, a OW ae x ion Bate | peek fey aes hte a a pe Le Seria MAAR eh pega He gy ae Pete Wie iee pease iba te. haa AN aN baa te ot ia tie, by Maiden AN ie wey: ; 4, SAAR ae Keado te : ND i if Ay bis an Ae aed. a ‘ ‘ys, a oH Sse bean: re neh AWN, A ues «88 19 Pe, me * I rt ; bee th fn, , 7 Ar Hanh ; iat eng ’ ; , a" aie « UN . ‘ 4 i" ay re me ate aa ne m Ke i ee te oe hse i Pyle ae a Pe A ee Ae OS ae Paina WA OHA AG jot aed ig Avy atl Bee +) are. “igh to sh faired VOM URE tes Hine ‘| , hi 1 weAR wt ? yi ’ ¥ . ‘nat as VAAL ti: d ‘ it ShaATEA (alia oe / iM 7 ” 1 ~ varnish | a b . i , + THE ADVOCATE OF VETERINARY REFORM AND OUTLINES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE; ALSO, A GENERAL HISTORY OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY SCIENCE IN ENGLAND, WITH PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON FEEDING, WATERING, GROOMING, SHOEING, &c.,' &C.: WRITTEN WITH A VIEW OF REFORMING THE VETERINARY SCIENCE, AND TEACHING EVERY MAN HOW TO PREVENT DISEASE IN ANIMALS. CONTAINING, ALSO, A VETERINARY DICTIONARY, SELECTED FROM THE WORKS OF R. WHITE, V.S., OF LONDON, AND ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF THE REFORMED PRACTICE IN THE UNITED STATES, AS PRACTISED BY THE AUTHOR; WITH SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF YOUATT, PERCIVAL, AND CURTIS, TOGETHER WITH REMARKS AND OBSERVATIONS ON BLOODLETTING, AND THE USE OF POISONS; SHOWING THEIR DESTRUCTIVE TENDENCY, ETC. The fundamental principles taught in this work are, that all medicine should be given with a view of aiding the vital power, instead of depressing, as heretofore, ad BY GEORGE H. DADD,M.D., PRACTITIONER OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRACTICE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE AND SURGERY, AUTHOR OF **DADD’s CHART OF REFORMED PRACTICE.” BOSTON: PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1850. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, By G. H. Dapp, M. D. in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. CONTENTS. ENTRODUCTIONS 2s 22'6 53's 40S REG HO Ses A AO 7 Description of the Bony Structures i oes celvelle ec cecleccccescnsecte 12 The Causes of Complaint, ..... bh Ie 5 at ANS let Harateva ater « 15 General History of the Horse,...... Giese Sis s4 SSO OIC Haters. o 22 External Conformation of the Horse,....... SU AGE BR ZPES EYES: SAE 34 Progress of the Veterinary Art in Rngland,....... cee settee pbobomc 25 Outlines of Anatomy in the Horse, ......- aieiieleNGis|a Wieieletbreic eh stetonole secse 29 Description of the Structure of the Different Organs,............eeee002 29 Pinysiology; :s2f32ss2¢ Slated sdaedbedae sa dts se SANUIN We ROU sy Mies 81 Description of the Uses of the different Organs and Functions of the HROrS@, secs ccc scsseceve ene REET ERAN NE CeCe ey Meet meene a0. Sl Wutrition,: 3 ¢..<. Hier sd de sda esses MA id soleterate eel Me Viivoace OL W)PPESTION, 2% 22%. bert cht eee ees Stoleterele peewee ae wis clveclesdsiieecelse 32 Mastication,...... basses sdddids descaes'es eee eee ie ee SORRY SODAS 6 82 Chymification, ..... Cesc. Ue FSI IU UU GIO tone aictelafatets ete etelee 32 Absorption of the Chyle, .......... CeRine St cWietclaye ware ccc cccccessseee BS Circulation of the Blood,....... ASSIS inc obcciotr oe ee SS ES 4 Respiration and Structure of the Lungs,............. mrotatcreretaels secceee 38 Glandular Secretions,..... Sessa sad dewe Eten te reratereraretaretate aS eaest. 5°88 Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye,......sssecececcsecccce Weetleleo 3D Remarks on the Causes of Disease in the Hye,.....seeeeccccseceseeee 42 Anatomy of the Female Organs of Generation, ........ Pea e tl he alerts 43 Cistoris,: 454243532 BO Ro Cay Ste Setees Soidegas STE ns SRILA S44. Membrane of the Vagina,.......+ SU gig GoGc acede Shi Hoes Batre athe epcene 45 Minne Ss tsssSscecse ests kes PTAs IUHOSE oe SO LA HUSA § BAe SALT Physiology of the Organs of Generation, Male and Female,............+. 48 Stomach’: 6:2 sc2tssescs c54%e Stocste Se Bo BOISE Le 7 SFA 49 Anatomy of the Foot, and its Diseases,..........- dase disease Se SERS. 52 Foot Lameness,........ sessb sieges Jddadscecaas d BOSS ARI he OG Corns; 2236 s2é: esecaresee stbaseesests daeeiete steerer Su klar ca TSO eS 56 DHOCING, ssrsssskstsessssiessiisedss 585 crater etter Srcke Sid Pee Sec oes O77. 57 Contraction of the Hoof, seis csce cote ster es cee eee ee SURES. 61 Remarks on Feeding,........... » tale S a elat ae ott OE ie Ras e!s). sepeoe Steaming and Preparing Food for Animals,.....cceeseeecccscccreereees 66 4 CONTENTS, Watering,...scceccccssccccsccsccccccccesccsccsccsccscccscssscseces 69 EIX€rCISE,.0 eee ceccoccecccsenscccssccs isteletatatetctetere Srolelovelelsiale wie levoiosteloumerei Want of Appetite,....--..-... winlareiniateloreleleteteyelsipieleleleleleiats ataieiaiefa|eleteinietale mage On Stable Management,...-..-------++: ssoqves00Rdeor Kabonoooe soca. {fs * Ventilation and Admission of Light into the Stable,.....-. olen sts UG Admission of Light,.........+.-. poncdagccge> eel clote/alo/stelejale eteletsietatate - 76 On the Ill Effects of Manures of large Cities on the Qualities of Plantsyee rid On Animal Matter,....... oe S8 too 8 ae ie 36 300 30 S00cc00 lero terexorctate 80 On Breeding,....-0++--+-+eeees efatatetetorelintcralere alate taterelenetevcietetevetelatsiele esece OO Remarks on Bloodletting,.......escecescecceccccecccccce recess Sosace (he! On the Theory of Health, Disease, Fever, and Inflammation,..... spooon oie Causes of Disease,....- ereleteleretetolekeretoretetet= praia eYale eleteloioveretelesatcraroleVefetcletets 99 IPOISONE Meee eeceieeieialeitericl= alctatelcve(etelsterels efeteiniers doooanosc stettieres NOS Congestion of the Brain, &€., ..--..-+-eeeeeceeecercees aioicievelere ere erate 100 How to avoid Congestion, Staggers, and Apoplexy,.--.-.---+++-+- sinjellOA Inhuman Treatment of Horses in England,...-.-+--+--eeceseeeeceres - 104 On Rabies, or Madness, and the Effects of the Milk of Rabid and Dis- easeceAmumaalscmspeatals/otcls)siaiclelaicleleleieie ele) aisteletatal=felete)=jolslelelel 115 Ramus Anastomoticus,...... BANE Sb FASO OHO OOO ROB ODED OCOOD Dauls aay Internal Carotid,...... eyeyeteicke jastonoooocoddaG So b0RS suesd apetehoters 117 IPOStenioreAOntan etcle coils athe Sivielatelsreter etetevetele sis evaneistere siecete A'S Distribution of Veins in the Horse, ....... ailovess/siial isis) erajlaver nial aletelenetenetanets 122 {Mn Arinemorn Went, Chih oood 660000 cgdd ocdd oO bone GOD ORGOS tegooe 122 Mas Ymusqrllen® Wei cosa sno condndsoccancp ancoce sooaosdoanc Snood 5, Le Moe Owotouiall Webijcoooco66nc0q900p andda5e0 nood.aoe05ss Soan¢c0ee 123 ARhesPoOsterlormVvieriay C.avanteclcrelarsialelelslelelelcleieietelsteteteieioieisteretcleneiae Socacc. Ue The Brain and its Appendages,.......sese+sessseecees Sobeosssceses Lay The Sinuses,........... sholeisitersietetetaisieivetaet u sfevetaretatetoielep ays a sifeoheveistoxate 128 (OGielorebivls so506G00005 aieteKolateLorsiolotavateleletaleietatasisleleletetaiatas dtaveinie: «pele te eae, Cerebellum eer ccc. s ehierei Neve lcrotete Frailetafte tole. .cfeveleleversimneteratate Bae. je) Medulla Spinalis,.........-.....0.. Dood ove DOOR Steledehelefeleieleteeleiete e229 Origin and Distribution of the Nerves,....+.+scccersseccccreeeesees 130 Cerebral Nerves, .---+.-0 sess cece esse seen atateferstareiereretere elolereteraretets - 130 Cervical Nerves, .......- 080500000 0000006 exatvaverepetalatoveters ashe taetels 134 The Diaphragmatic or Phrenic Nerves,......+sccecessccce cece acee 135 Dorsal Nerves,.......- aclactitsbetoieceroreys ehveleiote elekateiatencietsieieyiets Saasosee SK Iiumbar Nerves,.......... Sas lcrate ae ieteNe iol atatetel eleva vereterere Sisiave Isles \aieratetoranm@licey Sacral Nerves, ........-. aval ever svahericie ereL ae eee Once Ae \skatate Sisrehurage «136 Coccygeal Nerves, ......-----20--- nodonse eecieia.s poodsg base soeee 136 Nerves of the Fore Extremity, ....-....... Sieveiatcalsveleiovslaiaierersie Apna. si Nerves of the Hind Extremity, ................ bisleie/sicinie.s visite RE MRLS Sympathetic Nerve,....-.......0000. atateleheraketefeiere Sovioooae ecccesee 139 Origin, Insertion, and Use of the Different Muscles of the Horse,....-.. 140 MVAPEZAVS5) seein veces esse vecelanvisaviceieetcdeee oseaiveivie sets sieve 140 CONTENTS. 5 UAT STITH) GEST y Segre oth, re bipai hati ‘ N.B. The navicular bone, which articulates between the small past The Skeleton, or Bony Structure of the Horse, consists of three sectic veral parts or portions. ; ee agra ; pss is es : eal iat Y 1 / YY, Uf SEU, y) ( d \ hss J J Ye (ban AtkS \ \ LAG? Oa S Lh RY BY EA SN | ath * dy t N.B. The navicular bone, astern and coffin bone, is not seen in this view. The Skeleton, or Bony ee eae . - ivided into Structure of the Horse, consists of three Sections, viz., the head, the trunk, and the 2 Suey Hug iaresdpaisubaiys Several parts or portions. which articulates between the small p € Uy &, ® VE he 5 = > WW ° Sp A 3 gl S H's. EGR Bo a eae if “Wo ery | KUEN \" = S) Wy! TES E O==, 7 22/7, oe we) His HE | . Aailiil ‘Sy “SNOGNAL GNV SaIOSaNW FHL JO AMAIA ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF : THE HORSE. ‘‘ Tn horses or cattle, it is probable that almost all diseases may be prevented by judicious management with regard to feeding, breeding, rearing, and exercise.” — Dr. Waite, V. 8. ‘‘Nature is ever busy, by the silent operation of her own forces, endeavoring to cure disease. Her medicines are air, warmth, food, water, and sleep. Their use is directed by instinct ; and that man is most worthy the name of physician, who most reveres its unerring laws.’”’ — Dr. Dixon. THE CAUSES OF COMPLAINT, AND THE REASON WHY WE ADYO- CATE A REFORM IN VETERINARY PRACTICE. Mr. Youarr writes, that the annual loss of cattle in Eng- land, by disease, amounts to $50,000,000! and the loss of sheep at one tenth of the whole number; and, though there the veterinary art is taught as a science in the endowed col- leges, and regular professors practise it throughout the king- dom, he says it is difficult to say which is the greatest source of this immense loss, “the ignorance and obstinacy of the ,cow leach, or the ignorance and supineness of the owner.” ‘To make this declaration clear and conclusive, we will con- sider the principal reasons why the healing art has never yet derived much, if any, improvement from all the various labors that the faculty have bestowed on it. We wish the reader to understand, that the same reasoning applies to animals; for they require the same general treatment as mankind, viz., by aiding the vital powers. If the remedies are ever adapted to destroy life or injure the 16 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. system of man, they are also adapted to injure that of the horse, and all domestic animals. If they ever recover from the effects of the lancet and poison, we must attribute it to the power of the system to defend itself against all encroach- ments upon its sanative operations. If good medicine, such as experience teaches us, always operates in favor of health, and has a tendency to remove disease, it always has that tendency, both on man and domestic animals, and is proper to be administered whenever the state of the system demands it. The great fault of physicians, in estimating the labors of their predecessors, has ever been, that they either received or condemned by wholesale every previous system, abandon- ing the truth with the errors, and subjecting themselves to the necessity of travelling over the whole ground again. By this means their confidence is impaired in their ability ever to arrive at the simple truth. Hippocrates, the earliest systematic writer on medicine, discovered by careful observation the existence of a principle which he styled Nature. ‘To this principle he attributes a Species of intelligence, and conceived that one of its most important offices is to attract to the body what is beneficial, and to reject from it what would prove injurious. This isa truth which no argument can disprove. Sydenham says our misfortunes proceed from our having long since forsaken our skilful guide, Hippocrates, and the ancient method of cure founded upon the knowledge of conjunct cases that plainly appear, insomuch that the art which is this day practised, being invented by superficial reasoning, is rather the art of talking than of healing. D’Alembert represents the state of the science: ‘“ Nature is fighting with disease. A blind man armed with a club, that is, a physician, comes to settle the difference. He first tries to make peace. When he cannot accomplish this, he lifts his club and strikes at random. If he strikes the disease, he kills the disease ; if he strikes nature, he kills nature.” The very principles upon which medical theories are based were never established. They are, and always were, false. CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. We Dr. Rush says, “ Dissections daily convince us of our igno- rance of the seats of disease, and cause us to blush at our prescriptions.” He also adds, ‘“‘We have assisted in multi- plying disease: we have done more,— we have increased their mortality.” If it be true what Dr. Rush and hundreds of others assert, that the science of medicine, as practised at the present day, is no science at all, and who doubts it ? — then we can easily account for the sad havoc, that, aecord- ing to Youatt, has taken place in the animal kingdom. Well may we exclaim, They have been swept away as by the blast of a dire tornado. ‘The lancet, antimony, and corrosive sub- limate have been more destructive than the pestilential sword. They are the Samsons of a barbarous practice, and have slain their thousands and tens of thousands. The great bone of contention among men has been, ‘ What are nature’s intentions? and with what means, and in what manner, shall we second them?” To this Professor Curtis replies, ‘‘ While Hippocrates ad- hered in practice to his correct principles, that nature should be aided by means and processes that act in harmony with her intentions, his practice was universally successful ; but when he departed from established principles, in the use of unknown agents, which proved useless and injurious, he often failed of curing disease. ‘It must never be forgotten that, while the learned were verging to something like a correct theory of vital action in a healthy body, they were departing farther and farther from the truth in two other points of importance. ‘ist. They were settling their minds in the belief that, in every case of the encroachment of offending causes, this very vital power, so essential to health, in rising to expel them, becomes at once the very sum and essence of disease, (‘vital action cannot be a diseased action,’ ) and must be checked, subdued, and destroyed at all hazards. But, finding none of the innocent and life-supporting remedies calculated to do this work in a direct manner, as the effect of their adminis- tration, — a) 18 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. “Od. They gradually departed from the use of nature’s remedies, and introduced into their therapeutics the processes of bleeding, blistering, the knife, and caustic; and into their Materia Medica the most deadly poisons contained in the threefold kingdom of nature, whether derived at once from her laboratory, or detached from her compounds by the use of her powers, under the guidance of chemical science. “In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the famous chemist Paracelsus introduced a new system into medicine, founded on the principles of his art. Hitherto the physicians rejected the use of opium, calomel, and other efficacious remedies. Efficacious they have been, as the ghosts of murdered millions could declare! Here, it seems, that for the art of aiding nature in her efforts to remove disease, which had been practised with a tolerable degree of consistency, and with astonishing success, by Hippocrates and Galen, was sub- stituted the general use of poisons, which, however, in other respects agree in ‘suddenly and rapidly extinguishing a great portion of the vitality of the system!’ O, what a falling off was there ! ‘“¢ Permutations in the extent of depletion, or the quantity of poison to be given, the particular articles containing it, the locality or the manner of the applications, the stage of the disease, or the hour of the day to be chosen for operation, have indeed been studied, and tried, and guessed at; but still the chief practice consists in bleeding, blistering, cutting, burning, physicking, poisoning in some shape or other; inso- much that old ‘Time long ago hung up his scythe as useless.” The veterinary science was ushered into existence by men who practised according to the doctrines of the theoretical schools. We may trace it in its infancy when, in England, in the year 1788, it was rocked in the cradle of Allopathy by Sainbel, its texture varying to suit the skill of Clark, Law- rence, Field, Blaine, and Coleman; yet with all their amount of talent and wisdom, their pupils must acknowledge that the melancholy triumph of disease over its victims clearly evinces that their combined stock of knowledge is insufficient CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. 19 to perfect the veterinary science. Dr. J. Bell says, ‘ Anato- my is the basis of medical skill;’’ yet, in another part of his work, he says, ‘‘ It enables the physician to evzss at the seat, or causes, or consequences of disease!” 'This is what we propose hereafter to call the science — the science of guess- ing! If such is the immense mortality (as Mr. Youatt states) in England, —a country that boasts of her veterinary insti- tutions, and embraces within her medical halo some of the brightest luminaries of the present century, — what, we ask, is the mortality in the United States, where the veterinary science scarcely has an existence, and where not one man in a hundred can tell a disease of the bowels from one of the lungs? Profiting by the experience of these men, we are in hopes to build up a system of practice that will stand a tower of strength amid the rude shock of medical theories. We have discovered that the lancet is a powerful depressor of vitality, and that poisons derange, instead of producing, healthy action. 'That they are generally resorted to in this country, no one will deny, and often by men who are un-_ acquainted with the nature of the destructive agents they are making use of. 'The common practice of administering aloes, in diseases resulting from a common cold, is just as destruc- tive as poisoning and bloodletting. Dr. J. Boutall, V. S., of London, states that “aloes given to a horse that is laboring under a cold is likely to produce glanders.”’ Dr. Vines, demonstrator of anatomy in the Royal College, states that ‘‘ physicking a horse when there is a discharge from the nostrils will produce glanders.” 'The author has known death to result from the administration of a ball containing eight drachms of aloes and one drachm of calomel. A friend informed us that he occasionally puts up physic balls for horses containing three ounces of aloes. An eminent profes- sor has said that ‘ purgatives, besides being uncertain and uncontrollable, often kill from the dangerous iritation and debility they produce.” The good results that sometimes follow the exhibition of drastic purges, antimony, &c., must be attributed to the sanative action of the constitution of the 20 CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. animal, though it be an agent injurious in its nature, and it depends, in all cases, on the existing ability of the vital power to counteract its effects. We are told by the professors of allopathy that their medi- cines constitute a class of deadly poisons, and when given in large doses, destroy life; ‘yet if given with a scientific hand, and in small doses, they cure disease.”” We deny their power to cure. If antimony, corrosive sublimate, &c., ever proved destructive, they always possess that power, and can never be used with any degree of assurance that they will promote the healthy secretions. What difference does it make whether poisons are given by the scientific or the unscientific? Does it alter the tendency which all poisons possess, namely, that of rapidly depriving the system of vitality. Many of the farming community, and owners of horses, to whom the author has made known his system, are in favor of the reform; they are determined to have a safer system of medication. The author has received numerous communications, from individuals in different parts of the United States, encour- aging him to proceed in the good work. ‘The following extracts will show that there is need of reform, and that the harvest is ripe. Extract of a letter from the Hon. H. Clay, dated PuitaDELpuia, JVov. 25, 1849. There is no department in the medical world in which there is such a lamentable want of knowledge as that of the proper treatment of Horses and Cattle. Whoever shall sup- ply this deficiency ought to be regarded as a great benefactor, and I shall be very glad if your exertions shall entitle you to that merit. With great respect, I am your ob’t servant, Dr. Gro. H. Dapp. H. CLAY. Pirtsrietp, Dec. 10, 1849. Dear Sir: I received your letter explaining the princ- ples on which you propose to reform veterinary science. You CAUSES OF COMPLAINT. 21 have my thanks, and, in my opinion, are entitled to the thanks of the community for entering upon this important work. While the subject has engaged the attention of scientific men in other countries, it has been too long neglected in our own. Cruelty and ignorance have marked our treatment to diseased animals. Ignorant himself both of the disease and the rem- edy, the owner has been in the habit of administering the popular remedy of every neighbor who had no better powers of knowing what should be done than himself, until the poor animal, if the disease would not have proved fatal, is left alone, until death, with a friendly hand, puts a period to his sufferings; he is, however, often destroyed by the amount or destructive character of the remedies, or else by the cruel mode of administering them. Iam persuaded that the com- munity will approve of your exertions, and find it to their interest to support and sustain your system. Wishing you great success, I am yours truly, G. H. Dapp, M. D. GEO. N. BRIGGS. Lawrence Acapemy, Groton, Vov. 19, 1848. Dr. Dapp: Sir— Your letter and circular were duly re- ceived. In no profession, perhaps, has quackery prevailed more than in the medical, and in no branch of medicine more than in horse and cattle doctoring. But we are seeing better days; when your principles shall become known, improve- ment must be rapid, especially when such a wide field is open. Very truly yours, J. MEANS. 92 GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. GENERAL HISTORY OF THE HORSE. Ar the head of the many varieties of the Horse stands the equus caballus, or common horse. Although there are many varieties of hoofed animals, the horse is distinguished from other animals by having the quadrupedal phalanges united and surrounded with a hoof, which does not admit of its grasping any thing. Hence these animals of the tribe ungulata, or hoofed, having but one toe, belong to the tribe:solipeda, or single-hoofed. The original country of the horse cannot now with cer- tainty be ascertained, although many naturalists think that he is indigenous to most countries, for he is to be found in different temperatures, and varying in size and utility. The precise time when this animal was first domesticated is very uncertain. 'The sacred writings inform us, that, when Jacob went into Egypt to procure corn, he sent up oxen, camels, and asses. Chariots and horses, however, appear to have been used by Pharaoh, when that prince lost his army in the Red Sea., Greece, doubtless, amongst other things, learned the art of subduing these animals from the Egyptians. History informs us that horse and chariot races were highly esteemed at their games, and Homer mentions them as early as the Trojan war. Wild horses have been found in count- less droves in the great plains of Tartary. Solomon, in his traffic with foreign nations, would have obtained Arabian horses, if in his day they had been as highly esteemed as now; but we are told that Egypt furnished him. Mahomet, at the commencement of his career, did not possess any cav- alry. Indeed, we are credibly informed, that, when presents were made to the Arabian princes, even as late as the fourth century, horses were considered the most acceptable offering ; from which circumstance we may conclude, that, however superior the present breed of horses in that country may be, the climate and industry have brought these animals to that esteem in which they are at present held. The Romans, in “EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. 23 their conquests, extended the general use of the horse, and appear to have applied themselves to its improvement. EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. Tue head is one of the first parts of the horse that will convey to judges the quality of the breed. Nothing of beau- ty can surpass the prominent outlines of the head of the high- mettled blood horse, which is small, lean, and angular; the forehead proportionally broad; the ears small and pointed ; the eyes full and prominent ; the lips deep, firm, by no means hanging loose ; the nostrils open and wide; and the mouth not too small. The neck should rise from the chest with a moderate curve, and be neither too long nor too short; horses with a short, thick neck possess great strength, but are seldom noted for speed. From the top of the neck rises the mane, which nature appears to have added as an ornament and beauty to this noble animal. The shoulders should run ina slanting direction forward from the withers to the shoulder points, and should be muscular, but not heavy, as they are particularly essential to the movements of the horse. Be- tween the points of the shoulder lies the chest, which should be moderately expansive and prominent, in order to allow the lungs to have a free action. The trunk, from the ribs nearest the chest, should be wide towards the back, and generally deepened, in order to give the form which is termed deep in the girths ; and as the ribs decrease in size, they ought to be more circular, which gives the belly a round appearance, and is more esteemed, not only for the beauty, but because it is accounted more healthy. The loins cannot be too broad and full, especially when strength is required; they should be more rounded and long ; the tail should form a graceful curve with the loins. The fore legs are straight, gradually approaching each other as 24 EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. they descend to the feet; the arm should be muscular and large; when small, it generally denotes want of strength ; the knee large and flat, and the shank muscular and firm, and by no means fleshy. The thighs of the horse should be exceed- ingly strong and muscular ; the stifle should be of considerable length, as that denotes speed. The hock is the most material joint of the animal, and should be broad and wide; it is subject to many diseases, and ought to be well looked to. The feet also require attention, and are more frequently mis- shapen; they should not be too upright, which tends to open the heel, and thus the feet become faulty and diseased ; the horn should be of considerable size, otherwise the foot is easily hurt, and rendered unhealthy. By reference to plate No. 1, the reader may become acquainted with the bony structure of this noble animal. On the Teeth. —A horse has forty teeth when he has completed his full number; a mare usually only thirty-six. The horse has, during life, two sets of teeth —a temporary and a permanent set. ‘The first appears shortly after birth; the others appear gradually, as the temporary set fall out; and the change is completed about the fifth year. These two sets of teeth appear at an interval of a few years be- tween them; yet the rudiments of both are formed nearly at the same period. It is essentially necessary that there should be two sets of teeth ; for, as they grow but slowly in propor- tion to the jaws, had there been but one set, the disproportion in growth between the teeth and jaws must have separated and made them wide apart as the jaws increased. The manner in which the temporary teeth are removed is very curious ;—— it is occasioned by the pressure of the permanent teeth upon the roots of the former; this causes a gradual absorption of the roots, so that, after a time, having no sup- port, they fall out. The teeth are covered with a hard sub- stance called enamel ; this enamel surrounds the tooth, and is indented or sunk into it, forming a pit, or hollow, which preserves the body of the tooth from being injured. In pro- cess of time, however, the enamel is worn down below the PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. 25 hollow, and a brown mark appears on them, which indicates age. ‘To ascertain the age of a horse, see AcE, part second. PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. ENeLanp appears to have been almost the last, among the nations of Kurope, which encouraged the study of this use- ful profession. In the year 1788, proposals for establishing a veterinary school in London were published by M. V. de Sain- bel, who had previously received a professional education at the Royal College at Lyons. These proposals received no attention. In 1789, he published fresh proposals to read lec- tures on the veterinary science. These met with no better success. In 1790, a plan for establishing an institution for teaching the art was published, and produced a good effect, and ultimately led to the formation of the Veterinary College of London. Among the first of the medical profession, who subscribed towards the support of this institution, were Drs. J. Hunter and Crawford. These distinguished surgeons saw its impor- tance, as opening a field for the cultivation of comparative anatomy, which was the cause of their rendering it all the assistance in their power. It is also stated that the Duke of Northumberland was elected president, and contributed the sum of five hundred guineas towards the support of this most useful institution. Among the names of the first pupils who entered the col- lege are Clark, Lawrence, Field, and Blain. The latter was educated as a human surgeon. A medical committee was shortly afterwards appointed, consisting of the most distin- guished practitioners in London, by whom the pupils were examined, and if found to have acquired a sufficient knowl- edge of the art, certificates were granted. Professor Coleman likewise succeeded in procuring the patronage of government; and for several successive years a a 26 PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. sum of money was voted by the Parliament, towards the aid of the institution. George the Third granted the rank of commissioned officers to such as might be appointed to.regi- ments. About the year 1827, the directors of the Hast India Company, observing the good effect produced by the appoint- ment of veterinary surgeons to the British cavalry, were like- wise induced to grant the like appointment to young men who might think fit to join the native India regiments. A course of lectures is still given by the professors through- out the season; the pupils are still examined by a medical committee. Demonstrations in anatomy, &c., are given daily, and the pupils have the advantage of dissecting subjects themselves, and also of seeing the practice of the infirmary. The following is from one of the works of the first pro- fessors: “We know that physicians of all ages applied them- selves to the dissection of animals, and that it was almost entirely by analogy that those of Greece and Rome judged of the structure of the human body. We are told that Herophilus and Erasistratus studied anatomy on the human frame some centuries before the Christian era, and that the former even dissected living subjects, having obtained the bodies of malefactors for that purpose. On the other hand, it is abundantly proved by history, that the great progress in auatomy, till within a few centuries, was made by the dis- section of brutes. A superstitions reverence for the dead, which prevailed for many centuries, confined the Greeks and Arabians to the dissection of apes and quadrupeds. Galen has given us the anatomy of the ape for that of man; and it is evident that his dissections were restricted to brutes, when he says that if learned physicians have been guilty of gross error, it was because they neglected to dissect animals. Erasistratus was the first who discovered the lacteals in kids, which he opened a short time after they had sucked. He observed the valves of the heart, and demonstrated, con- trary to the opinion of Plato, that there was, behind the wind- pipe, a canal or passage, viz., the esophagus, whose office was to convey food into the stomach. Rufus of Ephesus, we PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. 