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PIM teal te p eer ia . fia ss f : 2 . 4e4c8 A nate ‘ Pr Boe Leer ems ween oe tC eS : ‘ » F 3 : : ' Be tee eee ee eee Nat eA OMENS Nah Rein, ett et AY a mang \ . : ‘ : oe _ ‘ V Ne hieae ty peUndte nee [ARF NTO me oe he Ae MASA Nee eee J WN Td as wate Fann ag ae 5 : Rie Be doy. 4 F f : . Seas ) hand es heh, \i aed BL a te ey ye es, JS) ED te J aii: . i : rr Match ae . ithe a ‘te it ne ¥5 3" oes ic: rAld Tie ¢ a a) » 4 4 PLATI ATED CAECUM—HOG CHOLERA. ULCER PLATE I] s if ws S ay Fats Sind bo . NORMAL AND DISEASED SPLEENS—HOoOG CHOLERA. oy eg os eT = PLATE III. Uj = a se SWINE PLAGUE LUNG. wehny c ota na ~~ y ¥ * 4 “4 ‘ @ we b © © PLATE IV. 7 ‘ 2 : t 74 a y , y i , “1 of e ® Gy \ oe “ rN a of HoG CHOLERA BACTERIA. Flock ae Del- PLATE V. 4 TAO - dee ar a if eo, . r) oe é - al ioe ae mete i ee ae PF ones F 2; SWINE PLAGUE BACTERIA. "Bs ; a ' ; ‘ . : i - ss \ ’ ’ , : ah : d - f , | ‘ : 2 Diy 5) * ) : | - h , T x : ’ v - ; ‘a iy Le : - ‘ : i ‘ a he ; AY ie ae i“ x hy Remarks on Anthrax and Rabies with Special Reference to Outbreaks Kecently Investigated. By Veranus A. Moors, B.S., M. D. Professor of comparative Pathology and Bacteriology, New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. is During the summer and fall of 1897 one outbreak of anthrax and two of rabies have come to our notice. In addition to these a few specimens of organs from animals supposed to have died of anthrax have been sent to this laboratory for diagnosis, but the examinations have given negative results in all of these cases. In the outbreaks about to be mentioned the investigations were in case of the rabies restricted to making the diagnosis, but with the anthrax Touissant’s preventive treatment was tried. On account of the infrequency of the occurrence of these diseases, and the fact that there are still many people who believe that they do not exist in this country to such an extent as to render them of any practical importance, it has seemed desirable to call attention not only to the existence of these maladies but also the methods of diagnosing and preventing them. It is necessary in order to secure the highest protection for our live stock interests that these maladies should be better understood, for of the infec- tious diseases common to men and the lower animals these are, next to tuberculosis, most deserving of attention. The signifi- cance of these affections may be more fully appreciated from the fact that anthrax has already been reported in fifteen of the States, and rabies is annually causing hundreds of deaths among domesticated animals as well as destroying many human beings. 2 ; It is, therefore, incumbent upon every citizen to take all neces- sary precautions to prevent the entrance of these maladies and to use all possible means to eradicate them if, perchance, they should make their appearance in the future. AN OUTBREAK OF ANTHRAX NEAR ELMIRA, WITH RESULTS OB- TAINED BY TOUISSANT’S PREVENTIVE TREATMENT. At the request of the Hon. C. A. Wieting, Commissioner of Agriculture, I visited Elmira September 24, 1897, to make an in- vestigation into the nature of a destructive disease which had appeared among the cattle on a farm in that vicinity. Three of the farm hands were also affected, but eventually they recoy- ered. I was accompanied to the infected herd by Dr. Wadsworth, of Cobleskill, and Doctors Ross and Jeffery, of Elmira. At this time the disease in the attendants had been diagnosed by Dr. Ross as malignant pustule, and on the basis of this diagnosis he had assumed that the disease among the cattle was anthrax and had brought it to the attention of the Commissioner of Agriculture. It was learned that on September 8th, a cow which had been kept on another place was found sick and brought home. Later she died, and in skinning this animal the attendants were infected. The disease first appeared in the men September 11th. September 16th a second cow died very suddenly, Septem- ber 21st a third cow died and on the 23d three more were buried. At the time of our visit one cow was in a state of collapse. Although the diagnosis of malignant pustule in the attendants seemed to be correct, a positive diagnosis of the disease in the cattle was of much importance. To this end the sick cow was killed and carefully examined. Cow No. 1.— Large, well developed cow in good condition, temperature 98 degrees F. Unable to walk, killed by a blow on the head and by bleed- ing. Two liters of the blood were collected in sterile jars. Blood not ab- normally dark or thick, the spleen seemed to be slightly darker than nor- mal. On the omentum were numerous slightly. congested tufts. Other- wise the abdominal organs appeared to be normal. There was a small 3 quantity of clear urine in the bladder. The heart and lungs appeared to be normal. Several tubes of agar and gelatin were inoculated from the heart blood, spleen, liver and kidneys. Pieces of these organs were placed in sterile jars and brought to the laboratory where they were carefully ex- amined. The post-mortem examination left serious doubts in the minds of all present concerning the nature of the disease. The absence of practically all of the lesions described as being typical of anthrax gave ample reason for the manifest doubt. The autopsy was made about noon and later in the afternoon the tissues were examined microscopically in the laboratory. Stained cover-glass preparations from the spleen showed large numbers of anthrax bacilli. In similar preparations made from the liver, kidneys, and blood there was a less number of the organisms. On the following day all of the inoculated tubes contained apparently pure cultures of the anthrax bacillus. On the second day the growth in the gelatin tubes appeared. They were all pure cultures of bacillus anthracis. ‘The bacterio- logic examination, therefore, proved the existence of anthrax. Without this examination the positive diagnosis in this animal could not have been made. ; September 26th, I again visited the herd and found that a Jersey cow had been taken sick the evening before and had died just before my arrival. Three others were found to be affected as indicated by the temperatures which were 105, 105.7 and 107.7° F. respectively. The dead animal was carefully examined. Cow No. 2.—Small Jersey cow. Blood was oozing from the anus. The abdominal cavity contained a considerable quantity of blood-stained serum. The blood was very dark, the spleen was enormously enlarged, very dark colored, soft, and the capsule contained ecchymoses, Upon sec- tion the blood and pulp flowed quite freely. The liver was slightly con- gested, kidneys deeply reddened and in the bladder there was a small quantity of dark wine colored urine. On the omentum were numerous hyperaemic tufts. The intestines were hyperaemic. There were several ecchymotic areas beneath the pericardium. The lungs were congested. About two liters of 'the blood were collected from the vena cava. Por- tions of the spleen and liver were brought to the laboratory where a microscopic examination and cultures were made. These revealed the presence of anthrax bacilli. + About 20 c. c. of milk was taken from each teat in sterile tubes, for examination. The milk from one quarter was slightly blood stained, but from the others it was normal in appearance. Upon microscopic examination the anthrax bacilli were found in the preparations made from the blood-stained milk but they were not discovered in those made from the other specimens. Guinea pigs were inoculated subcutaneously with 2 c. c. of the milk from each teat. They all died of anthrax in from 24 to 72 hours, showing that the bacilli were present in each specimen although not numerous enough, with the one exception, to be easily detected microscopically. Milk was also collected from one of the cows which was sick and had been for two days. Her temperature, when the milk was taken, was 106.5° F. This was examined microscopically and two guinea pigs were inoculated subcutaneously with 38 ¢. e¢. each. No anthrax bacilli were found in the preparations and the guinea pigs remained well. This cow recovered. Another specimen of milk was taken from a cow having a temperature of 105° F. The examination gave negative results. It would seem, from the few examinations made, that the bacilli in the milk from cow No. 2, had gotten into it just before or immediately after death. There are cases reported, however, where the dis- ease has been contracted from drinking the milk of affected cows. Some difficulty was encountered in the disposal of the dead animals. Those which had died before out visit had been buried and fortunately, with the exception of the first, without being opened. It was necessary to examine post-mortem the last two for the purpose of diagnosis. Unfortunately it was not practicable to burn the animals, and consequently they were buried deeply and the bodies covered with a liberal quantity of quick lime. The owners were directed to cover the surface over all of the graves with a thick layer of lime and to put a fence around them, thus preventing other animals from grazing over them. The importance of this outbreak does not stop with the losses sustained in this herd. The fact that the disease was brought on the farm by the cow which contracted it on a neighboring 5 farm, is significant in showing that the place where the disease was found, is not the only infected spot in the neighborhood. It is rumored that several cows have died, presumably of an- thrax, during the fall on a near-by place. It seems that losses are being sustained in that locality from this disease without the owners of the cattle recognizing its true nature. In conse- quence of this the dead animals are inadequately disposed of and the barns and yards are not disinfected. Unless active measures are taken to destroy the virus in all of these cases, the future promises to see this section so saturated with anthrax that dairying will become practically impossible. However, if such precautions as are known to be effective are taken, it seems to be an easy task to eliminate the disease, although several years may be necessary to accomplish it. PREVENTIVE TREATMENT. Up to the time of the first visit, September 24th, seven cows including the one killed for examination at that time had died. There were still twenty animals in the herd. The sick were being separated from the others as soon as they showed signs of disease, but it was evident that the entire herd had been exposed and that the pastures and cattle yards had very probably become quite generally infected. The stables were thoroughly disinfected with sulphuric acid and the yards covered with lime. It was decided, however, to try preventive inoculation according to a modification of the method recommended by Touissant, as this could be applied with little delay, which in this herd seemed to be of great importance. Further, Dr. Law has for several years followed this method with success in several serious outbreaks which have come under his observation. The method recommended by Touissant is to heat the defi- brinated blood from an animal dying, or just dead, from anthrax, for from ten to fifteen minutes at a temperature of from fifty to fifty-five degrees C. Dr. Law has followed the practice of heating the blood to a much higher temperature in order to be sure of the death of all bacilli present. It seemed, how- 6 ever, that we should be assured by actual cultivation tests that the heated blood was free of all living bacilli or spores before it was injected into healthy animals. Accordingly the blood col- lected from cow No. 1, was brought to the laboratory, diluted after Dr. Law’s method, thoroughly heated in an autoclave, strained and filtered. The filtrate was placed in small flasks and boiled. After cooling a number of tubes of bouillon and agar were inoculated from it. These remained sterile. On the 26th, this preparation of blood was used on all the cattle still living in the herd. The blood preparation was injected subcutaneously in the dose of 4 c. ¢. in each of the well animals. The injections were repeated and the temperatures taken by Dr. Jeffery, of Elmira, on each of the two following days. The outcome was eminently satisfactory as not one of the animals treated showed a rise of temperature after the injection. The temperatures were again taken Ortober 6th. They were all normal. As already stated, on the date of injecting the cows we found three sick animals. It was not thought desirable to inject these, as their death seemed to be inevitable, but as the owner thought they would die anyway, he was anxious that they should be in- cluded, and his request was granted. The effect of the treatment on the three sick animals was quite surprising. The tempera- tures at the time of the first injection was 105.7, 106 and 107° F. Two days later they were 102, 101 and 106.6° F. respectively. The temperatures taken subsequently showed that those of the first two remained normal and that of the third gradually sub- sided, reaching the normal in about two weeks. The successful results obtained in preventing the spread of the disease in this herd are in accord with those heretofore experi- enced by Dr. Law. The facts that the cattle were coming down with the disease at the rate of two a day when the treatment was begun, and that the thorough disinfection of the barns was not completed, owing to an accident with the disinfectant, until two days later (September 29th) suggests that the preventive treatment possessed some degree of efficiency. Laboratory ex- periments on the smaller animals, and also on cattle, are now in (i progress by which it is hoped to determine to what extent, if any, the heating of the blood to a higher temperature will affect the efficiency of the original method. We do not feel that the blood heated at the low temperature recommended by Touissant is safe, although it seems to have many adherents in France. If this process can be rendered safe and possessed of the same degree of efficiency that it has appeared to have in this outbreak, it would seem to be more practicable and a much safer preven- tion than the Pasteur vaccine treatment. Pasteur’s method consists in inoculating the animal with a small quantity of a culture which has been cultivated at-a high temperature—42-438° C.—for several days. This deprives the bacilli of their virulence. To strengthen the resistance, the ani- mals are again inoculated with a stronger virus. After the two inoculations they are said to be protected against the most viru- lent anthrax, but this immunity is of short duration. Chamber- land reported in 1894 that a total of 1,988,677 animals had been inoculated in France, and the loss from anthrax had diminished from 10 per cent. in sheep and 5 per cent. in cattle to less than 1 per cent. Cope, in his report to the English Board of Agricul- ture, regards the conclusions of Chamberland as somewhat falla- cious, because in order to prove that the animals inoculated re- ceived immunity, it should be shown that they were subsequently exposed to the risks of natural infection. The excellent work which has been done by Neal and Chester, at the Delaware Col- lege Experiment Station, has shown the possible efficiency of this method. Of the 331 cows which they vaccinated against anthrax, two died of the disease, giving a death rate of less than 1 per cent., and this in a territory so saturated with the virus that it was practically impossible to keep cattle at all before its use. A more critical study of the reports on the use of this vaccine shows that while success can not be denied, failures must be ad- mitted. It is reported both in England and Germany that the Pasteur vaccine has not been a marked success. In England, Klein, who tested the vaccine used in that country, found that if the animals did not die from the effect of the vaccine, they did 8 when exposed to the disease. The German veterinarians and agriculturalists agree that the first vaccine is mild and harmless, but that the second vaccine, even in the hands of experts, is dan- gerous and often fatal. The fact is reported to have been demon- strated by experiment that the virulence of the attenuated virus is easily restored. Again, it has been shown by the investiga- tions of Chester and Neal, of the Delaware College Agricultural Experiment Station, that a vaccine which succeeded at one time subsequently proved fatal. The vital objection to this method is, that it requires the use of the living bacilli which may become virulent. The scattering of pathogenic organisms, even in an attenuated condition, should, if possible, be avoided. It must be admitted, however, that this method has done great good and helped to rob anthrax of much of its former terror, especially for the farmers of Europe. Notwithstanding, it is highly probable that the spreading of a knowledge of the cause of this disease has also had a great influence in checking its ravages. In Germany and England the stamping-out system is consid- ered superior to vaccination. According to Crookshank, in Eng- land it is regarded as the only reliable means of suppressing the disease. To this end rigid laws have been enacted. In this State steps for its eradication seem infinitely better than the adoption of methods for establishing a tolerance for its existence. THE CAUSE OF ANTHRAX. As early as 1849, Pollender called attention to peculiar rod-like bodies in the blood of animals dying of anthrax. In 1863, Da- vaine published the results of investigations in which he showed that the disease could be produced by inoculating animals with the blood or tissues containing these rod-shaped organisms. Later, Koch isolated the bacilli, cultivated them on artificial media and with these cultures he produced the disease. This estab- lished the specific nature of anthrax. The bacillus of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) is a rod-shaped or- ganism varying in length from one to four microns, but having a quite uniform breadth of about one micron. In a suitable 9 medium it grows out in long flexible filaments, which combine to form thread-like bundles. When examined, the ends of the rods seem to be square cut. In preparations from animal tissues there appear sometimes to be slight concavities in the ends of the seg- ments when two of them are united. In old cultures spores are formed. These are oval, highly refractive bodies held within the cellular envelope of the filaments, but later they are set free by the dissolution of this membrane. It stains readily with the aniline dyes and also by Gram’s method. The bacillus of anthrax is aerobic. It grows on all of the ordi- nary culture media at a temperature of from 20 to 38° ©. It does best in a neutral or slightly alkaline medium. Its growth is arrested in acid media. In bouillon it develops in ragged some- what flocculent grayish masses, which are usually held in suspen- sion. In gelatin tube cultures a grayish growth appears along the line of the needle puncture, from which lateral thread-like ramifications extend. The gelatin begins to liquefy on the sur- face in from two to three days. On agar the colonies are quite characteristic, appearing under the microscope to consist of in- terlacing filaments. Gas is not formed in bouillon containing sugars. It does not produce indol. The casein in milk is at first coagulated and later digested leaving a clear brownish colored fiuid. It is pathogenic for nearly all of the smaller animals, destroying rabits, guinea pigs and mice in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The essential lesions being a local oedema. In diagnosing this species it is to be differentiated from the groups of bacteria which are represented by the bacilli of malig- nant oedema and of symptomatic anthrax or Rauschbrand. It is also sometimes confounded with a rod-shaped organism usually present in decomposing animal tissues. All of these organisms are anaérobic, and, in their morphologic and biochemic prop- erties, they differ from each other and from the anthrax bacillus. Bacillus subtilis has occasionally been taken for the anthrax bacillus but it is readily separated in cultures. It is important, however, to recognize the possibility of an error, if the condi- tions restrict the examination to the study of but one or two characters or properties. ' 10 The bacillus of anthrax itself is not an especially hardy organ- ism, but on the contrary it is easily destroyed by weak disin- fectants and it has a low thermal death point. On the other hand its spores are among the most hardy of bacterial life to resist chemical and thermal agents. They resist drying for months or years and often boiling for a half hour or longer does not destroy them. On this account it is very difficult to eliminate the virus from infected pasture lands, especially if they are wet or marshy. The question is naturally asked, how are these bacteria intro- duced, where do they come from, and what are the channels through which they are able to pass from one locality to another? These are questions of the first importance in connection with the prevention or eradication of the disease. It should be stated that thus far investigations have failed to reveal any definite knowledge pertaining to the distribution in nature or the origin of the bacillus of anthrax. We are forced, therefore, to conclude that wherever the disease appears its virus has been introduced in some way, at some previous time, although it may have been years in the past. In fact it has not been difficult in most cases to find a means of entrance. As the spores may remain in the soil in a dormant condition for many years it sometimes happens that the disease does not appear until long after the introduction of the virus. Anthrax has been known to break out among cattle grazing on a field in which were buried many years before the hides from affected animals. Through some means the spores were able to get to the surface and contaminate the grass. Pasteur thought the earth worms were active agents in this work. Koch’s in- vestigations tend to disprove this theory. The spores may be introduced through blood or bone fertilizers. The skin, hair, wool, hoofs and horns could if taken from infected animals carry the virus to the place of destination of these articles. When the extent of this traffic is realized, it is easy to understand how anthrax has been brought to this country and why it occasionally appears here and there over a large part of the continent. Many outbreaks, as well as isolated cases, illustrating this common method of dissemination are on record. 11 II. Two OUTBREAKS OF RABIES. On account of the infrequency of rabies there is, as might be expected, much indifference concerning it until an outbreak of greater or less importance actually occurs. When a dog is suspected of being mad it is usually killed and buried without having the true nature of the disease from which it suffered de- termined. This practice is unfortunate especially if the sus- pected dog has bitten other animals or men. If the positive diagnosis is made it tends to relieve the anxiety of those con- cerned. If it is in the affirmative, precautions can be taken by keeping the exposed animals either in confinement or by destroy- ing them at once, and all persons who have been bitten can avail themselves of the Pasteur treatment which has become recognized as a highly effective prevention if taken in time. This suggests the question, how can a positive diagnosis be made? It is to the investigations of Pasteur, and others follow- ing his methods that we are indebted for a method by which the diagnosis of this most dreaded of al] diseases can be made. Al- though rabies is a specific malady its etiological factor has not been isolated, but Pasteur has shown that it is always present in the brain and spinal cord of the affected animal. He has ‘also pointed out the fact that if rabbits or other experimental animals are inoculated beneath the dura with a drop of a suspen- sion of the brain from the rabid dog, they will develop the disease after a certain length of time. This method is now in general use among pathologists for diagnosing rabies. Some workers use guinea pigs but ordinarily rabbits are taken. In the writer’s experience the symptoms are more marked in rabbits, than in the guinea pig. The method as ordinarily followed is this: The brain of the animal supposed to have died of rabies is removed under aseptic precautions and placed in a sterile jar. A small piece of it, usually from the medulla, is ground in a sterile mortar with a few cubic centimeters of sterile water or bouillon until the brain tissue is held in suspension in fine particles. The rabbit is then 12 etherized, the hair clipped from the forehead, and the skin thor- oughly washed with a disinfectant. A longitudinal incision is made in the skin which is held back, a crucial incision is made in the periosteum at one side of the median line, the points turned back, and with a small trephine a disk of bone is removed leaving the dura quite exposed. With the hypodermic syringe, a drop of the brain suspension is easily injected beneath the dura, the periosteum returned and the wound in the skin washed with a disinfectant. The rabbit soon recovers from the anaesthetic. The inoculation wound heals rapidly, and the animal appears to be perfectly happy until the premonitory symp- toms develop. This should not occur for at least ten days in cases of street rabies. The first symptoms usually appear in from fourteen to thirty days, occasionally they do not develop for a much longer time. The writer* has observed fifty days to pass before they appeared in a few rabbits. The symptoms are not well marked at first. They consist of a slight nervousness then paralysis beginning usually in the hind legs. The paralysis gradually creeps forward so that, in from a few to twenty-four hours, the rabbit lies on its side unable to rise or move. It lives in this condition from a few hours to one or two days. In exceptional cases longer. Ordinarily the paralysis lasts from twelve to twenty-four hours. Just prior to the development of the objective symptoms there is ‘a rise of from one to two degrees in the temperature. This lasts from twenty-four to forty-eight hours when usually it ‘apidly subsides and, soon after the paralysis begins, it is sub- normal, often reaching as low as 96° F., several hours before death. The condition found on the post-mortem examination are also of much assistance in making a diagnosis. If the animal died from septicaemia or brain injury, there should be lesions recog- nizable in the brain or viscera. In the case of septicaemia a bacteriologic examination will reveal the presence of micro- organisms. If death was caused by rabies the inoculation wound *Bulletin No. 10, Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1893. Moore and Fish. Annual Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1895-1896, p. 272. 13 in the head should be healed perfectly, there should be uo abscess, and the meninges should be free from exudates and the brain itself should appear perfectly normal, except that in some cases there may be a slight injection of the blood vessels. ‘The viscera are ordinarily normal in appearance, with possibly the exception of the liver, which is frequently found to be deeply reddened. The gastric mucosa occasionally shows dark patches which ap- pear to be disintegrated hemorrhagic areas. _ 1 @ " th | _? Pee < : - eg” mari ecat 7 hw ae a a? a “-. a e ta Zz vy bal Le Tse he i Aa ST i Wi ee : fr ig is Va Fr Ae Peo? > r a a Ps \ ‘4 si fi, a f, fr “rye f ate?) oo : » | a i it wry SAPS he ha woe es hs Apr ZOOLOGY AS A FACTOR IN MENTAL CULTURE. BY PROFESSOR SIMON H. GAGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK. It is not my purpose at the beginning of this address to weary you with apologies. I wish simply to pay my tribute of respect and admi- ration to the great zodlogist and still greater man, David Starr Jor- dan, whom I, with you, hoped to hear this day. It is with regret that we miss his noble presence and speech, but there is also an element of gratification, for he is the fittest possible representative the government could have chosen as head of the com- mission to investigate the seals in Alaskan waters, and thus to furnish the definite information upon the basis of which the two foremost nations of the globe can honorably unite in a common cause. In the able addresses which have preceded there has been shown with great clearness and force how the mind of man, cultivated by the disciplines of physics, chemistry and botany, has been made fitter to yield the flower and fruitage of noble effort. What then has zodl- ogy contributed, and what is it likely to contribute when used as one of the agents or means in the cultivation of the mind! And as with the agriculturist, every factor is of interest which can serve in adding to the productiveness of the soil and the quality of what is produced, so to us, mind or soul culturalists, every factor in mind culture is of vital interest. What then is this zodlogy which is spoken of as a fac- tor in mental culture? As botany in its broad sense includes every- thing known and knowable concerning plants, so zodlogy includes everything known and knowable concerning animals; or as botany is plant-biology, so zodlogy is animal-biology, and deals with the form, structure, activities, development and classification of animals and their economics or relations to each other and to man. Andif we include Homo sapiens among the animals, it will be seen that if man and his doings are a part of zodlogy, zodlogy, like every other center of knowledge and investigation, reaches out to infinity in every direc- tion like the rays from a luminous point. Although most of us are engaged in the profession whose high aim is to aid in starting the young on the road that leads to a truly liberal culture, it may perhaps be best, before discussing the part which zodl- ogy has taken and may take in liberal culture, to understand dis- I tinctly what is meant by culture or education, and especially by lib- eral culture. It seems to me that no one has so well pictured the ideal liberal culture or education, or has realized it more surely in a noble life than the great zodlogist, Huxley. Hear his definition: ‘“’That man, I think, has a liberal education, who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored witha knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, not a stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigor- ous will, the servant of a tender conscience; one who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate ali vileness and to respect others as himself.’’ What has zoédlogy done to make such culture possible? First and foremost, it has aided most powerfully to render free the human mind; and without freedom no human soul can enter into the fullness of its kingdom; the true glory of this kingdom is not for slaves. At the present day no Cesar on the banks of a Rubicon would make his crossing depend upon the omens gained from the flight of birds’ We do not decide upon attending the meetings of the National Educational Association by the key in which the wolf howls or the quaver of the owl’s hoot. We no longer expect our acquaintances to imitate the transformations of the companions of Ulysses in the pal- ace of Circe, no matter how appropriate such transformations might be. No longer do we expect to see birds and beasts produced in the fruits of trees or from decayed wood washed up by the sea; nor do we think that bees and other insects are generated by decomposing flesh. We know that no living thing exists without having received its life from a livy- ing parent likeitself. Our path is no longer beset with hippogriff, basil- isk or dragon, and our high hopes and noble aspirations are no longer at the mercy of fairies and genii. Living beings, as well as lifeless matter, are subject to law. ‘‘ Thus far and no farther,’’ applies to them as to the waves of the sea or the rush of acomet. The fairies are fled, the genii banished, the mermaid and the remora are cap: tured, classified and harmlessly repose as objects of curiosity or in- struction in the great museums. Zodlogical truth has freed us from their slavery. Now that freedom has come, how shall this subject be made an efficient means of mental culture, and what will its fruit be? In the first place, as for the subjects, the discussion of which has preceded this, Nature herself must be interrogated. The successful student of a ~ il i te je zodlogy, to quote again the trenchant words of Huxley, ‘‘absolutely refuses to acknowledge authority as such. For him, skepticism is the highest of duties, blind faith the one unpardonable sin. And it can- not be otherwise, for every great advance in natural knowledge has involved the absolute rejection of authority, the cherishing of the keenest skepticism, the annihilation of the spirit of blind faith; and the most ardent votary of science holds his firmest convictions, not because the men he most venerates hold them; not because their verity is testified by portents and wonders, but because his experience teaches him that whenever he chooses to bring these convictions into contact with their primary source, nature, whenever he thinks fit to test them by appealing to experiment and to observation, nature will confirm them. ‘The man of science has learned to believe in justifi- cation, not by faith, but by verification.’* To complete this first law in the Decalogue of the scientific student, it should be followed by this from his address upon Descartes’ Discourse: ‘‘When I say that Descartes consecrated doubt, you must remember that it was that sort of doubt which Goethe has called ‘the active skepticism, whose whole aim is to conquer itself;’ and not that other sort which is born of flippancy and ignorance. But it is impossible to define what is meant by scientific doubt better than in Descartes’ own words. He says: ‘For all that, J did not imitate the skeptics, who doubt only for doubt- ing’s sake, and pretend to be always undecided; on the contrary, my whole intention was to arrive at certainty, and to dig. away the drift and the sand until I reached the rock or the clay beneath.’ ”’ In this spirit, then, of reverent skepticism, of scientific doubt, must the teacher of zodlogy teach and the student learn. And if this isthe Spirit, the teachers are but elder: brothers a little farther advanced, knowing a few more of the delusions and pitfalls which beset the way. ‘Teacher and pupil work together—the one inspired by the great works of all his predecessors and by nature herself, and he in turn inspiring and helping the student in his efforts. Such teachers, such pupils and such inspiring surroundings are described by Agassiz in his notable address upon Humboldt: ‘‘I was a student at Munich. That university had opened under the most brilliant aus- pices. Almost every name on the list of professors was also promi- nent in some department of: science or literature. They were not men who taught from text-books or even read lectures made up of extracts from original works. They were themselves original investi- gators, daily contributing to the sum of human knowledge and they were not only ourteachers butourfriends. . . . Wewere often the companions of their walks, often present at their discussions, and when we met for conversation or to give lectures among ourselves, as we constantly did, our professors were often among our listeners, cheering and stimulating usin all our efforts after independent research. 3 My room was our meeting place — bedroom, study, museum, library, lecture-room, fencing-room—all in one. Students and professors used to call it the little academy. . . . It was in our little acad- emy that Ddllinger, the great master in physiology and embryology, showed to us, his students, before he had even given them to the scientific world, his wonderful preparations exhibiting the vessels of the villosities of the alimentary canal; and here he taught us the use of the microscope in embryological investigation. ”’ A rare privilege is it, my fellow-teachers, to be not only teachers, but friends to our students. For Agassiz, Humboldt and Cuvier were his teachers and friends; for Darwin, were Henslow and Sedgwick. Darwin paid his debt of gratitude by never turning a deaf ear to an inquirer; and in the ‘‘ Origin of Species,’’ the ‘* Descent of Man,”’ and his other works, he becomes a companion to all of us and takes us into his confidence. And Agassiz, what shall we in America not say in gratitude to him! Who like him breathed confidence into the ardent young men who are now bearing the burden and heat of the day in the noble onward march of American science? Who like Agas- siz showed us our rich inheritance and inspired this New World to arise and take possession of its own? As in holiness, so in literature, so in science, it is the living gospel, the living teacher whose inspiring touch awakens a spirit that thenceforward can never repose in idleness and indifference, but with a noble enthusiasm ever presses onward. But, after all, the student comes back in his own mind to the serious personal question: How shall I begin; what can I do to gain this mental culture?) Though the practice is difficult, the theory is simple. Observe, study, reflect. But reflection must always follow the others or there will result only empty subtleties, while without reflection, observation and study are barren and fruitless. Perhaps it is unnecessary to add that zodlogical culture does not come from the study of a fourteen weeks’ course, prepared by a man who does not know the subject at first hand. Learning the names and a little of the structure and some of the habits of a few animals is not zodlog- ical culture, although it may be a beginning. It is such a beginning as learning the Greek alphabet is for the appreciation of the immortal epic of Homer and the whole glorious array of Greek art and litera- ture. -Or it issuch a beginning as a knowledge of the multiplication table is for mathematics. I have thought sometimes that in our enthusiasm for scientific study we have cut and trimmed and selected for our fourteen weeks’ courses till verily when our students ask us for bread we have only a stone to offer. _ Did Darwin think out natural selection and the survival of the fittest, or Agassiz the glacial theory in fourteen weeks? Not every pupil can spend twenty-eight years or even a tenth of that upon a single subject; it nevertheless remains true that the mental culture gained by the 4 study of zodlogy will, as with other disciplines, depend first upon the original power of the student,* and second upon the time and energy devoted to the subject. If we take some of the aspects under which zodlogy may be con- sidered, as anatomy, physiology, embryology, classification and eco- nomics, and think fora moment what is involved in understanding them, perhaps it will be clear why it is so insisted upon that to gain true mental culture from zoélogy time is required. ‘Time for observation and study, and, after that, time for reflection, so that there may be assimilation and some kind of real comprehension of the subjects considered. And I take it that in the comprehension gained lies the very pith and marrow of whatever culture zodlogy can give. ft If anatomy is considered, what a field is there for observation and study. This animal machine with its muscles and nerves, digestive system and brains, bones and sinews; what nice adaptations they show for their various purposes, and to the far seeing eye how many bungles and compromises there are too. As compared with the ma- chines made by human hands the animal machine is as a printed vol- ume to a simple diagram. In these archives are stored the history of the past, the ascent or the descent from something different, but like the manuscript that has been written over and over after partial era- sure, so is this structure clear only in part. Some words have been spelled out, but the master to decipher the whole manuscript is yet to appear. And physiology, that is, the activities of the living animal, how beautiful they are, how diverse. The mother love that saves the world, the mighty thought of Newton or Shakespeare are somehow *The original ability of the student is mentioned prominently in this paper because in too many discussions upon subjects for culture, teachers and methods, it seems to be assumed that, given a proper subject of study a good method and an expert teacher, the desired result will be attained. That is, the material upon which the teacher works is tacitly left out of the count, and the teacher is blamed or the method or subject is con- demned if cultured men and women are not turned out regardless of their ability. It is a historicai fact, how- ever, that with good or poor teachers or with no teachers, with good or poor methods or apparently with no methods, and with a great variety of subjects, cultured men and women have appeared in all ages. Subject, method and teacher are only helps that the student uses according to his ability, and important as the helps are, the result depends infinitely more upon the native ability of the student than upon the helps. Subject, method and teacher cannot create they can only modify or facilitate development. tIt is not for a moment claimed that so thorough a study of zodlogy asis here advocated is the only way to obtain «sefu/ information concerning the animals upon the earth and in the water. To continue the compari- son used in the text, a little knowledge of Greek is useful in studying astronomy and for gaining a better appreciation of English words derived from the Greek, but no one claims that such elementary knowledge is Greek cnlture. So information concerning edible fishés, mollusks and the ordinary four-footed creatures, a knowledge of poisonous snakes, useful and harmful insects, and many other practical and useful things, may be known about the animals, but that is not the knowledge that makes culture. although the profounder knowledge advocated in this paper and which comes with culture in zodlogical science includes this which in itself is merely practical and useful. Real science or culture gives foundation principles which alone make applied or useful knowledge possible in the higher fields. While I believe most thoroughly that zodlogy for culture is a very serious subject and one requiring much time as well as much observation and reflection, it is not desired for a moment to discourage the study of zodlogy, or indeed any subject, for purely utilitarian or practical purposes. While indeed such knowledge cannot be called culture, it is often true, as aptly stated by Prof. Atkinson in discussing this series of papers, that study for purely utilitarian purposes is very likely to lead to the higher kind of study which does make for culture. 5 bound up with or in this living matter whose chemistry and physics even, still almost wholly elude us. Then if we turn to embryology and try to trace with patient care the work of the unseen artificer who arranges the apparently simple and almost structureless mass of the ovum into heart and brain, muscle and nerve, and changes the formless into forms of beauty and power, be it butterfly, bird or man, we cannot but receive culture and uplift- ing; for are we not seeing with our own eyes what is described in the sublime words of the Psalmist: ‘‘I am fearfully and wonderfully made . . . My substance was not hid from thee when I was made in secret and curiously wrought in the lowest parts of the earth. Thine eyes did see my substance, yet being unperfect: and in thy book all my members are written, which in continuance were fash- ioned when as yet there was none of them.’’ Classification requires knowledge of all the above, for it is an ar- rangement in due order of the complex beings of the earth from the microscopic animalcule to the mighty elephant. For the classifica- tion to be successful the mind must see the true relations between all the forms, must know their structure and activities and how they were curiously wrought and transformed from generation to generation for unnumbered ages; in a word, the classifier must know their evolution; or, in the noble words of Agassiz, he must ‘become the translator of the thoughts of God.’ And lastly we come to the economics of zodlogy, that is, the rela- tions of the animals to the earth, the plants, to one another and to man, and his relations to them. Here one is brought face to face,not merely with the glory.of living, thinking and acting, but with des- tiny; with the solemn fact of life zztk death, or, more truly stated, life 6y death. More are born than can possibly survive even the short span granted for the typical life cycle. Indeed, it almost appears as if nature in her efforts for life had become a Moloch of death. How graphically Darwin has painted the picture of this scene of strife, the plant crowding its neighbors to get a little more sunshine or nutri- ment, the animals crowding each other and devouring both the plants and their fellows = and then there is the whole foul brood of animal parasites. In these latter days we know also that the plants are not simply content to strive for sunshine and soil in order to elaborate from the inorganic world the compounds that alone make animal life possible, but in turn, a multitude of them, which no man can number the bacteria, are devouring the animals, including man. ‘The knowl- edge of this fact, so largely due to the great Pasteur, has given new significance to hygiene and a new meaning to cleanliness. This death and disease of the animals by means of the pathogenic germs, which also bring disease and death to man, has puta new aspect upon man’s relations with the animals. They are indeed his 6 kin, and sedélogical economics may almost be said to have become digni- fied into seélegical ethics. None stands or falls alone. ‘The earth is the mother of us all, but she bestows her gifts ina very roundabout fashion sometimes. ‘The soil, air and sunshine of Montana may fur- nish the conditions for the grass; the old world gave the foundations of the life which we uow find realized in perfect form in the sturdy beeves which grow and fatten on the Montana grass; and finally, without a thought of the sun, or the soil of Montana, or of the life which they made possible, or of the fear and suffering which may have resulted, we calmly nourish ourselves on the beefsteak while dis- cussing politics, education orthe hereafter. But often enough to take away undue indifference, the beef or other food may contajn the germs of what is death to us, although it may be teeming life to the germs; and there is forced upon us a consideration of our relation with our living environment. If knowledge and reflection are suff- cient, it does not take a very great philosopher to see that the eco- nomical standpoint changes with the change of organism. For the plant, the sunshine, the soil and the rain are for it. For the plant- eating animal, sunshine, soil and rain are to produce the plant for it. And from man’s standpoint, all are for him; but if we change the standpoint slightly and judge of the workings of a tiger’s mind by its actions, we would see that sunshine, soil, rain and dew, the plants, the fat beeves and even man himself are for the tiger’s sole benefit. Surely if the other sides of zodlogy call for imagination, acute ob- servation, profound study and cold, logical reasoning for their com- prehension, this side demands all these and, in addition, a philosophic spirit, that flower of the cultivated human mind. I think what has been said will suffice to show that in zodlogy there is a factor of true mental culture; and that by it the philosopher, the philanthropist, the man of affairs, is better fitted in his own sphere for work and for leisure. If the student feels that some of the inspi- ration to this culture has departed, that the structure, function, em- bryology, classification and economics of animals have been almost all discovered and determined, and may be found in the ponderous volumes and monographs in the great libraries, refer him to Aristotle, Darwin, Dana, Gray or Agassiz, or to any of the devoted men and women who have been and are trying to find out the truth and to fol- low it. They will say: Be of good cheer and not faint-hearted. Look and listen with brain as well as with eye and ear, for on every side are thrilling sounds whose music no human ear hath heard, and sights whose exquisite beauty no human eye hath seen. In closing this address I cannot summarize my belief in the cultt- vating power of the earnest study of zodlogy better than by saying that a profound contemplation of the factors in the problem of animal life on the earth will bring out and cultivate the mind. It will show man 7 his true relations to his fellow men and to his lowly fellows, the ani- mals. It will not fill the mind with pride, for ultimate knowledge is as yet unattainable; it will rather give the humility expressed by Job: ‘*Canst thou by searching find out God? canst thou find out the Al- mighty unto perfection?’’ or by Newton: ‘‘I do not know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have been only a boy playing on the seashore and diverting myself in finding now and then a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.’’ And another from one of the foremost physicists of our own day, Sir William Thompson, at the jubilee of his appointment as professor of natural philosophy at the University of Glasgow: ‘‘One word characterizes the most stren- uous efforts for the advancement of science that I have made perse- veringly through fifty-five years; that word is failure; I know no more of electric and magnetic force, or of the relations between ether, elec- tricity and ponderable matter, or of chemical affinity, than I knew and tried to teach my students of natural philosophy fifty years ago in my first session as professor.’’ Yet there is also the pean, if not of vic- tory, of the consciousness of power that comes to him whose mind has been truly cultured by the disciplines brought before you is this series of addresses and none has a surer right to that consciousness or with a surer voice has expressed it than the zoGdlogist in whose place I stand to-day: ‘‘ The world of thought and the world of action are one in essence. In both truth is strength, and folly and selfishness are weakness. Say what we may about the limitations of the life of man, they are largely self limitations. Hemmed in is human life by the force of the fates; but the will of man is one of the fates, and can take its place by the side of the rest of them.”’ HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION.“ SIMON HENRY GAGE, B. S., ITuHaca, N. Y. In the preface to the first edition of his Handbook of Human Histology, Kolliker made this significant remark : ‘*Medicine has reached a point at which microscopical anatomy seems as necessary for a foundation to it as does the gross anatomy of the organs and system ; and when a profound study of physiology and pathology is impossible without an exact knowledge of the finest structural details.” If this was in the main correct in 1852, when Kolliker first wrote it, how much more is it so at the present day when not only medicine, but the great science of biology is taking such a prominent position in the minds of men. _ Indeed, in its broad aspect medicine is but one of the details of biology, and pathology is biological activity perverted by abnormal influences and environment; and since the time when Vir- chow’s cellular pathology appeared, it has been known that the real seat of this perverted activity resides in the micro- scopic elements or cells which compose the different organs and tissues. Likewise is it known with the greatest cer- tainty that all normal activity goes on in the microscopic elements making up the tissues; and finally the germs of a new generation, the bearers of heredity by which the past reappears in the future, are likewise, in most cases, micro- scopic elements. In a word, without the microscope, knowledge would be turned back a century and the certainty concerning many things in biology today would give place to the baseless speculations of the dark ages. All teachers of histology have, of course, the same general object in view, viz.: to give their pupils a knowledge of the * Reprinted from the Transactions of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the American Microscopical Society, held at Pittsburg, Pa., August 18-20, 1896. 300 SIMON HENRY GAGE : microscopic structure of the body. Naturally, and of neces- sity the way in which different teachers go to work to give their pupils this knowledge will depend on the teacher's view as to the special end to be attained by the study, and secondly on the facilities he has at his disposal. The views expressed in this paper may not accord with those of teachers, in whom experience and special surroundings have given rise to fixed convictions, but it is hoped that some of the younger teachers may get suggestions from it that will aid them in making the most of their surroundings and facilities; it is hoped also that the subject of histology will be seen by them to be vitally important for an understanding of physiology, morphology and pathology. It is hoped also that the end of histology will not seem to any to be reached when an organ or tissue has been fixed, hardened, cut with an expensive microtome, stained in brilliant colors and finally embalmed in Canada balsam. It is hoped rather that all of this labor and pains may be seen to be only to help one see the physiologic, morphologic or pathologic processes and rela- tions exhibited by the tissue more clearly. If the micro- scopic preparations have no such meaning to the student then they are no better than so many Chinese puzzles. It seems to the writer that the first step in histology is a thorough study of the chief instrument used, the microscope. The microscope is to aid the eye in seeing what is invisible or not satisfactorily visible without it, and unless one knows something of the methods of making this helper to vision a real helper, much time will be wasted. This is especially true of the better forms of instruments. One can use with some satisfaction a simple magnifier without instruction or much study, but a good modern, compound microscope to be of much use must be well understood; one must know its possibilities and limitations. It seems to the writer that time is really saved for histology by devoting a few weeks to the microscope itself, and to the methods of micrometry, drawing, the use of the micro-polariscope, the micro-spectro- scope and other accessories. Otherwise one must learn HISTOLOGY .AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 301 these things when he is trying to make use of them in solving some problem in actual work. It may naturally be asked what kind of a microscope is necessary for the pursuit of modern histology? While a great deal of excellent work may be done with comparatively inexpensive apparatus, costing from $25 to $50 and magnify- ing from 25 to 500 diameters, one cannot follow out the finer details in histology and pathology with such an outfit, and in some parts of pathology, where bacteria are involved, one would be practically helpless. Some such outfit as the fol- lowing seems necessary: Dry objectives of 50 mm. (2 in.), 16 mm. (3 or } in.), and 3 mm. ({ in.), and a homogeneous immersion of 2 mm. or 1} mm. (I-12 or I-16in.) There must be some form of substage condenser. This, like the objectives, will serve one in proportion to its excellence. The stand of the microscope should have a coarse and fine adjustment for focusing, the pillar should be flexible, so that it may be used in either the vertical or inclined positions, and the substage should have a rack and pinion adjustment for the substage condenser, and an arrangement for centering: Fortunately such an outfit can be had at the present day for less than $100, if supplied with ordinary achromatic objec- tives ; but the cost is much greater if the best achromatic or apochromatic objectives are obtained. Itis of the greatest advantage also to have a mechanical stage of some sort. The removable mechanical stages after the Tolles-Mayall pattern are inexpensive and most satisfactory. For laboratory work there are two methods, the one allowing students to come at their convenience and accom- plish as much work as they can or wish to. The other plan is to give a medium amount of work, which must be accom- plished in a giventime. The students are required also to come in regular sections. The last way seems to the writer the best. Experience has shown that regular sections, in which the teacher devotes his whole time to the laboratory, yield better results. There isa kind of momentum gained in this way that overcomes the inertia of the less: energetic, 302 SIMON HENRY GAGE : and for those that get through with the small amount of work that must be assigned for a lesson there is abundant oppor- tunity to consult monographs and go more deeply into the subject than is required of the average student. To conduct a class in this way, however, necessitates abundant, well- lighted space, plenty of tables and microscopes, and other laboratory facilities. It can be readily seen that laboratory work in histology carried on in this way requires an expensive plant. If the subject is to be taught at all, this is the only economical way, however. To keep a laboratory open all day and every day, the teacher being on duty all the time, is wasteful and the results unsatisfactory ; as unsatisfactory and uneconomical as it would be to divide a Greek class of twenty up into five to ten sections for recitation. The last section would hardly gain much inspiration from the teacher, and such a teacher would not be likely to add much to compara- tive philology or anything else. In the actual instruction it is believed that there should be a combination of lectures and laboratory work. The lectures serve to give the students broad and general ideas and the relations of the subjects to each other; that is, they give the fundamental facts, principles and relations, which are the result of the investigations of the best workers. The best books and monographs are referred to and shown, and put at the students’ disposal. This is done because it is believed that every one should take advantage of the gain made by his pre- decessors and not try to start at the beginning. Life is too short for that, and progress would almost or quite cease if the gain made by our predecessors could not be made use of. From a long observation it is believed that the student who has the power to make independent investigations should have these helps, so that he may recognise the attainments of others and start from their vantage ground to explore new fields. For the student who has not the power for original investigation this is the only way to help him. He cannot go where there is no path. In the second place there should be abundant opportunity HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 303 for laboratory work where the student is brought into direct contact with the truths of nature in nature herself, and if he is an honest man he must work very hard to make out these truths, no matter how much help he has been given by lectures and books. In the laboratory work each student should learn and practice all the principal methods. A preparation made by the student himself from getting the tissue until it is mounted and labeled means something to him ; it is connected in a very definite way with the organ or part inthe animal. He also gains skill in manipulation, and without skill in manipulation no real progress can be made in any science. Exact notes, with dates and drawings, are necessary to avoid vagueness and to prevent the student from deceiving himself in the belief that he has gained certain knowledge when he has not. These notes and drawings, and the students’ specimens, duly labeled and catalogued, should be most conscientiously scrutinised by the teacher. They give him an opportunity that nothing else can to help the student by correcting erroneous conclusions and by aiding him in gaining skill in manipulation. It may well be asked, however, if it is possible to get aclass through the tissues and organs of the animal body by having each student perform all the operations for himself. It is admitted that the time necessary would be too long, and for most of the students much time would be unnecessarily used in mere mechanical operations. The plan advocated is to have each student learn all the funda- mental processes in modern histology, and learn them by repeated operations, but the loss of time by mere repetition after the processes have been mastered may be avoided with- out injury by furnishing most of the preparations either already cut or imbedded ready for cutting. It is believed that every preparation, with rare exceptions, should be in part at least, the work of the student. If then for these partly prepared preparations full data are given concerning the methods used the student will have no trouble in making the proper connection mentioned above when he performed 304 SIMON HENRY GAGE : all the work himself. It is believed that the ground can be covered in this way and it is known from experience and observation that the intellectual independence gained by the personal work of each student will repay all trouble on the part of the teacher—for it is more trouble to guide the student than for the teacher to do the work himself. The student will gain also the power to use the work of others, and to judge it at its true value as he could in no other Way. In the actual work carried on by the writer, lectures are given to the entire class, and, then, for the laboratory work sections of about fifteen are taken for not less than two hours at atime. Ifaperiod of less time were given, so much of it would be used in getting ready to work and in clearing up that not enough actual, productive work could be done to repay the effort. ach student is given the use of a locker ; each one prepares nearly all of the reagents used by him, and each one learns the methods of isolation, of sectioning by the collodion and by the paraffin method, both with simple and inexpensive and by the best modern apparatus ; and all have opportunity to see the method of making frozen sections, so largely used in diagnosis in pathological work. There is a large cabinet of specimens illustrating microscopy, histology and embryology, made and labeled and catalogued with all possible care, to serve as models for the students and for reference. The cabinet has been found very valuable for stimulating independent work. If one sees only figures of microscopic objects he may feel that to make actual speci- mens which shall show the objects with equal clearness would be impossible for a student, but if such specimens are at his disposal he is stimulated and encouraged to prepare similar ones for himself. He soon learns also, in studying actual specimens, that many of the figures in the books are composites,—made by combining the best features of several preparations. For convenience, the animal body is divided into the fol- lowing groups of tissues and organs. The arrangement is HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 305 more or less logical also on embryologic, physiologic and morphologic grounds: I. Epithelia, including endothelia. 