ree we =< ep a, J 4 a [ ‘: - : ORIN reat Gy eT aw ee A Wag Ls ee be oe ated td | ; res \ “a ; A ’ , a “ ‘ . - t - - . : J s - : #7" = ‘ ha Pea J ff WH Nl mul ay euwtteaw Stunt MIWA il wwe BRIGHTON AND SUSSEX ANNUAL REPORT “YEAR ENDING JUNE 13, 1888. os “130, NORTH STREET, TuxtxrHone No. 52.—(8668). ~ Natural History & Philosophical Society. : me Pre q ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY. TOGETHER WITH THE ANNUAL REPORT YEAR ENDING JUNE 187, 1888. SEER — | SHrighton : a THE SOUTHERN PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED, 130, NORTH STREET, TrLtePpHone No. 52.—(8668). My »* xae8U2 GVA MOTHAIRG be ii é wil a fa = eas 9 PERRO E pase Ad 10. eTo Aare yrsigoe Suy 3no3ae GABA ; a gira pear eadiiied ve cle "tg09aa TAU ae ES “ aes 2 tg 881 wnt MD OMENS ana on 2 si | : natdgin® se z sata Pankow onueieiao4 eetran a 20 BR BA de easel TREATS Teer ee te ¥ oe peg ' At 4 a tes — *e 3 - OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. 1888-1889. President : Mr, J. E. HasEtwoop. Vice=Presidents : Mr. T. R. Srmonps. Mr. THomas GLAISYER, Mr. E. C. Nourse. Rey. H. G. Day, M.A. Mr. F. MERRIFIELD, Dr. W. AINSLIE Hottis, F.R.C.P. Mr. ALDERMAN Cox, J.P, Dr, J. Ewart, F.R.C.P. _ Mz. J. DENNANT. Mr. Seymour Burrows, B.A., Mr. G. D. Sawyer, F.R.M.S. M.R.C.S. Dr. L. C. Bapcocx. Council : Mr. F, MERRIFIELD. Rev. H. G. Day, M.A. Mr. J. DENNANT. Dr. W. AINSLIE Hottis, F.R.C. P. Mr. G. D. SAWYER, F.R.M.S. Dr. J. Ewart, F.R.C.P. Dr. L. C. Bapcock. Mr. Seymour Burrows, B.A., M:R.C.S. Mr. THomas GLAISYER. Mr. E. J. Perirrovrr, B.A. Mr. E. J. Hart, M.R.C.S. SurRGEON-GENERAL Dr. J. J. CLARKE. Mr. E. S. Mepcaur, M.R.C.S, SURGEON-GzNERAL Dr, Epwp. McKELLar, / Mr. W. H. Rean, M.R.C.S. Monorarp Treasurer : Mr. THomas GLAISYER, 12, North Street. Monorary Librarian : honorary Curator : Mr. D. KE. Causa. Mr. Bengamin Lomax, F.L.S. Honorary Secretaries : Mr. Epwp. Attoway Panxuourst, 12, Clifton Road. ) Mr. JNo, CotBatcH CLARK, 64, Middle Street. Salen a % au aaa til iy Caen onal poet ide Maia toring: ae ors ie ar BM xhthed- TE sed | j Bis q4 hasnt saben, We e Psig M are & asl oh a enomanilt acy AM Bs ag . : : Honiay 2 A ED et 4 OP ar peek ek DUE reed & all AR: Ry el a ales ale Rat oe Ls myeieais rit kore eae" AS nonaroat © ete HD Kin if ie ot galt sh AY ie BrP ase Fl s! ‘ . Ny ‘3, aut wis el 16 S4e8 HTP i 7 saad pan rOn der dete Apa et AwveEAT maRorn oe - soMud qinsewo > Apabsarsey 4.1 Meow wimarnail ale — ' neta a Als z “i, ¢ epitntaTa9& qansesiee’ By Gai ali? ‘et Eure al two aHee, at S sate, 2 pray) oka) px ait INAUGURAL ADDHHSS. OCTOBER 13th, 1887. Mr. SEYMOUR BURROWS, B.A. (Cantab), M.R.C.S. Mr. Burrows commenced by remarking on the nobility of the study of Nature, and of the manifold and attractive aspects under which She is presented to our eyes. Inthe process of years the varied and accumulated results of many observers required that some classification should be given to the subjects of their study. Among the great classifiers might he named Aristotle, Pliny, Athenceus, Albertus Magnus, Gesner, Ray, Buffon, Linnzeus, Cuvier, and Owen. So vast is the field which the study of Nature presents, that to-day, at any rate in its entirety, it is too wide for any one mind to embrace. But though all but the most gifted minds must content themselves with a little knowledge of her works, yet this, instead of being a dangerous thing, may be of the greatest use to us. To cultivate a habit of observation even within narrow limits, and to take an interest in the things which surround us, is itself an education. Mr. Burrows then alluded to Museums, and to the part which they ought to play in this education. He remarked on the better organization and adaptation to the wants and requirements of students which Museums abroad presented compared with those of our own country. They were open at times also most con- _yenient for artizans and the working classes generally to attend ; and he thought in this respect we might with advantage follow _ the example set us on the other side of the Channel. Every _ Museum should be a place where one could learn the main facts concerning the geology, the botany, and the zoology of the _ country around. Mr. Burrows then enlarged on the many op- _ portunites for acquiring knowledge which even a dweller in 6 towns enjoyed, more particularly with regard to microscopical studies, and shewed how easily matter could be obtained which would give occupation and pleasure for many a delightful even- ing. In conclusion, Mr. Burrows made an earnest appeal to the members present and to the Society at large to second the efforts which were now being made to render their meetings more popular and more helpful to all interested in the study of Nature. OCTOBER 19th, 1887. SS ee Es wy A re ey ee, ee CALLED TO CONSIDER REVISION OF RULES. OCTOBER 27th, 1887. —— “GHRACIBARS,” Lecture, with Oxy-Hydrogen Lantern, in BANQUETING ROOM, TOWN HALL, HOVE, MR. PANKHURST. NOVEMBER [6th, 1887. EYES IN THE LOWER ANIMALS. Mr. W. H. REAN, M.R.C.S. The human eye, Mr. Rean said, might be conveniently taken as a standard with which to compare all other eyes. The development of the optical apparatus of other animals could be referred to it, and their various modifications as they approached or receded from this standard be more clearly described. ——_ MICROSCOPICAL MEETING. subject’ “Ev Es.” Introduced by Mr. W. H. REAN. 9 DECEMBER (4th, 1887. PHSSIMIS™M. Mr. J. E. HASELWOOD. In the course of some prefatory remarks, Mr. Haselwood _ intimated that the work to which he had been mainly indebted for the substance of his paper was James Sully’s “ Pessimism.” The words “ pessimism,” and ‘‘ optimism ” have passed as common places into our ordinary language. The founder of philosophic Pessimism was Arthur Schopenhauer who was born at Dantzig in 1788. WILL is at the bottom of his philosophy. In his own words “‘ All willing arises from desire, that is from want, that is from suffering. Satisfaction makes an end of this : but nevertheless for every wish that is gratified there re- main at least ten unfulfilled. Lasting, unfailing satisfaction, no desired object of the will can afford.” No rest or happiness is possible therefore to man while thus for ever striv- ing to reach a goal which it is impossible he ever can attain. But _ Schopenhauer gives to WILL a wider meaning than is found in _ the common acceptation of the word. He identifies it with all _ those forces of nature which are for ever working to maintain or _ produce all things that exist. These blind forces of nature, as we term them, in all their manifold activity, are guided by a definite purpose—and this also is will. ¥ In man this great force of Nature in all its varied manifes- a ‘tations becomes self-conscious. Von Hartmann differed from Schopenhauer in thus making _ the Will the primary principle. To Will he joins Intelligence or Each successive step in the evolution of living beings is a vi tory of Intelligence over Blind Will or Force. In man, as th being in which evolution culminates, we have the final emancipation of the Reason from its bondage to the Will. That 10 the purpose of this world-evolution is the happiness of man, as many think, Hartmann regards asan illusion. The ancient world placed happiness in the present life of the individual, the Christian world in a future life. Hartmann not only regards these as illusions, but also that hope which looks for happiness in a future ameliorated condition of humanity. This last one, found by experience to be a deception, there will be no further illusion possible. The sum of actual pain and misery will in no wise tend to diminish, but greater evils will spring out of an advancing civilization than any benefits that it brings. An ever-increasing discontent must of necessity mark its path. It is useless for the individual to strive against the unhappiness and misery of social life, for they are irremediable. ‘ Existence is a huge blunder,” and Hartmann consequently looks forward to the extinction of all conscious life as the only panacea for the evils engendered by its existence. This conclusion is founded on three bases : Ist, Metaphysical ; 2nd, Scientific ; and 3rd, Empirical. Mr. Hasel- wood only examined the last, and adduced some of the criti- cisms which Sully and others brought to bear on a method which they considered faulty. Finally he gave his own reasons for dis- senting from the conclusions of the German philosophers, and seeing that ignorance was at the bottom of much of the evil which existed in the world, looked forward confidently to a time when wider intelligence and more perfect knowledge, both in governors and the governed, would be able to abate much of the misery which surrounds human life by meliorating the conditions under which it at present exists. JANUARY [3th 1888. —_—e—— THE MINUTE ANATOMY OF ANIMAL TISSUES. BSP SE yy OP Bhs © feed = oe 2 With Oxy-Hydrogen Lantern, at CENTRAL SCHOOLS, CHURCH STREET, BRIGHTON. Mr. H. EDMONDS, B.Sc. 11 WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 15th, 1888. TEETH—THEIR STRUCTURE IN MEN AND. ANIMALS. Mr. WALTER HARRISON, D.M.D. (Harvard). ' It is a common error to speak of teeth as bones. Teeth are not bones, but are developed from the skin, in other words they are dermal appendages and must be considered in the same category as hair and nails. In looking at the arrangement of human teeth in the jaws it may be noticed that no tooth is _ exactly over another one, and that there are no interspaces x between them. Each tooth is met by two teeth. In consequence _ of this the loss of a single tooth is not so severely felt. The q teeth are arranged around the margins of the maxillary bones in a curve which is somewhat parabolic in form. It is generally rounded after the manner of a Norman arch. In the lower races of mankind this becomes somewhat square owing to the prominence of the canine teeth. The tendency of civilization, however, is to make this curve sharper, in fact, somewhat of a Gothic arch. Its extreme shape, occasionally seen, is a V-shaped maxilla. . Some animals develop only one set of teeth, others two. In man the first set, milk-teeth, remain till about 7 years old. In the Ungulate they persist until the animal has reached adult age. ag The teeth in the Mammalia are built up of three different kinds of tissue, viz., Enamel, Dentine, and Cementum. The 5 enamel of the tooth is the hardest tissue in the body, and lowest in organic matter. The principal substance, however of which teeth are composed ‘is dentine. Sometimes this closely resembles bone in structure. In the Mammalia, it is permeated with tubes, which radiate from the pulp cavity, containing Tomes’s Fibrils ; it is by means of these q ih at it communicates with the blood-vessels, and nerves. The 12 ° PULP in the centre is the formative organ of the dentine. The dentine of different classes of the Vertebratce differs in its structure in several important particulars. It has been classified into three groups. (1). Hard or Uni-vascular dentine, (2). Plici-dentine, and (3), Vaso-dentine. The third substance of which teeth are formed is named Cementum. In man and the Carnivora it is confined to the roots of the teeth. In chemical composition it is nearly allied to bone. The Attachment of Teeth. The methods by which teeth are attached offer many points of interest. There are three distinct methods by which this is effected, 1st, Membrane, 2nd, Hinge, 3rd, Anchylosis, 4th, Socket. In the first method the teeth are affixed to a fibrous membrane which glides over the jaw, asin the shark, which during its life has an enormous number of teeth. The pike and hake afford us ex- amples of the attachment of the teeth to the jaw-bone by hinges. The third method (anchylosis) may be found in the python and haddock, while in man and the mammalia generally they are inserted in a socket. The author then touched on the development of teeth in the human subject, and next pointed out how intimately the form and structure of the teeth were associated in different animals with the food and habits of life of the animal to which they belonged. The incisors for instance distinguish the Rodents, the large development of the canines the Carnivora, and a peculiar shape of the molars is characteristic of the Ruminants, 13 WEDNESDAY, MARCH 14th, 1888. OBSERVATIONS IN MOTH BREEDING FOR PEDIGREE PURPOSES. Mr. F. MERRIFIELD. These were observations made in the course of a series of experiments tried at the instance of Mr. Francis Galton in _ Pedigree Moth-breeding. Mr. Merrifield said that, having - obtained plenty of living specimens of Selenia illunaria _ (“Early Thorn Moth”) in the spring, his experiments with _ that species were more advanced than with Selenia illustraria (“Purple Thorn Moth”). From eggs of ilunaria laid by moths taken in the spring he had reared a second generation _ fed on sleeved birch trees, the moths emerging in July. From these he had made a selection of long-winged (A), medium- _ winged (M), and short-winged (Z) pairs, and from each of these pairs he had batches of pup numbering from 60 to 100, now _hybernating. Besides the insects thus reared under natural conditions, he had reared some which were kept during all their "stages in an artificial temperature averaging a little under 80° Fahr. In this way he had obtained five successive generations, the last of them being the sixth generation of the year, counting a generation as beginning with the egg (the moths caught in the spring reckoning as belonging to the first) being now in the egg ‘stage. The forced second generation was distinctly larger than the same generation sleeved, and each successive forced genera- 4 tion, except the last, which had been brought up under difficulties _as to food, and had suffered great mortality, shewed a measurable a . erease in size over its predecessor. From the forced second generation he had selected A, M, and Z pairs, from each of which had reared a number of moths, but the A’s and Z’s in this d generation failed to produce fertile eggs, though several pairs of each were tried. The M’s produced abundantly, and from one of these M pairs he bred 61 moths, from which he had again selected A’s, M’s and Z’s, which laid fertile eggs, and from each of these pairs he had obtained about 7 or 8 moths, all proving sterile 14 except one pair of Z's and perhaps one pair of M’s. He refrained at present from any inferences as to the cause of the sterility of the third generation of forced moths in the A and Z lines, but thought it would be prudent in these experiments to include some selections from points in the scale of size considerably short of the extremes. All the successive generations were of the summer type (Juliaria). In all the female was on the average sensibly larger than the male, but in the natural spring emergence the reverse was the case, S. illunaria was the only English double-brooded Geometer, exeept perhaps, 7. laricaria, which had one of its emergences in a winter month, and he threw out the suggestion whether the relatively smaller size of the female in the first emergence might be a step towards or a remnant of apterousness, usual in the female of our winter moths. It would be interesting to breed and compare 7”. laricaria. He could not undertake any other species than ilunaria and illustraria, and circumstances might interfere even with them ; and as the experi” ments with them must continue for many generations in order to reach the results wanted for Mr. Galton’s purposes, and required uninterrupted watchfulness, it was essential, to prevent an accidental failure, that there should be a second line of experi- ments conducted independently. Both species were very easy to rear, and offered much scope for experiment in various directions ; he would gladly supply eggs in the spring for the purpose. Mr. Merrifield further said he should be glad to be afforded the opportunity of seeing and, if judged expedient, breeding from unusual varieties or types of either species, or examples from Ireland, Wales, Northern regions, such as Scotland and Scandinavia, where both species appear to be single-brooded, or from Central or Southern Europe. The resting position of the Selenias was remarkable ; illunaria, folds its wings closely together like a butterfly, and illustraria holds them at an angle of 50° or 60°. He exhibited two diagrams, one shewing the measurements of the successive broods, and the other the duration of the larval and other stages in each ; also a number of specimens of each brood of illunaria, and several of ilustraria. 15 APRIL Ith, 1887. MICROSCOPICAL MEEHTING. MAY 9Qth, 1888. oe THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. Mr. E. A. PANKHURST. Few perhaps of all those to whom the letters of the alphabet are so familiar, look upon them as the greatest achievement of the human intellect ; that they enshrine a history more important than that of any nation, and embody the culture and civilization of ages. When we endeavour to trace the development of the written or printed characters which we use from English to Roman, from © Roman to Greek, from Greek to Phenician, from Pheenician to Egyptian hieroglyphics, and from these to the earliest efforts of man in fashioning signs for his spoken language, there are some blank pages in the earlier record due to the ravages of time. These _ must be supplied from the known efforts of savage, or semi-savage tribes, still in existence, to translate their thoughts into characters: _ Among the North American Indians, when they were first brought _ into contact with Europeans a method of picture-writing prevailed of which many ingenious specimens are preserved ; rude pictures representing men as warriors, the signs of the tribes to which _ they belonged, and the places near which they fought. But even in these a picture of the sun not only stands for the sun, but for aday. The figure of the heart stands for “desire” and so on. _ Some progress has evidently been made. For between the mere _ representation of things to that of moral qualities the chasm is . 4 immense and must have taken centuries to bridge over. In the _ earlier Chinese characters the figure of an ear at a door stands for 16 hearing, a bee for industry, 2 woman and her son for the verb to love. It isthe same in all early attempts at language. In Mexican, a man sitting on the ground represents an earthquake. We have thus arrived at a symbolical language. It plays an important part in Egyptian hieroglyphics, where a man holding a stick signifies Sorce, two legs, motion, &c. From the expression of abstract thoughts the next great step was to the expression of sounds—phonograms. Thus, the name of lapis lazuli, being pronounced in Egyptian, is khersteb ; and khersf being the verb “to stop,” and “teb” a pig, a man holding a pig by the tail was a phonetic representation of the word khersteb. In the process of the analysis of sound it was next discovered that all words might be compounded of a certain number of syllables, and certain signs of things were taken to represent syllables. Several languages never passed beyond this stage. It was reserved for the Egyptians as far as we are able to judge to take the next great step, to phonetism; that is, to adopt signs to represent only sounds. Let us see how they accomplished this step. An eagle was called ahom—the sound A. being dominant, the figure of an eagle was made to stand for A. The mouth being called ro the figure of a mouth came to repre- sent the sound &. Similarly a lion stood for Z, and an owl for M. In all languages of comparatively uncivilized peoples the consonants are dominant, and the vowels with the exception of a only play an important part, later. The Egyptians had three forms of written language, the hieroglyphics mainly sculptured on stone, the hieratic used by the priests on papyrus, and the cursive used generally for writing. The figures of the animals mentioned could not be drawn in rapid writing, and modifications of them were consequently adopted. Strange as it may seem, the papyri unearthed from Egyptian tombs enable us to trace how our A has sprung from the figure of an eagle, our M from that of an owl, and our Y from that of the horned viper of Egypt. 17 From the Egyptian were derived Pheenician and Hebrew, and from these Greek and Roman and the other characters of European languages, in more or less direct descent. Philologists generally are agreed that four or five great systems of writing have been independently invented, viz., Egyptian, Cuneiform (Babylon and Assyria), Chinese, Mexican, and perhaps the Hittite. A large number of diagrams were used in illustration of the _ several steps in the Evolution of language here indicated. 18 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING JUNE 13th, 1888. REV. H. G. DAY, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair. The CHAIRMAN having explained the objects of the Meeting, called on Mr. PANKHURST (Hon. Sec.) to read the KEPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR, 1887-88. There is only one event of any special importance, which has occurred during the past year, in connection with the work of the Society, which seems to demand particular notice. We allude to the revision of the Rules. At a Special Meeting, on the 19th October last, called for the purpose of considering a report on the subject drawn up by a Committee consisting of Mr. F. Merrifield, Dr. Ewart, Mr. J. E. Haselwood, and your two Hon. Secs., considerable changes, were made in the Rules and Regulations. Some of these which bear on the constitution of the Council will come into operation for the first time this evening. By Rule 18 the two senior members of the old Committee will retire, and are not eligible for re-election until next year. These are Mr. C. F. Dennet and Mr. F. E. Sawyer, and the names of two other gentlemen will be submitted to you in their place. The Council however cannot part even temporarily with a lt ove : | 4 19 auch old members of the governing body of the Society without expressing their sense of the valuable services they have ren- dered, and the active interest they have for so many years taken in its welfare and its proceedings. By Rule 20, the Council has to nominate not more than nine nor less than three of the past Presidents of the Society to be Vice-Presidents during the coming year. The names of these gentlemen will in due course be submitted to you. Rules 6 and 10 permit ladies to become members without entrance fee. The number is small at present of those who have availed themselves of this privilege, but it is to be hoped that members will make these new provisions more widely known, and that in consequence a larger number of ladies will appear in the list of members next year, Since the last Report was issued, the Society has had to regret the loss by death of two of its past Presidents, viz., Mr. W. M. Hollis, J.P., and the Hon. Howe Browne. The former was for 33 years a member of the Society, and, as long as he was capable of attending its meeetings, one of our most active and efficient members. During the past year the papers read before the Society» and the Lectures given at its meetings, have been as follows :— 1887 : October 12th, Inaugural Address by the President, Mr. Seymour Burrows, B.A., M.R.C.S, ; October 27th, Lecture at Hove by Mr. Pankhurst on “ Glaciers ” ; November 16th “ Eyes in the Lower Animals,” Mr. W. H. Rean ; November 30th, Microscopical Meeting, subject “ Eyes ” ; December 14th, 4 Pessimism,” Mr. J. E. Haselwood. 