repeat om |i Coasts.
Pleurotomaria. ;
|
Skate. S ’ ate \e ‘ 0’ to 800’
| , imit of sun’s ritish Coasts.
300! to 600’, Turbot. rays.
Terebratulina caput Q |
serpentis. } Hebrides.
Beryx splendens. 2,000/ | Japan. 600'to 2,500’
Hake. | Ireland. 0’ to 2,400’
600! to 700’ Terebratula wyvilli. | 7 ,000/ to 17,000’ South Australia.
rere cerpentia, ¢ | 0't06,500 | Oban, N.B.
| Rhynchonella psittacea. | 60! to 2,000! Shetland.

22

The red grouse ( Tvtrao scoticus ) frequents the upper plateaus
of the Scotch, English, and Irish mountains; it is most abun-
dant in Scotland, less so in England, and comparatively scarce
in Ireland. It rarely descends to cultivation, and when it does
and feeds on cereals, the change of food produces disease, a species
of pneumonia. The proper food of the red grouse is the tender
young shoots of the plants mentioned in the diagram, Calluna
vulgaris and Erica cinerea. The red deer and red grouse have a
much wider geographical distribution in the British Islands than
the zone above, they are both found in the islands of the
Hebrides; while the red deer is distributed throughout the
Continent of Europe, the red grouse is entirely confined to the
British Islands. Their presence in the outer islands is in
remarkable contrast with the higher zone. The nearest ally to
the red grouse is the willow grouse of Scandinavia, all inhabi-
tants of treeless regions.

The food, Calluna vulgaris and Erica cinerea, is very
widely distributed in the British Islands and throughout the
Continent of Europe. I have no satisfactory explanation to
offer for the restricted geographical area of the red grouse. It
is a bird strong of flight, and perfectly capable of crossing the
Channel or even to Norway. Glaciation may be the solution of
the question, but it is confronted with many anomalies and
difficulties. The red grouse is abundant in the Western district
of the Island of Lewis, where the glaciation was relatively late,
and clearly marked on every exposed rock; also in Sutherland,
two prolific habitats of the red grouse, thus very largely
diminishing the value of the theory of glaciation for the
restricted distribution of the upper zone, the white hare and
ptarmigan. However applicable to the higher zone, it entirely
fails in this to account for the distribution in the British Islands
of the red deer and red grouse.

The next zone is the brown hare (Lepus timidus) and the
black grouse (Tetrao tetrix). The black grouse, usually known to
sportsmen as black game, frequents the hills above the tree line
and the upper part of the tree line, just bordering the limits of
cultivation. It occupies a well defined zone of the grasses under
the Calluna vulyaris and Erica cinerea, mainly feeding on the
young shoots and seeds of Agrostis. It is a larger and more
powerful bird than the red grouse but inferior for sport. The
brown hare has a wider range than the black grouse. The same
difference in range is observed between the white hare and the
ptarmigan. The narrower vertical range of the birds, with their
superior power of locomotion, I think, can be explained by the
quadruped’s more omniverous vegetable food.

The next zone, the rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) and the partridge
(Perdrix cinerea), do not go so high as the upper part of the
zone above, but they overlap in the lower part. The partridge

23

is rarely found far from cultivated fields. Its food is cereals and
seeds of the grasses bordering the cultivated fields; it has a
more restricted geographical distribution in Britain than the red
grouse, not being found in the Western Hebrides or Orkney and
Shetland. The rabbit has a similar range as the partridge, from
the lower part of the black grouse zone down to the sea level.
lt is not found native in the outer Hebrides, but has been
introduced in the Island of Lewis quite recently. The lowest
zone, the fallow deer and the pheasant, is not a natural one, it
represents a fauna imported and protected by man; they are
aliens, and could not survive in this climate unless protected.
There is at present an interesting illustration of protected
animals becoming confined to their habitat: in Scotland the
large sheep farms, when let, contain a clause in the lease, that
the incoming tenant takes over the sheep stock at a valuation,
the arbitrators usually value the stock at ten to fifteen shillings
per head above the current market price, because the sheep have
become acclimatised and do not go beyond their zone, or limits of
the farm. There are seldom any boundary fences, and new
stock would wander across the boundary or zone of the farm.
This question is at present much discussed in the Scottish
newspapers.

Marine Zones Existing.

Having found the Terrestrial Zones of Life and Plants clearly
defined and separated in their vertical range in Britain, we now
come to the Inter-Tidal and Marine Zones. We here find the
same adjustment to their surroundings as in the Terrestrial
Zones. I have chosen depths to describe the zones, in prefer-
ence to the seaweeds usually taken for this purpose. The
seaweeds have distinct zones to a depth of 300ft., the limit of
marine vegetation.

For the Inter-Tidal Zone all the examples mentioned in the
diagram are found on the Brighton shores east of the Black
Rock. They are found in descending order. They are to a
certain extent amphibious; nearly one half of the twenty-four
hours they are covered by sea water, and again exposed to strong
light and frequent showers of rain water. With the exception
of the edible limpet (Patella vulyata), they select the darkest
corners of the rocks. There are two species of limpets, the first
named and a very much smaller and more compressed species,
beautifully coloured and striated on the outside of the shell, and
richly coloured inside. The barnacle and limpet come close up
to high tide.

The mussel, Rissoa, and Cerithium do not come so near high
tide mark. The latter adhere to seaweed and corallines. There
is a very minute zodid adhering to the latter in great abundance.
It forms the principal food of the larger mollusca. The

24

numerous round cells found in the inter-tidal chalk are made by
a boring bivalve (Pholas dactylus). It is abundant near low
tide, and is nearly white and richly sculptured on the outside.
It is edible, and greatly esteemed on the Mediterranean shores,
where it commands a high price. The late Professor Leach
highly praises it for fine flavour and delicacy when cooked.

Among the rarer molluscs are two species of Chiton. Rare
on the chalk shores, they are more common on the northern
coasts. All the above are inhabitants of temperate seas. The
limpet is not found north of Scandinavia. The average winter
temperature of the sea around the British coasts is from 40° to
45°, The inter-tidal mollusca are incapable of resisting severe
frosts. The great frost of the winter 1854-55 destroyed the
greater part of them from the South-West of England to the
Moray Firth in Scotland. The next zone, Oft. to 100ft., is
inhabited by mollusca and fish that live only under sea water.
There is only one species of star fish found in Brighton /( Asterias
rubens). It is fairly common in the late spring and summer at
very low tide, or thrown on the beach by storms. The starfish,
unlike the limpet and barnacle, is incapable of living out of its
habitat,—sea water. Immersion in fresh water causes instan-
taneous death. The brittle star fish, which has the power of break-
ing its limbs, is preserved by putting it into fresh water. From
the classic authors of Greece and Rome the star fish has had a
bad name for burning, stinging and poisonous qualities. Sir
Thomas Browne, of Norwich, in his “ Vulgar Errors,” does not
disprove the popular error. Our star fish is perfectly harmless.
The bad reputation survives in the local names, as “ The Devil’s
Hand,” ‘The Devil’s Fingers.’’ Science is a plant of slow
growth in the popular mind.

The crab and lobster, flounder and haddock are well-known
inhabitants of shallow water.

The molluscs Trochus and Mactra are found at a depth of
a 50ft. to 100ft. After storms the shells are found on the

each.

The next zone is 100ft. to 800ft., the latter the limit of
marine vegetation. The cod (Gadus morhua) is sparingly found
in the Brighton sea. The cod is a rather widely distributed fish
around the British coasts, most prolific on the northern areas.
The ling (Lota malva) has a still more northern zone than the
cod, and frequents deeper water. The cod and ling fishing is a
large industry in the North of England and Scotland. The
next zone, 300ft. to 600ft., is under the limit of marine vegeta-
tion ; consequently, all the inhabitants are carnivorous. Light
ceases to penetrate below this zone.* A decided change takes
place in the size of the eyes of those fish that frequent the lower

* Challenger, vol. i., p. 40.

ee ee eS eS ee

25

part of this zone; they are much larger. It has been suggested
that the increased size is an adaptation to catch the faint rays
of light that penetrate to that depth.

- The next zone. The turbot ( Pleuronectes maximus) and the
skate (Raia latus), the representatives of this zone, are ground
feeders, rarely coming to within 200ft. of the surface. The rays
have a great geographical and vertical range. The Terebratulina
caput serpentis has been found in the Hebrides of Scotland at a
depth of 600ft. It has an enormous geographical and vertical
range in the existing seas. The Challenger Expedition found it

-at a depth of 6,500ft. off the Japan Islands. The ranges

correspond closely with that of the Rays. We shall find, when
we come to describe the fossils of the chalk, that it has an
equally wide distribution as a fossil.

The next zone, 600ft. to 1,700ft., is represented by Beryx
splendens. This species has some affinity to the Beryx found as
a fossil in the chalk. It frequents the seas off Madeira at about
600ft., and was found off the Japanese Islands by the Challenger
Expedition at 6,500ft. This fish is a good illustration of the
increase of the size of the eyes at 600ft.,—the limit of light. I
here quote from Professor Edward Forbes and Mr. Godwin
Austin. Writing about the Madeira Fish Market, they say :—

“The spring is characterised by the common appearance of the
splendid coloured Beryx in the streets, attracting notice no less
by its hues of silver, scarlet, rose, and purple than by the
extraordinary and opalescent or rather brassy lustre of its
enormous eyes.”

The Hake (Merluccius vulgaris) is also a fish of very wide
distribution, abundant in the deep waters of the British seas. It
has been found at a depth of 2,500 feet. The family is very
widely distributed. The Marine Zones are well defined and
separated from each other; the limit of vegetation is inhabited
by its own species of vegetable-eating mollusca and the fish that
feed upon them, thus limiting the fauna to a small vertical
range. The geographical range is also limited by cold, as we
found in the example of the limpet. The greater geographical
and vertical range of the fish inhabiting the deeper waters of the
sea is a result of the uniformity of the conditions of their habitat.
The vast area of the Deep Sea has no violent changes of tempera-
ture to act as a barrier to their distribution, and the abundance
of their food and power of locomotion enables them to inhabit
this great ocean area—both geographical and vertical. I extract
from the Challenger Reports the depth at which fish and
mollusca have been found. The Deep Sea or abyssal fauna
attains its most prolific development at a depth of from 8,600
feet to 7,200 feet. There is a great abundance of Hewactinilid
sponges, stalked crinoids, and sea urchins allied to Salenia.

26

Cephalopoda are found to a depth of 12,000 feet; Echinoidea to
17,000 feet; the Crinoida to a depth of 17,000 feet ; the Brachio-
poda to 17,000 feet; the Gasteropoda, in very diminishing
numbers and variety, to 15,000 feet. Fish are found at depths
of 17,000 feet at twenty observation stations.

The lesson derived from the examination of the conditions
of Life in the Marine Zones is the same as in the Terrestrial,
adaptation to environment or extinction.

The Fossil Zones of the Chalk in Brighton and
Neighbourhood.

From the consideration of the elementary and _ well-
known zones of existing life, we now come to the less known
zones of fossil life. The conditions are widely different in the
fossil state. We now depart from the contemporaneous view,
and have to examine the life history of genera and species,
deposited in the chalk, at vast intervals of time, the greater part
of them appeared for the first time, and became extinct with the
close of the deposition of the chalk. I have endeavoured to show
in the existing zones of contemporaneous life, an adjustment to
their terrestrial and marine environments, The marine survey
was over a wide area of the existing seas, and a smaller extent of
land. The area of the cretaceous sea was very great. I shall be
able later to exhibit a co-relation of fossils deposited in nearly
similar conditions at a distance of 6,000 miles apart. The
cretaceous sea was perhaps not inferior in area to the Atlantic or
the Pacific Oceans,—certainly larger than the Mediterranean.
The exact area is impossible to be ascertained; denudation has
removed the evidence of its deposition over many parts of
England, and nearly al: of Scotland. Tertiary volcanoes have
probably largely metam orphosed and destroyed the chalk in the
Island of Mull and Scotland generally, where the remains of the
cretaceous sea are isolated and scanty. The cretaceous sea, like
the modern ocean, had its shores and depths, for it is a well-
recognised opinion that, since the beginning of geological time,
there has been a division of the globe into sea and land, and
consequently there were various degrees of depths and currents,
as we find in the present oceans. The chalk is largely composed
of microscopic foraminifera and the more or less minute frag-
ments of the shells of mollusca. The proportion varies greatly :
generally, the deeper the water the more minute the fragments
and the purer white the colour of the chalk. In interpreting the
history of the Fossil Zones, we have not the same absolute proof
of their position that we had in the Existing Zones ; we have to
rely largely on the paleontological evidence, supported in a
lesser degree by the lithological, The exposures of the chalk in
Brighton and district are as complete as in any other County in

:
|
|

27

England, with the exception of Dorset. The only zone that is
absent is the highest known in England, — Belemnitella
mucronata; it is only found in Norfolk and Dorset, Hampshire
and Wilts. Dorset is the only County in England that has all
the zones of the chalk represented from the highest to the

Chloritic Marl on the coast.

Zones of the Chalk.
UPPER CHALK—

Zone 1. Belemnitella mucronata.

Actinocamax ( Belemnitella) quadratus.
Marsupites.

Uintacrinus.

Micraster cor-anguinum.

Micraster cor-testudinarium.

MIDDLE CHALK—

Zone 7. Holaster planus.
» 8. Terebratulina gracilis,
», 9. Ehynchonella cuviert.

LOWER CHALK—

Zone 10. Actinocamax ( Belemnitella) plenus.
», 11. Ammonites rotomagensis or Holaster subglobosus.
», 12. Ammonites varians or Rhynchonella martini,

Dox we go bo

The zones of the chalk represented on the Brighton Coast
and inland to the base of the escarpment to the south of the
Lewes plain—which is my limit of Brighton and district—
include all the zones of the chalk from Actinocamax ( Belemni-
tella) quadratus to the grey chalk, the lowest on the diagram.
The zone represented on the diagram—AHolaster sub-globosus—
is the lowest zone found in the Brighton district. The upper
and middle chalk, which we find to have been deposited in this
neighbourhood, has been laid down in comparatively deep water.
This is fairly well proved by the abundance of Ventriculites,
sponges and the almost total absence of the Gasteropoda. This
is characteristic of the deep waters of the existing seas and a
good co-relation with the Cretaceous Sea. I may mention here
that the Challenger Expedition found mollusca closely allied to
the cretaceous species at a depth of from 10,000 to 17,000 feet.
In the upper chalk Univalves are the rarest of fossils ; with great
depths in the existing seas they are equally rare. In the lower
chalk they are more frequent, indicating a deposition in a shallower
sea. The zones are represented by a fossil that has the most
definitely restricted vertical range. As I explained in the existing
zones of animal and plant life, the zones are the life histories of
the species.

28

The zones on the diagram are those recommended by the
Sub-Committee of the Geological Congress, 1888, for Zone
No. 9 (Rhynchonella cuvieri) can be more readily recognised by
Professor Barrois’s zone of Inoceramus labiatus; it is much more
abundant than the former, and, in small exposures, more readily
found. The recognition of strata from their fossils was first
announced in a small volume published by Mr. William Smith,
Mineral Surveyor, Derby, entitled ‘‘ Strata Identified by
Organised Fossils.’’ He gives the fossils of the upper chalk,
and the illustrations occupy half a sheet. JI have placed
the volume on the table, and, alongside it, the volume of the
Paleontographical Society, where a single genus (Spondylus) is
illustrated by sixty-four figures. This exhibits a very large
increase in our knowledge, but, for field work, the illustrations
in Smith’s book are much superior,—clear and clean cut lines
are well drawn.

Professor Barrois was the first to describe the zones of the
chalk on the English and Irish coasts. His divisions and zones
are generally accepted in this country. In England the latest
and most exhaustive description of the zones of the white chalk
of the English coasts is by Dr. Rowe, F.G.S., &c.,—diagrams by
Mr. Sherborn (1900). The first part, Kent and Sussex,
describes the coast sections from Newhaven to Brighton. To the
field worker it is an invaluable guide. The accuracy and
precision of description, and the clearness with which the zones
are separated and explained, is delightful,—a classic work for the
coast sections of the white chalk.

To Dr. Rowe I owe much. He directed me how to
recognise the zones of the chalk by their fossils, and, for the last
three years, by a large correspondence, notwithstanding the calls
of a busy profession, has identified and described my specimens.

Zone 1.—Belemnitella mucronata is altogether absent in
Sussex. I exhibit a specimen from Trimingham, Norfolk.
This zone has only been found in the Counties of Norfolk,
Hampshire, Wilts, and Dorset. I have searched for it between
Newhaven and Preston Railway Station, without success, the
only localities where it is likely to be found.

Zone 2, Actinocamax (Belemnitella) quadratus.—This zone
is widely represented on the Brighton coast. It is found on the
upper part of the cliffs from Newhaven to Saltdean Gap, where
it comes down to the tide level, then running high in the cliffs
to Rottingdean, where it again comes down to the shore, then
runs high in the cliffs to the junction of the chalk with the
Coombe Rock near Brighton. Inland it is found in road
cuttings between Newhaven and Rottingdean, and in a small
roadside quarry at East Hill, three-quarters of a mile north of
Rottingdean. It is again exposed in Ovingdean quarry and near
the Golf House in chalk thrown up in digging drains for houses

29

now building. Coming westwards, there is a considerable gap.
Tt is not found in Kemp Town Railway Station quarry; it
reappears in the cuttings of the Brighton Railway Station, and
runs along the Railway to Preston, and perhaps to Patcham,—
the evidence of its presence at the latter place is, so far, incon-
clusive. The name-fossil is not common in any part of the
zone; it is found sparingly on the inter-tidal chalk from the
Pumping Station to Newhaven, and in fallen blocks from
Coombe Rock to Newhaven. There is a small urchin, Cardiaster
pillula, restricted to the upper part of the zone; it is a safe
guide to the zone, and can be often found in small exposures
when the Belemnite is absent. I have not found the Belemnite
in any of the inland exposures. Cardiaster pillula is very
abundant in East. Hill quarry near Rottingdean. I found a
block of flint that fell from the top of’ the cliff at the junction
of the chalk and the Coombe Rock with fifty examples, many in
fine condition. The half of the block is now in the Brighton
Museum among the fossils illustrating the zones of this district.
Another characteristic fossil of the zone is belemnitella granulatus.
It is of a granular texture, and found in the inter-tidal chalk of
the west end of the’ Manupites zone from Roedean Cottage to
Rottingdean ; it is a rather rare fossil, as all the Belemnitella
are on this coast. Pecten cretosus is found high up in the
cliffs west of Rottingdean ; it is not common, and one of the
most beautifully ornamented of the chalk fossils. Spondylus
spinosus is very common throughout this zone and of large size,
both in the chalk and flints. It attains its maximum size near
the junction of the zone with Marsupites under Roedean Cottage.
Spondylus dutempleanus is found rather sparingly throughout,
is rare, in good condition, and more restricted to the upper
part of the zone. chinocorys vulgaris, popularly known
as the Shepherd’s Cap, is the most abundant fossil on this
coast. It is of a smaller size than those found in the
zone under. Sponges are abundant throughout, especially
calcified forms, and Ventriculites, Pharetrospongia strahani
is fairly common in the lower part of the zone. A fine
specimen is in the zonal illustrations. It can generally be
found in the inter-tidal chalk between Rottingdean and the
Pumping Station. There is another characteristic fossil, Ostrea
lateralis, var. striata, from the upper part of the zone. It is
small and the striations are rather faint. Cardiaster pillula and
Terebratulina striata are found in Oyingdean quarry,—a fair
exposure with few fossils. It has not been worked for many
ears.
: The next zones 3 and 4 are not usually separated. I
have divided them from the very well defined division into
upper and lower horizons in the Kemp Town Railway Station
quarry, Marsupites the upper and Uintacrinus the lower part.

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The coast sections exhibit the same division, but not so
clearly marked as it is in the fine vertical exposure of
Uintacrinus in the quarry. Marsupites testudinarius was for-
merly described in text books under several specific names,
derived from the smoothness or roughness of the ornamenta-
tion on the calyx plates. The smooth plates are generally
found in the small specimens, and may be younger than the
rougher ones. Marsupites has been described by a great living
authority* as like to ‘‘ Mahomet’s coffin suspended between
heaven and the earth, for it has no ancestors or successors.”’
This zone is very well represented on the low cliffs and inter-
tidal chalk near Roedean Cottage, and poorly, mainly in single
plates, in Kemp Town Railway Quarry, as we there reach the
base of the zone only. It has not yet been found in any other
exposure in this district. I think it may yet be discovered in
the railway cuttings between Brighton and the Dyke. This
rare and beautiful fossil is formed of sixteen unjointed body
plates, with five rows of unjointed arm ossicles. It was a free
swimmer, and no perfect specimen has yet been found, a rare
joy awaiting some future searcher. I have seen a few fair
specimens in flint, and should not be surprised if it is found
in that position. There is no better exposure for fine large
examples than the low cliffs and inter-tidal chalk from Roedean
Cottage, and four hundred yards eastward there I have found
many beautiful specimens, but without the arm plates. I give
the dimensions of two kindly made for me by Dr. F. A. Bather.
They may be useful for the guidance of future collectors :—

Noss No. 2.
Mm. Mm.
Height ... 2 :.. 45°22 | Height... = ... 458
Greatest width... ... 46°5 | Greatest width ... 406
Least width ... > 84:4 | Leastwidth ... =. ple
Average width .. ... 40:4] Average width «2 O90

So far as is known at present, Marsupites is better repre-
sented in England than in any other part of the Cretaceous
sea, and it is only found in a small vertical horizon in that
sea. It has now a very small geographical range, being
found only in fragments in France and in Algeria, and not
in America, which is very surprising when we consider the
large development in that country of the lower part of the
zone Uintacrinus. There is little doubt it will yet be found
in the United States, India, and Palestine.

Among the characteristic fossils of the zone are found
Echinocorys vulgaris, of a helmet shape, hence the popular name
of Shepherd’s helmet. The zone can be fairly well recognised

Dr: ” Bather.

a ee ee a ae

ee se

————————————— UL LC eee

33

by this fossil, and, equally so on the coast, by the presence of
Echinoconus conicus. Whenever you find it you may be
certain you are near Marsupites, at least, on the coast. Lima
hopert is found of a large and fine form, but, owing to the
delicacy of the shell, difficult to separate from the matrix.
Spondylus spinosus here attains its maximum size. They are
quite common, wih the spines well preserved, but are very
fragile, and great care is required in cleaning. If the chalk is
allowed to dry, the spines are more easily saved. Ostrea
wegmanniana (D’Orbigny) was discovered, for the first time in
England, in 1899, in this zone, by the writer. The original and
finest block, for they are gregarious, is among the collection to
illustrate this paper. It ranges from the Uintacrinus beds at the
Black Rock to the base of the Actinocamax (Belemnitella)
quadratus zone, near Rottingdean. The most likely place to
find specimens is in the inter-tidal chalk, one hundred yards east
of the Pumping Station. They are well known in the chalk of
France and were found many years ago by Mr. Griffith and
Dr. Rowe, but not identified by the Geological Survey, Jermyn
Street. This zone has only one Ammonite, and a very remark-
able one it is (Amuinonites leptophyllus), popularly known as
Landscapes, a good description of their sutures, and sometimes
Carpet Slippers, which is not so appropriate. It goes from
Uintacrinus to the middle of the Actinocamax zone beyond
Rottingdean. There is a fair specimen at present exposed on
the inter-tidal chalk near Roedean Cottage, 4 feet 3 inches in
diameter, in circumference 12 feet 9 inches. They are quite
common, but generally much worn. They are not found in
France. This is an interesting fossil, the last species of the
race, and it is curious how it should have become extinct on
attaining this enormous size. There is no evidence from the
chalk structure to exhibit any violent change in the condition of
life to suddenly destroy this genus, which survived numerous
and sudden changes throughout the Lias, passing above the
Gault, in very different conditions to the chalk, in diminishing
numbers, and finally disappears in the Actinocamax (Bel.)
quadratus zone, long before the chalk deposits ceased to be laid
down. There is a fine specimen in the British Museum, taken
from the neighbourhood of Rottingdean. Cyphosoma kenigi,
one of the beautiful fossils of the zone, is fairly common in
fragments, but specimens in good condition are rare.

The lower part of the zone, marked No. 4 on the
diagram, is the sub-zone of Uintacrinus. This fossil was a
free swimming crinoid. The first specimens were collected by
Professor Marsh in 1870, from the Uintah Mountain, hence
the name. A fine block from Kansas in the British Museum,
with perfect specimens, led to a search in this country, with
the curious result that plates and ossicles were found in Dr.

34

Rowe’s collection,—undescribed for twenty years. They were
also found in the Willett collection in the Brighton Museum,
described as Marsupites. In 1899, directed to search in the
neighbourhood of the Black Rock, by Dr. Rowe and Mr
Sherborn, I was successful in finding a few plates and
ossicles on the inter-tidal chalk, the only exposure on the
coast. They are not found beyond five hundred yards to the
east of the steps at the Coombe Rock, where Marsupites begin
to be sparingly found. Making an examination of the inland
exposures this winter, I found an exposure of the zone of
fifty feet in the Kemp Town Railway Station Quarry. It con-
tains single plates and many ossicles, accompanied by many
fragments of Bourgeticrinus. This is the only other exposure
of Uintacrinus in the Brighton district and also the best. It
can be traced from the base of the west side of the quarry,
gradually rising until it joins the Marsupites beds at the
top of the tunnel, a height of 85 feet. The base of the
tunnel is the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum. This quarry is
the only exposure of Marsupites, Uintacrinus and Micraster cor-
anguinum that can be studied in situ in the inland exposures,
as only a few connected plates of Uintacrinus have been found in
Britain. I give some measurements and description from
Professor Beecher* of perfect specimens found on a slab in
Kansas. ‘‘ Notwithstanding the considerable geographic range,
the horizon appears to be nearly constant. The slab occupies
27 square feet of surface. In the area are calyces of 220
individuals. Occasionally a specimen measures 70™™ across
the diameter. A flattened condition is about 60™™
minimum specimen. The arm branches can seldom be traced
more than 10mm _ from the calyx, though separate ones
extend quite five times that distance from the surface. The
presence of several small Ostrea larva tends to show that the
water was of a moderate depth. Nearly all the specimens of
Uintacrinus, as well as the limestone layers containing them,
are of a light buff colour.”

I have found Ostrea larva in the Uintacrinus beds at the
Black Rock. It is now in the British Museum. This is the
lowest zone that it has been yet found in England. This co-
relation of Uintacrinus and Ostrea larva from Western Kansas
in America to Brighton, a distance of six thousand miles, gives
an enormous area to the nearly contemporaneous deposits in the
cretaceous sea. The absence of Marsupites in America may
possibly have been caused by the land rising in America and
sinking in England. With Uintacrinus is associated, at the
Black Rock and Kemp Town quarry, two fossils of an equally
restricted vertical range. Actinocamaw verus, which is not

* American Journal of Science (1900).

SE eee

35

found above the Uintacrinus beds, is small, without an alveolar
cavity. It is a rather rare fossil. The other, Terebratulina
rowet, goes up to the base of the Marsupites beds. It is very
small, and, like Terebratulina gracilis, rather gregarious.
Kingena lima is found, but is rather a rare fossil in this zone.
Oreaster ocellata, a very rare Asteroid, I found at the eastern
end of the zone in the inter-tidal chalk near Roedean Cottage.
There is here a bed of much crushed crinoids, and should be
carefully examined for good specimens. The JLchinocorys
vulgaris of this zone are very characteristic. They are of great
size compared with the zones above, and the upper surface is
nearly flat in many specimens.

The discovery of Uintacrinus in Kemp Town Railway

quarry was quite unexpected. The distance from the Black
Rock is about a mile, and the elevation at the base 200 feet, and
Uintacrinus rises in quarry to 250 feet; so that we have in that
distance the horizon above the sea level raised 250 feet. The
denudation between the Golf House and Kemp Town was
narrow near the coast, for we find at the Brighton and Preston
Railway Stations the highest zones of the Sussex chalk
Actinocamax ( Bel.) quadratus. At the end of the Paper, an
attempt will be made to explain this gap and the extensive
inland denudations. The next zone 5, Micraster cor-anguinun,
is found at the base of the cliffs east of the Pumping Station.
It overlaps a considerable part of the Marsupites beds above, and
Uintacrinus under. It is well exposed at the base of both sides
of the Kemp Town quarry. Lhynchonella plicatilis is common,
but more abundant and of a larger size in the zone above.
Good examples of Terebratulina striata are found here. This
fossil is found in all the zones of the chalk and is found living
at great depths in the present seas,—at 600 feet in the Hebrides
and 7,000 feet off Japan. Micraster cor-anguinum is also
found in the Railway cutting at Dyke Station,—-an elevation of
500 feet. It is also found in a small hillside quarry at Norton
Top,—elevation 600 feet. The zone in this district is every-
where poorly exposed.
Zone 6, Micraster cor-testudinarium.—This is a new dis-
covery of the zone in this district. The only exposure, and it is
a very slender one, is on the hill road, half a mile south of
Balsdean Farm, towards Rottingdean. The exposure is so
small that few examples have been found. One specimen has
been described by Dr. Rowe as ‘‘an absolutely typical one.” It
will be found among the specimens illustrating the zone. A few
associated fossils are Terebratula carnea, Terebratula semt-
globosa, Rhynchonella plicatilis. Epiaster gibbus may belong
to this zone, but it was not found in siti.

Zone 7.—Holaster planus (middle Chalk) is found at the
top of Bevendean Pit, a small exposure one-sixth of a mile

36

north-east from Bevendean Farm. 4Holaster placenta is also
found, and Micraster praecursor. They may represent the
junction with the next zone.

Zone 8.—Terebratulina gracilis is much more satisfactorily
exposed than the last three zones. Hitherto unknown in this
district, and found within three miles of Brighton, and at an
elevation of 400 feet above the highest zone on the coast, the
two principal exposures are at Saddlescombe Quarry, 500 feet
above sea level, and at a place named Falmer Bottom on the
Gin. map. The exposure at Falmer Bottom begins at the 450
level, on south side, and is found in chalk turned up by the
plough, in an attempt to take in a few extra yards of the crest of
the hill. I have proved the zone also by digging into the hill side,
and found sixteen in an hour. At Saddlescombe the exposure is
large, showing sixty feet of vertical chalk. The name-fossil is
abundant with a few Rhynchonella cuviert. It is found more
sparingly in Bevendean, Iford, Balsdean, and Norton Pit, under
Falmer Bottom, under the junction with the zone.

Terebratulina gracilis is one of the most delicate and
beautiful fossils found in the chalk, or any other formation.
It is very small, with one of the valves flat and fan-shaped.
The other valve is slightly raised. It is difficult to find, unless
the mealy weathering of the chalk has been washed off by
heavy rains. The associated fossils of this zone are widely
different from those of the zones above. One of the most
striking changes is the absence of Lchinocorys vulgaris
(Ananchytes ovata), so predominant in the upper zones of the
chalk. The presence of small Ammonites, altogether absent in
the higher zones, the absence of Ventriculites, and the rather
more frequent appearance of Univalves, all indicate a shallower
sea. Discoidea dixoni is the only echinus, along with a form
of Echinoconus conicus, that are found in this zone. The
former is not so common, perhaps, owing to the small exposure.
Inoceramus labiatus is found abundantly. The other charac-
teristic fossils are Cyphosoma corallare, two undetermined
species of Inoceramus, Terebratula carnea, Terebratula semi-
globosa, Tooth of Enchodus Lewesiensis, and many scales of
Beryx, a fish of much interest, as it still survives in the deep
waters of the present seas.

Zone 9.—Rhynchonella cuvieri. A marked change in the
character of the chalk is found in this zone. It is hard, of
a darker colour, with dark nodules and streaks, indicating a
still shallower water during the deposit. This zone is repre-
sented in two small pits near Bevendean Farm and at
Norton Farm, distant from the former two and three quarter
miles in an easterly direction, and about the same elevation
250 feet above the sea level; also in the lower part of Saddlescombe
Pit. The name-fossil is a small Rhynchonella. It is common in

4
:
:
.

37

the pits named above, especially in Bevendean. It is not
usually gregarious, but here it is more so than in Devonshire.
There is another distinction, the zone is without flints in
Devonshire ; in Beyendean they are quite common. The
presence or absence of flints is not a safe guide throughout a
zone. In the Marsupites zone in Kent flints are almosi
absent, while in Brighton, near Roedean Cottage, on the sea
bed, flints form nearly one-third of the area. Small Ammo-
nites are found at the middle of Falmer Bottom, their last
appearance. They are more common in Norton pit, and still
more so in Balsdean Pit, perhaps owing to the larger
exposure. They are always in casts, and generally much
crushed. The species of the specimens exhibited have not yet
been determined.

Pleurotomaria perspectiva is the only univalve found in
Balsdean pit. Hehinoconus conicus occurs here in a form
peculiar to the zone; it is higher and more conical than the
form in the Marsupites Zone. The absence of Echinoconus sub-
rotundus indicates that the exposures are near to the top of the
zone, coupled with the presence of Holaster planus at the top of
the small Bevendean pit. Spondylus spinosus is present in
Balsdean and Bevendean pits. It is much smaller than the
form found in the Marsupites Zone. Two specimens from the
same pit have not yet been identified ; they may be Spondylus
(striata). Terebratulina striata appears in Norton pit. It is
found everywhere in the chalk. Inoceramus labiatus is found
in Falmer Bottom, Norton pit, Balsdean, and Bevendean.
From its great abundance, mostly in casts, it is an excellent
guide that you are either in the zone above or this. There are
several species of Jnocerami in Balsdean and Norton pits.
Inoceramus cuvieri can be recognised, but the others, being
mostly casts, are difficult to determine. Ostrea hippopodium is
found in Balsdean; it is more common in the upper zones.
Terebratula carnea and Terebratula semi-globosa are very abundant
in Bevendean and Balsdean pits.

Zone 10, Grey Chalk.—A very small exposure on the
Lewes Road, north of the Dyke near Fulking represents the
upper part of the zone. The name-fossil Holaster sub-globosus
and Terebratulina carnea were found; the original Holaster
sub-globosus was so damaged that I will have to place alongside
a fine specimen from the grey chalk of Folkestone.

Summary of Results.

The discovery of a Zone of Uintacrinus and Micraster cor-
anguinum in Kemp Town Quarry and the Dyke, of Micraster cor-
testudinarium on the Balsdean Road, of Holaster planus at the
top of Bevendean Pit, of Terebratulina yracilis in Saddlescombe,

38

Falmer Bottom, Bevendean, Norton and Balsdean pits, of
Rhynchonella cuvieri in Bevendean, Norton and Balsdean pit,
and of the Grey Chalk at Fulking, north of the Dyke Railway
Station.

The appearance and disappearance of forms of life is well
defined, and the lesson is taught in all the Zones,—adaptation to
altered conditions, or extinction, never to reappear in the same
form.

THURSDAY, MAY 8ru.

Some Prebistoric Camping Grounds
near Brighton,

BY

Mr. HERBERT S. TOMS.

OTH previously to and during my six years’ residence in
Brighton, my favourite recreation has lain in scouring the
country, at every available opportunity, in search of flint imple-
ments and such other material as enables the archeologist
to construct, by synthetic and comparative methods, a fairly
accurate account of what were the crafts, arts, and customs of the
prehistoric inhabitants of Great Britain. Of my many rambles
in the fair County of Sussex, which have been principally
confined to the Downs, and of the success or disappointment
attending them, I do not propose to give a detailed account.
The object of the present paper is to lay before you, in the
nature of a preliminary report, one result of my local “flint-
hunting” expeditions during the last twelve months.

Quite frequently the remark has been made to me that the
flint tools of prehistoric men lie scattered broadcast over the
surface of the Downs, and in such abundance as to be easily
found if one takes the trouble to look for them. One of my
friends even went so far as to inform me, in good humour, that he
knew of a field where a waggonload might he obtained, and
coupled it with the suggestion that my next tramp should be
made to the site of this happy hunting-ground. ‘This view of
the subject may be a popular one; but, judging from my own

39

experience, and that of other enthusiastic collectors, I must
emphatically state such a view to be erroneous and most mis-
leading.

Before coming to Brighton I had had sufficient training to
enable me to detect any flint implement which lay in my path
during a walk across the fields or over the hills, and I felt fully
qualified to commence similar expeditions in the neighbourhood
of Brighton. But, surprising as it now seems to me, my first two
years’ search in this district were very unproductive ones ; for not
one flint axe rewarded my repeated rambles, and, of the few
smaller flint implements I came across, none were of such
workmanship or presentable appearance as to merit a place in the
Museum collection. The result of these disappointments was an
extension of my field of explorations to more likely localities. Of
these Cissbury comes first on the list. In the entrenchment itself
I discovered little of any value. The best hunting-grounds, I
found, were the cultivated patches of Downland in its vicinity ;
and, in carefully and methodically working these, I met with
much success. On my first visit I turned up no less than a
dozen flint axes, three only of which were perfect specimens.
During another visit I was rewarded with an axe, a gouge, a
dagger, and a large boring instrument, the three latter being rare
types, hitherto unrepresented in our local collection of flint
implements.

‘An extended search in this district led to the observation
that the axes do of lie scattered broadcast over the hills, but that
they are confined to certain spots, and that, where one finds a
single specimen, several others may generally be revealed by a
diligent search. This fact also led me both to cultivate a minute
observance of any evidence which would enable me to trace such
productive sites, and to the endeavour of fathoming the reason
why they should occur in this manner.

Such an observance was attended by the discovery that other
prehistoric remains invariably and abundantly occur on these
spots in close association with the flint axes ; and, as these
associated remains have an important bearing on the subject of
my paper, I now propose to deal with them in detail. For this
purpose I have selected typical examples from the various sites
on the Downs. As the initiated will observe, they consist of flint
flakes ; flint cores: hammer-stones ; the smaller flint implements,
such as scrapers, needle-makers, arrow-shafters, and borers ; and
the calcined flints with which prehistoric man boiled water and
cooked his food

The flint flakes are by far the most abundant, occurring, as
they do, by the thousand. These were either chips struck from a
flint by primitive man to serve for cutting or scraping purposes,
or the chips produced during the fabrication of some flint tool,
such as an axe. As the ordinary observer experiences the

40

utmost difficulty in distinguishing these artificial chips of flint
from natural splinters, it is necessary for me to explain, at this
point, how such artificial fractures differ from natural ones ; and,
for this purpose, I shall have recourse to the most primitive
method of producing a flint flake.

“Let us suppose that the primitive savage required a
cutting instrument, and that among the flints near at hand there
were none with such naturally sharp edges as would fulfil his
purpose. By experiment and research we know, in such a case,
he selected from the flints near at hand one about the size of his
fist, to serve as a hammer, and another of a convenient size from
which to strike chips or flakes, which would also serve for cutting
purposes. If the flint to be chipped was small, he held it in his
hand to undergo the operation. If too large to be held comfort-
ably in the hand, it was probably rested on the thigh: then, with
a well-directed blow from his hammer-stone, he struck a chip
from the other flint. Let us now examine such a chip or flake, as
it is technically termed. We shall first observe that it has a flat
top upon which the full force of the hammer-stone was concen-
trated. Directly underneath this flat top, and on the smooth side
of the flake, which fits into the hollow from which it was struck,
we observe a little rounded protuberence ; this is known as the
bulb, or cone, of percussion. In a typical flake we then notice
the existence of approximately concentric rays covering the flat
surface of the flake on the same side as the bulb of percussion.
In some instances these rays and the bulb of percussion are so
pronounced as to give the flake the appearance of a fossil shell
cast in flint ; the bulb of percussion simulating the umbo or top
of the shell, and the concentric rays the divisions of its periodic
growth. To this reremblance is due the coining of the term
* conchoidal,” or shelly fracture, now applied to the artificial to
distinguish it from natural fractures which lack these character-
istics. When we examine the hollow from which the flake was
detached, we naturally observe the above characteristics in a
reversed form. ‘This hollow is known as a facet.

“To proceed a stage further, let us assume our flint chipper
has struck flake after flake from the same flint till none of its
original surface remains, the whole being covered with the
facets of the detached flakes. It is obvious that the next flake
taken off will bear the imprint of one or more of the facets from
which the previous flakes were removed. To produce a good
symmetrical flake from such a core of flint, the blow should be
delivered directly above the divisional line of two adjoining
facets, the result will then be that this line will form a ridge
running down the middle of the detached flake.

“Flaking with the hammer-stone, as described above, is a
knack not very readily acquired ; and, where the production of
long, symmetrical flakes is concerned, it is extremely difficult,

—

:

sel ett ee te el ol

—

J

41

necessitating, as it does, long, careful, and thoughtful practice,
To obtain such a result as a flint flake, the flint to be chipped
should be retained, by some means or other, in an elastic
medium—an elastic medium, however, is not a sine gud non,
although it is preferable—and the blow of the hammer-stone
must be sharp and delivered with precision.

“Lord Avebury has gone so far as to state that ‘a flint flake
ts to the antiquary as sure a trace of man as the footprint in
the sand was to Robinson Crusoe”* My observations, how-
ever, enable me to say that this statement requires some
modification. One would infer from such a remark that the
production of a conchoidal fracture by any natural agency is a
sheer impossibility. Such, though, is not the case. There are
many ways in which flakes can be and are produced by natural
causes where the underlying principle of flaking practically
amounts to the same as the artificial process described above.
One local instance will suffice in explanation: Maybe many of
you have walked from Brighton to Rottingdean along the
shore. If so you will have observed that wherever the rough
seas had washed away the shingle between high and low water
marks, it had laid bare the chalk floor. You will agree with me,
too, that this uneven surface requires some circumspection to
traverse in safety; for the water left in the depressions seems
to exert a great attraction over one’s feet, and, in the endeavour
to avoid these poois, the chances are manifold that one’s ankles
or shins become barked by the flint boulders projecting out of
the chalk floor. Now it is to these boulders, held firmly in the
chalky matrix, that I wish to draw your attention. Our first and
lively impression is that they are very abundant; our second
impression, on closer inspection, is that many of them dis-
tinctly show conchoidal facets. Now, after I have emphatically
stated that the knack of chipping flakes from a flint is not easily
acquired, you will ask how the flaking on these rough boulders
was produced. The answer is simple. It was effected by
natural attrition with other loose boulders and pebbles, the
motive power being supplied by the waves of the rough seas.
By chance it happened that some few of the boulders and
pebbles, swept to and fro by the waves, struck the projecting
flint at the correct angle and with the proper force, and then
off flew a flake. Such chips, produced by the blind forces of
nature, are irregular, unsymmetrical, and generally of small size,
and a little practice enables one to distinguish with accuracy
between this natural flaking and the comparatively beautiful and
thoughtful workmanship of the hand of man. Whenever we come
across a symmetrical or well-formed flake which exhibits the
portions of at least two facets on its outer face, then, and then

* Prehistoric Times, page 87.

42

only, I think we may dogmatically assert that such a flake is, in
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, ‘as sure a trace of man as the
footprint in the sand was to Robinson Crusoe.’”*

As the majority of the flakes found in association with the
axes on the productive spots are well-formed and show evidence
of skilled workmanship, we may conclude they were produced by
primitive man in fashioning his flint tools, or, as I have already
mentioned, for use as cutting or scraping instruments.

Before quitting these introductory remarks on artificial flint
chips, there is yet another and an important characteristic
exhibited by many of them to which I am tempted to draw
your attention. In examining a collection of prehistoric flakes,
one often observes specimens with a facet on the bulb of per-
cussion (fig. 12) caused by the removal of a more or less minute
flake. In scientific terminology, this little facet is known as an
éraillure. It has recently been described as the secondary hall-
mark of a man-made flakey, and has hitherto been maintained
as a valuable criterion by the champions of the authenticity of the
so-called Eolithic or Plateau implements and of the rude tools of
early Paleolithic times.

Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S., has explained the cause of
an éraillure to himself in the following manner:—‘“In an
ordinary blow one just brings the hammer upon the object, and
is regardless of the rebound, which generally initiates the return
motion, and thus is unrecognised ; but, when one wants to hit in
a certain place, in a certain definite direction, there is an
unconscious concentration of all muscular power to make the
blow fall at that particular spot, and even keep the hammer there,
and this voluntary muscular opposition offered to the uprise of the
striker forces it back, occasioning a secondary but light blow.
This can also be well seen and heard when one attempts to drive
a nail in an awkward place by a series of slow, deliberate blows,
each of which will be followed by a second involuntary tap, _ It is
this tap which removes the small flake from the bulb of per-
cussion, and produces the well-known évai//ure. This, therefore,
is characteristic of an intentionally directed blow. Upon sub-
mitting a specimen to Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S., he at once
noticed this inestimable hall-mark. All experiments thus point
to the éraz//ure as being altogether more important than a mere
bulb of percussion, and, so far as we are aware, may be taken as
a proof of man’s work, as it can easily be seen among flakes inten-
tionally removed from a block, but so far as is known under no
other circumstances.” {

* Experiments in a Lost Art, by H. S. Toms.
+ The Authenticity of the Plateau Implements, by W. J. Lewis
Abkott, F.G.S., Natural Science, vol. xii., page 114.
+ Worked Flints from the Cromer Forest Bed, by W. J. Lewis
Abbott, F.G.S., Natural Science, vol. x., pages 92-93.

tt i

Implements from Prehistoric Camping Grounds.

Figs. 1-4, scrapers; fig. 5, combined needlemaker and scraper; figs. 6-8, needlemakers;
figs. 9-11, arrowshafters ; fig. 12, flake showing éraillure

== Ll

43

Quite recently I have carried out a long series of flaking
experiments in the endeavour to verify, if possible, Mr. Lewis
Abbott’s view with regard to the production of an érazd/ure, and
as to its being such an inestimable hall-mark of man’s handiwork ;
but, so far, my efforts in this respect have led me to a very
different conclusion.

In the first instance, my experiments have convinced me
that, to produce a flake, the rebounding blow, which has been so
harped upon, is not an absolute necessity. I have intentionally
delivered blows at such angles as to render impossible a rebound
or a re-striking of the flint with the hammer-stone, and, invari-
ably, such a single blow has successfully detached a respectable
flake ; and, what is of far more importance, many of the flakes
so struck off by single blows have exhibited the characteristic
éraillure. This, therefore, entirely negatives Mr. Lewis Abbott’s
theoretical explanation as to its being due to the involuntary
rebounding tap. Occasionally I have succeeded with a single
blow in detaching a flake with two or more éraillures ; and, after
careful consideration, to my mind, the most feasible explanation
of their production lies in the uneven surface of the hammer-
stone at the point of impact. At any rate, the existence of an
éraillure on a flake cannot, in my opinion, be considered as
characteristic of an intentionally delivered blow. I have instanced
above the natural production of conchvidal fractures, and, as my
experiments have shown an érai//ure can be and is often caused
by a single blow, I see no reason why natural flakes should not:
bear the same characteristic.

Reverting once more to the subject of my paper, I will now
direct your attention to the flint cores ‘These are merely blocks
of flint, generally of small size, covered with the facets of
artificially detached flakes. They represent the residuum of large
flint boulders from which prehistoric man chipped flakes of
convenient sizes to make into cutting and scraping instruments.
These also occur in abundance, and were evidently cast aside as
useless when no flakes of the desired shape and size could be
struck from them. It has been suggested that some of the
smaller cores were used as -sling-stones; but this is merely
conjecture. As a rule they are not of any uniform size or shape,
and the existence of shore pebbles with them points tu the
inference that the latter would by preference have been used as
sling-stones if, indeed, the sling were in use in this part of the
country in prehistoric times.

The flints which prehistoric man used as hammer-stones in
flaking next claim our attention. These, too, are by no means
uncommon, and are invariably turned up wherever other evidence
of primitive man abounds. — They are, as you will observe in the
examples exhibited, generally round flints—occasionally shore
pebbles— which rarely exceed the size of one’s fist, and are more

44

or less covered with comparatively minute indentations. These
indentations, moreover, form the principal evidence which goes
to prove they were used as hammer-stones ; for, by experiment,
one ascertains not only that flints of this shape and size are the
most convenient to handle and of the right weight to produce the
force necessary to detach a flake, but that continuous chipping
results in giving them similar indentations, and, in fact, the exact
appearance of the hammer-stone of prehistoric times. | Occasion-
ally one comes across a flint core which has been used as a
hammer-stone.

Of the smaller flint implements awaiting description, the
most common is the scraper (figs. 1-4). This tool is invariably
a flint flake re-chipped to a round and bevelled edge. The
Opinion is that these scrapers were used by primitive man in
dressing the skins of animals; for, among the Eskimos, a
similar instrument was, and—I believe I am correct in so
stating—is still used for the same purpose. Several of these
Eskimo scrapers are to be seen in the principal Museums of
Europe and America, and, in his classic work on Stone Imple-
ments, Sir John Evans figures one as a comparison with the
scrapers of prehistoric times.* Many of the scrapers one finds
on the Downs are beautifully formed, and, as they are of all
shapes and sizes, the probability is they were used for a variety of
purposes in a variety of ways. Judging by my own experiments
in flint chipping, I may say these little tools are easily and
rapidly made, and to this may be due the fact of their occurrence
in such numbers.

{ now ask you to closely examine the two scrapers which
have little semi-circular notches chipped out of their edges
(fig. 5). With these are arranged a number of flakes which also
exhibit similar notches of varying sizes. It is evident they
were used as a spoke-shave for scraping or pointing some cylin-
drical object. In Matural Science is figured a similarly notched
flake of white quartz, which is described as having been used by
the Red Indians of the Sacramento Valley, U.S.A., for pointing
their bone needles.t The notches in many of the local flakes
would seem to have been serviceable for a similar purpose. In
others, though, the notches are much too large for this, and
might have been employed for scraping or smoothing the shafts
of arrows or other wooden articles. Such hollow or concave
scrapers have therefore been provisionally termed, according to
their respective sizes, bone needle-makers(figs. 6-8) and arrow-
shafters (figs. 9-11). These needle-makers occur nowhere so
abundantly as on the Sussex Downs, and it at first occurred to

* Ancient Stone Implements, p- 268, fig. 203.
+ The Authenticity of the Plateau Implements, by W. J. Lewis
Abbott, F.G.S., Matural Science, vol. xii., No. 72, plate vi., fig. 38.

45

me that the majority of the little notches might have been pro-
duced naturally. In order to ascertain whether this might be the
case, I devoted some time to the endeavour tc reproduce them
both on the old surface flakes and on flakes newly struck from a
flint. My attempts to fashion such semi-circular notches by
blows from a small hammer-stone, a pointed flint, or the edge of
another flake ended in a complete failure. Further experiment
convinced me that the majority of the smaller and well-formed
notches could only have been ;roduced by quite a different and
more refined mode of flaking ; the flaking instrument used being
a pointed piece of bone or horn, and the minute flakes being
detached by pressure and not by blows. Not a little skill, too,
is required for the operation; although, once the knack of
flaking by pressure is acquired, they are readily and quickly
made. ’

Having satisfied myself as to the very probable method
employed in the intentional production of these needle-makers,
another question arose, namely, could any of the notches
have been produced unintentionally by prehistoric man during
the operation of fashioning his bone spears, bone awls, or
needles with the sharp edge of a flake? The bone handle of
an old tooth brush with angular sides came as a timely aid at this
point in my investigations. With the edge of a flake I not only
made its sides rapidly assume a convex form, but I found that
the pressure against the edge of the flake had detached a number
of minute chips, resulting in the formation of a concave notch of
the same size and shape as the convex edge of the tooth brush.
On comparing my handiwork with the prehistoric needle-makers,
I saw, much to my gratification, that it was an exact replica of
the smaller kinds. This simple experiment leads me to believe
that many of the ancient specimens were unintentionally formed
in a similar manner. Personally, I think we may take for granted
that but few of the notches on these hollow scrapers were
naturally produced. In the case of the larger specimens, it is
probable that many of them were fashioned by blows from a
pointed stone, as I have succeeded in reproducing several in this
manner.

In speaking of the arrow-shafters, Dr. Thomas Wilson, of
the United States National Museum, says: ‘The scrapers with
a concave edge, for scraping arrows, are rarely found in pre-
historic collections. . . . The United States National
Museum possesses some, but not many. They seem not to have
been recognised or cared for, and were not gathered by
collectors.” *

* Arrowpoints, Spearheads, and Knives of Prehistoric Times,
by Thomas Wilson, LL.D., Annual Report Smithsonian Institute,

1897, p. 885.

46

The small tools, termed borers, require little description.
In the majority of instances they are flakes chipped to a sharp
point to serve as boring or piercing instruments. In regarding
these, the ordinary observer may feel rather sceptical as to their
boring or piercing capabilities; but experiment proves they
admirably answer the purpose of boring holes in wood or bone.
This I successfully demonstrated to some sceptical friends by
boring a perfectly circular hole with one of these rude tools
through the handle of a hat brush. ‘The discovery of these
borers in connection with the flint axes is a rare occurrence,
and but few have hitherto rewarded my many rambles over the
Downs.

With the exception of the flint axes, the tools described above
are not such as could have been well employed as weapons of
offence or defence. They evidently served more pacific purposes
in the dorrestic phase of primitive man’s life ; and, we may
depend, they played an important part in the preparation of
animal hides as clothing, the covering of their huts or tents, &c.
Of the existence of habitations on these productive sites there is
an entire lack of evidence ; but, that food was cooked or water
boiled on these spots, there is a profusion of proof existing in the
enormous quantities of what are known as ‘‘pot-boilers,” or
cooking stones. From the examples exhibited you will perceive
they are approximately round flints, of varying sizes, and that they
differ in colour from ordinary flints, as well as in the multitude of
cracks which extend through them in every direction. This
greyish tint and cracked appearance can only be reproduced in
one way, namely, by heating flints to a high temperature, either
directly or indirectly, by fire. In the fortified camps of pre-
historic man these burnt flints occur in thousands; and it is now
generally recognised among archzologists that they were
employed in the cooking operations of the prehistoric tribes,
who, like many savages of recent years, had no pottery or other
vessels which would stand the heat of the fire.

The following quotation from Professor Tylor will give you
a fair idea of this method of stone-boiling as it obtained among
the savages of North America :—

‘“There is a North American tribe who received from their
neighbours, the Ojibwas, the name of Assinaboins, or Stone-
Boilers, from their mode of boiling their meat, of which Catlin
gives a particular account. ‘They dig a hole in the ground, take
a piece of animal’s raw hide, and press it down with their hands
close to the sides of the hole, which thus becomes a sort of pot
or basin. ‘This they fill with water, and they make a number of
stones red-hot in a fire close by. The meat is put into the water,
and the stones dropped in till the meat is boiled. Catlin
describes the process as awkward and tedious, and says that,
since the Assinaboins had learnt from the Mandans to make

47

pottery, and had been supplied with vessels by the traders, they
had entirely done away with the custom, ‘excepting at public
festivals, where they seem, like all others of the human family,
to take pleasure in cherishing and perpetuating their ancient
customs.’ Elsewhere, among the Sioux or Dacotas, to whom the
Assinaboins belong, the tradition has been preserved that their
fathers used to cook game in its own skin, which they set up on
four sticks planted in the ground, and put water, meat, and hot
stones into it. The Sioux had the art of stone-boiling in common
with the mass of the northern tribes. Father Charlevoix,
writing above a century ago, speaks of the Indians of the North
as using wooden kettles and boiling water in them by throwing in
red-hot stones, but, even then, iron pots were superseding both
these vessels and the pottery of other tribes. To specify more
particularly, the Micmacs and the Souriquois, the Blackfeet and
the Crees, are known to have been stone-boilers ; the Shoshonees
or Snake Indians, like the far more northerly tribes of Slaves,
Dog-Ribs, &c., still make, or lately made, their pots of roots
plaited, or rather twined, so closely that they will hold water,
boiling their food in them with hot stones ; while, west of
the Rocky Mountains, the Indians use similar baskets to boil
salmon, acorn porridge, and other foods in, or wooden vessels
such as Captain Cook found at Nootka Sound, and La Pérouse
at Port Frangais. Lastly, Sir Edward Belcher met with the
practice of stone-boiling, in 1826, among the Esquimaux at Icy
Cape.” *

In Australasia and many of the Polynesian Islands, the
practice of stone-boiling was in universal use until comparatively
recent times. It is now, however, being rapidly superseded by
the introduction cf metal pots and pans of European origin, The
large wooden bowl on the table is said to have been used by the
inhabitants of Banks Island, New Hebrides, in conjunction with
heated stones for cooking food.

It has been suggested that many of the so-called pot-boilers
found on the cultivated patches of the Downs are merely flints
which have been accidentally burnt in couch or other refuse
heaps. This may be the case in a few instances ; but the genuine
articles are readily recognised by their aged aud weathered appear-
ance, and also by their similarity with the undoubted specimens
from the prehistoric entrenchments and habitation sites.

Having completed my brief and analytic description of the
remains found in association on these productive spots, we will
now turn to the Ordnance Surveys, and note the positions of a
few of the most typical of such sites which I have discovered and
paid repeated visits to during the past year or so. In the
neighbourhood of Cissbury you will observe there are three. One

* Early History of Mankind, pp. 263-264.

48

on the crest of Lychpole Hill, about half a mile south-east of the
entrenchment ; another about 400 yards to the east ; and the
other on the spur of the Downs, known as Mount Carvey, which
slopes from Cissbury towards Broadwater. Flakes, cores, scrapers,
cooking stones, refuse axes, &c., are to be found in spots
throughout the length and breadth of this latter spur ; but the
example marked on the map has proved the most typical and
most productive. The areas of these and the other sites I have
yet to mention are very varied, some being less than a quarter of
an acre in extent, whilst, in others, the “ finds” lay scattered in
groups over several acres.

The next ordnance sheet shows the positions of three com-
paratively small but very productive sites bordering the summit
of the eastern escarpment of the Downs in the neighbourhood of
Beachy Head. For the purpose of reference I have indicated
these respectively as A, B, and C. A is situated on the northern
slope of Crapham Hill, C on Pea Down, and B about half a mile
north on the same spur of the Downs known as the Peak. In
this district I have failed to come across one perfect axe, my
discoveries being confined to refuse portions of small but
beautifully chipped axes, and to the usual well-formed flakes,
showing evidence of expert workmanship, scrapers, needle makers,
&c. On site B an acquaintance of mine recently discovered a
perfect and delicately worked barbed arrowhead when walking
over the ground with me.

The marked scarcity of large and complete axes in this dis-
trict is, in my opinion, obviously due to the depredations of the
ubiquitous stone-picker. Last year, when working the Beachy
Head district, I came across a dozen men, women, and boys who
were engaged in picking flints for road material from the cultivated
land, and I found that, owing to their frequent conversations with
collectors, every man, woman, and boy had become possessed of
sufficient knowledge to recognise a ‘‘ war-stone ”’—the name it has
pleased them to give a flint axe—whose value might represent
anything from sixpence to as many shillings, according to the
excellence of the specimen and to the length of the collector’s
purse. But, in many instances, the stone-picker is not so
acquainted with a rudimentary knowledge of these artificially
chipped flints, and consequently many (yes, very many) beautiful
specimens are gathered and subsequently cracked up as road
material. In this way the Downs are being rapidly denuded of
the flint implements. Happily, however, the majority of the
smaller tools are left behind, and thus afford sufficient evidence to
enable one to still trace the spots where they most abound.

Last year, when walking by the side of the cultivated field
which adjoins the Dyke Road in front of the Booth Museum,—
the site Mr Councillor Carden lately proposed as a new park for
Brighton,—my eye was arrested by.a beautiful little scraper which

49

lay within reach of my walking stick just over the wire fence.
This led me to trespass and to the discovery that the surface of
the field near the fence was covered with flakes and cooking
stones. I then applied to Mr. J. J. Clark for permission to walk
over the field, which he kindly granted me. Since then I have
repeatedly worked the field, and have found that the cooking
stones, flakes, scrapers, needle-makers, cores, &c., occur more or
less in groups over its whole surface. Of the larger implements I
have only discovered the halves of flint axes, both rough and
polished, including a large roughly chipped axe, probably a waster,
which has subsequently proved one of the most interesting surface
implements I have yet found. Its special characteristic is a small
patch of glaze on one of the facets, which Professor Boyd Dawkins
says is identical with that hitherto only observed on a few of the
older river-drift implements.* The question of the origin of this
natural glaze is yet unsolved. It is, moreover, a question which
cannot detain us on the present occasion.

The next spot to be mentioned is the most typical I have to
bring before your notice. This is situated in the open fields on
each side of the Dyke Road just beyond the last reservoir and
about half-way from the clock tower to the Dyke. Here I have
discovered several fine and perfect axes, and some of the most
beautiful scrapers I have ever seen. With these, too, were
associated the usual quantities of flakes, cooking stones, and
many of the other smaller flint tools.

The finest axe it has ever been my lot to add to the
Museum collection, I accidentally turned up about two years ago
near the south-western summit of Newmarket Hill, known locally
as Norton Top. This is now shown mounted in a wooden
handle of very modern appearance to represent the probable
style of hafting. Its discovery induced me to thoroughly work
the brow of the hill and the cultivated land in its vicinity as far
as the growth of the crops would allow. But, with the exception
of one small but prolific spot near Wick Farm, a quarter of a
mile to the south-west of the hill, this locality at first proved very
barren. This particular spot, the last I have to bring before your
notice, was absolutely littered with delicate flakes. Cooking
stones, too, were in abundance, and, associated with them, were
many finely worked scrapers, including several of exceptionally
small size. Before leaving this part of the Downs, I may
mention that Norton Top has recently been laid bare of its crops
and so enabled me to give it a thorough overhaul. A few
solitary pot-boilers lie strewn here and there over its surface
unaccompanied by any of the smaller flint implements; but, not
far from the spot where the flint axe was found, there are

* Paleolithic Implements from Savernake, by Edgar Willett, M.B.,
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xxxi., page 310.

50

hundreds of well-formed flakes grouped together and confined to
small spaces only a few square yards in extent. Such spots as the
latter are commonly termed fabrication sites, or, in other words,
places where primitive man made a halt or periodic visits in order to
dig into the clayey mould capping the hillside for flints from which
to make his flint tools. Whether either of these represents the spot
where the axe exhibited was fabricated, it is of course impossible
to say, although it is probable, owing to the axe exhibiting no
sign of ever having been used.

This brings me to the conclusion of my brief description of
these productive sites and of the implements found in association
on them. There are many others scattered. over the Downs in
the three districts mentioned; but, as yet, I have not had
sufficient leisure to overhaul them thoroughly, and [ ‘have
deferred marking their positions on the maps till this has been
done. They are by no means common, and often, when I have
set out on a prospecting tour over the Downs, 1 have walked
miles without coming across a single flake, cooking-stone, or the
least trace of a new site. Those I have already discovered are
generally situated on or quite near some eminence which
commands a wide view of the surrounding country.

From the array of evidence we may deduce the obvious
conclusion that these productive areas were frequented by the
members of some primitive tribe, not only for the purpose of
boiling water or cooking food, but for making their flint tools and
for preparing animal hides as clothing, tent coverings, and other
articles for domestic use. Lacking a better term, I have therefore
given these sites the name of ‘“ Camping Grounds.”

The problem now inviting our solution is the question as to
what period may we assign these camping grounds. Judging by
the nature of the “ finds,” many of you may have no hesitation
in saying we may at once relegate them to a position in the
Neolithic phase of the Stone Age. Before venturing any opinion,
however, it is necessary that we examine the evidence of the
extent and duration both of flint chipping and of the practice of
stone-boiling in the south of England. From the character of
the exhibits I think we may safely cmit any reference to the older
stone periods, and confine our attention to the consideration of
the later prehistoric and early historic times.

In the Neolithic period, flint chipping in England had not

only merged from a craft into a fine art, but it had attained its
highest degree of perfection. As to the duration of this high
standard of excellence we are unable to say, but recent research
seems to point to the inference that the art exhibited little sign of
decadence till the transitional period of the substitution of bronze
tools for those of stone was far advanced. Moreover, the
abundance of flakes, scrapers, hammer-stones, &c., found in
association with the remains of the Bronze, Early Iron, and

eee ee ”-—S—<“<it

51

Roman Ages clearly shows that a modified form of flint chipping
long survived the introduction of the use of metals. If we take
into consideration the fabrication of flint flakes for use as strike-
a-lights and gun-flints, we may trace its continuity through
prehistoric and early historic times right down to the present day.

Viewing the discoveries of burnt flints, or pot-boilers, in a
similar light, we find there are authentic records of their invariable
and abundant occurrence in association with the remains of the
Neolithic, Bronze, Early Iron, and Roman Periods, thus showing
the practice of stone-boiling and flint chipping survived together
from the Neolithic period down into early historic times. A _pot-
boiler, flint flake, scraper, &c., found on the surface of the
Downs, may consequently belong to any one of the above ages ;
and the difficulty of assigning even an approximate period to
such surface finds will now be very apparent.

Before proceeding further, I would acquaint you with yet
another interesting survival, namely, the hand-made pottery of
prehistoric times. In a former paper read to this Society,* I
pointed out the rare occurrence of pottery in any shape or form in
association with the remains of the Neolithic people. From the
few fragments hitherto discovered, we know it to be a coarse and
badly-baked hand-made type of pottery. In the succeeding
period—the Bronze Age— the pottery exhibits evidence of great
improvement, though it was still of a coarse character and made
solely by the hand. Moreover, judging by the complete
specimens and the enormous number of fragments invariably
found with the remains of this age, pottery seems to have been
in universal use. Of the introduction of the potter’s wheel during
the Early Iron Age, we have ample proof in the number of
“Jathe-turned ” specimens discovered, and the universal adoption
of the potter’s wheel in Roman times must have been so well
shown in my former paper as to need no further comment here.

At a recent meeting of this Society, there were exhibited five
cinerary urns, presented to the Museum by Mr. W. Henry
Campion, which were found in the sand pit at Hassock’s Gate
last year, associated with a number of Roman pots, the majority
of the latter also containing cremations, In fact, judging by
the nature of the various “finds,” the place seems to have been
the site of a Roman Cemetery. As you may have observed, the
five urns are all hand-made, and similar, in every respect, to
those of the Bronze Age ‘Their occurrence, therefore, with
Roman pottery in a Roman Cemetery, and not according to the
stereotyped modes of burial which obtained in the Bronze Age,
at first seems very problematical. But, in excavations made by

* The Pottery of Prehistoric and Roman Britain, by H. S. Toms ;
Proceedings of Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philoso-

phical Society, 1900-1901.

52

the late General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S., many fragments of hand-
made pottery, identical with the two qualities of these coarse
urns, were frequently found in connection with “ lathe-turned ”
pottery and other Roman relics. These urns, though, are the
first and only instance I know of complete specimens of this
type of pottery occurring with Roman remains. ‘The above facts
point to the inference that the fabrication of the primitive, hand-
made type of pottery long survived the introduction of the potter’s
wheel in the South of England; and, hence, another difficulty
arises, namely, that of assigning an exact period to any specimen
of hand-made pottery one happens to find out on the Downs.

I fear by this time the question as to the probable age of the
camping grounds seems bristled with difficulties. But let us now
take a retrospective view of the whole situation. We have seen
it is not an infrequent occurrence to find handmade pottery,
cooking stones, and the smaller flint implements with Roman and
the so-called Late Celtic remains ; and, that where they are thus
discovered, they are invariably accompanied by numerous
fragments of the pottery of the periods in question. ‘The latter
remark equally applies to the Bronze Age, for, wherever the
Bronze-using Briton went, he secms to have taken his pots and
pans with him; and, if we may judge by the multitude of the
shards occurring with his remains, the ceremony of *‘ washing up,”
in those days, must have often been attended with drastic results.

Now I have been constantly on the look-out for the
occurrence of pottery, in any shape or condition, on the camping
grounds, in the hope it might afford some clue as to the period
to which they belong. But, with one solitary exception, I have
entirely failed in this respect. The exception was the discovery
of a small fragment of Romano-British pottery on the camping
ground near the Dyke Road Reservoir; but the utter invalidity
of such a piece of surface evidence was singularly demonstrated
by the immediate discovery, on the same spot, of another
fragment of pottery which bore the magic inscription that a
certain brewery was located in such-and-such a place. This
combined discovery gave rise to the remarkable query as to
whether the camping ground in question belonged to the period
of the Roman Occupation or to the flourishing period of
Tamplin’s Fine Ales!

After such a preamble of conflicting theories, I will, in
conclusion, venture my opinion as to the age of the camping
grounds. ‘The fact that the flint axes found on these sites are
purely Neolithic in character, and that they occur nowhere so
abundantly as in association with the smaller implements and
cooking stones, coupled with the strong negative evidence which
exists in the marked absence of pottery of any shape or kind,
seems, to me, to point to only one conclusion, namely, that these
camping grounds are distinctly those of the Neolithic tribes.

a ee

ee

eS ee ee

=————— —h hUC

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 11TH, 1902.

Ammal General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 11TH, 1902.

During the past year six Papers have been read, the full titles
of which are appended, at the Ordinary Meetings of the Society.
In addition to these two Lectures have been given by Prof.
Flinders Petrie and Mr. Fred. Enock respectively, to which the
public have been admitted on payment. Notwithstanding the
attractive nature of their subjects and the eminence of the
lecturers the Council regrets that the attendance was not so large
as might have been expected, It will therefore be a matter for
serious consideration whether this plan of providing popular
Lectures shall be continued.

Mr. Pankhurst, who had been for sixteen years Scientific
Secretary of the Society, resigned that position last October. He
has, however, in the absence of a successur, assisted the Secretary
in the work wich which he was so familiar. ‘lhe Council cannot
part with Mr. Pankhurst after so many years’ service as Honorary
Secretary without expressing their deep sense of the obligation
which the Society is under to him for his valuable assistance.
The Council regrets that hitherto they have been unable to find a
gentleman willing to undertake the duties of the office which he
vacated.

There were two Excursions, namely, on June 22nd, 1go1, to
Wiston, and May 24th, 1902, to Worth Forest, Balcombe. A
third Excursion to Ashdown Forest was arranged, but postponed
through inclement weather.

Papers read at Ordinary Meetings :—

1901.
Nov. 14th. “ Polar Problems, Arctic and Antarctic,”—

Mr. MILLER CuHrRIsTY.

54
Dec. 11th. ‘ Parasites, Vegetable and Animal.”—

Mr. D. E. Causu.
1902.
Jan. 15th. Evening for Exhibition of Specimens. Short Paper
on ‘fSome Optical Illusions.” —

Mr. E. A. PANKHURST.

Feb. 20th. ‘ British Vegetable Galls.”—
Mr. E. T. Connon, F.E.S,

Aprilioth. ‘The Zones of the Chalk near Brighton.”—
Mr. W. McPueErson, F.G:S.

May 8th. ‘Some Pre-historic Camping Grounds near Brighton.”
Mr. H. S. Toms.

In addition to these two Lectures have been given in the
Pavilion, to which the public were admitted on payment, viz. :—
On October 17th, 1901, by Prof. FLINDERS Perrik£ on “ Excavating
in Egypt and its Results,” and on March 4th, 1902, by Mr. Frep.
Enock on “ Insect Architects and Engineers.”

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT.

The rebuilding of the Public Library has caused the closing
of the Society’s Library during the past three months, and a
detailed report is accordingly postponed till next year. It is
expected that by November, at latest, issues will be resumed ; and
a new catalogue will then be prepared. The new conditions
which the new buildings will necessitate will doubtless be favour-
able to an increase in the utility of the Library.

H. DAVEY, Junr.,
Fon. Librarian.

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57

BOTANICAL.

The following plants have been added to the Society’s
Herbarium since 1get :-—

Poa bulbosa. Brighton Racehill.
Eriophorum vaginatum. Amberley Wildbrooks.
Vaterianella dentata, b. mixta. Clayton.
Potamogeton obtusifolius. Barcombe.
Crepis setosa. Newmarket Hill Road.
Silene dichotoma. Rottingdean.
Alopecurus fulvus. Ashdown Forest.
Diplotaxis tenuifolia. Newhaven.
Zanthium strumarium. Kingston-by-Sea.

T. HILTON,

Curator.

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE
49th ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

8 ERIE _

After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
it was resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s stitement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Librarian’s Report be received, adopted, and printed for
circulation as usual.”

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-Presi-
dents of the Society for the ensuing year—

“Mr. J. E. Haselwood, Dr. A. Newsholme, Mr. D. E. Caush,
Mr. E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P., Mr. J. P. Slingsby Roberts,
Dr. E. McKellar, Deputy Surgeon General, J.P., Mr.
A. G. Henriques, J.P., Dr. W. J. Treutler, and Mr. W.
Clarkson Wallis.”

58

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

“*Mr. J. W. Nias and Mr. A. F. Graves.”

It was proposed by Mr. H. W. CHARRINGTON, seconded by
Mr. H. Davey, and resolved—

“That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year :—President: Mr. E. Alloway Pankhurst ;
Ordinary Members of Council: Mr W.W. Mitchell, Mr.
E. Payne, M.A., Mr. F. R. Richardson, Mr. G., Morgan,
L.R.C.P., Dr. R. J. Ryle, Mr. Walter Harrison, D.M.D. ;
Honorary Treasurer: Mr. E A. T. Breed; Honorary
Librarian: Mr H. Davey, Jun. ; Honorary Curators: Mr.
H. S. Toms and Mr. T. Hilton ; Honorary Secretary : Mr.
J. Colbatch Clark, 9, Marlborough Place; Asszstant
Honorary Secretary: Mr. H. Cane.”

It was proposed by Mr. D. E. Causu, seconded by Mr.
J. E. HasE_woop, and resolved—

“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. W
Clarkson Wallis for his attention to the interests of the
Society as its President during the past two years.”

It was proposed by Mr. J. H. Sussex Hatt, seconded by
Mr. J. E. HAsELwoop, and resolved—

“That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curator, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries, for their services
during the past year.”

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Members
of the Society :—

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass., U.S.A.).

7
-

59

British and American Archeological Society, Rome.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science. '

Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

City of London College of Science Society, White Street,
Moorfields, E.C.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Edinburgh Geological Society.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of Mexico.

Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists,

Hampshire Field Club.

Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, Hazlemont, The Boulevard,
Nottingham.

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club.

Royal Microscopical Society.

Royal Society.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.

Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.

Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
Watford Natural History Society.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Prigbton and hove Hatural history and
Pbilosopbical Society,

1902.

—_—_—__@—__—__

N.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
following List the Address is in Brighton.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

AsBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
AsH_ER, Rev. F., 33, Clifton Terrace.
AsuTon, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.

AttTrEE, G. F., 8, Hanover Crescent.

Bapcock, LEwis C., M.D., M.R.C.S., 10, Buckingham Place.
BEVAN, BERTRAND.

Bevan, A. S. B, Coolavin, Harrington Road.
BILuinG, T., 86, King’s Road.

Boor, E., 53, Old Steine.

BREED, E. A. T., 32, Grand Parade.

