m^imm- iliiiiiiilii: i:iliiciiKi 1906-09 >7o 670 :'->'v-fil MEMOIRS ^^ i* OF THE BERNICE PAUAHI BISHOP MUSE OF POLYNESIAN ETHNOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY >?a >■;. VOL II — NO. 4 f- The Volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauim Let BY WIUfAM T BRIGHAM, A « , Be (Ci>lttmW«) HONOI. •■ -- -• . ' ^W^', BOARD OF TRUSTEES B FAItON BlSHOI? I It DOWSETT •«•»•* • «••• • « k « • • • • * • * • President Vice President Treasurer Secretary Hi^HitY Uohuns, SAUVMh M Damon Wii^liam O Smith f * ^'^ MUSEUM STAFF WmUA.U T Beigham, Sc D (Columbia) Direaor WthUAM H Dai,!:,, Ph D Honorary Curator of MoUusca loan F G Stoki^s . * . Curator of Polynesian Ethnology C MOHTAOUB CoOKK, Ph D (Yale) Curator of Pulmonata 0im> H Sw:^Ei^Y . . . Honorary Curator of Entomology CttAEi^BS N FOEBES Assistant m Botany JottK W Thomipson . • . • Artist and Modeler Mtm M SciHtJPP • • . • . • Librarian j€»SM J G&ksn:» . Printer Mm»S KA0AH1 . » • . . . • «« • ••**• • Janitor Assistant Janitor %K I ^4 1 *' ^ t1 \^ '^^l KILAUEA AND MAUNA LOA. Their recorded History to igog. By WiiXiAM T. Brigham, Sc, D., Director of the Bernice Patiahi Bishop Museum, AT the request of the Trustees of this Museum the author of the following account has returned to his studies of nearly half a century ago when, in company with ^ the late Horace Mann, he came to these islands to explore the Geology and Botany of the Group. He is the more ready to continue the record then started because he has collected much additional information and made many photographs illustrating the subject that seem worth preserving, and there are errors in his and other publica- tions on the Hawaiian volcanoes that need correaion. The result is offered in a form as free as possible from tentative theorizing ; it is mainly a collection of material for other geologists to use at their discretion in elucidating, as far as it may serve, those deeper problems often touched but as yet unsolved,— the source of volcanic heat, the cause of the rise and outflow or ejedion of the matter usually classed as volcanic,— on these Geology has no positive knowledge. When the results of this early exploration by the author on the geological side were published in 1868, followed by a later paper on the same theme in 1869,^ no thought was entertained of any return to the scenes of these most enjoyable journey- ings, but in 1880 an expeded eruption of Manna Loa brought him back with the artist Mr. Charles Furneaux, and eight years later he returned to make Honolulu his resi- dence. All the time from 1864 to this writing he has kept in touch with the Hawaiian Islands, and although his adive work has turned aside from vulcanology in great measure, yet his visits to the Halemaumau of Kilauea have now numbered more than forty during these years. Journeyings through the wonderful volcanic region of Central France and along the Rhine; to A^esuvius; a sight of ^tna, Stromboli and the Campi Phlegrsei, and a more careful reconnaissance of the Guatemalan volcanoes; and not least, a journey through the entire volcanic region of the northern island of New Zealatid, have kept alive an interest in volcanic matters which was kindled by a Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. I, pt. 3 : Ibid, vol. I pt. 4. The publication of tlie full results of the botanical part was stopped by the lamented death of Mr. Mann, whose Knumeration of Hawaiian Plants, Sished n th^^^^^^^^ of the^ American Academy of Arts and Sciences, procured him the honor oaii election .^rFellowo^li^^^ A Flora of the Hawaiian Islands was partly pubhshed by the Kssex Institute at the time of his death. Memoirs B. P. B. Museum, Vol. II, No, 4.-1. L379J 2 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. careful survey of Kilauea in 1865. If little new be added to the story, some correc- tions authorised by greater knowledge, and perhaps a more orderly arrangement of the material in hand, may be a sufficient apology for attempting in this paper to carry on to the present year some of the admirable work of the author's friend, the late James Dwight Dana, whose name is identified with Hawaiian vulcanology. His dis- quisition on Volcanic Characteristics is easily accessible and need not be repeated here: the petrology may also be omitted, for the knowledge of the intimate structure of rocks is greatly increasing year by year, and many have written thereon. Here the reader may look only for a conneAed story of the activities of the Hawaiian vol- canoes in historic times, with all the accuracy at the writer's command from a long familiarity with the visible phenomena and the written record and a personal acquaint- ance with most of those whose testimony is quoted. The Island of Hawaii. To those who are not familiar with the geography of Hawaii a glance at the map will render clearer my explanation. The area, 4015 square miles, is wholly com- posed of the lavas poured out by the five volcanoes which rise 31,000 feet from the bed of the ocean, and nearly 14,000 from its surface. Not all crude lava, for ages of decomposition and the wear and tear of the elements, with the rapid work of the vege- table transformer have made soil of great fertility and suited to many crops, so that if many of the higher ridges are devastated by the lately molten rock not yet relieved of its savage form, the valleys present all the beauties of a tropical vegetation. Here are the few rivers, especially on the northern or windward side, that the island can boast, and in their course are many and most picturesque waterfalls. If rivers of water are uncommon over three-quarters of the island, rivers of stone are sufficiently apparent to indicate the process by which the island has been formed. In the newer parts the lava streams are everywhere, and in some places they have cut through the forests and made their way to the sea, as will be seen in the course of our studies of the volcano in a(5lion. Often the traveler in the uplands comes across a mass of jagged and apparently lawless rock (Fig. i), impassable for his horse, almost for himself : all our modern resources of explosives could hardly work such disorder, such desolation. As he cannot cross the frozen lava stream just here he may follow it up and at last come to a portion of the flow where the surface is comparatively smooth where he and his horse can walk as on a paved street, a surface the natives call pahoehoe (see PI. XLI), and the name has so completely supplied a want in our vocabulary that, in spite of the [330] ap€>kf/¥. AoM /^ Aif^'/t/a /timi/^^^ /0lac Co/ay a/ ////, meaning nuiss or seaweed, is well applied to the basaltic pumice which accompanies all the Hawaiian onibius/s of lava (Fig. 2). Now the rough, scorite, a-a and liniu, quickly invite vegetation when moisture is present, and do their best to cover the ravages of Pluto with the garments of Ceres, but the snK)oth lava does no such good work, although pleasanter to walk upon; only wdieti its great slabs, smooth or slightl}- wrinkled in the cooling pro- cess, are cracked, can the vegetable get a footing. We will return to the forms and nature of the lava later with such help as flat pictures can give the reader. While rivers of water irrigate and support the vegetation in the lower valleys, the}', in bringing down soil, of couj'se erode the hills and cut the valle\'s deeper; a process Dana has well illustrated from the erosion of one of the Pacific islainls. The rivers of stone build up and often p,^. , om rit pro- teAed by a fringing coral reef, for owing to the frequent su,bmarine eruptions as well as to the flows that rush down the moujitain sides and |)usli out the shore line, the Monulaiiis (ff ifmi'iu'i. coral polyp does not generally flourisli as aroiiiid tlic islands wliere aAivc volcanic growth lias ceased^ consecpieiitl}' there is no natural hreak water to the strong action of cn,rreiits and waves. However hard the surface of a lava stream, where it meets the sea, its physical .strnc^iire is such that the waves find easy access to the l)iil)bles, hollows, eaves, so eoiuiuon^ in its struAure, and after presenting waterspouts for years perliaps, the aluaist ceaseless beating of wave s!icceeding wa\'e demolishes and sweeps awav the ruins. It is probable that Hawaii is not growing from accretions of lava along shore int)re than it is wast- ing b}- nuirine erosion. The time is near at hand for a nuire complete physiographic sketcli of the Hawaiian gnnip than lias hitherto been possible, but at the present the portion that most interests us is the cluster of mountain peaks \\diicli marks the site t)f the orifices frtjin which the building of the ish'ind of Ha,waii (where alone are active \-olcanoes) has been elfeeled. There are live of these mountains prominent on the face of Hawaii. In the northwest Manna Kohala, or .Mt. Koliala, has long l)een extinct and its slopes to the eastward ha\'e been buried licneath the la\'a streams from its mighty neighl)or on the Kic. 2, r.Ki-i-:.\- i,i,\ir j-'RoM Kii,.\ri.;,\. i/H^^ xatfkal northeast, ,.ManiKi Kea ( Wliitc 'Mountain ) . The summit of Ivohala shows little sign of volcanic action, is swam|)y, and the source of mneli water used im irrigation. Its height is 54el!\ with a nati\'e guide left Kaawa,l(.a. ()ni- wav led at first through open pastures, then through tracts of tall ferns, and hnallv we eanie to the forest, wlitaa.* the s.dl was black and ninddv, and the hushes so «/loSf as to almost prevent (Uir irisNUge 111 some places-^-giu^antie raspherries ( AV//w-s 47>. v///r;/,..-w I with sti-in> two inehe.s in diameter at the l)ase and more tluui tweiit)' feet hnig, htiug across onr path and ..ftiai scratched butli ourselves aaid mir luu'^ses iu spite of our precautions. It rained Imrd so that we were (piite wet, and tJie ehaids prevented our seiuiig niiudi on eithrr side. .After some six miles of h)resl, we came upon a hed of aai. frcshd..r)king and rough, and the trees were thinner and smaller. We were now on a dismal plain of pahoehoe and gravellv sand, where in the scotch mist we could see hut litile out of nur path. This wa,s the elevated plain between the mountains, ami being at least 5'-"h) leet aimve the sea the atmosphere was cold as well as damp. lO Ktlatiea and Mauna Loa. A leguminous tree {Sopkara chrysophyUa) ^ called by the natives Mamane, was common ; the sandal-wood was seen here and there, but of small size, and the ohelo {Vaccimum pendtilijiortim) covered the ground thickly, and was loaded with its large red and purple berries. Twisted lava streams, and masses of scorise crossed our path, and so complicated were they that it was almost impossible to trace their course. About sunset we came to the place our guide had selected for our camp, and we soon had a fire at which we dried ourselves and roasted some sweet potatoes, and as the rain had ceased, slept comfortably under some bushes. Our water came from a curi- ous pool in the last place one would think of looking for water, in the midst of a horribly rough bed of scorise almost as porous as pumice, and broken into irregular masses of all sizes. The basin holds about twelve gallons of cold, pure water, and has no evident inlet or outlet, yet is never entirely exhausted ; we nearly emptied it and the next morning it was full again. It was found accidentally, and three columns of stone are piled up to mark the place, which would be most difficult to find without these signals. At half-past five in the morning we started for the summit, toward which a good path led for some distance, and we galloped over the hard gravel beds, dodging in a zigzag course the clumps of bushes in our way. The morning was clear, and the birds, which are scarce near the shore, were abundant, and sang merrily. The path ended after three miles, and we had to slowly pick our way over difficult and even dangerous lava-fields. Our horses occasionally broke through, causing some trepida- tion to the riders, but no accidents occurred; and after passing nearly round the summit, crossing the flow of 1801, and counting ten flows from the top, and many others almost indistinguishable, we reached the base of the highest plateau at eight o'clock, and left our horses in a little valley where strawberries were abundant, and also American potatoes, planted b}^ some native. A climb up a steep slope some three hundred feet high, and we were in the midst of a series of large pit craters extending over the entire summit. These craters were very much alike, from three to five hundred feet deep, and from seven hundred to a thousand feet in diameter. The walls were of solid grey lava capped very seldom by more recent basalt (although fresh looking lava was piled near by), and were nearly perpendicular. Vegetation extended to the bottom, and the beautiful Silver-sword {Argyroxiphium sandvicefise) was growing in the clefts far down the sides. The bottom was usually flat and gravelly, but in some cases covered with smooth black lava, and in others rough and broken. Fragments of the walls were often seen at their base, and in one crater they were partly melted into the fresh lava which covered the bottom, proving that the compact lava of this mountain summit is fusible by the melted black basalt. [388] Bltnv-lioli- on thmluiai. i r No signs of steam or siilpliiiroiis fumes were visible, but on tlie edge of one of tb,e deepest cratetSj on the wall wliieli separated it from another less than two hundred feet distant, was a nionnd of scoriic some fifty feet high, composed of drops and slightly agglutinated fragments of all sizes and colors, Hack, blue, orange, red, golden, appar- ently ejected in a viscid state, and in the centre of this a blow-hole about twenty-five feet in diameter, and as nearly as we could judge by throwing stones, eighteen hundred feet deep to a ledge, to one side of which we ciuild see a deeper, rather suuillcr hole. I was obliged to lie flat on the edge to exaniiue it, the scoriic were so loose, and the whole eone jarred as we climbed o\'er it." The inside of the blow-lK»lc was of a l)rown color, smooth as if tuiuied, and grooved horizoniall}-. No vertical stria* could be dis- tinguished, but as these horizontal grooves seem to corrcspoini to the strata of the adjoining crater walls, I suppose that tlie projeAiug ridges mark the more solid sub- stance of these strata which would be in their centre, while the scoria:- wbicli separate the beds to some extent, would permit the deeper aclion of the vapors that lia\"e formed the hole. The wearing h)rce must liave been chemical rather than mechanical, as the wall of the crater adjcu'ning, which is not more than twerity-fi\x* or thirty feet not a frw of tlif idoJs i1ooiiH-d tudrslrticliou wt-RTi.sl itilo llti. ahm .,, 1«mI tallfii I 1. miu-li n liiciiiK th I- Irfigli l.JliraJ red lu.J «• .i!i prrl ;ri.bli-Ual I- usual i-r roiatio 12 Kilauea and Manna Loa. thick, would have given way to any violent explosion. (Fig. 9.) A similar blow-hole was described by Ellis lower down the mountain. He ascended Hualalai in 1823 and found on the side of the mountain a large extinguished crater, about a mile in circum- ference and apparently four hundred feet deep. The sides were regularly sloped, and at the bottom was a mound with an aperture in its top. By the side of this large crater, divided from it by a narrow ridge of rock, was another, fifty-six feet in circumference, from which volumes of sulphurous smoke continually ascended. No bottom could be seen, and on throwing stones into it they were heard to strike against its sides for eight seconds. There were two other apertures very near this, nine feet in diameter, and apparently two hundred feet deep.^ This corresponds so nearly with the blow-hole we saw on the sum- mit that it is almost certain that vapors formed or at least enlarged both. ^IG. JO. THK S^MMfT Ol^ H1IAT,AI,A1 SKKN FROM MAUNA T.OA (9000 S'KKT). From the vege^tation of the summit I should not consider Hualalai more than 8500 feet high,^ although some have placed it at 10,000. It is covered with lateral cones and its summit is flat, with many pit craters. More than one hundred and fifty lateral cones have been counted and it will be seen from the sketch made from the slopes of Mauna Loa the same summer that they vary both in size and in slope. In the afternoon we camped about a mile from our last night's resting place, between two cones. Our guide shot two of the native geese {Nesochen ^andz'icensis) ^which were fine eating. The number of these geese has been much underrated. Although they are found only on the highlands of Hawaii and Maui, their number admits of the annual slaughter of several hundred without sensible diminution. They build their nests in the grass and lay two or three eggs, white and about the size of a common goose's egg. They are web-footed, but are never seen in the water; indeed there is no water on the uplands, and their food is principally berries and a common Sonchus, The strawberries {Fragarta chilertsis) were nearly out of season. Trees were compara- tively small. The mamane, sandal-wood, Dodoncea viscosa^ Geranium ciineatum^ were ''EUis, Tour of Hawaii, London edition. ^ Height as obtained many years after this by the Hawaiian Survey is 8275 feet. [390] Oil ike Ifioii f.d fid of Hawaii. ,13 tlie most comiiioii, and nian)^' composite witli 1)rilliant yellow blossoms {Raiilardia, Dubautia^ etc) were seen all tliroiigli tlie plain. I made mc a bed of bracken {Piens aquiliHu) as I might in New England on a similar occasion, and with my feet towards a fire of great maniane hjgs, went to sleep. The night was clear and cold, — so cold that I awoke and moved nearer the fire. It was strangely silent; the stars w.-ere shining brightl}-, and directly in front of mc was the grand Manna Loa. At half-past three the moon rose over the slopes of IManna Kea and I fell asleep again. In the morning at snnrise the thermometer marked 46'^ Fahr. As the sun rose, the lava-flow of 1859 was visilile through its whole length from near the snmmit of Manna Loa to the sea near Kawailiae, shining like a river of silver, owing to it."? gloss\' black snrface. Conld it have been more beantifnl when a river of fire? All the plain between the nion,ntains, w-hich covers many square miles, is intersected 1)3- lava-flows from all three mountains, and is wholly rocky and uneven, with caves and beds of a-a. The vegetation is scanty, l)ut enough to support large flocks of goats. A road was attempted by Government some 3'cars ago under tlie direAion of Dr. jndd, from Kailna on the western coast of Hawaii to Hilo, but only fifteen miles of this road (wdiieh was not intended for wheeled vehicles) were built. Caves are the only .sources of w"ater here, the surface being too porous to retain pools or streams; but in the caves the water from the frecpient rains drips from the roof and is eulleeted in' calabashes. Since this ascent 1 have been again to the summit of this mountain (in iSiSi)) and found little change to note. The wild goats had disappeared and packs of wild 14 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. dogs, little less dangerous than wolves to a solitary footman, had taken their range. Acres of an introduced purple thistle of a most luxuriant growth were found on our path some distance below the summit. The only recorded eruption from this mountain took place in 1801, and was certainly not the one seen by Turnbull as has been stated; his record is, ''On the even- ing of February i, 1803, we stood along the shore [of Hawaii] to the eastward, taking the advantage of a land breeze. In this course we had a very full view of some erup- tions from the volcanoes in the centre of the island of Owhyhee,'"^ The account of Ellis, taken from the lips of an Englishman and of natives, is as follows : Stoue walls, trees, and houses all gave way before it, even large masses of rocks of hard ancient lava, when surrounded by the fiery stream, soon split into small fragments, and, falling into the burning mass, appeared to melt again, as borne by it down the mountain's side. Offerings were presented, and many hogs thrown alive into the stream to appease the anger of the gods, by whom they suppDsed it was diredled, and to stay its devastating course. All seemed unavailing, until one day the king Kamehameha, went attended by a large retinue of chiefs and priests, and, as the most valuable ofering he could make, cut off part of his own hair, which was always considered sacred, and threw it into the torrent. A day or two after, the lava ceased to flow. The gods, it was thought, were satisfied. To this eruption is referred the sad story, often told to travelers by the natives, of the death of a mother and her infant. At the beginning of the century the base of Hualalai had many fishermen's hamlets along its shore. At night, while all were sleeping, the eruption began. The stream of lava came thundering down upon the people on the shore, and while nearly all succeeded in escaping, in one hut only the husband was awakened, and in his terror he fled leaving his wife and child. Before she was aroused by the shrieks of her friends, the lava had encircled the hut and escape was no longer possible. The lava set fire to the house, and the woman sprang into a pandanus tree near by, but her refuge was of short avail, and the lava-stream, which was flowing into the sea, consumed, as it passed, the two human sacrifices to Pele. The remarkable rapidity with which this stream descended indicates great fluidity. It appears to have flowed fifteen miles in two or three hours, much of the way through forests. Its source was a little below the summit, and it issued in two streams, one to the northwest and the other to the northeast. Twenty-three years after this Ellis found a warm spring at Kailua where Glauber's salts were formed by the action of sulphurous vapors on sea water, and warm springs were also found at Kawaihae at tide level. These are now cooled and there are no signs of volcanic activity anywhere on the mountain. This latest effort of Hualalai, besides destroying several small ^A Voyage round the World in the years 1800-1804 by John TurnbuU. I/ondon, i kllaiica (iHii Manna f.aa. encampniciit. On a small pile of stones was a saiiclal with the inscribed names, Paris, Alexander, Haskell, 1859. The sandal looked new and fresh as if just cnt from the hide. I was told that a cow onec strayed np here in search of water, and died, and lier bod}- was found dried and retaining its shape completely'. The hard compact gray stone of the walls is nmeli cracked and exhibits deep strata as elsewhere. Scattered along the edges, and in various places over the great summit phiiu were large irregular masses of a solid reddish clinkstone of a sort much nsed formcrl}' for stone adzes. ,Several immense cracks parallel with the crater walls extended some distance. These sometimes contained ice; and on l)reaking the surface which, was some two inches thick, we found a large supply of fine water in the ice, with which wc replenished our water-bottles. No snijw was visible, and it is a mistake to suppose these summits within the limits of perpetual snow, as has been stated. vSeldoni in the sunnner is any snow found here except in the eaves where it is preserved as in ice-houses. vSuow sometimes falls on both Mauna Loa and Manna Kea, but, except iu winter, it disap|)ears as soon as the sun rises. At first we did not see any signs of Yt)leairic activitv, but at last discovered steam issniog from the northern bank. Mr. Mann advised a descent into the crater and we attempted it, but after clind^ing down more than half way gave it up. Adjoining M,okuaweoweo are two small pit craters on the major axis of the elliptical uuiiu crater, and into the southern one a stream of kiva has flowed from the main crater. The sum- [396] On the Top of Mauna Loa, 19 mit plain is much fissured, and several small cones both north and south, but on the same general line, mark eruptive agencies. So extensive is this plain that one walks nearly a mile before catching sight of the ocean, consequently no one at the sea level has ever seen the top about the crater, and when fire is seen at the summit, it means that the rising column of lava must attain a height of considerablj^ over a thousand feet to be visible from the shore. At nine o'clock we commenced the descent as our time was limited, and about two in the afternoon a thick misty rain came on, and our guide wished to stop as he could not see the way ; we had, however, three compasses, and proceeded without difficulty, although drenched, to the plain, where we found a cave and contrived to light a fire. At nine o'clock the rain ceased, the stars came out brightly, and as the cave still dripped, we rolled ourselves up in our blankets, wet through as we were, and with our feet to the fire slept well all night. In the morning we wrung out our clothes, which dried in the course of two hours as we were walking rapidly in the sun, and about noon rested on the edge of the forest, several miles west of where we had come up, at a spring which, as they always are on this island, was in a very improbable place, — the most elevated part of an open plain. Its position was marked by a pile of stones ; no stream ran from it, and it was carefully covered to keep the wild hogs out, whose marks we saw near by among the strawberries and on the trees. Striking into the woods we walked down at a rapid rate, although the muddiness of the path, and the many trees that had fallen across the way, made it very laborious. Added to this, it began to rain as we came into the region of ferns, and we were again wet through. Vegetation on the leeward side of Mauna Loa only extends to the height of six or seven thousand feet, but on the windward slopes to nearly ten thousand. It is not difficult to obtain the average slope of this mountain, but seen from Kilauea the slopes to the southv/est and to the northeast vary perceptibly, but the angle of f is the average, and explains the name Las Mesas given by the Spanish discoverers of the group, also the '%ong Mountain." (See Fig. 13.) In 1880 I made the ascent of Mauna Loa from the eastern side accompanied only by an excellent guide, but mounted on an admirable mule. We came to the dairy at Ainapo in the afternoon, and after a short halt, pushed on to the limit of vegetation where there was still grass for our animals, and rested for the night. Our view of Kilauea was almost a bird's eye one, and the appearance was of a great city in flames. The crags about Halemaumau seemed the ruins of burning struc- tures, and it was not until sheer weariness closed my eyes that I could look at anything else (Fig. 14). By three o'clock in the morning we were on our upward [397] 20 Kiiatifii and Manna Loa. way, and early in tlie niomiiig lialted near the liriiilc of tlie crater a little south of tlie Wilkes camp, to wliicli the officers of the American expedition with a large com- paii}' of native bearers had climbed fort}' years before with so much troulile. My object was to see the traces of an eruption in Moknawc=!oweo, the summit crater which, appearing in the spring of that year, had induced me to again visit Hawaii. All the wa}" np the temperature of the caves had been considerably above that of the outer air, but on the summit there were only the cold lavas (rf the Mny eruption. Much limn or basaltic piimicc co\'cred the plain for acres, and the wall of the crater was ver^v loose and insecure where we stood. We returned b}- the same trail, if trail there was, it was in,visif)le to me, but my guide never hesitated, nxdlhcr did the mule, and wc returned safely to Ainapo before dark, a.iul were at the Volcano House at Kilauea next day in the early forenoon. For some distance above Ainapo the way led through a dry open forest, with many dead koa trees and little sub-vegetation owing to the herds of cattle pastured there; when once beyond this forest, the vegetation, faded rapidly and the surface assumed the roughness of the ordinar_v la\'a stream, and was oiidnlating as on the other side, and only here and there smooth for a short distance. Cracks often crossed our trail, and sometimes were iMra /■)» I:v)u1 I\if(Ui<'a cmd Maitua LoiU KRIIU.KT rNFH'IH I.AVA FAU Lava Forms, • 23 bridged for the mule by lava slabs and fragments, a slialcy struAure, and I ^vas always glad when they were not too wide for my agile animal to leap. Fortunately we had no fogs, and no s^anptoms of mountain sickness. I felt, however, that if a storm had overtaken us, we should have had little chance of holding to our trail ; a light fall of snow would have concealed it." More important ascents we will record later. General Character of the Lavas of Hawaii. I DO not intend to enter fully into the many analyses of the products of the Hawaiian volcanoes, but simply sketch the coarser composition and the external appear- ance of the lavas, that my reader who is not familiar with these volcanoes may better understand the descriptions that follow of the activities of the volcanoes and the ejected material met with in crater or lava-stream. Of the two general classes into which geologists have divided lavas, the acid or tr achy tic, — Trachyte, Obsidian, Pumice, Granite, — and the basic of which Basalt or Dolerite is the type, we have on Hawaii only the latter class. Basalt contains a feld- spar having more lime than soda, augite, sometimes in well defined crystals, chrysolite or olivine in green nodules, often agglomerated, but generally diffused through the mass, and almost invisible to the naked eye. Magnetite is also present, and rarely Mica. Silica, Iron, Soda, and Lime are the final constituents. When the ordinary lava is thrown into the air as in the tremendous fountains that often accompany the eruptions of Mauna Loa, drops are thrown off, and, caught on the currents of hot air, spin out a glassy filament sometimes exceeding three feet in length. These glassy threads are locally called ^Tele's hair'' (Fig. 15), and in the crater of Kilauea, as also wherever jets of lava are thrown up, they are constantly forming during the ordinary active condition. When the lava cools rapidly, as in these threads, the strudlure is glassy: when the cooling is slow the texture is stony: this is well shown in the impression of an actual specimen of rope-lava shown in Fig. 19. The outside is compact, while as we pass to the interior the cells grow larger and the magma is stone-like. The less fusible portion of the lava often separates in a rough form (Fig. 16); the more fusible, like Pele's hair, retains its dudility in a surprising manner until the high temperature of the air in which it is formed is considered. Lengths of three or four feet have been found spun from the fountains of lava on the slopes of Mauna Loa during an eruption. The plasticity of the molten lava is well ^A fuUer account of this ascent was published in the American Journal of Science in 1888, and this will be inserted later with the accounts of the eruption of that year ( i88o-8i ). [401] ^4 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, shown in Fig. 23, of a curious vase wrought from the molten lava of Halemaumau with no better tools than round and charred sticks. The cooling surface of the pahoe- hoe still in motion wrinkles in the ways shown in many of the plates of this memoir, and the wrinkles often become twisted into fine rope-like forms (Fig. 17), with a very black and shining sixrface. Of the stony lavas there are many varieties, from the compact phonolite or clinkstone which takes a good polish, and from the hardest varieties of which the old Hawaiians made their adzes and other stone tools, to the very cellular form shown in Fig. 21, a hard form often used for building, and the strangely elongated cells of speci. mens found near the shore east of Hilo (Fig. 22). The more com- pact kinds used for building show almost no cells, while that from the surface quarries is more or less cellular, and often well sprinkled with olivine which impairs its value as a building stone. Even the f airl}^ compact rocks are quite permeable to water, making excellent filters, and the apparently smooth and non-porous pahoehoe gives pas- sage to rains as may be seen in the mountain caves. Basalt is more apt than other lavas to assume the prismatic form on cooling, and many contraction specimens can be found in the gorge of the Wailuku above Hilo (Fig. 25), and more perfectly detached ones are found on Kauai. We must not forget the ductility shown in the lava falls, examples of which are shown in many illustrations. In the eruption of 1832 in Kilauea a fall of nearly 200 feet was continuous: a portion of this fall is shown in Plate XLVI. A driblet from another fall is shown in Fig. 18. When, by violent explosions as in the eruption of Kilauea in 1789, the lava is torn to pieces or ground into sand, a material is formed that under the influence of moisture tends to recombine into a volcanic sandstone called tufa, but this reunion of particles is usually, if not always, accompanied by a rearrangement of composition which may be decomposition or metamorphism. Tufa is not common on Hawaii, but abundant on Oahu, where the coast craters, Diamond Head, Punchbowl and others are composed of it. In the quarry on Punchbowl a tolerably firm tufa has been employed for building purposes, but has not proved durable. The sand may be mixed with [402] IflG. IMPRESSION OF A SECTION OF ROPE I.AVA. Liwa luimis. r^"#i^^:: '#^* ■'*^-;M^*l4 ^- ^W ^ V ^l^g^ ^^^^y^s^ '^: d ]S^ . \4 ^^g ^^P I 26 Kilaura ami Manfiu I.oit. I'lC. 23. \MSI-". .MADiC FR<(J1 Miil/r '^ii^'kk [40*1 Prod lids of Ii 111 pi ion. 27 larg'er fnigmeiits of rock or witli fragments of coral reef and shells as in tlic case of Diamond Head, whicli exploded tli rough the reef (Fig. 20), forming a coarser con- glomerate. The varyin,g' color, brown to red, comes from tlie decomposition of the liydrons ferrons oxide ( F*cXX4"~Aq. ). The coarser black sand ( F'ig. 24) is formed by the forcible contact of molten lava with water, as at Nanawale when the lava stream of 1840 fell into the sea. Scoria, a term originally applied to the slag or dross of metals, has been rather loosely applied to all the odds and ends of a lava discharge, from a-a to cinders. The liner scoria! or cinders are the eonstitnents of cinder cones like those on Alanna Kea, which hold together chiefly by the cohesion of tlie rongh snrfaee of the cinders. The black sand (Fig. 24') is fonnd in layers nnder Htmoliihi and elsewhere, and is mnch nsed in bnilding operations. The vapors or gases emitted from the craters ni the volcanoes when active are never true smoke, l)Ut mainly steam. In the crater of Kilanea a distinaion mnst be made between the vapors from Halemannnm and those arising fnmi the outer crater: the latter being the rain products either directly, as after a, shower, or from the more lasting snrfaee springs. It is rennirkable how permanent some of the steam-holes around Kilauea are. 1 have observed some of the more prominent ones, as those near [4«5J Keniiak.'ikoi, fur hiflv^^fivc x't-iirs ami licive seen little chantir,' " Tlie elniul wliicli oiXvn, but net r.lw^ays haiit^-s i^xvv the aelix'c pit is ilie steam euiHli-iiscd h\ the eold winds frniii MauiKi I.oa ten thuiisaiid ieet above it, and as steam ha.s lieeii tlmiiKbl the main laett)!- ill the rise ul biva in the eraters, it should be m>tieed how small the supply ef sleaau in llie aelive eutpour of Kihiuea reallx' is. While tlie heal would of eoiirse Raider the aipietms vapor invisible direelly in or nx'tu" the pit, that ver_v heat drives the steam up into the ladd re.odoiis, anr is |)iiiyyeiit and in |)assing tlir(ai;.(li a, stream of it one innsl hohl his breath. This gas is often so abumlaul as to prevent travel around the lee sicle of the pit, sometimes e\'eii (»f the nuiiti era,ter. llxalrogtai, supposed to he the result of the (leeom|.)ositiou of w;iter b\- i,M-ea,t heat, is often present and its ecnnhnslion is seen in the thunes that play around the era,ehs or, as in iS.So, rise in eoiisiderahle l7'///V.7..///.>"rA V.i/U>. v)i ]r.'' f tlir yU.Wi 11 e.t..h./S' 11, \K 73. wiiu-.: 'Ul h:. IkM) ll..!iratory of J)r. C. T. Jackson. Bosto!!. .Lxpuit^m.p. .01. olin C. j:ick.xt tw^o nights there were siiuilar distnrb- [4'5j 38 Ixihutea and Manna Loa. aiices tliey at last set out in three divisions. I now quote the account given by the Re^'. Sheldon Dib1)le," taken from those who snrvived this terrible jonrney: The coiiipaii)^ in advance liatl not iiroreeded far, before the ground began to shake and rock beiieatli tbeir feet, and it became qnite impossible to stand. 8oon a dense cloud of darkness was seen to rise ont of tlie crater, and ahnost at the same instant the tJiunder began to roar in the heavens and the lightning to Ihish. It contituied to ascend anerefl of life. In those perilous circunislances. the surviving party did not even stay to bewail their fate, but leaving their de of M; Ellis' AffomfJ oj k'ilanfd, 4 \ tlie side walk of the dome yicldiiitr l)cforc the pressure of the enclosed lava, and quietly allowing the passage of the molten current to the sea. It was, I confess, a little puzzling to me, when I gave this opinion forty years ago, how the crater conld Ijc leaking ont to any extent and yet be so active on the surface as Ellis describes it, bnt I have since seen more of the working of this wonxlerfnl pkrce and am no longer piizzled. I have seen the bottom drop out and leave the Halemaumau quite empty, and the process was a silent one with no activity on the snrface. I have again seen the surface in the pit fall so rapidly that there could be no donl)t tliat the supply was I ^^M H ^^Ksli ■ ^^^M |H ^^^^^p ^P^^ H Bl|||^ '% IH^^^^^^M liM^ai ^M^^^^^^^^^^B, tapped, and some interruption intervening; the subsidence not onl}- slopped bnt the action on the surface became more violent than for a long time. This last seems to liave been the ease in August, 1823, when he saw what he descril)es as follows: Iniineciialely before us yawiietl an itniiien.se giiM, in the form of a rrestx'iit. npwards of two miles hi leiigtli, at^oiit a mile across, and apparmtly eiglit hundred fevl deep. The bottom was filled with lava, and the southwest and norlherii parts of it were one \'ast fh^tod of lixx(m, N:irrativ<- of tlif V.)va«e of II. M. S. ISloiHlt- to tlir Saii > I *^ I i ^ > I I fiiHf I 1 ^1 1 1 I i '(I 46 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, than the bottom of the crater two years before. There were lakes boiling actively, and **every now and then sending forth a gnst of vapor and smoke with great noise. The natives remarked that after rising a little higher the lava will discharge itself, as formerly, toward the sea through some aperture underground.''^^ In the 1829 early part of October, 1829, the Rev. C. S. Stewart again visited the crater. He found the lower pit filled up more than two hundred feet; many of the cones had disappeared, and there was much more fire at the northern end. He thus describes two cones which he examined : They were in the neighborliood of each other — each about twenty feet in height, not more than sixty in circumference at the base, and tapering almost to a point at the top — being in fact two immense hollow columns formed by successive slight overflowings of lava, cooling as it rolled down, into irregular flutings, ornamented with rude drops and pendants, and long tapering stalactites. Though the ragings beneath must have been intenvSe, from the tremendous roar within, the irresist- ible force and deafening hiss with which the steam rushed from every opening, and from the flames which flashed up, followed by lava white with an intensity of heat, still the incrustation of scoriae immediately around seemed firm, and was less hot than in many other places; admitting not only of our coming close to the sides of the cone, but also of clambering some feet up them, till we could run our canes into the orifices at the top, and withdraw with their burning ends, red-hot lava, on which we readily made impressions, Pele did not seem well pleased with this familiarity, however; even the slightest touch with our sticks against the molten lava, produced an increased rush and roar from below, with an angry spitting of the fiery matter high in the air around us." ""^ Four years after, an eruption took place simultaneou^sly with one from the summit of Mauna Loa. Unfortunately we have no account from any eye-witness. In September, 1832, the Rev. J. Goodrich visited Kilauea, and describes the appear- ance of the emptied crater: **The lavas had previously risen fifty feet above the black ledge, but were now more than four hundred feet below this level and the 1833 action seemed confined to Halemaumau at the south end. In January an earthquake had rent in twain the wall between Kilauea and Kilauea iki, the large crater on the east, producing seams from a few inches to several yards in width, from which the region between the two craters was deluged with lava.''^^ The out- break on the wall was very remarkable, rising as it did in a strip of land four hundred yards wide bounded by precipices on either side some two hundred feet high and appar- ently as loose as a dry-laid wall. Before this time Kilauea iki had long been free from lava visitations, and its sides were wooded to the bottom. The stream issued from several rents south of the centre of the isthmus and above the lowest part, flowed toward the north a few yards to the lowest part, and then divided and ran east and west into the two craters in a shallow stream; indeed the quantity of lava was so small, that its eruption is hardly more important than the action of slender cones as described by ^^ Missionary Herald, vol. xxiii, p. 53. ^'^A Visit to the vSoutli vSeas, vol. ii, p. 93. ^^ American Journal of Science (K. S.), vol. xxv» p, 199. [424] /Aw£,>/f/3, (liasr and Pa/krr / /avV k'ilaura. ^1 Mr. Stewart. W'liere llic .siihterraiican discliaj-.ti-e wiiicli t-iiiptii-d tlie crater a,inl iimst liavi- l)eeii of irj-eat vohiiiu-, is not kiimvii. It may have lieeii, pmbahlv was, oiieof ilie snbiiiariiie eriiptinns wliieh have hceii marked (Uilv b}- a more or less tidal 1834 wave or merely by the miiiibrr of dead iisli aloii^^ tlie sliore. David Douglas, tlie vSeoteli botanist who lost his lit'e in :i cattle tra,j) on Ihiwaii, aiid whomaxle tlie first recorded ascent of Manna Loa, was at Kalanea in lanimrv, i.Svi. %^' ^Srl;r..,'f-.C,-- y. ■;-.,; .:' ^r fP's^\t^:,^^''- ■■■ .■' .. .: ' .- ■.■"■ :■■:'. ■iiip'^'r\ -:< :>:■■ ; - :■ /^ ■ ■ ■ ..■■ ■■■ ..;::.' ^•Mwf X, l r . •'.. -. '\/ :. ...V. ■■. f--iK-!*Mi3:':i/- and measured the depth of the pit at one thousand feet^ A lake of boiliny l:i\\'i at I lie north end w^as three hninircd and nim,1e(m \-ai-ds in diaancter. I lalcniannniu 1838 was miieh as described liy hdlisb"' On the ta"ydnh of I\Ia\-, 1S3S, Captains Chase and Parker \asited Kilaiu-a., and tdieir description ha,s been pnl)lished with a sketcli of the eratta-. 'The laases had a^yain iiearl\' rea^died the bku;k ledye, and all ox'cr a surface of foiii- sc|majx' miles \\x;i-e ecauss and lakes of lire; twimt \-^%six of the fornu'r were e»eanted, eiyht of wdiirh were eject ine in.-.i ill iiavni 111, 48 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, cinders and red-hot lava. Six small lakes were boiling violently, becoming crusted over, cracking, and again boiling. In the Halemaumaii was an island which the lava was not seen to overflow ; the first notice of a phenomenon observed several times since. The remarkable oscillations in the heat, remarked by all visitors, seem to have taken place on this occasion with more than the usual rapidity. As they were looking at one of the lakes which was boiling violently, they say : ** After a few minutes the violent struggle ceased, and the whole surface of the lake was changed to a black mass of i?lG. 40. KIIyAUEA ACCORDING TO CAPTAINvS PARKER AND CHASE. DANA. scorise ; but the pause was only to renew its exertions ; for, while they were gazing at the change, suddenly the entire crust which had been formed, commenced cracking, and the burning lava soon rolled across the lake, heaving the coating on its surface like cakes of ice upon the ocean surge.'' As they left the crater, nearly a qtiarter of the floor gave way, forming a vast pool of liquid lava.^^ Count Strzelecki was at Kilauea in the late summer of the same year and published what seem to be his undigested observations in the Hawaiian Spectator (vol. i, p. 435)^^ but revised them in his work on New Zealand and Van Diemen's Land in 1845. He made ^^Silliman's Journal (N. S.)^ vol. xl, p. 117 (1841). The plate accompanying their description was redrawn from their sketches by a New Haven artist, and it is given in outline in Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes, p. 60. The float- ing island '*heaved up and down in the liquid mass," and "rocked like a ship on a stormy sea." '^Reprinted in Thrum's Annual. [4^^] Ancient Walls of Kilauea, 49 barometric iiieasiireiiiciits at various points, making wliat seems to be Wald roll's Lcdgx* six Irimdred feet above the boiling surface of lava, and its height above tlic sea 4100 feet. He first notices the outer walls of the ancienl crater, calls tlie terraces around the pres- ent crater vast platforms, and makes the highest point of these ancient walls (now nineh interrnpted) 5054 feet. In all the modern sirrveys of the crater these "ancient walls" have been negleAed, althongli the ea.rly visitors often, refer to them, as Ellis saw on one of them on the northeast of Kilanea tlie ruins of the heiaii dcdicjited to Pele. The Count described six lakes of boiling lava, fonr of which were only three or fonr feet above the general floor, the fifth forty feel, and the last one hnnilred and fifty; this he calls liau man ninti^ which covered nearly a niilHon sqnare feet, ivhilc the others he rates at twelve thousand scpiare feet each. His statement that "the lava sank and rose in all the lakes simnltaneonsly" is, considering the difference in level, very improbable, and in cases where tliere have been several lakes on nearly 1839 the same level no sncli phetiomemm, has been , reported. Captain John vSliepherd was at tlie crater Septend;)cr 16, i■//■// M /,,.,., /,, /V///-, WG. 43. tAVA AROUMD TMBBS IW PTOfA. C431] 54 Kilauea and Matma Loa, at Hilo. Through the directing hand of a kind Providence no lives were lost, and but little property was consumed during this amazing flood of fiery ruin. During the progress of the descending stream, it would often fall into some fissure, and forcing itself into apertures, and under massive rocks, and even hillocks and extended plats of ground, and lifting them from their ancient beds, bear them with all their superincumbent mass of soil, trees, etc., on its viscous and livid bosom, like a raft on the water. When the fused mass was sluggish, it had a gory appearance like clotted blood, and when it was active, it resembled fresh and clotted blood mingled and thrown into violent agitation. Sometimes the flowing lava would find a subterranean gallery diverging at right angles from the main channel, and pressing into it would flow off unob- served, till meeting with some obstruction in its dark passage, when, by its expansive force, it would raise the crust of the earth into a dome-like hill of fifteen or twenty feet in height, and then bursting this shell, pour itself out in a fiery torrent around. A man who was standing at a considerable dis- tance from the main stream, and intensely gazing on the absorbing scene before him, found himself suddenly raised to the height of fifteen or twenty feet above the common level around him, and he had but just time to escape from his dangerous position, when the earth opened where he had stood, and a stream of fire gushed out. 3° The hill where the lava first appeared is called Arare, and is about six miles from Kilauea easterly in the dense forest. The natives say that the lava rose in this crater about three hundred feet, and then sunk again when the fissure opened below, and in 1865 at the time of the author's visit there were evident proofs of this on the crater walls. The course of the stream seems to have led through a high hill (seen in the sketch of Makaopuhi) thus just avoiding this large pit where it might be supposed the resistance would be least, but the hill was probably hollow, being a cone from which the lava had been emptied, and the cavity beneath it perhaps exceeded in size the pit crater. The elevation of the place where the lava finally reached the surface is given by Wilkes at 1244 feet, and it is twenty-seven miles from Kilauea, twenty-one from the first outbreak, and twelve from the shore at Nanawale. The sand-hills thrown up at this place were found to be one hundred and fifty, and two hundred and fifty feet high eight months after their formation, but since then the sea has removed the w^hole mass. Even in 1865 they were not a third of the measured height and nodules of olivine were abundant in the sands of the beach at considerable distance. In November, 1840, when first visited by Professor Dana, the lava was still hot in many places, a few feet below the surface. Small sulphur banks, with deposits of alum and other salts were met with in several places.