1888: January 13th, Lecture at Central Schools, Church Street, by Mr. H. Edmonds, B.Sc., on “The Minute Anatomy of Animal Tissues ” ; February 15th, “ Teeth—their Structure in Men and Animals,” Mr. Walter Harrison, D.M.D. ; March 14th, “ Observations in Moth Breed- ing for Pedigree purposes,” Mr. F. Merrifield ; April 11th, Microscopical Meeting ; May 9th, “The Origin and Develop- ment of Written Language,” Mr. Pankhurst. 20 The Annual Excursion took place on July 5th, when about 30 members visited Chanctonbury Ring and returned to Worthing to dinner. The field excursions have been as follows :— 1887. June ll. Falmer and Lewes. a July 16. Uckfield. BY August 13. Seaford. Ps September 17. Crowborough. ae October 15. Haywards Heath and Cuckfield. 1888. May 12. Clapham Wood. The Council now begs to submit to you the Reports of the Treasurer and Librarian which they hope will be found satis- factory, and afterwards the names of those who have been nominated as the Council and Officers of the Society for the ensuing year. ee ~ 21 After the Reports had been read, it was moved by Mr. C. A. WELLS, seconded by Mr. MarsHaLL LEIGH, and resolved— “That the Reports now brought in be received, adopted, entered on the minutes, and printed for circulation as usual.” It was moved by Mr. C. F. DENNET, seconded by Mr. BARCLAY PHILLIPS, and resolved— “That the Treasurer's account be submitted to the Auditors, examined by the Council and printed with the report.” It was moved by Mr. G. DE Paris, seconded by Mr. C. A. WELLS and resolved— ‘‘That the following gentlemen be officers of the Society for the ensuing year :—President: Mr. J. E. Haselwood; Council : Mr. F. Merrifield, Mr. J. Dennant, Mr. G. D. Sawyer, F.R.M.S., Dr. L. C. Badcock, Mr. Thomas Glaisyer, Mr. E. J. Petitfourt, B.A., Mr. E. J. Hart, M.R.C.S., Surgeon General J. J. Clarke, M.D., Rev. H. G. Day, M.A., Dr. W. Ainslie Hollis, F.R.C.P., Dr. J. Ewart, F.R.C.P., Mr. Seymour Burrows, B.A., M.RC.S., Mr. E. S. Medcalf, M.R.C.S., Surgeon General Dr. Edw. McKellar, Mr. W. H. Rean, M.R.C.8. ; Honorary Treasurer : Mr. Thomas Glaisyer, 12, North Street ; Honorary Librarian: Mr. D. E. Caush; Honorary Curator: Mr. Benjamin Lomax, F.L.S.; Honorary Secretaries: Mr, Edwd. Alloway Pankhurst, 12, Clifton Road, Mr. Jno. Colbatch Clark, 64, Middle Street.” Dr. O. R. PRANKARD moved, Mr. BARCLAY PHILLIPS seconded, and it was resolved—- “‘That the sincere thanks of the Society be given to the Vice- Presidents, Treasurer, Committee, Hon. Librarian, Hon. Curator, and Hon. Secretaries, for their services during the past year.” Mr. E. J. PETITFoURT moved, Mr. HASELWOOD seconded, and it was resolyed— ‘¢ That the best thanks of the Society be given to Mr. Seymour Burrows, now retiring from the office of President, for his attention to the interests of the Society during the past year.” The meeting was then resolved into an Ordinary Meeting, when Mr. Crane described the Icthyosaurus lately presented to the Museum, and Miss Crane exhibited and made remarks on some heads in baked clay from Mexico, &c. Mr. Lomax exhibited some anomalous rose buds with the petals all green. ‘s.Loppn py ‘dOOMTASVET “Wf ‘MUVIO -) “W ‘g1QYONOA PUB B00G YFIA POULULEXT G G 008F 0 6eI ~ ‘oune WET ‘eInsvery, JO spuvy Ul couvred fe omwconwe rss OOM MmOSCS o onl ~~ ST tI al 6 II GHorEwASS ‘gggt ‘ating 1% nae ane aoe 888T ‘+ giueufed tyes Aipung ‘ eee aoe eee Surpurg yoog “6 Es SoUBANSUT OIL ‘om ‘aatyT quo pure crv Avaqrey * oes cee vee si0de gq 10} Seq ‘ “+ gSurgeoyy 4% 9eHOD pue voy, Jo 480 aduyeoy JO SosucdxW [eUEploUl ToyzO wee pure ‘u10qUe'T uedorpAyy-AxQ ‘wooy jo omy “ oer uoIsinoxiy [enuuy jo osuedag ‘ UINOSNA 9B SPULASTASY OF SOTZINZVI) xe Aueypeg 8,h1ejor009 yuvyeissy ‘ SUOTFMIIOGNG OJ 10900] ]01) 0F WOISSTULULOL) eS Cy ane BOIZOINOG 0} SMOI4dI1osqng ‘* . vee vee sode4s0g “ec ze tS “+ £yquoryeyg pus Suyug ‘ sas ce “+ greorponteg pue syoog Ag "x0 a i ition wee eee eee oe - G 0 6sl Aeansvory, Jo spuey O49 Ut 'yoa0 4qdnorq souLyg G G 000F a eT 4“ 0 Ol ¥ wee ane wee eee ane 800,77 eouvIqugy ac 0 OL 9b ** S8ST ‘1949990 48T OF sUOI4dIIOBqnE [eNULy ae 0 €1 £& oe eee ee wee * 188T *19q0}90 48[ 0} ‘sively puv suoydiuosqng [enuty fe G ZI SIT L8SI ‘oun ‘1oansvory, Jo spuvy O43 Ut soured OF, p's CO "‘SSST foun YUI2ET Buspua woah ay sof zuN0I9P $,40dNsDOLT ‘ALAI90$ TVSTHAOSOTHA ANY AWOLSIH TVUMLYN XHSSNS ANY NOLHDYE ‘I XIGNdddV oe 23 LIBRARIAN’S REPORT. During the year 1887-8, there has been an increase in the _ number of books sent out to the members, also in those used by the general public. The numbers are as follows :—To members, 143 ; to readers at the Free Library, 534. There have been purchased during the year the following books and periodicals : Manual of Bacteriology, Dental Anatomy, Larvz of Brit: Butterflies and Moths (Ray Society), Physiology of Plants, British Oribatide (Ray Society), The Rotifera, Sowerby’s Index of British Shells, Of the International Scientific Series the following have been purchased : Foods, Religion and Science, The Conservation of Energy, The Brain» Money, Language, Descent and Darwinism, The Theory of Sound, The Five Senses of Man. Y The periodicals subscribed to have been as follows: Grevillea, Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine, Entomologist, Zoologist’s Magazine, Science Gossip, Microscopical Magazine, Nature, Studies in Microscopical Science. Several pamphlets have been presented to the Library and ‘Reports of various Scientific Societies. The new catalogue mentioned in the last report has been printed and any member not having received a copy can do so by application to the Hon. Librarian. (Signed) D. E. Causa, Hon. Librarian. 63, Grand Parade. 24 SOCIETIES ASSOCIATED, WITH WHICH THIS SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS, And whose Presidents and Secretaries-are ex-officio Members of the Society :-— Barrow Naturalists’ Field Club. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. Belfast Natural History and Philosophicai Society. Boston Society of Natural Science (Mass., U.S.A.) Cardiff Naturalists’ Society. Chester Society of Natural Science. Chichester and West Sussex Natural History Society. Croydon Microscopical Society. Department of the Interior, Washington, U.S.A. Eastbourne Natural History Society. Edinburgh Geological Society. Epping Forest and county of Essex Naturalist Field Club. Folkestone Natural History Society. Geologists’ Association. Glasgow Natural History Society. Glasgow Society of Field Naturalists. Huddersfield Naturalist Society. Leeds Naturalists’ Club. Lewes and East Sussex Natural History Society. Maidstone and Mid Kent Natural History Society. North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass. U.S.A. Quekett Microscopical Club. Royal Microscopical Society. Royal Society. Smithsonian Institution. Washington, U.S.A. South London Microscopical and Natural History Club. Société Belge de Microscopie, Bruxelles. Tunbridge Wells Natural History and Antiquarian Society Watford Natural History Society. Yorkshire Philosophical Society. LIST OF MEMBERS Bripitton & Sumo Natural History & Philosophical Society, JUNE, 1888. —— 00 Cte N.B.—Members are particularly requested to notify any change of address at once to Mr. J. C. Clark, 64, Middle Street, Brighton. GE OCR ORDINARY MEMBERS. AYLEN, SAMUEL, 85, Western Road, Brighton. AxspeEy, HENRY, Fair Lee Villa, Kemp Town. Brown, J. H., 6, Cambridge Road, Hove. Browne, GEorGE, M.R.C.S., 35, Montpelier Road, Brighton. Bapoock, Lewis C., M.D., M.R.C.S., 38, Buckingham Place, Brighton. Buack, ARTHUR, B. Sc., 40 Buckingham Place, Brighton. Boxat., W. P., J.P., Belle Vue Hall, Kemp Town. BatEAN, H., 15, Alexandra Villas, Brighton. Boor, E., 70, East Street, Brighton. Brinton, Ropr., 208, Middle Street, Brighton. Buaker, T. F. J., M.R.C.S., Wynnstay, Stanford Avenue, Beraston Park. Benson, G. F., 47, Blatchington Road, West Brighton. Baker, J. S., 38, Denmark Villas, West Brighton. _ Bucuet, C., Belvedere Mansion, Brighton. Baer, E.C.,M.B., L.R.C.P., 97, Western Road, Brighton. _ Bosrt, D. T., 18, Duke Street, Brighton. Barrow, G. 8. M., 24, First Avenue, West Brighton. Burrows, W. Srymour, B.A., M.R.C.S., 62, Old Steine, Brighton. 26 BARKER, G. D., 48, Western Road, Brighton. BrANFOOT, H. S., M.B., M.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 42, Norfolk Square, Brighton. BousTEAD, SURGEON-Magsor R., M.D., F.R.C.S. Buvett, G. A., M.D., B.A., 2, Tisbury Road, West Brighton. CLARK, JOHN CoLBATCH, 64, Middle Street, Brighton. Cox, A. H., J.P., 35, Wellington Road, Brighton. Capon, J., 7, Ship Street, Brighton. CorFE, GEo., M.D., M.R.C P., 19, York Villas, Brighton. Campion, F. S., North Gate House, Church Street, Brighton- CausH, D. E., 63, Grand Parade, Brighton. CHAPMAN, E., 34, Upper North Street, Brighton. CLIFTON, LoRD. CoNINGHAM, W. J. C., 6, Lewes Crescent, Kemp Town. CuaRK, F. G., 56, Ship Street, Brighton. CoWELL, SAMUEL, 143, North Street, Brighton. CLARK, SURGEON-GENERAL J. J., M.D., 18, Vernon Terrace, Brighton. | - CoGuuan, J. A., 87, Montpelier Road, Brighton. CoucHMAN, J. E., Down House, Hurstpierpoint. | DENNANT, JOHN, 1, Sillwood Road, Brighton. . Davey, Henry, J.P., 82, Grand Parade, Brighton. DENNET, C. F., 1, St. George’s Place, Brighton. Davis, H. C. 39, St. James’s Street, Brighton. Day, Rev. H. G., M.A., 55, Denmark Villas, West Brighton. DENMAN, SAMUEL, 26, Queen’s Road, Brighton. DAINTREY, C. J., Petworth, Sussex. Dopp, A. H., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 98, Sackville Road, Hove. DowELL, H. A., 46, Hova Villas, West Brighton. Dawson, Dr., 5, Second Avenue, West Brighton. Epmonps, H., B.Sc., Mount Caburn, Ditchling Road, Brighton. EVANS, GEORGE. Ewart, J., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.Z.S., Montpelier Hall, Brighton. Fox, Octavius A., 14, Pavilion Parade, Brighton. v« (i = « = = ee ee ee ee Pi ta 27 FRIEND, D. B., 18, Clermont Terrace, Preston. FRIEND, DANIEL, Stoneleigh, Preston. FisHer, §. WINTER, M.D., M.R.C.S., 136, Marine Parade, Brighton. FREEMAN, C. G. FLETCHER, W. H. B., Fair Lawn House, Worthing. GLAISYER, THos., 96, London Road, Brighton, GLADSTONE, G., 34, Denmark Villas, Hove. GOLDSMID, Sir JULIAN, Bart., M.P., 105, Piccadilly, London. GRAHAM, G., 42, Tisbury Road, Hove. GURNEY, R. H., 25, The Drive, Hove. HADLow, F. V., 8, Prince Albert Street, Brighton. HASELWOOD, J. E., 3, Lennox Place, Brighton. HAMBLIN, E., 20, Park Crescent, Brighton. HAuuert, W. H., D.L., 141, Marine Parade, Brighton. Hart, E. J. T., M.R.C.S., 4, Gloucester Place, Brighton. Horst, H., 149, North Street, Brighton. Hopgs, JAMES, 62, North Street, Brighton. - Hack, D., 15, Market Street, Brighton. Hos, WW. AINSLIE, M.D., F.R.C.P., 8, Cambridge Road, Hove. Ho.per, J. J., 8, Lorne Villas, Preston Park. HAMBLIN, J., Queen’s Hotel, King’s Road, Brighton. Haynss, J. L., 49, Shaftesbury Road, Brighton. HENRIQUES, A. G., F.G.S., 9, Adelaide Crescent, Hove. HaweEs, H., 58, Buckingham Place, Brighton. Harrison, WALTER, D.M.D., 98, Western Road, Brighton, Hopecson, Dr. Hum, A. F., 9, Sackville Road, Hove. _ Howterr, J. W., 6, Brunswick Place, Hove. _ Hupsov, Rev. Rost., M.A., 9, The Drive, Hove. - Hayiar, F., 23, Gloucester Place, Brighton. a INFIELD, H. J., 130, North Street, Brighton. _ JACKSON, W., 60, West Street, Brighton. _ Kinmister, C#ar es, F.R.H.S., 4, West Hill Road, Brighton. 28 Levuiette, L., 18, Buckingham Road, Brighton. Lee, W. R., 8, Norfolk Terrace, Brighton. Lomax, BENJAMIN, F.L.S., C.E., Free Library, Brighton. Lucas, J. E., 15, Wellington Road, Brighton. Lancron, HERBERT, M.R.C.S., 115, Queen’s Road, Brighton. Lockyer, G. R., 16, King Street, Brighton. LEVER, CHARLES, 27, Denmark Villas, Hove. Leica, MARSHALL, 46, Dyke Road, Brighton. MERRIFIELD, F., 24, Vernon Terrace, Brighton. MARSHALL, E. J., 80, Buckingham Road, Brighton. MILLs, P., 103, Western Road, Brighton. MitTcHeELL, W. W., 23, Ditchling Rise, Brighton. MILLARD, W. J. K., M.D., 26, Gay Street, Bath. Mepcatr, E. S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 16, Hova Villas, Hove. Mus, A., 20, St. James’s Street, Brighton. MARCHANT, WILLIAM, 13, Round Hill Crescent, Brighton Merry, W., 40, Marlborough Place, Brighton. Moon, W., LL.D., 104, Queen’s Road, Brighton. McKELLAR, EpwarD, M.D., Woodleigh, Preston. Martin, W. H., 11, Gloucester Place, Brighton. METHLEY, THOMAS, 25, St. Aubyns, Hove. Marrromt, Ricut Hon. Sir W. T., Q.0., M.P., 22, Brunswick square, Hove. McLEAN, R. A., 59, Cromwell Road, Hove. MILEs, Dr. E. J., Rome. Nourse, W. E. C., Bouverie House, Mount Radford, Exeter. Nasu, W. H. Shakespere House, Chatham Place, Brighton. NorMAN, SIMEON, St. John’s Common, Hurstpierpoint. NisBeEtt, A. F., Haddington House, Springfield Road, Brighton. PHILLIPS, BARCLAY, 75, Lansdowne Place, Hove. Pocock, CRAWFORD, J., M.R.C.S., 24, Cannon Place, Brighton. PRATT, HENRY, F.R.A.S., 18, Preston Street, Brighton. PANKHURST, E. A., F'.G.S., 12, Clifton Road, Brighton. Puttick, W., 85, Ditchling Rise, Brighton. PouNDALL, W. L. ; ; | 29 PaRTON, F., 38, Denmark Villas, Hove. PeTiTFouRT, ©. J., B.A., 8, Sudeley Street, Brighton. Posrans, R. B., 57, Montpelier Road, Brighton, Pracey, Rev. T., M.A., The Vicarage, Hove. Price, H, E., M.D., B.Sc., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., 1, Tisbury Road, Hove. PaRIs, GEORGE DE, 5, Denmark Terrace, Brighton. PRANKARD, Dr. O. R., 6, Evelyn Terrace, West Brighton. PRINCE, H., 12, Middle Street, Brighton. Rutter, J., M.D., M.R.C.S., 142, Western Road, Brighton. Ross, J. H., M.D., M.R.C.S., 8, St. George’s Place, Brighton. RyDE, G. W., 44, Sillwood Road, Brighton. RYDE, WALTER. 44, Sillwood Road, Brighton. Rogers, R. S., M R.C.S., 40, Cannon Place, Brighton. Ross, Douenas M., M.B., M.R.C.S., 9, Pavilion Parade _ Brighton. Rean, W. H., M.R.C.S., 36, Vernon Terrace, Brighton. Ros, T., Clarence Hotel, North Street, Brighton. RIvieERE, J. ©. F., 83, St. Aubyns, Hove. Smronps, T. R., 43, Park Crescent, Brighton. Scort, E. E., 31, Russell Square, Brighton. Smitu, C. P., 9, North Street, Brighton. — _ Sawyer, G. D., F.R.M.S., 55, Buckingham Place, Brighton. q SmitH, T., 85, Church Road, Hove. _ Situ, W., 6, Powis Grove, Brighton. §irx, J. P. M., M.R.C.S., 118, Western Road, Brighton. _ Sawyer, F.E., F.S.A., F. R. Met. Soc., 31, Buckingham Place, ighton. _SALZMANN, J. W. M.R.C.S., 18, Montpelier Road, Brighton. ‘ StTREVENS, W. H. 95, Western Road, Brighton. Savace, W. W., 109, St. James’s Street, Brighton. - Suaw, H. V., Fir Croft, Keymer, Sussex. ‘Srepuens, W.J., L.R.C.P., 41, Grand Parade, Brighton. Satmon, E. F. 30, Western Road, Hove. ‘Spona, Rev. A. D., 19, Ventnor Villas, Hove. 30 Tuomas, D., 53, King’s Road, Brighton. TASKER, JAMES, Keymer House, Keymer, Sussex. Tuomas, J., 1, Clevedon Place, Brighton. TUGWELL, THoMAS, 131, Church Road, Hove. Uutnorr, J. C., M.D., F.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., 9, Brunswick Places Hove. Upton, ALFRED, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., Rio Lodge, Brighton. VERRALL, HENRY, 26, Gloucester place, Brighton. VERRALL, HuGH J., 18, Buckingham Place, Brighton. WituetT, Henry, F.G.S., Arnold House, Montpelier Terrace, Brighton. Winter, J. N., M.R.C.S., 28, Montpelier Road, Brighton. WALLIS, MARRIAGE, Springfield, Preston. Woop, J., 21, Old Steine, Brighton. Woop, W. R., 3, Pavilion Buildings, Brighton. Wiuiams, H. M., L.L.B., Walsingham Villa, Aldrington, Sussex. WALLIs, W.C., 15, Market Street, Brighton. : WoopMaN, J., 39, Albany Villas, Brighton. Woon, W. R., Junr., 53, Norfolk Square, Brighton. WILKINSON, T., 168, North Street, Brighton. Woop, FREDERICK, 12, Lewes Crescent, Kemp Town. WesstER, W., 54, Regency Square, Brighton. WALTER, JOHN, 21, York Villas, Brighton. “Wnirtte, E. G., M.D., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., 65, Dyke Road, Brighton. WELLS, C.A. 45, Springfield Road, Brighton. WELLS, Isaac, 4, North Street, Brighton. Wuutiams, Dr. M., 61, Church Road, Hove. ; Woopkrvurfr, G. B., 24, Second Avenue, Hove. WaytTock, E., 36, Western Road, Brighton. : ; HONORARY MEMBERS. BLOOMFIELD, Rev. E. N., Guestling Rectory, Hastings, CuaRKsoN, Rev. G. A., Amberley, Sussex. ee A : 4 31 CurtzIs, T., 244, High Holborn, London. | Davis, Dr. W. JENNER, J. H. A., East Street, Lewes. Latuam, Dr. K. G. Lrg, Henry, 43, Holland Street, Blackfriars Road, London. Mirren, W., Hurstpierpoint, Sussex. Prince, C. L., The Observatory, Crowborough, Sussex. STEVENS, Dr. Norman, C. Uckfield. LADY MEMBERS. BaGueEy, Miss, Windsor College, West Brighton. HERRING, Miss, Windsor College, West Brighton. Woo.iams, Mrs. Henry, 84, Avenue Road, Regent’s Park, N.W. HEAD, Miss M. R., 35, Norfolk Road. Brighton. JERRARD, Mrs., 16 Goldsmid Road, Brighton. LAWRENCE, Miss P., 25, Lewes Crescent, Brizhton. WOOLDRIDGE, Mrs., Effingham Lodge, Withdeane. mf b ore - LX 3 a ae - . Treble eerie iroreer irik irked eeeetlr eiGaGpGeGe —~ ~~~ i f “sg BRIGHTON & SUSSEX = | | Natural History & Philosophical Society. | : "alan | ABSTRACTS or PAPERS § Wee Ie Ie3c4 | READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY popes ears SeaegeoeS l TOGETHER WITH THE ANNUAL REPORT FOR THE my =r F Pod + ay gat Ray sd IL IC WILICIC WILIOIL IAC IIL IC IC IC: Co —~— S- < } YEAR ENDING JUNE 12th, 1889. ~~ *®HE SOUTHERN PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED, 7.” ; 130, NORTH STREET, TELEPHONE No. 52.—(13,334). a a Prey . ee ee ee age yee - es , . : ee te > ve i * y 7 * y a , ; 3 * = a * ‘2 a 23 os : > J : 3 Se toe de Sh ee. > 7 ‘ : c) ; r : , + . . : = - - . ¥ ‘ 7 ea r os -5. << = ‘ See = 5 ee ~H4 oot = a Wa Ss = = = - - ew SF cae : - aubes ‘ 7 ee eee fe See ne nant : . ‘ ’ “aA . - “- . - ~~ = Say ? - er — 4 - ~ a? 4 z i : he & pat 7 —_~ te yea -od =< s = ~~. we gue PST ke Cae SAIS, IP ns SES eS = at ta et ATi tes Wee “} BRIGHTON & SUSSEX + Natural History & Philosophical Society. Sete Het ABSTRACTS or PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETY TOGETHER WITH THE FOR THE 3 YEAR ENDING JUNE 12th, 1889. THE SOUTHERN PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED, 130, NORTH STREET, TELEPHONE No. 52,—(13,334). psn igo % nai r fs 2 wena e to “A, e a4 ge yay = p aaa) ee ’ Ae se! at; ; ieee J vale Phi i a ’ - ; I gee - fal ae ‘ mh ay , . tr ey =) ~ pe r ‘a ended AO. eTIAAT Cab ave Vs aren he | YT? ia AAQVES Qhad re aa : ie one ad a a - 7) f. = iy : gat? er wre sauteapor ety | + 4. ’ a ‘< REre xoOF Je eset St. SMUL enna, Es ¥ y* nat ie ; ss ‘ \ Z | rol aaee a ee A Pell af eo pb) * yas ', . a ? ky: 4 mM 2 "3 be 4 2 bor a ah , ¥ | on ee ie ty > moka” ‘ os eset “renew Srctheneest ro ait ; : Aaet— 28 DK geaars® - TALL, amon OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. 