Brown, J. H., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove.
Brown, GEORGE, Cottesmore, The Upper Drive.
BuL., W., 75, St. Aubyns, Hove.

Burrows, W. S., B.A., M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine.
BurcuELt, E., L.R C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.

Carter, F. W., 47, Buckingham Road.
Cane, H., 173, Vitchling Road.

Catt, REGINALD J., 28, West Hill Street.
Causu, D. E., L.D.S., 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

61

Ciark, J. CoLBatcu, 9, Marlborough Place.
Cotman, Alderman J., J.P., 14, King’s Gardens, Hove.
Cox, A. H., J.P., 35, Wellington Road,

Davey, Henry, J.P., 82, Grand Parade.

Davey, Henry, Junr., 82, Grand Parade.

Denman, S., 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 45, St. John’s Terrace, Hove.
Draper, Dr., Municipal School of Technology.

Epmonps, H., B.Sc., Municipal School of Technology.

EtceEEr, E., Mountjoy, Preston.

Ewart, Sir J.. M.D., F:R-C.P., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., Bewcastle,
Dyke Road.

FLETCHER, W. H. B., J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.

GILKEs, J. H., 6, Hanover Crescent.
Graves, A. F., 9a, North Street Quadrant.
GRIFFITH, A., 59, Montpelier Road.
Grove, E., Norlington, Preston.

Hatt, Sussex J., Ship Street.

Hawnag, I.

Hack, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

Harrison, W., D.M.D., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HaseEtwoonp, J. E., 3, Richmond Terrace.

Haynes, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
HIck.eEy, G. 92, Springfield Road.

Hitton, T., 16, Kensington Place.

Hopps, J., 62, North Street.

Hosuouss, E., M.D., 36, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Hotpe_r, J. J., 8, Lorne Villas.

Horton, W. T., 42, Stanford Road.

How ett, J. W., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

Jacoms, Wykeham, 72, Dyke Road.

Jenner, J. H. A., Lewes.

Jennincs, A. O., LL.B., rt, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
JounsTon, J., 12, Bond Street.

Jones, J. J., 49, Cobden Road.

Lanxcton, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.

Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.
Lewis, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairholme, Maresfield.
LoapER, KENNETH, 5, Richmond Terrace,

62

McKELLar, E., Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D., J.P., Woodleigh,
Preston.

Macuirg, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

May, F. J. C., 25, Compton Avenue.

MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace.

MILs, J., 24, North Road.

MITCHELL, W. W., 66, Preston Road.

Moragav, G., L.R.C.P., M.R.C S., 6, Pavilion Parade.

Muston, S. H., 54, Western Road.

McPueErson, T., 4, Bloomsbury Place.

MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.

NEWMARCH, Major-General, 6, Norfolk Terrace.
NEwsHOLME, A., M.D., M.R.C.P., 11, Gloucester Place.
Nias, J. W., 65, Freshfield Road.

NicHo.son, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

Norma\, S. H., Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

PaNnKHuRST, E. A., 3, Clifton Road.

Paris, G. De, Norfolk Road.

Payne, W. H., 6, Springfield Road.

Payne, E., Hatchlands, Cuckfield.

PENNEY, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.
PetTiTFourT, E. J., B.A., F.C.P., 16, Chesham Street.
PuGu, Rev. C., 13, Eaton Place.

Puttick, W., Brackenfell, Hassocks.

Pop.ey, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

READ, S., 12, Old Steine.

RICHARDSON, F. R., 10, Vernon Terrace.
Roserts, J. P. SLINGSBY, 3, Powis Villas.
Ropinson, E., Saddlescombe.

Ross, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.
Ryr, R. J.. M.D., 15, German Place.

SALMON, E. F., 30, Western Road, Hove.

SavaGE, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street.

Stomay, F., 18, Montpelier Road.

Scott, E. Irwin, M.D., 69, Church Road, Hove.

SmitH, C., 47, Old Steine.

SmiTH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

Situ, W., 6, Powis Grove.

SmituH, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.

SmirH, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

STEPHENS, W. J., L.R.C.P., 25 Clermont Terrace, Preston
Park.

EE ee eee ST

—

63

Sroner, Haroup, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency
Square. :

TALBOT, Huco, 79, Montpelier Road.

Tuomas, J., Kingston-on-Sea.

TREUTLER, W. J., M.D., F.L.S., 8, Goldstone Villas, Hove.
Toms, H. S., The Museum.

Wa tis, E. A., Sunnyside, Upper Lewes Road.
WaLLis, W. CLARKSON, 15, Market Street.

WALTER, J., 13A, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

WnuytTock, E., 36, Western Road.

WicHTMAN, G. J., Ailsa Craig, The Wallands, Lewes.
WILkinson, T., 170, North Street.

WILLETT, H., F.G.S., Arnold House, Montpelier Terrace.
Wituiams, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

Wiuiams, H. M., LL.B., 17, Middle Street.

Woop, J, 21, Old Steine

WooprurFr, G. B., 24, Second Avenue, Hove.

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLEY, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.

CaMERON, Miss E., 25, Victoria Street.
Causi, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

CrRaFER, Mrs. M. H., 6, Dyke Road.
CRanE, Miss AGNEs, 11, Wellington Road.

Farcus, Mrs., 7, Park Crescent.
GRAHAM, Miss.

Hare, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.

HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
HEeERNAMAN, Miss I., 117, Ditchling Road.
HERNAMAN, Miss V., 117, Ditchling Road.
LoveELock, Mrs., Coolavin, Harrington Road.
LANGTON, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.
MorGAN, Miss, 39, St. Aubyns, Hove.

NicHotson, Mrs., 9, Park Crescent.

Ricu, Miss, Iken House, Roedean School.
RuGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

SToneER, Mrs. H., 18, Regency Square.

64

TREUTLER, Mrs., 8, Goldstone Villas.
Visick, Miss B., St. John’s, Withdean.

WAL Is, Mrs., Sunnyside, Upper Lewes Road.
WiLkinson, Mrs., 30, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Woop, Mrs. J., 21, Old Steine.

HONORARY MEMBERS,

ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
Curteis, T., 244, High Holborn, London,

Dawson, C., F.G.S., Uckfield.

Farr, E. H., Uckfield.

Ho.uis, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.

Mitten, W., Hurstpierpoint.

NoursE, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.
PuILuips, Barciay, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

Lomax, BENJAMIN, The Museum, Brighton,

cg

PRESB TED
19 NOV. 1902

Cerne

BRIGHTON AND HOVE

Natural Bistory and Philosophical
Society.

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

DOO W019 0000 00 00 O10 010 D0 0

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

| YEAR ENDING JUNE 10th, 1903.

Brighton.

1903.

BRIGHTON AND HOVE

Hatural PHistory and Philosophical
Society.

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 10th, 1908.

Brighton.

1903.

LPEIPE X.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY
PROGRESS—AND Its ILLUsiIOnsS—Mr. E. ALLUwAY PANKHURKST

British Oak TREES AND THE GALLS FOUND UPON THEM—

Mr. Epwp. Conno.p, F.E.S. PCr ee Ay oes
PROGRESS—AND ITs ILLUSIONS—ParT II.

A NATURALIST’S RAMBLE ON THE SEA SHORE—MnR. F.

MarTIN DUNCAN
TRAVELLING IN Mip-AtR—Mkr. Eric Stuart Bruce, M.A. ---

Tue PRINCIPLES OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION: A CRITICISM

AND A REVIEW—THE Rev. F. ASHER £6 mee
Ho.itincpury Camp—Mrp. H. S. Toms... ie Es mee

NATURAL SCIENCE AT ROME AT THE TIME OF CHRIST—

Mr. F. R. Hora, B.A., B.Sc., &c. .. au oe oss
REPORT OF COUNCIL _ un Be Bae Pre
METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON ... Per Se = oon
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT ... — ee seg wee
LIBRARIAN'S REPORT cae ae a eee See =

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED... $3 E ae =

List OF MEMBERS... ae sm we se

PAGE.

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OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY,
1902-1903.

<6
President :

FE. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

Past Presidents :

W. E. C. NOURSE. GEORGE DE PARIS.

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. Db. E. CausH, L.D.S.

A. H. Cox, Ald., J.P. A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P.,

L. C. Bapcock, M.D. M.O.H.

W. AINSLIE HOLLIS, M.D., E. J. PeTITFOURT, B.A.,
F.R.C.P. EGP:

J. Ewart, Kt., M.D., J.P. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.

J. E. HASELWOOD. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.

W. SEYMOUR BuRROWS, M.R.C.S. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

THE COUNCIL.
The President.
Pice- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P.,
J. E. HASELWOOD. M.O.H.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
E. McKELLAR, Deputy-Surgeon- J. P. SLincGsBy ROBERTS.
General, J.P. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.

W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

W. W. MITCHELL. » W. W. Harrison, D.M.D.
G. Morea, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S F. Hora, B.Sc., B.A.
E. Payne, M.A. J. SUSSEX HALL.

BGonorary Treasurer:
E. A. T. BREED, 32, Grand Parade.

BGonorary Auditors :
J. W. Nias. A. F. GRAVES.

Gonorary Curators :
H. S. Toms and T. HILTON.

BGonorary Secretary:
JNo. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Wonorary Secretary:
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

i

SESSION 1902-3.

Progress—and Its Illusions.

ae SOGOU Ste

OCTOBER 8TH, 1902,

BY

THE PRESIDENT,
E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

—_———

“ Tf we carry our thoughts as far forward as paleolithic
implements carry them back, we are introduced not to an absolute
optimism but to a relative optimism. The cosmic process brings
about retrogression as well as progression, where the conditions
favour it... . Evolution does not imply a latent tendency to
improve—everywhere in operation. There is no uniform ascent
from lower to higher, but only an occasional production of a form
which in virtue of greater fitness for more complex conditions,
becomes capable of a longer life of a more varied kind.” —HERBERT
_ SpENcER: “ Principles of Sociology,” Vol. III., p. 599.

About forty years ago was published Buckle’s “ History
of Civilization.”

The author in a final survey of the vast field of his re-
searches allows that the age, “which was in nearly all respects
greater than any the world had yet seen,” yet “‘ had a certain
material unimaginative and unheroical character, which has
made several observers tremble for the future.” ‘‘ But,” he adds,
“TJ do not participate in these fears because I believe the good
we have already gained is, beyond all comparison, greater than
what we have lost.” This I think fairly represents the view of
the advocates of progress.

Mr. Darwin again, at the conclusion of that great work,
“ The Origin of Species,” as if to give us some relief from the
sombre details of that long tragedy which he terms ‘the
struggle for existence,” consoles us with the reflection that, ‘‘ as

6

natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being,
all corporeal and mental endowments would tend to progress
towards perfection.”

That was so in harmony with men’s desires, hopes, and
aspirations, that it half justified his theory of evolution.

If Progress be not a faith, a belief,—it must approve itself to
the reason ; it must be an inference from undeniable facts; it
must command assent from all by virtue of incontestable proofs.
It behoves us, therefore, to endeavour to obtain some exact
definition of progress, to discover what conceptions are involved
in it, what images it calls up, what ideas are implied.

If a body be moving in an orbit, a circle, or an ellipse, in
fact in any curve which is closed or returns into itself, we speak
of it as pro-gressing or 7ve-gressing according as we imagine that
it moves from us or tous. I say imagine, for in a closed curve
the movement from us is just as much a movement to us.
A friend sets out on a journey round the world. Every mile he
travels from the starting point brings him a mile nearer home.
Whether he may be described as “ going from” us or ‘‘ coming
to” us may afford matter for discussion—as similar problems
have so often done before. Progress and regress then merely
express a manner of looking at the object we are contemplating.
The terms have reference to our position, our point of view,
perhaps, to our predilections or fancies. ‘A circular motion”
says Lord Bacon, “ hath much the appearance of a progressive
one.”

And further, our language and the notions and ideas it
expresses with regard to direction are also misleading and decep-
tive. They are no more conformable to the truth of things than our
ideas of motion. We speak of the sun and moon being above us.
We think of the stars seen by our antipodes in New Zealand as
being below us. But Nature knows nothing of high or low.
These are illusions ; illusions which, such is the strange problem
in which man’s mental constitution is involved, that he is
obliged continually to accept as truth and reality.

But there is something more than mere motion involved in
the word progress, as generally used. It implies not movement
only, but movement from a lower plane to a higher one; from a
less good to a better condition ; from a simple to a more complex
organization. Nay, more, in its general acceptation it implies a
gain uncompensated by any loss. If equivalent payment is
made for an advantage obtained, then progress is robbed of its
meaning. The word has no longer any charm for us.

But these expressions,—high, low, good, better, &c.,—which
we use to indicate progress, have a moral rather than a physical
significance, and as such are incapable of exact definition.
They vary with the ever-varying opinions of those who use them.
Who is the judge of what is good? Is there an absolute good

7

by which we can measure these successive states, a standard on
which all men are agreed, to which we can refer our estimates of
value? And with regard to “low” and ‘‘high.”” What is the
base from which we start, the scale by which we are to
measure ?

But leaving now these abstract considerations, let us take
some concrete examples of progress, trusting these will help us
where philosophical definitions fail.

The word is the common property of the politician, the
sociologist, and the historian. And not only of the historian
who chronicles the succession of events which make up the
records of humanity, but of him, also, who depicts for us the
great drama of unfolding life which preceded the advent of man
on the globe.

The geologist deciphering the records of that vast series of
rocks which compose the crust of the earth becomes aware of a
great multitude of forms of life which have passed away. He
tells us that the deepest rocks contain only the remains of those
animal and vegetable species which are lowest in the scale of
being, and that as we approach the latest strata the dominant
forms of any successive epoch are those which mark the steps in

_ the biologists’ ascending scale of life.

He speaks of the fierce and active Molluscs of the Silurian,

of the armour-clad Fish of the early Devonian or the more
perfect fish of the Permian; then of the Amphibians of the
Carboniferous. This was a notable step in advance, for the
land animal, whose conditions of existence are more varied than
those of one confined to the sea, has corresponding difference of
structure. Limbs more diverse in form, organs of nutrition
adapted to the more complex nature of food, lungs with their
_ myriad interstices replacing gills, the blood warmer, heart more
complicated, senses more acute, nerves more intricate, brain
- more developed.
Next he passes to the huge fish-lizards of the Lias, and then
to the great Reptiles of the Oolite, to the gigantic land lizards of
the Wealden, to the Birds of the Cretaceous, and finally to the
_ Marsupials and Mammals of the Tertiaries,—the gigantic pre-
_decessors of the quadrupeds which exist to-day.

Tracing thus the source of life from the first speck of
_ protoplasm that was engendered in the muddy waters of primeval
seas,—from that first combination of cells that gave a feeble
_response, in dull unconsciousness, to the stimulus of a ray of light,
or wave of heat, up to man, sensible to all the subtle influences
of space and time,—how vast the interval that has been bridged !
g: Progress is easily discerned if we do not take into account
_the compensation exacted for it, if we ignore the necessary
conditions of its presence ; if we shut our eyes to the sacrifice

s

8

it entails, and the cost at which it is purchased. Nature gives
us nothing. This, too, is bought at a price.

The Palzontologist, as he writes the history of the great
dominant forms of life that at successive epochs have held sway
on the earth, or stood as the representatives of the highest
organization of their time, continually makes use of such terms as
these :—‘‘No sooner had this species attained its maximum of
size and power than it was trampled out of existence by more
virile races in the conflict of life.” ‘‘ It attained its highest point,
became most specialized, just before it disappeared.” Have we
then at last arrived at a definition of Progress from a study of
Palzontology and shall we put it thus: ‘‘ The acquisition by
any organism of these properties and qualities which ensure its
extinction.” It is one at any rate which seems justified by the
conclusions of Science, one in conformity with the lessons of
Geology. It is the other side of the shield which is not so often
presented to our view.

Looking again at that brief sketch of the course of life on
the globe, let us see if in any other respects it may be illusory.
It is deceptive if it suggests that all forms of life took part in this
advance, that none fell behind in the race, that none were

stationary, that none were degenerating. It is illusory in so far

as it fails to bring before us these facts :—

1. That, co-existing with these higher forms of developing
life, there were comparatively non-progressive forms. We may
speak of some of these also as types of arrested development.

2. That, together with progressing forms, there were species
which were degenerating and passing out of existence.

3. That at any epoch its most highly developed forms of
life were a small portion of the total life of the globe.

4. The picture is misleading in so far as it represents that
the higher forms of any epoch had their origin and genesis in the
highest types of the preceding one.

5. Lastly, and this is the most important of all, it is illusory
if it implies that there is az absolute scale of life to which all forms
of existence may be referred, and by which their place and rank
may be determined.

Regard the infinite multitude of existences which make
up the world as we see it around us to-day, from the simple
cellular structures of microscopic size, which constitute “the
green mantle of the standing pool,” up to the creature who
might realize our ideal of being but “a little lower than the
angels,”—all forms of life that have ever existed are, in a
manner, represented. Many species have undergone no appre-
ciable modification since they first appeared in Cambrian or
Pre-cambrian times. Untold millenniums have passed by and

9

left them unchanged. The Foraminifer which has formed our
chalk hills, and whose shells are found in the earliest stratified
rocks, is still laying at the bottom of the Atlantic, the foundation
of ‘‘continents to be.” The Lingula of the Silurian is still to be
discovered in the sea, not far from our own shores. And lower
and more persistent forms than these may be found, which seem
never to have entered on the fatal path of progress. Some have
gone further on the road than others, and remained stationary
there, incapable of further advance. Their development, we say,
has been arrested. ‘The Beryx of the South Atlantic differs
little from the Beryx whose remains are so finely represented in
the Willett Collection of Chalk-Fossils in the Museum. And

there is at least one species of fish which, as far as the minutest

observation can perceive, has remained unchanged through all the
vast period that has intervened between the present time and the
Devonian.

It would not be too much to say that, in every epoch, the
great mass of life is made up of non-progressive forms, and of
those which only reach a comparatively little way on the road of
development. :

More and more Palzontologists are beginning to recognize
that degenerate forms are to be found in every geological division,
and more particularly are they noticeable in those later stages of
the earth's history, which are distinguished by the presence of
higher and more complex forms of life. Dr. Smith Woodward,
our highest authority on the subject, in his “Outlines of
Vertebrate Paleontology,” speaks of ‘‘ irreversible lines of pro-
gression and irreversible lines of degeneration.”

And is there any evidence, it may be asked, in the existing
fauna and flora of this degeneration ?

The tiny Hyrax is but a poor representative of its great
rhinoceros-like ancestor. The huge Python and the little Slow-
worm show on dissection the aborted limbs which their lizard-
like progenitors possessed. The Whale, with its mouth furnished
with that curious “ baleen” (known as whalebone), has the milk
teeth, which connects it with a higher type. The Slugs of our garden
carry beneath the skin the rudiments of a shell which they have no
longer the power to produce. The list might be extended, and
that to a far greater length than the text-books warrant. Andi it
is illustrative of my argument that it is but a small fraction of the
works on Zoology which devote any space to degeneration.
Men's minds are set on fvo-gress and not on ve-gress. But the
evidence for the one must be as strong and ample as for the
other.

“Sufficient appearances,” says Burke, “ will never be wanting
to those who have a mind to deceive themselves.” And have we
not all of us ‘“‘a mind to deceive ourselves ” when progress is in

question ?

10

4. The highest forms of one epoch have not had their origin
in the highest forms of the preceding epoch, nor have they given rise
directly to the highest forms of the succeeding one.

Nothing, then, could be further from the truth than that the
dominant species that characterise successive epochs of the
world’s history are linked to one another in a continuous
uninterrupted series. Nature knows nothing of such a serial
progression. It exists only in idea. There is no linear arrange-
ment of higher or lower forms. All forms are connected, un-
doubtedly, but if it be possible to represent or picture to ourselves
the method and manner in which they are linked together z” space
of two dimensions, it must be under the figure of a tree.

Now this picture of a growing tree implies a principle and
method of such great importance in the evolution of life in all its
forms, and in all its manifestations, that it will be advisable per-
haps to adduce some illustrations of it. It is useful in many
respects ; but there is danger that, if its analogies are pressed
too far, we may be led into error.

The bird we may say is higher and comes later in time than
the reptile. But if we may follow back their ancestral genealogies
they will gradually approach one another as we recede, until we
come to a point where the branches unite nearer the trunk, and
bird and reptile are one. The lowest reptile and the lowest bird
are nearly allied.

Animals are divided, as you know, into two great kingdoms of
Vertebrates and Invertebrates. But the highest Invertebrate
has not given rise to the lowest Vertebrate. In going down the
main branch of the Vertebrates we pass by as it were the highest
point of the branch representing the Mollusc, and find a relation-
ship between them far indeed towards the base of that tree from
which they both seem to spring.

It is one of the most interesting of researches, this of the
genealogy of life. But the record is often broken, and we seek in
vain for some evidence of the earlier course which a genus or
species has followed. Paleontology, like human history, has its
“dark ages.” The records of the past bear witness to the deep
pulsations of the great heart of the world, to the ebb and flow of
the tides of the great ocean of life. There are periods when the
creative power is comparatively dormant, and again those when
its energies gradually rise to their full scope, and attain their
highest point. It is as the oscillation of the pendulum, the swing
of the earth in its orbit, or the alternations of sunlight and
shadow on its surface. The morning and evening of the world’s
first day, symbols of activity and rest, are repeated in larger periods
of rhythmic change throughout the countless millenniums of its
past.

IT

We have still been using these conventional terms, “ high,”
“low,” “nobler,” “more perfect,” &c., to indicate that progres-
sive development of organic life, without deciding what principle
shall guide us in their application. This is really the most
important part of our subject. All conceptions of progress are
based on it. We have said that there is no linear succession of
advancing forms, that is to say, they cannot be truly depicted in
a straight line. But even if we look at the plan of nature under
the image of a tree that will not help us in our present quest.
We cannot conceive of a tree without giving to it some altitude
as a whole, and generally picture it with branches of varying
height.

The branches of our imaginary Tree of Life are made up of
different families or genera each with numerous species. How is
the place of each species that helps to make the branch decided ?
Which is to be put above, which is below another? What is the
measure of value ?

There are two lines of inquiry which commend themselves to
the systematist,—function and structure,

Seeing that estimation of function is beyond us, let us try
how far classification by structure will help us in the solution of
the problem.

Let us take function first, and in doing so consider man as the
head of creation, and to be such by virtue of his intelligence, or,
more broadly, by his nervous and cerebral activity. If, therefore, we
take this, as Lamarck did, as the basis of classification, and if we
could arrange all animal life in a descending scale from man, then
we should have a measure of general application to all its
forms. But this is impossible. There is no measure of such
manifestations of vitality. Besides, it totally. excludes the
vegetable kingdom. There is no nervous activity here to
measure. Plants are accumulators of power, not expenders.

Structure is, to a large extent, an index of function.
Complex structure implies varied functions. Knowing the
structure of an organism which can, to a great extent, infer its
functions.

There is a large class of animals of infinite variety of colour,
size, and outward form all possessing a backbone. Moreover,
there are many structural details which are always associated with
this backbone which terminates in a skull. The digestive system
is on one side, the nervous on the other. The chain of vertebrz
enclose a spinal cord, the muscles are attached to an osseous
frame-work, the limbs are variously modified, &c. Thus the
Vertebrates, we say, form a great natural class.

Looking again at a vast number of other creatures, we find
them built up on quite a different plan. There is no backbone,
the so-called skeleton is simply a hardened skin, the limbs
are hollow tubes leading from the cavity of the body. The

12

nervous system is formed of a chain of separate rounded masses,
connected together by thin cords, and the whole nervous system
lies in the part of the body nearest the ground. ‘These are
classed as Invertebrates. Now the Vertebrates, having more
highly-developed organs, bringing them into more varied relations
with the external world, having a more complete structure, more
varied functions, are placed above the Invertebrates. Consider
for a moment the difference between a bird singing in the
branches of a tree and a snail crawling in the grass beneath.
How vast the interval between them! What an illustration, we
say, of the great scheme of the world’s development, and of the
steps in its progressive life, for the Vertebrate is higher than
the mollusc and comes later on the scene. This is too partial
a view. Reckoned among the Vertebrates is a pale, ghost-like
creature, with a mere apology for a backbone, without a brain,
with scarcely any organs of sense, whose dull monotony of
existence is only broken by faint variations of light and shade
as it roams among the mud and weeds of the shallow estuary
in which its existence is passed. Compare this with the bee,
winging its way in the sunshine, sensitive to the odour and colour
of flowers, with faculties seemingly more than human in their co-
ordination to the unconscious ends and aims of existence.
Teaching also in the subordination of individual liberty to the
welfare of the community, “The act of order to a settled
kingdom.” Which shall we reckon the highest in the scale of
life, the lancelet or the bee? The celebrated Von Baer thought
the bee more highly organized not only than this specimen of one
of the lowest orders of fish, but than any member of the whole
class of fishes.

Yet the Vertebrate, we have said, is higher than the
Invertebrate! Does structure then measure life? This is not a
solitary instance ; it is but a type of the difficulty which meets
the systematist on every side. Supposing we take only a branch
of our Tree of Life, and endeavour to place the groups which
compose it, or the individual of the groups, in serial rank, how is
he to proceed? “By noting,” we are told, “the points of
structure which are fundamental and essential.” Yes, but what
to one classifier is fundamental and essential, to another is not.
Different observers place different values on the same structure,

In that endless mutation of form which the kingdom of the In-
vertebrates presents to us, there is a vast number of groups whose
relationship to one another cannot even be represented in space
of two dimensions. Only with length, breadth, and depth can we
picture to ourselves these cycles within cycles in endless com
plexity. If, then, this obtains in the Invertebrate kingdom, is it
not a presumption that the orders, families, species, etc., of the
Vertebrates should be regarded in the same manner P We must
give up our “ Tree of Life.”’ The picture is illusory. It implies

a) ae

ee eT

ee ae eee,

13

that there is a measure of its height, a serial gradation in the
groups forming its branches. In a remarkable passage in “ The
Origin of Species,” Mr. Darwin, himself investigating the subject
we have been considering, expresses himself in the language of
the astronomer, and recalls to us the suns and circling planets
and systems of worlds which in bewildering multitudes stud the
infinitude of space. ‘These are his words: “The several
subordinate groups in a class cannot be ranked in a single file,
but seen clustered round points, and these round other points,
and so on, in endless cycles.”

To sum up the argument, then, in a few words, Natural-
ists of repute refuse to allow that there is any arrangement of
forms of animal life based on claims to superiority, no serial
progression from less to more perfect.

If this be the case, what becomes of any Criterion of Progress
as far as the animal and vegetable world is concerned?

For in what sense can we say that the fish is more perfect
than the insect, the reptile than the fish? All that we can affirm
is that each is admirably adapted to the conditions of its exist-
ence. It is evident that the idea underlying such use of the words,
“more perfect,” when applied to the successive types which
indicate the course of animal development, is their approach to
man in their structure and their functions.

But is not this the same anthromorphic idea which we are so
often told vitiates so many of our conceptions of the world, its
origin, and its government? Is this principle only to be retained
here and discarded otherwhere ? Is man in all respects the
most perfect being of creation? Are there no qualities in which
the so-called lower organisms are his superiors? Are there none
with senses more acute, none with nerves transmitting more
delicate waves of motion, none with instincts more marvellous
even than his reason,—as attaining its ends without the laborious
process of thought? But it may be said that man is superior by
his intellect. Is the most intellectual man always and everywhere
the highest, the most perfect ?

Yet there is one more test of rank, one principle which
Biologists invoke to decide the place of any organism in the
hierarchy of life. The higher organization, they say, is that in
which the parts are more specialized. It is one of exceedingly
wide, almost universal, application, and it behoves us, therefore,
carefully to examine it. It is our last hope of obtaining that
scale and measure we are in search of.

They define Specialization to be the setting apart certain
portions of an organism to perform certain particular functions.
This has happily been termed, by Milne Edwards, “‘ the phystolo-
gical division of labour.”

“Ts not this progress, then?’’ It may be asked, Is there
not here a measure of rank ?

14

But, supposing that interdependence of parts, this complexity
of structure militates against the permanence of the whole?
Suppose it narrows the conditions, makes it less able to bear the
shock of opposing circumstances under which the organism can
exist, and so render it less able to compete advantageously with
less specialized organisms in the struggle for life ?

Did we not see that the palzontologist declares that, as soon
as a species attained its highest degree of specialization, it dis-
appeared from the earth ?

Specialization in itself is not indicative of perfection, or
progressive development, or superiority. It only means that an
organ has been modified, so as to adapt its possessor to particular
conditions of existence. The ancestors of the horse had five
toes as we have. In process of time, four toes atrophied, and the
nail of one became developed into a hoof. But a hoof is not a
higher type of structure than a foot, nor is it indicative of a
nobler animal. Put a horse among bogs or swampy ground, and
its one-toed foot would be a disadvantage,—might entail its
destruction. The area on which it can exist is now limited to
comparatively ard ground.

Specialization cannot, then, always be taken as a criterion
of progress, for it may be characteristic of degeneracy.

Granted that the process of development is from the simple
to the more complex, 7s the more complex always the more perfect ?
Are there no categories in other departments of life in which the
highest from one point of view is not the highest from another ?
Are not the simple and the lowly nearer the great centre and
origin of life and larger participators in its power? In estimating
the rank of the groups into which we divide the lower organisms,
as we term them, one quality particularly seems to me to have been
lost sight of,—that of duration. It is a problem connected with
Time, and many problems are insoluble if Zime be left out of
account. There is given to each individual at birth a certain
guantum of life. This may assume an active or passive form.
It may maintain the vegetative unconscious life of the organism
through long years practically unimpaired, or it may be expended
in conscious activities in a decade. And so with those groups of
organisms we have been considering with varying periods of
existence. In dealing with individual human life we count
length of days as implying some advantageous quality, and in
families, long descent, or that principle of permanence in the
blood is reckoned as giving them a claim to be among the
aristocracy of the earth. What, then, are we to say of those
structureless specks of protoplasm, such as the Foraminifera of the
Chalk ?—a genus of animals which through unimaginable ages
has existed practically unaltered, and has played, as we have
said, no mean part in the economy of the globe. Imagine that
family to have a memory, a consciousness of its past! What

15

generations of nobler creatures it has seen age after age “ come
like shadows—so depart.” It has outlived all the vicissitudes of
existence which the earth has gone through. It has “read the
book of fate,” and seen “the revolution of the times”

“Make mountains level, and the continent,
Weary of solid firmness, melt itself
Into the sea.”

And yet classification based on structure, to be logical, can find
no place for such as these! Imagine the world when only these
Infusoria or perhaps even lower types existed! Yet out of
such structureless protoplasm the life of the earth has arisen.
Out of this has sprung those kingdoms, classes, genera, orders,
&c., which make up the complex world of vegetal and animal
existences, group within group, cycle within cycle, recalling to us
the clusters of stars and revolving systems which arose out of the
diffuse nebula in which they were potentially contained. In that
homogenous jelly-like protoplasm life also was fotential, It has
realised itself in the organisation and the resulting faculties and
powers of all those countless forms in which that energy has
embodied itself.

But the great law of the Conservation of Energy teaches us
that when fofential energy becomes actual the total quantity
remains the same. There is neither loss nor gain.

Let us, then, like the great dramatist of Greece, strive “ to
see life steadily, and to see it zwho/e,”—not as circumscribed by
our own limited experience, not as measured by our own narrow
faculties, not stamped with our own petty ideals of perfection,—
but to see it from a higher standpoint, embracing a wider horizon,
and in the scope of a larger vision.

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 13ru.

British Oak Crees and the Galls
found upon them.

(With Lantern Illustrations.)

EDWD. CONNOLD, F.E.S.

16

THURSDAY, DECEMBER t1Tu.

Progress—and its Illusions.
Part II.

THE ARGUMENT from the HISTORY OF HUMANITY.

“* Society never advances. It recedes as fast on one side as it
gains on the other. It undergoes continual changes ; tt is barbarous,
it is civilized, it is christianized, it is rich, it is scientific; but this
change ts not amelioration. For everything that ts given something
ts taken. Society acquires new arts and loses old instincts... .
Lf the traveller tell us truly, strike the savage with a broad axe,
and tn a day or two the flesh shall unite and heal as if you struck
the blow into soft pitch, and the same blow shall send the white to
his grave... . Society is a wave. The wave moves onward, but
the water of which it ts composed does not. The same particle does
not rise from the valley to the ridge. The persons who make up a
nation to-day, next year die, and their expertence dies with them.” —
EMERSON.

UST as Geology informs us that those dominant types of
animal life characteristic of an epoch have gradually arrived

at maturity and then quickly, almost suddenly, disappeared, so
the historian of humanity shows us how large groups or
communities of individuals, having a special character of their
own, emerge from the general mass of humanity, attain to pre-
eminence, and then pass away. They are ousted in the conflict
of life by lower and more virile races. These social organisms
become exhausted in the effort to produce that civilization which
is their claim to remembrance. What is there in a great social
organization inimical to its continued existence? What militates
against the continuance of its life? The socrat life is necessary
for the development of humanity, necessary for the development
of those finer feelings, for that larger knowledge which we take to
be characteristic of progress. And yet the conditions, the
NECESSARY conditions of this advance are fatal to the very
organism which they have produced. Organization entails cost,
says the physiologist, as he sees the wear and tear of the delicate
machinery of life under the stress and strain of outward circum-

17

stances, and the extra nutriment which must be provided in
consequence of the ever-increasing demands of the part which
expends on that which produces. The higher intellectual life is
antagonistic to the lower. There is no strain so great, no tax so
heavy on the human constitution as nervous activity, but progress
implies nervous and cerebral activity. Society perishes rapidly at
the top ; it is constantly being recruited from lower strata. But
this fountain of supply is not perpetual, and these at last become
exhausted.

The distinguishing characteristic of a highly civilized society
is the setting apart of certain of its groups of units to perform
separate and particular functions. But “ specialization implies
loss of vitality.” This is a great law of Biology, and Biology
means the laws of life in general. It must apply to the social as
well as to the bodily organism. The cell which in the lower
organism performs all functions has then in the full exercise of all
its powers what may be termed its absolute efficiency. But as it
becomes a part of a higher animal it suffers limitations. It is
modified to perform special functions. The settler in the back-
woods ploughs the land, tends the cattle, reaps the corn, fells the
tree, builds his house, &c. ALL his faculties are developed, but
in the specialized labour of a civilized community twenty or thirty
men of different occupations will be employed in building the
house. The talents of each are limited to particular functions.
Progress in the arts is thus bought at the price of curtailed
faculties of those who are employed in them. The exaggerated
development of some faculties involves the loss of others. There
can be no Progress in one direction but implies Regress in another,
or as Goethe expressed it: ‘‘In order to expend on one side
Nature is forced to economize on the other ;’’ or as two Belgian
Savants have put it : “‘ Degeneration is not an accident in evolution,
it is the correlative of progressive evolution and the necessary
complements of every transformation whether anatomical or social.”
Society demands the specialized individual, the one with some
faculties atrophied, some organs which have more or less
degenerated in order that others might serve it with greater
effect. In the struggle for existence you have still the survival of
the fittest, but the fittest is now no longer the rough burly
backwoodsman but the individual with deft hands and narrow
chest, with finer nerves, more delicate taste or abnormal brain,
“Cells lose their vitality in proportion as they are specialized,”
says the Biologist.

The struggle for existence, which in the free play of individual
action resulted in the survival of the healthiest, the strongest and
the bravest, now under the limitations of the social organism, by a
curious inversion of results, gives greater advantages to the weakly
and the abnormally developed, to the SPECIALLY not the GENERALLY
efficient. ;

18

Society says: “I will take care of your life, no one shall hurt
you. I will take care of your property, you need make no effort in
its defence.’”’ The manlier virtues disappear. Society is for the weak,
not for the strong. Men become more and more dependent. ‘Towns
and great cities arise. But great cities are the destruction of the
race. The conditions of a healthy life are absent from the excited
mart, the bustling street, the crowded tenement. No society can
progress without a leisured class; that is to say, without that
wealth, that reserve of potential energy of which capital is the
embodiment. But wealth that brings such aids to progress is
also an agent of destruction. The forces which create are those
which destroy, The wealth which at one time may be invigorat-
ing in excess may corrupt. Comforts at first occasional become
habitual. Luxuries become necessities. Pleasure becomes one of
the main objects of existence. Education creates ideals which
can never be realized, wants which can never be satisfied. Society
creates in its midst a proletariat, not of labour and drudgery, but
an intellectual proletariat, restless, dissatisfied, which chafes under
any control, seeks to break all the bonds which hold society
together, and rejects all commandments.

Again, progress in civilization implies those finer feelings, that
more delicate sympathy which regards the sufferings and the
wants of others, that humanitarianism which sustains the falling,
feeds the hungry, and provides for the maimed and wounded in
the battle of life. But every imbecile, every improvident, every
unthrifty thus maintained at the expense of the community, is a
tax on the energies of the strong, the industrious, and the healthy.
You have saved, by your rates, or your contributions, a life of
little or no value to the community, but you have made life
harder, you have brought death nearer, to the very individuals by
which the best life of the community is maintained.

“* Owing to these general causes,’’ says Mr. Francis Gelton, in
reviewing certain questions bearing on heredity, ‘‘ there is a steady
check in an old civilization in the fertility of the abler classes—
the improvident and the unambitious are those which chiefly keep
up the breed, so the race gradually degenerates, becoming with
each successive generation less fitted for a high civilization,
although it retains the external appearance of one; until the time
comes when the whole political and social fabric caves in, and a
greater or less relapse towards barbarism takes place.

19
THURSDAY, JANUARY 22np, 1903.

A faturalist’s Ramble on the Sea
Share.

(With Lantern Illustrations.)

F. MARTIN DUNCAN.

(/n this case as in others in which experiments or Lantern

LMustrations form such an important part of the Lecture, tt ts
impossible to give any adequate abstract of it without a repro-

duction of them.)

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 18rTu.

Grabelling in Mid- Air,

BY

May ERIG) STUART BRUCE, M.A,

T the outset Mr. Bruce dwelt upon the great developments of
rial navigation of late years, and in particular alluded to

the way in which the operations of the late war had silenced the
criticisms of those who grudge national expenditure on erial
navigation. Referring to some of the tragedies with which recent
advance in eronautics has been marked, Mr. Bruce said that
temporary failure, and even the martyrdom of brave men in the
cause of science, could not stop the natural law of progress, and
the first British airship had crossed the Metropolis from the
Crystal Palace to Harrow, without hitch or accident of any kind,
Then the lecturer came to some experiments. War balloons,

he told his audience, were made of gold-beater’s skin, which,
however slight it might appear, was an admirable substance for the

20

purpose, because of its lightness, and its capacity for holding gas.
Strength could be obtained by combining layers of the substance
by an ingenious arrangement devised by the Royal Engineers.
One or two miniature balloons of. different sizes were quickly
filled with gas from a compressed gas cylinder, and released by
the lecturer, to sail up to the roof of the Banqueting Room at the
end of a bit of string. To show how the perforation of a balloon
by bullets would not necessarily mean disaster, if the perforations
were in the lower part, Mr. Bruce pricked one of his bigger
models with a lady’s hat pin. Though with this weapon he
repeatedly stabbed the balloon, it continued calmly to ascend.
At Ladysmith, he said, a war-balloon was actually brought down
by a shell, but it came down so gently that there was no incon-
venience at all to the officers in it.

From the balloons themselves Mr. Bruce went on to illustrate
a system of signalling by means of illuminated balloons, a system
of his own invention which, he said, had been adopted by the
British, Belgian, and Italian Governments, and he pointed out
how useful balloon signalling might be in the case of ships distant
from each other at sea, for detachments of an Army separated on

land, and for polar exploration. The next experiments shown to
’ the audience showed the action of erial screws, the means by
which at present most zronauts are seeking to solve the problem
of really navigating the air independently of the direction of the
wind. One of the most interesting of the experiments, and one
which called forth the hearty applause of the audience, was the
releasing of a model of the Santos-Dumont steerable balloon,
which, propelled by a little screw, made a circle gracefully in the
air, and a trip to the big central chandelier and hack, a few feet
over the heads of the spectators.

In order to navigate the air, it was of the greatest importance
to improve our knowledge of the numerous zrial currents at
different altitudes. The disastrous results that may attend
eeroplanes from these currents were illustrated experimentally by
the convolutions in the Banqueting Room of a little flying
machine. Mr. Bruce announced that, with a view to solving if
possible some of the difficult problems connected with air
currents above 3,oooft., arrangements were in progress for holding
at an early date a great international kite-flying competition. The
experiments, which would probably take place near Brighton, were
likely to prove the most important of the kind in the history of
eerial investigation.

In conclusion, Mr. Bruce expressed his increasing conviction
that the conquest of the air, when it was achieved, would be
achieved along the lines of a natural simplicity.

eS eee ee

2T

THURSDAY, MARCH 1oTH.

Mr, BENJAMIN KIDD'S

The Principles of Western Civilization,

A Criticism and a Review,

BY

Tue Rev. F. ASHER.

S to the class of literature to which Ze Principles of Western
Civilization belongs, Mr. Asher remarked that we are
familiar with the treatment of life which consists in looking at the
facts, and using common sense, and working up through facts to
the principles which, as far as we can see, indicate the order in
which facts are given to us. We know the scientific habit of
mind, and this book is certainly not scientific. We are familiar
with the method which treats not so much of facts as of thoughts,
the method of Kant, and men of his stamp, who teach us not so
much what the facts actually are, but tell us the conditions under
which knowledge is possible. We know the philosophic habit of
mind and the class of literature which deals with facts, not by
working up from them, but by working down to them in the light
of first principles. ‘There is a gulf between these two habits of
mind, between which war has been and is still being waged. But
this book is not a philosophic book. _It belongs to another class
of literature, which deals not so much with facts and thoughts, as
with that difficult and mysterious factor which we call life, which
no one yet has analysed, which no one pretends to understand,
but which is for ever facing us, inviting us to ascertain it, and
eluding us; and which life can only be grasped by those men who
are seers, and see into the life of things, and express their apergu
in the form which we may call apocalyptic. The characteristic of
the apocalyptic type of literature, of which we have an exponent
in Thomas Carlyle, is that it endeavours to grasp that which the
man admits eludes him, the source of all facts—life. The
scientific man deals with what he can observe ; the philosophical
man seems to grasp a higher type of fact ; but the seer invariably
feels himself invited, and almost oppressed by the sense of a

22

growing sentient life, and in his apocalypse gives us not so much
the past, which the scientific man can talk about; not the present
which the philosophical man sees; but the future, which unrolls
itself before his eyes.

In considering the problem to be solved in the discussion of
The Principles of Western Civilization, we must first gain some
clear view of the drama of human action as it unrolls itself before
our eyes on the page of history, and in order to do this we must
be willing to seize the salient points and work from these, discover-
ing as far as we can the principles which were at work when this
particular salient point was flung out from the mountain range of
human action, and trying as far as we can to relate the various
peaks we see standing out before our eyes.

Can there be any real doubt that in the civilization of the
western world there have been two great agencies at work, which
can be indicated by the terms “the Roman Empire,” and
“ Christendom?” Of course we may trace back the enormous
range of life which died up into the Roman Empire. We may
trace back from Egypt, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Greece, till we
come to Rome, and we may find in Rome the elements drawn out
of the long struggle of race against race; but we come to this fact
at last, which Gibbon makes clear to us: that at one period of
the human race all the fairest tracts of the best part of the western
world, and all the power which was being worked out in the lives
of men, was concentrated in that organisation known as the
Roman Empire ; and by a wonderful process the powers which
had specialised themselves became united in the person of one
single man, and at a particular date,—say 27 B.c., after the Battle
of Actium,—we have the marvellous spectacle of the whole of the
countries surrounding the Mediterranean being governed by
principles which found as their exponent one single man, the
Erperor of Rome. That surely represents to us one of the great
agencies which has been at work in the civilization of mankind,.

Now if we move on through the centuries, and pass from the
striking figure of Augustus to a typical medizeval figure,—say
Dante,—what do we find? Is there any essential difference
between those principles working in the heart of a representative
min like Dante, and those which we found culminating in the
character of a man like Augustus? Take his Divina Commedia
and his other works, and we find we are in a different world.
That solitary, exiled man carries within himself another principle,
which seems to present a more potent and far-reaching influence
than anything we can find in the time of Augustus, By about the
year 1300 A.D. a new principle had found its way into those
civilising principles which had hitherto been at work, and it could
never thenceforth be rejected. Strong men cannot live without
it ; it has come to form a part of the very fibre and tissue of their
souls.

—_—s ee

23

There are the two salient points—Augustus, summing up the
tendencies of the Roman Empire ; and Dante, summing up, if not
the tendencies, the best expression of the tendencies of
Christendom. The problem is, how to relate those two salient
peaks in the vast amount of human endeavour and achievement,
so as to show that there is a connection which will indicate the
principles which are working out in life. And the present book
does suggest an explanation how the world came to take into its
heart the principles represented in Dante, which make him and
his writings the exponent of the Life of Christendom.

Coming then to the third line of thought he had laid down
for himself, Mr. Asher turned to Mr. Kidd’s book itself, illustrat-
ing what he had to say with a number of quotations. Mr. Kidd,
in his chapter on ‘‘ The close of an Era,” shows that at the time
at which he writes, there is a conception of a State which he feels
belongs to a previous stage of existence, and must be lost in the
newer conception which he offers to us towards the close of his
book. All previous systems of social civilization have been con-
sidered as revolving round this principle—the interests of certain
existing individuals, whom we call Society. But the point of view
has been altered by a revolution without any parallel in the history
of thought. It is not the interests of these existing individuals
with which all our present systems of thought and science concern
themselves, but the life and the interests of the future, which
await the meaning of the evolutionary processes in history. In
the scientific formula of the life of any existing type of social
order, the interests of these existing individuals possess no mean-
ing, except so far as they are included in, and subordinate to, the
interests of a developing system of social order, the overwhelming
proportion of whose members are still in the future. This makes
us look at all the processes of our civilization entirely in a new
light. Our relation to that which we can possess for ourselves
and hold against the world, is opposed to the principle of sacrific-
ing ourselves to something else which we shall never possess. We
are interested in our possessions ; we sacrifice to a larger life ; and
all the way through the book we find this antithesis. It is fair to
say that the State exists at present for the protection of property.
Mr. Kidd goes on to say that this conception of the State is due
to the teaching of the Manchester School. Theirs are the prin-
ciples which correspond with the era of the ascendancy of the
present in the economic activities of the world. But another
influence is at work in the world, which enables men to live for
that which they will never enjoy, to live for a larger life which
shall never be theirs, and it is in the bringing together of these
two factors that Mr. Kidd’s book deserves to be most closely
examined.

In Chapter II. we are shown that the theory of Natural
Selection is not sufficient to account for the forms of life. He

24

shows that the survival of the individual is not explained by look-
ing at the individual alone, but is in order that he may live for
some larger issue. The organism is not only struggling with its
own past, but being subordinated to the future, which it is
anticipating and bringing into view. The interests of the in-
dividual and of the present are always overlaid by the interests
of the majority, which is always in the future.

Having concluded the first section of his book, dealing with
the past view of a self-centred State, Mr. Kidd, in his second
section, shows how the principle has been born in the minds of
men, whereby men have projected the controlling centre of life
beyond the interests of the existing individual. He does not find
it in religion, but in the influence of the non-utilitarian conception
of what he calls Western Liberalism in English thought in the
Seventeenth Century. The principles of the democracy which our
civilization is destined to realise, are incompatible with the
materialistic conception of history. In another section he shows
the dawning and the purification of the sense of the eternal. He
tries to show that there have been a body of men living in the
world, obeying the ordinary laws necessary for the survival of the
race, but keeping within their heart of hearts a sense of the
eternal, and of those principles which will, one day, make all men
one. We follow the development of the “vision of universal
justice” that fitled the consciousness of the Jewish people, until it
becomes greater than the race itself, till, at last, associated with
an ideal of personal self-abnegation which has passed the bounds
of the material, it goes forth to subdue the world in which the
principle of the ascendency of the present had reached its
culminating expression. How few students of history consider in
this light the problem presented by the early Christian heresies ?
Mr. Kidd sees in those heresies the tendency to make men live in
the present, and thinks that that is the reason why persecution of
them was so rife,—because they were attempts to close up that
profound antithesis which the human mind would not allow to be
closed. He shows that as a result of this new ideal came a new
value to the individual life, each individual life being declared to
have relation to the eternal. He traces a gradual growth since
the time of Charlemagne of the principle that spiritual interests
are more important than temporal, while he characterises the
Reformation as an attempt to point out afresh men’s sense of the
eternal, when the Papacy had gradually introduced something of
the old military despotism of Rome, and was hindering the other
ideal. After the Reformation, there arose a new sense of truth
as the resultant of two opposing forces.

Towards the end Mr. Kidd seeks to show us that we are in
danger at the present moment of an Empire far more serious, far
less grand and dignified than the Empire we have left behind.
He shows that the principles which govern the distribution of

a

|
:
:

25

wealth are being lowered, by the principle of surviving in a world
of free struggle to the lowest level of the persons engaged in
competition. So he comes to the possibility of shaking off the
awful power of this irresponsible struggle for gain. And in rather
obscure phrases he hints that it is only those spaces, in which
have been cleared round the ideals which involve the sacrifice of
the life of the individual for some larger purpose than his own,
that we can shake off the tendency to survive in a free struggle
for personal gain, and he seems to suggest that it is in a new
order of human society, founded on this desire to project beyond
personal interest, that we should come to see the future that is
beckoning to the world. He closes with a vision of the life
which dies upwards into a larger life, and a new interpretation
of the principles of sacrifice which have ever lived in the world,
not as representing any connection with the past, but as reach-
ing forward into the unborn future.

WEDNESDAY, APRIL zoru.

Hollinghury Camp.
Mx. H. S. TOMS.

AVING, in a few introductory remarks, recalled to the minds

of his hearers that Hollingbury Camp had lately become

part and parcel of the municipal property of Brighton, Mr. Toms
gave a brief description of the camp. It is situate about 400
yards east of the Ditchling Road, and about a mile N.N.E. of the
spot where the Corporation tramway branches into the Drove.
It consists of a comparatively shallow ditch with a rampart
standing some three or four feet above the level of the surrounding
hill crest, and enclosing an area of about six acres. Its shape
roughly approximates a square with the corners rounded off, and
the sides bulging outwards. There are four entrances, and near
the centre of the gorse-covered interior are the remains of pits
and a small mound, closely resembling the burial mounds of the
Bronze Age. The period to which the camp belongs, Mr. Toms
remarked, is still in the realm of conjecture, but all authorities
who had grappled with the subject agreed in relegating the camp
to an antiquity ranging from the Stone Age to the Roman

26

occupation of Britain, and in regarding it, together with similar
entrenchments capping the South Downs, viz., Cissbury, Chancton-
bury, and the Dyke Camp, as having been thrown up for the
purposes of fortification. Mr. Toms went on to quote some views
expressed by the late General Pitt-Rivers in a paper on the “ Hill
Forts of Sussex,” contributed (under his former name of Col. A.
H. Lane Fox), in 1869, to Vol. 42 of the “ Archzologia,”
published by the Society of Antiquaries.

General Pitt-Rivers strongly maintained that these Sussex
earthworks, including Aollingbury, are not of Roman but
prehistoric origin. He observed that the whole hill-top, or the
whole available portion of it, appeared to have been fortified by a
line of ramparts drawn along the brow, in the position best suited
for defence, and with but little regard to the amount of space
enclosed, whereas the Roman practice was to regulate the outline
and arrangement of the camps in accordance with the strength of
the force intended to occupy them, and with a chief regard to the
considerations of discipline, and interior economy. Considera-
tions of the supply of water and fuel were, in these camps, invari-
ably sacrificed to tke necessity the people appeared to have been
under of occupying the strongest features of the country. He did
not meet with a single example in Sussex of a fort having a supply
of water within the enclosure, and the majority, like Cissbury,
were at a considerable distance from a spring. Nor could fuel

ave been obtainable anywhere in the immediate vicinity. This,
according to Vegetius, was a primary requisite in the selection of
a Roman Camp, and among camps of undoubted Roman
construction, no instance of a neglect of these principles had
been found. The strength of the ramparts in the Sussex forts
corresponded inversely to the natural strength of the position.
In some places where a steep declivity presented itself, there was
no rampart, implying that the defence of those places must have
been confined to a stockade. The ditch, generally on the outside,
was sometimes in the interior of the work. Outworks were
thrown up upon commanding sites, within 200 or 300 yards of
the main work. The ramparts at the gateways were increased in
height and were sometimes thrown back upon the causeway over
the ditch.

This was not a characteristic of a Roman gateway. The
occupants of these works frequently dwelt in pits, which was not
the Roman practice. These entrenchments were, moreover, in
an especial manner associated with evidence of the manufacture
of flint implements, found scattered in great abundance upon the
surface, whereas the Romans did not use flint for their tools and
weapons. Mr. Toms went on to refer to General Pitt-Rivers’
subsequent excavations at Cissbury, Highdown, Mount Caburn,
and Seaford Cliff, indicating them to be of pre-Roman origin,

—————— CCC

27

after which he compared Hollingbury with Bronze Age camps of
Wilts and Dorset in order to disprove the belief that Hollinghury
was of Roman origin. Like Hollingbury these Wilts and Dorset
camps were thought to be Roman because of their rectangular
shape, but the excavations which he (Mr. Toms) had the honour
of personally conducting at those camps conclusively proved
them to be the work of the Bronze Age. Passing on, Mr. Toms,
with the aid of several diagrams, proceeded to show that Holling-
bury owed its present aspect to the action of the weather, which
caused the sides of the trench and rampart to fall into the trench,
the bottom of which would very soon be covered with chalk
rubble, and the sides partly so. Then a finer mixture, washed
and drifted into the trench, would accumulate, and over all turf
would grow, and mould accumulate by vegetable decay, the
tendency of all this being ever in the direction of softening and
reducing the outlines of the earthwork, and eventually almost
their obliteration. :

Coming to the question of how to determine the age of a
camp, he showed that this could be done by careful excavation
and analysis of the deposit with which the trench had become
filled during the lapse of ages. Relics in the bottom of the trench
or in the body of the rampart would obviously belong to the pe-iod
of the first construction of the entrenchment, and the objects
found would naturally be of more and more recent date in the
later and latest deposits. The relics in the trench would, in fact,
be found to be arranged, so to speak, in chronological order.
Dealing next with the best method of excavation by means of
which to determine the age of Hollingbury, he shewed the import-
ance of first preparing a carefully contoured plan, and then
pointed out the right and wrong ways of excavating sections of
the earthworks. The proper way was to take the turf off first,
and then work down layer by layer, removing and recording the
depth and position of the pottery, &c., found in the upper layers
before digging into the lower layers. If necessary, the whole of
the ditch and rampart should be explored in a similar manner,
and after the earthworks had been explored, the interior area of
the camp should be similarly trenched for traces of occupation.
As the evidence bearing upon Hollingbury’s age still lay hidden
beneath the soil, they could only conjecture the nature of the
objects forming the clue; but from a comparison of the results of
excavations made elsewhere, they might safely say that this ques-
tion would be mainly solved by the shards of broken pottery
invariably found in great numbers in earthworks of this kind,

Pottery alone, however, was not a safe criterion by which to
determine the age of an earthwork. Other evidence, however
slight, of the metallic or non-metallic periods was required tc
confirm the conclusion to which the pottery pointed. Finishing

28

his paper with a consideration of the connection which it was
supposed that the earthworks of the South Downs had with each ©
other in the defence of the country, Mr. Toms inclined towards
the views of General Pitt-Rivers, which were opposed to the
hypothesis of older archzologists that these entrenchments
formed part of a triple series of forts. Confirmation of this view
they imagined could be found in the position of the gateways of
these forts ; but General Pitt-Rivers thought there was nothing in
the position of the gateways or works themselves incompatible
with the hypothesis of their having been isolated works, erected
by several distinct tribes, as a protection against the incursions of
their neighbours. The earthworks of the South of England,
General Pitt-Rivers believed, led us rather to infer the existence
of frequent intestine wars, in which each section of the com-
munity fortified itself against its immediate neighbours, than of
any extensive and combined system of national defence. Another
weak point in the evidence of connection supposed to be afforded
by the position of the gateways, which had hitherto been over-
looked, was that sometimes a footpath or road lead into, across,
and out of the camp, the points of entrance and exit being
through a depression in the rampart which looked so uncom-
monly like one of the old gateways, as to raise a question whether
these entrances formed part of the original design of the earth-
work. The only way to settle the difficulty was by excavation at
these points, but as none of the Sussex forts had been thoroughly
and systematically investigated, the question of the original
number of entrances and their hypothetical bearing upon the
relation of the camps must remain in abeyance until such had
been done. Mr. Toms answered several questions, and sug-
gested, amid applause, that steps should be taken to preserve the
camp. The hearty vote of thanks to him, moved by Mr. Clarkson
Wallis, was carried with acclamation.

29

WEDNESDAY, MAY orn.

Patural Science at Rome at the time
of Ohrist.

RARY HORA, B.A, B.Sc, &c

R. Hora pointed out, first, that in any country, schools of
philosophical thought prevalent in any age, are the product
mainly of the political and social condition of the people.
Secondly, he gave a picture of the horrible condition of
Rome about B.c. 40 as it emerged from its old republican soil to
spread abroad as a vast military Empire. Roman Natural
Philosophy was mainly built up from the débris of the fast
decaying Greek philosophical schools. Hence we see flourishing
at Rome three main schools: (1) Academic—modified (one might
almost say degraded) from the pure Idealism of Plato to a
Sceptical Materialism. (2) Stoic School, which did not concern
itself much with Natural Philosophy, its ethical system appealing
so strongly to those who cherised the rigid, almost brutal, traditions
of Rome’s earlier heroes. (3) he Epicurean School—of which
we know most at the present time, since a complete exposition of
its tenets by one of its most cultured adherents has come down to
us, viz., Lucretius’ magnificent poem, De Rerum Nature. With
all its glaring absurdities, its contempt for religion and its many
contradictions, the outline of its philosophy resembles very much
our modern notion of evolution. It was exceedingly popular at
Rome and included in its folds such literary men as Virgil,
Horace, Ovid and Lucretius. He pointed out how much and yet
how little these schools did for modern thought. Want of
instruments of precision, of a science of chemistry, of algebraical
geometry, and of a systematic experimental study of Nature
instead of mere speculation unaccompanied by experiment, account
for its slow progress.
Lastly, Mr. Hora pointed out that in a measure the same
problems confront us now as they did the Romans at the time of
Christ—the nature and origin of the Universe, God, and morality.

30°

WEDNESDAY, JUNE torn, 1903.

Annual General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE oth, 1903.

It may not perhaps be generally known to the Members that
this year the Society is about to enter on the fiftieth year of its
existence. The first Meeting of the Society was held on
September 1st, 1854. Among those who took an active part in
its formation, just half a century since, and whose names appear
as Members of the First Committee of Management, are Mr.
Barclay Phillips, who now lives at Bedford, and Mr. George de
Paris, to whose energy and resource the Town and Corporation of
Brighton are so much indebted as Chairman of the Fine Arts
Committee.

The First Annual Report is dated September 13th, 1855.
This modest unpretending booklet,—somewhat of a curiosity now,
—lies on the table for your inspection.

For just on 50 years the Meetings of the Society, appointed
to be held in the second week of each month between September
and June, have gone on uninterruptedly.

We cannot chronicle the admission of 74 new Members in
this Report as in that of 1855, but it is satisfactory to be able to
record that there are 170 names on the list, and that the Meetings
during the past year have been more than ordinarily well attended.

We have to mourn the loss by death of two old Members
who once took an active part in the work of the Society, viz., Mr.
Alderman Cox, who joined in 1871, and Mr. Alderman Davey,
who became a Member in 1872 and was Hon. Auditor for some
years. During the past year we have lost nine Members, three
by death and six by resignation, and eleven new Members have
been elected. ;

The re-building of the Public Library has necessitated the
purchase of new bookcases for the Society’s books. These have
been obtained at a cost of £16 10s. 6d. The Council regret the

31

delay which has occurred in the issue of books to Members, the
causes of which are alluded to in the Librarian’s Report.

There were six excursions, namely :—

May 24th.
June 21st,
July 5th.

July roth.
Sept. 2oth.
Oct. 4th.

Balcombe.

Ashdown Forest—Wych Cross—Sheffield Park.

St. Leonards Forest—Beacon Hill—Holmbush Tower
—Pease Pottage—High Beeches.

Henfield—Edburton—W oodmancote.

Steyning— Chanctonbury Ring.

Falmer—Newmarket Hill—Lewes.

Papers read at Ordinary Meetings :-—

1902.

Oct.

Nov.

103.

Jan.

Feb.
Mar.

April 22nd.

May

5th.

15th.

18th.
12th.

13th.

‘“* Progress and its Illusions.’’—
Mr. E. A. PANKHURST.

‘ British Oak Trees, and the Galls found upon them.”
Mr. E. CoNNOLD.

“Progress and its Illusions, II.”—
Mr. E, A. PANKHURST.

“ A Naturalist’s Ramble on the Seashore ’’—
Mr. Martin DUNCAN.
“Travelling in Mid-Air.,—Mr. E. Stuart BRUCE.
“Mr. Benjamin Kidd’s Principles of Western
Civilisation.” Rev. FELIx ASHER.
Mr. H. S. Toms.

“Natural Science at Rome in the time of Christ.”—
Mr. F. R. Hora.

“ Hollingbury Camp ”—

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34

HON. LIBRARIAN’S REPORT.

The rebuilding of the Public Library and Museum
necessitated the closing of the Society’s Library during the Spring
of 1902, as was recorded in last year’s Report. The Reference
Library was not completed until February, 1903; and most of
the Society’s cases were brought there, and an extra one was
made, the whole eastern wall of the room being given up to them.
Other cases are deposited downstairs. It was hoped and believed
the new arrangement would be completed, a new catalogue would
be in all the Members’ hands, and duplicates valued for sale,
before this Annual Meeting; but just after the Hon Librarian
began the work, his father, the late Alderman Davey, fell ill, and
it has not yet been possible to continue the new arrangement and
cataloguing. There is, however, nothing to prevent the completion
before the next Session of the Society begins; and it is expected
that the new position of the cases in the Reference Library,
visible to the public, will cause a much more frequent consultation
of the volumes than has previously been the case.

H. DAVEY,
Fon. Librarian.

RESOLUTIONS, &c.,, PASSED AT THE
50th ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

——__———_@,

After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
it was resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Librarian’s Report be received, adopted, and printed for
circulation as usual.”

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year—

“J. E. Haselwood, E. J. Petitfourt, B.A, F.C.P., F. Merri-
field, F.E.S., D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R.C,P.,
W. J. Treutler, M.D., F.L.S., J. P. Slingsby Roberts,
E. McKellar, J.P., Deputy Surgeon General, and W,
Clarkson Wallis.”

pase

2

35

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

“Mr. J. W. Nias and Mr. A. F. Graves.”

It was proposed by Mr. H. W. CuarrincTon, seconded by
Mr. J. J. Knicurt, and res lved—

“That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year: —Prestdent: E. Alloway Pankhurst ;
Ordinary Meinbers of Council: Walter Harrison, D.M.D.,
W. W. Mitchell, F. Hora, B.Sc., G. Morgan, LRP,
F.R.C.S. (E.), E. Payne, M.A., J. Sussex Hall ; Honorary
Treasurer: E. A. T. Breed; Honorary Librarian:
H. Davey, Jun. ; Honorary Curators: H. S. Toms and
T. Hilton; Honorary Secretary: J. Colbatch Clark,
9, Marlborough Place; Assistant Honorary Secretary:
H. Cane.”

It was proposed by Mr. WALLIs, seconded by Mr. J. P.
SLINGSBY ROBERTS, and resolved—

“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. E. A.
Pankhurst for his attention to the interests of the Society
as its President during the past two years.”

It was proposed by Mr. F. R. Hora, seconded by MrG G.
BAILy, and resolved—

“ That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curator, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries, for their services
during the past year.”

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED.

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Members
of the Society.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver

Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass., U.S.A.).

36

British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

British and American Archeological Society, Rome.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

Chicester and West Sussex Natural History Society.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

City of London College of Science Society, White Street,
Moorfields, E.C., & “ Hatfield,” Tenham Avenue, Streatham
Hill, S.W.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Edinburgh Geological Society.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of Mexico.

Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

Hampshire Field Club.

Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

Mexican Geological Institute, 2, Calle de Paso Nuevo, Mexico.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, Hazlemont, The Boulevard,
Nottingham.

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club.

Royal Microscopical Society.

Royal Society.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.

Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.

Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.

Watford Natural History Society.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

a

37

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and Bobe Natural History and
Philosophical Society,

1903.
- awn, -

N.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
following List the Address is tn Brighton.

mVeawTa™
ORDINARY MEMBERS.

ABBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
ASHER, Rev. F., 15, Buckingham Place.
AsHTon, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.

ATTREE, G. F., 8, Hanover Crescent.

Bapcock, Lewis C., M.D., M.R.C.S., ro, Buckingham Place
BEVAN, BERTRAND.

Bituinc, T., 86, King’s Road.

Booth, E., 53, Old Steine.

BreEeED, E. A. T., 17, Buckingham Place.

Browy, J. H., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove.
Brown, GEORGE, Cottesmore, The Upper Drive.
Butt, W. 75, St. Aubyns, Hove.

Burrows, W., S., B.A., M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine.
BurcHELL, E., L.R.C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.
Bary, G. G., 86, Buckingham Road.

Carter, F. W., 130, Church Road, Hove.
Cane, H., 173, Ditchling Road.

Catt, REGINALD J., 31, Hampton Place.
Causu, D. E., L.D.S., 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

38

Cxiark, J- CotBatcu, 9, Marlborough Place.
Cotman, Alderman J., J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill.

Davey, Henry, jun., Victoria Road.

Denma\, S., 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 49, Church Road, Hove.
DRAPER, Dr., Municipal School of ‘Technology.

Dusart, G. C., 13, Chatsworth Road.

Epmonps, H., B.Sc., Municipal School of Technology.
Ewart, Sir J.. M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.. F.ZS., Bewcastle,
Dyke Road.

FLetcuer, W. H. B., J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.

GiLkEs, J. H., 6, Hanover Crescent.
Graves, A. F., 9A, North Street Quadrant.
GriFFITH, A., 59, Montpelier Road,
Grove, E., Norlington, Preston.
GRINSTED, J., 13, Powis Square.

Ha tt, J. Sussex, Ship Street.

Hack, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

Harrison, W., D.M.D, 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HasE.woop, J. E., 3, Richmond Terrace.

Haynes, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

Hewriguss, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
HIck.ey, G., 92, Springfield Road.

Hixron, T., 16, Kensington Place.

Hosss, J., 62, North Street.

Hosuousg, E., M.D., 36, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Ho per, J. J., 8, Lorne Villas. |

How tet?t, J. W., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Hora, F. R., 32, Norton Road, Hove.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

Jacomp, Wykeham, 72, Dyke Road.

JENNER, J. H. A., Lewes.

Jenninos, A. O., LL.B., 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
Jounston, J., 12, Bond Street.

Knicut, J. J., 33, Duke Street.

Lancton, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.

Lewis, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairholme, Maresfield.
LoaDER, KENNETH, 5, Richmond Terrace.
LONSDALE, L., 13, Powis Square.

39

McKeE tak, E., Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D., J.P., Woodleigh,
Preston.

Macutirg, E.C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

May, F. J. C., 25, Compton Avenue.

MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace.

MILs, J., 24, North Road.

MITCHELL, W. W., 66, Preston Road.

Morea, G., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 6, Pavilion Parade.

Mustov, S. H., 54, Western Road.

MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.

Matuews, H. J., 43, Brunswick Road.

MinT0, J., Public Library.

NeEwMarcu, Major-General, 6, Norfolk Terrace.
NewsHo.mge, A., M.D., M.R.C.P., 11, Gloucester Place.
Nias, J. W., 81, Freshfield Road.

Nicuotson, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

Norman, S. H., Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

Oxr, ALFRED W., B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.LS. F.Z.S., 32;
Denmark Villas, Hove.

Pankuurst, E. A., 3, Clifton Road.

Paris, G. Dr, 14, Norfolk Road.

Payne, W. H., 6, Springfield Road.

Payne, E., Hatchlands, Cuckfield.

Penney, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.

Petitrourt, E. J., B.A., F.C.P., 16, Chesham Street.

Pucu, Rev. C., 13, Eaton Place.

Puttick, W., Tipnoake, Albourne, Hassocks.

Pop.ey, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

Reap, S., 12, Old Steine.

RicHarpson, F. R., 4, Adelaide Crescent.
Roserts, J. P. SLinGsBy, 3, Powis Villas.
Rosinson, E., Saddlescombe.

Rosg, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.
Rytg, R. J., M.D., 15, German Place.

Satmon, E. F., 30, Western Road, Hove.
SavaGE, W. W., 10g, St James’s Street.

Stoman, F., 18, Montpelier Road.

Scott, E. Irwin, M.D., 69, Church Road, Hove.
Smith, C., 47, Old Steine.

SmitH, T., 1, Powis Villas,

SmituH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

Smita, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.
Smitu, W. H., rg1, Eastern Road.

40

Stoner, Haroip, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency
Square.
SmiTH_ERS, E. A., Furze Hill.

Ta.zot, Huco, 79, Montpelier Road.

Tuomas, J., Kingston-on-Sea.

TREUTLER, W. J., M.D., F.L.S., 8, Goldstone Villas, Hove.
Toms, H. S., The Museum.

Tuony, Dr., 1, Hova Terrace, Hove.

Watus, E. A., Sunnyside, Upper Lewes Road.

Wa uis, W. CLarxkson, 15, Market SLLece

WattTER, J., 134, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

Wayrtock, E., 36, Western Road.

Wicutmay, G. J., Ailsa Craig, The Wallands, Lewes.
Wicxinson, T., 170, North Street.

Wirt, H., F.G.S., Arnold House, Montpelier Terrace.
Wituiams, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

Wituams, H. M., LLB., 17, Middle Street.

Woon, J., 21, Old Steine.

WooprurFF, G. B., 24, Second Avenue, Hove.

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLey, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
BakER, Miss Epirx, Highclere, Brunswick Place, Hove.

Cameron, Miss E., 25, Victoria Street.
Caush, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

CraFeEr, Mrs. M. H., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
CRANE, Miss AGNES, 11, Wellington Road.
Co.tett, Miss C. H., 8, Marlborough Place.

Farocus, Mrs., 7, Park Crescent.

Hark, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.

HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.

Hernaman, Miss I., 117, Ditchling Road.

HERNAMAN, Miss V., 117, Ditchling Road.

Hott, Miss, Diocesan Training College, Ditchling Road.

Lancton, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.
Nicuotson, Mrs., 9, Park Crescent.

Ricu, Miss, Iken House, Roedean School.
Rucg, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

Sroner, Mrs. H., 18, Regency Square.

41

Tuomas, Miss Mary, 119, Freshfield Road.

WALLIs, Mrs., Sunnyside, Upper Lewes Road.
WILKINSON, Mrs., 30, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Woop, Mrs. J., 21, Old Steine.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLoomFIELD, Rey. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
CurtTEIs, T., 244, High Holborn, London.

Dawson, C., F.G.S., Uckfield.

Farr, E. H., Uckfield.

Ho.uis, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.

Mitten, W., Hurstpierpoint.

Noursg, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.
PHILLIPS, BaRcuay, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

Lomax, BENJAMIN, The Museum, Brighton.

REVERS

mr

PRESENTED
14 JAN, 1904
Kar MUSE

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>
RAL HIS

BRIGHTON & HOVE

Matural Gistory and Philosophical
Society.

ee eT ee ee ee PAS ne
oe eK pe .
=

Clbstracts of Papers

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

}| THE ANNUAL REPORT
| H “ FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 8th, 1904> 9 < “>

Brighton:
“BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.

1905.

BRIGHTON & HOVE

Natural PHistory and Philosophical
Society.

Cbstracts of Papers

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 8th, 1904.

Brighton :

“BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince's Place.

1905.

LN Dex.

PAGE.
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY ... Moe ate eave Boe 3
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POETRY AND SCIENCE—
Rev. FELIX ASHER ... ee See ee ar 5
Fossit HUNTING IN THE LIBYAN DesERT—Dr. C. W.
ANDREws, F.G.S. ta Se Ete: ta se 6
STRUCTURE AND ForM or SHELLS—Mr. EDWARD
ConNoLD, F.E.S. “ei a ea aa aes 7
MeEmMoRY AND ITS DisEAsES—Mr. A. M. SyDNEY-
TuRNER, M.R.C.S., F.Z.S,_... Seis re ae 10
THE SMALLER DENIZENS OF OUR PoNDS, LAKES AND
Rivers—Mr. F. Martin-Duncan, F.E.S., F.L.S.... 13
THE EvoLUTION OF THE HorseE--Dr. A. SMITH-
WoopwarpD, LL.D., F.R.S._... Res oe ots 15
THE Brirps oF BRIGHTON AND NEIGHBOURHOOD—
Mr. E. ROBINSON Be sia Aor rc aioe, GT

British TrREES—Mr. G. CLaripGE Druce, M.A., F.L.S. 19

REPORT OF COUNCIL ane ae 50E =e we) ea
METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON eas oak i. aa: SG
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT... au ae wee oi 27
HERBARIUM, 1902-1903 sor 3a me see SA es
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING wie es ane vee)
SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED x. aes oa 3 2a:

List OF MEMBERS ... sae a arr SF oe ease

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1903-4.

reer SOK gree DIS tee

President :
HENRY DAVEY.

Past Presidents :

W. E. C. NOURSE. GEORGE DE PARIS.

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. D. E. CausH, L.D.S.

A. H. Cox, Ald., J.P. A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P.,

L. C. Babcock, M.D. M.O.H.

W. AINSLIE HOLLIS, M.D., E, J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
F.R.C.P. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.

J. Ewart, Kt., M.D., J.P. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.

J. E. HASELWOOD. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

W.SEYMOUR BURROWS, M.R.C.S.| E, ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

THE COUNGIL.
Ohe President.

Pice- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. Causu, L.D.S. | E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOOD. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. W. J. TREUTLER, M.D.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., W. CLARKSON WALLIS,
M.O.H. E. A. PANKHURST.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.
G. MorGAN, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. J. SUSSEX HALL.

W. W. Harrison, D.M.D. S. R. PENNEY.
F. Hora, B.Sc., B.A. H. J. MATHEWS.
Gonorary Treasurer : Gonorary Librarian :
E. A. T. BREED, ROBT. MORSE.

Gonorary Auditors :
J. W. Nias. A. F. GRAVES.

Honorary Curators :
H. S. Toms and T. HILTON.