2. Connective and supporting tissue (Areolar tissue, ten- don, ligament, bone, cartilage, etc.). 3. The muscular system. 4. Blood and lymph, z. e., the fluids of the body and their corpuscles. The blood and lymph vascular system. The digestive system. ea The respiratory system. The skin and its appendages. 7 8. The genito-urinary system. 9 10. The nervous system and the organs of sense. In teaching, the following guiding principles have been followed : I. It has always seemed to the writer that one of the most important steps in the knowledge of the structure of the tissues and organs is a thorough knowledge of the gross anatomy. The histologist must, first of all, be a thorough naked-eye anatomist. He must also bea physiologist, and he will naturally become an embryologist, for without the knowledge that embryology gives, the adult structure is fre- quently unintelligible, and without physiology, structures are, in Many cases, meaningless. The wise histologist is then a physiologist, an embryologist and an anatomist. From the naked-eye appearances he passes as necessity requires, from the contemplation of organs and tissues, first to a low power and then for the finer and finest structural details to the highest powers available. But he never loses sight of the fact that the details alone are far less intelligible than when they are correlated with the organ or tissue to which they belong. 2. It seems so natural and logical in teaching the funda- mental facts concerning the morphology and structure of the body to refer to the mode of development, that for several 306 SIMON HENRY GAGE: years the students have not only been taught in lectures from the embryological standpoint, but each student in the begin- ning has put into his hands, in the laboratory, preparations of the ovarian ovum to represent not only a typical cell, but the fundamental fact that the complex body of the largest animal is derived from the ovum. Then preparations of the blastula with a single layer, representing in a general way a simple epithelium, are studied, and then the blastula with a wall several cells thick, representing in general a stratified epithe- lium. Other preparations are studied, showing clearly the mode of formation of the axon or notochord from the ento- derm, and of the neuron or central nervous axis from the ectoderm. After studying these preparations it means some- thing to the student when he reads or hears in lectures that a given tissue or organ is derived from one or the other of the germ layers.* 3. Each tissue is studied fresh, so that correct notions may be gained of the natural appearance of the organs and tissues and their structural elements unaffected by reagents. 4. Every organ and tissue is studied alive, so far as pos- sible, in order that the function and the structure that per- forms the function may be seen at the same time and the two properly associated. Students who see only prepared speci- mens can hardly avoid gaining the impression that the gor- geous red, blue and purple colors belong to the natural tissues, and would be so found in dissecting an animal. Indeed the histologist who studies his subject profoundly looks upon the adjuncts of stain, etc., as necessary evils at best, and he never feels quite sure that the appearances seen in these much-stained and manipulated specimens are true expressions of nature, or whether they are structures of his own creation (artifacts), until he has seen the appearances in the living substance, where the pitfalls of color and Canada * The preparations used in my laboratory are the small ovarian ova found ino the ovary of a young Amdlystoma, or those Jeft after spawning. Allsizes are seen, giving also a hint that the different sizes mean the different crops of eggs, so to speak, that will reach matur- ity. The segmenting ova of Amblystoma are admirable for showing the blastula, and the formation of notochord and nervous system. ——— ee HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 307 balsam have no place. (See the preface to Foster and Lang- ley’s Practical Physiology.) 5. All glands should be studied in various phases of their activity and repose, so that the structural features present in each phase may be associated with the functional condition. In a word it is greatly to the advantage of the student if the histology he studies is truly ‘‘ Physiological Histology.” 6. The student will gain a truer insight into the structure of the body if he understands at the beginning that every organ and every tissue as it is found in the body is really a complex, that is, it is composed of several tissues and of ground substance. For example, muscle is composed not only of the characteristic structural elements, the muscle fibers or cells, but mingled with these are connective tissue and blood vesseis, and nerves are abundant. Even in epithelium the cells are not the whole of the tissue, for there is always present the cell cement uniting the cells. In con- nective tissue, the characteristic elements or cells, so promi- nent in this tissue in embryonic life, are so far pushed into the back-ground by the intercellular or groun@ substance, that the tissue is actually characterised, not by the cells, but by the ground substance. Thus we speak of cartilage, liga- ment and bone and the other members of the connective tissue group, having in mind almost altogether the inter- cellular substance, and not the cellular elements. 7. Ofnecessity, as wellas preferably, every general course in histology must be a course in comparative histology, as structural details are not all shown with equal clearness in any one form and not obtainable at all or only with difficulty in some. For example, hair is not found below the mammals, and the fibrin network in the blood and lymph is far more satisfactory in man and the other mammals than in Amphzbia and fishes, while nucleated red blood corpuscles are found with difficulty in mammals, while they are normal in non- mammals. As the course is then to be really one in com- parative histology, the fact should be distinctly expressed, and the student not left to infer that a structural detail seen 308 SIMON HENRY GAGE: in one animal would be found exactly similar in all others. On the other hand, it should be most emphatically brought out that while there ts unity in type there ts much diversity in detatl. This can be demonstrated by each student in comparing the striated muscle of mammals and Amphzdza ; or to take nearly related forms, the “gamentum nuche of the ox and other grazing forms is almost purely elastic tissue, while in the cat and man it is largely white fibrous tissue, and far less prominent. This point has been insisted upon because if any one looks through the pages of any work on histology, even though ‘‘human histology” may be printed on the title page, he will find it really a comparative histology, with the comparisons left out. That is, there will be figures of struc- tures from widely differing animals to illustrate the structure of the different tissues, and frequently even the accompany- ing legend or explanation gives no hint that the tissue figured is not from man. Naturally the student concludes that the.tissues are exactly alike in all animals. If on the other hand homologous parts from different animals are carefully cofipared many of them will show marked differences in detail, although the type of structure is unmistakable. 8. If it is necessary to keep in mind the differences in anatomic details in different animals, so is it equally important to know and to learn to demonstrate differences in structural detail of the same tissue or organ in the same animal in different phases of activity, in vigorous youth and in senile decay. Indeed, the differences in structural appear- ance of the pancreas, for example, before and after secretion, is as great as the apparent structural differences in quite widely differing forms. It is, therefore, necessary for a com- plete understanding of structural appearances to keep physi- ology constantly in mind; and as so few animals are in perfect health, possible pathologic variations from the normal appearance must be looked out for, otherwise one might in a limited number of observations decide that merely temporary or even abnormal structural appearances were characteristic of the animal under investigation, HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 309 The above statements, while they apply to the study of histology in general, have special reference in the main to elementary courses, where the students are introduced to the subject and are naturally imbibing the spirit of the study. The course outlined above would require considerable time. It could not be satisfactorily gone over in less than one college year in a course consisting of two lectures per week and three laboratory periods of two and one-half hours each. For research in this, as in any other subject, there must be great liberty as well as good facilities for work and experi- mentation. Mistakes will be made and time apparently wasted ; but the mistakes and the apparent waste of time are a part of the ‘‘dead work” that must be done by all those who aspire to perform truly advanced work and to add to the sum of human knowledge. Besides the numerous addresses and special papers that have appeared the student and teacher will find the six books named below especially helpful and inspiring : An American Text Book of Physiology. Edited by Wm. H. Howell, of Johns Hopkins. The writers besides the Eaetedte: 1. P. Bowditch, J. G. Curtis, H. H: Donald- pees, lzce; W. P. Lombard, G: Lusk, W. T. Porter, E. T. Reichert and H. Sewall. Philadelphia. 1896. Bernard, Claude, Cours de physiologie générale du Muséum d’histoire Naturelle. Lecons sur les phénoménes de la vie communs aux animaux et aux végétaux, two vols. Paris. 1878-1879. Foster, M.—A text book of Physiology (1877 to 1896). London and New York. The sixth edition contains much histology. All the editions correlate structure and function in an admirable way. Metchnikoff, Elias—Lectures on the comparative patho- logy of inflammation delivered at the Pasteur Institute in met) atiiisidted: trom, the French by F. A. and E. H. Starling, London. 1893. 310 HISTOLOGY AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. Hertwig, O.—The Cell; Outlines of General Anatomy and Physiology. Translated and edited by M. and H. J. Campbell. London and New York. 1895. Wilson, E. B.—The Cell in Development and Inheritance. Columbia University Series IV. New York and London. 1896. For an excellent article on ‘‘The Importance of Technical Instruction in our Medical College Laboratories,” see Dr. A. P. Ohlmacher, New York Medical Record, Vol. LXIIL., March 21, 1890, 97374. For a view that all microscopical and _ bacteriological knowledge is of no assistance in either medicine or biology, see Dr. Charles G. Kuhlman, in the S¢. Louts Medical and Surgical Journal, Vol. LXX. April, 1896, p. 201. Addendum : Those who have the planning and execution of laboratory courses in histology will find many suggestions and much help in a paper by L. F. Barker and C. R. Bardeen in the Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin for May—June, 1896. It is en- titled: ‘‘ An outline of the course in Normal Histology and Micro- scopic Anatomy,’’ and represents the course followed in the Johns Hopkins Medical School for the year 1895-1896. THE PURPOSE OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION AND THE WORK PL HOPES TO ACCOMPLISH. By SIMON H. GAGE. From Science, March 19, 1897. Pp. 458-460. It is a source of congratulation that the Science Teachers of the Empire State are no longer to remain scattered and unorganized, but by association are to gain the encouragement and enthusiasm which united effort brings. That enthusiasm and efficiency are promoted by such organization of science teachers is abundantly attested by the results gained through the efforts of the American Society of Naturalists, and the teachers of Illinois, Colorado, California, and of other sections. An association like this makes it easier for the college and for the secondary school teacher to come together and talk over matters of mutual interest and concern. In these friendly consultations and discus- sions there will be a chance of finding out something of what is most desirable and what is practicable and possible in the schools each repre- sents. And in these discussions it will not be possible to forget the children in the elementary schools, the great majority of whom come neither under the training of the high school nor of the college, but must be content to get the best they can from the elementary schools to equip them for the struggle of life which stands so near them. What help have these a right to ask from the high school and the college? And then the great world of thought and action whose mighty stream, sooner or later, draws all into it, what does it demand? It is, after all, .the final court which tries all alike, and puts each to the test whether he be a college graduate, high school graduate, pupil of an elementary school or one who has only his heriditary endowment of mother wit. The signs of the times all indicate that the high school teacher is to be at least a college graduate, and the elementary school teacher a high school graduate. If this is true, while the college has but few under its immediate instruction it determines the character of the high school, and in turn the high school determines the character of the elementary i) school. The college is then the intellectual guide of the land. Is it and has it always been a wise and sympathetic guide ? If we compare our times with those of 500 or even I00 years ago there will be found an immense difference, and science is largely respon- sible for this difference. Whether we approve or not, things are not as they once were; whether we designate the change as one of progress or decline, there has been change, the world is not what it once was. The modern citizen must adapt himself to these changes or be ground to powder in the struggle for existence or for preéminence. The profes- sional man, if he is a physician, is a criminal if he does not know and apply the science bearing upon his profession ; and the lawyer who has only the knowledge that the Middle Ages might have given him is soon eliminated from the race. It is with hesitation that I speak of the clergyman, but if he misrepresents nature which he might know, and to which he so often reverts for illustration, how can he expect unhesitating acceptance of his words concerning the profound mysteries that all, even the most favored, must ‘now see as through a glass darkly?’ The artisan, farmer and business man cannot live as did their forefathers ; and so from the professions, from all the people, there comes an appeal so earnest, so pressing, that we cannot choose but hear. If they suffer for lack of knowledge we must do our best to supply the knowledge. We should give them the science we possess, show them the way it is gained, and how much there is yet to be gained, and thus make every boy and girl, and through them every man and woman, in our great State an observer or original investigator in science. This can come about only when real sci- ence is taught and studied, only when baseless authority and the fog of opin- ion are brushed aside and the pupils in the schools are brought in direct contact with nature, and there learn to appreciate and apply the scientific method so admirably stated by St. Paul: ‘‘Prove all things, hold fast that which is good.”’ Our Association ought not and cannot stop with the work of the high school. From the elementary schools most pupils must enter the labors of life ; they make the bulk of the State, and a noble patriotism should lead us to do all we can for them. On the principle of self- preservation also such help is wise, for the work of high school and col- lege alike have their foundations laid in the elementary school. As the college reaches down to help and encourage the high school, so should the high school reach down and help and encourage the elementary school, and thus will it come about that every child in the State will be brought into direct contact with nature, where he can experience for himself her inspiring and uplifting sympathy. If this program is to be carried out the college must train its stu- dents and prepare them to take the true science, science at first hand into the high school, and banish therefrom anything savoring of sham. Then the college must honor its graduates by accepting for entrance the work in science of the high school on equal terms with other subjects 4 re taught by its graduates. To bring this about, I take it, is one of the duties of this Association. Thanks to the work of the American Society of Naturalists, and to the many able men and women who have worked for the same end, science work done in the high school is at the present moment recognized by a considerable number of colleges. See Sczence, December 25, 1596. It is discouraging, almost prohibitive, for the college to say to the secondary school, when you reach the proper degree of excellence in your science work, the college will consider your appeal for recognition. Why cannot the college state fairly and explicitly exactly what the stand- ard of excellence should be ? and with equal fairness and justice say, when your students reach this standard we will accept them for entrance on the same terms as for other good preparatory work. No true friend of science would ask the college to admit students with a training in science inferior to that required in the older disciplines. Let the college make its standard as high as it will, but let it recognize the work that comes up to its standard, and thereby honor its own graduates who have so worthily brought the work of their pupils up to the high standard. Such recognition would put science on a fair footing with the other disciplines. It would encourage and inspire the teacher in the secondary schools and help to give his work a dignity and importance in the eyes of his pupils and colleagues which it can never have if it is not honored by the college. Men still respect and honor what the college approves, and it is a part of our work to see to it that the college puts the seal of its approval on sound learning in science as well as on that of the other disciplines which it accepts for entrance to its halls. It seems to me the way before us is clear. Changed conditions have brought new needs, needs that knowledge of science can alone supply. We should do our best to help our day and generation, and in giving it the help of science and the sympathy of nature I feel confident that we are doing right in every way. Science, taught as every true teacher will teach it, will help the students to gain an insight into nature, will bring them face to face with reality, with law and order, and certainly will form at least one element in a noble education. It will emphasize the old lesson that power over nature comes only by obedience to her, and by this obedience, which can come only through understanding, disci- pline is gained. By action in accordance with law which is understood, and by reflection comes culture. With this discipline and culture come large sympathies and a wide outlook upon the universe. There comes also the consciousness that, while the current of life and law is irresisti- ble, man is a part of the mighty current and his will has its due share in directing it. ae i ari. vile j all & Wy ine ‘ Va eee %, ie te ed nt wi! aap (Reprinted from the 7ramsactions of the American Microscopical Society, 1897.) NOTES ON THE ISOLATION OF THE TISSUE ELEMENTS. SIMON H. GAGE, ItTuHaca, N. Y. In the present period when the technique of section cut- ting has become so perfect that many of the cells of the body may be cut into several pieces, there is some danger of losing sight of the actual conformation of the cells as wholes. Cer- tainly, as teachers of histology, it is desirable for us to show our students as many of the cells or tissue elements as possi- ble so that they may realise that the teacher is discussing, real, tangible entities when he speaks of epithelial cells, muscle cells or brain cells, and the like. Furthermore, the student — should gain an allround conception, so to speak, and this notion of the tissue elements is gained by the student only when he can see all around the structures; this feat is easily accom- plished in the isolated cells by causing them to roll over with a little pressure on the cover-glass. In dissociating, the aim is to separate the tissue elements from one another, the cells and all their minute processes being preserved in theirtrue form. In order to do this the cell-cement, or intercellular substance, must be dissolved or softened. The perfect dissociator then, must harden the tissue elements and soften the substance which holds them together. Many excellent dissociators have been described. None will serve equally well for all tissues, and there may be a ‘‘best dissociator” for each animal; it seemed worth while, however, to present a note upon the results of an extended series of experiments to discover if possible the general and underlying principles. ISO ; SIMON H. GAGE: The general principles seem to be these: Any agent which acts asa good hardening and fixing medium for a tissue w7ll also serve for a dissociating substance tf suffictently diluted and allowed to act only a short time. So far as experiments have gone it was found that if the fixer suitable for a tissue were diluted ten times and allowed to act from two hours to two days, good results were obtained in isolating. It was further found that if the diluting substance used were normal salt solution (water 1000 cc., common salt 6 grams, ) the results were, perhaps, more satisfactory. This use of normal salt solution was suggested fromthe fact that it tends to leave the tissues without change, and’ the diffusion cur- rents are not so severe as’ when water alone is used for dilution. . 3 For the epithelia of mucous and serous surfaces nothing was found so satisfactory for all animals as formaldehyde in normal salt solution. The strength used was 2 cc. in a liter of normal salt solution. For many epithelia the isolation may be considered sufficient in one to two hours ; good pre- parations from the same may be got after a day ortwo. This dissociator is excellent for obtaining the ciliated cells of the brain ventricles. And in experimenting with it for that pur- pose it was found that the nerve cells of the cerebral cortex were most satisfactorily isolated also. For one who has only ‘seen nerve cells in sections it would bea revelation to see the processes as shown in such isolation preparations, and then if the cells be made to roll over, it will be seen that the cells have processes projecting from every side. . No method of studying the isolated elements has been so successful as scraping off a small mass and mounting on a slide in the dissociating medium, and then for the more com- plete separation the cover-glass is gently hammered over the mass of cells. The mechanical jarring separates the cells without tearing them, and often two or more cells are: just sufficiently separated to show their mutual relation. It. is sometimes advantageous to add a little eosin solution to. the ISOLATION OF THE TISSUE ELEMENTS. 181 mass of cells before mounting or after, but as the mounting medium, if the dissociator is used, is of such different refrac- tive index, all the structural details come out without stains; and it is worth while to let the student see that histological structure can be seen under the microscope without gorgeous stains. He will then know, which I fear is not always the case now, that the cells are not red and purple in the living body. If in examining preparations mounted only in the disso- ciator one should meet with something that he was extremely desirous of preserving, the slide may be laid flat and a drop of glycerin put at the edge of the cover. It will’partly diffuse and also as the dissociator evaporates it will run in by capil- larity and in a few days the preparation will be mounted in glycerin. It may then be sealed with shellac or other cement and will last a reasonable length of time, that is, till one naturally gets a better preparation to take its place. If one wishes to have the cells stained for the permanent preparations, instead of using glycerin alone,as just described, the following mixture will be found excellent: Glycerin, meee, dium Catmine, 73 c¢.c.; eosin, § per cent. aqueous solution, 73 c.c. This may be put at the edge of the cover as for the glycerin, or preferably it should be mixed with the cells before putting on the cover-glass. The alum carmine stains the nuclei and the eosin the cell body. “Aries ia ee be ay hh & Apt yes ap CH alah isi his hy 4 ih 150 aa? py My fea ' ‘ yes ‘4? 4 Ely wel Plea the oP Ae i ros i f ‘ae! rc WwUre ste sine ios: y0i8 Bene taal a LVS St We a OA Ta . b eee ME ie [oie Fesselb gibe Uae Geer al re ive iyigs nok me 7 “eg ee Fre OPA Tei lt oo (slow ie A > Pa ak ’ ‘ 7) ; i ie t ire " Baal! ees 14g, } rh gol La ay if i i ihe aon rr ‘ ls f gid a Bi td vcs ‘| an Waa et I ay ( 4 i 4 aT ie ; TA Bids oe) ry ‘EVA SSS TCR ee < peered \ vw iii ¥ 1 4? Se SG pies ak ty Gri ite toed frond th = Matvee ate abt y, 3h Perel OF erie a pee tA HAM ethane: nd) nha: eee a Pec Toye & 7 y : TIF ae Ww » a + ~ = bibhg hs ee r : “hie it: eee cat slay ht ee \, s | ‘ ps 7 a is Bye Gy «. z fe ih Matias ae x" | 4 a hs Se hee 24 a *: a) =A Jol Pee dae re, . ce emt mut tt ‘ +”) d he . oe 4 * vd J ‘ i aan! Bik AeV VIBAOIO yori MTA A AO LAMA OL astimort herminyos Novi ee Tae GU ea Oe wl aract “ett Hye pyhet y PELL Rh ALh ae < pit iets) ALOUD Utena tis ! * /* “7 : ates BOT yecits st MOO eae bw rm 8 DEIN: 10. epi Od) BRAS Paget ss, Jn) We OTD Ct? Ia Bey Hlooe hy ; LEsti qos rel £ Oe RT, Pes | ie eit 1 Yoo vie i Sn ee en | . a Bioeth: i) \-baek). workin ‘eo ete wet oegth. a0 Re NO ewa ie * ie adh AOE AD ge oO, ahvotttin + a ' Un ’ SRY 4 papal Be) cei USE CRs a Dis he (hes) EU per? ete j L4 aay ern? hiten eD aaerh &!) 1 ‘ « ~4i} ‘ Te aL Le , gi ris Viste Fister eda “mere ha Pia BT iton i Divi lips 2 WO ss mid a pew x etd Bhd Oe) wert x Gg or Ea Nid Miniter ¢ at Pn yen i_ 7s . Oeruiy itt) : t Ps 1 : i : Timi? sy ett) ho a ype? ; 4 fewer! be y : Seema els Wes THIER ature 4) ih % el ae r i TY j TC, } 1 dear] Lint ed ete Nope 1b at wed w idilw oc : : nev j, ae ‘ yr vita aii FHF OV) ' pail! ‘ f . ney ways F mee Holiutok als 2 veoi) o y vr S20 y ; me lil dyed} eas . ier Oy Ww 1 oot Jn a Siw ret Sa Le ?, x ol ' wl), canes bevyumiet Bi wie, ihe mi. nif xz att ey Taree? Pen 8) 5au iv 2 Pott Adi A : Peaihineeh ors” mn te ARE. A mits ot kedtele, wn ze | yin. & . Mein Cll: #09) Nevaeh el Hy mini, La w wy ahyeel A ait teeta lee opaili gin eit 4\ ay TTB ar ' ‘ ’ 4 fie? Br eet set Dinan Oo failed a. 2 * t Seo 7 : a aa yen daha itil aah» Witold. : : pear a) : i) ont Nene Or) Tajo 74, risdoced ¥ Too vv ital Bans SH Heke er TOMGAT IN | Wi see aii. “ ' ) ane Wire a tein ant tier F Stat? xe wit ad ni Le der'es (iy mon. MY RG ees i waxiiien Giox Ye jald gultlarnciam Li-iatt reer 70 COT jit | hee} ' ndinati Ye 4on 4 ae 36) Girik friiia at ledials A AL H roi nl » Nepo Laeaty bien et} (Wa 2 Sek vit “ne Ai el 2uilacn ebudian: bahar Ase ay oy AE Oe ie So veigudouoxw baraitdin 7 1) vine Bs eo nina oa) MINTS Tile OH: arihamiinsyxs (ab (ud Bake Danieiweas ao, wieh wesw wit ofictw) oaunosd. uf a Vie pe » 13 ; + nd ow F ee nos ae y etas Aided) Pwonm Yileit ier ro ih 7 , he ty. wit yonRi ver veal 4 de “eneed FIO StH wal ie ; wr wit’; Ra tom per read anit #I6c) OCs $i} Daler i 4 . a BO RaIGIORtIG A miaaitated) iba’ ra ee bay etibeert) eo by A ane eno asa 1 bile th ac evr ; ow. jiu shitel! ovat binygil luloeqs wel) io Sepa THORN Eh) NAC) Wode i Bet gpre a70 +’ aoe Ot biden trite Thi CNHEAET) HTIRA PRO Us f 2: Z . bait eA Walontay Waly tore i watt FIBA. WL eh ; oi ee fe ww SAW: RAD Goltloton ms 16 Gnie “uel a 4m epee. : Phen eT. OER & TUNG an be wee. 7B uve fA Hobasd snomeah ee pee } ey oLAm lice ori? ch Md partiey a) amie Hattie Bh Heo Fes or a Vo é api iso woe bao. giadutets [wun tthe 4 elon att eee ny aye) ay dy el esate Dre! Daioh daar ae apegta b S0y bhe SV bIOO OMY Tino OOO a Wun winte Ye Te eIS Ta! MVE) uate. note tives eens aw elalos ve diry, ee ‘pihert Jaye Rib i Nem toqAy, 10 PONS elinig ses Tartiol enw * WE tone wi cm wad ate > WG-8 ay ‘Sake waort nrce [Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 3.] Platinum Chlorid for Demon- strating the Fibrils of Striated Muscle. SIMON HENRY GAGE. Since the great monograph of Bow- man* on the structure of muscle, the fundamental facts presented by him still are the ones represented in the _ best modern text-books, although in some de- tails there has of course been consider- able modification. If one consults this monograph, or a later monograph or book on the histology of muscle, one can but be impressed with the fact that there is a great pre- ponderance of discussion upon the struc- ture in lower forms, insects, fishes, and amphibia. This is true, although the book may be entitled ‘Human Histol- ogy.” If one seeks for methods to demon- strate the various appearances figured and described, it will be found that it frequently requires days, weeks, or even months, to get the preparations ready for study. For the investigator who is carrying on several pieces of work at the same time, this may not be a draw- back; but in the case of the teacher with classes having but a limited time for work, he must prepare material a long time in advance, and thus the students be deprived of the actual personal expe- rience which they can alone obtain by taking every step themselves, or some method must be devised which shall be both certain and rapid. Owing to the constant effort of laboratory teachers, every year adds to the list of such rapid and excellent methods. In my own field, where mammalian histology and embry- ology are of principal importance for my laboratory students, there is a constant effort to find methods applicable to such animals in the published accounts of others and by personal experiments. So much effort is made because, while the type may be the same in different ani- mals, the details of structure are often markedly different in the different forms, and it seems hardly fair to stu- dents to show them only insect muscle, for example, and lead them to assume that the appearances are exactly the same in mammals. In studying the tissues of animals, one of the greatest needs is some means of isolating the cells or structural elements so that details of form and structure may be made out with certainty, and the confusion arising from overlying or un- derlying cells avoided. While making a series of experiments on different media for dissociation, it was found tthat plati- *Phil. Trans. 