1889-1890. President : Mr. GEORGE DE Paris. Vicc=Presidents : } (Rule 20.) Mr. F. MErRRIFIELD. Dr. J. Ewart. Mr. G. D. SAwYeEr. Mr. Seymour Burrows. Rev. H. G. Day. Mr. J. E. HAsetwoop. Dr. W. Arnsuiz Hottis. Ordinary Members of Council : (Rule 18.) Mr. E. J. T. Harr. Mr. W. H. Rean. Dr. McKewuar. Mr. H. Laneron. Surcron-Gen. J. J. CLARKE, Mr. JoHn WALTER. M.D. honorary Treasurer : Mr. Tuomas GuaisyER, 12, North Street. Honorary Librarian : onorary Curator: Mr. D. E. Causa. Mr. Bensamin Lomax. honorary Secretaries : Mr. Epwp. AttowAy PanxuHorst, 12, Clifton Road. Mr. Jno. ConpatcH Cuarx, 64, Middle Street. WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 10th, 188s. INAUGURAL ADDRESS. TWENTY YEARS OF THE SOCIETY'S HISTORY. Mr. J. E. HASLEWOOD, President. Tradition says that the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society took its rise from a conversation between four gentlemen in- terested in Natural History during a ride in a fly from Lewes to Brighton some time in the year 1854. Unfortunately, I have not been able to see a copy of the first rules, but the idea of the founders seems to have been to establish a kind of semi-private Society, wherein gentlemen interested in Natural History could meet together, read, and discuss papers bearing upon their favourite studies, and more particularly carry on discussions, and so increase their pleasure in and add to their knowledge of the various subjects dealt with by the Society. It would seem that they in no way sought publicity, whilst, at the same time, they must have taken a lively interest in the matter, inasmuch as they obtained 74 members dnring their first year. Their first President was our dear old friend, Mr. Hollis, who has so recently passed away from us. The only gentlemen who then held office and who are now living, are Mr. Simonds (Treasurer), and Messrs. G. de Paris and Barclay Phillips (members of the Committee). The Society commenced the annual excursion during its first year, which excursion was to Ardingly Rocks, and it is worthy of note that it produced two papers, one from Mr. Hollis on the Geological Features of Ardingly, and the other from Mr. A. Wallis on the Flora of the Ardingly district. The Society started vigorously, as ten original papers were read during its first year, besides having many zoological, geological, botanical, and microscopical specimens exhibited at its monthly meetings. Then as now the finances were carefully looked after, and out of a total income of £37 for the year, a balance of £13 4s. 4d. was carried forward tothe next year. It is not my intention to trace the early history of the Society any further. It would seem to have gone on quietly and prosperously, so quietly that strangers coming to the town heard of it by accident. I came to Brighton in October, 1864, but I had been here four years before I heard of the existence of the Society, and then it was by an accident. I was elected a member of your honourable Society on the 12th November, 1868. Our present Treasurer was then its President, and I well remember the pleasant impression given me at the first meeting I attended by the bright looks and courteous manners of the President. ‘Mr. J. Colbatch Clark was then occupying the same office he now holds, and which he so ably filled during all ‘the intervening period, I well : 6 remember the paper read on that evening ; it was by our late friend, Mr. Peek, and of course about a fish. It was the custom then to enter upon the minutes the names of those who attended the meetings, and of the seventeen who were present on that evening I believe only five are now living. The first impression I got of the Society turned out to be a correct one, namely, that it was composed mainly of gentlemen who, although busily employed in the various occupations of life, had a great love for the investigation of some one or other branch of Natural History, and were desirous as far as they were able to cultivate the study, but whoat the same time felt that their knowledge was of such a kind that it was wiser and better that they should confine their utterances to the comparative privacy of the Society rather than pose before the town as authorities in their particular studies. The Society was in a very active and healthy state during the first year of my membership ; seven papers were read, two of which were written by our friend, Mr. C. P. Smith. The remaining writers have passed away. Amongst them appears the late Mr. Robertson, a gentleman whom many of you will remember as one who, whilst he worked steadily for the Society, was, somehow or other, always in difference. He was a most useful member because he so often had objections and was accustomed to state them in remarkably strong language, and yet with it all he was a genuine favourite. One of the papers was by our late friend, Mr. Wonfor, and was the first, I believe, in which he intro- duced his theory that the male in Lepidoptera had scales, unlike the females. Many of youare aware that he worked upon that subject for many years, and he claimed to have established the theory as a fact, and as one of his most important works in Natural History. Besides the papers read there were the usual field excursions, which appear to have been somewhat thinly attended, and we also had our annual excursion to Rotherfield and Crowborough, dining at Uckfield. It was during this year that the question arose as to the earliest age at which persons should be admitted members of the Society. The matter was settled then by fixing the time at 20 years. There was, however, a numerous party who thought the age too high, and who wished to encourage youths to join us, and in a few years (1871) the age was lowered to 17. Newrules were framed during this year, and they have formed the basis of all subsequent rules until we come to those adopted last year. In all the various rules the management of the Society has been entrusted to the Committee, and although some of our more democratic friends may think this somewhat narrow, there is no doubt in my own mind that the affairs of the Society have been managed much better in this way than they would have been bya more popular mode. During this year (1869) out ‘of a gross income of £53 10s. 8d., the large sum of £29 5s. was spent in new books and periodicals. At that time avery useful practice prevailed ; the current periodicals were placed upon the table on the usual monthly nights, and we each had an opportunity of looking over their tables of contents and seeing whether there was any subject which we wished particularly to read about. es "eed 7 A New DEPARTURE IN THE SOCIETY. In the next year a new departure was taken. Our friend, Mr. ‘Wonfor, secured much fuller abstracts of the papers read ; the annua! -report was enlarged ; and these abstracts were published in it, and from thema very fair idea can be gathered of their modes of treat- ment of their subjects by the various lecturers. It will interest our friend, Mr. Rean, to know that during this year our late esteemed ‘friend, Dr. Hallifax, gave us a paper, entitled, “On the Vertebrate and Invertebrate Eye compared,” and which was, as were all the Doctor’s papers, most able. Amongst the lecturers was one to whom we always listened with wrapt attention. I allude to Mr. Clifton Ward, afriend of the late Mr. Hennah, and through whose influence, I believe, we were indebted for several most valuable papers from Mr. Ward. The latter gentleman was on the Geological Survey, and was occupied principally in the Lake District. He was a master in his department. Without any written paper, by the aid of clever diagrams, he would make the dullest intellect understand the subject he was dealing with. At this time the late Mr. Gwatkin was our honorary librarian, and a special vote of thanks was _ passed ‘to him for the accommodation afforded by him keeping the books at his house, and by the great facilities allowed to the members of being able at any time to procure them. And well ihe deserved such a vote. Many of you will remember that cupboard iin the back part of his shop, where our slender Library was then kept, and you will remember still more vividly the pleasant smile with which your application for a book or a periodical would be met, and how our late friend would leave his business occupations to assist us in finding what was wanting. On the 10th March, 1870, an event took place which was exceedingly ‘interesting to me. On that evening it was decided to form a Micro- scopic Section. Previously to this time microscopic subjects had from time to time been brought before the members at the usual monthly meetings. It was found, however, that in consequence of the numbers taking an interest in microscopic work having increased, the monthly meetings did not afford sufficient scope for them, and it was decided that a monthly meeting should be held for the special purpose -of dealing with microscopic subjects. For many years that section flourished. Messrs. Wonfor, Hallifax, and Hennah were the life and soul of it. I have a very pleasant recollection of our numerous meetings, and of the varied information I obtained at them, and more ‘particularly those very instructive and useful evenings in which one or other of the gentlemen I have named would give us a lesson in the use of methods of illumination, the making of cells, and the various methods of mounting objects. Very full and careful regulations were formulated for the conduct of this Microscopic Section The papers were limited to twenty minutes, so as to allow plenty of ‘time for the examination of objects. A cabinet for objects was ordered, a custodian appointed, and strict regulations laid down as to the borrowing, use of, and damage to slides. Whenever we revive the Microscopic Section, and I hope we shall soon do so, we cannot do ‘better than refer to these old regulations, from which we shall 8 gain useful hints for the good working of the Section. A the same meeting a_ resolution was passed, whereby it was recommended that members should assist the Secretaries with notes of objects shewn, and abstracts of papers read, so that a full and accurate record of the work done in the Society might be preserved. Of late years we have availed ourselves of the assistance of the Press, and so have not required so much attention to this recommendation ; but now that we have again reverted to the old plan of dispensing with the services of the Press, it will be as well that members should have the necessity for some such assistance to the Secretaries brought to their minds, for it 7s of importance that a full and accurate record of the work done in the Society should be preserved. I have been astonished in going over the reports and minutes for the purposes of this paper to findso valuable a mine of all kinds of information stored up in its records. Tue INTRODUCTION OF SOIREES. On the 11th January, 1872, a great event took place, namely, the first attempt of the Society to give an invitation soirée. It was held in the Board-room of the Dispensary, and proved most successful, about 200 members and friends attending it. One great feature of it was that nearly all the objects contributed were illustrative of papers read before the Society during the previous year. These soirées were continued for many years, and have only lately been discontinued. In April, 1872, we decided to subscribe for the daily weather reports from the Meteorological Office, and that subscription has been kept up to the present time. Visit or British ASsocIATION TO BRIGHTON. In August, 1872, the officers of the Society were in a great state of excitement. The British Association visited Brighton, and the Natural History Society was, asa matter of course, expected to render great assistance to the town in entertaining the members and associates of the Institution. The Natural History Society was asked to furnish microscopes for the two soirées given by the Association, and, thanks to the energy of Mr. Wonfor, about 50 microscopes were got together, and two most interesting series of objects were exbibited. Dr. Badcock specially taking considerable trouble to get together numerous living objects. We all remember how admirably Mr. B. Lomax managed the exhibition of the living Flora. I think the efforts of the Society on that occasion were fully recognised by the town authorities, and, so farasI remember, that was the only, or at least the chie occasion on which the Society has been able to render efficient assistant on a great public occasion. In the following October another great move was made. The Committee decided to ask the Corporation to accommodate us in this building. We were met in the most courteous and liberal spirit by the Town Council, and ultimately it was arranged that we should be allowed the use of this noble room for all our meetings upon condition that we allowed the public the use of our books in the Library for reading in the building only. This arrangement has con- tinued until now, and with equal benefit to the Society, and to the public. We get the use free of cost of a very suitable room, and the public get the benefit of the use of our exceedingly 9 valuable Library, one which is yearly increasing in value, and where can be obtained scientific books which cannot be had elsewhere in the town. At the time I joined the Society, and, I believe, from its commencement, tea and coffee at the close of the meetings formed an important part of the programme, but in April, 1874, owing, I believe, to some difficulties experienced in the supply, these important adjuncts were discontinued. As you are aware they have recently been revived ; they certainly give opportunities for friendly chat over the evening’s proceedings, but seeing that we nearly all live within ten minutes’ walk of our room I am not quite sure that the Society does well to incur the expenses incident to this mode of refreshment. THe Late Mr. Wownror. Nothing of interest occurred during the next few years until we come to the year 1878, when by the death of Mr. Wonfor the Society suffered the greatest loss it ever sustained. At a meeting of the Society held on the 14th November, 1878, the following resolution was passed: “The members of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society desire to record their deep sympathy with and sorrow for the Widow and Son of the late Mr. T. W. Wonfor in the sad bereavement they have sustained. And also to record their feeling of gratitude for and appreciation of the untiring zeal with which the late Mr Wonfor worked for the welfare of the Society as one of its Honorary Secretaries for so many years, and particularly the cheerful readiness with which at all times he assisted each and all of the members who sought his aid on scientific subjects.” However varied the opinions of men might be as to Mr. Wonfor’s scientific abilities there was no difference of opinion whatever as to his character. By universal consent he was held to be a most amiable and loveable man, one whom it was a great pleasure to possess as a friend, and one who dearly loved this Society, and in the interests of which much of the energy of his life was spent. To me personally he was a great loss. I always found him ready to assist me in my diff- culties, and possessing as he did a knowledge of Natural History far and away beyond any that I had, I often had recourse to his skill, and shall ever feel grateful for the kindly manner in which his assistance was always rendered, and I am sure all those members of the Society who had the privilege of intercourse with Mr. Wonfor will say that the resolution passed by the Society at his death, strongly worded as it is, was none too strong for the occasion. On the 13th March, 1879, the then President of the Society, Mr Mayall, presented to the Society the very fine portrait of Mr Wonfor which now adorns our room, and which, by its vivid life-likeness, so often carries the thoughts of many of us back to the good old times when he lived and moved amongst us. For some years the Microscopical Section flourished, but gradually and principally through the loss of the older microscopists it dwindled down, until in October, 1880, it was decided to discontinue it. Again after a short time, it was revived with renewed energy, but that in its turn became exhausted, and in September, 1885, it was again dis- continued. Since then another resuscitation has taken place, but the life was even shorter, and at the present time we are without a Micro- scopic Section. 10 CHANGES IN Recent YEARS. The Society worked on in the even tenor of its way for years afte the death of Mr. Wonfor. Our friend, Mr. Lomax, undertook the duties of Scientific Secretary, and continued to fulfil them until the pressure of other work prevented his being able to give that attention to the duties of the office which their importance demanded, and he was obliged to resign, the Society appointing Mr. Pankhurst in his place on the 14th January, 1886, and the latter gentleman, not feeling satisfied with the working and condition of the Society, gave us such a shaking up as we have not had for years past, and we now stand before the public as the Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society. Owing to the energy of our new Scientific Secretary we have enrolled a large contingent of members in the town of Hove, and there has been a kind of understanding that the Society should endeavour, as far as_ possible, to deliver papers atthe Hove Town Hall, in the room which the Chairman of Commissioners, Mr. J. W. Howlett, has so kindly placed at our disposal. It will be the duty of your Council to see that this understanding is loyally carried out, and I venture to hope that some of our new members at Hove will assist us in this matter by pre- paring papers which cannot only be read at Hove, but also at our place of meeting here, especially as the scope of the Society has been enlarged so as to let in almost all subjects of general interest except controversial theology and politics. I cannot refrain from calling your attention to the very valuable and continuous services rendered to this Society by Mr. J. Colbatch Clark. During the whole of the period over which Ihave been running Mr. Clark has acted as our Business Secretary, aad how well and faithfully he has discharged his duties our reports will show. He has kept all our business affairs in perfect order, and, best of all, has not only not allowed us to get into debt, but has husbanded a nice little balance for us to enable us to meet any little needs which the Society is not unlikely to have. It is a pleasure to remember that these services have not been altogether unrecognised by the Society, for on the 8th February, 1872, it did itself the honour of presenting to Mr. Clark, through the late Mr. Hollis, its then President, a clock. In making the presentation the President laid particular stress upon the fact that Mr. Clark had for so many years then past, made such admirable arrangements for the annual excursions, and which had afforded very great satisfaction to all who had attended them. The clock bore an inscription stating that it had been presented by the members as a mark of their esteem and of their gratitude for Mr. Clark’s services. I have extracted from the reports the titles of all the papers that have been read before the Society during the last 20 years, and I find that they amount to she very respectable number of 189. Out of these geology takes the first place, there having been 38 papers on geological subjects ; next comes botany with 32, microscopy 15, and anatomy 11. Then follows a descending scale, dealing with various subjects in Natural History. Of these papers the late Mr. Wonfor contributed 35,and when it is remembered that his life only covered half the period with which I am dealing it will be seen how laboriously Mr. Wonfor worked rs 11 for the Society. Whenever a lecturer failed Mr. Wonfor always had something ready with which to instruct us. The next highest figure is that of Mr. Pankhurst’s, numbering 12; then Messrs. Lomax, F. E. Sawyer, and Dr. Hallifax, 11 each ; the late Mr. Hennah, 7 ; and so we go on descending until we come to the number ones, of whom there are 31, amongst whom I am sorry to say my own name is to be found. In looking over the records of these papers I have been astonished to find what a vast amount of in- formation they contain; ’tis true that the record varies very much. At times we have broken into fits of generosity and the substance of papers have been printed in our reports, but usually the record is meagre, and not at all what it should be for such valuable productions, and I hope a way may yet be devised so that, without incurring un- reasonable expenses, a full record of the papers read by the members may be kept. Of course the papers vary in value and interest, but it would be invidious to attempt to specialise any of them. One cannot, however, look with anything but deep interest on the productions of such men as Dr. Hallifax, and Messrs. Wonfor, Hennah, Scott, Robert- son, Howell, and others. There used to be one feature of our annual and field excursions that should not be forgotten. I refer to the very valuable sketches which our dear old friend, the late Mr Penley, used to produce for our portfolio, and which now bring back to-us many scenes and circumstances which would otherwise have been forgotten. Other artists, too, used to help in this pleasant work, but they all seem to have died out or left us. I think it is a long time since we had any such sketch. The Society’s library has gradually become a most valuable and important one ; from those small beginnings when a cupboard in Mr. Gwatkin’s shop was sufficient to hold them, it has grown to be the finest scientific library in Brighton, and it has been made doubly useful by. the excellent catalogue which the Library Committee has recently got out. Tam glad that these books are made useful to the public at large. Indeed, I am told that the public make more use of our library than our members do themselves.. Our microscopic cabinets, too, are now well furnished, and I hope that we shall be able to carry out some arrange- ment for the use of the slides by the members. From time to time the Society has attempted great things, such as laying. down schemes for an examination of the fauna and flora of the County of Sussex, and the appointment of Sectional Committees for that purpose, and also the delivery of popular lectures to the public on scientific subjects. I am. very sorry to be obliged to come to the conclusion that we are not strong enough for these things. For the most part we are composed of busy men, who take up science as a recreation and ‘who have not the time, and few have, the ability to deal with such matters. It may seem alame conclusion, and I do not like it myself, but a long experience of this Society has convinced me that until a younger and more energetic class of members joins us we cannot do more than go on in our old-fashioned ways, and we must content yourselves as best we can in so doing. I have often thought we ought to make something more of our annual and field excursions so far as science is concerned. They did so in the early stages of the 12 Society, but I fear very much that there are not sufficient of us to undertake the work involved, and I am still more doubtful whether those who accompany us on such excursions would appreciate any such efforts. They have come to the pleasure excursions merely, and I fear they must remain so. I cannot help hoping that we may again revive our microscopic meetings, and that we may be able to put them on such a basis that they may not again become the ephemeral things they have been in the past. I know there are many diffi- culties in the way. I give place to no one in my love for microscopic work and studies, but I know how it was when I was practising my profession—no time was given me for any but the most desultory work, and as it was in me, so it is now in the large number of those who would otherwise gladly work at the microscope. Our soirées, too, have dropped out of our programme. I hope to see them revived, not, however, as annual things. It is quite impossible year after year to bring together sufficient new material to interest a large audience, and whenever they are renewed I hope it will be under conditions which will make them pay their way instead of being a heavy burden upon the Society’s finances. Their renewal will rest mainly with the members. As soon as they will bestir themselves and hunt up objects of interest for exhibition and take a considerable share in the work of preparation the thing can be done. Our Secretaries must not be left to do the whole of the work. I would venture to suggest that those members who are anxious to revive our soirées should form themselves into a Committee, and see what they can doin the way of obtaining scientific novelties for exhibition, and generally in getting up an interesting evening, and particularly in stirring up our own members to attend, and also to assist in interesting onr visitors. By some such means as these we may hope to gather in new recruits, especially among the young, and so increase our pleasure in and the usefulness of our Society. Tue BENEFITS OF THE SOCIETY. Some of you may ask, well, what has the Society really done during the last twenty years? I can only speak for myself. To me it has been invaluable. Its meetings have been sources of unalloyed plea- sures, one has constantiy met with kind friends and courteous helpers ; ignorance has been removed; narrow conceptions have been broadened ; the reasoning powers have been cultivated and