Honorary Scientific Secretaries :
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. W. HARRISON, D.M.D. F. R. Hora, B.Sc.

Gonorarp Secretarp:
JNO. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Bonorary Secretary:
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

» $375

SESSION 1903-4.

RI
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 15TH, 1903,

Che Relationship betiveen Povirpy
and Srience.

BY
Tue Rev, FELIX ASHER

(Vicar of Holy Trinity, Ship Street, Brighton).

ae is apparently truer and more permanent than poetry,

for it deals with facts as they are; the poet allows the facts
to be transformed by a medium of feeling. Science again appears
to see the present actual world, while poetry lives, often, by
contemplating the beauty of an ever-receding past. Yet, if we
turn to concrete poems like Tennyson’s ‘ Break, Break, Break,”
we find our assumption hardly holds good. The poem written
between 1830-1840 is much fresher to-day than the science of
that period. A stanza of Gray’s Elegy touches our emotions now,
but who would learn of the science of the 18th century? The
greatest poet of all—Shakespeare—lived when science was hardly
born and his voice is as clear as ever, while we ignore the
scientific glimmerings of his day. All this goes to show that
poetry, once created, lives on unchanged, while a phase of
scientific thought, however accurate, lasts but a short time and is
merged in the complete synthesis which follows it.

Again, the poet ‘sees into the life of things.” He is not
content, like the scientist, to abstract certain features of living or
dead phenomena, and formulate the connexions between such
abstractions; the poet penetrates to the essential nature, the deep
mysterious throb of life which animates each separate thing and
the whole universe in which it finds itself. The scientist describes
things and maps the world out for us; the poet explains their
being and their end and gives us, in song, the joy which he feels
at his discovery. The scientist brings his message of the external

6

forms of things, the marvellous features of the world in which
we live; he purges our minds of harmful illusions and checks
unwholesome sentiment. The poet, on the other hand, brings us
musically and with emotion his discovery of the expression of the
face of the world. To him the world and every fact in it, is
translucent and looks beyond itself.

We need the message and the help of both poet and scientist
for restraint and inspiration.

WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 4th, 1903.

Fossil Hunting in the Libyan Desert.

BY
Dre. CHARLES. W. ANDREWS, FiGia3

Of the British Museum.

HE Lecture was mainly descriptive of the topography and
geology of the Libyan desert which lies to the west of
Egypt. It is but sparsely inhabited, subject to violent alternations
of heat and cold, and often swept by suffocating sand storms,
whilst rain is almost unknown. This vast wilderness, by its
natural dryness and inaccessibility, proved peculiarly suitable for
the preservation of the fossil remains of those strange mammals
who were the denizens of the place during the upper Eocene,
Oligocene and Miocene epochs.
Dr. Andrews conducted most of his researches in the bed of
a mighty river which seems like the ancestor of the Nile as we
know it now. Many lantern slides were shown illustrating the
remarkable diversity of its surface, the fantastic escarpments, the
strange isolated bluffs cropping up from level plains like the
monuments of a Titanic race rather than the work of natural
agencies. The famous Sphinx, by the way, was shown to be one
of these natural monuments, carved into shape afterwards by
human agencies. A rich harvest of fossil forms, some absolutely
unique and unlike any animals now existing or extinct forms
hitherto discovered, was the Lecturer’s reward for many months’
life (under by no means congenial conditions) in this lonely and
vast desert. Some of these fossils formed links in the evolution

7

of the elephant’s tusks and trunk which, as the Lecturer
remarked, was not quite in the same way as that described in
Rudyard Kipling’s ‘‘ Just So” stories. One find was that of an
absolutely new animal, probably related to the elephant, but
which no one yet had been able to classify with certainty. A
picture of the skull was shown—quite as fantastic as that of the
New World Tinoceras, referred to in a later lecture by Dr. Smith
Woodward. Reference was also made to the discovery of the
remains of a huge snake, probably a water snake, comparable in
size to the so-called Sea Serpent.

Great amusement was caused by the Lecturer’s caustic
comments on the ‘Superciliousness ” of the camel who seemed
fully to realize that he was indispensable to a dweller in the
wilderness, and gave himself airs accordingly, as well as the
thievish ways of the Arab attendants who accompanied him.

THURSDAY DECEMBER 3rp, 1903.

Structure and Form of Shells.

BY
Mr. EDWARD CONNOLD, F.E,S,

(Hon. Sec. of the Hastings and St. Leonards Natural History
Society),

WitH LANTERN ILLUSTRATIONS.

ee common garden snail and the common whelk were
types of creatures, which were known to naturalists as
molluscs. All molluscs began their existence in the egg form,
and there was a great variety in the shape and size of the eggs.
There was also a great difference in the manner in which they
were deposited by the parent. Some little snails were hatched
within the mother, and born alive, but the majority came forth
from the eggs after they had been laid. Some molluscs laid their
eggs singly, or in masses, others produced them in the form of a
ribbon, and were either left free or were attached to some object.
There was also a considerable diversity in their size, which ranged
from a small speck to the size of a common snail shell. When

8

they emerged from the egg they were known as the larve, and if
they had not a shell at the time of birth, they soon began to form
one. In this condition they could swim about in water, and on
their back they formed the shell, while the ventral surface became
the foot or creeping disc. But changes soon and rapidly took
place, and the visceral sac and the shell became coiled in a
nautiloid form, and at this stage it depended in the case of
univalve shells as to which form the shell would assume, whether
a dextral or right hand, or sinistral or left hand.

The visceral sac was covered with an integument known as the
mantle, the epidermis of which was filled with secretive glands,
and these produced the materials for the formation of the shell.

The formation and deposition of the shelly material was then
shown on the screen, as also were microscopic fragments of the
materials by some five or six slides.

The shell consisted of three distinct layers ; the inner layer
having a nacreous or mother of pearl texture. Next to that was the
portion known as the porcellanous or prismatic layer. It was
composed of large pallisade-like prisms which were placed side by
side. The texture was something like the enamel of teeth. It
contained the colouring pigments which gave to most shells the
charm they possessed to almost everybody. The outer surface of
the shell was covered with a horny cuticle, known as the epidermis
or periostracum. Both it and the prismatic layer were secreted
by the free edge of the mantle. It was composed mainly of
chitinous substance and served as a protection to the external
surface of the shell, and in many instances acted as a varnish by
throwing into relief the colouring beneath. The mantle, in the
case of bivalve shells, was developed on two sides of the animal
into aright and a left lobe. In the univalve shells it was continuous.
The skin of the mantle consisted of three parts: a one layered
epidermis of columnar cells, a highly vascular connective tissue
containing abundant muscular fibres, and the ciliated layer of cells.

The shell was composed of carbonate of lime and conchyolin.
As a rule it was hard and calcareous, but some were delicate in
structure, horny, and flexible. The periostracum varied greatly in
its different qualities. (A slide was shown in which it was seen
on shells, as long course fibres growing, as it were, out of the
shells, while other specimens showed it produced to a great length
beyond the end of the valves and forming a strong leathery casing
for the siphonal tubes of the mollusc).

In some shells it was closely adherent and even connected to
the valve, while in its coarser forms it would peel off after the
death of the mollusc.

The lecturer pointed out that it must not be confused with
the epiphragm which was a kind of lid or covering made by many
kinds of snails to the opening of the shell; nor yet with the
operculum, which was a horny formation in some, and of a shelly

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—— SS. * ”- —*

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9

nature in other kind of shells, the latter being a movable apparatus
for partially or wholly closing the aperture, and fully under the
control of the animal inhabiting the shell. A unique arrange-
ment found in the shell of a small land snail consisted of a
movable door fixed by a tiny hinge fastened to the interior of the
shell. In shape it was somewhat like the bowl of a spoon. The
name given to it was the clausilium, and from that the family of
those shells was called Clausilia. (A further illustration of
peculiar formations of the interior of some shells was shown in
specimens of rock borers dug out of the rocks and wood of the
submerged forest at Bulverhythe). This particular formation was
shaped like a sickle, and it served as a point to which the foot and
viscera of the animal were attached. No other shells than those
of the Pholas family had this object.

Very few bivalve shells were without teeth. These teeth
varied considerably in number. Some shells had but one or two,
while one shown on the screen was stated to have nearly 270. A
photo-micrograph of several of these teeth assisted the explanation
of their form and use. A tough leather-like arrangement for
holding the valves together and retaining them so that they can
open and close with ease and exactitude; and the peculiar yet
perfect arrangement of the muscles controlling the action of the
valves as well as the movements of the animal within were then
illustrated by written description thrown upon the screen in white
letters. Having further dealt with several features of the internal
economy of shells in general, the lecturer passed on to describe
the external topography, pointing out the margins, the umbones,
the spines, the ribs and ridges, the lines of growth, and the
general plan of ornamentation of the shell, each and all of the
features being illustrated by photographs of shells from the
lecturer’s cabinet of specimens in the Hastings Museum.

But it appeared that some molluscs had a shell formed within
the body, the common Squid has a horny substance in the
form of a gladius or pen; the Cuttle had, what was familiar to
many people in the form of the well-known cuttle bone. (Of this
object several interesting photo-micrographs showed the remark-
able construction of different portions.)

The common garden slugs also had either a small internal
shelly plate or granules of calcareous substance, the formation of
which was shown as seen under the microscope.

At the present day about 25,000 different kinds of shells
were known, and among them there was an enormous variety in
size and shape as well as colouring. The Nautilus shell was
shown as a type of one form ; the common whelk as another, and
the scorpion shell as another. The beautiful cowries, beautiful
in colouring and form, served as illustrations of the remarkable
difference in the appearance of the shell of a young cowrie and
that of the fully-grown or adult animal. The Haliotis or ear shell

10

was shown to possess, in addition to its peculiar shape, a wealth
of prismatic colouring of great delicacy. Shells consisting of
eight pieces were given as examples of a family which live like
limpets attached to rocks on the English coasts, some being found
at Bulverhythe. They rejoiced in the name of sea-woodlice, and,
like those creatures, could roll themselves into a ball. The shells
of the rock borers were white, adorned with prickly sculpture,
and although thin, were strong. The valves of all the species
did not meet, and when such was the case the spaces were filled
in with other portions termed accessory plates. The animals
forming these shells emitted a phosphorescent light. This was
shown in some living specimens which the lecturer had procured
from the rocks for the occasion. The opening and closing of
oyster valves was also demonstrated with specimens. In acon-
cluding view a cluster of beautiful barnacles was shown. These,
it was stated, did not belong to shells proper, because the
structure of the barnacle was widely different from that of a
mollusc, nevertheless most people spoke of them as shell fish.
The illustration was from a photograph taken by the lecturer’s
father some years ago when a log of wood about 3oft. long was
washed ashore at St. Leonards, and was almost covered with
living barnacles.

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 20TH, 1904.

Memory and Its Diseases.

BY
Ma. A. M: JSYDNEV-FURNER,
M.R.CS., F.Z.S.

OMMENCING with aclassification of the degrees of memory,
the Lecturer enumerated four. First there was the conscious

but unorganised degree, which was evanescent, and was illustrated
in the greater number of incidents which pass under our daily
observation, and which in many cases disappear for ever from the

. memory. Next came the conscious and semi-organised degree,
shown in the grasping of a language or manual art which is being
learnt, but in which the student is not proficient. The third
degree was less conscious and nearly organised, the memory of
the mother tongue being the case in point here. The fourth was

paw.

a et

TI

almost unconscious and completely organised—a degree typified
by the memory of the expert musician, the skilled artizan,
accountant, or surgical operator. Dr. Sydney-Turner went on to
point out how the views of Scotch and other psychologists are
limited to a certain phase of memory. He emphasized the con-
tention that memory can exist without localisation in time, this
representing only the extent of consciousness in the act of
memory and nothing more. He defined the anatomical
mechanism of memory as the production of certain associations
of impressions made upon the nerve cells. He found it necessary
to add one more classification to the degrees of memory—con-
sisting solely of reflex impressions which are fixed by long
experience during the evolution of species. This he described as
the bridge between individual and hereditary memory. They
must remember that the impressions they received were not im-
pressed on an inert substance, as in the case of a stamp on a pat
of butter or a dieon metal. They were recorded in living matter,
and it was only reasonable to suppose that as nutrition supplied
new material, so this new material occupied the same place and
had the same functions as the old. So that memory directly de-
pended on nutrition. Turning to a novel theory, he asked was it
going too far to say that there might be an atomic memory—that
each portion of germplasm carried in itself a memory capable of
entering into well-defined associations with any other portion
when opportunity was given ?

Coming to mental disease, the Lecturer said its onset was
indicated not by intellectual disorder, but by changes in the
character of the individual. An attack was rarely so sudden but
that there had been some preliminary indication, often so slight
as not to be recognised. Dealing with the many phases of mental
disease, he said temporary amnesia generally made its appearance
suddenly and ended abruptly. It embraced periods of time
which might vary from a few minutes to several years. Epilepsy
in its various forms gave the best examples of this ; and a dream
gave a good illustration of the mental state of epileptics. Dreams
of which all remembrance vanished on waking were very common ;
others persisted in our waking moments, but were soon lost. All
of them had at some time tried vainly to recall a dream—
pleasant or otherwise—of which only an impression remained.
The explanation was that the states of consciousness which form
the dream were extremely weak. They seemed to be strong at the
time, and were so, not of their own strength, but because no
stronger state existed to force them into a secondary position.
At the moment of waking the conditions changed, and
images disappeared before perceptions, perceptions before
a state of sustained attention, and this last before a fixed idea
or full external consciousness. Periodic amnesia was more
remarkable for the information it gave as to the existence of an

emir)

ego or conscious personality, than for its effect on the mechanism
of memory. These cases showed that personality or ego did
not depend entirely on memory ; but it was so difficult to define
personality that one could only conceive it as a bodily condition,
Or organic consciousness, that being constantly renewed, was
nothing more than a habit. Another variety of periodic amnesia
comprised somnambulism. Usually sleepwalkers after an attack
had no recollection of what they had done in it, but in each crisis
they recollected what took place in previous crises.

Progressive amnesia was a condition of memory in which the
impairment was slow, but continuous, resulting in the complete
destruction of the memory. The development of the disease
was so gradual as to conceal its gravity. It was a common
symptom of general paralysis, and lunatic asylums were full of
patients of this class, who, on the day after entry, insisted that
they had been there for a year, or many years. Recollection,
hewever, of what was done and acquired before the onset of the
disease, was retained with great tenacity. Partial amnesia
furnished them with almost miraculous cases, and were they not
authenticated beyond doubt one would hesitate to believe in
them. That a person should be deprived of his recollection of
certain words and retain the rest of his memory intact; that he
should forget entirely one language and remember others ;_ that
there should be a loss of memory for music and nothing else,
seemed hard to imagine. But if they remembered that they
were accustomed to apply the word memory to an independent
function, a faculty, or a personified abstraction, whereas it was
really a compound expression, and that it might be resolved into
memories, they would understand the seeming impossibilities.
Aphasia and hyperamnesia were other forms of memory disease.
Giving instances of varying forms of this latter, he said there were
few of them who had not at some time had the impression that
some state they found themselves in, or some object they were
seeing presumably for the first time, had been experienced or seen
on a prior occasion. He took it that these were awakenings of
the memory due to a prior impression forgotten by ourselves
until now excited by some external cause similar to the one which
first impressed it. Again, there were many accounts of drowning
persons saved from imminent death who agreed that at the
moment of asphyxiation they seemed to see their whole lives
unrolled before them in minute detail. These cases showed a
hyperintensity of action on the part of the memory of which they
could have no idea in the normal state. These cases would also
seem to indicate that nothing is really lost in memory, however
fleeting and trivial the primitive acquisition might have been, but
that all were not preserved to the conscious memory except under
the impulse of some supreme emotion such as would be
experienced when in imminent danger of death.

a ee Se ee

13

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 1roTH, 1904.

Che Smaller Denizens of our Ponds,
Lakes, and Ribers,

BY

me. MARTIN-DUNCAN, F.E;S., F.L.S.

R. MARTIN-DUNCAN at the outset of the lecture observed
I that the gentle art of pond hunting had its attendant risks.
On one occasion he himself when fishing for a small piece of
weed, was suddenly and unexpectedly pushed into the pond by a
billy goat, and came out of it (to quote his own words) *‘ Like unto
a river god.” The amount of time and patience requisite for
photographing successfully the appearance and habits of small
organism was exemplified (1) in the preparation of lantern slides
showing “Cell conjugation and fusion in Chara” which entailed
six hours close watching ; (2) in photographing a Rotifer, which
remained three hours in its glassy like castle before it would show
itself. ‘The results as displayed by the lantern were much
appreciated.

Specimens were then shown of desmids, infusoria and hydras,
and the curious ‘‘ somersault ” method of locomotion adopted by
the latter explained. Passing to the Rotifers, Mr. Martin-Duncan
showed a highly magnified specimen whose constituent cells
presented the appearance of a pyramid of tiny bricks, and delicate
tints of different colours, he explained, could be conveyed to the
cells by merely colouring the creature’s food. Other Rotifers
with their coronz expanded, some like snowy plumes of delicate
texture, and others like peacock’s tails set in trellis work, were
shown, and an explanation was given of the use of the corona in
securing water fleas, etc., which made up the animal’s food. On
the subject of water fleas the lecturer explained how certain
carnivorous plants living in ponds lured them into their bladder
like body which is provided with a door opening from the outside
only ; this successfully imprisons the too curious water flea who
soon perishes and is digested by the juices secreted by the plant.

Excellent slides were shown illustrating the life changes of
the dragon fly. Always a voracious feeder, the larva has a heavy

14

under-lip provided with a formidable pair of jaws, carefully
concealed when not in use, whilst the adult when flying about,
seems to kill butterflies, etc., merely for the sake of killing.

Male and female water beetles, the larvae of gnats and
mosquitoes were also shown, and with the last the lecturer drew
attention to the breathing apparatus which necessitated their
rising to the surface of the water, hence medical men strongly
advocated pouring paraffin oil on stagnant pools in districts
infected with malaria or yellow fever, since the poison giving rise
to these terrible diseases is now known to be conveyed entirely
by certain species of mosquitoes, and the layer of paraffin would
prevent the larvze protruding their breathing apparatus above the
water, and so they would perish.

Attention was then directed to the water spider and his
ingenious diving bell. First a globe of water-proof silk is spun at
the bottom of the pond, and then, by periodic visits to the surface
of the water, small air bubbles are collected around the spider’s
body and introduced into the silk bell so as to make it habitable.

Finally, a slide was shown anda description given of the
stickleback’s little nest. The female is with difficulty enticed into
the nest, and having laid her batch of eggs, she secretly departs
and leaves the work of tending the nest to her hardworking, dutiful
lord, who certainly does his work well. One nest the lecturer
kept for some time was constantly attacked by caddis worms, and,
despite the sentry-like and fighting qualities shown by the male
stickleback, it got destroyed and the undeveloped eggs rolled out
and were devoured by the other sticklebacks in the tank, including
the fickle mother.

15

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 91, 1904.

Ghe Gholution of the Borse.

BY
Dr. A. SMITH-WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S.

(Keeper of the Department of Geology, British Museum.)

p* SMITH-WOODWARD commenced by saying that the

horse was a very satisfactory animal to deal with as regards
tracing its evolution. In the early part of the Tertiary epoch,
the ancestor, Phenacodus, was an animal about the size of a
small collie dog, living mostly in water and in marshy districts,
each of its feet five toed, widely spread to enable it to walk on
soft ground, with a long tail to help it in swimming. The
different stages were shown whereby the neck in the early animal,
devoid of lateral movements, evolved into the flexible sinuous
neck of the modern horse, capable of being turned quickly in
every direction for self protection. The teeth, originally adapted
for chewing succulent vegetable food only, had developed in
course of time into the powerful grinders which the horse now
possesses. The limbs, in early times able to execute a turning
movement like the human arm, had settled down into ones
adapted only for forward and backward movement, and were
exquisitely contrived for rapid locomotion. With close detail
and many diagrams, the Lecturer showed how the original five
toes of the foot, adapted for soft ground, dwindled to three, and
how the exterior tees of the three by disuse became less and less
important and smaller in size, until they had shrunk into mere
vestiges, leaving the central toe expanded and hardened into the
hoof, so excellently adapted for galloping over hard ground.
With regard to cloven-footed animals, two toes out of the five
survived. No better example of adaptation of animals to
changed conditions of life could be produced.

Incidentally allusion was made to some of the monstrous
ungainly forms that developed from the same _ ancestor
Phenacodus, and pictures were cast on the screen of the probable
appearance of the Tinoceras, Titanotherium, &c. Referring to
the fantastic horns that adorned Tinoceras, Dr. Smith- Woodward

16

said that it was characteristic of certain animal families that
when they grew anything in the nature of bony horns they came
to an end ; horns were eccentricities which did not persist. As
in modern times, so in the long history of evolution, it was
mediocrity that governed the world; mediocre animals of a
species formed the basis of the next advance.

Attention was next drawn to the tapir (a skeleton of which
was shown), an animal found nowadays only in South America
and the Malay Peninsula; in former times tapirs existed all over
the world and were survivors of one of the stages through which
the primeval quadruped went in the course of its development
into the horse.

The hipparion was also briefly alluded to ; in appearance not
unlike our pony, it was extensively spread all over the world. In
Spain there were miles of beds composed of its bones, and
numerous whole skeletons of it had been dug up in Greece.
Hipparions must have roamed over prehistoric Europe, Asia, and
North America in countless numbers. In South America, which

was isolated from the rest of the world during part of the Tertiary |

Epoch, whilst North America, Asia, and Europe were all
connected, animals were found shaped like the horse which had
been evolved quite independently from different animals. The
most reasonable explanation was that such changes are mainly
produced by environment, so that like outside conditions produce
like results, so far as animal structure was concerned.

In answer to a question from Mr. Pankhurst, the President,
as to how these varying forms of animals came to be exterminated,
Dr. Woodward said the question was a difficult one to solve. In
South America whole herds of animals at the present day were
killed by a dry season or an extreme winter, and the probability
was that there were coincidences of unfavourable conditions over
a considerable area, which caused the destruction of these now
extinct animals. It had been noticed how in times of distress
animals would congregate into one spot to die, and the piles of
bones massed in particular places hinted that this had happened
in long forgotten ages, long before man came on earth.
Obnoxious insects had also a good deal to do with killing off
animals in the regions they infested.

——

oh i.

- — a

THURSDAY, APRIL 2ist, 1904.

Che Birds of Brighton and
Neighbourhood.

BY

Mr. E. ROBINSON.

T the outset, Mr. Robinson remarked that the neighbourhood

of Brighton, despite the enormous number of telegraph

and telephone wires which always proved a fruitful source of
destruction to bird life, was really a good place to pursue the
study of ornithology. The town possessed an unique Bird
Museum, bequeathed to it by the late Mr. E. T. Booth, and
several rare species had been either seen or captured both in the
precincts of the town and in the neighbouring districts; e.g.,
spoonbills, storks, little bitterns, White’s thrush, woodcocks,
landrails, &c. He then drew attention to the difficult question of
the “Phases of colouration” in birds. In most feathered fowls
the change is effected by a complete moult ; with the bunting
family and some of the finches, a light edging grows on the
plumes which hides the brighter colours beneath its fringe ; as

_ spring approaches the tips are gradually shed so that the under-

lying tints are revealed.

Mr. J. G. Millais in a paper in the /éis of 1896 showed
that as regards some birds, e.g., ‘‘ Sclavonian Grebe,” as the old
feathers gradually ‘‘blush”’ the new ones assimilate themselves
during their growth to the changing old ones. Again, among the

_ waders is the “ Sanderling”—a bird which adopts a complete

recolouration of the feathers in new form, only a few being
moulted and replaced by the summer ones—-the change is
wrought not by the grey edges of the feathers wearing off but by
the colouring matter moving down and obliterating the white ;
after this the edge wears off, causing its form to be completely
altered. These changes the Lecturer illustrated by carefully
drawn diagrams.

The Lecturer then considered the much discussed question
of “ Migration,” most of our present knowledge of which we

~ owe to the labours of the Migration Committee of the Brirish

18

Association. The supposed southward movement during winter
of most cf our common birds is doubtless much exaggerated.
Many careful investigators, including the Lecturer, have watched
minutely individual birds of various species possessing some
distinguishing mark daily throughout the winter, and found they
have clung closely to the locality during the whole time.

Mr. Robinson then gave a short account of Mr. Eagle
Clarke’s researches on Migration which extended over a period of
31 days at the Kentish Knock lightship (stationed 21 miles N.E.
of Margate ‘and the same distance S.E. of the Naze), the
original paper appearing in the Jé/s for January, 1904. Mr.
Clarke’s conclusions were that (1) most birds, especially small
ones, fly very close to the waves, and hence are very difficult to
observe ; (2) intersecting currents of the same species of birds
could be detected ; (3) no Continental migration whatever takes
place from points North of East; (4) the power often attributed
to birds of foretelling periods of fine weather suitable for the
migration journey seems to be a myth; on several occasions they
set out on a falling barometer, and were overtaken by bad weather.
In conclusion, Mr. Robinson, quoting Mr. Seebohm’s remark that
in Siberia the chief migration tracks lay on the great river
valleys of the Lena, Yenesei, and Obi, put forward the suggestion
that the cross Channel migration route of the present time
coincided with the site of an ancient river valley, and as modern
geologists agree that such a river valley did exist, and that, too,
probably since the advent of man, it would, in a measure, explain
why birds of the present time follow that particular route.

19

WEDNESDAY, MAY 11TH, 1904.

British Crees.

Mr. G. CLARIDGE DRUCE, M.A, (Oxon),
EES:

(Author of “The Flora of Oxfordshire and Berkshire ’”’),

WitH LANTERN ILLUSTRATIONS.

HE Lecturer first described the four classes of the Vegetable
Kingdom,—Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, Gymnosperms,
and Acotyledons, in order to explain that only two of these, the
first and the third, were represented in Britain; but he showed,
in order to illustrate the growth of monocotyledonous trees, a
photograph of the great Dragon Tree of Orotava, Teneriffe
(Calamus Draco), which had been said was the oldest tree in the
world, its age having been estimated at as much as 6,000 years,
but the Lecturer was inclined to put it at not more than 2,000
years. ‘The tree is now destroyed; from it was obtained a resin
known as Dragon’s Blood, much in use as a colouring agent.
The other tree illustrated was the Seychelle Island Palm, the
fruit of which, known as the double cocoa-nut or Coco de la Mer,
was for a long time the theme of much controversy, as the origin

- was unknown, the fruit being cast up by the seas on the Indian

coast, was supposed by some to be a fossil, by others as the fruit
of some gigantic water plant, until the discovery of the Seychelle
Islands off the African coast explained the problem. These
photographs shewed the comparatively simple stem of this class
as compared with the branching characters of our forest trees ;

and this was true to a great extent also of the Tree Ferns, of

which a photograph of Dicksonia antarctica was shewn. The

_ height of a monocotyledonous tree, even of the Palms, was rarely

over 250 feet, while Tree Ferns, even gigantic Tree Ferns, were

_ rarely over 60 feet.

The Lecturer said that it was not quite easy to define what

Was meant bya tree. Morrison, the first Oxford Professor of
Botany, included in his unpublished work, written about 1680,
all woody perennials in his ‘‘ Arbores,” but the Lecturer said he
should take as his standard a tree which attained the height of not

20

less than 30 feet. Of these the British Flora included nearly 40
species, but several were only doubtful natives; but the intro-
duced species were so frequent that he should be obliged to
make some reference to them. He, therefore, shewed photo-
graphs of the Lime tree, which many authorities asserted was
introduced into Britain during the Roman occupation, but which
was now so common an object in our parks, promenades, and
plantations. He referred to it as being the name of the great
botanist, Charles Lind, better known in its latinised form as
Linneus, and said how excellent a tree it was for planting in
towns ; the odour so well known was curious from the fact that
it waS more pronounced at a little distance from the tree, when
one got closer it was less agreeable and less powerful. Specimens
of the Limes by the Thames, at Windsor, and at Dorchester were
shewn. In passing, the Lecturer remarked that two species of
Lime, the small and the large-leaved Lime, were supposed to be
native trees.

The Oriental Plane was next described, and some botanists
believed it was also introduced by the Romans, others that it was
not brought to Britain until the 15th or 16th Century. This tree
is also well adapted for planting in towns, since it bears the
smoke better than most species. It is a native of the East, and
was introduced into Sicily about 600 years before Christ, and was
a favourite tree of both the Greeks and Romans. The photo-
graph exhibited was from the large tree at Rycote, in Oxford-
shire, where Elizabeth was kept for two years in practical
imprisonment. The peculiar undulating growth of the branches
was explained.

The Sycamore was then described as probably an introduced
tree, but the date of its introduction was lost in remote antiquity.
The tree was frequently planted about castles and farmhouses to
give shelter, and in Scotland they received the name of doul, or
grief tree, from the custom which once obtained of hanging a
refractory vassal or captured foe upon them. Fine photographs
of some trees at Inverary and Inverlochy Castles were shewn, as
also one at Burford, in Oxfordshire.

Brief allusion was made to the native dcery—or Maple—
which is such a plentiful shrub in the hedgerows in limestone
districts, and which has the same character as its American
relations, that is in showing such gorgeous colours in autumn. It
was mentioned that there were trees 40 feet high in Oxfordshire.
The wood was greatly prized, and the celebrated Maser bowls
were made of it which now fetched such extremely high prices.

The Horse Chestnut was next mentioned. This tree was
probably introduced in the time of Queen Elizabeth, as Gerard in
1597 alluded to it as a rare foreign tree. The flower and the
manner of fertilization was described, and photographs of the
avenue at Bushey Park, and of a tree at Dorchester, were shewn.

‘
}
P
:

21

Brief allusion was made to the Wild Plum and Pear, neither
of which could be considered true natives ; and then the Common
Elm was classed among the trees which were not indisputably
indigenous. By many authorities it was considered to be one of
the species we owe to the Romans. The fact of its rarely being
produced from seeds was mentioned, and the Lecturer said he
had seen a seedling of it on a wall in Buckinghamshire. The
tree is so frequent in Central England, that he thought it worth
while to show a series of photographs in order to evince what a
factor it was in our rural scenery. Specimens were shewn of the
Elms at Bensington, the Childswell Elm near Oxford, the Elms at
Medmenhan, at Bisham, at Mongewell (which were figured by
Strutt), at Great Marlow, the Broad Walk at Oxford, as well as
some covered with hoar frost, which excellently brought out the
repeatedly branching character so typical of our British forest
trees.

The Sweet Chestnut (Castanea) was next described, and it
was stated that this had the honour of being the largest tree
known, the Great Chestnut of Mount Etna being no less than 66
feet in diameter, the next largest being Zaxedium Mexicanum, the
Mexican Cedar, which has been found 52 feet across, and there--
fore much larger than the tree of the Western States of America,
the Wellingtonea gigantea, which, however, is less than forty feet
through, even in its finest examples. Incidentally the Lecturer
mentioned that this We//ingtonea was moreover not the tallest
tree, although specimens 462 feet had been measured ; but these
fell short of the Eucalyptus amygdalinus, the Peppermint tree of
Australia, which had been known to attain the enormous height
of 494 feet, therefore taller than any stone building in the Old
World.

The Lecturer then proceeded to describe some trees which
belonged to the class Gymnosperms, that is, in which the ovules
were naked. Till recently they had been merged with the
Dicotyledons but, as a matter of fact, they had more than two,
sometimes, and not unusually six cotyledons. Moreover their
alliance was rather with the Equisetums, and they belonged to
that class of plants which was so largely represented in the
Carboniferous era.

Of the introduced species which are now so plentiful, he first
shewed and described the Cedar of Lebanon, which was brought
into Britain from Syria between 1650 and 1680. Photographs of
this magnificent tree from Beil House were shewn, and allusion
made to the fine specimens at Blenheim.

The Larch next received attention. This deciduous conifer
was introduced about 1620, and to Scotland in 1738, and a
photograph of the original trees at Dunkeld was shewn—in a -

century one of them had attained a height of 100 feet—and it was
_ Stated that the Dukes of Atholl had planted on their estates

upwards of 14,000,000 trees ina century. Photographs of the

22

Larch trees at Kenlochewe, at the Rollright Stones, and at Great
Marlow were then exhibited.

The really native trees of Britain were next described.
These number about 30, and include the two species of Lime
already referred to, one species of Maple, two species of Prunus,
the Cherry, or Gean, and the Bird Cherry, the Crab Tree, of
which there is a fine avenue at Welford, in Berkshire, the
Mountain Ash, with its beautiful clusters of scarlet berries, the
Service tree, of which there are fine examples in Wychwood
Forest and the White Beam tree, so frequent in the woods of the
Chiltern Hills.

The Hawthorn was next illustrated by a photograph of a
group at the Thames head, and by others on the chalk down
near Streatley, in Berkshire ; and reference was made to that early
notice of the Hawthorn by Bishop Asser, of Salisbury, who
described, towards the end of the ninth century, the great battle
of Ascesdune, which took place on the Berkshire downs, near
Unica spinosa arbor, which was a Hawthorn in the Hundred of
Ilsley,—this Hundred being called the Hundred of the Naked
Thorn in Domesday Book. Reference was also made to the
Battle of Bosworth, when the crown of England was hidden in a
Hawthorn bush, where it was found by a soldier, and taken to
Lord Stanley, who crowned Henry VII. with it, and the
Hawthorn thus became the badge of the House of Tudor, hence
the proverb, ‘ Cleave to the crown though it hangs in a bush.”

Reference was also made to the Glastonbury Thorn, which
flowers about Christmas.

Passing notice was made of the Elder (Sambucus nigra),
with its large cymes of white flowers and purplish-black fruits.

The Ash next received attention, and some fine examples of
the Ash at Chatsworth, Haddon Hall, and Bulstrode were shewn.
The wood was said to bear a greater strain before breaking than
any other tree indigenous to Europe. The manner in which the
fruits are fitted for dispersal by wind was also alluded to. That
the Ash is native of Britain is shewn by the names,—Ashbourn,
Ashbridge, Ashby, &c.

The Box tree is very local, and is, perhaps, only native of
Boxhill, and possibly on the northern escarpment of the Chilterns
in Buckingham and Hertfordshire.

The Elm, which is really native in Britain (the Wych Elm),
is less common in the South than the one already mentioned ;
but the Tubney Elm, mentioned by Matthew Arnold, in Berk-
shire, belongs to this species which, probably, at one time was
more frequent. The foundation of St. John’s College, Oxford,
was determined by the presence of a triple Elm. Sir Thomas
White dreamed that he should build a college near a triple Elm,
and repairing to Oxford he found one which seemed to answer to
his idea, and he, therefore, built the college, and the tree existed
to the end of the seventeenth century,

a

23

Brief reference was made to the Alder (A/nas glutinosa)
frequenting stream sides in peaty districts; to the Hornbeam
(Carpinus Betulus ), which, although frequently planted in parks,
appear to be really wild in the chalk districts of England.

By some authorities the Beech was considered to be an
introduced tree, because Czesar says that he did not notice it:
but the Lecturer considered it to be one of our native species,
and showed photographs of some large pollard trees in Burnham
Beeches, and also some from the escarpment of Edge Hill, as
well as some distant views of Beech woods in the Thames valley.

The Birch ( Betala alba) was then described, and a photo-
graph. of a very lovely tree from Invernesshire, as well as others
from Loch Katrine, Invercauld, and Killicrankie were shewn.

The Oak tree, particularly emblematic of England, was
described as being one of the oldest trees, being able to exist
nearly 2,000 years. The Queen’s Oak, still flourishing in
Northamptonshire, was mentioned in Domesday Book. Photo-
graphs of the Byron Oak at Newstead Abbey, of the Major Oak
in Sherwood Forest, of the Radley Oak, and others were
exhibited, and allusion made to the tree in Windsor Forest,
which was a favourite of William the Conqueror, and of the
celebrated one at Oxford, by which William of Waynflete founded
Magdalen College. The Oak, although one of our largest trees
in girth and in its spread of branches, rarely exceeded 70 feet in
height. The use of the wood in shipbuilding, and it being the
material of which the Round Table at Winchester was made, was
alluded to, as well as its name being frequently represented in
Britain as in Oakham, Wokingham, Woking, &c., testified to its
being one of our native trees.

Several species of Willows were briefly alluded to; the chief
of these is the White Willow, so frequent by stream sides, and
_ which, if unpollard, will attain a height of 80 feet. The use of
the wood for the manufacture of cricket bats was mentioned, as
well as the process and effects of pollarding. Views of Post

_ Meadow, Oxford, and of the Willows by the Thames, at Lechlade,

and Wallingford were shewn.

The Poplar, of which we had one native and three or four
introduced species, was then described, and photographs were
shewn of the Black Poplar (a frequently planted tree in the
Midlands) from Sanford Lasher. The Lombardy Poplar was by
_ some botanists considered to be a fastigiate variety of this species.

The truly native species is the Aspen ( Populus tremula).

The native gymnospermous trees next received attention—
_ they are all evergreen. The Yew (Zaxus baccata) is one of the
_ oldest trees known in Britain, and is supposed to attain an age
_ Of over 2,000 years ; the one, of which a photograph was shewn,
at Iffley is supposed to be cceval with the Church, and the one at
ise s Abbey is supposed to be even older than the building
itse

24

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 8tu, 1904.

Gnnual General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 8ru, 1904.

It is a source of no little gratification to your Council to be
able to report that during this the s5oth year of the Society’s
existence the Ordinary Meetings have been on the whole more
largely attended perhaps than in any of the preceding years.
The Library, which now numbers more than 2,500 volumes, and
which on account of the rebuilding of the Public Library has
been for some time practically closed to members, is now rein-
stated in the Reference Library. The books have been thoroughly
overhauled, and some 70 volumes of periodicals have been added
to it, as well as many others.

Owing to the retirement of Mr. Pankhurst from the
Secretaryship, the duties of which he has performed for the last
eighteen years, a small Committee is recommended to carry on
the work.

The Council is much indebted to Mr. Caush for going
through several hundred microscopic slides and renovating them.

The excursions which Mr. Davey so successfully conducted
last year, but which circumstances obliged him to intermit, have
already been resumed.

Among the Members which the Society have lost by death
during the past year it is fitting that mention be made of
Mr. J. H. Browne, F.R.A.S., who was one of the oldest Members
of the Society.

The excursions have been as follows :—

14th May. To Tilgate Forest and Balcombe.

28th May. ,, Firle Park and Beacon.

r1th June. ,, Ashdown Forest— Coleman’s Hatch — King’s
Standing—Crowborough.

gth July.

— 15th Oct.
4th Nov.
3rd Dec.
20th Jan.

ve

roth Feb.

— gth Mar.

4 25th June.

_ 2ust April.

pith May.

25

5, St. Leonards Forest—Hawkins Pond—Colgate
Tower.
», Steyning—Washington—Chanctonbury Ring.

and the Meetings of the Society, with the titles of the papers
read, as under :—

’ “ Relationship between Poetry and Science ”—

Rev. FELIx ASHER.
“Fossil Hunting in the Libyan Desert ”—
Dr. Cuas. W. ANDREws, F.G.S.
‘Structure and Form of Shells ”—
Mr. Ep. Conno Lp, F.E.S.
“ Memory and its Diseases ’’ —
Mr. SypNEyY TuRNER, M.R.CS.

‘“The Smaller Denizens of our Ponds, Lakes,
and Rivers ”—

F. Martin Duncay, F.L.S., F.E.S.

te The Evolution of the Horse ’’—
Dr. A. SMITH WoopwarbD, F.R.S. -

“The Birds of Brighton and Neighbourhood ”—
Mr. E. RoBINsON.

“ British Trees ”—Mr. G. CLARIDGE Druce, M.A.

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28

HERBARIUM, 1902-1908.

Since the last Report, we have been able to add to the
Society’s Herbarium a number of interesting plants, as will be seen
by the following list. Some are extremely rare ; ¢.g., Bupheurum
aristatum is known to occur in only two English Counties, and
Wolffia arrhiza has only lately been found in Sussex. An increased
proportion are aliens, due to our having now most of the native
plants and to the large importation of hay, &c., containing foreign
seeds.

List OF NEw PLANTs.

Alyssum calycinum.

Downs, Patcham.

Arabis hirsuta, v. glabrata. Dyke Hill.
Bupheurum aristatum. Beachy Head.
Sisymbrium Sophia. Eastbourne.
Erepimum perfoliatum. Kemp Town.
Bromus ariensis. Lewes.
Wolffia arrhiza. North Stoke.
Potamogeton coloratus. Eastbourne.

Trifolium resupinatum.

Found in many places in 1902.

Melilotus sulcata. Aldrington.
Plantago ceratophylla. Aldrington.
Gastridium australe. Cuckfield.

Oxalis stricta. Cuckfield.
Juneus obtusiflorus. Eastbourne.
Lolium temulentum. Dyke Road.
Linaria repens. By Dyke Railway.
Brassica adpressa. Glynde.
Erucastrum Polichii. Glynde.
Vaccinum Oxycoccos. West Chiltington.
Calluna Erica v. incana. Washington.
Campanula Rapunculus, Pulborough.
Cterach officianum. Pulborough.

Pimpinella magna.

Near Polegate.

T. HILTON,

Curator.

a ee

29

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE
5lst ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

—_—>0<e —_

g§ After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
; it was resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Report as to the Library, and the Curator’s Report, be
received, adopted, and printed for circulation as usual.” +

, The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year—

] “J. E. Haselwood, E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P., F. Merri-
’ field, F.E.S.. D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R.C.P.,
W. J. Treutler, M.D., F.L.S., J. P. Slingsby Roberts,
W. Clarkson Wallis, and E. Alloway Pankhurst.”

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

‘Mr J. W. Nias and Mr. A. F. Graves.”

It was proposed by Mr. Isaac WELLS, seconded by Mr.
J. H. Gitkes, and resolved—

“That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year :—President: Henry Davey ; Ordinary
Members of Council: Walter Harrison, D.M.D., F. Hora,
B.Sc., G. Morgan, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (E.), S. R. Penney,

_ H. J. Mathews, J. Sussex Hall; Honorary Treasurer:
E. A. T. Breed ; Honorary Librarian: W. W. Mitchell ;
Honorary Curators : H.S.Tomsand T. Hilton ; Honorary
Scientific Secretaries: D. E. Caush, L.D.S., W. Harrison,
D.M.D., F. R. Hora, B.Sc.; Honorary Secretary: J.
Colbatch Clark, 9, Marlborough Place; Assétstant
Honorary Secretary : H. Cane.”

It was proposed by Mr. Watts, seconded by Mr. F. R.
Hora, and resolved—

“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. E. A.
Pankhurst for his assiduous attention to the interests of the
Society as its President during the past two years, and for
the many services he has rendered to the Society.”

3°

It was proposed by Mr. H. J. Maruews, seconded by Mr.
Minto, and resolved—

“ That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curators, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries, for their services
during the past year.”

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Members
5 of the Society.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass, U.S.A.).

British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

British and American Archeological Society, Rome.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

City of London College of Science Society, White Street,
Moorfields, E.C., & “ Hatfield,” Tenham Avenue, Streatham
Hill, SW,

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings, George IV.
Bridge.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of Mexico.

Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

31

Hampshire Field Club.

Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

Mexican Geological Institute, 2, Calle de Paso Nuevo, Mexico.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, Hazlemont, The Boulevard,
Nottingham.

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club.

Royal Microscopical Society. .

Royal Society.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.
Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.
Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
Watford Natural History Society.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

32

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and Boke Natural History and
Philosophical Society,

1904.

VSR e5U—-

N.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Martborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
Jollowing List the Address is tn Brighton.

2S 89S 2«c—.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

Apsey, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
ASHER, Rev. F., 15, Buckingham Place.
AsuTon, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.

ATTREE, G. F., 8, Hanover Crescent.

Bapcock, Lewis C., M.D., M.R.C.S., 10, Buckingham Place.
BILino, ‘I’., 86, King’s Road.

Boot, E., 53, Old Steine.

BrEED, E. A. T., 13, Buckingham Place.

Brown, GEORGE, Cottesmore, The Upper Drive.

BuLt, W., 75, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.

Burrows, W. S., B.A, M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine.
BurcHELL, E., L.R.C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.

Baty, G. G., 86, Buckingham Road.

Carter, F. W., 130, Church Road, Hove.

Cane, H. 173, Ditchling Road.

Catt, REGINALD J., 9, Hampton Place.

Caush, D. E., L.D.S., 63, Grand Parade.
CuarRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

Cuark, J. Cotparcn, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.
Coiman, Alderman J,, J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill.

33

Davey, Henry, 15, Victoria Road.

Denma\, S. 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 49, Church Road, Hove.
Draper, Dr., Municipal School of Technology.

Dusart, G. C., 13, Chatsworth Road.

Epmonps, H., B.Sc., Municipal School of Technology.

Ewart, Sir J., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., Bewcastle,
Dyke Road.

Etuiort, J. H., L.D.S., 45, Stanford Road.

FLetcHer, W. H. B., J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.

GILKES, J. H., 6, Hanover Crescent.

Graves, A. F., 9a, North Street Quadrant.
GrirFitH, A. F., M.A., 59, Montpelier Road.
Grove, E., Norlington, Preston.

GRINSTED, J., 13, Powis Square.

HALL, J. Sussex, 69, Ship Street.

Hack, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

Harrison, W., D.M.D., L.D.S., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
Hase.woop, J. E., 3, Richmond Terrace.

Haynes, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
Hickey, G., 92, Springfield Road.

Hiton, T., 16, Kensington Place.

Hosss, J., 62, North Street.

Hosuouss, E., M.D., 12, Second Avenue, Hove.

How ett, J. W., J.P., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

Hora, F. R., B.Sc., B.A., A.R.C.Sc., 32, Norton Road, Hove.
Harrison, F., M.A., 30, Compton Avenue.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

Jacome, Wykeham, 72, Dyke Road.

Jenner, J. H. A., Lewes.

JENNINGs, A. O., LL.B., 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
JounsTON, J., 12, Bond Street.

Knicut, J. J., 33, Duke Street.

Lancton, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.

Lewis, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairholme, Maresfield.
Loaper, KENNETH, 5, Richmond Terrace.

_ Lonspate, L., 13, Powis Square.

McKELtar, E., Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D., J.P., Woodleigh,
Preston,

Macuirg, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

34

May, F. J. C., 25, Compton Avenue.

MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace.

MILLs, J., 24, North Road.

Morea, G., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 6, Pavilion Parade.
MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.
Matuews, H. J., M.A., 43, Brunswick Road.

Minto, J., M.A., Public Library.

Morse, RorErT, 26, Stanford Avenue.

Maurice, —, L.D.S., 65, St. John’s Terrace.

Newmarcu, Major-General, 6, Norfolk Terrace.
NewsHo.mkg, A., M.D., M R.C.P., 11, Gloucester Place.
Nias, J. W., 81, Freshfield Road.

NicHoison, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

Normav, S. H., Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., L.D.S., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

Oxe, ALFRED W., B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.5., 32,
Denmark Villas, Hove.

Pankuurst, E, A., 3, Clifton Road.

Paris, G. DE, 14, Norfolk Road.

Payne, W. H., Playden House, Harrington Road.
Payne, E., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove.

Penney. S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.
Peritrourt. E. J., B.A., F C.P., 16, Chesham Street.
Pucu, Rev. C., 13, Eaton Place.

Puttick, W., Tipnoake, Albourne, Hassocks.

Poptey, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

Powe lL, W. A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Grand Parade.

Reap, S., L.D.S., 12, Old Steine.

RicHarpson, F. R., 4, Adelaide Crescent.
Roperts, J. P. Stincssy, 3, Powis Villas,
Rosinson, E., Saddlescombe.

Rose, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.
Ry.g, R. J., M.D., 5, German Place.

Reap, T., B.A., B.Sc., Brighton Grammar School.
Rootu, Dr., 31, Montpelier Crescent.

Roperson, A., Sackville Road.

SaLmon, E. F., 30, Western Road, Hove.

SavaGE, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street.

StomaN, F., M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road.
Scort, E. Irwin, M.D., 69, Church Road, Hove.
SmitH, C., 47, Old Steine.

SmiTH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

35

SmirH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

Situ, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.

Smitn, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

SroneR, Harop, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency
Square. :

SmitH_ers, E. A., Furze Hill.

Spitta, Dr. E., F.R.A.Sc.

Tatpot, Huco, 79, Montpelier Road.

TREUTLER, W. J., M.D., F.L.S., 8, Goldstone Villas, Hove.
Toms, H. S., The Museum.

Tuouy, Dr., 1, Hova Terrace, Hove.

WaL.is, W. CLARKSON, 15, Market Street.

WatTER, J., 134, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

- Wauyrtock, E., 36, Western Road.

~ Wicutman, G. J., Ailsa Crag, The Wallands, Lewes.

~ WiLxinson, ‘I’., 170, North Street.

Witter, H., F.G.S., Arnold House, Montpelier Terrace.
— Wiuiams, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

4 Wituams, H. M., LL.B., 17, Middle Street.

~ Woop, J., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.

~ Woop, Wa ter R., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.
Wooprurr, G. B., J.P., 24, Second Avenue, Hove,

We tsrorD, H, M., 68, Dyke Road.

‘LADY MEMBERS.

Bac.ey, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
Biapon, Miss, 23, Sudeley Place.

~ Cameron, Miss E., 25, Victoria Street.

~ Cavusu, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

_ Crarer, Mrs. M. H., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
Crane, Miss AGNEs, 11, Wellington Road.
Cottett, Miss C. H., 8, Marlborough Place.

Hare, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.

- HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.

~ Hernamay, Miss I., 117, Ditchling Road.

Hernamay, Miss V., 117, Ditchling Road.

- Hott, Miss, Diocesan Training College, Ditchling Road.
~ Harrison, Mrs., 10, Windlesham Road.

Lancton, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.

7
_ Nicuotson, Mrs., 9, Park Crescent.

36
Ricu, Miss, No. 4, House, Roedean School.
RuGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.
STONER, Mrs. H., 18, Regency Square.

TREUTLER, Mrs., 8, Goldstone Villas.
Tuomas, Miss Mary, 150, Upper Lewes Road.

Vopes, Miss, B,A., B.Sc., ‘‘ Glenalna,” Rugby Road.

WILkinson, Mrs., 36, Dyke Road.
Woop, Mrs. J., 28, Old Steine.
Watkins, Miss, Walcot, Walpole Road.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLooMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
Curteis, T., 244, High Holborn, London.

Dawson, C., F.GS., Uckfield.

Farr, E. H., Uckfield.

Ho .tis, W. AInsLigz, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.

Lomax, BENJAMIN, The Museum, Brighton.

Mitten, W., Hurstpierpoint.

Nourss, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.
PHILLIPS, BArcLay, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

ASSOCIATE.

Harrison, W. PARKER, 10, Windlesham Road.

: ;
PRESSE} d iE iy) iD
31 MAK 1905

a Ga

u

v

BRIGHTON & HOVE

Natural Bistory and Philosophical
Suciety.

TOGETHER WITH sh

Se LE

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 14th, 1905.

Brighton :
“BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.

1906.

—” mee __-s

BRIGHTON & HOVE

Hatural Wistory and Philosophical
Society.

Clbstracts of Papers ;

a.
a ii

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT ;

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 14th, 1905.

Brighton :

“ BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.
& ;

1906.

TW DEX.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY ...

THE FuNcTIONS oF Music—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS—
Mr. Henry Davey .... ae ae

Hatr-a-Day ON THE SEA SHORE—Mkr. E. T. CONNOLD,

AN EVENING WITH THE MICROSCOPE

SociaL EvoLuTion AND Pusitic HerattH — Dr. A.
NeEwsHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.P.

WEATHER DuRING JANUARY, 1905—Dk. W, J. TREUTLER,
M.D., F.L.S.

A Peep at Pre-Historic Man — Mr. CORNELIUS
Ropsins, L.D.S.

Toe “BootH” anpb “Monk” Bird CoLLECTIONS—
Mr. ARTHUR GriFFitTH, M.A.

THe EvoLutTion oF ARTILLERY—COL. E. KENSINGTON
(LATE), R.A.

A Tour 1n Spain-—Mr. E. Payne, M.A. See ee

THE EvoLuTioN OF THE VERTEBRATE SKULL—MR, J.
THORNTON Carrer, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

History oF THE Sourh Downs—Mr J. H. A. JENNER,
F.E.S.

REPORT OF COUNCIL

LIBRARIAN'S REPORT sa

METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON

TREASURER’S ACCOUNT : — aie ass
HERBARIUM, 1904 ... Soe

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

Societies ASSOCIATED

List oF MEMBERS

PAGE.

Ic

20

2I

20)

ae,
33

34

34
42
44
45
46
47
48
49
SI

3
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1905-6.

ete ——_ ___

President :
HENRY DAVEY.

Past Presidents :

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. A. NEWSHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.P.
J. Ewart, Kt., M.D., J.P. M.O.H.

J. E. HASELWooD. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
W. SEYMOUR BuRROwWS, M.R.C.S., J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.

D. E. CausH, L.D.S. | W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

E, ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

THE COUNCIL.
The President.
Vice-Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. Causu, L.D.S. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOoD. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., M.O.H.| E. A. PANKHURST.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

J. H. A. Jenner, F.E.S. ALFRED W. OKE, B.A., LL.M.,
J. Sussex HALL. F.G.S.
S. R. PENNEY. F. R. RICHARDSON.
E. PAYNE, M.A.
Bonorary Treasurer: Honorary Librarian :
E. A. T. BREED. Rost. MORSE.

Gonorary Auditors :
J. W. NIas. A. F. GRAVES.

Gonorary Curators :
H. S. Toms and T. HILTON.

Gonorary Scientific Secretaries :
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. W. HARRISON, D.M.D, F. R. Hora, B.Sc., B.A.

Honorary Secretary :
JNO. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Honorary Secretary:
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

’ SESSION 1904-5.

—— ——_-

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 20TH, 1904.

Ghe Functions of Music.

By THE PRESIDENT:

Mew HENRY DAVEY:

M® DAVEY began with an allusion to the fact that the Society

was now entering upon its second half- century, and further
_ remarked that the occasion was noteworthy as a change in the
government of the Society had been made, and the Scientific
Secretary (a post so long and ably filled by Mr. E. Alloway
Pankhurst) had been replaced by a Secretarial Committee,
consisting of Messrs. Caush, Harrison, and Hora. As it had
fallen to himself, not deeply versed in any branch of natural
history or abstract philosophy, to begin this exceptionally
important session, he had chosen the subject with which he was
best acquainted, and had decided to give an address on the
_ Functions of Music. This he endeavoured to bring under the
domain of science, by a suitable treatment ; but confessed himself
not too well satisfied with the result of his endeavours.

Herbert Spencer had written an essay on “ The Origin and
Function of Music,” and, wishing to avoid all comparison with him,
Mr. Davey viewed the subject from the standpoint of a practical
musician, and dealt with the results which had been actually
achieved rather than with speculations upon the abstract side of
the subject. Herbert Spencer’s essay was written nearly fifty
years ago, and he was unacquainted with the latest developments
even of that time. Consequently his essay, as regards materials,
Teads quite antiquated ; but his conclusion that the ultimate
function of music will be to express ideas too subtle to be spoken
—that we shall, as it were, converse by music instead of words
when words fail us,—went into the future, and probably the very
istant future. Mr. Davey took an altogether different course,
warning his audience that he presupposed a certain knowledge of
musical works and terms, just as a lecturer on science presupposes
, similar knowledge.

6

Each of the arts had its own kingdom, whose bounds are
fairly, though not strictly, defined ; each art had its advantages,
defects, and limitations. The peculiar characteristic of music was
that it was continuous, fluent ; while painting and sculpture were
fixed, and portrayed one single moment’s life. Contrast Leonardo
da Vinci’s picture of the Last Supper with Bach’s setting of the
words, ‘“ Lord, is it I?” which are sung twelve times. ‘“ Both
presentments of the subject are true, and exemplify the various
functions of the arts,” wrote Macfarren. Even rests, such as
those just before the end of Handel’s Hallelujah Chorus, are part
of the music, part of the continuity.

Before entering on the main subject of the functions of
music, Mr. Davey made some allusion to its various resources,
speaking rather of composition, not of performance, and mentioned
the different wave-motions which produce a different tone-quality
by the varying predominance of the partial tones which accompany
every note. A succession of notes played on a violin would have
quite a different effect from the same succession played on a
wood or brass instrument ; with combinations of several notes this
obviously varied still more with varying combinations. This
difference of tone-quality produced in the main what is called
colour in music. We were obliged to use words derived from the
sister arts. With the advance of music since the invention of the
opera and oratorio about 1600, colour had become ever a greater
factor ; and delicate gradations of force were now also employed.
In the modern orchestra, with all its various stringed, wind, and
percussion instruments, colour had attained an astonishing
diversity. Speaking in generalities, harmony, melody, and
rhythm were the internal resources of music, and contribute the
materials for the form of a composition; while the external
resources of force and of tone-quality constitute its colour.
‘* Music endeavours to display either structural or illustrative art ;
that is, to attain artistic value either by the perfection of its
composition or the accuracy by which it portrays something in
external matters. In the latter case, music is apt to be sacrificed ”;
and Mr. Davey quoted instances, including Signor Caruso’s
sobbing, instead of singing at the end of Canio’s air in Pagliacci.

The functions of structural music were then considered,
somewhat briefly, as the subject was highly technical. Mozart’s
explanation of the way he composed was a noteworthy point; the
great genius said that when he had finished a work he seemed to
hear it, not from beginning to end, but all at once, and then
anything unsuitable struck him, and he altered it accordingly.
The cultivation of musical taste Mr. Davey considered to depend
largely upon experience: a young musician was pleased by
interesting details, a cultivated listener required the whole work
to be completely balanced. But how did a mature musician
know the difference between a commonplace idea which anybody

7

could have thought of, and an idea which was beautiful, and would
remain beautiful, even when familiar? Mr. Davey confessed
himself unable to say.

Illustrative music, as a topic more suited to an average
audience, was dealt with at greater length. Only seldom could
exact imitation of external matters be given. What was usually
attempted is suggestion, by the use of sudden contrast. Often the
suggestion required a great deal of make-believe on the part of
the listener. Mr. Davey played passages from Bach’s Passion-
music supposed to be descriptive of scourging, and the servants
warming themselves before the fire; also from Handel’s Thick
Darkness Chorus, which an auditor might not recognise without
the words, though he would be able to tell whether darkness or
light was intended. Motion in itself was not a very suitable
subject for musical suggestion, but there are exceptions, as mill-
wheels, and Handel’s ‘‘ Their land brought forth frogs”; while
Dr. Strauss in Don Quixote had attempted to describe windmills.
The fight between David and Goliath, from a descriptive sonata
_ by Kuhnau, was played as a specimen of a different class.

Vocal music, using words, generally touched the dramatic
side of the art, even if not entirely dramatic; consequently it
belonged usually to illustrative rather than structural music, solo
music specially so. Composers of concert-music rarely succeeded
with opera, and vice-versa. Mozart, the universal genius, alone
perfectly succeeded in combining both species ; and even he only
occasionally, his musical instinct generally leading him to repeat
words and phrases against the dramatic sense of the passage.
Wagner, who scarcely ever tried concert-music, had pointed out
passages in his own works suitable to their place in the opera, but
which might justly be blamed in abstract music.

Real literal imitation of external sounds was sometimes
successful. ‘‘ Alkan, in a pianoforte piece, imitates the moaning
ofthe sea marvellously ; Elgar, the youngest of English composers,
in his oratortio, Zhe Apostles, has exactly imitated the fall of
Judas’s pieces of silver on the pavement ; Wagner has made the
violins imitate the sound of scissors. While cannon-firing,
galloping horses, and the smacking of whips can be well imitated, a
thunderstorm cannot, and though attempts are frequent, they never
rise above suggestion. ‘The rippling of a brook, or the course of
‘a river, and moving water generally, are tempting subjects often
used.” Mr. Davey instanced works by Smetana and Schubert.
The moaning of wind reminded one of chromatic passages.
Turning to animated nature, specimens of bird imitations
were quoted; also Mendelssohn’s of the donkey’s bray, and
Strauss’s of the bleating sheep in Den Quixote.

After a few words upon such rhythms as marches and dances,
hich might be recognised by their rhythms and suggested in
ther pieces, so that music, as it were, illustrated music, Mr.

8

Davey turned to what he called one of the most difficult problems
of musical zsthetics, the use of the Zett-motif, or “ guiding
theme,” the labelling of a succession of notes to represent some
abstract idea, and using them with the convention that they really
signify the idea. This invention was usually associated with
Wagner’s name, but there were earlier cases, notably Berlioz’ idée
jixée which he used throughout his Symphonie Fantastique to
signify the lady he loves. Whether that style could give the same
pleasure as finished structural art, was a question which depended
on individual taste. Mr. Davey thought it inferior, because it
was much easier to do. In Wagner’s later works, the Lett-motif
was worked up into a complex system, the /Vibelung’s Ring
containing as many as ninety-two. Mr. Davey played some of
these, and others from Lohengrin, Tristan, Die Meistersinger, and
Parsifal. Such a theme should be heard in a recognisable form
at any reference to it inthe drama ; but in the (Videlung’s Ring,
which takes four evenings to perform, their number and
complication made the task of both composer and audience very
difficult. ‘The Zett-motif might give occasion for great develop-
ments in the future ; but it undeniably gave terrible opportunities
to the caricaturist and the sneerer ; and the symphonic poems of
Strauss, who had depicted his own wife by a very trying and
scratchy violin solo, had been much derided. If such matters
were outside the real functions of music, they would speedily
come to naught. At present they were very prominent.

Some mention was made of false imitation, such as using the
words Aigh and /ow in a wrong sense, which had been perpetrated
even by the greatest composers ; and Mr. Davey concluded with
the assertion that “Illustrative music is the foundation ; though,
compared with the highest flight of structural music, it be of the
earth, earthy, yet to the earth again music has, Antzeus-like, to
return when wearied-out, and requiring new vigour for a fresh
enterprise. This is the state of the art at the present moment.”

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 17TH, 1904.
Hall-a-Bay on the Sea Shore.
BY

Mr. E. T. CONNOLD, F.E.S.
(Illustrated by Lantern Slides.)

HIS lecture comprised a description of the habitat, habits, and
appearance of many objects and creatures met with on the
beach, rocks and sands.

1. On the Beach.—Attention was given to the flints and
pebbles, and broken shells ; then the fleas, flies, spiders, and
beetles. An oyster shell was shown much perforated by the
bering sponge. Boring molluscs were then discussed ; the egg
capsules of the whelk were shown.

2. On the Rocks. —Sea weeds were next considered and
many excellent slides were shown to illustrate their structure.
_ Anemones, barnacles, starfish, and sponges were also referred to.

3. On the Sands.—Razor shells, lug worms, the common
squid, worms living in tubes, sea mice, &c., were discussed.

THURSDAY. DECEMBER 15TH, 1904.

An Ghening tvith the Microscope.

BOUT 60 slides were passed through the projective microscope

lent by Mr. Caush; they consisted mainly of botanical,
entomological and histological sections. The rest of the evening
spent by the members examining for themselves a number of
slides under different microscopes supplied for their use by the
iety.

10

FRIDAY, JANUARY 13TH, 1905.

Social Gbolution and Public Health.

BY

Dr. A. NEWSHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.P.
(Medical Officer of Health for Brighton).

HE lecturer commenced by saying that a review of the
last fifty years afforded ample ground for congratulation on
the prolongation of average life which had been secured, and on
the great improvement in average comfort and well-being. The
death-rate in urban districts (always higher than in rural dis-
tricts), was now lower than it was 50 years ago in rural districts,
and had declined from 22°5 per 1000 in 1854 to 16°2 in 1902.
The wage-earning classes, who form the large majority of the
population, had shared in the general improvement, whether we
considered amount of wages, cheapness of food, or improvement in
housing. The public health policy of the last 50 years had not
only neutralised the rise in the death-rate which increasing
urbanisation would have caused, but had secured an additional
saving of 28 per cent.

The lecturer, albeit he congratulated himself on being an
optimist as regards the efficacy of preventive medicine in improving
the national health, could not shut his eyes to the fact thata large
proportion of our population were still insufficiently fed, badly
housed, and suffered from conditions producing ill-health and a
shortening of life.

Consideration was then given to the natural laws by which
the present position had been reached, and the future trend of
those laws. The doctrine that life had been evolved through pain
and struggle (“The whole creation groaneth and travaileth in
pain together until now,’’), stated very clearly by Malthus as
regards man in 1798, in his “Essay on Population,” and
extended by Darwin to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms,
was now accepted as supported by universal experience, as was
likewise the necessary corollary that without such struggle strength
could not be maintained and degeneration must set in. The
struggle for existence was a struggle between the living organism
and the environment—those best fitted to the environment
tended to survive, others to perish. The ratio of the fitness of
an organism to the strain imposed on it determined its survival,
and the value of the ratio was constantly being changed in

OO

I!

natural and social evolution by the variation of both factors. In
plant life the ratio was affected mainly by alterations in the fitness
of the organism, but instances were not wanting in which the
organism likewise modified its environment. Such instances
were mostly seen in co-operation between various organisms.
Lichens are a mutual provident society of fungi and algae. The
bacteria of the nodules of leguminous plants pay for their
maintenance by fixing nitrogen from the soil and air, and
supplying it to the plants. The beech thrives only when a
mantle of the fungus mycorrhiza developes over its roots; the
fungus, being fed by the beech, in return supplies it with certain
salts, thereby dispensing with unnecessary expenditure of force
on added rootlets. Again, between plants and animals there are
many instances of useful partnership. Certain seaweeds are
attached to the shells of marine crabs, the crab thereby simulating
the appearance of a rock, whilst the seaweed secures multiplied
Opportunities of receiving food. Ants tenanting the “ bull’s horn”
acacia tree obtain food and shelter from it while they defend it
from enemies. Even beetles inhabiting manure heaps help each
other in rolling up pellets of dung and burying them as larval
food with eggs embedded in them. Still better known are the
co-operative efforts to control their environment displayed by
such animals as the bee, the ant, the beaver, &c.

In the evolution of man, the intelligent power to alter
environment played a supremely important part, because he alone
appeared to be capable of improving on the experience of his
forbears. Although certain orangs pelted passers-by with nuts,
and the chimpanzee cracked his nuts with a stone, man was the
only animal employing tools of increasing complexity for his
wants. He alone clothed himself and cooked his food. He had
learnt also to press into his service the forces of nature and the
organic modifications of plants and animals, as in cultivated
cereals and domesticated animals. Environment for one class of
animal was the sime for other classes ; hence the primitive method
_ adopted by the strong in modifying this environment consisted
largely in destroying the weak and appropriating their property.
But that was not the only method employed, as instances already
_ quoted clearly showed. In the various forms of co-operation seen
_in animals, there was a constant succession of acts which in man
were counted as honesty, fidelity, justice, mercy, sympathy, and
benevolence. In some cases, e¢.g., parental devotion, the act
‘was done from an innate altruistic pleasure, thus showing ‘‘ they
- follow the law, but know not the doctrine.” There could be but
little doubt but that the mitigation of the tendency to mutual
destruction originated in a sense of the net advantage to be
derived by the individual from mutual help. Upon this were
_ based the foundations of society, and social evolution consisted
‘substantially in its development.

12

The increase of reason and experience tended at first to
intensify the struggle for existence, and to make human develop-
ment ethically worse as it became more rational; but now an
altruistic conscience had come to mitigate this process. The
destruction of man by individual man was condemned by an
universal sentiment. The public conscience no longer allowed,
at Jeast in its ethical theory, one set of men to support and enrich
themselves by procuring the degradation and suffering of others ;
or, as Huxley put it, ‘It repudiates the gladiatorial theory of
existence,” and is directed “not so much to the survival of the
fittest as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive.” Such
views were based on the application of rules of conduct, for the
operation of which there was still a wide sphere open.

The adoption of altruistic principles had acted rather by
creating a disposition to welcome measures on behalf of public
health than by furnishing a practical basis for them. Support for
such measures was given chiefly on economical grounds—a fact
not to be regretted, since there was a limit to the resources of
every community and a consequent duty to husband and apply
them to the best advantage. Moreover, it was closely interwoven
with the economic well-being of the community, and at times the
ebb and flow of the public mind (and also one’s own personal
faith) seemed to throw doubt on this association. The lecturer
regarded this as so important that considerations on which it was
based were worth studying shortly, as also was the alternative
view, viz., that influences, tending to improve the health of strong
and weak indiscriminately, helped to preserve weaklings who would
otherwise drop out, and, as a consequence, the average strength of
the race was reduced and increasing unfitness laid up for future
generations.

As an example of this line of thought, the lecturer quoted
Professor Karl Pearson as follows :—‘‘ We have two groups in the
community—one parasitic to the other. The latter thinks of
to-morrow and is childless, the former takes no thought and
multiplies. It can only end as the case so often ends—the
parasite kills its host and so ends the tale for both alike.” And
elsewhere “the birth-rate of the better type of working men has
been falling off more rapidly than the birth-rate of the nation as a
whole.” Mr. Balfour also argued at the British Association
Meeting (September, 1904), that inasmuch as when men won
their way from lower to middle rank their progeny diminished
owing to later marriages, &c., ‘‘it seems that as the State
contrives education so as to allow this rising from a lower to an
upper class, so much does it do something to diminish the actual
quality of the breed. . . . There is, or seems to be, no
escape from the melancholy conclusion that everything done
towards opening careers to those of the lower class does something
towards the deterioration of the race.”

EO

a

‘Ss

Both these views the lecturer regarded as based chiefly on
insufficient data. The birth-rate was not governed at present
chiefly by postponement of marriage, neither were there grounds
for saying that the birth-rate of the better type of workman had
relatively decreased. Both writers seemed to ignore the fact that
infantile mortality was commonly twice as high amongst the
so-called ‘‘inefficients ’’ as amongst those other grades of society
with fewer children. ‘There was no sufficient ground for thinking
that in these respects the nation was worse than formerly, though
there was ample scope for the adoption of practical means to
secure improvement. Mr. Balfour’s statement justified the
inference that some kind of inferiority (of what nature he did not
specify) was necessarily transmitted, but modern scientists
inclined to the view that innate inferiority was the only form
permanently transmissible, and so far from any innate inferiority
being prevalent among the wage-earning classes, the lecturer
stated that most medical men held that, given equally good
education and physical conditions, there need be no fear of
“deterioration ” were the wage-earning to take the place of other
classes. These two distinguished men, instead of taking a
conspective view of the classes of whom they were speaking, had
applied a microscope to relatively small and abnorial groups of
society, and generalising therefrom.

The lecturer thought that a sound view of public health
policy lay in wider considerations than were involved in the
passages above quoted. It was an economical fact that the
average fit man contributed more to the aggregate resources of
the community than he dissipated in his own person. Many men
of less than average fitness also contributed a surplus, but at what
degree of unfitness equilibrium occurred was impossible to say,

_ but it could be taken as certain that the average man of to-day

was a valuable economical asset, and that probably only a very
small minority were incapable of becoming so under proper
conditions. In practice it was impossible to prescribe public
health measures which should operate only in favour of the fit.
When the efficient cause of disease arrived, it attacked both
classes in the same manner, and any circumstance which lowered
the resistance of a fit man increased the chance of an efficient
cause of disease catching him in a susceptible condition—each
successful attack left the victim less capable of resistance to
further attack. The omission of measures to improve the
resistance to disease, e.g., general sanitation, abatement of over-
crowding, &c.,—and of measures to prevent access of infection
and other causes of disease tended, therefore, not only to eliminate
the cbronically unfit, but to increase the number of transfers from

_ the class of fit, or occasionally unfit, to that of chronically unfit,

and therefore the chance of death of an attacked individual.

Obviously the very strongest evidence of benefit would be required

14

before it could be regarded as economically advantageous to
jeopardise the lives of individuals in the fit class, or to increase
the chance of their transfer to the chronically unfit. In infectious
disease the actual sickness of one person caused in itself greatly
increased danger to his neighbour, fit or otherwise. To illustrate
the effect of the erroneous view that influences for the
improvement of public health might do more harm than good,
the lecturer referred to ‘‘sunshine,” and expressed the opinion
that even the hardiest supporter of that view would hesitate before
recommending measures for excluding the sun from dwellings in
order to secure the elimination of the weaker individuals of a
community. Hence the effect of public health measures could
never give the chronically unfit the same chance of survival as
the normally fit, and even if the survival of some of the unfit did
reduce the rate of improvement of the whole community, it could
not turn it into a deterioration. Hence the evolution of Society,
stimulated and supported both by economical and ethical
doctrine, had led communities to strive for the maintenance and
improvement of public health, which was, as already stated,
directed to increasing the fitness of the individuals who composed
the community, and to the removal of any excessive strain on
them due to their environment. As regards the extent to which
the fitness of an individual could be modified, the lecturer
summarised it by stating that (1) innate qualities of old standing
in the race were largely permanent during the life of the
individual, irrespective of environment, and were transmitted more
or less permanently; (2) certain conditions due to post-natal
environment of the future parents were probably capable of being
transmitted by a parent to one, or perhaps two, generations, but
under an altered environment were subject to modification in a
more remote posterity; (3) innate and post-natal qualities,
acquired through influence of environment, to a slight extent
might be modified. Professor D. J. Cunningham had pointed
out that there was a certain physical standard which was the
inheritance of the race, and that however far certain sections of
the people might deviate from it, through poverty, ignorance,
squalor, and bad feeding, such deviation was not transmissible
from generation to generation. “To restore, therefore, the
classes in which this inferiority exists to the mean standard of
national physique, all that is required is to improve the condition
of living, and in one or two generations the lost ground will be
recovered.”

The fitness of an individual, as far as it was capable of being
modified otherwise than by modifications of environment,
consisted in the capacity to utilise the environment to the best
advantage—a capacity primarily dependent upon education —
a word which demanded a wider connotation given to it in the
future than which was signified by it now, including as it ought to,

15

not only physical training, academic learning, and a theoretical
knowledge of the facts bearing on fitness, but also a practical
training in their application. In illustration of this, the lecturer
mentioned the knowledge of food values, and their modification
by judicious cooking and proper mastication, and maintained that
although an exact estimate was impracticable of the extent to
which assimilable food failed, after being eaten, to be assimilated,
yet the percentage was probably higher than generally imagined,
and if added to the amount wasted by uneconomical choice of
food, was fully as great as the deficiency in the food supply itself
of the working classes. Food that, while capable of being
digested and absorbed, was swallowed without undergoing those
processes, was not only a source of dyspepsia and indirect
impairment of nutrition, but was as much a direct economic loss
as if not eaten at all. Rendering food more assimilable was
as much an addition to food supply as the provision of additional
food, and to teach effectively the necessary rules to secure
competence in choosing food, and use skilfully cheap and simple
means of savoury cooking, would doubtless on any national scale
be a relatively costly matter, involving, for example, national
training of girls for some time after they had left school, but the
cost on any conceivable estimate would be only small in com-
parison with the thrift of food introduced into the national habits
and the improvement in national fitness.