27 are told, described those two ducts, the discovery of which is attributed to Fallopius, and from him are called the Fallopian tubes. 'These he discovered in dissecting the womb of a ewe, and adds, that he strongly suspects them to be seminal vessels, and of the same nature with those of the male. Galen demonstrated, in Rome, on living animals, the organs of sound and respiration; he made several observations on the brain of animals ; he also showed the effect produced by ligature on the recurrent nerves. Vesalius proved, by experi- ment on animals, that it was possible to restore suspended animation, by inflating the lungs artificially, which discovery has saved the lives of many individuals. Croon and Hook, two English physicians, repeated the same experiments, a century afterwards, and with success. Wharton, a physician of London, discovered the salivary glands in an ox. In 1659, Eustachius was the first who found out the tho- racic duct in the horse; a hundred years afterwards, the same canal was discovered in man by the immortal Harvey. Dr. Wren, professor of the University of Oxford, made several experiments on living animals, to be assured of the effect of different substances on the blood and solid parts, the result of which experiments was to confirm the discovery of Har- vey, which for the space of forty years was strenuously opposed. Gesner Aselius, professor of anatomy at Pavia, repeated the discovery of the lacteal veins in the mesentery, in brute bodies, which had formerly been known to Erasis- tratus and Herophilus. Pecquet traced them to the thorax, and completed his discovery by that of the thoracic duct. It was in the body of brutes, also, that Bartholinus discovered the vasa lymphatica. Stenon, a native of Copenhagen, but afterwards physician to Ferdinand the Second, Grand Duke of Tuscany, discovered, in 1661, the excretory ducts of the lachrymal glands in the eye of a sheep. Malpighi and Bellini, in 1665, described the organs of taste in quadrupeds. Observations on the organs of feeling were first made on the skins of brutes, and after- wards verified on the human skin. Weiff made experiments 28 PROGRESS OF THE VETERINARY ART IN ENGLAND. on the hearts of living animals, to prove that the auricles were equal. In 1641, Hoffman discovered the excretory duct of the pancreas in a turkey-cock. The peristaltic motion of the intestines was first discovered in animals. In short, the greater part of the functions in the human frame were first made known by the general analogy subsisting between the functions of animal organization. From what has been here written, though in a summary manner, it appears that the science is efficient in itself, and has given unequivocal proofs of its ability to enlarge the boundaries of general medicine. Veterinary Surgeon Percival, in his introductory remarks to a series of elementary lectures on veterinary science, in drawing a comparison between such practitioners who have carefully studied anatomy, and those who have not, very truly observes, that no man supposes his watch can be repaired at the anvil, though there are those who send their horses to the blacksmith to be cured of their diseases. They know that the man is unacquainted with the mechanism of a watch; and yet they trust him with a machine, to which, in point of complication, a watch can as little be compared as a rattle can toa watch. Why, then, are men so blind? Is it thata horse is of less value than a watch? No! It is owing to the vile trash diffused as treatises on farriery, so truly disgust- ing to a man of common reflection, that he forms his opinion of the art by those he entertains of the book. ‘Miserable animal!” says Sainbel, “bereft of speech, thou canst not complain, when, to the disease with which thou art afllicted, excruciating torments are superadded by ignorant men, who at first sight, and without a knowledge of thy structure, pro- nounce in thy case, and then proceed with all expedition to open thy veins, lacerate thy flesh, cauterize thy sinews, and drench thy stomach with drugs opposed to the cure they engage to perform.” A veterinary school has lately been established in Scot- land, where every thing that it behooves the practitioner to know is taught; and, more recently, that excellent and truly liberal institution, the University of London, has admitted a “OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE. 29 veterinary school under its roof; and, on the same extended plan, the beneficial results of this will be, that the diseases of cattle and sheep, hitherto so disgracefully neglected, will be better understood, and the dreadful loss which the country sustains will be materially diminished. OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE. DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANS. Tue animal organization is divided into bones, muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, and viscera. The bones are hard and durable, and are intended to form a framework for the support of the softer portions. When divested of the soft portions, they form the skeleton. The bones are united together by ligamentary and fibrous attach- ments, which allow free motion one upon another. The articulating surfaces of the joints are covered with a cushion or cartilage, and lubricated with a fluid called synovia, which permits them to move freely on each other, without friction. Their name and location will be found on referring to the engraving of the skeleton, accompanying page 12. The muscles are the soft, red, fibrous masses called flesh. They are susceptible of contraction and relaxation; or, in other words, become shorter and longer, and are subject to the will of the animal: for this reason, they are termed vol- untary muscles. Besides these, there are other parts which owe their power of contraction to the vital power; yet there is a peculiar arrangement about some of their muscular fibres. Thus the heart is a muscular texture, forming a circular muscle; and the urinary bladder, stomach, intestines, &c., — which are en- abled to contract upon their contents and expel them, whether the animal wills it or not, — are termed involuntary muscles. The muscles of respiration, being, in some measure, under 30 OUTLINES OF ANATOMY IN THE HORSE. the influence of the will, are said to have a mixed motion. If we examine the fibres of muscles attentively, we find them not in straight, but in zigzag lines, which explains how they are able to contract and expand. ‘These fibres may be divid- ed and subdivided, until they are too small for the naked eye to see ; they are then called fascia, and these fascia are again united to form muscle. In a work of this description, which is intended for the non-professional, the author deems it un- necessary to detail the names of the different muscles, which would involve an amount of matter incompatible with the present limits. Suffice it to say, that the names of the vol- untary muscles depend on their size, form, use, the arrange- ment of their fibres, or their origin and insertion. Nerves are long, firm, white cords, which ramify after the manner of blood-vessels, and are distributed to all parts of the animal. They issue from the brain, medulla oblongata, and spinal marrow. They consist of fascicula, or bundles of dis- tinct fibres, closely connected together, and covered with a membrane called neurtlema. 'They divide into branches, twigs, and threads, which again subdivide into filaments. They are named from their origin, use, and form. ‘Thus those that issue from the brain are called cerebral ; others, again, from the spinal cord, are called spinal ; those in the region of the neck are called cervical ; others, issuing from other parts of the spinal column towards the extremities, are called lumbar, dorsal, and sacral. These names correspond to their locations. See Nerves, part second. If a nervous cord is cut through, as in nerving, or com- pressed with force, so as to intercept all communication with the brain, and the foot to which it is distributed, that part becomes paralyzed. In nerving horses or cattle, the sensi- bility of the foot is wholly or partly destroyed, according to the nature of the operation. Veins are the vessels that return the blood to the heart. The texture of veins is much more slender than that of arteries, yet they possess considerable strength, and though sometimes distended to their utmost capacity, seldom burst. PHYSIOLOGY. 31 The veins generally accompany the arteries; but as the former are subject to pressure from the muscles, they are more numerous than arteries. The veins are provided with valves, which appear to be a duplicature of their inner coat rising into a fold. In the human subject, there are two of these folds to form a valve ; but in the horse, there are three: these, when the blood by pressure, or a contraction of the capillary structure, is arrested in its course, prevent it from returning. The arteries are vessels that carry the blood to all parts of the system, for the purpose of supplying the waste that is continually going on. They become narrower as they pro- ceed towards the extremities, and are furnished with an elastic, a muscular, and a membranous coat. Arteries have a pulsat- ing motion communicated to them by the impulse of the heart, by which they are distinguished from veins. The viscera are certain organs, comprising a great part of the structure of the animal, ordinarily lodged in cavities, as in the head, the chest, the pelvis, and abdomen. The head contains the brain, from which issue the organs of taste, smell, hearing, sight, &c. The chest is bounded by the ribs, spinal column, breast bone, and diaphragm, called midrif. It contains the organs of respiration and circula- tion. ‘The abdomen contains the organs of digestion. The pelvis contains the urinary organs, the rectum, and most of the organs of generation. PHYSIOLOGY. DESCRIPTION OF THE USES OF THE DIFFERENT ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HORSE. Nutrition. —'The living body is constantly losing its con- stituent parts; this waste requires to be made up by the addition of new matter; and when the stomach, and other parts concerned in the process of nutrition and digestion, are 32 PHYSIOLOGY. in a healthy state, and there is a due supply of food, then this renovation is continually going on. Nutrition may be interrupted by various causes, which will be discussed in the articles Frenine, APPETITE, &c. Digestion. — This is a chemico-vital action, and is the most extraordinary phenomenon we can contemplate, and worthy the attention of those for whom this work is mainly written. Every part of the animal is formed from the blood, which is first formed from the food. Mastication.— The animal, by means of the teeth, grinds or breaks up the food. During the process, it is moistened by a fluid called saliva, which is secreted by glands fitted for that purpose. This moistening is essential to the passage of the food down the gullet, or esophagus, into the stomach, and afterwards, probably, assists the process of digestion. Some- times horses have projections on the grinding teeth, by which mastication is rendered painful and difficult; the food is im- perfectly chewed, and therefore difficult of digestion. This is injurious to the stomach and bowels, and consequently the general health suffers. Chymification. — 'The food, having been properly moistened. with saliva, is, by means of the tongue, with the assistance of the muscles, pharynx, and gullet, conveyed into the stomach. Here the food undergoes the first process of di- gestion, and is converted into a pulpy mass, called chyme. The agent in converting food into chyme is the gastric juice, which is secreted from the inner walls of the stomach. This fluid has a remarkably solvent power, and when the horse is in health, acts on the ordinary articles of food. Cases are on record where the gastric juice had corroded and dissolved the coats of the stomach, after death ; yet it cannot act on any thing while it retains vitality. Thus we often find bots in the stomach, and worms in the intestines, that live and generate, unhurt, by that fluid; yet the moment they are deprived of vitality, they are digested or dissolved. As the chyme passes from the stomach through its lower orifice, called pylorus, it enters the first of the small intestines, PHYSIOLOGY. 33 called duodenum. Here it meets with two fluids, one secreted by the liver, called gall or bile, and the other secreted by the pancreas or sweetbread, called pancreatic juice. 'The fluids from both are conveyed into the duodenum by small tubes or canals. Immediately after the admixture of the chyme with the fluids, it begins to separate into two distinct portions, one consisting of the nutritious portion, called the chyle, and the other the refuse portion, part of which forms the excrement. Absorption of the Chyle. —'The intestines are composed, in a great measure, of muscular fibres, some of which run in a circular, and others in a longitudinal direction. When the fibres contract, the diameter of the canal is diminished ; and when the longitudinal fibres are in action, the canal is short- ened ; and by the combined action of these fibres, the food is gradually propelled through the whole length of the canal. The internal surface of the intestines consists of a nervous and vascular membrane, which is constantly forming a mu- cous substance for its own protection. In cases of constipa- tion and colic, this secretion is so abundant as to be discharged in considerable quantity with the dung. ‘There is also, on the inner surface of the intestines, an immense number of minute vessels, called lacteals, by which the chyle is sucked up or absorbed. ‘The lacteals terminate on the inner surface of the intestines by small tubes, with open mouths. These tubes are full of little valves, which prevent the return of chyle. In passing through these canals, the fluid traverses small bodies, called mesenteric glands. Eventually, the whole of the lacteals terminate in a vessel called the thoracic duct, from thence into one of the jugular veins,* into which it empties. The chyle thus mixes with the venous blood in the veins, and goes with it to the lungs, where, coming in contact with atmospheric air, it is deprived of its carbon, and assumes the character of pure arterial blood. There are other vessels that empty into the thoracic duct, called lymphatics; these, with the lacteals, form what is termed the absorbent system. * It enters the subclavian vein in the human being. 5 34 PHYSIOLOGY. The lymphatics carry a fluid called lymph, which is a limpid fluid, and found in all parts of the body. They take up substances that are applied to their mouths; thus the moisture within the abdomen, and other cavities, or poisons rubbed on the hide, are taken into the system. The absorb- ents also assist in this process, the latter taking up all the useless matter, and conveying it into the blood, that it may be thrown off by the skin and kidneys, in the form of urine and perspiration. The external surface of the intestines consists of perito- neum, a membrane from which the viscera of the abdomen derive their external coat. The peritoneum forms also a kind of sac, in which they are enclosed. The first portion of intestine-duodenum - is about twenty inches in length. The next is named jejunum; the third illium: this terminates in the cecum, or first of the large intestines: here there is a looseness of the internal coat, which allows it to be formed into folds, and effectually prevents the return of excrement into the small intestines. 'The second of the large intestines is named colon. It is small at its commencement, but soon after enlarges into a very capacious canal, which, when it has passed nearly around the abdomen, again forms a second, but slight contraction ; after which it again enlarges, when, less- ening a third time, it terminates in the rectum. The anus, or fundament, is the termination of the rectum, and is shut by a circular muscle, termed sphincter, which surrounds the end of the gut. Circulation of the Blood. — Having given the reader some idea of the manner in which the blood is made, we will now consider its properties, and explain how it is propelled and distributed to every part of the animal. The appearance of blood is familiar to most persons. We have already stated that it contains the elements for building up and nourishing the whole animal structure. On examin- ing blood with a microscope, it is found full of little red globules, which vary in their size and shape in different ani- mals, and are more numerous in warm than in cold blooded ("38 ) Plate No. 3. THE HEART VIEWED EXTERNALLY. ” > : 5 : an rs { (KC KK q adie SY tame (ee 7 C i S | | f | \ \ | ‘ I Mi i ee a, the left ventricle; 6, the right ventricle; c, e, f, the aorta; g, h, 7, the carotid and other arteries springing from the aorta; 4, the pulmonary artery; Z, branches of the pulmonary artery in the lungs; m, m, the pulmonary veins emptying into the left auricle; m, the right auricle; o, the ascending vena cava; g, the descending vena cava; 7, the left auricle; s, the coronary vein and artery. See CircuLATION OF THE Boop, on the opposite page. 36 PHYSIOLOGY. animals: probably this arises from the fact that the latter absorb less oxygen. If the blood of one animal be trans- fused into another, it will frequently cause death, When blood stands for a time after being drawn, it sepa- rates into two parts. One is called serum, and resembles the white of an egg; the other is the clot or crassamentum, and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like substance: this is ac- companied by whitish, tough threads, called fibrine. When blood has been drawn from a horse, and it assumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum, or buffy coat, remain on its sur- face, it denotes an impoverished state; but if the whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform mass, it indicates a healthy state of this fluid. The blood of a young horse generally coagulates into a firm mass, while that of an old or debilitated one is generally less dense, and more easily divided or broken down. ‘The power that propels the blood into the different ramifications of the animal, is a mechanico-vital power, and is accomplished through the medium of the heart, which is a powerful muscular organ contained in the chest. From certain parts of it arteries arise ; in others the veins ter- minate ; and it is principally by its alternate contractions and expansions, aided, as already stated, by the vital power, that the circulation of the blood is carried on. ‘The heart is in- vested with a membranous bag, called pericardium, which adheres to the tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to the great vessels at the base of the heart. The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid within the pericardium, which guards against friction. In dropsical affections, the quantity of this fluid is considerably increased, and constitutes a disease called dropsy of the heart. The heart is divided into four cavities, viz., two auricles, named from their resemblance to an ear, and two ventricles, (as seen in plate 3, a 6,) forming the body. The left ventricle is smaller than the right ; but its sides are much thicker and stronger: it is from this part that the grand trunk of the arteries proceeds, called the great aorta, (i. e., f, plate 3.) The right cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for the blood that is brought back by the veins after going the PHYSIOLOGY. 37 rounds of the circulation ; which, like an inverted tree, become larger and less numerous as they approach the heart, where they terminate in the right auricle. The auricle on the left side of the heart receives the blood that has been distributed through the lungs for purification. Where the veins terminate in auricles, there are valves placed. The coronary vein, which enters the right auricle, has its mouth protected by a valve called semilunar, or half-moon shape, which opens only towards the heart, and prevents the blood taking a retrograde course. The different tubes coming from and entering into the heart, are also provided with valves to prevent the blood from returning. For example, the blood proceeds out of the heart, along the aorta, (see plate ;) the valve opens upwards, the blood also moves upwards, and pushes the valve asunder, and passes through ; the pressure from above effectually closes the passage. The valves of the heart are composed of elastic cartilage, which enables them to work with ease. In some diseases, however, they become ossified. This, of course, is fatal. The heart and its appendages are also subject to other diseases, called dilatation, softening, hardening, &c. Now, the blood, having been brought from all parts of the system by the veins, enters into the vena cava, (see plate 3, fig. 0, q, ascending and descending portion,) which empty themselves into the right auricle; and this, when distended with blood, contracts, and forces its contents into the right ventricle, which, contracting in its turn, propels the blood into the pul- monary arteries, (see plate,) whose numerous ramifications bring it in contact with the air-cells of the lungs. It then assumes a crimson color, and is then adapted to build up and supply the waste. Having passed through the vessels of the lungs, it continues on, and passes into the left auricle: this also contracts, and forces the blood through a valve into the left ventricle. This ventricle then contracts in its turn, and the blood passes through another valve into the great aorta, from which it is distributed into the whole arterial structure: after going the rounds of the circulation, it is again returned to the heart by the veins. 38 PHYSIOLOGY. Respiration and Structure of the Lungs. —'The organs of respiration are the larynx, the upper opening of which is named glottis, the trachea or windpipe, bronchia, and the lungs. The air is displaced out of the lungs by the action of the muscles of respiration; and when these relax, the lungs ex- pand by their elasticity. ‘This may be exemplified by means of a sponge, which may be compressed into a small bulk by the hand, but, upon opening the hand, the sponge returns to its natural size, and all its cavities become filled with air. The purification of the blood in the lungs is of vital impor- tance, and indispensably necessary to the due performance of all the functions. When the lungs, and muscles connected with them, are in a physiological state, the horse is said to be in good wind —a very desirable state for an animal to be in, whose usefulness depends on his being capable of a long continuance of quick motion. The trachea, or windpipe, after dividing into bronchia, again subdivides into innumera- ble other branches, the extremities of which compose an infinite quantity of small cells, which, with the ramifications of the veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and the connecting cellular membrane, make up the whole mass or substance of the lungs. The internal surface of the windpipe, bronchia, and air-cell, is lined with a membrane, which secretes a mucous fluid: when, in consequence of an obstructed sur- face, this fluid becomes abundant, it is expelled by the nos- trils. ‘The whole is invested with a thin, transparent mem- brane, named pleura: the same membrane lines the internal surface of the ribs and diaphragm, and, by a duplicature of its folds, forms a separation between the lobes of the lungs. Glandular Secretions.— Liver. This is the largest gland in the animal economy; it secretes from the blood a fluid called bile; it is conveyed by numerous small tubes into a - larger one, in which they terminate: this is named hepatic, or biliary duct. In the human body, and in most quadrupeds, there is another duct, branching off from this, which termi- nates in a gall bladder, from which the bile is expelled ; but PHYSIOLOGY. 39 in the horse there is simply one duct, which conveys the bile, as already stated, into the duodenum, where it assists in the process of chylification. Kidneys. Their office is to convey or secrete the super- fluous fluids and excrementitious parts of the blood in the form of urine. In man, the skin is the great outlet of the body, and the kidneys are one of a secondary order; but in some animals, the kidneys are the principal parts concerned in car- rying off the impurities of the blood. When horses are allowed an unlimited quantity of hay and water, or when they are fed on improper food, and the skin obstructed, the urine will be voided in large quantities — thick, turbid, deficient in quality, and having a peculiar stinking smell. From a cavity in the centre of each kidney, a canal or tube proceeds, by which the urine is conveyed into the bladder. ‘These tubes are named ureters. As the ureters enter the bladder, they pass forward a short distance between its coats; which course effectually prevents the urine from flowing back into the ureters. The urine is expelled by the muscular power which the bladder possesses of contracting upon its contents. The horse’s kid- neys are readily affected by diuretic medicines, and many valuable horses are ruined by the too frequent use of nitre and rosin. ‘These articles are indirect diuretics; they cause a large secretion of urine, but do not provide for the excretion. In such cases, the bladder may be distended beyond its usual capacity ; its fibres may become lacerated, and thus be in- capable of contracting on its contents. Disease of the kid- neys sometimes happens in consequence of excessive exertion, or strain of the loins ; and sometimes peritoneal disease spreads to the kidneys. There are other glands scattered over the system, of equal importance ; yet, in the present state of veterinary knowl- edge, the author deems it unnecessary to refer to them. Anatomy and Physiology of the Eye. — The parts which compose the eye are divided into external and internal. 