strengthened ; and one has got nearer to the heart of that great mystery which Nature presents to the thoughtful man. It may seem odd to many of you, but I have no hesitation in saying that I have been a much wiser and better lawyer by reason of my having been a member of your Society than I should have been without such membership. I take it thatI have been a fair average member, and what it has been to me ithas been to most others who have interested themselves in its work. The memories of the pleasant intercourse which one has had with men like the late members, Hollis Hallifax, Hennah, Wonfor, and others, is an abiding influence for good. Thanks be we have numbers of such men still amongst us, and the heart must be hard indeed that does not feel a thrill of pleasure in still being able to meet and discuss matters relating to Natural 13 History with such men. As to our future I cannot say much. I am no believer in spasmodic efforts. I think things grow naturally. As _ soon as you begin to force them they may apparently flourish for a time, but they soon become weak and feeble. I am a firm believer __ in the progress of science, and I also believe, unhealthy as the soil is, _ that it will grow in Brighton, and I am sure that in due course, by _ watching its opportunities and doing all it can to bring its influence _ to bear upon the public, this Society can, and will do much to further { the study of Natural History, and, if you will, philosophy, in this _ town. And as in the present so in the future. Many who have had _ the benefit of its influence and its teachings will rise up, as I do this _ evening, to express gratitude and thanks for the many social and _ intellectual advantages arising from being a member of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society. NOVEMBER 28rd, 1888. DINNER OF THE BRIGHTON AND _ SUSSEX NATURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. During the thirty-five years of its existence, many pleasurable gatherings have taken place in connection with the Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society, but never until this evening had a banquet organised within the Society been held. Of course dinners had been held on the occasion of rural excursions, but the members of the Society had never met together in Brighton | for the one purpose of dining together and spending a social evening. | The idea, with whomsoever it may have originated, was a happy one, | as a more effective method of making members realise that they belonged to a Society, and of inducing them to take a deeper interest init, could hardly be imagined. Happily conceived the idea was successfully put into execution. The banquet was held at Markwell’s Hotel, and here was found a room of just sufficient size to comfortably accommodate the members who had expressed their intention of attending, and three or four guests who had presumably been invited on account of the distinguished position which they hold in the town or the sister town of Hove. The company was not large. It con- sisted of perhaps not more than a quarter of the total number of two hundred members enrolled in the Society, but it included ny of the most active members and of those who most ularly attend the business meetings. As President of the Society, Mr. J. E. Haselwood occupied the chair, and he was supported 14 on his immediate right by his Worship the Mayor of Brighton (Alderman Sendall), the Chairman of the Hove Commissioners (Mr. W. J. Howlett), Mr. F. Merrifield (the Clerk of the Peace for Sussex), and Mr. ©. A. Woolley (the Town Clerk of Hove), and on his immediate left by Mr. Seymour Burrows (the ex-President of the Society), Alderman Cox, Alderman Davey, and Mr. G. D. Sawyer, while at the ends of the table, facing one another, sat the Hon. Secretaries of the Society, Mr. J. Colbatch Clark and Mr. E. A. Pank- hurst. Among others present were Dr. Badcock, Mr. J. Dennant, Dr. Ewart, Mr. Daniel Friend, Mr. D. B. Friend, Mr. A. G. Henriques, Mr. Aleck Hill, Mr. Marshall Leigh, Mr. C. Lever, Mr. B. Lomax, Dr. McKellar, Mr. G. de Paris, Mr. Henry Prince, Mr. Petitfourt, Mr. W.-H. Rean, Mr. Rogers, Mr. H. Shaw, Mr. W. Smith, Mr. Thomas Smith, Mr. J. Thomas, Dr. Whittle, Mr. John Wood, Mr. Walter, and Mr. Isaac Wells. The company, indeed, was of a very convenient size, large enough to give the gathering importance and make the proceed- ings interesting, but sufficiently small to make it sociable. Good management everywhere prevailed, and thus the evening passed in an exceptionally pleasant manner. A recherché repast was served soon after seven o’clock, and two hours having been occupied in dining, a few toasts were submitted. In this respect the Society set an example which might well be followed at similar meetings. The toasts were only five in number, but they were exceedingly appropriate, and were dealt with in a brief and interesting style. The speeches, to use the President's own expression, shewed a happy combination of *‘sense” — and “nonsense,” though in the place of the latter word might very well be substituted that of “‘ humour.” The President himself struck the key-note in a few introductory remarks which he made, after due honour had been done to the toast of “The Queen.” The success of the gathering, he first explained, was due, in a great measure, to the ex-President, Mr. Seymour Burrows, and to their two worthy Hon. Secretaries, Mr. Pankhurst and Mr, Clark, and then he went on to enumerate the toasts, as, being obliged to indulge in small economies, they had not been able to provide a toast-list. This little duty over, he expressed the pleasure it gave them to welcome the Mayor and the Chairman of the Hove Com- missioners, who, he remarked, was practically Mayor of Hove, and assured those who might think that they had made a false move in holding the dinner that there was no danger of lovers of Natural History becoming gluttons. He maintained that they wanted their social qualities educated quite as much as other qualities, and meetings of that kind tended very much in that direction. They knew what a disagreeable animal an unsociable man was, and if they did not cultivate sociality they would become unsocial, for qualities not used after a time became lost. Having assured the company that he was not going to inflict them with a long speech, Mr. Haselwood in a humorous way, re- minded them that sometimes in their discussions they had tried to . picture their Jast man on the face of the earth, and in the same strain proceeded to argue that man was gradually going, and to give an idea of what he might be expected to develope into. Amid laughter, he Sa 15 remarked that man was certainly losing his hair, and, in the course of further observations, stated, that according to certain authorities, the man of th efuture would lose his teeth, his ribs, and his toes. The result. of the loss of the last-named members of the body, the speaker remarked | amid laughter, would be that man would develope the hoof. He then proposed “ The health of the Mayor,” pointing out to the Chief Magistrate how much there were in natural history which would be useful to him in his profession, and, having described the amicable relations which had always existed between the Society and the Town Council, paid a tribute to the personal worth of the Mayor, and assured him that he had the sympathy of the members of the Natural History Society, and might rely upon their support in conducting the business of the town.—The Mayor was very short in his remarks, but. he happily expressed himself in acknowledging the words of Mr. Haselwood and the hearty reception of the toast. Alderman Cox, in proposing “the health of the Chairman of the Hove Commissioners,” thonght it most suitable that the toast should follow closely that of the Mayor of Brighton, for he had always found that Mr. Howlett took almost as much interest in the prosperity of Brighton as of Hove. He said that he entertained some fear lest the President should have applied his argument of the decadence of man to the Brighton Town Council, and expressed himself a believer in evolution rather than in decadence. Connecting this thought with natural history, he laid stress upon the value of pursuing its study, inasmuch as it taught people to think. Mr. Howlett, who announced to the company that the President and he hailed from the same county by addressing him as a “brother Norfolk dumpling,” likened himself to the Mayor m being like a fish out of water in the presence of such a learned body. He assured the members of the Society that he would assist them in every way he could, and invited them to visit Hove more often than they had hitherto done. Mr. G. D. Sawyer was the next speaker, and he gave the toast of “‘ Prosperity to the Society.” He claimed the Society were useful in many ways, and not least in providing recreation for its members, especially professional men, whose business brought them worry and care. But, above that, it was a means of inducing to study, and he thought it was fully entitled to be considered a learned Society. The toast was duly honoured, but no one responded on behalf of the Society. Almost all present being members, it would, perhaps, have been hardly the thing. The next speech was perhaps the neatest of the evening, and it was eloquently expressed. Mr. F. Merritield was the speaker, and he submitted the toast of ‘“ Literature, Art, and Science,” He explained the connection between the three, and again their connection with the Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society. It was pleasant, he remarked, to couple the three together—Literature, the heir of so lengthened and glorious a past ; Science, with the pro- mise of so brilliant and beneficent a future ; and Art, which he sup- posed might be described as superior to time altogether. He coupled a the toast the names of Mr, Henriques, Dr. Ewart, and Mr. de aris. 16 Mr. Henriques, limiting himself to two portions of the wide term literature, namely history and fiction, regretted that history was not more truthful, and expressed his opinion that the prospects of literature were of the very brightest. Dr. Ewart reminded the company of the great progress science in all departments had made during the last generation, and, speaking more particularly with regard to medical science, looked forward to great triumphs in the direction not only of curing disease but of preventing it. Mr. De Paris, whom the Chairman introduced as one of the founders of the Society, would not regard art as the least of the three, “Literature, Science, and Art,” though it was placed last, and shewed the use of art in the study of Natural History. The Mayor then proposed “The health of the President,” and the toast having been heartily drunk, the Chairman responded in appropriate terms. Between the toasts the Orpheus Glee Union rendered some glees in capital style. WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER [/4th. COLOUR BLINDNESS. Mr. W. H. REAN, M.R.C.S. The questions involved in colour-blindness are not only of interest to the scientist and the physician, but also to the student of social life ; for what vast issues may depend on the power to discriminate rightly the fundamental colour of the spectrum. The signalmen on our railways as well as our sailors have thousands of lives constantly dependent on their due appreciation of the difference between red and green. The subject may be conveniently treated under three heads : 1st : Light and colour in themselves, and theories respecting them. 2nd : The nervous sense within the brain by which they are distin- guished, and 3rd : Means of testing individual faculties by which colour is perceived. : Ist : Taking the generally accepted undulatory theory of light as the true one, light is due to an infinitely rapid vibratory motion communi- cated to the ether and propagated in spherical waves. These trans- mitted to the retina call forth the sensation of vision. Newton discovered that a ray of white light may be broken up by a prism into a series of colours. To this band he gave the name of “spectrum.” It was long considered that red, yellow, and blue were the primary colours of this spectrum, but of late years the most distinguished physicists have pronounced for red, green, and violet. 17 2nd: The instrument of vision—the eye. Of its different parts the retina is the most important of the subject of the paper. Itisa delicate transparent membrane containing the terminal organs of the optic nerve. Under a powerful microscope no less than ten layers may be detected in a section of it. Of these the layer of rods and cones is the most important. It is through these rods and cones that it is supe posed the vibrations of the luminiferous ether are transformed into those molecular movements which, transmitted to the brain, give us the sensation of light. It isa curious fact that that portion of the brain which is connected by the optic nerve with the retina is incapable of receiving other sensation but that of light. Speaking generally our colour-vision is defective insomuch that there are vibrations outside the red and violet which do not, under ordinary circumstances, affect the retina. Again, there are individuals who can perfectly distinguish between gradations of light and shade, and yet are quite incapable of distinguishing not only between gradations of certain cotours, but even colours themselves. It is impossible to say whether Helmholz’s theory is the true solution of this difficult problem. This defect of colour vision is often congenital. It is more prevalent than is generally supposed. Prof. Dowden found that, out of 2,300 railway employés, 6°6 per cent. were colour blind. Dr. Jefferies, of New York, found that out of 10,387 persons 4:149 per cent. were so. Out of 1,000 persons personally examined the result was 5°3. The general average is about 4 per cent. Colour blindness may sometimes be due to defective education of the colour sense. Persons may be either unable to distinguish any colours, every object appearing white, black, or grey, or they may be blind to all red rays—the most common form—or to all green rays ; or, lastly, to all violet rays. A red-blind person would distinguish the difference between red and green only by one being brighter than the other. 3rd : As to the tests by which this defect of vision may be de- tected. Coloured lights have been suggested, but there are objections to them. The method generally adopted is by a series of wools specially dyed for the purpose, and arranged in a certain order. To the green-blind, for instance, red and violet produce the sensation of white or grey. Purple, being composed of red and blue (or purple) is, to the colour blind, identical with blue. A red-blind person will match a bright red with a green, the only distinction between them being a little difference in brightness, But then it must be remembered that he will call the red accurately crim- ‘son or scarlet, as the case may be, though the word he uses conveys to him only the impression of another shade of green. Thus, hundreds of. persons live and die in entire ignorance ot their peculiar want of per- ception, and even those with whom they are mos. familiar are as ignorant of this defect of vision in them as they are themselves. 18 WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 9th. THE NECTARIES OF FLOWERS. ° Mr B. LOMAX, F.L.C. The somewhat miscellaneous collection of organs which are known by the convenient name of nectaries have lately assumed an importance which was not recognised by the older botanists. A hundred years ago it was an accepted axiom of Natural History that all things were created for the especial use of man, and that every organ, or modifi- cation of an organ, had a direct relation to his sustenance or comfort. When, therefore, it was discovered that certain appendages to crucifer- ous flowers had the power of secreting honey, and were on that account visited by bees, it was at once assumed that they were of no use to the flower, but were added for the express purpose of supplying man with a delicate and nutritious article of food. Modern research has changed all this. We know now that the nectary plays a very important part in the life history of the flower, and that the visits of insects are Nature’s means of securing to a large section of the Vegetable Kingdom the advantage of cross-fertilization. To a large section, but to a section only. Many plants are fertilised by the wind alone. The grasses and the catkin-bearing trees have no: nectaries. Producing enormous quantities of pollen, in anthers lightly suspended and protruded from the flower, the stimulating granules are borne in clouds upon the summer breezes, and the pistils with their large feathery stigmas catch them as they pass. The possession of a nectary is a proof that the flower in which it occurs is insect fertilised, but many plants without nectaries also de- pend upon the visits of insects. The honey bee, and many other Hymenopterous insects use pollen for food, and anyone watching a hive in summer may notice the workers carrying in large quantities of this material packed in balls upon their hind legs. Many plants depend upon the pollen itself to induce insects to visit them, and such flowers have pollen of a brilliant colour and in considerable quantity. The form of nectary which first attracted the attention of botanists was that of the wallflower. In this, as in otber cruciferous plants, there are four long stamens arranged in a square, and two stamens curled outwards at the base so as to appear shorter. This bulging, which is necessarily shared by two of the sepals, is caused by the presence of four small green organs which, from their position, were supposed to be aborted stamens. It seems, however, more in accordance with recent enquiry to look upon them as glands, projecting from a glandiferous membrane lining the whole surface of the receptacle. Adopting this view, we find perhaps the simplest form of nectary in the campanula. Here no special glands are produced, but the whole surface produces nectar, which flows into the angle formed by the calyx and ovary, and there coilects for the use of the insects, who cannot possibly reach it without brushing against the overhanging stamens, In the Marvel of Peru, Stephanotis, and Jessamine, this portion of the 19 plant is prolonged into a narrow tube, obliging the insect to walk over the petals, and so displace the anthers of the epipetalous stamens. In the Mignonette, the glandular surface is raised into a high ridge, which is nectariferous, and the polyadelphous stameus inarch over it, their bright orange colour directing attention to that particular spot. In the majority of nectariferous flowers the nectary is at the base of the petal. The genesis of these nectaries is well shewn in a few closely allied plants belonging to the Ranunculuceze. The Adonis has a spot, not in the slightest degree nectariferous, just above the claw. In the common buttercup this becomes a hollow, covered by a thin scale. In the hellebore the hollow is so much deepened that the whole petal becomes a tube. In the Myosurus the hollow extends down the claw itself. In the other orders we find further developments. Thus the Berberry has two nectar glands at the base of each petal. In the fritillary the hollow of the buttercup is lengthened laterally into a furrow; while the hollow petal of hellebore extends into the long spurs of the Tropzolum, Columbine, aud Honeysuckle. The separate glands of the Crucifere are repeated in many other flowers with variable numbers. The Parnassia has branched scales at the base of the petals, with nectaries on each branch; and the Violet has nectaries projecting from its stamens. The students in search of nectaries should choose a hot summer’s afternoon, when the honey-like scent of the hedgerows shews that the nectariferous glands are secreting copiously. Mindful of the require- ments of insects he should direct his attention to such flowers as have bright colours or rich fragrance, and wherever petals are marked with veins, stripes, or deep notches he may expect these guides to lead him, as they doubtless do the insects, to the concealed storehouse of insects. During his investigations he will be able to discover the con- trivances, scarcely similar in any two species, whereby the inseet, in gratifying his own appetite, is made to serve the life-purpose of the flower, and thus will be able to form a judgment on the larger question of which this is but a small part—the relation of insects to flowers. 