The lecturer then pointed out that the main defect of our
present day education was failure to teach habits. Life, without
habits of self denial and determination to live well within the
limits of one’s income, was not only miserable for the individual
_ but also mischievous to the community.

’ The second factor of the ratio determining public health was
then considered, viz., environment, and as regards the “direct”
means of modifying it, Dr. Newsholme stated that the present
direction of public health legislation and administration had been
reached by inquiry and study without stint, and that its results
afforded ground for congratulation and encouragement to those
who had helped to determine it ; but that as regards the factors
‘contributing to the ‘indirect ” modification of environment, their
consideration could not be disposed of so readily. Of these, the
_ two most important were (1) Conditions of National Employ-

‘ment ; (2) The Problem of Poverty and Destitution.
: As regards the former of these, a great change had taken place
_ during the last hundred years. The original relation of master and
‘servant was one of unmitigated competition, and in quite modern
times there was still a practically unrestricted liberty to the employer
to exact from the artisan more than he could give without detriment
to his health, and to give him less than was sufficient to nourish
his family and him adequately. Children were employed at an
age and to an extent quite inconsistent with their well-being and

16

development. The conditions under which labour was thus
exploited were most insanitary, and the workers had to accept
them with the accompanying hardships because they had no
alternative. In 1825, the abolition of the Combination Laws
removed one of the disadvantages under which workmen had
laboured. ‘lhe iniquity of child labour was swept away, and
during the last 50 years there had been a steady extension of
State intervention in the regulation of factories, workshops, mines,
&c.,—an advantage not only to the workers themselves, but also
to the economic gain of the industries concerned. At the present
time, with freedom of combination, reduced hours of labour, and
improved sanitary conditions, the two parties of Capital and
Labour were arranged separately under conditions far more
nearly approaching equality than they had ever before been.
Collectively these parties have an interest beyond the arrangement
of their mutual shares in the produce of their industries, their
activities being directed to obtaining from their environment the
means of livelihood, but the modern history of the relations of
capital and labour seemed to show that first one side and then the
other had lost sight of each other’s well-being. Moreover, the
means of existence of a community, outside a very short term of
years, lie wholly in its future earnings, and since national energy
at any time is a limited quantity, what was spent on internal
struggle between those who ought to be co-operating reduced the
quantity available for the struggle with nature and with competing
earners, and even in millennial Utopia united humanity would have
to continue its unending struggle with Nature, and would exist
only by its success in turning her forces to its own service. Toa
dispassionate observer, the well-being of every unit in the
community was a matter of importance to every other unit ; work,
the master of all, demanded men contented and fit, not half-
starved and anxious, and required from them, during their hours
of labour, keen and whole-hearted energy. Hence, in the conflict
with environment, a high value must be attached to the develop-
ment of the sense of the mutual economic importance of masters
and men, and of their common rather than their several interests,
and finally to the provision for those who fall for the time being
in the industrial struggle.

The problems of poverty and destitution, the lecturer
maintained, had the utmost importance to public health, which
had a close connection with prosperity, since the later furnished
direct means of improving sanitary conditions. In_ existing
conditions it was probable that the connection was far more
directly due to the fact that improved health permitted the means
of prosperity to be earned, and that contrariwise failure in health
brought a large proportion of the population below the “ poverty
line.” Ifthere be included in the definition of disease, moral and
mental disorders, intemperance, vice, sloth and shiftlessness, the

17

amount of poverty under any other heading was relatively small.
The treatment of poverty had shown historically the same
confusion between symptom and disease as appeared in earlier
times in medicine, and illustrated the mischief and hindrance to
real progress caused by the adoption of an empirical treatment of
symptoms instead of a scientific treatment of disease. The 1601
Act directed against vagrancy declared wisely that no one able to
work should receive relief without the exaction of labour. The
settlement laws stopped the migration of workers from place to
place, and in later reigns led to relief being given to multitudes
of able-bodied poor without the exaction of labour. As a
protest against the intolerable consequences of this inconsiderate
benevolence, parish workhouses were provided where a residential
labour test was enforced as a condition of relief, but in 1722 an
Act was passed which prohibited Guardians from insisting on the
able-bodied entering the workhouse, and threw on them “the
duty of finding work near their homes for such applicants as
profess to be able and willing to work, but are unable to find
employment, and of making up any supposed deficiency out of
the poor rates.”

By the operation of this Act the reduction of pauperism
which had been secured was converted into a rapid and alarming
increase ; an unofficial condition of misery was created and an
impetus given to idleness and vice which resulted, by the Act of
1815, in the removal of the time limit for ordering relief and
converted charitable help into an ordinary grant in aid of
insufficient wages, and hence the wage standard fell. The
commission of enquiry in 1832 found that in many places
subsistence from poor rates was more easily obtained than by
labour (Eastbourne poor rate was 13s. in the pound) ; that under
such influences prudence and thrift were discarded ; sobriety and
temperance were left without encouragement, and that the whole
nation was becoming demoralised and impoverished. The Act
of 1834, by reviving the test of admission for able-bodied paupers,
at once rendered wages absolutely separate from charity, raised
the status of the wage-earning classes, diminished the number of
improvident marriages, and caused a rapid decline of pauperism.
Dr. Newsholme thought that at the present time there was
evidence of reaction, and exemplified it by commenting on the
fact that inadequate out-door relief was being given in an
increasing proportion of cases and was officially encouraged.

Applying the principles of evolution to the cure of poverty, it
must be conceded that the community, in the husbandry of its
strictly limited energy, cannot afford to allow available energy to
be wasted, whilst wisdom and the rules of right conduct equally
direct that it should not adopt towards the poor (a class dissipating
more than it possessed and earned) the attitude of extermination
proper to a pre-social age. It has to turn them to account with

18

the least net expense of communal resources, hence it must
adequately nourish them, and convert the resultant energy into
work to replace as far as possible that dissipated in their support.
But if the community cannot afford to lose the work the poor
man produces while communally supported, it can_ still
less afford to lose his permanent capacity for doing work,
and if that capacity be suffering through physical, mental
or moral disease, the community is bound alike in wisdom
and in mercy to administer relief in such forms as will tend to
remove the disease and not the symptom, viz., poverty.
Experience in all forms of evolution had shown that exercise was
essential to avoid degradation of a function, and also conscious
effort to secure the healthy maintenance of these functions, e.g.,
capacity for work and right living which involved mental and
moral qualities ; and the withdrawal of the stimulus to such effort
would degrade the population, or render some permanent cripples.
The state, therefore, must encourage its churches, clubs, circles of
friends, families (organs of the whole community and subject to
the same Jaws as control all other life) to exercise all these
functions, on the constant use of which depend their strength and
growth. Such in general terms was the result of applying to
poverty the principles regulating any successful evolution; in
other words, such were the laws which could be broken only at the
expense of the communal well-being. It was a favourite form
of self-deception to presume that laws of nature would be held in
abeyance to favour some simple or seemingly cheap solution of
an important question. The ignorant could only demonstrate the
fallacy of perpetual motion machines by a process of trial, tedious,
costly, and too often ruinous, whereas the scientific man by the
application of the law of the conservation of energy would do so ina
relatively short time. The error of sociological devices, conceived
in defiance of natural laws, would possibly take longer to
demonstrate, but the ultimate result was certain, and the longer
the delay the higher the cost of the unsuccessful experiment.
The lecturer, in applying the above principle to State help which
if given at all must be sufficient in amount, stigmatised out-door
relief as unsound and sentimental—unsound, because the com-
munity had a supreme interest in preserving or creating the
capacity which was thus abandoned, and because each case was
infectious to the sound portion of the community ; sentimental,
because it satisfied the sentiment of the giver rather than the
needs of the receiver, and protracted the disease rather than
remedied it. It kept the patient in his insanitary and overcrowded
dwelling and encouraged him to endure prolonged misery through
insufficiency of his total resources, when a satisfactory social
arrangement would ensure him receiving support in exchange for
a fair day’s work, or help him to improved condition through his
own efforts.

19

Dr. Newsholme strongly condemned the proposals for free
breakfasts to underfed school children, and old age pensions to
those who had not contributed to them. Whilst evidence
of hunger in children was on every sound principle
conclusive ground for giving them immediate relief, it was no
ground whatever for neglecting to recover the cost of such relief
from the parents. Further, he maintained the aged and destitute
poor, who during life were incapable of providing for their old age
through sheer poverty and sickness, and who were, therefore,
clearly entitled to State help, would be found to be relatively
small, hence any gratuitous pension scheme would, by lessening
the cultivation of self-help, fail to satisfy any test of sound ethics
or economy. It was the decadence of the Roman Empire which
produced the disposition to give unearned “‘ panem et circenses.”
Moreover, since the national charity fund, no less than the wages
fund, was strictly limited, State charitable aid must be postponed
until the capacities of the constituent communal organs—such as
the poor man’s claim on his neighbours and friends, on his club
and other voluntary benevolent associations—had successively
been exhausted. It would indeed be a direct economical
advantage in the avoidance of overlapping to co-ordinate State
interference in poverty with the work of orderly and voluntary
benevolent societies.

As regards the “ drink” question, Dr. Newsholme quoted
Mr. T. P. Whittaker, M.P, that the average drink bill of the
working classes was about 6s 1 14d. per week per family, the bill
for other classes being 15s. 3d.,and stated that medical men were of
almost unanimous opinion that the beneficial effect of alcohol was
very slight and hence 25 per cent. of the income of the poor was
spent over what was nearly always a useless and mischievous
drug. It was not thé function of the State to visit the sins of
the fathers on the children, and the distress caused to an innocent
child by its parents’ intemperance must be remedied as promptly
and as certainly as if it arose from any other cause.

The lecturer concluded his address by showing what great
improvement as regards the problem of poverty had taken place
in England during the last 30 years. In 1871 there were in
England and Wales 46’5 paupers per 1,000 of the population, and
in 1g0r only 246. The number of officially destitute in
proportion to the total population had greatly declined, but there
was a doubt whether the total poverty of the country had declined
commensurately. There could be no doubt, however, that there
had been a great improvement and a further improvement must
not be expected by applying the benevolent nostrums of untrained
sentiment. ‘It would be far more important to work at the pre-
vention of misery than to multiply places of refuge for the miser-
able” (Diderot). The sound treatment of poverty was assuredly
preventive, and it was only cruelty to substitute a palliative for a

20

scientific treatment. The health of a nation was the crude supply
of energy upon which the whole of its activities, its happiness,
and its achievements must in the last resort depend, and this
wealth had been increased by the attention which in the last fifty
years had been given to public health, and all the encouragement
derived from such results was needed when the work remaining to
be done was contemplated.
“Does the road wind up hill all the way?
Yes, to the very end.
Will the day’s journey take the whole long day?
From morn to night, my friend.”

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 17TH, 1905.

Weather during Jannarp, 1905.

BY

Dray We JOLTREUTLER; M. Ds Files:

R. TREUTLER gave a brief but interesting account of the
D abnormal weather conditions which prevailed during the
latter portion of January, and showed, by projecting on the screen
lantern slides of the weather charts during this period, how the
British Isles and N.W. Europe became the region of an anti-
cyclone, the formation and dispersion of which he traced, and
drew attention to the phenomena which usually accompany an
anticyclone.

————

21

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 17TH, 1905.

A Peep at Pre-Bistoric Man.

BY

Mr. CORNELIUS ROBBINS, L.D.S.

N detailing the history of the Harlyn Bay (Cornwall) discoveries,
the lecturer stated that he was not an anthropologist, archzo-
logist or antiquarian, but he was subject to fits of enthusiasm,
and it was the result of one of those attacks of enthusiasm that
he desired to place before the Members.

In August of 1902 a family holiday was spent in a most
delightful corner of North Cornwall, a little place called Polzeath,
on the coast line, half-way between Tintagel and Newquay. The
place had been made famous in the writings of Baring Gould, for
at this point on the sea coast was pitched the story entitled ‘‘ In
the Roar of the Sea,” dealing with an age in which smuggling

was a fine art, and Coppinger’s name was a terror to the Custom

officers. ‘The place was interesting for its natural rugged beauty,
its rock grandeur, its coves and caves so useful formerly for storing
contraband, and its close proximity to St. Enodoc, the little
church that for a long period was lost entirely under the blown
sand, but which had since been dug out and restored, and in
which services were held regularly during the summer months.
In Baring Gould’s story, the wedding of Coppinger and his
unfortunate bride took place in the portion of the chancel from
which the sand had been removed, and the entrance on that
occasion was made through one of the windows.

The passage ran as follows: “‘ Mr. Peter Trevisa (Peter was
a family Christian name) was for twenty-five years Rector of
St. Enodoc, on the north coast of Cornwall, at the mouth of the
Camel. The sand dunes had encroached on the church of

St. Enodoc, and had enveloped the sacred structure. A hole was

broken through a window, through which the interior could be
reached, where divine service was performed occasionally in the
presence of the churchwardens, so as to establish the right of the
rector, and through this same hole bridal parties entered to be

coupled, with their feet ankle-deep in the sand that filled the

interior to above the pew-tops.”
Polzeath was seven miles from Wadebridge, and Mr. Robbins
and his party frequently cycled over to friends who lived in that

22

old-fashioned town. A day’s excursion was proposed with these
friends to Trevose Lighthouse, and it was suggested that a look
might be given at Harlyn Bay, where some ancient skeletons had
been recently discovered. Harlyn Bay, a lovely, restful spot, was
about nine miles from Wadebridge. Here the visitors found
Mr. Mallett, who owned a newly-built house at this place, as well
as a small museum, and to whom the credit of these discoveries
was due.

In early life Mr. Mallett insisted on going to sea, but after a
time, tired of a wandering life, he settled down to study in
Germany, with the intention of entering the musical profession.
Just as he was making his way his health broke down, and he
decided on a tramping tour through Cornwall. He pitched his
tent on the shores of the little bay, lived on the simplest diet,
practically in the open air, and wore no hat, boots or stockings.
His health was restored, and he left the place, but he returned
later on with a charming wife to share the joys and sorrows of
“'Tamariska.” In that year (1900) he bought a piece of land for
the erection of a dwelling house, but while digging for the founda-
tions at a depth of fifteen feet, a slate cist was reached, containing,
in addition to a skeleton, characteristic implements of an early age.
The cist proved to be one of many. Mr. Mallett had dropped
upon a pre-historic Necropolis.

The discovery was communicated to several scientific
societies, and a committee was formed to personally direct further
investigations The committee included such names as the Rev.
S. Baring Gould, the Rev. W. Iago, Mr. Buddicom, F.G.S., and
others. About two thousand tons of blown sand were removed
before any of the interments were laid bare. So far more than a
hundred had been examined. Some of the relics were distributed
to various museums, and Mr. Mallett kept the remainder in his
own little collection. In his grounds he had carefully teased out
the sand of one or more of the cists, roofed them over with a sort
of cucumber frame, and was thus able to show the crouched-up
skeleton iz situ.

Of one of these arrangements the lecturer showed a photo-
graph, and mentioned that the crouched-up position of the
skeleton, together with the many examples of polished stone and
slate implements, seemed to point to the late Neolithic or early
Celtic period. These slate implements were extremely interesting,
and showed a considerable degree of skill in working ; they con-
sisted of scrapers, borers, piercers, and even needles or small
piercers. So beautifully finished were these latter that one could
easily pierce one’s skin with them even now. Prof. Bullen, to
whom he was indebted for some of his facts, said ‘ Neolithic
flint flakes and scrapers occur in the neighbourhood as well as in
the interments ; shell implements also occur, and are of a carved
needle shape, they are made of limpet and mussel shells. The

23

local rock is Devonian slate, and by its abundance the inhabitants

were probably determined in their use of it for their simple needs.”

He (the lecturer) found that the crouched-up position of
burial was very prevalent in that period, and Joly, in his “ Man
before Metals,’ said that the Assyrians, the Gaunches of the
Canary Islands, and the Peruvians practised the same form of
interment. One peculiar feature of the Harlyn Bay interments
was that most of the bodies were placed with the head pointing
north, or to be more correct, according to the observations of
Mr. Mallett, “‘the magnetic north.” Considering that this was at
a period prior to the invention of the mariner’s compass, it was
remarkable, but not very easy of explanation, except by reference
to the Pole Star.

Most of the skeletons were resting on the left side; the right
temporal bone was smashed in, presumably post mortem, in order
that the spirit might have free exit on its way to the “ happier
hunting ground.”’ For this journey certain provisions seemed to
have been made. In some cists a stone weapon for protection
was found, also materials that might be used for striking a light
or making a fire, such as flint, felspar, and a sort of charcoal,
placed usually on the abdomen or near the head. Often, and
especially in a cist occupied by a lady, there was found a lump of
crude oxide of iron for colouring and decorative purposes ‘‘ when
they got there.” In case he should be doing the fair sex an
injustice, the lecturer quoted from a German authority, the Ueber
Land and Meer, published at Stuttgart, which, after describing a
newly-discovered pre-historic burial field, near Worms, went on to
say that “one find, near the top of the grave where there were
no weapons, was most remarkable; it was a highly polished
reddish stone, which, on closer examination, proved to be a lump
of oxide of iron. Can it be that the dwellers on the ‘ Adlerberge,’
near Worms, had practiced the same custom as the ‘ Nadovessier,’
to whom Schiller attributes, in their death lament, these words :

* Colour, too, to paint the body,
Lay ye in his hand,
That with red he be resplendent
In the spirit land.’ ”

There were also evidences of a meal of food being left near
the mouth. A slide, which the lecturer here showed, seemed to
confirm this suggestion. A limpet shell was strongly adherent to
the jaw of the skull, at about the angle of the lower lip.
The specimen in question was obtained at a deep level, resting on
the left side, and when Mr. Mallett teased the sand carefully out
of it he considered that it pointed to the probability that after
death a handful of limpets and cockles might have been placed
near the mouth to ease the mind of the dead man’s friends as to
the need of refreshment, and that the limpet formed an

24

attachment and stayed there. Probably these people were
fishermen as well as hunters.

The lecturer was fully aware that his theory with regard to
this unusual specimen might meet with some questioning, and he
read a letter from one who did not agree with his suggestion.
The contention of the writer was that the body when buried
would be in the flesh, and the limpet could not have lived to
make attachment until the flesh had perished, while the position
of the skeletons precluded the idea that they were denuded of
flesh before burial. The writer went on to suggest that the skull
belonged to some drowned sailor, which, having been found on the
beach by some pious aboriginal, had been given decent burial.
If this were so, he thought, it would throw a very interesting light
on the feelings of these ancient people on the subject of burial.

In defence, however, the lecturer, while saying that one must
not dogmatise in such a case, suggested that when the flesh
disintegrated, thus placing the shell a trifle apart from the jaw,
the nature of the fine sand in which the interment was made
would be such that it would filter in and fill it up, so that most
probably a thin layer of sand did intervene between the shell and
the jaw. A future explanation might, however, make light of any
of these theories, and the lecturer recalled how years ago it
obtained in some of the text books that the ancient Egyptians
were skilled in the art of filling teeth with gold. Many years
after the theory had been accepted, the mummy on which the
theory was based (owing to the evidence of gold on its front teeth)
was further examined, and a pen-knife was tried on the gold
surface, with the result that it proved to be a small portion of
gold leaf with which the lips of certain mummies were decorated.
The portion had adhered to the damp tooth, and as the lips had
further shrivelled, the supposed gold filling was the more
revealed.

Taking up the thread of his subject the lecturer said that
quaint water-bottles filled with water were placed in Peruvian
graves. He passed one specimen round among the Members,
and read an extract from Zhe Connoisseur of October, 1got,
describing these vessels :—‘‘ These were supposed to contain the
fluid and solid refreshment that was to sustain on their journey
those destined for the country ‘from whose bourne no traveller
returns,’ and were buried with chiefs and other important
personages. The artistic spirit of the artificers seems to have
taken the direction of perverting the human form into all kinds of
monstrosities but it is noteworthy that they preserved a facial
type, which may, no doubt, be taken as to some extent
representative of that which existed in their time and locality.
It is worth noting that in several instances the maize discovered
in the vases has continued in such good condition that it has
germinated on being planted.” The lecturer added that Mrs.

25

Tweedie, in her “Mexico as I saw it,” stated that even to-day
corn in the cob was placed near the mouth of the corpse. ;

The Harlyn Bay graves were found in regular lines, and in
some cases four cists had been super-imposed ; probably through
the centuries, during which the place was used for interments, the
sand encroached and covered up the lower tiers. There were a
few circular cists made up of two compartments, and in these
cases the skull and some of the limbs seemed to have been
severed before death. Prof. Bullen thought that possibly these
might be connected with some sacrificial ceremonies.

The lecturer said that the dental phase of the skulls in Mr.
Mallett’s little museum particularly interested him. As a result
of a short examination of the collection, a paper was read before
the Odontological Society in February of 1903, when it was hoped
that he would go on with the investigations, especially in regard
to the alterations that had taken place in the skulls, jaws, and
teeth since those early times. He was able to enthuse a young
Cornishman, living in London, to accompany a late President of
the Odontological Society and himself for a week-end to Harlyn
Bay. Before going down, however, a learned Member of the
Camera Club, Dr. Leon Williams, lent them a_ splendid
instrument, his own invention, for measuring skulls. In this he
(the lecturer) thought that Dr. Williams showed a generous and
truly scientific spirit. By means of slides, the lecturer showed
the working of the ingenious “‘ craniometer,” which was suited to
measuring skulls from fixed points either in the living or dead
subject.

The special trip down to Cornwall took place on March 2oth,
1903. After concluding their work in the museum, taking notes,
measurements, and exposing plates, they went out and built up a
screen of four or five blankets to keep off the wind and sharp,
cutting sand, and then, working like any navvies on the line, they
tried for all they were worth to find a cist. Many tons of sand
they shifted, but to no purpose, their total find after six hours’
hard work being one ox’s molar, a knuckle bone of some sort, and
a piece of slate that might possibly be called a pre-historic
scraper.

Now, as to the scientific results of their little trip. Up to
the present they had not been startling, although it was true that
a second paper had been read before the Odontological Society.
Roughly speaking, one might say that modern life, with its much-
cooked food and made-up dishes, the terrible knife and fork
invention, the rapid rate of living, the saving of weakly ones by
medical science (who saw fit to breed their own kind in another
generation), all made up a total which, in matters relating to the
dental structures, was a dear price to pay for modern civilization.
The lecturer compared skulls found at fifteen feet level with a
single skull found at but a spade’s depth. He pointed out the

26

difference in structure, the non-eruted wisdom-tooth of the latter,
as well as the crowding and over-lapping of the upper teeth, and
the fine frontal development. It was scarcely necessary to and
that a Roman coin was found near this skull, to conclude that it
belonged to an individual who bore marks of civilization, probably
a Roman.

No very valuable deduction could be made from the small
number of skulls they had to work from, but he firmly believed
that some good would result from the application of Dr. Leon
Williams’ measuring instrument, when used, and the results
tabulated on a large number of skulls of various types. It would
be interesting to learn how through the ages the type of jaw had
altered, and in what way or ways the environment of the creature
was reflected in these structures. Dr. Charters White had
indicated the character of food of these early people by his
analysis of the tartar of some authentic specimens, and this
induced him (the lecturer) to ask Dr. Charters White to
experiment upon some tartar taken from a specimen sent to him
by a friend who found a portion of jaw teeth near this spot, but
the result of the examination added to their previous doubt as to
that specimen being really very ancient.

In considering the sidelights thrown upon the possible belief
in a future state by these primitive people, the lecturer read a
paragraph from the S¢. James’s Gazette of March 4th, 1904—a
paragraph which was intensely interesting when viewed in the
light of recent advances in the methods and ideas of the Japanese
people: “It was a custom in old Japan to bury living retainers,
servants, and even horses, upright in a circle round the grave of
a member of any imperial or noble family. The heads of these
poor wretches were left exposed, and their cries of agony during
their lingering death could be heard night and day. This awful
custom was changed by a tender-hearted ruler in the second year
of our Christian era, rough clay images being substituted for the
living beings; but so late as a.D. 646 another Emperor had
to legislate against the recurrence of such living burials.”

It was difficult to conceive that there were districts in India
where the “ suttee”’ or “good wife,” was even now burnt on her
husband’s funeral pile. Tylor, in his “ Anthropology,” writes : In
Europe, long after the wives and slaves ceased thus to follow
their master, the warrior’s horse was still solemnly killed at his
grave and buried with him. This was done as lately as 1781, at
Treves, when a General named Friedrick Kasimir was buried
according to the rites of the Teutonic Order ; and in England,
the pathetic ceremony of leading the horse in the soldier’s funeral
is the last remnant of this ancient sacrifice. Other quaint
relics of the old funeral customs are to be met with. There are
German villages where the peasants put shoes on the feet of the
corpse (the hell ‘shoon,’ with which the old Northmen were

27

provided for the dread journey to the next world), elsewhere a
needle and thread are put in for them to mend their torn clothes,
while all over Europe (at an Irish wake for instance), the dead
has a piece of money put in his hand to pay his way with.”

It was interesting to note that at the grave level at Harlyn
Bay, near the cists, were found remains of the ox, sheep, horse,
and pig, which seemed to prove that these creatures were to some
extent domesticated and used by the occupiers of the cists.
They were also shown some grass seed that had been found ina
sort of closed vessel, probably placed there many centuries ago.
Mr. Mallett had experimented with this, and stated that it was
still fertile, and he had produced a small crop of grass from it.

The lecturer here read a letter he had just received from Mr.
Mallett, in which he said that the two most recent finds were the
strange cists uncovered in the autumn. Nobody could account
for the strange arrangement of the skeletons, and no certain clue
could be gathered as to what the survivors meant by so singular
a method of interment. They remained a mystery. Prof. J.
Beddoe, however, considered the remains to be more distinctly
neolithic than anything yet found. Both cists were rounded in
shape, and were constructed of lumps of spar and slate, the
interstices filled up with soil, showing ‘‘ construction ” as distinct
from the usual slate slab graves. ‘The larger cist (6ft. 3in. by
5ft. gin.) contained the remains of two mortals, so far as yet
known, both of whom were decidedly dolico-cephalic
(longheaded). The skeletons had been absolutely dismembered,
a skull being at each end of the cist, and each smashed in on the
right side ; the lower jaw was missing in each case, and the leg,
arm, and other bones, fantastically deposited about the gravel,
with intervening layers of slate rubble. Skull and crossbones
were clearly discernable—magnificent teeth in each upper jaw,
one tooth being more than an inch and a quarter in length.

In the smaller cist, continued Mr. Mallett, the skull was also
smashed in on the right side, and the lower jaw had been placed
at the back of the skull. Only the skull, jaw, and shoulder-blade,
humerus and finger bone, were observable, all resting on a large
slab, which, he fancied, separated the rest of the skeleton.

The seeds were found at about eight feet below the present-
day surface, in a kind of chest made of slate, a fireplace being at
the side, and midden remains all around ; this sort of slate chest
was actually in the midden, as part of it. Convolvulus, too, from
the graves had germinated. He took it that the seed was stored,
and, the sand having accumulated over the existing surface, it
retained its fertility in suspension until it was unearthed. It was
sprouting freely around the chest soon after they broke into the
spot. The sand seemed to hermetically seal any such deposit,
preserve the bones, and play other strange pranks.

Sufficient, continued the Lecturer, had been said to prove

28

that these were ancient burials, but it was difficult, or even
impossible, to assign any exact date to these remains. Neither
was it wise to presume that all the theories built up around these
discoveries were correct.

Samuel Laing, in his ‘Human Origins,” said: ‘The
preservation of human remains depends mainly on the practice of
burying the dead. . . . Now it is not until the neolithic period
that the custom of burying the dead became general, and even
then it was not universal. In many nations, even in historical
times, corpses were burnt, not buried. It was connected, doubt-
less, with ideas of a future existence, which either required
troublesome ghosts to be put securely out of the way, or to
retain a shadowy existence by some mysterious connection with
the body which had once served them for a habitation. Such
ideas, however, only came with some advance of civilization, and
it is questionable whether in paleolithic times the human animal
had any more notion of preserving the body after death than the
Other animals by which he was surrounded. . . . A great many
caves which had been inhabited by paleolithic man were selected
as fitting spots for the grave of their neolithic successors, and
thus sometimes the remains of the two periods became inter-
mixed.”

Concluding, the Lecturer said that if such an authority dealt
with the matter in such a careful way, he would not presume to
be dogmatic in any of the statements he had made. ‘There were
difficulties in attempting to “ lift the veil” from the shadowy
past, but it was a fascinating occupation, and, as with the past, so
with the future, the desire to ‘lift the veil ’’ was almost universal.
Imagination must have its rightful sway, and if we had been
interested in trying to spell out the obscure writing of a letterless
age, how much more would our successors in the distant future
revel in the relics left behind by this ancient capital of a mighty
Empire, when its ‘“‘cloud-capped towers, its gorgeous palaces,”
had passed away !

Into Macaulay’s picture of the New Zealander sitting on
London Bridge, the Lecturer introduced a second figure—-a
companion who, looking over the New Zealander’s shoulder,
should exclaim, his face beaming with joy, “ Eureka, I have
found it!” and, pointing to a bright red spot on the ground plan
of London, near the ruins of St. Martin’s Church, say with some
authority, “‘ That was once the happy home of the celebrated
Camera Club.”

At the conclusion of the lecture a collection of paleolithic
and neolithic implements was shown, some of the specimens
being very interesting.

39

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 25TH, 1905.

Ohe ‘Booth’ & ‘Monk’ Bird Collections.

BY

Mr. ARTHUR GRIFFITH, M.A.
(At the Booth Museum).

oe Members of the Society visited the Booth Museum, and

during the afternoon Mr. Arthur Griffith, M.A., read a paper,
in the course of which he alluded to the fact that the Booth
collection of birds, now that it had been extended by the
Corporation acquiring the “ Monk”’ collection, was the finest
collection of British birds in the kingdom ; whilst the mounting
and casing of the specimens to illustrate as far as possible their
natural condition were unique.

THURSDAY, MARCH 16rx, 1905.

Ghe Eholution of Artillery,

BY

COL. EDGAR KENSINGTON, (Late) R.A.,

Formerly Professor of Artillery, Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich.

HE Lecturer commenced by observing that the association of
the word artillery (derived from. French artiller—to work
with art) with guns was not always correct, as in the Bible
Jonathan signalled to David with bows and arrows: but it was
now applied to those weapons used in the art of war for throwing
missiles to a distance, as contrasted with the pike, battle-axe, or
bayonet, used only for hand to hand fighting, the rifle being ex-
ceptional as it accompanies the bayonet. In all fighting, from
the remotest ages, victory has been obtained by hand to hand

30

fighting, but it has been most materially aided or prepired by
projectiles thrown from a distance. [he object of this prepara-
tion was formerly to throw the enemy into confusion so as to
render the task more easy for the hand to hand fight ; eg. (1) the
British archers preparing for the pikemen; (2) Frederick the
Great preparing by artillery for his infantry to attack in line ; (3)
Napoleon always using artillery before attacking with massive
columns ; now there was another and more important object,
viz., to keep down the enemy’s fire so that the infantry may get
within assaulting distance—and modern tactics demanded that
the attacking artillery must be superior (1) in numbers, (2) in
power—z.e., range and calibre, (3) in gunnery—accuracy and
rapidity in fire. Until recently it was held that the “artillery
preparation” must precede the infantry advance (e.g., the battles
of Enslin and Magersfontein in the Boer war); but the latest
developments of modern warfare demanded that the artillery
must continue ‘the preparation,” and when about to be masked
by their own infantry, it must move to closer ranges and
support the infantry advance, regardless of risks. Up to the
time of the Crimean war, artillery could be classified as follows :—
Guns, Howitzers, mortars, with projectiles consisting of solid
round shot, hollow shot, shrapnel, grape, case (cannister), red hot
shot, Martin’s shell (containing molten iron), bar shot, chain
shot (last two used against ships’ rigging). Hollow shot was
more effective against wooden ships, its velocity being more
quickly checked so that jagged splintered holes resulted, whereas
solid shot made a clean hole, readily plugged.

In the battles of Napoleon’s period the range of field guns
was about half a mile, but they were often used at some 300
yards. ‘‘Grape” was used at this range ; ‘‘ Case” at 100 or 200
yards, ¢.g., Major Mercer at Waterloo, when charged by cavalry,
loaded his guns with case and quietly awaited the charge till
within 4o yards, when he fired and successfully checked the
advance.

The earliest “rifled” gun was the ‘‘ Lancaster,” in use
during the Crimean war. It had an oval bore with a cast iron
projectile, oval in section, but the friction generated by giving
rotation was so great that the shot often jammed and the gun
burst.

Colonel Kensington then briefly stated the advantages of
“rifled guns ” as follows :—

(1) Accuracy owing to the shell having to issue concentric
with the bore, instead of rebounding along it.

(2) Accuracy owing to the shell being given a known
rotation causing a known deviation to the right (in
our service) instead of an unknown rotation due to
the last rebound in the bore.

31

(3) Accuracy owing to the concentric manufacture of the
shell (now rendered possible).

(4) Elongated projectiles could be used. These brought
about increased range owing to the increased
weight, greater capacity for powder or bullets, a
simplification of the fuzes, and a reduction in the
resistance of the air.

Of the many designs submitted, Sir William (afterwards Lord)
Armstrong’s were accepted, and he became Superintendent of the
Royal Gun Factories. His guns—breech-loaders—were built up
of cylinders made by coiling bars of red hot wrought iron round
mandrils and then reheating and welding them. The breech was
closed by a vent piece dropped into a slot and secured by a
breech screw. ‘The method of construction caused these guns to
be longitudinally weak owing to imperfect welding, and they
tended to draw out like a corkscrew, but they were practically
secure against such explosive bursts cast iron guns were liable to.
The field guns were excellent and very accurate, and were used in
the China war (1860), when the Peiho forts were captured ; the
heavier guns (7 inch), however, were failures.

The Lecturer then alluded to the battle of guns v. armour
plates which resulted from the ‘‘ Merrimac” and “ Monitor”
warships proving themselves almost invulnerable during the
American civil war of 1861-5, although the armour plates were
merely iron rails. The French followed with “La Gloire,” and
the English with the ‘‘ Warrior,” which, the Lecturer stated, he
saw launched at Blackwall.

The old smooth-bore 68-pounder with a charge of 16lbs. of
powder at 1,000 yards with muzzle velocity of 1,700 feet per sec.,
was more destructive to armour plate than the new 110-pounder
7 inch (which could only be trusted with r14lbs. of powder) with
a muzzle velocity of 1,100 feet per sec. Hence it was calculated
—rather rashly—that breech loading guns were a failure, the more
so as the Royal Navy (owing to the fact that loading had to be
more rapid so as to seize the right moment as the ship rolled) at
first condemned them as dangerous, the vent piece flying out
owing to imperfect fixing and killing men. As a result the
**Woolwich” gun was devised for field, garrison, and naval
purposes, constructed on Armstrong’s coiling principle, but with
more massive forgings and with a solid ended steel tube, but
“ muzzle loading.” Krupp, taking advantage of the invention of
the steam hammer by Nasmyth and the improvement in the
manufacture of steel introduced by Bessemer, and the further
toughening of steel by annealing in oil, started making guns
entirely of steel and breech loading, which were longer and had
much greater muzzle velocities—z2,ooo feet per sec. against our
1,300 (later 1,500) feet per sec., and in the Belgium competition

32

the | superiority of the Krupp breech-loading steel gun was
definitely established.
The advantages of breech loading were then detailed thus :—

(1) Larger charges of slow burning powder can be used,
since the guns are longer.

(2) These large charges can be packed in a more compact
way in chambers of considerably larger diameter than
the bore. It is well known that long charges produce
a wave action which occasions irregularities of
pressure.

(3) Loading is more rapid. This culminated in the
adoption of quick firing guns.

And the Lecturer stated that our modern guns were breech
loading, made of toughened steel, having a great comparative
length, with a muzzle velocity of 3,000 feet per sec., which gave
them a longer range, flatter trajectories, and much greater
accuracy, and quoted instances exemplifying the importance of
length of range: (1) At Elandslaagte, General French, with the
Natal Artillery Volunteers and their 7-pounders, was powerless to
dislodge a party of Boers who had cut the line between Lady-
‘smith and Dundee, having been outranged by another party of
Boers who opened fire on him and compelled him to retreat ; (2)
at siege of Ladysmith, the 6 inch Creusot guns of the Boers
planted on the surrounding heights were made to keep their
distance by a couple of 4.7 inch guns belonging to the Royal
Navy ; (3) in the Japanese war the Russian field guns appeared
to have ranged further, while the Japanese guns were lighter and
more mobile ; and although the Japanese captured several Russian
field guns they were useless, as essential fittings had been
removed ; but the Japanese secured patterns of these lost fittings,
made them, and last February they used them against their
former owners at Taling Pass, east of Mukden, and completely
outranged them. ‘To the Boers belong the credit of first bringing
into the field far heavier pieces than had ever been dreamt of
before in connection with a field army. We have followed their
example in associating a Howitzer Brigade and three Garrison
Companies having 4.7 inch guns with our Army Corps. More-
over during Boer war quick firing guns and pompoms (quick
firing 1 inch guns) were first used ; the latter are now attached to
our Cavalry Brigade.

As regards quick firing guns, the Lecturer emphasized the
following points:—(1) The recoil must be nullified or absorbed
so that the gun may be loaded while it is being fired ; (2) breech
action must be most rapid, one action being sufficient to open or
close it, the empty cartridge case being also thrown out by the
act of opening ; (3) ammunition must be enclosed in a brass

33

case having its own means of ignition; and stated that our
service had now adopted 18 ¥%-pounders quick firing guns for field
artillery, calibre 3.3 inches, in place of former 1 5-pounders of 3
inches calibre, and the Horse Artillery are to have 1 3-pounders of
3 inch calibre. In connection with this the Lecturer drew atten-
tion to the question of ‘‘gunpower and “ mobility,” and stated
that mobility was affected more by the weight of the ammunition
than by the weight of the gun, and thought that 18 ammunition
wagons instead of nine would have to accompany each battery,
which gave 150 rounds per gun, and these could be fired off in
about 10 minutes. After a brief explanation of the principle of
Watkins’ ‘ Telemeter ” or range finder, telescopic and automatic
sights, and of the modern methods of ‘gun laying” and
‘« position finding,” Colonel Kensington concluded his address
by numerous references to military history of the advantages
gained in modern warfare by the judicious use of artillery, select-
ing incidents from the American civil war (186 1-5), the Prussian
and Austrian war (1859), the Franco-German war, the Russo-
Turkish war, the recent Boer war, and the Russo-Japanese war.

FRIDAY, MARCH 24TH, 1905s

A Tour in Spain.
BY

Mr. E. PAYNE, M.A.

Illustrated by Lantern Slides.

R. PAYNE made a tour in Spain with his camera and gave a
brief account of the towns he visited, and showed slides of
typical Spanish landscapes, the chief buildings, etc. He started
from San Sebastian, then visited Pampluna, Barcelona, Tarragona,
Murcia, Granada, Malaga, Seville, Cordova, Toledo, Madrid,
and Burgos. Some of the slides were taken by the ‘‘ Sanger
Shepherd ” process of colour photography, and the excellent
results obtained were much appreciated.

34

FRIDAY, APRIL 28TH, 1905.

Che Ebolution of the Vertebrate Skull.

BY

JAMES. THORNTON. CARTER,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Illustrated by Lantern Slides.

HIS Lecture was devoted to a careful study of the anatomy
and development of typical skulls, considered in their
zoological order. Fishes were first considered, and slides of the
skull of Amphioxus, and certain specimens of Elasmobranchs,
Ganoids, Dipnoi, and Teleostei were shown and explained.
In a similar manner, skulls of certain Amphibians, Reptiles,
Birds, Mammals, and finally Man were considered, and their
respective differences pointed out.

THURSDAY, MAY 18TH, 1905.

Bistory of the Sonth Dotuns,

BY

Mr. J. H. A. JENNER, F.E.S.

M* JENNER began with a reminder of what Gilbert White

said of the South Downs after travelling on them upwards
of thirty years. ‘I still investigate that chain of majestic
mountains with fresh admiration year by year; and I think I
see new beauties every time I traverse it.” Varying in thickness
from 800 to 1,000 feet, the Sussex Downs had their origin in a
chalk formation at the bottom of a deep ocean, and must have
taken many thousands of years in formation. The strata, pro-
ceeding upwards, consisted of the lower greensand, gault, uppe,

35

greensand, chalk marl or grey chalk, lower chalk or chalk without
flints, and upper chalk or chalk with flints. The chalk rested
upon various formations according to locality, but in Sussex it was
on the Wealden. Once it was uniformly spread over this, but
the Wealden formation had been elevated, together with the chalk
above it. The chalk had been severed by the anticlinal ridge of
the Weald and separated into the North and South Downs, this
fracture being evident from the fact that the North Downs have a
steep face to the south and the South Downs a steep face to the
north. The South Downs had rifts through which rivers flowed
—probably originally fissures caused by unequal raising—but
now widened and modified by the flow of the rivers.

On the chalk was originally a considerable quantity of
tertiary deposits, but these had mostly been removed by denuda-
tion. Their remains existed in many places as a re-deposit—
—such as the elephant bed between Brighton and Rottingdean,
and the coombe rock and other beds near Portslade and
Chichester. A few layers of the lowest series—-the so-called
Woolwich beds—remain in situ at Newhaven Fort and Seaford
Head. The chalk itself was mainly composed of small
organisms which, dying, fell to the bottom of the sea—slowly
forming a muddy deposit and enveloping the remains of fishes
and other sea animals. There is, said Mr. Jenner, supposed to
be a similar process going on in the Atlantic at the present time.
The enormous amount of time necessary to form such an
immense thickness of material as the chalk might be easily
imagined, not only from the slowness of the accumulation of the
material, but from the numerous changes in the forms of animal
life which occurred from the base to the surface, changes
which were remarkable and progressive. After an incidental
reference to the presence of flints in the upper beds of chalk, to
the large use of chalk for building purposes in medieval times
and for lime in modern times, Mr. Jenner said the South Downs
probably sloped gradually towards the south at the time the
Channel did not exist and England joined France ; but the bases
of the hills had now been cut off by the sea, and the white cliffs
of Albion provided in Beachy Head and the Seven Sisters some
of the finest scenery in the South of England.

What the condition of the Downs was when the chalk first
emerged from the sea was not known,—probably the elevation
was gradual, and may have been in progress thousands of years.
Of course, at first it was an absolutely sterile surface, gradually
rounded by the action of water, which had given us the beautiful
rounded contour. Then, probably, followed the lower crypto-
gams and other first occupants of bare soils,—until we arrived at
the present botanical conditions. He thought they might safely
say that plants arrived before animals or man, and evidently
there was some division in the direction of arrival, as some plants

36

arrived on the northern range of downs which did not exist on
the southern range, and vice versa. Remarking that every drop
of rain that fell affected the shape of a chalk hill, though the
change worked slowly, Mr. Jenner said it had been calculated
that a drop of rain falling on a chalk hill to-day would not reach
the usual depth of the springs for a hundred years. He did not,
of course, refer to rain falling into a fissure, but to the slow
percolation of rain drops, and he suggested that the people of
Brighton might be now drinking water which fell a hundred years
ago,—quite a ‘‘ Vintage Water.”

After vegetation came animals and man,—man, probably,
in the condition of the lowest savages of the present day;
certainly with no ideas of machinery or motors, but with a
perception of form and usefulhess, as implements of the early
stone age in the Brighton Museum would show. It was once
thought there were no men of the Paleolithic age in Sussex,
but the discoveries of Mr, R. Garraway Rice had provided
evidence of his existence both at Portslade and Chichester.
Neolithic man was known by his weapons, and these, Mr. Jenner
reminded his hearers, occurred in enormous numbers on the
Downs, and were much more carefully and finely made than
those of the Palzolithic age. He recalled the paper Mr. Toms
had read on discoveries of flint instruments, observing that the
great “Sheffield” flint knife and hammer factory of the South
appeared to have been at Cissbury, from which site there were
many specimens in the Museum. At Cissbury the chalk was
tunnelled to obtain the fresh flint, which chips so much more
easily than that which has been lying on the surface. Other
centres he had found were one west of Newhaven, where the
flints were evidently obtained from the sea cliffs as well as from
some pits, and the well-known district near Eastbourne. These
flints appeared to have been bartered with natives of other parts,
but from the amount of remains and débris that could even now
be found, the business must have spread over many thousands of
years. Mr. Jenner also quoted from Professor Boyd Dawkins’
‘‘ Early Man in Britain” a reference to the activity and fine
workmanship at Cissbury.

What language these people used, continued Mr. Jenner,
we know not, but it is probable that they tilled the ground to
some extent, and the Downs furnished suitable light soil for this.
The Weald being covered with forest, they also hunted game and
wild animals, as evidenced by their arrow-heads and spearheads,
and as, occasionally, some of these have been found as far away
from the chalk as Crawley, they must have had an off-day’s
hunting and shooting at times. The question how these early
peoples lived on our Downs without a water supply had always
been a puzzle, but, probably, said Mr. Jenner,—as is well-known
of South-African tribes, such as the Zulus,—they were exceed-

}

37

ingly fleet of foot, and thought nothing of moving many miles in
a day down to the nearest brook or river. Dealing next with a
recently published book on ‘ Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-
ways,” in which there are references to the Cissbury and
Chanctonbury encampments, the speaker said he did not doubt
that dewponds may have existed in Neolithic times, but he did
not think there was any evidence. Also it was practically
accepted that the hill camps he would next refer to belonged to
the Bronze age. The splendid ramparts at Cissbury had no
reference whatever to the wonderful Neolithic pits which were
scattered widely both inside and outside of the more modern
entrenchments. Some of the galleries which were explored some
time ago passed right under the southern rampart.

There were many of these camps on various prominent parts
of the Downs. ‘They appeared to have been harbours of refuge
for the civil population, as well as defences against enemies for
the fighting population. They were in every case very cleverly
constructed, with outworks covering the contours of the slopes.
Cissbury, Chanctonbury, Ditchling Beacon, Hollingbury, Devil’s
Dyke, White Hawk Down, Seaford, Caburn, Birling, and others
might be mentioned, and they seemed to have been placed in
positions for easy communication by signalling—as was evidenced
at the late Jubilee celebrations by the numerous beacon fires that
could be seen from any given point. The ancient paths which
lead up to these hill tops are often called borstalls, which is said
to be derived from the British, meaning ‘‘hill path”; but the
hills are covered with ancient paths leading in all directions—
mostly grown over with grass—many leading to what is now “no-
where,” but which may have been an important place in Neolithic
times. ‘‘ Cattle ways” they were termed in the book he had
alluded to. Perhaps this was right; but not always. There is a
very ancient path leading from Brighton to Lewes, and passing
over Kingston Hill. It is called the “jugs road ”—jugs being
the colloquial name for the Brighton fishermen, who travelled
that way with their goods to Lewes, &c. There are also natural
tracks caused by sheep, &c., which may be seen well on any steep
hill side.

There were other marks on the Downs with which he might
briefly deal—cultivation marks. They were very evident in many
places, especially on the Cliffe Hill, at Lewes, also near Alfriston,
and at Littlington. There were also some between Lewes and

‘Brighton. These are supposed to have been caused by the

continual ploughing of a furrow literally beginning at the top of
the holding and finishing at the bottom, and they also indicated
the beginning of village communities, and what was now under-
stood as allotments. He was inclined to think, however, that
this was not a complete explanation. That these early traces, as
well as the encampments, should be so evident after the enormous

38

lapse of time was astonishing, and shewed the very slow process
of aerial denudation. At present Sussex did not seem to possess
any early structure analagous to Stonehenge, or allied to the
solitary one in Kent called Kit’s Coty House. But on the
Downs at one time were many of the sarsen stones, derived from
the strata above the chalk, and stranded at various parts. Many
of these sarsen stones might be seen at Stanmer and Falmer,
collected from their original sites. He had often wondered if
any archaic inscription could be found upon them, such as the
well-known cup and ball markings.

Having referred to ancient figures cut in the Downs, like the
Wilmington Giant, which figures had always been a puzzle, he
said there was, on the steep slope of the Cuckmere Valley, below
Hineover, a very rough cutting resembling a horse, which is not
recorded in books on the subject, but which was kept clean by
youths of the past generation, shewing that there must have been
some tradition carried down about these things. For himself, he
attributed these things to a very early stage of religious culture,
but, as a fact, these hill carvings were mysteries, and they occurred
nowhere else in Europe. There was a cross cut on the hill side
above Plumpton, near Lewes. Some thought it was a record
of the Battle of Lewes, but he saw no reason to think so. He
must not omit to say that on the Downs we had remains of the
burial places of the early peoples who lived in the neighbour-
hood. Most persons who had walked the Downs had come
across circular mounds (generally, unfortunately, with a de-
pression in the centre). These tumuli, probably all of the
Neolithic age, enclosing the remains of some chieftain, were
opened with very little scientific accuracy early in the last
century. Urns and other things were found in them, but if
more care had been taken we should have learnt more of these
early people. There were not many “long barrows” on the
Southdowns, but there was one above the Coombe, at Lewes, and
one above the Wilmington Giant. These were usually supposed
to be of the Bronze age. He could not discover that anything
allied to the dene holes of Kent had been found on the South-
downs, unless the filled up pits at Cissbury are of the same
character; but, as the Society noticed a year or two ago,
workings very similar were used for raising stone in the Weald
of Sussex.

Succeeding the Bronze age came the Iron age, and iron was
in use when the Romans landed in Britain and captured the
Downs. Boadicea, we were told, had a chariot with iron scythes
on the wheels. When the Romans arrived,— those tactical
Japanese-like adventurers,—they seized the camps and _ best
vantage grounds of the Downs. They ate oysters on Cissbury.
The eating of oysters was a peculiarly Roman trait, and from the
size Of the shells they were not inferior. Traces of their

7 Apia #

39

sumptuous dwellings occur at Bignor, at Eastbourne, &c. Their
burial grounds occur at Seaford and in other places. He
emphasised the remarkable way in which certain positions had been
successively occupied. To begin with, it is a suitable place for the
rallying of the savage tribe; after that of the semi-civilised and
settled community with their religious ceremonies, or a parish
meeting, and possibly a stockade; then, perhaps, the Roman
villa of the Commander, and after that first the Saxon and then
the English church, or the medizval castle. In the time of the
Saxons the Downs must have been much of a waste, except
that their lonely valleys gradually accumulated a house and a
barn or two. Before that time they were, probably, more
covered with wood. The iron axe was more potent in clearing
than the flint, or even the bronze. Within living memory there
had been a decrease in trees, but some of the old hawthorns,
such as those at the base of Cissbury, seemed likely to live for
ever. When we got down to medizval times the Downs were
still interesting,—the, perhaps, greatest event in English history
took place on the Downs, the Battle of Lewes in 1264, and it
was only about a week ago according to the day of the month!
The escape of Charles II. took place over the Downs.

The exceedingly isolated valleys and parishes of the Downs
led to an almost peculiar language and manner. Many persons
never left the place where they were born the whole of their
lives, and most people in the parish were related to each other ;
and they had many local superstitions. There were other marks
on the Downs of green rings—called fairy rings. These were
quite recently attributed to the night dancing of Fairies, but were
now well-known to be caused by fungi. The Fairy, or Pharisee,
as he was called, was quite a belief. There was a story that a
certain farmer found every morning that some of his corn had
been thrashed out, and going to the barn saw a lot of little fairies
thrashing it out, one saying to the other, “ Do you twet—I
twet?” Not approving of this proceeding, he frightened them
away, after which he withered and died for his ingratitude! The
belief in witchcraft was almost universal in these lonely villages.
A story was told him once of a woman who was supposed to be
a witch, and she was attacked and escaped from her house in the
form of a hare. One of the men set his dog at her, it seized
her, but she escaped, but when next seen at home she had a
wound where the dog bit her. This was told him in all
seriousness.

The nomenclature of the Downs was all ancient; the
coombis, from the British cwm; the Denes, Saxon; the holts
and copses, ancient forms of language. Near Lewes was Oxsettle
Bottom, which a friend assured him was derived from early
British—the ‘‘ upper shooting valley ’’—pointing out the curious
fact and coincidence that it was a rifle range. But he was afraid

40

he could not enforce this, as the “ ox-settle,” or ‘‘ ox-shelter,”
or its remains, were found not long ago. A neighbouring valley
was Called Bible Bottom, from an ancient (?) cattle enclosure in
the valley. It had been ploughed over within the last fifty years,
and the farmer earned great obloquy for having ploughed up the
bible.

The closing passages of Mr. Jenner’s paper were devoted to
the Downs of modern times, and the speaker dwelt upon their
beautiful contour, their never failing variety, and their health
giving air. Very few artists had succeeded in representing them
accurately. Their native animals were few—the fox, the hare,
the rabbit, and a few small animals such as the stoat. Birds were
numerous in the wooded portions. In no part could the
nightingale be heard so well, while the cuckoo rejoiced in the
wooded valleys: The wheatear, which was formerly considered a
luxury, still occurred, though it was caught by thousands by the
old-time shepherd ; and anyone reclining on the soft turf could
not help exclaiming, ‘‘ Hark, the lark at heaven’s gate sings.”
The Great Bustard formerly occurred near Lewes, and he knew a
man who had seen them; and the stone curlew, he hoped, still
occurred on Kingston Hill. There were still many lovely haunts
of birds where, with a good field glass, one could watch the
birds at leisure. Many of the rarest of migratory birds had
chosen to alight on the Downs after their cross-sea passage. The
neighbourhood of Black Rock used to be famous for arriving
migrants, and the late Mr. Monk obtained many of his birds-—
the collection of which had just been secured by Brighton—from
that locality. Among them was a “ Richards pipit,” and he well
remembered Mr. Monk shewing him a telegram worded: “If
you wish to see A Richards alive come at once,” which caused
him consternation and bewilderment.

In the hangers and copses, especially on the northern slopes,
many good snails might be taken. He named some of the
varieties, as also shells to be found on the southern slopes of the
Downs near Lewes. In the autumn, two species were in great
profusion. As to butterflies, they had on the South Downs the
largest number that occurred in any British locality—clouded
yellows, the painted lady, and an army of blues. A colony of
the marbled white M. galathea resided near Firle Beacon. Many
rare moths were also to be found, and other rare insects could be
taken on the short turf at night by means of a lantern, though
the experience of searching was a weird one. The loneliness
and sclitude of parts of the Downs was, indeed, quite striking,
even in the daytime, but at night it was remarkable. There
seemed to be some influence of late, he knew not what, that had
lessened the number of good insects, though perhaps the farmer

would tell them that it had not lessened the wireworm or the
aphis.

—_—

eS. . Saoe ~~

—s

41

Passing on to the plants of the Downs, he felt that their
friend, Mr. Hilton, could say more than he could on that
subject. One could, at any time, count at least twenty species
of plants in a square yard. Yet, though dwarfed, like Japanese
trees, everyone was perfect. On the steep slopes, especially to
the north, there was wood, less in East than in West Sussex,
mainly composed of beech,-—in places ash. Among _ these
beechen groves, which at this time of the year afforded the most
splendid greenery of which the country could boast, occurred
some of our rarest orchids. In June the hills were yellow with
furze bloom, and later they were purple with thyme. Near
Seaford could be found Sese/¢ /ibanotis, in a small colony which
must have entered England by a spur of Downs which formerly
joined France. He had not time to say more on natural history.
During the Napoleonic wars a great portion of the Downs was
converted into arable land, but latterly a good deal had been
allowed to go back, owing, he supposed, to the decreased price
of wheat. But one still saw the staple industry of the Downs,
the Southdown sheep, unequalled in the world, with sometimes
the old-time sheep dog, and the old-time shepherd, who, if he
had time to spare,—and usually he had plenty,—-could tell many
a yarn while his dog was investigating one’s legs, and the “golfus
vulgaris” was crying ‘“‘fore.” Among the disappearing features
of the Downs were those famous landmarks the windmills, and
another feature—not quite gone, but going slowly—the employ-
ment of oxen for ploughing and carting. There was much more
he could say if time permitted. He had attempted to be
suggestive, not instructive. He could not instruct in all these
matters, but he wanted to lead others to investigate them, and
think them out for themselves. It not only added to the
pleasure of a walk but added scientific knowledge, and, in spite
of motors, there was no better way of studying Narure than
walking. In conclusion, he trusted they would still be able to
sing, ‘‘Oh who will o’er the Downs so free,” in spite of bridle
paths and barbed wire. He hoped he had not wearied -them,

_ but these studies had been the pleasure of his life. Also he felt

with Rudyard Kipling :

“Each to his choice, and I rejoice
The lot has fallen to me
In a fair ground—in a fair ground—
Yea, Sussex by the sea!”

42

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 14TH, 1905.

Grnual Generel Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 14TH, 1905.

In entering on the 5tst year of its existence, some change
in the conduct of the Society’s affairs had to be made. On the
resignation of Mr. E. Alloway Pankhurst, who, besides having
been President for the two previous years, had for many years
discharged, in a most efficient manner, the duties of Scientific
Secretary, the Society decided upon the appointment of a
Sub-Committee, consisting of the President and Secretary
(ex-officio), Mr. Caush (past President), Dr. Harrison, and Mr.
Hora, to carry on the detail work in connection with lectures, &c.

Changes in the Membership of the Society have been
numerous. We have to mourn the loss, by death, of four
Members, all of whom were exceedingly well known to the older
residents of Brighton and neighbourhood, viz.: Mr. Henry
Willett, an original founder of the Society, who interested himself
not only in this, but in all other Literary, Artistic, and Philan-
thropic Societies of the town; Dr. Badcock, a much respected
medical practitioner; Mr. Henry Mathews, a _ distinguished
classical and Oriental scholar, and for sixteen years Chairman
of the Brighton Library; and Mr. W. Mitchell, a very old
Member and regular attendant at the Society’s lectures, who, at
the time of his death, held the post of Honorary Librarian.
Seven other Members have resigned, whilst ten new Members
have been elected.

During the winter months the President inaugurated a
series of afternoon and evening visits to factories, Municipal
works, and other places of local interest. These visits became
exceedingly popular and were largely attended, and the Society is
greatly indebted to its President, at whose initiative and by
whose tireless energy almost the entire work in connection with
them has been carried out,

~~ oe

43

All Members are cordially invited to co-operate in the
work of the Society, and to extend its sphere of usefulness :
(1) By regular attendance at its meetings; (2) By persuading
any local friends interested in Natural History, Physical Science,
&c., to become Members; (3) By enlisting the services of
experienced lecturers and science enthusiasts for papers and
practical work.

The following is a list of papers contributed at the Society’s
meetings during the Session : —
2oth Oct., 1904. ‘*The Functions of Music ”—
The PRESIDENT, Mr. HENRY DAVEY.
17th Nov., 1904. ‘‘ Half a Day on the Seashore”
(with lantern slides)—
Mr. Ep. CoNnNOLD, F.E.S.
15th Dec., rg04. ‘* Evening with the Microscope ’’—
Under the direction of
Mr. D. Causu, L.D.S.

13th Jan., 1905. ‘‘ Social Evolution and Public Health ””—
Dr. A. NEwsHOLME, F.R.C.P.
17th Feb., 1905. ‘A Peep at Prehistoric Man ”’
(with lantern slides)—
Mr. C. Rossins, L.D.S.
17th Feb., 1905. ‘‘ Weather during January, 1905 ”—
Dr. W. J. TREuTLER, M.D., F.L.S.
3 25th Feb., 1905. ‘* The ‘ Booth’ and ‘ Monk’ Bird Collec-
tions” (at the Booth Museum)—
Mr. ARTHUR GRIFFITH, M.A.

16th Mar., 1905. ‘‘ The Evolution of Artillery ’—
Colonel E. KEensincron, (late) R.A.

24th Mar., 1905. “A Tour in Spain” (with lantern slides)—
Mr. E. Payne, M.A.
28th April, 1905. ‘‘ The History of the Skull”
(with lantern slides)—
Mr. J. THORNTON CarTER, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
18th May, 1905. ‘‘ History of the Southdowns ”
(with lantern slides)—
Mr. J. H. A. JENNER, F.E.S.

44

The following is a list of Excursions and Visits to Works
since the last Annual Meeting :—

22nd June, 1904.

6th July, 1904.

17th Sept., 1904.

tst Oct., 1904.

gth Nov., 1904.

1oth Dec., 1904,
27th Jan., 1905.
25th Feb., 1905.

25th Mar., 1905.
8th April, 1905.
29th April, 1905.

13th May, 1905.
27th May, 1905.

St. Leonard’s Forest.

Chanctonbury Ring.

‘Tong Man,” Wilmington, and Alfriston.

Gas Works and Electric Light Works, Port-
slade.

Hove Gasometer.

Abattoir and Dust Destructor.

Corporation Electricity Works.

Booth Museum.

Borough Sanatorium.

The Dyke and Bramber.

Ditchling Beacon.

Hassocks.

Tilgate Forest.

It is gratifying to state that the average attendance at the
lectures has been considerably increased during the Session.

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT, JUNE 14th, 1905.

With the valuable help of the late Mr. H. J. Mathews,
M.A., a new Catalogue has been prepared, and may be seen in a
special drawer in the Reference Library.

The purchase of the ‘‘ Challenger” Reports

has been

resumed, and will be continued until completed.

The alteration in the new Municipal building has enabled
the Society’s Library to be fully visible to the public, and it is
now largely used for reference purposes.

I regret to mention that not very many of these valuable
Books and Periodicals have been lent out to the Members of the
Society this last year.

The Bookcases have been re-fitted with New Locks.

ROBERT MORSE,
Hon. Librarian.

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47

HERBARIUM, 1904.

The following plants were added to the Herbarium this year,
with others :—

Stachys ambigua. Henfield.

Sagina reuteri. Portslade.

Quercus intermedia. Plumpton.

Myosotis sylvatica. Frant.

Festuca myuros. Barnham.

Hieracium murorum, var. pellucidum. Withdean.

Hieracium sciaphilum. Chalk-mounds, Pangdean.
Bromus interruptus ( Druce). Rottingdean.

The first report of it in Sussex.
Bromus brachystachys. Rottingdean.

The first report in Sussex.

Eruca sativa. Racehill, Brighton.
Vicia villosa. Henfield.
Potentilla Norvegica. Hove.

Salsola kali, var. tenuifolia. Kingston-by-Sea.

I think native there, if so, a new plant in the British Flora.

A Silene found wild on the Downs in several places not far
from Brighton and in some other place in England, has, after much
dispute among botanists, been determined by Mr. C. E. Salmon,
F.L.S., to be Silene dubia, Nerbich—S. Nutans, var, dubia.
It is therefore new not only to Sussex, but to Britain.
A specimen was added to the Society’s collection some years
since.

T. HILTON,
Curator.

48

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE
5ilst ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

a SI 1.

After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
it was resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Report as to the Library, and the Curators Report, be
received, adopted, and printed for circulation, as usual.”

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year—

“J. E. Haselwood, E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P, F. Merrifield,
F.E.S., D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R:C.P.,
J. P. Slingsby Roberts, W. Clarkson Wallis, and E.
Alloway Pankhurst.”

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

“Mr. J. W. Nias and Mr. A. F. Graves.”

It was proposed by Mr. Siincssy Roperts, seconded by
Mr, CLarkson WALLIS, and resolved—

“That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year :—President, Henry Davey; Ordinary
Alembers of Council: J. H. A. Jenner, S. R. Penney,
J. Sussex Hall, F. R. Richardson, E. Payne, M.A., and
Alfred W. Oke, B.A., LL.M.; Honorary Treasurer:
E. A. T. Breed; Honorary Librarian: Robert Morse ;
Honorary Curators: H.S.Tomsand T. Hilton ; Honorary
Scientific Secretaries : D. E. Caush, L.D.S., W. Harrison,
D.M.D., and F. R. Hora, B.Sc, B.A.; Honorary
Secretary: J. Colbatch Clark, 9, Marlborough Place ;
Assistant Honorary Secretary: H. Cane.”

It was proposed by Mr. D. E. Causu, seconded by Mr.
CoLBaTcH CLaRK, and resolved—

“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Henry
Davey for his attention to the interests of the Society as
President during the past year.”

Ee

. -.,.,rtét ee

49

.

It was proposed by Mr _H. W. Cuarrincton, seconded by
Mr. I. WELLS, and resolved—

“That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curators, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries for their services
during the past year.”

It was proposed by Dr. W. Harrison, seconded by Mr.
T. Hitton, and carried—

“That the following New Rule be substituted for Rule 12 of
the Society, viz.:—‘12. Every Gentleman elected an
Ordinary Member shall pay an Entrance Fee of Ios,
and both Ladies and Gentlemen elected as Ordinary
Members shall each pay an Annual Subscription of Ios.
Except that a Member Elected between the rst February
and the rst April in any year, shall pay a subscription of
5s. only for that year. Such subscription sha// be payable
in advance, and the first payment sha// date from the
ist of October preceding the Election, except the Election
take place from the Ist of April to the 30th September, both
inclusive, when it shall date as on tst of the October
following.

‘The words in italics constitute the alteration from the then
existing Rule.’ ”’

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Members
of the Society.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass, U.S.A.).

British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

British and American Archzological Society, Rome.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.
City of London Natural History Society.
Chester Society of Natural Science.

50

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

City of London College of Science Society, White Street,
Moorfields, E.C., and “ Hatfield,’ Tenham Avenue,
Streatham Hill, S.W.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings, George IV.
Bridge.

‘Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of Mexico.

Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

Hampshire Field Club.

Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

London County Council, Horniman Museum.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lloyd Library, 224, West Court Street, Cincinnatti, Ohio, U.S.A.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

Mexican Geological Institute, 5a, Del Cipres, No. 2,728 Mexico.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, University College, Nottingham.

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Meteorological Society, Prince’s Mansions, 73, Victoria
Street, S.W.

Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.

Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.

Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.

University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

Watford Natural History Society.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

Oe

SI

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and Hobe Natural Bistory and
Philosophical Society,

1905.
et

LV.L.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
Jollowing List the Address is in brighton.

ee Et

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

ABBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
AsHTON, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.
ATTREE, G. F., 8, Hanover Crescent.

BILLING, T., 6, St. Michael’s Place.

Booru, E., 53, Old Steine.

BREED, E. A. T., 13, Buckingham Place.

BULL, W., 75, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.

Burrows, W. S., B.A., M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine.
BURCHELL, E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.
BEVIS, F. J., 28, Florence Road.

CANE, H., 173, Ditchling Road.

CATT, REGINALD J., 22, Wolstonbury Rvad, Hove.
CausH, D. E., L.D S., 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

CLARK, J. COLBATCH, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.
COLMAN, Alderman J., J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill.
CLIFTON, HARVEY, 19, Buckingham Place.

52

DavEY, HENRY, 15, Victoria Road.

DENMAN. S., 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C P., 49, Church Road, Hove
DRAPER, C. H., D.Sc., BA., Municipal School of Technology.

Ewart, Sir J., M-D., F-R.C.P.,_.M.R-CS., FZ.S., Beweastle;
Dyke Road.
ELuioTT, J. H., L.D.S., 45, Stanford Road.

FLETCHER W. H. B., J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.
FAWSITT, CHATER H. G., 14, Vernon Terrace.

GILKES, J. H., Wychcote, Dyke Road Avenue.
GRAVES, A. F., 9A, North Street Quadrant.
GRIFFITH, A. F., M.A., 59, Montpelier Road.
GrRovE, E., Norlington, Harrington Road.
GRINSTEAD, J-, 13, Powis Square.

HALL, J. SUSSEX, 69, Ship Street.

Hack, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

Harrison, W., D.M.D., L.D.S., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HASELWOOD, J. E., 3, Richmond Terrace.

HAYNES, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove
HICKLEY, G., 92, Springfield Road.

HiLtTon, T, 16, Kensington Place.

Hopsps, J., 62, North Street.

HopsuHousk, E., M.D., F.R.C.P., 12, Second Avenue, Hove.
HowteTT, J. W., J-P., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

Hora, F. R., B.Sc., BA., A.R.C.Sc., 32, Norton Road, Hove.
HARRISON, F., M.A., 30, Compton Avenue.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

JacomB, Wykeham, 72, Dyke Road.

JENNER, J. H. A., 209, School Hill, Lewes.
JENNINGS, A. O., LL:B., 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
JOHNSTON, J., 12, Bond Street.

KNIGHT, J. J., 33, Duke Street.

LANGTON, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J-, Crosthwaite, Lewes.

LewiIs, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairholme, Maresfield.
LOADER, KENNETH, 5, Richmond Terrace.
LONSDALE, L., 13, Powis Square.

MCKELLAR, E., Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D., J-P., Woodleigh,
Preston.

MacuIrgE, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

May, F. J. C., 25, Compton Avenue.

MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace.

MILLs, J., 24, North Road.

MorGav, G., L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., 6, Pavilion Parade.

———

53

MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.
MinTO, J., M.A., Public Library.

Morse, ROBERT, 26, Stanford Avenue.
Maurice, H., L.D.S., 65, St. John’s Terrace.

NEWMARCH, Major-General, 6, Norfolk Terrace.
NeEwWSsHOLME, A., M.D., F.R.C-P., 11, Gloucester Place.
Nias, J. W., 81, Freshtield Road.

NICHOLSON, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

Norman, S. H, Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., L.D.S, 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

Oxr, ALFRED W., B.A.., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., 32,
Denmark Villas, Hove.

PANKHUuRST, E. A,, 3, Clifton Road.

Payne, W. H., Playden House, Harrington Road.
PayNE, E, M.A., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove.
PENNEY, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.
PeTItFouRT, E. J., B.A, F.C.P., 16, Chesham Street.
PuGH, Rev. C., M.A. 13, Eaton Place.

Puttick, W., Tipnoake, Albourne, Hassocks.

PopLey, W. H., 13. Pavilion Buildings.

PowELL W. A., M.R.C S., L.R.C.P., 5, Grand Parade.

READ, S., L.D.S., 12, Old Steine.
RICHARDSON, F. R, 4, Adelaide Crescent.
RoBERTS, J. P. SLINGSBY, 3, Powis Villas.
ROBINSON, E., Saddlescombe.

Rosk, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M-R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.

_REaD, T., B.A., B.SC., Brighton Grammar School.

Rootu, Dr., 31, Montpelier Crescent.
ROBERSON, A, Sackville Road, Hove.

SALMON, E. F., 30, Western Road, Hove.

SAVAGE, W. W,, 109, St. James’s Street.

SLoMAN, F., M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road.

Scott, E. IRWIN, M.D., 69, Church Road, Hove.

SMITH, C , 47, Old Steine.

SMITH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

SmiTH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

SMiTH, W. J., J P., 42 and 43, North Street.

SiTH, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

STONER, HAROLD, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency Square.

SMITHERS, E. A., Furze Hill.

SpiTTa, E, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.Sc., 41, Ventnor Villas,
Hove.

TALBOT, HuGo, 79, Montpelier Road.

Toms, H. S, The Museum.

Tuony, J F., M.D., 1, Hova Terrace, Hove.

TyssENn, Rev. R. D., M.A., 19, Brunswick Place, Hove.

7 ae

WALLIS, W. CLARKSON, 15, Market Street.
WALTER, J., 134, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

WHYTOCK, E, 36, Western Road.

WIGHTMAN, G. J., Ailsa Crag, The Wallands, Lewes.
WILKINSON, T., 170, North Street.

WILLIAMS, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

WILLIAMS, H. M., LL.B., 17, Middle Street.

Woop, J., L-D S., 28, Old Steine.

Woop, WALTER R., L.R.C.P, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.
WoopRvFF, (. B., J.P., 24, Second Avenue, Hove.
WELSFORD, H. M., 68, Dyke Road.

WILLIAMS, A. W., M.D., Belvedere Terrace.

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLEY, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
BLADON, Miss, 23, Sudeley Place.

CAUSH, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

CrAFER, M. H., Mrs., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
CRANE, A., Miss, 11, Wellington Road.
COLLETT, C. H., Miss, 8, Marlborough Place.
CoRFE, A., Miss, 7, Norfolk Terrace.

HARE, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.

HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
HERNAMAN, I., Miss, 117, Ditchling Road.
HERNAMAN, V., Miss, 117, Ditchling Road.
HARRISON, Mrs., 10, Windlesham Road.
LANGTON, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.
NICHOLSON, Mrs., 9, Park Crescent.

RUuGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

STONER, H., Mrs., 18, Regency Square.
THoMaS, M., Miss, 193, Queen’s Park Road.
VoBES, Miss, B.A., B.Sc., “‘ Glenalna,” Rugby Road.
WILKINSON, Mrs., 36, Dyke Road.

Woop, J., Mrs., 28, Old Steine.
WATKINS, Miss, Walcot, Walpole Road.

a

=<

55

HONORARY MEMBERS.

ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
CuRTEIS, T., 244, High Holborn, London.

DAwsoNn, C., F.G.S., Uckfield.

FARR, E. H., Uckfield.

HO.Luis, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.

LOMAX, BENJAMIN, The Museum, Brighton.

MITTEN, W., Hurstpierpoint.

Noursk, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.
PHILLIPS, BARCLAY, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

ASSOCIATE.

HARRISON, W. PARKER, Io, Windlesham Road.

close

PRESENTED
21 FLB.i906

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Chstracts of Papers
3 | READ Hots THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

t AX QNNUAL, REPORT

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 18th, 1906.

Brighton :

“BriGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.

BRIGHTON and HOVE

ss Natural Bistory and Philosophical
Saciety.

| Abstracts éf Papers
READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

: ain ANNUAL, REPORY

FOR THE

YEAR ENDING JUNE 18th, 1906.

OH $

Brighton :

“ BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.

INDEX.

PAGE.
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY ... Sec ea aa? el ae
Sponces—Mkr. E. T. Connon, F.E.S._... weg aes
PuHiLosopuy oF Dress—Dr. A, WILLIAMS, M.D. ... Se ies
Puoro-MicroGRAPHY — Dr. E. Spitta, M.D., F.R.M. Soc. 12

CRABS AND LospsTteERS—ReEy. THEODORE Woop, M.A.,

PiGEONS—Mr. FoxaLi ous et Hs A ee!
FLORENCE—MR. PAYNE... ee nee ee ele 2
SLEEP—Dr. A. GrirFiTH, M.A., M.D., D.R.H. ... ces
REPORT OF COUNCIL... cae ve a ae Rey as:
LIBRARIAN’S REPORT... ae as nop oe er
METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON “se aie Ar oe 20
TREASURER’S ACCOUNT os Sees = Bre ors
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ee ARR ie seem E22
SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED ee Bx = Aes eam

List OF MEMBERS ... Sd a +E sts «sie, ee

3
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1906-7.
oe
President :

WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.