'The external parts are, first, the eyelashes, or cilia, which, in the horse, can scarcely be reckoned more than one, there being AO PHYSIOLOGY. very few hairs in the under eyelid ; secondly, the eyelids, or palpebree, upper and under: where they join outwardly, it is termed the external canthus, and inwardly towards the nose, the internal canthus: they cover and defend the eyes. The cartilaginous margin or rim of the eyelid, from which the eyelashes proceed, is named tarsus. In the tarsus and inter- nal surface of the eyelid there are small glands, which secrete a fluid, to prevent friction of the eye and its lids, and facili- tate motion. Thirdly, the lachrymal gland, which is placed on the upper part of the eyelid towards the external canthus ; from this gland the tears are secreted, and conveyed to the inner surface of the upper eyelid by several minute ducts, or canals, named lachrymal ducts. There is another small body, having a glandular appearance, in the inner corner of the eye ; on each side of which there are small orifices, which are called puncta lachrymalia: these are the mouths or openings of two small canals, which, joining together, form a membranous tube; and this, passing through a small opening in the bone, extends to the lower part of the nostril, where its termination may be distinctly seen in the horse. As the lachrymal gland is constantly forming tears, it must be obvious that some contrivance is necessary to convey them off, and prevent them flowing over the cheek: this purpose is answered by the canal just described. When any irritating matter is applied to the eye, the tears are formed too abundantly to be carried off in this way; they then flow over the cheek. In the human eye, the puncta lachrymalia terminate in a small sac, from which the lachry- mal duct proceeds: this is not the case in the horse. In the inner corner of the horse’s eye is placed a body commonly termed the haw, no resemblance to which is to be found in the human eye. The horse has the power, by means of the muscles of the eye, to bring the haw completely over its surface ; it serves, therefore, as a second eyelid, and effectu- ally wipes off any dust, hay, or seeds, or other matter which may have fallen upon the eye. The conjunctive membrane, or tunica conjunctiva, lines the inner surface of the eyelids, PHYSIOLOGY. Al and covers the white part of the globe of the eye. This membrane has numerous blood-vessels, which are conspicuous when it is inflamed. The bulb or globe of the eye is com- posed of several coats and humors. The transparent cornea, which, in the horse, forms the front part of the eye, com- prehends a larger part of the globe than in the human subject; on removing this cornea, a fluid, which is named the aqueous humor, escapes, and the iris appears. The iris is a muscular curtain, having ahole in the centre, which is termed the pupil. This divides the fore part of the eye into two parts, named chambers, which are occupied by the aqueous humor. The pupil is of a dark bluish cast; is of an oval, or rather of an oblong form. The iris regulates the quantity of light that is required to pass through the pupil. For this purpose, it is composed of two sets of muscular fibres; by means of one the pupil is enlarged, and by the other it is diminished. Thus, if the pupil is first examined in the stable, where there is a moderate light, and immediately after in the sunshine, it will be found quite altered ; being so small, in a strong light, as to be nearly closed. On removing the iris, the second humor, or crystalline lens, appears: this is retained in its situation by a transparent membrane, named its capsule, between which and the lens is a minute quantity of fluid. The third humor of the eye is the vitreous. This humor is not contained in one general sac, but in numerous minute and perfectly trans- parent cells, and resembles pure water: this humor serves to produce a small degree of refraction in the rays of light, and occupies and distends all the posterior part of the globe of the eye. The next coat to the conjunctive is the sclerotica, or white of the eye, a strong, thick membrane, which extends from the transparent cornea to the optic nerve. ‘The next coat to the sclerotic is the choroid. This is a delicate and very vascular membrane. In the human eye, it appears of a black color, and it is this which causes the pupil of the human eye to appear black; but the choroid coat of the horse’s eye is variegated in color; in some parts black, in others blue; and in others green. The next coat is the 6 42 PHYSIOLOGY. retina: this is a delicate expansion of the optic nerve over the choroid coat, which it accompanies to the margin of the crystalline lens, and there terminates. The use of the retina is to receive certain impressions made by the light reflected from objects, so as to produce in the mind an idea of their figure and color; the optic nerve being the medium of communication between the retina and brain. From the above explanation of the mechanism of the eye, it will readily appear that many circumstances may occur to render vision imperfect, or to destroy it altogether. If the transparent cornea, for example, became white, light could not pass through it, and the animal would be blind, however perfect the other parts of the eye might be. The cornea may be either too convex. or too flat; in the former case, causing the animal to be near-sighted ; in the latter, produ- cing an indistinctness of vision with respect to objects that are near. The iris may, 1n consequence of disease, become fixed, or lose its power of motion; in which case, the pupil would be always of the same size, and the animal would not have the power of adapting it to the various distances or objects; or, as sometimes happens, the pupil may become quite closed, by which light would be perfectly excluded from the retina. Supposing the cornea and iris to be healthy, the crystalline lens, or its capsule, may become opaque, and thereby cause total blindness. But in this part, as in the cornea, we meet with different degrees of opacity : sometimes it is very slight, the pupil appearing of a lighter color, and unusually large: in this state, the pupil is said to look dull or muddy, which causes the horse to start; but when the opacity is complete, it constitutes the disease termed cataract. There is another disease, to which the reader’s attention is called ; it is named gutta serena, or amaurosis. This disease is known by the pupil being unusually large or open, and by its con- tinuing so when the eye is exposed to.a strong light. _ Remarks on the Causes of Disease in the Eye. — Young horses, generally, are peculiarly liable to a disease called ophthalmia. Such as are got bya blind stallion, or bred from ANATOMY. 43 a blind mare, are said to be more liable to it than others; yet all horses, if pent up in hot stables, fed high, and not sufficiently exercised, are liable to disease of the eye. Some- times a general derangement of the system, brought on by violent and excessive exertion, will terminate in a disease of the eye, or its membranes; also by standing still in cold wind or rain when the animal has been heated, and is sweating; or sluicing him with cold water, which is very much in fashion, since the Cochituate was introduced in this city. If wa- ter is used to cleanse the horse, he should be rubbed per- fectly dry, and the reactive powers provoked by friction with the brush. Cure. —It is of the utmost importance to remove the cause, if possible: next adopt that system of management, with respect to feeding, exercise, grooming, and ventilation, laid down in this work. If the disease is hereditary, then the most scientific treatment, to say the most of it, is only palliative. The best lotion for the eye is an infusion of camomiles, or a mixture of one tablespoonful of vinegar to a pint of water, used occasionally with a clean sponge and a light hand. ‘The horse should be kept on a light diet of scalded shorts; darken the stable, and give the animal proper attention until the disease is subdued. ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. Tue vulva, or pudendum, is the slit commencing below the anus, and extending downward, forming a fissure. This fissure is longest and most conspicuous in breeding mares. The space between the anus and vulva is called the perineum. The prominences on each side of the vulva are called the labia pudendi. They owe their bulk principally to fatty substance. A4A ANATOMY. The commissures are the parts uniting the labia above and below. The superior or upper commissure is extended to a sharp angle, and joins the perineum; the lower portion is rounded off, and is bounded by a hollow, at the bottom of which is lodged the Clitoris. —'This is brought into view immediately after staling : it bears a close comparison to the head of the male penis, and, like the latter, is susceptible of sensual enjoyment. To the clitoris belong a pair of muscles named erector clitoris. They take their origin from the perineum. ‘Their office is to erect that body, and protrude it into the vagina in the act of coition. The internal parts are the vagina, uterus, Fallopian tubes, fimbriz, and ovaria. The vagina is a musculo-membranous canal, of large dimensions, extending from the vulva to the uterus or womb. It is situated within the pelvis, having the bladder below and the rectum above it, to both of which it has cellular attachments, in addition to the reciprocal connection with the peritoneum. 'To the rectum it is closely and firmly at- tached by cellular membrane. The figure of the vagina, when it is distended, is that of an oblong cylinder ; but in the collapsed state, its sides are in contact, and it will vary its form according to the full or empty condition of the bladder. The largest part of the canal is the posterior; there it exceeds the dimensions of the bladder. The length of the canal is about eighteen inches. Its course is horizontal, and rather shows an inclination to the curve of the rectum. The vagina, at its commencement from the vulva, is much thicker in its walls than elsewhere; in composition, it is partly muscular and partly membranous. The orifice of it is clothed in that strong, red, circular, fleshy band, which forms the sphincter vagina; and the adjoining part of the canal is also encircled by some considerable fleshy covering, ANATOMY. AS and thickly coated with muscular fibres. Farther forward than this the vagina is composed of membrane. The Membrane of the Vagina. — The part of which it is constituted is one of the mucous class, and one that pos- sesses considerable density, extensibility, and resistance. Its exterior surface is rough. Its interior is smooth, and has a pale pinkish cast; unless the mare be under the venereal cestrum, and then its redness is heightened, and its secretion augmented. In the ordinary state, this membrane is thrown into folds, larger in breeding mares than in others, technically called ruge. Considerably in advance of the clitoris is an opening leading from the lower part of the canal, large enough to admit with ease any one of the fingers: this is the orifice of the meatus urinarius, or outlet of the bladder: it is guarded by a doubling of the vaginal membrane, which hangs over it, and serves the purpose of a valve. The large and conspicuous protuberance at the bottom of the vagina, is the mouth of the uterus. The uterus, or womb, is a hollow musculo-membranous organ, united to the anterior part of the vagina, and is des- tined for the reception of the fetus. We distinguish the uterus by the body, horns, neck, and mouth. 'The body is the oblong or cylindrical part, growing out of the anterior portion of the vagina, in the centre of which it is terminated internally by the os uteri, or mouth of the womb; it gives origin, in front, to the horns. This part lies wholly within the pelvis, between the bladder and rectum, and is entirely covered by peritoneum. The cornua, or horns, rise from the body of the uterus, and diverge towards the loins. Their length and size will be much greater in breeding mares than in others. In figure they are cylindrical; they bend upwards in their course, and terminate in round extremities, to which are loosely appended the ovaries, or testicles, through the medium of the Fallopian tubes. The cervix, or neck, of the uterus is the rugose portion A6 ANATOMY. protruded backward into the cavity of the vagina, which has a flower-like appearance, and can only be seen in a virgin uterus in the undistended state: during gestation it undergoes a remarkable change. Independently of its union with the vagina, the uterus is confined in its place by two broad portions of peritoneum, which attach it to the sides of the pelvis, named the lateral ligaments of the uterus. During the period of gestation, the uterus experiences considerable extension. The Fallopian tubes are two trumpet-shaped canals, having a remarkable serpentine course ; running within the folds of the ligamenta lata, from the extremities of the horns to the ovaries. The tube commences by an aperture in the cornu, having an elevated whitish margin, which is scarcely large enough to admit a small silver probe: from this it proceeds forward, folded in peritoneum, and extremely convoluted, until it reaches the ovary, to which it becomes attached; it then begins to enlarge in its diameter, grows less convoluted, and serpentines along the lower side of the ovary ; it afterwards ends in a fringed doubling of membrane. ‘The internal membrane of the tubes is similar to that of the uterus. The ovaria, or female testicles, are two egg-shaped bodies, situated farther forward than the Fallopian tubes, within the cavity of the abdomen: they receive close coverings, and are loosely attached to the spine. These bodies are about the size of walnuts. They are not regular oviform ; they have deep fissures on their sides; they bear a resemblance, at first view, to the testicles and their ducts in the male. Internally, the ovaries are composed of a whitish spongy substance, in which are, in some instances, found little vesi- cles containing a yellowish glairy fluid, in others one or more dark yellow or brownish substances named corpora lutea : the vesicles are the ova, which, from impregnation, receive further development ; the corpora lutea denote the parts from which vesicles have burst, and consequently only exist in the ANATOMY. 47 ovaries of those mares whose organs have been engaged in the generative process. Prior to the age of sexual intercourse, these bodies are small and white; but as soon as the season of copulation is at hand, they grow large, redden externally, and present many yellow spots or streaks through their sub- stance. Mamme, though unconnected with the uterus, anatomi- cally speaking, are in function concurring to the same im- portant end. The mamme, vulgarly called udder, are two flattened oval-shaped bodies, depending, between the thighs, from the posterior and inferior part of the belly. In quadru- peds, with but few exceptions, this is the situation of the mamme. In virgin mares the udder is so small that there hardly appears to be any. In mares who have had foals, the udder remains prominent or pendulous, and has a flabby feel. Towards the latter part of gestation, this part swells, and becomes distinctly visible. Within a few days of foaling, the udder grows turgid with milk; it does not, however, acquire its full distention until the foal has drawn it for a few days, from which time it maintains its volume, with little variation, during the period of sucking. Soon after the foal begins to forsake the teat, the secretion of milk diminishes, and is followed by a contraction of the bag, which goes on gradually, until it has resumed nearly, or quite, its former flatness. The interior of the mamme has a light yellowish aspect, and evidently possesses a lobulated structure, which is held together by a fine cellular tissue, interspersed with granules of fat. It is constituted of glandular masses, irregular in magnitude and form, and loosely connected one with another, each of which masses is composed of a number of lobules, closely compacted and united together. These insulated lobulous portions receive small arteries, from which the milk is secreted. The former, by repeatedly conjoining one with another, become at length several demonstrable canals, radiat- ing from every part, and dilating to hold the milk. A8 ANATOMY. When the udder becomes charged with milk, it flows into the teat and distends it. Suction is apparently an operation purely mechanical. The teat is seized and closely com- pressed by the lips of the foal; and the imbibing effort which follows has a tendency to produce a vacuum, or raise the valve at the upper part of the teat, and the milk passes from the reservoirs into the mouth. ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, MALE AND FEMALE. The common object in the male and female organs of generation, is the development and reproduction of new beings. 'The copulative act is the essential first cause that therein the action of the organs is mutual and sympathetic, and that the result is the generation of a new animal, bearing a likeness to one or both parents, the office of the testicles being to furnish the fecundating liquor, called semen. ‘This is the most important part of the male apparatus. These organs do not descend into the scrotum for some time after birth, and do not carry on their glandular functions until the period of puberty. This epoch is marked in animals by luxu- riant growth of hair, particularly in the mane and tail, a peculiar odor of the body, and lustful passions. The semen is secreted from the blood, and is a white viscous fluid, having a peculiar faint odour, and Mr. Percivall found it to contain myriads of animalcule, or vermiculi. 'To chemical analysis, according to Girard, the horse’s semen yields four fifths of a peculiar animal matter ; the remaining ingredients being mucus, muriate of potass and soda, and carbonate and phosphate of lime. Castration operates in horses, not only by depriving stallions of their amorous fury, but converting the most outrageous into meek and even spiritless geldings. But the loss of one testicle does not take away either the procreative faculty, or the sexual appetite ; for rigs, as they are then called, appear to get foals as well as stallions. In the covering season animals are found to grow restless and unruly, and unless permitted to seek their mates they ANATOMY. A9 will often refuse their food, and even undergo considerable privations, so influential in the system is the periodical sexual passion. By implanting such a vigorous and irresistible impulse into the sexual constitution of animals, has nature excited the congress of the sexes, and insured the perpetuation of their _ species; and so salutary is the moderate or seasonable per- formance of this act, that animals are found to be improved, both in health and strength, by it; if carried to excess, it proves highly destructive. In the covering season the female parts are in a fit state of aptitude for giving due effect to the semen conveyed into them by the penis of the male; they show this aptitude by redness, and prominency of the vulva, and by the emission, at intervals, of a whitish mucus fluid ; animals that are ill fed and hard worked, seldom show that they are horseing at all. Impregnation ordinarily puts an end to the estral dis- charge, by causing permanent closure of the mouth of the womb. The germs, or rudiments, of the future beings exist in the ovaria of the female prior to impregnation, and only require the stimulus of the masculine liquor to dislodge them and develop themselves. STOMACH. By reference to the plate, it will be seen that the horse’s stomach somewhat resembles a bagpipe. It is situated behind the diaphragm, principally on the left side, with its expellant orifice extending across the spine to the right. It has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though one is posterior, and the other anterior; and two ex- tremities, a large and small. The superior, or upper portion of the latter receives the cesophagus or gullet, and is termed its cardiac orifice; while the lower portion, which ends in the duodenum, (see plate,) is termed its pyloric orifice. The situation of the stomach varies, in some degree, with its distention ; when it is much distended, the left extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and cause heaving at the (ow BOI) Plate No. 4. THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE. —_ = a, the gullet, or esophagus, extending to the stomach: 6, 6, the margin which separates the cuticular from the villous coats of the stomach; c, the entrance of the gullet into the stomach; d, d, the cuticular portion of the stomach; e, the communication between the stomach and first intestine; f, 7, f, the villous or mu- cous portion of the stomach, in which the food is principally digested; g, the small orifice through which a portion of the pancreatic juice enters the intestine; A, the orifice through which the bile passes into the intestine: the two pins mark the two tubes. ANATOMY. §1 flanks. In oxen and sheep, the first stomach, being very large, is found, when distended, to have its extremity carried up between the last rib and the hip, in which part it is punc- tured when a bullock is blown or hoven. But such an idea of the horse’s stomach would be very erroneous ; for, this animal having a very small one, it can never occupy a simi- lar situation. 'The stomach has, externally, a covering from the peritoneum, which adheres closely to it by means of ‘its cellular membrane. Its middle portion consists of muscular fibres, which are stronger in the horse than in oxen and sheep. 'These fibres run in various directions, but are princi- pally longitudinal and circular; the latter very strong and thick at the point where the gullet terminates. The inner surface of the stomach consists of two portions, a cuticular and a villous. ‘This kind of cuticula, covering nearly one half of the stomach, is peculiar to animals that appear destined to live on grain. It may be considered, in a slight degree, a species of gizzard, resembling the structure. of those animals who have organs to make up for the want of teeth ; for the horse has not the means of remastication, which oxen and sheep possess ; nor does he usually masticate his food sufficiently ; the wants of the constitution stimulate him to swallow it hastily ; he, therefore, devours his food greedily, and if there were not some other structure than the one common to stomachs in general, it would not be suf- ficiently digested. 'The insensibility of this cuticular coat allows it to press, in some degree, on the food and perform a slight ituration without pain. The cuticular coat ends ab- ruptly by a fringed end, and is very distinct from the villous coat. The villous coat, being much larger in extent than the muscular, is thrown into folds, which are largest towards the greatextremity. ‘Towards the first intestine they become less, and when at the lower orifice they form a valve, preventing the return of food, and its too speedy passage out. The folds not only hinder the too hasty passage of the food, but, by this means, apply the gastric juice more certainly to all its parts; but the principle end is to increase the secreting 52 ANATOMY. surfaces, which are here essentially necessary, as only half of the horse’s stomach is supposed to possess the power of secreting gastric juice. We here, likewise, see the utility of the saliva; for, were the food to come into the stomach nearly dry, the gastric juice, being but a mucus, would not pervade all its parts, but would be lost upon some; nor would the mass be soft enough to spread in between its folds. DESCRIPTION OF THE ANATOMY OF THE FOOT, AND ITS DIS- EASES. T’o a person totally unacquainted with the structure of the horse’s foot, it may appear as a mass of horny, insensible matter ; especially when he sees a horse-shoer cutting off large slices of it with the knife, and nailing to it plates of iron. It will be found, however, to be a very complicated piece of mechanism, but admirably calculated for sustaining the immense pressure and concussion to which it is almost constantly exposed. The horse’s foot may be considered under two heads — the sensitive and the horny parts. The former consists of bones, ligaments, cartilages, membranes, nerves, bloodvessels, &c., and is therefore susceptible of pain. The horny part, on the contrary, is void of sensibility, and serves principally as a defence to the sensitive parts, which it covers; it is endowed, however, with considerable elas- ticity, which enables it to yield, in some degree, to the im- pulse of the internal or sensitive part, in the various motions of the animal ; therefore, if, there be any disposition or ten- dency to contract or shrink in the horny covering or hoof, the internal, sensitive foot will be more or less compressed ; and, if the horny parts lose their elasticity, the sensitive foot must suffer from concussion. So wisely, however, is every part of the foot contrived, that when it is properly managed, and judiciously pared and shoed by the smith, and when the horse is employed only by a humane man, it may be generally preserved in a sound state, perhaps nearly as long as other parts of the body. It must be admitted, that old horses, like old men, have not that ease and freedom about them which ( 53) Plate No. 5. THE LEG FROM THE SHANK BONE. ah My “aN Kc GZ ao SS . ~ Se SRG NS N : ~ 4s x a, the shank bone; 8, the superior, or large pastern bone; c, the inferior, or lesser pastern ; d, the coffin, or foot bone; e, the navicular, or nut bone; 7, the sessamoid bone; g, the inner, or elastic frog; h, the suspensary ligament, inserted into the sessamoid bones; 7, the large flexor tendon of the leg; j, a ligament uniting the sessamoid to the pastern bones; 4, the short, inferior sessamoid ligament; /, the insertion of the flexor tendon into the small pastern ; m, the horny frog ; », the in- sertion of the flexor tendon into the coffin bone; 0, a ligament uniting the navicu- lar to the coffin bone; p, the crust, or wall, of the foot; g, the sensitive lamina, uniting the crust to the coffin bone; 7, the extensor tendon; s, ¢, the union of the upper head of the long pastern bone, and the inferior head of the shank or leg bone, forming the fetlock joint. 54 ANATOMY. they possessed in their youth ; and that their feet, like other parts of the body, are subject to disease from various causes. Even in a state of unrestrained freedom, horses are found with diseased feet, that have never been shod. The different parts that form the foot will now be noticed. By referring to the plate, figure d, a section of the coffin bone, will be seen, where, while it somewhat resembles the foot in shape, it contains the two principle arteries which supply the foot. They enter the lower and back part of the bone, immediately under and behind the termination of the flexor tendon. The arteries give off several branches within the coffin bone, which pass out through orifices at its lower and front part, to be distributed over its surface. The coffin bone is connected with the coronary, or small pastern, and with the navicular, (figure e,) or nut bone. At the posterior, or back part, the flexor tendon (figure m) is inserted into the coffin bone. The nut, or navicular bone, (figure e,) is in shape not un- like a boat. It is interposed between the flexor tendon and other bones, to remove the insertion of the tendon farther from the centre of motion; having a polished surface con- stantly moistened by a fluid resembling synovia, or joint oil. The coronary, or small pastern bone, rests both on the coffin bone and navicula, to which it is firmly united by ligaments. The great pastern,®or os suffraginis, rests on the small pastern, and is also firmly united by ligaments. The two sessamoid bones are placed at the upper and posterior part of the large pastern, to which they have a strong ligamentous attachment. The canon, or shank bone, (figure a,) rests both on the great pastern and sessamoid bones. It articulates and moves easily upon them. There are two elastic bodies attached to the upper and lateral edge of the coffin bone. They are named lateral car- tilages ; they occupy all the space between the extensor ten- don and the back part of the sensitive frog. The lower part of these cartilages is covered by the hoof. The elastic ANATOMY. 55 membranes, or lamine, cover all the front and lateral surface of the coffin bone ; at the extremity of which they turn off at an acute angle, stretching forward to the side of the sen- sitive frog: here they form what have been termed the sensi- tive bars. ‘The lamine are elastic, and are said to be about five hundred innumber. ‘These lamine are received between corresponding laminz in the hoof; but there is a material difference between them. ‘The lamine of the hoof are void of sensibility ; those of the coffin bone are very sensitive. These two kinds of lamine form the connecting medium between the hoof and coffin bone; and so strong is their union, that it is found impossible to separate them without tearing or stripping off the sensitive lamine from the coffin bone, unless the foot be placed in water for some time before it is attempted. 'The extensor tendon (figure 7,) is fixed, or inserted, into the upper and front part of the coffin bone. The sensitive frog resembles a wedge; its point is to- wards the toe, whence it becomes gradually wider and larger : it is divided by a cleft in its centre, towards the hind part. The frog is made up of cartilaginous and fatty matter, and possesses considerable elasticity. Its fore part rests on that part of the flexor tendon which passes over the navicular bone, and on that which is inserted into the coffin bone. From this part its cleft or division commences ; only a small portion, therefore, of the sensitive frog rests on the coffin bone and flexor tendon. The wide part of the frog projects considerably behind these, forming the bulbs of the heels, and, taking a turn forward, is blended with a ligament called the coronary. At its widest or posterior part, there is a con- siderable distance between the sensitive frog and the flexor tendon, the intermediate space being filled up with an elastic, fatty kind of matter. By this contrivance the frog is capable of considerable motion when it receives the pressure of the horse’s weight, which it must do when its horny covering is in contact with the ground. The sensible bars are formed _ by an inflection of the sensible lamin, when they arrive at the heel, whence they pass obliquely forward to the sides of the sensitive frog. 56 ANATOMY, Foot lameness. — The fore feet are more subject to lame- ness than any other part; and the most common cause of such lameness is a morbid irritability of the elastic lamine, which cover the front and sides of the coffin bone and bars. The causes of this morbid state are numerous— applying a hot shoe to the foot, mechanical expansion or contraction with shoes fitted for that purpose. It may be brought on by hard riding, standing upon hot litter, and high feeding. The practice of breaking colts, and putting them to work too early, lays the foundation of foot lameness. Horses afflicted with this disease have a great degree of heat in the feet, with an unusual dryness and contraction of the horn at the heels; the frog appears to be compressed, and narrower than in the healthy foot, and sometimes ragged and discharging matter from its cleft or division. This is not always the case; sometimes the frog appears quite sound, and of the natural shape, and the form of the foot does not appear to have un- dergone any alteration. 'The lameness is often inconsidera- ble, and continues so for months. If the horse is worked on a soft road, very little, if any, lameness is perceptible ; but the moment the animal steps on hard ground, it will be noticed. At length the horse is seen constantly resting his foot, or putting it forward, as he stands in the stable, and, when taken out to work, is found very lame. (The only chance to effect a radical cure in this disease, is to turn the horse to grass in soft ground, without shoes ; and, unless this is done early, it seldom effects any permanent good. Corns. — A disease of the horse’s foot, often causing lame- ness. Corns generally happen in the inner heel, or in that part of the sole which lies within the angle formed by the inflection of the crust or wall of the hoof, or, in other words, between the bar and crust. In their early stage they gen- erally cause some degree of lameness. If not attended to at this period, the horse soon becomes lame ; and when the shoe is removed for examination, the horny matter in the part described will be found, upon scraping off the exterior sur- face, of a dark red color. If the shoe is not removed at this SHOEING. 57 stage of the disease, continued pressure on the tender part, or corn, will at length cause matter to form, which, finding no vent beneath, ascends to the upper part of the hoof, called the coronet, where it breaks out ; and this often misleads the practitioner, and the real cause is not suspected. The only proper way to proceed, is to pare out the red part, then take a small piece of tow, saturate it with tincture of myrrh, and _ place it on the corn ; then have the animal shod with a bar shoe, and this can only be applied when the frog is sufficient- ly prominent and firm to receive its pressure. For, should the frog be lower than the heels, (that is, supposing the foot to be taken up, and its bottom part held upwards,) it must be obvious that the bar shoe cannot bear upon it, and will, there- fore, be useless. The only thing to be done in this case, is to pare away the crust of the tender heel, so that the heel of acommon shoe may not rest upon it. The only mode by which a corn can be either cured or palliated, is to take off all pressure from the parts; and this, not only for a short time, but till the injured sensitive parts have lost their tender- ness, and formed horn of sufficient strength to enable them to bear pressure. While a horse is worked, the shoe should be frequently examined ; and whenever the heel appears to be so near the diseased part as to be in danger of bearing upon it, there must be a vacancy between the heel of the hoof and that of the shoe. When a horse becomes very lame from a corn, and matter is seen oozing out about the coronet, it will be advisable to leave off the shoe, and apply a poultice of shorts, or marshmallows. SHOEING. Many of the evil consequences of shoeing arise from the operator having but a very imperfect knowledge of the struc- ture and various functions of the foot. (See Anatomy of the Foot.) In shoeing a strong, well-formed foot, there is very emt 58. SHOEING. little difficulty, provided the smith understands his business ; but in feet that are deformed, considerable skill is required, and a knowledge of the anatomy of the foot is indispensable. The greatest evils in shoeing arise from the introduction of nails; and, notwithstanding many men of note in the veterinary art have strenuously labored to obviate the mis- chief, or to discover some new and better mode of fixing the shoe, their efforts have not hitherto been crowned with suc- cess. Great ignorance was displayed in the earlier methods of shoeing ; the bars were totally cut away, and the frog con- siderably pared down; the shoe was badly shaped, and was put on the foot red hot: the result was, what might be ex- pected, — the functions of the bars and frog were destroyed, and the ill-shaped shoe acting with these, contraction in its worst form appeared, while the application of the hot shoe dried up the moisture of the crust. The first who made any reformation in inne method was Lafosse ; he introduced the half-moon shoe. 