1840-41, pp. 457-6501, 4 plates. num chlorid in a one-tenth per cent. aqueous solution (platinum echlorid 1 gram, water 1000cc.), acting from two to twenty-four hours, gave most beautiful preparations of the longitudinal stria- tion and the fibrils of mammalian muscle. In many cases, if the teasing was thorough, the fibers appeared like a skein of thread, and frequently the fib- rils were detached from the bundle, thus affording opportunity for their special study. The method has been applied to mam- mals (man, horse, dog, cat, sheep, rab- bit, guinea pig), amphibia, fishes, in- sects, and cray-fish. It is well adapted to all, but more especially 'to the mam- malian muscle, where the demonstration of fibrils and longitudinal striation is more difficult or requires more time than in the lower forms.t In practice about five times as much liquid is taken as muscle, and the piece of muscle should not be larger than one’s little finger. Very small pieces should be worked on within a few hours, two to five, while larger pieces may wait longer. That is there is too great hardening of the tissue if the solution acts on a small mass for a considerable time. For a simple, temporary demonstration a shred or fascicle is removed from the mass of muscle and teased out in water or in some of the dissociating liquid, but if one wishes to demonstrate the finest de- tails, and to see with clearness the vari- ous discs described in modern works he should proceed as follows: A _ small fascicle is teased very thoroughly in a drop of water. One may use a tripod magnifier to make sure that the teasing is thorough. The water is drained off and two or three drops of a two per cent. solution of erythrosin in fifty per cent. alcohol is added and left for five minutes; or one may use a twe per cent. aqueous solution of eosin. Either of these agents will stain the parts of the fibrils which appear dark in unstained preparations, *Many good dissociators for special pur- poses have been devised, but so far as I know there has been no generalization of the fundamental principles which would serve as a guide in case one had not access to the special liquid described. In a series of experiments to see if there was not some underlying principle, the writer came to the conclusion that, while a given detail of structure or a given kind of cells might be more clearly demonstrated by one method than by another, yet the generalization seemed justified that ‘‘ Any medium which fixes a tissue well may be used to isolate its structural elements if employed in a proper dilution (about one-tenth the strengin used in fixing) and allowed to act only a limited time—two to twenty-four hours. See ‘‘ Proceedings of the .Amer. Micr. Soc. for 1897.’") It was in this series of experiments, made three years ago, that the special excellence of platinum chlorid for demonstrating the longtitudinal stria- tion and fibrils of muscle was discovered. [Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, Vol. I, No. 1, p. 3.] but the erythrosin is preferable. After five minutes the stain is poured off care- fully, and the fibers are washed with several drops of water and then dehy- drated with 95 per cent. or stronger, al- cohol (two or three pipettes full will suf- fice). A drop of clearer (carbol-turpen- tine or carbol-xylene) is added after pouring off the alcohol, and the fibers are carefully separated with needles, and after pouring off the clearer a cover spread with balsam is put over them. If the preparation is successful, and most of them are, one gets a very satisfactory view of the minute structure as well as of the general structure, as some of the fibers will show with perfection the transverse striae, others the longitudi- nal striae and the isolated fibrils. For seeing the minute details, a good homo- geneous immersion objective and careful lighting are necessary. If a muscle is found to give good pre- parations it may be preserved for at least three years in fifty per cent. alco- hol and give good results. ‘se ‘ 4 ee ¥ 7a a 'f| t se 4 4 j “ef fin 4 { ¥ ? ‘ ine ; v4 ‘ , 7 a4 bony ¥ encry? © o* é é Pi ty > or i eT ea oh oer i, Fig ' \ v : aio k, rae, in Bt waa) rt ; } ni ye ry tir s pa ae Ave TY i) eee erste). AU ro J Serr wal Sebi 7. eal '. ? ert (oleae ates ep (ey Det Aa ttre) “Ewe ‘ ’ a ' bos > ‘ an a ‘ sa i Pr (; i a ' oe | if my >? 7 ol >t. ae a 7 we ST) é ATs St novo at eileen -vied Pee baaeideeb ain ARE Hite arene aby wish wis b oe ete. oo Ps RU Tied aa ee Me) Arita (ULL ed aa a hae) oe’. eae, See ywogte Iwi fithls | eb eee ath mt! tKek. fesgoteueni hah) TAN DED AP ey hern (eolbowe ave be paeiiee yay! eternal at) RAP ae ‘ ( case) we tug. maa ta ant fi) Site tie Ale 44 “i. ow Dy vis TEACHER’S LEAFLETS. No. 9. FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. APRIL 4, 1898. PREPARED BY THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. ITHACA, N. Y. Issued under Chapter 67 Laws of 1898. I, Pp. ROBERTS, DIRECTOR. The Life History of the Toad. BY SIMON HENRY GAGE.* The life-history of the common or warty toad has been selected for various reasons as the subject of a leaflet in nature study : This history is exceedingly interesting. The marvelous changes passed through in growing from an egg to atoad are so rapid that they may all be seen during a single spring term of school. Toads are found everywhere in New York, and nearly every- where in the world; it is easy, therefore, to get abundant material for study. This animal is such a good friend to the farmer, the gardener, the fruit grower, the florist and the stock raiser that every man and woman, every boy and girl ought to know something about it, and thus learn to appreciate their lowly helper. And finally, it is hoped and sincerely believed that the feeling of repugnance and dislike, and the consequent cruelty to toads, will disappear when the children know something about their wonderful changes in form, structure and habits, and how harm- less and helpfulthey are. Then who that knows of the chances, the dangers and struggles in the life of the toad, can help a feel- ing of sympathy ; for after all, how like our human life it is. *It was the desire of the author to tell the story of this leaflet in pic- tures as well as in words, and he wishes to express his appreciation of the enthusiasm and ability with which the illustrations were executed by Mr. C.W. Furlong. 80 Where sympathy is, cruelty is impossible, and one comes to feel the spirit of these beautiful lines from Coleridge’s ‘‘ Ancient Mariner:’’ “* He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small ; For the dear God who loveth us Fle made and loveth all.”? It was William Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, who first clearly stated to the world the fact that every animal comes from an egg. This is as true of the toad as of a chicken. ‘The toad lives on the land and often a long way from any pond or stream, but the first part of its life is spent in the water; and so it isin the water that the eggs must be looked for. To find the eggs one should visit the natural or artificial ponds so common along streams. Ponds from springs or even artificial reservoirs or the basins around fountains may also contain the eggs. The time for finding the eggs depends on the season. The toad observes the season, not the almanac. In ordinary years the best time is from the middle of April to the first of May. One is often guided to the right place by noticing the direction from which the song or call of the toad comes. It may be said in passing that toad choirs are composed solely of male voices. The call is more or less like that of tree toads. In general it sounds like whistling, and at the same time pronounc- ing deep in the throat bu-—rr—r—r—-r—. If one watches a toad while it makes its call, he can soon learn to distinguish the sound from others somewhat similar. It will be found that different toads have slightly different voices, and the same one can vary the tone considerably, so that it is not so easy after all to distin- guish the many batrachian solos and choruses on a spring or summer evening. It will be noticed that the toad does not open its mouth when it sings, but there is a great, expansible, vocal sack or resonator under the mouth and throat (see the left hand toad in the plate). The eggs are laid in long strings or ropes which are nearly always tangled and wound round the water plants or sticks on the bottom of the pond near the shore. If the eggs have been freshly laid or if there has been no rain to stir up the mud and the Se Coa 1 « at The toad in various stages of development from the egg to the adult. 82 water is clear, the egg ropes will look like glass tubes contain- ing a string of jet black beads. After a rain the eggs are obscured by the fine mud that settles on the transparent jelly surrounding them. Take enough of the egg string to include 50 or 100 eggs, and place it in a glass fruit dish or a basin with clean water from the pond where the eggs were found. Let the children look at the eggs very carefully and note the color and the exact shape. Let them see if the color is the same on all sides. If the eggs are newly laid they will be nearly perfect spheres. Frogs, salamanders and tree toads lay their eggs in the same places and at about the same time as the toad we are to study. Only the toad lays its eggs in strings so one can be sure he has the right kind. The others lay their eggs in bunches or singly on the plant so they never need be niistaken for the ones sought. The eggs which are taken to the school house for study should be kept in a light place, but not very long inthe hot sun, for that would heat the water too much and kill the eggs. It takes only a short time for the eggs to hatch. In warm weather two or three days are usually sufficient. As the changes are so very rapid, the eggs ought to be carefully looked at two or three times a day to make sure that all the principal changes are seen. Ifa pocket lens or a reading glass is to be had it will add to the interest, as more of the details can be observed. But good sharp eyes are sufficient if no lens is available. flatching.—Watch and see how long it is before the develop- ing embryos commence to move. Note their change in form. As they elongate they move more vigorously till on the second or third day they wriggle out of the jelly surrounding them. This is hatching, and they are now free in the water and can swim about. It is curious to see them hang themselves up on the old egg string or on the edge of the dish. They do this by means of a peculiar v-shaped organ on their heads. How different the little creatures are, which have just hatched, from the grown up toad which laid the eggs. The difference is about as great as that between a caterpillar and a butterfly. Tadpoles, polliwogs.—We do not call the young of the frog, the 83 toad, and the tree toad, caterpillars, but tadpoles or polliwogs. The toad tadpoles are blacker than any of the others. The tadpoles will live for some time in clear water with appar- ently nothing to eat. This is because the mother toad put into each egg some food, just as a hen puts a large supply of food within the egg shell to give the chicken a good start in life. But when the food that the mother supplied is used up the little tadpoles would die if they could not find some food for themselves. They must grow a great deal before they can turn into toads, and just like children and other young animals, to grow they must have plenty of food. Feeding the tadpoles.—To feed the tadpoles it is necessary to imitate nature as closely as possible. ‘To do this a visit to the pond where the eggs were found will givethe clue. Many plants are present, and the bottom will be seen to slope gradually from the shore. ‘The food of the tadpole is the minute plant life on the stones, the surface of the mud, or on the outside of the larger plants. Make an artificial pond in a small milk pan or a large basin or earthen-ware dish. Put some of the mud and stones and small plants in the dish, arranging all to imitate the pond, that is, so it will be shallow on one side and deeper on the other. Take a small pail of clear water from the pond to the school house and pour it into the dish to complete the artificial pond. The next morning when all the mud has settled and the water is clear, put 30 or 4o of the little tadpoles which hatched from the egg string, into the artificial pond. Keep this in the light, but not very long atanyonetimeinthesun. Thechildren may think this is not imitating nature, because the natural pond is in the full sunlight allday. The teacher can easily make them remember that the natural pond is on the cool earth where it cannot get very hot; but the small artificial pond might readily get very warm if left long in the hot sun. One must not attempt to raise too many tadpoles in the artificial pond or there will not be enough food, and all will be half starved. While there may be thousands of tadpoles in the natural pond, it will be readily seen that, compared with the amount of water present, there are really rather few. Probably many more were hatched out in the school-house 84 than can be raised in the artificial pond. Return the ones not put in the artificial pond to the natural pond. It would be too bad to throw them out on the ground to die. Comparing the growth of the tadpoles.—Even when one does his best it is hard to make an artificial pond so good for the tadpoles as the natural one; and the teacher will find it very interesting and stimulating to compare the growth and change in the tad- poles at the school-house with those in the natural pond. As growth depends on the supply of food and the suitability of the environment, it is easy to judge how nearly the artificial pond equals the natural pond for raising tadpoles. It will be worth while to take a tadpole from the natural pond occasionally and put it in with those at the school house so that the differ- ences may be more strikingly shown. There is some danger in making a mistake here, however, for there may be three or four kinds of tadpoles in the natural pond. ‘Those of the toad are almost jet black, while the others are more or less brownish. If one selects only the very black ones they will probably be toad tadpoles. Every week or oftener, a little of the mud and perhaps a small stone covered with the growth of microscopic plants, and some water should be taken from the pond to the artificial pond. The water will supply the place of that which has evaporated, and the mud and the stone will carry a new supply of food. The growth and changes in form should be looked for every day. ‘Then it is very interesting to see what fhe tadpoles do, how they eat, and any signs of breathing. All the changes from an egg to a little toad (see the plate,, are passed through in about two months, so that by the first of June the tadpoles will be found to have made great progress. The progress will be not only in size, but in form and action. One of these actions should be watched with especial care for it means a great deal. At first the little tadpoles remain under water all the time, and do not seem to know or care that there is a great world above the water. But as they grow larger and larger, they rush up to the surface once in awhile and then dive down again as if their lives depended onit. The older they grow the oftener do they come to the surface. What is the meaning 85 of this? Probably most of the pupils can guess correctly ; but it took scientific men a long time to find out just why this was done. ‘The real reason is that the tadpole is getting lungs, and getting ready to breathe the free air above the water when it turns into atoad and livesonthe land. At first the little tadpoles breathe the air dissolved in the water just asa fish does. This makes it plain why an artificial pond should have a broad surface exposed to the air. If one should use a narrow and deep vessel like a fruit jar, only a small amount of air could be taken up by the water and the tadpoles would be half suffocated. As the tadpoles grow older their lungs develop more and more and they go oftener to the surface to get the air directly from the limitless supply above the water. They are getting used to breathing as they will have to when they live wholly in the air. Disappearance of the tail_—F rom the first to the middle of June the tadpoles should be watched with especial care, for wonderful things are happening. Both the fore and hind legs will appear, if they have not already. The head will change in form and so will the body ; the color will become much lighter, and, but for the tail, the tadpole will begin to look quite like its mother. If you keep an especially sharp look out do you think you will see the tail drop off? No, toad nature is too economical for that. The tail will not drop off, but it will be seen to get shorter and shorter every day ; it is not dropping off but is being carried into the tadpole. The tail is perfect at every stage; it simply dis- appears. How does this happen? This is another thing that it took scientific men a long time to findout. It is now known that within the body there are many living particles that wander about as if to see that everything is in order. They are called wandering cells, white blood corpuscles, phagocytes and several other names. ‘These wanderinto the tail at the right time and take it up particle by particle. The wandering cells carry the particles of tail into the body of the tadpole where they can be made use of as any other good food would be. This taking in of the tail is done so carefully that the skin is never broken, but covers up the outside perfectly all the time. Is not this a better way to getrid ofa tail than to cut it off? Beginning of the life on the land.—Now when the legs are 86 grown out, and the tail is getting shorter, the little tadpole likes to put its nose out of the water into the air ; and sometimes it crawls half way out. When the tail gets quite short, often a mere stub, it will crawl out entirely and stay for some time in the air. It now looks really like a toad except that it is nearly smooth instead of being warty like its mother, and is only about as large as the end of one’s little finger. Finally the time comes when the tadpole, now transformed into a toad, must leave the water for the land. What queer feelings the little toad must have when the soft, smooth bottom of the pond and the pretty plants, and the water that supported it so nicely are all to be left behind for the hard, rough, dry land. But the little toad must take the step. It is no longer a tadpole, or half tadpole and half toad. It cannot again dive into the cool, soft water when the air and the sunshine dry and scorch it. As countless generations of little toads have done before, it pushes boldly out over the land and away from the water. If one visits the natural pond at about this season (last half of June, first of July), heis likely to see many of the little fellows hopping away from the water. And so vigorously do they hop along that in a few days they may beas far asa mile from the pond where they were hatched. After a warm shower they are particularly active, and are then most commonly seen. Many think they rained down. ‘‘ They were not seen before the rain, so they must have rained down.’’ Is that good reasoning ? While the little toad is very brave in its way, it is also careful and during the hot and sunny part of the day stays in the shade of the grass or leaves or in some other moist and shady place. If it were foolish as well as brave it might be filled with vanity and stay out in the sun till it dried up. Foop ON THE LAND. Inthe water the tadpole eats vegetable matter, but when it becomes a toad and gets on the land it will touch nothing but animal food, and that must be so fresh that it is alive and mov- ing. This food consists of every creeping, crawling or flying thing that is small enough to be swallowed. While it will not touch a piece of fresh comes within its reach. 87 meat, woe to snail insect or worm that It is by the destruction of insects and worms that the toad <> — FURLONG 98 Toad catching a winged insect, and tllustrating how the tongue ts extendedand broughtincon- lact with the insect. Several other creatures that the toad might eat ave shown in various parts of the picture. helps men so greatly. The insects and worms eat the grain, the fruits and the flowers. They bite and sting the animals and give men no end of trouble. The toad is not partial, but takes any live thing that gets near it whether it is cater- pillar, fly, spider, centipede or thousand legged worm; and it does not stop even there, but will gobble up a hornet ora yellow jacket without the least hesitation. It is astonishing to see the certainty with which a toad can catch these flying or crawling things. The way the toad does this may be observed by watching one out of doors some summer evening or after a shower; but it 1s more satis- Mewmnye toolave.a nearer view. Put a large toad into a box or into a glass dish with some moist sand on the bottom, and put the dish in a cool shady place so that the toad will not become overheated. In a little while, if one is gentle, the toad will see that it is not going to be hurt, and then if flies and other insects are put into the dish and the top covered with mosquito netting one can watch the process of capture. It is very quickly accomplished, and one must look sharply. As shown in the little picture on this page the toad’s tongue is fastened at the front part of it’s month, not back in the throat as with men, dogs, cats and most animals. It is so nicely arranged that it can be extended for quite a distance. On it is a sticky secretion, and when, quick as a flash, the tongue is thrown out or extended, if it touches the insect, the insect is caught as if by sticky fly paper, and is taken into the mouth. (See the picture.) 88 Think how many insects and worms a toad could destroy in a single summer. Practically every insect and worm destroyed adds to the produce of the garden and the farm, or takes away one cause of discomfort to men and animals. One observer a D)) PS $Y _- FURLONG SS Toad making a meal of an angle worm. roports that a single toad disposed of twenty-four caterpillars in ten minutes, and another ate thirty-five celery worms within three hours. He estimates that a good sized toad will destroy nearly 10,000 insects and worms in a single summer. EKNEMIES—THE SHADOW SIDE OF LIFE. So far nothing has been said about the troubles and dangers of the toad’s life. ‘The large plate at the beginning is meant to show the main phases in the life-history. If one looks at it per- SS SS Ss = — > > A couple of Newts feasting on tadpoles. haps he may wonder what becomes of all the tadpoles that first hatch as only two toads are shown at the top. Is not this some- thing like the human life-history? How many little children die and never become men and women! Well, the dangers to the 89 toad begin at once. Suppose the eggs are laid in a pond that dries up before the little toads can get ready to live on the land; in that case they all die. The mother toads some- times do make the mistake of laying the eggs in ponds that dry up in a little while. You will not let the artificial pond at the school house dry up will you? Then sometimes there is an especially dry summer, and only those that trans- form from tadpoles to toads very early are saved. In the little picture on page 88 is shown another source of danger and cause for the diminution in numbers. The newts and salamanders find young tadpoles very good eating and they make way with hundreds of them. Some die from what are called natural causes, that is diseases, or possibly they eat something that does not agree with them. So that while there were multi- tudes of eggs (1,000 or more from each toad), and of just hatched tadpoles, the number has become sadly lessened by the time the brood is ready to leave the water. Then when they set foot on land. Th 1 =e SURI sat Saree cst aS : s ss = AM —. Biber FURLONG 98 Snakes usually, if not always, swallow toads hind legs foremost, as shown in the picture. go their dangers are not passed. They may be parched by summer’s heat or crushed under the feet of men or cattle. Birds and snakes like them for food. The pictures on p. 89 show some of these dangers. Is it a wonder, then, that of all the multitudes of tad- poles so few grow up to be large toads? We have so few helpers to keep the noxious insects in check, it isnot believed that any boy or girl who knows this wonderful story of a toad’s life will join the crows, the snakes and the sala- manders in worrying or destroying their good friends. MOULTING AND HIBERNATION. There are two very interesting things that happen in the life of many of the lower animals; they happen to the toad also. These are moulting, or change of skin, and hibernation or winter sleep. Every boy and girl ought to know about these, and then, if on the lookout, they will sometime be seen. Moulting.—Probably everybody who lives in the country has seen a snake’s skin without any snake in it. It is often very perfect. When the outside skin or cuticle of a snake ora toad gets old and dry or too tight for it, a new covering grows under- neath, and the old one is shed. This is av ery interesting per- formance, but the toad usually does it in a retired place, so it is not often seen. ‘Those who have seen it say that a long crack or tear appears along the back and in front. The toad keeps mov- ing and wriggling to loosen the old cuticle. This peels the cuticle off the ‘sides. Now to get it off the legs and feet, the toad puts its leg under its arm, or front leg, and in that way pulls off the old skin as if it were a stocking. But when the front legs are to be stripped, the mouth 1s used as is sometimes done by people in pulling off their gloves. Do you think it uses its teeth for this purpose? You might look in a toad’s mouth sometime and then you would know. It is said that when the skin is finally pulled off the toad swal- lows it. This is probably true in some cases, at least it is worth while keeping watch for. After a toad has shed his old skin, he looks a great deal brighter and cleaner than before, as if he had just got a new suit of clothes. If you seeone witha particularly bright skin you will now know what it means. Hibernation.—The toad is a cold-blooded animal. This means that the temperature of its blood is nearly like that of the sur- rounding air. Men, horses, cows, dogs, etc., are said to be warm blooded, for their blood is warm and of about the same temper- ature whether the surrounding air is cold or hot. gI When the air is too cool the toad gets stupid and inactive. In September and October, a few toads may be seen on warm days or evenings, but the number seen becomes smaller and smaller ; and finally as the cold November weather comes on, none are seen. Where arethey? ‘The toad seems to know that winter is coming, that the insects and worms will disappear so that no food can be found. It must gointo a kind of death-like sleepin which it hardly moves or breathes. A toad is sensible enough to know that it will not do to go into this profound sleep except in some safe and protected place. If it were to freeze and thaw with every change in the weather it would not wake up in the spring. The wonderful foresight which instinct gives it, makes the toad select some comparatively soft earth in a protected place where it can bury itself. The earth chosen is moist, but not wet. If it were dry, the toad would dry up before spring. It is not uncom- mon for farmers and gardeners to plough them up late in the fall or early in the spring. Also in digging cellars at about these times, they are found occasionally. | It is very interesting to see a toad bury itself. If one is found hibernating in the fall, or if one is found very early in the spring on some cold day after a warm spell, the pro- cess can very easily be seen. Put some loose earth in a box or a glass dish and put the toad on the top of the earth. It will be found that the toad digs backwards, not forwards. It digs with its hind legs and body, and pushes itself backward into the hole with the front legs. The earth caves inas the animal backs into the ground so that no sign is left on the outside. Once in far enough to escape the freezing and thawing of winter the toad moves around till there is a little chamber slightly larger than its body ; then it draws its legs up close, shuts its eyes, puts its head down between or on its hands, and goes to sleep and sleeps for five months or more. When the warm days of spring come it wakes up, crawls out of bed and begins to take interest in life again. It looks around for insects and worms, and acts asifit had had only a comfortable nap. The little toad that you saw hatch from an egg into a tadpole and then turn toa toad, would hibernate for two or three winters, and by that time it would be quite a large toad. After it had grown up and had awakened from its winter sleep some spring, it would have a great longing to get back to the pond where it began life as anegg years before. Oncethere it would laya great number of eggs, perhaps a thousand or two for a new generation of toads. And this would complete its life cycle. While the toad completes its life cycle when it returns to the g2 water and lays eggs for anew generation, it may live many y.ars afterward and lay eggs many times, perhaps every year. Many insects, some fish and other animals die after laying their eggs. For such animals the completion of the life cycle ends the life-history also. But unless the toad meets with some accident it goes back to its land home after laying the eggs, and may live in the same garden or door yard for many years, as many as eight years and perhaps longer. (See Bulletin No. 46, Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass.) ERRONEOUS Norions ABOUT THE TOAD. If one reads in old books and listens to the fairy tales and other stories common everywhere, he will hear many wonderful things about the toad, but most of the things are wholly untrue. One of the erroneous notions is that the toad is deadly poison. Another is that it is possessed of marvelous healing virtues, and still another, that hidden away in the heads of some of the old- est ones, are the priceless toad-stones, jewels of inestimable value. Giving warts.—Probably every boy and girl living in the country has heard that if one takes a toad in his hands, or if a toad touches him anywhere he will ‘‘catch the warts.’’ This is not so at all, as has been proved over and over again. If a toad is handled gently and petted a little, it soon learns not to be afraid, and seems to enjoy the kindness and attention. If a toad is hurt or roughly handled, a whitish, acrid substance is poured out of the largest warts. This might smart a little if it got into the mouth, as dogs find out when they try biting a toad. It cannot be very bad, however, or the hawks, owls, crows and snakes that eat the toad would give up the practice. The toad is really one of the most harmless creatures in the world, and has never been known to hurt a man or a child. A boy might possibly have some warts on his hands after handling a toad; so might heafter handling a jack-knife or look- ing at a steam engine; but the toad does not give the warts any more than the knife or the engine. Living without air and focd.