20 WEDNESDAY, MARCH 13th, 1889. THE ORIGIN OF SPEECH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE. Miss AGNES CRANE. The question of the origin of speech, which is, in a measure, distinct from that of the subsequent development of language, was selected in consideration of the wider range of subjects your Society afforded by the adoption of the title of a Philosophical Soziety. There are, at least, five kinds of natural language or means of expressing ideas and eelings : (1) Sign or gesture language ; (2) the disjointed cries which invariably precede the development of articulate speech (3), just as the picture word (4) was antecedent to the development of written lan- guage (5). This last, we may remember, passed through successive stages, from the picture word or portrayal of the actual object, to the ideogram or picture of ideas, or the representation of objects for the value of the sound of their names, ultimately attaining unto complete phoneticism in the use of arbitrary alphabetical signs as symbols of sounds. All these developments are intimately connected. It is not improbable that sign or gesture language, which is the mother tongue of the deaf and dumb, preceded the development of articulate speech among primitive men. There is certainly abundant proof that it played a very important part in the earlier stages of oral communica- tion. Then the gesture acted, in fact, like the pictured word in the first development of written language ; it determined the meaning of the idea intended to be conveyed. In fact, it is a form of pictured word describing outlines in the air, as well as by pointing out the actual objects. Among modern savage tribes gesture still largely supplements spoken language, and we ourselves resort to it when in difficulties as inarticulate tourists in foreign lands, for it has this advantage over articulate speech, it is cosmopolitan. To the deaf and dumb sign-language is a picture language. It originates independently in the minds of deaf mutes, who understand each other by signs, whether they are Germans, Laplanders, or American Indians. We still use the finger to lip to signify silence, indicate the height of a person or thing by placing the hand above the ground—the deaf mute sign for little ; point “ Go there” ; beckon with the fore-finger for “Come here,” and this finger is called the index- finger, and is placed on our walls and in our streets as.a picture-written direction, Our syntax depends on the language we speak. Primitive man had no syntax at all. Gesture language has the natural order of syntax. First comes the noun, then its qualification, the object before the action. ‘‘ Horse black bring” ; “ Hungry bread me give” ; are examples of sign-word sentences, The negative is expressed and not the postive. The syntax of the American native tongues resembles that of gesture language, which has no copula and no auxillary “ to be.” That fascinating writer, E. B. Tylor—the Darwin of anthropology 21 —regards action as better than words for telling simple story. The Cisterian monks still use it exclusively. The Italian pantomimists skilfully expressed meaning by gesture, and it is extensively used by the Indian interpreters among the various tribes who habitually employ gestures, stress and tone as essential aids to vocal utterance. With us to-day grimace and gesture survive merely as an adjunct to oral language in the actor and orator. Picture writing also is still re- presented by the arrow and the index hand indications of fight or direction,in the full moons and half moons of our almanacs,the ideogram in the rebus, and hieroglyphical symbols on printers’ proofs and medical prescriptions. Colonel Garrick Mallery’s fine work on “ The Pictographs of the American Indians,” shews that they are great adepts at picture- writing, for the chiefs kept their census by it, counting heads and recording names in a very methodical manner. ** Language most shews a man,— Speak that 1 may see.” wrote Ben Jonson, Shakespeare’s most appreciative contemporary, and some modern philosophers still hold with Aristotle that the possession of articulate speech is the sole distinction between men and other animals, many of which communicate with each other by inarticulate- cries, tones, and gestures, having thus an intelligible language of their own, which man has not wholly mastered. No one would deny the vocal powers of birds ; indeed, we compliment a human singer by com- parison witha nightingale. The vocal organs of a magpie or parrot are so highly developed that articulate language is imitated to such per- fection that the phrase “ He speaks like a parrot” has become part of our language, and is used alike of a schoolboy or politician who repeats words without realising their meaning. But the bird’s powers stop there. He imitates words and extends their meaning by association, but does not originate. In some respects the voice organs of birds are more highly developed than those of the mammalia. Modern ornitho- logists class the singing birds highest. The vocal organs are alike in the nightingale, which pours forth exquisite melody, and the crow, which never rises beyond that conversational “caw, caw,” whence its name of “ Krakra” was alike derived in the ancient language of India, and that of “ Kahkah” in British Columbia. The production of in- articulate cries, tone, and resonance is also characteristic of the mammalia as a class, and there is a certain progressive organic develop- ment and specialised modification to produce the bray of the ass, the roar of the lion, the purr of the cat,and soon. Among birds additional air sacs for the increase of the volume of sound are frequently enormously developed, and in those American monkeys which give utterance to such fearful cries as to fully merit their name of ‘“‘ Howlers.” An African species, the cynocephalus, or dog-faced monkey, figured on ancient Egyptian monuments, utters sounds which sometimes contain a distinct consonantal D, and clicks resembling the inarticulate clicks in the speech of the Hottentots and Bushmen. Of animals nearer to man we may cite the gibbon, which Professor Owen says almost sings in semitones and hasa range of an octave. But man alone combines the simple sounds of consonants with vowels into complex sounds or yllables, thus forming word-signs to convey to another the impressions 22 he has received or the notions he has conceived. It was long before the association of one sound with one idea became fixed and definite. The primeval utterances of mankind were scarcely rational and almost unintelligible. Few persons now attribute the compilation of the first vocabulary and grammar to the Creator, and Assyrian scholars have recently deprived us of a refuge in “ Babel,” or Babilum,* which it is said does not signify confusion of tongues. There is strong evidence that language did not result from any sudden outburst of inspiration, but was un- consciously and naturally developed by social Man, the desire to communicate with his species being, according to Whitney and practical philologists of his school, the most influential factor in its development. Other writers maintain that it necessarily resulted from man’s advance in civilization, and that the invention of useful implements, such as the seine fishing net, which gave employment to the hands of a number of individuals united in pursuit of a common object, was a step furthering the development of articulate speech, inasmuch as the hands could not be simultaneously employed in signs or gesture language. M. Noire believes that in the inarticulate rhythmical cries still uttered by workmen in hauling weights, rowing, and marching, to secure unity of action, we have an example of one method of the origin of language. This Mr. Romanes has recently named the “ Yo he ho” theory, considering it merely as accessory of the imitative and interjectional modes of development which Prof. Max Muller formerly satirised as the “ Bow Bow ” and the “ Pooh Pooh” theories. To gain a full realization of the condition of language at the interjectional and imitative stage we must have recourse to the farm yard,or,better still,to a heated public meeting, when so-called civilized nineteenth century man frequently and deliberately reverts to the inarticulate condition of his remote ancestors and meets with the hoot of the owl, the hiss of the goose and the serpent, with dismal howls, or the inarticulate groans and moans of his own childhood, the arguments of a speaker whose logic and facts are incontrovertible. The aborigines of Ceylon also mark their disapproval by “iss,” but these wild Veddahs are never known to laugh and cannot even remember the names they gave to their own wives in their absence. The Basutos and the natives of the New Hebrides hiss like geese to express their admiration. Many words in every language may be considered as derived from imitations of the cries of man and other animals, such as peewit, cuckoo, howl, screech, hiss, hum, buzz, in our own. Sanskrit yields kshu to sneeze, sakh to laugh, kas to cough, ma to bleat. Coptic ah ha to laugh, eioto to wear a sorrowful counten- ance. We can all recognize the ancient Egyptian name of the animal they were the first to domesticate,—the mau and awa for cow. The Chinese also call the cat mzou, and our pussy is as probably an imitation of the angry cry of that animal; Irish pus, Erse pusag, Gaelic puis, Tamil pussi, Afghan pusha, Persian pushak, boost in the Tonga islands from the very day Captain Cook introduced it to the natives, and in America pwsh, pish-pish. * A. H. Saye; in By-Patus or BIBLE KNOWLEDGE, vol. II. Religious Tract Society; 1888. : . 23 The physiological aspect of speech must now be considered, inas- much as there are many psychologists who profess that animals do not articulate solely from lack of the necessary mechanism and not from any deficiency in mental powers. The investigations of the eminent biologist, M. Paul Broca, tend to localise the faculty of speech in a very circumscribed area, more especially of the left cerebral hemisphere of the brain. The organ occurs on the upper edge of what is termed the “Sylvian fissure ” opposite the “so-called island of Reil ” in the posterior half of the third frontal convolutions of the right or left hemisphere. On the right side it is but feebly developed, but any lesion or disease of “‘ Broca’s organ” on the left side is frequently accompanied by inability to use words rightly and aphasia, or entire loss of speech. The power of making appropriate gestures or sign language remained unaffected in as many as eleven out of sixteen cases recently noted. The mechan- ism of voice and of articulation really depends on two essentials, air and muscle. The rhythmical contraction of the diaphragm, a muscular plate separating the thoraic from the visceral cavity, with the mobility of the lower ribs, draw into the lungs the air necessary for existence. The forcible contractions of the muscular cellular lung tissues expel the returning current, and it is chiefly by means of the air thus breathed out from the lungs that tone and resonance are produced at will ; therefore we use our spent breath in speaking, and do not really waste it even in the most futile argument. The expired air passes silently out through the upper windpipe, into a box-like prolongation of the upper gullet called the larynx, whenever the passage is un- obstructed. The voluntary erection of the two movable membranous half-valves of which the free edges form the vocal chords and are ‘stretched tense, relaxed or shifted by the laryngeal cartilages, causes the returning air wave to pass through the narrow fissure (the glottis) -so formed, and sets the vocal chords vibrating. The tone thus produced asses on, either through the nasal cavity, or, if that is already closed, y the muscular elevation of the soft palate, it escapes freely into the mouth cavity in vowel vibrations, if the jaws be wide open, or is differentiated into consonants by the varying degrees of mouth clcsure, the movement of the lower jaw, contraction of the lips, and of the glottis, the elevation and depression of the palatal cavity, and the movements of the tongue. It depends, therefore, entirely on the soft palate, which is largely concerned with the production of vowels, whether the sound be a nasal resonant or produced through the mouth. ‘The larynx is the chief tone-producing organ. It can be elevated and depressed, and is entirely supported in the cavity of the gullet by the “vu” or horse-shoeshaped bones and cartilages (0s hyoides), to which some of the muscles of the tongue and palate are attached. This hyoid arch is suspended by ligaments fixed to the upper jaw of the skull. It has also important muscular attachments to the inner edge of the point of union (or symphisis) of the two rami of the lower jaw and to the sternum and the inner edges of the shoulder blade. In fact, the hyoid is the mainspring of articula- tion, and the degrees of ossification of the central cartilages of the arch increase with middle life, and become completelv ossified in old age among the European races, a result which has been attributed to 24 irritation by muscular action during articulation. A recent discovery in this direction affords interesting evidence of progressive change in the articulating organs of the human race. A large number of fully adult skulls, some of quite aged individuals, were disinterred from the ancient cities of Southern Arizona by the ‘“‘ Hemmenway Expedition.” In no case were the three small cartilages forming the arch of the hyoid ossified in these neolithic crania. A similar feature was ob- served to be presented by mummies from the ancient Ancon cemetery of Peru. Dr. Wortman, who made this discovery, is convinced that it is a modification directly resulting from the fact that the native languages of America are pronounced with little effort on the part of the speaker. An Indian, it is said, can talk for hours at a stretch without being fatigued, the tones are restrained and not produced as withus. Hence, it is argued, this retention of the cartilaginous condi- tion of the central portions of the hyoid arch throughout life. One of the most important muscles connected with articulation is that which rises from the hyoid, passes under the tongue, and is attached to an eminence situated on the lower jaws at the point of their union. This ridge, called the genial tubercle, is not developed in monkeys nor in anthropoid apes. Mortillet and other writers have maintained that its absence in the lower human jaws of fossil men of the “river drift” epoch found at La Naulette and Schipka favoured the hypothesis of the former existence of a race of “speechless men,” to whichHoeckel gave the specific designation of Homo alalus, assuming that like their collaterals, the anthropoid apes, they lacked the power of articulation. But scientists do not all welcome the concept of “ speech- less man” with equal enthusiasm.* It is obvious, however, that the ower of articulation i: progressively acquired. It commences in the child shortly after the union and ossification of the two rami of the lower jaw, which takes place generally a year after birth, and developes more or less rapidly with the mental growth. Many savage tribes never completely attain a full articulation. The confusion between the consonants, so frequent a characteristic of the lower forms of language Max Muller admits, reminds one of the lack of articulation among the lower animals. Liquids like 7 and r are frequently interchangeable. In many Polynesian dialects the natives either lack, or have lost, the power of distinguishing between them. The gutturals / and ¢ cannot be produced at the beginning of a word ; hence the Tahitans called Captain Cook Captain Tuke, just as an English four-year-old child might do. Nor can they pronounce final consonants, and would call cab “taba,” in the same way in which they Polynesianised the English name of book into buka buka, forming the plural like children by reduplication, when those articles were in- troduced to them by the Missionaries. The consonants 7 and / are likewise interchangeable by many South African tribes, and among the Dravidian races of India. Many adult English persons fail to pro- nounce 7 rightly. “H,” produced with much effort, and often mis- placed with great care, is still badly used amongst us and v substituted * The weakness of the morphological evidence at present forthcoming does not affect the logical postulate. 25 -for w by Cockneys, like the immortal Weller. Some Australian dialects have only eight consonants in their alphabets ; the American Tinnes have 63. Prince Lucien Buonaparte gives 390 as the maximum of phonetic sounds in all the languages of the world. The sibilants offer difficulties to many persons, but these lispers do not emulate certain modern savages, whose lisp results from the wilful filing away of front upper teeth and the removal of four lower ones. Among Pacific Coast tribes the adoption of nose and lip ornaments interferes with the enunciation of the nasal and labial consonants. These are but trifling instances of the effects of custom on language. The is no d in Chinese, and no classical Chinaman ever pronounces the letter 7; he says “ Eulopa” instead of Europe. Mazdarin, therefore, is not a true Chinese word, being derived from the Sanskrit mantrin, a counsellor. The Huron and Mohawk languages of North America possess no labial consonants whatever. The gutturals, entirely absent in the dialects of the Society Islands, abound in Semitic tongues, and often form the basis of the triliteral or three-letter consonantal roots characterising that ancient group of languages. There is no Zin Zend or Old Persian, and the initial s is always re- placed by A, as in the Sanskrit word samd, for summer, which becomes the Zend hama. Hence, in transferring the Sanskrit name of river sindu,it becomes Hindu. The Greeks passed it on with the soft aspirate and so we get our name India as the equivalent of sindhu, or the country of the seven rivers. The Aryan group of languages is also characterised by a regular alternation of consonants, which is known as Grimm’s law, after the philologist who formulated the important dis- covery. No etymologies can be regarded as sound if these phonetic changes have not been fully considered. They are, however, quite distinct from the irregular “ phonetic decay ” to which the consonautal sounds are especially subject in all languages, and which result mainly from laziness and a desire to pronounce words with the least effort. For example, our word “speech” should be spreech, as it is derived from the A. S. sprecan, O. H. G. spreckan. It lost the “r” about the llth century and is certainly pronounced more easily without it. The laws affecting consonantal change and vowel variation have not yet been fully worked out in the Asiatic, American, Polynesian, and Australian languages. In the African Kaffir a certain regularity has been noted already by Bleek. It is possible that consonantal variation may be somewhat affected by physiological causes. Experiments have recently been made at Boston, U.S.A., among the boys of the Latin and High Schools, ranging in age from 12 years to 20, which tend to shew the occurrence of a large percentage of deficiency of sound perception, which has been rather absurdly named “sound blindness.” The fact that a good ear is as essential to a linguist as to a musician or a vocalist has _ scarcely received the attention it merits from the scholastic profession. We must now dismiss from our minds the idea of language as we are accustomed to conceive it ; for the investigations of philologists reveal the indubitable fact that primitive language was scarcely in- telligible. Its phonetics were certainly variable in the extreme, and it mattered little how sounds were pronounced. There was, moreover, a stage in its development when the word did not clearly define the idea,or represented many ideas, of the most opposite ‘signification. Tone, grimace and gesture then largely determined the meaning of the infantine babble of mankind at large, and supplied the place of the absent pronouns and adverbs. At that epoch language consisted mainly of one word. Whether that word was a single word of one syllable, like the Chinese root-word, or a sentence word or “ bunch word” of the polysynthetic or “‘ much putting together” type philologists are by no means agreed, nor can they be said to be unanimous in opinion as to whether that primeval monosyllable or sentence word was noun or verb Probably both schools are right and it partook largely of the nature of tho noun, the adverb and the verb. In Polynesian dialects almost every verb may be used without any change of form as noun or adjective. This is equally true of the speech of the African Bushmen. In Chinese the root-word shi means “food” and ‘to eat ” also. Bunsen states there is no formal distinction in the ancient Egyptain language between noun, verb, and particle. There are survivals of this primitive condition of things in our own language. We still employ adjective nouns as chestnut-horses” “ black-board,” or qualifying substantives as iron stone” and “ feather-grass.” We speak also of giving a present, we present a gift, and of the present time; stress and the position of the word in the sentence determining the sense. Languages in the earlier stages of their development are devoid of prepositions and auxiliary verbs. Dr. Brinton states that no conjunction occurs in any of the native American languages. Evidently primitive man did not connect his sentences. On consideration he was not singular in that respect. Perhaps we may look on modern examples of this habit as interesting cases of reversion. Some American tongues have no adjectives ; others, like the “ Cree,” but few. In some as many as 18 pronouns have been developed,—“ the rank growth of a new soil.” Many, on the contrary, have none at all, personal, relative, or possessive. But there are large numbers of individuals even in so-called civilized countries that have not yet learnt to distinguish between mewm and tuum. No grammatical gender was developed for a long period. Objects and ideas were divided into living things and non-living things—the animate and the inanimate conjugations which prevail alike among uncivilised tribes in Asia, Africa, America, and Polynesia. Or gender was a relative affair, and did not depend upon sex, as in the case of the Ongobs of West Africa, who place everything great, noble, and desirable, and of value, including Man, in the masculine, and all things small, insignificant, and of no value, including Woman, in the feminine gender. To the savage at this epoch of mental development there was “no time like the present,” and the verbal nouns of “epicene words” were devoid of distinctions of tense, person, and number ; emphasis, tone, and gesture eked out their vocabularies, and the pause often changed the whole meaning of a word or placed it in another class, as in the Guarni of South America, wherein ‘ Peru o ’u” meant “ Peter ate it,” but ‘* Perw ow” meant “ Peter came.” The oldest known language is the hieroglyphica' language of ancient Egypt, which can be traced back more than five thousand years. When compared with its direct descendant, the 27 modérn Coptic vernacular, which ceased to be spoken in Egypt about the seventeenth century alter Christ, it reveals much concerning the origin of language, and explains as ‘“‘ survivals” many apparent anom- alies in linguistic stocks of later growth. It has been said that the ancient Egyptians had many ideas but few words, but the present degenerate inhabitants of that eventful land, if modern travellers may be believed, have but one idea, and express that in the Persian word * backsheesh ”—adopted into the Turkish language. (Zend baksh, to distribute ; Sanskrit, bkaj, to divide.) The Coptic, which differed as much from the hieroglyphical language as modern English from the parent Anglo-Saxon stock, has become a sacred and dead language and Arabic, a Semitic tongue, now prevails throughout Egypt. It has been, perhaps, too hastily assumed that no neolithic man knew how to write, but it seems as though we could never reach back to an age when the Egyptians were ignorant of that art. Nor is it possible to tell exactly when the stone ages ended, and the historical period dawned in Egypt. Stone implements unpolished, and, therefore, true paleoliths derived from the breccia from which the “tombs of the Kings” were hewn at ancient Thebes, are full of significance, telling of the existence of palzeolithic