^' The lava of this eruption is chrysolitic to a marked degree ; no such lava is found in Kilauea at present ; such lava has issued in several streams from Mauna Kea in ancient times, also perhaps from Mauna Loa, if we suppose the large deposits of this lava occasionally found along the coast near Hilo to have proceeded from this 3° Missionary Herald, voL xxxvii, p. 283. ^''Geology of the United States Exploring Expedition, p. 190. [432] Kilauea Visiled In' Datm. 55 moiiiitai-n, and it is common in tlie old flows near Hoiioluln, and in later flows from Manila Loa, in Kan. In tbe crater of Kilanea the olivine is in niiicli smaller particles. Ill November of the same year, when visited by Dana, the lava had fallen three hnndred and forty feet below the black ledge, or nearly a thousand feet below tlie highest wall, and only three pools of lava were in action. Haleniaiiman was fifteen hundred feet long and a t lion sand feet wide. The black ledge, three hundred and fortv %. *. feet from the bottom, was from one to three thousand feet wide, and exteuxled coni- pletel}^' around the crater. No flames were visible, and there was but little noise. ■''" Unfortunate]}' at the time of Dana's first visit (also at his second in 1SS7), Kilauea was not in a spectacular condition and he is rather inclined, n,ot unnaturally, ill his treatment of the vivid accounts of his predecessors to regard these as rather exaggerated, hence it is pleasing to find in his latest work the following description :"'' "In a night sceue from the summit, the large cauldron in place of a bloody glare, now glowed with intense brilliancy, and the surface sparkled all over with shifting points «/-or. «/., p. i7i. « Character! sties of Volcano . p. 68. [433] 56 Kilauea and Manna Loa. of dazzling light, like a network of liglitniiig, occasioned b}^ the jets in constant pla}'." M}'' old friend, Dr. Charles Pickering, Dana's companion on the exploration, gave him the apt comparison to lightning, and Dana admits that Pickering was "a man of very exact observation and measured words," 1841 In January, 1841, Dr. Pickering describes several considerable variations in the surface of Halemanniau, a hundred feet or more. On January 17, two of the pools discharged large quantities of lava over tlie bottom of the pit. The plan of the crater published by Wilkes, as well as the view by Dra3-tou, one of the artists of the expedition, show the appearance of Kilauea at this time-*" (Figs. 44, 45), ^i^l^ ■■>,i s ^i**- »' ;';<-^^ ■ ■ 1 I ^H ! 1 ^a I do not quote much from the narrative of the United States B^xploring P^xpe- dition, as Captain Wilkes included much in his story that was of merely personal interest; but there are a few statements about the condition of Kilauea at this time that should be noticed; and also, as the crater is generally such an amenable subject that accidents are almost unknown there, and "narrow escapes" seldom occur, it may be well to tell of one that actually occurred. I quote from the published report, ■'■'^ although I have heard the substance from Dr. G. P, Jndd, who was Wilkes' most useful guide as well as friend. He was in the crater to obtain specimens for the expedition: he had collected gases and was trying to get at the liquid lava: ^'•Narrative of llie United States Exploring Expedition, yol. iv, p. 178. J-"' Narrative U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv, p. 184, 410 ed. [434] Adventure of Dr. G. P, Judd. 57 Dr. Judd then sought for a place where he might dip up some of the recent and yet fluid lava, but found none sufficiently liquid for the purpose. Failing here he proceeded toward the great fiery lake at the southern extremity of the crater. He found that the ascent toward this was rapid because the successive Sowings of the lava had formed crusts which lapped over each other [see the forma- tion in Pis. Iv and lyll]. This rock was so dark in colour as to be almost black, and so hot as to act upon spittle just as iron, heated nearly to redness, would have done At this time they were very near the great lake but could not see its surface, which was still about twenty feet higher than the spot where they stood On his return the party pavSsed the small crater which has been spoken of: and which by comparison with the larger one appeared cool. Smoke and a little igneous matter were issuing from a small cone in the centre : but with this exception, a crust of solid lava covered the bottom. On the sides of this crater Dr. Judd saw some fine specimens of capillary glass, 'Tele's hair," which he was anxious to obtain for our collection. He therefore, by the aid of the hand of one of the natives, descended and began to collect specimens. When fairly down he was in danger of falling, in consequence of the narrowness of the footing : but in spite of this difficulty, his anxiety to collect the best specimens enticed him onwards. While thus advancing, he saw and heard a slight move- ment in the lava about fifty feet from him, which was twice repeated, and curiosity led him to turn to approach the place where the motion occurred. In an instant the crust was broken asunder by a terrific heave, and a jet of molten lava full fifteen feet in diameter rose to a height of about forty-five feet, with a most appalling noise. He instantly turned for the purpose of escaping : but found that he was now under a projecting ledge which opposed his ascent, and that the place where he had descended was some feet distant. The heat was already too great to permit him to turn his face towards it, and was every moment increasing, while the violence of the throes, which shook the rock beneath his feet, augmented. Although he considered his life as lost, he did not omit the means for preserving it, but offering a mental prayer for the Divine aid, he strove, although in vain to scale the projecting rock. While thus engaged he called in English upon his native attendants for aid: and looking upwards, saw the friendly hand of Kalumo. ... extended towards him. Ere he could grasp it, the fiery jet again rose above their heads, and Kalumo shrank back scorched and terrified, until excited by a second appeal, he again stretched forth his hand, and seizing Dr. Judd's with a giant's grasp, their joint efforts placed him on the ledge In looking for the natives they were seen some hundreds of yards distant running as fast as their legs could carry them. On his calling to them, however, they returned. .... .Dr. Judd now found that he had no time to lose, for the lava was flowing so rapidly to the north, that their retreat might be cut off, and the whole party be destroyed. They therefore at once took leave of the spot and only effected their escape by running. .... The crater had previously been measured by Dr. Judd and was found to be thirty-eight feet deep by two hundred feet in diameter. The rapidity of its filling (in twelve minutes) will give some idea of the quantity of the fluid mass. In February, 1842, Mr. Coan writes as follows: When within four or five rods of the great lake, unaware of our near proximity to it, we saw directly before us a vast area of what we had supposed to be solid lava moving off to the right and left. We were at first a little startled, not knowing but all was about to float away beneath us, especially as the lavas for a mile back were almost insupportably hot, and gases and steam were escaping from numerous openings. On looking again, we perceived that the whole sur- 1842 ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ from six to fifteen feet above the level of the surrounding lava, although at my last visit, it was from sixty to seventy feet below. Within six feet of this embankment we could see nothing of the lake, and in order to examine it we climbed the precipice some fifty feet. The explanation of this strange condition of things, is this : when the liquid con- tents of the lake had risen to a level with the brim, there was a constant and gradual boiling over of C435] 58 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. the viscid mass, but in quantities too small to run off far. Consequently it solidified on the margin, and thus formed the high rim which confined the lavas. Twice or at two points while we were there, the liquid flood broke through the rim, and flowed off in a broad, deep channel which continued its flow until we left the volcano. The view was a new one, and thrilling beyond description. In July, 1844, Mr. Coan saw the large lake overflow on every side, spreading over the whole southern end of the crater to the base of the black ledge and concealing the outlines of the raised rim. Two deep fissures extended under the ledge nearly encircling that part of the crater, and one of these was one hundred feet deep. The diagram given in Mr. Coan's letter 1844 (which has not been published in full) is here reproduced as ren- dering clearer the geography at the time. Dana considers the canals as mysteries, but the explanation he gives (CharaAeristics of Volcanoes, p. 77) only substitutes one mystery for another. We will continue the record and overtake his explanation. In June, 1846, Mr. Coan writes^^ 1846 that "the repeated overflowings had elevated the central parts of the crater four or five hundred feet since 1840, so that some points are now more elevated than the black ledge." We may note that the rise in the floor level was due, according to this practised observer, to the overflow of the lake which filled up the lower levels, including the canals. A month later Rev. Chester S. Lyman was at the crater and found it much as the last observer had reported. The canal was nearly filled by overflows, and in places nearly obliterated. ^^ A rude sketch which Mr. Lyman left on the islands is here reproduced, and with this chart we may understand the explanation of the rapid rise of the bottom of Kilauea given by Mr. Lyman and adopted by Prof. Dana.^^ A crescent shaped ridge of rocks is shown on this sketch, and Lyman states that it was a continuous ridge more than a mile long, consisting of angular blocks of compact lava resembling the debris at the foot of a range of trap or basalt. From this he infers that the ridge once constituted a talus or accumulation of debris on the floor of the walls of the lower pit of 1840: ^^Amer. Jo urn. Science, 1850, x, 361. ^^Amer. Journ. Science, 1851, xii, 75. ^^Prof. Ivyman's plan, as given by Dana (Characteristics of Volcanoes, p. 79), is quite different from the plan he left on the spot and which is copied above. It must have been elaborated at New Haven from notes. C436] IflG. 46. DIAGRAM IN THI5 COAN I^ETTKR. LymarCs Plan of Kilauea, 59 IMG. 47. TOYMAN'S PI.AN 01? KII^AUIilA IN 1846. [437] 6o Kilauea and Matina Loa. that the floor with its margin of blocks had been elevated partly by upheaving forces from beneath, and partly by overflows from the Great Lake and other active vents until the talus overtopped the precipice at the foot of which it was accumulated. If these gentlemen had been content with either the elevation or the overflow theory singly, we could understand to some extent the process ; we have recently seen the former in the strange obelisk of Mont Pelee, and the latter is the usual way in which the floor of Kilauea is raised. But if either Prof. Dana or Mr. Lyman had seen a lava stream taking a dry stone wall in hand, quietly insinu- ating its flexible black fingers under and be- tween the stones and raising them up and carrying them off, they would have seen the im- probability of their wall of stone remaining in situ surrounding an overflow- ing vent of lava. Mr. Coan saw clearly that the rise of the floor of the crater was due mainly at least to the accumula- tion of overflowing lava; it was acrogenous, and not pushed up from be- low. The rise of a cylin- der of lava a mile in diameter some two hundred feet would be remarkable, but with an overflowing bowl of lava more than a thousand feet in diameter in its very midst the phenomenon would be incomprehensible. It is also difficult to see what this ascension has to do with forming the canals. When I surveyed the crater eight or nine years after, most of this wall, which did not appear on the original plan as shown above, had disappeared, but in a like position were scattered stones which I could not believe had ever been elevated to their then position ; they had dropped from the cliffs above — the outer walls — precisely as can be seen today on the trail into the crater huge rocks of the same formation which were hurled down in the earthquake of 1868. [438] KILAl'EA I !*, t.V«AN' ^IG. 48. IvYMAN'S C0RRECTE;I) PI.AN. A Dome on Halemaumati, 6i That there is a daily change of level in the dome-like floor of Kilauea, I cannot doubt. The black surface absorbs the heat of the sun to such a degree as at times to become unbearable to the touch. The casual visitor supposes this terrestrial heat, when it is really solar. The nights here are usually quite cold, and the change from midnight to noon must result in considerable expansion and contraction. In the early morning I have repeatedly heard the tinkling noise caused by the sun's rays on the cold lava as they displace the shadows of the cliffs; and I once measured the change in width of the great crack at the base of the dome on the trail across the crater, at eight inches between early morning and noon on a bright day. If we had a suitable observatory at Kilauea observations could easily be made all over the floor, and on the surface of Halemaumau as well for change of level. But Mr. Lyman's visits, for he was again at Kilauea in August, were full of information. He saw a thick cone, marked ^^furnace" on his plan, in full blast on his second visit. Such a furnace as the writer saw in the summer of 1889. Lyman took a few compass bearings in the crater, and with an improvised quadrant obtained the height of walls. The Great Lake (Halemaumau) he made twenty-four hundred by two thousand feet, and the surface ten or fifteen feet below his standpoint on the rim. The lavas had an apparent motion to the southwest. 1847 Halemaumau was, according to Mr. Coan, much in the same condition as the previous year.'''^ 1848 The lake was early in the year inactive, and the crust hardened and gradually assumed a convex form. Dana states that soon after this swelling crust two thousand feet in diameter, was raised into a dome two or three hundred feet high, covering the whole lake. Mr. Coan, from whom this information was obtained, adds that in August the dome was raised almost high enough to overtop the lower part of the outer wall of Kilauea and look out upon the surrounding country. From open- ings in the dome the molten lava could be seen, and occasionally sluggish lava rolled in heavy and irregular streams down the sides. The dome as it now stands has been formed by the compound action of upheaving forces from beneath and of eruptions from the openings forming successive layers upon its external surface. Most of this year no fires were to be seen even at night in Lua Pele. This is the first appearance of a dome in the history of Kilauea, and it is hard to accept the elevation theory applied to a dome of the brittle nature of crust lava, cracked and fissured in every part, with such a vast diameter, holding together for any length of time even if its foundations were more solid than the brink of Halemaumau affords at its best. To suppose this raised two or three hundred feet without interior ^^Amer. Journ. Science, 1851, xii, 80. [4391 62 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. cross braces or supports is difficult: to suppose it blow^n up by gases, like a soap bubble, predicates a semifluid or elastic continuous crust which did not exist, for the dome was well punctured at its earliest formation and long before it attained its full height, the top was open like the dome of the Roman Pantheon, and from the lateral apertures flowed lava streams. I do not here dispute the fact that enormous masses have been pushed up to so great an height as five hundred feet from the molten or semi-molten pools in Kilauea^ — we shall see many later, — but I must call attention to the difficulty of the problem. The dome continued to hold together over the quiet pit, like a mausoleum over a dead volcano, and in April, 1849, there came a change; activity was greatly increased; startling detonations were heard from cones around the dome, and from the opening on the top of this lavas were thrown fifty to sixty feet. Elsewhere in the main crater action was so violent as to frighten travelers from the descent to any part of 1849 Kilauea. This excitement did not last long, it suddenly ceased and Hale- maumau was emptied of lava by subterranean discharge, in what direction is unknown, and there followed a period of great quiet. A period of what Mr. Coan aptly calls ^'steaming stupefaction" continued through the next two years, but early in 1852 boiling lavas could again be seen through the summit aperture of the dome, now one hundred feet in diameter. In July Mr. Coan writes^'' that the orifice had doubled its diameter, which constantly increased bj^^ the fall of fragments into the molten pool one hundred and fifty feet below. In the west wall of the dome was a crack from top to bottom, through which lavas were ejeAed, while vapors escaped from the perforated dome on all sides. In a later letter Mr. Coan writes^' that at the beginning of 1854 the dome still stood, probably two miles in circumference and three to six hundred feet high. The surface of the main crater floor continued to rise and he estimated it at six hundred feet above the level of 1840. We are now approaching a period when Pele's activity seems transferred from her everlasting house to her more lofty abode on Mauna Loa, and we can conveniently turn to that grand dome rising ten thousand feet above Kilauea. Henceforth we will record both mountains together, not that I believe they have any more connection than Kea and Hualalai, but for convenience of narrative, as the one in action attracts all the attention; but while Kilauea is generally visited whenever Loa is in action, Kilauea is frequently visited and always now has some one living on the banks, while Loa is seldom ascended, and in the winter season is difficult and even dangerous to ascend. In the winter or rainy months most of the eruptions of Loa have occurred. '^^Amer. Journ. Science, 1853, xv, 63. Letter dated July 31, 1852. ^*Ibid, 1854, xviii, 96. Letter dated Jan. 30, 1854. [440] Douglas First Ascends Mauna Loa. 63 We must retrace our steps to the first recorded eruption of Mauna Loa in 1832. It is strange that no traditions of the natives point definitely to any previous one. They might have seen the fires from the summit crater Mokuaweoweo, or even the fire fountains from the cracks on the flanks, but even the hunters did not care to venture into the elevated waste where cold and winds and rain divided the realm with 1832 gods and wandering spirits of lower degree and even less morals. All that concerned the aborigines was the descent of a destroying lava stream into their fertile fields or over the sand beaches and into the bays, so important to a fishing population. The impelling spirit was always Pele, and from which of her many abodes she came mattered little to these children of Nature. On June 20, 1832, Mauna Loa began to eject lava from the summit on several sides, and continued three or four weeks, with such brilliancy as to be visible at Lahaina, more than a hundred miles distant.^^ As no one ascended the mountain it is not known whether this eruption was from Mokuaweoweo or from some of the many vents dotted over the broad flat summit. Through the summer earthquakes were frequent on Hawaii, although not severe, and finally Kilauea burst into activity as described in the account of that volcano (p. 46). After an interval of eleven years Mokuaweoweo again broke out. In 1837 Douglas made the first ascent of Loa by a foreigner (if not by any human being), and unfortunately wrote a letter to Dr. Hooker of Kew, England, in which he gives a wild and impossible account of the condition of the crater. In his journal, and in a later letter to Captain Sabine he gave a sane account of the crater which was quiescent. ^^ 1843 He remarks that there was little in the upper part of the mountain to interest a naturalist. Mr. Douglas was all the time a botanist. The Wilkes expe- dition made the ascent in January, 1841, and found no activity beyond a few steam exhalations. Lieutenant Eld, by taking angles from the bottom of the crater, made the western wall 784 feet high, and the eastern 470 feet. Dr. G. P. Judd accompanied Eld in the descent into the crater. The accounts of the eruption of 1843 ^^^ ^^ follows, the first from Dr. Andrews in a letter dated February 6, 1843 : Smoke was first seen near the summit of the mountain, on Monday, January 9th. During the succeeding night a brilliant light was emitted from the same spot. The great distance of the mountain from Hilo— about forty miles — prevented our seeing anything more than the intense glare *^Amer. Journ. Science, xxv, 199. '^^Dana says in a note on page 59 of his Characteristics of Volcanoes, in speaking of the letter to Dr. Hooker, which caused an unjust doubt to fall on all his reports, "His words indicate a mixing up and magnifying of what he had seen at the Kilauea and Mauna IvOa craters, which can be explained only on the ground of temporary hallucina- tion. He may have dined that day with his friend the British consul. Mr. Douglas was an excellent Scotchman, and all the rest of his writings are beyond questioning." The journal appeared in the Companion of the Botanical Magazine, ii, 79-182, in 1836. In the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1834, iv, 333, is an important letter to Captain Sabine, and in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, 1837, i, 582, are extracts from his journal including the letter to Dr. Hooker. [441 ] 64 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa. sent forth by the boiling mass, which apparently was pouring forth and rolling down the side. . . During the day vast volumes of smoke were constantly pouring forth, concealing everything beneath. At times the smoke rose in a nearly perpendicular column, not less, as I judged, than one or two thou- sand feet high. Before the close of the week the light disappeared from the upper part of the moun- tain, and broke out anew near its base in the valley between it and Mauna Kea.44 The Rev. Titus Coan writes under date of February 20, 1843/^ After describ- ing the brilliancy of the light he says: **For about four weeks this scene continued without much abatement. At the present time, after six weeks, the action of the fire is greatly dimin- ished, though it is still somewhat vehement at one or two points along the line of eruption. The flow of the lava has probably extended twenty miles." Soon after this he was able to visit the scene of erup- tion, and ascend the mountain, and writes in a letter dated April 5 : ^*The eruption has flowed from the summit of Mauna Loa to the base of Mauna Kea, where it separates into two broad streams, one flow- ing toward Waimea, and the other towards Hilo. Another great stream has flowed along the base of Mauna Loa towards Mauna Hualalai in Kona. These streams are still flowing, and they have reached a distance of from twenty- five to thirty miles from the crater on the top of the mountain. The quantity of lava is immense, it being many miles wide. There are two great active craters in close contiguity near the summit. Lava does not flow from these craters now; it is con- veyed down the side of the mountain in a subterranean duct from fifty to a hundred feet below the surface, at the rate of from fifteen to twenty miles an hour."^' Soon after this visit the flow ceased. Mr. Coan threw stones into the stream as it appeared through the openings in the crust, and they did not sink but were instantly carried along out of^sight. Mounds, ridges and cones were thrown up along the lava stream, and from ^5 Ibid, 463. '*^ Missionary Herald, xl, 44. [442] FIG. 49. WII,KES' SURVEY OF M0KUAWf:0WE;0, 1841. '^^ Missionary Herald, xxxix, p. 381. Mauna Loa in Eruption^ i84g-i8^2 65 the latter, steam, gases and hot stones were ejected. The angle of descent for the whole distance is 6°, but in many places the stream was continuous at an inclination of 25°. Kilauea was visited by Mr. Abner Wilcox during this eruption, but it showed no vSigns of sympath}^ with the summit crater. In May, 1849, there was seen for two or three weeks a brilliant and lofty 1849 column of light over the mountain. Mr. Coan, who furnishes this note, says nothing of any outflow of lava or earthquakes.'*^ In 185 1 a slight 1851 eruption occurred on the summit of Mauna Loa, described by Mr. Coan as follows :^^ *'0n the 8th of August last a new eruption was seen on the western slope of Mauna Loa, a few miles from its summit. All we could see at Hilo was a white pillar of smoke by day and a brilliant fiery pillar by night. . . .At Kau the view was less obstructed. . . .The eruption continued but three or four days.'' This eruption broke out about a thousand feet below the summit, or two hundred feet below the bottom of the terminal crater. Some observers declare that the smoke proceeded partly from Mokuaweoweo, but no one ascended the mountain. No jets were thrown up and the fissure soon closed. From the portion of this stream that I visited in 1864, I should estimate its dimensions at ten miles in length, but less than a mile in average breadth, or in volume one hundred and sixty million cubic yards of lava. The greater part of this lava is pahoehoe, although some aa occurs, and the whole flow bears marks of rapid cooling. It followed very nearly the track of an eruption w^hich broke down the western rim of Mokuaweoweo and flowed through Kealakeakua. February 17, 1852, only six months after the slight eruption just mentioned, 1852 Mauna Loa again broke out and our faithful chronicler writes as follows:'^ Old Kilauea has been quite tame since I last wrote you At half-past three on the morning of the 17th ult. a small beacon light was discovered on the summit of Mauna Loa. At first it appeared like a solitary star resting on the apex of the mountain. In a few minutes its light increased and shone like a rising moon. Seamen keeping watch on deck in our port exclaimed, ^' What is that? The moon is rising in the West!" In fifteen minutes the problem was solved. A flood of fire burst out of the mountain, and soon began to flow in a briUiant current down its north- ern slope. It was from the same point, and it flowed in the same line, as the great eruption which I visited in March, 1843. In a short time immense columns of burning lava shot up heavenward to the height of three or four hundred feet, flooding the summit of the mountain with light, and gilding the firmament with its radiance. Streams 6i light came pouring down the mountain, flashing through our windows, and lighting up our apartments so that we could see to read large print. When we first awoke, so dazzling was the glare on our windows that we supposed that some building near us must be on fire ; but as the light shone directly upon our couch and into our faces we soon per- ceived the cause. In two hours the molten stream had rolled, as we judged, about fifteen miles down the side of the mountain. This eruption was one of terrible activity and surpassing splendor, but it wis short. In about twenty-four hours all traces of it seemed to be extinguished. 47 , ^American Journal of vScience, 1851, xii, 82. Letter ^«Ibid, xi, 395- A letter to Rev. C S. Lyman, dated January, 1851. ^nbid, xii, 219. Memoirs B. P. B. Museum. Vol. II, No. 4.-5. L443 J 66 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, At daybreak on the 20th of February, we were again startled by a rapid eruption bursting out laterally on the side of the mountain facing Hilo, and about midway from the base to the summit of the mountain. This lateral crater was equally active with the one on the summit, and in a short time we perceived the molten river flowing from its orifice direct towards Hilo. The action became more and more fierce from hour to hour. Floods of lava poured out of the mountain's side, and the glowing river soon reached the woods at the base of the mountain, a distance of twenty miles. Clouds of smoke ascended and hung like a vast canopy over the mountain, or rolled off on the wings of the wind. These clouds assumed various hues,-^murky, blue, white, purple or scarlet— as they were more or less illuminated from the fiery abyss below. Sometimes they resembled an inverted burning mountain with its apex pointing to the awful orifice over which it hung. Some- times the glowing pillar would shoot up vertically for several degrees, and then describing a graceful curve, sweep off horizontally, like the tail of a comet, further than the ej^e could reach. The sable atmosphere of Hilo assumed a lurid appearance, and the sun's rays fell upon us with a yellow, sickly light. Clouds of smoke careered over the ocean, carrying with them ashes, cinders, charred leaves, etc., which fell in showers upon the decks of ships approaching our coast. The light was seen more than a hundred miles at sea, and at times the purple tinge was so widely diffused as to appear like the whole firmament on fire. Ashes and capillary vitrif actions called Pele's hair fell thick in our streets and upon the roofs of our houses. And this state of things still continues, for even now while I write, the atmosphere is in the same yellow and dingy condition; every object looks pale, and sickly showers of vitreous filaments are falling around us, and our children are gathering them. As soon as the second eruption broke out I determined to visit it. Dr. Wetmore agreeing to accompany me, we procured four natives to carry our baggage, one of them, Kekai acting as guide. On Monday the 23rd of February, we all set off and slept in the outskirts of the great forest which separates Hilo from the mountains. Our track was not the one I took in 1843, namely the bed of a river; we attempted to penetrate the thicket at another point, our general course bearing southwest. In ancient days an Indian trail had been beaten through in this direction, but it was now entangled with jungle so that all traces of it were nearly obliterated. However, we plunged into the forest with a long knife, hatchet and clubs, and cut and beat our way at the rate of one and a fifth miles an hour. At night we slept in the bush and listened to the distant roar of the volcano. On Wednesday the 25th we gained a little eminence in the woods, from which we could see the lava-stream which was now opposite us on our left, distant six miles. -This fiery flood was now half way through the forest, and more than three-fourths of the way from the crater to the shore, sweeping all before it. Appre- hending that it might reach the sea in a day or two, and that the ladies at the station might be alarmed. Dr. Wetmore determined to return. Taking one of the natives and leaving three with me, he retraced his steps while I pushed on through jungle and bog and dell, beating every yard of my way out of this horrible thicket. On the 26th we emerged from the forest but plunged at once into a dense fog more dark than the thicket itself. Pushing up the mountain we encamped for the night on a rough bushy ridge. A little before sunset the fog rolled off, and Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa both stood out in grand relief; the former robed in a fleecy mantle almost to its base, and the latter belching out floods of fire from its burning bowels. All night long we could see the glowing fires, and listen to the awful roar of the fearful crater. We had now been out four nights, and were within twenty miles of the crater, with the long brilliant river of fusion on our left shining in a line of light down the side of the mountain [see the illustration of the flow of 1887] till it entered the woods. We left our mountain aerie on the 27th, determined if possible to reach the seat of action on that day. Taking the pillar of fire and cloud as our mark, and still having the great river of lava on our left, we pushed on over a rough and almost impassable surface—the attraction increasing as the square of the distance decreased. Our intense interest mocked all obstacles. At noon we came upon the confines of a tract of naked scoriae so intolerably sharp and jagged that our baggage-men could not pass it. Here I ordered a halt; [444] Eruption of Mauna Loa in 18^2, 67 stationed the two carriers, gave an extra pair of strong shoes to my guide, gave him my wrapper and blanket, put a few crackers and boiled eggs into my pockets, took my compass and staff, and said to Mr. Salt Sea (Kekai), "Now go ahead, and let us warm ourselves tonight by that fire yonder/' Thus equipped we pressed up the mountain, over fields of indescribable roughness; now mounting a ridge of sharp and vitreous scoriae (aa), where the fiery pillar stood full in view, and then plung- ing into some awful ravine or pit, from which w^e vSlowly emerged by crawling upon all fours. But I soon found that my guide needed a leader. He was too slow. I therefore pressed ahead, leaving him to get on as best he could. After half-past three p. m. I reached the awful crater and Ftood alone in the light of its fires. It was a moment of unutterable interest. I seemed to be standing in the presence and before the throne of the eternal God ; and while all other voices were hushed. His alone spake. I was ten thousand feet above the sea, in a vast solitude untrodden by the foot of man or beast; amidst a silence unbroken by any living voice, and surrounded by scenes of terrific deso- lation. Here I stood almost blinded by the insufferable brightness ; almost deafened by the startling clangor; almost petrified with the awful scene. The heat was so intense that the crater could not be approached within forty or fifty yards on the windward side, and probably, not within two miles on the leeward. The eruption as before stated, commenced on the very summit of the mountain, but it w^ould seem that the lateral pressure of the embowelled lava was so great as to force itself out at a weaker point in the side of the mountain ; at the same time cracking and rending the mountain all the w^ay down from the summit to the place of ejection The eruption first issued from a depression in the mountain, but a rim of scoriae two hundred feet in elevation had already been formed around the orifice in the form of a hollows truncated cone. This cone was about half a mile in circumference at its base, and the orifice at the top may be three hundred feet in diameter The eruptions were not intermittent but continuous. Volumes of the fusion were constantly ascend- ing and descending like 2ijet d'eau. The force which expelled these igneous columns from the orifice, shivered them into millions of fragments of unequal size, some of which would be rising, some fall- ing, some shooting off laterally, others describing graceful curves; some moving in tangents, and some falling back in vertical lines into the mouth of the crater. During the night the scene sur- passed all powers of description. Vast volumes of lava, at a white heat shot up continuously. . . A large fissure opening through the lower rim of the crater gave vent to the molten flood which constantly poured out of the orifice and rolled down the mountain in a deep, broad river at the rate, probably, of ten miles an hour. The stream stopped about ten miles from Hilo beach; the eruption lasted twenty days. Early in March Messrs. H. Kinney and Fuller made the ascent and they confirm Mr. Coan's description of the terrific noise, but are inclined to enlarge his estimates in some particulars. Mr. Kinney made the height of the jets four to eight hundred feet: he noticed great whirlwinds about the jet, stalking like sentinels. Mr. Fuller states^" that the diameter of the crater from which the jets played was about a thousand feet; height of crater, a hundred to a hundred and fifty feet; height of the jet, two to seven hundred feet, and rarely below three hundred feet; diameter of the jet, one to three hundred feet, and rarely perhaps reaching four hundred feet. In July Mr. Coan again ascended to the crater and found no fire. He found an unusual supply of limu or basaltic pumice. He says in writing of this, ^^We found it ten miles 5° American Journal of Science, 1852, xiv, 258. Letter dated Waiohinu, March 28, [445] 68 Kilatiea and Mauna Loa, from the crater, and it grew more and more abundant till we reached the cone, where it covered the whole region to a depth of five or ten feet.^' All this time Kilauea was quiet and remained so all through 1854, but the next year the old activity returned. Underneath the dome the lava was throwing up jets to the height of perhaps two hundred feet; vents had opened around the edge of the floor of the main crater, and Mr. Coan, in May and June, could count sixty lakes of leaping lavas. There was one great pool in the northeast region nearVhere 1855 the path meets the bottom, and other boiling cauldrons not far distant, so that access to the crater was cut off.^^ On July 6th Dr. Titus Munson Coan was at the crater, and found this northeast pool crusted over except at the edge where the lavas were splashing. Halemaumau was estimated to measure four hundred by two hundred and fifty feet in its diameters, while the lava was seventy-five feet below the rim. The walls of this pit were tufted with Pele's hair, and two islands were in the northwest part of the lake. In October the crater was still active, but less so than early in the summer. The dome over Halemaumau had fallen in. It is thought that the lavas had passed out as at the last so-called eruption in 1849. But there was more important work going on in the Hawaiian lava ducts. In a letter dated September 27, 1855, Mr. Coan writes: ''On the evening of the eleventh of August, a small point glowing like Sirius, was seen at the height of twelve thousand feet on the northwestern slope of Mauna Loa. This radiant point rapidly expanded, throwing off corruscations of light, until it looked like a full-orbed sun."^^ Sixty-five days later, the fissure which permitted the escape of lava was still open and in awful activity. The stream was flowing directly towards Hilo and there were no valleys or ridges of sufficient size to turn its course. The inhabitants of this beautiful village were exceedingly anxious, and made frequent excursions to the scene of the lava-flow. On the second of October, Mr. Coan with a party of friends passed through the thick forest, following the course of the Wailuku river, and on the fifth reached the lava-stream early in the morning, at a narrow point where it was about three miles wide. "In some places it spread out into wide lakes and seas, apparently from five to eight miles broad, enclosing, as is usually the case, little islands not flooded by the fusion.'^ Mr. Coan continues in this letter, which is dated October 15, iS^S'*^' Early on vSaturday, the 6th, we were ascending our rugged pathway, amidst steam and smoke and heat which ahnost bhnded and scathed us. At ten we came to open orifices down which we looked into the fiery river which rushed furiously beneath our feet. Up to this we had come to no open lake or stream of active fusion. We had seen in the night many lights, like street lamps, glow- ing along the slope of the mountain at considerable distances from each other, while the stream made ^^ American Journal of vScience, 1853, xv, 63, "Ibid, xxi, 144. "Ibid, 1856, xxi, IOC), 139. ^^Ibid 139 C446] Flow from Manna Loa in iS^^^, 69 its way in a subterranean channel, traced only by these vents. P'rom 10 a.m. and onward, these fiery vents were frequent, some of them measuring ten, twenty, fifty, or one hundred feet in diameter. In one place only we saw the river uncovered for thirty rods and rushing down a declivity of from ten to twenty-five degrees. The vScene was awful, the momentum incredible, the fusion perfect (a white heat), and the velocity forty miles an hour. The banks on each side of this .stream were red-hot, jagged and overhanging, adorned with burniiig stalactites and festooned with immense quantities of filanientose or capillary glass, called Pele's hair. From this point to the summit crater all was inexpressibly interesting. Valve after valve opened as we went up, out of which issued fire and smoke and brimstone, and down which we looked as into the caverns of Pluto. The gases w^ere so pungent that we had to use the greatest caution, approaching a stream or an orifice on the windward side, and watching every change or gyration of the breeze. Sometimes whirlwinds would sweep along loaded with deadly gases, and threatening the unwary traveler. After a hot and weary struggle over smoking masses of jagged scoriae and slag, thrown in wild confuvsion into hills, cones and ridges, and spread out over vast fields, we came at one p.m. to the terminal or summit crater (not Mokuaweoweo) . This we found to be a low elongated cone, or rather a series of cones, standing over a great fissure in the mountain. Mounting to the crest of the highest cone, we expected to look down into a great sea of raging lavas, but instead of this the throat of the crater, at the depth of one hundred feet was clogged with scoriae, cinders, and ashes through which the smoke and gases rushed up furi- ously from seams and holes. One orifice within this cone was about twenty feet in diameter, and was continually sending up a dense column of blue and wdiite smoke which rolled off in gases and spread over all that part of the mountain, darkening the sun and obscuring every object a few rods distant. So toppling was the crest of this cone, so great the heat, and so deadly the gases, that we could find no position where we could look down the throat of the orifice ; and could we have done so, it is not probable that we should have vSeen the deep fountain below us, as the lavas were forced up its horrid chimney from the burning bowels of the earth. The summit cone which we avScended was about one hundred feet high, say five hundred feet long, and three hundred broad at its base. Several other cones below us were of the same form and general character, presenting the appearance of smoking tumuli along the upper slope of the moun- tain The molten stream first appears some ten miles below the fountain crater, and as we viewed it rushing out from beneath the black rocks, and, in the twinkling of an eye, diving again into its fiery den, it produced indescribable feelings of awe and dread. The summit crater I estimate at twelve thousand feet elevation ; the principal stream (there are many lesser and lateral ones) includ- ing all its windings, sixty miles long; average breadth, three miles; depth from three to three hun- dred feet, according to the surface over which it flowed. The present eruption is between those of 1843 and 1852, and from our high tow^er we could see them both and trace their windings. Early on Monday we decamped and set our faces for Kilauea, distant some thirty-five miles, hoping by a forced march to reach it at night. At eight a.m. we passed the seat of the grand erup- tion of 1852, and travelled for miles on its cinders. A little steam only issues from that cone whose awful throat in 1852, sent up a column of glowing fusion to the height of a thousand feet. We ex- plored Kilauea and on Thursday reached Hilo. Hilo is now in a state of solemn and thoughtful suspense. The great summit fountain is still playing with fearful energy and the devouring stream rushes madly down towards us. It is now about ten miles distant, —nearly through the woods, following the right bank of the Wailuku, and heading directly for our bay. October 22. It is now seventy-two days since the eruption commenced, and the fountain is in full force. The matter disgorged is of the same general character as in former eruptions. We saw nothing new. Among the salts, sulphur and sulphate of lime are the most abundant. They are scattered freely at several points along the line of flow. [447I 7o Kilauea and Mauna Loa, Mr. Coan, it will be seen, struck the flow at a point above the terminus and followed it to its source. On his return he determined to cut through the forest and meet the stream. Following a branch of the Wailuku in a drenching rain which made the river almost impassable, he thus describes the scene :^^ So soon as we entered this stream we found it discolored with pyroligneous acid from burning wood, whose odor atid histre became more and more positive the further we advanced up the vStream. The discoloration also became more apparent as we proceeded, until the water was almost black. This showed that the lava-fiow had crOvSsed the head waters of the stream and its small tributaries, consuming the forest and jungle, and sending down what could not be evaporated of the juices to mingle with the stream. A little before sundown our guide led us at right angles from the stream we had been thread- ing for six hours, and in a few minutes the fires of the volcano glared upon us through the woods. We were within six rods of the awful flood which was moving sullenly along on its mission towards Hilo. ThrUvSting our poles into the lava, we stirred it, and dipped it up like pitch, taking out the boiling mass, and cooling all the specimens we desired. We w^ere on the right or southern verge of the stream, and w^e also found that we were about two miles above its terminus, where it was glow- ing with intense radiance and pushing its molten flood into the dense forest which still disputed its passage to the sea. We judged the stream to be two or three miles wide at this point, and over all this expanse, and as far as the eye could see above, and down to the end of the river, the whole sur- face was dotted with countless fires, both mineral and vegetable. Immense trees which had stood for hours, or for a day, in this molten sea, were falling before and below us, while the trunks of those previously prostrated were burning in great numbers upon the surface of the lava. You are aware that the great fire-vent on the mountain discharges its floods of incandescent minerals into a subterranean pipe which extends at a depth of from fifty to tw^o hundred feet, dowai the side of the mountain. Under this arched passage the boiling lava hurries down with awful speed until it reaches the plains below. Here the fusion spreads out under a black surface of hardened lava some six or eight miles wide, depositing immense masses which stiffen and harden on the way. Channels, however, winding under this stratified stratum, conduct portions of the lava down to the terminus of the stream, some sixty-five miles from its high fountain. Here it pushes out from under its mural arch, exhibiting a fiery glow, across the whole breadth of the stream. Where the ground is not steep, and where the obstructions from trees, jungle, depressions, etc., are numerous, the pro- gress is very slow, say one mile a week. On the evening of our arrival we encamped within ten feet of the flowing lava, and, as before stated, on the southern margin of the stream, some two miles above its extreme lower points. Here under a large tree, and on a bank elevated some three feet above the igneous flood which moved before us, we kept vigils until morning. During the whole night the scene was indescribably bril- liant and terribly sublime. The greater portion of the vast area before us was of ebon blackness, and consisted of the hardened or smouldering flood which had been thrown out and deposited here in a depth of from ten feet to one hundred. Not only was the lava, as aforesaid, gushing out at the end of this layer, but also at its sides. These lateral gushings came out before and behind us, and two-thirds surrounded our camp during the night, so that in the morning, when we decamped, the fusion was just ^w^ feet by measurement, in front of us, six feet in our rear, and three feet, or the diameter of the trunk of our camp-tree, on our left. The drenching rain and our chilled condition induced us to keep as near the fire as we could bear it. Evening and morning we boiled our tea-kettle and fried our ham upon the melted lavas, and when we left, our sheltering tree was on fire. ^^ American Journal, xxi, 237. The letter is dated Nov. 16, 1855. C448] lite Eruption of iS^f^. 