'This was con- sidered an improvement ; its semicircular shape seemed to be more adapted to the healthy hoof, and not reaching beyond the middle of the foot, the nails were placed near the toe ; hitherto their situation had been nearer the heels, which pre- vented a proper action of the sole and frog, thus destroying the natural spring and elasticity of the foot. Bracken and Bartlett made Lafosse’s treatise known in England; but his method had this disadvantage, that the horses were apt to slip, and the heels were worn down very fast. To Lafosse succeeded William Osmer, who first prohibited the extensive paring of the hoof, that had as yet been practised. The crust was made smooth by rasping ; the frog and bars were only to be cut when the edges were ragged; the shoe was equally thick in every part; the surface next the ground was flat, but narrower behind than before. Many now appeared, who introduced various methods of shoeing and forms of shoes, all of which displayed more or less ingenuity. Lord Pembroke and Mr. Bracy Clark deserve SHOEING. 59 mention. The Veterinary College threw out many hints and improvements, and Mr. Coleman labored hard to extend the knowledge already obtained. Mr. Clark’s shoe did not materially differ from that recom- mended by Osmer ; he raised many objections against elevat- ing the heels with calkins— preferred, however, sharp calkings in hilly roads. Mr. Lawrence speaks in favor of the French method of driving the nails into shoes, which is in an oblique direction, so that the points come out about three quarters of an inch above the shoe. The preparation of the foot, and the operation of shoeing, should be performed as follows : — In taking off the old shoe, it is always necessary to raise the clenched portion of the nails, for, if neglected, the nail holes become enlarged, and not unfrequently pieces of the crust are torn off; this must naturally weaken the hold of the new nails, and injure the foot in other ways. The edges of the crust must then be rasped, to ascertain if any stubbs remain behind ; this process will likewise re- move the dirt and gravel. Paring is the next process, and perhaps the most difficult. The quantity to be cut away will vary with different horses. The flat foot needs very little paring. In the concave, or hollow foot, the horn may be cut till the sole yields to mode- rate pressure ; when the sole appears in flakes, and thick in substance, it will be better to make the sole sufficiently hol- low to admit the application of a flat shoe, as it will rest only, in that case, on the crust. But when the sole will not allow of being thus pared, the shoe must then be made concave, or hollow, on the surface next the foot. The crust must be level all round, and the heels of the shoe should rest on the junction of the bars with the crust. The bars should be left prominent, and never, under any circumstances, should they be cut away. If there is any one part of shoeing more important than the rest, it is to suffer the bars to remain prominent ; if they are cut away, which 60 SHOEING. is frequently done, contraction or permanent lameness is the result. The horn between the bars and crust must be re- moved; when this is done, and the shoe rests on the junction of the bars and crust, the horse will generally be free from corns. The frog must be carefully pared away according to the shape and prominence of the foot, but it must be left within and above the lower surface of the shoe; if it descend lower than this, it will be injured; and if it be allowed to remain higher, it will not touch the ground, and its intention is thus rendered abortive, and its functions cannot be discharged. For a perfect hoof, the shoe should not be more than three quarters of an inch broad, and of the same thickness at the heel as at the toe. The surface of the shoe that bears on the ground should be flat ; that next the foot, particularly at the toe, should be hollowed ; for even in good feet, the sole towards the toe is often level with the crust, and consequently would be pressed upon by the shoe, were its surface made flat. The toe of the shoe, being the part that wears most, should be formed of steel. ‘The nails should be placed as near the toe as is con- sistent with the security of the shoe, that there may be as little restraint as possible upon the motion of the heels, and quarters of the hoof. The crust of flat feet is usually weak ; therefore, great care is required in nailing on the shoe; and this will appear the more necessary, when it is considered how much pain the animal must suffer, and what severe lameness may ensue, should he happen to lose a shoe during a journey. Horses that have long and slanting pasterns, with weak, low heels, require a shoe rather thicker at the heel than the toe; and when the pasterns are short and upright, and the crust of the heels deep and strong, a thin-heeled shoe is proper. The most important object to be borne in mind, is the treat- ment of the foot at the time of shoeing. The blacksmith should never cut away more of the hoof than would be worn away, were the animal in a state of unrestrained freedom. SHOEING. 61 The shoe should never be put on hot; neither should the foot be shaped to fit the shoe. The bar shoe, which is called into use when the foot is affected with corns, sandcrack, &c., should never be worn longer than the disease requires. Contraction of the Hoof. — 'This is a very common defect in horses, and though it sometimes takes place under the best management, and even in colts that have never been shod, it is more commonly the effect of improper treatment. If we cut off the foot of a dead horse, and keep it ina dry but cool situation, so that it may not soon become putrid, it will be found to undergo but very little alteration in its form, though kept a considerable time; but, if the contents of the hoof are taken out, which may be done by keeping the foot a few days in a hot situation, the hoof will then be found to shrink or contract. ‘This contraction will take place principally at the higher part or coronet, and towards the heels; the horn being in those parts most flexible, and containing nothing to oppose the contracting power. At the lower part, or bottom of the crust, there may be the same tendency to contraction ; but there the horn is much thicker, and the contractible power is strongly opposed by the bottom of the hoof: that is, the frog, bars, and sole. If the bottom of the foot is removed, the heels will then contract rapidly. What then, it may be asked, is it that prevents contraction of the hoof in the living horse; and by what circumstances is the tendency or disposition to contract produced? ‘The hoof, in its healthy state, is per- vaded by a fluid, by means of which it is preserved in a flexible and elastic state. If, by any means, a preternatural degree of heat is excited in the foot, this fluid will be too quickly absorbed, and the supply will be diminished ; the horny matter will, therefore, be disposed to contract or shrink ; and the contraction will take place more or less rapidly, according to the degree in which the disposition to contrac- tion exists, and the resistance that is opposed to it. Contrac- tion of the hoof sometimes depends on error in shoeing ; yet the cause is often found in a morbid state of the foot, 62 SHOEING. brought on by immoderate work, or standing idle in the stable ; and sometimes depending, also, on constitutional or hereditary taint. When the nervous structure of any part of the body is impaired, it offers very little resistance to the encroachments of disease. ‘The best means of preventing contraction of the hoof, is to breed from stallions and mares that are free from it; to break colts, and bring them into work, at a proper age; and when brought into the stable, to feed them properly, and work them with consideration. If a young horse is brought into work before he comes to maturity, there will be an undue expenditure of vital power. A horse in a state of nature takes proper and sufficient exercise, and the friction to which the feet are exposed is sufficient to wear away the useless horn ; but when he 1s taken into the stable, his shoes nailed to the hoofs, and is made to stand for several days together without any exercise, is it strange that the feet should become diseased, or contracted? Sometimes a natural drain, or issue, is formed in one or both feet ; that is, a thrush takes place; but the thrush is an evil, though less than it has a tendency to remove. (See T'arusn, part Second.). The term contraction of the hoof is sometimes improperly applied ; for in all those cases of chronic lameness that have been sup- posed to depend upon contraction of the hoof, though the contraction has been removed, the lameness has continued. The general application of the term contraction has been often the cause of obscuring the real nature of the lameness which has been so named, and has led to many contrivances, in the way of shoeing, for expanding the hoof; such as forc- ing it apart by means of a screw. If we look at the real nature of contractions, we shall find that they originate, generally, in an excessive use of the organ and bad stable management; therefore the only probable means of restoration is a long run at grass. REMARKS. ON. FEEDING. 63) REMARKS ON FEEDING. As the food of horses is well known to act considerably in maintaining health in some cases, and in others to be a serious cause of disease, it is, therefore, an important subject to the farmer and stable-keeper, and demands their serious considera- - tion. Food may consist of two kinds, namely, natural, or such as animals are found to subsist on in a state of unre- strained freedom ; and artificial, or such as man, by his own experience and observation, has found most suitable to pro- duce health, strength, and condition, when domesticated and rendered subservient to his use. Herbage forms a great part of the food given to horses, such as grasses and clover ; the different. kind of grasses are usually converted into hay. Clover is given green, since it appears to be more useful in that form, for when dry it is not so easily digested, and con- tains less nutritive matter. The green herbage is invaluable in the cure of some obstinate cases of disease, simply by its medicinal effects. When hay is cut at the proper season, namely, before it becomes too fibrous, the greatest care, is requisite in the drying process, for the most judicious persons have frequently been unfortunate enough to have their hay turn musty; in such cases it is impaired in quality. To: obtain good hay, the grass. should consist of various sorts; or be, as it is commonly termed, full.of herbage. 'The soil should be well drained. 'The grass should be mowed early, and while in flower, and should be afterwards almost con- stantly attended to, if the weather is favorable; the more it is scattered about, the better will it be made, and the more effectually will its fragrance and other good qualities be pre- served. The quantity is sometimes looked to more than the quality. Horses that are fed long on bad or musty hay, sooner or later suffer from indigestion, and a consequent loss of condition. It will be seen by the annexed table, that hay contains but a small amount of nutrition in proportion to the same weight 64 REMARKS ON FEEDING. of grain; therefore hay, to support life, must be given in large quantities; much time is required to digest it, and a large quantity of saliva and gastric juice to macerate it before it can be digested: all these circumstances are directly opposed to the uses of the horse, to which luxury and the wants of man have applied him. Hay, therefore, should be used as a condiment, to increase the bulk of food to a healthy distention of the stomach ; and as such, very little of it should be used. The salt meadow hay has many objections ; the principal one is, that it is cut too late, after the stems have become tough and fibrous. The effects of insufficient food are too well known to need much description ; debility includes them all; it invades every function of the animal. And as life is the sum of the powers that resist disease, and if disease is only the instrument of death, it follows, of course, that whatever enfeebles life, or, in other words, produces debility, must pre- dispose to disease. When horses are put to regular daily work, their vital power will be best maintained by a mixed diet, composed of shorts, meal, cracked corn, oats, and hay, the latter cut and mixed with the other articles, which must be moistened ; bearing in mind, however, that horses, like ourselves, vary constitutionally, some being more readily and simply nourished than others. The principal food used in the New England States are oats, hay, and corn; the latter is ground or broken, and sometimes given whole. Oats have quite an extensive use; these, after being kept some time, give out moisture, which is supposed to render them more wholesome than new. When oats are damaged, they are unfit for the horse ; if, however, they are used, they ought to be exposed to the heat of the sun, for kiln-dried oats produce disease of the bowels and skin, and of the system generally. Much has been written on the advantage of bruising oats for horses, and it has been proved by comparative tests, that a great saving may be thus effected. Some horses will not masticate the oats; hence they are swallowed whole; an examination of the excrement will prove this to be the case. The most general roots in use are, 1. Carrots, which are REMARKS ON FEEDING. 65 one of the best remedial agents in our possession. When the horse is in health, they assist nature to maintain the physio- logical operations of all the functions. The sick horse will be improved by the use of this useful vegetable. It forms one of the best poultices, where poultices are indicated, with which we are acquainted ; when cut up m small pieces, or scalded, and given to the horse occasionally, they are very acceptable to the digestive organs: in cases of chronic indi- gestion, and diseases of the lungs, they are invaluable. 2. Parsnips produce the same effect, and are about equal in their amount of nutritive matter. 3. Potatoes have been given to the horse, but the benefit derived from them is greater when boiled. In addition to the different diets here named, many employ other things; but this chiefly depends on the locality, and the possibility of procuring such food as is gen- erally esteemed most wholesome. A list, showing the relative amounts of nutritive matter contained in the following articles, taken from Sir H. Davy’s work on chemistry : — “1000 parts of wheat contain 995 parts of nutritive mat- ter ; barley, 920; oats, 742; peas, 574; beans, 570; potatoes, 230; red beets, 148; parsnips, 99; carrots, 98.” Of the grasses, 1000 parts of meadow catstail contain, at the time of seeding, 98 parts of nutritive matter; narrow leafed meadow grass in seed, and sweet scented soft grass in flower, 95; narrow leafed and flat stalked meadow grass in flower, fertile meadow grass in seed, and creeping soft grass in flower, 77; cabbage, 73; crested dogstail and brome flow- ering, 71; yellow oat in flower, 66; yellow turnip, 64; nar- row leafed meadow grass, creeping beet, 59; rough meadow grass, flowering, 56; common turnips, 42; sainfoin and broad crested clover, 52; lucerne, 23. Thus it appears that a horse must consume an immense quantity of the grasses, to enable the digestive organs to furnish the material for supplying the great waste that is continually going on; therefore, however good or cheap hay may be, it is dear provender in the end. A horse will live and thrive best on a mixed diet, already 9 66 OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS. referred to; yet an occasional run at grass will improve the condition. If indigestible substances are given to the horse, the stomach becomes overworked; and it follows that when an organ is overtaxed, other parts of the system become sympathetically affected, and the chemico-vital machinery is clogged. This is in accordance with nature’s laws, which are immutable and uncompromising ; whenever they are vio- lated the penalty is sure to follow.. Men who prepare horses for the market attempt to get them into condition, without any regard to their general health, the climate, quantity of food, its quality, or the state of the digestive organs. Men are very apt to think, that as long as the animal has what they term good food, and just as much as they can cram into the stomach, they must fatten; when, in fact, such an enormous quantity of food oppresses the stomach, impairs the digestive organs, and converts the food into a cause of disease. As soon as the stomach is overworked, the food accumulates ; distends the viscera, interferes with the motion of the dia- phragm, presses on the liver, and interrupts the circulation of the blood through that organ, seriously interfering with the bile-secreting process. Many thousands of our most valuable horses die in consequence of being too well, or, rather, inju- diciously fed. Reader, if you own horses, let them have their meals at regular hours, in sufficient quantity, and no more ; good straw on which they may rest their weary limbs; good stables, well ventilated ; let them not be compelled to breathe the emanations that arise from the dung or urine ; keep them clean, avoid undue exposure ; don’t work them too soon after feeding: finally, govern them in a spirit of kind- ness, and there will be little foothold for disease. OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS. ‘¢On one occasion a number of cows were selected from a large stock, for the express purpose of making the trial: they OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS. 67 were such as appeared to be of the best kind, and those that gave the richest milk. In order to ascertain what particular food would produce the best milk, different species of grass and clover were tried separately, and the quality and flavor of the butter was found to vary very much. But what was of the most importance, many of the grasses were found to be coated with silecia, or decomposed sand, and too hard and insoluble in the stomachs of the cattle. In consequence of this the grass was cut and well steamed, and it was found to be readily digested; and the butter that was made from the milk, much firmer, better flavored, and would keep longer without salt than any other kind. Another circumstance that attended the experiment was, that in all the various grasses and grain, that were intended by our Creator as food for man and beast, the various oils that enter into their composi- tion were so powerfully assimilated or combined with the other properties of the farinaceous plants, that the oil partook of the character of essential oil, and was not so easily evapo- rated as that of poisonous vegetables; and experience has proved, that the same quantity of grass steamed and given to the cattle will give more butter than when the hay is given in its dry state. This fact being established from numerous experiments, then there must be a great saving and superiori- ty in this mode of feeding. The meat of such cattle is more wholesome, tender, and better flavored than when fed in the ordinary way.’”’ Dr. Whitlaw thus describes the process of steaming: ‘A boiler, that will hold from fifty to a hundred gallons, should be placed in a convenient situation, upon an iron surface, so as to render if movable at pleasure, although it would be better as a permanent fixture. The boiler should have a safety-valve affixed in the middle of the lid, which should be six inches in diameter, and a screw and unscrew to the boiler, when it is necessary to replenish the boiler. The valve should be three or four inches long, one inch or more in diameter, as the size of the boiler may require, with a small bar across the bottom tube; and a small hole in the centre of the bar, to allow the stalk of the valve to pass 68 OF STEAMING AND PREPARING FOOD FOR ANIMALS, through it, which must be in the form of a pencil, a few inches longer than the barrel, to allow the steam to escape ; with a guard at the bottom, with a notch in it, the size of the guard, to prevent the valve flying out. There should be a concave head to the valve, to fit the tube close, and of suffi- cient weight to prevent its bubbling up, unless the steam be strong. Next procure a pipe resembling the neck of a goose when standing erect; the wide end to be connected with the cover of the boiler, with a screw to connect the pipe through which the steam passes into the box. The box should be made of three-inch plank, from four to six feet square, or as large as may be required; strongly dovetailed at the corners, fixed with screws, with a false bottom, and about eight inches from the true bottom: the latter should be perforated with holes, drilled about the size of a lead pencil, in order that the steam may ascend. The pipe from the boiler should enter immediately below the false bottom, through a hole made for the purpose, and of the same bore as the pipe. When thus prepared, the box should be filled with chopped hay, or whatever dry food is used, such as cornstalks, &c. The steam should be turned on, and kept exerting its power for a short time, according to the nature of the food. When cool, a pailful of it may be mixed with a few handfuls of cracked oats, or ground corn, and should be given to each cow night and morning: half a tablespoonful of salt should be given twice a week. ‘The cows should have, in addition, a sufficient quantity of dry hay to give them employment in chewing the cud. They must be kept perfectly clean, and be combed with a wool card every morning ; for this practice will create that circulation through the skin, which is neces- sary to the health of the cow and the milk she gives, as a free circulation is to the lungs. Another great advantage obtained by steaming’ is, that it volatilizes, or throws off, the oils of many pernicious plants that may be among the hay, particularly the buttercup, and keeps the cattle from suffer- ing from the bad effects of the poison. When potatoes are steamed, (and they never should be given without,) a con- WATERING. 69 siderable degree more of their dangerous powers dissipates, than would by boiling them, and consequently they are much improved for food. Having paid great attention to the cul- tivation of the potato,” observes Dr. Whitlaw, “I may be allowed to suggest something that will be useful to the farm- er. Potatoes ought to be raised on new earth — gravelly, chalky, marly, slaty, and mountainous earths. In such situations they are more mealy and wholesome; but when grown in rich manure and clayey soils, they are apt to pro- duce disease. During the process of boiling potatoes, the poisonous or night-shade principle is so blended with the starch and gluten, that it never can be separated, so as to produce gluten and flour afterwards. If potatoes were to be raised on low grounds, and eaten in the torrid zone, in the same way they are in England, they would prove a mortal poison. Carrots, beets, and parsnips, should be raised on dry ground ; particularly carrots and parsnips, as a wet soil ren- ders them injurious, as well as all umbelliferous plants ; and as they are frequently made food for cattle, they should be well steamed.” WATERING. AurHoucH few pay proper attention to this department of stable management, yet a little reflection will prove of how much importance it is, that the horse should be supphed with such water as is most palatable to him. Horses have a great aversion to what is termed hard water, and have been known to turn away from the filthy stuff found in the troughs of some of our stables: the water of wells and pumps in our seaport towns is usually hard, and possesses a degree of cold- ness not at all congenial with the palate of the animal. The intense coldness of well water, in the summer months, has been known to gripe, and produce spasmodic colic, injur- ing the animal in other ways. 70 EXERCISE. When a horse is in health he may be frequently watered, taking care to allow but a small portion at a time. When water is drunk immoderately, it reduces the system to a con- dition which renders him an easy prey to the attacks of severe disease, by despoiling the structures of their elasticity and vigor. A horse that is about to perform a journey should be restrained from taking too much fluid. It is a bad arrange- ment to water a horse just before feeding, yet this is to a great extent a general practice. If the animal has just arrived from a journey, or has worked hard, about two quarts may be given; yet if he is in a state of perspiration, he should be rubbed dry before partaking of any fluid. Water should always be given toa horse from a bucket, (we mean working horses,) and they never should have more than half a bucket at a time; two or three buckets a day would be sufficient for any horse. Walking exercise is useful after watering, but trotting or galloping is dangerous. Should a horse get loose during the night, and overload the stomach with corn, then a drink of water would be equivalent to a sentence of death. 'The only proper course would be, to keep the animal quiet, arouse the stomach and digestive organs to action by a cordial and car- minative drink ; use injections ; after the danger is over, and not till then, should the horse be permitted to drink. EXERCISE. Tuts is an essential part of stable management, and like food, it tends towards the health and strength of the animal. Daily exercise is necessary to all horses, unless they are sick ; it assists and promotes a free circulation of the blood, deter- mines morbific matter to the surface, develops the muscular structure, creates an appetite, improves the wind, and finally invigorates the whole system. We cannot expect much of a horse that has not been habituated to a sufficient daily WANT OF APPETITE. 71 exercise ; while such as have been daily exercised, and well managed, are capable not only of great exertion and fatigue, but are ready and willing to do our bidding at any season. When an animal is overworked, it renders the system very susceptible to whatever morbid influences may be present, and imparts to the disease they may labor under an unusual degree of severity. The exhaustion produced by want of rest is equally dangerous ; such horses are always among the first victims, and when attacked their treatment is embarrass- ing and unsatisfactory. WANT OF APPETITE. THis sometimes arises from over-exertion, or immoderate work, which produces general debility, and of course the whole functions are more or less disturbed, and take on the same morbid action: at other times it is brought on by suffering the horse to overload the stomach and bowels; by standing in the stable without exercise, and eating immoderately of hay. Want of appetite may depend on a natural delicacy of the stomach, or on the bad quality of the food. Bad hay is often eaten with little or no appetite, especially when it has been musty. When the appetite fails, though the food is good, and the horse has only moderate work, the diet should be changed; a small quantity of straw, cut up with what is called cut feed, would be serviceable ; but if the horse has been worked hard, rest probably is the only remedy neces- sary. Young horses sometimes refuse the hay, or mangle it, from soreness of the mouth, in consequence of changing their teeth. This is sometimes attributed to lampas, and the knife or firing iron is resorted to: this is a barbarous and cruel prac- tice, and should never be permitted. When a young horse is changing his teeth, the whole mouth becomes red and tender, which makes him fearful of eating hay or unground corn, 12 WANT OF APPETITE. from the pain it gives him. In all such cases the horse should be kept on scalded shorts, or cut feed, until the sore- ness of the mouth is removed. In old horses, when the lampas are down to a level with the front nippers, the part should be washed with a strong solution of burnt alum; or make a decoction of powdered bloodroot, and wash the part night and morning. All serious internal disorders are attended with loss of appetite. Weakness of appetite is often consti- tutional, and cannot be cured ; yet it may be palliated: when such a horse is wanted only for moderate work, his appetite may be greatly improved by careful feeding, good grooming, and a well-ventilated stable. The food must be of the best quality, and the water pure, and not too cold or hard; he should have but little food at a time, but the more frequently. He should never have more, but rather less, food put before him at a time than he is inclined to eat ; and if, at any time, he is found to leave food in the manger, it should be taken out, and after keeping him without food for a short time, some fresh hay, oats, or shorts may be given. ‘The rack, manger, and every part of the stall should be kept clean, and when taken out for exercise or work, the stall should be well swept out, the old litter spread out to dry, and that part unfit for use taken away. At night some clean, fresh straw should be placed under him. A change of food is often useful, especially when green food or carrots can be obtained. It is the custom in many stables to collect the bedding after it has been saturated with the fluids of the excrement and urine, and place it under the manger, thus submitting the horse to the noxious vapors that arise from the filthy mass. Is it to be wondered at, that the poor animals should drag out such a miserable existence? __ Though a good appetite is very desirable in the horse, especially in one that works hard, yet the unlimited indul- gence, as we have already shown, leads to serious conse- quences. Some horses will do well on less food than others; but this does not form any objection to the establishment of a fixed allowance, taking into consideration the age, size, and WANT OF APPETITE. 