Past- Presidents :

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOOD. . P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.

W. SEYMOUR BuRRoOWS, M.R.C.S.} W. CLARKSON WALLIS.

D. E. CausH, L.D.S. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

A. NEWSHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.P.,| HENRY DAVEY.
M.O.H.

THE COUNCIL.
Obe President.

Vire- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. E, J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOOD. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., E. A. PANKHURST.
M.O.H. HENRY DAVEY.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
F. Hora, B.Sc. E. PAyNE, M.A.
Eo yoOPITTA, F.R.A-Sc.°M.R-C:S., ALFRED W. OKE, B.A., LL.M.,
E.R.C.P. F.G.S.
G. MorGAN, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.| F. R. RICHARDSON.
Honorary Treasurer : Gonorary Librarian:
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. Rost. MORSE.

Gonorary Auditor:
A. F. GRAVES.

Gonorary Curators :
H. S. Toms. T. HILTON.

Honorary Scientific Secretary :
F. HARRISON, M.A.

Honorary Secretary :
JNo. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Honorary Secretary :
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

SESSION 1905-6.

+ 44

THURSDAY, OCTOBER 26tTxH, 1905.

Sponges.

Mr. E. CONNOLD.

T the opening meeting, the difficult subject of “ Sponges ”
was discussed in a masterly way by Mr. E. Connold, of
Hastings. The question as to whether the flint nodules so
commonly met with in chalk strata are or are not due to deposits
of silicious sponges was amoung the points dealt with. The
exceptionally fine collection of sponges in the Brighton Museum
makes the subject specially interesting to local scientists, as the
President remarked when introducing Mr. Connold.

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 16TH, 1905.

Philosophy of Dress.

BY

Da. cA AWILLIAMS, M.D.

2 ie Philosophy of Dress” was the somewhat novel subject
discoursed upon by Dr. A. Williams, M.D. The lecturer
opened with a brief physiological explanation of the heat regula-

6

tion of the living body and of the evolution of dress. Then,
illustrating his remarks by drawings on the blackboard and
enlivening them with numerous anecdotes, Dr. Williams said :—

Clothing serves man as a means of protection, and for esthetic
purposes.

The following properties should be studied in clothing
materials, from a health standpoint :—

(1) Conduction of heat.

(2) Power of stimulating or irritating skin.

(3) Power of absorbing moisture, and porosity to air.
(4) Power of absorbing light and heat rays.

Heat Conduction.—Some substances, when brought in contact
with a heated body, rapidly remove its heat and conduct it
along their substance. They are called good conductors.
Excepting under conditions of great external heat, good con-
ductors when touched by our bodies feel cold: they remove
body heat. Linen is a better conductor than wool; and if on
a cold winter’s night one turns in between linen sheets the bed
feels far colder than it would if the sheets were taken away and
wool blankets brought in contact with the skin. Bad conductors
of heat are therefore warm clothing materials.

Gases are bad heat conductors ; yet, if the body were exposed
unclothed to the atmosphere it would be rapidly chilled. This
is the result of convection currents. The air in immediate con-
tact ‘with the body is warmed; it expands and rises, and cold
currents of air flow down and take its place. This process con-
tinues, and large amounts of heat removed. If convection
currents are stopped, air may be made a valuable clothing
material. Thus the layers of air between bedclothes form a
warm clothing: the bedclothes prevent convection currents.
Two thin garments are warmer than a single thick one: there
is a layer of imprisoned air between them. Loosely-woven
fabrics are warmer than closely-woven ones: air fills the space
between the fibres, and friction A/us attraction stops the convec-
tion currents.

The power of heat conduction of a clothing material depends
upon (1) the substance of which it is composed, and (2) the
way it is woven ; loosely-woven materials being worse conductors
of heat.

ORDER OF HEAT-CONDUCTING PoWER OF DIFFERENT FIBRES.

Cold clothing.

Cool clothing.
Warm clothing.
Very warm clothing.

Linen = Best conductor
Cotton = Good conductor

Silk = Fairly bad conductor
Wool =: Worst conductor

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7

Furs, and skins generally, feathers and down, are also bad
conductors.

Skin Stimulation—The property is usually objectionable in
underclothing. The degree of trouble depends upon the
sensitiveness of the individual, and upon the clothing material.
The same material may in one individual cause a pleasant
stimulation, and in another maddening irritation. The sense
of warmth produced by skin stimulation is deceptive. It is
due to dilation of surface vessels.

Wool is very stimulating, especially coarse wools; silk is
much less so, but much depends on its preparation. Cotton is
very slightly stimulating, and flax even less so. Fabrics made
with very loose projecting fibres are less stimulating than
those with fluffy surfaces. Some poisonous dyes injuriously
irritate skin.

Water Absorption.—It is important that underclothing should
readily absorb moisture, and pass it through its substance. In
this way secretions of skin are not interfered with: evaporation
takes place from surface of clothing instead of skin, and tuo
rapid chilling is prevented. Overclothing for protection is
better for having less power of absorption. Rain, etc., does not
soak and make the clothing wet and heavy ; and, moreover, air
driven by wind will not so easily penetrate, and so such
garments better protect body from external cold. Power of

-absorbing water is greater is loosely-woven fabrics.

Different fibres vary in their individual power.

Wool readily absorbs moisture.

Silk is less freely absorbent.

Linen absorbs moisture with difficulty.

Cotton fibres absorb badly, and are easily wetted.

Absorption of light and heat rays.—Dark-coloured materials

absorb heat and light, and turn light rays into heat easily. So

dark overclothing is hot in summer time.

Dark clothing absorbs and retains smel/s more than light-
coloured clothing.

Clothing and garments should be arranged so as to avoid the

following defects :—

(1) Interference with free passing away of skin secretions,
(z) Injurious action by friction or pressure.

(3) Interference with natural movements of body.

(4) Upset of heat-regulating power by excessive clothing.
(5) Irregular clothing.

These defects can be well appreciated by studying some
common forms of clothing.

8

Underclothing.—-Flannel forms the best material for under-
clothing. In some cases flannel irritates the skin, and cannot
be worn without great discomfort ; merino may be tolerated in
such cases. If merino also is too irritating, then, as pure silk is
too expensive a material for the majority of us to wear, we must
choose between flax and cotton. Both cotton and flax, in the
form of closely-woven materials, as calico and linen, are cold
things to wear, and they do not allow the sweat to pass readily
away through them, and so are unsuitable for underclothing. A
very good material for this purpose can, however, be made from
cotton. This is done by weaving the cotton in a loose cellular
manner, so as to leave air spaces between the fibres, a good cheap
example of such material is sold under the name of oatmeal cloth
or canvas cloth. This conducts heat slowly from the skin, and
absorbs moisture fairly well and does not irritate the skin.

At night underclothing of healthy people should be made of
smooth calico or linen. Woollen underclothing is in some cases
a cause of restless nights. At night a healthy person does not,
or ought not to sweat much. Night sweating indicates too much
clothing or disease.

Patients troubled with chest complaints or rheumatism may
require to wear flannel or oatmeal cloth night-dresses, especially
if they sweat much at night.

Overcoats and outside clothing for cold windy weather
should be made of material through which the wind does not
easily blow. Woollen goods, as a rule, are easily blown
through; cotton is less porous to the wind. Wool cloth
overcoat, lined with smooth stout cotton, is often worn, but as
a warm covering against cold winds it should be worn with the
cotton outside. Mackintosh is impervious to the wind, but is
bad to wear when we are walking or doing much exercise, as it
keeps the sweat moisture from passing out. For driving in
cold winds mackintosh forms one of the best overclothing.

It is a mistake to wear too much clothing. The over-
loading, over-coddling of the body with a lot of clothing
destroys the natural powers possessed by the body of resisting
cold, and the least exposure is followed by ill-results. Some
parts of the body that are liable to be exposed to accidental
chill and cold—for example, the feet—should be trained by a
judicious hardening process to withstand such exposure. Many
people, even with good sound organs of circulation, suffer from
cold feet, and even slight exposure with wet feet results in a
bad cold. The feet habitually swaddled up in wool and
leather get tender, the natural protection against cold (partly a
muscular mechanism) wastes away from disuse, and becomes
useless in times of exposure. Healthy people need not catch
cold from wet feet any more than from wet hands, The train-

9

ing must be like all training, gradual and regular. The author
has succeeded in curing himself and several other patients suffer-
ing from cold feet by the following method :—Begin treatment
in summer time. Summon up sufficient courage to overcome
domestic opposition (especially necessary for married men),
and habitually forget to put on shoes and socks until after break-
fast. After a while extend the training to a good tramp on dry
turf; later on walk barefooted on the dewy grass in early
morning. Continue this regularly, and when the winter comes
complete the training by walking for a short spell barefooted on
the hoar frost or snow-covered grass. Then cold feet during
railway journeys, chilblained feet, and coughs and colds from
wet feet will be things of the past, providing that the training
be kept up at intervals, and that tight foot clothing be always
avoided. Of course, such a course of training is only suitable
for those under middle age.

Head Clothing.—Avoid heavy head-dress. Ifa hat with rigid
brim is worn it ought to be made to measure. Hats should be
ventilated —z.e. with proper inlet and outlets. The head should
be kept uncovered as much as possible.

Neck Clothing.—The neck should be either always exposed
without any clothing, or else always wrapped up. The habit of
occasionally wearing mufflers, etc., at one time and then going
without at another, or of generally wearing a high-necked dress
and then occasionally a low-necked one, often cause throat and
chest troubles. Mufflers, boas, etc., if never worn, are never
required. When clothing is worn round the neck it must always
be loose. Tight neck clothing is especially dangerous for stout
people after middle life: it may favour apoplectic fits. Tight
night-dresses are especially dangerous.

The clothing of the chest ought to be loose, en oa during
exercise, when amount of respiration is greater.

Corsets and Stays.—Young girls should never wear stays, they
are only injurious, and lead to a non-development of the natural
support of the body, and render the wearing of artificial supports
in after-life necessary. Old stout people sometimes require stays,
and these should be of some firm material, such as stout jean
without bones. All pressure round the waist is injurious to
health.

Garters tightly constricting the thigh above, or the leg below
the knee, must not be worn. Anyone who suffers or has any
relations suffering in any way with enlarged or varicose veins, must
be most careful to avoid garters. Suspenders are better than garters,
but these may, with advantage, be done away with if our legs are
well developed by exercise, so that the calf will keep the stocking
in its place.

Trousers are, as a rule, better than knickerbockers, as with

10

garters anyone with a tendency in the family to the formation
of varicose (swollen and knotted) veins, had better avoid
altogether the wearing of knickerbockers. In such cases cyclists
had better wear the old-fashioned peg-top trousers.

The bad effects of knickers are accentuated by the sitting
posture with the legs bent at the knees.

Socks are better than stockings for the above reasons. The
socks ought not to be worn with pointed toes. The toe should
be more square-shaped or slightly slanted off towards the outer
side.

Boots ought to be made to fit the foot. The measurement
of the sole should be taken when standing up with the foot firmly
implanted on the ground. This can be done by making
a tracing of the outline of the foot on paper. Pointed-toed,
high-heeled, and tight boots are the principal causes of corns,
bunions, and disabling deformities of the foot. The sole ought
to be as flexible as possible, the heel far back, and never more
than 34in. high. Lace-up boots are better than elastic sides,
especially for those who have a family history of varicose veins.

Beds and Bedding.—Metal bedsteads are better than wood.
Curtain ‘hangings round the bed are bad. _Bedsteads should be
easily moved, and so ought to have good castors. The entire
floor of a bedroom should be cleaned thoroughly at least once
a week; this cleaning must include the space under the bed ;
for this and other reasons the bed must not be made, as it often
is, a cover for the Jumber of the household.

Spring mattresses of twisted uncovered wires, are by far the
best kind for health. On this spring base a good thin horse-
hair mattress should be placed, and, if preferred, there is no
great objection to placing over this a feather bed. Patients
liable to asthma cannot always stand feather beds and pillows.
Feathers give out a little fine dust, not enough to do harm to
healthy tissues, but enough to cause asthma is some susceptible
persons, and to do harm sometimes to people who, in con-

sequence of obstruction of the nose, sleep with their mouths.

open. Air pillows or good horsehair stuffed pillows are the best
substitute for feathers in these cases.

The covering bedclothes should not be heavier than is
absolutely necessary for proper warmth. Bedclothes must be
properly aired. When we get up in the morning the bedclothes
should be taken off, one by one, and spread out, so that fresh
air can circulatate through them, and they should be left spread
out in this way in fine weather, with the window wide open,
for at least two hours. The idea that airing the beds consists
in sleeping in them is absurd. Sleeping in the bed merely
uses up the good air in the bed, and passes into its place damp
foul gases from the skins of those sleeping in them. Colds and

.
2
J

it

yarious lung, skin, and infectious diseases are frequently spread
by bedclothes.

Clothing for Babies.—A little dusting powder is required next
the skin. A flannel binder round the abdomen should be worn.
It must never be bound tightly, but ought to be merely wrapped
gently round the waist. A shirt of fine lawn may be worn and
then a good flannel gown over all. Should any further clothing
be required, a good worsted or flannel shawl forms one of the
best garments. An infant’s clothing must not be tight any-
where. Serious mistakes are continually made by having tight
sleeves and tight strings round the neck and waist.

Young children are more liable to damage from deficient
clothing than adults. There are two great reasons for this, first,
children have a relatively larger surface to be chilled ; second,
inefficient clothing necessitates using up of food to produce
warmth instead of promoting growth and development. The
full growth and development of body and, to a less degree, of
mind, are checked by deficient clothing. In after-life this check
may never be made up. It is equally bad to put excess
of clothing on a child. In this case development of heat-
regulating power is weakened and child becomes liable to
chills, etc. The over-swaddled child cannot take proper
exercise, and this checks development. Contrary to many
authorities the author believes in training young children to do
without stockings and boots or shoes. Short trousers coming
nearly down to the ankles and sandals are far better clothing for
young children.

12

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 7TH, 1905.

Photo- Micrograph.

Dr BeSererT a, -M.D., FRM 3s
Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

‘“‘ M\HE marvels of the infinitely small are as wonderful as the
marvels of the infinitely great.” The statement was made

to the members by Dr. E. Spitta when lecturing on the subject of
‘¢ nhoto-micrography,” and he easily proved his point. Dr, Spitta
is a scientist who has won distinction in regions of which few of
us are conscious by reason of the fact that we cannot see them.

Dr. Spitta revels in things which are too small to be seen by
the naked eye, so small that the point of a needle would make a
fine platform for the concourse of an army of them, and now, with
the aid of amazing photographs which he has taken by the process
of photo-micrography, he was able to lead his audience with him
to explore the wonders of the infinitely small.

To magnify a thing by a thousand diameters was nothing to
Dr. Spitta; when he had done that he had only got his object
ready to begin the real work of magnifiying it. He showed a
photograph of a human hair. The hair was magnified enough to
look like a ship’s cable, and beside it was a minute object,
shaped like a torpedo, which could just be seen. He magnified
this further and further till he had it as big as the screen;
he magnified it until one could see that it was crossed with
myriads of lines, perfectly parallel, perfectly regular,—over six
hundred of them could be counted in a space equal to the thick-
ness of a fine hair of the head. Even then he was not content,
and he magnified it still further until these parallel lines were found
to be composed of dots. In order to see these dots, they had to
be magnified by 80,000 diameters,—at which rate an inch would
be magnified into a mile anda quarter! So minute is the process
that an error in the focussing of one hundredth-thousandth part
of an inch would ‘spoil the picture; the vibration caused by a
person sneezing in the next room would destroy it.

Among dozens of exceedingly interesting slides that Dr.
Spitta threw on the screen was a series showing the wonderful
provision of nature for enabling the human body to recover from

13

disease. He actually had photographs of the germs of diphtheria
being attacked by the wonderful protective germs that swarm in
the blood. The diphtheria germs are paralysed by one strange
organism which bursts among the armies of disease just like a
bombshell, and while the germs are thus paralysed the white
corpuscles surround them, swallow them, and finally eject their
flinty skeletons. It is a daily battle fought out in an arena which
a pin’s point would destroy.

After showing pictures of the wonderful provisions on the
tongues, the antenne, and other parts of insects, the intricate
arrangements which can only be seen when magnified several
thousand times, Dr. Spitta was led to exclaim: “‘ How any human
being can suppose that these wonderful provisions only ‘ growed,’
like Topsy, without a divine designer to plan such delicate adjust-
ment, is more than I can understand.”

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY st, 1906.

Crabs and Dobsters.

BY
Rev. THEODORE WOOD, M.A., F.E.S.,

Illustrated with Drawings.

HE subject which Mr Wood chose was ‘‘ Crabs and Lobsters,”
and it was quite a new and delightful world of information
that he opened out for those who know but little about these
creatures of claws and pincers. To the average man, of course,
crabs and lobsters are merely toothsome items in a menu, but Mr
Wood made it clear that the study of their physical construction
and of their habits and ways is fraught with the keenest of interest,
even to the point of fascination.

One of the strangest things the members learned was that
crabs and lobsters do not grow as we do,~-bit by bit every day,
but that they grow by fits and starts. When they do grow, their
growth is concentrated into a period of about thirty-six hours.
It is at these periods that the crab sheds his shell. Mr Wood did
not think that crabs and lobsters have any sense of pain as we
know it. In illustration of this he told a delightful story about a
number of various-sized crabs who were put together in a tank.

14

When they were first put in they all hid themselves behind the
rockery. At length one young crab crept cautiously forth to
explore his new surroundings, and no sooner had he done so than
a bigger crab pounced upon him, tore him to bits and began to
devour him. While the second crab was enjoying his cannibalistic
meal, a larger crab still entered the fray and began to chew crab
No. 2 with great gusto. And while the third crab was devouring
the second, the latter went calmly on with his own dinner.

The audience also learned with a great deal of interest that it
is quite impossible for lobsters to suffer from dyspepsia, so finely
do they grind their food. ‘The lobster’s mouth is placed in his
chest, and his food is first ground to pulp by the greater jaws.
Then the food is taken in hand by the lesser jaws, but as the
lobster is still not satisfied, he turns the food over to a still
smaller pair of jaws, known as the “ jaw feet.’’ Then the food is
passed down to the teeth, which are situated in the lobster’s
throat and here it is ground to a finer pulp. But still the lobster
is not quite happy, for below the teeth is a kind of sieve, and
through this the creature strains his food as a last process before
it reaches the organs of digestion. The lobster ought to be a
highly intellectual animal, for he has no fewer than twenty brains.

Mr. Wood's quaint sense of humour made his lecture all the
more entertaining, and it was illustrated by some remarkably clever
sketches in coloured chalks done by himself in view of the
audience.

THURSDAY, MARCH st, 1906.

Pigeons.
BY
Mr. FOXALL.

Nap eeee= dealing with the subject, Mr. Foxall began with an

historical outline of Pigeon culture, going so far back as the
time of the Egyptians, 27co B.c. Shewing pictures of the leading
varieties, the Lecturer asserted that the present breeds had
developed from the blue rock. He instanced the use of carrier
pigeons in war, even in ancient times at the siege of Modena, and
in 1870 at Paris. In graphic terms he described a year’s work in
an ordinary Pigeon Loft ; indicated how shows should be held
and judging carried out; and Closed by justifying the Pigeon
Breeding hobby as being really a fine art.

5

THURSDAY, MARCH 151Tu, 1906.

Florence.
BY
Mr. PAYNE.

R. PAYNE was a perfect encyclopedia of famous Florentine

names—and among them are some of the greatest geniuses

in the world’s history—and his lucid exposition of the marvels of

Florentine architecture, sculpture, frescoes, and paintings, illus-

trated as they were by excellent photographic lantern slides, was
most instructive.

THURSDAY, MAY 17TH, 1906.

Seog.

BY

DE}. ean er te A Me Dt; D. PH:

OME illuminative glimpses into the phenomena of sleep were
offered by Dr. A. Griffith, M.A. (Medical Officer of Health for
Hove.) ‘The lecture covered a really remarkable range: it was full
of thought, eminently suggestive, and had been prepared with such
care and regard for detail that it seemed as if not a single aspect
of the question had been left untouched. Incidentally the
paper revealed Dr. Griffith as a diligent student of Shakespeare ;
and he had evidently found much to inspire him in the late F. W.
Myers’ remarkable book, Persistence of Human Personality after
Death. Some frequent flashes of dry humour, moreover, helped
one to assimilate the purely scientific part of the lecture.
Ordinary sleep, said the Doctor, depends largely on two
factors, namely, personal habits and surroundings. There is a
wonderful difference in persons, both as to the depth of sleep
and to the amount they need. Some persons could even sleep to
order,—-‘‘ their own order, that is,” added the Doctor laconically.
To people who suffer from insomnia this must be a very precious
faculty. Dr. Griffith counselled, in fact, that the best thing to do

16

is to learn to sleep whenever you wish to. You never know how
useful it may be. The effect of meals upon sleep, he pointed
out, is well known. ‘This is aptly seen in animals, who have no
business to keep them awake. Here the Doctor paused to pro-
test against the bad habit of taking the heaviest meal of the day
four hours before sleep, which comes at the time when the body
is becoming energised by the food. Touching upon the patho-
logical phenomena of sleep, Dr. Griffith dealt with the causes of
sleeplessness. The sleep of the labouring man is sound, whether
he eat much or little: often not all the abundance of the rich
will suffer them to sleep. A moderate amount of work, bodily
or mental, will produce good sleep, but excess of either will pre-
vent it. Too much mental work, for instance, even if it has not
reached the stage when black coffee or a wet towel round one’s
head is necessary, will cause a restless night. Anxiety, the
stimulation of the blood caused by pain, and an excess of
physical work, especially of a bustling nature, will act in the same
way. The occupation of the mind with one fixed idea is a sure
preventive of sleep,—-a thing strikingly noticeable in the insane.
Turning to the causes that induce sleep, Dr. Griffith said that
these affect the circulation of the blood, or they diminish sensation.
Most prominent are various drugs, such as opium, Indian hemp,
chloral, bromides, etc., which act partly on the brain and partly
on the nerves of sensation. After taking Indian hemp a person
imagined himself propelled through eternity and in his flight he
saw an elephant magnified to hundreds and thousands of times its
natural size. Even beer, added the Doctor slyly, had been known
to produce a very drowsy state in some people. A stuffy
atmosphere would also induce sleep. The familiar effect of sleep
in church is less the result of the sermon than the want
of ventilation. Dr. Griffith thought it would be interest-
ing to try the effect of more ventilation in some of our
churches as a means of preventing sleep. There are three main
ideas, said the Doctor, as to the explanation of the physiological
condition of sleep. One idea is that sleep is simply an illustration
of the great natural law of rhythm. All earthly things alternate,
or are balanced. ‘Thus there are two great forces,—one, gravita-
tion, drawing the earth to the sun; the other, centrifugal force,
keeping it to its orbit. Fits and fidgets have their still moments ;
whooping-cough has its periods of quiet ; and even Conservative
Governments cease at times. This humorous parallel was much
relished by the audience, and helped them to appreciate the
lecturer's point that, in accordance with the natural law of rhythm,
sleep must come at some time or other. A second theory of the
causes of sleep is that it depends on changes in the circulation of
the blood, and the consequent effect on the brain, the actual
condition during sleep being one of brain bloodlessness. There is

17

a great deal of evidence, said the Doctor, in favour of this theory,
for the disease known as “sleeping sickness” is due to the
obstruction of the blood-vessels in the brain, caused by the
presence of a worm. A third theory is that sleep is due to
simple exhaustion of the nervous system ; and it was to this that
Dr. Griffith evidently inclined as being the true cause of sleep.
It was an old saying, he observed, that in order to sleep well both
brain and body must be tired, and in this he felt there is con-
siderable truth. The brain is the managing director of the whole
body. ‘‘ How is it,” he asked, “ that a few minutes’ good sleep is
worth more than hours of rest without sleep?” This showed that
it is the brain which wants rest, which can only be obtained by
sleep, for when awake the brain never rests.

The lecturer now somewhat startled his hearers by observing
that there is a part of the brain which never sleeps, although,
after his explanation, it appeared to be the most natural thing in
the world. The brain consists of two parts—the superliminal, or
the higher brain, and the subliminal, or the lower brain. When
we sleep it is only our higher, conscious self that sleeps ; it is only
this conscious self that needs rest. It is the subliminal, or lower
brain that never sleeps. To prove this Dr, Griffith quoted the
case of our going to bed at night, making up our minds that we
will rise at five o’clock next morning. We get up at five o’clock,
but how do we do it? Have we thought about it all night? If so,
our sleep has not done us much good. The truth is that our
faithful other self, our subliminal brain that never sleeps, has
come to our rescue and awakened us. It is this subliminal brain
that is seen in such an active state in somnambulists. Sleep
walkers rarely come to any harm, although they may walk in the
most dangerous places ; their safety lies in the automatism of
their moments. A particularly interesting part of the lecture
dealt with dreams and trances, the power to see visions, and the
faculty of holding spiritual communion with departed friends.
Here, however, Dr. Griffith was rather stepping beyond the
bounds of science, and invading the realm of psychical experience.
It was doubtless new to many to learn that animals are dreamers.
Dogs, storks, canaries, bullfinches, and eagles all dream, said the
lecturer; but crocodiles are doubtful, he added, amid the
laughter of the audience. A great deal in our dreams may have
some physical reason. Thus when we dream of a mountain on
our chests, that means, the Doctor humourously observed, that
we have had lobster for supper! Again, when our feet become
uncovered and get cold we dream that we are walking on ice !
Dr. Griffith closed his lecture with some admirably suggestive
thoughts with regard to the psychical aspect of the question, and
commended this branch of the subject to the special considera-
tion of the Society.

18

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 13TH, 1906.

Gmnual General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL

FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 1318, 1906.

In presenting the Report for the 52nd year of the Society’s
existence, the Council have pleasure in recording that the
attendance has been fairly good at every meeting, and some
meetings were very well attended.

‘There has been a slight decline in Membership, death or
resignation having removed 15 Members whilst only 10 new
Members have been elected.

The Society has incurred a great loss by the death of two of
its leading and most respected Members, viz. : Sir Joseph Ewart,
M.D., Past President, and Mr. E. A. T. Breed, for many years
its Hon. Treasurer. The Council has filled this last vacancy by
the appointment of Mr. Douglas Caush, L.D.S.

Owing to the proposed election of Dr. Walter Harrison,
L.D.S., as President, and the resignation of Mr. F. R. Hora as
one of the Society’s Hon. Secretaries, the Council have
proposed the election of Mr. Frederick Harrison, M.A., to the
post of Scientific Secretary, to fulfil the duties hitherto discharged
by Messrs. Caush, Harrison, and Hora.

During the ensuing Session the Council propose to hold
some meetings at Hove.

The following is a list of papers contributed at the Society’s
meetings during the Session :—

26th Oct., 1905. “Sponges.” Lecture by Mr. E. CONNOLD.
16th Nov., 1905. ‘‘The Philosophy of Dress.”
Lecture by Dr. A. WILLIAMS.
7th Dec., 1905. “* Photo-Micrography.”
Lecture by Dr. E. Spirra.

Ee ee ee

—=_ ee | Oe

Bei > ie

rg

15th Feb., 1906. ‘‘ Eclipses of the Sun.”
Lecture by Dr. R. J. RYLE.
1st Mar., 1906, ‘“‘ Pigeons.” Lecture by Mr. G. FoxALt.
15th Mar., 1906. “Florence.” Lecture by Mr. E. PAYNE.

19th April, 1906. ‘* Some Curiosities of Plant Fertilization.”
Lecture by Mr. H. EpMonps.

17th May, 1906. _— ‘‘ Sleep.” Lecture by Dr. GRIFFITHS.

The following is a list of Excursions and Visits to Works
since the last Annual Meeting :—

24th June, 1905. St. Leonard’s Forest, Colgate ‘Tower.
ist July, 1905. Ashdown Forest, Wych Cross to Sheffield
Park.
sth July, 1905. Evening Visit: Fry and Co.’s Mineral Water
Factory.
8th July, r905. Cuckmere Valley, Lullington and Alfriston.
15th July, 1905. Worthing, Sompting and Lancing.
22nd July, 1905. Buxted, Hadlow Down and Cross-in-Hand.
2nd Sept., 1905. West Tarring: Fig Gardens.
21st April, 1906. Falmer, Ditchling Beacon and Hassocks.
19th May, 1906. ‘Tilgate Forest.

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT, JUNE 12th, 1906.

The following Serials have been purchased, bound, and
added to the Library :-—

Nature Notes. Nature.

Annals of Botany. Geological Magazine.
Zoologist. Entomologist.
Entomologist Monthly Magazine. Journal of Botany.

I have much pleasure in stating that the number of books
issued to Members of the Society is this year nearly double that
issued last year.

The Society’s Library has been largely used for reference
purposes by the general public.

ROBERT MORSE,
Hon, Librarian,

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22

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE
52nd ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

ot ot oe __

After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
it was resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Report as to the Library, and the Curator’s Report, be
received, adopted, and printed for circulation, as usual.”

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year—

“J, E. Haselwood, E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P., F. Merrifield,
F.E.S., D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R.C.P.,
J. P. Slingsby Roberts, W. Clarkson Wallis, E. Alloway
Pankhurst, and Henry Davey.”

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

“Mr. J. W. Nias and Mr. A. F. Graves.”

It was proposed by Mr. H. Cang, seconded by Mr. F. R.
RICHARDSON, and resolved—

“ That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year :—President: Walter Harrison, D.M.D. ;
Ordinary Members of Council: F. R. Hora, B.Sc., E.
Spitta, F.R.A.Sc., G. Morgan, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F. R.
Richardson, E. Payne, M.A., and Alfred W. Oke, B.A.,
LL.M.; Honorary Treasurer: D. E. Caush ; Honorary
Librarian: Robert Morse; Honorary Curators: H. S.
Toms and T. Hilton; Honorary Scientific Secretary:
F. Harrison, M.A.; Honorary Secretary: J. Colbatch
Clark, 9, Marlborough Place; Assistant Honorary Secre-
tary: H. Cane.”

It was proposed by Dr. Harrison, seconded by Mr. F. R.
RICHARDSON, and resolved—

“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Henry
Davey for his attention to the interests of the Society as
President during the past two years.” ;

23

-It was proposed by Mr. Henry Davey, seconded by Mr.
F. Harrison, and resolved—

“ That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curators, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries for their services
during the past year.”

It was proposed by Dr. W. Harrison, seconded by Mr. H.
CANE, and carried—

“That the words ‘entrance fee or’ in Rule 9 be struck out,
that Rule 12 be rescinded, and that the following New
Rule be substituted for it :—‘12. Ordinary Members shall
each pay an Annual Subscription of tos. Except that a
Member elected between the tst February and the Ist
April in any year, shall pay a subscription of 5s. only for
that year. Such subscriptions shall be payable in advance,
and the first payment shall date from the 1st of October
preceding the election of such Member, except the election
take place from the 1st of April to the 30th September,
both inclusive, when it shall date as on Ist of the October
following.’ ”

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,
WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ex-officio Members
of the Society.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass, U.S.A.).

British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

British and American Archeological Society, Rome.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

24

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

City of London College of Science Society, White Street,
Moorfields, E.C., and “ Hatfield,” Tenham Avenue,
Streatham Hill, S.W.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings, George IV.
Bridge.

Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.

Geological Society of Mexico.

Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

Hampshire Field Club.

Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

London County Council, Horniman Museum.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lloyd Library, 224, West Court Street, Cincinnatti, Ohio, U.S.A.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

Mexican Geological Institute, 54, Del Cipres, No. 2,728 Mexico.

Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, University College, Nottingham.

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Quekett Microscopical Club, 20, Hanover Square, London, W,

Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Meteorological Society, Prince’s Mansions, 73, Victoria
Street, S.W.

Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies. 1

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.

Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.

Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.

University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

Watford Natural History Society.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

-—

25

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and hove Matural history and
Pbilosophbical Society,

1906.

N.B.—Members are. particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C, Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
following List the Address is in Brighton. Names
printed in italics are Life Members.

+ 4-«—____—_.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

ABBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
ASHTON, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.

BILLING, T., 6, St. Michael’s Place.

Bootu, E., 53, Old Steine.

BULL, W., 75, St Aubyn’s, Hove.

Burrows, W. S., B.A., M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine.
BURCHELL, E., M.R.C.S., L.R C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.
Back, MILNER, 81, St. James’s Street.

CANE, H., 173, Ditchling Road.

CausH, D. E., L.D.S., 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTION, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

CLARK, J. COLBATCH, J P., 9, Marlborough Place.
Cotman, Alderman J., J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill.
CLIFTON, HARVEY, 19, Buckingham Place.

Davey, HENRY, 15, Victoria Road.

DENMAN, S., 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 49, Church Koad, Hove.
DaLpy, MANTELL A., Dr., 17, Palmeira Square.

DUKE, Dr. E., 30, New Church Road, Hove.

26.

FLETCHER, W. H. B, J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.
Fawsitt, H. G. CHATER, 14, Vernon Terrace.
FORBES, GEORGE, 5, St. Peter’s Place.

GILKES, J. H., Wychcote, Dyke Road Avenue.
GRAVES, A. F., ga, North Street Quadrant.
GRIFFITH, A. F., M.A., 59, Montpelier Road.
GROVE, E., Norlington, Harrington Road.
GRINSTEAD, J., 13, Powis Square.

HALL, J. SUSSEX, 69, Ship Street.

Hack, 1s Fircroft, Withdean.

HARRISON, W., D} M. D., L.D.S., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HASELWOOD, j. B33 Richmond Terrace.

HAYNES, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
HICKLEY, G,, 92, Springfield Road

HILTON, ii ‘ Clifton Street.

Hopes, J., 62, North Street.

HowLrrr, J. W., J.P., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

Hora, F. R., B.Sc, B.A., A.R.C.Sc., 69, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.
HARRISON, F., M.A, 30, Compton Avenue.

HORNE, 7) 27, Hampstead Road.

HAWKINS, W. B., Shalimar, Withdean.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

JENNINGS, A. O., LL.B., 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
JOHNSTON, J., 12, Bond Street.

JONES, RUTHERFORD, Dr. A., Forest Lodge, Maresfield.
Jackson, J. M., 109, Stanford Avenue.

LANGTON, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.

LEwIs, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairwarp, Uckfield.
LONSDALE, L., 13, Powis Square.

LIVESEY, G H., M.R.C.V.S., Osmond Road, Hove.

McKELLAR, E., Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D, J.P., Woodleigh,

Preston.
MAGUIRE, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.
MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace.
MILLS, J., 24, North Road.
Morea, G., L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., 6, Pavilion Parade.
MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.
MorSE, ROBERT, 26, Stanford Avenue.
MAuvRICE, H., L.D.S., 65, St. John’s Terrace.

NEWSHOLME, A., M.D., F.R.C.P., 11, Gloucester Place.
NICHOLSON, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

Normal, S. H., Burgess Hill.

Norris. E. L., L.D.S., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

OKE, ALFRED’ W.,, B.A. LL.M., F.G.S:, F..53) BZ.5e
Denmark Villas, Hove.

32,

I ae. ———

27

PANKHuRST, E. A., 3, Clifton Road.

PayNE, W. H., Playden House, Harrington Road.

PAYNE, E., M.A., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove.

PENNEY, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.

PETITFOURT, E. J., B.A., F.C.P., 16, Chesham Street.

PuGH, Rev. C., M.A., 13, Eaton Place.

PUTTICK, W., Tipnoake, Albourne, Hassocks.

PopLry, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

PowELt, W. A, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Grand Parade.

PESKETT, CHALMERS, A. W., M.A., M.B., B.C., Cantab., Simla,
Clermont Road.

PESKET?, Guy, Simla, Clermont Road.

READ, S., L.D-S., 12, Old Steine.

RICHARDSON, F. R., 4, Adelaide Crescent.
ROBERTS, J. P. SLINGSBY, 3, Powis Villas.
ROBINSON, E., Saddlescombe.

ROsE, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.
READ, T., B.A., B.Sc., Brighton Grammar School.
ROBERTSON, A., 17, Sackville Road, Hove.

SALMON, E. F., 30, Western Road, Hove.

SAVAGE, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street.

SLOMAN, F., M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road.

SMITH, C., 47, Old Steine.

SMITH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

SMITH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

SMITH, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.

SMITH, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

STONER, HAROLD, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency Square.

SMITHERS, E. A., Furze Hill.

Spirra, E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.Sc., 41, Ventnor Villas,
Hove.

SOUTHCOMBE, H. W., 16, Stanford Avenue.

SEAMER, ARTHUR, M.A, 9, Chatham Place.

STANFORD, THOMAS CHAS., Preston Manor.

TALBOT, HUGO, 79, Montpelier Road.
Toms, H. S., The Museum.
TuonY, J. F., M.D., 1, Hova Terrace, Hove.

TYSSEN, Rev. R. D , M.A., 19, Brunswick Place, Hove.
WALLIS, W. CLARKSON, 15, Market Street.

WALTER, J., 134A, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

WHYTOCK, E., 36, Western Road.

WILKINSON, T., 170, North Street.

WILLIAMS, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

WILLIAMS, H. M., LL.B., 17, Middle Street.

Woop, J., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.

Woop, WALTER R., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.
WELSFORD, H. M., 68, Dyke Road.

WILLIAMS, A. W., M.D., Belvedere Terrace.

28

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLEY, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
BLADON, Miss, 23, Sudeley Place.

CAUuUSH, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

CRAFER, M. H., Mrs., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
CRANE, A., Miss, 11, Wellington Road.
CoRFE, A., Miss, 7, Norfolk Terrace.

DALDY, MANTELL, Mrs, 17, Palmeira Square.

HARE, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.
HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
HERNAMAN, I., Miss.

HERNAMAN, V., Miss.

HARRISON, Mrs., 10, Windlesham Road.

LANGTON, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.

RUGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

STONER, H., Mrs., 18, Regency Square.
THOMAS, M., Miss, 193, Queen’s Park Road.

VoBES, Miss, B.A., B.Sc., “ Glenalna,” Rugby Road.

WILKINSON, Mrs., 36, Dyke Road.
Woop, J., Mrs., 28, Old Steine.
WATKINS, Miss, Walcot, Walpole Road.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.

CURTEIS, T., 244, High Holborn, London.
Dawson, C., F.G.S., Uckfield.

FARR, E. H., Uckfield.

HOLLIS, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.
JENNER, J. H. A., 209, School Hill, Lewes.
LOMAX, BENJAMIN, 47, Park Crescent.

NoursE, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.

PHILLIPS, BARCLAY, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

ASSOCIATE.

HARRISON, W. PARKER, 10, Windlesham Road.

PRESENTED EN
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BRIGHTON AND HOVE

Ratural Bistory § Philosophical

Society.

‘ Wbstracts of Papers

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY

TOGETHER WITH 2 Es
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| THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

Year ending June 6th, 1907.

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BRIGHTON AND Hove
P.ataral Bistory & Philosophical

Society,

TOGETHER WITH

THE ANNUAL REPORT

FOR THE

Year ending June 6th, 1907.

CONTENTS.

eon Ck Le

PAGE.

ALDERMAN COLBATCH CLARK—50 YEARS SECRETARY _ ... 1.-Vill.

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1906-7... Oe saa Ig
THE COMMUNICATION OF THOUGHT — Mr. WALTER

Harrison, D.M.D., L.D.S. (President) sae rs

Forrest LirE—Mr. Martin DUNCAN _.... ie Sach ati)

KALAHARI DESERT AND WGAMILAND—Mr. H.W. Hopson 15
THE MAKING OF SCENERY—Mr. H. Epmonps, B.Sc. ... 17

THE VaRIATION IN DomEsTIC FowLs—Mr. GEORGE FOXALL 17

Tue Moon—Dk. Spitta, F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. _ ... sau)
ComMoON PARASITES OF CaT AND Doc—

Mr. G. -H. Livsesry, M.R.C.V.S. ... as ero
EARTHQUAKES—MnkR. F. R. Hora, B.A., B.Sc. ... reyes
Picmy FLint IMPLEMENTS FOUND NEAR BRIGHTON—

Mr. H. 8S. Toms ee Ae ie oa vn 0
REPORT OF COUNCIL ns Be = os Peer
LIBRARIAN’S REPORT Pes ire Soe ee 0 AO
SociETy’s EXCURSIONS oe ae es <i iow
METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON Cai or a is ERE
‘TREASURER’S ACCOUNT ens ah ae ae oak) ae
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING Sele a aed Pek
SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED ba ssi Ee Ee i Be
List OF MEMBERS ... sac os as ae -<oaee

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1907-8 ... a RP (2)

6Q_Z2

PRESENTATION

. TO.

Alderman Colbatch Clark.

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ALDERMAN J. COLBATCH CLARK, J.P.

Fifty Gears a Seeretary.
ac Vac - Vas

ee Society has the pleasure of announcing that Mr.

Alderman J. Colbatch Clark, J.P., has attained his 50th
year as Hon. Secretary. Mr. Clark (at that time J. C. Onions)
took over the duties from Mr. T. B. Horne during the Session
1857-8, was then formally elected, and has continued in office to
this day—a term of work as Secretary probably without pre-
cedent in the annals of any Society. Mr. Clark has worked
with no less than thirty-seven Presidents. It was universally
felt that any possible recognition must be perfectly trifling in
comparison with the value of Mr. Clark’s services; but the
members, past and present, subscribed for a silver salver and
an illuminated address, which were presented to Mr. Clark at
the Annual Meeting on June 6th. Such an event naturally
drew considerable attention, as the following selections from the
Press notices will show :—

[Sussew Daily News, June 7th.]

When the members of the Brighton and Hove Natural
History and Philosophical Society yesterday evening at the
Royal Pavilion re-elected Alderman J. Colbatch Clark, J.P., as
Hon. Secretary, they had the unique pleasure of launching him
upon his fiftieth year of office. So remarkable an occasion was
very properly treated in an exceptional way, and the Alderman
found himself the recipient of two permanent souvenirs of his
half-century association with the work of the Society. One was
a handsome 18-inch silver salver, with ornate shell border, and
elaborate engraving; the other was a beautifully illuminated
album containing an address, with the names of 79 subscribers.
The salver, which bore a suitable inscription, was the artistic
production of the Sussex Goldsmiths and Silversmiths’ Com-
pany, Castle-square, Brighton; and the address was the no less
skilful production of Miss Hudson, of the Brighton School of
Art. The latter read :—

: Dear S1r,—This album contains the names of past and present
members of the Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society, who desire to make some recognition of your services for the
period of fifty years during which you have acted as Honorary Secretary
to the Society. So long a service in an honorary position is a very rare
and probably unprecedented circumstance in the history of any Society.
In addition we recall that in the general management of the Society and
in all your relations with its members you have always shown the

iv.

greatest tact, zeal, and courtesy, coupled with remarkable business
capacity ; and we feel that the present prosperity of the Society is mainly
due to you. Slight as any recognition we can make must be in comparison
with your services, we venture to ask your acceptance of the accom-
panying silver salver and our warmest wishes for your present and future
welfare.

Signed, on behalf of the subscribers,

Water Harrison, President.

Mr. J. E. Haselwood, a Vice-President, was the mouthpiece
of the members in presenting these gifts, and he enthusiastically
recalled the fifty years of solid work done by Alderman Clark in
looking after the finances and business details of the Society.
Speaking with forty years’ experience, he declared unhesitatingly
that but for the careful watch Mr. Clark had kept upon their
funds, the Society would have been dead years ago. With it all
Mr. Clark had been always courteous, and able to smooth over
any difficulties that arose Mr. Clark had done this, realizing
that the Society was an important element in the life of the
town which had been an influence for good in many directions.
He had also played a prominent part in fostering the social side
of the Society, and was for many years the moving spirit in the
soirées, and in the annual excursions. In handing him the salver,
he said its modest weight carried with it a vast amount of
sincere affection.

Enthusiastic applause greeted Alderman Clark when he
rose to thank the members. In a happy speech he said it was a
matter for congratulation that the Society had been able to exist
so long, and he hoped the end of the present century might find
it still flourishing. Personally he felt it an honour to have been
associated with the work for all these years, though his duties
had been of a purely business character, thanks to the wise
arrangement of having another Secretary to look after the
scientific side. He had had a great reward in the instruction
and enjoyment obtained from the Society’s lectures, which had
enabled him to understand the early developments of telegraphy,
electricity, bacteriology, and the like, which were casting their
shadows before them in the early days of his acquaintance with
the Society. He recalled the interesting fact that at one of the
first lectures he attended on telegraphy, the lecturer assured
them that one day the messages would be sent without the
medium of wires. Of the original members of the Society there
were only now two living, Mr. Barclay Phillips and Mr. Geo. de
Paris. He said, in conclusion, he would be proud to hand the
presentation as heirlooms to his successors, together with the
clock which they presented to him 35 years ago.

The President, Mr. Walter Harrison, and four past Presi-
dents, Mr. E. A, Pankhurst, Mr. Douglas E. Caush, Mr. Clarkson
Wallis, and Mr. Henry Davey, supplemented the eulogies passed

LS

ve

upon the Alderman, the last-named mentioning that Mr. Clark
had seen six or seven Scientific Secretaries, six or seven Librarians,
and as many as 33 Presidents.* Mention may also be made of
a letter received from Councillor Booth, who wrote that he had
known Mr. Clark from childhood, and that he deserved all good
things from his fellow townsmen.

[Brighten Society. ]

Sse (Thursday) evening the celebration of a most remarkable

event occurred, when Mr. Alderman Colbatch Clark attained
his fiftieth year of office as Honorary Secretary of the Brighton
Natural History Society. So long a continuance in any such
post must be rare in the extreme, and is probably unprecedented,
for the start must have been made unusually early in life. Mr.
Clark was presented with a handsome silver salver and a
beautiful album containing the names of the subscribers, and
designed by Miss Hudson, of the School of Art. The presen-
tation was made by Mr. J. E. Haselwood, an old member, in
well-chosen terms, and Mr. Clark feelingly responded, detailing
some early recollections on scientific matters. It was mentioned
that two of the original founders in 1854, Mr Barclay Phillips
(now of Bedford) and Mr. G. de Paris, are still living; and Mr.
Merrifield, still active in his profession, was on the Committee
in 1856. Mr. Clark, during his half-century of office, has known
thirty-three Presidents of the Society.

[Brighton Herald, |

REMARKABLE record, probably a unique record, was

celebrated on Thursday night by the members of the
Brighton and Hove Natural History Society. This was the
attainment by Alderman Colbatch Clark of his fiftieth year of
office as Hon. Secretary to the Society. The completion of so
remarkable a period of office was fittingly honoured by the
Society presenting Alderman Clark with a massive silver salver,
of handsome design, and an illuminated album containing the
names of the past and present members of the Society who had
subscribed. This presentation took place at the fifty-third annual
meeting of the Society at the King’s Apartments.

The importance that the members attached to the occasion
was clearly indicated in the manner in which one of the oldest

*Accurately 37,

vi.

members of the Society, Mr. J. E. Haselwood, set himself to
make the audience realize what was involved in a secretaryship
which contained fifty years of solid work,—the amount of writing,
of attendance at meetings, and all the other routine. All the
time Alderman Clark had been unfailing in courtesy and good
temper. But for the care he had bestowed on the finances, the
Society would have been dead many years ago. He had had to
look after excursions and soirées, and other incidents of the work.
Alderman Clark had in fact been of inestimable service to a
Society which Mr. Haselwood felt had an important bearing on
the intellectual development and social enjoyment of so many
people in the town, and thereby had been of material service to
the town itself. In handing Alderman Clark the salver, Mr.
Haselwood assured him that it carried with it a vast amount of
sincere affection.

The salver bore an inscription, and with it came the vellum
bound album containing the names of seventy-nine subscribers
and the following address :

Dear Sir,—This album contains the names of past and present
members of the Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society, who desire to make some recognition of your seryices for the
period of fifty years during which you have acted as Honorary Secretary
to the Society. So long a service in an honorary position is a very rare
and probably unprecedented circumstance in the history of any Society.
In addition we recall that in the general management of the Society and
in all your relations with its members you have always shown the
greatest tact, zeal, and courtesy, coupled with remarkable business
capacity ; and we feel that the present prosperity of the Society is mainly
due to you. Slight as any recognition we can make must be in comparison
with your services, we venture to ask your acceptance of the accom-
panying silver salver and our warmest wishes for your present and future
welfare.

Signed, on behalf of the subscribers,

Waurter Harrison, President.

Received with enthusiastic applause, Alderman Colbatch
Clark made a happy response in a finished speech and with a
sturdiness of manner that showed he is very far yet from feeling
the wearing effects of so long a service. He made very modest
allusion to his own work for the Society, but rather directed
attention to the work of the Society, and to assuring his hearers
that he had benefited immensely by his association with it. He
supposed that the fifty years in which he had been connected
with this scientific Society had been the most eventful half-
century in the history of science; in no other period had it made
such great strides. Thanks to his association with the Society,
he had been able to take an interest in the scientific progress and
to realise what it meant in a way that, without the Society, would
have been impossible. He could not, of course, attempt to
outline the changes in science that he had known, but there were

one or two things in which he had a direct personal interest,
great discoveries whose shadows had been projected on his earlier
days in a way that made the later substantial realization of great
interest to him. He remembered how, when the electric tele-
graph was a new thing of which all were talking, a gentleman
assured him that in some future day people would send electric
messages without wires. Sixty-one years ago he went to a
lecture where the lecturer said he believed it would be quite
possible to convert electricity into motive force, but that the
force would be of little practical use because one could not make
sufficient electricity. He thought of this when he saw the huge
machinery thundering at the Corporation works. A third modern
discovery projected across his early days was the theory of
bacteria. Alderman Clark drew attention to the fact that two of
the original members of the Society are still alive in Mr. G. de
Paris and Mr. Barclay Phillips. This salver was not the first
presentation the Society had made him. Thirty-five years ago
they presented him with a clock; ‘‘it is still going.” Alderman
Clark added that he could not have done the work so long had
not the Society given him so valuable an assistant in Mr. Henry
Cane.

The Chairman (Dr. Harrison), in adding his tribute of
praise, reminded the meeting of the work Alderman Clark did
apart from the Society. His townspeople elected him to the
Council ; the Council elected him an Alderman; and the State
recognized his value by making him a J.P.

Other testimony of praise came from four previous Presi-
dents of the Society,—Mr. E. Alloway Pankhurst, as representing
physical science; Mr. D. E. Caush, as representing the micro-
scopic side; Mr. Clarkson Wallis, representing, in his own words,
the amateur in Science; and Mr. Henry Davey, from the
philosophical side. Mr. Davey pointed out that Alderman Clark
had seen six or seven Scientific Secretaries and thirty-three
Presidents.

A letter was read from Councillor Booth, who said that he
had known Alderman Clark from childhood, and could testify
that he deserved all good things from his fellow townsmen.

The salver, it should be mentioned, was executed in effective
style by the Sussex Goldsmiths and Silversmiths’ Company,
Castle Square, Brighton, and the illuminated album was the
artistic work of Miss Hudson, at the Brighton School of Art.

The leading scientific journal of England also deemed the
occasion worthy a special recognition, as the following paragraph
shows :—

[ Nature, June 138th. ]

Ee Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society has for fifty years had Alderman C. Clark as its
Honorary Secretary. So long a service in a position of this
kind, involving much work and expenditure of time, is very
remarkable, In recognition of the active part Alderman Clark
has taken in bringing the Society to its present prosperous
condition, a massive silver salver and an illuminated album
containing the names of many past and present members was
presented to him at the fifty-third annual meeting on June 6th.

3)
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1906-7.
(For List of Officers, 1907-8, see page 60).
eee SONG Str

President :
WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.

Past Presidents :

F. MERRIFIELD, F E S. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOOD. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
W. SEYMOUR BURROWS, M.R.C.S.| W. CLARKSON WALLIS.
D. E. Causn, L.D.S. E ALLOWAY PANKHURST.
A. NEWSHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.-P., HENRY DAVEY.
M.O H.

THE COUNCIL.
The President.
Vice- Presidents:

(Rule 25).
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
J. E. HASELWOOD. | J.P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. ; W. CLARKSON WALLIs.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., E. A. PANKHURST.

M.O-H. | HENRY DAVEY.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

F. Hora, B.Sc., B.A. E. PAYNE, M.A.
E. SpiITTA, F.R.A.Sc., M.R.C.S , ALFRED W. OKE, B.A., LL.M.,

MaRwGsP: ; F.G.S.
G. MorGAn, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. F. R. RICHARDSON.

Gonorary Treasurer : Honorary Librarian :
D. E. CausuH, L.D.S. RoBT. MORSE.
Honorary Auditor:
A. F. GRAVES.

Honorary Curators :
H. S. Toms. T. HILTON.

Honorary Scientific Secretary :
F. HARRISON, M.A.

Gonorary Secretary:
JNo. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Honorary Secretary :
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

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“7

SESSION 1906-7.

Sere WY SY Se
Address given by the President,
WALTER ALARRISON, D2M:D.,:L.D.S.,

At the Conversazione held at the Royal Pavilion, Oct. 18th, 19006.

Ghe Communication of Chought.

Ladies and Gentlemen,—

In thanking you for the honour you have conferred on me
by electing me to the position of President of this Society,
founded more than half-a-century ago, I recognise how difficult
it will be to follow in the steps of such a line of talented men as
have preceded me. My lot is especially hard as my immediate
predecessor, Mr. Henry Davey, was such an able and genial
gentleman—one of the best of those who have occupied the
presidentia] chair—that by the unanimous choice of the members
he was elected for a second year, the longest period that the rules
of our Society allow.

I have to express one regret when I look round the room,
that is, how few young people join our Society. If during my
year I can persuade our younger folk to become associates at
least, I shall feel that I have done something, not only for the
Society but for the community at large, as I can confidently
affirm that no one can attend our lectures and converse with the
members without learning much about many things.

I have re-introduced in a small way the Conversazione,
which used to be an annual one; I hope also to re-establish the
annual Banquet, and I shall ask your sapport in making a whole
day excursion in the summer of next year. The syllabus of our
lectures will, I am sure, commend itself to you as being of the
same high standard as in past years ; and I may add we hope to
supplement the monthly lectures by a monthly visit to some
place of interest, on the lines started by Mr. Davey.

With these prefatory remarks I will now direct your atten-
tion for a few minutes to another subject—

‘‘And the dove came unto him in the evening, and lo, in

her mouth was an olive leaf pluckt off. So Noah knew
that the waters were abated. . . .”

6

‘‘ Williams, the foreign missionary, had one day forgotten
his square, and taking up a shaving he wrote a request
to his wife to give it to the bearer. He gave this to a
native chief, telling him to take it to Mrs. Williams
and return quickly to him. On his delivering the
written message to the missionary’s wife, the native
was much surprised at receiving the square, and on his
return to Mr. Williams expressed his astonishment at a
shaving producing the instrument. The missionary
tried in vain to explain the simple way in which a
thought could be communicated. So mystified was the
chief that he wore the wonderful shaving round his
neck and showed it to his followers as a marvellous
charm.”

‘Recently during a voyage across the Atlantic ocean, copies
of a daily paper were circulated among the passengers
containing the news communicated by the Marconi
wireless telegraphy.”’

These three statements so impressed me that I decided to
make them the basis of the short address which falls to my lot
as your President. I shall call it—“ The Communication of
Thought.”

To what extent the lower orders of creation are capable of
communicating their desires we are unable to decide; but that
they do possess such power we know. Nor is it confined to their
intercommunication, for dogs, at least, have been known to
communicate their wishes to man when their masters have been
in danger, &c Ants, too, and some other small creatures, have
this power of communication, as those who study their habits
know.

It is possible to conceive of the communication of thought
through any of the chanuels of the senses. Taste and smell
might have become the means of conveying an idea, and to the
_ lower orders of creation it is undoubtedly so; but with man we
must confine our attention to three of our senses—Touch, Sight,
Hearing.

Tactile language has been observed in bees ; I may mention
the well-known instance of their communicating to each other
the death of a queen by a rapid interlacing and striking of their
antenne. Mankind makes but a limited use of this sense for
communicating his wishes but under circumstances when an
appeal cannot be made to the ear or the eye it satisfies the
condition. A nudge is at times quite significant of an intention.
To what extent thought-readers take advantage of touch, I am
not able to say; but I do think that they can ascertain to some
extent the thought in their companion, in such instances as
searching for something hidden by the person, whose hand the
reader of thought detains during his search.

7

The chief use of tactile language in the service of man is
that employed for the blind. The raised letters become a ready
means of enabling those to read who are unhappily deprived of,
perhaps, the greatest of the senses. One of the early and most
useful systems was that invented by a Brighton man, Dr. Moon.
It has been asserted that by touch the blind can distinguish
colour, but in the course of conversation with a very intelligent
blind friend, I was informed that there is no truth in the state-
ment; but it is true that they associate colour with sound, of
which I shall have more to say presently.

But the two chief channels for Thought Communication are
—the eye and the ear. The language for the eye is exhibited in
the Arts and in gestures. Pictures, however rudely drawn, can
reproduce in others the thought of the draughtsman, and this
form of writing is known to all as Hieroglyphics. The name of
each letter of the alphabet is the name of some object, and the
form of the object is a rude representation of it.

Pictures developed into letters on one hand, and into works
of art on the other. I think that in painting and sculpture the
test of the artist’s genius is the power that he possesses of
reproducing in the mind of the observer the thoughts he had in
producing his work of art. A picture that requires copious
explanation has, in my opinion, an acknowledgement of failure
accompanying it.

I need only refer to literature to show to what an extent we
receive communication of thought by means of the eye. In
poetry what thoughts are aroused in us by a few words! And
yet when we ponder oyer the matter we need not be surprised at
the amazement of the native chief. What real connection is there
between the printed letters D-O-G and the animal? At first sight
none ; but when the word is traced from its earliest form we can
see how the letters convey the idea, and to this I shall again refer
when saying a few words on sound as a means of conveying
thought.

The Language of Gesture, which accompanies emotion, is at
all times significant, and this is par excellence the language of
the tragedian. Whoever has seen the late great actor, Sir Henry
Irving in The Bells, knows what an ocean of thought is com-
municated by a few words, when accompanied by gesture. When
Garrick first appeared, the orthodox critic complained very much
of his not following the rules of elocution, as they knew them.
One of ‘these critics said that the great actor actually made a
pause between the subject and the predicate in a sentence! On
being further questioned he admitted that Garrick at the pause
introduced an effective gesture,

To what an extent Gesture is employed to teach the deaf
and dumb, and as a means of communicating thought to them,
you all well know. The Oral System, as it is called, has now

8

displaced the older system of finger alphabet, and it is simply
wonderful how rapidly a long communication can be made.

A few years ago I gave a lantern exhibition—I cannot call
it a lecture—to a Deaf and Dumb Institution, and proceeded to
throw a few slides on the sheet. The intense silence that reigned
was at first a little disconcerting. One expects at least some
slight show of appreciation from time to time under such circum-
stances. But one thing I did notice, and that was a number of
fingers made signs and then the Principal—who possessed the
power of speech—requested me to say a few words on each
picture. I did so, and then he communicated my remarks to the
speechless audience with wonderful rapidity. At the conclusion,
I was thanked in the name of the silent audience for the
strangest experience it has fallen to my lot.

We will next consider sound as a means of thought. Dean
Farrar in his chapters on language shows the analogies of light
and sound :—

Sound corresponds to Sheen.

Clear Sound _s,, Brightness.
Echo " Reflexion.
Noise a Glimmer,
Tone a Colour.

I have just mentioned that blind people connect colour with
sound and I would like to add a fact, told me by a friend. While
he was a student at college he was talking to a fellow student,
who was blind, and asked him what he thought of red colour.
He replied that he thought it was like the sound of a cornet!
My friend remarked that he was not far from the truth as red
was rather a loud colour !

In his Manual of Psychology, Dr. Stout says:—In all
language there are traceable certain comparatively elementary
phonetic components, called roots, expressing primary universals,
or products of conceptual analysis, and these roots variously
modified and entering into various combinations express con-
ceptual synthesis or discursive thinking. They blend and com-
bine in continuous speech, just as the corresponding concepts
blend and combine in continuous thought. This is possible because
of the ultimate unity of composition of the phonetic material, which
is resolvable into elementary alphabetic sounds which do not
occur in isolation but as parts of an articulate complex.

Attempts have been made to explain the origin of language
without emphasizing the importance of the visible gesture as a
starting point. There are three main theories of this kind, which
have been nicknamed by Max Miller the Pooh-Pooh Theory, the
Bow-Bow Theory, and the Ding-Dong Theory. Their more pre-
tentious titles are the Interjectional, the Onmatopeic, and the
Pathognomic Theory. The principle involved in all these theories

9

is essentially the same. They all attempt to trace back conven-
tional signs to natural signs, but they exclude from consideration
visible gestures and confine attention only to vocal signs.

It is evident that to mimic the mewing of a cat, in order to
convey the idea of that animal, is as much an imitative gesture
as going on all fours and humping the back for the same
purpose. It is mimicry of this kind on which the Bow-Bow
Theory relies for explanation. The same holds goods of im-
itating a cry of fear, in order either to convey the idea of the
emotion or of the approach of a dangerous object. This is a
sort of expressive sign which is most primitive according to the
Pooh-Pooh Theory.

The Ding-Dong Theory is more subtle, and it has the
distinction of being advocated by Professor Steinthal. Accord-
ing to it specific kinds of objects so affected primitive man as to
elicit from him, or, to use Max Miiller’s metaphor, to ring out of
him, correspondingly specific utterances. The most primitive
words would, therefore, be phonetic types rung out from the
organism of the first man, or men, when struck with an idea.
There is a harmony of sound and sense which does not depend on
the imitation of one sound by another The charm of literary
style, and especially of poetry, consists largely in the subtle
affinity between vocal expression and the objects or activities
expressed, which may exist apart from any resemblance of
sounds to one another. The word zig-zag is a good illustration.
The zig goes this way and the zag goes that way, thus describing
a zig-zag course. .

In discussing the objections to the imitative theory, Dean
Farrar said:—Is there no similarity between dog and barking
and snarling? The Icelandic doggr looks very like a growl. . .
and in other languages the word 1s distinctly initiative... A
name bow-bow might have been invented, yet, strange to say, we
hardly ever find a civilised language in which a dog is so called.
. . . Now it is at least doubtful whether the bark is a dogs
natural utterance, and whether in its original state the dog did
bark. . . No wild dog knows how to bark! Prichard mentions
the conjecture that the dog’s bark originated in an attempt to
imitate the human voice! . . . Dogs were left by Spaniards on
Juan Fernandez, after thirty years the race had forgotten how to
bark. :

Mechanical means for communicating thought,

Let us briefly consider the employment of moving objects,
commonly known as the “ Optical Telegraph.” Its origin cannot
be easily determined. It is said to have been used during the
erection of the tower of Babel. Watch towers are mentioned
as having been used by Hannibal, which he employed as signal
stations, and the Romans had their telegraphic places. Modern
employment of Optical Telegraphy is known under the names

10

of the Semaphore, Heliograph, and Flag-Signalling, and is of
considerable use when electric telegraphic wires have been cut.
The Heliograph was largely used in the late war in South Africa,
as you well know.

In 1684 (Philo. Trans.) Hooke’s system is described as
having figures which moved in daylight and a screen with a
light at night. In 1784, Edgeworth introduced posts and a
cone, which was movable and indicated certain letters by the
change of position. By combining posts with arms attached to
a beam moving up and down, Chappe invented a system with a
very elaborate code. Thus at the end of the Kighteenth Century
. practical telegraphy was an accomplished fact and remained in
use until 1849.

In England, Lord Murray’s system was adopted, which was
a series of shutters. Macdonald and Pasley extended the use of
this invention under the name of a Universal Telegraph.

The result of the Battle of Trafalgar was telegraphed from
Portsmouth to London in about twenty minutes by means of the
semaphore. The signal system was perfected to such an extent
that messages could be sent from Calais to Paris in about three
minutes.

Karly in Nineteenth Century the practical results obtained
by the application of electricity were recognized and utilized.
The names of Cooke and Wheatsone ought to be always
associated with electric telegraphy. Although the method was
an optical one, yet the operators who were skilled in their work
could interpret the message by the click of the instrument alone.
Morse’s invention reduced the message to printing by means of
the dot-and-dash system. But in the natural course of events,
man ever desirous of reducing labour to the minimum, directed
his attention to more rapid means which results from sounds,
and returned to the earlier method of ‘‘ Noises,” and, applying
the latest discovery of electrical science, produced the telephone.
Bell and Edison have been the means of bringing this method
of communication to our homes.

I need only mention the name of Marconi to illustrate the
latest development in telegraphy, and it will be in the memory
of most present that we had a splendid lecture by Professor
Fleming, who explained wireless telegraphy in such a manner
that it ceased to be a mystery to those who had the privilege of
hearing him.

To enter into the consideration of communication with the
spirit world would be to discuss a subject more suitable to form
the matter of an ordinary meeting, in which discussion is invited ;
but this much may be said, that after the elimination of all
traces of charlatanism very remarkable coiucidences—for the
want of a better word—do occur. The correspondence in the
Daily Telegraph has been very interesting to me as I am a great

D
7

ll

dreamer, but I have never had any striking warning communi-
cated to me. I have carefully noted on waking certain dreams
and watched for the results. I can very often associate my
dream with some event that has preceded it—which coincides
with the experience of Herodotus, who lived more than two
thousand years ago,—the details being much altered. I have
also noticed in case of many strange dreams of others that the
dream has been remembered after the event has happened. I do
not wish it to be understood that others may not possess what is
lacking to me, but I have noted how many of these remarkable
communications have been of trivial moment.

Telepathy is the feeling or experiencing of sensations at a
distance from another person. It occurs, it appears, when the
mind of one human being affects the mind of another, but not
through one of the recognized organs of sense. I have read and
heard of many wonderful examples of this kind, but as I have
never experienced such I will not pronounce an opinion on
telepathic communications.

When we glance around us at the marvellous progress in
communication of thought, how that distance has been annihi-
lated by the speed of the transmission, we may well ask ourselves
what has been the influence upon mankind? Has it increased
our happiness? What are the benefits and what the dis-
advantages? Restlessness—the yearning for something fresh —
inability to concentrate thought upon a subject. Decadence in
all branches of Art, because there is no time to cultivate taste.
Scholars are displaced by half-educated men who can and will
produce the article in demand—a something that will not tax
the intellectual powers. Learning and literature become but
pastimes for those of means. Thoughts expressed in books and
in colour become a drug in the market. What is the proportion
of light literature compared with real standard works issued
from our lending library? In spite of the re-publication of
so many volumes of classics at a shilling by various firms, I fear
that the number who read them is but small. What we desire
to see is that the original thinker shall receive the reward to
which he is so justly entitled. Increased facilities bring increased
indifference ; indifference begets thoughtlessness ; and thought-
lessness, idleness ; which too often marks mankind.

With regard to the reception and transmission of thought
it is not difficult to come to a conclusion—that man being
“inquisitive,” his desire to receive is greater than to transmit.
A thoughtful man will always command a large following,—
probably not during his life, perhaps centuries even may elapse
before justice is done to him; but posterity will recognise him
though it be tardy. The explanation is simple—the majority
do not think; they are quite content to let others think for
them.

12

Strange as it may seem in our daily reading of Marconigrams,
telegrams, telephonic communications, that side by side with the
latest developments primitive forms of inter-communication
should be still employed. Signalling by mechanism, bird-
messengers, and even beacon fires are yet with us—and this fact
recalls to our minds the words of Tennyson :—

“Men, my brothers, men the workers, ever reaping something new ;
That which they have done but earnest of the things that they
shall do—
Yet I doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs,
And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns.”

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 15rza, 1906.

Forest Wife.

BY

Mr. MARTIN DUNCAN,

Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

B* being a Member of the Brighton and Hove Natural History

Society one gets to acquire a knowledge of the intimate
details of animal life, like Sam Weller’s knowledge of London,
extensive and peculiar. Knowledge of this kind was freely
imparted by the lantern lecture given by Mr. Martin Duncan.
Mr. Duncan, who must be a naturalist of the first order,
was trying to rear a young cuckoo. He found it as fractious
and trying as the ordinary human baby, and it was always
waking him in the night for food. He had a happy inspira-
tion. He had observed that a mother thrush, when worn out,
as all mothers do get worn out, with the exertion of feeding
her infant, adopted a neat strategem to save herself the trouble
of hunting for more worms and at the same time satisfying the
cries of the baby. When the baby opened its beak to ery for
more the mother inserted her own empty beak, and tickled the
youngster’s palate. Baby thrush, innocent of the world’s ways,
concluded the mother had put a nice fat worm in its mouth,
gulped, and was quite happy,—till the next time. So Mr,
Duncan, when tbe cuckoo cried for worms and there were none

13

handy, put his hand out of bed, and touched the inside of the
creature’s mouth. Baby cuckoo gulped, and it and he sank down
again to repose. Mr, Duncan seems to understand birds just as
if he were Mr. Barrie’s Peter Pan. Like Peter, all that he lacks
is feathers. Incidentally he mentioned several instances where
he has fulfilled the rdle of parent to fledglings, with excellent
photographic results.

In attempting to photograph the young of the meadow pippit
Mr. Duncan had personally experienced the extraordinary intelli-
gence and devotion of the mother bird in protection of her
young. The male bird sought first to attract his attention away
from the nest, but this failing, the mother, as a last extremity,
went hopping, flying away just out of reach, with every appear-
ance of a broken wing. Evidently the bird’s idea was to make
him think he was on the point of catching her, and so lead him
further and further from the nest. The mother wry-neck, found
at the bottom of a tree-trunk hatvhing, startled him with a sound
as if she had smashed all the eggs and flew whirring straight at
his face. She may have meant him to think that the eggs were
broken ; but they were safe enough. And Mr. Duncan delighted
his audience with photographs of the newly-hatched fledglings,
as they peeped timorously from the hole in the tree looking out
on the strange, big world. The lecturer had photographs of
rabbits just emerging from their burrows. The old master buck
always came out first, after the general stampede caused by an
alarm. After satisfying himself that danger was gone, he would
go round the other burrows stamping with his paw as a sign that
the inhabitants could come out. Lying under a gorse bush, Mr.
Duncan snapped them at interesting moments.

An amusing comedy touch came with his pictures of owls.
One showed the owl placedly indifferent. The next, its great
solemn eyes wore an aspect of surprised inquiry, until by varying
stages, it worked up into a state of protesting indignation at the
whole nefarious proceedings. The attitudes of the creature would
have made the fortune of a comedian. Mention of owls brought
Mr. Duncan to a ghost story. Once, in a village in Cornwall, he
heard affrighted villagers in the taproom telling of ghastly
noises and a visible ghost proceeding at night from Squire Some-
body’s tomb. All agreed that the old Squire’s ghost snored. He
determined to investigate. From the tomb—an old-fashioned
family-vault type—certainly the weirdest of noises were proceed-
ing,—muffled groans and cries, and a distinctloudsnoring The
mystery was explained when two barndoor owls came whirring
out, protesting angrily at his disturbance. The owls had found
a hole in the tomb, and were bringing up a family inside The
groaning snoring sounds were their way of expressing anger
when disturbed by nocturnal passers-by. So another ghost was
laid.

14

His observations and his photographs were no less interesting
among the insects. He hada series showing the evolution of a
pupa into a peaceck butterfly,—the emerging of the butterfly, its
drying of its wings, its preliminary trials of those wings before
launching out on the new aérial life. Astonished once to see a
bee, gathering honey on the bee-orchis, recoil as if struck by a
deadly wound, he examined the orchis, and found that what
appeared new buds were really spiders, lying in wait for bees and
relying on their resemblance to the flower. Later in the season,
as the bees sought other plants, the spiders followed. Deprived
now of the aid of mimicry, the spider used its arts dodging
about the flower, playing at hide-and-seek with the bee, until it
got into a favourable position to leap out from its hiding-place
and strike. Mr. Duncan had even photographs of the ferocious
larvee of the dragon-fly and water-beetle fighting. Enlarged on
the screen, these fantastic creatures looked like nothing so much
as some of the scaly dragons painted on the walls of the Pavilion
meeting in pitched battle.

These photographs, it appeared, were all obtained in the New
Forest, where Mr. Duncan had spent many months stalking his
birds and insects. Among many adventures was one that landed
him up to the armpits in a bog, from which he was an hour in
extricating himself. Naturally Mr. Duncan had many interesting
things to say about the people who live in the Forest and their
customs, which include many survivals of Saxon times.
Further, he had many photographs of purely pictorial interest,
and these were of great artistic beauty.

An important warning issued by Mr. Duncan deserves the
widest publicity. What with professional collectors and the
mania of the modern teacher for sending children into the
country to collect flowers, eggs, and everything else, many of our
species of wild birds and wild flowers are now within measurable
distance of extinction. At the beginning of this year he noted
twenty-four different nests for making observations upon. When
the time came for those observations, he found that collectors
had taken every egg from every nest. He pleaded for some law
to stop these depredations. Mr. Duncan mentioned other facts
which went to show what grave mistakes are made by men when
they destroy the balance of nature by exterminating some species
in fancied self-interest. The people in the New Forest
complained that the deer did damage to their pasturage, and an
order was issued to exterminate the deer. Now they have not
half the pasturage they used to have, and the amount is growing
less and less. Gorse is encroaching on every side from lack of
the deer to eat the young growths and so keep it within bounds,

15

TUESDAY, NOVEMBER 20ru, 1906.

Kalahari Desert and @gamiland.

BY
Mr. H. W. HODSON.
Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

i is a far cry from the “ great thirsts” of the Kalahari desert,

where one cuts open the paunch of an animal to see if there
is anything drinkable inside, to a lantern lecture to the Natural
History Society in civilized Hove. The gap has recently been
traversed by Mr. H. W. Hodson, son of the Dr. Hodscn who
has been a well known member of the Hove Town Council. Mr.
Hodson is an official of the Colonial Office, and has been stationed
in the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Out there he has had a close
personal acquaintance with the various peoples and with the
country, while he seems to have had a good time hunting
game. He has even shot a lion. Mr. Hodson, now home
on holiday, told the Natural History Society of some of his
adventures and observations, adding greatly to the interest of
what he had to say by excellent photographs shown by the
lantern, Very modestly did he tell how he became possessed of
the splendid lion skin he was able to show.’ He heard a rare
commotion among the baboons in the forest, and learning that
it meant a lion was on the warpath, he went in search. He saw
the lion in a great rage. He had killed a baboon, and the other
baboons were teasing him, in revenge, and making him very
savage. But the first time he saw Mr. Hodson the lion,
apparently rather over-wrought, bolted. The second time, Mr.
Hodson came suddenly upon the great beast. He was fairly
cornered ; impenetrable scrub behind, a lion in front, growling,
and getting ready to spring. ‘TI felt,” said Mr. Hodson, “that
it was no place for me. I fired, and, luckily, my first shot did
all that was necessary.” And he gave a vocal imitation of the
noise the animal made as, checked in its spring, it rolled over and
died. Mr. Hodson had another curious hunting adventure,
which, he admitted, sounded like a traveller’s tale. He shot
a hartebeest, putting two bullets into it. The animal fell,
apparently dead. He went up to it, and started cutting its
throat. He had just severed the wind pipe, when he was called
away. On returning he was amazed to see the animal j ump up
and run off. Assuming that it could not go far, he and a

16

Bushman went in pursuit. They followed it, the animal
apparently always about to be taken, until they discovered they
were bushed and night was falling. They had to spend the
night in the forest, and return without the animal. Next day
he sent a man to try and find it, but the man never came back,
nor had he heard of him since. Whether the hartebeest killed
him, or whether he chose to desert, no one could say.