71 Mr. Coati made several attempts to cross the lava-flow, ^*but the hardened sur- face of the stream was swelling and heaving at innumerable points by the accumulat- ing masses and the upraising pressure of the lava below ; and valves were continually opening out of which the molten flood gushed and flowed in little streams on every side of us. Not a square rod could be found on all this v/ide expanse, where the glowing fusion could not be seen under our feet through holes and cracks in the super- incumbent stratum on which we were walking. The open pots and pools and streams we avoided by a zigzag course ; but as we advanced, these became more numerous and intensely active, and the heat becoming unendurable, we again beat a retreat after having proceeded some thirty rods upon the stream. It may seem strange to many, that one should venture on such a fiery stream at all, but you will understand that the greater part of the surface of the stream was hardened to the depth of from six inches to two or three feet; that the incandescent stream flowed nearly under this crust like water under ice, but showing up through ten thousand fissures and break- ing up in countless pools. On the hardened parts we could walk, though the heat was almost scorching, and the smoke and gases suffocating. We could even tread on a fresh stream of lava only one hour after it had poured out from a boiling cauldron, so soon does the lava harden in contact with the air.'' Although the stream of lava continued to move for more than a year after in parts of its course, its front became cold and fixed on the banks of the river, and a merciful Providence listened to the prayers of the people of Hilo. Prof. Dana considered it most probable that a fissure had extended completely down the mountain side, and that the lava issued from many vents along this line.^^ March 7, 1856, Mr. Coan writes: The ^reat fire-fountain is still in eruption, and the terminus of the stream is only five miles from the shore. The lava moves slowly along on the surface of the ground, and at points where the quantity of lava is small, we dip it up with an iron spoon held in the hand. During the last three weeks the stream has made no progress toward Hilo, and we begin to hope that the supply at the summit-fountain has diminished. There is, however, still much smoke at the terminal crater. You will understand that the molten flood is all poured out of the fissures on the summit and 18 S6 fo^ ^ ^^w miles down the slope of the mountain. At first this disgorgement flowed down and spread wide on the surface of the mountain, as blood flows down a punctured limb. This phenomenon continued until the stream had swept down some thirty miles, which it did in about two days. It now came upon a place were the angle of slope was small, say one degree. Here its progress became slow, it spread more widely, and refrigeration was more rapid. The surface of course hardened first. But this refrigerating process went deeper and deeper like the congelation of water, and extended higher up the mountain, until at length all the lava was covered, except at occasional vents — as heretofore described — for the escape of steam and gases. The process of breaking up vertically and spreading out afresh upon the hardened crust, was occasioned by obstructions at the end of the stream, damming up the liquid, and thus obliging the accumulating lavas to force new passages and outlets for disgorgement. In this way the stream was ^^American Journal, xxi, 24T. [449] 72 Kttauea and Mauna Loa, widened by lateral outgushings^ divided into several channels, swayed to the right and left, and raised to great heights by pushing up from below and heaping mass after mass upon what had been its upper stratum. Often when the stream had been flowing briskly and brilliantly at the end, it would suddenly harden and cool, and for several days remain inactive. At length, however, immense areas of the solidified lava, four, five or six miles above the end of the stream, are seen in motion — cones are uncapped — domes crack — hills and ridges of scoriae move and clink — immense slabs of lava are raised vertically or tilted in every direction, while a low sullen crash is heard from below. While you gaze in mute amazement, and feel the solid mass of rock, often thirty, fifty, or seventy feet thick, moving under your feet, the struggling lava oozes out through ten thousand orifices and fissures over a field of some four or five square miles. More than once have I been on such a field, and heard, and seen, and felt more than is here or can be described. And yet the action of the lava is so slow, in the conditions described, that there is no fear, and little danger to one well acquainted with such phenomena. During the night of the 29th of January, the molten stream poured continuously over a preci- pice of fifty feet, into a deep, dry basin half filled with flood-wood. The angle down which this fire cataract flowed, was about seventy-five degrees : the lava was divided into two, three, and sometimes four channels from one to four yards wide, and two or three feet deep. The flow was continuous down the face of this precipice from two p.m. until ten the next morning when we left. During the night the immense basin under the fall was filled, the precipice converted into an inclined plane of about four degrees, and the burning stream w^as urging its way along the rocky channel below. But the scene on the night of the 12th of February was, in some respects, more gorgeous still, as it combined the element of water with that of jfire. A stream of lava from twenty to forty yards wide had followed the rocky and precipitous bed of a river, until it was two miles in advance of the main lava-fiow, which was nearly two miles broad. Beating our way through the thicket we came upon the terminus of this narrow stream of lava, near sunset. It was intensely active, and about to pour over a precipice of thirty-nine feet (by measurement), into a basin of deep water, large enough to float a ship. Before dark the lava began to fall into the water, first in great broken masses, like clots of blood; but in a short time in continuous, incandescent streams, which increased from hour to hour in volume, in brilliancy, and in rate of motion. [See Plate Xlyl, which represents exactly similar action at a later period.] The water boiled and raged with fearful vehemence, raising its domes and cones of ebullition ten feet high, and reflecting the red masses of fusion like a sea of fire mingled with blood. We encamped on the bank of the river, about fifty feet below the fiery cataract, and exactly opposite the basin of water into which the lava was flowing, twenty feet only from its rim. The face of this precipice was an angle of about eighty degrees, and the lava flowed down it briskly and continuously in streams from one to four feet deep, during the night. Before morning this whole body of water, some twenty feet deep, was converted into steam, and the precipice became a gently inclined plane. To make the fact that the fissure did not extend to the base of the mountain more clear, Mr. Coan again writes under date of October 22, 1856; he had then visited the flow seven times : A fracture or fractures occurred near the summit of the mountain, which extended in an irregular line from the terminal point, say five miles down the northeast slope of the mountain. From this serrated and yawning fissure, for two to thirty yards wide, the molten flood rushed out and spread laterally for four or five miles, filling the ravines, flowing over the plains, and covering all those high regions, from ten to one or two hundred feet deep. Along this extended fissure, elon- gated cones were formed at the points of the greatest activity. These cones appear as if split through their larger diameter, the inner sides being perpendicular or overhanging, jagged and hung with [450] How the Lava Flowed, 73 stalactites, draped with filamentous vitrifications, and encrusted with sulphur, sulphate of lime and other salts. The outside of these cones are inclined planes, on an angle of forty to sixty degrees, and composed of pumice, cinder, volcanic sand, etc. You will not, however, understand that these semi-cones were once entire, and that they have been 7^ent. They are simply masses or ridges of cinder and dross deposited on each side of the fractures where the action is greatest. It is all a neiv deposit, [See a similar cone painted by D. Howard Hitchcock in the eruption of 1899.] After you leave the region of open fissures, near the summit of the mountain, all below appears to be a flow 071 the S7irfaee . rst. We can see no chasms or fractures except those always found in the surface flows. There is no visible evidence that the old substrata had been fractured except on the higher regions of the mountain. 57 2d. Where there is a throat extending down to the fiery abyss below, there will, we think, always be a column of smoke and gaseous vapor ascending to mark the spot, so long as action con- tinues. This is true of Kilauea, and it is also true of all the eruptions I have noticed. Now if you were at Hilo, you would see a continuous volume of smoke ascending from the terminal point, and another from the terminus of the stream — separated in a direct line forty miles, and by route of the flow seventy miles — while between these extreme points 3 on see no smoke and have no evidence of fire beneath^^^ except the radiation of heat as you pass up. The smoke at the fountain is mineral, that at the end of the stream is from vegetation, and only here the fusion now makes its appearance, having come, as I believe, all the way from the mountain under cover, without showing itself at a single point. I do not mean that it has tunnelled the mountain, or melted a lateral duct through its mural sides. The process is this: lavas flowing on the surface and exposed to the atmosphere, un- less moving with great velocity, as down steep hills, soon refrigerate on the surface. This hardened surface thickens, until it extends downward from one to two hundred feet, as the case may be. Under this superstratum the lava remains liquid ; consequently at the termini and sometimes along the margins of the hardened streams you see the fusion gushing out in lines and points, and in irregu- lar masses. When lavas refrigerate through the whole stratum, and thus rest on an ancient or pre- vious formation, they form dams which divert the stream of lava from above, unless this obstruction is broken up, tilted, or overflowed by fresh lava. Down the steep sides of the mountain such ob- structions occur more rarely ; consequently the lava ceases to reach the surface either at the foun- tain or down the sides of the mountain, but is confined to channels, mostly covered wath fresh, solidified lavas, where it finds a free and rapid passage to the plains below. Here the movement is slow, the obstructions more numerous, and the force to overcome them less patent. This accounts for the spreading laterally, the upliftings, and the ten thousand irregularities which diversify the ever-changing surface of lava streams. I have seen a dome, some three hundred feet in diameter at base, raised one hundred feet high and split from the summit in numerous radii, through which the red and viscid fusion was seen ; and I have mounted to the top of such a dome in this state, thrust my pole into the liquid fire and measured the thickness of its shell, which was from two to five feet. Wherever vegetable matter is being consumed there is smoke ; when this is exhausted there is none. Consequently I argue that there are no fissures extending to the central fires of the earth, except for a few miles near the summit of the mountain. 3d. Again, and what is more reliable, I have surveyed the ground upon which lava-streams have been approaching, for distances of five to twenty miles, and have seen the burning flood move on, covering today the ground on which I traveled yCvSterday, and consuming the hut where I slept ; and the process is so familiar that it is difficult to see how I can be mistaken. I think that this stream ^^ A careful examination of the line of eruption resulted in the conviction that the fissure was originally very- small, not exceeding three or four feet, and did not extend below the point wdiere the lava first reached the surface. ^^This has been the case for some eight months. At first the whole ridge of the mountain was lighted with fusion on the surface ; afterwards no fire was seen except at the end of the stream near Hilo [Note by Mr. Coan]. [451] 74 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa, of lava is 7tow flowing more than sixty miles longitudinally under its own refrigerated cover ; but I may be mistaken. No fire is seen anywhere except at the end of the stream. Here it still pushes out and spreads and heaps with little abatement, while the great mountain furnace sends up large and continuous volumes of smoke. 59 To this exceedingly full and minute account, I need only add that I visited in 1865 the terminus of the stream, where it ceased to flow, and found the whole appear- ance of the stream in strict accordance with Mr. Coan's account. The surface w^as horribly rough and piled with slabs of hardened crust in vast ridges extending for miles. I slept on the fresh lava and examined the structure minutely, and found nothing to distinguish this stream from other eruptions, except its broken condition, arising from the wet soil over which it passed, which raised the surface into huge blisters. Where the lava fell into the water it was shivered into coarse sand like the deposit (known as **black sand'') near Punchbowl in Honolulu, and as the water was evaporated the pahoehoe covered the ground almost entirely and even penetrated its mass. The angles down which the continuous stream of lava fell were as large as Mr. Coan mentions, and the lava does not seem much more cellular here than on level ground. At the lowest edge of the lava-flow, I found, on the more ancient rock, rounded masses of red earth (ferruginous oxides) of the consistency of putty, and as large as a man's head. They were in considerable number, and seemed to have been pushed along by the lava; their softness was owing to the rain, as when dried they became as hard as dried potter's clay. The surface of the stream lava was covered with a minute lichen on which great numbers of succineas were feeding. After flowing fifteen months this important eruption ceased. Professor Dana still thought the lava supply came from fissures along its track, but I cannot see any reason for this opinion. Mr. Coan and those who have followed in his steps are con- vinced of the contrary, and the opinion of an observer with such unequaled experience is worthy of great consideration. Those who have never seen a lava-flow, cannot well understand its action. I believe that Mr. Coan's briefest account conveys a better idea of what such a flow is than the most elaborate theorizing of those w^ho have never seen one, or who see one for the first time. In October, 1856, Mr. Coan reports Kilauea as declining in activity since the summit eruption began, there was but little sluggish lava in Halemaumau, but much escaping vapor.^"" In June, 1857, Kilauea was still quiet.^' The lava in Halemaumau was a hundred feet below the brink and only five hundred feet across. In August, 1858, this pool **boiled and sputtered lazily at the centre of a deep basin which occupied the locality of the old dome. The action alternated between general refrigeration and a ^^ American Journal, xxiii, 435. *'°Ibid, 438. "Ibid, xxv, 136. C452] Eruption of Mauna Loa in iS^g, 75 breaking up of the whole surface with intense ebullition.''^'' In 1862 the lava pool had increased to six hundred feet in diameter. Within the central depression there was, a quarter of a mile from the pool, a driblet cone of remarkable form with turrets which Mr. Coan called the Cathedral, and which, two years after, I found a very convenient object in my survey of the crater, as it was visible from the entire outer rim. In October, 1863, Mr. Coan reported an awakening in Halemaumau and indeed all around the crater.'^' We must now look at Mauna Loa. A letter from Prof. R. C. Haskell, of Oahu College, gives the following account of the important eruption of 1859:*^'^ Our party consisted of Prof. E. G, Beck with, Prof. W. D. Alexander and myself, with some students of the college. The eruption broke out on the 23d of January. No earthquake was felt in any part of the island at the time, but dead fish were noticed on the 2ist and a few days afterwards, to the east of Molo- kai, and between Molokai and Oahu. The fish gave no evidence of disease, but seemed to have been par- boiled. At Honolulu, two hundred miles from the eruption, the atmOvSphere was exceedingly thick and haz}^ So much was this the case that it caused con- siderable excitement, before the news of the eruption arrived. Rev. Lorenzo Lyons, of Waimea, states that on Sunday afternoon, January 23, smoke was seen gathering on Mauna Loa. In the evening lava spout- ed up violently near the top of the mountain on the north side, and apparently flowed both towards Hilo and towards the west side of the island. This con- tinued but a few minutes, when at a point consider- ably farther below the top, and farther west, another jet spouted up. Accounts from Hilo say, that on the night of the 23d, it was so light there that fine print could be read without difficulty. After the 23d the light was much less. At Lahaina, more than one hundred miles distant, the whole heavens in the direction of the eruption were lighted up. Our party started from Honolulu, February ist, and reached Kealakeakua on the 3d. Here we learned that the stream from the eruption had reached the sea on the 31st of January, at Wainanalii, about forty [sixty] miles from the place of eruption. This makes the average progress of the stream above five [seven] miles per day. After procuring guides, natives, pack-oxen and mules, we started for the source of the flow on the 5th. About noon we had a view of the source, distant from us, probably, twenty-five miles in an air-line. The crater was about one hundred and fifty feet high, and two hundred feet in diameter (as we afterwards estimated) . From within this crater liquid lava was spouting up to the height of three or four hundred feet above the top. In shape and movement it resembled a mighty fountain or jet of water, though more inconstant. At one moment it was un- commonly high and quite narrow at the top, at the next not so high but very broad. At night, and from a good position near, the view of the jet, according to Mr. Faudrey (the only man who reached the crater while the jet was spouting), was grand beyond all description. ^''Amer. Journ., xxvii, 411. Letter of Feb. 3, 1859. '^^Ibid, xxxvii, 4i5- Letter of Oct 6, 1863, ^3 Ibid, XXXV, 296. Letter of Nov. 13, 1862. [453] i^iG. 50. THK CATHKBRAI^ I^ROM WKST AND NORTHVVEvST. Ki I a lie' a and Manna I.oa. Owing: to ati accident wliicli l)efell one of our party, and the taihire of water where it was sup- posed to !)e abtiiitlant, we were delayed two days and iiidi!ce^ lornied craters ten feet high around two of tlie points wliere gases were escaping. ..... ]*rof, Ha.skell follDwcd tlie stream dijwii some (Hstance, and was struck with the great rapidity of its iiioliori. The slope was considerable, and ca.seades and calarat^s followed each oilier. The width of the stream here wa.s from twenty to one Inuidred feet. His de.seription of ilie formation of aa (which lie docs not distingiiisli from c 1 ill k e r s ) i s a s folio w s : The clinkers are always [generally] formed h)^ deep streams, and generally by wide ones, which flow sluggishly, become ilaniined up in front by the cooling of the lava, and in some instances cooled over the top, forming, as it were a |)on(l or lake. As the stream angmenls l)cncath, the harriers in front and the ernst on the snrfa(>e are l>rokeii nj), and the pieces are rolled forward and coated over with melted lava which cools and adheres to them more or less. Then from the force of the melted lava behind ami unclerneatli, the stream rolls over and o\-er ibself. In this wiiy a liank of clinkers ten to forty feet high, resembling the ernbanknienl of a railroad, is formed. Often at the end of the stream no liserved tliat f desire to coin- nmnicate to you. The real source of the flow is abont four miles above the two craters which in Fel)ruar\- seemed to be the scnircc. From this point down to the two craters, a crack in the nnjun- tain can be traced uearl_v cdl the way. At first it is no more than two inches in width, but gradnally increases to two feet. At the present time heat can be perceiveil in the crack within a few feet of the hige.st point. But little lava has issued from this crack above the two craters. During the first (piarter of a mile lava has oozed out in different |daces a few rods apart, to the amount of three or lour cubic feel, llelow^ lliis point lliere is a stream, now cold of course, a few rods in wiilth. In this flow, therefore, there is no doMt)t thai there is a coiitiiuions crack in the sitle of the nicmntain for fonr miles, llow much farther this crack extends down the mountain cannot be a.seertaitied, now at least, for the craters are still sending forth immense vohimes of sulphurous vapors, and the stream of lava is .still flowing helow them. This stream, however, is much smaller than it was in h'ebrnary. and is eiitireh^ subterranean for the lirst tweuty41ve or thirty miles, except that there are a few holes where the running lava can be seen. In some instances this stream is as mmdi as forty feet below the siirface. During this trip I went to the top rjf Mauna koa. There is no [lerceplible action iti the crater of Mokuaweoweo, The source of the present flow is probably 1 f ,000 feet above the level of the sea.'"" ^" .American Jminmb xxviii, 66. '"■' Ihul, 2S4, [.|55 ] Av.'\ Forx' 7^ Kilauea and Mauna Loa. I will here insert some of the valuable observations of the careful observer of Hawaiian volcanic action, Mr. Wm. Lowthian Green, given in his Vestiges of a Molten Globe. Of the entry of the stream of lava into the sea at Wainanalii, he says : It ran over a low shelf about ten feet high, and extended perhaps 500 or 600 feet wide, and fell into the sea where it was about twenty or thirty feet deep. It came from under the crust in great red-hot flattened spheroidal masses, having something the appearance of masses of moderately thick porridge as it is poured from a saucepan. The spheroidal masses, however, being perhaps ten feet to fifteen feet wide, and four to six feet deep. There was no steam, vapor or gas whatever to be seen coming from this lava till it went under water. Indeed the first contact with the red-hot spheroids did not seem to produce a particle of steam, and it was only when each had gone under water and become partially cooled off, that a puff of steam rose above the surface. The molten lava from this 1859 opening 10,000 feet up on Mauna Loa, for several months quietly ra7i over without any visible steam, noise, earthquakes or commotion of any kind.— (Part II, p. 163.) Again the explosions so common during the flow of lava from the Hawaiian mountains, he correctly explains as follows : In 1859, on the evening of the day just referred to, I started with two guides — goat hunters— to visit the orifice of eruption of the lava w^e had been observing spreading itself over the plateau between the mountains Loa, Kea and Hualalai. We camped about nine o'clock on the flat between these mountains close to a portion of the lava stream which was spreading itself plentifully over the ground, and all night long we heard loud explosions like the reports of heavy cannon. At the time I did not know the cause of them, but on my return I happened to be close to an explosion under a stream of lava, and which was evidently caused by the white-hot molten lava flowing over a hollow in one of the innumerable old lava streams. It is to be observed that in this part of the mountain there is no water. All the apertures of some underground cavern having been sealed up by the molten lava, it is only a question of time how soon an explosion of confined, highly heated air will occur. The molten lava may sometimes run into these caverns and so assist both the heat and compression (I.e., p. 270). We have not yet exhausted all that Mr. Green can tell us of this flow, which will help our understanding of all others on this island. He continues (p. 274): When w^e pitched our tent on our way to the 1859 crater, in the neighborhood of the loud explosions already referred to, it being then quite dark, we had a fine view of the pillar of fire at the crater on the side of the mountain fifteen miles above us, and which all day had shown as a pillar of cloud or smoke. This at night became illuminated by the glare of the white-hot lake of lava in the crater. We were on our w^ay to it early next morning, and although we did not rest more than an hour dur- ing the day, it was dark again when we arrived alongside the great pillar of fire which rose ten thousand feet at least above our heads. We had for some time been crunching our way over the glass-foam which had evidently proceeded from the great lava fountain which had now ceased spout- ing; and close to the crater a steep escarpment appeared, up which we climbed, and when nearly abreast of the centre of the crater, and a little below the level of the ^(^^^, we pitched our tent and laid our blankets in a hole in a lava-bespattered crag which was partially filled with the same glass-foam. This lava-fountain seemed — as I found in the case of the 1868 outbreak afterwards — to have broken out at the intersection of two fissures, one leading to the top of the mountain and the other more or less at right angles to it. After our evening meal, I climbed over the rough lava a short distance to get a good view of the scene. It was unique. From the whole interior of the crater rose the great illuminated column of smoke, apparently about five hundred feet wide. The sight was grand and [456] Mr, Wni. L, Green's Ohservatwns. 79 fascinating. Perhaps the circumstance which impressed me most was the dead silence which reigned . The noisy explosions of the night before had been left far behind. There was no wind, and the now illuminated smoke rose as it had done the day before in a well-defined perpendicular column, but spreading out on all sides at a great height in the atmosphere. I gazed at it long and steadily. I had toiled all day to get to this spot and to learn something, perchance, about volcanic action, but here at the crater, the only idea which I seemed capable of realizing, was my own utter insignificance amongst this waste of fire, smoke and lava, and as I turned from the view a moment to look back at the little white tent, tinged with a lurid red, perched amongst a chaos of black slags, I felt as an astronomer might, who, looking through his telescope at the surface of the moon should suddenly discover a habitation ; the difference being that here I seemed to be in the moon, or at least in a spot which was equally unearthly and unsuited for human existence. The exertion of the last two days made my bed of pumice welcome, and after retiring I slept till daylight, not a single sound having disturbed us. On looking out in the morning, the great, steadily rising pillar of cloud beside us was reassuring. The colour of the smoke, by daylight, seemed to be about the same as that of a steamer burning Welsh or semibituminous coal after vShe first fires up. It rose gently, curling in great wreaths and folds, just as it might from the funnel of a huge steamer. I made an attempt to climb the edge of the crater and look in, but after scrambling for some time out of one sulphury crack into another, a thick fog crept up the mountain side and enveloped me, so that I could see nothing in any direction, and was glad, when on retreating, I found myself within hail of my guides, although I could neither see them nor the tent. In the course of an hour or two the fog cleared up, and we started down the mountain, our provisions and water being only sufficient for half a day longer. In descending I kept as near as possible to the lava stream which was running from the lower part of the crater, in the usual covered passage formed by its own cooled crust. At the lower side of the crater, just where the slope became moderate, we observed some vitrified breakers. The molten glass-foam had run over the lip of the crater in great waves and now stood on the gentle slope below, like petrified combers on the sea shore. The likeness was the more remarkable because the break of the waves was up the slope, and the falling crests were in the opposite direction, mechanically speaking, to those of the ocean waves. In some places the wave seemed to have bent, fallen and doubled upon itself, and the vesicular glass had solidified in great folds of a delicate green shade, looking like the folds of satin as they are sometimes displayed in a shop window. ^"7 The material of the waves seemed to be identical in composition and colour, with the usual Hawaiian pumice or glass-foam [limu], and the semi-transparent glaze covered the whole outer surface. We got belated, and were compelled to go supperless to rest on the ropy pahoehoe, which, with nothing but a blanket to interpose, was not so comfortable to lie upon as the pumice at the crater. It was, however better than aa, and rising early next morning, we arrived at the camping ground just in time to hail the native, who was leaving with our horses, and who had been instructed to wait for us: the rest of the party having left for Kailua the day before. We could hardly have blamed him for leaving us to get to the coast as best we could. He had concluded that we were make (dead). Few Hawaiians could have been found to remain a night alone amidst the fires and thunders of their offended goddess Pele. The immense columns of smoke which so constantly rise from the orifices of eruption on Hawaii, may often be largely composed of the vapor of water. When the lava breaks away, great red-hot chasms must often be left, and percolating surface water may well find its way into them and escape at the only opening, that is where the lava escapes. At the time of my visit to the 1859 crater, the top of the mountain was covered with snow, which would be one source of percolating water. . . . One important ingredient in most Hawaiian volcanic smoke so-called, is the excessively light, ^^This identical formation appeared also in the eruption of 1880-81 according to a painting by Mr. Furneaux now before me. It is shown, although not so clearly as I could wish, in the right foreground. [457] 8o Kiiduea and Manim Loa. glass}' threads, CiIiiib and vesicles, wliieli the healed air first forms, ami then raises to a great height in the atmosphere. .. ...The next time I visited this river of niolteii stone was some months after- wards at the sea^^shore at Wainanalii, where it had never ceased running into the sea. It finally ceased in Jnl)-. Ill 1864, ^Ir. Horace Mann and the author approaclied Kilaiiea from tlic south- west on the Kan trail. For ten miles we had seen the cloud of smoke over the crater and for more than half that distance we liad traversed beds of pahoehoe, and large tracts of sand deep and difficult for onr horses. No aa and bnt little scoriae were visible PROM WEST BA, from the path. Tlie eruption of 1789, is said to have thrown out the sand, bnt the winds liavc entirely changed its original location. It is dark, fine and nnifurm, and it now lies covering the paliochoe in places to the depth of several yards. Soon after one o'clock we came upon the brink of the crater tiear Uwekahiina, the highest part of 1864 the bounding wall, and from here in the afternoon is a favorable view of Kilauea, perhaps the best, hh-om below ns steam and sulphurous vapors rose ill a sluggish column, bnt we saw no fire and heard no noises. The great sunken plain before us, covering h)ur or five scpiare miles, looked bright in the clear sunlight, and even tlic walls 011 which we stood were of a light gra}' color. The whole circuit of the walls on the west and north sides is much cracked and interrupted. We rode along [458] Norilietn Sulphitr Bank. Si C3ver several cracks, one of wliicli, a little more tliaii a yard wide, had opened about a 3'ear since, aecoiiipanied by an explosion heard distiiit^ly at a distance of twenty miles. Some of the cracks were parallel with the edge of the abyss, others were at right angles to these, and in one place the small cracks were so nunierons as to resend3le a geometric spider's web. Passing over the high cliffs on the northwest, the road leads down b_y a steep descent of fifty feet to a plain a mile long", and three-quarters of a mile wide, gravelly, and covered sparsely with a growth of dwarf ohia and ohelos, and dotted with small oval or cirenlar fumaroles, from which steam was issuing silently and abundantly. The steam had no odor, and ferns and other plants grew ]irxu,riantly over the open- ings. Around these steam lioles the mnddy and tenacions red soil retained pools of excellent water condensed from the steam. There was no trace of sulphur or acid in it tliat could be detefted by the taste or by the more delicate test papers. The rock through whicli these steam holes passed was completely decomposed from a hard gray clinkstone to a red loamy earth, soft ami worn snniotli b}- the ascending vapors. It was quite evident that these fnumroles were not originall}- fcmiied by the vapor, but were simply cracks through which the steam escaped, and the circular shape resulted from the falling in of the surface gravel and soil. The steam was cpiite hot, and we saw the renniins of several cattle who liad gone too near in search of water. MKMorKH B. I\ B. MCHKOM, Voi,. n. fiKh ^.-^). L459J Sz Kilauea and Maittia Loa. On tlie northern edge of this plain are extensive sulphur beds, that is to say, the\' cover a large space although containing- but little sulphur, under a perpendicuL'ir ledge of clinkstone nearh' a hundred feet high. The)' are simply great piles of decom- posed lava through which steam and sulphurous vapors constantly escape through a thousand apertures, depositing beneath the cool crust the most beautiful, almost aciculat cr^ystals of sulphur."*^ The soil formed b}' the deccmiposition of the rock by r«vca Uk, igi- sof the snlphur ihhk; in Uit secoi t phae process tl taken by the author twetit ; the deposit of crystals i :(l. In 1.S64 the [460: Dcsirni into KiJaitea. S3 seleiii 11111. At first it seemed tliat this plain liac! sunk, but fartlier exaiuiiiatioii coii» viiiced me that this was once the floor of the ancient crater,"^a black ledge. As soon as our men came op with the blankets, wc engaged guides and went down into the crater. The descent was steep and winding, and we passed over several terraces which were the result of a sinking or falling in as their strata were inclined and ninch broken, and came under tlie grand wall of compact lava fignred in the Narrative of tlie United States Exploring Expedition.'"^ A descent of some four hnn- IHC 56, KIT,Al'KA rx 1864. I'KRHY. drcd feet l}rouglit ns to the bottom, and we stepped from a gravell\\ shelving bank on to a black lava which had broken out last 3.'ear under the north bank, and overflowed this end of the crater. Where it touched the gravel bank it had glued to its under surface the small fragments of stone, Ijut had not altered their appearance, and all along the edge it was cracked, and laid np on the bank as if, on cooling, the lava had fallen about a foot. The surface was covered with a thin, scaly, vitreous crust, which crumbled beneath the tread, sounding like snow on a cold morning, and thus a verv distinct path was made to the Halenianman, the enduring house of Pele. The lava beneath this crust, however, was so hard as to strike out abundant sparks as the steel '"*Naim;'d "WaJ«lroii's Ledge" for the piirnerof tin; ifxptfilitif.ii. Vol. iv. p. 171. [461] 84 Kiiattea and Maitua Loa. nails in my shocks scraped upon it. Wlicn hard it was often iridescent, like some anthracite coal, and so closely resembling this mineral that th,e difference would hardly be detected on a cursory examination. The fresh lava closely resembled that from Manna Loa in the flow of 1859. ThreeMpiartcrs of a mile over this nneveu lava, and wc came to a wall of fragments of every size of compact ligiit-colored lava, ver}- solid and licav}' and containing man}- s m all g r a i 11 s of ol i V i lie C| n i te d i ffe r- ent in appearance as well as size from tliat in the lava of 1 1840; and this wall, which is roiighl}' concen- tric with the outer wall of Kihioea, is said by the natives to rise and fall and sometimes disap- pear. The stones so closel_y matched the outer walls, tliat 1 had no doubt that they had fallen fnnn these walls, loosened liy : i some of the manv hlC. 57. IH»k'rH)N or THI:; FI,(|tial1v to this result, hi t forlvd'ou ■ wars ag-(> it U..1. Thi waU behind il is iiiiieh cracked aii( broken, hut 'r noted i I the text. C46S] The Works! wp of the Adzfs. ■ 91 workshop of tlic adzes) its name, were abimdaiit, but the fragments of the adzes iisiiall}' abinidaiit in siieh quarries were not notieed.'' At the edge of Keaiiakahoi, as it was hite in the afternoon, in\^ natives bnilt a stone house to shelter the instrnments, and we deeided to cross Kihiuea as the nearest way home. We climbed down a steep gravel bank apparently formed b)- the action of sulphurous vapors on the roek of the walls, crossed a small snlpliur bank from which steam was issuing, and continued our wa\' over the portion of Kilaiiea whicli was overflowed the year before. It was very disagreeal)le walking, as the crust w^as qnite thin and brittle, and we constantly broke tlirongh, onl\- a few inches perliaps, but there was a constant feeling of iuseeuritv, for we could not know but that the breaking crust covered a deeper crack in the harder lava l)encath. Half way across we found a cone three or four feet high covered witli spatters of lava of various colors. Crossing the crater again the next niorniug in the rain it was difficult to find our way owing to the steam, but w'C at length reached the bank. It was two o'clock f)efore the mist cleared away enongli to permit tlie use of the tlieodolitt*. The large sulphur bank near this end of Kilauea was of a briglit green color owing to a large proportion of :-d the bottom of tliii [469] 9^ Kilauea and Manna Loa, sulphate of protoxide of iron which seemed to be constantly forming^' Much of the sulphur is in large amorphous masses as if melted. The ground on this side of the crater is smooth, free from stones, and so terraced and sloped that it is difficult to define the boundaries of the great pit. As no rock is visible it is impossible to determine the diredion of the disturbing forces, but the pres- ent condition of the bank seems to indicate a falling in of the walls in several places, probably over one or more of the subterranean streams of lava that have deluged Puna. The side of the mountain is weaker here than elsewhere, and most of the subterranean eruptions have forced their way through it, forming several lines of cracks and craters extending to the sea. One of Wilkes' signal posts was found rotted off at the base, but otherwise sound. On the southwest side the smoke from Halemaumau was very suffocating, and I was obliged to pass through it with a wetted handkerchief to my face; so little aque- ous vapor was in the smoke that the cloth dried with great rapidity. The ground was covered with Pele's hair, which collected on the leeward side of the ridges and stones, and also extensive beds of the Hawaiian pumice or limu. This limu is identical with that seen on Mauna Loa, and is the froth of the burning lake. As the steel chain was drawn through it the links were completely polished. The deposit was so loose and friable that in one place I sank up to my waist in it. Stones and fragments of scoria were lying abotit apparently loose, but we found it almost impossible to break them off, so firmly were they cemented to the gravel rock below. The action of the sulphur- ous vapor seems to speedily dissolve the Pele's hair, and this with the silica in the rock itself makes a solid cement. There is an easj^ descent into the crater at the southwest end, and beyond this the nearly perpendicular rock wall rises rapidly to the highest point at Uwekahuna. I reached the highest point on the Kau trail about dark, and sent home the instruments, while I followed slowly along the bank, watching the fires which were gleaming brightly seven hundred feet below. The small new pool close beneath the bank was exceedingly beautiful, as it emitted but little smoke, and constantly cracked and broke up its crust, forming an everchanging network of fire. A line of fire was burning all the way from this to Halemaumau, but the level of the new pool is more than fifty feet below the old. Saturday it was rainy and impossible to obtain sights with the instruments, so I went into Kilauea to explore the caves. Halemaumau was not in a very lively con- dition, and passing beyond that, I went into a cave of considerable extent, where the ^^ A few years after this ( 1867), a flow from Hale man man reached this long bank and set it afire ; the combustion was slow but complete, and the gravelly residue is covered on the sides with coarse ferns. [470] Caves in Kilattea. 93 curious silicious tubes liad formed on the rock roof, and obtained many of these fragile specimens, some of which were coated with beautiful white crystals. This cave was more than fifty feet below the lev^el of the lava in the main pool, and the walls did not seem very secure. A small lava stream had recently poured into the mouth of the cave, but there were no vapors, nor any uncomfortable heat. Taking advantage of a change of wind, I passed around Halemiumau, and ascended a cone with two peaks formed by lava spatters, but completely closed on the top, as nearly all the others in the crater were, and found steam hissing from many apertures. On breaking ojff the crust fine crystals of various salts were found thickly coating the inner surface, and in one place we found much potassa nitrate. I went from cave to cave, from cone to cone, colle6ling many kinds of lava and some salts, and finished by a bath in a steam cave, where the steam issued from the" floor at an agreeable temperature, and condensed on the roof falling in rain. The water was quite sweet, and no smell of sulphur was noticeable in the cave. On the roof the little tube stala6lites were constantly forming by the solution of the silica in the rock above, and I broke off the twisted, brittle tubes sometimes a foot long. On the floor the drops had made stalagmites of various forms (see Plates XLVIII and XLIX).^' This steam bath was most delightful after the * smoking I had just experienced in a cave where the end was red-hot, and into which my natives did not dare to follow me. Sunday was the first bright day I had had, and the pulu^^ pickers from the region came to my hut after the morning service, and told me the names of the various parts of the crater, and legends of various eruptions. ^^ Monday was rainy, but I com- pleted my measurements, and in the evening made a series of observations to determine the declination of the magnetic needle. The electric currents in the lava and the large amount of iron in the rock, made strange work with the compass: I have seen the needle turn suddenly through an arc of forty degrees. The remainder of the week was too stormy to take photographs, and I was reluAantly obliged to send back my instruments and return to Hilo. ^^ These stalactitic fonuMtions have been fuUy descrilxMl and jlgured in the section on the lava forms. No one can well understand the formation unless able to watch the process as I have repeatedly done at this visit, checkitiK mv results at subsequent visits to these and other caves, and I am not surprised that Dana, who never saw them insitu. should question the accuracy of my observation. After many years 1 do not care to alter my original descrip- tion, which I believe true, and have quoted in full in the section referred to. ^-^Pulu is the silky covering; of the opening fronds of several species of tree ferns, and was formerly exported in large quantities to California Vor bedding, etc. The material proved undesirable in a dry climate, the export ceased, and the present generation knows nothing of this interesting l>usiness. ^'-^ It was here that I got the name Poll o Keawe (l>osom of Keawe, or place of torment of Keawe), which I gave to the larger lateral crater on\ny map of this survey instead of the name given by Kllis, which 1 now resume. The nanie of Poli o Keawe was certainly applied to some place in the immediate vicinity of Kilauea, l)ut I have not been able to identify it It may be added that Uie natives have generally lost the accuracy of local knowledge possessed by their fathers, and when they do not know the name of any place will not own to their ignorance, but often give any name that occurs to them, [47 ^ ] 94 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Pit Craters in Puna a Part of the Kilauea System.