man and of the great antiquity of the human race on the black soil of Egypt, long, long anterior to the development of the hieroglyphical system of writing, which we know had been per- fected nearly six thousand years ago. This must necessarily have been long after the spoken tongue had become sufficiently fixed in sound and sense to permit of its being recorded by pictured word, ideogram, and hieroglyphical phonetic symbol. It is at present impossible to arrive at even the approximate date when the rude hunters of the “yiver drift epoch” lived on the site of ancient Thebes, or to measure the lapse of time between their day and that of the full attainment of the splendour of the civilization of the ancient Chemi, or Black Land. Menes, of the so-called first dynasty, ruled about 4400 B.c. A first ' examination of the hieroglyphical language suggests that every word had every meaning, or that every meaning was expressed by every sound. In fact, as Dr. Abel tells us, we seem to have before usa language almost presenting the phenomenon of unintelligibility. It is this very condition—which necessitated the continuous employment of tone and gesture as determinants in the spoken language, and of the added object pictures in the literary form—that has rendered possible the decipherment of the hieroglyphical inscriptions. The same word or sound had several meanings. There are many words evidently formed by the mere reduplication of the primitive syllable, such as: sensen, to breathe, etc., senken to strike; men, to stand, became menmen to move, after the same fashion. On the other hand we get several words for one idea. Thus an, ten, tem, temi, mtes, sa, sat, and many others all meant “to cut”; and karo, bari, kaka, haku, kek, kebn, kebni, sehir, and. full twenty more were used for “ ship.” Many instances occur of inversion of sound as well as of inversion of sense and often sense and sound were inverted at the same time, ab reversed becomes ba both signified “wall” as well as “stone” ; am meant to come and so did ma ; ar was “to make” and so was 7a, as or as alike signified both beautiful and miserable, and a woman with _ dishevelled hair was the pictorial determinant for grief; sef to wash 28 reversed becomes fes, to wash and to clean. Inversion of sound, the formation of dissyllables and concurrent development of many words with the same meaning originated in many instances after the following method:—The initial consonant of the stem root was sometimes repeated at the end, or it was transferred there. In this way fes became fesf and by lingering pronuncia- tion fesef, hence in time fes meant to wash and sef also. Again, ker became ferk, in the same way ker rek; and later both ker and rek signified to turn round, to revolve, to rotate. The initial uw in ush “immense,” transferred to the end became shu, with the same meaning, and osh or sho signifies “much” also. There is, moreover, ample proof that the ancient Egyptian defined his ideas by contrasting them with their opposites. Hence one word had not only different meanings, but sometimes expressed the most opposite ideas. He arrived at the idea of strength by contrasting it with feebleness, sen meant both strong and weak ; of light by contrasting it with darkness, sam darkness, sem to become light. Sense is often inverted as well as sound, as in ben “nothing,” neb “all;” kar wise, raka stupid; mer left hand, rem right hand. These are not isolated examples, but selections from thousands of instances recorded by Dr. Abel from the “hieroglyphical language” of Egypt. In Coptic each vowel had specific import, augmenting the meaning and intensifying the sense. “QO” sonorous was such an intensive. For instance, bel to loosen became bol to liberate ; talshe to cure diseases became talsho to alleviate the sorrows of the soul; take to kill became tako of annihilate or work wholesale destruction. Thus Plato’s theory to the significance of individual letters in the Greek and other alphabets is proved by Coptic grammarians to possess some truth. The phenomenon of the same sound conveying the most opposite significations 1s certainly very remarkable, but it is not confined to the Egyptian lan- guage. Itoccursabundantly in the Arabic and in the literary Chinese of the period 2,000 n.c. There are relics of this mental phase in linguistic development in the more highly organized European tongues.* In German, boden signifies ground floor as well as loft; in English, “down” means below as well as a slight elevation, like our South Downs. That the preposition “with” in the sense of conjointly signified also “without” is proved by the’ existence of words like withdraw, withgo, and withhold. ‘To bid” means to offer as well as to command. “ Better,” the comparative of good, is derived from bad. Melior, though derived from malus, is the comparative of bonus. The Sanskrit vara means “ good,” but the derivatives Icelandic ver and Gothic wairs, like the English one, signify worse. The Sanskrit “ Deva,” bright heaven, God, supplied old Persian Daéva, an evil spirit. In Great Russian blagi signifies both good and bad ; dobhr good and bad also. That tongue yields an interesting example of both sound and sense : for bar, the Russian word for master, inverted or spelt backwards rab, yields the word for slave in that language, and “‘Bar” is the oldest root form of an ancient Russian title of nobility, boyarin, literally “a master of slaves,” or the titled slaveholder, in that former land of serfs. *“ Slavic and Latin” and ‘“‘ Linguistic Essays. By Dr. Karl Abel. 29 In these examples, which might be greatly multiplied, we get actual confirmation by the philologist of the postulate of the logician, inasmuch as the facts Dr, Abel records as occurring in various languages, Professor Bain in his “ Logic” .demonstrated ought to take place in the following quotation which elucidates this point. “The essential relativity of all knowledge, thought, or consciousness, cannot but show itself in language. If everything that we can know is viewed as atransition from something else, every experience must have two sides; and either every name must have a double meaning, or else for every meaning there must be two names. We cannot have the con- ception ‘light’ except as passing out of the dark. We are made conscious in a particular way by passing from light to dark and from dark to light. The name light has no meaning without what is implied in the name dark. We distinguish the two opposite transitions light to dark and dark to light, and this distinction is the only difference of meaning in the two terms ‘light is emergence from dark ;. dark is emergence from light.’ Now the doubleness of transition is likely to occasion double names being given all through the universe of things; languages should be made up not of individual names but of couples of names.” Such names are “heat, cold ;” “up, down ;” “motion, rest ;” “good, evil;” “sweet, bitter ;” “rising, falling ;” “something, nothing;” “full, empty ;” “strong, weak” (Bain’s logic, vol. i, p.54). This is a very happy instance of the co-operation of the sciences. Moreover, there comes such strong confirmation from the New World of this identical phase of defining notions by contrasts with their opposites as to suggest that it was universally characteristic of the earlier stages of the development of language. In a paper entitled “ The language of Paleolithic Man” recently delivered before the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, Dr. D. G. Brinton notes the occurrence of similar instances from the Nahuatl of Central Mexico, the Cree and the Tinné of North West America. From the Tinné, a member of the great Athapastan linguistic stock, he cites :—7Z'ezo sweet ; tezon bitter; ya immense ; ya very small. We can easily supply the grimace and gesture which differentiated these meanings. Sor meant good and sona bad. From both Cree and Tinné Dr. Brinton adduces proofs opposed to Max Miiller’s views that the vowels, “a., E, 1, 0, and v., and consonants like s and x standing alone are without significance.” Various philologists have noted the fact that in many tongues widely separated, both in structure and distribution, the sound “m” conveys the subjective relation, and N and kK were primitive demonstratives, In Tinné the significant radicals are the five primitive vowel sounds, The 63 consonants also have a material meaning, and are divided into nine classes, Each class conveys a series of related or associated ideas in the native mind. A similar division of ideas and objects into classes Bleek has demonstrated exists among the Swahli tribes of East Africa, Some anthropologists believe that the persistent efforts of the ancestral “ gesticulating ape,” or “grunting ejaculating man,” to attain the erect posture and walk uprightly nearly proved fatal to the race, The picture painted by the philogist of the modern savage struggling for existence, to arrange, define, and express his ideas, merits our 30 sympathetic consideration. It is a conception far removed from Sir John Lubbock’s description of the brutish, sensual, thieving savaze. Surely more is here involved than the mere grammatical distinction between the abstract and the abstracting savage. There are two sides to the same question. But the primitive speech of mankind was necessarily far more rudimentary than the rudest dialect spoken by the lowest savage. Dr. Brinton states that “the language of paleolithic man had no grammatical form. So fluctuating were its phonetics, and so much depended on gesture, tone, and stress, that its words could not have been reduced to writing, nor arranged in alphabetical sequence ; it possessed no prepositions, nor conjunctions, no numerals, no pro- nouns of any kind, no forms to express singular or plural, male or female, past nor present, the different vowel-sounds and the different consonantal groups conveyed specific significance, and were of more import than the syllables which they formed. The concept of time came much later than that of space, and for a long while was absent.” The postponed discussion of this part of Miss Crane’s paper took place at a special meeting on March 27th, when the President (Mr. J. E. Haselwood), Mr. E. A. Pankhurst, Mr. Petitfourt, Rev. H. G- Day, and others, took part in an interesting debate, lasting two hours. WEDNESDAY, APRIL 10th, 1889. THE ORIGIN OF SPEECH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE (SECOND PART.) Miss AGNES CRANE. It is evident that the primitive language of mankind was necessarily of a very simple character. Variable in sound, shifting and vague of sense, the associated tone, stress, and gesture acted as a supplementary determinant in what might, perhaps, be called the invertebrate and protean conditions. The grammatical categories, the chief conserving element in the construction of language, were for a long time absent, and they have not yet been fully developed in many dialects of modern savages in various stages of culture in all parts of the world. Some of the effects of custom on language in its primitive conditions are somewhat remarkable, for words are changed, lost, or replaced by others with extreme rapidity. It has been computed that tribal dialects vary with every third generation, and missionaries have often found carefully compiled vocabularies useless after the lapse of ten or twelve years in the same region. The names of the five principal numerals have been changed in Tahiti since the days of Captain Cook. Such verbal variations frequently result from observance of a singular custom. Whenever the name of a person is identical with that of an object, or closely resembles it, and the individual dies, the name of the object is immediately dropped out of the language and a new one EE 31 invented and substituted for it. This custom really originates from the rigid observance of a rule of never mentioning the names of the dead, and itis closely connected with the worship of ancestors and the idea that the spirits of the dead can work both good and evil to the survivors, and must not be called back, but be propitiated alike by offerings and sacrifices. This idea causes the use of much periphrase among the Australian tribes. In Siam the King must never be directly named, but alluded to in a very roundabout manner. The name of a chief is always tabooed in the South Seas. One New Zealand chief was called Wai or water, and a new name pope had to be invented for water, another, evidently a sharp fellow, was named Maripi, or knife ; henceforth knives were xekra. Among African tribes the Kaffirs drop from their language words resembling the names of a former chief. Hence the Zulu word for sun, zlanga became zsota, because of their ruler Uhlanga. In these stages of culture, marriage customs affect the language. The Antillian Caribs generally steal their wives from alien tribes, so the language of the men differs from that of the women. Elsewhere a man may not pronounce the name of his mother-in-law or sister-in-law, and a woman mus? likewise omit all reference to her father-in-law or brothers-in-law. The Kaffir women have, therefore, developed a language of their own. If any of their husband’s male relatives is called, say, Uhmelo-amehlo, eyes, the usifazi or women no longer use the word amehlo for eyes, but substiiute for it amakangelo, or lookings. If one were called Wkombo, she would not use znkombo for cow, but would invent another name for the domestic anima]. Moreover, it is not etiquette in savage society to name things or potentialities which are supposed to be hurtful. Hence the Dyaks never refer by name to the small-pox when that pestilence prevails, but anxiously inquire, “ Has he left you?” The’ Yesidis worship an individual who is usually nameless in polite society even unto this day, but refuse to mention his name Sheitan, and gave up using that for river, ‘ shat,” as being likely to be mistaken for it. Among African tribes, the proverb about the devil being “not so black as he is painted” would be reversed, because they always paint him white, out of com- pliment to the superior powers, ability, and knowledge of the white man. It is possible that a similar idea suggested to the Chinese the uncomplimentary designation of “foreign devils” indiscriminately applied to all aliens in that empire. After this fashion custom has caused frequent changes in the vocabularies of savage tribes. But it is also to custom, ard one mainly dictated by human vanity, that we owe the formal preservation of extinct languages and the records of bygone civilisations and empires in both worlds. The most pronounced Democrat, were he also a philologist or a philosopher, would readily admit the use of kings and queens and autocratic rulers of Empires. Had they not been respec- tively impelled by a desire to record their names, acts, decrees, and ordinances on rocks, temples, monoliths, and palaces, on clay brick,. cylinder, silver tablet, or papyrus we should have known absolutely nothing of the ancient language and history of Egypt. We should have been ignorant also of the old Accadian tongue and the culture of the kingdoms of North and South Babylonia, of the empire and 32 language of the Semitic Assyrians, who subsequently established their domination over them, and of the Peruvian, Maya, and Aztec civilisa- tions of the Western World. The confusion of tongues and admixture of nations has increased our knowledge, for the decipherment of one decree has often served as a guide to the rest, and it is noteworthy that a ruler’s name and titles have always proved the first clue to these hieroglyphical records in all lands. The pursuit of this, the only royal road to learning with which I am acquainted, yields up to the patient philologist the formal structure of long dead languages, throws fresh light on the construction and affinities of kindred living members of the same linguistic type, and illustrates the successive mental and material phases in the development of language in general. Step by step we can trace the inception and growth from the rudest picture word of the graphic systems of the polysynthetic languages of the American Continent, the less agglutinative Accadian of Babylonia, the isolating Chinese, the inflected dialects of Semitic Assyria, Phoenicia, and Arabia. as well as for Aryan, Persian, and the more ancient Egyptian tongue. We now approach two of the most difficult problems of philology, —the development of roots and the origin of the different linguistic families or genera, to which the one thousand surviving specific Janguages are respctively affiliated. Grammar is the permanent framework of language, roots are the backbones—the parent stems of later word formation. To a comparatively small number of roots languages are ultimately reduced by analysis ; that is to say philologists can get no farther, but it must not be assumed that this ultimate solution represents the original ideas of the primitive framers of language, or the first sounds in which they expressed them. There are 500 roots in Chinese ; Renan gives the same number for Hebrew. Coptic has been reduced to about 700 word stems, and Max Miiller has recently resolved the 450 Sanscrit roots to 120 concepts, or mother ideas, expressing actions and being. Many of these, as even Max Miiller admits, are capable of originating in the rhythmical cries accompanying concerted action, as M. Noiré has suggested. Such verbs Romanes well shews to be exactly those to be best fitted to survive as roots. He further reduces these 121 concepts to about one hundred. Max Miiller maintains that every idea that passed through the mind of India as revealed in its literature can be traced back to these 121 concepts, and the words that have been derived from them by extension of sound and meaning. He adds that there are few concepts in English, or Latin, or Greek, which could not be expressed with the words that have sprung from these Sanscrit roots, and “that ‘every thought that ever crossed the mind of man can be traced back to about 121 simple concepts” (Science of Thought,” pp. 417 and 418). These comprise such words as to milk, to gather, to dress, to adorn, to bake, to sew, to weave, to hate, to think, to know, and to measure. Proof enough, if all other evidence were lacking, that these people were in a relatively civilised condition very far removed from that of primitive man. Surely it is obvious we must seek farther back than this for the first developed roots of language. 33 The development of the child repeats the history of the race. Let us turn to some of the more remarkable phases of the development of natural nursery language, of which the full importance was first recognised by Dr. Horatio Hale in his Presidental address to the Philological Section of the American Association for the Advancement: of Science in 1886. Max Muller states in his “Science of Language” that children do not invent a language of their own. Dr. Hale cites two cases of children born with a speech inventing faculty. In one instance twin boys invented and conversed in an intelligible language of their own for several years. They had ultimately to be forced to learn their mother tongue like a foreign language. In another case a little girl four and a half years old invented a language with her younger brother. The syntax in these children’s language differs as well as the vocabularies and resembles the syntax of deaf mutes and gesture language. The adjective qualifies the noun and comes after it, The object before the action. Still more significant is the fact that one word has several allied meanings. In another case, noted by Herr A. Von Gablentz, of a child who called things also by names of his own invention before he learned his mother tongue, we get the remarkable fact of the employment of different vowels to denote smallness or greatness. This child called a little doll’s chair Mikill; an ordinary chair likal ; and a great arm chair dukull. His root for round objects was m-n. He called the stars min, min, min, a watch or plate mem, a round table mum. This is an extremely interesting case of natural vowel modification. Dr. Tylor had previously pointed out that any child can see that a scale of vowels makes a most impressive scale of distances, and that many pronouns and adverbs have probably arisen from this simple device, although the same vowel is not always employed to denote nearness or to signify remoteness. His list of sounds for “this ” and “that,” “here” and “there,” is a very interesting one, and could be considerably extended.