A tragic incident was touched upon by Mr. Hodson. He
was talking about the “‘ great thirst,” the suggestive name given
to a track of the desert where one journeyed for five or six days
without finding a drop of water. Crossing this terrible ‘ thirst,”’
he found the body of an Englishman. “The vultures and
jackals had got there before me, so I will say no more about
that.” Underneath the head was a letter. Mr Hodson read the
letter to his audience. Terrible in its pathetic brevity, it told
how the writer was dying of thirst, that he had no strength left,
and it gave directions for the disposal of certain property.
“Tamdying;.. . alittle water would have saved me.” But
the most pathetic portion of all was the dying man’s thought for
his relatives. He did not wish to harrow them with the know-
ledge of how he died ; ‘tell them I died of fever.”

Mr. Hodson was able to tell his audience much about the
Kalahari desert and of that beneficent provision of nature,
which, while depriving the land of water, allows for the growth
of melons, from which the natives obtain both food and drink.
He protested against the common idea that the Bushman was
altogether a degraded person ; he might not have much intellect,
but in knowledge of the conditions under which he lived and of
his surroundings he was not to be excelled. He knew all the
lore of nature around him. Another misconception to be
dispersed was that the ostrich seeks safety by burying its head in
the sand. He own experience was that as soon as you startled
an ostrich it was off at the speed of a motor-car, and was soon
out of sight.

Besides the Kalahari desert, Mr. Hodson had spent some
time in Wgamiland, which is as well watered as the desert is
dry, and his observations on tkese two districts supplied his
audience with much interesting matter.

The President of the Natural History Society, Dr. Harrison,
mentioned that Mr. Hodson has been elected a Fellow of the
Royal Geographical Society.

17

MONDAY, DECEMBER 10ru, 1906.

The Making of Scenery.

BY

Mr. H. EDMONDS, B.Sc.

Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

2 gaa Making of Scenery” formed the subject of a lecture

delivered at the Royal Pavilion to the members of the
Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical Society
by Mr. H. Edmonds, B.Sc. Dr. Harrison presided. The
lecture had little to do with the effect produced on hill and sea
by light and atmosphere; but it dealt in a very interesting
fashion with the preparation by Nature of the raw material of
beautiful effects. The awful powers of Nature in transforming
the appearance of the world’s surface was Mr. Edmonds’ theme.
In illustration of his points, he shewed a number of excellent
pictures on the screen, many of which had been prepared for the
meetings of the British Association. Some of the scenic effects
portrayed were very remarkable.

THURSDAY, JANUARY 17ru, 1907.

Che Variation in Domestic Fotuls.

BY

Mr. GEORGE FOXALL.

Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

YA7HICH came first, the hen or the egg? Addressing the

members of the Natural History Society on ‘ The
Variatiou in Domestic Fowls,” Mr. George Foxall confessed that
he had nothing to add to the solution of a problem which has
worried man ever since he could think, but he could say some-
thing about the beginnings of new species of hens and eggs.
At first sight one would as soon expect the learned members of

18

the Brighton and Hove Natural History and Philosophical
Society to listen to a lecture on the domestic mangle as upon the
domestic fowl. The fowl is so very suburban and back-yardian,
unhappily for those who live in the suburbs and next to those
back yards. But it did not take Mr. Foxall long to convince
his hearers that in the study of the domestic fowl there is an
enormous amount of natural history and quite a considerable
amount of philosophy. The fowl, so one gathered from Mr.
Foxall, is one of those things that man has decided Nature could
not create properly by herself, and man has set himself to assist
Nature in making fowls as he considers fowls ought to be made.
The fowl is wonderfully docile to this sort of treatment. A
dozen years of judicious assistance to Nature will often evolve
an entirely new species of fowl, not a mongrel, but a pure-
blooded variety that will go on breeding its own kind. But,
alas, Mr. Foxall had to confess that the breeder’s successes in the
eternal war with Nature which constitutes the fowl breeder’s
life are only temporary. Nature is too strong for man, and she
wins in the end. He was convinced that all these new breeds
were doomed to what was a comparatively quick extinction, and
that Nature would pursue her undisturbed course, creating fowls,
of the half-dozen elementary types that she bred in the Indian
jungles when the natives of Great Britain demanded no other
clothing but a coat of blue paint.

At present, however, man finds it a highly interesting and
lucrative operation inventing new breeds of fowls. He decides
that one class of fowl would look much better if it resembled a
swan, and he matches birds of long necks, until at length a bird
is produced that seems trying to emulate a giraffe. Unhappily,
if these elongated creatures are left to themselves, they speedily
revert to their original short necked type. Or else man, with an
eye to his dinner, sets himself to enlarge the plump, meaty
breast, or extend the length of the back. An artist will seek to
develope feathers in some particular position, on the head, for
instance, till he gets his fowl to resemble a chrysanthemum.
He will provide special ‘‘moustache cups’”’ for those curled
darlings, so that, in drinking. they should not get their fine
feathers or heavy beards put out of curl. If he is very fastidious,
he will eschew all fowls that erect their tails above an angle of
sixty degrees, and mate together only those birds who earry their
tails at the more graceful angle of forty-five degrees. And so on
and so on, through all kinds of variations, Mr. Foxall showed
that he was familiar with all the intricate branches of the
subject, and, what is more, he gave the Society some useful tips
in breeding. But he advised the man who did not thoroughly
understand the subject to shun fowl-farming like the plague.

One point where man can improve on nature much to man’s
advantage was told by Mr. Foxall to a grateful audience. That

i — ..

19
is, that to crow in the morning, the rooster must stand on tiptoe
and stretch out his neck, Hence, if you do not wish your

slumbers disturbed by the early bird, put his perch under a shelf
too low to let him stretch himself. Then he is silent.

THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 21sr, 1907.

Che Moon.

BY
Dr ert a Aig F's INA sg kt oie

Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

lecturer commenced by saying it was difficult to decide
which was the more awe inspiring—the study of the
marvellously minute or the consideration of the gigantically great ?
On a previous occasion he had the pleasure of dwelling upon the
microscope and its wonderful revelations of things that were
small ; to-night he hoped to direct the attention of his: audience
to things that were gigantically great.

If the Moon were suddenly struck out of existence, what
would happen? There would be a wail of woe from all the
tidal harbours in the world, for the vessels without could not get
in and those within could not get out. Commerce in consequence
would be at a standstill. So the Moon might be said to be of
commercial interest as well as a great friend to the poet and
painter.

The lecturer then proceeded to illustrate by slides and
verbal explanation the origin of the Moon, how it was “ cast
off’’ from the Earth in very early times owing to its terrific
revolution on its axis—turning once in three hours instead of
having a day and night in twenty-four. The Moon was flung
off and for the same reasons that the drops fly from a mop that
is rapidly spun round or a stone leaves the sling.

How the Moon increased its distance till it arrived at its
present one and how such is measured by the astronomer were
then very carefully gone into, the lecturer saying he felt that
after what he had said he felt quite certain all his audience
would be able to go home and do it at once.

20

The phases of the Moon were shown by diagrams first, but
afterwards by the use of a large white ball, which was illuminated
by a stage lime-light, so as to enable those present to grasp
thoroughly the causes that led up to the quarter Moon, full Moon
and the waning Moon.

The absence of air on the surface of the Moon, the force of
gravity on the Moon—6lbs. on the Earth only weighing 1b. on
the Moon—how the Moon was weighed and the terrific heat and
the terrific cold experienced by the surface were all liberally
touched upon, and the consequences of such fully discussed.

The rate our luminary travelled in space, viz, three
thousand feet a second, and its continued falling towards the
earth of about a twentieth of an inch in the same unit of time,
were then spoken about, and the reason afforded why, though it
kept falling at this rate, still it never came upon us from above:
an apparent paradox, though one capable of very easy expla-
nation to those who gave a few minutes’ attention to the subject.

The structure of the surface and the superficial appearances
of the Moon were then spoken about, and a series of photographs
exhibited, some of which were taken by telescopes of quite
recent manufacture, which showed what an improvement had
been effected in modern times in comparison with the very first
photograph ever taken of our luminary, which the lecturer was
able to show them on the screen. Numerous details of mountain
structure were also illustrated by the lantern, a large collection
of slides being employed, and, what made the matter of great
interest, the actual number of miles across was supplied in
several instances, one in particular being exactly that of London
to Brighton. How these mountains were supposed to have been
formed in early days was not the least interesting part of the
lecture, for it brought home to the audience what gigantically
great eruptions must have taken place in those prehistoric times.

After mentioning the part played by the Moon in Eclipses,
and the explaining of the difference between an eclipse of the
Sun and the Moon, the lecturer concluded by showing a
mechanical slide invented by Professor Shackleton, which pro-
vided his audience with the representation of a real eclipse of
the Sun, which he said he was able to do at much less expense
than going to remote parts of the’ Earth to witness, and with
far less fatigue.

21

a

THURSDAY, MARCH 21sr, 1907.

—— ____

Common Parasites of Cat and Dog.

BY

MetGatt. LIVESE ¥) MRC V.s.,
Illustrated by Specimen Lantern Slides.

ARASITES. What is a parasite? Not merely one animal
living upon another. Because a fox lives upon rabbits and
poultry he is not therefore a parasite! One animal is only said
to be a parasite upon another when the size of the consumer is
small or even inconsiderable when compared with that of its victim.
As a rule, animals of a lower order are more often parasitic upon
those of a higher order, and not the higher upon the lower.

But every small animal found upon a larger one is not
necessarily a true parasite. Thus there is mutualism where two
animals may live together and benefit result to both; commensalism
where only one finds benefit, but no injury results to the host
which acts as a harbour of refuge or supplies most favourable
conditions of existence ; true parasitism where again only one of
the two benefits, but it benefits to the extent of shelter and
sustenance at the expense and to the detriment of its host.

Parasitism is very common throughout the natural world,
and we see it on all sides, and the study of parasitology is
elucidating many facts concerning disease. I feed only mention
the comparatively new science of bacteriology to remind you
how science has developed during the last few years, and proved
that many conditions, which we call disease both in man and
animals, do not arise, as had been believed for scores of years,
from purely physical causes but from the presence of minute
vegetable organisms, bacteria or more commonly called microbes.
Also let me remind you how such diseases as malaria, supposed
at one time to be due to bad climate, is now proved to be due to
minute animal parasites in the blood, having been inoculated
into the system by the bite of the mosquito.

I am not going to speak of these minute parasites to-night,
but will confine my attention to those which hold higher places
in the natural orders, and of course I only want to draw your
attention to a few of those parasites which are commonly to be
found upon dogs and cats in this country. The number is very
large for these animals, and the dog especially makes an excellent
host and pays dearly for the privilege. By this statement I

22

hope you will not think that I mean the dog is so full of parasites
that he is not a fit companion to man. Such an idea is foolish.

AntHRopopa. InsEcTA.

Pulea Serraticeps. Life History. Belongs to the order
Insecta and the order Aphaniptera (no wings), which is properly
a suborder of the Diptera or two-winged insects. They have two
serrated mandibles used as prickers, two jaws or maxille and a
single rigid tongue. Rudimentary wings in the form of plates,
size 1-4 m.m.; remarkable power of jumping. Live on mammals
and birds and pass from one host to another, female lays about
twenty eggs in dusty corners of houses, or on any dust heap.
Eggs hatch in about a week to a thirteen segmented larva with
no legs, but having bristles. In ten days to a fortnight the larva
spins a cocoon. From this emerges the young flea, which in
another fortnight after changing in colour from white to brown
becomes a perfect insect and at once proceeds in quest of a new
host to torment.

Nourishment by sucking blood. Distinctive marks. Species.

Lice. Pediculi. Dog has two, cat one.

Haematopinus piliferus, or true dog louse, 1-2 m.m. long,
varies in colour from white to brown or purple. It buries head
in the skin and sucks blood and causes a great deal of itching in
most animals, but not so much so in dogs. Seen most on the
shoulders, throat, lips and ears, especially in sporting dogs.
Female lays a large number of eggs or nits, which are glued to
the hair. Third generation from one female in two months may
reach as many as 125,000 young lice !

Trichodectes latus, or broad-headed dog louse, does not suck
blood but devours the scurf and skin and causes only very little
irritation. They are very small and often escape observation.
They are very interesting in connection with the tapeworms.

Cxuass : ARACHNIDA.

Order: Acarnia. These give rise to a disease of the host
named Acariasis. Some of the families of this order are merely
casual visitors, some eat the skin debris and hair and some are
blood suckers. Many only cause slight trouble and the disease
does not extend beyond the point of attack, whilst others, by
rapidly increasing in numbers, by biting many times and by the
poison they carry into the skin, their burrows in the skin and
the intense irritation they set up cause a serious state of disease
which is called scabies, or more commonly mange. One of the
more simple (or non-psoric) Acariasis is that of the

(a) Ixodidac or Ticks (wood mites). The common dog tick
or Ixodesricinus. They have been recognised for many hundreds
of years, and Aristotle speaks of them as Kunoraistes or dog

il a le i ln

23

tormentors. They frequent woody places and hang from plants
ready to attach themselves to any animal that may chance to
pass. Taking a firm hold with the legs the insect implants the
rostrum into the skin, where it remains firmly held in place by
the retrograde teeth. So firm is it that if one tries to pull the
insect off the head will be broken off and remain in the wound.
The female gorges herself with blood, often swelling to ten times
her normal size (sometimes as big as an olive). When satiated
she withdraws her rostrum and falls to the ground, where under
a stone or bit of wood she lays a heap of eggs and then dies.
Hatching lasts from 15 to 20 days. The male is brown, the
female orange coloured, except when full of blood, when she
becomes purplish. These insects have a special breathing plate
behind the last two legs.

(b) The next family, Trombidiidae, furnishes one parasite of
special interest, Trombidium holosericeum, or red mite, or harvest
bug. The mature insect lives on grass land and in woods. The
female lays her eggs in July, and the larva which emerges will
attach itself to any mammal. Moles and rabbits suffer most,
but many dogs and many men suffer also, and cats are even
attacked. The specimens shown were taken from my own dog
after she had been playing in the garden. They set up a terrible
itching by implanting the rostrum in the skin and sucking. The
insect is a bright orange red, and when first seen is about the
size of the eye of a small needle. The completion of its develop
ment does not take place on its host, whom it leaves when
satiated.

(c) Sarcoptidae. This is one of the most important families
and is the one which furnishes us with the cause of true mange.
This was named by the Greeks psora or itch, and by the Romans
scabies (from scabere, to scratch), and is known in England by
many names, such as itch, scald, yuek, and mange. _ Its history
is common both to man and animals. In Leviticus we read that
that most expert sanitarian and M.O.H., Moses, excluded mangy
animals from sacrifice as unclean. In Hannibal’s campaign
against the Gauls both men and horses suffered from it. But its
nature was first discovered by an Arab physician, Avenzoar, who
lived in the 12th Century. The insect was only determined
finally to be a sarcopt in 1834 by a Corsican, Renneir.

Some idea of the power the disease has of spreading is
formed when it is seen that each female lays about fifteen eggs—
ten female and five male. These in fifteen days are mature and
begin to reproduce their species, so that at this rate from one
single female in 90 days (about three months) may be produced
1,000,000 females and 500,000 males !

The Sarcoptidae are sub-divided into Sarcoptes, Peoroptes,
and Symbiotes, and of each there are many varieties.

24

Only the Sarcoptes and the Symbiotes are commonly found
on dogs and cats.

(a) Sarcoptes. In man, in dogs, in cats (in the skin).
(b) Symbiotes (Choriopties). In the ear only.

(ad) Demodex. Follicular mange.
Life history of each was described.

VERMES.

The worms of the dog may be divided into two classes—
round and flat.
Round worms or NEMATODES.

Ascaris Marginata and Ascaris Mystac (of cat). In stomach

and bowel.

Anchylostomum Trigonocéphalum.
Trichocephalus Depressinsculus.
Spiroptera Sanguinolenta.

liver.

Kustrongylus Gigas.
Strongylus Vasorum and Spusillus.

vessels.

Filarice immitis.

In the small intestine.

In the coecum.
In tumours of the stomach and

In the kidney.

In the heart and blood

In the heart and blood vessels.

Life history of each was shortly described.

VERMES.

CESsTODES.

Intermediate host and habitat.

(T. Serrata, about 3ft., 34 to Cyst. pisiformis. Hares
| 38 hooks in two rows. and wild rabbits.
T. Marginata, 2 yards, 30 to Cyst. Tennicollis. Vari-
44 hooks, segments short ous parts of oxen.
and broad.
| T. Coenurus, 2-3ft., 22 to 32 Coenurus Cerebralis.
Dog- hooks Brain of sheep.
| T. Echinococcus, 5 m.m., 28 Echinococcus Veterino-
to 50, 3 segments. rum. Livers of ox
and man,
T. Canina (dipylidium canium), CryptoTrichodectis. Dog
5-25in., 4 rows hooks, 2 louse and flea.
L pores.
Cat—T. Crassicollis, 20in., 34. Cyst. fasciolaris. Livers

of rats and mice.

A short life history of each was given.

25

These worms are peculiar in not being able to complete
their existence in one host. The chance of an egg becoming a
mature worm is almost infinitesimal, although one worm may
produce considerably over a million eggs in less than a year.

Each egg in order to develop must be taken into the system
of an intermediate host of a definite species, there to develop
partly and lie quiescent until its host becomes a prey to the
dog, when its development may be completed. The fact that the
intermediate. or cystic stage is passed in many animals used for
human food should be sufficient warning to us to see that the
meat inspection of our cities is rigidly carried out by really
competent persons.

THURSDAY, APRIL 18ru, 1907.
Garthquakes.
BY

Meee ne HORA, B.A., B.Sc.

! aes lecturer, in opening his address, stated candidly that he

could not offer the Society any researches of his own on the
important subject of earthquakes, but as he was addressing a
distinctly cultured audience he proposed treating it from a
scientific rather than a popular point of view. As regards the
historical side, he stated that the earliest records of earthquakes
were to be found in our Bible, and read passages wherein earth-
quakes were mentioned, such as Moses receiving the law on
Sinai, the story of Korah, Dathan and Abiram, the fall of
Jericho, the terrible earthquake in the reign of Uzziah King of
Judah, and also the scene during Christ’s crucifixion. The old
Greek and Latin writers often alluded to the phenomenon and
even put forward probable theories to explain it, but the modern
and systematic study of the subject started about the beginning
of the Nineteenth Century and is connected with the names of
Professor Alexis Perrey, of Dijon, Mr. Robert Mallet and his son,
and Professor Milne in England, and Major Dutton and Professor
See in United States, and great results followed from the work
of the Seismological Society of Japan, established in 1880.

A slide was then projected on the screen giving Mallet and
Milne’s definition of an earthquake as follows :—An earthquake
is the transit of a wave or waves of elastic compression or
elastic contortion in any direction from vertically upwards to

26

horizontally, in any azimuth, through the crust and surface of
the earth, from any centre of impulse, or from more than one,
and which may be attended with sound and tidal waves,
dependent upon the impulse and upon circumstances of position
as to land and sea, This definition was illustrated by a diagram-
matic representation of the path of a typical earthquake, and
underneath was given a glossary of the more important terms
connected with earthquake study, as follows:—(1) Seism—an
earthquake ; (2) Seismology—the science of earthquakes; (8)
Seismometers —instruments to measure the extent of the horizontal
and vertical components of an earthquake ; (4) Seismograph—
record of an earthquake motion traced out by a style on a
moving smoked plate or by a spot of light on a moving roll of
sensitive paper; (5) Seismoloques—catalogues giving details of
all recorded earthquakes ; (6) Centrum, Focal Cairty or Origin—
positions in earth’s crust from which the elastic waves started ;
(7) LEpicentrum—point vertically above centrum; (8) Seismic
Vertical—line joining origin and epicentrum ; (9) Wave Paths—
lines radiating from focus; (10) Angle of Emergence—angle
made by wave path and the horizon; (11) Isoseismic or Coseismic
lines—lines of equal mechanical effect, theoretically they would
be circles in a homogeneous medium, in reality they are irregular
curves; (12) Meizoseismic Area—area of maximum destruction ;
(18) Bradyseism—slow secular upheavals of earth.

The next slide showed the earliest Seismometer, viz.,
Choko’s, a Chinese invention of a.p. 186,—really a pendulum
instrument, arranged so that the swinging of a pendulum would
cause a ball to move in a definite direction through a dragon’s
mouth into that of an expectant frog’s, who gratefully acknow-
ledged the receipt of the ball by wagging his head up and down
for some minutes. Another slide gave diagrammatic represen-
tations of the pendulum types of Seismometers,—(1) the long
simple pendulum; (2) the duplex pendulum, as used by Mr.
Gray and Professor Ewing; (3) the horizontal component
recorder ; (4) the vertical component recorder; (5) Darwin’s
bifilar pendulum with moving spot of light; and, lastly, Pro-
fessor Milne’s perpetual Seismometer and recorder.

Mr. Hora then discussed the premonitory symptoms of
earthquakes, such as physiological effects on birds and animals,
effects on springs, and the sea, subterranean noise, &c¢., and
stated that though such symptoms of coming seismic activity
were exceedingly vague, yet well authenticated prognostications
were recorded. The effects of a typical earthquake were then
detailed—the minute vibrations of a period of 1-5th to 1-20th
of a second, the shock itself with a period of one or two or more
seconds, and the after shocks ; moreover, the lecturer remarked
that the vibrations were generally performed in different azimuths, ~
there being a twisting movement as well as a vertical and

<i ———s'-. -”

27

horizontal one ; also, the number of shocks in one locality varied
enormously, 1,000 shocks a day have been recorded, whilst
Calabria was affected by shocks for ten years after the great
earthquake of 1783. The amplitude of vibration in a horizontal

- direction varied from a fraction of a millimetre to about 70 mms.

(three inches), the vertical amplitude being much less, never
more than 10 mms. The velocity of the earthquake wave
depended on the strata through which it travelled and the
intensity of the shock and the distance from the origin, varying
from a few hundreds to several thousand feet per second, The
lecturer remarked that the characteristic sound which often
accompanied an earthquake might be due to the folding and
contortion of strata or by the rapid vibrations of the earth’s
surface being communicated to the air and air waves being formed.
The effect of earthquakes on land and sea were then described
at length, such as faulting (the nature of which was explained
by diagram), cracking of the earth, the overturning of buildings,
the ejection of liquids and gases from fissures thus formed, the
damming of rivers, and the stopping and starting of water
springs, and the remarkable but terrible effects of the so-called
tidal waves. Details of numerous examples to illustrate these
effects were given.
Slides were then shown of earthquake effects, some illus-
trating cracking and even contortion effects on buildings, whilst
others served to illustrate the destructive effects of recent earth-
quakes at San Francisco, Valparaiso, and Kingston (Jamaica).
A short account was given of the numerous mythological and
pseudo-scientific explanations of earthquake phenomena—such as
motions of mythical monsters within the earth, also supposed
chemical effects, such as sulphur being burnt, imprisoned air, &e.
At the present day only two theories held the field, and of these

one seemed more or less dependent on the other, Before

discussing these, Mr. Hora asked the audience to carefully
examine Professor Milne’s map showing distribution of earth-
quakes in space, and he projected the map on the screen,
drawing special attention to the fact that, with the exception of
the Alpine and South Himalayan regions, all areas of seismic
activity corresponded with modern volcanic activity, and that the
400 known volcanoes all lie within a distance of fifty miles from
the sea coast, and lastly that the highest mountains as a rule
faced correspondingly deep depressions in the ocean. He also
drew attention to the varied nature of the ocean beds, the
mountainous character of which seem to surpass that of the earth.

Of these two theories, that of the explosion of steam within
the crust of the earth, generally below the ocean bed near the
shore, was hinted at by Aristotle, Lucretius, and Pliny, and
definitely stated by Strabo ; it is alluded to by Shakespeare, but
in modern times was put forward definitely by Mr. Robert Mallet

28

in the early part of the nineteenth century. As evidence of the
porosity of the earth’s crust, Mr. Hora drew attention to the
celebrated Florentine experiment of the sixteenth century, in
which the water contained in a thick hollow spherical gold shell
was forced through the solid by decreasing the volume of the °
hollow interior by changing the sphere’s shape. Moreover, the
lecturer remarked, still more wonderful were the experiments of
D’Aubigny, who 40 years ago showed that water by capillary
attraction only could be made to penetrate almost anything.
Thus it could be easily understood that a constant supply of
water would be passing gradually through the ocean bottom into
the solid crust below, where it would be converted into super-
heated steam at an enormous pressure.

The theory not only accounted satisfactorily for the remark-
able coincidence of regions of volcanic activity with those of
seismic activity, but it gave a very beautiful explanation of
mountain formation.

The lecturer drew attention here to the modern view of the
earth’s interior, viz., that it was probably a solid core and a thin
solid crust, but that between the crust and the core might be a
thin layer of molten lava, ready to flow out on to the earth
wherever there was a deep fissure or volcanic break which
permitted its egress. Elie de Beaumont, about 1830, sought to
explain the formation of mountains by the contraction of the
earth’s crust due to secular cooling—the “dried apple skin”
theory as it was sometimes termed—a theory which, though it
had held the field for many years and was simple to understand
and apparently supported by many mechanical experiments to
illustrate it, yet seemed likely to be abandoned, after the destruc-
tive criticism levelled against it by the Rev. O. K. Fisher (in his
book ‘‘ Physics of the Earth’s Crust”), Professor Suess, Sir
Archibald Geikie, and others, in favour of the idea that mountain
chains have arisen from subvolcanic explosions of steam, and
‘that during seismic activity a tangential thrust towards the land
from the sea causes the lava below the crust to be forced up near
the seashore, and thus a chain of mountains results. Slides were
shown to illustrate this idea, and also how table lands or elevated
plateaux could be explained in the same manner. Mr. Hora
stated that as a corollary all mountain ranges must be of volcanic
origin, and to this statement the Alps and Himalayas seemed
exceptions, but it was only right to state that these are quite
recent upheavals and that the original volcanic axes may be
concealed and buried beneath the thick masses of the nummulitic
limestone which make up these mountains.

The rival theory, originally stated about 1831 by Bous-
singault, and now supported by a large band of seismologists,
such as Professor Milne in England and Major Dutton in the
United States, is known as the ‘‘ Tectonic” theory and supposes

29

that seismic activity was due to faulting of strata chiefly in
regions where recent secular upheavals have occurred and where
the gradients are very steep (so-called ‘‘ monoclinal folding’”’).
The supporters of this theory state that steam explosions may
cause some (but only a few) of the milder earthquakes, but that
it is inconceivable that such tremendous effects and these spread
over such large areas could be produced by the agency of sub-
terranean steam only. Mr. Hora thought that the weakness of
this latter theory consisted in the fact that faulting and disloca-
tions of strata seemed symptoms only of some still more mighty
forces at work within the earth’s crust, and such forces its
supporters maintained were due to secular contraction —a theory
which, as stated above, was hardly tenable in the light of modern
researches.

The lecture was concluded by a few remarks on submarine
volcanoes and bradyseismic movements. As regards the former
a slide was shown of a typical submarine eruption as it appeared
at sea, and the lecturer remarked that they were very common
indeed, almost as common as terrestrial eruptions. He then
showed a slide of the remarkable island which rose from the
Mediterranean Sea in 1831 and remained in existence only three
weeks,—it was known as ‘‘Graham’s Island,’ and evidently
resulted from a submarine eruption. To illustrate bradyseismic
movements, Mr. Hora showed a woodcut of the celebrated
remains of the temple of “Jupiter Serapis” on the coast of
Italy, and explained that there must have been at least five
alternate subsidences and elevations within the last 2,000 years.

Darwin’s coral reef theory afforded a splendid example of
slow subsidence of the ocean bed, and a slide was shown to
illustrate the three stages of a coral reef’s evolution. Having
explained that corals could only live in salt water at a tempera-
ture never below 68° F., nor at a depth greater than 90ft. from
the sea surface, the question arose—“ How came it that numerous
coral islands lie studded in groups in all the great oceans,
especially the South Pacific?” Darwin suggested that a
‘‘ fringing ’’ reef was first formed near some island and this by
subsidence was converted into a ‘‘barrier’’ reef, and when the
island disappeared altogether by further subsidence an ‘atoll ”’
or ring of coral only remained, hence the atoll was the tomb-
stone of a departed island. This theory, despite the attacks
made upon it by Agassiz, Sir John Murray, and other naturalists,
had been verified by borings made recently at Funafuti, and
although there was evidence now that some coral reefs had arisen
by deposition on submarine volcanoes or on shore platforms or
submarine flats formed by the erosion of pre-existing land
surfaces, and not by subsidence, still a large number of them
certainly came into existence in the way that Darwin had
suggested.

30

THURSDAY, MAY 16ru, 1907.

EXTRACT OF A PAPER ON

Pigmny Flint Implements Found near
Brighton.

BN:

Ma. EH. 5. POMS.

IVE years ago I had the pleasure of reading to this Society

a paper on “Some Prehistoric Camping Grounds near
Brighton,”’ and, as that paper was stated to be but a preliminary
report of my local investigations, it may be thought that I am
about to occupy you with a further instalment of the same
subject. Let me assure you that this is far from my intentions.
I may say, though, that I and my friends have paid considerable
attention to our local camping grounds since the reading of my
paper, and, as we are being constantly rewarded with interesting
discoveries and new material, the period for the presentation of
anything like a final report to this Society gets more hazy every
day. In many respects it seems fortunate that we are thus
unable to trouble you with anything but preliminary or imperfect
reports on our periodic discoveries.

During the course of the evening brief allusion to the local
camping grounds will be made ; but my present subject has to
do with discoveries markedly different to those brought before
you on the last occasion. ‘‘Pigmy Flint Implements found
near Brighton” is the subject for this evening, and the first
thing I have to say in connection with them is that the word
‘‘Piomy ” is applied, not to the prehistoric people who made and
used them, but to the implements themselves. When you are
told that some of these little tools are so small that 64 taken
together weigh less than half an ounce, I think you will agree
that they thoroughly deserve their name.

In the foregoing slides we have seen the simple artificial
chip and the various kinds of flake instruments commonly found
with the larger stone tools and human remains of prehistoric
man in many parts of the world, and their use has been made
pretty clear owing to the same types having continued to be
made by savage tribes down to the present day.

From the Associated ‘ Find” near Brighton.

TYPICAL CORES.

THESIFLINT AXE OR ADZE.™!!

TYPICAL PIGMIES.

SELECTED FLAKES.

(Scale shown, Three Inches.)

& Py

31

The remarkable pigmy implements which I am about to
describe have not such a world-wide distribution. With possibly
one exception they have not been found associated with human
remains or with the ordinary large stone tools of prehistoric man.
Again, no modern savage uses anything like them, so we are left
to conjecture the purposes for which they were made.

Having said this much, let us have a look at a comparative
series of the pigmies, I repeat they are not found the world
over. So far, they have only been recorded from the Vindhya
Hills, India, and a few places in Palestine, Egypt, North Africa,
Spain, France, and Belgium. In England also their localities
are not numerous, the principal being in East Lancashire,
Lincolnshire, and Sussex. Though the spots where they are
found are few, it is encouraging to note that, wherever discovered,
they exist in large numbers.

Of the specimens before us, the first thing I have to draw
attention to is their size. The smallest in the top row is
yin. long, the largest, in the bottom row, does not exceed 7% of
an inch. All are made from artificial flakes and each specimen
has one of its edges covered-with secondary chipping, thus
showing they were intended. for some special purpose. The first
row is from Scunthorpe in‘ Lincolnshire, the middle Indian, and
the bottom from Lakenheath in Suffolk. The remarkable point
about them is that the implements from various places are so
much alike in shape and size that, if a representative series were
placed in a box and shaken up, it would be an impossible task to
reclassify them according to locality.

The Indian varieties were found in the caves and rock
shelters among the Vindhya Hills in places difficult of access and
unknown to the. ordinary traveller. Some were found in the
alluvium at the mouth of the caves, where they had been washed
out and were caught in the ledges of the rock. Within the caves
they were found in the uppermost strata, while, immediately
beneath, but separated from them, were larger implements,
different in size, kind and style. Crescent-shaped pigmy imple-
ments were found in the grave mounds of the neighbourhood of
the caves, leading one to suppose that the inhabitants of the
caves, who made these implements, built the mounds and here
buried their dead.*

This shows us a typical series of the Vindhya Hills “ find.”
In 1, 2, 3 rows are the various forms of the pigmy tools, in 4 the
long symmetrical simple flakes, in 5 the rough flakes. Rows
4 and 5 are examples of the waste flakes struck off in obtaining
forms suitable for conversion into pigmies, and in row 6 are the
cores from which the chips were made. The latter are extremely
small, and the next slide shows us six of these which are in the
Brighton Museum.

* Smithsonian Report, 1892, p. 456.

32

Here we see the same forms of minute tools found in Central
and Southern France.

With few exceptions the English pigmies have been found
confined to patches of sandy ground from 30 acres in extent
down to 100 square yards ; and, owing to their being discovered
on the surface and unaccompanied by any of the larger tools
typical either of Early or Late Stone Age man, it has been found
impossible to determine with certainty the true position they
occupy in the prehistoric periods of the countries to which they
belong. It is true that a few large examples of the same type
have been found in the French caverns with the remains of
palzolithic man, but recent discoveries seem to indicate that the
true pigmies were made in the Later Stone Age or Neolithic
period.

As the question of the uses to which these small tools were
put is still open, one cannot pass it by without taking a personal
‘‘pot-shot.” Many probable suggestions have been brought
forward in answer to this query. It is thought they may have
been used for tattooing, as barbs for arrows or harpoons, as
fishhooks, etc. Many of the larger specimens would have made
most excellent arrowpoints, and that the same forms were so
used in late paleolithic times we have unmistakable evidence in
this slide.* This shows us two lumbar vertebre of a young
reindeer found in the Grotto of Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France.
Both are pierced with one of these flint points, thus showing
that the animal was shot in the back by the cave men, who
kindly left the arrow points in situ so that we might have some-
thing to enlighten us in these studious days.

The most interesting discovery of flint implements yet
recorded frém Sussex is that made by Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott on
the rock ledges in front of the cliff caves at Hastings. Our next
slide shews the excavation of what is presumed to be an ancient
refuse heap situated on the rock ledge just under the mouth of
one of the Hastings caves. Here it was that Mr. Lewis Abbott
found a large number of the various types of pigmy flint
instruments. Associated with them were hundreds of flint
flakes, cores, hollow scrapers, cooking-stones, pottery, and the
bones of the shorthorn ox, pig, horse, sheep, goat, dog, wolf, fox,
hare, rabbit, badger, birds, fishes and skells.

Here are shown some of the Hastings finds. First we have
the pigmies, some of which have been mounted by Mr. Abbott
to show what they might have been used for; drilled bones,
probably used as ornaments; and a flint core, showing us how
prehistoric man failed in his attempt to get off a flake whic
would have made an admirable pigmy tool.

* La Gaule avant les Gaulois, par. M. Alexandre Bertrand, 1891.
p- 97, figs. 76 and 77.

33

Mr. Lewis Abbott says that ‘‘ One or two fragments of bone
showed signs of carving. One was a well-made stiletto, another
a portion of a needle. The most interesting circumstance
connected with the bones was that the flint wedges were found
in situ in the bones, as they were used for splitting them. (One
of these is shown on the screen.) The whole of the marrow
bones were thus split for marrow and the skulls for brains ; and
eyen bones which contain no marrow were often similarly
reduced, possibly for either boiling to extract grease or for use in
making bone tools.”*

No large tools, such as the flint axe, were found with the
pigmies at Hastings.

Pigmy implements have also been found at Fairlight by Mr.
Ruskin Butterfield, at Pulborough by Mr. Garraway Rice, F.5.A.,
and at four places near Horsham by Messrs. C. J. Attree and
E. J. G. Piffard. Compared with the other finds in England,
‘Sussex has therefore proved very rich in this interesting group
of diminutive flint tools.

Now let me give you the history of my discovery of pigmy
flint instruments near Brighton. A year or two ago I was
particularly interested in that class of neolithic tool known as
hollow scrapers. These, which I fully explained in my last paper,
are artificial chips of flint, with little notches chipped out of
their sides, used for scraping objects of wood or bone, such as
the shafts of arrows or bone needles. At the time of which I
speak I had occasion to visit a sandpit near Brighton in connection
with the discovery of antiquities other than stone tools. But,
haying let my mind run riot on hollow scrapers, even the
discovery of more important remains did not prevent me from
keeping a sharp look out for them whenever I happened to be in
a likely locality.

The sand pit alluded to has a capping of clayey mould on
an average about 2ft. deep. In order that this mould shall not
mix with the sand, it is removed in large patches by the work-
man and the top of the deep bed of sand is thus exposed. I
cannot show you a slide or give you a detailed descripion of the
sand-pit, otherwise the secret which I am unfortunately compelled
to keep will be mine no longer. Let me therefore say that, in
walking over the top of the sand from which the surface mould
had been removed, I picked up a very small hollow scraper and
several unworked flint chips. These gave me the clue to a new
site, and when visiting the spot again I found other minute flint
chips, including one, very like a tiny knife blade, with beautiful
secondary working all the way down the thick edge and on the
two ends of the sharp edge as well. It was quite unlike anything

* «< Primeval Refuse Heaps at Hastings,’’ by W. J. Lewis Abbott,
F.G.S. ; Natural Science, August, 1897, p. 95.

34

I had found before. Shortly after, when sending some things to
the British Museum, I enclosed this minute tool together with
the hollow scraper, asking that they should be shown to Mr. Read
for his opinion as to whether they were pigmy implements. The
answer was that Mr. Read considers them true pigmies. There-
fore, knowing that wherever pigmy implements occurred they
were generally to be found in large numbers, you may imagine
that my zeal for the ordinary hollow scraper was suddenly
eclipsed and that it was not long before I was again in that sand
pit assiduously hunting for this new kind of minute tools.
Several were turned up at each visit, and I found they occurred
over the whole area of the rising ground where the sand had
been exposed, that is to say, in a space about 200 by 50 yards.
But an enthusiastic member of our Archeological Club has,
quite independently of me, still further extended this area, and
we now know that the pigmies occur along the rise of the land
for a distance of nearly a 1,000 yards. In this respect the site
agrees with the finds made in other parts of England, where the
productive areas range from 30 acres in extent down to
100 square yards.

Such was the origin of my discovery of pigmies near
Brighton. Ever since I and one or two friends have followed it
up with the utmost enthusiasm. Not content with looking over
the top of the sand and the heaps of refuse mould, I closely
examined the sides of the sandpit to discover, if possible, some
of the pigmies in situ. In this, too, I met with success, for
several were pulled out about 18in. deep in the capping of the
mould, whilst others were found protruding lower down at the
point where the mould and sand meet. Flakes were also met
with at the same levels.

Having ascertained this much, the mode of procedure next
introduced was the poking of the sandpit’s sides with the end of
one’s walking stick. This, too, was surprisingly successful, for at
one point in the side of the old roadway leading into the sandpit
the walking stick exposed a layer of artificial flint chips about
2ft. Gin. from the surface and a little below the level of the top
of the sand.

Investigation with hands and walking stick was ener-
getically pursued, and the result of this prehistoric method of
excavation was beyond one’s most ardent hopes. Handful after
handful of the flakes were pulled out, and it was observed that
they were lying on the bottom of a small basin-shaped pit
scooped out of the mould down into the sand beneath. This
slide shews a-typical selection of the best flakes.

Soon after operations were commenced a “pigmy” was
pulled out with a handful of these flakes; then came the cores
from which the flakes were struck ; burnt flints used in primitive
cooking; then more pigmies; scrapers; hollow scrapers; now

:

85

something fairly large, namely, a flint axe of purely neolithic
type, which, I think I am correct in stating, has never before
been found in actual or indisputable association with pigmy flint
implements.

When the spoils were brought home and laid out it was
found that as many as seventy pigmies had been turned out
from the bottom of this shallow hole. A representative series is
shown on the screen. These are the scrapers found. One is
broken by fire. In form they are long or spatulate, and the
same type occurred with the Hastings find.

Nearly 2,000 flakes came out of the hole, and the interest
of these was considerably enhanced by the discovery of about
thirty flint nodules or cores from which the flakes were obtained.
This slide shows us three examples of the cores, and the centre
one tells the same tale as the Hastings core, namely, how the
prehistoric workman sometimes failed in getting off the flake he
desired for conversion into a pigmy instrument.

From the hole or pit, which was about six feet in diameter,
no trace of bones was turned out, neither was any pottery found,’
so, in these respects, the “find ’ differed from that of Hastings.

What then is the story which the contents of this small pit
have to tell? This question opens up a wide field for the
imagination, and, I must admit, that it cannot be fully answered
in the present stage of our knowledge of early man ; for, instead
of simplifying matters, these discoveries show how complex are
the problems connected with the study of prehistoric remains.

Briefly put, the fragmentary story revealed by the discovery
near Brighton is as follows : —

The existence of the minute implements, together with
artificial chips and cores over such a wide area, which is situated
some distance away from the Downs on the Weald, plainly
indicates that this spot possessed certain features which were of
advantage to prehistoric man. Here he brought flint nodules in

order to produce chips from which to form these tiny implements.

The fact that the latter occur in such numbers seems to prove
they were used on the spot and then discarded. The discovery
with the flakes and pigmies of flints showing traces of having
been in or pretty close to a fire tells us another fragment of the
story. These, as I explained in my last paper, were used in
primitive cooking operations, and we may thus regard the whole
area as having been, at some prehistoric time, a settlement or
camping ground of the Britons of the Weald.

The discoveries in the pit supply remarkable confirmation
of this. Over this hole, which he dug down through the stiff
mould into the sand, the Ancient Briton probably erected some
sort of tent, in order to supply shelter from inclement weather
or from the rays of the sun. Afterwards it served as his

36

workshop, and the objects, which form the subject of our
entertainment this evening, were the things he left behind.
Many of the pigmies, flakes, cores, etc., so found show undoubted
signs of proximity to fire; so, if these marks were not produced
by cooking operations within the pit, the alternative inference is
that some prehistoric wag must have burnt the occupant out of
house and home.

The existence of this pit and its interesting remains very
strongly suggests that the whole settlement was originally
covered with similar holes dug down into the sand, and that the
pigmies, flakes, etc, found over the disturbed area were
originally in situ in such pits. It seems a pity that their
destruction by the extraction of sand should have been going on
for nearly twenty years without any observations having been
made. But, as the most likely spots are yet untouched, I am
hoping that precautions will be taken to ensure the proper
supervision necessary for the preservation and recording of
‘‘ finds” similar to mine

The importance of the find before us is of no small order.
As an undoubted associated discovery it will be of the utmost
value in the comparative study of the other Sussex pigmies. I
have already stated that nearly all the English pigmies occur on
the surface of settlements, and this fact renders the period to
which they belong highly problematic. Although this period
has been roughly fixed as not earlier than late neolithic times,
nove of the larger implements characteristic of this period has
hitherto been found with the pigmies. Therefore the discovery
of the purely neolithic axe or adze with the other objects in the
pit is, probably, the most important piece of evidence with
regard to the period of the pigmies yet brought to light.

In conclusion brief reference has to be made to the style of
workmanship displayed in the fabrication of the pigmies. The
rough cores and the large number of unworked chips found in
the pit supplies good evidence that, in obtaining a flake suitable
for conversion into a pigmy, the ancient Briton had the same
difficulties to contend with as the Australian savage has in the
manufacture of his stone knives. If we divide the flakes found
in the pit by the number of pigmies, we ascertain that 20 to 30
flakes were struck from the cores before the desired result was
arrived at. This is a rough estimate, but I think it is fairly
accurate. Having secured the proper kind of flake, how did he
convert it into a pigmy? I presume to say “by pressure,”
either with a piece of bone or with another stone, for I have
made exact copies of them with both objects by this method.

The only object of the prehistoric chipper’s paraphernalia
which I did not find in the pit was his flint hammer which he
used in chipping the cores; but I think we have here (nodule)
the instrument he used in pressing off the minute secondary

37

flakes when making the pigmies. Several of these nodules with
worn edges were found by Mr, Lewis Abbott at Hastings, and he
is in agreement with me as to the purpose for which they were
used.

The highest stage attained by prehistoric man in the art of
flint chipping is exemplified in the inimitable examples of arrow-
heads and knives, shewn in our first few slides, the workmanship
of which was undoubtedly accomplished by the difficult method
of punch and hammerstone flaking. So far, I believe, none of
this beautiful work has been found actually associated with the
pigmies,* and, as they were all shaped by the comparatively easy
method of pressure flaking, we cannot regard them as evidence
of a very high standard of flint chipping. This point deserves
special attention, for, provided no traces of the highest class of
flaking are found with future discoveries, it will afford additional
grounds for believing that this class of minute tools was made
by a race, or tribes, quite distinct from the prehistoric Britons
with whose remains we find the beautifully worked arrowheads
along the Downs of Sussex.

May I hope that my remarks have served to demonstrate
that which cannot be too earnestly impressed upon all who have
the advance of knowledge at heart, namely, that the archzo-
logical harvest in these parts, at one time truly plenteous, has ©
‘been scattered by the winds of ignorance and apathy. About
this wonderful County of ours patches of the grain still lie
concealed, but the gleaners are few. If further destruction is to
be arrested, if this material is to be gathered so that we may
piece together and read aright the marvellous story of our
prehistoric forerunners, then more gleaners are necessary, more
enthusiasm must be shewn; and, what is all-important, the
work of discovery and recording must be carried out, not by
antiquated methods, but in a co-operative spirit and by rigid
adherence to scientific rules.

The Brighton and Hove Natural History Society has long
played an important part in the intellectual development of the
County, and it is with the knowledge that its Members are ever
willing to exert their influence in the noble cause of local
archeology that I have ventured to trouble you again this
evening.

* Norr.—A very small barbed arrowhead covered with beautiful
secondary chipping has recently been found by Mrs, HE. J, G. Piffard,
on one of the pigmy sites, near Horsham,

38

THURSDAY, JUNE 6ru, 1907.

Gnnual General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL

FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 6ra, 1907.

The Council have pleasure in reporting that during the year
now past, the 53rd year of the Society’s existence, the Society
has fully maintained its position and successfully carried out the
objects with which on the 1st September, 1854, it was founded.

Hight Lectures and Papers have been given and read during
the Session, all having been illustrated with Lantern Slides.
Two of the Meetings were held at Hove, the remainder in
Brighton. The attendance at these Meetings on the whole has
been good.

The financial position of the Society is satisfactory, there
being a balance in the hands of the Treasurer of £22 2s. 8d., in
addition to which there is a sum of £100 Consols invested on
behalf of the Society.

There are now 140 Members of the Society, comprising two
Life Members, 19 Lady Members, 108 other ordinary Members,
and 11 Honorary Members. This number differs but little from
the number of Members at the commencement of the Session,
the losses by death and resignation being equalled by the
accession of new Members.

The Council regret to have to record a loss to the Society by
the death during the year of Mr. J. W. Nias, who for many
years rendered it service in the capacity of one of the Honorary
Auditors; and also by the death of Mr. W. Seymour Burrows,
a Past.President and Vice-President of the Society. The death
of such distinguished authority on British mosses as Mr.
W. Mitten, who was an Honorary Member of the Society for
many years, must not pass without an expression of the Society’s
regret.

39

Mr, Isaac Wells, an old Member of the Society, has con-
sented to act with Mr. A. F. Graves, in future, as Honorary
Auditor, :

The Council desire to record in this Report the fact that
Alderman John Colbatch Clark, J.P., is now entering upon his
fiftieth year of office as Honorary Secretary of the Society, a
circumstance which is very rare, if not unprecedented in the
history of any Society. Mr. Colbatch Clark became a Member of
the Society on the 14th August, 1856, and commenced to officiate
as Honorary Secretary during the Session 1857-1858, and the
Council feel that the Society owes in a very large measure its
present position to the assiduous attention he has always given
to its interests, coupled with the business ability, tact and
courtesy he has always shown in connection with the fulfilment
of his duties as Honorary Secretary.

The following are the titles of the papers contributed during
the past Session :—

15th Nov., 1906.
20th Nov., 1906.

** Forest Life.’ By Mr. Martin Duncan.
‘* Kalahari Desert and Wgamiland.”
By Mr. H. Wiennoxpt Hopson.
‘The Making of Scenery.”
By Mr. H. Epmonps, B.Sc.
‘<The Variation in Domestic Fowls.”
By Mr. Grorce Foxatu.

10th Dec., 1906.

17th Jan., 1907.

“The Moon.” ;
- By Dr, Sprrrra, F-R.A.S., F.R.M.S.
‘Common Parasites of Cat and Dog.”
_ By MrG. H. Iivesay, M.B.C.V.S,
“ Harthquakes.”
By Mr. F. R. Hora, B.A., B.Sc.

‘“‘Piomy Flint Implements Found Near
Brighton.” By Mr. H. 8. Toms.

21st Feb., 1907.
21st Mar., 1907.
18th April, 1907.

16th May, 1907.

The following is a list of the Excursions and Visits to places
of interest during the past year, viz. :—

28rd June, 1906.

21st July, 1906.
29th Aug., 1906.

29th Sept., 1906.
22nd Nov., 1906.

4th Dec., 1906.
16th Jan,, 1907.

Firle Park.

Goring—Highdown Hill—Miller’s Tomb.

Angmering—Poling—Arundel.
Southwick Electricity Works.
Lewes—Pheenix Iron Works.

Preston Manor House.

Electrical Exhibition at the Aquarium.

40

16th Feb. 1907. National Telephone Company’s Exchange,
Brighton.

27th Mar., 1907. Sussex Coach and Motor Works, Brighton.
15th April, 1907. Warren Farm Schools, Brighton.
11th May, 1907. Devil’s Dyke and Bramber.

1st June, 1907. Tilgate Forest.

Mr. Henry Davey has undertaken the arrangement of the
Field Excursions during the ensuing year.

HON. LIBRARIAN’S REPORT.

JUNE Gru, 1907.

During the past year the following serials have been
purchased and added to the Library :—

Annals of Botany. Nature.
Zoologist. Geological Magazine.

Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine. Entomologist.
Journal of Botany.

The publications of the Ray Society and Palzontographical
Society and the Reports and Proceedings of various other
Societies with which the Society is associated have also been
received.

The number of books issued out of the Library to Members
has been about 70, and the general public have as heretofore
taken advantage of the opportunity afforded them of using the
Society’s library, which now consists of upwards of 2,500
volumes, for the purposes of reference.

ROBERT MORSE,
Hon. Librarian.

ee Aas

THE ENGINE ROOM, SHOWING THREE TURBO-GEN

er
aa. Se B
+ Oe Oe

THE Motor GENERATOR IS SEEN ON THE LEFT.

”

41

Society's Gzxeurstons.

SATURDAY, JULY 21sr, 1906.

The members of the Society took train to Worthing and
walked from there to the fine old Parish Church of Broadwater ;
thence they went to the cemetery to see the tomb of Richard
Jefferies. The walk along the shady road to Highdown Hill
was extremely pleasant, and they found the Miller’s Tomb being
renovated; the ironwork removed and the lettering being
repainted. The Keltic Camp on the top of the hill was then
visited and the splendid panorama of Sea and Downs much
admired. Tea was taken at a cottage at the base of the hill,
after which the party strolled to Goring Station, returning by
train.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 1sz, 1906.

By the kind invitation of the President, Dr, Harrison,
members were invited to visit Poling and take tea in the open
air, After training to Angmering they strolled to Poling
Church, thenee to a farm, The Peckhams, which retains in its
‘building some of the old work of the stables of the Knights of
St. John, whose Priory, now the residence of Sir Harry Johnston,
the well-known African Hunter and Explorer, is situated at a
short distance. By his courtesy a visit was made to the old
house, which has been recently restored by the explorer’s brother,
the church architect. The work has been very cleverly done
and the old chapel could be traced. The curios from Africa
interested the members very much. After tea the great Decoy
in the neighbourhood was made a halting place on the return to
Auemering station.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 29ru, 1906.

This visit was to the new Electric Light Works at South-
wick. A large party assembled to see the great undertaking by
Brighton, and were met by Mr. Christie, the engineer, who
conducted them round, carefully and clearly explaining the
machinery in detail. The turbines interested the Members,
perhaps, more than anything else. In thanking Mr Christie,
the President expressed the satisfaction he felt at the judicious

42

way in which the public money had been spent. At the con-
clusion of the visit, Mr. Christie presented each member with a
copy of the illustrated description of the works, issued in the first
place for the opening ceremony by the Right Hon. John Burns.

In the engine room are three generators of 1,800 kilo-watts
each, of the latest turbine-driven type. High-tension alternating
three-phase current is generated by these machines at 8,000
volts, and transmitted through five trunk mains to the North
Road Works, 42 miles away, where a large sub-station has been
erected as an anuexe to the old generating station. Here the
high-tension alternating current is transformed down to low-
tension continuous current, and is distributed for lighting,
power, and traction, through the old system of mains.

SATURDAY, OCTOBER 20ru, 1906.

FALMER WATERWORKS PUMPING
MACHINERY.

Another very interesting and instructive little outing
was enjoyed by the members, when, through the courtesy
of the Waterworks Committee of the Brighton Town Council
and Mr. J. Johnston, the Waterworks Engineer, they paid a
visit to the new pumping station at Falmer. The party,
numbering between 40 and 50, arrived at the works shortly after
three o’clock, and were received by Mr A. Stone, the Engineer
in charge of the station, who conducted them over the premises
and explained the working of the machinery. The clean and
neat appearance of the whole place, even the coal store and
boiler house, was particularly noticeable, everything—floors,
walls, engines, and boilers—were as spick and span as a man-o’-
war, and the admirable order in which everything was kept was
very favourably commented upon by the visitors. The party
was first shewn the engine-house, with its two sets of inverted
triple-expansion direct-acting steam engines (only one of which
was at work), which drive the six deep well pumps which raise
the water from the two wells and deliver it into the large
reservoir outside, whence it is sent by the six force pumps into
the mains to the various reservoirs in Brighton.

A very ingenious little engine, called a “ barring engine,”
for setting in motion the huge flywheel of each set of pumps
was shewn at work and the Westinghouse air-charger for filling
the great air vessels used to equalize the pressure in the mains,
the auxiliary feed pump, which also works the travelling overhead
crane, and the electric recorder shewing the depth of water in

43

the reservoir outside, were inspected, after which the party
descended to the ground floor, where the huge pumps could be
seen pounding away, forcing the water through the great suction
and delivery pipes. The deep well, 212 feet deep, with a bore of
14 feet by 10 feet, was also inspected, and then a move was
made to the boiler-house, where the five huge Lancashire boilers,
the ingenious economizers for utilizing the waste gases, the
coal store, and the little tramway for the coal trolleys, were also
viewed in turn, after which the party went outside and had a
glimpse of the 558,000 gallon reservoir, into which a small river
of water was pouring from the deep well pumps. Afterwards
the party returned to the engine room, where a hearty vote of
thanks was accorded to Mr. Stone for his kindness and courtesy
in shewing the visitors round and explaining the working of the
machinery. Then, after a brief glance round outside, the party
returned to Falmer station, and canght the 4.43 train back to
Brighton.

THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 22nn, 1906,

VISIT TO THE PHQENIX IRON WORKS.

On the invitation of Alderman Every, J.P., a number of
the members visited the Phenix Iron Works at Lewes. The
party were shown round by Mr. Broadbent, who explained the
working of the large quantity of up-to-date labour-saving
apparatus. The visitors were fortunate in selecting a day when
a large number of castings were to be made. After seeing the
huge furnace, and having the blasting machinery detailed to
them, the ‘‘ pouring” was ready. The sight of tons of molten
iron running into the crucibles from furnaces furnished an
impressive spectacle. Amongst the machinery that attracted
special attention was the knife for cutting the iron girders, so
familar in Brighton,—with ‘‘ Every, Lewes,” on them,—into
required lengths. Iron seemed to be treated like wood by the
various appliances,—punching holes in 2-inch iron plates,
straightening or bending enormous girders, and the hydraulic
rivetter pressing the rivets like sealing wax.

In the pattern shop some very ingenious machines were
exhibited,—the most prominent being a circular saw that seemed
capable of doing some remarkable work. Various. specimens of
iron were on view, and their value for the industry was
explained. The social comfort of the employee has been studied
in the magnificent Institute which Mr, Every has built, containing

44

baths and billiard table, and fine library. Tea was provided for
the visitors in the Large Hall. The President thanked Alderman
Every for his kindness and for the valuable and interesting
remarks he had made in reference to this important branch of
National Trade Mr. Every, in replying, said it gave him great
pleasure in seeing the members present, and was sorry that time
would not permit of those who had come to the works seeing
more, as some of the departments had not been visited.

TUESDAY, DECEMBER 4rx, 1906.

A VISIT TO PRESTON MANOR.

In response to the kind invitation of Mr. Charles Thomas-
Stanford, M.A., F.S.A., about five-and-thirty members visited
the historic Manor House at Preston. They were received in
the magnificent and spacious hall by Mr. Thomas-Stanford, who
gave a short history of the Manor, and subsequently conducted
the party through the fine suite of apartments, comprising the
Anne of Cleves Room, the gem of a drawing room, and the new
dining room; and thence to the library, with the Chippendale
bookease of rare books of the fifteenth century. Had it not
been known that Mr. Thomas-Stanford is both a scholar and a
literary man, one glance at his valuable library would have
decided the question.

The picture of Anne of Cleves which hangs in the entrance
hall Mr Thomas-Stanford said was not by Holbein, but was only
a copy of the original, which he believed was in Windsor
Castle. In the drawing room is an interesting picture of the
park and Manor House, painted about 1820.

Beneath the house and extending far under the grounds are
cellars of unusual size, which the speaker hinted might have
been of service when Brighton was not quite innocent of assisting
in running cargoes under Free Trade principles, and was antici-
pating legislation by a good century.

The following is a summary of the history of the Manor :—

Before the Reformation it was a religious house, and a
halting place for pilgrims from Chichester to Canterbury. At
the time of the spoliation of the monasteries the Manor passed
to the Crown. It was for some time the residence of Anne of
Cleves; and the walls of one of the rooms are covered with old
Spanish leather of the sixteenth century which, tradition says,
she brought with her from the Low Countries.

45

In 1568 the Manor belonged to Richard Elsington, who,
dying in that year, bequeathed it to his wife Marie. She in
turn left it to her son by a former marriage, Anthony Shirley.
The Shirleys lived here for 150 years, and then became extinct in
the male line. Their heiress married a Mr. Western. Their son
was killed in 1771 in a carriage accident at Goldstone Bottom,
leaving an only child, afterwards the first and only Lord Western.
Soon afterwards the whole property was sold to Mr. William
Stanford.

The walls of the house are of great antiquity, but the interior
arrangements have been remodelled from time to time. In 1738
the existing oak staircase was put in, and other alterations were
effected. About 1810 the present lofty drawing room was made
by throwing two storeys into one room. Since that date until
the recent additions little has been changed.

Mrs. Thomas-Stanford, the present Lady of the Manor,
possesses the Court Rolls since the time of James I. The Manor
is very extensive, including lands as far away as Bolney and
Slaugham. The descent of lands within the Manor is by the
custom of Borough English, to the youngest son, and there is a
fine of a heriot on succession.

At the conclusion of the visit, the President of the Society,
Dr. Walter Harrison, thanked Mr. Thomas-Stanford for his
kindness ; and added that the visit was one of great interest to
Brightonians, the Manor Honse being one of the very few links
with the past. The members expressed their appreciation by
their applause.

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 16rx, 1907.

VISIT TO ELECTRICITY EXHIBITION
AT AQUARIUM.

46

SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 16ra, 1907.

BRIGHTON EXCHANGE, NATIONAL
TELEPHONE COMPANY.

‘This is the quickest Exchange in England.” That is the
boast of Mr. F. W. Taylor, Manager of the Brighton District of
the National Telephone Company, and the members of the
Society have been given proof of the justice of the claim.

The average time for connecting National subscribers at
Brighton is 24 seconds, said Mr. Taylor, and practical tests on
the occasion of the Society’s interesting tour of the offices in
Ship Street fully substantiated the accuracy of the statement,
Divided into small parties, the manager and his colleagues
conducted the visitors over the departments from engine room to
exchange room. The switch room is situate on the top floor,
immediately under the derrick carrying the aerial cables serving
Brighton. The switch board is of standard common battery

- THE SwitcH Room.
type, with a capacity at present of 1,500 lines, a further addition
for 500 lines being in hand. The operator’s attention is called
when the subscriber takes his telephone from the hook, by the
lighting of a small electric lamp, instead of by the old-fashioned

47

method of a falling indicator, and the lighting up or extinguishing
of other little lampg tells the operator when the ‘called ” sub-
scriber has answered, and when each subscriber has finished his
conversation, Thus, after a call is once “ through,” the operator
has no necessity to again ‘‘ go in”’ on the line.

On the second floor is the test room. The outside cables,
carrying at present some 5,700 wires, open out on to the test
board, which is so arranged that any line from outside can be
readily connected to any line up to the switch board, each wire
being separately protected against lightning. Here also are fitted
the ‘calling relays,” one for each subscriber’s line. When the
subscriber takes his telephone off the hook, the relay is actuated,
and lights up the calling lamp on the switch board, the ‘‘ cut-
off” relay adjoining being actuated when the operator answers,
and by cutting off the current automatically extinguishing the
calling lamp. Close by is the meter rack, in which are fitted
the automatic meters which record the number of completed
conversations against the telephone numbers of the subscribers
originating the calls, the line lamp rack and test clerk’s table
completing the equipment.

The battery room in the basement accommodates a battery
of eleven accumulator cells of 23 plates each, for supplying
current for working the board, both for “signalling” and
‘talking’ purposes, with four smaller cells of seven plates each
for working the automatic meters. These cells are charged from
a motor-generator, of which there are two in the power room
adjoining, together with the necessary starting switches, measur-
ing instruments, etc. In one corner are the two motor ringing
machines for supplying current for ringing on subscribers’ lines ;
the repeater coil rack and fuse alarm board complete the equip-
ment. The fuse alarm board is fitted with fuses to protect all
the various circuits on the Exchange.

In the Brighton telephone area some twelve million messages
are carried annually over the National service, there being 5,555
stations working at present. At the conclusion of. the visit the
President, Dr. Walter Harrison, thanked Mr. Taylor and his
colleagues for their kindness in devoting an afternoon to con-
ducting the visitors over the Exchange, and for their interesting
explanations and demonstrations.

48

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 27ru, 1907.

By the kind invitation of Messrs. Pack and Sons, the
members paid a visit to the works of this old-established firm.
The party was met by Mr. Pack and conducted by him through
the whole of the extensive works. Every stage of the process of
building the body of a carriage or a motor car was shown, from
the wood, metal, &c, in the rough state to the highly varnished
and upholstered finished article. A feature of interest was the
comparatively large amount of aluminium used in the place of
wood for panels in motor cars. Mr. Pack informed the members
that most of the wood was obtained from Sweden, this being
found the most serviceable for their purpose. One of the many
inventions of Mr. Pack was a device for easily raising the body
of a car so as to get at any of the parts underneath; this he
thought out in bed during a sleepless night. An interesting
operation was the fixing of an iron tyre on a wooden wheel ; the
tyre, which was rather smaller than the wheel, was placed in a
furnace, and being thus expanded was dropped over the wheel
and the whole flooded with water, when the iron contracted and
the tyre became firmly fixed. The various skins used in the
upholstering department, although not much to look at, are of
considerable value. In the absence of the President, the
Honorary Scientific Secretary, Mr. F. Harrison, M.A., thanked
Mr. Pack for his courtesy and giving up so much of his time in
conducting the party through his works and explaining all the
details of the business.

SATURDAY, APRIL 20rn, 1907.

VISIT TO WARREN FARM SCHOOLS.

The Warren Farm Schools and the children in them were
under scrutiny on the above date. The thirty-five ladies and
gentlemen who indulged in the inspection were more appreciative
than critical ; and in so well-ordered an institution it would be
difficult to be otherwise even if one had the inclination. The
members, with their President, Dr. Walter Harrison, believed
that an afternoon could be profitably spent seeing how the
children of the Poor Law were turned into useful citizens of the
Empire.

Mr. E. Rowland Cowley, who is Chairman of the Committee
in charge of the Schools, had suggested the visit, and went an

— =

ee eee ee

49

important step further in providing a substantial tea for his
guests. Yet another service he rendered was to justify the visit
of a Natural History and Philosophical Society to such an
institution. As he put it, in thanking the company for a vote of
thanks which the President had warmly proposed, they could
study no more interesting natural history than that of boys and
girls, while there was philosophy in the work of the Poor Law.
He added an assurance that 1t certainly required a philosopher to
remain a member of the Board of Guardians. Everyone agreed
with Dr. Harrison that the ratepayers ought to make more use
of the privilege of seeing the institutions they helped to maintain.
Point had been given to this remark by a most interesting
demonstration of the Schools’ methods.

Mr. H. R. Spooner, the Superintendent, had shown 130 boys
executing a dumb-bell drill with the precision of a machine, he
had made the band boys play rattling marches, so that the
visitors wanted no telling why regimental bandmasters were ever
thirsting for Warren Farm instrumentalists; and he had led
them through the admirable singing of harmonized hymns and
other sacred music. The company had also seen where and how
the boys washed, bathed, did their school work, and ate their
nourishing food. By the way, no set of boys could do better

‘credit to the table than these chubby little fellows.

After tea the girls were seen performing a skipping drill
under the keen but kindly eye of Mrs. Spooner, and there were
the well-kept garden, the farm, and the open-air swimming bath
to inspect, before a delighted company took farewell of the
Schools and all within them. Mr. W. D. Peskett, the Vice-
Chairman of the Committee, and Mr. H. Burfield, the Assistant
Clerk to the Board, were among those present.

SATURDAY, MAY 11rs, 1907.
WALK FROM DYKE TO BRAMBER AND
VISIT “TO CASELE. AND, CHURCH.

50

SATURDAY, JUNE 1s1, 1907.

[From Brighton Herald, June 8th. |
TILGATE FOREST AND* BALCOMBE,

The members had a rather strange experience at this
excursion. While everywhere else was steady rain and some-
times heavy thunderstorms, the party escaped almost scot-free.
There was one heavy shower, which set in just as the forest was
entered at the corner near Worth; but after a short wait under
thick foliage the way was pursued, and after the sticky, clay
patch about the brickfield had been crossed the perfectly dry
ground of the iron-sand was reached. Just now the verdure of
the forest is seen in all its glory. Mr. Henry Davey guided the
party through the tracks, and down the descent to the brook (one’
of the sources of the Mole), which proved more troublesome
than usual; and the opposite slope was very boggy in places.
The big double tree has been visited on previous occasions ; and
this time it had been determined to take precise photographic
records. This should have been done some years since, as the
junction has much changed and decayed. It is satisfactory to
know that the photographs taken by Mr. Russell-Davies have
proved perfectly successful. Leaving the forest through another
disagreeable clayey patch, the party crossed the Forest Ridge ;
and a hearty tea at Balcombe revived drooping energies. Only
a few stayed to make the usual visit to the mineral spring and
lake ; but they were well rewarded; and another smart shower
fell just when they were under the thickest shelter. Wonderfully
beautiful is all this part of Sussex.

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53

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE
58rd ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

0

After the Reports and Treasurer’s Account had been read,
it was proposed by Dr. Harrison, seconded by Mr. Sprirra, and
resolved—

‘‘That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Report as to the Library, and the Curator’s Report, ba
received, adopted, and printed for circulation, as usual.’’

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year—

‘J. KE. Haselwood, E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P., F. Merrifield,

F.E.S., D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R.C.P.,

J. P. Slingsby Roberts, W. Clarkson Wallis, E. Alloway

ae Henry Davey, and Walter Harrison, D.M.D.,
“LDS Sade

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors—

‘Mr, A. F. Graves and Mr. I. Wells.’’

It was proposed by Mr. H. Cans, seconded by Mr. F. R.
RicHarpson, and resolved—

‘‘That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for
the ensuing year:—President: Geo. Morgan, L.R.C.P.,
F.R.C.S. ; Ordinary Members of Council: F. R. Hora, B.Sc.,
E. Spitta, F.R.A.S., F. R. Richardson, Alfred W. Oke,
B.A., LL.M., W. H. Payne, and W. A. Powell, M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P.; Honorary Treasurer: D. E. Caush; Honorary
Librarian: Robert Morse ; Honorary Curators: H. 8. Toms
and T. Hilton; Honorary Scientific Secretary: FE. Harrison,
M.A.; Honorary Secretary: J. Colbatch Clark; Assistant
Honorary Secretary : Henry Cane.’

It was proposed by Dr. Morean, seconded by Mr. D. E.
Causu, and resolyed—
‘¢ That the best thanks of the Society be given to Dr. W. Harrison

for his attention to the interests of the Society as President
during the past year.’’

54

It was proposed by Mr. I. Wetts, pee by Mr. Hueco
Tarzor, and resolved—

«¢ That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the
Honorary Treasurer, the Honorary Curators, the Honorary
Auditors, and the Honorary Secretaries for their services
during the past year.’

It was proposed by Mr. F. Harrison, seconded by Mr. H.
Canz, and carried—

«‘ That Rule 25 be altered by striking out the words ‘ nor more
than nine.’ ”’

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents and Secretaries are ea-officio Members
of the Society.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass, U.S.A.).
British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, 8.W.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.

Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings, George IV.
Bridge.

Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

“55
Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.
Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

Hampshire Field Club. é
Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

London County Council, Horniman Museum.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lloyd Library, 224, West Court Street, Cincinnatti, Ohio, U.S.A.
Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society. -

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.
Mexican Geological Institute, 54, Del Cipres, No. 2,728 Mexico.
Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs, (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, University College, Nottingham.
Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A. .
Quekett Microscopical Club, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Meteorological Society, Prince’s Mansions, 73, Victoria
Street, S.W.

Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.
Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley Hotwe, Southport.
Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and oe Society.
University of Colorado, Boulder, Coleundts e

Watford Natural History Society.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

56

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and hove Watural History and
Pbilosopbical Society.

1907.

N.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
following List the Address is in Brighton. Names
printed in italics are Life Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

ABBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
ASHTON, C. S., 10, Powis Grove.

BILLING, T., 6, St. Michael’s Place.

BLACK, MILNER, 81, St. James’s Street.

BoorH, E., 53, Old Steine.

BULL, W. 75, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.

BURCHELL, E., M.R.C.S., L-R C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.

CANE, Henry, 173, Ditchling Road.

CausH, D E., L.D.S , 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

CLARK, J. COLBATCH, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.
CLIFTON, HARVEY, 19, Buckingham Place.
CoLMAN, Alderman J., J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill.
COMBRIDGE, SAML., 5, Leopold Road.

DALpy, MANTELL A., Dr., 17, Palmeira Square.

DAVEY, HENRY, 15, Victoria Road.

DENMAN, S , 26, Queen’s Road.

Dopp, A. H., M.R.C.S, L.R.C.P., 49, Church Road, Hove.
DUKE, Dr. E., 30, New Church Road, Hove.

57

FawsitTT, H. G. CHATER, 14, Vernon Terrace.
FLETCHER, W. H. B., J.P., Bersted Lodge, Bognor.
FORBES, GEORGE, 5, St. Peter’s Place.

GILKES, J. H., Wychcote, Dyke Road Avenue.
GRAVES, A. F., 9A, North Street Quadrant.
GRIFFITH, A. F., M.A., 59, Montpelier Road.
GRINSTEAD, J., 13, Powis Square.

GROVE, E., Norlington, Harrington Road.

Hack, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

HALL, J. SUSSEX, 69, Ship Street.

HARRISON, F., M.A., 30, Compton Avenue.

HARRISON, W., D. M.D.., L.D.S., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HASELWOOD, J. 1D eh Richmond Terrace.

HA WKINS, W. RA Shalimar, Withdean.

HAYNES, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., J.P., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
HICKLEY, G., 92, Springfield Road.

HILTON, T., 1, Clifton Street.

HOBBS, ie 62, ‘North Street.

Hora, FE, R., B.Sc., B.A., A.R.C.Sc., 69, St. Aubyn’s, ie
HORNE, J., 27, Hampstead Road.

How LetT, J. W., J.P., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

INFIELD, H. J., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

JACKSON, J. M., 109, Stanford Avenue.

JENNINGS, A. O., LL.B., 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.
JOHNSTON, J., 12, Bond Street.

JONES, RUTHERFORD, Dr. A., Forest Lodge, Maresfield.

LANGTON, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.

LEwIs, J., C.E., F.S.A., Fairwarp, Uckfield.

LIVESEY, G. H., M.R.C.V.S., 29, Osmond Road, Hove.
LONSDALE, L., 13, Powis Square.

MAGUIRE, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.

MAuRICE, H., L.D.S., 65, St. John’s Terrace.

MCKELLAR, E, Deputy-Surgeon-General, M.D., J.P., Woodleigh,
Preston.

MERRIFIELD, F., Clifton Terrace.

MILLS, J., 24, North Road.

MorGaAvN, G., L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., 6, Pavilion Parade.

MorsE, ROBERT, 26, Stanford Avenue.

+

NEWSHOLME, A., M.D., F.R.C.P., 11, Gloucester Place.
NICHOLSON, W. E., F.E.S., Lewes.

NorMaA\, S. H., Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., L.D.S., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

OKE, ALFRED W., B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., 32,
Denmark Villas, Hove.

58

PAvNE, W. H., Playden House, Harrington Villas.”

PENNEY, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive. .

PESKETT, CHALMERS A. W., M.A., M.B., B.C., Cantab., Simla,
Clermont Road. :

PESKETT, Guy, Simla, Clermont Road.

PETITFOURT, E. J., B.A., F.C.P., 16, Chesham Street.

PopLey, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

PowELL, W. A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Grand Parade,

Pucu, Rev. C., M.A., 13, Eaton Place.

Puttick, W., Tipnoake, Albourne, Hassocks,

READ, S., L.D.S, 12, Old Steine. . ,

READ, T., B.A., B.Sc., Brighton Grammar School. ~~
RICHARDSON, F. R., 4, Adelaide Crescent.
RoOBERSON, A., 17, Sackville Road, Hove.