— A region that has been the chosen path so often for the escape of the Kilauean lava, would naturally excite the strong interest of a geologist, but until within a few years the whole district was an almost impenetrable wilderness. The Rev. Titus Coan was the first who dis- covered the craters on the line of the eruption of 1840. Dr. Charles Pickering extended his explorations to a greater distance and mapped some of the larger craters, work after adopted as official on the chart of this region published with the Wilkes report. ^'^ In the early sixties the business of picking and packing pulu had become so important that trails cut by the mau}^ natives thus employed, opened the crater country far more than ever before, and at this time I was fortunate enough to go through the fern forests with Father Coan, and although I have been several times through the strange path of Pele, cutting it here and there, I was more impressed with this first visit and will transcribe from my note book what I saw. Here and there on the way from the coast at Panau we passed lava streams. Ohia trees were growing on these, thin and tall, suggestive of alpine regions ; indeed I have seen similar forests on the Swiss mountains, and there was a peculiar grace, which, while pleasing the eye yet convej^ed the idea of a struggle for existence amid the storms which sweep the rocky slopes of Mauna Loa. At the height of eighteen hundred feet we entered the fern forest. The fruit of the poha (^Physalis) and ohelo ( Vaccinhim) was abundant, and sandal-wood was occasionally met with at an elevation of two thousand feet. As we came to the fern region, we turned into a path cut through the jungle, and, as the soil was a soft black mould, it had been paved with the stems of the tree-ferns about six inches in diameter. This ^^corduroy" road was constru(?ted with great labor by the natives, and we calculated that forty thousand pieces of fern were used to build it. The ferns are cut in lengths of six feet, and many of them sprout and make a green edging to the roadway. Nearly two miles along this tropical and attraAive road, and we came to a tract of pahoehoe where was the pulu station to which the roads had been cut. This was the residence of a remarkable Hawaiian who had leased the whole district for the pulu business, — Kaina, the district judge. His house was directly on the line of craters, and only a few rods from steam cracks where his men cooked their food. It was well built, and surrounded with a substantial stone wall. The interior was furnished with bedsteads, rocking-chairs, and other conveniences ; and our supper table was supplied with fresh wheaten bread, milk, butter, eggs and delicious ohelo berries. West of the house was a large open field where the silky, golden fibre of the pulu is dried before packing, and beyond in the woods, I found curious tubes of lava ^^See outline of this chart on page 51. The names given by Wilkes are not those at present used and have been omitted. [472] Lmver Crater Line in Puna. 95 n > > o w o 3 [473] 96 Kllanea and Mauna f.oa. on ail ancient flow, one of which was seven feet Ingh, eighteen in,ches external diame- ter, and with a bore of eight inches. It was brittle, and on breaking it off, 1 found the hole was six feet deep, making its whole length tliirtceii feet. Others of the same height were near b}-, and their sides were always thicker towards the source of the flow, Kxternally they are rough like aa, but the top was smoatli and sometimes projeAed like an umbrella. Where several were in close proximit}^' a slab of lava was snpported ii^isiiilB^^^^^^^^^ *lsMBIiiiliEilliiJI^ ^M?MS:iS^^ oprm rx like a roof on eohimns (see Fig, 43), The lining of the tnbe was smooth and nmcli more compact and vitreons than the exterior. The trees which, served as edres, if not bnrncd have entirely decayed, and were mostly tree ferns, altlnnigh I think that I detetH:ed some oliias. 1 followed the stream dow'ii some distance to learn tlie ean,se of its subsidence, which must have been rapid, and fonml that a fissnre liad opened and swallowed most of the lava. , Judging from the great size of the trees growing over its surface, the flow must be quite ancient. The surface of the casts gave fresh indication of the process l)v wliicli aa is formed and seems to prove that the more refractory par- ticles of the hava cool at an appreciable time before the general molten mass ce^ases to be liquid, nincli as the less soluble salts in a saline solution crvstallize first on cooling; L474] Puna Pit Craters. 97 here the first cooling part is not fnlly crj^stalline, and if the mother liquor is withdrawn the rough already solidified part remains as aa. Tuesday I went with my boy loane to explore the woods. As I followed a path made by the pulu pickers through the dense forest, I came upon a large hole on the edge of the path which proved to be the entrance to a cave of great depth. The path had been turned aside to avoid it, and in the dark it would be very dangerous. Such holes are common in this part of Puna, and natives occasionally disappear mysteri- ously. Brushing through the bushes I came to a precipice forming the edge of a crater nearly three-quarters of a mile in diameter and seven hundred feet deep. The sides were quite perpendicular, and in most places impassable. The bottom was level and gravelly, with a thin growth of ohia, and at the western end, directly under the wall, w^as a much deeper pit, indeed the deepest I had seen on Hawaii. Beyond this was a cone of some size, near which the eruption of 1840 reached the surface, first passing under the cone (see Fig. 64). Half a mile beyond this is another pit crater, smaller, and covered on the bottom with black lava. Following the line down in a southeast- erly direAion, I came to the steam cracks, which extend for several hundred feet, and since tradition existed have furnished the natives of the neighborhood with the means of cooking. The pahoehoe has been decomposed into a soft* red muddy soil, covered with a hard crust, which may be raised in slabs. Under these are most beautiful crystals of sulpliur in clusters, but too fragile to be removed. Beyond these cracks was a much larger crater, elliptical, with a major axis a mile long and a depth of nearly five hundred feet. The perpendicular walls presented basaltic columns in various places, and at the west end were rent asunder affording an easy descent to the bottom, which was gravelly, level, and free from cracks or holes. The walls of all the craters that I visited were compact gray clinkstone in deep strata like the walls of Kilauea, and no recent lava was visible. Several dykes were seen at right angles to a line from Kilauea to Kapoho.^^ The line of these cones and craters may be seen on the map, but the principal group at Kapoho, near the coast, deserves more notice. These cones and craters seem to extend in several nearly parallel lines toward the mountain. One very interesting group much broken down, and apparently among the oldest, contains in its midst the beautiful Green Lake (Fig. 66). This occupies a deep crater but the water is of constant level, with no outlet and no apparent ^^ These craters are now (1909) easily accessible by a good trail from the Volcano House. Many of these pit craters have the walls more or less covered with ferns, and one had the name Halema'uma'u (House of fern). From this perhaps arose the pedantic mistake of calling the Halemaumau (House that endures) of Kilauea by this other very inappropriate name. Pele had her Halemaumau, always there, however the form might change, and on her ac- customed path to the sea she had her temporary lodging, a mere fern-covered house (Halema'uma'u). Father Coan, whose critical knowledge of the Hawaiian language was certainly as great as that of any one now living, recognized only Halemaumau in Kilauea, but more than one Halema'uma'u in Puna. Memoirs B, P. B. Mtjpeum. Vol. II, No. 4.-7. 1475 J 98 Kilauea and Maurm Loa, supply except from the rainfall on the sloping vsides of the crater; it is about twenty feet deep, and although viewed from above the wjiter looks very green, it is quite sweet and colorless in a glass. The natives assured me that its waters become 3'ellow and then black during an eruption of Kilauea, a statement I mnch doubt. k\\ adjoining crater contains man}' coconut trees: the walls between the craters of this group are thin as some of those in Hualalai, and like those pit craters are walled with stony lava and not tnfa. Half a mile from this group is a cone about two hundred and fifty feet high, and crowned with an ancient heiaii or temple, and a clnmp of coconut trees. This cone is largely composed of lava, and is doubtless of great age as the soil is several , CRATERS B'ROM THK feet deep upon it in some places. At its base is a large cleft in the rock some three hundred feet long and sixty wide, in which is a remarkabl}^ clear pool of warm water, twenty or thirty feet deep and of a temperature at the time of nyy first visit of 90". Thirty-four years after I found it five degrees above the air temperature. At a later visit to test more accurately I found the pool occupied by a gang of Japanese fi,eld hands. The water is not mineral to the taste, but the dark-colored bodies of natives swimming in it seem almost wax-colored, and a white num in the pool resembles marble. The sound of water trickling down within the cliff is distinctly audible after a rain. Three-quarters of a mile from this is a deep narrow cavern into which one may climb guided by the natives with their bambu torches. There is a steep descent of nearly fifty feet to a pool of very warm water which is said to extend more than half a mile under g round. "'' All along the shore for twenty miles, warm springs are common near ^"In 1H64 tlie writer saw several natives swim nearlj' tliat disliiiice holding- tlicir torches ck-iir of the steaming water, ami the itidisiiiict view thus ohtaiiicd of the cavern, led to the aincliisioii t!ial it was a d«;:]> crack, over which a subsequent lava-flow had forincd a roof. [476] The Disirici of Puna, 99 low-water level. No mineral waters are foiiiid here, nor is there aiiym-here on the Hawaiian Islands even a carbonated or sulphur spring. The ground is mostly covered with aa through the whole distriet of Pnua, and all the rain that is not held by this sponge-like form of lava sinks to the sea level and issues from clefts on the shore. As there is hardly any soil, it might be supposed that Puna would be a barren region, bnt the reverse is the case. Groves of coconut trees extend for miles, growing more thriftily than elsewhere on these islands, and the natives have no diffixuilty in raising ^^^^l»\.* , .„, ' . ' '"* < . . ' ,^.rf ^ .:^-^i:fl^:. ,. |B^^My:-yfeik j&..^.^Ia. „* *:-**!f A^l^ llllllll^^ ■ Fig. 66. 'rHij c.rhkh lakil pines, bananas and other fruits. The aa is often so rough that unshod horses cannot stand on it outside the beaten road, without a carpet of pandanus leaves or seaweed. The slopes of Kilaiiea are quite regular in this district, and many eruptitms have flowed down this way; at least twenty ma_v be counted in thirty miles. Tradition declares that formerly Puna was a fertile region surpassing in the prodnt^dveness of its soil any district of Hawaii, and that during the absence of the chief, Pele, the goddess of the volcano, left her abode in Kilanea to pay him a visit. P'roni the appearance of the streams of lava it is not impossible that many of them were s^vnehronous, and that the larger portion of Puna was overwhelmed by the same eruption of Kilanea. None of the lavas of Mauna Loa have flawed this way. The pandanus flourishes greatly in this region, and innumerable caves found in the streams of ancient lava afforded the weavers cool and damp shelters well adapted to mat-making. Other caves whose roofs have not fallen have, from early times been a favorite depositary for the remains of the dead. [4773 loo Kilauea and Manna Loa, This digression from the chronological record of the Kilaiieaii eru|)tiotis seemed necessar}^ to explain the geograph}- of the emptyings of its great cauldron, and will save time later when on,r notes are more condensed, I have been through Pniia many times, and have tried to trace from native tradition this or that eruption in the lava flows that, generally speaking, look all of an age, hnt I am not certain that any prior t«) that of 1840 can be correctly identified. I put no faith in the identification of that of 1823 on one of the goverument surveys, for Ellis closely questioned the natives and FIG. 67. mX)K POOL. could not hear of any outbreak from the natives of Pnna who met him both in Puna and Hilo. That or any other nniy be the flow of 1823 if that flow came to the surface on the Hilo side, which it probably did not, so far as the evidence goes/'^ • ^ Since 1865 the great crater of Kilauea had been slowly filling up by the over- 1868 flow of the northern lakes of 1864, and of various cones between these and Haleniaunnau until the whole central portion was considerabl}.- elevated.*** Mauna Loa had also been more or less active since visited by Mr. Horace Mauu and myself in 1S65. Then the great summit crater Mokuaweoweo w-as quite still, and apparently cold and extinct, exhibiting hardly any signs of recent acticm; only on one •'^Thf evitleiict: strongly favors Ihe idetitificalioii of the sliort ilow on tlic other side of Kilauea as that of 1823, anil 1 liavt: ho considered it 011 the iiiai) of Hawaii herewith. «"rhe f«dlowiiiKaecoii»t was prihJislied in iH6g iii the Memoirs of tlit- Boston Society of Natiira] Ilistorj-, vol. i, 564. 1 have here united tlie eruptions of tlie two vcdeanoes. as the wime cause seems to have idfeeled both, and the subsidi- ari- pht'uonieiia ^«irth(iuakes. lamlslitle, and tidal wave, belong to either or !»oth. [478] ^ Outbreak of 1868, loi of the lower walls a little steam floated up from the cracks below. No one has ascended this mountain since our visit three years ago, but from the shores the glare of its crater has been distinctlj^ seen more than once in the interval. As it was winter, and the snows and storms rendered the ascent dangerous, no one attempted it, and as no lava stream flowed down, little attention was paid to these distant and temporary volcanic displays. During the past ninety years ten great eruptions have taken place on Hawaii, averaging one for every nine years, the last occurring in 1859, when a large stream of lava flowed from Mauna Loa some sixty miles into the sea. The lava had accumu- lated in the reservoirs which supply this mountain and was readj^ to break forth. To this brief statement of the condition of the Hawaiian volcanoes previous to the present outbreak, may be added the fact that the season had been exceedingly rainy, and the mountain streams were much higher than usual. March 27, 1868, about half-past five in the morning, persons on the whale ships at anchor in the harbor of Kawaihae saw a dense cloud of smoke rise on the top of Mauna Loa, in one massive pillar, to the height of several miles, lighted up brilliantly by the glare from the crater Mokuaweoweo. In a few hours the smoke dispersed, and at night no light was visible.^' About ten o'clock a.m. on the 28th (Saturday), a series of earthquakes began, which has continued at intervals nearly eight months. The shocks commenced early in the morning; the first was followed at an interval of an hour by a second, and then by others at shorter intervals and with increasing violence, until at one o'clock p.m. a very severe shock was felt all through the southwest part of the island. From this time until the loth of April the earth was in an almost constant* tremor. In the dis- trict of Kona as many as fifty or sixty distinct shocks were counted in one day ; in Kau over three hundred in the same time; while near Kilauea and about Kapapala it was difficult to count them. It is said that during the early part of April two thou- sand distinct shocks occurred in Kau, or an average of one hundred and forty or more each day. The culminating shock occurred on Thursday, April 2d, at twenty minutes before four in the afternoon. Every stone wall, almost every house, in Kau was over- turned, and the whole was done in an instant. A gentleman riding found his horse lying flat under him before he could think of the cause, and persons were thrown to the ground in an equally unexpeded manner. Mr. F. S. Lyman was at Keaiwa, near the point where the motion M^as greatest, between that and the centre of vibration, "Rev. J. D. Paris writes from Kona, Hawaii, "In less than half an hour these columns of smoke had shot up along the slope of the great mountain southward to the distance of ten or fifteen miles. We thought it was fnnn a stream of lava but the clouds soon shut in the whole mountain, and nothing more was seen during the day During the whole night no light nor smoke were to be seen. All was clear and still as death." [479] 102 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa. which was not very distant, as the angle of emergence \^as almost 90°, or nearly coinci- dent with the seismic vertical, and he reported as follows: First the earth swayed to and fro north and south, then east and west, round and round, then up and down and in every imaginable direction, for several minutes; everything crushing around us; the trees thrashing about as if torn by a mighty rushing wind. It was impossible to stand, we had to sit on the ground, bracing with hands and feet to keep from rolling over. In the midst of it we saw burst out from the pali [precipice] about a mile and a half to the north of us, what we sup- posed to be an immense river of molten lava (which afterwards proved to be red earth), which rushed down its headlong course and across the plain below, apparently bursting up from the ground, throw- ing rocks high in the air, and swallowing up everything in its way, trees, houses, cattle, horses, goats and men, all in an instant, as it were. It went three miles in not more than three minutes time, and then ceased. Some one pointed to the shore, and we ran to where we could see it. After the hard shaking had ceased, and all along the sea-shore, from directly below us to Punaluu, about three or four miles, the sea was boiling and foaming furiously, all red, for about an eighth of a mile from the shore, and the shore was covered by the sea. We went right over to Nahala's hill with the children and our natives, to where we could see both ways ; expecting every moment to be swallowed up by the lava from beneath ; for it sounded as if it was surging and rushing under our feet all the time, and there were frequent shakes. In places the ground was all cracked up, and every rock or pali that could fall had fallen. At Hilea we saw a small stream of black smoking lava, and outside of Punaluu a long black point of lava slowly pushed out to sea and soon disappeared. Ten miles to the southwest of Keaiwa, at Waiohinu, the great stone church was levelled to the ground (Fig. 68), and nearly all the other buildings were destroyed. The earth opened all through the district, and often left dangerous fissures, although it usually closed. The meizoseismic curve (or that of maximum overthrow) seems to have been elliptical, with a major axis of about ten miles in a southwest and northeast diredlion, while the isoseismic curves were rather crescent-shaped, having their con- vexity towards Mauna Loa. In Kona the shocks were severe, but less so than in Kau; At Kohala they did very little damage, not even injuring the tall chimney of the Kohala sugar mill ; while at Hilo, on the other side of the mountains, the violence of the vibra- tions was about the same as in Kona. The mountains seem to have deadened the shock, and simply transmitted it through their solid cones to the axes of the other islands of the group, where the shock of April 2nd was felt as a vibration from the central mountain to the sea. This was the case even in Kauai, nearly three hundred miles distant from the supposed seismic vertical. No damage was done except in these southern districts of Hawaii, where the undulations seemed to bend around the base of the mountain, forcing the isoseismic curves far from the meizoseismic curve in Kau. At Hilo, although the shock was not so severe as at Waiohinu, more damage was done, for the houses were larger and more numerous. A correspondent writes: */I was coming from the tannery to my store, when I heard a loud, rumbling noise like a num- ber of iron carriages drawn over a rough road by wild horses. Soon the shock came. The horses in the pasture took fright, and ran and snorted, the dogs howled, and the [480] Eiirtliquakes of iS6S. 105 pigeons flew about as if somebody had been shooting at them. Th,e shock lasted a good while, how long I cannot say, but long enough to make me feel sea-siek, and it Wcas witli diffienlty that I could stand. All the stone walls about the town were flat. Fissures opened, and the brooks ran mud; in one place a fissure opened about a foot, and when it closed the two sides were several inches from coincidence." The land-slide referred to by Mr. Lyman, is well described by the Rev. 1^, Coan, whose letter will be given presently. The most destruAive feature of the whole cata.s- troplie, however, was tlie sea-wave which swept the shores of Hawaii from Kahukn to Kapoho and was felt at the most distant shores of the group. At Hilo the sea receded a liiindred and fiity or two hundred feet, and when it returned rose about ten feet above high -water mark. Along the shore between Kapoho and Ka- lae, villages were swept away, and even heavy stone houses disappeared before the destro}'- ing waves. The earth continued to vibrate, but the shocks were not very severe, until on Tuesday night, April 7tli, lava broke out dn Kalinku, and flowed some ten miles then into the sea. The exact locality of the flow was afterwards determined by Mr. Coan, The schooner Oddfellow was cruising along the coast of Hilo, Puna and Kan, about the time of the sea-wave and the eruption, and from tlie report of a passenger the following notes are extracted. As she touched at mimy points, the iuforniation is of considerable interest. Saturday M\irch a?r^^^^L:ikes in Kilaiiea active. Portion of tbc sotitliwest cliff thrown down. Sundaw ^'^.^--Slialces fretjuent but slight; one of them very |»culiar in its motion comnicneing from northwest to southeast, shook a moment, and then shifted to northeast and southwest. North lake ciuite active. Shocks appear to have been stronger on the beacli at Keaiihou than they were at the volcano, 'fhursdav, J prii 2. Severe shock at Hilo. Keauhoii and other villages in the neighbor- liood swept away.' F'riday, j.-^Stiocks very violent in Kilauea. Fire in Kilanea iki, the south lake terril:)ly active, and enlarging rapidi\-. Sitiurday, ./.^^^Saw fire on the hills at Kapoho; could not tell whether it was a lava-flow or not. Sunday, 5. — Made Kealakomo, Puna, at daylight. The houses nearest the lieaeh gone; same at Kahue. All swe|it clean at Apwa. Reached Keaiiliou, Kaii, at .seven A.M. and anchored. Found the anchorage and Ijoatdaiiding all right. livery building, eleven in all, washed away ; not a stick or stone of them left standing. Portions of the wreck washed inland over the flat about eight hundred feet; heavy ohia sticks and a large spar were carrietl that distance. In some places the ground appeared to have sunk, and the sea was flowing a fathom deep where L481] AT WAIOHIXU WRECK HI) BY 104 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, houses formerly stood. Men who were at w^ork near the beach at the time of the shock (April 2), say that the walls of stone buildings were thrown outward by the shock, which was so severe that they were themselves thrown off their feet ; then the sea came pouring over the rocks which lined the shore, and they escaped being overtaken by the hardepf kind of running. No one was hurt. A messenger from Kilauea reports that hardly a sign of fire was to be seen in the crater. Got under way and ran down to Puualuu. Monday, 6. — Too rough to attempt a landing. The stone church and all the other buildings near the sea gone. At Ninole but three houses were left. Smoke or steam is issuing from the hills back of Hilea. Came to anchor at Kaalualu at noon. The houses, wharf, etc., all gone here, and the rocks inland strewed with the wreck for a distance of six or eight hundred feet. Dense clouds covered the summit of Mauna Loa, but no sign of fire, and no reflection from Kilauea. Tjiesday, 7. — The deck covered this morning with very fine ashes. Procured animals, and rode along the beach to the south point. The sea had been inland in some places, a hundred and fifty yards, and the whole coast was lined with house timbers, lumber, broken canoes, dead ani- mals that had drifted ashore. At Halii found the body of a native woman lying among the rocks, the right leg bitten off at the knee, and the body otherwise horribly mutilated by the sharks. The shock of the earthquake was evidently slight in this direction, for many of the stone pens were not much damaged, and at Kalae, the extreme southerly point, there was no sign of any disturbance. Weighed anchor at three p.m., and ran past Kalae. At six p.m., when the point was about ten miles astern, bearing E. by S., a volume of flame shot up from the mountain Loa, in what appeared to be the neighborhood of Kahuku. The heavens were lighted up at once, and the reflection extended rapidly in the direction of Waiohinu and Kaalualu. After the first outburst we saw the fire but once or twice, and then it appeared to be the grass burning on the edge of the cliff which extends inland from the south point. There was no flow of the lava over the cliff, nor toward Kona, and the stream probably ran down on the Kahuku flat or between there and Waiohinu to the neighborhood of the Kaalualu landing. It reached the sea somewhere in that direction at nine and a half p.m., when an immense body of steam at once arose, through which flashes resembling lightning were constantly dart- ing as long as we were in sight. The top of the mountain was concealed by the dense clouds of smoke. From a schooner at anchor off Lanai the light of this lava-stream was seen about midnight, over the mountain, while flashes like chain-lightning shot np into the clouds. From Lahaina the same light was seen, and the next day a column of smoke in the same direction. From Kona the light was first seen abont eleven p.m. The Rev. S. E. Bishop, president of Lahainaluna Seminary on Mani, contributes the following observations : During the night of April 7th a bright but varying crimson light over the volcano was visible from the Seminary at the distance of one hundred and twenty statute miles as measured on Wilkes' chart. This light was a reflection from a mass of cumulus cloud through which vivid lightning was constantly darting. After daylight and through the morning of the 8th, this stupendous column of cloud was visible pouring rapidly up to the ether, with ever varying shape. It was usually well de- fined on the westward side, where it, at times, presented a perpendicular wall of miles in height. On the east it was ill-defined. Above, it often spread out, especially toward the east, as if borne off by the southeast wind of the upper air. The base, so far as visible, appeared to be commingled with murky brown strata. The apparent altitude of this cumulus above the horizon, when at its highest was 3°3o' which reduced for a base of 120 miles with 500 feet altitude of the point of observation, gives a height of 7.8 miles. This morning, the 9th, our atmosphere is charged with smoky haze, and a very distinct odor of sulphurous acid, [482] H. M, Whitnefs Account of the Lava Flow, 105 At Kapapala, on the 7tli, the ground was still in violent agitation, with a long undulatory motion. At night a very large flow of lava was seen running down the mountain to the sea. The next day smoke was seen issuing from cracks in this neighborhood. Mr. H. M. Whitney visited the scene of the eruption on the loth, and from him we learn the following particulars : As we approached the flow the rumbling noise became more and more distinct. The ground was covered with what appeared to be cinders, but on examining them we found they were fragments of [basaltic] pumice-stone which had been carried by the wind a distance of over ten miles. Mixed with these cinders w^s> Pete's ttair, which we found floating in the air, and when it was thick we had to hold our handkerchiefs to our nostrils to prevent inhaling it ; our clothes were frequently covered with it. We hurried on and reached the flow shortly after noon, when from a ridge to the west of it the whole scene opened before us. Between us and the crater was a valley five hundred yards wide and ten miles long, which had recently been overflowed throughout its entire breadth and length from the mountain to the sea where it widened to two or three miles. The lava was of the smooth or pahoehoe variety, from ten to tw^enty feet deep, and partially cooled over, though flames, smoke and gas escaped from numerous crevices. On Tuesday afternoon, April 7th, at five o'clock, a new crater, several miles lower down than that referred to, and about tw^o miles back of Captain Brown's residence, burst out. The lava stream commenced flowing down the beautiful grass- covered plateau, towards and around the farm-house, and the inmates had barely time to escape with the clothes they had on ; the path by which they escaped w^as covered with lava ten minutes after they passed over it. On ascending the ridge we found the eruption in full blast. Four enormous fountains, on a line a mile long, north and south, were continually spouting up from the opening. These jets were blood-red, and yet as fluid as water, ever varying in size, bulk and height. Sometimes two would join together, and again the whole four would be united, making one continuous fountain a mile in length. From the lower end of the crater, a stream of very liquid, boiling lava flowed out and down the plateau, a distance of two or three miles, then following the road ran down the precipice at an angle of about 30"^, then along the foot of the pali or precipice, five miles to the sea, the stream being about eight or ten miles in length, and in some places half a mile wide. One peculiarity of the spout- ing was that the lava was ejected with a rotary ^notion, and as it ascended both lava and stones rotated always in one direction towards the south. This was the only stream which reached the sea, and flowed into it at Kailikii. It lasted only five days, the eruption ceasing entirely on the night of the I ith, or morning of the 12th. During its continuance, the atmosphere was filled with smoke so dense that the sun appeared like a ball of fire, and the whole island was shrouded in darkness. The smoke came from the rent or crater, and was highly charged with sulphur. As the lava entered the sea, clouds of vSteam and smoke rose up, and flames of bluish fire were emitted, rising from the water to a height of from ten to twenty feet. During the night we were at the volcano, the air was highly charged with sulphurous gas and electricity, and frequent flashes of lightning were seen directly over the lava stream, accompanied with short claps of thunder. These flashes were also observed less frequently further up the mountain. About four thousand acres of good pasture land were destroyed, besides which the lava ran over an immense district of worthless land. On the night of the 6th of April, prior to the eruption, there was a showier of ashes and pumice-stone, which came from this crater, and covered the country to a distance of ten or fifteen miles each way. Generally the ashes were not more than one or tw^o inches in depth, but in some places were found to be fifteen. The pumice-stone was very light, and appears to have been carried by the wdnd a great distance. Pieces tw^o and three inches in diameter floated ashore at Kealakeakua, forty-five miles distant. [483] io6 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, During the early part of April an observer in Kona kept a careful record of the principal shocks felt there, but in other places no observations were made. The only certain thing, among various and somewhat extravagant reports, is that the vibrations were very frequent and not very severe. In some places the)^ were almost silent, but usually accompanied by subterranean detonations and rumblings, with a noise as of boiling, surging waves in the bowels of the earth. No observations were made on the gases said to have been emitted from some of the fissures. When the eruption of lava was made known at Honolulu, many residents at once set out for Hawaii, and among them a gentleman of distinguished attainments in botany. Dr. William Hillebrand, who has given us so accurate and full an account of what he saw in passing through the disturbed region that it seems worthy of a more permanent record than would be its lot in the local newspaper in which it first appeared. He writes as follows: I started from Hilo with a few friends for Kilauea April 17th; descended the crater on the" 1 8th; examined the extensive fissures near the Puna road on the 20th; the so-called mud-flow on the 2ist; and the lava streams in Kahuku on the 23rd. On the 24th we crossed the lava stream on the road to Kona, and reached Kealakeakua Bay on April 26th. Of Hilo I have little to say, as your correspondents have communicated to you the most remarkable events from that place. I saw several fissures in the earth near Wahiawa River, of from eight inches to one foot in width, which were caused by the earthquake of April 2nd, and run in the direction of Mauna lyoa. The earthquake waves all moved from southwest to northeast, and over- turned movable objects standing at right angles with that line. A heavy book-case in the Rev. T. Coan's library, holding that relation to the wave, was overturned, while another heavy case, filled with shells and minerals, which stood parallel to the wave, remained standing. Kilauea. — The ground around the crater, particularly on the eastern and western sides, is rent by a number of fissures, one near the Puna road more than twelve feet wide, and very deep; others of lesser size run parallel to and cross the Kau road, so as to render travel on it very danger- ous. The lookout house is detached from the mainland by a very deep crevasse, and stands now on an isolated overhanging rock, which at the next severe concussion must tumble into the pit below. Many smaller fissures are hidden by grass and bushes, forming so many traps for the unwary. The Volcano House, however, has not suffered nor is the ground surrounding it broken in the least. From the walls of Kilauea large masses of rock have been detached and thrown down. On the west and northwest sides, where the fire had been most active before the great earthquake of April 2nd, the falling masses probably have been at once melted by the lava and carried off in its stream, for the walls there remain as perpendicular as they were before; but that this part of the wall has lost portions of its mass, is showai too evidently by the deep crevices along the western edge just spoken of, and the partial detachment in many places of large prisms of rock. But it is on the east and northeast wall particularly, that the character of the crater has undergone a change. * Along the descent on the second ledge large mavSses of rock, many, more than one hundred tons in weight, obstruct the path and form abutments to the stone pillars — small buttress hills similar to those ob- served in front of the high basaltic wall of Koolau, Oahu. So also in the deep crater itself the eavSt- ern wall has lost much of its perpendicular dip, and has become shelving in part. The crater itself was entirely devoid of liquid lava ; no incandescence anywhere ; pitchy dark- ness hovered over the abyss the first night. I say the first night, because during the second night of our stay between twelve m. and one a.m., detonations were heard again, and light reappeared for [484! Kilattea as Seen by Dr, Hillebrand. 107 a short time in the south lake Halemaumau. White vapors of steam issued from the floor in a hun- dred places, but of those stifling sulphurous and acid gases, formerly so overpowering in the neigh- borhood of the lakes and ovens, only the faintest trace was perceived here and there. The heat was nowhere so great that we could not keep our footing for a minute or more, although in many places it would forbid the touch of the bare hand. The great south lake Hale- maumau is transformed into a vast pit, more than five hundred feet deep, the solid eastern wall pro- jecting far over the hollow below, while the remaining sides are falling off with a sharp inclination, and consist of a confused mass of rough aa. More than two-thirds of the old floor of Kilauea has caved in, and sunk from one hundred to three hundred feet below the level of the remaining floor. I^IG. 69. KII^AUEA AFTER THE ERUPTION OI? 1868. The depression embraces the whole western half, and infringes in a semicircular line on a considerable portion of the other half. This is greatest in the northern, and rather gradual and gentle in its southern portion. Entering on the depressed floor from the southern lake, it was some time before we became fully aware of its existence, and it was only on our return from the northwest corner, where it is deepest, that there presented itself through the mist in which we were enveloped, a high wall of three hundred feet, grotesque and fanciful in outline. At first we were quite bewildered, fancying that we beheld the great outer wall of the crater. On nearer approach we soon satisfied ourselves that this singular wall represented the line of demarcation of a great depression in the floor of the crater — a fact that surprised us the more, as a bird's eye view from above had altogether failed to apprise us of its existence. As we had been informed that the principal activity of the crater before the great earthquake had been in the northwest corner, we proceeded in that direction on [485] io8 Kilauea and Manna Loa. leaving the vSouth lake. Having arrived at about the middle of the depression a considerable rise in the ground presented itself on our left — to the west. Having ascended this, we found ourselves at the brink of a fearful chasm, which fell off on our side with a beetling wall to the depth of several hundred feet and extended about half a mile from north to south. Very hot air rose from it. Around it, towards its northern extremity, the lava is thrown up into an indescribable confusion ; pile upon pile of aa gorge and ridge by turns. The caving in of the floor seemed to be still in progression, for twice during our exploration of the crater, our nerves were disturbed by a prolonged heavy rumbling and rattling noise, as from a distant platoon-fire of musketry, coming from the northwest corner. Kilauea iki, which in 1865 was covered with shrubs on its side and partly on the bottom, was now overflowed with black, shining lava. It has been free from fire since 1832. Thus far as to what we have seen. Now allow me to relate what I learned from Kaina [the District Judge, and a most intelligent Hawaiian], who has resided near the volcano without inter- ruption for the last five months, and whose strong nerves sustained him during the fearful catastrophe introduced by the earthquake of April 2nd. He and the Chinaman who keeps the hoUvSe, were the only persons who remained at Kilauea. He says that for two months preceding the first shock, namely, from January 20th to March 27th, the crater had been unusually active; eight lakes being in constant ebullition and frequently overflowing. During all this time (the date of its first appear- ance could not be ascertained exactly), there was in the northwest corner a blow-hole, from which at regular intervals of a minute or less, with a roaring noise, large masses of vapor were thrown off, as from a steam engine. This ceased about the 17th of March. At the same time the activity of the lakes became greatly increased, and Kaina anticipated mischief. March 27, the first shock was perceived. Two days later Mr. Abraham Fornander found the bottom of the crater overflowed with fresh lava, and incandescent. Thursday, April 2nd, at a few minutes past four p.m., the big earthquake occurred, which caused the ground around Kilauea to rock like a ship at sea. At that moment there commenced fearful detonations in the crater ; large quantities of lava were thrown up to a great height ; portions of the wall tumbled in. This extraordinary commotion, accompanied with unearthly noise and sway- ing of the ground, continued from that day till Sunday night, April 5th, hvX from the first the fire began to recede. On Thursday night it was already confined to the regular lakes ; on Saturday night it only remained in the great south lake, and on Sunday night there was none at all; Pele had left Kilauea. The noises now became weaker, and were separated by longer intervals. By Tuesday quiet reigned in Kilauea. On that afternoon the lava burst out at a distance of forty miles, south- west, in Kahuku. April 2nd, from six to ten p.m., Kaina observed fire in the direction of Puna, which, at the time, caused him to believe that the lava had found a vent again in that direction, as it did in 1840; but he subsequently satisfied himself that it^was only a reflection from lava in Kilauea iki. It was not seen afterward. In Kapapala we are told that fire had been seen several nights in a southeast direction, and that natives had reported flowing lava there. We rode over in the morning of April 20th. At a dis- tance of five miles from Mr. Reed's dwelling, where the Puna road turns ofl from the Kilauea road, heavy clouds of white vapor were seen to issue from the bush, which sparsely covered the pahoehoe, makai^^ of the road. Half an hour's ride brought us up to the place, but we were obliged to leave our horses some distance before reaching the spot, on account of fissures. After having crossed a number of them, heading for the heaviest cloud of vapor, we at last came to a deep crevasse in the pahoehoe, at least twenty-four feet in width, no bottom visible. It narrowed and widened out in places, but nowhere was less than eight feet wide. Its length we estimated at four hundred feet. *^ Makai is the Hawaiian for ** towards the sea". [486] Earthquake and Mud Floiv^ i86j. 109 Parallel with this great crevasse, constituting a belt about six hundred feet in width, were a number of smaller ones on each side, diminishing in size with distance from it, from six feet to a few inches. From the larger openings in the former, heavy white columns of hot steam issued, which had a decidedly alkaline smell. Smaller jets of vapor to the number of thirty, rose from the smaller fissures. We could not discover fire in any place, but it is very probable that during dark nights the reflection of the underlying lava should be thrown up, for as the steam did not seem to contain combustible material, it is unlikely that the light seen should have been produced by it. The mean direction of all the fissures was N.E. 9° N., S.W. 9° vS., or nearly the direction of a line connecting Kilauea with Waiohinu and Kahuku. The distance of these fissures from Kilauea is thirteen miles. As in this district the earthquake of April 2nd culminated to its greatest intensity, so as even to rend in twain the frame-work of a mountain-side, and hurl down on the plain a portion of its flank, it is necessary to give a short description of the country in order to insure a proper understanding of the disturbance. The locality in question is that comprised between the ranch stations of Messrs. Reed and Richardson, on the east, and Mr. F. S. layman on the west, a distance of five miles. The government road connecting these two places runs through a fine grassy plain, which has a very gentle fall towards the sea, its elevation being about 2000 feet. Into this plain project from the slope of Mauna lyoa three parallel hills or spurs, each about one mile in length, and from 800 to 1800 feet in height. They include two broad valleys between them. The upper portions of these valleys rise with a steep incline towards a ridge which runs at right angles with the spurs, and is covered with a dense pulu forest, which extends far up the gentle slope of the dome of Mauna Loa. In the second one of these valleys — that next to Mr. Lyman's— the so-called mud-flow took place, but very extensive land-slides, confined simply to the loose earth and conglomerate, also occurred in the other valley. The ground around Reed and Richardson's station is torn up into numerous small cracks and fissures, running in every direction. Some are large enough to engulf horse and rider, a fact which actually occurred a few days after the earthquake. A large cistern, built in solid masonry and covered with an arched stone roof, was rent to pieces, and the roof entirely broken away. Not a single stone fence is standing; their places are indicated by flat belts of stone on the ground. The dwelling house — a good wooden framed one — exhibits a wrench across its roof, vSo that the gutters empty themselves in the sitting room ; the cook-house is thrown off its foundation ; other out-buildings are completely overturned ; and of the grass houses, some are smashed down, others greatly inclined. But all thCvSe signs of destruction are thrown in the shade by the grandeur of the force which shook off the side of the pali, burying in a minute thirty-one human beings, many hundred head of cattle, and entire flocks of goats, and ending four miles from its beginning in a mighty river of mud. Before reaching this mud-flow from Reed's house, we passed two considerable streams of muddy water, of a reddish-yellow color, emitting a strong odor of clay, such as may be perceived in potteries. Both streams have their origin in the land-slide of the first valley. When we passed them again, two days later, they had nearly disappeared ; they evidently owed their origin to the drainage of the fallen mass. The mud-flow is met with three miles from Reed's. It projects itself from the spurs of the hills two miles dowai in the plain; begins at once with a thickness of six feet, which, towards the middle, where it forms a small hill, rises to thirty feet; averages about three-fourths of a mile in width, and contracts towards its end. From this end a long queue of boulders bears witness to the violent action of a torrent which shot out of the mud after it was deposited, and which has since perpetuated itself in a stream of some size, quite muddy, and emitting the above mentioned pottery odor when we saw it first, on April 20th, but perfectly clear and inodorous when we passed it three days later. A little higher up a koa grove gives still vStronger evidence of the strength of the pro- pelling force. The trees first seized are snapped off and prostrate, yet the mud in that place is only a few feet deep. The mass itself is nothing but the loose red soil of the mountain side, with a good [487] no Kilauea and Mauna Loa, sprinkling of round boulders, with here and there stumps of trees, ferns, hapuu and amaumau, and entire lehua trunks. Near the lower end a vigorous, healthy taro-plant stood erect in the mud as if it had been planted there. From the sides of the mass protruded portions of the bodies of many cattle and goats, overwhelmed in their flight; a gain of one second of time might have saved them. The surface of the mud in this lower course was rather smooth, as if it had been forced down by the agency of water, and it was still vSO soft that the feet sank deep into it. After we had flanked it for some distance along the side of the hill, the mud became solid enough to bear our weight, and we walked upon it to the head of the pali. The surface gradually became more rough ; the boulders increased, and detached portions of earth and stone were scattered beyond its borders, which also flattened out gradually. The ascent soon became steep, and here, on a short spur, just in the middle of the mud, stands a native house on an island of grass and kalo, flanked by two trees. A poor woman who happened to be in it at the time of the outbreak, escaped the awful fate which doomed the remaining members of her family, and was removed from her peril- ous situation a few days after, when the crust had become solid enough to bear a man's weight. As we went on the mass became more rough and hard, tree trunks and boulders increased, even angular rocks appeared, until at last the mud ceased entirely and gave place to a sea of huge rocks, all angular and exhibiting fresh fractures, large trunks of trees crushed between and under them, and streamlets of fresh, clear water meandering between them. This continued for the last three hundred feet of rise, and ended in a perpendicular wall of solid rock, some twenty feet high, after having climbed which, w^e repOvSed under the refreshing shade of tall fern trees, for we had entered at once the great pulu forest. Seated on the trunk of a prostrate tree, we could survey the whole scene of devastation we had just traversed. Immediately at our feet the rocky framework of the pali was torn up, and its contents turned topsy-turvy in dire confusion. The rocky wall we had just climbed, continued until it reached the sides of the two flanking hills. A perpendicular cut in the sides of the latter laid open some forty feet of red earth and conglomerate. On looking behind us we saw that the rock we were resting on was separated from the mountain by a deep crevasse, parallel to the wall, and only partly visible, as it extended under the dense trees. To our left a clear sparkling mountain stream leaped in a bounding cascade over the crag, and after losing its course amid the maze of rocks, gathered itself again, flowing over the solid bed-rock in a deep gorge cut in the mud. This stream had existed here before, but ere it reached half down the pali, became lost in the soil. It can easily be imagined what an amount of subsoil water must have been deposited here. Bearing this in mind, and the great depth of soil and