73 capacity of the digestive organs. The author has visited stables containing from ten to one hundred horses: out of that number no two could be found that would correspond exactly in external conformation, or muscular capacity ; they weighed from seven toeleven hundred pounds. Upon a little reflection, it will be seen that some of these horses would require less food than others; yet they all had their twelve ‘quarts, and as much hay as they could cram down. The evil consequences of overfeeding are sometimes gradual in their progress, and often so slow as to escape observation; so that when it amounts to a serious disorder, the cause is often lost sight of. Every man must be aware how important it is to know the cause of the malady before an attempt to cure is made. \ Very few men notice the quantity of hay a horse eats, and there are but few who attend to its quality ; yet every one will admit, that it is necessary to limit the allowance of hay, whether we regard the expense of the article or the horse’s health. If a horse stands idle in the stable for a whole day, with as much hay before him as he will eat, he generally eats too much, especially if he has but little corn and too much water. The increased capacity of the stomach, which gen- erally results from overloading that organ, is frequently accom- panied with increased appetite. So craving, or morbid, is the appetite, that the animal will eat his bedding, or any thing that comes in the way, until the stomach is sufficiently filled to allay the sensations of hunger. When a horse eats an immoderate quantity of hay, he is always craving after water ; so great is the thirst, that the horse generally loses that delicacy of taste and smell that is natural to him, and will drink any water that comes in his way. The best way of correcting this morbid appetite is, to turn the animal out to pasture, (if the season permits,) where there is but little grass, so that he may be obliged to work for a living. Here, if it is not too late, the stomach will gradually contract ; and as it diminishes in capacity, it will increase in strength. In the same ratio will the digestive organs be improved, and the 10 74 ON STABLE MANAGEMENT. delicacy of taste be restored. By proper attention to the appetite, not only will a horse be kept in good health, but a great saving will be effected ; for it must be borne in mind, that when a horse eats more than he can digest, he does him- self harm, and occasions a great waste of food. ON STABLE MANAGEMENT. As the construction and management of the stable are materially connected with the prevention of disease, it is necessary that every farmer should pay particular attention to this important branch, since to negligence in this depart- ment may be traced many of those diseases which derange the natural functions of the body. When a horse is roam- ing at liberty in the forest or field, he enjoys all the advan- tages of fresh and pure air, and no restriction of light. The reader’s attention will be first called to construction and ven- tilation of the stable. Situation is very important; yet in crowded cities the stable- keepers have but little choice. An elevated spot should be selected, if possible ; low, damp, or marshy ground is very prejudicial to the comfort and health of the horse; all low situations are apt to exhale gases that are more or less destructive. A moist, chilly air will engender rheumatism, stiffness of the joints, colds, or common catarrh. Loftiness is very essential ; it prevents injury of the poll, called poll evil, and provides for a larger supply of pure air for the support of respiration. In all cases it is necessary to have the ceiling tight; it keeps the bad atmosphere of a close stable from injuring the hay : by neglecting this precaution the food is rendered highly injurious and unwholesome. The size of the stable must vary according to the number of horses it is intended to contain. The stalls should be six feet wide, so as to allow the horse to lie down, and nine feet ON STABLE MANAGEMENT. 75 in length, with a declivity of one or two inches, so as to allow the urine to run off. Too many should not be kept in the same apartment : not only is the air thereby vitiated, but the rest and sleep, so necessary to invigorate the animal, are thus prevented or disturbed. Some horses will not lie down; in fact, there is not room for them to do so in many stables. Some men actually believe that a horse is as insensible as a stone, and that any thing is good enough for him ; that he is not entitled to any consideration or mercy ; and he stands in a narrow-contracted, filthy stall, until the muscles and liga- ments around the joints become so stiff and callous, that the poor brute is unable to rest his weary limbs. Some horses will not sleep, or lie down, unless perfectly at their ease ; hence the frequent entrance of stablemen and other persons, with lights, must be a great disturbance to horses that are fatigued and irritable. A large manger will be preferable to the rack ; it will pre- vent the hay seeds and dust from falling on the head, to the frequent injury of the eyes. The length of the halter should be sufficient to allow the animal to lie down. The floors of stalls are made of various materials: hard pine planks are the best, as they preserve an equal tempera- ture. A small quantity of dry straw is absolutely necessary, as it prevents many diseases of the feet; but the feet need not sink so deep in it that their temperature should be affected. On Ventilation and the Admission of Light into the Stable. —In aclose stable the air is not only hot, but loaded with impurities ; the breath of the animal corrupts it, and renders it unwholesome. The author has often visited stables early in the morning, and found the atmosphere very oppressive, and the smell intolerable. From this hotbed of corruption the animals were brought forth to their daily work: the natu- ral consequence of such sudden transitions must sooner or later be disease. The effluvia of animal bodies are constantly running into a putrefactive state, and this must point out very forcibly the necessity of a proper ventilation in stables, espe- cially when it is considered that the dung and urine add to 76 ON STABLE MANAGEMENT. the evil. Stables that are kept hot, and not sufficiently ven- tilated, are always damp. ‘This arises from the breath and vapor of the horse’s body becoming condensed. When the moisture has remained for a certain length of time, it acquires an unpleasant smell, which must be peculiarly offensive to an animal destined, in a state of nature, to be surrounded with pure and wholesome air. Ina state of health, a certain evaporation from the surface of the body is constantly going on: this iscalled insensible perspiration; it unloads the vessels of the skin, invigorates the circulation of the blood, and gives tone and health to the whole animal ; hence the neces- sity of attending to the proper means of ventilation in the construction of stables must be sufficiently evident. The best mode of ventilation is to have a tube, which may be constructed of four boards nailed together, so as to form a hollow box: this is carried from the centre of the ceiling through the roof; a small ventilator may then be placed on it above the roof; or a more simple and less expensive method is, to furnish the tops with slanting caps, leaving sufficient space for the hot air to pass off: this will prevent the rain passing into the stable. On the Admission of Light. — Nothing is so detrimental to the eyes as sudden transitions from darkness to a glaring light ; and yet this is heedlessly disregarded. Many of our city stables burn lamps during the day, (probably preferring darkness to light.) It is well known, and most persons have experienced the very unpleasant sensation of a mingled pain and giddi- ness, which is not readily dismissed, after emerging from a dark room or passage, and suddenly coming in contact with the light. Daily repetitions of this would gradually injure the eyesight, and probably blindness would be the result. On the other hand, too much light is equally injurious. The windows should be sashed so as to draw down from the top; and when the horse is at work, both these and the doors should be open. The brush and currycomb are highly necessary for horses kept in stables. Good rubbing promotes circulation of the ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES. 77 blood, determines morbific matter to the surface, relieves con- gestions, and is a substitute for exercise. Without a clean skin no horse can be expected to have a fine coat. In fair weather the horse should be cleaned in the open air, and not in the stable ; a brush, or a wisp of straw, is the most beneficial and effective. The currycomb, when im- moderately used, is decidedly injurious. Neatness is always requisite in stables, and in that case the appearance is more healthy and comfortable. Every article should be hung or laid in its proper place. We cannot close this subject without referring to the evil practice of allowing the manure to accumulate under the stable floor : how long this practice will be continued remains to be seen. The subject of ventilation is but just in its infancy ; many have yet to learn, that the very existence of their animals depends on a proper supply of pure, uncontami- nated atmospheric air: when they are convinced of this fact, and not till then, do we expect a reformation. The litter and dung should be removed into the open air; nothing is lost by taking away that which is bad or unwholesome. ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES OF LARGE CITIES ON THE QUALITIES OF PLANTS. Dr. Wuirttaw observes, ‘ Among the fertilizers of the soil, high importance is attached, and deservedly, to that mass of matter which results from the process of putrefaction upon organic substances undergoing corruption after death. By reason of its efficacy, it is assiduously procured to fertilize poor soils, to renovate exhausted ones, and prevent good ones from wearing out. Animal manures have a peculiar rankness ; some of them stimulate, or, it may almost be said, cauterize with vehemence. Hence they require admixture of milder materials to mitigate their force. Yet after this offal and 78 ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES. scrapings of large cities have been mingled with soil, in such proportion as not to destroy the life of the plants, but to pro- mote their vegetation, they have been considered as commu- nicating, in many cases, a disgusting or offensive quality to some of the vegetables they nourish. ‘They have been charged with imparting a biting and acrimonious taste to radishes and turnips. Potatoes have been observed to borrow the foul taint of the ground.” This may readily account for the disease found in the potato. That the potato, in several sections of the United States, is fast degenerating, every one will admit ; and they will continue to do so just so long as the farmer uses animal manure, and suffers rank and poisonous weeds to vegetate on his lands. Millers observe a strong, disagreeable odor in the meal of wheat that grew upon land highly charged with rotten recre- ments of cities; the like deterioration of quality has been remarked in tobacco raised in cow-pens. And stable dung has been accused of imparting a disagreeable flavor to aspara- gus. It seems that some portion of the foul matter of manure is absorbed by the radicles of vegetables, and, after passing unassimilated through the sap-vessels, is commu- nicated by the process of nutrition to living substances. This is not to be wondered at when we know that the prin- cipal constituents of animal and vegetable life are nearly the same; or the different compounds are all produced by the same elementary principles. Vegetables consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and the same substances, with the addition of nitrogen, are the principal constituents of the most important compounds found in the animal creation. ‘‘Tt may be illustrated in the animal kingdom. Ducks are rendered so ill tasted, from stuffing down garbage, as some- times to be offensive when brought as food to the table; the quality of pork is known to be modified by the food of the swine ; the bitterness of partridges has been ascribed to the buds on which they live; and the peculiar flavor of piscivorous fowl is rationally traced to the fish they devour. Thus a portion of nutrimental matter passes into the living ON THE ILL EFFECTS OF MANURES. 79 bodies of plants and animals, in certain proportions, without having been entirely subdued or assimilated. It becomes, therefore, a subject of curious and important reflection. The horticulturist mostly calculates on the quantity of his crops. It is, however, a becoming subject of research, that he should likewise attend more to the quality; or, perhaps, the con- sumer may inform him that an offended palate, and injured health, will induce a careful provider to seek uncontaminated articles for his table.” Dr. Whitlaw continues: ‘I have labored with the most unwearied zeal to point out to agriculturists the evil effects of the corrupted soil arising from improper manure, in pro- ducing diseased crops; and, consequently, diseasing animals and man fed on them likewise. I have urged my belief that even the most wholesome vegetables are changed by rank manures, so as to cause many diseases.”’ I hope the horticulturists and agriculturists in America will profit by the doctor’s advice and prevent, not only noxious, but likewise wholesome, vegetables from imbibing poisonous qualities, corrupted by bad manures, and more par- ticularly as the heat of that climate renders poisonous plants much more active than in England ; otherwise they will soon exceed the latter in respect to diseases, at least in dyspepsia, with its long train of awful attendants. ‘‘ Putrid animal matter is offensive to many animals. Dr. Rudge says that there was an enclosure, near Arlington, close to which was a dog ken- nel. Hight cows out of twenty miscarried, in consequence of frequent exposure to flesh, and the skinning of dead horses, so near them. The remainder were removed to a distant pasture, and did well. Most veterinary writers recommend that when a cow has aborted, the fetus and afterbirth should be buried deep and away from the pastures. Sad experience has taught them, that putrid animal matter is as destructive as the pestilential sword. ‘The smell of any putrid substance will cause sheep to miscarry.” Let our landowners and farmers appropriate the best calcu- lated situations for raising grain, clover, and grass seed of the 80 ON ANIMAL MATTER. most approved kind, in order to supply the cattle-growing interest. These should have their lands well cleaned by cropping, and well prepared for laying them down into pas- ture. All the manure that is to be put on the land should, the year previous, be made into compost with lime and other earth, well mixed by turning it over two or three times in summer; by this means all the insects, seeds, and roots in the manure will be destroyed by the lime. This plan will insure a good crop of grain and grass, adequate to the expense of the manure. ‘The ditches should be cleaned, and the dirt laid in heaps; both the common and rich earths made from the decayed leaves, should be prepared to mix with the manure and lime. In cases where the soil is light, lime, chalk, and marl are the best manure. In clay soils, sand and carbona- ceous earths are proper. ‘The land should be ploughed deep, so that the soil that has been subject to cultivation should be turned down to rest and recrystallize. Upon this principle, the people would be living upon provisions raised from virgin earth, which would indeed be a blessing to them; for then there would be few diseases, and the farmer would contribute to the wealth of the country. Paring and burning are good methods of getting the fields cleared of buttercups, poppies, dandelions, and other noxious plants, whose roots do not run deep into the soil. The flavor of all grains, fruits, and vege- tables are much improved by being manured with burnt earth _ and vegetable ashes. ON ANIMAL MATTER. Au bodies endowed with life, and with spontaneous mo- tion, are called animals. 'These are all capable of reproducing their like in life. Some, by the union of the two sexes, pro- duce small living creatures; others lay eggs, which require a due temperature to produce young ; some multiply without ON ANIMAL MATTER. 81 conjunction of sexes ; and others are reproduced when cut in pieces, like the roots of plants. All animals are fed on vegetables, either directly or by the intervention of other animals. As the animal, then, is derived from the vegetable matter, we find, accordingly, that the former is capable of being re- solved into the same principle as those of the latter. Thus, by repeated distillations, we obtain from animal substances water, oil, air, and easily destructible salt and charcoal. These secondary principles are, by further processes, at length reso- luble into the same proximate principles which we find in vegetables, viz., air, earth, and water, and the principle of inflammability. But though the principles of vegetable and animal substan- ces are fundamentally the same, yet these principles are com- bined ina different manner. It is exceeding rare that animal substances are capable of the vinous or acetous fermentation ; and the putrefactive, into which they run remarkably fast, is also different in some particulars from the putrefaction of vegetables. The smell is much more offensive in the putre- faction of animal than of vegetable substances. ‘The putre- faction of urine, is, indeed, accompanied with a peculiar fetor, by no means so intolerable as that of other animal matters ; this is probably owing to the pungency of the volatile alkali, and also to the urine containing less inflammatory mat- ter than the blood and other fluids. When analyzed by a destructive heat, animals afford products very different from those of vegetables ; the oil has a particular and much more fetid odor, and the volatile salt, instead of being an acid, found as it is in most vegetables, is found in animals to be a volatile alkali. Chemists have spoken of an acid procurable from animal substances, and, indeed, certain parts of animal bodies are found to yield a salt of this kind; but it by no means is the case with animal substances in general. In some animals an acid exists uncombined and ready formed in their bodies. This is particularly manifest in some insects, especially ants, 11 82 ON ANIMAL MATTER, from which an acid has been procured by boiling them in water. The solid parts of animal bodies, as the muscles, tegu- ments, tendons, cartilages, and even the bones, when boiled in water, give a gelatinous matter, or glue, resembling the vegetable gums, but much more adhesive. We must, how- ever, except the hair. The acids, the alkalies, and quick- lime are found to be powerful solvents of animal matter. It is from the solids that the greatest quantity of volatile alkali is obtained ; it arises along with a very fetid empyreumatic oil, from which it is in some measure separated by repeated recti- fications. This salt is partly in a fluid, and partly in a solid state; and from its having been formerly prepared in the greatest quantity from the horns of the stag, it has been called salt or spirits of hartshorn. Volatile alkali may be procured from many animals, and from almost every part, except the fat. ‘Though we are sometimes able to procure the fixed alkali from animal fat burnt to a cinder, yet it is probable that this salt did not make any part of the living animal, but rather proceeded from the introduction of saline matter, incapable of being assimilated by the functions of the living creature. In speaking of the fluid parts of animals, we should first examine the general fluid, from whence the rest are secreted. The blood, which, at first sight, appears to be a homogeneous fluid, is composed of several parts, easily separable from each other, and which the microscope can even perceive in its uncoagulated state. On allowing it to stand at rest, and be exposed to the air, it is separated into what are called the cras- samentum and the serum. 'The crassamentum consists chiefly of the red globules, joined together by another substance, called the coagulable lymph. The serum is a yellowish fluid, having little sensible taste or smell ; at the heat of 160° Fahrenheit’s thermometer, it is converted into a jelly. This coagulation of the serum is also owing to its containing a matter of the same nature with that of the crassamentum, viz., the coagulable lymph: whatever, then, coagulates ON ANIMAL MATTER. 83 animal blood, produces that effect on this concrescible part. Several causes, and many different, are capable of effecting this coagulation ; such as contact of air, heat, alcohol, earth, alum, and some of the metallic salts. 'The more perfect neutral salts are found to prevent coagulation, such as*com- mon salt and nitre. Of the fluids secreted from the blood, there a great variety in men and other animals. The excrementitious and redundant fluids are those which afford, in general, the greatest quantity of volatile alkali, and empyreumatic oil. There are, also, some of the secreted fluids which, on a chemical analysis, yield products in some degree peculiar to themselves. Of this kind is the urine, which is found to contain phosphoric acid and volatile alkali. The fat, too, has been said to differ from other animal mat- ters in yielding, by distillation, a strong acid, but no volatile alkali. There is also much variety and state of the combi- nations of the saline and other matters, in different secreted fluids. . Animal oils and fats, like the gross oils of vegetables, are not soluble in water, but may be united with water by the intervention of gum or mucilage. Most of them may be changed into soap by fixed alkaline salts, and may thus be rendered mixible with both spirit and water. The odorous matter of some odoriferous animal substances, as musk, civet, castor, is, as well as essential oil, soluble in spirit of wine, and volatile in the heat of boiling water. It is said that an actual essential oil has been obtained from castor in a very small quantity, but of an exceedingly strong, diffusive smell. The blistering matter of cantharides, and those parts of sundry animal substances in which their pecu- liar taste resides, are dissolved by rectified spirit, and seem to have some analogy with gummy resins. The gelatinous principle of animals, like the gum of vege- tables, dissolves in water, but not in spirit or in oils; like gums, also, it renders oils and fats mixible with water into a 84 ON ANIMAL MATTER. milky color. Some insects, particularly the ant, are found to contain an acid juice, which approaches nearly to the nature of vegetable acid. There are, however, sundry animal juices which differ greatly, even in these kinds of properties, from the corresponding ones of vegetables. ‘Thus animal serum, which appears analogous to vegetable, gummy juices, has this remarkable difference, that though it mingles uniformly with cold or warm water, yet, on heating the mixture, the animal matters separate from the watery fluid, and concrete into a solid mass. Some have been of opinion, that this heat of the animal body, in certain diseases, might rise to such a degree as to produce this dangerous concretion of the serous humors ; yet the heat requisite for this effect is greater than the sys- tem seems capable of sustaining. The soft and fluid parts of animals run quickly into putrefaction ; at least, much quicker than vegetable matter, and when corrupted, prove more offen- sive. ‘This process takes place, in some degree, in the bodies of living animals; as often as the juices stagnate long, or are prevented by an obstruction of the natural outlets from throw- ing off the more volatile and corruptible parts. During putrefaction a quantity of air is generated, all the humors become gradually thinner, and the fibrous parts more lax and tender; hence the distention which succeeds the induration of any of the viscera, or the imprudent suppression of dysen- teries by astringents. The crassamentum of human blood, as well as that of quadrupeds, changes, by putrefaction, into a dark livid color, a few drops of which tinge the serum with a tawny hue, like the ichor of sores and dysenteric fluxes; as also the white of the eye, the saliva, the serum of blood drawn from a vein, &c. The putrid crassamentum changes a large quantity of recent urine to a flame-colored water, so common in diseases where febrile symptoms are present. The mixture, after standing an hour or two, gathers a cloud resembling what is seen in the crude water of acute distem- pers, with some oily matter on the surface, like the scum which floats on scorbutic urine. The serum of the blood ON ANIMAL MATTER. 85 deposits, in putrefaction, a sediment resembling well-digested pus, and changes to a faint olive-green. A serum so far putrefied as to become green, is frequently to be found in parts that are bruised, and in gangrene. In dead bodies this serum is to be distinguished by the green color the flesh acquires in corrupting. In salted meat, this is commonly ascribed to the brine, but erroneously ; for it is known to resist putrefaction. It has no power of giving this color, but only of qualifying the taste, and in some degree, the ill effects of corrupted aliments. In foul ulcers, or in other sores where the serum is exposed, the matter is hkewise found of this color, and is then always acrimonious. The putrefac- tion of animal substances is prevented, or retarded, by most saline matters; even by the fixed and volatile alkaline salts, which have often been supposed to produce a contrary effect. Of all the salts that have been tried, sea salt seems to resist putrefaction the least ; in small quantities it even accelerates the process.- The vegetable bitters, such as balmony, gen- tian, &c., charcoal, cayenne, gum myrrh, &c., are among the best antiseptics, not only for preserving the flesh long uncor- rupted, but likewise correcting it, in a measure, when putrid. It has been found, that when animal flesh in substance is beaten up with bread, or other farinaceous vegetables, and a proper quantity of water, into the consistence of paste, this mixture, kept in a heat equal to that of the human body, grows in a little time sour ; while the vegetable matters, with- out the flesh, suffer no change. Some few vegetables, in the resolution of them by fire, discover some agreement in their matter with bodies of the animal kingdom ; yielding a vola- tile alkaline salt in considerable quantity, with- little or nothing of the acid of fixed alkali, which the generality of vegetables afford. 86 ON BREEDING. ON BREEDING. Tue choice of a sire and dam is a point of the utmost consequence in breeding horses, (or indeed any other animal, ) as the offspring will be found, in almost every instance, to inherit the qualities of its parents: peculiarity of form and constitution is inherent, and descends from generation to generation. Hence the necessary attention to those niceties which breeders are often apt to forget. Nor is it sufficient that one of the parents be good, and the other indifferent ; for the perfection of the sire may be lost through the defi- ciencies of the mare, and vice versa. In the selection of a stallion, many things should be ob- served. ‘There should be general uniformity and compactness in every part. The height should depend on the occupation the foal is destined to fill. The legs should be particularly examined, and disease should pervade no part of the system. Fat, heavy horses, with thick legs, and coarse, unseemly heads, should always be avoided. Horses should be free from specks on the eye — partial or total blindness. ‘Temper is an essen- tial point, for vice is sometimes hereditary. Stallions that cover too many mares in a season, in the latter period produce weak offspring. As regards the mare, it is well known that the dam con- tributes more to production of the offspring than the sire. It is essential that she be in full possession of her natural strength and powers: the vigor of the constitution determines much in favor of the foal. It is a great error to suppose, that amare that has once been good, and capable of great exer- tion, should, when old, and no longer fitted for work, produce offspring equally efficient as when in her prime: the foal will certainly inherit some of the weakness of the present nature and broken-down constitution. Mares should never be put to the stallion until they have arrived at maturity, which takes place about the fifth year. Mares will, and are bred from, earlier, but it is a bad practice, for strength and beauty ON BREEDING. . are absent ; and thus not only is the dam rendered inefficient sooner than in one that is allowed to come to maturity, but the foal can never be expected to be either healthy or strong in constitution. The period of going with foal is eleven months: after the sixth month, great care and gentleness should be exercised towards them; moderate exercise is essential ; hard work in harness, over bad roads, is likely to produce abortion ; and mares that have once aborted are very liable (if the same causes are in operation) to a recurrence of the same. (See Asortion, part second. ) The proper time for copulation is when there is a discharge of a whitish fluid from the vagina. She neighs frequently, and exhibits great desire for the horse: when she has con- ceived, she shows no further desire, and the discharge from the vagina stops. Some writers recommend the mare to be put to the stal- lion early after foaling : this is improper, for the simple reason that the dam has to nourish two, viz., the foal and the em- bryo: this is excessively weakening, and liable to injure one or the other. Disproportionate copulations are also bad, as a large horse and small mare: the size of the horse should be produced by gentle gradations, and this is evidently a better way to arrive at beauty as well as strength. The best mode of preserving the breed and making im- provements, is to make selections of the best on both sides. Much judgment and circumspection is necessary at all times in crossing the breed ; and many errors arise in consequence or a want of knowledge in the breeders. When the period of foaling draws nigh, the mare should be separated from other horses. Having foaled, turn her into a fine pasture, where there is a barn. The foal may be weaned at six months. If the foal dies, or is taken away from the dam, humanity would suggest the propriety of afew weeks’ rest, to enable the animal to recover from the effects of parturition. 