ROBERTS, J. P. SLINGSBY, 3, Powis Villas.
Rosinson, E., Saddlescombe. .- . :

Ross, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.

SAVAGE, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street.

SEAMER, ARTHUR, M.A., 9, Chatham Place.

SLoMaN, F., M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road.

SMITHERS, E. A., The Gables, Furze Hill.

SMITH, C., 47, Old Steine. eaten

SmiTH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

SMITH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

SMITH, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.

SmiTH, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

SOUTHCOMBE, H. W., 16, Stanford Avenue.

SpiITTA, E., M.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P., F.R.A.S., 41, Ventnor Villas,
Hove. ;

STANFORD, THOMAS CHAS., Preston Manor.

STONER, HAROLD, L.D.S., M.R.CS., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency Square.

TALBOT, HuGo, 79, Montpelier Road.

Tons, H. S., The Museum.

Tuony, J. F., M.D., 1. Hova Terrace, Hove.

TyssEN, Rev. R. D., M.A., 19, Brunswick Place, Hove.

WALLIS, W. CLARKSON, 15, Market Street.
WALTER, J., 134, Dyke Road.

WELLS, I , 4, North Street.

WELSFORD, H. M., 68, Dyke Road.
WuyTock, E., 36, Western Road.
WILKINSON, T., 170, North Street.
WILLIAMS, A. S., 17, Middle Street.
WILu1AMsS, H. M., LL.B., 17, Middle Street.
WILu1aAMs, A. W., M.D.. 1, Belvedere Terrace.
Woop, J., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.

Woop, WALTER R., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.

59

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLEY, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
BLADON, Miss, 23, Sudeley Place.

CausH, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.

CorFE, A., Miss, 7, Norfolk Terrace.

CRAFER, M. H., Mrs., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
CRANE, A., Miss, 11, Wellington Road.

DALbDy, MANTELL, Mrs., 17, Palmeira Square.

HARE, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.
* HARRISON, Mrs, 10, Windlesham Road.
HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.

LANGTON, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.

RuGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

STONER, H., Mrs., 18, Regency Square.

THoMAS, M., Miss, 222, Queen’s Park Road.
VoBEs, Miss, B.A., B.Sc., ‘‘ Glenalna,”’ Rugby Road.

WATKINS, Miss, Walcot, Walpole Road.
WILKINSON, Mrs., 36, Dyke Road.
WHITE, Miss E. M., 70, Ship Street.
WoobD, J., Mrs., 28, Old Steine.

HONORARY MEMBERS.
ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
CorTEIS, T., 244, High Holborn, London.
Dawsov, C., F.G.S., Uckfield.
Farr, E. H., Uckfield.
HOo.uis, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.
JENNER, J. H. A., 209, School Hill, Lewes.
LoMAX, BENJAMIN, 47, Park Crescent.

Noursk, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.

PANKHuRST, E. A., 3, Clifton Road.
PHILLIPS, BARCLAY, 7, Harpur Place, Bedford.

ASSOCIATE.
HARRISON, W. PARKER, 10, Windlesham Koad,

60

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1907-8.

ot

President :
GEO. MorGAN, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.

Past- residents :

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
J. E. HASELWOOD. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.
A. NEWSHOLME, Wind), Bakk. Cabs: HENRY DAVEY.
M.O.H. WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.

E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
THE COUNCIL.
Dhe President.
Vice- Presidents :

’ (Rule 25.)
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. J. P. SLINGsBY ROBERTS.
J. E. HASELWOOD. W. CLARKSON WALLIS.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. E. A. PANKHURST.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., HENRY DAVEY.
M.O.H. WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.

E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.

He HORA Wea Se.. Ns W. H. PAYNE.
E. SPITTA, F.R.A.S., M.R.C.S., ALFRED W. OKE, B.A., LL.M.,
[eRe Cabs F.G.S.
W. A. POWELL, M.R.C.S., F. R. RICHARDSON.
Tokens
Honorary Treasurer : Gonorary Librarian :
D.E Causu, L.D.S. ROBT. MORSE.
Gonorary Auditors :
A. F. GRAVES. I. WELLS.

Gonorary Curators :
H. S. Toms. T. HILTON.

Bonorary Scientific Secretary :
F. HARRISON, M.A, 30, Compton Avenue.

Gonorary Secretary :
Jno. COLBATCH CLARK, 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Honorary Secretary:
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

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BRIGHTON AND HOVE

| Datural Bistory § Philosophical
Society.

_ ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY,

TOGETHER WITH

nl nes

The Hnnual iReport

- FOR THE..

YEAR ENDING JUNE 10th, 1908.
—SETL—SV SS

Brighton ;

“ BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.

BRIGHTON AND HOVE
Natural Bistory § Philosophical
Society.

S$ SS eS

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS

TOGETHER WITH

2 ae
KG ha we

Che Annual Report

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YEAR ENDING JUNE 10th, 1908.
SES

Brighton:

“BRIGHTON HERALD” Printing Works, Prince’s Place.
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1908,

COBLTRIN GS.

ee aes
PAGE

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1907-8 oa Re nS

FUNCTION AND FatTicuE—Dr. G. Morgan, L.R.C.P.,

F.R.C.S. (President) ahs ast nae ee ak 5
WEATHER FORECASTING—Mr. W. Marriott, F.R.M.S. ... 26
A YEaR AND A Hatr Amonc Savaces—Mr. A. H.

Dunnine, F.R.G.S., F.R.P.S., Etc... a ca. BF
RESTOCKING OF F LORA AND Fauna—Mnr. Henry Davey... 28
AUTOCHROME PLATES—Dr. W. A. PoweL., M.R.CS.,

1 3 Ol ee se = ae ans hes See aE
CoLouR PHOTOGRAPHY—MR. OTTO PFENNINGER ... wets asd
BriTIsH OrcHips—Mr. H. Epmonps, B.Sc. es ten 38
Cairp’s IpEa oF CriticIsM—REV. Dr. jerreny JOHNSTONE,

LOB Ochs Fae 1a aa sis sis im Aer heat
SoME British ECHINODERMS—Mr. Ep. Conno tp, F.Z.S.,

ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE—Mk. T. A. Coysu, L.D.S. 43

BRIGHTHELMSTONE—BRIGHTON—Mk. W. Harrison, D.M.D. 44

Forty YEARS OF BEE-KEEPING—Mnr. B. Lomax ... cameron
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL ae wri ea Ae <_ eo
LIBRARIAN’S REPORT ... oe 3) te Fas sey oe
SociETy’s EXCURSIONS AND VISITS TO FACTORIES ... Prasat
ANNUAL EXCURSION AND DINNER ... ee =. eo
BoROUGH OF BRIGHTON METEOROLOGICAL STATION ste 104!
METEOROLOGY OF BRIGHTON ... ae cee +3 oo
TTREASURER’S ACCOUNT ons en “i oe =e pclae
HERBARIUM ... os bes m sa Bac Beets)
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ... SOF es es eo 8,
SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED... sai ss Bee ae ie TO
List OF MEMBERS Bo ies a ae oe STS
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1908-9 a oo = =e ae

i ore

3

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1907-8.
(For List of Officers, 1908-9 see page 76.).
ot

President :
GEO. MorGAn, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.

Past- Presidents :

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS.
J. E. HASELWooD. | W. CLARKSON. WALLIS, J.P.
D. E. Causu, L.D.S. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.
A. NEWSHOLME, M.D., F.R.C.P., HENRY Davey.

M.O.H. WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.
E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P.

THE COUNCIL.
Ghe President.
Virce- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
D. E. Causa, L.D.S. | J. P. SLIncsBy ROBERTS.
J. E. HASELWoop. W. CLARKSON WALLIS, J.P.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. E. A. PANKHURST.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P., HENRY Davey.
M.O.H. WALTER HARRISON, D.M D.

E. J. PeTiTFourRT, B.A., F.C.P.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.

F. Hora, B.Sc., B.A. W. H. PAYNE.
E. J Spitta, F.R.A.S., M-R.C.S,| ALFRED W. OKE, B A., LL.M.,
Bizale. 6. P- F.G.S.
W. A. POWELL, M.R.C.S., | F. R. RICHARDSON.
Re oR.C.P, :
Honorary Treasurer : Gonorary Librarian :
D. E Causy, L.D.S. Rost. MORSE.

Honorary Auditors:
A. F. GRAVES. I. WELLs.

Gonorary Curators :
H. S. Toms. T. HILTon.

Honorary Scientific Secretary:
F. HARRISON, M A., 30, Compton Avenue.

Gonorary Secretary:
JNO. COLBATCH CLARK, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Honorary Secretary :
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place

SESSION 1907-8.

Address given by the President,
Dr. G. MORGAN,L.R.C.P. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. (E.)

At the Conversazione held at the Royal Pavilion, October 4th, 1907.

Function and Fatigue.

N his Italian sketches, Heine opens one of his chapters by an
imaginary conversation with an old lizard. “ Nothing in this
world goes backward,” said the old lizard to Heine. “ Every-
thing struggles forward, and in the end a great progress will have
taken place in Nature. Stones will have become plants ; plants,
animals; animals, men; and men will have become gods.”
Heine’s old lizard uttered but half a truth when it spoke thus
to him.

There is in the Universe a constant procession from the
unicellular to the multicellular taking place, z.e., from the simple
to the complex. The root hairs of the vegetable touch and raise

-the mineral into life, and so build up a store of energy for the
animal to consume ; but plants and animals alike are but vivified
rocks, governed and impelled forward by life itself,—the most
mysterious of all forces. Check or destroy that mystic power,
and tree or man, flora or fauna alike, fall back to their primitive
inorganic atoms. And so the influx of life makes progress
possible, and the withdrawal of that same force makes retro-
gression compulsory.

What is life? The pithy epigram says: “Life is bottled
sunshine, and death the silent-footed butler who draws the cork.”
That definition is as good and as bad as any other, but it has at
any rate the virtue of ATTEMPTING to state what life is, whereas

~ . most of the definitions, from Spencer’s ‘‘ Life is correspondence

with environment,” only tell us what life does, not what it is. The
fact is, Science knows nothing of the origin and essence of life,
and perhaps never will know anything; but of the laws which
govern life she knows much, and in the future will know far
more.

6

Assimilation, independent growth, power of movement,
respiration, and reproduction are the five chief functions, the
possession of which separates both plants and animals from
lifeless bodies.

It is of life manifesting itself by function, whether as
exhibited in a monocellular plant, or in an organism of a million
differentiated cells, that I wish to address you, and also of life
disordered and destroyed by over-function, or fatigue.

It is this force which governs waste and repair, and carries
out its work with marvellous accuracy. It has been estimated
that about one twenty-fourth part of our body perishes day by
day, and to repair the loss we consume about a ton of material
every year. No part of the present audience existed a year
ago except, perhaps, the teeth (especially if false); and yet so
accurately has the new replaced the old that, had this audience
been photographed a year ago, and again to- night, it would look
the same, and individually would feel the same.

The life of all organisms, whether plant or animal, is made
up of alternating periods of activity and repose ; of function and
of rest to prevent, or to repair, the effects of fatigue. There is
no exception to this rule. The busiest man has to rest some-
times, or suffer for his folly. The laziest cell must do some work
or become atrophied and useless. Yes! and I venture to suggest
that, to a certain extent, the same law holds good beyond the
limits of the organic kingdom, and is found in the inorganic as
well. The soil must lie fallow sometimes, or it becomes fatigued
and less productive ; and the farmer must humour his fields by a
rotation of crops, or the land becomes sulky and unresponsive,
and the coming rent day will find him with a meagre balance at
his bankers.

Fatigue in some plants is prevented in a way that may strike
you as rather remarkable. Mr. Ward in his book on “The
Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases” says: ‘‘ All plants
require rest, and obtain it in some countries by the rigour of winter,
in others by the scorching heat of summer. Collectors often fail
in their attempts to grow certain plants from want of attention to
this essential point. Thus most Alpine plants which enjoy an
unbroken rest underneath the snow for several months are very
difficult of culture in our own mild and variable winter. The
winter of 1850-51 was ushered in by some heavy snows with
which I filled my Alpine cases, giving the plants perfect rest for
three or four months, and with a most satisfactory result, the
Frimula Marginata, the Zzmnea Borealis, and other species flowering
much finer than usual. Many of these plants would, I am con-
vinced, succeed well if kept for five or six months in an ice house.
Plants in hot countries have their periods of rest in the dry
season. In Egypt the blue water lily obtains rest in a curious

7

way. This plant abounds in several of the canals of Alexandria,
which at certain seasons become dry, and the beds of these
canals, which quickly become burnt as hard as bricks by the
action of the sun, are used as carriage roads. When the water is
re-admitted the plants again resume their growth with redoubled
vigour. I was surprised to find that John Hunter had explored
this field so fully, and knew so much about the methods plants
adopted to secure rest and thus prevent fatigue. ‘‘ Most plants,”
says he, “have their periods of growth, and periods of rest.
Some plants close their leaves, others their flowers, at particular
hours of the day or night; and with such regularity does this
period of rest take place that more than one vegetable physiologist
has proposed to construct from them a floral clock.

Before we proceed to speak of fatigue in Animal life it would
be well, perhaps, to define, or further explain the term. Speaking
of the muscular system, fatigue is not the same as strain. Strain
may produce a dangerous lesion in a moment, fatigue may take
hours, or days, or even longer before any serious change in the
tissues takes place. A man may attempt to lift a very heavy
weight, or to do other very heavy work, and suddenly, in a
moment, damage his heart irretrievably. On the other hand a
man may walk for a long time at his usual pace, and may produce
such a state of fatigue as may permanently affect his health, and
for the rest of his life leave him with a somewhat weakened
muscular and nervous system. Strain is sudden and physical, an
altogether unnatural process in the organism. On the other
hand fatigue is physiological ; it is the result of a normal process
carried too far. You might call it over-function. It is of course
impossible, in most cases, to state the exact point at which fatigue
starts. Nor can we in all cases trust our senses for guidance.
— Weber's Law Explained.

Probably most of the better known examples of fatigue of
special nerves are known to you all. How quickly after some
strong odours the olfactory nerve reaches its limit of sensation,
and becomes temporarily paralysed by fatigue. Two or three
short sharp sniffs of an ordinary musk plant will rapidly exhaust
the nerve, and prevent its detecting the same perfume again until
its fatigue is recovered from by resting a few minutes. If salt is
held in the mouth for a short time the nerves of taste become
fatigued and fail to respond. ‘That the ears are similarly affected
by the auditory nerves becoming fatigued is sufficiently obvious
from our use of such terms as “ deafening sounds.”

Sir Michael Foster says the auditory nerve is capable of rapid
fatigue. If the sound be continued long, with almost any note,
the sensation diminishes, and finally disappears, and the exhaustion
comes on more rapidly with high notes than with low, especially
with very high. If the tuning fork be held to one ear, and then,

8.

just as the sound becomes inaudible, be changed to the other
side, the sound will be distinctly heard—the fresh untired sense
apparatus of the one side is sensitive to the vibration which the
tired apparatus of the other side can no longer feel.

Most of you will remember the soap advertisements of twenty
years ago to demonstrate the limit of sensation of the retina for
certain colours. You were told to look fixedly at the word
“Pears” for some short time, until the retina was fatigued, and
then to look away from the hoarding to the sky, and you saw
the same word in the sky in their complimentary colour. Many
a one has paid a big fee for learning that physiological fact, by the
loss of a purse or other valuable ; for the pickpocket was near
studying the student of fatigue, and his fingers had not reached
the limit of sensation.

The heart is only a hollow muscle, and is subject to the same
laws of fatigue. As it is always on duty, Nature has done her best
to guard against exhaustion, by forcing it to rest six elevenths of
each second. The lungs too avoid over function by resting more
than half their time.

But even these wise provisions of Nature are not always
sufficient to protect these organisms from irretrievable damage.

Both the youth, and the city man past middle life, occasionally
fall victims through a paper chase or a mountain climb. I am
quite sure that in our best public and private schools greater
attention is paid to this matter of overtaxing the heart and limbs
by too long runs, or being too long in the water, than was the case
at one time. Still, more will have to be done in separating the
pupils into classes for physical exercise, as is done for mental
exercise. In the near future this will probably, I may say almost
certainly, be a much simpler matter than it has been up to the
present time.

As regards the city men, many of whom do a minimum of
muscular work on a maximum of the heavier nitrogenous foods,
and z# this condition (or rather ow¢ of condition) which this
entails, if then they attempt a too sudden, or too prolonged active
exertion their hearts and greater vessels are especially liable to
suffer from the graver effects of fatigue. Many a one has caused
a dilated heart, or aneurism, by a mountain climb, or tramping
too far across the moors in pursuit of game.

It must be remembered that in severe cases of fatigue certain
poisons, which have a very deleterious effect on the whole system,
are formed by the muscles. This has been demonstrated by
injecting the muscle juice of a fatigued animal into a healthy one
and thus causing convulsions and other symptoms of ptomaine
poisoning. These fatigue products certainly predispose the joints,
the pleura, peritoneum, and probably the membrane of the brain,
to tubercular changes.

9

Until recent years little attention has been given.to the
subject of fatigue. Function has always been a favourite study,
but not over-function, or fatigue. Isolated facts were known, but
the subject had not been opened up either from observation or
experiment by any eminent worker. At the present time there
are many toilers in this field, and I think the place of honour
must be given to Italian Physiologists, both for their enthusiasm
and for the originality of their methods. I shall this evening have
to refer to their works, and especially to those of Professor Mosso.

Mosso began by observing the effect of prolonged muscular
work on quails. He left Turin, where he is Professor of
Physiology, and went to the coast to Palo, that he might be
present when these birds arrived after their journey from Africa.
He found he was not alone in waiting for the quails. There were
men present ready to pick up the birds that died from shock.
The poor birds are in the habit of arriving almost blinded by
fatigue, so that many, in the eagerness with which they seek the
land, fail to see the trees, and dash themselves against the trunks,
branches, or even telegraph posts, with such force that they kill
themselves. It has since been proved that in great muscular
effort, and extreme fatigue, cerebral anzemia is produced, and this
want of blood in the brain diminishes the power of vision.

Mosso says the poor creatures are so exhausted by their
journey that their strength is just sufficient for their flight. When
from a great distance they perceive the dark line of the land
they are attracted by the white spots representing houses, and
steer for them with such eagerness and impetuosity that they
reach them, so to speak, before they have recognised them. On
examining the bodies of many of these dead birds, they were
found to be well nourished, with good muscular development of
the pectorals; but their muscles, especially the great pectorals,
which had done the chief work of the journey, were very pale and,
like the brain, were in a condition of anzemia.

This relationship between intense fatigue and anemia will
explain to you why maids in large towns so often become anzmic.
It is largely a question of fatigue of the heart from stair work.

To return to the birds. A quail flies nearly nineteen yards
a second, or thirty-eight miles an hour. The journey from Africa
to Italy is much easier than at first appears, seeing that from
Africa Sicily is visible with the naked eye. The distance from
_ Cape Bon to Marsala is about eighty-four miles. A quail would
do the journey in a little less than two-and-a-half hours. The
distance from Cape Bon to Rome is about three hundred and
forty-one miles, and this should take a quail, flying in a straight
line, about nine hours. Another important observation made by
Mosso was, that seeds found in the crop of the dead birds, when
sowed in a garden, nearly always came up, and produced African

10

flowers. The intense muscular effort and fatigue had stopped
digestion. The seeds must have been in the crop at least twelve
hours, and probably much longer, for no bird could, in a high
wind, take a perfectly direct course. I have no doubt this fact is
well known to most of you, that intense exertion, either muscular
or mental, inhibits digestion and may for a time stop it entirely.

A quail is by no means the strongest bird on the wing, and,
compared with many birds, fatigue seems to come on rapidly ;
but, let it be said for the credit of the quail family, if they possess
less power for sustained effort, their sense of sympathy seems to
be more highly developed than in some other birds. Travellers
tell us that among the quails that are strongest on the wing, and
which have previously gone the same journey, some have been
observed at sea, bearing on their backs the tired ones, which have
thus in a desperate situation found safety. Some very valuable
observations have been recorded of fatigue in pigeons, especially
carrier pigeons. Nine pigeons brought from the United States
were set free in London; only three succeeded in crossing the
ocean, and returning to their homes. After a very long flight the
brain and muscles of two fatigued birds were compared with the
same organs of healthy birds. The contrast was most marked,
and was at once noticed by the professor and students alike
working in the laboratory. In the fatigued birds the brain was
pale, almost bloodless, and so were the muscles. The rectal
temperature was 43 C., one degree C. above normal. The speed
of a pigeon is greater than that of a quail, and the former can
travel longer journeys with less fatigue. That the strength of
animals increases proportionately as their size decreases is a fact
well known to old writers. Haller in his treatise on physiology
compares the strength of a London porter with that of a horse,
and concludes that the former is proportionately the stronger.

Plateu notes that the common beetle can drag along a mass
fourteen times as heavy as its own body; other insects can drag
as much as forty-two times their own weight. The horse can
only pull twice or thrice its own weight. This same writer notes
that of two species of insects belonging to the same family, which
differ in weight, the smaller and lighter is always proportionately
the stronger. An ant can carry a burden twenty-three times as
heavy as itself. In no animal is muscular contraction so rapid, or
so frequent, as in insects. Lubbock tells us the note of the wings
in flight of the common bee is La, that is 440 vibrations per
second. In Bombus terristris the male buzzes in La, whilst the
female, a larger insect, buzzes an octave higher.

I have spoken of fatigue overtaking birds whilst travelling.
Sad to relate, many human beings share a like fate every year.
Every year thousands of Piedmontese workmen go to France or
Switzerland, returning at the beginning of winter by the valley of

oe

It

the Rhone. Many die of fatigue in the Pass of the Great St.
Bernard. A traveller gives an impressive picture of his visit to
the Charnel house, where these victims are collected. He says
no one who has once looked through the window of this mortuary
chamber will ever forget what he has seen; here and there upon
the flagstones are gathered together single bones, skulls, shreds of
clothing half buried in the dust of ages,—the remains of hapless
travellers collected and entombed under this spacious vault.
Against the walls lean skeletons, which stand upright on their
rigid joints. Some of the bodies have arms raised, lips drawn
back, and whitening teeth ; with staff stick still in hand, they
remain in the strange attitude in which they were first found.
There were thirty corpses thus supported. Amongst these bodies
was seen a woman holding her child in her arms in such a way
that she seems to be offering him the breast. Fascinated, one’s

- eye rests on the form of this mother who at the very moment of

death hopes still to save her little one. Like a ray of heavenly
light her mother love illumes the darkness, and relieves the horror
of this charnel house.

Whilst on the subject of fatigue caused by severe or pro-
longed muscular effort I will give an illustration of the Myograph
tracing, and the ergograph tracing. ‘There are various instruments
in use at different colleges. Perhaps the simplest is the one
bearing the name of Helmholtz. A frog is killed; the thigh bone
and gastronemius muscle are dissected out with the Sciatic nerve
attached. A moment’s explanation with a lantern picture will
give by far the best impression.

(a) Forceps for holding frog’s femur.

(4) Gastronemius muscle.

(c) Sciatic nerve attached to muscle.

(2) Scale pan.

(e) Marker recording on cylinder.

(g) Cylinder covered with smoked paper and revolving by

clockwork.

(7) Counterpoise.

When all these: details have been arranged an electric shock
is sent down the nerve which immediately causes the muscle to
contract, raises the pan and moves the marker which leaves its
record on the smoked paper.

MuscLe CurvE. EXPLAIN.

(m) Represents the curve traced by the end of the lever in
connection with the muscle after stimulation by a single induction
shock.

(2) The middle line is that described by a lever which
indicates by a sudden drop the exact instant at which the induction

12

shock is given. The lower wavy line (/) is traced by a tuning
fork vibrating 200 times a second, and serves to measure precisely
the time occupied in each part of the contraction. It will be
observed that after the stimulus has been applied, as indicated by
the vertical line (s), there is an interval before the contraction
commences as indicated by the line (c). This interval, termed
latent period, when measured by the number of vibrations of the
tuning fork between the lines S and C is found to be ,) of a
second. During the latent period there is no apparent change in
the muscle.

In the lower the whole curve lasted about ,§, of a second,
and the upper ji).

I will now show a tracing of muscular shocks written by the
leg of a frog which is beginning to be fatigued. In the lower
part of the tracing the muscle was acting before fatigue had shown
itself, and the contraction is shorter and more sudden than in the
upper part of the field, where the tracing shows a contraction and
elongation more slow and prolonged.

A description of the instrument and its curves may be seen
in Michael Foster, Halliburton, or other good work on physiology.

I turn now to an instrument which will, I feel sure, interest
you much more, as by it you can test your own muscle for fatigue,
and record it by a tracing. The instrument has been named the
Ergograph by Professor Mosso, its inventor.

EXPLANATION

One finger is placed in a leathern loop, the wrist and forearm
being fixed as seen in the figure, the loop is fixed to the first
phalynx of the middle finger, and to the loop is fastened a cord
of catgut, running over a metal pulley, and carrying a weight of
three or four kilograms.

Now examine two og three tracings. The first two were
taken by Professor Aducco and Dr. Maggiora, the third by Dr.
Patrize. Notice the difference in the three.

In the first there is a gradual diminution from the beginning,
showing 46 contractions.

In the second, fatigue came on much more rapidly, only the
ten first contractions raising the weight to its required height,
and the whole record extending to 37 contractions, or partial
contractions.

Vo. 3 shows an entirely different curve. In this there are
41 contractions, all raising the weight nearly to the same height,
and the fatigue came on quite suddenly, the finger refusing to
respond any longer. These curves are quite natural, and true to
experience. We find men and women who differ thus in the
rapidity and manner in which fatigue comes on. There are some

ig

in whom fatigue comes on very slowly, but commencing almost
at the beginning of any severe muscular exertion. In others the
exhaustion does not show itself for some time, but then it comes
on so suddenly and emphatically that they feel quite done up, as
they say, and can do no more.

To show the value of a period of muscular training, before
making the experimental tracing I will show a fourth tracing. It
is from the finger of the same doctor as the first on the screen. It
shews 78 contractions, as against 46, more than half of which
were full ones.

These curves exhibit the objective sign of muscular fatigue,
There is a subjective sign also, viz., the sezsation of fatigue. That
is to say, we have a physical fact which can be estimated by one
of the instruments I have alluded to, and a psychic fact which
cannot be estimated. With regard to the feeling of fatigue, we
only perceive it when it has attained a certain intensity. The
sensation of fatigue may be delayed by agreeable company, or a
pleasant train of thought. Two friends can do a fifteen mile
walk, providing they do not push the pace, with less signs of tiredness
than each one going alone. The workman who persists in his task,
after he is already fatigued, not only produces less effective work, but
damages his organism to a greater extent. An objective sign may
show itself before the subjective feeling comes on. In healthy
action the muscles shorten by about one-third, but when they are
getting tired, and sometimes even before we are conscious of the
fact, this shortening no longer takes place, and we drag our feet,
that is, the usual shortening does not take place to the full extent,
and so the heels are not raised. A sense of fatigue may be
present even before any exercise has been taken. This may be
due to feeble circulation through the muscles, or the blood con-
taining some poisonous products, or to its not containing its
normal amount of oxygen. In this case a sharp walk or other
form of active exercise improves the circulation through the
muscle, and brings fresh supplies of oxygen, and so removes this
pseudo fatigue. In cases of chronic fatigue there is nothing better
than a course of massage to improve the circulation through the
muscles, and so bring back their tone.

Can we proceed a step farther and say what causes these
symptoms of muscular exhaustion? Partially, at any rate, I think
we can ; but I question whether the fiaal answer as to the cause
can yet be given. One theory, held by a good many physiologists,
including the Italians, is that the lack of energy in the movements
of a weary man depends, as in the case of the frog, upon the fact
that the muscles during work produce noxious substances which,
little by little, interfere with contraction. Professor Mosso says
that when the froy’s leg has become fatigued by prolonged
exertion, we can restore its contractibility, and render it capable of

14

a new series of contractions, simply by washing it. Of course we
do not wash the outer surface, but having found the artery which
carries the blood to the muscle, we pass through it water, instead
of blood. But not pure water, which acts most injuriously on all
the cells of an organism,—a fact which it is well to remember
when one has to wash deep wounds. The muscle would swell up
and die if pure water were introduced into the circulation instead
of blood ; hence a little table salt is added to the water (7 grams
to a litre, or in English measure, 60 grains to a pint), and this
solution closely resembles blood serum. Upon the passage of a
current of this liquid through the muscle the fatigue disappears,
and the contractibility returns and is as vigorous as at the
beginning. A similar result may be arrived at by massage. It is
well known that a hot bath, followed by vigorous massage, will go
far to remove the feelings of muscular exhaustion following any
very arduous work. The chief products that are removed by
washing the muscle separated from the body, or by massage of the
muscle attached to the body are:—Carbonic Acid and _ Lactic
Acid, ane certain ptomaines which make the blood of a fatigued
animal tonic to another animal.

Other physiologists, especially Professor Herter of New York,
and Professor Lee of Columbia University, have approached the
subject from another standpoint. Their explanation of the
symptoms of fatigue is: that it is caused, not so much by what is
formed in the muscles, viz,.Lactic Acid, Carbonic Acid and
Ptomaines, as by that which is lost from the muscular fibres. You
will find the subject discussed in Professor Herter’s ‘‘ Chemical
Pathology.” His conclusion : Is that it is loss of sugar from the
muscle which is the chief cause of fatigue. It seemed to Professor
Lee that if this were so, then by depriving the muscles of their
muscle sugar, or more correctly glycogen, or muscle starch, then
fatigue ought to show itself. In Phlerhizin we have a drug which
has the singular property of impairing the combustion of sugar,
and of permitting its escape in the urine, thus depriving the cells
of the muscle of their supply of sugar. It was found that animals
subjected to the action of this drug for several days rapidly
became fatigued, and their leg muscles only gave 200 to 400
contractions per minute, instead of the normal 800 to 1,000, on
electrical stimulation. This is the explanation of the rapid way
fatigue comes on in Diabetes. I have given you the two chief
theories. I have no doubt there is truth in both explanations,
and the probability is that muscular fatigue is a much more
complex state than we as yet suspect. However, much good has
been done by the discovery that fatigue means diminution of
muscle sugar, and it furnishes you with a scientific excuse for
taking some chocolate, or other sweetmeat, with you when taking
a long walk. In connection with muscular fatigue I ought to

.

EEE

15

mention eye strain, which is chiefly muscular in origin. The
muscles which move the eyeballs, and the muscles which contract
the pupils, and increase the convexity of the lens are all liable
to the same exhaustion as other muscles. We have only to
remember the Academy headache to realise how severe may be
this form of fatigue. This fatigue is what is called Asthenopia.
Rest temporarily relieves it. Many workmen who have to use
their eyes for fine work see much better at the beginning of the
week after the Sunday rest, but in the middle of the week the
signs of Asthenopia recur, and cause obscurity of vision with
frontal and occipital headaches.

The question of training is too great to enter into to-night,
but I would say in passing, it has a real power in delaying fatigue,
and sparing the organism from its dangerous influence. ‘The
improvement of the digestion, of the circulation, and the action
of the skin assists in rapidly eliminating fatigue products. The
question of dress, too, is of no less importance. During cold
weather, especially if in a cold east wind, there is a real danger of
having 400 “2¢//e clothing, permitting too rapid loss of heat, and so
quickening the onset of fatigue. In very hot weather it goes
without saying all clothing should be light and loose, and not in
any way interfering with muscular contraction.

BRAIN FATIGUE.

By this I mean exhaustion of the Intellectual faculties, and
the other special functions of the Brain, and, considering the
conditions of life at the present time, I am sure you will agree
with me that no subject could be of greater importance tous. I
am not going to speak as a pessimist and long for the good old
times. Personally I feel no time in the world’s history has been
better than the present. The chances of the child developing
into youth and manhood, and the man living on to middle life,
and even old age, are much greater to-day than they have ever
been before. But the twentieth century has its own special
dangers, and probably the greatest of these is fatigue, and
especially 4vaiz and merve exhaustion. The colon Bacillus and
Cocci are hunted to the death by the Medical Officer and his
Sanitary staff in Brighton; and I am paying a deservedly high
compliment to the efficiency of their work when I tell you that,
as far as zymotic diseases are concerned, Brighton compares most
favourably with any large town in the Universe. Our lungs and
stomachs are guarded most vigilantly by Dr. Newsholme ; but I
wish the law would empower him to look to the state of Brighton’s
brain and nerves. Many diseases have been all but banished, but

_I fear nerve diseases are on the increase I make this suggestion

in no frivolous spirit, Something will have to be done soon, and

16

as in a short time there will be very little diphtheria, and less
consumption, for the Medical Officer to talk of by day and dream
by night, I would suggest that his attention be directed to the
cause and, when possible, to the prevention of strain and fatigue.
A certain amount of strain will always be inevitable both in youth
and manhood, but all unnecessary fatigue, or what I would
venture to call unproductive strain, should be prevented.

Street noises, especially night noises, are one fertile source of
unproductive strain. ‘Think of the loss of nerve energy that may
be caused by a dozen or more thoughtless youths shouting to each
other at 4.30 on a Sunday morning. Probably by that noise in
the early morning several people would be roused, and would
lose an hour or more of sleep, and so energy would be dissipated
with no work produced. That is only oe illustration of
unnecessary, unproductive loss of energy ; it would not be difficult
to point out others.

Brain.—Roughly, the brain is one-fortieth of the body
weight ; but mass for mass it has by far the largest blood supply
in the body. Besides several small arteries, it has four very large
vessels: two Zz¢ Carotids and two Vertebrals. Its blood supply
therefore is as great as that of the two legs and thighs. This will
give you some clue as to the amount of work Nature expects of
this organ, and her provision against fatigue.

As I shall find it impossible to touch but a few points in this
branch of my subject, I have classified the causes of mental
fatigue, and, of course, the same classification will apply to
physical fatigue.

It may be caused by :-—

(1) An adnormal amount of work, in otherwise normal
conditions.

(2) A normal amount of work but carried out in
abnormai conditions.

(2) Worst of all, an adnormal amount of work in
abnormal conditions.

Of course the xorma/ or abnormal amount of work are purely
relative terms. What would be an easy task for one man or child
would be hard work to another.

The abnormal state or environment may be caused by
certain well known physical states of health, or want of health,
that are inimical to mental work, viz., by errors of diet, either in
kind or in quantity ; by too little, or too much exercise ; by states
of temperature, or ventilation. These are quite obvious causes
of a vicious environment, and would occur to the minds of all.
But that the keen edge of one’s intellect can be blunted by the
condition of the nose and throat is not quite so obvious, but it is
just as true. This abnormal condition applies more to children
than to adults, but may be found also in the latter. It has been

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17

named by specialists as Afrosexia, and has reference to the
peculiar want of attention, and loss of memory, and the early
onset of fatigue caused by the presence of adenoids in the nostrils
and throat. It is thought to be due to the interference of the
lymph current through the brain. In some schools the morning’s
work is too long. Studies from 9.30 to 1.30, with only fifteen
minutes’ break, will inevitably produce fatigue in both boys and
girls who are not strong. Mothers have described to me the
condition in which their girls have reached home after an
especially fatiguing morning’s work. Pale, irritable, passionate,
or silent and morose, with hardly energy enough to take food,
and with certainly not sufficient digestive power to assimilate it.

A good master will adapt the time and subject of the lessons

_ SO as not to overtax and exhaust the brain. He will also see that

the pupils have a proper period for relaxation and sleep. The
boy or man who studies much, sleeps little, and plays less, is
riding for a fall) When Cervantes wished to make Don Quixote
mad he made him read much and sleep little , thus his brain be-
came enfeebled, and then it was good-bye to sound judgment.

A word about Examinations. Unless they have been greatly
modified from what they were formerly I feel sure they tend to
cause unnecessary fatigue. I remember three young men going
up for a surgical examination. Part of the examination was a
paper in Anatomy and Surgical Anatomy lasting four hours.
They started to write at eleven, and continued as though the rest
of their lives depended on it, until three o’clock: At that time
you may be sure they were all thoroughly fatigued, for the time
being, at any rate. They found it difficult to recall the names of
drugs or diseases. As this work had to be followed by a viva voce
at five they were somewhat exercised as to the best way of spending
the intervening two hours. Two of their number decided for a
good meal and an hour’s reading ; the other took a sponge cake
and a cup of coffee ; a short walk and a rest on the couch. The
coffee, cakes and rest beat the square meal and the hard hour’s
reading. A short time ago I happened to be in the precincts of
the London University as the would be matriculants were streaming
out of the examination hall after the three hours’ morning
mathematical paper. This was at one o’clock. In many of them
I noticed very evident signs of fatigue, and when I thought that
in an hour these same students would be back at the same desks,
with their brains concentrated on work very much like the
morning work, I said to myself ‘‘ Surely this is a very unfair, and
a very unscientific way of testing knowledge and judgment.” The
mornirg paper was on Arithmetic and Algebra; the afternoon
three hours was spent at geometrical work. In an examination
test of that kind physical endurance counts. as well as mental
ability. I would suggest that fatigue would be. much less_likely

18

to come on, if the morning paper started at nine, and ended at
twelve, and then an interval allowed of two or three hours before
starting another three hours work ; or, if that change could not be
made, why not substitute another subject for the afternoon, and
save the subject of geometry for the next morning, when the brain
would be fresher to deal with it. A change of work is sometimes
as good as a rest.

Physiologists can’t say with certainty how much fatigue the
brain can bear without damage, nor at what age it can endure
fatigue without danger.

It must be.remembered that fatigue, either muscular or
mental, probably bears the same relationship to acute diseases as
chill does. It is relatively much more dangerous to come into
contact with infectious diseases in the evening, when the vital
forces are fatigued, than in the morning, when the same forces are
fresh, and have greater resisting power. And as regards the more
chronic illnesses, especially of nerve type, there is no more potent
factor than fatigue. It is well known that a long spell of sick
nursing, continued with loss of rest, in one unaccustomed to that
work, will produce such a state of exhaustion of the nervous
system as to permanently damage the general health. It is
equally well known that that part of the body which is most
fatigued is most prone to disease. I have always looked upon
boils and carbuncles as evidence of fatigue, and have been able to
collect some remarkable cases in support of that opinion.

There is a concurrence of opinion that before the sixth year
it is not well for children to work in school. On the other hand
moderate mental exercise conduces to the development of the
brain. It has been shown that school is one of the most effective
means of ameliorating the condition of cretins in places where
cretinism exists endemically. A brain must be made to work,
just as a field must be cultivated, in order to prevent it from
running wild, but the moment study becomes exhausting it ceases
to be useful. One ought to exercise the brain constantly, but
never to exhaust it. When one looks into it, the function of
fatigue of the brain is an immense subject, and one which it is
impossible to touch but the fringe of it in an hour’s paper. There
are certain well defined laws which should govern all head workers
and are applicable to all of us; but outside these every man must
be a law unto himself.

(x). Hard mental work should not be attempted after a full
meal; nor when hungry; nor when very cold; nor when very
tired ; nor in the convalescent stage of an illness, especially if
that illness has been influenza. I have known cases of most
severe headache coming on and lasting for months from this
cause, and one has only to study the daily papers to know how
frequently a mental collapse is attributable to this illness.

te

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19

As regards the regulations which are not so binding, one will
prefer doing his best work lying flat in bed or on a couch. Ihave
heard it stated that those whose circulation is feeble get a better
activity of brain, and a less degree of fatigue, if they work in this
position. Others prefer a gentle walk whilst thinking out some
problem. Some find the function of the mind most active in the
morning, and work less fatiguing. The brain of others seems
most active late at night, when the majority of us are resting.
Most workers find rest and stillness necessary for thought, but
there are some whose minds become all aglow from the excite-
ment of railway travelling. I must confess that when travelling
I have sometimes got an answer to some problem ; some lost
word has returned when my mind was stimulated by the rapid
movement of a railway train. I have known men take a railway
journey with the sole idea of stimulating the brain, and starting
some fresh train of thought. Others again find it necessary to
read a novel to soothe the brain when travelling. I have no
doubt that mental work done under the influence of this stimulus
must be very fatiguing.

As regards the onset of fatigue, one very important sign of its
approach is, when it is found difficult to fix the attention on the
work in hand, and when every little sight and sound distracts the
mind, and starts some other train of thought. An hour’s rest, or
some fresh work would be well then. I should take it to bea
sign of a functionally active brain when its possessor can continue
to work, and do good work, without exhaustion in an environment,
which many would consider decidedly inimical to good work.
Of the biographies of head workers which I have read not one so
impressed me in this particular as that of Sir James Paget. His
is one of the most inspiring and instructive lives any one could
read. He possessed the power of concentration and attention
until quite late at night, even after a very hard day’s work, when all
ordinary minds would have wandered from the subject in hand.
Even in extreme old age he continued to work with scarcely any
sign of fatigue, and to work on in rooms where music and
conversation were going on. When in practice he was practically
always overworked, but he possessed the power of going at once
from each duty to the next without a break, as if it were by
instinct. In the evening, after dinner, he wrote his letters and
filled up his casebook in the drawing room, surrounded by his
family, and rather preferred than otherwise to hear the piano and
conversation during his work. He seemed to know when to
retire, not from any sense of fatigue, but because he felt enough
work had been done for the day. His biographer says of him:
He worked without fuss in a quiet way that recalls Matthew
Arnold’s words :—

One lesson, Nature, let me learn of thee,
Of rest unsevered from tranquillity.

20

It was the power of concentrated attention as the sign of an
unfatigued mind and I might add, of a superior mind, which
kept Sir James Paget’s memory in activity. Charles Darwin
considered a/fention the most important of all the faculties for the
development of the mind. He tells of a certain man who used
to purchase monkeys for the Zoological Society of London for £5
each. He wanted them for training to act in plays, and he offered
410 if he were allowed to keep three or four of them for a few
days in order to select one. When he was asked how he could
tell in so short a time whether a monkey would prove an apt
pupil or not, he replied, “that it all depended on the degree
of attention which the animal gave to what was done in its
presence.” If when he was teaching it anything its attention was
easily attracted, as bya fly or other trivial cause, all hope of
instructing it had to be given up. An animal when fatigued has
undergone a temporary involution, and become of the level of an
inattentive monkey. If the brain is fatigued it is almost
impossible to be attentive. Galton studied the movements which
take place in a large audience, when a lecture has been prolonged
so much as to fatigue the listeners. Says Galton, ‘‘ The art of
class teaching consists chiefly in knowing how long, and in what
way, one can retain the attention of the students. The best
masters are those who never fatigue too much any one region of
the pupils’ brains, so that their attention being directed, now here,
now there, obtains some rest, and so is better able to grapple with
the main subject of the lesson.

Beard, an American author, writing of the increase of
nervousness across the Atlantic, says, ‘‘ That at the present time
no lecturer can attract very large crowds unless he be a humourist
and makes his hearers laugh, as well as cry ; and the lectures of
the hument, now a class by themselves, are more frequented than
those of philosophers, or men of science, or of fame in literature.
Americans prefer nonsense to science for an evening’s employ-
ment. They are so exhausted by the hard toil of the day that
they cannot concentrate their attention for anything scientific.”
Beard is convinced that in no other country is nervous fatigue so
common as in the United States. All I have just said on the
question of want of attention in fatigue has reference to cerebral
fatigue, but it applies equally to severe muscular fatigue. Alpine
climbers have noticed that it is well nigh impossible to fix the
attention for intellectual work ; not only does the attention fail,
but memory becomes impaired.

Mosso found in his case, that after climbing Monte Viso and
Monte Rosa he could not remember anything of what he had
seen from the summit. He says, “ My recollection became more
and more dim in proportion to the height attained. It seems
that the physical condition of thought and memory becomes less

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favourable as the blood is poisoned by the products of fatigue,
and the energy of the nervous system consumed.” Several other
Alpinists agreed that the last part of an ascent was the least
distinctly remembered.

Yawning, which is caused by temporary anzemia of the brain,
is another sign of approaching fatigue.

Aphasia.—The loss of memory for words is called Aphasia,
and this certainly comes on quickly in fatigue. Especially have
I noticed this sign of exhaustion in surgeons after an anxious
operation.

In this discursive paper on a fascinating subject, I have
drawn illustrations from many sources. The names of two great
British scientists have been mentioned,—Sir James Paget and
Charles Darwin, men differing as widely in mental and physical
type as in their methods of work ; the one able to persevere in his
work well into the night, with little or no sign of exhaustion ; the
other, almost at the commencement of his career, became a
victim to early fatigue when working, and this followed him right
through his life. But this weakness, though it severely handi-
capped him, was not permitted to stop his work. The inquisitive-
ness of Charles Darwin’s mind was a passion which overcame all
difficulties. He has set the scientific world a glorious example
of a struggle carried on day after day to the very end.

Before he was thirty, when he returned from his voyage
round the world, his health failed so rapidly that he had to
abandon London for the quietude of a tiny village, and here, at
Down, though his progress was dogged at almost every step by
his ever present enemy—fatigue, he plodded on most bravely.
His son, Francis Darwin, has told us that he was so much of an
invalid that he could scarcely even receive his friends in his quiet
country house because, every time he made the attempt, the
excitement or fatigue he experienced brought on chills or nausea.
Yet this man, in the language of an admiring physiologist has,
with his simple country life, his garden and his books as his only
occupation, inspired philosophy with new life, and fertilized all
the knowledge of our day.

In the little village of Down, in the shade of the tall trees
surrounding his house, he thought out and brought to a
triumphant conclusion his self-imposed gigantic task.

Shortly after his return from his voyage round the world,
Darwin wrote thus to Lyall: “* My father scarcely seems to expect
that I shall become strong for some years. It has been a bitter
disappointment to me to digest the conclusion that the race is for
the strong, and that I snall probably do little more but be
content to admire the strides others make in science.” Later on
he wrote to Lyall, “I am coming into your way of only working
about two hours at a spell. I then go out and do my business in

22

the streets, return and set to work again, and thus make two
separate days out of one.” One of Darwin’s favourite sayings was
that, “Saving the minutes was the way to get work done.” His
son tells us that the peculiarities of his indoor dress were : that he
always wore a shawl over his shoulders, and that he had great
loose cloth boots, lined with fur, which he could slip over his
indoor shoes. Like most delicate people, he suffered from the
heat as well as the cold. Often a mental cause would make him
too hot, so that he would take off his coat if anything went out of
the common in the course of his work. For those who experience
anything of the paralysing feelings of fatigue, his method of work
is worth considering. He rose early and took a short turn before
breakfast. He considered the hour and a half between eight and
nine thirty one of his best working times. At nine thirty he came
into the drawing room with his letters. He would then hear any
family letters read aloud as he lay on the sofa. The reading
aloud, which also included part of a novel, lasted till about half-
past ten, when he went back to work till twelve or a quarter past.
By this time he considered his day’s work over, and would often
say in a Satisfied voice, ‘‘I have done a good day’s work.” He
then went out of doors whether wet or fine. He would often
work up to the very limit of his strength, and would suddenly
stop in dictating, with the words, “I believe I must do
no more.” Thus for forty years he worked bravely on resting
frequently to escape fatigue, and, in this manner, he was able to
complete his life’s work, He died at the age of seventy-three.
On the other hand, Sir James Paget was altogether a stronger
man, and never experienced this fatigue, except when con-
valescing from some illness. He passed Darwin’s age by twelve
years. After his death, his friend Sir T. Smith wrote of him:
“During the period of his active life, and until strength failed
him, his demon in the Socratic sense was work, and he had but
little patience with or sympathy for those who pleaded that they
had no time for work. If you have no time, I suppose you can
make time, and the more you have to do the more you can do.”
These are hard sayings, but he applied them to himself in his
own work. Paget showed a complete disregard of his health and
personal comfort, and in his vacation his pleasure would have
been rather hard work to most of us. Now I am not contrasting
Paget with Darwin that I may hold him up as a model for our
copying. In work, both as regards the manner and the amount,
each man must be a law unto himself, within certain limits.
Before you can follow Paget’s method of work you must
follow him in securing an ancestry remarkable for its longevity
and its vigour. Before you can expect to escape fatigue, as he
escaped it, you must have the great capacity for constant function,
as he possessed it. For most brain workers Darwin is a safer

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guide than Paget ; for the warnings of fatigue cannot safely be
disregarded, and yet we may learn from that marvellously patient
and noble life, that a courageous spirit may prevent feeble health
from wrecking a useful life; and that if regard is paid to the
warnings of a tired mind, work certainly prolongs life, and is the
surest means of insuring peace and happiness.

I shall close these remarks, already drawn out at too great a
length, by citing a most remarkable instance of the sense of
fatigue, in its acutest form, being overcome by a brave, indomitable
spirit, and, thus, a valuable life being preserved.

All of you have heard of the mountains of South-West
Shropshire, and you who are geologists have visited that region in
search of the lowest fossil bearing deposits. Of this group of
hills the highest, and most extensive in length and breadth, is the
Long Mynd. Its summit is a wide expanse of table land, the
highest part of which is nearly 1,700 feet above sea level. It is
nearly ro miles long, varying in breadth from three to four miles.
Church Stretton at the foot of the hills is rapidly growing in favour
as a health resort, and I can personally testify to its invigorating
breezes, and its charming scenery. Towards Shrewsbury on the
North, the ascent is a gradual one, but on the South-East, or
Stretton side, it is wild in the extreme. Running through it are
deep ravines, with precipitous sides, at the bottom of which runs
a small stream of water, cold and pure. It is recorded that at
different times many people have lost their lives amongst these
hills, and the record is perpetuated by such names as “ Dead
Man’s Beach,” ‘“‘ Dead Man’s Hollow,” and the last fair held at
Church Stretton before Christmas is known locally as Dead Man’s
Fair, because several men have perished whilst attempting to
return home across the hills in the dark November night.

The Rev. Donald Carr, the Rector of Wollaston, a small
parish near Church Stretton, used to conduct a service every
Sunday afternoon at Rattlinghope, a small mountain church on
the opposite side of the Long Mynd, and separated from Wollaston
by four miles of wild country. Previous to this last terrible
experience Mr. Carr had crossed the mountain over two thousand
times, and knew every inch of the road so well, that fog, or mist,
or snow, did not deter him from paying his regular visits to
Rattlinghope. All the week preceding January 29th, 1875, snow
fell heavily, and lay in deep rifts, completely obliterating all the
footpaths across the hills. Mr. Carr must have been a man of
extraordinary physique and indomitable spirit, for despite all
warnings he started on his weekly visit to minister to this handful
of people on the hills. His journey proved more difficult than he
had expected. The snow, which was very soft, was up to his
‘ knees, and the drifts so deep that he could only cross them by
crawling on his hands and knees. After the service, not waiting

24

for any nourishment, he turned homewards for his evening service.
By the time of his return journey, however, the weather had
completely changed ; the sun had gone down and a fierce gale
had sprung up from the E.S.E., driving clouds of snow and icy
sleet before it. He had travelled but a few minutes when a fall
made him lose his bearings, and strike out in a wrong direction.
He left Rattlinghope at four, and then commenced one of the
most thrilling experiences anyone had ever passed through and
survived. He lost his way completely, and had to continue
walking and often falling all through that evening and night, and
late into the afternoon of the next day. Snow blindness very soon
came on ; he fell down several of the deep ravines, losing his
gloves, his hat, and later on his boots, and still he had to go on
and on, never daring to rest a moment, lest the sense of oncoming
fatigue should cause him to fall asleep, and die. In his own
words he says, “ After travelling some distance, suddenly my feet
flew from under me, and I found myself shooting at a fearful pace
down the side of one of the steep ravines which I had imagined
lay far away to my right. As I made my way upwards again I
saw just in front of me what looked like a small shadow flitting
about, for owing to the snow-white ground it was never completely
dark. I put my hand upon the dark object and found it to be a
hare. I saw many of these animals during the night. They
made holes in the snow, and sat within well protected by their
warm coats. By this time I was cold and numb, and my whiskers
were frozen into a solid crystal beard, hanging half way to my
waist. I had lost my hat, and tried to tie my handkerchief over
my head, but it was impossible to make a knot, so I could only
hold it on my head by keeping the corners between my teeth.”’
Thus he spent the night, walking, crawling, falling, but never
still. The day broke calm after the gale of the night had spent
itself, and on he went in stocking feet, as it afterwards proved,
injuring his feet in the gorse bushes, but never being conscious of
it. The whole of Monday morning, as best he could, he tried to
steer towards the Carding Mill Valley, and it was well he did, for
it was here, when struggling in a drift up to his neck, that he first
heard the sound of human voices. Children’s voices talking and
laughing, and apparently sliding not far off With what remaining
strength he had he shouted to them, but the unearthly sight of a
figure protruding from a deep snow drift, crowned and bearded
with ice like a ghostly emblem of winter, caused a panic amongst
the children, and they ran off and communicated the news that
there was a bogie in the snow. Help was quickly at hand, and
he was taken to the carding mill, and provided with nourishment
and clothing. His friends were shocked to find he could neither
see nor taste the food. He was soon driven towards his home,
and arrived at Wollaston ‘wenty-seven hours after he had left, just

25

as letters and telegrams were being despatched to many friends
that he had been lost in the snow, and that all hope was
abandoned. With care, that brave man quite recovered, and
lived for many years to minister to these hill tribes, and walk across
the same mountain where he had all but lost his life from fatigue,
and where others that same night died from yielding to the
prompting of their senses.

It makes an impressive picture; this lonely man on the
Stretton hills, fleeing from death as best he knew, struggling on,
as he hoped, towards life, straining his sightless eyes and numbed
ears for some prospect, some sound of coming help. And how
often during those terribly dreary twenty-two hours did he
experience the hope deferred, and the sickness of heart which
followed. I have cited, at some length, this remarkable instance
of a brave spirit manfully fighting his way when almost. over-
whelmed by a raging storm of snow and sleet, and in greater
danger still of being overcome by the suggestion, ever repeated
and ever gaining in urgency, from his inward enemy, his increas-
ing sense of fatigue, and yet never giving up hope, but ever
pressing on, to remind you that there are elements in this
question of fatigue which no Myograph or Ergograph can settle.
Mind, after all, is greater than muscle. A man of less powerful
build, but of more determined spirit will attempt more, and
Overcome more, than a mere muscular Hercules. And lastly,
may I express the hope that whilst giving every attention to the
perfecting of the human body, and so making it a better working
machine, with less likelihood of its mechanism being clogged with
exhaustion products, our young athletes may not forget that it is
knowledge, courage and endurance which tell in the supreme
crises of life ; and that these functions need to be developed with
the same pride as is taken in the increasing biceps; and that the
mind must always maintain its rule over all the functions of the
body.

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FRIDAY, NOVEMBER st, 1907.

Weather Forecasting,

BY

Mr. W. MARRIOTT, F.R.M.S.
Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

A instructive insight into the methods by which the meteoro-
logical experts arrive at their daily forecasts of the weather
was afforded members of the Society by Mr. W. Marriott,
F.R.M.S., who came down from l.ondon to lecture on the
subject. Mr. G. Morgan, the President, introduced the lecturer,
with the comment that as no part of a man’s environment
subjected him to so many surprises as the weather, few matters
could be of more interest to them. The lecture followed very
appropriately upon the recent visit paid to the meteorological
station at the Brighton Town Hall, and Mr. Marriott now showed
by lantern slides of charts how observations from such stations all
over the world were collated daily and made to yield deductions
from which it was possible to construct fairly reliable forecasts.
It was necessarily a very technical lecture, but it was made
surprisingly lucid, and one incidental feature that was greatly
enjoyed was the exhibition of a series of beautiful photographic
cloud studies. Mr. Marriott was able to tell the south coast—
and Brighton in particular—some flattering facts about its
immunity from rain and fog, and its big proportion of sunshine as
compared with other parts of the country. Brighton averages
just over 1,700 hours’ sunshine in the year, while London has
only 1,260; and in the winter months the figures in Brighton
were double those in London. It was probably news to most
that there is an average of 22 calm days a year in England, and
that on an average the wind comes from the south-west on 106
days. Several members afterwards put questions to Mr. Marriott,
who was heartily thanked for his interesting lecture, on the motion
of the President, seconded by Mr. F. Harrison.

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FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 18TH, 1907.

A Dear and a Half among Sabages

(BRITISH NEW GUINEA),

BY
Me. A. H. DUNNING, F.R.G.S., F.R.P.S., &c.
Illustrated with Lantern Views.

R. A. H. DUNNING at the commencement of his lecture
asked his audience to imagine themselves in a portion of the
globe as different as possible from any civilised country, in a land
many parts of which have not been visited by the white man, but
where all its native wildness, both of scenery and of inhabitants,
is retained in its pristine state. It is a country where the “simple
life’’ reigns supreme; and where men live under the most
primitive conditions conceivable. The lecturer remarked “there
are tribes in the interior who have not yet advanced beyond the
‘Stone Age.’ ”

Taking his audience in imagination, illustrated by a series of
fine lantern slides, Mr. Dunning conducted them to the Benstack
River, then westward, throughout the whole of the British
Possessions as far as the Islands off the West Coast.

First visiting the Roro and Moorhead Tribes, he thence
proceeded to the Fly River, on the banks of which the natives
were seen making sago pulp—a method which hardly commended
itself to the educated tastes of occidentals.

Some interesting negatives of the lake houses were shewn,
taken under circumstances of considerable difficulty by reason of
the panic that ensued when the necessary magnesium flash-light
was applied.

Passing on to the Aird River Delta, Mr. Dunning came
across the actual murderer of Dr. Chamber, the eminent
Missionary.

Mareas and the natives of Waima, and the Nara tribes were
visited, whose love-charms caused amusement when the lecturer
stated that he required a bottle of strong smelling salts to over-
come their potency. The Kabidi dancers and the native method
of removing superfluous hairs also produced merriment. Mr.
Dunning informed his audience that owing to the influence of
civilisation a piece of broken glass is now preferred to the
primeval razor—a sharp flint!

28

A series of pictures followed, showing a Motu girl undergoing
the painful operation of tattooing ; the method of fishing with a
torch and a hand-net from the Lakatoi canoes ; pottery making ;
a spear fight at Hula; and native pig-hunting.

During the short interval some native music—a love song, a
war song, and a duet—were reproduced from gramophone records.

Resuming, Mr. Dunning explained the types of houses built
out in the sea, also those in treetops.

The ladies were next given some domestic hints on cooking
pork, which were not so favourably received as might have been
expected from the lecturer’s glowing description.

A series of original photos followed, of a boy making a fire
with some wooden fire sticks ; of the native tobacco pipe and the
ingenious dog ladders ; and string manufacturing and dressmaking.
Some pictures of curious burial ceremonies, together with some very
artistic and interesting views of Lakatoi canoes, brought the
lecture to a conclusion.

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 6rx, 1907.

Restocking of Flora and Fauna,

BY

Me. HENRY DAVEY:

HE problem, said Mr. Davey, of preserving fauna and flora
which man’s interference threatens with extinction, is much
less simple than appears on the surface. The largest and most
highly developed mammalia, such as the elephant, the bison, and
the lion, are the species most in danger, and nothing but strict
preservation can save them. ‘The more beautiful and local birds,
the birds of paradise and the lyre-bird, require equally strict
preservation. Whether preservation, however thorough and cem-
plete, will be altogether successful is just a little questionable ;
and I shall give reasons for showing that other factors besides
man’s attacks may be involved. ‘The examples will be taken
from butterflies, the only department of natural history with which
I can claim to have some real acquaintance, and which happens
to be specially fertile in suggestive facts. These established, I
shall show briefly how they affect the question of restocking.

?

a

1;

All entomologists will tell you that butterflies have become
very much rarer within living memory. The pride of English
entomologists, the glorious Large Copper found only in the
English Fens, disappeared sixty years ago quite suddenly. Several
other species seem extinct; and in general all kinds, excepting
the mischievous Cabbage Whites, are far less abundant than
formerly. The explanation seems obvious, that too many entomo-
logists of all ages continually attack them; while the modern
facility of locomotion—a facility considerably enhanced during
the past generation—continually narrows retreats of undisturbed
retirement where nature is independent of man. Yet what I am
about to tell you will throw a different light upon the subject, and
you will see that other causes are in operation.

The first consideration, though not the most important, is
Dame Nature’s trick of producing during one particular year a
more or less rare species in countless profusion. The beautiful
and swift Clouded Yellow butterfly thus appeared in 1865, 1877,
1892, and rgoo. In the preceding and following seasons it was a
rarity. Still more prized is the Pale Clouded Yellow, swifter though
less beautiful than its relative, and generally very rare. In 1868 it
was extremely common, never subsequently, Why should this
be? That year was very hot and dry ; but the butterflies must
originally have been eggs laid by females, and however favourable
the weather, the problem remains. When and where did the
females lay the eggs that inexplicably produced countless butter-
flies of a species extremely rare in other years?

Why, too, did not the ordinary Clouded Yellow, whose life
story is practically the same, also appear in its multitudes in 1868,
as it had done years earlier? These questions still remain for
solution. Again, in 187z, when I was the Society’s youngest
member, I announced the capture of a Camberwell Beauty ; and
was informed they were fairly common that year. Ever since
they have been extremely rare.

More profound is the subject I next touch upon. Our South
Downs are peculiarly suitable to blue butterflies, whose caterpillars
feed on plants common here. But the Large Blue (Lyceena
Arion) is not found here, or in all this part of England. And
its life history has been quite unknown till just lately.

The Large Blue has always been a valued prize among
English butterflies ; though usually very common where it occurs,
it favours slippery and dangerous places, such as old quarries and
rocky pastures, and in a few counties only. The localities
formerly known were Barnwell \Wold in Northamptonshire, and
three places in the Cotswolds; afterwards South Devon and
Cornwall. From all parts of England entomologists used to visit
Barnwell Wold ; and sure enough the Large Blue was killed off
there. It also disappeared from the Cotswolds and Devonshire,

30

I believe, about thirty years ago; and a valuable work, published in
1903, asserts the Large Blue is extinct everywhere except in North
Cornwall. But now a number of facts, all of the highest interest,
have been discovered by Mr. Frohawk. In 1896 he watched the
females laying eggs on wild thyme, carried off the plants, and
hoped to solve the problem of the life history. Caterpillars were
duly hatched ; and all went well till the third moult, when they
refused to feed, and appeared to wish to hide underground, till in
despair Mr. Frohawk turned them loose. Again, in 1902, he
went to Cornwall and watched the females laying. Then he
noticed one fact which contains the key to the mystery. The
females always chose wild thyme growing on ant-hills. Following
up this suggestive clue, he succeeded in discovering full-grown
caterpillars living underground ; and saw that the ants suck off a
secretion produced by the caterpillars, just as they suck the sweet
secretion of the aphides, or blight. Both ants and caterpillars
are probably interdependent ; and if some external circumstance
should affect the life of the one the other would also suffer. This
leads me to a consideration of other phenomena also furnished
by the same butterfly.

As I mentioned, the Large Blue, formerly common in the
Cotswolds, disappeared thence about thirty years ago. Last year
it unexpectedly reappeared in one of its old haunts ; and though
both last year and this have been most unfavourable to butterfly
life, the Large Blue has unmistakably re-established itself in
Gloucestershire. After thirty years’ death it has revived to
vigorous life. This fact, however inexplicable, is not surprising
in view of the abundance of rare butterflies in particular years.

But far more remarkable is a fact concerning the Large Blue
announced about ten years ago. Ata meeting of the Entomo-
logical Society the President announced the absolute extinction
of that butterfly in the favourite hunting-ground, Barnwell Wold ;
but he added that it had also disappeared from a park in
Northamptonshire to which the public were not admitted, and
where it had been abundant.

Related facts about the Swallow-Tail and Mountain Ringlet
butterflies were also cited ; also the abundance of the Marbled
White at Holmbush, near Poynings, in a space only about $0
yards square.

Therefore, continued Mr. Davey, the simple walling-round of
a sacred enclosure where rarities can be safe is not all that Nature
wants ; and if Nature chooses to produce an abundance she will
do it. I have drawn my instances from butterflies, but the same
holds good of plants ; they will be very common when and where
Nature chooses. And I have come to the belief, though without
full proof, that if Nature is left to itself the extinct species will
reappear, but only up to a certain point of development : we may

aE ey 198 Bae te

31

be sure that the elephant and lion when really extinct will not
reappear even if all Africa be left a desert, nor, I think, any really
extinct vertebrates, even fish or reptiles.

What, then, should be done on the question of restocking ?
Is it advisable to select places apparently suitable, especially
places where species have been killed off, and judiciously leave
individuals to establish themselves and multiply? I think it is
advisable ; though the facts I have given show we must not be too
hopeful. The problem is not the same as that of introducing
species into a new country, which has had such grevious results in
Australia and elsewhere. The task should be undertaken in a
scientific spirit and with practical management, whether by
societies or by individual naturalists. Exact records should be
kept and observations noted, for guidance in the future. Nature
is immeasurably stronger than our schemes can be to produce :
we are strong only to destroy. If Nature helps our restocking it
will be successful, otherwise a failure ; and the lower forms of life
multiply so prodigiously that the least encouragement from Nature
makes them swarm in countless multitudes. You are all familiar
with the Darwinian arguments on this subject. The one hundred
eggs which a butterfly lays are not numerous in comparison with
the eggs of a codfish or a herring ; yet if they multiplied without
check there would in a few years be no food to supply the cater-
pillars. Restocking should therefore be tried, but not with
overmuch confidence, as the result depends on a stronger power
than our own.

FRIDAY, DECEMBER 6TH, 1907.

Antochrame Plates,
BY
pew. A. POWELL, M.R.CS., L.RB.C.B.
Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

OSSIBLY a few notes on the latest process in Colour Photo-
graphy might be interesting to you, as with this new photo-
graphic plate known as the autochrome plate, one is able to
record almost all objects as they appear in nature and in their
natural colours. As far back as 1869 M. Louis Ducos du Hauron
originated a method of colour photography by means of a screen

32

plate filter, on the assumption of the theory that every colour may
be produced by suitable combinations of the three primary lights
(not pigments), red, green, and violet. White light, as you know,
is made up of a compound of seven colours—red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet-—which is clearly demonstrated by
dissecting a beam of sunlight through the spectrum, but it is
known that it is not necessary to have all the seven colours to
reform white light ; if we mix the red, green, and violet we shall get
a very good white, which I will demonstrate to you by means of the
triple lantern which we have here. In front of each lens is placed
a piece of coloured glass, one red, one green, and one violet ; if
they are focussed upon the screen the effect is white. I will also
now show you the effect of mixing these colours. These three
colours are known as the primary colours, and with these, by
mixing in various proportions, we can make all the colours as
seen in nature. I will focus the red and the green on the screen,
and the effect as you will see is yellow. The red and violet when
mixed produce pink. The green and the violet produce a green-
blue. Now, if with any of these compound colours produced by
the mixture of any two of the primary colours we add the other
primary colour we get white, as you will see by focussing the
violet and yellow—we get white (quite different to the mixing of
pigments, which would give green). The pink and green give
white. The green-blue and red also give white. This also
explains what a complementary colour means, viz., supplying a
deficiency, the particular deficiency being in the case of colour
that which is necessary in order to reform white.

As my time is limited I am sorry that I cannot explain to
you how the sensation cf colour is produced to us, but colour is a
physiological phenomenon produced by a physical difference in
the wave length of light, a sensation formulated in the brain,
depending entirely upon a difference in the wave length of light.
Absorption of colour, too, is another phenomenon which would
occupy too much of the time to go into this evening, but I may
give you a short explanation of this by saying, that it is the pro-
perty which a substance possesses of absorbing certain rays of
light possessing a definite wave length. Grass is green because it
possesses the faculty of absorbing all the rays of light except those
which produce the sensation of green.

Acting upon the idea of M. Ducos du Hauron, and the
same theory, Messrs. Lumeire, of Lyons, have manufactured a
photographic plate to record colour. A piece of glass is coated
with a series of filters in the form of minute grains of starch dyed
red, green, and violet. -Upon this is spread a film of emulsion
which is sensitive to all parts of the visible spectrum. ‘The plate
is placed in the dark slide with the glass side towards the lens, so
that the light in order to reach it must pass through the coloured

Cums © th ae

33

starch grain filter. Exposure is made, the plate developed, and
then, before the plate is fixed, the negative image is dissolved
away and the remainder of the sensitive emulsion film re-developed,
thereby producing a positive corresponding to the negative first
developed. The plate is then fixed, washed and dried, and
varnished. Let us trace what has happened in this process in
the light of the three primary colours of white light, viz., red,
green and violet. We will suppose that we are photographing an
object that is pure red, #e, the colour of the red grain in the
filter of the plate. The rays from this object being red only,
would be obstructed by the green and violet grains in the filter
and would produce no effect on the sensitive plate, but they
would pass through the red grains and would affect the emulsion,
producing a deposit of silver when the plate was developed.

On the plate at this stage being illuminated from behind by
white light, this deposit (the first negative image) would obstruct
the light coming from immediately behind it, that is to say, it
would cut out the light coming through the red parts of the filter,
but the other portions of the filter having no obstruction on them,
due to the silver image, would pass their respective colours, viz.,
green and violet, with the result that we should have the red
object represented in the colour which is the result of mixing
lights of these two colours, that is to say greenish-blue. In other
words, a colour complementary of the red is produced. But when
the negative image has been converted into a positive one, the
conditions are precisely opposite as regards the obstruction offered
to the light by the silver deposit. Now the green and violet
grains and the red is bared ; with the result that on the picture
being examined by light passing through it, the light reaches the
eye only through the red portions of the filter film and the object
is seen in its actual colour.

I am indebted to Mr. George Brown, Editor of the “ British
Journal of Photography,” for many of the very fine specimens of
landscape and flowers shown. Also to Mr. Stanley Read,
Secretary of the Hove Camera Club, who has kindly lent me his
collection. The microphotographs are prepared by Mr. Caush,
and are the first I have seen of the kind; I am sure no better
ones could be produced.

34
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 6TH, 1907.

Colour “Photography, |

Me. OTTO PFENNINGER.

A THIRD lecture was given by Mr. Otto Pfenninger on Colour
Photography in general and the application of his invented
One-Exposure-Camera for Colour Photography in particular.

When opening his lecture he said that colour photography
could easily be classified into four groups.

Group z.—Heliography by prismatic interference. Zanker
and Wiener gave the first ideas of this process, and Professor
Lippmann in Paris brought the process to a practical issue, which
is, however, not applicable to publication through the press or
printing on paper, and can only be used in special viewing
instruments.

Group 2.—The additive method of colour photography is
best known in one of its applications, the chromoscope. This
instrument was first theoretically suggested by Ducos du Hauron
(France), in 1869, and then 23 years after its first publication
it was introduced in a practical form and commercially exploited
by Ives, of Philadelphia. The chromoscope is a viewing instru-
ment, and up to now it was impossible to use the instrument for
the subtractive method, because three negatives of same size
could not be produced. The ordinary chromoscope is defective,
in so far that the refractions caused by the glass reflectors are not
compensated. The defect is of no account however if the photo-
graphs are taken as well as shown in the same instrument.

Group 3.—We have colour photography by the coloured lines
or screen-lpate systems, which was also indicated by Ducos du
Hauron as far back as 1869, but no results were shown. Professor
Jolly, of Dublin, elaborated the system and showed some results,
and he proved the correctness of the theoretical suggestions of
Ducos du Hauron. Others followed on the same lines, and
lately Warner-Powrie, of U.S., showed some wonderful results ;
the colours are very bright and less heavy than in the Lumiére
autochrome. The orange, green, and violet lines which form the
screen in Warner-Powrie’s photos are very fine, but not so fine
that the eye does not detect them in the transparency. ‘There
are already a great number of new patents announced, which
claim to do better, but the main idea of all of them is, to form a layer
of three colours in line, or mosaic or irregular dots (like Lumiere’s
autochrome), side by side on a plate and then to cover the layer

35

with a photographic light sensitive film, which latter has to be
colour sensitive to all colours, and when exposed through the
layer of transparent colours will be exposed, or acted on, in
just the proportions of the different lights passed.

When such an exposed plate is developed it will be a
negative, as in all such photographic processes, and to show the
plate in its true colour effects a positive picture is required. It is
therefore necessary to reverse the photographic light action on the
plate, so that opacity is formed where transparency is shown in
the negative, or where the light has not acted on, and vice versa.
There is one great drawback to the processes belonging to this
group, that is, duplicates will never show the same brilliancy as the
first transparency made, if such duplicatescan be made. A further
drawback is, that colour printing from such transparency is for
the present out of the question, and all advances in such directions
have to be accepted with a fair amount of reserve for a good
while to come.

Group 4.—The subtractive method of photography in
colours, also foreshadowed by Ducos du Hauron in 1869, is
practically the only method allowing the colour printing to be
done by the aid of three negative colour records, giving thereby
facilities for multiplication in nearly any colour printing process.

One Negative is required which gives all the yellow as trans-
parent, all the greens and oranges, more or less transparent, that
is just in such proportions as yellow is present ; such a negative
colour record is obtained by any ordinary dry plate as sold in the
market. Ora like negative colour-record can be obtained by a
colour sensitive plate which receives all light through a blue violet
colour filter, a filter filtering out, cutting-out, making non-
acting all colours but blue.

A second Negative is required which has to be printed in red,
and for that purpose the red colour of any object to be pkoto-
graphed has to be rendered by transparency in the negative-record
and the blue must be shown by half-transparency. Such a
negative we obtain with an ortho-chromatic, that is erythrosin
bathed plate and an adjusted yellow filter, or with a plate
sensitised to all colours when exposed to light, the latter has
to pass or is filtered through a green filter, which latter cuts out
or makes non-acting the light rays which are not required to act
on the photographic plate.

A third Negative, which represents the exact opposite as the
first named negative and has to be printed in blue, shows there-
fore this colour by transparency and is obtained through an
orange red filter on a photographic plate which is sensitive to all
colours. This filter, if properly adjusted, will not allow any blue
active rays to pass. The absence of light action on the sensitive
plate will here, as in the other negatives, indicate the colour in
which to print.

36

When we have the three different negatives colour record as
explained, the same are then printed in the colours indicated
above, and each colour is printed in succession on the other, so
that a complete print is only formed when holding a blue, a
yellow and a redimpression. The name applied to such a print is
three-colour print.

The ordinary way to produce the three necessary negative
colour records is with a camera having a repeating back or by
change of slides. That is by three different and distinct
exposures, thereby limiting the subjects to be photographed in
colours to absolute stationary objects.