conglomerate on this slope, as indicated by the cuts in the hill-sides, there seems to be no great difficulty in explaining how such enormous masses of earth, at first propelled horizontally through the air, hurled down the valley by the tre- mendous force which tore off the side of the mountain, should then have been seized by the propelling force of the now liberated subsoil water and carried in a mighty stream far beyond the place where at first they were deposited. All this destruction was the work of the great earthquake of April 2nd. During the five days preceding it, over one thousand shocks had been counted. On that afternoon Mr. Harbottle, at Reed's, with his men, was driving cattle across the hill towards Hilo, when suddenly the earth shook violently and a great detonation was heard behind them. Horses and cattle turned round involuntarily. The whole atmosphere before them was red and black. In a very short time this subsided — some say in one minute, others in five minutes ; but a black cloud continued to hover over the scene for some time. From that Thursday to Sunday the earth constantly rocked and swayed; the hills seemed to alternately approach and recede. Most people became seasick. Strange roaring and surging noises were heard under the ground. When the ear was applied to the earth it would often receive a dis- tinct impression as if a subterranean wave struck against the earth's crust. The prevailing direction of the earthquake waves was said to have been from northeast to southwest. [488] Dr. Hillehrandh Visit to Kahuku, III Here follows a portion of Dr. Hillebrand's account that covers ground already trodden by Mr. Whitney. After he arrived at Kahuku his account gives us the appearance of the lava after the flow had ceased. He continues: As the principal interest was the discovery of the main source of the stream, we at once went to that part of it, where, according to common report, the lava had issued. A very light, dark brown, glistening pumice stone lay scattered about long before the lava was seen. Near the flow it increased so much that the animals' feet sank deep into it at every step. We soon reached the ridge of a hill from which we surveyed the place where, according to our guide's account, the fountains of lava had been seen. The upper portion of the lava stream fills a broad valley or depression, between two parallel low hills of not more than three hundred feet in height, both running almost due north and south. From the western one of these hills Mr. Whitney had witnessed the eruption. From the eastern hill we in vain looked for a crater or cone. We did not make out any indication of an erup- tion until we had crossed nearly three-fourths of the stream, which here is not far from a mile wide. Then our attention was attracted by an accumulation of scoriae. Nearing this we were struck by a current of hot air, and, a little farther on, found ourselves on the brink of a deep gap in the lava about twenty feet wide, but narrowing and continuing northward. We walked round the southern end of the gap, and followed it up on the western or lee side. Before long we came to another enlargement of the fissure, like the former, emitting hot air charged with acid gases which drove us back. Still continuing our march on the w^est side of the fissure as close as the hot gases would allow, we came in sight of a pretty miniature cone, built up most regularly of loose scoriae to the height of twelve feet, and located right over the fissure. It encloses a chimney crater of about twelve feet diameter, with perpendicular sides, the depth of which could not be ascer- tained. Hot gases issued in abundance. On account of the exhalation of the latter we were obliged to cross the chasm, on the bridge formed by the side of the cone, to the windward side, along which we followed up steadily. This crack or fissure tends south six degrees west to north six degrees east and is in the slope of the hill that forms the west boundary of the lava-stream. Its lava cover therefore is quite thin in many places, so that you can see how it sinks in the original rock of the hill. Its depth can- not be ascertained anywhere. More than four-fifths of the lava is on the eastern side, as it followed the declivity of the hill-slope to fill the trough of the valley, wdiere it assumed a general downward course. It is from the entire length of this fissure that the lava has welled up simultaneously. The waves of lava for some distance from it are all parallel to its course, while in the middle of the stream they stand at a right angle to it. The edges are somewhat raised above the remainder of the stream, and scoriae covers it in most parts, forming quite heavy layers where the stream has blowholes. Isolated flakes of brittle lava, resembling cow-dung, probably blown out at the end of the eruption, with fitful spouting of steam and gas, are seen all along its course. Nearing the upper end of the valley, where I expected to find the end of the fissure, I was surprised at the sudden appearance of a veritable cataract of lava coming down the precipitous side of the eastern hill, a height of at least three hundred feet. Having ascended it with considerable toil, I found myself again alongside the big crevasse, which in passing across the valley had deflected from its former course to a nearly N.E. direction, heading direct for the svimmit of Mauna Loa. From here onward, the incline increasing considerably, the lava commenced to be very rugged and broken. As here it had passed over and destroyed a dense forest, a number of grotesque shapes met the eye. Wherever the lava had met a tree of some size, it had surrounded it with a perfect mould which either still held the smouldering remains of the trunk, or exhibited hollow cylinders bearing on the inside the markings of the bark of the tree. The leaf stalk scars of fern-trees were almost perfect. A few of the moulds contained still entire trunks with the unconsumed branches. In the bifurcations of these, heavy masses of lava had accumulated, hanging down in wavy points [439] 112 Kilatiea and Mauna Loa, like so many stalactites. Wherever there was a fern stump standing upright, it bore a cap of lava; everything indicated that the liquid mass had been thrown upwards by the violent rush of steam and gas. As I said before, this part of the flow was lined by a dense forest. It soon became appar- ent that the sides of the forest closed in upon each other, and from an eminence alongside the fissure I could see that the lava-stream contracted at some distance beyond to the apex of an isoceles triangle. The crevasse w^hich ran straight up to the apex, was continuous, wider than below, and emitted in great profusion sulphurous and other acid gases. Its borders, which were of the color of red brick, commenced to be covered with the efflorescence of salts and sulphur, and in places they assumed altogether the appearance of sulphur banks. The heat of the lava increased so as to be unbearable in some places. Ashes and scoriae covered every hollow in the floor, and the edge of the woods for some distance. Having arrived at the apex of the triangle, I found that the crevas.se, over which the trees almost closed from both sides, still extended a few hundred j^ards higher up in the woods, as indi- cated by a continuous line of white and yellow smoke. The choking nature of the latter forbade my marching along the edge of the fissure, while the impenetrable thicket, with the ground thickly covered by ashes, proved another effectual bar to my further progress. In fact, while hurrying out of an overpowering cloud of the smoke, I got one leg caught in a lateral fissure hidden under the ashes, where it received such a lively impression of heat that I made quick time to retire from that neighborhood. Just then I heard a deep, hollow, rumbling, prolonged sound, while the air and earth remained perfectly still. Subsequently I learned that it had been caused by the rolling down of large masses of pumice stone from the hill to the lower lava stream, but at the time being fearful of another catastrophe, I hurried back as fast as circumstances would permit, and felt a great relief in rejoining my friends who had remained behind, at the lower part of the stream. From the height above the cataract I saw two other lines of smoke running through the woods, taking their origin from the valley below, indicating two other fissures. Thus it appears that at the head of the valley the main fissure divided itself into three parts: the first and largest, running northeast; the middle one almost due north, and the third about north-northwest. The two latter did not seem to have thrown off much lava, if any, for there appeared no gap in the woods along their courses. ^^ From a letter addressed to me under date of August 27, 1868, by the Rev. T. Coan, I extract the following important facts and accurate descriptions: I left Hilo on the fourth of August, on a missionary tour through Puna and Kau, and was absent eighteen days. During this tour I made careful observations with measurements and notes, on the remarkable volcanic phenomena of the past five months. The action of tellurial forces on our little island shell has been marvellous. The subsidence along the coast of Puna, from the east cape at Kapoho to Apua on the western line, is four to seven feet, varying in different localities. The great sand beach at Kaimu has been forced back into the young and beautiful coco-palm grove, and also into the groves of pandanus, so that trees now stand eight feet deep in sand, and many stand in the water. The plain of Kalapana has sunk about six feet, and water four to five feet deep now covers some twenty acres of what was once dry land. The old stone church is buried nearly to the eaves in sand, and the tide rises and falls within it. This plain of Kalapana was doubtless at some former time buried much deeper beneath the sea. A coral reef of several yards thickness stretches half across the valley, and formed a barrier against further encroachments of the sea. It was three or four feet above high water mark, and formed a convenient site for the village. The church that Mr. Coan mentions was on this coral mound towards the shore. As the wall of rock ^^ Honolulu, May 4, 1868. [49o] The Tidal Wave, 113 which bounds the plain on the southerly side shows clearly that some former subsi- dence resulted in a rupture of the crust forming the floor of the plain from this wall, it would have been well to note any change at this point. Mr. Coan observed none, and the loose rocks knocked down b}^ the protraAed earthquakes would perhaps ob- literate any traces of so slight a dislocation as a fall of six feet would cause. ^^ At Kealakomo the salt-works are destroyed and the fountain on the shore sunk. Apua, the last village in Puna, was swept clear [by the tidal wave of April 2nd] and sunk. Its pretty sand beach and miniature bay rendering it a resort for fishermen, are no more; the sea stands some six feet deep where the houses once stood. The same is true of Keauhou, the first village in Kau, and an important pulu station ; coconut trees stand seven feet in the water, and all the buildings were swept away by the tidal wave. Passing on to Punaluu, this wave rose twenty feet and swept all before it. The great sand barrier which protected the beautiful pond and the cold, limpid spring, was first swept into the sea and then brought back and deposited in the pond, filling it up and chang- ing the shore line. I got the height of this wave by measurement on a palm tree, and also upon the surrounding ridge of scoriform lava, making the rise above common high water about twenty feet. From Punaluu onward to Honuapo, all houses were swept away except two standing on high lava ridges. The road was strown with boulders and fragments of rocks, and in some places it has sunk, so that it is with great difficulty, and not without a guide, that the traveler threads his zigzag way along this coast for five miles. Not a house remains in the considerable village of Honuapo : the sea occupies the site of former dwellings. The wave here corresponded with that at Punaluu, as shown by measurements on coconut trees. There were points where the influx of the sea was greater than at other places, and this seems to have been caused by the approach of the wave from the southwest, or at an angle of 45° to the shore, and by striking headlands and projecting points causing the waters to heap up within the points of tangency, while the current swept on at a lower mark where the coast presented no lateral obstructions. "^^ In crossing over the great lava fields from Puna to Kau, I passed about nine miles to the south and leeward of Kilauea, the great volcano flanking us on the right. The country through which we passed was terribly rent by the earthquake of April 2nd, and in some places we were obliged to deflect widely from the old track to avoid fissures. For several miles the cracks were so numerous and so wide, that a stranger would be utterly unable to find his way through this mural network of fractures. Our guide zigzagged us everywhere, our animals often demurring, trembling, and refusing to go. The whole atmosphere was filled with sulphurous smoke, through which the sun shone with sanguine rays. After passing most of these fissures, I requCvSted my guide to turn to the left and follow the line of fissure seaward, hoping to find the locality of a disputed eruption which it was affirmed by some and denied by others had taken place in that wide and wild field of ancient lavas. After an hour of hard search amidst hills and ridges of aa and fields of pahoehoe, we found a veri- table eruption The fused lavas had been thrown out of the fissures at five different points, on a line of less than a mile in length. The largest batch was one thousand feet long and six hundred feet wide, with an average depth of ten feet, and with a steaming and tumulated surface. This series of small eruptions is about eleven miles southwest of Kilauea, and it shows distinctly the subter- ranean path taken by the igneous flood which left that seething cauldron on the night after the rending earthquake of April 2nd. That shock doubtless opened a pathway for the struggling fires, and they went off in a southwestern course under the highlands of Kau, uniting with the subterranean ^^ 111 crossing this plain twenty-live years later I found my surmise correct and the former waU had been covered by the confused fragments. ^2 To the casual traveler no signs of this shore catastrophe remain. Wharves and villages replace those de- stroyed, and even a sugar-mill and its surrounding hamlet occupies one of the points where the ravages were greatest. Memoirs 13. P, B. Museum. Vol. II, No. 4— ^r L49 ^ J 114 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, fires of Mauna Loa, and finding a fuller vent at Kahuku on the seventh of April. This is the theory, and it is rendered probable by the great and constant trembling of the earth along that whole line, by subterranean noises heard by the people of Kapapala, Keaiwa, Waiohinu, and other places, and by the issuing of steam at several points from fissures along that line. When it was found that Kilauea had discharged its contents, the first suppo- sition was that the course of the eruption of 1840, or towards the southeast, had been followed, and this was strengthened by the report of fire seen at the bottom of some of the numerous pit craters on that line; but while it is possible that lava may have been injected in earthquake fissures opened in this direction even so far as the pit craters (see map, p. 51), the probable path was that indicated by Mr. Coan, which is apparently the same as that of the eruption 1823. When the Rev. William Ellis went over the ground the next year he found deep fissures extending in a southwest direction, some of them ten or twelve feet across, and emitting sulphurous vapors at a high temperature. '"^^ In one place where the chasm was about three feet wide, a large quantity of lava had been recently vomited. I do not agree with Mr. Coan that the lava from Kilauea and that from Mauna Loa effected a juncture before reaching the surface. It seems more probable that the former passed into the sea near Punaluu, as did that of 1823, ^^'^ appearing above ground except at Kapapala. The fact that the openings on the side of Mauna Loa above Kahuku were much higher than those men- tioned at Kapapala, seems to indicate conclusively that the lava of Kilauea did not flow out in the stream that deluged the height above Ka Lae. The lava of both these volcanic vents is so similar that nothing can be inferred from that of its individual source. I/andslide. — Between Kapapala and Keaiwa in Kau, I examined what has incorrectly been called the Mud Flow. I went entirely around it, and crossed it at its head and center, measuring its length and breadth which I found were severally three miles long and half a mile wide. The breadth at the head is about a mile, and the ground on the side-hill, where the cleavage took place, is now a bold precipice sixty feet high. Below this line of fracture the superstrata of the earth, con- sisting of soil, rocks, lavas, boulders, trees, roots, ferns and all tropical jungle, and water, slid and rolled down an incline of some 20°, until the immense masses came to the brow of a precipice near a thousand feet high, and here all plunged down an incline of 40° to 70° to the cultivated and in- habited plains below. The momentum acquired by this terrific slide was so great that the mass was forced over the plain, and even up an angle of 1° 30', at the rate of more than a mile a minute. In its course it swept along enormous trees, and rocks from the size of a pebble to those weighing many tons. Immense blocks of lava, some fresh as of yesterday, and others in all stages of decomposition, were uncovered by the slide. The depth of the depOvSit on the grass plains may average six feet : in depressions at the foot of the precipice it may be thirty or even forty feet, ^7 Eruption in Kahuku. — From the land-slide I went on to the igneous eruption in western Kau. Rents, tiltings, and other disturbances of the strata were seen along the shore, while the wooded and grassy hills on the right were scalped, vScarred, cracked and striated, some of the once ^^EHivS's Polynesian Researches, T^ondon, 1859, vol. iv, p. 220. See also quotation on p. 39 of the present work. ^^I have a map of the landslide constructed for me by the late Latimer Coan, son of Rev. T. Coan, but it seemed unnecessary to reproduce it here, the descriptions are so definite. [492] Eruption at Kahtikti. 115 green hills looked as if a gigantic cultivator had been driven down their sides, tearing off the sward and exposing the soil in wide parallel grooves, and leaving broad belts of vegetation resembling rows of sugar cane. In passing from Waiohinu to Kahuku, we started a little after sunrise and rode westward. About three miles from Waiohinu we crossed a lateral arm of the eruption, about one-sixteenth of a mile wide, and some two miles long, from where it left the parent stream. It was a high ridge of aa, say twenty-five feet deep, and running in a southeasterly direction. Crossing this and riding half a mile over verdant and beautiful fields, we come to another lateral outgush of similar character, and dimensions. Then came a third, which flowed some four miles and threatened to fill the harbor of Kaalualu. This was longer and broader than the other two, but of the same general character. After another half mile we crossed a fourth rugged stream of aa, and then moving southwest we rode rapidly over a fine surface of soil down a slope of about 3"" to the ends of the two large parallel streams that entered the sea at Kailikii. Over all this wide field of pasturage, cinder and pumice had been scattered, and the grass had been consumed as by a prairie fire. This portion of the eruption went into the sea about one mile northwest of Ka Lae, the south cape of the island. On the left flank of the stream is a high and very steep ridge (four hundred to five hundred feet high) , extending from the cape up the southern slope of Mauna Loa. The outburst of April 7tli commenced about ten miles from the sea by the opening of a horrid fissure in the forest on the upper side of this precipice. For about three miles the burning river flowed down partly above and partly below this precipice. The area above was rich and beautiful land for cultivation and pasturage; that below was simply pahoehoe. The four lateral streams before mentioned all ran off upon the beautiful highlands, covering several thousand acres, but without reaching the sea. Some three miles from the head the main stream went altogether over the precipice, and pursued its rapid course over the pahoehoe some seven miles to the sea which it reached in two hours. There it formed, as is usual when lava streams enter the sea, two cones of lava sand, or lava shivered into millions of particles by coming in contact with water while in an intensely heated state. There is no island there and there is nothing but what is common under similar circumstances. This stream is about half a mile wide, and it entered the sea some three-fourths of a mile from the high pali before spoken of. After running a day or two, in this channel, partial obstructions occurred, by cooling masses, when the shell of the stream w^as tapped some five miles from the sea, and a torrent of white-hot lava pushed out on the east side, running off to the great precipice and following its base in a breadth of half a mile down to the sea, and thus forming an island five miles long and a quarter of a mile wide, surrounded on three sides by fire. Three houses stand unscathed on this islet, and about thirty head of cattle were inclosed by the igneous flood. The route taken by this lava flow was substantially that of a stream of unknown date, but whose smooth surface of hard pahoehoe looks fresh and undeconiposed. Where this ancient stream originated is not known, for no one has ever taken the trouble to trace up the various flows that radiate like the spokes of a wheel from the cone of Mauna Loa."^^ The pali referred to was probably formed by the subsidence of the ground over which the successive streams of lava have flowed, and it forms the boundary of a fine pasture land, which appears to have been exempt from these lava inundations for many ages ; the outcropping ledges of lava are weathered and lichen- covered vmtil they resemble the gneiss and granite rocks of New England, at least from a distance. ^^It will be seen from the map of this island that the government survey has done much in tracing the flows of known date, but much remains to be done, although it is probably impossible to fuUy trace other than the super- ficial flows. [493] ii6 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. The flow of 1840 which reached the sea at Nanawale, formed conical hills which lasted many years although composed of the loose gravelly rapilli resulting from the sudden shivering of the lava, and the same form of cinder piles is seen at the junction of lava and sea-water in this flow of 1868. It is not universally the case, however, that lava is broken up in this way when passing into the sea. Sometimes the heat has been so intense as to induce the spheroidal state preventing the actual contact of the water, and the melted rock has run on under the water, forming submarine ledges of pahoehoe. From the shore we rode up on the elevated plateau with the two parallel streams of cooled lava on our left, some five hundred feet below, with nothing to obstruct a full bird's eye view of the scene. At length we came to the great trunk at Kahuku, from which all the lateral branches had been sent off. At our right on one of these branches were the ruins of the large stone church of Kahuku. The great earthquake had shaken down the walls, and the roof was lowered and standhig over the ruins, around which the sea of molten lava had flowed, leaving them upon a small island unconsumed and uncovered. One-eighth of a mile above this, and on the same stream, we saw three small thatched houses, where four natives had been surrounded by the burning sea and confined for ten days in this fiery prison. The whole inclosed island contained about an acre, and before the people were aware of it, no avenue of escape was left. The hot clinkers came rolling along ui a great stream within twenty-five feet of one of the houses, and cooled in a ridge as high as the top of the house. We climbed over this rough mass and visited the people who still live in this awful but now romantic inclosure. They seemed cheerful and were right glad to see us. On inquiring how they felt and how they spent their time during those days of fiery trial, they replied that in expectation of certain death they were calm and resigned, looking up to God and spending most of their time in prayer. Passing up the main stream, we came to the place where Captain Brown's houses once stood; just in the rear of this was an awful vent from which fiery jets were thrown hundreds of feet high, with fearful hissings and belchings. Beyond this we saw numbers of green islets, of two to five acres in extent, formed by the surging sea of fire as it seethed and boiled and swept around these reserved places. On some of these islands cattle were feeding, and twenty head were taken from one islet of less than two acres, after the lavas were partly cooled. They were terribly heated and frantic, and some of them died. Still pursuing our course upward, we veered to the right, and once more took the soil on the uplands which bordered the stream. Here the great trunk of the stream was in its full breadth and I hired two men to measure across, while we rode through a charred forest and deep cinders more than one hundred feet above the shining lava fields which lay on our left. At length we descended again to the stream of fresh and warm pahoehoe, and rode nearly a mile upon its crack- ling surface. We soon came to a region of fissures and blow-holes, and where the evidences of Plutonic fury were unmistakable. From these infernal orifices amazing jets had been thrown hun- dreds of feet heavenwards, forming ridges, hills and jagged cones of every contour, and leaving the products of raging seas and rivers of fire, such as must have been appalling to near witnesses of these fiery dynamics. Here we left our horses, and with great effort struggled over the sharp and confused masses which were heaped wildly around. Climbing a rough hillside some two hundred feet high, and on an angle of forty-five degrees, we came upon the great head fissure from which the first lavas were disgorged. We followed this to the terminal point in the woods, over ridges and heaps of cinder, pumice and scoria. From this high terrace we could overlook the stream below for about three miles. The great vent or fissure extended longitudinally and in an irregular line for two and a half miles or more, and at many points along this line the steam and smoke were still rising with no little heat. No fire was, however, seen ; it all disappeared in less than four days after the commencement of the eruption. The fissure opened from two to twenty feet wide, and there are places where it is inter- rupted or so narrow that it can be crossed, [4941 Kitauea After the Earthquake, tiy Near the head of this fissure a small quantity of sulphur is found, as also alum, gypsum, Glauber's and other salts; none of these are abundant, and the products of this eruption are identi- cal with those of all former eruptions on this island. Returning to the point whence I had sent the men to line across the stream, I regretted to find that they had measured until they came to the great fissure, and seeing no way of crossing it, had returned. They had measured half a mile, and thought they were half way across, but from sight I judged they were only one-third across, giving a mile and a half as the estimated width at this point, which was about the widest place of the undivided or trunk stream. I would say that the average width of the flow by uniting all the branches would be one and a half miles, the length ten miles, and the average depth fifteen feet. Where it entered deep basins and gorges it is fifty to a hundred feet deep, but where it spread over grass fields and unbroken surfaces, we find it from two to fifteen feet deep. The course of the main stream, the one that entered the sea, is due south. The flow upon the surface was short and energetic, some say three and some five days, — we give it as four days. The scene was brilliant and awe-inspiring; obstructions along the line of flow often opened vents through which fiery jets were thrown up to the height of five hundred to seven hundred feet, with amazing brilliancy and a force which made the earth tremble. All the southern coast of Hawaii was illuminated with the dazzling glare ; but the amount of matter discharged is small compared with the eruption of 1855. Kilauea. — In going to Kau my route was along the shore road through Puna ; my return was via Kilauea. At this place I spent a day and a night, and examined the changes. Previous to the great earthquake, the fiery abysses of Kilauea had been in a raging condition as if seeking vent. The molten sea had broken up vertically in the bottom of Little Kilauea, and had left a burning stratum upon the old deposits of 1832. The terrible rendings of April 2nd tore up the earth, opened great fissures everywhere around Kilauea, sent down thundering avalanches of rocks from the high surrounding walls, and probably opened a vSubterranean passage for the igneous flood to the south- west. That night Pele decamped in this underground passage, and the central area of the great crater subsided about three hundred feet, leaving or rather forming a new Black Ledge of unequal width, all around the crater. In some parts the central depression left the ledge a perpendicular or beetling wall with a serrated line, but in most parts the centre sagged away gently forming a large concave basin with an angle of 20° to 70"". The surface of this concave was once the crowning or convex central portion of the crater, where ferns and ohelos have been growing for nearly twenty years. This superincumbent plateau has been depressed so quietly that the surface is very little dis- turbed, and the ferns and bushes are still growing in the basin three hundred feet below their position on the first of April. Some parts, however, of this great area have been covered with fresh lava, and some ferns have been killed by heat and gases. From the black ledge I passed down and across this depression (about a mile), and then up the ascent on the other side for half a mile to the rim of Halemaumau, This is all changed ; it has gone down some five hundred feet below the highest point on the black ledge, and about two hundred feet below the depression in the basin before mentioned. The walls have fallen on all sides, and the pit resembles a vast funnel, half a mile in diameter at the top and about fifteen hundred feet across the bottom. There are two places where visitors can descend into this great pit, with some difficulty and risk. Much of the time this pit is filled with smoke and sulphurous gases, with little visible fire; occasionally explosions, detonations, and fiery demonstrations occur in this awful pit. On the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth of this month (August) , the sea was agitated around our entire group, rising and falling from two to four feet above and below the ordinary marks, once in ten, fifteen and twenty-five minutes ; the accounts of rise and time vary as noted in different places by different observers, and I give the range. The sea-waves of which Mr. Coan speaks were doubtless caused by the terrible earthquake which on the thirteenth of August shook the whole western coast of South C495I ti8 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. America, and drove an oceanic wave to the shores of New Zealand and these islands. Bnt although this was decidedly a foreign volcanic or seismic demonstration, the vibra- tions of the land of Hawaii have not ceased, and it is not at all improbable that the reservoirs of lava are emptying themselves beneath the sea ; certainly the lava is in motion. The destruction of life and property on Hawaii was comparatively small, owing to the nature of the district affected. The losses in Kau were as follows : Houses destroyed by land-slide lo Deaths, 31 Houses destroyed by sea-wave id8 Deaths, 46 Houses destroyed by earthquake 46 Deaths, o Hoiises destroyed by lava-stream 2>j Deaths, o Totals 201 77 One life was lost in Puna by the sea-wave, and one in Hilo by a falling cliff. A shock of no greater violence in the city of Boston would probably have killed fifty thousand people, and laid most of the city in ruins. The data for determining the direction and force of the vibrations are quite different from those itsed by Mallet in his remarkable investigation of the Calabrian earthquake of 1857. ^^^ houses are mostly of wood and grass, and stone walls are built of angular blocks of lava, often without any cement ; a brick wall or wall of hewn stone, is not to be found in Kau. On the other hand the rocks which form the upper crust are of uniform composition, the direc$lion of the strata is well known, and there are no strata of sedimentary rock to mislead by reflection of earth waves. On the whole, Hawaii offers many advantages for the study of seismic as well as volcanic phenomena. (Published March, 1869.) Forty years have passed and I have little to add to the careful record of these observers, nearly all of whom have passed from earth. Neither have I much to correct in my own observations on the record. Many times I have passed through the coun- try so terribly shaken, and every time I have cause to wonder, not at the rapidity of the destructive force of the earthquakes and lava streams, but at the rapid healing in the skin of Mother Earth in this climate. The great cones, the wide chasms are there, but how changed ! Quiet and peaceful, they add so much to the grandeur if not to the beauty of the scene. The avalanche of earth, stone and water that was so much more fatal to life than the volcanic outbreak, has now disappeared beneath vegetation, and while I could trace it easily in 1880, when I passed that way a few months ago I could not point it out to my companions. The seismic studies are not much advanced here, although the island of Oahu boasts a seismometer. No scientific body has built an observatory on the brink of Kilauea, and no competent observer has established himself in our midst. ^"^ ®^ Since the above was written two of the Professors of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Messrs- Jaggar and Daly have visited Kilauea with a view to determine the desirability of establishing an observatory there under the control of that institution. [49^1 The Kilauea Record. jja In July of the next year Mr. Coan was able to descend into the pit of Hale- ttiaumau and measure across the cooled surface which was then four hundred feet below the rim. Its diameter was "five-sixths of a mile," and the Halemaumau must have been quiet, but by no means "dead," for in that condition volumes of smoke are generally emitted from the pit (see Fig. 26), and now he could see lava in 1869 ebullition far below the surface, perhaps a hundred feet below, through some of the many cracks in the hardened crust."" In 187 1 Halemaumau was full 187a to overflowing and the lava had run two miles northward over the crater floor; the central depression was filled some fifty feet from the same source. In August of the same year the pit was emptied of lava but still very hot and full of dense vapors, but within a year (August, 1872) it was again overflowing into the great central depression. March /, 1872. Clarence King and Arnold Hague.— King reports: "A fluid stream of basalt overflowed from the molten lake at the south end of the crater and flowed northward along the level basaltic floor of the pit. Numerous little branchlets spurted from the sides of the flow and then congealed. I repeatedly broke these small branch streams and examined their section. In every case the bottom of the flow was thickly crowded with triclinic feldspars and augites; while the whole upper flow was nearly pure isotropic and acid glass." October 21, i8y2. D. H. Hitchcock.— "Halemaumau is like what it was from 1845 to 1868, an immense dome six hundred feet higher than the centre of the pit, equalling in altitude the bordering black ledges. On its summit are two lakes from which lava streams down in various diredlions. Nothing is left of the high banks surrounding the old south lake." On March 3, 1873, Halemaumau was reported occupied by two lakes nearly circular." But in January, 1874, the surface of the great lake was thirty-five to forty feet below the rim and the two parts had become oblong, according to a visitor.'^' In June a more careful observer was at the crater, Mr. J. M. Lydgate, who 1873 made a map of the place in which the pools were again distinctly circular as is shown in the reproduction of Mr. Lydgate's map now among the archives of the Government Survey (Fig. 70). The central depression of 1868 is still distinct, although partially filled. The Volcano House record, while containing much trash, certainly has also on its pages much that should be preserved; much that is not elsewhere recorded. '"American Journal, 1879, "1 454- Letter of August 30, 1871. '"Chas. Nordhoff : Northern California, Oregon and the .Sandwich Islands. '^Miss I. L. Bird: The Hawaiian Archipelago, 55, 253. [497] tie Kilauea and Mauna Loa. I have endeavored to cull what I believe to be authentic. The period we are now considering is covered as follows (I have quoted the record as written; not merely as I think it should have been written): January "J, J^^yj- Between ii and 12 o'clock last niglit Mokuaweoweo started active again. The wind has been from the southward, and the whole day a dense body of smoke has been passing over Kilauea and across Puna off to sea. Weather hazy and top of the mountain seldom visible. Kilauea quite active, but no lava flowing. Jantiary ji, i8jj. Miss Isabella L. Bird. — There was considerable activity, eleven fountains of fire and waves of fire perpetually breaking into fiery spray. March 2, 18^3, C. H. Wil- liams. — The lake is at present divided into about two equal parts by a wall of lava. [Plate XlylV, lower view.] March 13 , i8j3 . J.N. Gil- man. — The south lake is di- vided by a partition which forms two lakes. March 22, 18^3, Godfrey Brown. — South lake was very active, the jets of lava reaching to about fifty feet of the top of the bank. June^^ 18^3, W. L. Green. — The surface of the molten lake appearing to be fifty or sixty feet below the edge .... The level of the molten lava in the lake is some two or three hundred feet above the general level of the depression (a mile or so long), over which you walk to the lake. Mauna lyoa is now active. July 2, 18J3, S. W. Pogue. — Very little action. July ^, i8y3, I^uther Sev- erance. — Crater active; lakes full to the brim. [See Fig. 71, which seems to represent this phase of Halemaumau (South Lake). Unfortunately the present owner of the photographic negative cannot assure me of its date.] July 8, i8'/3, G. Jones. — At 9 a.m. the lava with which the south lake has been filled for some time broke through on the eastern slope facing the Volcano House, and has been running towards and into the basin [central depression of 1868]. On the 12th the south lake was very active and still full, although the new flow of over half a mile in width still continued. The crater on the summit [Mokuaweoweo] was also active. July 28, 18^3, H. Birgham found both lakes and the cones tolerably active, and saw the brook of lava flowing down the side of the south lake. August II, i8'j3. Dr. O. B. Adams. — The outflow from the south lake still flows and is visible through a large crack. It appears to be about twenty feet wide and flows like a mountain torrent. C498] J^r.Lroq/^TE I^IG. 70. SURVEY Oif KII,AUE:A BY J. M. I^YDGATF.. 122 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. August 2g, t8j^, Luther Severance. — Crater very active. September 22, iSyj. W. W. Hall. — I have just returned from a very interesting trip to the crater of Mokuaweoweo on Mauna Loa. Started from Kapapala with my guide John B. Kitu, a half- caste, at about lo o'clock on the i8th, and stayed at Ainapo, the upper ranch, until half-past one. From there a man with pack mule and tent with food and blankets accompanied us and we all kept on our way up through the koa woods until four o'clock when we reached the usual camping ground. As it w^as so early, and as I was anxious to get as far as possible on the first day, we pressed on for three miles farther up the mountain where we found a very good camping ground where we pitched our tent and made a large fire, and spent a comfortable night. I had intended to start by five in the morning, but in the night a horse and a mule got away and went down the mountain. John started at three in the dark for them and reached camp again at six o'clock. We left *' Hall's camp" at 6:30, and after passing or climbing over the most awful road I ever saw for four hours, we reached the crater at 10:30 o'clock. From the place where we left our horses w^e went along the bank towards the north We went to the northeast point, and looking down the preci- pice, say about eight hun- dred feet, over the shelving mass of loose rocks and debris, I thought we might poSvSibly venture to go down. I asked John if he would be willing to go with me , and he said * ' yes . " So we started down, crawling carefully over the loose boulders, and letting our- selves down over huge rocks, until after half an hour's awful labor we reached the bottom which is now entirely cov- ered with the flow of last year. From where w^e stood the awful walls of rock arose on every side, and it looked as though no human being could ever ascend from that vast depth. We had not time to go to the active south lake where the molten lava was heaving and surging with loud reports and hissing noises, so we took a turn over a third of the field of burning-hot pahoehoe and returned to the point where w^e entered. There are many blowholes in this field, and from some of them I collected speci- mens of lava too hot to be held in the naked hand. At night fires can be seen in these holes, and at all times the hot steam and gases rising with a hissing sound. The heat of the black pahoehoe was so great as to blister my feet through a thick pair of boots. We returned by the same way by which we had descended, and when we were again on the bank I felt that God had indeed protected us in a most singular way from every harm, and thanked Him for His goodness It was a most fortu- nate thing for me that I had no bad feelings whatever, and could make as much exertion there as down here. Had it been otherwise I should never have attempted such a descent About a mile from where our horses were we came across stone walls that must have been built for the sides of a house or camp. I found an iron eye-bolt and a piece of soft pine, both of which must have been there thirty years. I think this was Wilkes' camp of 1841, and I brought these away as relics. The crack containing water and ice seems to continue nearly round to the point where we descended, [500] IflG. 72. VJ. W. HAI^I,*S SKETCH PI^AN OI'' MOKUAWKOWKO. Lydgate^s Survey of Mokuaiveoweo, 123 and in some places the openings are large enough to bathe in. We reached the horses, ate some lunch, and started down at 2 p.m., well paid for our great exertion. September ^7, i8y^. T. Spencer. — Crater active, flowing all night toward the Volcano House. January //, 18J4., J. E. Chamberlain. — Visited the crater fourteen years ago. The crater has filled up one-half. The two craters, 1859 and 1874, are almost totally unlike. March 24, 18J4.. L. M. C. — The south lake has been gradually filling up until last night, when it overflowed. At eight o'clock the whole of the edge of the lake facing this house was alight with the flowing lava. A sudden change in the weather has accompanied this outbreak — cold wind without rain ; thermometer 42°. Ju7ie 9, i8j4, Frank Thompson. — The lava has been flowing from the open lake all day. :t.m I I n 1 1 ^c^le lOOO ft --^iTtcK IMG. 73. SURVEY OI^ MOKUAWEOWEO BY J. M. I.YDGATE. June 24, r8j4, John M. Lydgate.— The plan of the crater of Mokuaweoweo [Fig. 73] is from actual survey by triangulation. A base of 1876 feet was measured on the eastern side and from this, using a seven inch Queen transit, some twenty points were fixed indicative of the shape, topography, etc of the crater. Its greatest length including the basin at the north end is 17,000 feet, or about, 3.2 miles; excluding this it is 15,000 feet; its greatest breadth is 8600 feet or about 1.7 miles; its greatest depth 1050 feet. The floor, however, is continually rising owing to repeated overflows, and the lake is about 500 feet in diameter, and at the time of our visit was quite active, more so than 1 have ever seen Kilauea. /uly 8 i8j4. D. H. Hitchcock.— Volcano is very active. Crater filling up with new lava, but evidently sinking more and more as a whole. Halemaumau half the height of the lower or southern bank. Mokuaweoweo brilliant last evening. July 10, 1874. G.[Gilman]— At 7.30 this evening, two sharp, quick shocks of earthquake were felt here,'— an interval of about three minutes between them. The new flow begun last night seems to be gaining, a large portion of the central basin being alight with the flowing lava. [501] 124 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa, August 2g, 18^4, F. A. Schaefer. — Although at my previous visits ('61, '64, '66, '67, '74) I have seen more lakes in Kilauea in action, I have never seen any one lake in a greater state of com- motion than this time. We found the south lake divided into two lakes of similar size by a bank about forty feet high, and the approach to either of them rather more difficult than in years past, on account of recent overflows of lava. Approaching the left-hand lake we had to pass through a great deal of sulphuric smoke which necessarily shortened our stay there, and prevented us from going as near to the brink of the lake as we would have wished, but still allowed an impressive glance at the surging and spouting liquid fire. The right-hand lake seen from a bank eighty feet high pre- ,^0mmt^i • UJj.^ S..i0. 0£fU 0^ar^ r.^^/^^.A -i 'A /J^^ A* f . ^IG. 74. SKETCH Oi? ACTION IN KII.AUEA DECEMBER 8, 1874. sented a magnificent spectacle. The bed of the lake was in constant commotion. Along its banks the waves of liquid fire da.shed into spray like the waves of the ocean on the rockbound coast, and at times the molten lava was thrown high into the air Returning we visited several openings which afforded us a view into a living stream of lava flowing from the south lake in an easterly direction, with a rapidity difficult to estimate. A river of liquid fire rushing along with extreme rapidity and with the characteristics of a mountain stream losing itself in the lower bed of the crater Thermometer 54''- 68°; once it went to 51°. September g, 18J4, B. F. Dillingham. — Have to report the crater of Mokuaweoweo in the same condition topographically as reported by last party and illustrated by J, M. I^ydgate The burning lake itself was less active than reported by the last party, still the action was very satisfac- tory at both ends of the lake, that nearest the camp the most active, throwing up jets varying in [502] Mauna Loa Adopts Kilauea's Activity. 125 size and height, occasionally throwing up some hundred feet or more, the color of the lava appeared to us very peculiar being a bright vermilion and sometimes blood-red, September 20, 18^4. C. E. Stackpole.