—Occasionally one reads or hears a story about a toad found in a cavity in a solid rock. When the rock is broken open, it is said that the toad wakes up and hops around as if it had been asleep only half an hour. Just think fora moment what it would mean to find a live toad within a cavity in asolid rock. It must have been there for thousands, if not for millions of years without food or air. The toad does not like a long fast, but can stand it for a year or so without foud 93 if it is in a moist place and supplied with air. It regularly sleeps four or five months every winter, but never in a place devoid of air. If the air were cut off the toad would soon die. Some eareful experiments were made by French scientific men, and the stories told about toads living indefinitely without air or food were utterly disproved. It is not difficult to see that one working ina quarry might honestly think that he had found a toadinarock. ‘Toads are not very uncommon in quarries. If a stone were broken open and a cavity found in it, and then a toad were seen hopping away, one might jump at the conclusion that the toad came out of the cavity in the rock. Is not this something like the belief that the little toads rain down from the clouds because they are most commonly seen after a shower ? SURVEYS AND MAps. In considering the suggestions made in this leaflet, we thought of the hundreds of schools throughout the state and won- dered if there might not be some difficulty in finding the ponds where the toads lay their eggs, and in finding some of the things described in the other leaflets. The teachers and students in Cornell University found this difficulty twenty-eight years ago when the University opened. The great Louis Agassiz came to the University at the beginning to give a course of lectures on nature study. The inspiration of his presence and advice, and of those lectures lasts to this day. Agassiz, and the University teachers, who had many of them been his pupils, saw at once that the region around Ithaca must be full of interesting things; but they did not know exactly where to find them. Agassiz himself made some explorations, and the professors and students took hold of the work with the greatest enthusiasm. ‘They explored the beautiful lake, the streams, hills, valleys, gorges, ponds and marshes. Careful notes were kept of the exact locality where every interesting thing was found; and simple maps were made to aid in finding the places again. Finally, after several years, knowledge enough was gained to construct an accurate map for the use of all. A part of this map, showing only the most important features, is put into this leaflet to serve as a guide. It will be seen that the University is made the central or start- 94 ing point. With a few hints it is believed that every school can make a good beginning this year on a natural history survey of the region near their schoolhouse, and in the preparation of a map to go with the survey. 2 ee Sa Fleming . Sf Meadow ; — al ; So.Hill Marsh AS ts | is fe c = 7 Simple map showing the position of Cornell University, the city of Ithaca, Cayuga Lake, and the roads and streams and peers near the University. From W. R. Dudley’s map in ‘‘ The Cayuga Flora.’’ Scale, I centimeter to the kilometer. U. Cornell University. U. L. University Lake in Fall Creek. R. Reservoir supplied from University lake, and supplying the campus. E. P. East Pond where the eggs of the toad, tree toad, frogs and sala- manders are found. F.P. Forest Home Pond. Avery favorable place for eggs, tadpoles, ete. Inlet. The inlet of the lake. ‘The lampreysare abundant near Fleming’s meadow. 95 Preparation of the map.—It is well to have the map of good size. A half sheet of bristol board will answer, but a whole sheet is better. About the first thing to decide is the scale at which the map is to bedrawn. It is better to have the scale large. ‘Twelve inches to the mile would be convenient. Divide the map into squares, making the lines quite heavy. If so large a scale were used it would be advantageous for locating places to have the large squares divided into square inches, but much lighter lines should be used so that there will be no confusion with the lines representing the miles. Locating objects on the map.—The corner of the school-house containing the corner stone should be taken as the starting point. If there is no corner stone, select the most convenient corner. Put the school-house on the map anywhere you wish, probably the center of the map would be the best place. In the sample map the university is not in the center as it was desired to show more of the country to the south and west than to the north and east. The map should of course be made like other maps, so it will be necessary to know the four cardinal points of the compass before locating anything on it. Perhaps the school-house has been placed facing exactly north and south or east and west, that is arranged with the cardinal points of the compass ; if so it will be the best guide. If you are not sure determine with a compass. With it the points can be determined quite accurately. Having determined the points of compass, commence to locate objects in the landscape on the map as follows: Get their direction from the starting point at the corner of the school-house, then measure the distance accurately by running a bicycle on which 1s a cyclo- meter, straight between the starting point and the object. The cyclometer will record the distance accurately and it can be read off easily. If no bicycle with a cyclometer is availableone can use a long measuring stick, a tape measure or evena measured string ; but the bicycle andcyclometer are more convenient and accurate, especially when the distances are considerable. Suppose the distance is found to be one-sixth of a mile due west. It should be located two inches west of the corner taken as the starting point. If the direction were south-west then the 96 two inches would be measured on the map in that direction and located accordingly. Proceed in this way for locating any pond or marsh, forest or glen. Now, when the places are located on the map, you can see how easy it would be for any one to find the places themselves. While the exact position should bedeter- mined if possible and located, one does not often take a bee-line in visiting them, but goes in roads, often a long distance around. In locating the objects on the map every effort should be made to get them accurately placed, and this can only be done by know- ing the distances in a straight line. It is hoped that every school in the state will begin making a natural history survey and a map of the region around its school house this year. The map will show but few locations perhaps, but it can be added to from year to year, just as the University map has been added to; and finally each school will have a map and notes showing exactly where the toads lay their eggs, where fish and birds are; and where the newts and salamanders, the different trees and flowers, rocks and fossils may be found. If the dates are kept accurately for the different years one can also see how much variation there is. Indeed such nature study will give a sure foundation for appreciating and comprehending the larger questions in natural science, and it will make an almost perfect preparation for taking part in or for appreciating the great surveys of astateora country. It is believed that if accurate information were collected and careful maps made by the different schools, the Empire State could soon have a natural history survey and map better than any in the world. a - ie". =, at To the Teacher : It ts the firm belief of those who advocate ‘‘ Nature Study’? that tt zs not only valuable in itself, but that tt will help to give enjoy- ment in other studies and meaning tothem. Every pupil who fol- lows out the work of this leaflet will see the need of a map of the region around the schoolhouse. This will help in the appreciation of map work generally. So many of the beautiful and inspiring things in literature are concerning some phase of nature, that ‘‘ Nature Study’’ must increase the appreciation of the literature, and the noble thoughts in the literature will help the pupils to look for and appreciate the jiner things in nature. It ts suggested that as many of the following selections as possible be read in connection with the leaflet : ‘The Fiftieth Birthday of Agassiz,” by Longfellow, The ‘“ Prayer of Agassiz,’’ by Whittier. (This describes an actual occurrence.) The first part of Bryant's ‘‘ Thanatopsts,’’ Coleridge's ‘‘ Ancient Mariner,’’ Burns’ ‘‘ On scaring some water fowl in Loch-Turit’’ and ‘*‘ To a Mouse.”’ Cowper s‘‘ The Task,’’ a selection from book vt., commencing with line 560. This givesa very just view of the rights of the lower animals. Kipling’s Jungle stories will help to give an apprecia- tion of the world from the standpoint of the animals. In connection with the disappearance of the tail, read Lowell's ‘“ Festina Lente,’ in the Biglow Papers. For older pupils, Shake- speare’s picture of the seven ages in the human life cycle might be vead. ‘‘As You Like It,’ Act II Scene II, near the end, com- mencing, ‘‘ All the world’s a stage,’’ etc. [Reprinted from the JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY, Vol. I, No. 7.] Some Apparatus to Facilitate the tention is called to the following pieces i : of apparatus, hoping that they will serve Work of the Histological and to give hints to other teachers, and Embryological Laboratory. trusting that they, or some modification to meet special needs, will prove as ser- mage 124 Every teacher who has to direct the viceable to other laboratories as they work of beginning classes and of thesis have to my own. Most of them have and research students, is compelled from been figured and described already in time to time to make modifications of some form. The figures here given re- Name of wae a und as QUART LU AM. i $ 6 Q0. Peco \ Lit Sx Rahaaky |... fect} AH. a aT ee oe > a ae ae archoy ing Se a i Ch. Date of receipt of Articles..." LL path ( eT & Se ee eon ee ee Gia AA Set. Sow, warts. bars aud Lor mater. Order No........ LA a Bae ae Date... NEW YORK STATE pert. Hi st.e a ee VETERINARY COLLEGE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Fig. 1. Inventory ecard. apparatus, or under special stress to present the latest and most Satisfactory construct wholly new pieces. Indeed, as modifications. has been well said, a laboratory ‘teacher To begin with, the laboratory teacher who is not also something of an inventor is in most cases held responsible for the cannot attain the highest success. At- property of the laboratory, and it falls MATTE cep EE ATEEHH TITER Pet ee HIT HI HY Ale Ble 6) 10 CENTIMETER RULE. The upper edge is in millimeters, the lower in centimeters and half centimeters. THE METRIC SYSTEM. UNITS. The most commonly used divisions and multiples. Z Centimeter (c.m.), 1-100th Meter; Millimeter (m.m.), 1-1000th Meter; Micron (), == —— sien 1-1000th Millimeter ; the Micron is the unit in Micrometry. neal he Kilometer, 1000 Meters ; used in measuring roads and other long distances. THE GRAM FOR § Milligram (m.g.), 1-1000 gram. ; ; WEIGHT ... (| Kilogram, 1000 grams, used for ordinary masses, like groceries, ete. THE LITER FOR § Cubic Centimeter (c.c.), 1-1000th Liter. This is more common than the correct CAPACITY . . form, Milliliter. Divisions of the Units are indicated by the Latin prefixes: Weci, 1-10th ; centi, 1-100th ; milli, 1-1000th. Multiples are designated by the Greek prefixes: deka, 10 times ; hecto, 100 times ; kilo, 1000 times ; myria, 10,000 times. (This card (1234 714 c.m.) is the size used for library catalogs.] - *. = ; Fig. 2. The metric system in a nut-shell. he Page 125 to him to indicate what is necessary to carry on the work. To facilitate this labor, and to make easily accessible a knowledge of the cost, place of purchase or the time required to obtain any piece of apparatus or any material needed in the laboratory, the catalog blank (Fig. 1) has been evolved during the last 10 years. The card has been filled out in script from an actual case. In ad- dition to the information given in this card, there is usually present a mark showing where the apparatus is to be found, thus adopting the principle of shelf marking used in libraries. To facilitate the understanding of the metric system which is required in all our work each student is supplied with a card of the standard size used in library catalogs, shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Laboratory Table, adjustable stool, water and waste jars, and screen. The most convenient size for a labora- tory table is about 125 cm. long, 72 cm. wide, and 72 cm. high, (48 in. long, 2$ in. wide and 28 or 29 in. high); and for a seat, an adjustable piano stool, costing from $1.50 to $2.00. For the most critical microscopic work one most conveniently faces the light; this is hard on the eyes and hence some form of a screen is exceedingly useful. Those figured in Fig. 3, 4 were made by inserting a wire in a tin patty dish and filling the dish with lead. The wire is bent at right angles and a sheet of heavy paper high enough to screen the eyes and low enough to shade the stage,: but not to interfere with the mirror is hung on the bent wire. Many workers find no difficulty in keeping both eyes open, simply neglect- ing the images of the eye outside the ocular, but the majority find it hard to do this. Various eye shades have been devised to obviate the trouble. Fig. 4. Screen for shading the microscope and the face of the observer. One which has the advantage that it may be used for either eye and thus en- courages the use of the eyes alternateiy is shown in Fig. 5. 7% 44 cm. Fig. 5. Double Eye-Shade. This is readily made by taking some thick bristol board 7 x 14 centimeters and making an oblong opening with rounded ends (o——o) and of such a diameter that it goes readily over the tube of the microscope. This is then covered on both sides with velveteen and a central slit (s) made in the cloth. This admits the tube of the microscope and holds the screen in position. It may read- ily be pulled from side to side and thus serves for either eye, or for the use of the eyes alternately. Twenty years experience has shown that in a laboratory there must either be a microscope for each student, which is the best plan—or some arrangement by which two or more can use one mi- croscope and be held responsible for it. The form of cabinet finally adopted is shown in Fig. 6. The outside doors put the entire equip- ment under the control of the teacher. The small lockers make it possible to give each microscope to a definite num- ber of students, who can be held accountable for it. In order that specimens may have a neat appearance and be uniform, it is a age 126 _ _ Fig. 6. Cabinet for Microscopes. great help for beginners to have some kind of a guide in mounting. Fig. 7 shows such a device. Nig.) 7. A convenient label is shown in Fig. 8. As illustrated in the filled out label the thickness both of the cover-glass and zy CVE ys e7 vate. Oct. Fig. 8. of the section is indicated. The thick- ness of the cover is in hundredths of a millimeter, that of the sections in microns (/4). As it is desirable to have every stu- dent independent each should be given, if possible, an individual locker for his specimens and material. The lockers available in the histological laboratory at Cornell are shown in Fig. 9. For each there are several reagent boards with holes of various sizes and a drawer. Some of the reagent boards have holes about 25 mm. in diameter for the prepar- ation vials shown in Fig. 12, and they also serve very well indeed for storing paraffin imbedded tissues. Fig. 10. For paraffin ribbons and for temporary mounts or for working series the rather expensive slide drawers (Fig. 10 A) and Page 127 (pin ELI LI SS = Binge wy f f iY —si-= f — BE 4 aie — ayn th / I AReaGENT YJ Fe oo tp = i Gin TYP ; A BOARDS, Y y _ Y oa: - yl a; / 4 -+ Hp Ye Pee acl ay —_ Gi S * +P +F yy Vy Ao Yj 4 y is 4 Ue— + ic Dp : : 2 ik A 1,2 ® 2E INCH HOLES. Py + —— 8 - 14 TIL =. TITEL | ~ | BeBe are SEES O ---15k--= 88000000 Pass FT 2 opener | See HE SLIDES FORM REAGENT BOARDS PLANS AND DRAWERS. REAGENT. BOARDS REAGENT BOARDS AND DRAWERS ARE” INTERCHANGEABLE THROUGHOUT, SSS SE SS ELEVATION. “. Fig. 9. Lockers and Reagent Boards. cabinets are hardly available, and not altogether suitable. Instead, shallow drawers are used. One is shown in face and in sectional view in Fig. 10. These fit the lockers and several of them may take the place of a reagent board or a drawer. As they have an edge all around, any one may easily be removed without disturbing the others. Each drawer is about 30x43 centimeters (12x17 in.) and holds 50 slides. They cost only about $12.00 per hundred and have proved a great convenience during the two years in which they have been in use. fee [ 1/880 erve fibers Lat There have already appeared descrip- tions of two markers in the Journal, showing how widely the need has been felt. Probably a dozen different methods have been devised for finding some part of a microscopic specimen. The marker here shown is simple and has proved of great help for marking specimens to he used in .class demonstrations and in special study. This form of a finder has Fig. 10A. the advantage that a slide marked by it Fig. 10 and 10 A. Face and sectional views of slide drawers. can be used on any microscope. oe Page 128 = , 5 a | W Fig. 11. The marker consists of the part SS with the milled edge (M). This part bears the Society or objective screw for attaching the marker to the microscope. R. Rotating part of the marker. This bears the eccentric brush (B) at its lower end. This brush is on a wire (W). This wire is eccentric, and may be made more or less so by bending the wire. The central dotted line coincides with the axis of the micro- scope. The revolving part is connected with the ‘Society Screw’ by the small screw (S). Section of a series marked to indicate that this section shows something espe- cially well. The lines of a micrometer are ringed to facilitate finding the lines. Fig. 12. Shell vials. For much of the work of histology and embryology, small wide-mouth shell vials are very convenient. Three sizes have answered most purposes, 18x50 mm., 23x65mm., and 35x90 mm. The lips should be slightly flared. The cost is $2.00 per gross for the smaller ones and $6.00 per gross for the largest ones. These are not good for long storage. They are for preparing objects. For long storage nothing is so satisfactory as a glass stoppered bottle. The larger of these vials takes a slide and is very use- ful for staining, clearing, etc. For reagents which are to be used with a dropper or pipette, bottles of various sizes are employed. That volatile li- quids shall not evaporate, a cork is perforated and put over the glass tube as shown in the figure. Fig. 13. Reagent bottle with combined cork and pipette. For preparing objects a waste bowl or dish with a rack on the top for sup- porting the slides, a drainage funnel, etc., is very convenient. One may use an ordinary bowl or preferably an aquar- ium jar. (Fig. 3). The rack is made of two pieces of sheet lead into which are soldered brass rods. The funnel is made of brass or copper. For balsam, and homogeneous oil, no receptacle has been satisfactory for daily use except a capped bottle like a small spirit lamp. Fig. 15. A moist chamber for blood prepara- tions, etc., can be very simply made with a bowl or an equarium jar and a white dinner plate. age 129 Fig. 14. Waste bowl with rack and drain- age funnel (see also Fig. 3). A B Fig. 15. Capped holder for Balsam homogeneous oil with glass rod. Fig. 16. Simple moist chamber. In handling amphibian eggs and other small and delicate objects an egg pipette inay be easily made by cutting off a short medicine dropper and adding to the tip some soft rubber tubing. It is easy with this to catch and handle young embryos of frogs, salamanders, ete. Objects fixed with osmic acid alone or in combination with chromic acid or platinie chlorid (Flemming’s or Her- mann’s solutions, etc.), require to be washed out a long time in running wa- ter. To accomplish this washing without danger to the tissue and still thorough- ly, the following arrangement was de- vised: A small side tap was put in the pipe leading to the ordinary faucet. A copper box with a small tube near the bottom was put at one corner and this was connected with the washing tap by a rubber tube. A skeleton box with pro- jecting edge was then made to fit inside C Fig. 1i. Egg-pipette. and Page 130 Fig. 18. Washing apparatus for tissues fixed in osmic acid, ete. the receiver. This skeleton, inside box is divided up into a dozen compartments and for each a little basket is prepared. The tissue is put into the little baskets and they are placed in the compart- ments as shown in the figure (Fig. 18 A). The outside box is about 1 centimeter deeper than the inside one and the wa- ter runs in at the bottom and out over the top. This insures a constant change of the water, and as the water enters at the bottom it must pass through the perforations of the inside box and of the little basket before coming in con- tact with the tissue; it can be seen that the current is very gentle when it Fig. 19. Combined receptacle and water- bath for melting paraffin, and for gelatin injection masses. reaches the tissue. This apparatus has now been in use about six months and has proved very satisfactory. The washing apparatus shown in B, will be described by one of my students in a later issue of the Journal. For heating gelatin for injections and paraffin for filtering, etc., a combined receptacle and water bath was devised. The cut shows the construction. For the filtered paraffin that is to be used for imbedding, a combined water bath and receptacle was devised in which the water bath nearly surrounded the paraffin receptacle as shown in the cut. For a large laboratory the paraffin receptacle should hold about one liter. yoeorcrcercrc Neem ew eo oom we em ww ww KK = Fig. 20. Paraffin receptacle with water- bath, and spout for paraffin imbedding. P—Paraffin. In filtering paraffin and gelatin some form of hot filter is necessary. The form here shown has worked admirably. ' "age 131 ‘aj rt yah Bt) Es, So much trouble was experienced in filtering from the clinging of the filter to the sides of the vessel that a wire leaving about 1 cm. basket space all Shaan mine: EXPRESS ~ Fig. 21. Hot filter for paraffin and gela- tin, in section. B. B. Wire basket somewhat smaller than the receptacle. The Flannel or filter paper is put inside this. H. Closed tube continuous with the water bath. The Bunsen burner or the alcohol lamp is put under this. F. Outlet of the filter. P. The receptacle for the paraffin, The cover fits inside P. suspended by a bail. etc. and the whole is Fig. 22. Screw-top copper can for col- lecting with a bicycle. around was devised. The filter paper or flannel is put in this and the paraffin or gelatin is then poured in as usual and as the filtered material oozes through the sides it runs down the wires to the outlet. For collecting with a bicycle I have found a can with a very large screw top very convenient. It is water tight in any position, and can be easily put into almost any form of bicycle carrier. A leather bag attached to the handle bars has proved convenient. Many times one needs considerable space and a pair of two-liter cans have frequently been carried. B Fig. 23. Circulation-board for WNecturi and frogs. It is composed of a board about 8 x 30 centimeters with a perforated cork bearing a thick cover inserted in a hole near one edge. B. The circulation board. It is covered with cloth or blotting paper. C. Sectional view showing the cov- ered cork in place. All the metal apparatus described in this article has been made of copper or brass, tin rusts out too soon. For the washing outfit (Fig. 18) wire netting may be used, but perforated copper or brass is more satisfactory, (Fig. 18 B). SIMON HENRY GAGE, Cornell University, July 18, 1898. a ' v «iw } p Derr. ¥ \ . ‘ . ’ J i iPy 4 . i v Lud k ~ i jl . ) an ee! . j j : ie i VAS ine H ry \ Wr i aa Fy, ! A GRANT SHERMAN HOPKINS, D.Sc. Assistant Professor of Veterinary Anatomy and Anatomical Methods. ARTICLE, Some [ungless Salamanders. Illustrated. American Naturalist, Vol xxx, October, 1896. Pp. 829-833. THE HEART OF SOME LUNGLESS SALAMANDERS.' By G. S. HOPKINS. From the American Naturalist, October, 1896. Pp. 829-833. The recent literature of zoology has, perhaps, contained nothing more unexpected and startling than that certain adult salamanders are entirely lacking in those respiratory organs, which, heretofore, have been deemed indispensable to the existence of animals so high in the zoological scale as the Amphibia. ‘This total lack of lungs and branchize appears the more marvelous when we remember that they are absent in forms which lead a rather active and wholly terrestrial life, as well as in those of more or less purely aquatic habits. Two questions are naturally suggested by this apparently aberrant condition of the respiratory organs. First, what structures or organs have taken on the functions of the lungs and branchiz? and secondly, is there any modification in the form or structure of the heart which in any way may be correlated with the above mentioned peculiarities of these lungless forms? The first of these two questions has been discussed to some extent by Prof. Harris H. Wilder, of Smith College, who first published an account of this apparently anomalous condition. He concluded that respiration was probably carried on by the skin and, perhaps, to some extent by the mucosa of the intestine. Prof. Camerano has also pub- lished the results of some experiments upon two European forms which bear upon this same question. He believes that in these lungless forms respiration is effected in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity, and that the skin affords no efficient aid in the respiratory processes. In a still later paper he discusses the subject further, and tries to account for the disappearance of the lungs. Of one aquatic species (of the genus Molge) he says: ‘‘The function of the lungs as hydrostatic organs, is very marked.’’ ‘‘In the clearly terrestrial forms one would say that the diminution in importance of the function of the lungs as hydrostatic organs induces a retrogressive development of them while at the same time the importance of the bucco-pharyngeal respiration is increased.”’ It appears to the writer that Camerano’s conclusions need to be tested by further experiments, especially the part referring to the res- tRead before the Amer. Assoc, Adv, Science, Aug. 24, 1896, to piration, for the area of the dermal surface far exceeds that of the bucco-pharyngeal cavity, and the skin is also very richly supplied with blood vessels which are so close to the surface that it would appear as if the gases of the blood and air might be readily interchanged. It is hoped that time will permit of some experiments on this point during the coming year. As to the second question, whether there is any appreciable modifi- cation of the heart in these lungless salamanders, nothing whatever has been published. It is the object of this paper to call attention to the fact that there is a difference in the heart of those salamanders that do not have lungs and those which do have them. So far as I have examined, it is possible to distinguish between the two forms by examining the heart alone. In order that what is said on this point may be clearly understood by every one, and in order to bring out the differences between the two more sharply, if possible, I wish first to recall to mind the structure of the Amphibian heart and then contrast with it the relations as found in the heart of a lungless individual. We may take Huxley’s descrip- tion of the Amphibian heart as our standard of comparison. In his Anatomy of Vertebrates he says: ‘‘The heart presents two auricles, a single ventricle and a bulbus arteriosus. A venous sinus, the walls of which are rhythmically contractile, receives the venous blood from the body and opens into the right auricle. The left auricle is much smaller than the right and a single pulmonary vein opens into it.’’ In regard to the septum of the auricles, he says that ‘‘it is less complete in Proteus, Siren and Menobranchus ( Necturus) than in other Amphibia. In Menobranchus the septum is reduced to little more than a wide meshed network of branched muscular bands, and in Proteus the existence of a septum is doubtful.”’ The heart of our common Newt (Diemyctylus viridescens) Fig. 1 or of the large yellow-spotted salamander (Amblystoma punctatum), for examples, corresponds perfectly with Huxley’s description. In both of these forms the auricular septum is perfectly complete, the cavities of the auricles being entirely separated, except just at the auriculo- ventricular aperature, at which point the two auricles communicate with each other to some extent. In Necturus, the septum is more or less fenestrated and, according to Huxley, it is very incomplete in Proteus and Siren, but in all of the forms that have been mentioned, as well as in other members of the class Batrachia, the sinus venosus opens distinctly into the right auricle and the pulmonary vein into the left. Let us now compare the heart of a lungless salamander (Fig. 2. )with the one just described. ‘The four parts, auricles, ventricle, bulbus arte- riosus and sinus venosus are clearly recognizable and, superficially examined present nothing unusual; it is only when the cavities are 5 oO opened that the differences between the two hearts become apparent. One of the first things to attract attention is the left auricle. In the lungless forms examined, it is much smaller in comparison to the right than in Diemyctylus, for example, and zo pulmonary vein was found opening into tt. The auricular septum has only one opening through it, or perhaps, more correctly, it extends only part way across the cavity, but this aperature in the septum is so large (Fig. 2, 9.) that it is believed the communication between the two cavities is more free than even in Necturus. Just what function or functions the septum may have in these lungless forms, it seems to me, is not quite clear. That it has but little, if any use, is indicated by the way the sinus venosus opens into the auricles. In place of opening into the right auricle only, as in the forms having lungs, 7/ opens more freely into the left auricle than into the right. If the ventral parietes of the heart be removed, one can look directly into the opening of the sinus venosus from either of the auricles, but more directly into it from the left than from the right, for when seen from the latter, one must look through the large opening of the auricular septum, Fig. 2,9. In salamanders with lungs, each auricle opens in common into the ventricle with about equal freedom of communication, whereas in the lungless forms the right auricle is in more direct com- munication with the ventrical than is the left. Judging from the above facts, i. e., the way the sinus venosus opens into the auricles, the freedom with which the auricles communicate with each other, and the way the auricles communicate with the ventricle, it would seem as if the heart of the lungless salamanders, functionally, was only bilocular in place of being trilocular as in the rest of the Am- phibia. Morphologically, of course, it is trilocular, but whether it is so physiologically, seems to me doubtful. The hearts of 8 lungless species have been examined by the writer, and so far as was made out, all of them agree closely with the description as given above. The probabilities are that in all the lungless forms similar conditions of the heart will be found. Up to the present time 17 species and sub-species, either wholly without lungs or with only functionless rudiments of them, have been reported. In his last paper, in which are enumerated 15 of the 17 lungless species, Wilder says that “an the Salamadridze lungless species are as numerous as those pos- sessing lungs, and that in consequence of this, the definition of the group must be modified.’’ It seems, however, that even with his pro- posed additions, the definition is still not sufficienty comprehensive, for the peculiarities in the structure of the heart certainly have almost as profound a significance as the absence of the lungs themselves, and should be incorporated in any definition that may be given. In addition to the 17 lungless species already mentioned, the writer has found an additional one, Spelerpes gluttolineatus. PLATE XVI. Hopkins on Diemyctylus. 3 PLATE XVII. Fig, 2 is H Hopkins on Desmognathus. 6 In order that one may see at a glance in which families and genera bungless individuals are found, the following table, taken from Prof. Cope’s Batrachia of North America, is appended. taken from the papers of Wilder and others. | Families. Genera. No. of species. [The last column is No. of species with- out lungs or with only rudiments of them. at tiida. / Cryptobranchus 2 Cryptobranchidae ( Megalobatrachus 1 ad ‘ f 12[N.A.] : fe stoma \ 1[ Siam] A. opacum Amblystomidae 4 Chondrotus 7 Linguaelapsus 2 Dicamptodon I Hynobius 5 Hynobiidae / econ neees , z all Asiatic] , Onychodactylus 1 [all As Ranidens 3 Batrachyperus I : ests | oe 5 31 eS eryihtenaa” Hemidactylium 1 |p. Lm . glutinosus | Batrachoseps 4 1 B. attenuatus Stereochilus I | Autodax 3 [Euro- 1 A. lugubris Plethodontidae 4 ieecuaton 5 ean] r G. fuscus | Gyrinophilus ae: 1 G. porphyriticus Manculus 2 1 M. quadridigitatus Beelerias 'S. bilineatus Oedi oc 9 34S. ruber | P S. gluttolineatus | Oedipus 9 Thoriidae { Thorius I I QO. variegatus D. fusca Desmognathidae {| Desmognathus 3 14 D. f. brimleyorum D. f. auriculatus | Chioglossa I Salamandridae | See ae 7 3 [Old World] emisalamandra I Triturus 6 | Pachytriton I Wo. ice No. of species with- Families. Genera. tae out lungs or with only metic rudiments of them. Pleurodelidae ( Salamandrina Pope ace S. perspicillata [All found in ; Diemyctylus 10 species] Old World; three | Pleurodeles es species in N. A.] | Glossolega z Amphiumidae | Amphiuma I mae J (numer- Coeciliidae { (numerous ) ae In the last column of the above table, the figures indicate the num- ber of species in which lungless individuals have been found. Where there is a discrepancy in the numerals and the number of species follow- ing them, it indicates either sub-species or species not mentioned in Cope’s Batrachia of North America. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES. Fic. t. Heart of Diemyctylus viridescens (semi-diagramatic) to show the general relations of the heart of a salamander with lungs. The ventral wall of the heart has been removed in order to show the auricular septum, the openings of the sinus venosus and the pulmonary vein, and also the relation of the auriculo-ventricular aperture to the right and left auricle. foeieteeantdcie - 2: left auricle; 3.. Ventricle; 4. Sintis venosus ; 5. Bulbus arteriosus ; 6. Auricular septum ; 7. Auriculo- ventricular aperture; 8. Aperture of sinus venosus; 9. Pulmo- nary vein. Fic. 2. Heart of Desmognathus fusca (semi-diagramatic) to show rela- tions of the heart in a lungless salamander. The ventral wall of the heart has been removed. 1. Right auricle; 2. left auricle; 3. Ventricle; 4. Sinus venosus ; 5. Bulbus arteriosus ; 6. Auricular septum ; 7. Auriculo- ventricular aperture ; 8. Aperture of sinus venosus; g. Opening through auricular septum. W) ra nye . vy aa ue BENJ. FREEMAN KINGSBURY, A.B., Ph.D. Instructor tn Microscopy, Histology and Embryology. mene LS: The Structure and Morphology of the Oblongata in Fishes. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol vii, No. 1. April, 1897. Pp. 1-36. The Encephalic Evaginations in Ganoids. The Journal of Comparative Neurology. Vol. vii, No. 1. April, 1897. Pp. 37-44. The Demonstration of Karyokinesis, Journal of Applied Microscopy. Vol. 1, No. 5. May, 1898. Pp. 80-83. THE STRUCTURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE OBLONGATA IN FISHES. By B. F. Kinespury. With Plates I-V. The writer was engaged in the study of the Amphibian brain at the time of the appearance of the monograph by O. S. Strong on the cranial nerves of Amphibia. Especially was it then attempted to determine in (Vecturus the ental origin of the nerves of the oblongata, and many results attained by Strong had been independently gained by me, largely under the stimulus of his preliminary papers, but the broad view and general application which made Strong’s paper so valuable a contribution were in a degree wanting in my own. In Strong’s comparison of the cranial nerves of Amphibia with those of ‘‘fishes”’ in the effort to find in the latter the rep- resentatives of the components already recognized by him, it was difficult to harmonize the accounts by various writers of the origin of certain of the nerves in the different forms. When, therefore, opportunity was afforded me during the past year of studying the brains of several ganoids and teleosts, especially Ama and Amiurus, one of the objects was to confirm the hom- ologies suggested by Strong, to find in these forms the rep- resentatives of the nerve components previously recognized in Amphibia, and to identify in these so variously modified brains the corresponding regions, and determine their morphologic and structural relations. It is the ultimate purpose, as just suggested, to work out somewhat carefully by means of the Weigert and Golgi meth- ods the structure and relations of the regions of this part of the brain for certain ganoids and teleosts, in order to gain a more exact knowledge of the connections of the various nidi with each other and with the rest of the brain and myel. This 2 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. last task is far from complete ; however, pending the time when results in this difficult field may be gained of sufficient definite- ness and coherence to render their publication of value, a more general consideration of the dorsal portions of the oblongata in fishes may serve to emphasize the regions whose various modi- fications have produced the truly enormous structures of cer- tain teleosts, namely ;—(1) the center of the acoustic and lat- eral line system nerves; (2) that portion which is the undoubt- ed representative of the fasciculus communis portion of the Amphibian oblongata; and (3) the spinal fifth tract, the direct continuation of the dorsal columns of the myel. These are three systems having constant relations to certain cranial nerves, and should have names indicative of their character. It seems unwise, however, to introduce new terms. They will be spoken of as the ( Systema) acusticum, the fasciculus communis or ( fas- ciculus) communis system and the spinal Vth (fifth) tract, re- spectively. The forms considered here' comprise 17 species, represent- ing among the teleosts 10 families and 5 orders. Although far too few to permit any general conclusions being safely drawn as to the characteristic development in the various orders or even families, they yet strongly suggest what may be the case, and have given a far better idea of the extent and significance of the modifications of the regions. This study was conducted by means of serial sections made through this region of the brain. Where but a single series was made the sections were transverse ; in some cases supple- mentary series were made in the other two planes. The brains were fixed in Fish’s picro-aceto-sublimate (formula: picric acid, I gram; mercuric chloride, 5 grams; glacial acetic acid, 10 c.c.; 50% alcohol, 1000 c.c.) or vom Rath’s picric-sublimate- acetic mixture (formula: picric acid, sat. aq. sol. 100 c.c., hot sat. sol. mercuric chloride 100 c.c., glacial acetic acid 2 c.c.) 1 Namely, Amita calva, Lepidosteus osseus, Actpenser rubicundus, Amiurrs nebulosus, Catostomus teres, Notemigonus chrysoleucus, Exoglossum maxillilingua, Notropis cornutus, Cyprinus carpto, Clupea pseudoharengea, Esox reticulatus, Cot- tus tctalops, Perca flavescens, Lepomis gibbosus, Roccus chrysops, Fundulus diaphanus. Kincssury, Oblongata in Fishes. 3 Of these two the aqueous formula seemed more satisfactory, although they were not tested for comparative results. With these the stains employed were Delafield’s hematoxylin and Van Gieson’s picro-fuchsin. The hematoxylin and picro-fuchsin were preferably used separately and all staining was in section. The hematoxylin was used much dilute and allowed to act some time and overstain slightly; subsequent staining in the picro- fuchsin lasted until all the hematoxylin was removed from the collodion in which all the brains were embedded and cut. An alcoholic (67 %) picro-fuchsin stain was also employed. Wei- gert staining was conducted in the usual manner and these brains were fixed and hardened in 3 and 5% solutions of potas- sium dichromate several weeks. The work was conducted in the Anatomical laboratory of Cornell University, and to the Anatomical Department I am in- debted for much material and all the facilities of research. Professors Wilder and Gage have helped me with their kindly interest, suggestions and advice, and the latter has lent me per- sonal assistance in procuring material ; for all of which I would express my grateful appreciation. All the Aczpenser material was obtained and fixed by Dr. O. D. Humphrey of Erie, Pa., and to his care and skill the results obtained were due. Of the forms studied, the Ganoids, and Amia in particu- lar, form from every point of view the more natural and conve- nient basis for comparison and point of departure in studying the oblongata of bony fishes. Because of the presence of a cerebellum of typical structure, and the even development of the parts of the oblongata, Asmza presents advantages over the simpler urodelan brain on the one hand and the other ganoids (as far as studied) and the teleosts on the other, which present greater though different complexities. Therefore it will be ad- vantageous to discuss somewhat the oblongata and cranial nerves of Ama; avoiding, however, all details not necessary in con- nection with the purpose of this paper. The transition from myel to oblongata in Amza is gradual enough, and the cornua of the cinerea well enough defined (as contrasted with the simpler /Vecturus) to permit the following of 4 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. myelic structures into the oblongata, and it is in the dorsal por- tions, as usual, that the change is most marked. In a section of typical myel the ventral cornua are narrow and extend latero- ventrad; dorsad of the myelocoele is a region of cinerea from which the delicate dorsal cornua extend terminating in swellings composed of amyelinic fibers and ‘‘ ground substance’”’ with numerous small cells interspersed. Surrounding these on the dorsal, mesal and lateral sides are fine closely aggregated myel- inic fibers. The ventral tracts are composed of coarser fibers with the characteristic Mauthner fibers; the lateral tracts are formed of fibers, in general, intermediate in caliber between those of the dorsal and ventral portions. As the oblongata is approached, the dorsal horns enlarge, gaining a size three or four times that characteristic of the myelic portion (Figs. 6 and 13). At the same time the typic- ally small myelocele enlarges and assumes a subtriangular section ; the sulci forming the angle sextending toward the dor- si-meson and the ventral cornua. The larger part of the dorsal fibers disappear and just caudad of the metatela a concentration of fine fibers on the dorso- and ventro-lateral sides of the cornua mark the first recognizable appearance of the spinal Vth tract. At this level the dorsal cornu and the gelatinosa rapidly disap- pear. (Pig. 15): Near the caudal end of the metatela, a lateral sulcus ap- pears, and dorsad of it the first appearance, as such, of the fas- ciculus communis (lobus vagi). (Fig. 15). Increase in size of the fasciculus communis tract and migra- tion ventrad of the spinal Vth tract give the former for a short distance a dorsal position. Soon, however, there appears dorsad of the spinal Vth tract and the fasciculus communis an area of fibers and intermingled small cells, which increases rap- idly in extent and soon becomes capped by a layer of amyelinic substance, the cerebellar crest (cerebellarleiste of Goronowitsch), a caudal continuation of the molecular layer of the cerebellum (Figs. 16, 17). The change in the morphology of the oblon- gata from this point cephalad is simply in the increase in size of this, the acusticum, displacing farther ventrad the spinal Vth Kinessury, Obdlongata in Fishes. 5 tract, and the revolution of the wall between the ventral and lateral sulci somewhat from a vertical to a more horizontal posi- tion (Figs. 16-18). Nerves. The vagus nerve arises by 4 (or 5) large roots each made up of two or three smaller rootlets. The most caudal root is undoubtedly purely motor and may be recognized some distance caudad of the metatela as an ascending tract.’ As it passes cephalad it is reinforced several times by fibers from the the ventral horn, especially at its exit where a number of fibers come from the motor vagal nidus (Zwischenzellen of Go- ronowitsch) now recognized as a distinct cluster of cells. (Fig. 15, ni). The roots cephalad contain both motor and sensory (ganglionated) fibers and all arise in much the same way, the sensory from the fasciculus communis system (lobus vagi) as shown in Fig. 16, the motor from the vagal motor nidus and apparently also from cells of the ventral cornu proper, though they may yet arise from cells of the vagal nidus, the neurite simply bending ventrad first, it having in no case been traced into any cell. The caudal rootlets go ventrad of the spinal Vth tract, the cephalic ones dorsad of it (Fig. 16), while the inter- mediate roots break through it in passing to their exit. It was difficult to determine definitely whether the vagal roots which penetrated the spinal Vth tract drew fibers from it or not. However, those which passed dorsad to it clearly received a small contingent of fine fibers from it. This is important. Strong, from the fact that in Amphibia vagal fibers were closely associated with the spinal (ascending) Vth, considered it proba- ble that the same source for a portion of the fibers of the Xth existed in other Ichthyopsida. It will be seen later that a sim- ilar derivation of a portion of the fibers of the Xth occurs in at least some teleosts. Accompanying the vagus is the lateral line nerve which after the former enters the brain continues cephalad some dis- tance and is joined by the [Xth which reaches it after piercing 1In this respect there is a close resemblance between Amaand Necturus (Amphibia). 6 JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY. the ear-capsule. The lateral line nerve is composed of the characteristic fibers with dense sheaths. It also receives a small contingent of fine fibers from the IXth and in turn gives to it a small bundle of its coarse fibers.' The IXth enters the brain first (Fig. 17) and sends a bundle to the fasciculus communis and one to the lateral nidus of cells, a continuation of the vagal motor nidus. The lateral line nerve soon enters the dorsal tract, the acusticum, just ventrad of the cerebellar crest and the fibers can be traced cephalad for some distance; whether any of them enter the cerebellum or not as Goronowitsch found in Actpenser has not been satisfactorily determined; it seems im- probabie. Ascending fibers of the VIIIth nerve may be recognized at the level of the [Xth, dorsad of the spinal Vth. This nerve leaves the oblongata just dorsad of the spinal Vth tract. Other fibers of the VIIIth seem to terminate immediately on entering the brain near the characteristic large laterally situated cells, so regularly found, and a few turn cephalad ; however, the rela- tions in this complicated region have not been made out at all satifactorily as yet. So far, Amza agrees quite closely with Acz- penser, but in the origin of the remaining roots near the VIIIth there is a considerable difference. In the first place there does not exist in Azza the dorsal prominence present in a © Number of Jan. 9,1897 | 40 Jan. 14, 1897 80 Jan. 14, 1897 14 Feb. 5. 1897 | Feb. 11, 1807 | Mar. 5, 1897 Apr. 6, 1897 tubes. Amount in each tube. | | | | uss 200 nN STERILIZATION OF BOUIL Time boiled. | | | | 30 MMtl.-.::. 20 Tkit.e-. 30 MIN ...:.- 5) wn ININN™N ln nan oMemene) SO TN iliaceses #2 |) 30 TNL ce... 30 MMIM..i... BOM. cae Days in incuba- tor after boiling. No. of tubes contaminated NNN ws On LON WITH ONE BOILING. Remarks Fermentation tubes with one per cent. glucose. STERILIZATION OF AG A R Date. Number of | | Jani. 22, 18y7 | - 50 Jan. 27, 1897 48 Feb. 5.1897 | §&1 Feb 13, 1897 14 Mar. 16, 1897 25 Mar. 27, 1807 41 Apr. 6,1897 | 4o tubes. Amount in each tube aA2AnaAn Time boiled. 20 Min... ...- No of tubes contaminated tor after boiling. Days in incuba- ZO MMT. .-.- N oo 20 ML0...-.. Z(ojagobbalopeere WITH ONE, BOILING. Remarks. Each of the three tubes con- tained a spore bearing bacil- lus belonging to the B. subr- ibis group. Same as above. 20 M101 7..-5: STERILIZATION OF TUBES OF AGAR CONTAINING A LAR- GER QUANTITY FOR MAKING PLATE CULTURES. Number of Date. | Dec. 29, 1896 30 Vans) 27,3897 | 26 Feb. 5, 1897 Mar. 16, 1897 35 Mar. 27, 1897 Apr. 6, 1897! 40 tubes. tube, Amount in each Time boiled. tor after boiling. No. of tubes contaminated. Days in incuba: NN ON Remarks, Left at room temp. for 10 days Spore bearing bacillus be- longing to the B. subtilis group. 8 Raymonp C. REED. STERILIZATION OF GELATIN WITH ONE BOILING. he ah ‘ bia ay Pee ee a a ah } 9 a oie | 24 og] 8a 3 Ba )S 3 Date. 22 ee a) oe yal ees Remarks, a 5 q = 9) 3010 \s shoes oe r= & = 7 S) i> 2a10s = - | 4 6 < | Ale Z Dec. 29, 1896 | 30 T2 GC ee SAO vERUIS faye o |Left at roomtemp for14 days Feb. 19, 1897 30 15 Co CN wits | 30 min.... 7 Of ho ssheeaeees 1 ete Mar. 18, 1897 15 1SiC ere) MeO II. | =. 7 on 1G Yo trerroresl h tese) 7.2 iC ene i sOant 7 1 |Contained a spore bearing bacillus belonging to the BZ. subtilis group. Mar. 23, 1897 LOy paste peter | O30 MET... 7 O 'Pidieccan. ines elets eel D Obs: epactesce |) 30: aaa ie etter | 30 min.... 7 (ol (OR Mar. 25, 1897 35 | Kee SG ad peciehvech pelea» 7 ° If spore bearing bacilli are present in large numbers more difficulties might be experienced. But ordinarily if the medium is prepared with proper care and distrib- uted as soon as filtered, in sterile tubes and boiled at once very few contaminations are likely to occur. The time that must elaspe before the medium can be safely used is not so much shorter than when the custom- ary method is employed but the time actually spent in sterilizing is much shorter. In a crowded laboratory this is important. It probably is not necessary to leave the media in the incubator from five to seven days as I have indicated in the above tables for in every case of con- tamination the growth took place within the first twenty four hours. I am not prepared to say that this method is the best or that it is safe for all kinds of work, but it has proved to be well adapted to the needs in a student laboratory and to save much valuable time for both the student and the teacher. Reprinted from the Transactions of the American Microscopical Soctety, 1897. DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR BACTERIA IN SECTIONS CUT BY THE COLLODION METHOD. RAYMOND CGC. REED? Pu. B., Irnaca, Ne Y. Many elaborate methods of staining bacteria in tissues have been devised, but with nearly all of them difficulties have been encountered. Probably the greatest trouble has been in the staining of the imbedding medium or the albumen fixative which usually obscure both the tissue elements and the bacte- ria. Unless, therefore, the sections are cut in paraffin and not fastened to the slide by these common fixatives the bac- teria are not satisfactorily brought out. Here again arises another obstacle. With loose or fragile tissues there is great danger of tearing the sections or of losing parts of them dur- ing the process of staining and dehydrating, thus destroy- ing the value of the preparation. é Although paraffin is commonly used in pathological his- tology, collodion is more often employed in imbedding normal tissues. The rule in normal histology is to fasten the sec- tions to the slide. In pathological histology they are not, for the reasons mentioned, ordinarily fastened, but in many cases it seems better to do so. The need of having an abso- lutely perfect section from a pathological tissue, especially for diagnosis, is even greater than is the case when sections of normal tissues are being made. The loss of a very small bit from the section may cause an entirely erroneous inter- pretation. By the use of collodion as the imbedding medium this danger is practically entirely eliminated, while the method is much simpler and easier than that in which paraffin is used and the sections are fastened to the slide by the use of collodion or an albumen fixative, 2 RAYMOND C. REED: It is a well known fact that collodion takes most of the aniline dyes and will not give up the stain without being treated with a decolorising agent sufficiently strong to decolorise the tissue atthe same time. Inthe case of paraffin sections which have been fastened to the slide with collodion or albumen fixative, or both, besides the disadvantage of using a process which takes a longer time, we meet the same diffi- culty that we did in the collodion method, in that the fixative takes the stain and obscures the preparation quite as muchas does the imbedding collodion. Both the collodion and the paraffin methods have their advantages for special kinds of work. Ordinarily in patho- logical histology I much prefer, for the reasons mentioned, collodion to paraffin as an imbedding medium. The method I have used is that described by Prof. S. H. Gage* in a paper read before this society in 1895. In it he summarised the whole process of sectioning by the oil-collodion method and suggested two very important improvements in the way of simplifying and cheapening the process. This method includes the improvements suggested by Dr. P. A. Fish in 1893. Dr. Fish fastened the sections to the slide by putting a few drops of ether and alcohol on the section after it was in position. Prof. Gage used a mixture of three parts of xylene and one part of castor oil as a clarifier. In passing a section from water to strong alcohol, or vice versa, he avoids the diffusion currents by plunging the slide directly into the desired liquid instead of carrying it through successively higher or lower percentages of alcohol, as the case might be. This method, as perfected by Dr. Fish and Prof. Gage, is very simple and apparently the best one yet devised. After finding the best method of cutting the sections the problem then seems to resolve itself into the selecting of a suitable dye that will stain the bacteria properly and yet one * S. H. Gage, Improvements in Oil-Sectioning with Collodion. Proceedings American Microscopical Society, Vol. XVII., 1895, pp. 361-370. | P. A. Fish, A new Clearer for Collodionised Objects. Proceedings American Micro- scopical Society, Vol. XV., 1893, pp. 68-89 DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR BACTERIA. 3 that will wash out of the imbedding material without the use of a decolorising agent so strong that it will remove the stain from the tissue and the bacteria. During the past year we have had a large amount of patho- logical material to section and for the most part for diag- nosis. At first I cut most of this in paraffin, as Dr. Moore preferred it to collodion on account of the staining of the collodion. Inthe winter term I had some sections that I wanted to stain with gentian violet, but finding that we were out of it, I substituted dahlia in its place. These sections had been cut by the paraffin method and it was found that the stain not only showed the bacteria well but also brought out beautifully the histological structure of the tissue. Later I had occasion to cut some sections from some material which had been imbedded in collodion and to stain them for bacteria. After using other stains, such as carbol fuchsin and methyl violet, with unsatisfactory results, I tried an aqueous solution of the dahlia and found that it worked perfectly. In the process of washing and dehydrating this was entirely removed from the collodion, leaving both the tissues and the bacteria well stained and sharply differentiated. Other formule, using dahlia as the dye, were tried, such as a solution containing less of the elements of a mordant nature, using 2 per cent. carbolic acid instead of 5 per cent., and also Koch-Ehrlich’s aniline water solution. The carbolic acid solution did fairly well, but the aniline water solution stained the collodion too deeply and permanently. Neither brought out the cellular elements with anything like the clearness that the simple aqueous solution did. The formula for the stain used is as follows : Saturated alcoholic solution of dahlia ..... 20 C.C. rescence weet en ca ae ie ae 8. nwo de SO eps 100 c.c. The length of time necessary to stain properly varies, according to the condition of the tissue, from fifteen minutes to half an hour, that is, they must be distinctly overstained. 4 DAHLIA AS A STAIN FOR BACTERIA. Then wash thoroughly with 95 percent. alcohol until the collodion around the section appears colorless, and clear with a clearing fluid, preferably clove oil. The tissue will be well defined and the bacteria will stand out deeply stained against the more lightly stained cells of the tissue. Of course,this method will not do with certain bacteria that require special stains or treatment, but it does work most admirably with the majority of microorganisms found in diseased animal tissues. i. ae a w yrs een i RAY JONES STANCLIFT, D.V.M., Demonstrator of Anatomy. BN Cs BLOW tea ae Aseptic Castration of Male Animals. American Veterinary Review, Vol. xxii, July, 1898. Pp. 249-272. [Reprinted from the AMERICAN VETERINARY REVIEW, July, 1898. ] ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. GRADUATION THESIS BY R. J. STANCLIFT, STUDENT, NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. Fitstory.—The operation of castration is one that has been performed upon all domesticated animals and upon man for ten centuries B. Cc. (1.) The castration of man being first spoken of in the Bible in Isaiah, 56, 3; and ancient writers claim that the operation was in vogue before the time of Semiramis. (2.) Andramyties, the King of Lydia, is said to have sanctioned castration in both males and females of the human race for social reasons. It is still practiced upon man in the Eastern countries that are of Mohammedan belief; also in China, and in some parts of India at the present time. The castration of the female domesticated animals was known to the Danes in the sixteenth century, and they operated successfully upon sheep, swine, cows, and even mares. The bitch is spoken of as being operated upon about the first of the present century. These operations are performed upon cattle and swine very extensively in the Western and Southern States, and upon the bitch throughout the whole country at the present time. _ The emasculation of the male domestic animals is of double importance in the animal industry, as it renders the animal more gentle and docile and more obedient to his master’s will, as in the gelding. It also increases the production of meat both in quantity and quality in animals, which are kept for that purpose, as we see in the emasculated bull, the steer, or in the case of the emasculated boar, the barrow. This is perhaps more forcibly illustrated in the emasculation of the cock, which increases his weight and produces flesh of a much superior quality. The operation has been found to give best results 2 R. J. STANCLIFT. in the meat-producing animals when performed at an early age. Anatomy.