* It would seem as though the _eréches of our large towns offer unusual facilities for the study of so peculiar a branch of philological enquiry as the spontaneous develop- ment of roots and the order of the production of the consonants and their natural alternations, although the conditions might not facilitate calm scientific observation. But the children of the poor are for obvious reasons brought up by children of but little larger growth, and the use of such spontaneous root-words might, therefore, be pro- longed among them. Directly the children mix with adults their special language dies out, often, probably, umreccrded. Archdeacon arrar had noted that the neglected children in some of the Canadian and Indian villages, who are left alone for days together, do invent a language for themselves, and African children are known to develop a special language also under similar circumstances. Like Winchester school boys, the younger members of some African communities speak a different language among themselves before they are admitted as members of the tribe. Special hunting and war jargons are occasionally invented by adult savages distinct from their every day speech, and they really seem to delight in puns and shifting word development. * See ‘‘ Primitive Culture,” by E. B. Tylor, 34 The origin of articulate speech among the speechless race of the river drift epoch, Dr. Hale attributes to some such child genius with an abnormal faculty for its development. The diversity of root stocks, of which the greater part occur in the Western World, he thinks may be accounted for by the wandevings of single pairs from primitive com- munities at a period when the population was scanty, and their complete isolation would be secured in those primeval wilds. The subsequent early death of both pare .s, by some accident of the chase or otherwise, left their young children alone to develop a Iznguage of their own, and invent their own mythology. It is a noteworthy fact, according to Major Powell, that, asa rule, the myths are distinct in each linguistic family. The elder children might 1etain a recollection of some of the words of the parental language, and this would account for the actual identity of certain words in languages belonging to widely separated families, otherwise totally un- related. This may be a perfectly accidental coincidence. naturally resulting from the comparatively small number of possible aviicula- tions. Such youvg children, Dr Hale admits, could only survive in an equable climate, where food was easily procurable all the year round, like that of California. The fact that 19 distinct stocks occur there, and many more in the mild regions of Brazil, is certainly in favour of his hypothesis of the origin of the diverse linguistic stocks whence varying dialects radiated in all diveciions with the rapidity characteristic of the uncivilised regions of all parts of the world. Blood feuds and intertribal wars are frequent, and divide a tribe into separate portions. If they hold no future intercourse, in a few years neither section could understand the other. The varied and numerous meanings given to—one word on tbe one hand, and the frequent application of the same sound for ideas of the opposite significance on the other—both pre-eminently characteristic of the early life of Janguage—materially assist this process of variation, and tend to promote the adoption of different meanings for the same idea by the different tribal sections. Multiply this process indefinitely, and we easily attain to the contemporaneous existence of innumerable divergent tongues, as on the American continent, which yield the philologist to-day more than four hundred distinct native Janguages at present affiliated to 150 different root-stocks. The same condition characterises Polynesia, Melanesia, Australia, and Africi. The traveller meets with a fresh tribal dialect every hundred miles or so in Mongolia and Thibet. Numerous divergent tongues are spoken by the primitive non-Aryan population of Southern India, known to pbilologists as the Dravidian race. Some of these, Tamil, for instance, are of a highly polished character, and like the “clear sounding” Nabuatl of ancient Mexico and the Bantu of South Africa, have independently attained a measure of perfection on different lines of evolution. The progress of civilization, however, tends io reduce the number of dialects. When one community becomes more powerful or highly civilised than its neighbours, it enforces its own lauguage on the sub- ordinated tribes, which become iis tributary allies in war. Thus Nahuatl was understood by numerous tribes of tbe Nahuat} confederacy. Similar conditions prevailed among the six nations of the Iroquois in 35 the North. It was the policy of the Incas of Peru to enforce their own language on the various tribes they conquered, as the governmental or official language. After the conquest a million of the .borigines abandoned their various native dialects and adopted Spanish as their mother tongue. In Europe had not the Romans vanquished Carthage Pheenician Hebrew might have been the classical tongue of Europe instead of the Latin. The Latins conquered the Etrurians and Etruscan survives in a few fragmentary inscriptions. The Arabs con- quered Persia, and modern Persian is largely diluted with Arabic. The Turks overran Persian and incorporated Arabic words into their own agglutinative tongue. Russia still forbids the printing of little Russian dialects, spoken by 15,000,000 of her subjects, and compelled the Poles to abandon the use of their mother tongue ; they may not even pray aloud in Polish. Austria discourages the Czech of Bohemia, and imposes German on her Hungarian officers, who must perforce give up their native Magyar, a rich and flexible agglutinative member of a non-Aryan stock. In just the same way the Teutonic Norsemen of old grafted on the Anglo-Saxon stock the Norman-French they had themselves previously acquired as a foreign tongue in Gaul. In the early stages of civilization the balance of power is more easily destroyed ; confederations of tribes are often dependant on the superior cunning and power of one man. Such domination is rapidly dissolved on the death of the supreme chief, as was recently the case with Mtesa’s great kingdom in Central Africa, and the deposition of Cetewayo destroyed the conquering Zulu nation, whose language was understood by thirteen tribes, and was rapidly spreading over South Africa before we checked its propagation. Then the different communities break up again into smaller sections, relapse into barbarism, and the process of the unification of dialects is temporarily arrested. On the other hand the fact that contiguous languages are frequently found to differ widely from each other can be partially explained by the concomitant existence of two such centres emerging from barbarism. These, once permanently established in widely separated areas, radiate and extend their influence in different directions, gradually modify or exterminate intermediate dialects, and ultimately come into direct contact in thus respectively enlarging their borders. So varied and apparently contradictory are the natural forces acting and re-acting on the development, nay the very existence, of primitive languages. Of the death of languiges and dialects we can cite modern and ancient example from every linguistie stock and all parts of the world, the Semitic, Assyrian, the agglutinative Accadian of Asia. The Coptic ceased to be spoken in Africa in the 17th century. A few inscriptions are all that survive of Etruscan in Europe, and Celtic-Cornish died with the last century. Four native dialects of Tasmania have become extinct since the colonization of Australia. Thus we have two distinct elements at work, the forces of _ barbarism tending to multiply dialects and the growth of civilization _ promoting the unification of languages. The axiom that human nature is pretty much alike all the world over may fairly be applied to earlier phases of the development of myths and of language. The physical conditions, material sur- roindings 24 rude social organization being ideutical, primitive men 36 would of necessity pass through the same experiences everywhere. We may, therefore, expect to find a certain uniformity of psychological development, of which the phase of defining ideas by contrasting them with their opposites, previously noted, from languages of the Old anu New Worlds, may well serve as example. The fact of the separate evolution of the different graphic systems from picture writings and the adaptation of hieroglyphical symbols as representations of sounds in languages of the chief linguistic stock of the world, is evident proof that the mental phases continued to develop on the same lines of natural development. Professor Sayce tells us that even the highly specialised languages of the Semitic family afford traces of a condition when the personal pronouns were not verbally differentiated, of the existence of a noun of multitude affixed as a sign for plural, and of the use of three numbers, the singular, the dual, and the plural for many. The names of the numerals in many languages prove them to have been formed by the habit of forming the fingers. The decimal system of reckoning seems almost universally based on human anatomy. Finnish /okka means “to count” and “ten” also. In Tahiti vima was once the name for hand and five, and Jama is still used for five in Malay. In Zulu five is edesanta or “ finish hand,” and the verb komba “to point” means also seven, the number of the index finger. We find such combinations as ‘‘ band one” for six ; hands for ten ; two on the foot for 12; and 15 is zprtitiret, or whole foot ; mo bande or “a person finished” is the word for 20 among the Vei of Africa, and the Aztec word for the same number cempoualli signifies one counting. Our very distinctions of grammatical gender result from the habit of dividing objects and ideas into classes developed alike by the African Zulu and the Tinne of America. Such are some of the simple begin- nings of language. Languages have been classed in various ways. The simplest of all methods was, perhaps, that of the Greeks, who divided them into two groups. In the first they placed Greek, and in the second all other tongues which they called ‘‘ barbarous.” Philologists are, however, mainly agreed that there are three great groups into which languages generally may be divided, namely, the isolating stage, the agglutinative phases, and the inflectional conditions. By some these are regarded as successive epochs in the life of language through which each linguistic family has passed in some stage of its existence. There are, moreover, isolating languages which seem to border on agglutination, and agglu- tinative tongues which approach nearly to the inflectional conditions. A few, like the Etruscan and the extensive Caucasian family, which includes the Georgian, as yet evade strict classification. The mono- syllabic Chinese is the best known type of the isolating stage, thus named because there are only 450 so-called root-words in this language -—450 sounds with more than 40,000 meanings solely produced by accent, tone, and the position of the word in the sentence. About 1,500 of these verbal modifications are in general use ; and 44,500 are recorded in the Imperial dictionary of Kang-hi, of which fully one-half are obsolete and employed only in the ancient literary language, which ean be traced back fully 4,000 years. In the Annamitic dialect of Chinese the syllable da has 23 distinct meanings, and it is said the 37 Chinese syllable “Ba, bd, bd, bd,” if properly sung and arranged, signifies “‘ Three ladies gave a box on the ear to the favourite of a Prince.” We see how much depends here on vocal utterance as dis- tinct from mere articulation. M. Terrien de Lacouperie not long since announced his belief that Chinese, as now spoken, forms a link between the agglomerating Accadian and the Finno-Hungarian divisions of the Ural-Altaic linguistic stock. He also maintains that the ancient Chinese hieroglyphs known as “ Ku Wen” are derived from the later or running form of cuneiform, a_-. G:: the Chinese monarch Dunki or Dunkik, who traditionally introduced them into China, is identical with the Chaldean king Dungi of ancient Babylonia, who is believed to have reigned at least 3,000 B.C. The language spoken vy .-.- ..-c2dizns, who are generally credited with the invention of the hieroglyphical symbols, subsequently developed into the cuneiform or wedge-shaped method of writing, is a member of the agglutinative order, to which the majority of existing languages belong. These are widely distributed in Polynesia, Australia, Northern Asia, Southern India, and Africa. By many philologists the incorporating Basque of Pre-Aryan Europe and the polysynthetic languages exclusively restricted to the American continent are con sidered to be more highly specialised phases of agglutination. Others maintain the latter to be wholly different in construction and as forming a fourth and perfectly distinct order of languages. By agglutination, literally “a much sticking together,” is meant that method of forming words by the multiplication of affixes to the root. Each word or syllable retains more of its distinctive features, and the word can be decomposed, like our familiar compound “ untruthfully,” which is an example of this method of word formation. Here the prefix “un” is Saxon, as in wndo ; “ true” is derived from the Teutonic root trewa ; “ful” from the German voll ; and “ly ” is the residue of our adverb “‘like,” A.S., dice. There are numerous phases of agglutination, from mere extension of root by simple reduplication to the most compli- cated forms of agglomeration. Some are prefix-languages, like the Ba-ntu of South Africa, while, as in some Polynesian tongues, the additions are postfixed to the root. The Asiatic Accadian wasasimple form. In Europe we have the intrusive Turkish and the Finno-Hungarian, the most rich, flexible, and polished members of the Ural-Altaic stock, characterized by the harmonic scquence of vowels, that is to say, the vowels of the accruing affixes are modified so as to harmonise with the vowel in the root to which they are loosely jointed. The Pre-Aryan Basques, one of the oldest and most interesting races of Europe, now found only in the extreme western provinces of France and Spain, once spread over a much larger portion of the continent. They have been identified with the small, dark, Jong-headed Iberian race, which, _ according to Professor Boyd Dawkins, inhabited Wales in the neolith ic age, “long before the Celtic vanguard of the Aryans had set foot In Britain.” The various dialects of the Eskuaran or Basque family are _ still spoken by 600,000 persons in South Europe. The literature dates back no farther than the 15th century. The Basques retain many primitive ways, and practise a modification of the Carribean custom of the couvade. By some the race is allied to the Berbers of North Africa, 38 and through them to the Modern Egyptians, who are, however, a. long-headed race. The Basque language is one of the most ancient in Europe and one of the least known. The native words “knife” and. “ pick” and “axe” preserve the record of the neolithic, or newer stone age in Europe,when those useful implements were really made of stone. Thename for axe is attz cora,from aziza,a “ stone,” and gora “ lifted-up” ; that for pick is “azz wrra,” urra meaning to “ tear asunder” ; and that for knife is aitz ttoa, “a little stone.” The language is remarkable for the way in which the words are incorporated or run together in one holophrastic or whole phrase word. There is a tendency to believe that the sentence-word was the primitive form of speech. This phase is more or less a characteristic of the native language of the American continent, and of them alone. These for the most part consist of cum- bersome sentence-words formed by the union of different words, syllables, or even letters of other words all run into one, sometimes in such a contracted form that it s difficult to recognise their separate parts. The Algonkin word for “sled” is midamaidutsada. In Aztec the name of the beautiful red-necked bird, the roseate spoonbill, which is also given to a month in the calendar, is Tlauhuechol,* formed out of Tlauitl, “red ochre,” and Quechitli, “neck or shoulders.” The name for egg is Tototetl, out of toto “ bird,” and t¢eél “stone, z.e., stone-like. The American languages express many things we leave to be inferred. Lastly come the inflectional order of languages, of which the Semitic family is the only one characterised by true inflection, that is. to say, internal change and grammatical form are effected by vowel modification. It is a very old and very interesting group, partly Asiatic and partly African. They are called Semitic tongues, because they are supposed to be spoken by the descendants of Shem, the son of Noah, and all are more or less closely related one to another, scarcely differing more than the various Teutonic dialects among themselves, Like the races who spoke them they have varied less in proportion than any other family. The elder Phcenician, Syriac, Hebrew, and Assyrian were first supplanted before the Christian era by the Aramaic: and that in turn by Arabic, now the dominant Semitic vernacular. All the dialects are collateral descendants of some long-extinct funda- mental Semitic language. They are alike characterised by the three consonantal or triliteral roots. For instance, in Arabic the consonants “qr.” form the root of the concept of killing. The vowels are only indicated by signs in written languages. They are employed as the special agents of inflection, and the leading distinctions of sense are formed exclusively by their aid. Thus guatala, “he killed” ; guitila, “he was killed” ; Ugtul, “ kill.” In Aramaic Kédhéland, “killing I” (ana); and Kéddhlath, “killing thou” (at). Metaphor is freely employed and enhanced by vowel modifications. Arabic has spread more widely than the rest, and is extensively incorporated into Persian and Turkish and also into Spanish. A Semitic jargon spoken in Malta is the only European form. The Semitic are foreign or dead languages. in Europe. The original home of the stock is now considered to be Afriea, and, although distinct from all other stocks, it is believed to- have most affinity with the Hamitic. This includes, among others, the *“ STANDARD OR HEAD-DRESS?” By Mrs. Zelia Nuttall. Vol. 1. No. I. Peabody Museum Reports, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1¢88, p. 39. | : 39 ancient Berber of Northern Africa, the modern Coptic descendant of that old Egyptian tongue which, partly monosyllabic, in part dissllyabic, elutinative by simple repetition of syllables, and inflected by reason of vowel change and intensification, seems as if it combined characters which subsequently became differentiated and highly specialised in the chief linguistic types of the world. The great Aryan group is divided into ten families. First comes the Aryan or Sanskritic, the mother of the modern Aryan languages of India and of Romany or gipsy, of which there are no less than thirteen dialectal varieties. Next the Iranian family, comprising Persian, Afghan and Kurdish. Third ranks the Armenian, intermediate between the Asiatic and the European branches. Fourth, the Greek. The fifth family comprises only the Albanian language. Sixth comes the important Italic family, believed to the nearest allied to the Celtic, or seventh family, including the Celtic tongue spoken by the Galatians of St. Paul’s Epistles, the Gaelic, the Irish, Scotch, and Manx, and the Southern group of Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican. The great Teutonic family, or East and West German, comes next. The Eastern includes the Gothic, Scandinavian, Swedish, Danish, Norse, and Icelandic or old Danish, the oldest member of it. The Western Germanic includes Frisian, English, Saxon or Low German Frankish and Dutch, and the Upper German dialects. The Baltic family is ninth, and comprises old Prussian, extinct for 300 years, the Lettish and the Lithuanian. Last comes the Slavonic family, inclu- ding Russian, Bulgarian, Servian, Croatian, Slavonic, Czechish or Bohemian, and Polish. Some of these natural families are more closely related to each other than others. They are all descended side by side from one primitive parent Aryan language as yet unknown to us, and to which Sanskrit was formerly considered to hear the nearest aftinity. Of late, however, the Baltic family, comprising the extinct old Prussian, Lithuanian, and Lettish, has been elaimed as nearest allied in its simple structure to the parent Aryan speech. There is a strong and growing tendeucy to look on North Europe as the original home of the Aryans, whence the various tribes may have migrated southwards, following the courses of the great rivers and reaching India Jast. The Aryans certainly came from a cold country, because there is a Sanskrit word for winter himd, Latin hiems, French fiver. Those equivalent for snow,—Sanskrit nyavd, Latin nivés, French niege ; and the Zend for ice #sz or usw, O. H. G. is, German eis, E., ice,—prove less, as the effects of ice or snow might be felt in the mountainous regions of a warm land. They were an agricultural people, whose very name Aryans comes from drya, “to plough, to stir up,” Latin arare,—hence our “arable”-and the Celtic arathar. They domesticated cattle, which constituted their wealth—paysu; old Prussian peku; Gothic fathu, feoh—our “fee”; and Latin pecus, p tunia, and English “ pecuniary.” They called their daughters duhitar or Milkmaids, Gothic daughtar ; O. H. G. tohtdér, and Lithuanian dukté. Our Aryan ancestors were acquainted with silver, or the white stone, and gold, or the yellow stone, and made weapons of bone, of stone, and of wood ; the Sanskrit name for wood dru means spear also. They spun, woved, dyed, baked, cooked, and brewed as well, if Max Miiller's identification of the soma, glorified as libations to the gods in the 40 Vedic hymns with a decoction of the hop plant, bea correct one. They had names for law, dhd to settle, didman law, and for ship, in Sanskrit naus, in Zend navi, our “navy.” In fact, it is evident the Aryans were comparatively a highly civilised pastoral people, far removed from the rude condition of wandering, hunting, ancient man. In this way languages yield us a stereotyped picture of the mental and moral phases and material surroundings of the people that spake them. Tithes and taxes are certainly among the most ancient institu- tions, for records from both hemispheres prove the existence of collectors of tithes and gatherers of taxes from the dawn of history, in all parts of the world. We learn from the ancient Babylonian cylinders, bricks and tablets of clay, that the Accadians of old had libraries for their books of bricks, numbered and distributed to students by the librarian, that they made wills duly signed and sealed with thumb or signet, practised astrology, had “‘syllaberies” and grammars, as well as cribs and interlinear translations of the phonetic symbols and lists of ideograms. Their astronomers noted the weather, sun spots and eclipses, which did not always come off when predicted. Yet the Accadians had not developed grammatical gender, and were, if their records may be believed in the “ mother-right ” stage of social organisa- tion. The woman was the head of the family, and ranked before the man, her name being always placed first in the records. The Assyrian Semites traced descent in the patriarchal line as we know, and, there- fore, women held an inferior position. It is amusing to find that the Semitic translators of the Akkadian texts always carefully transferred the order of names, placing the man first, the woman after him. The mental phases of the language-makers are definitely stamped on language. To quote Dr. Abel once more, “ Words mean what nations put into them,” therefore “the introduction of one universal language would be far from ensuring uniformity of thought.” Modern English is compounded of words from almost every language on earth, and some have travelled very far and often. Ayah comes from Hindustani, one might think, but it is a Portuguese word aia, a dialectal variety of the Spanish aya, a nursery governess, and was carried to India by the Portuguese who discovered that country, and has since been brought back again by the English conquerors with a final h added. We have Anglicised the Polynesian word ‘¢epz, meaning sacred or forbidden, and transferred it, sense and sound com- bined, when