88 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. In justice to the veterinary surgeons of this country, the author would inform the reader that professional bleeding is very rarely resorted to. ‘To bleed a horse in the present enlightened age, when he is in a state of plethora, or the blood in a morbid state, would be bad practice, for we cannot purify a well of water by withdrawing a bucket; neither can we purify the whole mass of blood by abstracting a portion. The author has seen several cases where the poor animal (a victim to science) had been so far and fatally drained of the living principle, that there was not sufficient blood left in the system to produce reaction. We have profited by the fatal errors that have been committed under our own observation, and have never drawn a drop of blood from a horse, (except in surgical operations, when it could not be avoided,) netther will we ever, under any circumstances, resort to the lancet ; for we are convinced that bloodletting is a powerful depresser of the vital powers. Blood is the fuel that keeps the lamp of life burning: if the fuel is withdrawn, the lamp is extinguished; hence, if “life is the sum of the powers that resist disease,” then whatever enfeebles life must produce disease and death. An eminent physician has said, that “after the practice of bloodletting was introduced by Sydenham, during the course of one hundred years, more died of the lancet alone than those who in the same time perished by war.” Dr. Hunter says, in relation to the human being, — and the same applies to the brute, — that “bloodletting is one of the greatest weakeners, as we kill thereby.” Professor Lobstein says, “So far from bloodletting being beneficial, it is productive of the most serious consequences — a cruel practice, and a scourge to humanity. How many thousands are sent by it to an untimely grave! Without blood there is no heat, no motion in the body.” For more important information, see Good’s Study of Medicine, vol. i. REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. 89 p- 407. Hence to bleed, as taught by the works found in this country, is to bleed until the horse gives signs that the vital principle is about deserting her empire. Dr. White relates a case: the same takes place every day ; the author has seen several in one day. ‘A horse was brought to be bled, merely because he had been used to it at that season of the year. I did not examine him minutely ; but as the groom stated there was nothing amiss with him, I directed a moderate quantity of blood to be drawn. About five pints were taken off ; and while the operator was pinning up the wound, the horse fell. He appeared_to suffer much pain, and had considerable difficulty of breathing. In this state he remained twelve hours, and then died. Judging from the appearances at the post mortem examination, it is probable that the loss of a moderate quantity of blood caused a fatal interruption of the functions of the heart.” It is surprising that such cases as these do not compel men to acknowledge that there is something wrong in the theory of disease, or its treatment. Here isan unanswerable argument against blood- letting ; for as the blood, which is the natural stimulus of, and gives strength to, the organs, is withdrawn, its abstraction leaves all those organs less capable of self-defence. And if one part is more delicate than the rest, the abstraction of the blood from the circulation that pervades the whole, instead of benefiting the part, will be more sensibly felt by it. Drs. White, Youatt, in fact most veterinary writers, recommend bleeding when the horse has been fed too liberally, or the secretions vitiated. ‘This has led men to commit great errors, and caused great destruction of property. If the horse has been too well fed, reduce the quantity of food, or, in other words, remove the cause. If the secretions are vitiated, then regulate them, not take away the blood on which their vitali- ty depends. If the different parts had between them parti- tions impervious to fluids, then there would be some sense in drawing out of the vessels over filled ; but unfortunately, if you draw from oné, you draw from all the rest. Again. The authorities above named recommend bleeding 12 90 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. when there is too much blood, There may be at times too much blood, or at others too little; but suppose there is, — has any body found out any other process of making blood, other than the slow process of nature, as exhibited in the process of circulation, digestion, and nutrition? Have they discovered any artificial means of restoring the blood to its healthful quantity when it is deficient? Have they found any other means of purifying the blood, save the healthful operations of tature’s secreting and excreting laboratory? Have they found any safety-valve or outlet for the reduction of what they please to term an excess? And if they have, are they better able to adjust the pressure on that valve than he who made the whole machinery, and knows the relative strength of all its parts? In an article on bloodletting found in the Farmer’s Ency- clopedia, the author says, “In summer, bleeding is often necessary to prevent fevers,* always choosing the cool of the morning for the operation, and keeping the animal cool the remaining part of the day. Some farriers bleed horses three or four timesa year, + or even oftener, by way of preventive, * We of the physiological school deny that fever is disease: it is simply an effort of the vital power to regain its equilibrium, and it does this by means of the fever; therefore it should never be subdued. (See FrveEr.) + This gives to the blood-vessels the power to contract and adapt them- selves to the measure of blood that remains. Common sense will teach men that frequent bleedings must impoverish the blood. It leads to hydro- thorax, or an accumulation of water in the cavity of the chest, and materi- ally shortens life. Mackintosh says, ‘“ Some are bled who cannot bear it, and others who do not require it; and the result is death.” { Nature’s preventives are air, exercise, and water. Dr. Warren says, “In attempting to prevent or cure disease, we must imitate nature.” Now, the proper mode of imitating nature is not by bloodletting, but by the tules we have laid down in articles Feeding, Watering, Ventilation, &c. If the means of prevention recommended by the Cyclopedia were fully carried out, the stock of our farms would be swept away as by the blast of a tor- nado. Such a barbarous system would entail universal misery and degen- eration; and well might we exclaim, They are living, yet half dead, in con- sequence of an evil system of medication. But thanks to a discerning public, they just begin to see the absurdity and wickedness of draining the system REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. 91 taking only a small quantity at a time.”* Then the author winds up by saying, “ There is, however, this inconvenience from frequent bleeding, that it grows into a habit,t which in some cases cannot be easily broken off; besides, horses become weak from frequent bleeding.” “Bleeding,” says Youatt, “lessens the quantity of blood in the vessels, and diminishes nervous power,’’$ (and destroys life, he ought to have added.) He recommends it when ani- mals rub themselves, and the hair falls off, when the eyes appear dull and languid, red or inflamed, the breath hot, and the veins puffed. In all inflammatory complaints, as of the brain, lungs, kid- neys, bowels, eyes, womb, bladder, and joints; in all bruises, hurts, wounds, and all other accidents. In cold, catarrh, constipation, and paralysis, and lockjaw, this indiscriminate use of the lancet is calculated to do a vast amount of injury if it is followed up. The author qualifies his remark as follows: “No man, however wise, can tell exactly how much blood he ought to take in a given case.” of the living principle: medical reform has germinated, and struck its roots deep into the minds of a class of men who have the means and power of preventing much barbarity and suffering among our domestic animals, and they will use those means to their own interest and the welfare of their stock. * Small bleedings tend to an unequal distribution of the blood, and diminish its conservative power; the disease must be prevented by the promotion of the equilibrium of the circulation, not its destruction. + A habit confined to the operator. ¢ If horses become weak from bleeding, then we have another unanswer- able argument against the practice. For all means or processes that are calculated to debilitate the general system will shorten life; thus at- tempts to cure disease are made with the instrument of death. § True ; but the animal lives out his existence in about half the usual time allotted by the Creator, and drags out a miserable life of toil. The conser- vative power of life always operates in favor of health, and remedies the encroachments upon her province with all her might, and frequently recov- ers the dominion, but by frequent bleedings. She has become exhausted ; and upon taking a little more blood than usual, the animal drops down and dies; and the owner of the animal attributes to disease what, in fact, is the result of his evil practice. 92 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. In cases of congestion, or inflammation, the equilibrium of the circulation is disturbed, the capillary structure is con- tracted, and the mouths of the absorbents are closed. The draining of blood from a vein, though it diminishes the force of the congestion or inflammation, does not mend the matter, for it also diminishes the power of the whole system, and thus gives to cold and atmospheric pressure the ascendent influence. A collapse takes place, the secretions become impaired ; thus destroying the power of all parts to recover their reciprocal equilibrium. How can it be expected that a practice which will make those forms of disease, should ever be supposed to cure them. ‘The only rational treatment con- sists in producing a relaxation and expansion of all parts of the system, and keeping up this relaxation, by warmth and moisture, till, by friction and counter irritation, and the re- moval of obstructions to vital action, the healthy equilibrium is restored. “ Bloodletting,’”’ writes the editor of the London Laneet, ‘has most serious disadvantages ; it invariably renders conval- escence more tedious.”’ Horses that have been bled generally require several weeks’ run at grass to get them into working condition. Dr. White relates a case which proves the truth of our position. “A horse was bled from the neck for lame- ness, without any benefit; the vein was opened a second time, but very little blood could be obtained ; the temporal artery was then opened, and two gallons (of arterial blood) drawn! The next morning it appeared necessary to take another gallon from the other temporal artery! When suf- ficiently recovered, he was turned to grass; and about four months afterwards, he was as lame as ever, and quite useless.”’ This is one among the many thousand similar eases that have come under the author’s observation, im the course of a few years. The same author above quoted writes, ‘‘ The value of a horse depends on his strength and spirit ; and whatever tends to diminish these will produce a proportionate diminution in his value. The muscular power and nervous energy are REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING: 93 derived from the blood.” If the latter are derived from the blood, (and we know it is so,) then what inconsistency there is in medical authors to recommend bloodletting, with a view of improving the strength and spirit, when they are depriving the system of that on which the very life of the animal depends. Our readers may say, horses and cattle are bled and get well. Suppose they do, —is it thus proved that more would not get well if no blood were drawn from any? If the ab- straction of a certain number of gallons of blood will kill a strong horse, then the abstraction of a small quantity will injure him proportionally. We have already shown that there is in the animal economy a power which always oper- ates in favor of health; if the provocation is gentle, this power may overcome both it and the disease, and the animal is considered cured merely because the symptoms that marked the character of the malady disappear. ‘The appearance of symptoms of another order, and perhaps not so alarming in their nature, lead men to suppose they have performed a cure ; when, in fact, they have just sown the seeds of a future disease. We do not propose to show definitely how a horse gets well in spite of bloodletting. It is enough for us to prove that this operation always tends to death, which can easily be done by conducting the process till no blood remains. In cases of congestion, or a determination of blood to a vital organ, we find a want of action on the surface and at the extremities. The course we invariably pursue is to equal- ize the circulation, and invite the blood to the surface by warmth, moisture, friction, and counter irritants, and maintain it there by the administration of relaxants and diffusible stimulants. These latter must be of a harmless nature, as we find them compounded in the forest and field, by the Great Physician, the All-wise Creator. Many interesting experiments have been made to estimate the quantity of blood contained in an animal. ‘“ The weight of a dog, says Mr. Percival, being ascertained to be 79 é G4 REMARKS ON BLOODLETTING. pounds, a puncture was made with the lancet into the jugu- lar vein, from which the blood was collected. The vein having ceased to bleed, the carotid artery of the same side was divided, but no blood came from it; in a few seconds afterwards the animal was dead. The weight of the carcass was now found to be 733 pounds; consequently it had sus- tained a loss of 51 pounds, precisely the measure of the blood drawn. It appears from this experiment, that an animal will lose about one fifteenth part of its weight of blood before it dies ; though a less quantity may so far debilitate the vital powers, as to be, though less suddenly, equally fatal. In the human subject, the quantity of blood has been computed at about one eighth part of the weight of the body; and as such an opinion has been broached from the results of experi- ments on quadrupeds, we may fairly take that to be about the proportion of it in the horse ; so that if we estimate the weight of a horse to be 1344 pounds, the whole quantity of blood will amount to 84 quarts, or 168 pounds; of which about 45 quarts, or 90 pounds, will commonly flow from the jugular vein prior to death; though the loss of a much less quantity will deprive the animal of life.* “Tt is well known that young animals possess more blood than old, and that they will, perhaps on this account, sustain greater bodily injuries, and bear larger hemorrhages. In the latter, when the body is gradually decaying, and the powers of life declining, the quantity of blood becomes reduced. Mr. Wilson, in his lectures on the blood, &c., says that ‘fat animals are found to possess less blood than leaner animals ; and tame animals, which are confined, less blood than wild ones.’ The quantity of blood contained in the body of a man, supposing his whole weight to be 168 pounds, may be rated at 21 pounds, or 2 gallons, 2 quarts and 1 pint. Again, granting that adog weighs 40 pounds, the amount of his blood will be 5 pints; hence we may reckon the loss of a pint from * The author of Hinds’s Farriery is in error when he states that two hun- dred and twenty quarts are calculated to reside in a middling-sized horse. ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH. 95 aman to be equivalent to that of a gallon from a horse, or to 4 ounces from a dog, and vice versa; selecting individuals from each class at about the respective weights here set down.” (See Percival’s Lectures, p. 9, vol. i.) ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH, DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION. The Healthy or Physiological State. — When all the differ- ent tissues and organs of the animal are sound, unobstructed, and unwearied, — when the living principle has free action through each and every one, according to the degree that it is designed to sustain, — then the animal is in health. Disease.— Any injury done to the different structures of organs, which does not amount to the total destruction of its vitality, — or, in other words, the inability of an organ, or organs, to perform the natural functions, is termed disease. Fever. — Fever and inflammation are one and the same thing. They are not disease, and never should be treated as such. It is the accumulated action of the vital system, for the pur- pose of warding off or removing the causes of disease, and restoring the healthy action of the organs. Let us suppose a horse has been exercised: there is a deter- mination of heat and fluids to the surface, the pores of the skin expand: now, if the horse is put into the stable, or the exercise suddenly ceases, the heat escapes too fast, and leaves the surface cold. For want of heat to keep them open and active, the pores become constricted, so that after the organs of circulation become rested from their fatigue, they com- mence a strong action again, there is not room for the es- cape of the fluids at the surface, the skin becomes dry and harsh, the coat stares, and the animal has, in common par- lance, taken cold, and it has thrown him into a fever. Now, the cold is the real enemy to. be overcome, and the fever should be aided by warmth, moisture, friction, and diffusi- 96 ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH, bles. If at this stage the cold is removed, the fever will disappear; but if the disease (the cold) has been allowed to advance until a general derangement or sympathetic action is set up, and there is an accumulation of morbific matter in the system, then the restorative process must be more power- ful and energetic ; constantly bearing in mind that we must assist Nature in her endeavors to throw off whatever is the cause of her infirmities. Instead of attacking the disease with the lancet, and poison, — which is on the principle of killing the horse to cure the fever, — we should use remedies that are favorable to life. It matters not what organs are affected ; the means and processes are the same, and therefore the division of inflammation and fever into a great number of parts designated by as many names, and indicated by twenty times as many complications of symptoms which may never be present, only serve to bewilder the practitioner, and render his practice ineffectual, or, as Dr. Bigelow calls it in human practice, ‘learned quackery.” We have said, fever and inflammation are one and the same thing ; when the fever is confined toa small space, it is called inflammation. ‘“ Inflam- mation is rather an effort of nature than a disease.” (Hunter, vol. iv. p. 293. ) As inflammation is an action produced for the restoration of the most simple injury in sound parts, which goes beyond the power of union by what is termed first intention, we must look upon it, in such instances, as one of the most simple operations in nature. Therefore inflammation in itself is not to be considered a disease, but a salutary operation consequent to either violence or disease. (Ibid. vol. iv. p. 285.) Hence, when men cease to consider, and to call fever and inflammation ‘diseased action,” they will begin to learn to heal disease aright, and not till then. Dr. White writes thus: “Though horses and other domes- tic animals are liable to fever, there is not that variety in the disease, nor is it by any means so intricate as it is in the human subject. Some practitioners do not admit the existence of fever in the horse, as a primary disorder, but consider it as symp- DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION. 97 tomatic, or dependent on internal disease.” Then why not attempt to cure this internal disease, and let the fever alone? The same author remarks, “The same applies to cattle ; for it is of very little importance whether we call it fever or inflammation.” It is clearly evident that there is but one cause of fever, viz., the natural motive power of the system, and but one fever itself, viz., accumulated vital action; yet the causes of disease are numerous, and many a tissue to be ob- structed, and if the disease were named from the tissue or ergan, as nervous, pulmonic, &c., it would have as many names as there are tissues or organs to be affected; if it be named from the symptoms, it would be numberless and boundless. But of what use is it to decide what particular nerve, blood-vessel, or muscle is contracted, or compressed, seeing that the proper and only rational treatment consists in acting on the whole, nerves, tissues, and blood-vessels, by relaxing them, and equalizing the circulation? But suppose we do ascertain exactly what part of the alimentary canal is contracted in a given case of constriction; what advantage is it tous? Suppose we find it in the duodenum, — have we any specific that will act upon it, other than through the healthy operation of nature’s secreting and excreting process? 'There- fore the symptoms produced by medicines ought always to be those of health : hence those who treat disease according to the principles we have laid down, must not expect to see, in the progress of the disease, the same train of symptoms that are given in works hitherto published on veterinary practice. Suppose two cases of enteritis (inflammation of the bow- els) were put into the hands of two different men, one of the physiological school, and the other of the allopathic. The latter would, if he practised according to the principles taught by the professors of veterinary surgery, proceed thus. (See Youatt, p. 208.) ‘From six to ten quarts of blood should be taken as soon as possible, and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, if the pain is not relieved. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease should not 13 98 ON THE THEORY OF HEALTH, deter from bleeding largely. It is the weakness that is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts, and if that inflammation be subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear.” How weakness can disappear by the loss of blood we are at a loss to conceive. All men agree that the abstraction of blood will produce fainting, and coldness of the extremities. Dr. Hunter, already quoted, says, “‘ Blood- letting is one of the greatest weakeners.”’ “ Next,’”’ continues the author, ‘‘a blister should be resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine, should be wellrubbed in.” It is a well- known fact that the application, and final absorption, of Span- ish flies will produce strangury in its worst form: aside from this it is an acrid animal poison, being taken up by the absorb- ents, it enters the circulation, and is often fatal in its result. Now for the physiological practice. ‘‘ The extremities are cold ;”’ then we should proceed to warm them by hot vapor, stimulating liniments, and by friction with the brush; the belly should be fomented with flannels wrung out in warm water: this process will relax the capillary structure, and equalize the circulation, and relieve the engorged vessels of the intestines: then give an antispasmodic drink. (See ANTIsPasMopIc, part second.) If the bowels are constipated, the following aperient may-with safety be ventured on: Take half a pint of linseed oil, beat up in it the yolk of two eggs, and administer it with a common junk bottle ; then use injec- tions. (See Appendix.) ‘The animal is usually clothed with a blanket. We believe it is the duty of the physician to aid nature in removing from the animal economy all the causes of disease. We therefore adopt the most efficient, yet inno- cent instruments and processes of cure, and totally reject, in all cases and stages of the treatment, all violence, poisons, and the lancet. If bleeding could be practised with impunity, such assistance might be proper in the above case; but as the vital force (whose diminution is the proximate cause of enteritis) is itself dependent upon the blood, increased debil- ity is the necessary consequence of its abstraction. Hence, DISEASE, FEVER, AND INFLAMMATION. 99 when horses are bled, their convalescence is very tedious. All medical men agree that inflammation is favorable to the healing process, and without it no wound could be healed. How, then, can it be called disease, but by an oversight of the vital aid which it gives to the different organs? Causes of Disease. —'These are numerous. Any thing that can in any way disable an organ to perform its proper func- tion, is a direct cause of disease. 'There are other causes, as hereditary taints, sudden changes from heat to cold, over- exertion, and want of proper exercise. Overfeeding is one of the principal causes of disease ; the bad quality of the hay or oats, bad water, and inattention to ventilation; the un- necessary dosing with improper medicines. Poisons — Either taken into the alimentary canal, or by absorption through the external surface, or the lungs; blood- letting, and sluicing cold water on the animal after active exercise. The indications of cure are to relax spasm, as in lockjaw, or in obstructed surfaces, constipation of the bowels, &c.; to contract and strengthen relaxed and weak organs, as in general debility, diarrhcea, scouring, lampas, &c.; to stimu- late inactive organs; to remove all obstructions to the free action of all the organs; to equalize the circulation, and distribute the blood to the external surface and extremities, as in congestions; to furnish the animal with sufficient nutriment to build up the waste, and prevent friction. No matter what be the nature of the disease, our treatment is always conducted on these principles. Dr. Curtis observes, ‘All the fluids of the system are moved through it by the alternate contractions and relaxa- tions of the vessels from which they are sent, and in which they are transmitted; thus the blood is thrown by these actions of the heart and arteries, and returned by the same movements. The chyle is absorbed or elaborated, and carried to the circulation ; and the lymph is taken up and united with it by the alternate contractions and relaxations of the fibres which compose the coats of the tubes through which 100 CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN. they pass. All the voluntary and involuntary motions of the body are performed by the alternate contractions and relaxa- tions of the fibres; and the food is masticated, swallowed, and moved through the system by the same process. ‘To relax, to contract, to stimulate, and to furnish the system with the proper materials for nutrition, constitute the whole modus operandi of the medical art.” ‘¢ All experience has proved that warmth and moisture relax all animal fibre ; that dry heat or dry cold contracts it; and that some medicines do one, and some the other; that cer- tain articles and processes stimulate the organs to high action, and that nutritious food aids them in building up the wastes and restoring injuries.” Congestion of the Brain, §c. — In diseases bearing a prox- imity to apoplexy, they manifest themselves in different forms, according to the amount of vital resistance that the animal possesses. ‘Thus we have stomach staggers, congestion of the brain, vertigo, disease of the brain called hydrocephalus. Now, although we observe alarming symptoms in the region of the brain, it is no more a disease of that organ than it is of impaired digestion, circulation, absorption, secretion, &c. ; for the latter are all involved in a deficiency of physiological action, and the cure of stomach staggers is the cure of every other form of disease. 'The different forms of disease sup- posed to be in the brain of horses, are, nominally, impaired digestion, and result from overtaxing the latter function, constipation, want of pure air and sufficient exercise, bad food, &c.: these are chiefly the causes that produce staggers. A primary congestion of the brain, or spinal marrow, is often produced by vitiated and irritating mucous secretions, and indigestible and feculent matter in the intestines, producing, in common parlance, ‘a determination of blood to the head.” (For treatment, see APPENp:x. ) The author has consulted several works on the treatment of apoplexy, congestions, &c.: they all agree in bleeding, blistering, and purging. Mr. Youatt says, “The treatment adopted by the best practitioners is too often unsuccessful. CONGESTION. 101 The horse should be bled until he faints or drops! Both the neck veins should be opened at once, and the fulness of the stream, or the quickness with which it is taken, is almost as important as the quantity. After purging is effected by large doses of aloes.”” He then recommends foxglove and tartar emetic in doses of a drachm each, three or four times a day. “The head should be blistered: rowels and setons give use- less pain, for the horse is either cured or dead before they perceptibly begin to act.”” (See Youatt, p. 105.) It is surprising that such a man as Mr. Youatt could not perceive the reason why “the treatment is too often wnsuc- cessful.” The means recommended are calculated to kill, not to cure: hence, if the disease did not carry the animal off, the treatment would. Why draw away the blood from the poor animal, when all that is needed is to give it equal distribution, and rid the stomach and alimentary canal of offending matter? Dr. Hinds observes, “In all ordinary cases of staggers and congestion of the brain, simply opening the bowels will effect a cure, nine cases out of ten. I have known violent cases of staggers cured by injections and a dose of physic.” The whole train of maladies, viz., staggers, &c., can be traced to acute or chronic indigestion, or an obstructed sur- face, accompanied often by the retention of a great mass of indigestible food in the stomach and intestines. How on earth bloodletting can relieve the stomach and intestines of this load, we should like to know. Bloodletting may give a momentary respite to the distended vessels of the brain, in apoplexy, and the animal appear relieved ; but, by destroying, in a certain degree, the vital energies, it also admits of a still further reaction, which is favored by the pressure of the atmosphere on the extreme vessels of the external surface ; and thus the advocates of bleeding find a repetition of the practice still more necessary than at the commencement. Dr. White says, ‘If no relief is obtained by abstracting seven or eight quarts of blood, take away five quarts more!” Now, it is evident, that if we were to draw out all the blood, the 102 CONGESTION. animal would die; as it is, they try to leave just enough to keep up a low form of vitality. Most authors agree that in “megrims, mad staggers, stomach staggers, apoplexy, and congestions, there is a determination of blood to the head, and may be produced by causes that mechanically impede, or obstruct, the flow of blood.’? Then they should be re- moved by regulating the unequal distribution. If a horse has too much blood in the head, he will have too little in the tail and extremities. 