—Before taking up the operation itself, it would be well to glance briefly at the anatomy of the seat of the operation. In the normal animal, we have the testicles situated in the scrotum, between the thighs, in the horse and ruminants, while in the pig, they are situated more posteriorly and just below the perineum. The scrotum is composed from without inwards of, first, the common integument, which is reflected from the thighs over the scrotum. ‘This is thin and soft. It is covered with soft, downy hairs, and has a great number of sebaceous glands, the secretion from which keeps it soft and flexible. It is marked mesialy by a longitudinal raphe, which indicates a division into two por- tions, a right and left. Beneath the common integument, we have the dartos, a thin layer of muscular and elastic tissue, which is derived from the abdominal tunic and is continuous with it. This may be said to be the proper scrotal tunic, as besides covering the testicle, it sends a fold up between the testicles, called the septum scroti, corresponding to the outer longitudinal raphe. Beneath the dartos is the spermatic fascia, which is derived from the external oblique muscle. ‘This is attached around the external abdominal ring and passes down over the cord and testicle. Inside this, is the cremasteric fascia, which is an expansion of the cremaster muscle. ‘This arises from the iliac fascia and passes down the inguinal canal and “spermatic cord to surround the testicle. This fascia forms only -an incomplete covering, while still deeper is the infundibulli- -form fascia, which is an extension from the transversalis abdo- minalis muscle fascia. This is funnel-shaped and commences at the internal ring, passing down over the cord and testicle, and on the inside is continuous with the outer serous covering of the testicle. Then we have the two peritoneal coverings, which are ‘brought down by the testicle when it passes from the abdominal wavity to the scrotum. The outer one is spoken of as the ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 3 tunica pareiie cist eae is aiedited by euiatas tissue to the infundibuliform fascia, on its outer surface. The inner serous tunic, known as the tunica vaginalis pro- pria, is attached on its inner side to the outer fibrous coat of the testicle; and the surface of these peritoneal coverings, which are in contact with each other, are lined with a single layer of squamous epithelium (endothelium) and thus forms a large lymph space, which is continuous with the peritoneal cavity, being, in fact, a portion of it, which was carried down with the testicle when it passed into the scrotum. The testicle is the essential reproductive gland of the male. It is composed of an outer fibrous covering, from which trabe- cule extend inwards, dividing the gland up into pyramidal shaped spaces that contain the active secreting gland substance. It is surmounted on the superior border by the epididymis, which is the first portion of the excretory canal and which ter- minates in the vas deferens. The testicle is suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cord, which is composed of the vas deferens, posteriorly, and on the anterior border we have the great testicular or spermatic artery, which is very tortuous; and between these, we have a band of gray muscular fibres, and also the small testicular artery. These are all bound together by loose cellular tissue, which also contains nerves, lymphatics and the accompanying veins of the arteries. The spermatic cord extends from the testicle up to the external abdominal ring; inferior to this, it has the covering of the scrotum. It enters the inguinal canal and passes into the abdominal cavity, through the internal ab- dominal ring; here we will leave it, as for our purpose it is not necessary to trace it any further. METHODS OF OPERATING WHICH ARE IN VOGUE AT THE PRES- ENT TIME. The uicaion consists in the removal of the essential organs of generation, the testicles, or by bringing about a cessation of their functions. The methods used at the present time to bring this about can be divided into three classes. + R. J. STANCLIFT. The first class would include those operations, by which the envelopes of the testicle are cut through and the organ removed by section of the spermatic cord. This would include simple section of the cord with a sharp knife, which is claimed to be one of the oldest methods, and is still used upon some of the smaller animals. With larger animals, there is danger of pro- fuse haemorrhage. Scraping is but a modification of the preceding operation, and consists in using a dull instrument to scrape the cord slowly through. This, by lacerating the walls of the artery hastens clot formation but is sometimes followed by severe hemorrhage. Torsion of the cord :—This is brought about after the envel- opes have been cut through by grasping the cord at the point where it emerges from the incision, with forceps or the hand, and fixing it firmly; then with forceps or the hand grasping the cord just above the testicle, and by twisting to rupture the cord between these two points. This, by twisting and lacerating the fibrous coat of the arteries, occludes them and checks the hzemorrhage. Crushing of the cord :—This is very common at the present day, and is accomplished by the use of the ecraseur, or by the emasculator, an instrument which has attained great popularity in the last decade; and, last, section of the cord by actual cau- tery. This is accomplished by applying a broad wooden clamp upon the cord up as close as possible to the scrotum and then applying a dull red hot cautery to the cord and severing it with this. The stump of the cord is cauterized until it is carbon- ized, and as soon as this is accomplished is released from the clamp. The second class is but a modification of the first. Here the envelopes are incised the same as in the first, only there are ap- plied certain means of pressure to the cord which are allowed to remain on. ‘These are applied before amputation of the tes- ticle, and consists of two methods—the application of clamps or of a ligature. The method of applying clamps isa very ancient ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 5 mode of operating. It is performed in two ways—the covered and the uncovered. In the uncovered operation, the envelopes of the testicle are incised and the testicle removed from the envelopes. The clamps are applied to the cord above the epididymis and se- cured ; then, the testicle and the remainder of the cord below the clamp amputated with a sharp scalpel. The clamps are usually made of wood and are two semicylindrical pieces joined together with strong cord. The surfaces that come in apposi- tion usually have a longitudinal groove, which helps to prevent slipping, and by some operators this is filled with caustic paste. The clamps are usually allowed to remain on from thirty-six to sixty hours. The covered operation.—In this, the envelopes are incised down to the cremasteric fascia. This is carefully dissected away from the outer envelopes and then the clamps are applied over the remaining unopened envelopes and the cord and secured here ; then the testicle and surrounding envelopes are excised. By ligation.—This is done by applying a ligature over the cord, after exposing the testicle by ligating the spermatic artery or by ligating over the inner envelopes after separating them from the outer, the same as for the covered operation, -with the clamps. In all these cases, the amputation is below the ligature. In ruminants, which have a long pendulous scrotum, some operators have ligated the entire scrotum and allowed it to slough off. In these cases, an elastic ligature is prefer- able. The third class would include those modes of operating where the scrotum is not incised, or a portion of it destroyed by the operation. ‘These consist in either crushing the spermatic cord or operating by double subcutaneous torsion. Crushing the cord is only practicable in the pendulous scrotum of the ruminant. ‘The cord enclosed in the scrotum is placed between two straight sticks, which have squared edges, 6 RK. je STANCLICT. and these are struck until the cord is crushed sufficiently to cause atrophy of the testicle to follow. The double subcutaneous torsion of the testicle is produced by so manipulating the testicle in the scrotum as to produce a twisting of the spermatic cord and thus cause an interference with the blood supply of the testicle and atrophy from innutri- tion. ‘This operation is also only applicable in ruminants, on account of its requiring a pendulous scrotum. Both are used in southern France, but are not in general use, as they are not always certain in producing the desired effect, besides having the disadvantage of the persistent atrophied testicle in the scrotum, which might be objectionable. For these reasons, the third class will not be considered any further. The first two classes leave the scrotum open after the removal of the testicle. We find our veterinary writers mentioning swelling, (3) secondary heemorrhage and suppuration (1) as the normal results of these methods of castration ; also of perito- nitis, abscess of scrotum, tetanus, champignon or schirrous cord, gangrene of the scrotum and glanders (4) as the abnormal sequelze. All of these results, except the swelling, which may be an cedematous condition of the scrotum without infection, and the secondary hemorrhage may be traced directly to bac- terial infection ; for tetanus has been proved to be due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus tetani, as also has glanders. to the B. mallei. Champignon or schirrous cord, or fistula of the scrotum, has been found to be due to infection with botryomyces (5), though it has not been proven that all of these cases are due to infection with this specific micro- organism. , The other sequelee may be produced by a number of the pathogenic bacteria, which are pus producers, or are capable of producing septiceemia; bacterial infection is the danger to be feared in the operation and it is only to this that the bad results and fatalities can be traced. If we can carry on the operation without this infection, we have removed this danger, be it much or little. ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. v4 The question arises, how can we prevent this infection ? The majority of the veterinarians of the present day try to per- form the operation under more or less complete antiseptic pre- cautions, but after the operation is completed, even provided there has been no infection during this time, the wound is left open, and in all the methods, except the covered operation, there is a direct opening into the peritoneal cavity. Even in the covered operation, there is left the open scrotal wound. These wounds always become infected to a greater or lesser degree, but those where there is an opening into the peritoneal cavity are the more dangerous. If, as im the majority of cases, the infection is slight, we have a correspondingly slight dis- charge of whitish creamy inoffensive pus, which some writers have called laudable pus, but which with our present knowledge of bacteriology cannot be recognized as such, for, clinically, we do not get pus formation without infection, and certainly infec- tion is not laudable. In these cases, there is usually healing by the granulation process, while if we get a virulent infection, we have what has been called the abnormal results of castration, as peritonitis, abscess of the scrotum, gangrene; or, if the infection is due to specific micro-organisms, tetanus, glanders or champignon, and the correspondingly bad results. With the necessary environment of our domesticated ani- mals, it is impossible by these methods of procedure to have practical antisepsis, which is necessary to have healing by pri- mary adhesion. By obtaining healing by primary intention we do away with those sequelee which are due to infection and thus lessen the danger of the operation. In considering how we are to prevent infection, we must first determine how and where the infection can come from. ‘This can all be summed up in three ways: First, the infecting material may be upon the seat of the operation. Second, it may be brought to the wound by the operator or his assistants. 8 R. J. STANCLIFT. Third, it may gain entrance after the operation has been performed. These can be best considered in the order as given. First, to prevent infection from seat of operation. Here, upon the skin, we have a great variety of micro-organisms, and these may consist of those which live upon the epidermis, and those obtained from the litter or earth. The latter are the more dangerous, as in these we may have the bacillus tetani or the bacillus of malignant cedema. The seat of the operation should be cleaned thoroughly with soap and water and then disinfected afterwards with some good antiseptic, which can be washed off with distilled or boiled water, at the time of the operation. Second, infection by operator or assistant. Here the infect- ing agents may be brought by the instruments used or by the hands or clothes of the operator. To prevent this, the opera- tor’s hands and clothes should be perfectly clean and the hands disinfected, the instruments sterilized, preferably by boiling or by a good antiseptic, and nothing allowed to touch the wound but what has been disinfected. Third, the infection of the wound after the operation. In our domestic animals, we cannot apply any bandages or dress- ings to the scrotum, which can be kept in place, and thus obtain healing by primary adhesion, and if the wound is left open it is certain to become infected, so the only recourse is to close the wound by sutures and apply antiseptics to the parts until heal- ing occurs. The Aseptic Operation.—With a view of obtaining these re- sults, a series of operations were carried out under antiseptic precautions at the clinic of this college. The general method of proceeding was as follows: The animal was kept in the general ward one day in order to prepare it for the operation, and was fed a restricted laxative diet. The body of the animal was thoroughly cleansed and the sheath and scrotum well washed with soap and water. At the time of operating, the patient was taken to the oper- ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 9 ating room, placed upon the operating table and chloroform administered. While this was being done, the scrotum and sheath were washed thoroughly with soap and water, after which the parts were wet well with sublimate solution, 1-1000; also the inner surfaces of the legs were moistened with this solution. As soon as the patient was anzesthetized the upper hind leg was drawn upward and forward out of the operator’s way. The instruments to be used were sterilized by being boiled for ten minutes in water, to which was added sufficient sodium bicarbonate to prevent oxidization of the instruments. ‘The operator’s hands were thoroughly cleansed with soap and water, great care being taken to clean the finger-nails, after- wards washing the hands in sublimate solution, 1-1000. The sublimate soltition was then washed off the scrotum with boiled water; the upper testicle grasped by the operator’s hand and an incision made through the scrotum at its most dependent part, parallel to the longitudinal raphe and from one to two inches on either side of it. This incision was just large enough to allow the testicle to slip out endwise. The testicle was grasped by the hand and gently drawn well out. In cases I, I] and III this was held by an assistant ; but in the others, was fixed with a clamp. A half-curved needle, threaded with sterilized catgut, was passed through the middle of the cord, where it emerged from the incision, or where it was held by the clamp as close to the instrument as possible. The anterior part of the cord was ligated, and without cutting the ligature, the whole of the cord was included in it; the cord severed below with the emascula- tor; the proximal end released from the clamp and any blood present washed off with boiled water, and the wound closed with sterilized catgut. The operation was repeated on the other side, after which the scrotum was washed with sublimate solution, the released leg again secured to the table and the patient allowed to recover from the anzesthetic, when he was returned to the general ward, where he was fed light for the first few days. Any deviation 10 RR, J. STANCLIET, from this plan will be mentioned under the report of such cases. Report of Animals Operated Upon.—No. 1(546) was a black stallion, thirteen years old, weight about 1200 pounds, in good condition. Sept. 26, 1897, admitted to general ward and pre- pared for operation; Sept. 27th, 2 Pp. M., patient placed upon operating table and operated upon under strict aseptic pre- cautions ; closed wound with interrupted sutures ; dressed with iodoform. Sept. 28th, 8 A. M., temp. 100.2 ; 4 P. M., temp. 100.1 ; very slight amount of serum exuding from wound. Sept. 29th, temp. 2 P. M., 100.2; 4 P. M., 100.2. ‘There were a few drops of serum exuding from the wound. Sept. 30th, 9 A. M., temp. I0O; 4 P. M., temp. 100.4; no discharge of serum from wound. Oct. I, 9 A. M., temp. 100.2 ; no discharge from. wound. While animal was under observation, the scrotum was washed once daily, with sublimate solution, i-1ro0o0o. ‘The owner removed animal Oct. Ist and reported later that the wounds healed with- out any suppuration. No. II. (516) was a bay stallion, three years old; weight about 1000 pounds, in medium condition. Sept. 30, 1897, ad- mitted to ward and prepared for operation. Oct. I, 2 P. M., placed animal upon operating table and operated under strict aseptic precautions, closed wound with interrupted sutures ; dressed with iodoform. Oct. 2d,9 A. M., temp. 101.2 ; pulse 36, resp. 12; 2 P.M., temp. 101.2; pulse 36, resp. 12; animal eat- ing half ration; very slight exudation of serum from wound. Oct. 3d, 9 A. M., temp.’ 101.1, pulse, 38, Tesp. 12; 6. PL Mijoemeee 10I.; pulse 36, resp. 12; animal eating well; looking well; no exudation of serum from scrotum. Oct. 4th, 9 A. M., temp. IOI, pulse 37, resp. 12; animal looks well; scrotum still some- what enlarged. While under observation the scrotum was washed once daily with sublimate solution, I-1000. The owner removed animal Oct. 4th, and reported later that the wound healed without any suppuration. No. III. (738) was a large well developed Berkshire boar, five years old,in good condition, weight about five hundred ——- + ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 11 pounds. Feb. 2, 1898, admitted to ward 2 Pp. M., was thrown and confined with ropes ; the scrotum, scrubbed with soap and water, then rinsed off with sublimate solution, 1—1000, and this washed off with boiled water, then proceeded with the opera- tion. ‘The testicles were removed through small incisions in the lower portion of the scrotum; the cord was ligated and severed below ligature with the emasculator. The wound was closed with a continuous suture of silk and the scrotum wet with sublimate solution. Feb. 3d, the animal, stiff from struggling when tied, but bright, eating half ration. Scrotum about as large as before operating; no discharge of serum. Feb. 4th, scrotum about the same ; no serum from wounds; appetite bet- ter. Feb. 5th, scrotum slightly decreased in size; no discharge of serum from wounds. Feb. 6th, animal very lively: scrotum slightly smaller. Feb. 7th, animal eats all he can get ; scrotum about two-thirds as large as before operating. Feb. 8th, scrotum about one-half size as it was before operating, and the ep- ithelium appears to have joined over the wounds. Feb. gth, scrotum about one-third original size, and as wound seemed to be entirely covered with epithelium, the patient was dis- charged. The owner reported later that the animal recovered without incident. No. IV. (855) was a dark bay stallion, five years old, weight about 1050 pounds, in medium condition; Mar. 24, 1898, au- mitted to ward and prepared for operation. Mar. 25, II A. M., placed animal upon operating table and operated under strict aseptic precautions, closed wounds in scrotum with continuous suture of catgut. There was some subcutaneous hzmorrhage, which produced a hematom on the right side. This was about bie. Size Of the testicle. 4 P. M., temp. 100; pulse. 40; resp. © eae Mar./26th, 8 A. M., temp. 101.1; pulse 43; resp. 12. 8 Pp. M., temp. 101.1; pulse 38; resp. 14; animal bright; scro- tum about the same size; nothing exuding from the wound. Mar. 27th, 9 A. M. temp. 100.8; pulse 36; resp. 12; no exuda- tion from wounds. Mar. 28th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.6; pulse 36; 12 R. J. STANCLIFT. about the same. Mar. 29th, 8 a. M., temp. 100.6; pulse 40; resp. T2; 3 P. M., temp. 102.1; pulse 38; resp. 12; the scrotum has decreased in size somewhat, but the sheath has become cedematous. Mar. 30th, 8 A. M., temp. 100.2; pulse 36; resp. 12; animal is in good spirits, but during the night broke the sutures on the right side (this being the side that the hematom was on); the wound was now opened, the clot removed, and the parts irrigated. with sublimate solution, I1-1000. A portion of the clot was taken and agar and bouillon tubes inoculated with it. 2 Pp. M., temp. 100.2; pulse 36; resp. 12:° Mart, sistas M., temp. 103; pulse 46; resp. 15; 3 P. M., temp. 101.8; pulse 38; resp. 12; scrotum about the same size ; no pus on the right side. Apr. 1st,8 A. M., temp., 101.8; pulse 40}. TeSp. Sanu Pp. M., teinp. 103; pulse 503; resp. 14.3 opened and washed out left side, but there was no infection seemingly. The swelling has gone down greatly. Apr. 2d, 8 A. M., temp. 105; pulse, 48; resp. 14. Animal dull, did not eat entire breakfast. 3 P. M., temp. 106; pulse 68; resp. 16; washed out both wounds in scrotum, with sublimate solution, also gave ball composed of Barbadces aloe, drachms vi; sulph. quinine, ounce 1. Apr. 3d, 8 A. M., temp. 103.8; pulse 64; resp. 14. 3 P. M., temp. 104.25 pulse 55; resp. 14; animal eating well; no pus from wound. Apr. 4th, 8 A. M., temp. 104.5; pulse 42; resp. 14; very slight swelling of scrotum; no pus. Apr. 5th, 8 A. M., temp. Ior ; pulse 46; resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 102; pulse 42; Tespiemem no pus. Apr. 6th, 8. A. M., temp. 102.4; pulse 42: resp. 125 3. P. M., temp. 102.6; pulse 425 resp. 12. Apr. 7th, S Agee temp. 100.4; resp.12; pulse 38; 3 P. M., temp. 100.2; pulse 36; resp. 12; the scrotum normal in size; the left wound has closed entirely, the right nearly closed. Apr. 8th, 8 A. M., temp. 99.8; pulse 36; resp. 12; 2 P. M., temp. 100; pulse 36; resp. 12; no discharge from wound. The owner took animal home and reported ten days later that the wound healed without any perceptible pus formation. The cultures that were made from the hematom on Mar. 30th, developed a pure culture of the ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. iB) staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. Each day the animal was un- der observation, the scrotum was washed twice daily with sub- limate solution I—1000. No. V. (879) was a dark bay stallion, six years old, weight about 1000 pounds, in good condition. Apr. 1, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared for operation. Apr. 2d, 9 A. M., animal placed upon table and operated upon under strict antiseptic pre- caution ; closed wounds with interrupted sutures. Apr. 3d, 9 A. M. temp. IOI ; resp. 14; pulse 38; 5 P. M., temp. I01.2; resp. 14; pulse 40; animal bright, eating well; scrotum about size as before operating. Apr. 4th, 8. A. M., temp. 101.2; pulse 4o; feat, 3 P. M., temp. ror:3.5.pulse 40; resp. 14; scrotum same; no exudation of serum. Apr. 5th, 8 A. M., temp. 100.4; Pee 2b jp tesp. "12 ; 3 P. M., temp. 101; pulse 38; resp. 12. Apr. Gio A. M., temp. 101; pulse 44; resp. 143'3P. M., temp. 101.2; pulse 42; resp. 12; scrotum about the same; no exu- dation of serum. Apr. 7th, 8 A. M., temp. 101; pulse 40; resp. Bae. M.. temp: 100.5;.pulse 37; resp. 12.-Apr. 8th, 8 A. M. fem tO@:6; pilse 385 resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 101; pulse 38 ; resp. 12; scrotum considerably smaller; no exudation from mound. Apr oth, S A. M., temp. 100; pulse 36; resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 100.8; pulse 38; resp. 123 scrotum about one-half original size. The epithelium has united over the wounds, so that the patient was discharged at this time. No. VI. (1027) was a bay yearling colt of medium size, in fair condition. May 3, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared for operation. May 4th, 11 A. M., placed animal upon operat- ing table and operated under usual precautions. ‘The cord was ligated with sterile silk and the scrotal wounds closed with in- terrupted sutures of sterile silk, and over this wound gelatin applied (8). May 5th, 9 A.M., temp. 101.6; 3 P. M., temp. IOI.5; very slight swelling of scrotum. May 6th, 3p. M., temp. 101.3. May 7th, 3 p. M., temp. 102.2. . May 8th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.6. May oth, 9 A. M., temp. 102.7. May roth, 3 P. M., temp. Ior. May 11th, animal discharged. During time since operation, the animal was bright and ate well. To-day the wounds appear 14 R. J. SUANCLIFT. to be covered with epithelium. There was no exudation of serum at any time. No. VII. (1029) was a yearling colt of medium size in fair condition. May 4, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared. May 5th, placed animal upon operating table and operated under aseptic precautions ; the cord was ligated with silk, and the scrotal wounds were closed with a continuous suture of sterile silk, over which was applied wound gelatin. May 6th, temp. 100.6 ; scrotum was not swollen at all; the patient was feeling well. May 7th, 8A. M., temp. 101.8; 3 P. M., temp. 102; very slight swelling of scrotum. May 8, 8 A. M., temp. 102; 3 P. M. ror. May oth, 8 A. M., temp. 101.6; 3 Pp. M., 101.8. May ioth, 8 A. M., temp. 101.5; 3 P. M., temp. I00. May 11th, tempera- ture was not taken. May rath, 2 Pp. M., temp. 101.2; animal discharged. During the time since operating the patient had been in good spirits and eating well, and there had been no discharge of serum from wounds. When discharged the epi- thelium was united over the wounds. No. VIII. (1025) was a brown four-year-old colt, in medium condition ; weight about 950 lbs. May 2, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared for operation. May 3d taken to operating room and operated upon under septic precautions. The covered operation was performed and was ligated with silk ; scrotal wounds closed with continuous suture of silk. May 4th, 4 P. M., temp. ror; scrotum swollen somewhat. May 5th, 9 A.M., temp. 101.7; 3 P. M., 102.2. May 6th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.7; 3 P. M., temp. IOI.7; swelling of scrotum much increased. May 7th, 9 A. M., temp. IOI; 3 P. M., temp. IOI.9 ; scrotum about the same. May 8th, temperature not taken. May oth, 9 A. M., temp. 105.5; 3 P. M., 102.8; scrotum very badly swollen and suppurating somewhat. Opened up wounds and found a large hematom on each side, which was doubtless due to the spermatic artery slipping up- ward out of the ligature and bleeding quite extensively. Re- moved hematom and washed out scrotal cavities with sublimate solution. May roth, 9 A. M., temp: 101.6; 3P. M., temp. 103.4; swelling markedly decreased ; slight discharge. May 11th, 3 P. ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 1d M., temp. 103; swelling still decreasing. May rath, 9 A. M., temp. I0I.3; 3 P. M., temp. 101. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.6; 3 P. M., temp. 102.4; swelling about disappeared; no discharge. Each day, since opening wounds in scrotum, it was washed out with sublimate solution ; discharged. No. IX. (1055) was a black four-year-old colt, weight about 1000 lbs., in good condition. May 9, 1898, admitted to ward and prepared for operation. May roth, placed upon operating table and operated upon under aseptic precautions ; ligated the cords with silk; closed wound with continuous sutures of silk, over which was placed wound gelatin; at 4 Pp. M., temp. 101. May ith, 3 P. M., temp. 100.6; scrotum swollen very little. May 12th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.7 ; 3 P.M., temp. IoI ; no change in scro- tum. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 99.8; 3 P. M., temp. 100.8. May 14th, 3 P.M., temp. 100.8; slight decrease in swelling of sheath. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 99.4. May 16th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.5; 3 P. M., temp. 100.5; there is no appreciable swelling in sheath orscrotum. May 17th,9 A. M., temp. roo. ‘The epi- thelium is apparently closed over the wounds; patient was dis- charged. No. X. (1062) was a bay colt, one year old, of medium size and in moderate condition. May 10, 1898, admitted to gen- eral ward and prepared for operation. May 11th, the animal was placed on operating table and operated upon under aseptic precautions, ligated the cord with silk, closed scrotal wounds with silk, and applied wound gelatin. Temperature before op- erating, 101.2. May rath, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2; 3 P. M., temp. 101.8 ; no swelling of scrotum. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. IO1.2 ; 3 Pp. M., temp. 102.2. There isa very slight swelling of the scrotum. May 14th, 3 P. M., temp. 102.2; swelling about the same. May 15th, temperature not taken. May 16th, 3 P. M., temp. 101. May 17, colt out in paddock, did not take tempera- ture. May 18th, discharged ; the scrotum not swollen, and the wound apparently closed over with epithelium. No. XI. (1063) was a bay stallion, seven years old; weight about eleven hundred pounds, in medium condition, May 11, 16 R. J. STANCLIFT. 1898, animal admitted to general ward and prepared for opera- tion. May 12th, 11 A. M., placed upon operating table and operated upon under aseptic precautions, ligated the spermatic artery with silk, closed scrotal wounds with silk, and applied wound gelatin; 11.40 A. M., temp. 100.6, animal recovering from anzesthetic ; 2 P.M., temp. 99.4. May 13th, 9 A.M., temp. IOl; 2 P. M., temp. 100.8; very slight swelling of scrotum. May 14th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2; 2 P.M., temp. 101.2; scrotum about same. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 102.6; 6 P. M., temp. IOI.7 ; animal quite constipated, for which gave laxative. May 16th, g A. M., temp. 100.5; 3 P. M., temp. 101.6. May 17th, 9 A. M., temp. IOI.9; 2 P. M., temp. 101.63; scrotum not swollen at all. May 18th, temp. 102; 2 P. M., temp. 101.8. May roth, 3 P.M., temp. 100.8. The wounds are apparently covered with epithe- lium ; discharged. During the last five days animal was badly constipated, but fully recovered before discharged. No. XII. (1056) was a black colt, three years old, weight about goo lbs., in good condition. May 9, 1898, admitted to general ward and prepared for operation. May roth, placed on table and operated under aseptic precautions ; ligated the sper- matic artery with silk and closed scrotal wounds with a con- tinuous suture of silk. The animal was removed from table before he was able to stand and causing him to fall, soiling the scrotum and rubbing off the wound gelatin which had been applied. When he had recovered sufficiently to stand, the scrotum was washed with sublimate solution, and the patient returned to the general ward. May 11th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.2; pulse: 39; Tesp. 14; 3 P. M:, temp. 101.23 *pulse 39; téspigmae scrotum: about two-thirds original size. May 12th, 9 A. M. temp. 100.6; pulse 36; resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 101; pulse 36; resp. 12. May 13th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.6; pulse 36; resp. I2; 3 P. M., temp. 101; pulse 445 resp. 14; scrotum swollen moderately ; the sheath swollen somewhat more. May 14th, 9 A. M., temp. 103; resp..123 pulse 44; 3 P..M., temp, 102m resp. 12; pulse 46., May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. Ior.4; pulse 39; Tesp. 12, May 16th, 9 A, M., temp. 101; pulse 37; resp.12; 3 ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 17 Pp. M., temp. 102; pulse 36. A suture was broken on the right side, and there was a small amount of serum exuding. May 17th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.6; pulse 38; resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 102.2; pulse 38; resp. 12; the serum still continues to exude from right side; the left side is doing finely ; swelling of scrotum much decreased. May 18th, 9 A. M., temp. IOI.1 ; cree. tes0. 125 3 P. M., temp. ror; pulse 38; resp. 12; slight discharge of serum from right side. May 19th, 9 A. M., Pameeros., pillse 36; resp. 12; 3 P. M., temp. 101; pulse 36; resp. 12.. May 2oth, 9 A. M., temp. 100.4; pulse 36; resp. 12 ; 3 P. M., temp. 100.4; pulse 36; resp. 12; the sheath and scro- tum is still slightly swollen; the left wound has healed by primary adhesion ; and the right is healing by secondary inten- tion, without perceptible pus formation. No. XIII. (1069) was a brown colt, two years old ; weight about 800 lbs., in poor condition. May 12th, admitted to ward and prepared for operation. May 13th, placed upon table and oper- ated upon, under aseptic precautions ; ligated spermatic artery with silk, closed scrotal wounds with a continuous suture of Suemay I4th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.3; 3 P. M., 102; very slight swelling of scrotum. May 15th, 9 A. M., temp. 101.8; 3 Pei eetip. 102. May 16th, 9 A.M., temp. IOX.1; 3 P. M., temp. 100.8; swelling of scrotum gone down. May 17th, Seem. temp. 101.4;°3 P.M., temp. 100.8. May 18th, 9 A. M., temp. 100.1. May roth, 3 Pp. M., temp. 100. May 2oth, 3 P. M., temp. 100; wounds healed over; patient dis- charged. SUMMARY. The only literature available upon this subject is an article by Frick (6), in which he speaks of Bayer operating upon fifteen cases under aseptic precautions, where he had healing by primary adhesion in four cases on both sides, and in two cases on one side, so that out of thirty operation wounds, ten healed by pri- mary adhesion or thirty-three and one-third percent. The other wounds healed according to Bayer’s opinion better than where operated upon with clamps. Frick, in speaking of Bayer’s op- 18 R. J. STANCLIFT. eration, says he does not think it is practical in private practice, as Bayer only ligated the spermatic artery, and when the ani- mal got up there would be bleeding from the veins. TEMPERATURE CHART. : Temp. TEMPERATURE AFTER OPERATION. No. OF day of CASE. Opera-| 1st ad 3d 4th | 5th | 6th th | 8th | oth | roth tion. day | day. | day. | day. | day. | day. ay. | day. | day. | day. I.