— At one o'clock last night the lava broke through the crust in the eastern edge of the basin, near the trail, and flowed rapidly westward. The liquid lava spread over several acres of the basin in a few moments, flowing very rapidly. The outbreak was accompanied by a dull, sullen, roaring sound, apparently far below the surface. In spite of a heavy fog, the fire lighted up the crater and surroundings ; every part of this house was filled with the glare, making it as light as day. By three o'clock the lava had cooled and the flow had ceased. A steady rain all night, no wind, thermometer 64°. October 21, 18^4. Rev. Titus Coan. — Found the crater quite active. December 8, 18 j4, H. M. Whitney. — Found the crater in about the same state of activity as at former visits ; but the area of the lakes has increased and changed very much since my last previous visit in 1864. Then there was but one lake, now there are two, both much larger than Halemaumau formerly was Halemaumau is located in the southern part and not easily accessible. The new and larger lake at the right is called Kilauea and our party stood within six feet of the edge of the bank on the windward side from which position a fine view was obtained of the w^hole of this boiling cauldron, and at a hundred feet above the liquid mass. [See Fig. 74.] December 2g, 18J4. F. S. lyyman and W. H. Reed. — The two lakes, Kilauea and Hale- maumau are both very active, and the large flow^ of lava from Halemaumau into the basin of the crater, which we were told occurred on the 27th inst., is still aglow, occasionally bursting forth on the sur- face and at the lower edge. The roar from the lakes was very loud at times during the night. While Kilauea went on in much her usual way during the ten years from 1864 to 1874, Mauna Loa seemed to be adopting the chronic state of activity long a character- istic of her lower neighbor. In 1868 the activity began as we have seen, and while the size of the rent (some three miles long), allowed the surplus lava to escape rapidly, that outflow seems to have for a time closed that escape valve, and the activities were transferred to the summit crater, Mokuaweoweo. In December, 1869, visitors to the summit found much steam but no visible fares. During the first few weeks in 1870 steam and smoke arose from the crater in such quantities as to to be visible at Hilo. This did not last long and later in the year Mr. Luther Severance found Mokuaweo- weo quiet. On the tenth of August, 1872, Mr. Coan saw from Hilo^^^ **a lofty pillar of light two thousand feet high'\ No fire was seen from below, only its reflection on the column of vapors. It should be borne in mind that when **a bright light like a star'' is seen from the coast level at Hilo it means, if from the summit crater, a fountain play- ing at least twelve hundred feet high, so flat is the summit plain of Loa in the midst of which the crater is situated. All through August and into September the adivity of Mokuaweoweo continued. On August 23d a tidal wave was observed at Hilo in calm weather and without earthquakes. The first wave rose four feet, then at an interval of six minutes a second three feet high, and so diminishing for a dozen waves. There is no evidence of connexion with the island volcanoes. Certainly the summit 93 American Journal, 1872, iv, 406; 1873, v, 476. [503] 126 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. crater of Loa was not emptied as Mr. J. M. Lydgate found a fotintain still playing the latter part of August, and Mr. H. M. Whitney, also a careful and experienced observer, found in September a fountain of lava seventy-five feet in diameter and five hundred feet high in the southwest corner of the crater; the pool around it covered about a third of the bottom, and certainly did not indicate any tapping of the supply at au}^ lower or submarine level. In January, 1873, the action as seen from Hilo was ^'marvellously brilliant, '"^"^ the illuminated vapors rising thousands of feet. The herds- men at Ainapo reported the mountain as constantly quivering like a boiling pot. The light was suddenly quenched, but in April the activity was fully renewed. On the sixth of June Mr. W. L. Green was at the summit and from him we learn that — The fountain generally played to a height of from three hundred to four hundred feet, as estimated from the known depth of the crater, although some spires or shoots would now and the n rise to a greater altitude. The form of the fountain would constantly vary, sometimes being in the shape of a low rounded dome, then perhaps forming a sort of spire in centre, with a fountain in the form of a wheat sheaf on each side. Sometimes it would look like one great wheat sheaf. On this day the visible vapors or gases connected with this fountain were quite insignificant ; by daylight we could see none, but at night-time the bright reflection from the molten lava made visible a light blue haze which quietly left it. Some observers of this same fountain, a few months before, and when it was much higher, reported that they heard the sound of escaping steam or gases. Some of them even believed that they heard the roar of escaping steam or vapors, some time before they arrived at the edge of the crater. We enquired very particularly, however, from one of the most intelligent of the party, and he assured us that there was no proof that the noivSe they heard was that of escaping steam or gases. I have sketches drawn by two of the party, which show little or no steam or gases. There were two noises, how^ever, which were very easily distinguishable : one was the dull roar of the fall of this fountain of heavy liquid, and the other w^as the metallic clink of the fall of the solidi- fied lavas which were constantly taken up by the fountain and thrown onto the solid rocks at a little distance from it. Indeed, thCvSe solid pieces and separate portions of the molten lava, which cooled in the air, formed a light falling veil over the dazzling lava fountain, and as it fell close round the sides, it formed a black level scum which floated on the lava lake, out of which the fountain rose. Whenever a more than usually solid mass of lava fell within the area of this lake, it seemed to force itself through the black, floating scoriaceous mass and make a golden splash of the white-hot lava beneath it. From different parts of the crater, and away from the fountain, white fumes arose like those which often appear in Kilauea crater. This night and for two nights previously, there was so little cloud, or condensed vapor above the edge of the crater, that it was not sufficient to reflect the light of the great molten fountain below. P'or weeks previously we had seen this reflected light, which indeed, was the only possible means by which a light in the bottom of the crater can be made visible to an eye situated outside of it, but below the level of its edge. The night before we left Kilauea, however, the light on the top of Mauna Loa was not to be seen, although the night was clear, and it was only when we got close to the crater, that a light smoke could be seen drifting away from it, whilst the great fountain of molten rock was playing below. There was indeed, nothing about this fountain that gave the impression of its having been produced by steam, incandescent or otherwise, or elastic vapors of any kind, but everything seemed ^"^Coaii, American Journal, 1873, v, 476; 1874, vii, 516; 1877, xiv, 68. [504] Mokuaweoweo Active. 127 to favor the idea of its being a simple hydrostatic effect, and as though a great artesian bore had been made to a stratum of molten rock, which had only been awaiting an opportunity to overflow />5 Miss Bird, who accompanied Mr. Green in this ascent, writes of it in her nsnal fluent style, and Dana is inclined to quote her as authority ; but from a knowledge of her inaccurate and slipshod relations of other doings on these islands, I must look with suspicion on her testimony, and this is not needed, as Mr. Green was with her. We have seen in the Volcano House records of Messrs. Adams and the brothers Hitchcock that the action continued for eighteen months, most of the time with force enough to sustain jets of lava. Mr. Coan remarks that there were but few earth- quakes during this period, and these of no importance. In January of 1875 Mr. W. L. Green reports action in Mokuaweoweo lasting several weeks, and on August nth Mr. Coan reports:'^'' ''The summit crater was again in brilliant action. The action continued, as appeared in the view from Hilo, for one week, and without any observed evidence of an eruption." In the Narrative of the Voyage of the Challengef^^ it is stated that parties from the vessel dtiring the stay at Hilo, visited Kilauea, and '^during the ascent a globular cloud was seen hanging in the air in the distance, which, as the guide explained, hung over the summit of Mauna Loa itself . . . .As night fell this cloud perpetually reformed by condensation, and was lighted up by a brilliant orange glow reflected from the molten lava in the great terminal crater, and the general effect was just as if a fire were raging in the forest in the distance." February 13, 1876, Mr. Coan reports a brilliant but short eruption on the summit, but no other outbreak noted. '^^ On February 14, 1877, occurred another short but bril- liant eruption from the summit. All the afternoon the mountain top had been covered with cloud or smoke as some considered it, but at half-past nine in the evening the curtain rolled away, showing a bright red reflection on the dark cloud banks 1877 above. As seen from Hilo by Mr. Coan, *'the display of light was most glori- ous," columns of what Dana claims were illuminated steam, rose *Svith fearful speed to a height of fourteen to seventeen thousand feet, and then spread out into a vast fiery cloud, looking at night as if the heavens were on fire."'^'^ From Waimea Mr. Curtis J. Lyons of the Government Survey writes that the smoke masses were 9^ Vestiges of the Molten Globe, ii, i66. On page i68 of the same work he remarks : "With regard to incandes- cent steam, which Captain Button suggests as possibly representing to the eye a portion of these fountains, we may say, that we have never seen, on Hawaii, at any of the eruptions of molten lava, anything like incandescent steam. The illuminated smoke, gases, or vapors, which reflected the white-hot lava below them, we saw in abundance at the crater of 1859, and they are quite common at Kilauea and elsewhere; but incandescent steam we have never recognized at any of them." Captain Button had never, I believe, seen a lava fountain of any size, and found it hard to believe in their entire solidity. 9^ American Journal, 1877, xiv, 68. 9^ Vol. i, pt. 2, p. 766. The ship anchored in Hilo Bay August 14, and left on the 19th. 9^ American Journal, 1877, xiv, 68. 99 American Journal, 1877, xiv, 68. I^etter of March 17, 1877. [505] 128 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. ejected to a height of not less than sixteen thousand feet above the top of the moun- tain, where they hung forming a dense stratum of smoke. The velocity with which they ascended was such that the first five thousand feet were passed inside of a minute. '^'^ From the deck of the ^'Kilauea'* at anchor off Kawaihae, *'five distinct columns of fire could be seen belching forth from the mountain.'' This lasted but six hours, and on Thursday night no light was seen, although the summit was covered with smoke. Four slight earthquake shocks were felt at Waimea and one at Kohala. Those who hastened to Hawaii to see this outbreak were disappointed, but in Keala- keakua Bay they found the runaway eruption. As the steamer approached the bay columns of steam or smoke were seen rising from the sea, much like the spouting of a school of whales, and numerous pieces of lava were floating about. According to the natives, the eruption was first seen at three o'clock on the morning of the 24th about a mile from shore, and it appeared like innumerable red, blue and green lights. Some thought these were the steamer's lights, only they were so numerous as to excite consternation. Keei Point forms the southern boundary of Kealakeakua Bay, and the steam and lava rose as far as a mile beyond the point apparently from a submarine fissure running about N.N.W. by E.S.E., and where the water has been from twenty to sixty fathoms deep. Boats from the steamer put off to the scene of the greatest commotion, rowing directly over the most disturbed part where the boat was repeatedly hit by the rising masses of lava, nearly all of which on reaching the surface were red-hot, emitting gases strongly sulphurous. In cooling the lava cakes sank as rapidly as they rose to the surface. Specimens were obtained'''' which are very porous, and from the accounts much of it was the froth called limu, A severe earthquake shock was felt on the western side of the bay during the night of the eruption. Eleven years after this, while camping on the shore of this beautiful bay, near the site of Cook's and Vancouver's observatories, I paddled my canoe over the region where this '^submarine volcano" broke out and found that it had left no sign. The newspaper accounts were illustrated by most grotesque and impossible pictures of four black columns like trunks of trees and five pillars of fire, — papers of respectability in the United States and Europe. We must now return to Kilauea. February 2, i8j^. Frank J. Scott. — Visited the crater with Mr. J. W. Moore and George P. Castle. Got to southwest side of Halemaumau and stood over the brink of the crater in which the lava stood about forty feet below, and was boiling violently on the edges only. The smoke was towards Kilauea and we could not get to see it, but craters marked C and D were not in action. February 4th, went to the craters again via little sulphur crater marked E, looking down which we 100 Hawaiian Gazette, February 21, 1877. Further account of this eruption is from the same source published by Mr. H. M. Whitney who went to Hawaii. ^°* A specimen is in the Bishop Museum. It is very ceUular lava ; not at aU limu, C506] Visit of the Challenger Expedition. 129 saw lava rushing swiftly at a depth of not more than ten feet below where we stood, and in the direc- tion of the hotel. Proceeding to a point of observation marked X we had a fair view of all the craters. The small one marked C was playing with most force spurting its lava in spray ten to twenty feet above its banks. Halemaumau was almost as lively, and the main crater Kilauea was boiling at the base of its cliffs on all sides with vigor. It was about eleven o'clock when we arrived at X . The little crater D was then without signs of fire. After we had been standing about half an hour, this little basin showed fire, heaving and then bursting its scum of gray lava and boiling fiercely. About the same time the lava in the great crater Kilauea was rising fast. Presently it gushed up and with a surge toward the northeast side, appeared to be rushing toward a vent and in a few minutes it subsided to its first level, and all the craters seemed in about an equal state of activity. None of them were near full as we are told they sometimes are. The lava in Halemau- mau was about twenty feet below the lava floor right about it ; crater C about the same; D not more than ten to twelve feet, and Kilauea perhaps from thirty to forty or fifty feet. As soon as the great gush from Kilauea found vent we anticipated a good flow of lava on the great lava sink between these craters and the hotel. We returned to dinner at two o'clock via the cave of stalactites on the northeast terrace of the great sink. When we came out from dinner the anticipated lava flow had already submerged an acre or two of the sink on the route of our morning walk and was creeping over the great sink in four different places. August >/, i8yS. C.E.Gilman.— Two severe earthquake shocks were felt here to- day: one at 4:30 p.m., and one at 6:45 p.m. Motion north to south. August i^, i8y^. Challenger Expedition. — A few of our party visited the crater this even- ing and found both Kilauea and Halemaumau more than usually active. We left Volcano House at 5 P.M., thus arriving at the scene of action a few minutes before sunset. By this means we got a good idea of the whole volcano by daylight and a grand view of the furnaces by night. Kilauea had five jets playing, Halemaumau having the same number but on a much finer scale. Even as we sat there gazing down, Halemaumau rose in a few minutes to within a few feet of the top of its banks, and I have no doubt that an overflow took place at some point that was hidden from us. The lake then subsided to its former level. Between these two craters, high up on the dividing bank of hard lava, a small cone was blowing every two or three minutes, the jets reaching an altitude of twenty or forty feet. — Spectroscopic observations of the furnaces with a small direct vision spectroscope gave a continuous spectrum, the red showing brightest, an occasional flare in the green. Magnetic ob- servations were made with the dip needle in front of hotel, then the dip circle was carried down to the first plateau and a difference of two degrees in reading was found, thus indicating the powerful influence of the iron in the crater. Photographs were taken of the whole crater, of the craters of Kilauea and Halemaumau, and of the lava cascades. — Mauna Loa is quiet now.'"^ August 21, i8y^. J. W. Oilman. — A faint light was vSeen from here at 9:15 p.m. on Mauna Loa. <%-. -\\^' '^/ Fig. 75. CRATKR IN I^KBRUARY, 1875, ^°^The photographs of the whole crater and of the cascades are given in the second part of the first vohinie of the Narrative of the Expedition, but the two views of the smaller craters mentioned do not appear, Memoirs B. P. B. Museum, Vol. II, No. 4.-9. L5^7 J 130 Kilauea and Mauna Loa, September 7, iSjj, Walter M. Gibson. — I descended into the crater in company with Mr. Schaefer and Mr. Gihnan of the Volcano House, and arriving at the brink of the Kilauea lake I was disappointed in not finding any show of activity. A small jet of lava apparently not larger than a wheat sheaf, to which some lava jets are compared, was all the outer evidence of activity near the edge of the black surface of cooled lava, at a depth of about a hundred and twenty feet from where we stood. However, after a short stay, several jets broke forth, and before we left Kilauea showed considerable signs of activity. I descended again at 10 p.m. on the loth September, when I observed a wonderful increase of activity. The Kilauea lake had risen to within thirty feet of the top of its highest bluff, or about ninety feet, whilst the Halemaumau lake and the Kilauea iki'"^ pit were full and boiling over, and pouring forth streams of lava, some flowing into Kilauea lake and others flow- ing in a southeast direction towards the basin of the main crater. I observed a new boiling pool about three hundred yards southeast of Halemaumau and outside of the high embankment that incloses the two principal lakes. After my return to the Volcano House, at a later hour after night had set in, I rode with Mr. Schaefer to a point in the west bank of the great crater, and we observed the two lakes in a high state of activity and illuminating the sky above in a most brilliant manner. During the night we could observe from our beds the jets of lava leaping above the embankments of Kilauea and Halemaumau, so that the lava had risen over a hundred feet in these lakes since our first observation on the 7th, November 2j, J'^ys- ^- ^- Gilman. — On this date there was at 11:15 o'clock a.m. quite a hard earthquake shock felt in Kau, Kona and Hilo, and another of two shocks, nearly as hard at 7 P.M. The one in the morning threw down several fathoms of good stone wall at Kapapala and also stopped our horses on the road, for the moment, by the motion of the earth. /anuary 14, 18^6, C. S. Gilman. — I^ast night the lake Kilauea overflowed ; a broad stream of lava flowing down into the centre of the crater for some four hours. This morning the summits of Loa and Kea are covered with snow to an unusual extent. Weather clear and very cold. February ij, iSjS, C. S. Gilman. — At 7:45 this evening a very bright light was visible on the summit of Mauna Loa, the first seen since August 11, 1875. It appears to be farther south than the last outbreak. Kilauea very active. February 22, 18 j6. Rev. George L. Chaney. — About a mile and a half from the hotel on our way to Kilauea [lake ?] , we came to an opening in the lava about eight feet wide. Through this open- ing, in spite of the fierce heat arising from it, we saw a full, rushing torrent of liquid lava, of the brightest flame color, apparently making its way immediately beneath our feet. Both lakes were in fine activity today throwing jets of intense orange-red color from both lateral and medial fountains. May 2, i8y6. D. H. Hitchcock. — Find that Halemaumau has built up about two hundred feet in about one year, and that the lava from the south lake has almost filled up the great central basin. Fires very active ; a stream running down the Halemaumau slope the greater part of the night. fune 8, i8y6, J. S. Emerson. Visited the South lake approaching it on the north side of the lake ; recent lava flows and a tendency to constant changes on the east side rendering the old path from the east unsafe. The lake is quite active and gradually filling up ; the surface of the lake has an apparent current or motion in a southwest direction. Weather fine with occasional showers. fune 22, j8j6. Herbert C. Austin. — At 9:30 a.m. we were on the edge of the cone looking into the north lake. There seemed to be two boiling cauldrons from which the lava was rolling in great masses of scum to make one complete surging sea. fanuary i, i8jj. W. F. Toler. — Having made two previous visits, one in 1843, and the other in 1845, I will mention the material differences between now and then. At my two previous visits the entire bottom of the crater was depressed from eight hundred to a thousand feet below the tops of the cliffs surrounding it, whilst now the entire bottom has risen to within four hundred or six hundred feet of the top of the cliffs. At my previous visits the southwe^st or principal lake of liquid ^°^By Kilauea iki Mr. Gibson means the pool within the Halemaumati area called, unfortunately, Kilauea, C508] K'liauea in fSjj. 131: lava wan only from ten to fifteen feel below tlie surface of the siim)iiiiiliiig^ plain of hard lava foniiitig the 1)ottoni erf the crater, whilst now I find a cone about one hundred antl eighty feet high with the lake of lava iu centre of cone and depressed about two hundred feel below the lop of said cone. Again, oil my previous visits there was no flowin^g lava in sight exx-ept in the lake, wiiicli, however, was boiling actively all over its surface: and !U)w lava is flowing over the surface of the hard X-ava in many places. On my previous visits only one lake existed, now I find a dciiressiou oi about two hun- dred feet wliere another has since existed though now extinct. I find also tliat a large portion of the north cliff lias fallen in since former visits. My impression is tliat taken altogether, the sight is not HO grand now as at my former visits, because then the entire bottom of the crater was much deeper than now, and the lake more lirillianl in its action, and being nearer the surface was in full view from the point where the hotel now stands, so that our r>arty were all able U) read a newspaper by the light from the lake. 3/a.y J, rSjY- A party skirtetl the edge of tiie late flow of lava, visited the .south lake, then crossed back to the house: saw filenly of subterranean fire and found some reddmt flowing lava. ,^Iay 6, [Syj . S. H. Dole. On the (bay and evening before we came, there was a \igorous outbreak on the southeast side of the main crater, a fissirre extending from the crater floor through tlie bank and into the woods beyond. The lava spouted up from this crack to a height of from fifty to a hundred an*^^ ~ K : V-^' ^-^•^-/T' t^„ . "5 \, "*-«.- ^ ^IG. 77. SKETCH OF HAT.KMAUMAU, JANUARY 5, 1880. August ^5, i8yg. G. H. Luce. — One lake or river quite active. Jafiuary ^, 1880, T. J. Kinnear gives a sketch of Halemaumau from the south-southeast. April 8, 1880. A party ascended Mauna Loa and found much snow; could not look down into the extinct crater. May I, 1880. W. H. Lentz.—9:3o p.m. Mokuaweoweo burst out in a large lurid light, with a roar resembling thunder. 10:05 p.m. a second eruption, this time from the crater to the north of Mokuaweoweo, apparently as large as the first. 11 p.m. still another, this time southwest from the first, making in all three active fires on top and slope of Mauna Loa. Kilauea very active, both lakes booming, a third forming, several large flows on floor of crater. May ^, 1880, A party ascended Mauna Loa and found snow on summit and considerable action in the south lake with high jets of lava. May 18, 1880. J. M. Alexander. — Halemaumau about four hundred feet broad throwing molten lava over seventy feet high a new lake forming on the east. June 20, 1880, W. H. Lentz. — 5 a.m. quite a heavy shock of an earthquake; no damage, no change in volcano. July 24, 1880, W. T. Brigham. — Photographed crater and ascended Mauna Loa from this side, (pagk:s ark torn From the book here.) [511] 134 I\ilmtea anJ Manna Loa. I sliall iiitcrnrpt the Volcano House record to give more full).' my observations at tliis visit, altlioiigli tliej liave been piiblisbed,'"-'' as there are some omissions and additions to be made to avoid repetition and snpply bicimoe. On May i, r88o, an outbreak from the summit crater of Manna Loa was 1880 reported. Some persons made the ascent and fonnd a fire-fountain from the floor of the small crater adjoining Mokuaweoweo, bnt this soon ceased and no lava escaped from the crater or from m\j visible rent on the mountain side. This ivas 101 usual, and thinking the slight summit eruption was probablv a prelude to a more extensive outbreak, I started in June from Boston for the Haw-aiiaii Islands, taking witb^ me Mr. Charles Furiieaux, a well-known artist, that I niiglit be able to preserve for scientific study, should we be so fortunate as to see an eruption, those appearances that the camera does not retain and wbicli are so difficult to describe. As soon as possible after our arrival in Honolnhi we sailed for Hilo and made the ascent to KiLiuea. The road had certainly not improved during the fifteen years since I had last traveled over it, but on the evening of July 24, icS8o, with Mr. R. Forl)es Carpenter and Mr. Furneaux, I arrived at the northeast bank of the crater where we found a very comfortable hotel replacing the grass sliant}' I had occupied ' ■•'Anu^ricar. Journal of Science. July. iSHj, p. 1,9. [512] Kihinea in iSSo. ns ill 1865, while siirvc\.-ing Kilanea. The scene was familiar. Five times liad 1 come to the crater at night on my way from Hilo, and almost as maiiv times when joiirne}-- ing from Kaii, but the wonder of the view never dnlled, and tonight the iires far away to the southwest were very brilliant, brighter, perhaps, than I had seen them before. On the morning of the 25th, we descended into the crater by the usual path leading under Waldron's Ledge. The temperature on the upper bank was 5re compact old lava, but I have seen it done more than [5i\l3 13^ Ktlauea and Mauna Loa. once, and the impression the sight conveyed was of a black hand gently passing under the heavy block and raising it or carrying it along. In the same way lava has insinu- ated itself beneath stone walls built to bar its progress and lifted and overthrown the futile barrier. So extensively has this process been at work in Kilauea that my sur- vey of the crater, made with great care in 1865, and six years later adopted by the Trigonometrical Survey of the Hawaiian Government and republished on their official map, is already antiquated except in a few points, ascertained by my monuments still standing; the whole boundary has perceptibly changed, and I consider Kilauea nearly five per cent, larger than it was eighteen years ago. The change visible on the bottom of the crater was even greater. I was provided with an excellent barometer, by the kindness of my friend Mr. Carpenter, and found by it that while the bottom of the crater, at the base of the outer wall where first reached in our descent, was 650 feet below the Volcano House, the central portion was only 300 feet, or, in other words, the floor was raised in the general shape of a flat dome 350 feet high. Nor was this hill of lava simply the overflow of the lakes whence the lava runs in frequent out- breaks; the mass was partly composed of these numberless little overflows, bvit the great mass was evidently elevated in the centre, and the cracks everywhere indicated that this elevation was not a slow cumulative action, but had been, at intervals, greatly and irregularly accelerated. In 1865 the floor of the crater was very irregular, full of caves and intersecfted by great cracks, but its general surface was nearly horizontal. A few years later the floor fell in over about a third of its area (see Fig. 69, p. 107) and the caves and cracks were alike obliterated, a funnel-like depression with but slight signs of fire at the bot- tom. The action, however, continued until the tunnel was not only filled up but the overflow from it reached the outer walls of Kilauea, and then, for a while, the action decreased and the lava cooled. A renewal of activity floated this crust as is indicated by occasional outflows at the edges, and so the intermittent action had in 1880 formed a tolerably regular dome surrounded by four lakes (the latest on the southeast began to form on May 15th) of an average diameter of a thousand feet each. The walls of these lakes of fire were much broken and changing daily. They were elevated in places far above the contour of the dome, and from the action of heated vapors, were decomposed until their layered strudlure was plainly visible at a distance by the bands of brilliant colors not unlike those of the clay cliffs at Gay Head on Martha's Vine- yard. Emerald-green, vermilion, blue and Indian-yellow, irregularly distributed, indicated either very little homogeneity of the masses or uncertain action of the sulphurous and acid vapors. [5 Hi Pele^s Hair Under Banks, m It was very easy to see what toppled down these fantastic cliffs, for the molten mass within the lake was most active near the edges and nnder the banks which were generally undermined horizontally to the extent of fifteen or twenty feet by the white- hot, restless waves. From the under surface of these over-hanging shelves depended long and flexible skeins of what seemed to be volcanic spun-glass, or Pele's hair, lapped by the white waves, and seeming, in the glare in which they swung, to be hot to trans- parency. These pendents were very numerous, often a foot in diameter and six to ten feet long, fibrous as asbestos, and very flexible. Although they were one of the most remarkable appearances at the southeast lake, it was nearly half an hour before I had any direct evidence of the process of their formation. Occasionally surface ex- -^ ::^ From South East Lake— toward North. I^IG. 80. i^ROM SOUTHEAST I,AKP:, TvOOKING NORTHWARD. plosions took place and the viscous fragments, thrown violently against the roof above, spun out in falling back a glass thread, sometimes several from each lump, the frag- ment being sometimes as large as a man's head. An attraction, probably electrical, as the compass needle is strongly agitated in the vicinity of the currents from the lakes, drew together these isolated threads until the hank was formed which floated like seaweed in a falling tide. Although I watched several hours I did not see any of these hanks fall into the lake beneath. The brittle nature of the banks which were formed by overflows and ejected matter loosely cemented by subsequent overflows or spatters, would admit of any amount of degradation, but how is the elevation to be explained? A prolonged stay at the crater suggested the following explanation. The action in these fire-lakes or pools, as has often been mentioned, is very irregular and intermittent, often apparently ceas- ing on one side until the crust there is cool and hard; it then breaks out again from [515] 138 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. beneath this new crust, turning it back like the lid of a box against the bank to which it may be soldered by the molten spatters, or, as is more frequently the case, the crust is raised en masse and where it touches the superincumbent cliff, carries this up with it and sometimes topples it over onto the outer part of the wall. In this way, I believe, the cliffs seen in the sketch, and the whole bottom of Kilauea, nearly three miles in diameter, have been floated up by degrees. If the action was constant the lava would break out along the edges of the swelling plain, as indeed it does when the inflow of lava is long continued, and the surface would become a general level by the accumula- tion of the running lava in the lowest places. But in fact, after a certain amount of lava has flowed up through the throats, whose position is marked by the surface lakes just mentioned, — enough, it may be, to raise the cool but somewhat flexible crust a few feet in the middle, — the supply ceases; the liquid which has permeated all the cracks and fissures in the overlying crust as the lava on a larger scale injects dikes in the earth's crust, cools and becomes solid, to be in turn raised by a new influx of lava from beneath. Each layer will be thicker near the source and will thin out as the distance therefrom increases, and this is what the cracks and chasms in the dome show so far as one can get into them. The successive layers ^ig. 81. diagram o^ ki^kvation. are very unequal ; one not far, perhaps two hundred feet from the outer lake, was six feet thick and contained on a rough estimate ten thousand cubic yards of vesicular lava; next to it was a layer not quite two feet thick and diminishing at a distance of two hundred yards to less than half a foot. After examining Kilauea by daylight, I procured lanterns and returned to the lakes about nightfall, traversing the bed of the crater while the daylight lasted. A guide (so called) who was at the Volcano House, and who went with us that morning, refused to descend after dark, and the hotel keeper (Ivcntz) put every obstacle in our way ;'''^ but I had often been there by night before, and my familiarity with the external action of this volcano made it quite safe to pass over any part of the terrible waste in the flicker- ing, lurid light of the earth-fires, as it is only at night that the Halemaumau can be seen in all its splendor. In some respects also it is a safer journey by night than by day ; for example, on our way down we crossed a low dome which gave no signs of fire except a clinking sound and a silent bluish vapor common enough in the vicinity of the lakes ; the ground was so hot, however, that we crossed it rapidly to save our shoes ; on our return about midnight we found that our path had led over a mound wholly ^^^ / mention this because it is the only occasion in my many visits to the Volcano House tinder many different hosts, that I have not met with the utmost courtesy and assistance. C516] Flames in South-east Lake. 139 injected with a network of molten lava filling the cracks not two inches from the sur- face, and which, now plainly visible in the darkness, was a startling as well as a beauti- ful sight. In daylight the hot lava looks like black tar, and I have several times had to pull my companions from the spot where they might be standing unconscious of the silent black monster which was almost biting their feet, for it was nearly invisible on the equally black floor. In all of my previous visits the bank of the active pool had been at least twenty feet above the lava surface, but now we were able to approach the southeast lake nearly on a level, and the effect was much grander than usual. I have spent at various times as many as ten nights in the crater on the banks of this and other similar lakes, and have noticed blue and green flames playing over the cracks in the surface, but these seldom lasted longer than a few moments, and were not confined to any locality. Now, on the contrary, on the top of a huge hummock which seemed to have broken from the bank, was a cluster of blow-holes from which escaped constantly a large volume of gas which burned with a bluish-green flame well shown in Mr. Furneaux's painting of the lake made on this visit. (See frontispiece.) These jets were burning in the morn- ing, and twelve hours after their volume was apparently unaltered. The pressure evidently varied but slightly, and any increase in pressure did not seem to correspond to greater activity in the molten lava. With suitable apparatus it would have been possible to have collected the gas before it was consumed. Its escape caused a noise similar to that of a steamboat blowing off steam. The mention of steam leads me to express a wish that those geologists who see in steam the prime cause of volcanic action, could have been here, and have studied an eruption of the Hawaiian volcanoes. A pailfull of water thrown into the southeast lake would have made more steam than was present all the time we stayed in the crater. It is difficult to mistake a steamy atmosphere for a very dry one; and then if steam was present in any quantity in the gaseous exhalations of Kilauea, the cold winds from Mauna Loa would soon precipi- tate it as rain, when in fact this is the dryest part of the island. The ancient Halemaumau or Everlasting House, where fires have been seen, or whence vapors have escaped from time immemorial, was now replaced, I believe, by the four lakes which occupy the position of that single source. The guide and others insisted that the northeastern of the lakes was the Halemaumau, and without renewing my survey, for which I did not have with me the necessary instruments, I could not positively declare that they were wrong, but I sighted from two of my monuments left from 1865, and comparing with my notes of that survey on my return to Boston, I found that the Halemaumau of that day occupied a position nearly southwest of the [517] 140 Kilcmea and Matina Loa. present so-called Halematmiaii, or in tlie midst of the present four lakes, so tliat no one of tliein is entitled exclusively to that name sacred to the ancient worshippers of Pele. Among other changes the southern sulphur bank had wholly disappeared, having been consumed by a local outbreak of lava wliicli occurred a few mouths before our visit (Juh* 14, 1879). The other deposit of sulphur on the north side near the hotel seemed smaller, and the impression conveyed was of a nuich smaller amount of sulphur in and around the crater than was found fifteen years before. None of the fine crystals so conmiou then could be found now. West of tlie, crater on the Kan road, in the region called Uwekahnna, are man}' sm;i.n r!-;n (■]? iiidii-:i[.(; pia-riiy A and Mb^ddv FtiiUn JHG. 82. »fALKMAri\IAU FKOM KAU BA-NK, IN lS8o. the southwest was a long Hue of smoke or vapor extending, it may be, to Ponahohoa, where Rev. William P^llis found marks of a recent outflow in 1823. I could not then follow the fissure, nor do I know- of any one who has done so, but this is the track of many an eruption, and shouJd be tlioronghly surve3'ed, as it is little visited, being barren and of rough surface, (This has since been done to some extent by the Govern ment Su r vey . ) As the moon rose about midnight we started for the upper bank and the Volcano House. The brilliant moonlight of the tropics glittered on the metallic lava iti cold contrast to the hot fire-light we had just left, and as the shadow of the high ledge fell across our path we had to walk waril}? and in single file to avoid the cracks our feeble lantern hardly indicated. (3nce on the path up the wall, we separated, and the most active got home half an hour before the rest of the partv. C518] The Way of a Lava Flow, 141 On the twenty-ninth of July, having in the meantime made the ascent of Mauna Loa, I returned to Kilauea. In the afternoon I went to the Kau bank, and while Mr. Furneaux sketched Kilauea from the west, I photographed the cliffs of Halemaumau, and then descending two of the gravelly terraces which form the border of the crater on this side, found myself on the brink of a perpendicular clifif beneath which the lava was escaping from several openings situated on the lower edge of the dome. The action was curious, and although the heat was very great at this height of nearly a hundred feet, I managed to watch and sketch it for nearly an hour. The noise here was peculiar; for in addition to the clinking as of shivering glass, usually heard when this black and glassy lava cools, there was a dull subterranean rumbling as of heavy machinery moving beneath the crater. It was the same noise I had heard during an earthquake two days before at Stone's ranch many miles from Kilauea, and it was not unlike the sound of many looms in a cotton factory. Here there was no earthquake tremor, although there is always in and about Kilauea a vibration of the ground very clearly seen when using a compass needle, but seldom noticed other- wise. The cliff where I watched was not over the lowest part of the crater, but was where the active pools approached nearest to the outer walls, for the dome has a very excentric apex. The fluidity of the lava as it came to the surface was about that of cream. There is, so far as I know, no definite scale to which we may refer various degrees of viscidity, and I am compelled to use homely comparisons, which have the further disadvantage of being a variable standard. It was white-hot cream when it came out from under the crust, but in the distance of perhaps a foot had changed to a cherry-red molasses, while a few feet more transformed the stream into full red tar. By daylight the color ranges from that of arterial to venous blood, and thence to a slaty blue, marking the loss of tempera- ture by chromatic changes. At night all the moving portion is a bright red. A single outlet of small dimensions made much noise blowing, although the gas expelled was invisible. The lava (a in the diagram) issued white-hot, ran a few feet rapidly, then crusted over, retaining its red glow along the edges of the narrow conduit, c. At b there was a contraction and the flow stopped for a while ; then the fountain at A renewed the supply and the lava ran rapidly from the narrow outlet b, spreading in a broad, thin sheet which did not lose its color until it reached the point K, while the original nar- [519] I^IG. 83. I^AVA vSPRING. 142 Ki'iaitra and Maitna Loa. rower and thicker stream had formed a crust and become bh'ick in less than a quarter of the distance. In phices th^e hiva met npward inclines, then the cooling, but still flexible, crnst, made a dam and carried the fluid part up and over a rise of some feet. The little lava vSpring was an epitome of a full lava flow, and was more instructive than the immense fier}' floods that from time to time break out from these volcanoes and flow for many miles. Later in the evening this insignificant flow became jnore active, covering twenty acres and giving more light than the lakes themselves. Over one of the steam cracks near the Volcano House, on the northeastern bank, and in close proximity to what remained of the sulphur bank, had been built a very rude steam batli. A hut of ample dimensions, a box with a stool in it, and loose boards to fit around the neck of the bather, with a wooden sin ice from the steam crack to tlie l)ox and a slide to regulate the admission of steam, carometers, one being observed here, the other at Hilo : 4021 feet above sea at Voh:ano House. The flow from Maiiiia Loa wliicli was observed from tlie Volcano House on November 5th5 proved to be tlie expected eruption wliich liad brought iiie to Hawaii, and from the duration of its flow, the distance reached by its several streams and tlie amount of lava poured out it is to be reckoned one of the most important on record. On the evening of the 5th, the light was first seen from Waimca, nortli of Mauiia Loa, and a few hours b'lter from Hilo on the northeast. In both cases the lava foun- tains were distinct, leaping high into the air. This w-as quite like all former recorded eruptions, but in one way this differed from them all,' and that was in the diffuse way in which tlie streams were poured out; the length of time the lava poured forth was also a noteworthy fact, over nine months. From below' the first stream seemed to run north by east towards Mauna Kea, but this stopped after a course of twelve miles, not far from the sheep station of Kalaieha 011 the high plateau lietw-een the great motintaius of Hawaii. I have seen the end of that stream and it presents no [525 J 148 Kilauea aiid Matina Loa, marked peculiarities; the supply at the fountain was evidently diverted, — Rev. Bl P. Baker visited the source several times, and gives us the result of his observations seven years after. The diagram (Fig. 87) will render his explanation clearer. At the end of a large crack about eleven thousand feet above the sea, where is now a pit crater (s) of considerable size called Pukauahi, the flow came to the surface. The crack was on a ^'divide,'' and while the Kea stream started first it probably blocked in some measure the discharge, and another stream, called the Kau flow, started in the direction of Kilauea a little higher up the crack. This Kau flow was well seen from the Volcano House at Kilauea, and for a time it looked as if the lava would reach and flow into the latter crater. Numerous branches flowed down the crest on its southeastern slope, and they are quite easily traced from the House, in suitable conditions of light, to the present da3^ The crack ran by the north of a red cone which in July, 1888, was still smoking, and also a smaller cone (marked v on the diagram) which was also smoking seven years after the erup- tion ceased. Dana seems to follow Baker in considering these cones the obstacle that turned the main stream toward Hilo, but while the matter is unimportant, it seems from the con- ^^^ ^ tinned activity that they were a part and parcel of the eruption, and did not exist before. '"' Mr. Furneaux' sketch (Fig. 88) shows the red hill in the centre of the view. In the original sketch the hill is of a brick-red color, and the curious ribbon of lava in the foreground is of a greenish tinge, and the pinnacle and ridges of various shades of red and brown contrasting well with the patch of snow on the left. Steam was still issuing from the cone and other parts of the flow when the sketch was made. After four months the flowing lava Avas about seven miles from Hilo ; on June 28th, within five miles; on July i8th, two miles, and on August loth, it finally stopped three-quarters of a mile from Hilo. Great was the anxiety as the stream approached the apparently devoted town, not only in Hilo but all over the group, for the beauty of the town and the hospitality of its inhabitants were known to all. I am tempted to quote at some length from letters which show the nature of the flow as well as the state of mind, for so wonderful are these flows, so spe6lacular as well as scientifically interesting, that the words of no one man, however eloquent, can picture the whole scene. I give extracts from the letters sent to me, and others published in the daily papers, but all from those well known to me and whose knowledge of the phenomena was not *" Characteristics of Volcanoes, 205, and American Journal, xxxvii, 53, already quoted. C526J Jfidge Hii€hi()cks\% Acconni. 