'The difference of symptoms in the derangements just enumerated, differ only according to the state of the organs, and the manner in which the blood is thrown on the brain, and retained there. There is no real difference in the nature of the malady. The same indications of cure are to be fulfilled that we have just laid down, viz., to relax the whole horse, and remove obstructions from the alimentary canal and external surface. Dr. Marshall Hall says, “Physical impediments to the return of blood by the veins will cause congestion.”” ‘These impediments consist in any thing that weakens the force of the circulation, as bloodletting, narcotizing, calomelizing, &c., as practised by the disciples of Sainbel. Few cases of disease occur without the parentage of some of these Sam- sons of the regular school. The veins, having but little forcing power at their base (like the arteries) to propel the blood back to the heart, are the first to feel the impediments and compel the blood to accumulate ; hence congestions. Professor Coleman considers that this disorder takes its rise from over-distention of the stomach. He was once consulted about some horses, among whom there had been a strange mortality ; and he found that they were in the habit of con- tinuing at work for ten hours together, during the day, and on their return home at night were abundantly supplied with food. 'The professor soon discovered the source of the evil, and ordered, for the future, that the horses should be fed in the middle of the day also, by means of nose-bags; which salutary practice put flight to the epizootic. Now, this is CONGESTION. 103 certainly a strong case to show the stomachic origin of the malady. Mr. Blain says, “The treatment of staggers has been notoriously unsuccessful. I never witnessed a successful issue, and think that men have strangely erred in pointing out remedies for this malady. Phlebotomy will certainly tend to relieve congestion or inflammatory action, that may exist in the brain; but the main question for us to consider, is, whether it can have any effect in unloading the stomach. Practitioners are in the habit of expressing their surprise at the obstinate apathy of the bowels ; whereas, is it unreasonable to suppose that 12 or even 20 drachms of aloes can have any effect, when they can pass no farther than the stomach? It is possible that active stimulants may have such an impres- sion upon the stomach, as to excite contraction in it. [Then why not use them?] The state of the brain in staggers, generally speaking, appears to be, in the beginning, that of simple congestion, or unequal distribution of the blood. [Then equalize, instead of abstracting it.] In most of the heads I have examined, vascular distention of the membranes was found, with minute bloody specks upon the divided surfaces of the brain.” From the professor’s remarks we are led to conclude, that prevention is more valuable and successful than their attempt at cure. ‘The reason why their treatment is “notoriously unsuccessful,”’? the reader can readily perceive, when he takes into consideration the destructive nature of the treatment, which is as follows: ‘ Bleed profusely ; most of those sub- jects will bear to lose six or eight, and some even ten quarts of blood. The next consideration is purgation. The com- mon saying is, Purge a horse with staggers and you cure him; and there is much truth in the observation, for we know that hardly any one thinks of purging before he has bled the animal, so that the purge is acting under the most favorable circumstances. [Unfavorable he ought to have said.] Two drachms of castor nut, and a small quantity of calomel, are to be given ina bolus; promote the action by aloetic injections, 104 INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. and follow up the purgative medicine by diminished doses. In the intervals between the repetition of the purges, helle- bore [poison] should be administered every six hours, in doses of half to a drachm, provided the first quantity make no im- pression ; nothing, bleeding excepted, operates more effectu- ally in diminishing the force of blood to the head, than the excitement of nausea at stomach. Having, by these means, sensibly weakened the impulse of the circulation, the head should be shorn, and blisters applied over the forehead, the occiput, and temples, and should be renewed every six hours, until vesication is abundantly produced.” This is a specimen of scientific doctoring. Many of our farmers could scarcely believe that men could be so eruel. It is passing strange that the regular faculty, with all their advantages of numbers, learning, and respectability, have only learned how to kill, instead of cure. How to avoid Congestions, Staggers, and Apoplexy. — Never permit an animal to eat too great a quantity of food at one time, Let him have less than usual after being worked hard. Buy the best food in the market, for cheap fodder is dear at any price. Attend to the directions we have laid down in the articles Feeding, Watering, &c.; lastly, avoid the lancet and poison. INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. “THE object of the veterinary profession,’”? says Dr. White, ‘Cis to remove the pains and diseases of our domestic animals. Can we honestly, heartily, succesfully employ ourselves, if we do not sympathize with them? if we do not love to see them happy, and contemplate their sufferings with regret? Can the brute who regards them as mere machines, devoid of rights, placed without the pale of justice, created merely for our purposes, and to be sacrificed without crime to our caprices ; INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. 105 —can he so identify himself with his profession, as to neglect no opportunity to mitigate pain, and to spare no exer- tion to increase enjoyment? ‘This is the duty, and ought to be the pride and pleasure, of every veterinary surgeon. Re- gard to reputation, and sense of duty to our employer, are powerful principles of action. “Dare we trace the education of the veterinary surgeon as far as humanity is concerned? See him at the college attending a necessary, but severe operation, jostling and wrestling with his fellows for the best view ; execrating the struggles of the agonized animal, and mocking its groans; not one expression of commiseration heard ; not one calcu- lation, how far a part, at least, of the torture may be saved, consistently with the object of the operation; the loud laugh, and the ribald joke, drowning the voice of the opera- tor, — or the operator himself, when not too much annoyed by the shameless indecency of the scene, pausing in the midst of his work, and joining in the laugh. We have some- times thought, that if a stranger were present at this unnatu- ral exhibition, he would imagine that we were training for purposes of brutality, and not of humanity, and be very cautious how he intrusted a valuable and generous animal to our tender mercies. And sure we are, that scenes like these are more calculated to train us to become butchers than sur- geons; and hence, in a great measure, it is that so many of our operations are performed in a butcher-like manner. We are aware that one of the most important requisites in a sur- geon is self-possession ; and that the feelings of the patient should not for a moment merge in the important object of the operation ; but this is different from those exhibitions in which there is no previous comparison of suffering and ad- vantage, and no subsequent commiseration. It carinot be denied, that circumstances do sometimes attend the operations of veterinary surgery, which would meet with universal execration in the theatre of the human surgeon. The inevi- table consequences of this on the mind of the young prac- titioner have not been sufficiently calculated ; or, rather, the 14 L06 INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. error has been, that we have not felt ourselves bound to re- gard the feelings and the sufferings of the animal given to our care. “A knot of young pupils go to the knacker; they bargain for some poor, condemned animal; they cast him, and they cut him up, and torture him alive. They perform the nerve operation on each leg, and on each side ; they fire him on the coronet, the fetlock, the leg, the hock, and the round bone; they insert setons in every direction; they nick him, they dock him, they trephine him: when one is tired of cruelty, another succeeds him: and at length, perhaps, they terminate his sufferings by some new mode of destroying his life. Did the great surgeons of the present day thus acquire precision and judgment? or, if they did, would they not have been supposed to have been qualifying themselves for the office of familiars at the Inquisition, rather than of humane surgeons? Would they not have been detested while living, and held in lasting execration when dead? But these operations on the living subject teach the youngster how to accommodate him- self to the struggles of the animal, how to feather his lines with mathematical exactness, and to acquaint himself with the true color produced by the iron when it has seared the skin sufficiently deep! Would not one or two operations on the real patient have given all the information that would be necessary, without engaging the conservators of the health and enjoyment of the horse in the functions of demons, and giving them an indifference to suffering, and a callousness of feeling which taints the whole course of their after practice ? “That school wants reform that tempts pupils to the com- mission of atrocities like these. Every pupil, after having been compelled to operate once, or twice, or thrice, on the dead subject before the professors, should in his turn be called on to operate on the different cases which are brought to the colleges. Under the immediate inspection of the professor there could be no danger to the patient ; and one operation, every step of which was guided and directed by the professor, would be more useful to the student than a hundred at the INHUMAN TREATMENT OF HORSES IN ENGLAND. 107 knacker’s yard; but, according to the present system, nearly all the operations are performed by the assistant professor, and the demonstrator and the pupils are permitted only to look on. Some alteration is here imperiously required.” Mr. Blane experienced in his own person the results of this imperfect system of teaching. He was sent for to fire a valuable horse, and gives the following account of it: ‘It was my first essay in firing on my own account, and _fired as I was with my wishes to signalize myself, I labored to enter my novitiate with all due henor. ‘The farrier of the village was ordered to attend, a sturdy old man, civil enough, but looking as though impressed with no very high respect for a gentleman farrier’s knowledge. 'The horse was cast, (awk- wardly enough,) and secured, as will appear, even more so. I, however, proceeded to show the superiority of the new over the old schools. I had just then left the veterinary col- lege, not as a pupil, but as a teacher, [licensed to kill, and no questions asked,] which I only mention to mark the climax. On the very first application of the iron, up started my patient, flinging me and my assistants in all directions from him, while he trotted and snorted round the yard with rope, &c., at his heels) As may be supposed, I was taken aback, and might have gone back as I came, had not the old farrier, with much good humor, caught the horse round the neck with his arms, and by some dexterous mancuvre brought him on his knees ; when, with a jerk, as quick as unexpected, he threw him at once on his side, when our immediate assist- ants fixed him, and we proceeded. It is needless to remark that I retired mortified, and left the village farrier lord of the ascendant.” “‘ Tt cannot be doubted that the best operators in this case are always the common country farriers, who, from devoting themselves entirely to the occupation, soon become pro- ficients.’’ * * This admission on the part of a regular graduate of a veterinary insti- tution of London shows that the veterinary science, as taught at the present 108 ON RABIES AND ITS EFFECTS. ON RABIES, OR MADNESS, AND THE EFFECTS OF THE MILK OF RABID AND DISEASED ANIMALS. Mr. Youarr says that “the poison of all rabid animals seems to reside in the saliva.’?’ Who ever heard of the ani- mal’s horns, the teeth, or saliva being mad, without the whole animal being sympathetically affected? Is not the saliva a secretion from the blood, (secreted by the salivary glands, ) and is not the virus first absorbed and taken up by the lac- teals, from thence going the rounds of the circulation? When any kind of poison is absorbed, the whole secretions become vitiated: thus the bile, blood, urine, and milk, all become deranged. For proof of this, see B. M. Recorder, vol. vii. p. 101. ‘If the Rhus Toxicodendron, called poison sumac, poison oak, &c., is eaten by cattle or horses, the males usually die, the females sometimes escape ; the animals that drink of their milk, or eat butter or cheese made from it, usu- ally have the disease ; and the dogs, hogs, buzzards, &c., that eat the flesh of these animals, die of it. And the fumes of the candles made of the tallow of the cattle that have died of it frequently communicate the disease. Persons who skin the animals often take it.” What folly, then, to prate about the salivary glands being inoculated, to the exclusion of other day, is a matter for reproach. The melancholy triumph of disease over its victims (in England amounting in neat cattle to $50,000,000) shows that the science is mere moonshine; that in regard to its most important objects, (the cure of disease,)it is mere speculation, rich in theory, but poverty-strick- en in its results. Hence we have not only proof that the American people ought to be reformers, but, as interested individuals, we have great encour- agement tobesuch. The author dates his conversion to the true, or physio- logical faith, up to the moment when he emancipated himself from the the- ory of the popular schools. The superiority of our practice consists in the agents used, which are harmless and efficient; whereas the agents which he formerly used constituted a class of deadly poisons. For the proof of the success of our present system over that of the old, we refer the reader to some of our patrons, whose names will be found in the Appendix. ON RABIES AND ITS EFFECTS. 109 parts of the animal. Who ever heard of a man’s head being drunk, and not the whole man being more or less affected ? Our object is to show that the milk of a rabid cow cannot be drank with impunity, notwithstanding Mr. Youatt’s asser- tion to the contrary, who maintains that the milk of the rabid cow may be drank with safety, for the poison is confined to the saliva. Dr. Pereira says the morbid changes produced in the quality of the milk by diseased conditions of a cow, have recently attracted considerable attention in Paris, owing to the prevalence of a malady, called the cocote, among the cows in that capital. Those which have been recognized are, want of homogeneousness, imperfect mobility, or liquidity, capable of becoming thick or viscid, on the addition of ammo- nia, and containing certain properties not found in healthy milk. Labillardiere states that the milk of a cow affected with consumption contained seven times more phosphate of lime than usual. The influence which many medicines, taken by the parent, have over the offspring, is well known, though Cullen denies it. Wecan modify the color of the milk by mixing madder or saffron with the food ; the odor may be affected by garlic ; the taste may be affected by the use of wormwood ; and last- ly, the medicinal effect may also be influenced. 'The fact thus established, that the milk can be altered by disease, leads us also to conclude that it can be altered by rabies, or madness. We do not wish to give the reader an idea that the milk of a rabid animal will produce hydrophobia ; all we desire to pro- mulgate is, that it will produce disease. If it has not accom- plished this in all cases, it is because the vital energies of the system, into which it was introduced, encountered, and even- tually resisted the foe. Mr. Clater observes that ‘‘rabies has but one origin, and that is inoculation.” Can Mr. C. tell who inoculated the firstdog? We hear the free use of horse flesh, in keeping dogs in England, charged as one main cause for engendering rabies. Dr. Hinds observes, that ‘“‘ this appalling disorder is comparatively small in those parts of the world where horse _ 110 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE flesh is less used.’””? Dr. C. M. Wood, of this city, observes, that “the putrid, filthy food given to dogs in the hot season may engender rabies, or a disease analogous to it, especially when the organs of digestion are deranged.” It has been supposed by M. Husart, and others, that “ hy- drophobia, communicated by a dog to horses, sheep, and cat- tle, undergoes a change, and is modified in the system of the latter, so that it may be deprived of its virulence ; and that these animals do not possess the power of communicating the disease, by bite, to other animals, even though laboring under the highest degree of hydrophobia”’ — a proposition the author does not vouch for. We advise those who are disposed to attempt a cure in hydrophobia to use lobelia, scutellaria (skullcap,) plantago, (plantain,) either of which, given freely in the form of infu- sion, assisted by injections of a decoction of milkweed, (known as Indian hemp,) will cure this dreadful malady. In the latter stages of hydrophobia, when the throat is sore, the eyes affected, sight impaired, and intestinal disease has set in, the author would not attempt a cure. PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES, VEINS, &c. Te agricultural societies of this country are now making efforts to induce their respective legislatures to grant assistance for the purpose of establishing agricultural colleges, and we have no doubt of the result ; and we predict that the veteri- nary science will there receive its origin; for the agriculturist will not only confine himself to the improvement of “ the soil and the mind,” but.the improvement of his domestic animals will receive a share of his attention. It appears to us that the community require practical information for its at- tainment, and a knowledge of the organs of locomotion, DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES, VEINS, &c. LiL blood-vessels, brain, nerves, viscera, &c. For this reason, and in order to render assistance to those desirous of practising the veterinary art, the author has thought proper to introduce a description of these vessels. We are compelled from long usage, and because the English language will not furnish us with suitable terms to express in all cases our meaning, to adopt technicalities, which at first sight may appear superflu- ous and unsurmountable ; yet it has ever appeared to us that this is the best system. For students we principally design this part of the work : should it be deemed worthy the atten- tion of the farmer and stable keeper, we shall feel amply repaid for our trouble. To compose this part of the work, we have’ availed our- selves of Professor Percival’s lectures. The same talented au- thor, in his introductory remarks, says, ‘‘'The theory of medicine in the human subject is the theory of medicine in the brute; it is the application of that theory — the practice alone — that is different. Whether we prescribe for a man, or a horse, adog, or a cat, the laws of the animal economy are the same in all ; and one—and that an unerring system of principles, built upon. ascertained and established truths— jis to dictate our practice in all. We might as well, in reference to the princi- ples of each, attempt to separate surgery from medicine, as insist that either of these arts, in theory, is essentially differ- ent from the veterinary’: every day’s experience serves to con- firm this our belief, in showing us how often the disease of a. horse arises from the same causes as those of a man, exhibit the same indications, and require a similar method of cure. “Yo the old practitioner we would fain hint, that nothing is so effectual a barrier to advancement, nothing so prejudicial to: the art, as to continue the use of remedies purely because they were: the infallibles of those who went before : let him be wary how he vainly piques himself of his experience.’ . An accurate examination of the interior parts of animals, a- studious survey of the arrangement, structure, form, con- nection; use, and relation, of these parts, and of the laws’ by which they are intended to act, as also of the nature and 112 DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. property of the various foods, and other agents, which the earth so liberally provides for their support and cure: these form, in a great measure, the sound and sure foundation of all medical science, whatever living individual animal is the subject of our consideration.” DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. The blood is propelled by the heart through the great aorta, which rises out of the base of the left ventricle, in the space between the left auricle and the pulmonary artery. The branches furnished by the main trunk are the coronary arteries. The right coronary artery emerges from between the pulmonary and right auricle, winds round the fissure sepa- rating that cavity from the right ventricle, and turns down under the termination of the vena cava; and distributes ramifications in its course, which penetrate the substance of the parietes, and end in spiral branches. The left coronary artery, in passing out between the pulmonary artery and left auricle, sends off a large branch, which encircles the other auricle ; it then takes its course downward, and ends in spiral ramifications, © ANTERIOR AORTA. This is a shorter division of the main trunk. The course of this vessel is under the windpipe; it gives origin to those large arteries which are distributed over the breast, head, neck, brain, and anterior extremities. It divides, at a short distance from the heart, into the right and left arteria innomi- nata; the right is considerably longer than the left, and measures nearly as much again in circumference ; it forms the trunk from which the two carotid arteries spring; the left terminates in the following vessels : — 1. The dorsal artery. 2. Posterior cervical. 3. Vertebral. 4. Internal pectoral. 5. External pectoral. 6. Inferior cer- vical. 7. Axillary. Each of these arteries ramify and anas- tomoze with others, and are distributed to muscular and adipose DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 113 substance. From the axillary artery spring all the arteries of the fore extremity. This vessel can only be seen by detaching the shoulder from the body. It arises within the chest, from the arteria innominata; gains exit by making a sudden turn around the first rib, rather below its middle, cross- ing the lower border of the scalenus in the turn; it is first directed outward in this flexure, and then backward, and at length reaches the inner part of the head of the humerus, where it makes another turn backward, and afterwards takes the name of the brachial artery. Its branches are — 1. The external thoracic. 2. The humeral thoracic, which runs to the point of the shoulder, and gives its branches to the levator humeri and shoulder joint. 3. The dorsalis scapule ascends, in a flexuous manner, to the shoulder joint, crossing the inser- tion of the subscapularis. It runs for a short distance along the ribs. 4. The subscapularis, a large artery, which also arises from the upper part of the trunk, but near to its termination. It passes along the ribs, screened from view by the edges of the subscapularis and teres major, to both of which muscles it detaches several small branches, and ends near the lower angle of the bone; it also gives off several branches to the triceps and panniculus. The humeral artery descends from the inner and. back part of the head of the os humeri, in an oblique direction on the body of the bone, where it divides into the ulnar, spiral, and radial arteries. On its inner side, it has the spiral and ulnar nerves ; im front, the radial nerve; and behind, the hume- ral veins; and it is covered internally by the large: pectoral muscle, to which it sends some small branches. But its principal branches are — 1. One near its origin, which crusses the bone to get to the flexor brachii, and sends twigs to the shoulder-joint. 2. A posterior branch, arising a little lower down, which enters the muscle called triceps. 3. Near. its termination, another branch to the flexor brachii. Where the artery divides, it is covered by the humeral plexus of veins, and by the absorbent glands of the arm. The ulnar artery consists of a common root, from which 15 114 DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. spring three or four vessels of considerable size, running in waving lines upon the inner side of the lower end of the humerus. The upper one is directed to the ulnar, splitting before it reaches the bone, and sending one branch upward upon the elbow, and another downward to the heads of the flexors; to which muscles the other branches of this vessel are distributed. The spiral artery, the outermost division, turns round the os humeri, passing under the flexor brachii, and sending a recurrent branch to it, to arrive at the front of the radius, where it splits into several branches, of which— 1. Some run into the elbow joint. 2. Others, larger and more numer- ous, penetrate the heads of the extensors. 3. Two long, slender ones descend upon the radius, and give branches, in their course, to the extensor muscles as low as the knee, and there end in ramifications about and into the joint jornns, with others coming from the radial. The radial artery, the principal division humeral, con- tinues its descent along the radius, about the middle of the arm ; the nerve accompanies it first on its outer side, and sub- sequently behind it. A short way above the knee, it splits into the metacarpal arteries. The small metacarpal artery descends, within a cellular sheath, along the inner and back part of the knee. It con- tinues its descent along the metacarpal vein, (which runs to its inner side,) till it gets below the knee, and then transmits its divisions down the front of the suspensary ligament; between it and the canon bone, it sends off branches over the front of the knee, the canon, and suspensary ligament. The large metacarpal artery, a continuation of the radial trunk, continues its course down the leg, by the side of the tendo perforatus, passing under the posterior annular liga- ment, approaches the fetlock just above the joint, and then splits into three vessels; from the middle division three re- current arteries are given out; the side divisions become the plantar arteries. From the arch below come off two other branches, which descend into the joint. The plantar arte- DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 115 ries, external and internal, in the fore extremity, result from ‘the fork of the metacarpal ; in the hind, from that of the meta- tarsal. (Their general distribution is the same, both in the hind and fore feet.) 'They descend the fetlock upon the sides of the sessamoids, in company with the veins which run in front of them, and with the plantar nerves which proceed behind them ; the artery then passes down to, and into the substance of what is called the “fatty frog ;’’ it next passes the inner and upper extremity of the coffin bone, and after- wards to the foramen of the posterior concavity of the bone. The branches of the plantar artery are many and important. After detaching some small ramifications inwardly to the fet- lock, posteriorly to the flexor tendons, and anteriorly to the extensor tendon, it then sends off—1. The perpendicular artery. 2. The transverse artery. 3. The artery of the frog. 4. The lateral laminal artery. 5. The circulus arteriosus. From the latter arise two principal sets of vessels —1. The anterior laminated arteries. 2. The inferior communicating arteries, ‘thirteen, and sometimes fourteen, in number.” 3. The circumflex artery. Then, again, from this vessel spring the solar arteries, which may be so named from their radiated arrangement. ‘These latter are destined for the supply of the sole, upon which they run in radii at equal distances, whose common centre is the toe of the frog, where they end in com- munications with the arteries of that body. , THE CAROTID ARTERY. The right arteria innominata, having detached seven im- portant branches, which vary but little in their mode of origin, general course, and distribution, from the several arteries into which the left division resolves itself, become the common carotid —a large vessel emerging through the upper opening of the chest ; it divides, as it quits the chest, into two branches, called the right and left carotids. These arteries ascend, and having reached the top of the larynx, the carotid of either side branches into three divisions —the external and inter- 116 DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. nal carotids, and the ramus anastomoticus: here, though the trunk itself becomes deeply lodged in soft parts, its situation is well indicated by the larynx, with which it is in contact. This vessel detaches—1. Several unimportant muscular branches in its progress up the neck. 2. The thyroideal artery, which furnishes the laryngeal, a small artery that perforates the ligament uniting the cartilages of the throat. The external carotid artery is the large division, which may be regarded as the continuation of the carotid itself. This artery is embedded in glandular substance, surrounded by venous and nervous trunks, and protected by bony prom- inences and muscles. The first branch of the external caro- tid is the submaxillary artery ; it comes off behind the horn of the ox hyoides, just as the carotid makes its second curve, and ranks next in size to the trunk itself. After reaching the lower jaw, (about one third of its length downwards,) it arrives upon the face; here it becomes subcutaneous, it ends in an equal division, called the facial and inferior labial arte- ries. Its branches are, the ascending laryngeal, pharyngeal : smaller branches go to parotid gland, and a large branch, called the lingual. 