Ditferent attempts have been made to take the three negatives
with one exposure, and for that purpose the chromoscope has
been tried, but found wanting, because three negatives of same
size could not be obtained therewith. A chromoscope as generally
known has not less than two reflecting surfaces ; but there is a
reflecting system with only one mirror, known as Bennetto’s
system. I have tried to use this system, but found that the
refracted image was shorter from top to bottom when compared
with the reflected image. Now if one glass reflector, like in
Bennetto’s camera, interferes with the size of the picture, it should
become obvious that double this interference will not improve a
chromoscope camera with two glass reflectors. I have succeeded
in correcting this interference, which is caused by the difference
of a longer refraction at the top of the glass reflector to a shorter
refraction at the bottom of the same glass reflector, which latter
is inclined at an angle to a light cone coming from the optical
centre of the lens. The correction consists of a plain glass plate
of same substance as the reflector, and by inserting same at a like
angle as the reflector, but in opposed direction ; that is, if the .
reflector acts from top to bottom, the compensation acts from one
side to the other side. By forcing each light ray to pass the two
refractions as indicated the negative at the back is foreshortened
in all directions alike if left in the old focussing plane, but by
placing the plate a little further away in the proper, through
refraction displaced, focussing distance, it will be found that this
double refracted picture will be sharp, of equal and correct size,
when superposed on the reflected image. The patent 25907,
zg06, embodies the necessary improvements to take the three
negatives of same size, with one single exposure and with one lens.

To take three negatives with this camera: One is taken at
the back, the blue record through the red reflector. The second
negative is taken by way of reflection from the red reflector
through its own glass surface at the top, therefore being
not reversed. The third negative is on a flexible plate and is
obtained on a ortho-chromatic plate pressed film to film,
with the second plate which acts as yellow filter. By printing

37

this flexible plate through the back the print will be reversed
again, without losing the necessary sharpness.

To illustrate the manifold usefulness of the invention the
lecturer showed about two dozen lantern slides, including some
remarkable snapshots of outdoor life, children on the Brighton
Beach, etc., all printed by Dr. Jumeaux’s process. He also
showed from the same negatives three-colour prints by the carbon
transfer process ; also some colour photos taken half-plate size
in block printing and carbon printing, which show by the absence
of colour fringes their superiority over three colour prints of which
the negatives were taken in succession by a repeating back camera.

In a conversation we had lately with the lecturer he said :
“J had hoped to find such interest in Brighton (the birthplace of
the invention), or in London, as to be able to launch out ina
commercial enterprise, but I find the proverb is true: ‘The
prophet is not acknowledged at home.’ However, the Imperial
Austrian School of Photography has taken a great interest in my
auto-didactic studies and advancements in colour photography.”

The diagrams given were explained on an actual camera by
the lecturer.

F tea Rao Fig. 1 represents a glass
ch interposed at an angle to
% the light cone coming from

Cs Sey) LE ee a lens, and shows the re-
SE TA. } A fiections and refractions.
SA. Short Refraction Fig.J

Fig. 2 is the skeleton:
of a camera.

T = Orange red Reflector.
T 2 = Compensation.

P = Place for Back Plate.
P 1 = Place for Top Plates.

38

FRIDAY, JANUARY 10TH, 1908.

British Orchids,

BY

Mio. EDMONDS, -B.Se@

RCHIDS, the Lecturer observed, were widely distributed,
being found everywhere except in the Polar regions, hut
they reached their greatest development in the hot, moist
atmosphere of tropical forests. Here they were usually found as
unbidden guests growing on branches or trunks of trees. But
although flourishing in such a position they were not parasitic.
-They did not take their nourishment from their hosts as was the
case with the dodder and the mistletoe ; they were provided with
remarkable aerial roots which, hanging down in the atmosphere,
took their nourishment from the gases present and the moisture,
which they condensed. The family was a most extensive one,
the latest trade list giving some 3,500 orchids as against 2,000
chrysanthemums and 1,800 roses. Yet though so numerous no
specimen appeared so prolific in individuals as to constitute a
feature in the landscape. ‘The British orchids numbered about
40 species, distributed among some 16 or 17 genera. Of these
species, according to the new edition of Arnold’s “ Flora of
Sussex,” 28 were found in this County. Some 15 of these species
were described in great detail by Mr. Edmonds, his remarks
being illustrated by many lantern slides.

At the close of the lecture Mr. G. Morgan conveyed the
thanks of the audience to Mr. Edmonds, and observing that in
Shropshire, where he formerly lived, he had never found a third
of the orchids that he had discovered in Sussex, asked what
determined the growth of the flowers. Mr. Edmonds replied
that many of the orchids seemed to grow upon chalk, while the
bee orchids and others were to be found only on the northern
side of hills—never on the sunny side. There also seemed to be
certain heights at which they flourished.

te

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 7TH, 1908.

Card's Idea of Criticism,
BY

Rev. Dr. JEFFREY JOHNSTONE, F.R.G.S.

T is perfectly clear from a study of Dr. Caird’s works that
although he was quite familiar with the “common sense School
of Philosophy ” of Scotland, founded by the famous son of King’s
College, Aberdeen,—Thomas Reid ; and the English Empirical
School, founded by the illustrious Bacon of Verulum, yet he appears
in no way to have been influenced by them ; while the fact that
he has written a most significant essay on ‘‘ Cartesianism,” Ze.,
the Rationalistic School founded by de Cartes, and published an
important book on the “Religion and Social Philosophy of
Comte,” shows, at least, his deep interest in that rationalistic
philusophy which developed into the Pantheism of Spinoza, with
its divine immanence on the one hand and that positive philosophy
which developed into the synthetic philosophy of Herbert
Spencer on the other. In the case of the great Greek School of
Philosophy, we discover everywhere in Dr. Caird’s writings his
indebtedness to those early thinkers and devout and eager
searchers after truth ; the influence of Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle—and in a lesser degree—the Stoics, is especially con-
spicuous in all his books. The Alexandrian School of Philosophy,
founded by Philo, has influenced him not a little ; it is here that
he discovers the meeting and the mingling of Occidental and
Oriental thought, the thought of Greece and the thought of
Palestine, philosophy and Christianity expressed in the term—
Logos, “‘ thought made flesh”; while Plotin, the greatest of the
Neo-Platonists, is in no sense a negligible quantity with Dr. Caird.
But it is not to Africa, Greece, France, England, or Scotland that
we must look if we would discover the real source of our author’s
inspiration, and the influence which has operated so powerfully
on his mind; it is to Germany,—to the University town of
Konigsberg, to the great modern School of Critical Philosophy,
for ever associated with the renowned name of Emmanuel Kant,
and his later distinguished follower Hegel ; it is to these wells we
must turn if we would identify the fountains of Dr. Caird’s
largest inspirations, and the influences that have most powerfully
affected the drift of his thought.

40

Dr. Caird has given continuity in the history of western
philosophy to the body of idealism which assumed its primitive
shape in the hands of Plato and Aristotle, and arrived at its
critical ultimate in the systems of Kant and Hegel; with him the
real is the rational and the rational is the real. The direction and
movement of Dr. Caird’s thoughts, as we follow them through all
his works, could not be better or more forcibly expressed than in
his own words: ‘‘'lhe movement of philosophy,’’ he says, ‘is a
movement towards a more complex and, at the same time,
towards a more systematic view of the world; philosophical
thought is ever seeking on the one hand to distinguish and even
to oppose to each other the different sides of truth which were at
first confused together, and again, on the other hand, to show
what were at first supposed to be contradictory are really compli-
mentary aspects of things. (a)

This then is the trend of his philosophy, and the postulate
by the constant application of which he attempts to resolve all
difficulties and reconcile all opposites. It is a unity which is at
once self-differentiating and self-interpreting, which manifests
itself in difference that through that difference it may return upon
itself. What we are never permitted to forget, in all sections of
Dr. Caird’s works, is the fact that he is a critic, but a critic in no
narrow and ambiguous sense ; he is a critic in the sense in which
all true philosophers are and must be critics, as Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle are critics, and as Kant himself, the renowned
author of the Critical Philosophy, was a critic; for it must be
borne in mind that philosophy, as it is represented in history, is
not merely a continuous stream of human thought, but a series of
progressions followed by critical regressions to the original fountain
in view of farther progress. A great thinker may begin his career
by simply absorbing the thought of others ; but afterwards he
becomes the critic of what he has absorbed, and the very moment
he becomes the critic of what he has absorbed he strikes fire as it
were, he finds something he objects to in what he has absorbed, -
but he also finds that the thoughts of others which he has
absorbed have a deeper meaning and a fuller content than the
authors themselves perhaps ever dreamt of. ‘his deeper meaning
and this fuller content the critic, who is also the philosopher, unfolds
with the result that he adds something new, something positive, and
something permanent to the intellectual resources of mankind.
Now this is exactly what Dr. Caird has done; he has not gone
outside the great stream of thought, but has painfully and
laboriously wrought inside the current, and done original work of
a permanent character, by detecting and discarding the errors in
the systems of others, and making fresh discoveries himself, by a

(a) Comte, p. 84.

4

gradual process of evolution. In confirmation of what we have
just said, Dr. Caird says: “The only valuable criticism is that
which turns what is latent in the thought of a great writer against
what is explicit, and thereby makes his works the stepping-stone
to results to which he did not himself attain.’’ (4)

In our paper we have tried to do justice to our old Master,
by placing well within the canvas as complete a picture of his
philosophy and his chief thoughts as the circumstances will allow ;
our aim has been throughout to separate all which is strictly his
own from the thoughts and the systems of other writers with
which, of necessity, he had to deal. The task has been by no
means easy, as his thoughts are often most subtly interwoven
with the thoughts of others ; this is equally true of all his works.
Indeed, such fault as we have to find with Dr. Caird, is just this,
that he fails often to do justice to himself ; many of his finest and
most original thoughts are not only scattered throughout his
writings, but hid away in obscure corners and out-of-the-way
places, like rare botanical specimens, hard to find; but when
found, are in their way priceless gems. This fault no doubt is
largely the fault of his position, and must to some extent militate
against all true philosophers ; for a true philosopher, if he is to
help forward the march of mind, must himself be in the apostolic
succession ; he must stand upon the shoulders of others and study
their systems with the eyes of others. In short, the words of
Green applied to Kant, that “he read Hume with the eyes of
Leibniz, and Leibniz with the eyes of Hume,” and was therefore
‘able to rid himself of the pre-suppositions of both and to start a
new method of philosophy ;” is a conception, which Dr. Caird
adapted, generalised, and applied all round. Indeed, he himself

says of Plato “that he entered upon the whole inheritance of

Greek thought, and his idealism was the result of a synthises of
all the tendencies that show themselves in it,” and, coming later,
Ir. Caird has done for his own age what he maintains Plato did
for his. Through all his writings he constantly insists that, so
long as there is an unexpressed thought which is latent beneath
the expressed thought, and which secretly governs it, so long we
have the right to criticise the expressed thought by bringing into
prominence its implicit pre-suppositions. He sees God in all
things, “the good in evil and the hope in ill success ;” that is to
say, the Higher Unity which transcends difference, in the Deeper
Identity of the finite and the Infinite underlying the finite
personality with its relatively independent and self-determined
life, and thereby lends the warrant of philosophy to Tennyson’s
otherwise paradoxical “Infinite Personality ””—which is neither
more nor less than Dr. Caird’s highest conception, ‘‘ Absolute

(b) Kritik, p. x.

42

Individuality.” We are justified in saying that Dr, Caird has been
the medium of gathering together the diffracted rays and made it
possible once again to see the pure white light of truth. If it
had not been given to him as it has been given to few to take a
great step forward, he has at least held the ground, and prepared
the way for further progress. And if the next great advance of
philosophy be made by one of his disciples he would doubtless
consider that he has had his reward. Be that as it may, his circle
of readers who find in his books the reconciliation of philosophy
and poetry, of the literature of science, and the literature of
sentiment and reflexion, will grow, while his old students when
they meet will not cease to allude to him in reverent under-
tones as an instructor who, not less through the magnetism of his
personality than by discipline in the art to think, profoundly
influenced their lives.

FRIDAY, FEBRUARY atstT, 1908.

Some British Echinoderms,

BY

ED) GCONN@LID, F225.) Ti

HIS lecture was illustrated with 50 lantern slides especially
photographed by the lecturer from natural and living
echinoderms.
Many of the views were photo-micrographs of the structure

of these animals and of various organs attached to them.

In his lecture Mr. Connold treated of the following :—
The Ophiuroidea, or Snake tails—The Holothurotdea, or Sea-
Cucumbers—The Spatangoidea, or Heart-Urchins—The Echinide,
or Sea-Urchins—The Asveroidea, or Starfishes—Elucidation of the
term Echinodermata—All British Echinoderms are marine—Slow
in movement—Immense variety of interest in their structure and
economy—The quinqueradial symmetry—Their habits and modes
of life—The larval condition—Respiratory organs—Locomotion
factors—The water-vascular system—The nervous system—The
skeletal framework—The mandibulatory apparatus—The various
foods—The test, and its growth—The Periproct—The Peristome
—The ambulacral areas—The interambulacral areas—The Madre-
porite, and its function—The Spines, their mode of attachment
and rotatory power—The Pedicellari : their forms, actions and
functions—The Pseudopodia—The Ambulacree—The Acetabule.

43

FRIDAY, MARCH 6TH, 1908.

English Gothic Architecture,

BY

Mat. A, COYSH, Lie:
Illustrated with Lantern Slides.

Op hea pease za illustrations of some of the most beautiful

examples of ecclesiastical buildings were shown to the
members by Mr. T. A. Coysh, L.D.S., who delivered a lecture on
the four periods of English Gothic Architecture. While Mr,
Coysh was by no means technical, he succeeded in very clearly
defining the points of difference between the Norman, Early
English, decorative English, and perpendicular periods. Roofs,
pillars, doors, and windows were all brought under comparative
observation during Mr. Coysh’s interesting survey, and the large
audience carried away delightful memories of the exquisite views
of cathedrals and churches which were projected by the lantern.
They were artistically charming, as well as conveying their archi-
tectural lesson, and afforded an intimate insight into the beauty
which so abounds in often unheeded details of construction and
ornament. Selby Abbey, Ely Cathedral, and St. Alban’s Cathedral
yielded some of the most notable of the evening’s views. Mr.
Coysh did not show any slides of Sussex churches, but was able,
of course, to tell his audience of the opportunities of studying the
Gothic styles, presented by a wealth of material in the surround-
ing churches. He was enthusiastically thanked on the motion of
the President (Mr. G. Morgan), seconded by Mr. Leeney.

FRIDAY, MARCH 20TH, 1908.

Mr. D. E. Caush, L.D.S., gave a very interesting and
instructive demonstration of the Projecting Microscope.

A paper, contributed by Dr. A. E. Edwards (U.S.A.), on
the Geological Formation of the Land near Newport, was also
read.

44

FRIDAY, APRIL 177TH, 1908.

Brighthelmstone— Brighton,

BY
Mr. W. HARRISON, D.M.D.

Lantern Lecture.

HE history of Brighton in pictures might well have been the
sub-title of the interesting lecture which was given by Mr.
Walter Harrison, D.M.D. There are not many men who know
so much about the history of Brighton in its olden days as Mr
Walter Harrison, following as he does close upon Mr. J. G.
Bishop and one or two others who stand in the front rank of the
chroniclers of Brighton, and probably only Mr. Harrison has the
equipment for a lantern lecture on “ Brighthelmstone—Brighton.”
For many years past it has been the hobby of Mr. Harrison, not
only to compile information relating to the town, but to collect
pictures that would illustrate its past history, and to turn them
into lantern slides. The result is that he has now a unique
collection of lantern slides relating to Brighton, and he was able
to show upwards of 160.

It might fairly be said that he gave an illustrated history of
Brighton from prehistoric Gays, for one of the earliest pictures
shown was of the amber cup now in the Museum, found in the
grave of some Brighton potentate of the Bronze Age. Pictures
of the ancient British camp at Hollingbury and of the Goldstone
stone recalled evidences of days when the inhabitant of Brighton
probably wore little else than a coat of blue paint and a bone in
his ear, and on his walks abroad carried a business-like piece of
chipped flint tied in a stick, to hammer fraternal greetings in the
skull of his neighbour. From these times of legend and suppo-
sition, it was a long leap to that quaint map which depicts the
French attack on the town in the fifteenth century. Whether the
date was 1514 or 1545 (as was discussed recently in the Hera/d)
Mr. Harrison did not seem to dogmatise. Then he came toa
prized possession, a picture of Brighton dated 1720, showing a
few houses clustered on white cliffs doing duty for the Front, with
St. Nicholas on a hill away out in the country in the background.

In those days Brighton had not realised its possibilities in
the way of Metropole or Grand Hotels. Mr. Harrison quoted
the Rector of Buxted who wrote in 1736 :—‘‘I fancy the architects

45

here surely take the altitude of the inhabitants, and lose not an
inch between the head and the ceiling. . . But as lodgings are
low, they are cheap.” He could get practically a furnished house
for 5s. a week. ‘ The coast,’ the Rector added, “‘is safe ; the
cannons are all covered with rust and grass ; the ships moored ;
and no enemy apprehended. Come and see.” Here indeed was
_ an early unsolicited testimonial to the future Queen of Watering
Places.

Another side of the question came later, Among the tit bits
of information that Mr. Harrison gave of Brighthelmstone in these
days was that the vane on the Church of St. Nicholas, always lone
and solitary in the pictures of the period, was in the shape of a
gilt fish, probably a dolphin. But some fifty years after the
Rector of Buxted praised the cheapness of Brighton’s lodgings,
the town had grown less unsophisticated, and had realised what
it could do in the way of profiting from visitors. And Mr.
Harrison had found this apostrophe to the vane of St. Nicholas,
conceived by a plundered visitor to be a “‘ shark,” the emblem of
Brighton.

“Say why, on Brighton’s Church we see

The golden shark display’d,

But that ’twas aptly meant to be
An emblem of its trade.

Nor could the thing so well be told
In any other way ;

The town’s a shark that lives on gold,
The company its prey.”

Another interesting point made by Mr. Harrison was that in
the eighteenth century Brighton seems to have practised a certain
amount of socialism, —or co-operation,—for its hemp shares, fields
for the growing of hemp between Ship-street and Black Lion-
street, were owned in common, and the profits shared among the
townsmen. This was that Arcadian time when the Lanes were
really lanes between fields, and not between lines of stuffy
tenements devoted to the second-hand trade.

The main part of the lecture was concerned with the develop-
ment of Brighton in the days when it began to realise its
importance as a watering place and to cover its fields with the
close-set houses that are the despair of landlords and property
agents in these modern days of different ideas. Mr Harrison had
a remarkably extensive collection of slides showing the older
streets of Brighton in all stages of their development. He had views
of the Steine when it was practically an open field, when, if you
looked north, you saw the grass-clad downland of Round Hill,—
now a prosaic aggregation of roofs and chimneys. North Street,
East Street, West Street, were all shown, as by constant growth
they evolved from scattered cottages to stately business thorough-
fares, contracting to mere lanes in the improvidence of the first

46

half of the nineteenth century that cost so much in improvements
and widenings to the latter half and to the twentieth century. A
picture was shown of North Street when its rateable value was
#26! For every sovereign it produced then, it yields a thousand
to-day.

Dealing with the history of West Street, Mr. Harrison threw
the weight of his authority in favour of the tradition that Charles IT.
did stop at the King’s Arms, on the site of the existing building.

In regard to the official history of Brighton, a picture was
shown of the first ‘“‘ town house” mentioned in 1558,—the year
of the acession of Queen Elizabeth. It was built adjoining the
block house, and was a circular building with a “dungeon”
underneath. ‘ Dungeon,” by the way, is possibly a picturesque
term for a cell; one can hardly imagine Brighton with medizval
dungeons. A picture of the Town Hall of 1727, on the site a
little to the north-west of the present building, revealed a gabled
structure, unpretentious, but rather picturesque, with the poor
house a little to the north. The poor house has had many
migrations before it crystalised in the huge barracks ‘‘on the
hill.” Bartholomews seems in these early days to have been
common land. One wonders how it got into private hands.

Concerning the name of the town, Mr. Harrison found it as
“ Brithampton” in early Tudor days. It remained Brighthelm-
stone to a comparatively late date. In the charter of incorporation
of 1854, it is described as the “ Parish of Brighton, otherwise
Brighthelmstone.” The older name, remarkable to relate, is still
in official use. How many people know of the fact which Mr.
Harrison learned from the Town Clerk, that to this day in the
County Voters’ Lists the parish is described as ‘“ Bright-
helmstone”’ ?

Among other subjects that Mr. Harrison dealt with was the
coaching industry. He had a picture of the first ‘‘ coach ” that
was used in Brighton. This was practically a sedan chair on
wheels, being pushed and pulled along by men. This elementary
equipage was contrasted with the present day electric tram. The
first record of a coach between London and Brighton he had
found was in 1780. In 1822 there was no less than 68 coaches
running between London and Brighton, and 1,200 horses were
employed. The ‘‘Item ” four-horse coach did the journey in the
respectable time of three hours forty minutes.

Among the numerous items of curious information was this :
that the present Church of St. Stephen was at one time the ball
room of the Castle Hotel. Before being a ball room it was used
for the Royal Chapel. The Wagner family rescued it from its
secular use and had it transferred to its present site and re-
consecrated.

The lecture also included pictures of the various schemes for

47

gardens, winter and others, from the Chalybeate to the Casino.
What he thought of this last scheme Mr. Harrison would not
venture to say.

The lecture was under the auspices of the Society, but,
having realized its exceptional interest to the public, the Director
of the Library, Mr. H. D. Roberts, secured it as one of the
lectures associated with that institution, and thus gave it the
wider public audience, which it deserved.

FRIDAY, MAY ist, 1908.

Forty Years of Bee- Keeping,

Mr. B. LOMAX,
Illustrated by Living Specimens and Appliances.

HE experiences that Mr. Benjamin Lomax has gained in forty
years of bee-keeping were made the subject of a highly
interesting lecture to the Society. Any subject that Mr. Lomax
touches he makes interesting, and he compressed a remarkable
amount of entertaining and instructive information in the course
of his pleasantly delivered, chatty address. So far was the lecture
removed from the conventional that Mr. Lomax brought with
him a hive full of live bees, and passed it round among the
audience, just to show them what a harmless creature the bee is
when properly treated. In the old days you armed yourself with
gloves and a veil when you went honey gathering, and you suffo-
cated your bees. Now Mr. Lomax takes off his coat and rolls up
his sleeves, and would no more think of suffocating the bees than
he would of cutting down an apple tree to get at the apples.
They used to suffocate the bees, though, in the days when he
first saw the inside of a hive, and that was 62 years ago in
Tasmania. ‘Then honey-collecting was a tragedy. ‘The 4o years
ago, when Mr. Lomax first started bee keeping, was when he was
surveying in the bush in Victoria. They found a large swarm of
bees there and hived them in a tea chest. If they wanted honey
they blew in a puff of smoke, and took what they could before the
bees recovered from their fright. As Mr. Lomax showed, it is

48

still by frightening the bees that one nowadays gets honey without
danger. You blow smoke into the hive, and you shake it. The
bees, with the instinct of their primitive forest life, get terribly
frightened ; and fright leads them to cluster together and try to
get upwards. So if you frighten them into an inverted hive, they
cluster despairingly inside the top. And Mr. Lomax sent round
the inverted hive with the frightened bees inside.

Among the more interesting things Mr. Lomax had to say
about bees was to point out that they have women’s suffrage and
nothing for the men. The female bee does all the work and has
all the power, and,—a point to be noted in these days of
suffragettes,—the rule of the females is peculiarly ruthless. As
soon as the queen bee begins to lose her power of laying the full
number of eggs, as soon as the poor males are found to be eating
more than they seem worth, out the females turn them to perish
of exposure. Thus ruthlessly are the principles of social economics
carried out under feminine rule.

The superstitions that gather round bees were also told
entertainingly by Mr. Lomax. The bee must be treated as one
of the family. If a death occurs in the family the hive must be
decorated with black; if a wedding, with white. Should the
mother of the family be dead, someone must go after dark, knock
at the hive, and tell them. Bees greatly object to being boug ht
and sold, and the buyers and sellers must be careful never to let
them see the money. The money, too, must be gold. If these
and other rules are broken the bees will be insulted, and will fly
away. Asa scientist, of course, Mr. Lomax had his explanation
for these beliefs, and he showed how the natural habits of the
bees would give rise to these fanciful ideas. Wherever the Celtic
race is, one finds these ideas. They are strong in Brittany.

In Sussex, if a swarm of bees comes to a hive, they have to
be propitated with an offering of beer and sugar, with leaves of
scarlet runners. It is undoubtedly an expression of thankfulness
at the arrival of a piece of uncommon good fortune.

As the fruits of a long and discerning experience, Mr. Lomax
had many other things of interest to say about bees, and he kept
his audience thoroughly entertained.

49

WEDNESDAY, JUNE rors, 1908.

Cinnual General Meeting.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL

FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE rots, 1908.

The Council made mention of the fact that this was the 54th
year of the Society, and had pleasure in stating that the meetings
during the year had been well attended. In addition to the
inaugural address delivered by Mr. Morgan as President, twelve
lectures and papers, most of which were illustrated with lantern
slides, were given during the session.

The thanks of the Council were due to the Corporation for
the permission given to the Society to hold its meetings in future
in the Public Library, Museum, and Art Galleries. In the
Curator’s room of that building, prior to the alterations, the
Society formerly held its meetings, and the Society’s library had
for many years been housed there.

The thanks of the Society were also due to the Establishment
Sub-Committee and to the Chief Librarian, Mr. Roberts, for the
arrangements made in reference to this change of meeting place.
Mr. Robert Morse, the Society’s Hon. Librarian, had intimated
his desire not to seek re-election. The best thanks of the Society
were due to him for his work as Hon. Librarian for several years
past, and the valuable services he had rendered to the Society in
that capacity.

The practice of the Society in having an annual excursion
and dinner, which for some years previously had been in abeyance,
was revived and proved very enjoyable. The thanks of the
Society were due to Mr. Henry Davey for the excellent arrange-
ments he had made in reference to this and many other of the
Society’s excursions, as well as to all who had in any way aided
the Society in its excursion arrangements. It was gratifying to
record that the excursions generally; had been- numerously
attended. ;

50

The Treasurer’s financial statement for the year shewed a
balance in hand of £2 3s. 6d. There were a few outstanding
liabilities, but on the other hand some subscriptions had not yet
been paid. There had been an increase in the Society’s receipts
during the year, but the expenditure also had largely increased.
There had been a slight increase in the membership of the
Society, which now stood at 145 members and four associates,
instead of 140 members and one associate at the beginning of the
session.

The Council regretted to have to record the fact that one of
the founders and original members of the Society, Mr. Barclay
Phillips, had died. ‘The only other surviving founder was Mr.
George de Paris, who was to be proposed as an hon. member of
the Society.

The Hon. Librarian’s report showed that the number of
books issued to members during the year had been 59, and the
library had, as heretofore, been available to the general public for
purposes of reference.

The following are the titles of the papers contributed during
the past Session :—

4th Oct., 1907. +“ Function and Fatigue.”
By Dr. GEorGE Moroan, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.(E),
ist Nov., 1907. | ‘‘ Weather Forecasting.”
By Mr. W. Marriott, F.R.M.S.
15th Nov,1go7. ‘*A Year and a Half with Savages.”
By Mr. A. H. Dunnine, F.R.G:S.
6th Dec., 1907. ‘‘ Restocking of Flora and Fauna.”

By Mr. H. Davey.
‘* Autochrome Plates.”
By Dr. W. A. Pow LL, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P,

“Colour Photography.”
By Mr. O1ro PFENNINGER.

roth Jan., 1908. —‘‘ British Orchids.”
By Mr. H. Epmonps, B.Sc.

7th Feb., 1g08. — ‘ Caird’s Idea of Criticism.”
By Rev. Dr. JEFFREY JOHNSTONE.

21st Feb,, 1908. “ Some British Echinoderms.”
By Mr. Ep. Conno_p, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

6th Mar.,1908. ‘English Gothic Architecture.”
By Mr. T. A. Coysu, L.D.S.

2oth Mar.,1908. “* Projecting Microscope.”
By Mr. D. E. Causa, L.D.S.

51
2oth Mar., 1908 ‘“ Kettle-Holes.”
By Dr. A. E. Epwarps (U.S.A.).

17th April, 1908. “ Brighthelmstone—Brighton.”
By Mr. W. Harrison, D.M.D.

tst May, 1908. ‘‘ Forty Years of Bee-Keeping.”
By Mr. B. Lomax.

The following is a list of the Excursions and Visits to places

of interest during the past year, viz. :—

29th June, 1907. Chanctonbury Ring.

6th July, 1907. Lewes over the Downs to Mount Caburn.
20th July, 1907. Annual Excursion and Dinner.
21st Sept., 1907. Ditchling Common.
26th Oct., 1907. Corporation Meteorological Station.

24th Jan., 1908. Srighton Herald.

tgth Feb., rg08. Reason’s Manufacturing Works.

14th Mar., 1908. Hanningtons, Ltd.
26th Mar., 1908. Goldstone Bakeries.

11th April, r908. Lewes—Priory—Newmarket Hill.
30th May, 1908. Glynde.

HON. LIBRARIAN’S REPORT, JUNE 10th, 1908.

The number of Books issued out of the Library to Members
during the year has been 59, and the Library has, as heretofore,
been available to the general public for the purposes of reference.

Reports and proceedings of various other Societies with
which the Society exchanges publications have also been received.

The following Books have been purchased during the
year, viz. :—‘* Microscopy’ and ‘‘ Photo Micrography,” by Dr.
E. Spitta, F.R.A.S.

The following Serials have been purchased, bound and
added to the Library, viz. :—

Annals of Botany. Journal of Botany.

Zoologist. Nature.

Entomologists’ Monthly Geological Magazine.
Magazine. Entomologist.

ROBERT MORSE,
Hon. Librarian.

52

The Field Excursions and Visits to Factories.”

SATURDAY, JUNE 29TH, 1907.

TO CHANCTONBURY RING.

A remarkably successful outing, the Downs showing at their
greatest beauty. Yet just at that time darkness and a very heavy
storm fell upon London and nearly all the rest of the country.
Steyning Church was first visited; then, while some ladies
remained in the valley to botanise, the rest of the party took the
path by the White Horse Hotel to the Downs and on to
Chanctonbury Ring. So delicious was the air on the hills that
the Simple Life was longingly talked of ; and on the return there
was a discussion as to whether Sussex is not after all the most
beautiful county in England.

SATURDAY, JULY 6rH, 1907.

From Lewes over the Downs to Mount Caburn, in con-
junction with the Archzological Club. Afterwards to Glynde.

SATURDAY, JULY 20TH, 1907.
Revival of the Annual Outing and Dinner. See page 61.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 21sT, 1907.

TO DITCHLING COMMON.

The rare orchid ‘ lady’s tresses” ( Meottia spiralis) was dis-
covered. Some of the party walked back over Ditchling Beacon
in the harvest moonlight.

* Founded on the reports in the local Press.

53
SATURDAY, OCTOBER 26TH, 1907.

m= Visti sO THE CORPORATION
METEOROLOGICAL STATION.

At the Town Hall the members were received by the Medical
Officer of Health, Dr. Newsholme. He gave a detailed and most
interesting account of the daily work accomplished, which requires
the entire time ot one clerk, furnishing full particulars to the
Meteorological office, as well as to the local and the London
Press. Accounts of abnormal rainfalls were stated ; and some
members recalled the reports furnished during many years to the
Brighton Herald by “ Revilo” (Oliver) and to the Sussex Dazly
News by the late F. E. Sawyer, before the Corporation register
was begun in 1877. More than two inches fell in one day during
1g02 ; but a member present could recall the flooding of Pool-
valley in 1850. Dr. Newsholme gave a highly lucid and interest-
ing description of the apparatus employed for the various objects ;
and then led the way to the Old Steine, where the rain-gauge
is kept. By an ingenious artifice, when one-hundreth of an inch
has accumulated the bulb tilts and makes a mark on the prepared
paper. The new wind-gauge is now fixed.

Dr. Morgan, the Society’s President, in appreciative language,
proposed a hearty vote of thanks to Dr. Newsholme for his enter-
taining and instructive address and exhibition. Dr. Harrison
seconded, and the vote was carried with enthusiasm. Finally,
some of the party,—the ladies naturally refraining,—returned to
the Town Hall and made the ticklish climb up the ladder which
leads on to the roof. Here they inspected the sunshine recorder.
This is a solid ball of glass which concentrates the sun’s rays on a
long bow-shaped card ; and as the sun moves on the rays burna
mark elong the card, which is graduated in accordance with the
hours of the day, varying for the seasons.

FRIDAY, JANUARY 24TH, 1908.

AeVISIT TO THE PRINTING WORKS OF
THE “BRIGHTON HERALD.”

The newspaper was being printed at the time, and the
actions of the linotype and of the folding machines were examined
and explained. In thanking Mr. Attwick, the proprietor, for his
kindness in giving the Society this opportunity, the President said
that the members had had a most interesting experience, and that

54

the knowledge they had derived as to how the paper is produced
would add to the gratification with which they would receive their
Herald week by week. Dr. Morgan’s remarks were enthusiastic-
ally applauded by the party.

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 1rorTH.

VISIT TO REASON’S MANUFACTURING
WORKS, LEWES ROAD.

A large party enjoyed an instructive insight into the making
of electricity indicators, meters and arc lamps. The manufacture
of these and kindred articles involves a big mechanical equip-
ment, and the visitors had the advantage of seeing something of
all the processes of casting, drilling, turning, planing, fitting
together, and testing which contribute to the production of
these electrical accessories. The construction of the ingenious
mechanism which automatically switches on electric current at
the required moment was another interesting detail, but most

absorbing of all was the blowing of the complicated glass tubes

used in the indicators and meters. The contrivance for drawing
glass tubes out to the required gauge, in lengths that made one
tremble for the fate of the tube, was a centre of fascination that
the visitors are not likely to forget. The battery room in which
the current is received from the Corporation mains in accumulators
for distribution over the factory; the carpenters’ shop—an
important department ; and the big saw mill were other features
included in the tour of inspection. Subsequently, Mr. Henry
Davey conveyed the thanks of the members to Mr. H. F. Reason,
who briefly acknowledged the compliment.

SATURDAY, MARCH 1qrtu.

A TOUR THROUGH THE PREMISES OF
HANNINGTONS, LTD.

A tour through the extensive premises of Hanningtons, Ltd.,
by kind permission of Mr. S. Hannington, J.P. The tour lasted
some two and a half hours, and even that length of time proved
barely sufficient for a thorough inspection of the vast range of
shops, offices and show-rooms in North Street and East Street.
The furnishing department was made the starting point of the

Tn) a

OO Ee OE =_— <=

55

expedition, and here the party was received by Mr. Isaac Wells,
at whose invitation the visit was made, and who took upon his
shoulders the arduous duties of conductor. Mr. Wells extended
a very hearty welcome to the visitors on behalf of Mr. Hannington,
and also conveyed to them the latter’s regret that he was unable
to be present. He went on to mention the interesting fact that
this is the centenary year of the foundation of the firm. The
actual business, he said, was established in 1806 by two brothers
named Constable, who walked all the way from Horley to
Brighton to do so. In 1808 the grandfather of Mr. S. Hanning-
ton, the present managing director, purchased it, and the
Constables went back to Horley in the same way that they came,
namely, by walking. «Such was the beginning of the undertaking
whose name is now a household word throughout such a wide
district, The brojhers Constable subsequently crossed to America
and established what is now one of the largest drapery businesses
in New York City, Arnold, Constable and Co.

“ An ALPINE EXPEDITION.”

The party then set out upon their tour which, considering
the amount of climbing that had to be accomplished, was not
inaptly compared with an Alpine expedition. After a glance at
the complete and up-to-date stock of ironmongery, some tinie
was spent in inspecting the rooms in which the furniture is
housed. The show-room on the first floor was found to be
occupied by arm-chairs and couches of every imaginable shape,
and upholstered in the latest and most artistic designs. The
ladies of the party were unable to resist the temptation to test
personally some of the more inviting looking specimens. In
other rooms, drawing and dining room furniture of many periods
and styles were passed in review, and in the upper regions the
visitors were shown how carpets are planned to ft the rooms of
the purchaser and the sections then sewn together by means of a
special sewing machine. When the rear of the North-street
premises was reached Mr. Wells reminded the party that they
were standing upon the site of the old Brighton Athenzeum, where
the Rev. F. W. Robertson, Sir John Cordy Burrows, and other
by-gone worthies delivered addresses in the early half of the last
century. Passing through the carpet department, what are known
as the Pavilion dormitories were reached. These were the
sleeping apartments of the Royal servants in the days when
George IV. held his Court at the Royal Pavilion, and they still
remain very much as they were then, At the present moment
their use is not very far removed from their original purpose, for
they are occupied by ranks upon ranks of brass bedsteads,
dressing tables, wardrobes, and other examples of bedroom
furniture.

56
A BEWILDERING TOUR.

Having exhausted the attractions of the premises on the
northern side of North Street, the party crossed the road and
examined the premises in which the estate agency and undertaking
branches of the business are carried on. Then, passing through the
extensive auction rooms, they found themselves in Brighton Place,
where their attention was drawn to the premises in which the fur-
niture repository branch of the business was started. The contrast
between these and the fine buildings in D’Avigdor Road, Hove,
furnishes a striking proof of the enormous extent to which this
development of the undertaking has grown. Near by, overlook-
ing a pleasant enclosed garden, are the quarters of the male
employees of the firm, for whose recreation a well-appointed
billiard room, a comfortable reading room and a library are
provided. Passing through Market Street, the premises assigned
to the ladies engaged in the business were reached, and the large,
well-lighted and brightly furnished dining room and drawing
room, overlooking Castle Square, were much admired. Then
followed a bewildering tour through suites of magnificent show
rooms, labyrinths of corridors and innumerable staircases, till all
sense of locality was lost, and the visitors hazarded wild guesses
as to their whereabouts. The ladies and gentlemen’s outfitting
department, the trunk department, the household linen depart-
ment, the cloth department, and the mantle and costume show
rooms, were passed in review, and a peep was also afforded at the
offices and counting house. Most of the party also ascended to
the famous clock which overlooks Castle Square, and whose
familiar chimes have kept a great part of Brighton informed of the
time of day for over forty years. The end of their pilgrimage left
the party amazed, and to some extent bewildered, by the great-
ness of the interests which centre in the North Street and East
Street premises. Tea had been thoughtfully provided, and after-
wards Mr. Henry Davey proposed a hearty vote of thanks to the
Directors of Hanningtons, Limited, for their kind permission to
view the premises, to Mr. Isaac Wells for his kind invitation and
for personally conducting the party over the establishment, and
to Mr. and Mrs. Clewer (Mr. Wells’ son-in-law and daughter),
who superintended the refreshments. Mr. Davey said the
members of the Society had already visited several establish-
ments, but he did not know that they had ever been more
interested than on the present occasion. ‘Tne motion was carried
with acclamation, and, in reply, Mr. Wells said there might be
very little natural history in shop-keeping, but there was the
philosophical side, and the Society owed a good deal to the shop-
keeper. :

’) a hee

ee

57

THURSDAY, MARCH 26ru.

me VISIT .TO:.GOLDSTONE. BAKERIES.

By the kind invitation of Mr. J. J, Clark, Alderman and
J.P. of Hove, the Goldstone Bakeries, Fonthill-road, Hove,
were visited to examine the new system of automatic bread-
making, by which the whole of the operations from start to
finish are carried out by machinery. Alderman Clark conducted
the party, and explained the successive stages in the process, as
follows :—(1) The sifting of the flour and the kneading of the
dough by machinery ; (2) the cutting of the dough by an
ingeniously designed ‘‘ dough divider” into equal pieces of the
exact size for making two-pound loaves, the pieces being then
passed on to a shaping and moulding machine ; (3) the automatic
conveyance of the shaped pieces to the “proving cupboard ”
which contains trays travelling slowly through it, the temperature
encouraging the function of the yeast in producing a light loaf;
(4) the automatic passage of the ‘“ proved” dough from the
“proving cupboard” to the second moulding machine where the
dough is finally shaped and moulded ready for baking; and
finally (5) the cooking of the bread in the steam-pipe ovens fired
by fuel gas. The “handing up” and moulding plant is an
ingenious machine effecting a result which is the equivalent of
hand moulding. The dough is introduced between a trough and
a revolving table at a point on its outer periphery. The table is
sharply “ coned” and imparts just as much or as little “ working ”
as may be required by the dough to be treated. The automatic
‘‘ proving” apparatus is equally ingenious, and consists of an
inclosed structure containing swinging trays carried on continuous
chains. The chains move intermittently, the speed being regulated
in such a manner as to cause the loaves to remain in the
“ prover” just so long as is necessary to obtain the exact amount
of “proof” required. The result is to secure a complete
uniformity of treatment and a uniformly standard product.
Finally, the ovens are fired by means of gaseous fuel. ‘Ihe gas
is taken directly from the furnace to the ovens, where its
combustion is very simply regulated beneath a row of tubes.
There is thus neither a boiler nor gas holder employed. The
entire installation was designed by Messrs. Werner, Pfleiderer and
Perkins, Limited, bakery engineers, of Peterborough. Not only
is the bread preserved, as far as it is possible to preserve it, from
human contamination, but the surroundings in which it 1s
produced keep clean, wholesome and sanitary.

Light refreshments were hospitably served during the evening.

58

Dr. Harrison’s Horr.

At the close of the demonstration Dr. Harrison voiced the
thanks of the party to Alderman Clark for his kindness. ‘‘ We
have carefully inspected the bakeries, and the clean and sanitary
manner in which everything is conducted must have appealed to
allofus. (Applause.) More especially I noticed the fine physique
of the men who are employed in this trying work. We thank
you also for allowing us to sample the ‘specimens,’ which we
thoroughly enjoyed. (Applause.) On behalf of the members of
this Society I record our sincere thanks for your kindness in
permitting us to come here, and also for taking us round and
showing us this up-to-date, scientific, sanitary bakery.” (Applause.)

Expressions of appreciation and thanks also came from
Mr. Isaac Wells. It had been said, he observed, that ‘‘the man
is a benefactor to his race who makes two blades of grass grow
where only one grew before.” They had seen something of the
efforts of Alderman Clark in connection with the ground round
there ; what he had been able to get out of the ground was most
astonishing. (Hear, hear, and applause.) He joined heartily in
thanking Alderman Clark for affording them the opportunity of
seeing this latest development in hygienic bread-making. His
(Alderman Clark’s) reputation had evidently gone far and wide.
He incidentally mentioned that some friends who recently visited
the Goldstone Bakeries were talking about it in Scotland and
advising some of their friends, when they retired, to come to
reside in this neighbourhood, where they could see bread baked
in the most scientific and cleanly manner. (Applause.)

In acknowledgment, Alderman Clark said it gave him very
great pleasure to see people going round and taking such an
interest in all the various kinds of machinery. It was a source
of gratification to him to find his efforts to produce ‘the staff of
life” under the very best hygienic conditions were so much
appreciated. ‘‘ And,” be added, ‘I think now we have got to such
a pitch we may almost say we have arrived at the very perfection
of hygiene so far as bread-making is concerned.” (Applause).

This concluded what was voted one of the most interesting
and enjoyable excursions in the annals of the Society.

ih =, Get ae

Y A Oe eee

59

SATURDAY, APRIL 11TH, 1908.

EXCURSION TO LEWES.

VisITING THE Priory AND NEWMARKET HILL.

By kind permission of Mr. F. G. Courthope, J.P., the ruins
of the once great Priory were thrown open to the members. An
account of the ancient building was given by Mr. Frederick
Harrison. Taking his stand near the spot where the envoys from
De Montfort and the Barons at Fletching offered terms to Henry
III, Mr. Harrison told his hearers that so effective had been the
destruction of the Church in the time of the dissolution of
monasteries by Henry VIII., that the only vestige which remained
was a few stones, and not until the railway was cut in 1845 was
even the site known. The present ruins were chiefly the remains
of the domestic offices.

THE GUNDRADA CHAPEL.

The original building, dedicated to St. Pancras, and begun
in 1077 and added to up to 1500, must have been in extent and
beauty equal to any of our modern cathedrals. It must have
been similar to the present monastery of Cluny, in France. The
grounds covered 40 acres. The party, having inspected the
ruins, adjourned to the Church, and at the invitation of the
Rector, the Rev. Harcourt S. Anson, inspected the Gundrada
Chapel and tomb. Here Mr. Harrison explained that the Chapel
was a good specimen of modern Norman work. The slab in the
centre had been taken to Isfield at the dissolution of the monas-
tery, and kept there for about two centuries. When, however,
the remains of William de Warrenne and Gundrada were unearthed
during the railway excavation in-1845 they were deposited in the
‘Chapel built for the purpose, and the slab was returned by Sir
Walter Burrell. The party having expressed thanks to Mr.
Courthope and the Rector’s son, Mr. Wilfrid Anson, who con-
ducted them to the chapel, returned to Brighton, the majority
walking to Falmer over Newmarket Hill.

60
SATURDAY, MAY 30TH, 1908.

A. CERLP O. .GLY NDE.

About fifty members and friends visited Glynde by the kind
invitation of the Hon. Frances Wolseley, who met them at the
Church. The Rev. W. E. Dalton, M.A., conducted them round
the edifice, which was built by Bishop Trevor in 1765, and
possesses the characteristic features of the period, which, though
said to have been admired when finished, are not so at the
present day. Glynde Place was thrown open to the visitors by
the kindness of Beckwith-Smith, Esq., and some time
was passed here in admiring the splendid suite of rooms with
their fine pictures, carving, and metal work. Thence the members
passed to the Dairy, and finally visited the School for Lady
Gardeners, of which the Hon, Frances Wolseley is the Principal.

The School was founded in 1got-2, and is supervised by the
Hon. Frances Wolseley. ‘The number of Students is limited and
great care is taken as to their selection. A personal interview
and the highest references are required before admission. The
following arrangements for the course of work are a development
upon specialised lines of the scheme which has up to now existed.
The chief object of the course is to give a thorough foundation in
the management of all the more hardy garden plants and to
improve taste in the laying out and arrangement of gardens.

Attention is given to the every-day work of a garden, com-
prising :—The care of grass, paths and beds; mowing, sweeping,
and general tidiness; digging, trenching, and other ground
operations, raising plants from seeds and cuttings, their subsequent
treatment ; culture of herbaceous, alpine plants and roses ; forcing
violets, Dutch bulbs, richardias, etc. ; watering, ventilation, and
other points of glass house management. Gathering and packing
flowers and general varieties of vegetables for market is carried
out. Fruit is grown, including bush, standards, espaliers, and
strawberries.

Arrangements are made by which students can visit local
gardens. They are required to keep notes of these visits and to
answer in (writing) questions upon them. The advantages thus
gained to students, in comparing their own work with that of those
having life-long experience, will be a special feature of the school.

Students are encouraged to stay two years if it is found that
their special needs can be provided for. In any case they should
not stay less than one year. Advice is given as to their future.

At the conclusion of the visit, on the motion of Dr. Walter
Harrison, a hearty vote of thanks was given to the Hon. Frances
Wolseley and Miss Campion. Some members, after tea at
Glynde, walked by the road to Lewes ; others mounted the hills
and enjoyed a glorious walk in the evening light.

a cenmeatamaatth tad alta a nalts rennet atten 1 ed

61

Rebibal of the Annual Onting & Dinner.

TUESDAY, JULY 23RD, 1907.

‘‘T have never had a happier, pleasanter, or more instructive
day.” In thus testifying to his appreciation of the proceedings,
Dr. G. Morgan (President) voiced the unanimous opinion of those
members who participated in the Annual Outing of the Society,
which was revived—after a lapse of 15 years—with the happiest
results. Leaving Brighton at 10.13, the party proceeded to
Uckfield, where they boarded chars-a-banc for a long drive
through the beautiful scenery for which Ashdown Forest is justly
famous. Passing first through Maresfield, they turned off the
high road at Lampool Gate, and traversed the hamlet of Fairwarp ;
and then the road begins to rise sharply, as the ironsand of the
elevated moorland is entered. Nature has distinctly separated
this tract from the surrounding country. Oldlands was seen on
_ the right, and at Duddleswell the top of the ridge was attained,
Crowborough coming into view to the north-east. The views
here are magnificent, but the day was too misty. Camp Hill is
over 700 feet above the sea, and-it only needed the sunshine to
make the prospect a vision of perfect beauty, but the mist, in
perpetual obstinacy, still enshrouded the far-away hills. A little
farther and the country was like a lofty Scottish moor. The land
was bare of trees for some distance, but the heather was just
bursting into its purple blossom, and the bracken gave promise of
luxuriant growth. Once a beautiful valley burst into view, waking
in one’s mind visions of a happy idieness that might be spent
there on a future holiday. Anda little later there was a fascinating
glimpse of the entrance to another valley, exactly like a Devon-
shire coombe, and you involuntarily looked for the blue sea
flowing at the end in brilliant contrast against the green of the
trees, as you find it in the Shire of the Sea Kings ; but there was
only that eternal gray mist hemming in the horizon with a spiteful
persistence that would have made you savage—if you had not
been a philosopher.

Onward again, and a little way to the right as the road forked
the party passed near a big clump of trees known by the curious
name of King’s Standing. King Edward II. often used to visit
Ashdown Forest, where he had a hunting lodge ; and it is thought
that the place derived its name from the fact that he used to
stand there while the deer were driven by him. A more interest-
ing explanation, as mentioned by Mr. Davey, is furnished by an

62

old legend, the belief in which was persisted in for a long time.
This was that in 1264 King Henry ITI. stood and watched the
Battle of Lewes from that point, where, being fifteen miles away
from the scene of the conflict, he thought he would be in perfect
safety! At Kidd’s Hill the road drops suddenly in a series of
steep descents suggestive of a switchback ; and here the party
alighted and plodded cheerfully on foot till level ground was
reached once more. At the bottom of the hill Mr. Davey called
a halt and gave an instructive little roadside talk on Ashdown
Forest and its historic associations. Vast expanses of the Forest
are quite bare of trees; and Mr. Davey called attention to the
fact, which is not always understood, that a forest is not necessarily
a wood, but a tract enclosed for the chase, and often is mainly
moorland. Such are Ashdown Forest, Woolmer Forest in
Hampshire, and Dartmoor Forest ; and in political life we speak
of the Commissioners of Woods avd Forests. Mr. Davey was
doubtful whether the Forest is in the same condition as it was in
Roman times, although he believed there was more wood a
hundred years ago than there is to-day. Some people have
thought that a great number of the trees have been used as fuel
for the iron-furnaces of the district.

After briefly touching upon the geographical and geological
characteristics of the Forest, and mentioning that the Romans
appeared to have carried on the ironworks at Oldlands, Mr. Davey
proceeded to state that it was known that Edward II. frequently
visited it, and that he built the old Palace which formerly stood in
Vetchery Wood. The Forest, or, as it was called, the Free
Chase, or Lancaster Great Park, was granted to John of Gaunt
in 1372, and it was of great value by reason of the wood, the
deer, and the iron mines. The diary of Henslow (the contem-
porary of Shakespeare) whose father was a Forest keeper, was
written on the flyleaves of a book used for keeping accounts
relating to the timber. During the Civil War, however, the pale
by which it was enclosed appeared to have been broken down,
and the deer were killed. A survey made by the Earl of
Pembroke in 1658 showed that there were almost exactly 14,000
acres. At the Restoration the Forest was granted to the Earl
of Bristol; but then trouble with the foresters arose, and, added
Mr. Davey, that had continued until the present day. The
foresters claimed esfover, the right of taking wood for any abso-
lutely necessary purpose. In conclusion, he remarked that the
last deer was supposed to have been killed in 1808, but he had
been informed that there were still some left on the Forest,
perhaps even a hundred.

The journey was then resumed, a feeder of the Medway
being crossed, and another ascent began on the way to Coleman’s
Hatch ; and here a turn was taken to the west, skirting Ashdown

63

Park, and through a vast avenue of splendid fir-trees, lifting their
proud heads as tall and straight as a regiment of telegraph poles.
At Wych Cross, which is 658 feet above sea-level, another turn
was made, this time to the south along a glorious descent which
goes straight as an arrow to Chelwood Gate and beyond,—a road
which must be an irresistible temptation to all mad motorists and
cyclists who suffer from the speed fever. At Chelwood Gate
there was a welcome halt for the horses, and a stroll among
the heather was delightful. Mr. Davey showed how suddenly
the ground rises as the forest land begins. The drive was
resumed to Nutley, where there was a halt for tea; and as plenty
of time remained before dinner, it was decided to drive to
Buxted, and walk through the Park. There a splendid avenue
of lime-trees diffused a delicious perfume sweeter than jasmine;
and the beautiful deer and the fine black cattle watched in
lazy contemplation. But there are laws as rigorous and un-
changing as those of the Medes and Persians against loitering
in Buxted Park ; and so this scene of sylvan beauty, worthy of
the best traditions of a county rich in noble demesnes, had to be
left behind all too soon.

And now the philosophers remembered that they get hungry,
like other folk; and hied them to the Maiden’s Head Hotel,
Uckfield, for dinner. The dinner was like the hotel itself—old-
fashioned, and British, and good; and it was a very cheerful
company that sat down to the tables under the Chairmanship of
the new President, Dr. Morgan. Alderman Colbatch Clark, Hon.
Secretary of the Society, was in the vice-chair. No toast list had
been arranged; but the President very properly felt that the
company could not separate without passing a cordial vote of
thanks to Mr. Henry Davey for the excellent arrangements he
had made for a very pleasant excursion, and for the instructive
lecturette which he gave en route.

Mr. Davey’s health was drunk with much cordiality ; and in
reply he said how glad he was to find that the excursion had been
so much appreciated. He was very pleased to know that the
revival of the excursion had been so successful. Mr. Davey
mentioned that since the last annual excursion was held, fifteen
years ago, the Society had been considerably changed by the
admission of lady members; and he was glad to find that this
departure had been to the advantage of the Society in every way.
(Applause. ) j

The health of the ladies was therefore drunk, and the Rev.
W. T. Mackintosh replied on their behalf; after which a similar
compliment was paid to the President, on the invitation of
Alderman Clark.

The journey to Brighton concluded a thoroughly successful
outing.

64

COUNTY BOROUGH OF BRIGHTON.
METEOROLOGICAL STATION.
LATITUDE 50° 49’ 15” N. LONGITUDE o 8’ 10” W.

The Barometer, a Fortin pattern, is fixed near the
doorway of the front entrance to the Town Hall. The height of
the cistern of the Barometer above the Mean Sea Level is

48ft.

The following Thermometers are in a Stevenson
Screen on the Old Steine, one Maximum, one Minimum, one
Dry Bulb and one Wet Bulb. ‘There are also a Minimum

Thermometer on the Grass, and a 4ft. Earth Thermometer.

The Rain Guage is a 5in. Snowdon Pattern, and is
situated near the Stevenson Screen. The height of the Rain
Guage above the Mean Sea Level is 32ft. There is also an
Automatic Rain Guage, this records the amount and duration

of rain.

The Anemometer is a Dine’s Pressure Anemometer
and is kept at the Tower, of Tower House, Sussex Street, which

is situated on the crest of the hill.

The Sunshine Recorder, a Campbell Stokes Instrument,
is situated on the roof of the Town Hall. This instrument

records only the bright sunshine.

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HERBARIUM.

———+_—_—-

The following plants have been added to the Herbarium

since the last report, in 1904.
Sussex :—

Lonicera xylosteum,
Valeriana dioica.
Botrychium Lunaria.
Rapistrum perenne.
Festuca ciliata.

” ”
Acer campestre, b. leiocarpon
Festuca ambigua.
Atropa Belladonna
Alopecurus bulbosus.
Glyceria Borreri.
Parietaria fallax.
Coronilla varia.
Prunella laciniata.
Arenaria tenuifolia.
Salvia verticillata.
Carex Boenninghausiana.
Erisymum perfoliatum.
Sisymbrium pannonicum.
Sisymbrium Austriacum.
Verbascum Blattaria.
Apera Spica-venti.
Delphinium consolida.
Erigeron canadense.
Filago spathulata.
Ajugo chameepitys. New to Sussex?
Scutellaria galericulata, x. minor.
Chenopodium glaucum. New to
Sussex ?
Reseda gracilis ?
Dipsacus laciniata.
Atriplex Babingtonii, va. virescens.
Viola hirta, f. lactiflora

Draba muralis.

Erophila stenocarpa.

Viola Riviniana, b. nemorosa.
Medicago tribuloides.

Lepidium virginicum.

Arenaria serpyllifolia, b. glutinosa.
Anthemis tinctoria, v. discoidea.

Potamogeton interruptus, b. scoparius.

Brassica elongata.

They were all collected in

Wilmington, East Sussex.
Poynings,

Newtimber Hill.

Black Rock, Brighton.
Brighton.

Newhaven.
Wolstonbury Hill.
Canal Bank, Southwick.
Newtimber.

Lancing.

Lancing.
Kingston-by-Lewes.
Black Rock.

Roedean, Rottingdean.
Ladies’ Mile, Patcham.
Warren Farm,

Henfield.

Kemp Town Slopes.
Newhaven.

Newhaven.

Newhaven.

Newhaven.

Newhaven.

Newhaven.

Telscombe.

Downs East of Newhaven.
Ditchling Common.

Fulking.

Goldstone Bottom.

Old Shoreham Road.

Kingston-by-Sea.

Newmarket Hill, Rotting-
dean.

Arundel.

Greatham, West Sussex.

Newtimber.

Shoreham Beach.

By the Basin, Aldrington,

Shoreham Beach.

Hodshrove Farm, Falmer.

Litlington, East Sussex.

Racehill, Brighton.

68

Vicia gemella, var. tenuissima.
Polypogon littoralis.

Statice rariflora, x. limonium.
Fumaria pallidiflora.

Rumex multifidus.

Colchicum autumpalis.

Nasturtium officinale, e. microphyllum.

Symphytum officinale, b. patens.

Carduus acanthoides.

Pisum arvense.

Vicia narbonesis.

Vicia peregrina.

Ranunculus fluitans.

Thalictrum flavum.

Papaver somniferum.

Sinapis dissecta.

Lepidium perfoliatum.

Dianthus prolifer.

Silene Anglica.

Hypericum montanum.

Vicia gracilis.

Lathyrus sphericus.

Rubus carpinifolius.

Rubus erythrinus, b. glandulosa.

Rubus rhombifolius.

Rubus robustus.

Rubus leptopetalus.

Rubus horridicaulis.

Rubus adornatus.

Rubus divexiramus.

Rubus minutiflorus.

Atriplex deltoidea, b. salina bab.

Populus tremula.

Arctium Newboldeii.

Salvia pratensis.

Plantago-arenaria.

Matricaria inodora, bh. salina.

Juncus tenuis. First found in Sussex
in 1906, by Mr. Druce.

Anthoxanthum Puelii.

Carex Cheetophylla.

March, 1907.

Near Ringmer.
Thorney Road.
Bosham.

Henfield.

Newhaven.

Chailey.

Barcombe.

Near Pulborough.
Patcham.

Aldrington.
Aldrington.
Aldrington.

Western Rother.
Amberley.

Standean.
Saddlescombe.
Roedean, Rottingdean.
Newhaven.

Uckfield.

Stedham, West Sussex.
Cuckfield.

Aldrington.

Small Dole, West Sussex.
Patcham.

Street.

Street.

Henfield.

Small Dole.

Chailey.

Ambersham, West Sussex.
Cowdrey Park.
Aldrington.

Plumpton. —
Newtimber.

Poynings.

Southwick.

Kingston Beach.

Wood near East Hoathly.

Near Midhurst.

Seaford. The only place
known for it in the
British Isles. Found by
Mr. Thompson in 1906 ;
apparently native.

T. HILTON,
Curator.

69

RESOLUTIONS, &c., PASSED AT THE

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING,
Held June toth, 1908.

eee.

The Reports and Treasurer’s Account having been read, it
was proposed by Mr. E. A. PanKHUuRsT, seconded by Mr. A. W.
CHALMERS PESKETT, and resolved—

“That the Report of the Council, the Treasurer’s statement
(subject to its being audited and found correct), and the
Librarian’s Report, be received, adopted, and printed for
circulation, as usual.”

The Secretary reported that in pursuance of Rule 25 the
Council had selected the following gentlemen to be Vice-
Presidents of the Society for the ensuing year, viz. :—

“J. E. Haselwood, KE. J. Petitfourt, B.A., F.C.P., F. Merrifield,
F.E.S., D. E. Caush, L.D.S., A. Newsholme, F.R.C.P.,
J. P. Slingsby Roberts, W. Clarkson Wallis, J.P., E.
Alloway Pankhurst, Henry Davey, Walter Harrison, D.M.D.,
George Morgan, L.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.”

And that in pursuance of Rule 42 the Council had appointed
the following gentlemen to be Honorary Auditors, viz. :—
“Mr. A. F. Graves and Mr. Isaac Wells.”

It was proposed by Mr. Isaac WELLS, seconded, and
resolved—

“That the following gentlemen be Officers of the Society for the
ensuing year, viz. :—President: E. J. Spitta, M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., F.R.A.S.; Ordinary Members of Council: F.
Hora, B.Sc., W. H. Payne, W. A. Powell, M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., Edgar Duke, M.D., Robert Morse, A. W.
Chalmers Peskett, M.A., M.B., B.C., Cantab; Honorary
Treasurer : Douglas E. Caush, L.D.S. ; Honorary Librarian:
Henry D. Roberts ; Honorary Curators: H.S. Toms and T.
Hilton ; Honorary Scientific Secretary: F. Harrison, M.A. ;
Honorary Secretary: Jno. Colbatch Clark; Assistant Hon.
Secretary: Henry Cane.”

It was proposed by Mr. Henry Davey, seconded by Mr.

W. H. Payne, and resolved-——
“That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. George
Morgan, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., for his assiduous attention to

the interests of the Society as President during the past
year.”

7°

It was proposed by Mr. A. W. CHALMERS PESKETT, seconded
by Mr. GEorcr ForBEs—
“That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice-
Presidents, the Council, the Honorary Librarian, the Hon.
Treasurer, the Honorary Curators, the Hon. Auditors, and
the Honorary Secretaries for their services during the
past year.”

It was proposed. by Mr. F. Harrison, seconded by Mr.
E. A. PANKHUuRST, and resolved—

“ That Rule 11 (as to Associates) be rescinded.”

A resolution moved by Dr. WALTER Harrison affecting the
Rules for Election of Members, and an amendment thereto
moved by Mr. A. W. CHALMERS PESKETT, were both withdrawn,
the question being left over for consideration by the Council.

SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED,

WITH WHICH THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS,

And whose Presidents anc Secretaries are ex-officio Members
of the Society.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

British Association, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club, Cambridge Hall, Barrow-in-
Furness.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, c/o G. Donaldson, 8, Mileriver
Street, Belfast.

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, The Museum,
College Square, N. Belfast.

Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass, U S.A.).

British Museum, General Library, Cromwell Road, London, S.W.

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society, Frederick Street, Cardiff.

City of London Natural History Society.

Chester Society of Natural Science.

Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club, Public Hall,
Croydon.

Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A.
Edinburgh Geological Society, India Buildings, George IV

Bridge.
Eastbourne Natural History Society.

Se

Y jas

Epping Forest and County of Essex Naturalist Field Club, West
Ham Institute.

Folkestone Natural History Society.

Geologists’ Association.
Glasgow Natural History Society and Society of Field Naturalists.

Hampshire Field Club.
Huddersfield Naturalist Society.

London County Council, Horniman Museum.

Leeds Naturalist Club.

Lloyd Library, 224, West Court Street, Cincinnatti, Ohio, U.S.A.

Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society.

Liverpool University Institute of Commercial Research in the
Tropics.

Maidstone and Mid-Kent Natural History Society.

Mexican Geological Institute, 54, Del Cipres, No. 2,728 Mexico.
Michigan University, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, Stone, Staffs. (Wells
Bladen, Secretary).
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society, University College, Nottingham,

Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass, U.S.A.
Quekett Microscopical Club, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Microscopical Society, 20, Hanover Square, London, W.

Royal Meteorological Society, Prince's Mansions, 73, Victoria
Street, S.W.

Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly.

Smithsonian Institute, Washington, U.S.A.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.

South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.
Southport Society of Natural Science, Rockley House, Southport.
Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles.

Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

Watford Natural History Society.
Woolwich District Antiquarian Society.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

72

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

Brighton and hove Watural tistorp and
Philosophical Society,

1908.
———+4+__

LNV.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any Change of
Address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 9, Marlborough
Place, Brighton. When not otherwise stated in the
following List the Address is in Brighton. Names
printed in italics are Life Members.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

ABBEY, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town.
ASHTON, C. S., Dyke Road.

BLACKBURN, H. R., Woodlands, Surrenden Road.
BLACKBURN, E. C. W., Woodlands, Surrenden Road.
BLACK, H. MILNER, 81, St. James’s Street.

‘BOOTH, E., 53, Old Steine.

BRIGDEN, G., Cumberland Lodge, Preston, Brighton.
BULL, W., 75, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.

BURCHELL, E., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Waterloo Place.

CANE, HENRY, 173, Ditchling Road.

CausH, D. E., L.D.S., 63, Grand Parade.
CHARRINGTON, H. W., 23, Park Crescent.

CLARK, J. COLBATCH, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.
CLIFTON, HARVEY, 19, Buckingham Place.
CoLMAN, Alderman J., J.P., Wick Hall, Furze Hill
COMBRIDGE, SAML, 5, Leopold Road.

DALpy, A. MANTELL, M.D., 17, Palmeira Square, Hove.
DAVEY, HENRY, 15, Victoria Road.

73
DENMAN, S., 26, Queen’s Road.
Dopp, A. i, M.R.C. S., L.R.C.P., 4, Ventnor Villas, Hove.
DUKE, E., M.D. 50305 New Church’ Road, Hove.

FAwsItTT, H. G. CHATER, 14, Vernon Terrace.
FLETCHER, W. H. B., J.P., Aldwick Manor, Bognor.
FORBES, GEORGE, 5, St. Peter’s Place.

GRAVES, A. F., 9A, North Street Quadrant.
GRIFFITH, A. F., M.A., 59, Montpelier Road.
GRINSTEAD, J., 13, Powis Square.
GRINSTEAD, W. F. H, £3, Powis Square.
GROVE, E., Norlington, Harrington Road.
GUDGEON, A. J., M.A., 52, Norfolk Square.

HACK, D., Fircroft, Withdean.

HALL, J. SUSSEX, 69, Ship Street.

HARRISON, F., M.A., 30, Compton Avenue.

HARRISON, W., D.M D,, L.D.S., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove.
HASELWoOD, i Bit 35 Richmond. Terrace.

HAWKINS, W. R., Shalimar, Withdean.

Haynes, J. L., 24, Park Crescent.

HICKLEY, G., 92, Springfield Road.

HILBERY, REGINALD, 23, Hartington Villas, Hove.
HILTON, T., 1, Clifton Street.

Hopss, J., 62, North Street.

Hora, F, a B.Sc., B.A., A.R.C.Sc., 69, St. Aubyn’s, Hove.
Horng, Jin 7s ; Hampstead Road.

HowLert, J. W., J.P., 4, Brunswick Place, Hove.

INFIELD, H. J., J.P., Sylvan Lodge, Upper Lewes Road.

JACKSON, J. M., 109, Stanford Avenue.

JENNINGS, A. O., LL.B, 11, Adelaide Crescent, Hove.

JOHNSTON, J., 12, Bond Street.

JOHNSTONE, Rev. JEFFREY, Ph.D., F.R.G.S., 35, Cromwell Road, Hove

LANGTON, H., M.R.C.S., 11, Marlborough Place.
Law, J., Crosthwaite, Lewes.

LEWIS, i? C.E., F.S.A., Fairwarp, Uckfield.

LIVESEY, G. H., M.R.C.V. S., 29, Osmond Road, Hove.
LONSDALE, L., 1 3, Powis Square.

MAGUIRE, E. C., M.D., 9, Old Steine.

MANSFIELD, H., 11, Grand Avenue, Hove.

MAURICE, H., L.D.5: , 65, St. John’s Terrace.

MCKELLAR, e;, Deputy- -Surgeon-General, M.D., J.P., Woodleigh,
Preston.

MERRIFIELD, F., 14, Clifton Terrace.

MILLS, J., 24, North Road.

MoRGAN, G3 L.R:-G-P,, FaR.G:S., 12; Pavilion Parade.

MORSE, ROBERT, 26, Stanford Avenue.”

NEWSHOLME, A., M.D., F.R.C.P., 57, North Gate, Regent’s Park, N.W.
NICHOLSON, W. oo F. E. S:5 Lewes.

Nora\, S. H., Latchetts, "Burgess Hill.

Norris, E. L., L.D. S., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove.

74

ORE, ALFRED: W., BA, LLMse E.G:S3-2h.ES:, ob Z.Sees2,
Denmark Villas, Hove.

Payne, W. H., Playden House, Harrington Villas.

PENNEY, S. R., Larkbarrow, Dyke Road Drive.

PESKETT, A. W. CHALMERS, M.A., M.B, B.C., Cantab., Simla,
Clermont Road.

PESKETT, Guy, Simla, Clermont Road.

PETITFOURT, E. J., B.A., F.C.P., 7, Chesham Terrace.

PopLey, W. H., 13, Pavilion Buildings.

PowELL, W. A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 5, Grand Parade.

PuGH, Rev. C., M.A., 13, Eaton Place.

PuTTICK, W., Bracken Fell, Hassocks.

READ, S., L.D.S., 12, Old Steine.

READ, T., B.A., B Sc., Brighton Grammar School.
REASON, H. F., Lewes Road.

RICHARDSON, F. R,, 4, Adelaide Crescent.
ROBERSON, A., 17, Sackville Road, Hove.
ROBERTS, J. P. SLINGSBY, 3, Powis Villas.
ROBERTS, H. D., Public Library.

ROBINSON, E., Saddlescombe.

Ross, D. M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade.

SAVAGE, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street.

SEAMER, ARTHUR, M.A, Compton Road, Preston.

SLomAN, F., M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road.

SMITHERS, E. A., The Gables, Furze Hill.

SMITH, C., 47, Old Steine.

SMITH, T., 1, Powis Villas.

SMITH, W., 6, Powis Grove.

SMITH, W. J., J.P., 42 and 43, North Street.

SMi1TH, W. H., 191, Eastern Road.

SOUTHCOMBE, H. W., 16, Stanford Avenue.

SPICKERNELL, S. E., 3, Clermont Road.

SPITTA, E. J., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.S., 41, Ventnor Villas, Hove:
STONER, HAROLD, L.D.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 18, Regency Square.

TALBOT, HUGO, 79, Montpelier Road:

Toms, H. S., The Museum.

THOMAS-STANFORD, CHAS., Preston Manor.

TuoHy, J. F., M.D., 1, Hova Terrace, Hove.

TYSSEN, Rev. R. D., M.A., 19, Brunswick Place, Hove.

WALLIS, W. CLARKSON, J.P., 15, Market Street.

WALTER, J., 88, North Road.

WELLS, I., 4, North Street.

WELSFORD, H. M., 68, Dyke Road.

WHYTOCK, E., 36, Western Road.

WILKINSON, T., 170, North Street.

WILLIAMS, A. S., 17, Middle Street.

Woop, J., L.D.S., 28, Old Steine.

Woop, WALTER R., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., L-D.S., 28, Old Steine.

a 7

Ke ee

_ EO

75

LADY MEMBERS.

BAGLEY, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.
BLADON, Miss, 23, Sudeley Place.
BRIGDEN, Mrs., Cumberland Lodge, Preston, Brighton.

CAUSH, Mrs., 63, Grand Parade.
CRAFER, Mrs. M. H., 102, Beaconsfield Villas.
CRANE, Miss A., 11, Wellington Road.

DALDY, MANTELL, Mrs., 17, Palmeira Square, Hove.
GRAYSON, Miss M. O., Strathallan, St. Michael’s Place.

HARE, Miss, 19, Goldsmid Road.
HARRISON, Mrs to, Windlesham Road.
HERRING, Miss, 38, Medina Villas, Hove.

LANGTON, Miss, 38, Stanford Road.

MorGavy, Mrs., 12, Pavilion Parade.

NATION, Miss, Hereford House, Eaton Road, Hove.
RUGE, Miss, 7, Park Crescent.

THOMAS, Miss M., 181, Freshfield Road.

VoBES, Miss, B.A., B.Sc., Glenalna, Rugby Road.

WALTON, Miss, Hereford House, Eaton Road, Hove.
WATKINS, Miss, Walcot, Walpole Road.
WILKINSON, Mrs.,. 36, Dyke Road.

WHITE, Miss E. M., West Croft, West Street.
Woop, Mrs. J., 28, Old Steine.

HONORARY MEMBERS.
ARNOLD, Rev. F. H., The Hermitage, Emsworth.
BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings.
CURTEIS, T., 244, High Holborn, London.
Dawson, C., F.G.S., Uckfield
Farr, E. H., Uckfield.
HOoLLis, W. AINSLIE, Palmeira Avenue, Hove.
JENNER, J. H. A., 209, School Hill, Lewes.
Lomax, BENJAMIN, Io, Park Crescent.
Nourse, W. E. C., Norfolk Lodge, Thurlow Road, Torquay.
PANKHURST, E. A., 3, Clifton Road.

76

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1908-9.

—
— =

{resident :
E. J. SPITTA, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.A.S:

Past- Presidents :

J. E. HASELWoop. W. CLARKSON WALLIS, J.P.

E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C.P. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.

F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. HENRY DAVEY.

Dich; CAUSH, LDS: WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R.C.P. GEORGE MorGAan, L.R.C.P.,
J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS. | Hei. €.9s

THE COUNCIL.
Ghe President,
Vice- Presidents :

(Rule 25.)
J. E. HASELWooD. W. CLARKSON WALLIS, J.P.
E. J. PETITFOURT, B.A., F.C. P. E. ALLOWAY PANKHURST.
F. MERRIFIELD, F.E.S. HENRY DAVEY.
D. E. CausH, L.D.S. WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D.
A. NEWSHOLME, F.R C.P. GEORGE MorGAN, L.R.C.P.,
J. P. SLINGSBY ROBERTS E.R.C.S.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
F. Hora, BSc, B.A. EDGAR DUKE, M.D.
W. H. PAYNE. ROBERT MORSE.
We Al POWELL, > MORIG:S;: A. W. CHALMERS PESKETT,
TOR,C.E- M.A., M.B., B C., Cantab.
Honorary Treasurer: Gonorary Librarian:
DouctLas E. CAusH, L.D.S. HENRY D. ROBERTS.
Honorary Curators :
H. S. Toms. T. HILTON.

Honorary Auditors :
A. F. GRAVES. I. WELLS.

Honorary Scientific Secretary:
F, HARRISON, M.A., 30, Compton Avenue.

Honorary Secretary:
JNo. COLBATCH CLARK, J.P., 9, Marlborough Place.

Assistant Bonorary Secretarg:
HENRY CANE, 9, Marlborough Place.

PRESENTED
30 OCT 1208

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