149 that of mere transient visit(3rs seeing siieli wonders for the first time. Tlie first is from my friend of long time, the late Judge David H. Hitchcock. It is dated from Hilo, Tliiirsday, June 30, 1881 : Ahont Wediie^iday of last week, the old iiiomitaiii was observed to tie more than usually active, the whole summit crevasse pouring forlli iiiiiiieiise voltiiiies of smoke. By Friday noon the thrte soulheni arms had all joinetl into one, and rushing into a deep but narrow gulch forced its way down the gulch in a rapid flow. By Saturday noon it had run a mile and was just above J0I111 Hall's house on the south sitle. On Monday nuvning it was reported to have readied the flats back of Ihilai Hills. My wife and self started that afternoon with the intention of spending the night alongside the flow. We met crowds of people returning from the flow, and all reported it active and coming rapidly down the gulch. We rode up to it l,)efore dark and found that the stream was entirely confined to the gulch and i!iten.seiy active. It was then about half a mile lrt)!n tlie flats spoken of. Ttie flow was on an average about seventy-five feet wide and from ten to thirty feet in depth as it filled the gulcli up level with its banks, llie sight was grand. The wluflc frontage was one mass of licpiid lava carrying on its surface huge cakes of partially cooled lava. Soon after we arrived the flow reached a, deep hole, some ten or fifteen feet in depth, with perpendicular sides. The sight as it poured over that fall in two cascades was nmgnificent. The flow was then moving at the rate of about seventy-five feet an hour. Abonl tniduight we noticed a diminution in the activity of the gulch flow and soon saw a bright red glare a1)Ove the tree tops mauka [inlannt 10 A.M. April 20th. Snow covered the upper |>ortioii of tbe summit plateau in large m and in small scattering patches extended nearly a thousand feet below the snnnnit. 1 left b all clouds at tbe height of l)etween seven and eight lb ^ - -1 ' " ' /'" ^ ^^^t^'BtoI^ '^'^K^^^^ ~ wmmr / \ Wfi \ < ' - 1 : : ' . ' / ^^' K- %. ^k - - -^ 1 1 - ~ r / jH^^^ m « s^ HHHHI .Mm. ~ " , ~ y / ' '' >>^^pKrt ;C -W i^ ^ ■«■ /' J jg^^ § M 5 ^ Z 1— \ ^^r %l^ = ^ V A /' 1 < jf^" ^ ^ : 1 /' 1-^^^ jm^' \ '^V ~^ 5 y--- ^tliimMtfB^^iih.^,«., ? ■^ki i-^ R ^ . V ^ i^^t ^ =^ ^^ "V^ ^ &.; > ;^ ^H^ ■* 1- ^ :i ' , -.^^ % ' - K\ l^fe_ ■!5'**Mt * ' i«^ijBi I- \) 1^^ - ' ''■^'/ ^^ • ^ ^^^\'- < ^'''~^- '% < ^^iJ^M^ V "= / / " ^J^^ ,¥. v.^-'^^^,':./ . V ,/ ^^^SS|i'4*', T-'— '"'p • -Av^^v^ ^^NL ^^^^^■IIk\»»'^- >^" / l^*'***i*^fe ' ^^ ' y/ "^ ' ^fe "i ^^1 ^^ "S \ ^^ 1 > :^ ^ c '"' -. li^- ^ i "^ f i V ^1^. J i ^ f \,.._^*|^ ^^i^^^.^" '!"- 'j^- "^ J '■:■ \J^^^ II^Qgpg^ ^■' ' ' \ ^li|^ \ ■ ^Hil^^it. '^ t \ '^''^'"ti^imiiii 1 T '■■'. ^**""" '"•• •"*• ..j.^..,'- -A 00 O 2 Of w w H 2 164 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa. bisiahii aa ev^ea, lustreless surface, free from large blocks and notable fissures, and consisted chiefly of coarse gravel or fragments of lava, but at bottom of smooth black pahoehoe, free from dsbris, and of somewhat triangular shape, with sides of twenty-five feet. From a small fissure issued a faintly bluish vapor. In the upper part of the basin, on the northwest side, about three hundred and sixty -four feet above the bottom and two hundred and twenty-five feet below the top, there was a continuous jet of steam from an oval aperture of five to ten feet. This continued to increase, and on the twelfth of April deposits of sulphur were found about it. Within the basins of New Lake and Little Beggar there were hillocks of smooth-fissured lava, without debris. The huge bulk of the ''Floating Island" on measurement proved to be sixty feet high and fully a hundred feet in length. The walls of the emptied basin of New Lake were for the most part nearly vertical, and were everywhere covered with a black, vitreous enamel [similar to that covering the interior of the tunnels in the flow of 1881, Little Beggar, etc.]. Professor L. L. Van Slyke of Oahu College was at the crater on Jnly 19th, and found great change in Halemanmau. Not only had the lava returned, but the midst of the depression was occupied by a steep cone of loose blocks of lava rising about a hundred and forty feet high, and from four hundred to a thousand feet from the pre- cipitous wall of the pit on the north side, and this cone was surrounded by a lake of lava covering some five acres. This must have been covered with hardened crust, for Professor Van Slyke ascended the cone and he says: I came to the edge of a deep hole or well, of rather irregular outline, four-sided, perhaps thirty or forty feet wide, and from sixty to seventy-five feet long, and not less than a hundred feet deep. The mouth was surrounded by masses of loose rocks, rendering approach to the edge impossible or very dangerous, except atone point; from this point I could see the bottom of the well, and that it was covered with hardened fresh pahoehoe. At one side the liquid lava could be seen as it was puffed out of a small hole every few seconds and thrown up a few feet. The puffing noise accompany- ing the ejection of the lava was quite like that of a railway locomotive, though louder. The aperture through which the lava was thrown out might have been three feet long and two feet wide. Immedi- ately below the point where I was standing there seemed to be a constant and tremendous commotion, attended by a peculiar swashing noise, but I could not lean sufficiently far over with safety to see anything. Fumes of sulphur dioxide were coming up in abundance, but being on the windward side I was not greatly annoyed by them. He again went up the cone, but now from the southeastern side : he continues: This led to a second well or deep hole, where molten lava was visible. This well was nearly round, with a diameter of perhaps twenty or thirty feet, and a depth of about a hundred feet. At one point the edge could be safely approached ; but as it was on the leeward side the fumes of sulphur dioxide could be endured only for a few seconds at a time. Like the other well, the sides were per- pendicular. At the bottom was a cone having an opetiing at the top perhaps ten feet across ; and inside liquid lava was boiling with intense violence, every few seconds throwing up a jet of lava, the spray of which came to the mouth of the well almost into my face. The drops of lava thrown to the mouth of the well had cooled enough to become hardened and black when they reached the level on which I was standing. This place was quite noisy, the noise resembling that of violently swashing waters. [542] Eruption of Loa in iS'Sj, 165 Matllia I#oa in Bruption. — As in the eruption of 1867 this eruption, coming twenty years later, was ushered in with seismic disturbances. It was not the usual 'Ijeacoii light" on the summit that was the sole precursor of the outpouring of lava. All through the previous December earthquakes had shaken all the southwestern portion of Haw'aii without doing any damage of importance, Thev, however, 1887 constantly increased in frecpiency and force and averaged three a day b}- the twelfth of Januar\', At Kaluiku Mr. George Jones couuted three hundred and fourteen shocks between 2:12 A.^r. of January 17th and 4 A.^i. of the i8th; sixty- * -^^ c;\„ f* ' seven between that time and midnight, and tliree the following day, or three hundred and eighty-three in all. In Hilea, ten miles west of Kabnku, Mr. Charles N. Spencer reported six hundred and eighteen shocks between 2 a.m. of the i6th and 7 a.m. of the 1 8th. With this great number of earthcpiakes, lava at last broke out on the sirnimit of Miiuna I^oa, three or four miles northeast from Moknawcoweo, near the lateral cone Pohaku o Hanalei (see note on p. 143), on the night of the 161I1, but this discharge ceased after a few hours. It is noteworthy that this outbreak w^as on the side of the great summit crater most distant from the region of seismic disturbance and where the eruption finall}' broke out, [5431 FJG. 97. COURSK OV THE I«*I.OW 01» 1887. Fl/RNKArx, Eruption of Loa in i88j, 167 There is some contradi(?tion as to the exact time that the lava came to the sur- face in Kau from a fissure about six thousand five hundred feet above the sea, but it was observed early in the morning of the i8th. Mr. Spencer, who visited the most active source on the 20th, says that there were fifteen fountains of molten lava, the highest estimated at two hundred feet. Rocks weighing tons were thrown up or borne along the stream, and while the flow was slow the first twenty-four hours, the formation being mostly aa and clinkers, and explosions occurred at intervals sending up columns of smoke five hundred feet high. Fortunately Mr. Furneaux was on hand and painted the scene from which the illustration is made. Many photographs were taken, two of which are given by Dana, but they fail to give an impression of the outflow at all satisfadlory. They might represent a dead lava bed as well. I feel that the three views made by Furneaux show more completely than any pictures I have seen, the beginning, course and end of an Hawaiian lava flow: even without the color, as we have them here, they show better the sublimity of the scene. While the rate of progress at first was only a mile and a half an hour, when the lava moved as pahoehoe its course was rapid, and on the 29th it reached the sea, after a course of twenty miles, nearly four miles west of the flow of 1868, adding another very disagreeable interruption to the many that cross the government road west of the south cape Ka Lae. Mr. Furneaux again caught the stream as it flowed rapidly between the walls it made for itself where the slope was considerable and the ground fairly clear. The beauty of the green herbage in the foreground contrasting with the black walls within which this Phlegethon rushed with almost the liquidity of water, canopied by the murky pall above, removes the terror a volcanic eruption awakes in many minds when impressions are caught from those spasmodic outbursts in thickly peopled lands where the loss of life and property adds horror to the thought. Here little damage was done, the beauty and variety of the display will never be forgotten by those fortunate enough to see the flow of 1887. By noon of the 24th the flow had nearly stopped, after extending the shores from three to five hundred feet, according to Dr. S. E. Bishop, who was in this region on the second of February. As the shore was not abrupt the flow built up no mounds of black sand or ash, and the scene as viewed from a steamer off shore was simply a clear struggle between fire and water for possession of the shore line. Earthquakes were renewed on the 23rd, the day before the flow ceased, and con- tinued on the 24th. These threw down walls that had a northeast and southwest direction — the walls falling to the southeast — and moved light wooden houses eight or ten inches on a slope in the same direction. Slight damage was done in Kahuku, and [545] io8 tCitauea and Mauna Loa. even in Hilo, where there was a heavy shock felt near noon on the 23rd. The oscilla- tions are reported as from south-southeast to north-northwest. A heavy cloud of smoke was resting on Mauna Loa all Sunday and Monday, January 23rd and 24th, and on the 25th the sun was almost obscured by the smoky atmosphere; on the afternoon of that day a heavy storm of thunder and rain set in. On February 20th Judge D. H. Hitchcock was on the summit and found the crater quiet, but vapors arising from large fissures.""' According to Rev. E. P. Baker,"' the fissure about four hundred feet above the point of outflow was still giving out vapors in July, 1888. No deep crater marked the place of discharge. February /, 1887. Rev. Sereno E. Bishop, D.D., in describing (Hawaiian Gazette) the lava ridges left when the flow had nearly ceased, says: "The whole seemed like a colossal embankment, as if ten thousand cyclopean trains of mastodon cars had been dumping the rocks of Mauna Loa for a century towards the sea." December 2^, 1887. Mr. J. S. Emerson writes from Kohala, Hawaii, that the view from that place indicates activity in Mokuaweoweo. "Volumes of smoke and steam have been pouring out of the summit crater, but no glow or reflection of fire has been observed The summit is heavily coated with snow." On March 29, 1888, signs of activity had disappeared. To return to Kilauea : August 18, 1887. S. D. Fuller.— "A whitish flame visible about edge at five different points." On the 22nd he adds : "Since my last visit the lake had overflowed a space 250X300 feet. Lava in lake had fallen about six feet. Great activity at two points. A bluish flame observed at four points, two being in middle of lake for a short time. A river of lava flowed into the lake from under high central cone." January 11^ 1888. Rev. E. P. Baker.— "Dana Lake quite active." Fell several feet in a short time. Aprils, 1888. Dr. C. H. Wetmore.— "A beautiful fiery fountain." July, 1888. W. C. Merritt.— From an abstract of the letter of Mr. Merritt, then President of Oahu College, to Prof. Dana'" (the original not having been published) we find that Mr. Merritt reached the summit of Mauna Loa at noon of the eighteenth of last July, and encamped near the southeast angle of the crater. The spot was con- siderably lower than the highest point on the west side of the crater, and probably about 13,400 feet above tide-level. Water boiled at 185° F. between 7 and 8 in the morning, when the temperature was at 56° F. The thermometer was at 62° F. at noon, 40° F. at 7 P.M., 30° F. at 11 p.m., and 26° F. at daybreak, so that during the night w ater froze in a large crack, ten feet below the surface. About half a mile south by ■"American Journal of Science, 1887, xxxiii, 310. "'Ibid, 1889, xxxvii, 51. ""Ibid, 1889, xxxvii, 53. [546] 118 At Mokuaweoweo. 169 west from the southern end of the crater of Mokuaweoweo there was a small but deep pit-crater. Having descended the east wall of the central pit of Mokuaweoweo to its bottom, a small cinder cone was found not far from the eastern wall ; and just southwest, a pumice [limu] cone in the midst of an aa flow, the summit of which was very hot and reddish from the action of vapors. In the southwest corner of the pit, there was a cone at F [see map on p. 159], from which vapors were escaping, and south of it, at m^ a circular pit between 300 and 400 feet in diameter, by estimate, and 150 to 175 feet deep. The walls of the pit consisted of the edges of layers of basaltic rock, one of which was 40 to 50 feet thick, and vertically columnar in structure. The floor of the central pit had, as a whole, a slope from the southwest to the northeast, confirming the view that the southwest part of the pit had been the seat of greatest activity, as it is in Kilauea. Southwest of m^ the outer wall of the central pit was cut through from top to bottom by two parallel fissures, which had a S.S.W. direction, and thence pointed nearly to- ward the place of chief eruption of 1887. Hast of m and near the wall in the direc- tion of L, there were great numbers of small fumaroles, from which sulphur vapors were escaping freely, and large deposits of sulphur had been made about them. Near // two dikes, 2 to 2>^ feet thick, intersected the walls, crossing one another at a small angle, the rock of which had a feldspathic aspect. From a rough measurement, the depth of the crater on the east side was made not over 350 feet. If this small depth is sustained by careful observations, a great change of level had taken place since the survey of Mr. Alexander in 1885. Such a change might have been among the effects of the eruption of February, 1887. President Merritt also visited Kilauea on July 14th. His letter speaks of the walls of *'Halema'uma'u" as, in part, wholly obliterated, as represented by Mr. Dodge: it was fifteen to twenty feet high in some places. The nearly circular lake on the west side of the cone [see plan on p. 170J, which he calls *^Dana Lake", was in ebulli- tion, but not more active than in August, 1887. The enclosing walls of this small lake were ten to fifteen feet high above the liquid lava within, and fifteen to twenty feet above the floor outside. Mr. Merritt accompanied the Rev. E. P. Baker, whose notes are of value from his frequent visits to these scenes; they are published in the Journal containing the preceding account ; from that source we gather the following: ** A descent was made into the southern crater of Mokuaweoweo — probably the first ever made — and the depth found to be seventy-five feet greater than that of the central crater. A fresh- looking lava stream descended into it down the northern wall, which may have been made in 1887." [547] CsnTra/ f^ock FIG. 99. hai^p:maumau. survey of jui^y, 1888. Rev, E, P, Baker Ascends Loa. 171 Mr. Baker, speaking of the source of the lava streams of the great eruption of 1880-1881, states that: The two streams from the source, the Kau or southern, and the Hilo or eastern, originated together at the extremity of a long fissure. This fissure follows the course of a ''divide," so that a small obstacle was sufficient to turn the flow to one side or the other. The outflow took place on this divide; a northern stream flowed first, then the Kau stream, and then the Hilo. The fissure ran by the north side of Red Hill, a cone with a deep crater which is still giving out vapors, and this hill was apparently the occasion of the turn off southward of the Kau stream, it standing at the point of their divergence. ^^" Water boiled near this hill at ige^'F. This Kau stream is in general aa, but near the source it is pahoehoe. At the upper extremity of the fissure there is a pit crater, Pukauahi, which is described as the source of the lavas and is still smoking. At this place also water boiled at 196° F. On the route from Ainapo to the source of the outflow of 1852, the lavas of the 1852 stream, where they were first reached, were of the aa kind ; but after a while there was a change to pahoehoe, and soon after this the source was reached— a red cone in the midst of an extensive bed of pumice. Long ditches or trenches occur in the surface of the region which were evidently the beds of lava streams, their sides having been the banks. ^'^ The flow appears to have had a single outlet. Water boiled at the source at 200° F. Going from Ainapo to the source of the eruption of 1887, in Kahuku, about 6000 feet above the sea-level, Mr. Baker passed through regions of woods and grass and saw seven running streams and three or four ponds of water. There had been heavy rains. No deep crater marked the place of discharge. Over the wide region between Mt. Loa and Mt. Hualalai it is hard to tell where the slope of one ends and that of the other begins. [I have already made the same statement regarding the ap- pearance from the other side.] The 1859 flow of Mt. Loa as it came down heading northwestward, turned just enough northward to fetch by the northeastern flank of Hualalai. The Kau Desert, lying to the south and southwest of Kilauea, has a surface of whitish or light colored sand with areas of pahoehoe lava, which is decomposing in places into a reddish soil. It is about eight miles by six in area. It is destitute of vegetation and owes its dryness to its being under the lee of Kilauea. To return to the Volcano House record : August 20, 1888. Earthquake at 7:30 a.m. November 8, 1888. Earthquake at 5:50 p.m. Quite a sharp shock felt all over Hawaii and to Honolulu, according to Mr. H. M. Whitney. December I, 1888, H. M. Whitney. — Found Dana Lake and Eittle Elephant cone which is three hundred yards north of the lake, very active. The South Lake has disappeared altogether, the crater is filled up with rocks and no signs of a pit or of fire remain in it. A flow of aa ran for four days in Kilauea, according to L- A. Thurston. December 22, 1888, L. A. Thurston. — There are now two sluggish pahoehoe flows running across the path to the Elephant ; and on the south and west there are several flows still very hot. There are about a dozen blow-holes in action besides the lake. There is very intense action in the lake, the surface of which is twenty-five to thirty feet above the general surface of the crater south of it, with a confining wall built by itself of only about five feet in thickness at the level of the liquid lava on the southwest side ; and a thickness of not more than ten feet at a point ten feet below ^^° It seems rather to have been formed by the flow. '^^See Furneaux' painting of the eruption of 1887, Fig. 97. [549] SFATTIiR COXiv IN KIF.AliliA, 1H89. fe- out the 4th, Novem- ber, 'H9, when a huge crack wos formed iii the ioor of the crater { northwest -southeast) • . - The forma- tion of this crack was accompanied with a slight sinking of a portion of the central area near the lake. January 28, rSgo. Ac land Wansey and W. T. lirighain were at the crater photographing and taking notes. Jijy iS, jSgo. Acland Wan- .sey, W. B. Clark «nd W. T. Brigham were again at the crater, and many of the illustrations of this paper were then made. Of this party Mr. Clark joined a party for the ascent of Mauna Loa, an expedition which Mr. r^. A. Tlinrston thus describes in the register : Memo of an ascent of Mauna ■ Loa by \¥. B. Clark, of Boston, Julian MoMsarrat, W. Gates and L. A. Thurston, under the guitlauce of Kanae of Ainapo. The time which was occupied in proceeding from one point to another is given for the in- formation of those who may desire to ascend the mountain hereafter as a basis of estimate. Left Kapapala ranch at 5:45 .\.m., July 26; arrived at Ainapo 8:30; left at 9 a.m.; arrived at upper waterdiole 11 A.i\r. ; at Camp Kakina, at the upper edge of vegetation, 1 :3o p.m. Temperature at this camp, where the night was spent, wa.s as follows, in the shade: 1:30 I'.M., 5S^\F. 6:46 P.M., 48'' F. CK IX lilfll OF KIJ. r.2$ P.M. \:xn ..\.M. .\f>' Ditlrj lip to J July 27 left camp at 6:30 a.m. and arrived at the crater at 1 1:30. Temperature at noon in the shade, 49" ; in the sun, 54''; at 5 .\.m:. on the 28th, 24*^ out of iloors and 28" in tlie tent. The entire parly, except Mr. CLark, were affected with^ mountain sickness. Descent into the crater was made !>y Mr. Clark ami my.self at the highest point of the cliff on this side, near the old Wilkes camp, where tlierc is a breakdown and a debris pile. [552] Kilmiea Record. ^^IS There was very good walking on the floor of the crater, the palioelioe lieiiig imiisually smooth. There was evidence of recciil eruption from a 1)low4iole a1>o!it the eenlre of the crater which was still unthe crater, and about two hundred feet wide. Immediately at the base of this sulphur bonk there was a breakdown in the floor of the crater some one hundred feet deep and several hundred feet across. To return to Kilaiica. September //, iSf^o. U. (). White, — We found two blowholes al)out six hundred feet apart, and a How from eatdi of them had covered several hundred srpiare feet. The one furtherest to the south looks as if it would soon form a lake about the size of Dana Lake. We next went to Dana Lake and found it ntiug alternately in front of flaleniaumau. The new lake is in a great state of ebullition, several fountains can be seen playing high abo^'c the hori/.ou. January 2, iSi}i . I4. A. Thurston. — Daua Lake and the new lake are in a eoiitinnims boiling- condition throwing up lava from forty to -sixl}- feet. Dana Lake has built iij) a wall around itself of from six to ten feet liigh, and the surface of the licpdd lava is about ten feet above the snrrountling conutry. I paced Dana Lake off along the base of the wall, making it eight_v paces long. It is about onedialf as wide. There are nine ac'live blowholes wdthiii a radius of twelve hnndretl feet, this side of Dana about a rptarter of a mile. [The debris cone of Halenmunwu is a circular crater with a level fresh lava floor about a hundred ^-ards across.] ' C.553] 176 Kilauea and Maima Loa. Fehriiarj 2j^^2j, iS(jr. G. Creswell IJelaiiiaiii and W. T, Brigham. — Brunuer, by levels from Hilo, found tlie elevation of tlie Hotel veratidali 3971.64. March 6. fSgr. J. H. Maby of the Volcano House. — At 9:30 p.m. one sliglit eartliquake. At tlie time of shaking tlie cones of Haleniauniau settled down. From Februar}^ lotli to March 6tli all the fires in the crater were very active and flows of lava were plainly seen over the floor of the crater from the house. At 9:10 p.m. on the 7th a slight shake w^as felt at the house. On the morn- ing of the Hth on looking over the crater we saw that the cones of Haleniauniau, the Dana Lake and Matn- l.,al-:r had siitik (^vA of ?dght. The cones of naleiiiannian loomed up nl>ovr the bed of the crater some two hundred or more feet before the earthquake of March 5th. Five years to a day since the last drop out in r.S86. March /f, i8()i . W, W, Brunner, — Survey of Volcano road [from Hilo] finished. No fire in the crater. March i*x> Z Y^ 4^ fr £. Lo ur ^oh J^otc se> 1/ e- »^ o.. n^ oL a- iky A oL^ / « a i. . ,7 r///n7^/7////^//,. i^IG. 115. COMPARATIVE vSICCTlON. We now come to a most interesting change in the condition of Halemaumau. Fortnnately Mr. F. S. Dodge of the Government Snrvey had surveyed this part of Kilauea in August, 1892 (see plan), and we have also his valuable surveys and measure- ments during and after the changes we are about to describe. In addition to these we have the observations of L. A. Thurston, Esq., whose frequent visits to the 1894 crater have made him familiar with its physical changes, and from these and other sources we can collect the story scattered in various newspapers, maga- zines and Volcano House Record. In 1893 the pit had been gradually filling up, mainly by the overflow of its molten contents, which, now here and now there, poured over the circular dam or rim which had in this case been formed more extensively and regularly than usual ; but in addition to this elevation by filling, there was evidently a rising of the region around the pit, until in July, 1894, the rim of the lake was but seventy-five feet below the Volcano House level, and the whole surface was visible from the house. This condition is well shown in Mr. Hitchcock's view (PI. LXVI). In August, 1892, the rim of the pit was 282 feet below the Volcano House datum, and the surface of the lake 240 feet below that. In March, 1894, according to Mr. Dodge's measurements, the lake was 1,200 feet long and 800 feet wide and its surface had [564] Mr, Thurston^s Accotmt. 187 xci "'iSsfl^ 10 AM risen some 200 feet in nineteen months. In Jnly Mr. Thurston and party saw the remarkable changes that he reports as follows : Upon arriving at the volcano on July 5, 1894, the principal change since Mr. Dodge's visit was found to be the sudden rising of the north bank of the lake, covering an area of about 800 feet long by 400 wide, which, on the 21st of March last was suddenly and without warning elevated to a height of eighty feet above the other banks and the surface of the lake, the lake being then full. The raised area was much shattered. Two blowholes shortly afterwards made their appearance on the outer line of fracture. April i8th, the hill thus formed began to sink, and on July 5th, was only about thirty feet above the other walls of the lake. On the evening of July 6th, a party of tourists found the lake in a state of moderate activity, the surface of the lava being about twelve feet below the banks. On Saturday, the 7th, the surface was raised so that the entire lake was visible from the Volcano House. That night it overflowed into the main crater, and a blow-hole was thrown up, some 200 yards outside and to the north of the lake, from which a flow issued. There were two other hot cones in the immediate vicinity which were thrown up about three weeks before. On Sunday, Monday and Tuesday following, the surface of the lake rose and fell several times, varying from full to the brim to fifteen feet below the edge of the banks. On the morning of the nth, the hill was found to have sunk down to the level of the other banks, and frequent columns of rising dust indicated that the banks were falling in. At 9:45 p.m., at which hour a party reached the lake, a red-hot crack from three to six feet wide was found surrounding the space recently occupied by the hill; the hill was nearly level ; the lake had fallen some fifty feet, and the wall of the lake formed by the hill was falling in at intervals. The lava in the lake continued to fall steadily, at the rate of about twenty feet an hour from ten o'clock in the morning until eight in the evening. At eleven a.m the area formerly occupied by the hill, began to sink bodily, leaving a clean line of fracture ; the line of this area was continually leaning over and falling into the lake. From about noon until eight in the evening there was scarcely a moment when the crash of the falling banks was not going on. As the level of the lake sank the greater height of the banks caused a constantly increasing commotion in the lake as the banks struck the molten lava in their fall. A number of times a section of the bank from 200 to 500 feet long, 150 to 200 feet high, and twenty to thirty feet thick would split off from the adjoining rocks, and with a tremendous roar, amid a blinding cloud of steam, smoke and dust, fall with an appalling down-plunge into the boiling lake, causing great waves and breakers of fire to dash into the air, and a mighty "ground swell" to sweep across the lake dashing against the opposite cliffs like storm waves upon a lee shore. Most of the falling rocks were immediately swallowed up by the lake, but when one of the great downfalls referred to occurred, it would not immediately sink, but would float off across the lake, a great floating island of rock. At about three o'clock an island of this character [5651 I^IG. 116. SKCTION OF HAI^EMAUMAU, JUI^Y II-I2, 1894. 1 88 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. was formed, CvStimated to be about 1 25 feet long, twenty-five feet wide, and rising ten to fifteen feet above the surface of the lake. Shortly after another great fall took place, the rock plunging out of sight beneath the fiery waves. Within a few moments, however, a portion of it, approximately thirty feet in diameter, rose up to an elevation of from five to ten feet above the surface of the lake, the molten lava streaming off its surface, quickly cooling and looking like a great rose-colored robe, changing to black. These two islands, in the course of an hour, floated out to the center and then to the opposite bank. At eight in the evening they had changed their appearance but slightly. By the next morning they had, however, disappeared. About noon the falling lava disclosed the fact that the small extension [New Lake] at the right of the lake was only about eighty feet deep, and it was soon left high and dry ; simply a great shelf in the bank, high above the surface of the lake. As the lava fell, most of the surrounding banks were seen to be slightly overhanging, and as the lateral support of the molten lava was withdrawn, great slices of the overhanging banks on all sides of the lake would suddenly split off and fall into the lake beneath. As these falls took place the exposed surface, sometimes a hundred feet across and upwards, would be left red-hot, the break having evidently taken place on the line of a heat-crack which had extended down into the lake. About six o'clock the falling bank adjacent to the hill worked back into a territory which, below fifty feet from the surface, was all hot and in a semi-molten condition. From six to eight o'clock the entire face of this bluff some eight hundred feet in length and over two hundred feet in height, was a shifting mass of color, varying from the intense light of molten lava to all the varying shades of rose and red to black, as the different portions were successively exposed by a fall of rock and then cooled by exposure to the air. During this period the crash of the falling banks was in- cessant. Sometimes a great mass would fall forward like a wall ; at others it would simply collapse and slide down making red-hot fiery landslides; and again enormous boulders, as big as a house, singly and in groups, would leap from their fastenings and, all aglow, chase each other down and leap far out into the lake. The awful grandeur and terrible magnificence of the scene at this stage are indescribable. As night came on, and yet hotter recesses were uncovered, the molten lava which remained in the many caverns leading off through the banks to other portions of the crater, began to run back and fall into the lake beneath, making fiery cascades down the sides of the bluff. There were five such lava streams at one time. The light from the surface of the lake, the red-hot walls and the molten streams lighted up the entire area, bringing out every detail with the utmost distinctness, and lighted up a tall column of dust and smoke which arose straight up. During the entire period of the ^utsidence the lava fountains upon the surface of the lake continued in action, precisely as though nothing unusual was taking place. Although the action upon the face of the subsiding area was so terrific, that upon the portion between the falling face and the outer line of fracture was so gradual that an active man could have stood on almost any portion of it without injury. Enormous cracks, twenty to thirty feet deep, and from five to ten feet wide, opened in all directions upon its surface, and the subsidence was more rapid in some spots than in others, but in almost all cases the progress of the action was gradual, although the shattered and chaotic appearance of the rocks made it look as though nothing but a tremendous convulsion could have brought it about. Another noticeable incident was the almost entire absence of sulphurous vapors, no difficulty in breathing being experienced directly to leeward of the lake. At nine o'clock the next morning the lake was found to have sunk some twenty feet more; the banks at the right and left of the subsiding area, which had been the chief points of observation the day before, had disappeared into the lake for distances varying from twenty-five to one hundred feet back from the former edge, and the lower half of the debris slope had been swallowed up in the lake, disclosing the original smooth black wall of the lake beneath at a considerable overhanging [566] Changes in Haleniatiniau, 189 angle. At the level of the lake, and half filled by it, was a great cavern extending in a vSouth- easterly direction from the lake [see Fig. 116]. The dimensions were apparently seventy-five feet across and fifteen feet from the surface of the lake to the roof of the cave. It could be seen into from the opposite bank for about fifty feet. This may have been the duct through which the lava had been drained, although it manifestly was not at the bottom of the lake, for up to July 16th, that had continued to rise and fall from five to ten feet a day, and constantly threw up fountains, somew^hat more actively than before its subsidence. The entire area of subsidence is estimated to be a little less than eight acres, about one-half of wdiich fell into the lake. While the breakdow^n w^as taking place there were many slight tremors of the banks generally resulting in the precipitate retreat of the observers from the edge, but although the danger was great the spectacle was so grand and fas- cinating that the party returned again and again to watch it. At the Volcano House two slight earthquakes were felt on the afternoon of the nth, and one vigorous one at 2 a.m. on the 12th. During the week several slight shocks were felt in the town of Hilo, thirty miles away, yet none were felt at Olaa, half way between, nor at Kapapala, fifteen miles in the opposite direction, although the latter is a place peculiarly susceptible to earthquakes.'^^ Mr. Dodge's survey made on July 30th (Fig. 118) shows the changes wrought in Halemaumau that Mr. Thurston has so graphically described. The figures both on the plan and sections are the distance below the Volcano House datum. August 7, iSg^. Walter F, Frear. — The lake was active, the largest fountain (Old Faithful) playing once or twice a minute, coming up each time as one, two or three bubbles, and then being quiet until the next burst; the other fountains, four to six generally at a time, playing often several minutes before quieting down. Old Faithful always played in the same place, this being the same place in which it played in March, '92, when I saw it on four different days. The guide says it has been in the same place ever since. The other fountains were not confined to any particular locality. Aside from the surface appearance of the lake, there were at this time three points of special interest, (i) the change in height of the lake, (2) the falling in of the sides of the pit, and (3) the floating islands. The guide informele amount of snow forming narrow white lines on the opposite (>rater wall; and two large lava fountains, the bright reddish yellow color of which made a fine contrast to the blackish crater bottom ...... The surface of the lake was crusted over, but rent by a very large number of crevices, through whieli the glow was slightly visible in the daylight and very bright in the niglit- . . ...During my ' MAirNA 1,0 1H96. presence there were two large and one small lava fountains, the former of which played with great regularity and without any interruption. We were looking against the longer diameter, which followed the line on which the fountains were playing; apparently they started from u rather straight crack. Their height was difficult to estimate from our place of observation, as the downward look was too steep : but I do not believe that the largest was more than 50 feet high,. A succeeding party, three days later, reported far larger figures : 1 50 to 200 feet . Kither one of these estimations is very far from the truth, or, the fountains had increased their height iu the lapse of three days; the latter supposition seems to me more probable. The color of the fountains was very bright, more yellow than reddish, even in the daylight; after sunset they were almost dazzling, and also the S5'stem of cracks was very striking. I succeeded in obtaining lasting evidence wdiich proves that the fountains were not very far from real white -heat. The full moon and the fountains affected the photograph plate almost alike. As the fountains of Mokuaweoweo came out absolutely black hi a five second exposure with an h\ 6.3 lens on a 26X Seed's plate, I am convinced that a much .shorter exposure would suffice. ..... My picture (Fig. 121 ) was taken on!}' half an hour after sunset, wdien the reflected [572] "Walk so op F'/ace of Eruption Com W/lhs l^lCr. 122. MOKIIAWKOWICO IN 1896. iq6 Kilatiea and Mauna Loa. daylight Was still pretty strong. A gentleman of the other party exposed his plate in the very night and obtained not only the fountains but the cracks also In closing, the differences between the activity of the Kilauea lake and that of Mokuaweoweo are to be enumerated. From the molten lava of Kilauea there arises only a thin smoke, that in the reflected light is intensely bluish, and if looked at against the bright sky, yellowish brown. A vol- cano cloud proper does not exist at all as a rule, and only under certain circumstances, mostly in the early morning and again at sunset. The invisible overheated steam will condense to a cloud, but I invariably noticed that the seeming volcano cloud was a free floating mass of condensed steam without any appreciable connection with the lava lake. Mokuaweoweo, on the other hand, as long as it was active, nearly ahvays had a cloud ; and that cloud always had a noticeable trunk or pillar of smoke : the latter, as I could see from the top, arose almost entirely from the fountains. These, though they seemed to me far less high than to the party of April 29th, yet were higher than any I had seen in Kilauea; and furthermore, I almost believe (though I could not affirm it positively) they were somewhat brighter than those of Kilauea. I may add that the cloud commonly over Kilauea does not have a visible con- nection with the lava below^, bnt is far from a mere passing cloud (many of these sweep across the crater), but remains stationary a long time, and is at such a height that it is visible from a great distance, especially when illuminated by the molten lava beneath. In Hitchcock's picture the considerable heat of the distant fountains is indicated by the melted snow on the lee side of the crater: on the right, Mauna Kea, snow-capped, is seen above the rim. May 6, i8g6. The eruption on Mauna Loa ceased after fifteen days action. Jidy II, i8g6. Fire returned to Kilauea at a depth of six hundred feet. This activity con- tinued for three weeks without increasing the lake. After this the lava lake gradually disappeared and the fire was confined to a cone in the bottom, from which lava occasionally poured out. This kept on during August and September, when the last sign of fire disappeared. June 24, i8gj, J. M. Lee. — There was again a little fire visible — lasted three days only — down in a cave. For some months smoke has been abundant and dense. Kilauea still remained inactive, but on the morning of July 4, 1899, Mauna Loa commenced a short eruption from a crack not far from the point of the eruption of 1880-81. In July, 1899, Professor C. H. Hitchcock saw the eruption from a distance. Prof. Albert S. Bickmore, of the American Museum, New York, was here with his photographer, Mr. C. C. Langill, who made some good views of the eruption. 1899 Of some of these I have colored lantern slides. Three years before the guide Gasper had told Dr. Friedlander that he thought he could take a mounted party to the summit from the west side, and this year he made good with several parties. We have a detailed account from one of those who visited this eruption with Gasper, Mr. A. B. Ingalls, of Oahu College,^'^^ from whose published account we gather the following facts : Reaching Mokuaweoweo on the western side, after much the same experiences that have been related by Dr. Friedlander, great volumes of steam were ^^^Thrum's Annual, 1900, p. 51, [574] ;;;r\' \i FIG. J. 23. haIvB:maumau. 198 Kitatiea and Mauna Loa, seen to the south of the main crater, probably from the already described cracks common in that region. There was a crack in the crater floor roughly parallel to the western wall, west of the major axis of the pit, from which steam jets in considerable number, but not of much activity, were the only signs of any eruption. The floor was much like that of Kilauea, and no traces of the lake of the previous eruption are mentioned. Making their camp where they reached Mokuaweoweo, Mr. Ingalls with a few com- panions passed around the northern end of the crater, and by a difficult trail descended the mountain slope some three or four thousand feet to the source of the outbreak. The cone from which much of the lava was flowing is shown in Fig. 124. As near as they could estimate, the fountain was one hundred and fiftj^ feet high. On the return to camp tlie}^ met an unexpected danger. To quote Mr. Ingalls : Having remained by the crater several hours, we began to retrace our steps to our camping place, ten or twelve miles distant on the summit of the mountain. We had proceeded but a short distance when we noticed that the wind had shifted around 180°, and that the fumes from the upper pile were drifting down and across our former trail, and also far off to the northwest were hovering down upon the slopes of the mountain. This caused me a little anxiety as soon as I saw it, but we traitiped along until we encountered the fumes. Then anxiety became acute ; the sulphurous fumes were dense and strong. We attempted to pass through, but could not do so, either close to the base of the cone or farther away to the northwest. The choking sensation in the lungs, and irritation in the nostrils could not be endured. The situation looked serious : to cross the hot aa between the lower and upper crater and thus gain the windward side of the upper crater was absolutely impossible. We tried it. To attempt retreat down the mountain towards Hilo was out of the question. The general direction to Hilo was down the slope over the barren lava to the forest, and then a two days trip through the jungle, unless we might accidentally strike a trail, and worse than all that, we had no water for such a trip; every canteen was dry Just then the wind shifted lo"" more, crowding us toward the hot aa. At this moment we began to utterly depair of ever reaching civilization Then one of the party, study- ing the cloud of fumes, saw near the top of the cone a patch of blue sky through a rent in the smoke. This less dense portion was slowly drifting along with the rest. Brief calculation from its motion indicated about where it would settle down upon the rocks to the north. "Fellows, there's out chance ! Come on ! " Snatching up packs and canteens we ran with all speed to the spot, made a dash through the vapors, which choked us terribly and irritated both eyes and nostrils. The boy with the heavy camera plates falls down, overcome. Grabbing his pack I pushed him up and urged him on a few steps farther. They closed in behind us, but we were on the upper side of them now, and were safe. Never again, as we looked back on those vapors during the night, did we see another break in them. The remainder of that night and part of the next morning were occupied in making the ascent of the slopes and reaching again our summit camp. Without water, with sore feet and painful steps, with aching muscles, with hands benumbed with the cold, freezing air, up over the shoe-cutting aa we stumbled along, picking our way as best w^e could by the glare from the volcanic fires and the dim light of a quarter moon. Someone, exhausted, dropped down ; we all rested a little; then up again until another dropped exhausted. After a time exhaustion became so great that to sit down to rest meant to immediately fall asleep ; but the freezing wnid piercing our garments chilled us to the bone, and presently we would awake with chattering teeth and quivering limbs. Thus the night passed. Morning began to dawn ; the sun lighted up the distant clouds below us, and the smoke of the volcano, still drifting off to the north, hung like a claret-colored scarf against the feathery whiteness of the clouds beyond. A cheerful warmth in the sunbeams was very welcome. C576I Plow Sfids. [ ■ri T99 Two streams flowed down tlie nioiiiitaiti, one toward Kaii — this lasted only ten days — wliile the other and larger ran toward Hilo in the track of so many others, finally ceasing July 23d. Then came severe earthqnakes, felt iii varions parts ol the island during that day, but no harm was done; neither did the flow of three weeks do any harm as it passed thi-oiigli a region already blasted b}- previous streams of compara- tively recent occnrreuce. •. ' . , ''^ ;;'• ' .''^^^^^m^.,.^..:rr^^::: fmiuary 14, i8()8. Frank Godfrey.— Not a sign of life [Kilauea]. March 26, iSgS. L. A. Tliiirstou estimates tlie pit as 800 feet deep and 150 feet in iliatiieter at the bottom. He also notes increased tieat in llie crack parallel with ai!- U-o ^eearudis . u>ilK ct I July \qo9 IflG. 143. PIvAN Oif HAI.EMAUMAU IN JUI.Y, I909. 220 Kilauea and Mauna Loa. Nevertheless some rash people ventured down at a time when the fumes were less abundant, and were there photographed by Mr. Moses, a photographer of Hilo. In approaching the crater on the evening of October 6th, a bright glow was seen over the tree tops as the gloaming came on, and when we came out on the bank before the Volcano House the beauty of Kilauea appealed to me as never before. The whole diameter of Halemaumau was lighted up with a clear and almost uniform light, while from the central third arose an ever-changing and exquisitely graceful column to the height of many hundred feet, then expanding into the usual overhanging cloud. This column was by no means smoke, but a thin vapor only dense enough to reflect the color of the boiling lava below, and this vapor was controlled by constantly changing currents or intermittent supplies to spread and contract, curl and twist into most beautiful and attractive shapes. Not long, however, did the exhibition present itself, for the mists came between us and the pit like an old horn lantern, and we saw only the general glow all that night (October 6th). In the morning there was onlj^ the thin smoke coming irregularly from the whole surface of Halemaumau, but thicker and whiter than the abundant steam that arose from many parts of the main crater bottom as well as from the perennial cracks on the upper banks, for it had rained abundantly during the night. I went early down into the crater to avoid company, for there is to me a solemn feeling of exhilaration in this grand temple of the living God that cannot be shared with strangers. At the very beginning of the descent my old friends the elepaios came flying to see, in their curiosity, who was the intruder, and they seemed almost to welcome me in their sweet notes. But once on the crater floor and the stillness was complete, even the breezes were silent, it seemed out of tune to break it with the crunch of one's tread on the lava. I paused on the bridge over the great crack and distinctly heard the dropping, on the deep bottom of the water resulting from last night's rain ; the water at this end of the path made more noise than the fire at the other. As I approached the pit I turned to the left and came upon the brink where the downfall of the wall had occurred, so that only two-thirds of the pool could be seen, and little of the heat felt. It was well not to see the whole at once. Strangely it was not the wonderful cauldron of boiling lava that first caught my attention. On the high western wall that faced me was an opening, as the mouth of a tunnel, half way up the almost perpendicular wall. It was very regular and apparently about ten feet high and twelve feet wide. That was on a part of the wall exposed during my previous visit about a year ago, but it was not there then. Its black mouth indicated some depth, but although the sun was behind me I could see but a very little way in, and this was the sort of duct I had always imagined the pit would disclose if emptied ; and yet, I had [598] Traveling Fountains. 