—gA.M.| Not |100,2/100,2/I0I1. |100.4 | 3 P. M.| taken. |100. 1/100,2/100,.4 Il.—9 A.M.| Not |101,2/101.1|1o1L. 3 P. M.| taken. |TOI.2/101.1/..... me III.—9 A.M.] ) if: Tem |peratu're not taken. 2POM:| § | | | IV.—9 A.M.|...... IOI. 1/100, 8 100, 6/100, 2/103. 101.8105. |103.8)104.5|10r. 3P.M.| 100. |IOL,I/I01.g 102, 1/100,2|101. 103. |106, |104,2/103.5|102. V.—9QA.M.|...... IOI, |I0O1,2100,4/IOL, |LO1, 100.6/100. 3.P.M.| 100, {IOI,2/101.3 10L. |IOI.2/100.8 101. |100.8 / [tor .6|102.7 ceva ni & Oe baer b te DOP Air ate 102, |102. |IOI. |IoI. |100.4 IOI. 4/100. 1 TOO Ol aonren 100, 2|/100. I 3B. Mj taken: |LOD25/ for :S T0252) 7 hens). ee IOI, VII.—9 a.M.| Not |100.6)101,8 102. |101.6/101.5 Not 3P. M.| taken... 24; Io2, |101. |101.8/100.. taken./1o1.2 VIII.—9-a.M.| Not | ..../100.7,100.7|/101. | Not 105.8}101.6 IOI, 3/100. 6 3P.M.| taken. |I0I. |102,2 101.7) 101.g|taken. 102.8/103.4/103. |I01. |102.4 IX.—9 A.M. Py aoe TO047,. OO. Bikes: QQ .4 100,5|I0o. 3P.M.| Ior, |100,6|/101, |100,8/100.8]..... 100.5 X.—9 A.M (oy ie) fot gee ae SINGLY carte 3P.M.| IOL.2|/101.8]102,2 102, 2\taken.|Ior. XI.—g9 A.M IOI, |IOL.1 102,.6/100 s|101.9 102. 3P.M.| 99.4\/100,8/101.2 IOI. 7|101. 6/101. 6/101. 8/100. 8 He A 3 J XIII.—g9 A.M.} Not |101. 3P. M.| taken. |102. |102, 100. 2 6 7 | 100.6 100,.6)103. |101.4/101. |101.6/101.1|101, |100.4 fo) I 8 Frick operated upon some animals under aseptic precautions. by what he considered a more practical method. His method was, one-half hour before operating, the animal was given .5 grammes hydrochlorate of morphine. The animal was placed upon his back, and the scrotum, sheath, inner thighs and neigh- boring parts washed with soap and water. ‘This was rinsed off with sublimate solution, I-10o00, then an incision was made in the scrotum, barely large enough to allow the testicle to be pressed out ; when the testicle was exposed, an assistant poured sublimate solution over it. The testicular cord was perforated just anterior to the vas deferens, making two porticns, and li- gated each portion firmly with sublimated silk. To prevent the 19 ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. *(nJSSoOONS 319A YOIYA Jo suoU ‘soinjNs YIM SuIso[d pue ‘ooor-1 ‘uoTNIOs dzeurl[qns YIM SpunoM dy} Surysea ‘sapo1jso} Surreq Aq OA) puv uoljeiddo paraaAo0d Aq ANO}J ! WAOJOIOLYD Woy sasioy XIS UO UOT}e1Odo oINWdase pojduls}ye peH x op "aoIssype Areullig| “S"< " oe eee Pe aida bi apa 50) 0) ‘QUON, “SUON, “a xe £0) "This ‘(apis ouo ) op uonuajur AepuosaG "(apis op |jeuo) uosaype Arewug|******+*(uneas) (y]1s) saanyns snonunuos yA SpunoM [v}O1Os pesoyy *Ar0}.1e OVeuLIEds poyesr] | AT PUB AT ‘Tit e585) = (SoseD ST pote RS ie ese op op “ess s+ *(urejas y[IS) Sammjns snonutjUuos YIM SpunoM [e}Jor19s pasojo { Arayre oyeueds poyesry ‘II aseg "SoSBo ol Sv aK op op aioe) ah) sess © Ae) ¥sishias 8 ~ee) eens oes UME as punom ‘(y]IS) soinjns snonunuos ‘p109 poyesry op op W {[‘M| xX ‘Quo ‘uolsoype Aivmlig}***** **uneyas punom ‘soimjns yIIs ‘pxoo poyesry ‘uo Iajul euON SUNG ge) SNAG he) ae al pue wvuloyeue yy ‘uonuajyur Arepuosas} *"uNelas punom ‘sainjzesiy yYIs ‘uoeredo paisA0D x | ‘S9sea.0ov| “MA "LT ‘M| “ITIA op op © 9) ¥ we wpe eee ew 6 (unejas punom posn) op op op “I ‘YT x9) "THA op a Oey ee “sche e ==” Op (as) semins snonutjuo> ‘OUON “SONG "7 4 “Pl Tk “QUON ‘UOIsoy pe Areuu gy peas Nae map aed e100) (qn387w9 ) soinjns pojdns19juy ‘AJ pue “uOT}O9} UI : Ty e332) oP ‘Serle at ean pue vwmojyeure zy | ‘uoneinddns noyyM uonuazul Arepuosas *. Teas auege tay Wire vinnie aie stud aahenie! ys ¥sin's (qn3}%9) op : ‘TI oases) op ‘cS $f} ‘sy “Al op op cea at poe ts PRS te Ce fet ka a au re ( ys soinjns snonuy -u0d YUM SpuNOM ][R}OINS paso]o ‘p1Od payesryT op "sasvo Sr ‘sf ul ci op ee Peeees on op ‘saseo z| “Mg “Wl CIT ‘AUON ‘uorsoype Areulag|*** °° °° *(Qqnsyeo) sammyns poy dnstajyut qT SpUNOA [JOINS paso[y ‘plod oneueds poyesry ‘QUON “OUON| “GC ‘M ‘HI ‘I “‘u0l}e19dQ | odosy “UOT eIISeD ; : "SUOT}BIT[GuIOD ‘Sulpeayy Jo opoyy ‘uoT}V19dQ Jo 9poy ayy ya | ur douatied | “To¥wsedO | “ase -xo SNOTADIg 20 R. J. STANCLIFT. ligature slipping off, a part of the epididymis was allowed to re- main on the cord, when the testicle was excised. This, he says, is aseptic and is resorbed. The scrotal sac was washed out with sublimate solution and the wound closed with sutures. The operation was repeated upon the opposite side, and the animal allowed to rise, when the scrotum was again washed with subli- mate solution. The instruments used and the operator’s hands were disinfected with sublimate solution, 1-1000. ‘There oc- curred in most of his cases, on the second or third day after op- erating, a fever, which, he says, may attain 103.6° F., but which was due to aseptic resorption fever and can be differentiated from septic fever, as the animal is bright and eats well in the former, while in the latter there is dullness and no appetite. But in comparison with the results obtained here, it would ap- pear that, where the temperature ran up as high as 103.6° F., there was infection, as is illustrated by case No. IV. Here the animal was bright; but from the clot there was obtained a pure culture of staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. ‘The only complica- tion which followed his operation was bleeding, which some- times appeared after the horse had risen. Frick thinks this is subcutaneous, and says that it does not interfere with healing unless it is abundant so as to press the edges of the wound apart and that hematomata the size of a child’s head are readily ab- sorbed. If larger hematomata appear, the sutures should be taken out on the fourth or fifth day, the clot removed, and the wound rinsed out once daily with sublimate solution, until healing oc- curs. It is noteworthy in these cases that we have healing by secondary intention, without suppuration. He castrated twelve horses, which varied in size from a pony to a very heavy draft animal, and in seven cases there was healing by primary adhe- sion on both sides ; in two cases on one side. The remaining wounds healed by secondary intention, so in twenty-four wounds, sixteen healed by primary adhesion, or sixty-six two-thirds per cent; but from the results obtained in our operations it seems that it would decrease the danger to use boiled or distilled water Se ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. j 21 to wash the scrotum before making the incisions, and also to wash away any blood after the testicle is exposed, and thus not allow any of the sublimate solution to enter the peritoneal sac of the scrotum, which would increase the danger of infection with the pus producing organisms (7), as the sublimate would act as a chemical irritant and produce the death of the adjacent cells, which would be a medium for bacteria to live upon until they gained a foot-hold and as the sublimate would combine with the albumen of the tissues and form an albuminate, it would not have any inhibitory action upon their growth ; while if such a few obtained entrance without the sublimate solution, the living cells would be able to overcome them and we would have practical sepsis. Of the thirteen cases operated upon here, ten healed by pri- mary adhesion on both sides and one on one side. The remain- ing wounds healed by secondary intention, which was much more rapid than it is by the usual methods of leaving the wound open, and in two of these wounds that healed by secondary in- tention, there was no perceptible pus formation. In all, there were twenty-six wounds, of which twenty-one healed by pri- mary adhesion or eighty per cent. The only complications oc- curring being hematoma in cases IV and VIII. Incase IV the cord was ligated with catgut, which had been preserved in alcohol and which after being applied gradually became softened by the lymph in the tissues and relaxing allowed the spermatic artery to bleed. In case VIII, the covered operation was performed and the ligature was passed around the envelopes and the cord, but was not drawn sufficiently tight to thoroughly compress and retain the spermatic artery. The ligation over the inner enve- lopes in the covered operation would be practical in yearling colts and those under that age, but would not be practical, asa rule, in those older than one year. The temperature of those animals which healed by primary adhesion did not exceed 102.4° F., as reference to the chart on pages 18 and 19 will show, and only in those cases where there was infection was there a high temperature. This would make 23 R. J. STANCLIFT. it appear that the high temperatures reported by Frick were due either to slight infection, or to the introduction of an irri- tant into the scrotum in the form of the sublimate solution, and that it was not due to the resorption of the ligated end of the cord; but the time at which his high temperatures occurred corresponds to the date at which infection fever usually takes place. In carrying on these operations, it was found best to make some changes, which appeared to be and proved more practical. The first was the use of sterile silk instead of catgut to ligate the spermatic cord. The use of silk to close the scrotal wounds was also found best. This was used both as interrupted and continuous sutures. The interrupted suture was found to give the best results, as it was only with the continuous suture that there was any infec- tion, though there were a number which healed by primary ad- hesion, where the continuous suture was used. Tlie use of some agent, such as wound gelatin, to apply to the wounds after operation was performed was found to be much more convenient, as it does away with the necessity of applying antiseptics to the scrotum daily until healing occurs. There may be other agents, which would answer the same pur- pose. The requirements are: A substance which can be applied to a moist surface and will stick, and when dry it must be flexible and not crack when bent. ‘The agent in itself must be sterile and capable of re- maining so. The method of ligation of the spermatic artery which was performed in the last three cases deserves still further trial, as in two cases there was very little swelling, practically none. In case XII there was considerable swelling, but this can be accounted for by the accident caused by remov- ing the animal from the table before it was able to stand. The principal reason to recommend this method is that we introduce a smaller ligature and cause the death of a less amount of tis- sue, which must be resorbed. The objection raised to the performance of the aseptic opera- ASEPTIC CASTRATION OF MALE ANIMALS. 23 tion in private practice is that it is not practical and that it re- quires a skilled operator and great care in reference to tech- nique. ‘The objections can be refuted by reference to the con- densed table on pages 18 and 1g. This gives the previous ex- perience of the operator in castration, the previous experience with the aseptic operation, the mode of operating and the results obtained. By reference to this, it will be seen that nine differ- _ ent men operated during this series of observations, six of whom had not castrated an animal before, and yet every one of these obtained healing by primary adhesion. It would appear that if the operation could be carried out successfully by an inexperienced student, that it would be prac- tical in private practice, especially with a surgeon, who has be- come skillful in the manipulation of the testicle, and who has a thorough knowledge of aseptic surgery. The operating table was used as the method of restraint in connection with the use of a general anzesthetic in these cases, though it would appear that casting an animal upon clean, green turf would be as suc- cessful, but the general anzesthetic is almost a necessity to. ob- tain practical antisepsis. With the present methods of operating, and after treat- ment of the wounds, the veterinarian cannot expect to obtain any better results than the empiric, who uses the same methods and can do the operation for a much smaller fee than the vet- efinarian. It is only under such conditions as will lessen the dangers of it that the veterinarian can expect to command this impor- tant operation with proper compensation. I think that the conclusions that can be drawn from the tesults of this series of operations are : First.—The aseptic operation is a practical success in the clinic. Second.—It would be a practical success in private practice. Third.—By aseptic methods, we lessen the dangers of cas- tration, and should therefore be able to command these opera- tions. 24 R. J. STANCLIFT. Fourth.—With our present knowledge of bacteriology, we owe it to the veterinary profession and to our clients, that we should perform all operations by antiseptic methods. In closing this paper, I would like to acknowledge the assist- ance received from Profs. W. L. Williams, James Law, V. A. Moore and Mr. R. C. Reed. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) ‘‘ Animal Castration ’’—A. Liautard. (2) ‘‘Anomalies and Curiosities of Medicine ’’—Gould & Pylo. (3) ‘‘ Practice of Veterinary Medicine ’’—Courtney. (4) ‘‘ Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery ’’—Williams. (5) ‘‘ Manual of Veterinary Microbiology ’’—Mosselman-Lienaux. (6) ‘‘ Zeitschrift fur Thiermedicin und Pathologie, 1889. P. 204. (7) ‘‘ Principles of Bacteriology ’’—Abbott, M. D. P. 247. (8) ‘‘Moller’s Operative Veterinary Surgery ’’—Moller-Dollar. P. 2, ‘‘There ts hereby established a State Veterinary College at Cornell University.”’ Laws of New York, 1894, p. 307. ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE pee YOR STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 1898-99 ITHACA, N. Y. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY 1898 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Calendar’). .2 02 So. ee) eee eee eee Second page of cover Table of Contents_____- eee. Paees pha eee eee 2 Officers of Administration__________ _- le eR sok See Faculty 1. chet t se ee a ae SS oe ee eee Veterinary College Directory —.._.. 2 oe ee Foundation and Objectsiof the Colleme- ___. + -- 5 32 ee Buildings and Location je 211.1! the ee Admission on’ Certificate.) eee 8-9 Admission on Examinations 22 26U~ a ee Se 9-19 Admission to. Advanced. Standing... 20.120). Ue 1s Time of Examinations __ +... .2_-=-2.2-4. _-._-_ Second: page ona Admission to Graduate Work... 2 J. 2.2. -Li us. 1 Residence and Registration. -.-2 8. 2S ee Requirements for Graduation_2\- 04 2.222 os ee 20, 22 Schedule of the Courses of Instruction. -_1__._.. ._<__. 2 ee Departments, Methods and Facilities. _..-4) 22-4. 2 eee 22-37 Chentistig 2.225 22.222. be BE ee 22 AnmatOuny | 22s eo i ee ee ee 23 Comparative Physiology. = ..-_3 245 22) pee 25 Microscopy, Histology and EHmbryology__|3-___- 2-27 sae 26 College of Agriculture, Breeds and Breeding _ _____._______122 738 Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2 =.=). 32 a 29 Medicine, Sanitary Science and Parasitism ____________ __= 3 30 Surgery, Zootechny, Obstetrics and Jurisprudence_____ sya ai Pathology, Bacteriology and Meat Inspection.______________. 35 Graduate and Research Werk! 2. 2 2-U 2-2) eee 37 Library. Facilities c+ oo) us. u ee ey The Roswell P. Flower Veterinary Libtary __.: _._... __...= =e Sy Veterinary College Seminary . 2.22. ..2 2. . nish. 2 ee Seciety of Comparative Medicimne.<\22 tee)... . 22) = ere Tuition and Laboratory Fees; other Hxpenses -_..____._ 22 eee 38-39 Horace Ki. White Prizes. ee ee Se ee 39 Position as. Demonstrator... 9a be ee 4 ee Se Appendix A. Openings for Veterinarians in America .___-___---~_- 40 Appendix B. Legal requirements of preparatory and professional study for graduation in Veterinary Medicine in the State of New York. Requirements for License to practice Veterinary Medicine in the State of New York. .__..... -_.._) = a2 Catalog of Veterinary College Students for the year 1897—1898______ 43 OFFICERS OF ADMINISTRATION OF THE NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE The Board of Trustees of Cornell University, in which are included the following State Officers: His Excellency the Governor, His Honor, the Lieutenant-Governor, the Speaker of the Assembly, the Superin- tendent of Public Instruction ; also the President of the State Agricultural Society, and the Commissioner of Agriculture. VETERINARY COLLEGE COUNCIL. The President of Cornell University, JACOB G. SCHURMAN. The Director of the Veterinary College, Professor JAMES LAW. The Treasurer of Cornell University, EMMONS L. WILLIAMS. Professor WALTER L. WILLIAMS. Professor SIMON H. GAGE. CHARLES EZRA CORNELL, Secretary of the Council. FACULTY OF THE NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. PeOoe GOULD SCHURMAN, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D., President. JAMES LAW, F.R.C.V.S., Professor of Principles and Practice of Vet- erinary Medicine, Veterinary Sanitary Science, and Parasitism. WALTER L. WILLIAMS, D.V.S., Professor of Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery, Obstetrics, Zodtechny, and Jurisprudence. PIERRE AUGUSTINE FISH, D.Sc., D.V.S., Assistant Professor of Comparative Physiology, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. VERANUS ALVA MOORE, B.S., M.D , Professor of Comparative Path- ology and Bacteriology, and of Meat [nspection. SIMON HENRY GAGE, B.S., Professor of Microscopy, Histology and Embryology. GRANT SHERMAN HOPKINS, D.Sc., Assistant Professor of Vet- erinary Anatomy and Anatomical Methods. BENJAMIN FREEMAN KINGSBURY, A.B., PH.D., /ustructor in M1- croscopy, Histology and Embryology. RAYMOND CLINTON REED, Pu.B., /ustructor in Comparative Path- ology and Bacteriology. , Demonstrator of Anatomy. 4 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE PROFESSORS AND TEACHERS IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY WHO FURNISH INSTRUCTION TO VETERINARY STUDENTS. GEORGE CHAPMAN CALDWELL, B.S., PH.D., Professor of Agricul- tuvaland Analytical Chemistry. ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS, M.AGrR., Professor of Agriculture. WILLIAM RIDGELY ORNDORFF, A.B., PH.D., Assistant Professor of Organic and Physiological Chemistry. HENRY HIRAM WING, M.S., Assistant Professor of Animal Indus- try and Dairy Husbandry. FREDERICK LAWRENCE KORTRIGHT, D.Sc., Lzstructor in Chem- istry. VETERINARY COLLEGE DIRECTORY. The President of the University, JACOB G. SCHURMAN, 2 Morrill Hall. The Dean of the Veterinary College, Professor JAMES LAW, Room 2, s. e. corner, ist floor of the Veterinary College. Professor WALTER L. WILLIAMS, Room 3, n. w. corner, Ist floor. Professor PIERRE A. FISH, Room 11, n. w. corner, 2d floor. Professor GRANT S. HOPKINS, Room 12, n. e. corner, 2d floor. Professor VERANUS A. MOORE, Room 13, s. w. corner, 3d floor. Professor SIMON H. GAGE, Room 14, s. e. corner, 3d floor. Instructor B. F. KINGSBURY, Room 18, n. e. corner, 3d floor. Instructor RAYMOND C. REED, Room 17, n. w. corner, 3d floor. Veterinary College Clerk, CHARLES EZRA CORNELL, Room 1, s. w. corner, Ist floor. The Stud Groom, GEORGE I. BOVIER, Cottage east of Main Building (see plan, p. 7). : FOUNDATION. The New York State Veterinary College was established by act of the State Legislature in 1894. ‘‘There is hereby established a State Veteri- nary College at Cornell University,’’ Laws of New York 1894, p. 307. By action of the Board of Trustees of Cornell University, June 10, 1894, the location of the College upon the University Campus was authorized. It was further enacted that while the University does not undertake any financial responsibility for the buildings, equipment or maintenance of the College, it does consent to furnish instruction upon such subjects as are or shall be in its curriculum upon such terms as may be deemed equitable. By further acts of the Legislature provision for the buildings, equip- ment and maintenance of the College were made and finally in 1897, by *‘An act to provide for the administration of the State Veterinary College, established by chapter 153 of the laws of 1894,’’ it was enacted that the _ Trustees of Cornell University should be entrusted with the administra- tion. (For officers of administration, see p. 3). OBJECTS OF THE INSTITUTION. As stated in the act to provide for the administration of the State Veterinary College: ‘‘7he State Veterinary College, established by chap- ler 153 of the laws of 1894, shall be known as the New York State Vetert- nary College. The object of said veterinary college shall be: to conduct investigations as to the nature, prevention and cure of all diseases of ant- mals, including such as are communicable to man and such as cause epizootics among live stock ; to investigate the economical questions which will contribute to the more profitable breeding, rearing and utilization of animals ; to produce reliable standard preparations of toxins, antitoxins and other products to be used in the diagnosis, prevention and cure of diseases and in the conducting of sanitary work by approved modern methods ; and to give instruction in the normal structure and function of the animal body, in the pathology, prevention and treatment of animal diseases, and in all matters pertaining to sanitary science as applied to live stock and correlatively to the human family.’’ The New York State Veterinary College was therefore founded to raise the standard of veterinary instruction and investigation to the level 6 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE of the most recent advances in biology and medicine. The number of farm animals in this State (9,450,000), and their value ($131,200,000), with a yearly product, in milk alone, of over 5,000,000,000 gallons, give some idea of the great interest at stake in the matter of live stock. For the United States a value in live stock of, approximately, $2,000,000,000, and a yearly sale, in Chicago alone, of $250,000,000 worth, bespeak the need of all that learning and skill can do for the fostering of this great industry. Another consideration is that the normal permanent fertilization of the soil is dependent on the live stock kept, and that where there is a deficiency of animals, the productiveness of the land is steadily exhausted ; so that the health and improvement of animals and the fostering of animal industry, lie at the very foundation of our national wealth. Another, and no less potent argument, for the highest standard of veterinary education, is its influence on the health of the human race. With a long list of communicable diseases, which are com- mon to man and beast, and with the most fatal of all human maladies— tuberculosis—also the most prevalent affection in our farm herds in many districts, it is to the last degree important that measures for the extinction of such contagion in our live stock should receive the best attention of the most highly trained experts. To justify the liberality of the State in creating this seat of learning, it will be the aim of the College to thoroughly train a class of veterinari- ans for dealing with all disease and defects that depreciate the value of our live stock, and with the causes which give rise to them ; to recognize and suppress animal plagues, which rob the stock owner of his profits, and cause widespread ruin ; to protect our flocks and herds against pesti- lences of foreign origin, and to protect human health and life against diseases of animal origin. | It will further aim, so far as it has the means and opportunity, at establishing a center of investigation, looking towards such improvements in the breeding, care and management of animals as may enhance their market value and make returns more speedy and profitable ; towards discoveries in therapeutics, and tle im- munization of animals and men from contagion; and towards the production of organic compounds to be employed in diagnosis, treatment and immunizing. So much has been recently discovered in these direc- tions, and present knowledge points so unmistakably to coming discoy- ery, that to neglect this field at the present time would be decidedly rep- rehensible. Apart from discovery, the mere production of reliable articles of these organic products which are coming into increasing demand by the State and private practitioner, for prevention, diagnosis and treat- ment, is an object not to be lightly set aside. The combination in one institution of educational facilities with scientific investigation, and the production of the organic extracts to be employed in modern medical methods, is a feature calculated to insure the best work in all depart- ments, and the most exceptional advantages for the diligent student. NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 7 LOCATION AND BUILDINGS. -The New York State Veterinary College is located at Ithaca, on the campus of Cornell University, fronting on East Avenue, and facing the University buildings. Electric cars on East Avenue convey students and visitors to any part of the city. Ithaca, with its population of 12,000, is situated at the head of Cayuga Cake, 262 miles distant from New York ‘City, and on the lines of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, the .Lehigh Valley, and the Elmira, Cortland and Northern railroads. The University grounds are half a mile from the business center of the city and 400 feet higher, commanding a view of 30 miles of valley and lake. They comprise 270 acres, of which 140 are used by the department of agriculture, and furnish home facilities for clinics and zootechnics. On the campus of 80 acres are 36 professors’ houses, 5 fraternity houses, and over 30 University and College buildings. The BuILDINGs for the State Veterinary College are seven in number, as follows : GENERAL WARD OPERATING THEATRE ISOLATION WARD oe CoT TAGE MorRTUARY MAIN BUILDING N The MAIN BUILDING, 142 feet by 42 feet and three stories high, overlooks East Avenue and an intervening park of 220 feet by 300 feet. The walls are of dull yeilowish buff pressed brick, on a base of Gouver- neur marble ; window and door facings of Indiana limestone, and terra cotta ornamentation. On the first floor are the museum and rooms of the dean and professor of surgery and obstetrics, and business office (Plate I). The second floor is devoted to the upper part of the museum, a lecture room, a temporary laboratory of Physiology and Pharmacology, reading room, library and rooms of professors (Plate Il). The third floor 8 NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE is devoted to the laboratories of pathology and bacteriology and of microscopy, histology and embryology ( Plate III). Connected with the main building and forming its EAsT WING is a structure of 90 feet by 40, and one story high. This contains the anatomi- cal laboratories, and the lecture room of anatomy, medicine and surgery. Its floors are of impermeable cement, the walls lined by enameled white brick, and the ceilings covered with sheet steel (Plate I). The second extension from the main building is the BOILER AND ENGINE Room, where power is generated for heating and ventilation. The SURGICAL OPERATING THEATRE is a separate building in the rear of the main building, and is furnished with room for forge, instru- ments, water heater, etc. The lighting and equipment, and the facilities for demonstration, have been specially attended to (Plate I). The GENERAL PATIENT'S WARD, 100 feet by 31, is furnished with box and other stalls, heating apparatus, baths and all necessary appli- ances. The floor is of impermeable cement, and the ceilings of painted sheet steel. There is also a fodder room of 20 by 30 feet (Plate VI). The ISOLATION WARD 54 feet by 15, has its stalls absolutely sepa- rated from one another and each opening by its own outer door. It has the usual impermeable floor, with walls of vitrified brick and painted sheet steel ceilings. - The MoRTUARY BUILDING has an impermeable floor, walls of enam- eled brick and painted steel plate ceilings, and is fitted with every con- venience for conducting post mortem examinations and preparing pathological specimens. The SHED 51 by 20 feet, next the operating theatre is devoted to clinical uses. These, with a cottage for the stud groom, complete the list of State buildings erected for the Veterinary College. The equipment has been made very complete both for educational uses and original research. For a more detailed account of the equipment and the facilities for instruction see ‘‘Departments, methods and facilities,’’? pp. 22-37. ADMISSION TO THE NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE. ADMISSION ON CERTIFICATE. For admission the candidate must possess at least the preliminary education required by the laws of New York (Laws of 1895, Ch. 860). As evidence that the requirements have been fulfilled, the regents issue ‘‘Veterinary Student Certificates,’’ and one of these must be filed with the Director of the college. Briefly stated the legal preliminary educational requirement for admission is that the candidate must have satisfactorily completed a course requiring at least 48 academic, Regents’ counts in a registered NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE 9 academy or high school, or he must have had a preliminary education considered and accepted by the Regents as fully equivalent. A student may be admitted conditionally to a veterinary college who is not deficient in more than 12 of the 48 academic counts, but the deficiency must be made up before beginning the second year of professional study, if that study is to count toward a degree. The Regents will accept as fully equivalent to the required academic course any one of the following: 1. A baccalaureate degree from the academic department of any college or university of recognized standing. 2. Acertificate of having successfully completed at least one full year’s course of study in the collegiate department of any college or university, registered by the Regents as maintaining a satisfactory standard. 3. @ Oo S a O WD x LAB. CASE. ‘ BOOK SHELVES AdYVaAgE II S3NIAHS Wa NOLL -Vuvdiydl| “USB ae) ZINN ‘aBaljog AueulsazaA 9327S YO, MON “IL S38ld New York State Veterinary College. Plate Ill. HISTOLOGICAL LABORATORY BOOK SHELVES. a ea [ap [SH'LV'3 jOR W'S | PT | Welolc}xtetris} | | | tt im IDEVELOP’G ' RM. MicXOSCOPE SLATE TOP TS ad /\$ Feces TACLE. Vv DRAWERS UNDERNEATH, BACTERIOLOGICAL LABORATORY yeReae PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR--MAIN BUILDING. A.—Laboratory for Research in Histology and Embryology C.—Laboratory for Research in Bacteriology and Comparative Pathology. B.—Laboratory of the Professor in charge of Microscopy, Histology, Embryology D.—Laboratory of the Professor in charge of Bacteriology and Comparative Pathology. New York State Veterinary College te eK Seon te y ccm .. : i e GENERAL LABORATORY FOR BACTERIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. New York State Veterinary College. Plate V. GENERAL LABORATORY FOR MICROSCOPY, HISTOLOGY, AND EMBRYOLOGY. New York State Veterinary College. Plate VI. MORTUARY CONTAC'OUS WARD BOD DE CS Stes eee | 7 ROOM ; | TANK iia | | 4 | || : 2 SHiEAIalesS HI S L | Bale spe) Ue le= } . VAPOR § BATHS PLAN OF GENERAL WARD CONTAGIOUS WARD AND MORTUARY. Cornell University. Plate VII. r MORSE HALL--CHEMISTRY. Plate VIII. Cornell University laumeoee at ee Ei eons DAIRY BUILDING--BREEDS AND BREEDING. 4 Cornell University. Plate IX. PRavKur@ Polo LAW SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY LIBRARY--Looking South. Cornell University. Plate X. ORT EI I) Gi - 5 an, OUknas UNIVERSITY CAMPUS AND CASCADILLA BRIDGE--Looking North. Cornell University. 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