we named “ tabooed topics” or “ tabooed luxuries.” This is as much a proof of our intercourse with Polynesia as the Tahitanised English buka bua, which shews plainly who taught them to read. A man cannot ask for a glass of toddy without speaking Hindustani, and the old-fashioned pronunciation of ‘‘ tay” comes nearer the Chinese ch’a than the modern enunciation of that familiar monosyllable. Chocolate comes from the Aztec chocolatl, so does tomatl, member of an extended group of native American languages characterised by the sound of “7.” We got our polka from the Bohemian Czech ; tokay, like hussar, from Hungarian Magyar; and the sash of the ingénue from the shest or girdle of the Persian fire-worshippers. . Cherub and. seraph, with their learned plurals cherubim and seraphim, were trans- 41 ferred from the Hebrews, who derived them from the Assyrian Semites. Yet the former finds place in that familiar sea-song wherein Dibdin, with a total disregard of anatomy, wrote :— ‘There’s a sweet little cherub that sits up aloft To keep watch for the life of ‘poor Jack.” Some carry the genealogy of the cherub still farther back, and trace its origin in the ancient Egyptian word Cherufu. More words than are usually conceded may yet be proved of Coptic descent. Spanish >: full of words of Arabic derivation, evidence of the Moorish ¢>. — Spain. When we transfer words from that Semitic tongue we run prefixed article and noun together, as in ed tksir, “The elixir of life,” al kahal, the strange source of alcohol, meaning a fine powder of black sulphide of antimony used to paint the eyebrows with. © : our words are compounded of two languages, like “ inter-loper,” which is half Dutch, half Latin, or, the Spencerian concept, “altruism.” wherein the Greek suffix ism is joined on to the Italian word altruz, for another, while the “ Data of Ethics” is derived from the Persian data, “settled,” and the Greek ethica, “custom.” Hence the philologist of the future will say with safety that English is a later linguistic produc: than Dutch, Latin, or Greek. What mental phases are being revealed in the biographies and significance of words and titles. Our Sunday is a corruption of Sonsdag, and a reminder of the days of sun-worship. In Thursday or Thorsdag we preserve the memory of the worship of the thunder god, Thor, whom the Saxon Pagans of old formally renounced in the word, “Ke forsacho Thunare” on embracing Christianity. The significance of titles is rather amusing when looked into. The A.S. ae/dre equals the Latin senior, French seignewr, siewr, our sir. Baron, M.E. barund, old English baron, on is a Norman suffix, in its older form bar means man, and in Provencal Jo bur is “the man” and signifies a bearer, a porter, vassal, orservant. So that baron is no more than the equivalent of the familiar Scotch “mon” or the colloquial Spanish “ Hombre.” The German Graf comes from der graue, the grey one, and the English knicht is the easier pronunciation of the German knecht, or servant. Our most familiar monosyllable to sell preserves a record of the days when salt was money, and a medium of exchange, as it is still in Central Africa. To buy is derived from the the A.S. bycgan, and goes back to the Icelandic bawgr, meaning both money and ring, or twisted coils of gold, which were bended or broken off, to pay for what had been bought in the days when men carried their wealth on their per- son. It is said there are 250,000 words in the English language, all to be derived, Max Muller admits in his “ Science of Thought,” from the 800 roots, and every thought to the 121 simple fundamental concepts of Sanskrit. We have now reached the compounding epoch in language, and we have all the languages of the world, and the universal experiences of mankind to draw on. Sometimes these compounds betiay the ignorance of the framers of them, as seal-fisheries and whale-fisheries, proof that they were put together by persons ignorant of the simple zoological truth that both whales and seals are warm-blooded mammals and not fishes, although they happen to live and swim in the water. How great is the extension of metaphor. 42 We speak of the flight of General Boulanger, yet, volatile as he is, he could scarcely fly without wings. With all this wealth of words. in the English language it is said that 300 suffice to express the wants. and feelings and ideas of the agricultural labourer, 3,000 are in general use, 12,000 are employed in the Bible, and 15,000 in all of Shakespeare’s plays. Several hundreds have dropped out of use since he wrote them, or have so contracted or expanded cies meaning that they would be understood in a different sense altogether. Crusade, for instance, once- full of material significance—a long journey and a hand-to-hand fight’ —has now purely a metaphorical meaning. The changes that have marked the growth of our mother tongue during the last eleven hundred years are so important that, supposing that the spiritualists- could raise the ghost of King Alfred, and he spoke in the Saxon of his day, not many of us would understand a word he uttered, nor could he comprehend us. The change is great indeed, only equalled by the development of new words and a multitude of slang expressions that corrupt Dan Chaucer’s “well of English undefiled.” The language of technicalities alone develops faster: than most of us can keep up with it. Ten thousand new words, the product of the age, will be recorded in the “Century Dictionary,” edited by the philologist Whitney, of Yale. Many of these technical- ities creep into the literary language. We read now of political parties splitting, like slates, “along their lines of cleavage,” of “ the survival of the fittest” among politicians, and “the influence of the environment” in modifying their votes or opinions. Concepts like these and “natural selection,” perhaps the most important concepts of our day, with names like Darwinists and Darwinism, will remain part and parcel of the English tongue so long as it endures.» When we think of the genealogy of mere words, “antique gems of great value,” of their power in recording the events of history and the discoveries. of science, how they compel reforms and effect rovolutions, as we realize dimly all they can tell us of the past and all that they may reveal to the future, surely we should endeavour to use them wisely in an age characterised by more words than ideas, If speech be really the sole distinction between man and beast, it will be well to remember the words of one of the greatest masters of our English tongue :— ‘«?Tis not enough to speak, but to speak true.” Authorities—E. B. TyLor—“ Researches into the Early History of Mankind,” “ Primitive Culture,” “ Anthropology ” ; Gancick MALLERY —* Pictographs of the North American Indians” ; RicuarD OWEN-— ‘“‘Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates,” vol. 5; T. H. Huxtry— “The Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals,” “Man’s Place in Nature,” “Critiques and Addresses”; W. H. Frower—‘ Osteology of the Mammalia” ; G. H. V. Mever—‘‘ The Organs of Speech” (Inter. Se.. Series); W. D. Wuirnery—“ Life and Growth of Language” ;: A. “De Quarrerucrs—‘ The Human Species” ; Karn ABEL— “Linguistic Essays,” ‘Slavic and Latin” ; Max MuLter—‘ Science. of Language,” (1 and 2 Series), “ Chips and Chapters from a German Workshop,” “ Biographies of Words,” “Science of Thought,” ‘‘ Hibbert- Lectures” ; A. H. Sayce—‘ Introduction to the Science of Language,” ‘Principles of Comparative Philology, 1885,” Assyrian Grammar,” _ j . | . 43 “Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments, etc.; G. J. Romanes— “Mental Evolution in Man—The Human Faculty”; Boyp Dawxk1ns —‘Early Man in Britain,” “Cave Hunting”, Wairz— Anthro- pology” ; A. Bary—‘“ Logic”; W. Skears—“Etymological English Dictionary” and “Icelandic Dictionary.” And the works of Mrs. Zevia Norratt, Horatio Hatz, D. G. Brinton, Buuex, Beueman, Bore, Darwiy, Hacxet, Lussock, George A. Smita, Rawinson, Bupesr, WILKINSON, and other writers. WEDNESDAY, MAY [5th, 1889. BIRDS AND THEIR MIGRATIONS. Rev. H. D. GORDON, M.A. The birds of a country are its history written on wings, and some- times the record is laid up in the rocks. M. Milne Edwardes thought that there was evidence to show that Madagascar and New Zealand were formerly uniied, since three species of (Epyornis found in Madagascar bore a close resemblance to the Moa or Dinornis of New Zealand, and to the Apteryxes, or wingJess birds ; just as the Emu, found in Australia alone, was the Cassiowary of south-east Africa. Wallace shewed that there; were no indigenous mammals in New Zealand, the explanation probably being that the space intervening between Africa and New Zealand and Australia was submerged before the mammals had time to get down to the south Jatiiudes. To this theory of separation and absence of mammalia, the birds of New Zealand bore their testimony, as there was a wonderful preponderance of wingless birds in New Zealand. Jn a country where there were no indigenous mammalia, and consequently few birds of prey, the species that habitually sought their food on the ground had no inducements to take wing, and, from long disuse, continued. perhaps, ‘brough countless generations, they lost their faculty of flight. Turning to another branch of the subject, Mr. Gordon said one of the most teresting facts relating to the birds of the world was ihe tendency to whiteness in the birds of New Zealand, and an opposite tendency, namely, to blackness, in the birds of India. Birds imported into New Zealand grew white. The law of assimilation of environment seemed to hold widely. The dark burut spaces of the earth near the tropics would seem to favour darker 1aces of birds and men, whilst the comparative absence of deeper colour in the north and the presence of snowy heights would seem to produce fairer haired men and fairer feathered birds. But an important variant in this matter was that the bird was less stationary than the map. In fact, all birds migrated to a certain extent, and within a circle of greater or less diameter. ‘Ihe flight lines of some birds were put at 10,000 miles, 44 and if allowance were made for head winds the distance was probably much greater even than that. Some birds vere not migratory, but simply wandered to and fro‘on the face of the waters. Thus the giant petrel had been known to follow a ship for three weeks. It often made 200 miles in the twenty-four hours, hunting up the wake of the vessel to secure any offal that had been thrown overboard, the interim being employed in scanning the ocean in immense circles. The most romantic migration known to us was that of the Pallas sand-grouse, from Central Asia and Siberia to England, some 3,000 miles due west. This’ took place in 1863, and was repeated again last year. It was, so to speak, an entirely original migration, for the lines of most birds were more or less north and south, whereas these came due west, and, though an inland bird, they exchanged the centre of the great Russian Asian Continent for the sea coasts of Western Europe. It was a matter of great satisfaction to find that the prediction that these birds would die out in 1889 had been falsified. Last week four were reported to him on the Downs, immediately south of our west corner of Snssex, going south, and in excellent health, and it was most probable that the migration of last year was still continuing, so that the passing of the special Act protecting the sand-grouse in December might be sufficient for success, though the penalty of £1 was not sufficient. But Oceana had also some wonderful examples of migration, the startling suddenness of which almost paralleled the feat of the sand- grouse. Butler said that the Zosterops, or blight-bird, crossed Cook’s Strait, for the first time within the memory of man, in the winter of 1856, coming over in numerous flocks as if to explore the country. Then it retired for two years and re-appeared in greater numbers than before in the winter of 1858, since which time it had been a permanent residevt in the North Island, breeding in every district and becoming more plentiful every year. This migration was induced by scarcity of some food supply, which must have occurred again two years later. But the exceptional feature was that after the second migration the natural impulse to return home lost itsinfluence. Every lover of beauty would ecbothe wish that the residence with us of that marvel of elegance, the sand-grouse, may be as permanent. Having cited Darwin’s opinion that the cuckoo is parasitic, because she lays her eggs not daily, but at intervals of two or three days he added that a change of the female’s plumage at nesting time indicated that the cuckoo once had a nest of her own. Mr. Gordon then said that having mentioned the great name of Darwin more than once, he should Jike to be permitted to quote the words of Sir Walter Buller, published last December in his magnificent reprint of the Birds of New Zealand :—“I see no difficulty in reconciling this view of the evolution of species by means of natvral selection with the belief in the unity and design in Creation and with the acceptance of the great truths of revelation. It is nota question of the Creation itself as divinely revealed to man, but as to the plan and method of the Creation ; and when we understand by the ‘ six days ’ of the Mosaic record so many vastly extended geologic epochs every difficulty in the way of orthodox belief disappears. Science dis- closes the method of the world, Religion its cause, and there is no conflict between them except when either forgets its ignorance of what. the other alone can know.” ’ 45 West Sussex was a most favoured area for rare bird visitors. Within the last two years we had had the Spoonbill and Hoopoe at Bosham, the Smew at Burton Park, the Ringed Guillemot at Westdean _ Wood, fourteen miles inland (marked by Gould as very rare at Plymouth where the common Guillemots are in plenty), and, the rarest of all rarities, a splendid kite was taken at Horsham. The lines which birds observe in migration had been called by the Americans “flight lines,” a serviceable name. These invisible erial railways were generally straight, especially when they were of great length. Sometimes these bird-railways cross each other at right angles. ‘There was one crossing in Sussex, north to south being one path, and east to west another, but generally the bird flew straight and at great height. The first symptom of coming migration on the part of the common swallow was that the birds’ flight over the meadow was no longer in semi-circles, but much straighter, in fact more like the swift’s. For several years he had observed the straight line of migration main- tained by the water wagtails, eminently a roadside bird, when they go due north in early spring. About the end of March to the third week in April our roads, which are straight north and south, are dotted with these charming birds, and when they reach us they stay some time under the Downs ; but by the second week in May they have all gone up in- land due north, by their Great Northern Railway. All birds breed in the coldest climate which they visit in their migrations, and Sussex was, generally speaking, too warm for the water-wagtail to breed in. The robin stayed in England to breed because England, the robin’s coldest point, had the warmth of the Gulf Stream in certain places for the winter ; the same birds could not winter in Germany, because it was too cold. The robin should have the welcome of a national bird in England ; and the robin told us in spite of our groans, that an English winter is mild. As to the cross-roads, or birds’ carfaxes, Mr. Seebohm described the Sussex Downs in autumn as a cross way between the soft-billed summer birds going, via Dover, south, and the hard-billed seed-eaters migrating due west, having crossed the German Ocean from Scandinavia possibly by way of Heligoland and now following the English coast line, and sending in small parties to winter in our mild climate. Here they had the cross line between the road south for the soft gentry, and the road west for the more robust ; but each went straight on his line of march, like abee out of ahive. And it was probable that the sand grouse, once started west, went straight on occupying the same breadth of area with which he started in Asia, across Europe, to Britain, till the Atlantic stopped him, as it did the ancient Celts. Ornithologists now divided migrant birds into three groups—(1). Breeders in spring. and migrants in autumn to winter elsewhere, e.g., cuckoo and swallow. (2). Winterers, going to better breeding grounds in spring, eg., fieldfare and widgeon. (3). Fitful comers, one month in spring and one in autumn, e.g., little stint and dusky redshank, and here in Sussex might be added the ring ouzel. All these birds represented breeding in the north and wintering in the south. It was a rule without exception that each bird breeds in the coldest climate it reaches in its migration, Two other rules might be added to this :—(a) The further north a bird goes to breed in the 46 spring, the further south it goes to winter. (6) The other remarkable Jaw was, that not one single Jand bird has been known to breed in the Southern Hemisphere and habitually winter in the Northern. Accidental visits of southern birds were doubtful evidence. In order of migration, the early starters in autumn were birds in all. stages of plumage,—old barren birds, odd birds that had been unable to find a mate, or birds whose nests had been desti:oyed too laie.in the season to allow them to make a second nest. Thus the instinct of migration was not checked by parental instinct. This premature migration had its uses ; for when the peviod of migration of any species really tegivs, astounding as the fact was, it was nevertheless true that the birds of the year were the first to migrate, birds which had never migrated before. These birds had inherited from their parents an irresistible impulse to migrate, but no infallible knowledge of road. It might take them years to Jearn the various landmarks necessary to keep them from straying from the route.: but they were doubtless led by some avant couriers. By the time that the birds of the year had left, roughly, a week, the males had finished their autumnal moult ; and the second week of the migration of any species generally marked the passage of the males ; most of the females migrated during the third week ; whilst the fourth was de- voted to the cripples, which came straggling in as best they might, in an almost ludicrous manner—birds which had Jost one leg or some of their toes, birds with half a tail or a great hole in one wing, birds with one mandible abnermally long, or some other defect. In sprixg the order was slightly varied ; the adult males came back first from Afvica ; then adult females, who were followed by the birds of the year. As in the autumn the cripples brought up the rear. Birds in migracion often lost their way—taking the wrong turning, the wrong stream of migration, and made their appearance in our island as strangers from Siberia, Southern Europe, and not unfrequently North America, mostly birds of the year. The object of his lecture, Mr. Gordon said, had been to show, however feebly, that every bird, when not necessary for the food of man, was worthy of its beautiful life, as a link in the Natural History of its chosen country,—evidence sometimes of transcendent value. Birds had been his humble life’s companions, cheery, ethereal, devotional, sympathetic, for 25 years through many long thousands of miles of upland and dale, in some of the most lovely hills and vales of England ; and he was only endeavouring to pay a lifelong debt in pleading for their life. No region of the earth was more favoured by the boldest and most resolute of birds than England. In the South of France, only 60 birds nest out of 350 species frequenting a cherished spot. In England probably quite 400 nest or would nest if we would let them. England ought to be a garden of birds, and would be if the Chinese or Turks or North American Indians inhabited it. But no English shrine had more hold on birds than Brighton. Brighton was consecrated by names of great lustre in ornithology— Gould, Booth, Swaysland, and many others, and by its world-famed. Museums and Aquarium. And if birds mark the past history of a place, the wild birds still’ in their poetry and romance think that AT Brighton is a country village, as the unique appearance of some of the warbler and bunting tribe in this neighbourhood shewed. Brighton was still to the birds the hill-side villaze of landing, with its easy approach to the Downs, and forest beyond. The higher bleaker shores of Kent from North to South Foreland were comparatively bave of migrational life. Where else in the world would they find a great city on the sea, where the nightingales, as at Brighton, April 13th, 1872, were swarming under the bathing machines along the whole length of the shore? In no age had birds been more idolised than in ours; every periodical shewed that they were in special favour : yet it was often the mock homage which killed its object. Those whom the gods and goddesses love die so young! It was sorrowiul to see the noble birds of England, some of which had traversed 4,000 miles faithfully to re-visit their old nooks, wantonly, childishly massacred, to embellish a shop-front or a Christmas tree, or to adorn a lady’s locks. Finally he pleaded for the Selborne Society—the object of which was to save the life of rare birds and plants, and the accessories of pleasant country life, footpaths and lanes and commons where the poor of the towns, after the day’s work, might have their park close at hand, as the rich man had his broad acres ;and to foster in public schools, of rich and poor alike, the humane study of Natuve and reverence for all forms of God’s great _ life, as a civilising and ennobling agent. “COOMTASVH “OL "sLOpN PY ‘UOFT ‘900198 diyg ‘9¢ “WOW MUVIO 9 ‘A ‘g10YONOA puY SyoOOg YIM poulwmex[ —_—— G OL 0t2F 9 OL SFI 68ST ‘oune id ‘JOINGVIT], iy ae ureouryeg ‘ & Vii = f ie 4 “ase yoog ‘ 0 ol 0 vee wee eee tee wae sourInsuy OIL “6 ct og " sSurgooyy 4B oayon pur vay, jo son “ 9 LT : ssUTZaeIV" JO sosuedxy [eyueprour Joyjo pue udequey usesorpA-AxQ Jo eat 6 Os SS a “+ UOIsInoxy penuuy jo ssuedxy “‘ 0 O13 ‘" ‘ wasn 42 sqURySISSY 09 soryInguayy ‘ 02 & a a vs Arepeg s Arezor109g queqsissy 9.2 2 : muon dyeang 1OF 10999T]OH 0} uorsstwu0D ‘* OI 61 € 2 Sa SETPOINOG 04 suOT|dIIosqng ‘* Il 21 8 tee tee wee see tee ‘OM ‘s98v4s0,7 “ € 6 8s = oe es *