22 1 repeatedly seen the empty pit and never a conduit of such size, if indeed any, that could be considered passages for the retreating lava while the pit was emptying itself. On the outer Myalls of the pit was the line distinctly marking the surface before the fall of September 4th of last year; below this, on the south side, was a series of dislocated benches like seat rows in an amphitheatre, but inclined at various angles to the horizontal; on the eastern side was the large mass of wall which had sunk perhaps a hundred feet as shown on the survey of Mr. Lydgate, and over this (of which the inner edge is much the higher) was the most comfortable, although not the most extensive, view of the molten pool, the heat at the usual point of observation being altogether unbearable. This pool, to most visitors the great attraction of Kilauea, was, as we had sup- posed from the brilliant light reflected from the clouds the night before, in a remark- able state of activity. Not a sign of the alternate crusting over and breaking up so common a phenomenon on former visits to Halemaumau; all was in violent and exces- sive commotion within the banks of the great pool. At first the current controling the whole surface was strong towards the east bank, moving, as I estimated, at the rate of five miles an hour, but others visiting the pool on the same day at a later hour trebled this estimate. It seemed as if the molten contents were pouring out, and one looked at the opposite rim to note a subsidence, but there was none. Over the entire surface were jets by many score, not like the fountains seen when lava breaks from the mountain side or from the bottom of Mokuaweoweo, but jets more like those shown in Plate LX of Dana Lake. These were of varying diameter, but perhaps averaged twelve feet in height. All were moving in the current, but apparently independent of it in some degree, for frequently those behind would overtake the next in advance, melt into its substance and continue with accelerated speed : this action was repeated until perhaps ten were gathered into one great sheaf, increased in height as well as in diameter until the united mass was fifteen or more feet high and ten feet in diameter, when it dashed violently against the bank, throwing spatters on to the bench above and spinning abundance of Pele's hair from the drops. All the trail shown on Mr. Lydgate's map was covered by the splashes.'''^ These "traveling fountains," mentioned before by Mr. Baldwin, were new to me in all my observations of the Kilauean pools. Pele had not exhausted her repertoire, and presently some large, almost flat, floating islands appeared on the western margin. Whence they came was not evident, but they were very black, perhaps a hundred feet by fifty and appeared to be launched from the brilliant glow on the west coast. They had not floated a hundred yards from the shore before the jets (which I likened ^^9 This trail was marked in the copy of the map in the Register, but does not appear on the copy he sent me, which was used for the illustration. [599] 222 Ktlauea and Mauna Loa, to dogs pursuing and jumping at their prey), seemed to bite mouthfuls from the sides until the mass seemed to writhe in pain, and near the midst of the pool a larger foun- tain, perhaps *'01d Faithful, '^ rose suddenly and swallowed what of the island the side skirmishers had left. Three other islands of similar size and form met the same fate before I started around the brink to discover the point of origin of these perishing islands, but on the journey round, the pool was not visible, and when, after some delays on the way to photograph the spatter-cones, the west bank was again in sight, the motion had reversed and the current was running as rapidly as before in the opposite direction, and no islands were on the su^rface. I looked for flames, but saw none. The vapors were at times very transparent, then of a bluish tinge, and again opaque and smoky. There was less noise than usual, for there were no falling crusts, only liquid lava. I was sorry not to see the reversal of current, but at former visits (when, how- ever, the motion was by no means so rapid) the change was made with very little disturbance and little slackening of speed. The currents are a more common phe- nemenon but the speed is usually much less than at present; the apparently causeless change of direction is also familiar. The pool seemed somewhat larger than when measured by Mr. Lydgate, but still was not filling the bottom of the pit, and did not seem much higher. I tried to see what changes appeared in the surface of the boiling pool with the changes from clear to smoky fumes emitted, but the change was so gradual that no change was noted. On my way back to the Volcano House I passed a hot place on the trail about half- way between the pit and the bottom of the path down the bank, which I did not notice in the morning. From the first level stretch on the rising path there is a good view of the dome-like bottom of the crater. I had no means of measurement, but I do not feel deceived in thinking that this dome is at least fifty feet higher than it was last year. I have never seen the dome shape so distinct, and it seemed ready to overtop the western outer wall. When I first came to the spatter cones near the Rest House, I noticed a large cloud of steam issuing from near the base of Uwekahuna, but on my return two hours later it had disappeared; probably the effect of the rains during the previous night. As the sunlight faded the beautiful peach blossom tint appeared on the vapor over the fire, and it deepened into red and orange as the night came on, until the won- derful effects of the previous night were surpassed. C^oo] INDEX TO VOLUME II. Whih' vHch Memoir if^ pjigcd iiMlriMnHleiitl.v, llio pivgiiuition (»f the voliiine will be; found at the bottom of the i^hko. Aa, 382, 394, 455, 474. Aha liawek, 147-151. Ahuawa, Cyperus hevigatiis, 105, 106, 155. preparation, 106. Akaakai, Scirpus lacustris, 84. Alapainvii's platters for human shark bait, 175. Alexander, Mauna I^oa in 1885, 536. Amerind basket, i, 87. Analyses of lavas, 411. Analysis of stalactites, 410. Ancient walls of Kilauea, 427. x\nderson, Kilauea in 1909, 596. Andrews, Mauna I^a in 1843, 441. Armor, Gilbert Islands, 19, 20. Attic in primitive hotises, 230, 250. Auamo, see Bearing stick. Augite, 401, 407. Aumakua found in a cave, 165, 175. Australian basket, 26, 87-91, 103. house, 255, 256. Autetaranga, Pimelea arenaria, 94. Awa bowls, 354. strainers, 328. Baldwin, plan of Kilauea in 1908, 595. Balls covered with matting, 34. Baker, Mauna Loa in 1880-81, 526, 549. Mauna Loa in 1885, 535. Bambu baskets, Pelew Islands, 26. work, modern Hawaiian, 86. Banana fibre fabrics, 3, 4, 95-102. leaves for sandals, 76. see also Thatch. Baring-Gould, on human sacrifices, 212. Basalt, character of Hawaiian, 401. prismatic, 402. Baskets, Amerind, i, 87. Australian, 26, 87-91, 103. Caroline Islands, 6, 8, 9, 16, 20, 38. Fijian, 26, 42, 47-49, 56, 57, 103. Gilbert Islands, 6, 9, 10, 47-49, 103. Hawaiian, 2, 34-37, 60-69, ^*^2, 103. Marshall Islands, 84. New Britain, 26. New Hebrides, 25, 103, 104. New Zealand, 92-94, 103. Pelew Islands, 26. Philippine Islands, 5. vSamoan, 5, 6, 37-40, 102. Santa Cruz, 26. 3olonion Islands, 7, 24-26, 103, 104, Baskets — Con fin tied. Tongan, 6, 21, 22, bambu, 26. coco-palm leaf, 5-10, 26. coffin, 56, 57, coir, 19, 20. covered containers, 22, 63-66, 68. fern-stem, 73. fish, 24, 66-69, 73-75» 103. grass, 84. ieie (P'reycinetia), 60-70. palm-leaf, i6, 24-27. Pan d anus leaf, 34-39. priority of invention of baskets or mats, 4. rattan, 26, 87. raw materials, 2-4. Samoan superstitions, 39, 40. summary, 102-105. Bath rubbers, 314. Bearing stick, 112, 317-320, Bird net, 154, 155. Bishop, S. E., Mauna Loa in 1868, 482. plan of Kilauea, 562. Black sand, 405, 452. Blow-hole on Hualalai, 389. Bones, disposition after death of human, 177. Bow and arrow, Hawaiian, 375. Brigham : — Mat and Basket Weaving of the Old Hawaiians, i. Old Hawaiian Carvings, 165. The Ancient Hawaiian House, 185. The Volcanoes of Kilauea and Mauna I^oa, 379, Hualalai in 1864, 387. in 1889, 391. Kilauea in 1864, 458. in 1865, 466. in 1880, 512. Mauna Loa in 1864, 393. in 1880, 397, 521. Brooms, 376. Broussonetia, see Waoke. Building a PMjian house, 207-210. Hawaiian hoUvSe, 261-293. vSamoan house, 200, 201. Tongan house, 195. von Billow, vSamoan mat legend, 44. Byron, Kilauea in 1825, 422. Cabbage-palm satchels, 93. Canoe houses, 253, 254, 263, 264, 374. Carbonic acid, 407. (601) 6o2 Index. Caroline Islands, ball, 34. basket, 6, 8, 9, 16, 20, 38. fan, 12. , hat, 30. - house, 231-233. loom, 95,. 100-102. mat, 32, 33, 95-102, 104. pillow, 33- sling, 22. . >Carpenters, 195, 200, 208, 265, 268, Carriage, Hawaiian, 317. Carved dishes, 359. Carving tool, 180, 183:. ~ . Carvings, Maori, see New Zejiland house. Cathedral cone, 453, 466. Caves, dwelling, 259, 2^60. description of a bur|al jcave, 165-167. in lava, 470, 475> 477. utilized for secreting relics, 167, 172, j:74, 175.. Centrifugal motion in lava'of Kilauea, 464. Ceremonies connected with house building, 201, 211, 219, 241, 253, 266, 267, 276, 287, 2^, 305, Challenger Expedition, Kilauea in 1^5, 507. Chalmers, the New Guinea' house, 238-24:;£, 243. Chase and'Farker, Kilauea in 1838, 425. Chlorine, 407. Chronological history of the eruptions of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, 414, Cinder cones of Mauna Kea, 383, 405. Clinkstone, 402. Coan, earthquake of 1868, 490. Kilauea in 1840, 4:^8. in 1842, 435. ' " in 1844, ^^46> 43^- in 1847^ 1848, ^39. in 1849-1854, 440. in i%5j 4^. in 1856-1863, 452, 453. in 1868, 4^5. in 1S69, 497. landslide of 1868, 492. Mauna lyoa in 1843, 442- ' iHri849, i%i, 1S52, 443. in 1855, 446. V in 1856, 449. in 1868, 492. in 1875, 1877, 505. in 1880, 524. in 1881, 529. tidal wave of 1868, 491. ^ Coco-palm leaf baskets, 5-10, 26. leaf fans, 10-15. leaf for fences, screens, etc., 11. root fish trap, 24. ■ Coconut fibre, 2 ; see also Coir. utensils, 331-336. Coir sennit,^ in basketiry, 19^22, bound gourd, 22, 112, 147-151. braiding at public meetings, 21. encased in matting, 23, 52. for nettings, 128, 130, 155. preparation, 105; 106, Coir sennit — Continued, windings, 20, 21, 270. see also House. ' Cjo^H #f basJ^ry, ^7, .5^. ^ Comb of fern-stem, 73. Solomon Islands, 85. Communal houses, 187, 218, 235, 244. Cook, the Marquesan house, 191. the New Caledonian house, 250. the New Zealand house, 214-216. the Society Islands house, 191-193. the Tongan house, 194. « Cords, Hawaiian, 269. Cordyline sp., see Ki and Cabbage-palm. Crab net, 157. Cross, Kilauea in 1902, 578. Cyclbpean structures, 185. Cyperus Isevigatus, see Makaloa and Ahuawa. Dana, Kilauea in 1840, 433. Dana l^ake, 547, 562. Date-palm hats, 24. Deaths from eruptions, 392, 446. from land slide and tidal i«rave, 4S7, 496. Decorated cord, 23, 52. Dibble, eruption of 1789, 416. . Dilly baskets, 89^91. Dodge, surveys of Kilauea, 547, 564, 567. Dolerite, 401. \^ Dome in Kilauea, 438-440, 516, 600. Door, shape and structure, 188, 190, 194, 198, 205, 206, 208, 209, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 223, 229^233, 239 250, 262, 264, 283, 284, 287, 289-291. Hawaiian, 283, Douglas, Kilauea. in 1834, 425, Mauna Ivoa in 1837, 441* Dracaena, for sandals, 76. Dresses, mat, frocsa Hew Hebrides, 55, 56. D'Urville, the New Guinea house, ?37. Dyes used in Samoan. mats, 41* in Marshall Islanda mats, 51 i Earthquakes of 1868, 479. of 1887, 543»/S4^- Bel traps, 73. Bke, 129, 146. Electric action on lava, 411. , currents in the lava, 471, / Elevation of Kilai#ea 4oi^€, 43^-440, ^15. Ellis, the Hawaiian house, ^63-^166. Hualalai, 387, 39^. Kilauea in 1823, 41S, 419. preparation of gourds, 329* Emerson, Kilauea in 1886, 540. Erosion of lava-flows by the^ sea, 382. Eskimo implements in Hawa^ii, 108, 109. Ethe ridge, the Australian basket, 88. Fans, 10-16, 24, 36, 42, 307. Hawaiian, 10-12, 24, 307. Index. 603 Fan s — Co niin iied, coco-palm It-af, 10-15. found in a bvirial cave, 182. insij^nia of rank, 16. Pandanus, 12, 14. Fau, see Hibiscus. Feather cape, found in a cave, 1S2. Fern-stem, use, 3, 4, 70-75. basket, 73. comb, 73. eel and fish traps and llsh baskets, 73-75. hat, 72. Ferrous oxide, 407. Fibre mats, 94. Fiji, basket or satchel, 26, 42, 47-49, 56, 103. coffin, 56, 57. fan, 14, 42. house, 203-214. mat, 41, 42. pillow, 206. temple, 23. Finger bowls, 366-368. Fire making, 298-301. Fire-place, 197, 200, 205, 206, 208, 215, 216, 219, 233, 240, 250, 251, 262, 298, 329. Hawaiian, 298. Fish baskets, 66-69, 73 » 74- traps of fern-stem, 70, 73, 75, 103. of coco-palm roots, 24. nets, 152, 155-162. technique, 152, 156, material, 155. Fison, Fijian sacrifices, 211, 212. Flames in Kilaiiea. 464, 517. Flax weaving of New Zealand, 92, 93; see Phormium. Floating islands in lava, 556, 566, 567. Flow of 1801, 386, 392. of 1823, 418, 478. of 1840, 429. of 1843, 442. of 1852, 443. of 1855, 446. of 1859, 453. of 1868, 479. of 1880-1881, 525. of 1887, 543. of 1899, 574. of 1907, 584. Fly-flap, 15. Forms of lava, 401-412. Frear, Kilauea in 1894, 567. Freycinet, Hawaiian baskets, 63, 64. Koko puupuu, 131. Freycinetia sp., see leie. Friedlander, Mauna Loa in 1896, 570. Fumaroies, 405, 459, 547. Funnels, gourd, 326, 327. wooden, found in cave, 182. Furneaux' paintings, 397, 517* 526, 533, 545, 549- Furniture of native houses, 188, 190, 192-194, 197, 200, 206, 219, 226, 228, 229, 234, 239, 243, 251, 253, 262, 266, 286, 305-378. of Hawaiian houses, 305-378. Gases from volcanoes, 405, 517. Gauges, mesh, 107, no. Gibson, Kilauea, 1895, 508. Gilbert Islands, armor, 19, 20. ball, 34. basket or satchel, 6, 9, To, 47-49, I03. house, 228-231. kite, 33. mat, 42, 43, 95-102, 104. Gill nets, 162. Gleichenia sp., 75, 85. Goodrich, Kilauea in 1832, 524, Gourd cordings, 22, 112, 147-151, t8i. vessels and implements, 306, 321-331. water bottle found in cave, 181. Gourds covered with basketry, 63, 68. decoration, 328-330. preparation, 306, 329. Grass baskets, Marshall Islands, 84. work, Solomon Islands, 11, 75, 85, 86. see also Thatch. Grasses, uses in miat making and basketry, 3, , Green, on vapors from Kilauea, 406. Mauna Loa in 1859, 456. in 1873, 504. in 1875. 505. Green Lake, 475. Guam hat, 30. mat, 95-102. Guppy, the Solomon Islands house, 250-254. the vSolomon Islands mat, 42. Hair, cutting, 307. method of attachment to statuettes, in ornamentation, 11, 105, 130. Haka, hakakau or oleole, 112, 266. Hala, see Pandanus. Halemaumau, 424, 427, 475. Halema'uma'u, 475. Hall, Mauna Loa in 1873, 50o. Hanai, 112, 121-126. Hano ohua, 162. Harakake, see Phormium. Haskell, Mauna Loa, 453. Hat, Hawaiian, 24, 72. Micro nesian, 24, 30. fern-stem, 72. palm, 24. Pandanus, 30. Hau, see Hibiscus. Hawaiian Islands, ball, 34. bambu work, modern, 86. basket, 2, 5, 34-37, 60-69, 102, 103. cords, 269, fan, 10-12, 24. fish basket and trap, 66-70, 75, 103. furniture, 305-378. hat, 24, 72. house, 259-304. house building, 261-293. house, modern changes, 293-297. idol and helmet, 70, 71. 170. 6o4 Index, Hawaiian Islands — Continued. mat, 24, 27, 49, 52-55, 77-84, 104, 308, 309. netting, 105-162. pillow, 33, 34, 309- sandals, 75-77. sling, 23. tapa, 310. Helmets of wicker work, 70, 71. Hervey Islands, fan, 13. Hibiscus fibre, Hau, Fau, Paritium tiliaceum, 2-4, 76, 94, 105, 106, 155, 271. mats, 94, 98. nets, 105, 106, 155. preparation, ro6. sandals, 76. see also House. Hillebrand, Kilauea in 1868, 484. earthquake of 1868, 484-488. flow of 1868, 489. Hinai poepoe, 64-66, 102, 149. Hinaki, 73, 74. History of eruptions, clironological, 414. Hitchcock, C. H., Prof., Mauna Loa and Kilauea in 1883, 534. Hitchcock, D. H., Mauna Loa in 1881, 527. Hitchcock, D. Howard, paintings, 451, 564, 570. Horse-hair for netted bags, 105, 130. House, Australian, 255, 256. Caroline Islands, 231, 233. Fijian, 203-214. Gilbert Islands, 228-231. Hawaiian, 259-304. Marquesan, 188-191. New Caledonian, 249, 250. New Guinea, 234-244. New Hebridean, 246-249. New Zealand, 214-225. Niue, 234- Pelew Islands, 233, 234. Samoan, 197-201. Society Islands, 191-193. Solomon Islands, 250-255. Tongan, 194-197. Trobriand Group, 245, 246. Union Group, 225-228. building terms, 301-304. furniture, see Furniture. ground plans, 187. moving, 192, 199. Hualalai, ascent by Menzies, 386. ascents by Ellis, Mann and Brigham, 387, flow of 1801, 386, 392. Huewai, 147-15 1, i8t ; see also Gourds. Human hair in ornamentation, 11, 105, 130. Hudson, see Wilkes. Hydrochloric acid, 407. Hydrogen, 406, Idols of wicker work, 70, 71. leie, Freycinetia sp., 3, 4, 60, 61. basket, 62, 63, 66-68. covered vessels, 63-69. leie — Continued, idols and helmets, 70, 71. in Hawaiian house building, 263, 270. preparation, 62. le vSina, 94, 95. Individuality of primitive handicraft, 1. Ingalls, Mauna Loa in 1899, 574. Ipu aina, see Slop basins. Ipu holoi lima, see Finger bowls. Ipu holowaa, see Wooden dishes. Ipu kuha, see Spittoon. Ipu le'i, Ipu holoholona, Ipu alio, 148, 152, 373. Ipu mimi. 371. Ipu wai, see Gourd water bottle. Iwaiwa, see Fern-stems. Japanese basket, 73. Judd, escape at Kilauea in 1841, 435. Kaee, 159. Kaee paoo, 157. Kahili, used as a fly-flap, 15. Kahuku eruption of 1868, 489, 492. Kakai, 112, 126, 127. Kapa, see Tapa. Kapiini nehu, 160. Keanakakoi, 468, 469, 510. Keate, the Pelew Islands liouse, 233, 234. Kete, see New Zealand vSatchel. Ki leaf sandals, 76. wrapper, 5, 6. Kilauea in 1789, 414. in 1823, 418, 478. in 1824, 420. in 1825, 421. in 1829, 424. in 1832, 402, 424. in 1834, 1838, 425. in 1839, 427. in 1840, 428. in 184 1, 434. in 1842, 435. in 1844, 1846, 436. in 1847, 1848, 439. in 1 849- 1 854, 440. in 1855, 446. in 1856-1863, 452, 453. in 1864, 458. in 1865, 466, in 1868, 478, 484, 491, 495. in 1869-1872, 497. in 1873, 497-501. in 1874, 501-503. in 1875, 506. in 1876-1877, 508. in 1878-1879, 510. in 1880, 511, 524. in 1881, 533. in 1882-1884, 534. in 1885, 535. in 1886, 540. Index. 605 Kilauea in 1887, 546. in 1888, 546, 549. in 1889, 552. in 1890, 552, 553. in 1891, 553. in 1892, 562. in 1893, 1894, 563. in 1895, 570. in 1896, 570, 574. in 1897, 574. in 1898, 1900, 577. in 1901, 1902, 578. in 1903, 580, 582, m 1904, in 1906, in 1907, in 1908, in 1909, 582. 1905. 584. 587. 587^ 595. 595- Kilaiiea iki, 420, 424, 567, 467, 486, 508. Kilou, wooden hook, 112, 376. Kinnear's sketch of Plalemauman, 511. Kinney and Fuller, flow of 1852, 445. Kioe, net mender, 107, iii. Kites, Gilbert Islands, 33. Knitted bags, 105, 130-132. Koko, 112-147, 306. ipu le'i, 149. makalii, and Koko maoloha, 137-140. pualu, 128, 129, 141. puupuu, 128-137, 143. Konane, 178-180, 378. Kramer, Marshall Islands mats, 50, 51. Kusaie, see Caroline Islands. Laau lomilomi, 313, 314. Lafoga game, 47. Lamps and lighting, 200, 314, 315. Lanai of Hawaiian hoUvSe, 289. Landslide of 1868, 480, 487, 492. Lava, analyses, 411. character and forms of Hawaiian, 401-412. fountains of Mauna Loa, 455. spring, 519. Limonite, 407. Limu, Hawaiian pumice, 382, 457, 470, 522. Little Beggar, 535. Little Elephant cone, 549. Lomilomi or massage, 313, 314. Loom, MicronCvSia, 95-102. New Zealand, 2, 92. Ontong Java, 95-97- Santa Cruz, 96. absence in Polynesia proper, 2. -woven mats, 95-102. Loomis, Kilauea in 1824, 420. Loulu-palm, Pritchardia sp., 24. mats, 27. Lua Pele, 439. Lydgate, plans of Kilauea, 497, 507, 596. plan of Mokuaweoweo, 501, 523. Lyman, C. S,, Kilauea in 1846, 436, 439. Lyman, F. S., earthquakes of 1868, 479. Magnetite, 401. Makaloa, Cyperus Uevigatus, 3. mats, 77-83. ornamentation, 78-80. preparation and technique, 77, 78. Makaopuhi crater, 432, 475. Malo, David, the Hawaiian house, 260-263, house furniture, 306, 307. Koko a Maoloha, 138, 139. Mamake, Pipturus albidus, 3. Mann and Brigham, see Brigham. Maoloha, 137-140. Mariapu, 229. Mariner, the Tongan house, 195, 196. Tongan mats and baskets, 21. Marque san house, 188- 191. sling, 22. Marshall Islands basket, 84. fan, 12, 14, 15. mat, 31, 43, 49-52, 59. sails, 46, 47. Massage, 313, 314. Mats, Caroline Islands, 32, 33, 95-T02. Fijian, 41, 42. Gilbert Islands, 42, 43, 95-102. Guam, 95-102. Hawaiian, 24, 27, 49, 52-55, 58, 59, 77-84, 104, 308. Marshall Islands, 31, 43, 49-52, 59. technique and implements, 50-52. dyes, 51. New Guinea, 104. New Hebrides, 55, 56, 104. New Zealand, 104. Nine, 100. Samoan, 40, 41, 43-45» 47» 94^ 95i 104. preparation and technique, 40, 41. Santa Cruz, 100. vSolomon Islands, 32, 42, 104. Tongan, 21, 22, 104. . akaakai, 84. banana fibre, 98, roo-102. coverings for sails, 33. for clothing, 49-52, 55, 56, 80. Hibiscus fibre, 94, 98. legends, 43-45- loom-woven, 95-102. makaloa, 77-83 ; see also Makaloa. palm-leaf, 27. Pandanus, 31-33, 40-47. 49-56, 58, 59- priority of invention of baskets or mats, 4, 5. raw materials, 2-4. sails, 46, 47, summary, 104, 105. whole leaf, 31-33. see also Furniture. Mauna Hualalai, see Hualalai. Mauna Kea, 383. Mauna Koliala, 383. Mauna Loa, area, 539. ascent by Douglas in 1834, 425. in 1832-1837, 441. in 1841, 395, 441. in 1843, 441. 6o6 Index, Mauna Loa in 1849, 185 1, 1852, 443. in 1855, 446. in 1856, 449. in 1859, 453. in 1864, 393. in 1868, 479. in 1868-1872, 503. in 1873, 498, 500, 501, 504. in 1874, 501, 502, in 1875-1877, 505. in 1879, 510- in 1880, 397, 511, 521. in 1880, 1881, 525, in 1885, 535, 536. in 1887, 543. in 1888, 546. in 1890, 552. in 1892, 563. in 1896, 570. in 1899, 574. in 1903, 580. in 1905, 582. in 1907, 584. Mbure, 205. Medicine bowl, 356. Menzies, ascent of Hualalai, 386. Merritt, Mauna Loa, 1888, 546. Mesh, sizes, 107. Mica, 401, 407. Minerals from Hawaiian volcanoes, 407. Mirrors, 307, 371, 372. Model of Kilauea, 579. Mortar and pestle, 315. Mu or konane; 178-180, 378. Mud-flow of 1868 ; see Landslide. Musa, see Banana. Nae, 152-154- netting for feather garments, 152, 153. Net menders, kioe, 107, iii. Nets, fish, 152, 155-162. floats and sinkers, 156. joining, 108, 156. Netted bag, Hawaiian, 112-147. malo, 154. Netting, Hawaiian, 105-162. New Guinea, 104, classification, in. tools, 107. New Britain, basket, 26. New Caledonian house, 249, 250. gourd, 22. New Guinea house, 234-244. mat, 104. netted bags, 104. pillow, 243. New Hebrides, basket, 25, 103, 104. house, 246-249. mat, 55, 56, 104. New Zealand fish traps, 73-75, 103. flax, see Phormium. house, 214-225. New Zealand mat, 104. satchel or basket, 92-94, 103. Niue house, 234. Niihau mats, see Makaloa. Observatory at Kilauea, 596. Old P'aithful, 567. Oleole or haka, 112, 266. Olivine, 401, 407, 432, 462. Olona, Touchardia latifolia, 271. Olowai, 147, 148, 151. Ontong Java loom, 95-97. Ornamentation in Fijian houses, 208. New Zealand houses ; see New Zealand house. Tongan houses, 197. Oven, 329. 3, 4, 105, 106, 130, 155, 270, Pahoehoe, 380, 402. Palm-leaf baskets, 16, 24. mats 27. Palms, uses, 4. Pandanus, hala, lauhala, 2, 4, 28-59, 7^) io4- baskets, 34-39. fans, 12, 14. hats, 30. kites, 33. mat sails, 46, 47. mats, 40-45, 49-56, 58, 59. sail covers, 33. whole leaf, 31-33. preparation, 30, 40, 42, 43, 51, 53. sandals, 76. satchels, 47. see also Thatch. Papa kupalupalu mano, 175. Papamu or konane board, 179, r8o, 378. Paper mulberry, see Waoke. Paritium tiliaceum, see Hibiscus. Parkinson, Ontong Java loom, 97, 98. Pataka, 220. Pele's hair, 395, 401, 411, 463, 515. analyses, 411. Pelew Islands, basket, 26. house, 233, 234, du Petit-Thouars, the Hawaiian house, 295. Philippine Islands, basket, 5. Phonolite, 402. Phormium tenax, 2, 92. weaving, 92. Pickering, Kilauea in 1841, 434. Piko, 112, 114-121. Pile dwellings, New Guinea, 236-244. Solomon Islands, 252. Pili grass, 271. Pillows, 33, 34, 190, 193, 200, 206, 219, 243, 253, 266, 309. Caroline Islands, 33. Fijian, 206. Hawaiian, 33, 266, 309. New Guinea, 243. Samoan, 200. Index, 607 Pillows, Tongan, 194. covered with matting, 33, 34, 309. Pipturus albidus, see Mamaki. Pit craters of Hualalai, 388. in Puna, 472. Pohaku Hanalei crater, 521, 582. Poho aho, 148, 152. Poi pounding, 316. Poli o Keawe crater, 471. Ponaliohoa, 418, 518. Ponape, see Caroline Islands. Pope, Mauna lyoa in 1905, 582. Porcelain fragment found in cave, 182. Prismatic basalt, 402. Pritchardia sp., 24. Pukauahi crater, 526. Pulu, 471. Pumice, 401 ; see also Limu. Puna, legendary lava flows, 477. pit craters, 472. Quartz, 407. Radium, 558, Rate of landslide, 480, 492. Rate of lava flows, 392, 429, 445, 447, 454, 483, 494, 527> 529, 53i> 545, Rattan baskets, 26, 87. shields, 16-19. sleeping mats, 27. Relics hidden in caves, 167, 172, 174, 175. Ridgeway's plan of Mokuaweoweo, 580. River beds changed, 382. Rope-lava, 401, 402. 448, 450, 451, 5* ^""■/^^'^"^ *■»■ ■^i"^- K- '^1 ?T h.i^ " *■■■■ ■■•: ■ -s:. :;■* --^ ■•,■■■■ '■*' i.-i: :i* ™»..J*f-- J ,-faiit 1 .h «^ ■**^'^ei PLATE V. Corner of a pandanus leaf mat of large size used by the author as a table cover. The full size is 6 ft. lo in. by 6 ft. 7 in. The border is about 13 in. wide. PLATE VI. Illustrations of plait in Hinai poepoe. PLATE VII. 7651 Cover of the ieie basket, No. 7651, shown in text. PLATE VIII. 1409 Basket covering of a gourd. MicMolKS B. 1\ B. ■; PIRATE IX. 3889 Hinai poepoe of ieie around a wooden urneke. 3890 Hinai poepoe with cover, both around w^ooden umeke. 1404 Decorated Hinai poepoe around gourds. ?^ili^g| PLATE X. The beginning of a Makaloa Mat. MKMniRrt BisSHoi- Mr! PLATE XI. Portion of a Niihau or Makaloa Mat. PIRATE XII. Portion of a Niihau or Makaloa Mat. M PLATE XIII. Portion of a Niihau or Makaloa Mat. iv-- '&#■■ ■>?■ ;S> -,:' ■■■^■:. ■ i.-- . ■■ "ji .:* ■ '■■■ ...>' ■ ■ ■• ■.-■ j'; ; ;ji-' :■■ . - ■;€"■'§»«■ -■ . . x , ■ m.- ■■ >*:> ■■i j^ ■■■.■■■' .■■ i-- ' , :^ '.p. . ■ ■ J^;:; .,^jM^^m-^A^^^'^^m^^&^-^mm± ■?;^t;s; ■^i;J?iy:-:£^!^.#^:.K;: -^.^^Jfefel^aii: PLATE XIV. Group of modern Hawaiian Fans with a central one of ancient form. Pi:ATE XV. A figure of a Hawaiian, cast from life by the sculptor Allen Hutchinson, to illustrate the ancient method of scraping the fibre of olond in the cord and net manufadure. Made for the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. The back- ground shows the case containing fishing implements. ^m^\mw.. mm'" ,4. ■■■1.. II. PLATE XXVI. Old Hawaiian house frame being rebuilt in the Bishop Museum. The tem- porary supports are used instead of scaffolding owing to the stone floor on which the house is placed. Si'i.lMolRS Bl>!if)!« MfsurM. Vol. T1. PIvATE XXVII. Hawaiian house in the Bishop Museum showing the beginning of the thatching on the front side. ItBMomS fllSHOl* MlJS ttATE XXVlf. PLATE XXVIII. Hawaiian house in the Bishop Museum completed. Showing the bonneting above the ridge-pole, and the hakakau. ^f„.,„„„ flTft!"" »f"< Plats TCXYIII.— ^ ^.Tll II PLATE XXIX. Hawaiian Cords and Braids. 1 Aha hoa waa : coconut fibre braid used for attaching the outrigger to a canoe. 4749. 2 Coconut fibre two-ply cord used for koko umeke. 3 Coconut fibre braid used to fasten the upper parts of a canoe. 4750. 4 Coconut fibre braid from fine coil. 6842. See Fig. 70. 5 Coconut fibre braid. 4751. 6 Coconut fibre braid. 5038. 7 Coconut fibre braid. 4756. 8 Coconut fibre twist. 4756. 9 Olona square braid, used for strangling cord. 10 Olona square braid. 12 Ukiuki braid used in building house in Bishop Museum. 13 Human hair cord. 14 4759. 15 16 Olona fishing line. 3880. 17 Olond cord fishing line. 772. 18 4578. 19 Olona fine cord for mending umeke, etc. 7682. 20 Human hair square braid, 2 [ Human hair square braid used for necklaces, etc. 22 Olona flat braid for strangling cords. Memoirs Bj>^iHir Mtsei'm. Vr» f .;/ ^r' r„: 13 1. 1 I. H> 17 PIRATE XXX. Ipu holoi lima. Finger bowls. Memoims Bishop HtJiKtiii, Vol.. H. PI.HTB XXX. PI.ATE XXXI. Ipu aina or refuse bowls with human teeth or bones inserted as a mark of con- tempt for the owner's enemies whose corpses furnished the teeth. Memoirs flKiiof Mrsi.;i'»f. %'cn.. 11. PLATE XXXII. Ipu kuha. Spittoons. Ipu mimi. Chamber pots. Mkmimhs Bi« PI.ATE XXXIII. Gourd bottles for holding fish lines. n.AiK xsxm. PLATE XXXIV. Hawaiian stirrers for sweet potato poi, and wooden knives (1178-79) for removing the rind from breadfruit, etc. Memoims IlfSIlO* Mwsi PlATE XXXIV. PLATE XXXV. Carved Hawaiian Figures in the British Museum. A. Utneke supported on figures ; the contents can be emptied through the mouth of one of them. B. Shallow bowl supported on the feet of three figures standing on their hands. C. A figure connecting two small bowls. D. Female figure on hands and toes, with uplifted head ; for a stool. E. Umeke supported by two strangely deformed figures with brutal heads and exaggerated mouths. F. Spoon or ladle with carved handle. Compare these figures with tliose shown in Part 2 of this volume. PLATE XXXVI. Na Ipu Pawkhe. The upper figure represents the umeke pawehe ; the lower one the huewai or water-bottles. The decoration on the bottle gourds shows little differentiation between the two colors, making a photographic copy of the design difficult to obtain. PI.ATE XXXVII. Carved Coconuts. The upper group represents New Guinea carvings ; the lower, beginning on the left hand, a Marquesan carved cup, a Fijian oil bottle and a Fijian cup. Memoirs Bishop Mdskiim, Vol. II. Plate XXX FlI. PLATE XXXVIII. UmEKE lyAAU. This fine umeke (No. 9530) is shown in plan and profile; it is 20.7 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep ; the rim is undercut, and the polish is the native. Mkmihks Bkiiuf sin PI.ATE XXXIX. Umekes. The upper figure represents Umeke No. 420, of kou, 20 inches in diameter and 14 inches deep. The lower group shows various forms of umeke. MftsioiRS Bi;,iioi> ^lusRi'M, Vol,. II, Plate XX XIX, PI.ATE XL. Umekes. . The upper figure is of an umeke in private hands ; loaned by a former owner for examination and illustration. The lower figure is No. 418 in the Museum. It is from the Queen Emma collection, and is 69,5 inches in diameter and 6.2 inches deep. Mkmofkh Bisilol- Mr piM% : ^^'Bhi'''-'rr}m0S\ PLATES PLATE XLI. Two views taken from nearly the same position on a small stream near Hilo, during the eruption of 1 880-81 . In the first the lava flow has just reached the brink of what was a small waterfall: this has been boiled up and the molten rock is taking its place for a fall of some twenty-five feet. By daylight the falling lava looked dull red or black, but at night resembled more a flow of blood. During the night the pool was dissipated in steam, and the second view shows the pool utterly obliterated by the lava. This is by no means an uncommon occurrence in the Hilo region where the water courses are often in the path of the descending lava stream. KmicitKs Bismol* Mijsbwm, Voi. II. ptATB xrj. PIRATE XIvII. A descent into Halemaumau when the lava in the foregrouncl was too hot to step upon. Very little vapor was present and no sulphurous fumes. PLATE XLIII. The upper figure shows *'The Three Sentinels," spent blow-holes on the north edge of Halemaumau. Although taken several years ago, the photograph well represents the present condition of these cones. The lower view was made by the author a few years ago of the surface over- flow from Halemaumau falling into the break at the east side of ''Little Beggar." PLATE XLIV. Two views of pools in Halemaumau. The upper shows the self-made em- bankment formed of cxusts and over-flows. Note the absence of steam or other vapor over the active podl. The lower shows the dam separating the pools. The surface of the lava seems smooth as water. i^f,.,,T«rT?" pwitjfr'r «»•«»«» pw. Vr«t TT Pf^HTW «tJT PLATE XLV. A cone in Halemaumau : note the outer wall of precisely the same material. The lava pool below the rim of Halemaumau. The surface near the shore is hard and accessible. Little vapor rises from the central portion which is active. • MUHKt'M. VOT.^ 11. PLATE XLVI. A portion of drawn out cooling lava from lava-fall. Ft ATE XI.¥I. PLATE XLVII. A small mass of a-a, natural size. ; 1?i'~!h,i- MiSi.i^M. ^■'■ll . I! PIvATE XLVIII. A cave stalagmite of the slender variety. Broken from tbe floor of a cave in Kilauea. - Ml S^■1■^! Vi.) . U. v-.-\ii'. xi.vnr PLATE XUX. The broader form of cave stalagmite from Kilauea. The drops near the bottom seem to be hollow, and have been broken in extracting the specimen from the cave floor. This form is less common than the last. MirMniR« niawnp MroFI h4 ^ c: 4-i • 1-4 CJ o bJO 4-> P *3 e 1 bjO 4-» 4-) 4J be s is '^5 :3 t/2 (LI T3 Cfi ^ u « o a 1j a; u > j3 2 be o u 4-> 6 ■4-J o E s CU o •+-> -4-* ^ D tn o .5 -< -4-* ft a o ^ J^ ^ ^ 'Qa ^ OJ O 4-> M 00 Vi aj 4-1 m o s JJ OJ ^ o s ^ -M ^ ^ H § ^M .s 13 tr. o a; u -*-* ^ o Oh "o H 4-> bJO •S •T-l s »-( ^ T? 'u '3 a. o P o a; T^ 43 o OJ a> 4^ rt 6 ^ a •1H ^ ^ m ^ ^ o o u 1-4 > o PQ < w 4 M 00 »4 d^ O (^ O -s c« >H % rt Jj o S 1-H ^ w a o s M HH > a o K^ M u o cd ■f-> q=! ^ 4-» ; BTWt.iP Mf, > a o o o u o bo a -^ o b/3 O a o in U w r2 CU H w 'Ph ^ n <1 tft > h4 ^ :3 Ph t-l o Jh i4 O > 2i o a QJ Ph (U 5 2 O c3 o z:: ^ o *^ o biO CL, 2 •13 o a Q < < o w w > o a o o Q a; o u u ;3 a B :=! s w a o O Vh o T3 c/3 ncJ 1 I 4-» a O ;3 CTJ H Cl. :3 (« vi 3 4-i P T3 rt dJ t> rrl (U H aJ rt ri 4-> o a P u t/3 <1 h4 < o a; a ci Hf 03 C? ''S < < > 'd h4 4-J o o *B n 3 o Jlfi 4-> +-» u t/3 M-( .s Cfi o ^-> n OJ a OJ a> Jj u tn c3 xn •1H "o <3J OS 6 1 QJ X5 p^ ctf rt OJ B t/} u 13 <1 o p. > w o B o o s < i2 i:e (U ^ O P 4-> 4; Xft ;^ u a XJ u 4-» 4-> 4-» :3 . 4-* ^ C 4> M M qj J^ M Ph u (U > 3 Ah Ph 4-» > S2 Ph i> > 5 >. s a (/i fl s ^ t/T p W •c Vh H-f VJ^ 13 M-f So t* t« -s rt ^ 2 P. 13 • 1-t .2 en o > o > 'tn . 5tt 3 O rt ^ ^ cJ O (U 1-1 )H Oi X) cfi o 'a g P & 5^ (U )H )-i o cd MH d o a *£ • iH o CJ CU > .•s x' (U 2 h- 1 ^ ^ ►4 +-» MH U^ «4H O o fH C5 oT < .2 M U p-i ^ o +J Jt4 H-l a o ct v^ «— 1 o 13 >> H-l i: TJ a d »lH c3 C/) ;3 r2 o o 4-» .4-> MH • rH Vh ^ .3 tS Td '3 3 Q a 4^ XJ § Ji 'o HH O a. > •^3 »th *-H B 5 < h4 W H < C/1 a a Ph 3 6 4:3 03 a E a 1 (/3 2 oT > *r-i Wh u (/) ^ > d • tH f-H M OJ .52 X ^ TJ nd G rt ;3 H. ^ u a, tfl bo Oj ; Br;;!|{.:: M-....,y,,--^ voi . Jt a o u o X w ^ < < w V ^ (J o v2 u t/) ti tn o o S ■4-» u be o n ^d (D M s 2 '^ ^ C/3 Ph :3 4-> Td ^ n 3 o CJ o O s • tH +-> 4^ m o (U ^ Oh 6 < 1 o h4 tk t/3 PL, TJ V^ d o ^ •-fH *y5 TJ biO 4-» P3 tf} •»-4 ^ 4-» s o CAi o CFl -d 4-> 4_> fl Jj o *— ( tf) r-H V CJ ^ V 4-» 6 C/3 ^ ^ o H 'd H (^ fl ^ ;3 ?3 o rt Vh ^ bJQ Oh U 03 E -" bo -I o u" < < m biO b« S '^ PS o a n ^ 2 (/) s o h4 (« Ph <. a ^! o o 1— ( T3 'T^ (U OJ g m Vh o Td m a xn rt r2 (U > TD O •4-> a rt o a o o i; 2 r£5 d Crt (U flj (D u ;S 4-) »-4 CtJ 'o en S a; 4-» d o M • rH o H o }h ■4-> > rd u 4-> s a 0) OJ 9^ rd a a d t/5 ^ ^ Cfi t-H d m cJ OJ .2 .r-< < M 00 00 I d o '3 rd d a; > 'biO d CO 00 4-» »-( ^ rt H-( u o OJ o o ^ OJ >> a rQ 4-J 1—1 cS rd d a 2 4-» o o bo tf2 ^n M-( cU '3 p: rd t/i tfi o a; o cJ rd ^ r-l +J to MusEtJM, Vol. II. Plats I o »— 1 ^ C4 o o In s bO 4> 2 l> 1> 0. I—I +-> o T? OS fl ;3 V3 o ^ m tfi 1— ( M OJ u 2 2 > 3 i U tn .2^ X (U '3 03 ^ a pa H t/j a o a < oi a ^ o m .';3 Id M a C3 2 o d (LI 1^ rt •4-J d r^ u >^ . u o < ^ > M '3 ^ u b/0 ■*J (i> ^ vo" (U On rfl 00 •4-> M .9 a • tH to • tH oJ M a; PS .i5 > rt H >^ M h4 VM ?^ < o a 4-> »4 6 Ph M-H to o M o bo •n o V .t^ M w o T3 4-> ::i o a w ;f3 p Halem useum. ■^ s ^!'■■ss;;^t \ot h > X w Oh 4-» it: -J u a be CCJ u .5 "S. V 'n (U a d ^ o >. CJ 4-> I be o m a; rd o en CtJ a g a o p^ Si vO s O C3 o% t/i a V^ 00 •T-( tn o M ^ ^ O 'M '^ 4^ o >» rt u fl Oi uption of 1886 163 96. vSource of Eruption of 1887. P'urneaux 165 97. Course of Flow of 1887. P^urneaux 166 98. End of Flow of 1887. Furneaux 166 99. vSurvey of Halemaumau, July, 1888 170 100. Spatter Cone in Kilauea, 1889 172 101. I^ava Fall North of Halemaumau 172 PAGE 102. L' nder P^st Wall of Kilauea 173 103. Pile of Crusts North of Halemaumau 173 104. Crack in Bed or Kilauea 174 105. Floor of Kilauea, 1890 175 106. About Halemaumau, 1890 176 107. Halemaumau After tlie Downfall 177 108. Cracks on the Brink of the Pit 179 109. New Portion of Volcano House 180 1 10. Halemaumau in October, 1891 181 1 11. Dodge's Survey of Halemaumau, 1892 182 112. Dodge's vSuryey from V. H. Register 183 113. Section of Halemaumau, 1892 184 114. Bishop's Plan of the Lakes 185 115. Comparative Sections 186 116. Section of Halemaumau, July, 1894 187 117. Outline of Island in Lake 189 1 18. Dodge's Survey of Halemaumau, '94 190 1 19. Dodge's Survey : another copy 191 T20. Friedlander's Mokuaweoweo in 1896 193 121. P^riedlander's Mokuaw^eoweo by Night 194 122. Map of Mokuaweoweo, 1896 195 123. Map of Halemaumau 197 124. Hitchcock's View of Pyruption 199 125. P^ruption of Mokuaweoweo by Day 201 126. Eruption of Mokuaweoweo by Night 201 127. Map of Eruption • 203 128. Camp on Mauna Tvoa, 1905. Pope 204 129. Plalemaumau in December, 1906. • • 205 130. Western W^all of Mokuaweoweo. Pope 206 131. Eastern Wall of Mokuaweoweo. Pope 207 132. Moving Mass of Aa in 1907. Perkins 208 133. Front of Aa P'low, 1907. Perkins 208 134. Thurston's Plan of P'ire Pool 209 135. Biart's Plan of Fire Lake 209 136. Halemaumau, August, 1908. Perkins 210 137. Surface of Lava by Night. Perkins 211 138. Surface of I^ava by Night, Perkins 211 139. Halemaumau from Northwest. Perkins 213 140. Halemaumau Before the Break. Thrum 214 141. Halemaumau, August, 1909. Reed 215 142. Section of Fire Pit. Baldwin 217 143. Lydgate's Survey of Halemaumau 219 INDEX PACK Aa 4, i6, 77, 96 Alexander, Maiiiia hoa in 1885 158 Analysis of stalactites ^2 Analyses of lavas 33 Ancient walls of Kilauea 49 Anderson, Kilanea in 1909 218 Andrews, Manna I^oa in 1843 63 Angite 23, 29 Baldwin, plan of Kilauea in 1908 217 Baker, Manna Loa in 1880-81 148, 1 71 Mauna Loa in 1885 157 Basalt, character of Hawaiian 23 prismatic 24 Bishop, Mauna Loa in 1868 104 plan of Kilauea 184 Black sand 27, 74 Blow-hole on Hualalai 11 Brigham, Hualalai in 1864 9 Hualalai in 1889 13 Kilauea in 1864 80 in 1865 88 in 1880 134 Mauna Loa in 1 864 15 Mauna Loa in 1880 19, 143 Byron, Kilauea in 1825 44 Carbonic acid 29 Caves in lava 92 , 97, 99 Cathedral cone 75, 88 Centrifugal motion of lava in Kilauea 86 Challenger Expedition, Kilauea in 1875 129 Chase and Parker, Kilauea in 1838 47 Chlorine 29 Chronological history of the eruptions of Kilauea and Mauna Loa 36 Cinder cones of Mauna Kea 5,27 Clinkstone 24 Coan, Kilauea in 1840 50 ill 1842 57 in 1844, 1846 58 in 1847, 1848 61 in 1849-1854 62 in 1855 68 in 1856-1863 74, 75 in 1868 117 in 1869 119 Mauna Loa in 1843 64 in 1849, 1851, 1852 65 in 1855 68 in 1856 71 in 1868 114 in 1875, J877 127 in 1 880 146 PAGE Coan, Kilauea in 1881 151 earthquake of 1868 112 tidal wave of 1868 113 landslide of 1868 114 Cross, Kilauea in 1902 200 Dana, Kilauea in 1840 55 Dana Lake 169, 184 Deaths from eruptions I4, 38 from land slide and tidal wave 109, 1 18 Dibble, eruption of 1789 38 Dodge, surveys of Kilauea 169, 186, 189 Dolerite 23 Dome in Kilauea 60-62, 138, 222 Douglas, Kilauea in 1834 47 Mauna Loa in 1837 63 Earthquakes of 1868 loi of 1887 165, 167 Electric action on lava 33 currents in the lava 93 Elevation of Kilauea dome 60-62, 137 Ellis, Hualalai 9,12 Kilauea in 1823 40, 41 Emerson, Kilauea in i886 162 Erosion of lava flows by the sea 4 Ferrous oxide 29 Flames in Kilauea 86, 139 Floating islands in lava 1 78, 188, 189 Flow of 1801 8, 14 of 1823 40 of 1823 loo of 1 840 51 of 1843 64 of 1852 65 of 1855 68 of 1859 75 of 1868 101 of 1880-1881 147 of 1887 165 of 1899 196 of 1907 206 Forms of lava 23-34 Frear, Kilauea in 1 894 189 Friedlander, Mauna Loa in i 896 192 Fuinaroles 27, 81 , 169 Furneaux* paintings 19, 139, 148, 155, 167, 171 Gases from volcanoes 27, 1 39 Gibson, Kilauea, 1895 130 Goodrich, Kilauea in 1832 46 Green, on vapors from Kilauea 28 Mauna Loa in 1859 ^ 78 Mauna Loa in 1 873 126 Mauna Loa in 1875 127 (V) VI Index. PAGE Green T^^ake 97 Halemaumaii 46, 49, 97 Hcilema'uma'ii 97 Hall, Mauna Loa in 1873 122 Haskell, Mauna Loa 75 Hillebrand , Kilauea in 1868 106 earthquake of 1868 106- r 10 flow of 1868 HI History of eruptions, chronological 36 Hitchcock, C. H., Prof., Mauna I^oa and Kilauea ill 1883 156 Hitchcock, D. H., Mauna Loa in 1881 149 Hitchcock, I). Howard, paintings 73, 186, 192 Huakilai, flow of 1 801 • • • 8, 14 ascent by Menzies 8 ascents by Ellis, Mann and Brigliam 9 Hydrochloric acid 29 Hydrogen 28 Ingalls, Mauna lyoa in 1899 196 Judd, escape at Kilauea in 1841 57 Kahuku eruption of 1868 . j i r, 114 Keanakakoi 90, 91 , 132 Kilauea in 1 789 36 in 1823 40, 100 in 1824 42 ill r^'^25 43 in 1829 46 in 1832 24, 46 in 1834, J838 47 ill i^'^Sg 49 in 1840 50 in 1841 56 in 1 842 57 in 1844, 1846 58 ' in 1847, 1848 61 in 1849-1854 62 ill 1855 68 in 1856-1863 74, 75 in 1864 80 in 1865 88 in 1868 100,106,113,117 in 1 869-1872 119 in 1873 119-123 ill 1874 123-125 ill 1875 128 in 1876-1877 130 in 1878-1879 132 in 1880 133, 146 in 1881 155 in 1882-1884 156 i" 1885 157 in 1886 162 in 1887 168 in 1888 168, 171 in 1889 174 ill ^890 174, 175 in 1891 175 in 1892 184 in 1893, 1894 185 .in 1895 192 in 1896 192, 196 in 1897 196 PAGE Kilauea in 1898, 1900 199 in 1901, 1902 200 in 1903 202 204 in 1904, 1905 204 in 1906 206 in 1907 209 in 1908 209, 217 in 1909 217 Kilauea iki 42, 46, 89, jo8, 130 Kinnear's sketch of Halemauniau 133 Kinney and Fuller, flow of 1852 67 Landslide, 1868 102, 109, 114 Lava analyses ^3 of Hawaii, character 23 forms 23, 34 fountains of Mauna Loa 77 spring 141 Liinonite 29 Limu, Hawaiian pumice 4w9> 92, 144 Little Beggar 157 Little Elephant cone ■- 371 Looinis, Kilauea in 1824 42 Lua Pele 61 Lydgate, plans of Kilauea 1 19, 1 29, 218 plan of Mokuaweoweo 123, 145 Lyman, C. vS. , Kilauea in 1846 58, 61 Lyman, F, S., earthquakes of 1868 loi Magnetite 23 Makaopuhi crater 54, 97 Mann and Brigham, Hualalai in 1863 9 Kilauea in 1 864 80 Mauna Loa in 1864 15 Mauna Hualalai, see Hualalai. Mauna Kea 5 Mau^na Koliala 5 Mauna Loa, area 161 ascent by Douglas in 1834 47 in 1832-1837 63 in 1841 17, 63 ill 1843 63 in 1849, 1851, 1852 65 in 1855 68 in 1856 71 in 1859 75 in 1864 15 in 1868 101 in 1868-1872 125 in 1873 120, 122, 123, 126 in 1874 123, 124 in 1875-1877 127 in 1879 132 in 1880 19, 133, 143 in 1880, 1881 .\^ 147 in 1885 157, 158 in 1887 165 in 1888.... , 168 in 1890 174 in 1892 185 in 1896.. , 192 in 1899 196 in 1903 202 in 1905 204 Index, vu PAGK Mauna IvOa in 1907 206 Menzies' ascent of Hualalai • • 8 Merritt, Mauna lyoa, 1888 168 Mica 23, 29 Minerals from Hawaiian volcanoes 29 Model of Kilanea 201 Mud-flow, 1868. vSee Landslide. Observatory at Kikiuea i t8 Old Faithful 189 Olivine ., 25, 29, 54, 84 Pahoehoe * . . . 2, 24 Pele's hair ^7, 23, 33, 85, 137 analyvSes 33 Phonolite 24 Pickering, Kilanea in 1841 56 Pit craters of Hualalai 10 in Puna 94 Poliaku Hanalei crater i 43, 204 Poli o Keawe crater 93 Ponahohoa 40, 140 Pope, Mauna Loa in 1905 204 Prismatic basalt 24 Pukauahi crater 148 PuUi 93 Pumice, see also I,imu 23 Puna, legendary lava flows 99 pit craters 94 Quartz » 29 Radium 180 Rate of landslide J02, 1 14 Rate of lava flows 14, 51, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 105, it6, J49, 151, 153, 167, 206, 207 Ridge way's plan of Mokuaweoweo 202 River beds changed 4 Rope -lava 23, 24 Salts in lava 14, 29, 54, 69, 1 17 PAGE vScliaefer, Kilauea in 1874 124 Scoria • 27 vScott's sketch of Kilauea 129 Severance, plan of Mokuaweoweo 145 Shepherd, Kilauea in 1839 49 Snow on Mauna Kea 5 on Mauna Loa 18, 76 Stalactites and stalagmites 29, 93 vSteam, volcanic 27, 28, 127 Stewart, Kilauea in 1825 43 in 1 829 46 Stony lavas • 24 Strzelecki, Kilauea in 1838 48 Sulphide of iron 29 Sulphur beds 54, 82, 91, 140 Sulphurous acid gas 28 Thurston, Kilauea in 1894 187 Mauna I^oa in 1 890 1 74 Thurston Lake 185 Tidal wave, 1886 103, 1 13 of 1872 125 Toler, Kilauea in 1877. 130 Traveling fountains 21 7, 221 Tree moulds of lava 16, 52, 96, 1 1 1 , 202 Tufa 24 Van Slyke, Kilauea, 1 886 164 Vapors from volcanoes 27 Vegetation on Hualalai 10, 1 2 on Mavma I/Oa 19 Volcanic sand • 27 Waldron's I^edge 83 Warm springs 14, 98 Whitney, Mauna Loa in 1 868 105 Wilkes, Kilauea in 1841 56 Mauna Loa in 1841 f 7, 63 PUBWCATIONS OF THB BBRNICB PAUAHI BISHOP MUSEUM (All previous price lists are hereby cancelled.) 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Noteworthy Hawaiian Stone Implements— Brigham. Fibres of the Hawaiian Islands— Black- man. Distribution and Variation of Achatinella multizonata—Cooke. Monograph of Marcus Island— Bryan. Price |i.oo, postage 7 cts. No. 12. Director's Anniial Report, 1903. Remarks on Phallic Stones from Rapanui—J. L. Young. Aboriginal Wooden Weapons of Australia— Blackman. Price 40 cts., postage 4 cts. No. 3. Director's Anntial Report, 1904. Australian Bark Canoe — Brigham. A Stone Bagger for Duelling—Bri^ham. Notes on the Birds of the Waianae Mountains— Bryan. Additional Notes on the Nesting Habits of the Hawaiian Owl— Bryan. Description of the Nest and Eggs of Chlorodrepanis virens (Gmel,)—- Bryan. Notes on the American Birds Collected in the Hawaiian Islands by Mr. Gerrit Wilder —Bryan. A Bird*s Nest of Pele's Hair— Bryan, Two Undescribed Nests and an Bgg of a Hawaiian Bird—Bryan. Price 50 cts., postage 5 cts. No. 4. Director's Anntial Report, 1905. Three New Hawaiian Pishes — Bryan. Report of a Visit to Midway Island—Bryan, Nest of Hawaiian Hawk—Bryan. Price 50 cts., postage 4 cts. No. 5. Director's Annnal Report, 1906, and Index to Yol. II. Dr. Cooke's Report on Types of Hawaiian Land Shells. Price 20 cts., postage 2 cts. Occasional Papers, Yol. III. No* r. Reprint of Original Descriptions of Achatinella. By B. W. Thwing. Price I1.50, postage 9 cts. No. 38. Notes on Hawaiian Land Shells— Pilsbry and Cooke. Price 25 cts., postage 2 cts, (OYBR) PUBI^ICAieiONS— CoMtitttted. H04 1:* Fishes Qf the South Pacifie— Seale. Price fi.oOj postage 5 cts. Ho. t* Bi^ectof *s Aunu&t Mepott^ 1907. Casts of Hawaiian Fishes, made hj Toliii W. ITliotnpsoti. Stoae Sctilptmriags in Relief— Stokes, Soitie Birds of Moldkai^— Br^an* Price ^5 cts.^ postage 5 cts* • Ho. 3. PkectOf^B Antitial Re|ioirt, 1908. Walled Fish Traps of Pearl Harbor— Stokes* Some New Hawaiian Plants — Forbes. Price 40 cts., postage 3 cts* Memoirs, ToL I. Qtiarto. Nc>. 1* Hawaiian Feather Wotk. By Wm. T. Brighara. Price f 2.50, postage 14 cts* Ho. a. BiAe:E to the Islatida of tlie Pacific. By Wm. T. Brigham. Price f 1.50, postage szo cts. Ho. 3* ^ey to tlie Bii-da of the Hawaiian 0roti|>. By Wm. Alaiison Biyiiii* Price I1.50, postage 13 cts* Ho. 4. Aneietit Hawaiian fttotie Imflemetits* By Wm. T. Brig- ham. Price 12.50, postage 20 cts. Ho. 5. 8tt#|>lemeitt to Hawaiian iFeatliet Woirfc, wlthi Indeac to Tol. I. By Wm, T. Brighatn. Price 75 cts., postage 8 cts. Memoira, ToL II* Ho* 2. Hawaiian Mat ana Basket #eaTiitg* ByWm.T.Brigham. — Ha-waiian Nets and Nettings* By J. F. {I* Stokes. Price fe.oo, post- age 20 cts* Ho. ^. Old Hawaiian Cat^ngs— By Wm. T^ Brigham. Price 50 cts. , postage 5 cts. Ho. 3. The Ancient Hawaiian Honse. By Wm. T. Brigham. Prim fs'.oo, postage 25 cts* Ho. 4. The Volcanoea of Kilanea and Manna l^a. By Wm. T. Brigliam. Price 13,50, postage 30 cts. Completing the voltime. Vol* III. Kapa Making. In preparation. fsf) THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIOAN GRADUATE LIBRARY ■i^-||'5- DATE DUE ^RO^ ^^9 0^^ BOUND irMiy.erMtoit — \nr - ; r ^- • >* ^ . • ■ • ■^n^y-'^.' *^^^^^:^^^^^^m^W^WW; • '^^' liPiiil ..,„ 3 9015 00861 2726 -J -ww^:m^f^^7^T^^^^^^^^^ v.. ' / miMOIlS