'The latter detaches a few twigs into the submaxillary space; it then branches into two arteries, the ranine and the sublingual. The ranine, apparently a con- tinuation of the lingual, passes along the under part of the tongue, and transmits branches to the interior, and continues of large size even to the tip of the organ, wherever its ex- treme ramifications are expended. ‘The sublingual artery winds along the under and outer border of the tongue, pre- serving a more superficial course than the former. It supplies the sublingual gland, and distributes branches over the mem- brane of the tongue. The submental artery leaves the sub- maxillary, follows the course of the branch of the jaw, and detaches twigs to muscles ; it then transmits its ramifications into the gums internally. The anterior masseter branches pass on the external side of the jaw. The inferior labial artery courses the side of the jaw, invested in the cellular and fleshy substance belonging to the DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES. 117 buccinator. It gives off slender ramifications to the invest- ing cellular substance, also the buccinator arteries ; the buccal twigs bifureate, sending their divisions respectively to the upper and under lips; these form the superior and inferior coronary arteries of the lips. The facial artery ascends upon the side of the face, crosses the buccinator ; then, having run as high as the bony ridge, from whence the masseter arises, it detaches a large branch, and then expands upon the upper and fore part of the face ; its terminating ramifications are in the cellular substance and skin covering the fore part of the face. The posterior auricular gives branches to the parotid gland, and to the different muscles of the ears. The temporal artery, the anterior auricular, and the inter- nal maxillary, may be considered as the terminating branches of the external carotid. 'The internal maxillary gives off deep temporal branches, long slender twigs, to the soft palate, to the ear, and to the articulation of the jaw; the facial artery also gives off the inferior maxillary, the supra-orbitar, the ocular, the infra-orbitar, and the palate maxillary. The second and smallest divisions of the carotid is the RAMUS ANASTOMOTICUS. It leaves the trunk of the carotid, joins the vertebral, and from it arises the occipital artery, which gives off twigs to be dispersed upon the dura mater, temporal muscle, and muscles of the occiput. INTERNAL CAROTID. This vessel, whose calibre is not more than half that of the external carotid, ascends to the base of the skull: at its entrance into the skull, a vessel comes off named the arteria communicans: after having given off this vessel, the internal carotid pierces the dura mater, takes its course up near the optic nerve, and branches into four divisions, which supply the cerebrum with blood. 118 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. The remaining vessels of the brain are derived from the vertebral artery, which gives off posterior arteries to the dura mater, and ramifications to the medulla oblongata. The basilar artery sends off branches to the cerebellum. THE POSTERIOR AORTA. Considerably longer and larger than the anterior is the main trunk, from which are derived the artery of the abdomen, pel- vis, and posterior extremities, in addition to the posterior intercostals, and some few of the thoracic arteries. It com- mences opposite the fourth dorsal vertebre: from its ori- gin it courses first upward, and then backward, having the pulmonary artery on its left, the termination of the windpipe on its right, then takes a course along the spine, inclining to the left side. From the inferior part of the curvature of the aorta arise the right and left bronchial arteries: these vessels penetrate the lungs in company with the bronchia, to the branches of which they cling in the course of their ramifica- tions within the substance of the lungs. The zsophogeal also spring from the concavity of the arch near to the former, and proceed backward to the esophagus, where it divides into an inferior and superior artery. The intercostal, the remaining branches, come off in pairs from the sides of the vessel, to supply all those intercostal spaces posteriorly to the last. 'These arteries run along the lower borders of the ribs, and end about the inferior parts of the chest and abdomen. They furnish, near their origin, small branches, which enter the vertebral canal. Having detached these small vessels, the posterior aorta continues its passage intothe abdomen. In making its exit from the chest, it gives off the phrenic or diaphragmatic arteries. Within the abdomen, the aorta continues to be firmly fixed to the spine, by its several cellular attachments, as far as the lumbar vertebra, under the body of which it branches into four large arterial trunks. Prior to this division, the abdominal aorta gives off the celiac artery, which is DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. 119 nothing more than the common root of the splenic, gastric, and hepatic —arteries that in some instances have separate origins. The splenic artery, after passing between the stomach and spleen, ends in the left gastric artery. In its course it gives off several branches to the pancreas, called pancreatic ar- teries. The gastric artery, the smallest of the celiac divisions, runs forward to the small curvature of the stomach, between the layers of the omentum, branching, before it reaches this organ, into two vessels, called inferior and superior gastric, which finally ramify upon the upper and under surface of the stomach. The hepatic artery, the largest of the celiac division, pro- ceeds before the pancreas to the right side of the cavity, and passes over the pyloric end of the stomach, and gives off small branches to the pancreas. Near the pylorus, it sends a branch to the duodenum, which, as soon as it reaches the intestine, divides: one division — the duodenal— retrogrades along the gut, and ends in anastomosis, with branches com- ing from the anterior mesenteric ; the other— the right gas- tric — crosses the gut, proceeds to the great curvature of the stomach, where it inosculates with the left gastric. The hepatic artery itself is continued forward to the porta of the liver, where it divides into the right and left hepatic ; the right, — the larger and shorter one, — after giving off a con- siderable branch to the portio media, turns back to reach the right lobe ; the left, after giving off a branch or two to the middle portion, penetrates the left lobe. The anterior, or great mesenteric, is the next vessel to the celiac, and arises from the under part of the posterior aor. ta. From its origin, it passes downward within the layers of the mesentery, detaching some small twigs to the pancreas; it then separates into larger vessels, (commonly from eight to twelve in number,) from which are derived a branch that runs to the duodenum; several other branches encircle and camify on and around the intestines. 120 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. The renal or emulgent arteries leave the aorta at right angles just below the preceding vessel ; they each pass into the respective kidneys, and therein divide into branches that penetrate the glandular substance. The spermatic arteries, right and left, originate from the under part of the aorta; they pass out of the abdomen, at the abdominal ring, to the testicles. In the female, they pass to the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, and horns of the uterus. The posterior aorta also gives off the small mesenteric, and five or six pairs of lumbar arteries. Under the last lumbar vertebre, the aorta gives off two pairs of arterial trunks, called. the external and internal iliacs. The internal iliacs give off a branch called the artery of the bulb, and afterwards branch into three divisions — the obtura- tor, gluteal, and lateral sacral arteries. The artery of the bulb passes to the bulb of the penis, where it terminates. In the female, this artery sends its ter- minating branches to the vagina. It gives off the foetal um- bilical artery. In leaving the pelvis, the prostatic artery, which detaches twigs to the vesiculz seminales, also distributes its ultimate ramifications to the prostate gland. It also gives off divers branches, anal and perineal, to the posterior por- tion of the rectum, anus, and parts comprising the perineum. The obturator artery is the lowest of the divisions of the internal iliac. Its branches are the arteria innominata, and ramifications to the obturator muscles and ligaments. Its di- visions are the ischiatic, which distributes its branches to the triceps; next, the pubic: the internal pubic artery gives two sets of branches, which pass to the penis. The gluteal artery is destined principally to supply the gluteal muscles. The lateral sacral artery, having reached the coccyx, divides into two branches. It furnishes the sacro-spinal branches, five or six in number, and the perineal artery. It soon divides into several ramifications, of which many run into the gluteal muscles; others descend on the back of the thigh, and others are distributed to the anal muscles, and to the DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. 121 skin and cellular substance of the perineum. The lateral sacral also furnishes the lateral coccygeal, and the inferior coccygeal. The exiernal thac artery, right and left, results from a branch of the posterior aorta, which takes place under the body of the last of the lumbar vertebra, and passes into the muscles, forming the inside of the thighs. The vessel gives off the circumflex artery of the ileum, the artery of the cord and the arteria profunda: the latter having reached the poste- rior quarters, it sends its ramifications into the biceps. Be- fore this vessel dips into the substance of the thigh, it gives rise to a large branch, called the epigastic artery. The epigastic artery, in passing the margin of the inter- nal ring, forms a branch which divides into several small arteries; of these a twig runs to the groin, and ramifies among the adipose membrane and absorbent glands; then next, a slender branch to the cremaster, and a subcutaneous twig to the thigh, and lastly, the external pudic artery. The femoral artery. Regarding the profunda femoris as a limb of the external iliac, we descend to the femoral artery, the subsequent contination of the same trunk. This artery pro- ceeds in an oblique direction down the haunch, preserving nearly the line of its middle; opposite to the head of the tibia, it branches into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries ; the anterior tibial gives off the inguinal artery, also three or four branches to the sartorius, and one to the side and front of the stifle. Its posterior branches are a large artery to the gracilis, (which detaches twigs to the long and short heads of the triceps, ) also one to the biceps. At the back of the stifle come off the popliteal branches, four or five in number, taking opposite directions, which are destined for the supply of the joint; one runs down upon the posterior tibial mus- cles ; another —the recurrent branches—climbs the back of the os femoris, and anastomozes with the descending ramifica- tions of the profunda femoris. The tibial arteries are a continuation of the femoral trunk, which branch off into tibial arteries at the head of tibia. 16 122 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. The posterior tibial artery, the smaller of the two, passes along the posterior deep region of the thigh, to the hock, where it ends in bifurcation. Its branches are, one that runs into the flexor pedis ; another to the upper and back part of the tibia ; and small twigs to both the flexors. 'There are several ter- minating branches, some ramifying subcutaneously, others continuing down the leg internally over the tendon of the flexor pedis, and ending at the lower part of the cannon in divers small ramifications. The anterior tibial artery, after leaving the trunk, passes down the fore part of the thigh, to the hock and metatarsal bone, where it becomes the metatarsal artery. The metatarsal artery pursues its course downwards to about two thirds the length of the leg; it then gains the pos- terior part of the latter; a little above the fetlock, it divides into three vessels : one forms an arc, (as in the fore extremity, ) from which come off the recurrents, and they anastomoze with the posterior tibial artery ; the lateral divisions become the plantar arteries. DISTRIBUTION OF VEINS IN THE HORSE. The two main venous trunks, the vene cave, anterior and posterior, correspond to the anterior and posterior aorte. THE ANTERIOR VENA CAVA Forms the main trunk of the veins, returning the blood from the head, neck, chest, and fore extremities. It is prin- cipally formed by the concurrent union of the jugular and axillary veins, and is situated at its formation in the space be- tween the two first ribs, about midway between the sternum and vertebre ; it also receives the pectoral, vertebral, dorso- cervical, and inferior cervical veins, and the vena azygos. THE JUGULAR VEIN. It passes behind the condyle of the lower jaw, under the parotid gland, and joins the external carotid artery, and DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEINS. 123 continues its course down the neck with the latter. It now receives the auricular veins, anterior and posterior, and also internal. The next is the temporal, the third is the internal maxillary ; the latter in its course receives the blood of many small veins, — the palato-maxillary, infra and supra orbitar, ocular, inferior maxillary, and deep temporal; the fourth branch, received by the jugular vein, is the parotideal, and the last branches from the masseter muscles, THE OCCIPITAL VEIN Descends from the head, along with the occipital artery. It brings blood from the occipital sinuses, receives veins from the posterior lobes of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; also from the dura mater. i The submazillary vein, a large branch of the jugular. It is formed upon the side of the face by the concurrence of the facial, labial, and varicose veins. It joins the trunk by the side of the trachea, just below the parotid gland. In its course it receives a number of veins; the principal are — the submental, sublingual, lingual, pharyngeal, and superior laryn- geal veins. ‘The facial vein results from an expansion of small veins upon the side of the face, one of which is the varicose from the masseter. ‘The labial vein is formed by the union of a plexus of venous branches, coming principally from the angle of the mouth, joined by others both from the upper and lower lips. ‘The varicose vein is buried in the masseter. The jugular trunk having received the submaxillary, pro- ceeds down the neck, and terminates in the anterior vena cava, within the space between the two first ribs. Near the junction of the submaxillary the jugular receives the small thyroideal, cutaneous, muscular, and tracheal veins. Near its termination it receives a branch of the superficial brachial, and plate or plat vein. The vertebral vein runs the same course as the artery, . through the foramina, in the transverse processes of the cer- vical vertebree, with the exception of the last. This vein has 124 DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEINS. communications with the occipital sinus and posterior cere- bral veins, medulla oblongata, and spinal marrow; it also receives vessels from the deep-seated muscles in the vicinity, and ends in the anterior vena cava, just behind the first mb. The axillary vein returns the blood distributed by the axillary artery to the various parts of the fore extremity ; there is a superficial and deep-seated set; the former run under the skin, the latter among the muscles. The plantar veins are an intricate network of small veins, and cover the foot with a venous netting. ‘The veins of the sole pour their blood into the veins of the lamina; the latter increase in size towards the coronet, and gradually unravel themselves, so as to collect in a great many branches; these run upward, through the substance of the coronary ligament, and form the superficial coronary vein; from them other branches pro- ceed and join the deep coronary, and afterwards unite in a single vein opposite the pastern joint. The veins of the frog, after ramifying in the form of net- work over that body, ascend into the heel, growing larger as they leave the foot; they make a single branch at the pas- tern joint, then unite with the vein coming from the lamina, thereby forming the plantar vein. The plantar vein ascends, unites with other vessels, and becomes metacarpal. The metacarpal veins, two in number, result from the union of the plantar; these veins pursue their course up the leg, one on either side, to the back of the knee, where they end in anastomosis. ‘The internal metacarpal vein preserves the line of the splint bone. These vessels receive in their course cutaneous veins from the front of the cannon, and one or two descending veins from the back of the leg ; it afterwards forms the deep-seated veins of the arm. | The superficial brachial vein ascends along the inner side of the radius to the elbow-joint ; here it crosses over to the front of the biceps and pursues its ascent upon that muscle towards the point of the shoulder, and then passes inward to the jugular vein. In its course to the latter, it receives nu- merous cutaneous and muscular branches, communicates with DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEINS. 125 the humeral vein, and anastomoses with other veins of the arm. The radial veins, two in number, arise from the junction of the metacarpal veins above the knee ; they take the course of the radial artery, and receive anastomosing vessels as they ascend from the ulnar and superficial veins. The ulnar veins (with one exception) end in the common trunk of the humeral vein. The humeral vein accompanies the artery ; it receives small veins from the muscles. The avillary vein is the continuation of the humeral, aug- mented by the accession of the triceps vein. Its branches are, the subscapular vein, and dorsalis scapular; the latter terminates about midway between the chest and shoulder. The remaining branches of this vein are the humeral thora- cic, and the external thoracic ; it also receives other small veins, which contribute more or less to its volume. The pectoral vein runs the course of the pectoral artery. It originates in branches from the abdominal parietes, con- tinues to receive accessory vessels in its course, and ascends along the inner and lower border of the first rib. The dorso-cervical vein consists of two divisions, ramify- ing with the dorsal and posterior cervical arteries; it receives the anterior intercostal vein. The inferior cervical vein runs down the lower part of the neck in company with the artery ; the principal branches are muscular, though some come from the skin and absorbent glands in the vicinity. The vena azygos ends just as the trunk opens into the auricle ; it returns the blood from the lower intercostal veins. THE POSTERIOR VENA CAVA. This is the corresponding venous trunk to the posterior aorta, returning the blood from the parietes of the abdomen and pelvis, the urinary and genital organs, and the posterior extremities. It takes its course under the bodies of the lum- bar vertebre, runs along the great fissure of the liver, perfo- 126 DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEINS. rates the cordiform tendon, and pursues its way directly across the cavity of the chest to the lower part of the right auricle: in its passage it is joined by the lumbar spermatic, renal, hepatic, and diaphragmatic veins. The common iliac veins are formed under the sacro-iliac, symphysis, by the union of the external and internal iliacs; they receive a vein from the psoze and iliacus, circumflex vein of the ileum, middle sacral, and azygos. The ischiatic vein, situated upon the side of the pelvic cavity, midway between the external iliac and lateral sacral veins ; external and internal branches unite to form it. The internal comprise veins coming from the bladder, anus, peri- neum, and, in the male, from the bulb and prostate: in the female, from the vulva and body of the vagina. ‘The exter- nal come principally from the gluteal and obturator muscles. The lateral sacral vein comes from the tail formed by coe- cygeal veins ; it runs forward to the sacrum, and receives in its course the perineal and sarco-spinal branches. The external iliac vein takes the same course as the artery ; as it departs from the belly, this vessel receives The inguinal vein, (coming from the groin, ) alsoa superficial or cutaneous abdominal vein, known as the milk vein in cattle. The femoral vein is the continuation of the iliac trunk below the brim of the pelvis; and is the main channel into which the deep-seated veins of the hind extremity pour their blood. We commence the description as in the fore extremi- ties, at the leg. The large metatarsal vein ascends the canon by the side of the flexor tendons, and passes over the front and inner part of the hock; it sends out branches, from which result the Anterior tibial veins, which run between the tibiaand fibu- la to the back and lower part of the os femoris, and then are joined by the posterior tibial vein, and all three unite to form the femoral. The posterior tibial vein is a continuation of the small metatarsal vein, and corresponds in size to the small metacar- pal. It runs in company with the posterior tibial artery, THE BRAIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 127 receiving various muscular branches in its course, also the medullary vein of the tibia. The femoral vein results from the two last named vessels ; runs behind the femoral artery, and ends in the external iliac vein. It receives muscular veins, as well as veins from the stifle joint, and the medullary vein of the os femoris; also, about two thirds of its length upwards, it is joined by the saphena vein. The vena saphena major results from the large metatarsal vein; at the hock it anastomoses with the anterior tibial vein ; it also receives cutaneous and muscular branches in its course. The vena saphena minor springs from the small metatar- sal vein; it runs up the back of the hock, over the root of the os calcis, and ultimately reaches the femoral vein. The vena porta circulates the blood through the liver, and is principally formed by the union of the splenic and mesen- teric veins. THE BRAIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. The cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, and medulla spinalis are invested with three membranes: the du- ra mater, pia mater, and tunica arachnoides. Of these the exterior is the dura mater: which, though called a membrane, is of a dense, tough, and inelastic texture. It is so firmly adherent, by means of numerous little prominences, to the sutures of the cranium, that it is difficult to separate them ; this membrane is to the internal cranium what the pericrani- um is externally. The inner surface of the dura mater is lubricated by a fluid furnished by its own blood-vessels. The pia mater is that membrane which closely envelops the substance of the brain, and dips down between its convolutions, and adheres to its surface by numberless minute blood-ves- sels. It differs in its appearance and texture from the dura mater; presenting a smooth surface exteriorly, but a rough and villous one next to the brain, and being composed of a beautiful network of blood-vessels united together by a deli- cate cellular tissue. 128 THE BRAIN AND ITS APPENDAGES, The third membrane has been compared to a spider’s web, in allusion to which the name of:membrana arachnoides has been given toit. It is placed between the pia and dura mater. The arteries which supply the brain with blood are the two vertebrals, besides two other branches called the internal carotids. Its blood is returned from the sinuses of the dura mater by the vertebral and jugular veins. It is on the supply of the vertebral arteries, however, that the brain mainly depends for its supply, for if ligatures are placed on these arteries, the animal dies; whereas, both the carotids may be tied without occasioning any apparent ill effects. If our memory serves us, Dr. J. C. Warren, of this city, has performed the latter operation on the human subject with success. In raising the bony covering of the brain, we meet with two processes, called the falx, or longitudinal process, and the tentorlum, or transverse process. ‘The former resembles the blade of a scythe, hence its name. ‘These processes are formed from duplicatures of the dura mater ; the first descends for a short distance between the lobes of the cerebrum. It takes its rise from the crista galli, and terminates on the os occipitis. The tentorium is extended from the inner plate of the os occipitis along the sides of the cranium to its base, whence it may be traced to the sphenoid bone, and is lost in the common covering of the dura mater. It is composed of two lamine: one is continuous with the falx: the other forms that portion of the membrane which covers the cerebellum. The tentorium is equally divided by the falx into two lat- eral portions. The sinuses. —'The superior, or longitudinal sinus, runs within the duplication of the falx, along its superior border. The two lateral sinuses are formed within the duplicature of that part of the tentorium which is attached to the tem- poral and occipital bones; one extending to the right, and the other to the left. They receive veins both from the cere- brum and cerebellum. The cavernous sinuses, so named from the cavernous ap- THE BRAIN AND ITS APPENDAGES. 129 pearance of their interior; they receive some important ner- vous trunks in their passage from the brain, and for lodging the terminations of the internal carotid arteries. They com- monly communicate with the sub-occipital sinus; these are also of membranous formation, and are found upon the cunei- form process of the os occipitis, running longitudinally to the foramen magnum. They receive veins from the cerebellum and posterior parts of the cerebrum. Cerebrum. —'The largest portion of the cerebral mass, and that which presents itself to our view in raising the skull, is the cerebrum. It is equally divided by a longitudinal fis- sure along its middle, into which the falx cerebri descends ; and its divisions, which are symmetrical, both internally and externally, are denominated hemispheres. Cerebellum. —'The cerebellum is at once distinguished from the cerebrum by its being only one sixth the size of the latter. Its figure is irregular: it has two oval ends, and its lateral dimensions exceed its longitudinal. It is divided into three oblong lobes —a middle and two lateral. Medulla oblongata, the smallest division of the cerebral mass. It rests on the cuneifoim process of the occipital bone, and is continued upward and backward to the foramen magnum. The upper surface of the medulla oblongata forms, with the tuber annulare, the floor of the fourth ventricle. Pituatary gland, a red body, of an egg form, seated upon the sella tursica, within a fold of the dura mater. It has a membranous capsule, surrounded by cellular adhesions, by which it is firmly retained in its place. Medulla spinalis. —The spinal marrow is that extended portion of brainlike substance which is continued from the posterior part of the medulla oblongata through the entire length of the spinal canal. It is enclosed in the same mem- branes that envelop the brain; but, in addition to them, the superior ligament of the spine serves as a covering and de- fence to it below. ‘To this, and to the periosteum lining the canal, its proper theca is loosely attached by cellular, adipose, 17 130 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. and gelatinous matter. Its dura mater is derived from that which covers. the brain: in being continued through the fo- ramen magnum, the membrane is contracted into a cylindrical sheath, which loosely encases the marrow, and is generally described under the denomination of theca vertebralis. The arachnoid membrane and pia mater have the same relation to the marrow that the same membranes have to the brain, of which they may be considered prolongations. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. Tue nerves being symmetrical in number and distribution on either side of the body, take their origin in pairs, and these pairs are numbered, and so distinguished from one another, according to the order in which they arise. There are forty-six pairs of nerves; ten, coming from the brain, are distinguished as the cerebral nerves; thirty-six, from the spinal marrow, denominated the spinal nerves. CEREBRAL NERVES. First pair, or olfactory nerves, arise from the corpora straita, along the posterior borders of which bodies the medullary bands or roots of them may be traced as high up as the mid- dle lobes of the cerebrum. These are the largest of the cere- bral nerves, are bulbous at their origin, pulpy in texture, and exhibit, when cut into, comparatively to their size, large cavities, which are walled in by a layer of medullary matter, enclosed within a thinner one of cortical substance. Second pair, or optic nerves, arise from the thalamia nervo- rum. They leave the cranium through the optic foramen, and pass to enter the globe of the eye, within the interior of which it expands, and forms the retina. In its whole course, it is enclosed within a sheath prolonged from the dura mater. Third pair, or motores oculorum, take their origin by sev- eral filaments, from the inward parts of the crura cerebri. The trunk of the nerve first runs obliquely outward, across the back of the crus, then turns downward and enters the ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 131 cavernous sinus, on through the foramen lacerum-orbitale. In entering the cavity, the nerve divides into two branches. The smaller is generally received by the levator oculi. The larger branch subdivides into several others; the longest of these runs round the eyeball, and penetrates the oblique mus- cle. 'T'wo or three others run to the abductor and depressor muscles. Fourth pair of pathetic. These take a filamentous origin, and pass the border of the tentorium, entering the cavernous sinus, from thence to the orbit. Its destination is the supe- rior oblique muscle of the eye. Fifth pair, or par trigeminum. 'These are the largest nerves of the brain. -They take their origin by filaments from the crura cerebelli, and pierce the dura mater. Hach nerve ap- pears to form a ganglion; from this ganglion, we say that three nerves depart: one is called the ophthalmic ; the second, the anterior maxillary ; the third is the posterior maxillary nerve. The ophthalmic nerve is the smallest of the three divisions ; as it emerges from the orbit, it divides into three branches, called the lachrymal, the super-orbitar, and the lateral nasal branch. The second division, or anterior maxillary nerve, leaves the cranium through the hole, called foramen rotundum, of the sphenoid bone, and takes its passage through the inferior orbi- tal canal, whence it emerges, covered by the levator labii superior, upon the face; here it splits into several large branches, denominated the facial nerves. But prior to its entering this canal, it detaches several important branches to the eyelid, lachrymal duct ; also several long filaments which descend on the tuberosity of the anterior maxilla, penetrate the bone, and furnish twigs to the antrum, and the two supe- rior molar teeth. The largest branch is the spheno-palatine, or lateral nasal nerve, to which the foramen spheno-palatine gives passage into the nose, wherein it divides into two sets of filaments. One of these is spread over the lateral parietes of the nasal cavity ; the other ramifies over the sinuses, and sends a filament to the lower border of the septum. A branch 132 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. also goes to the velum palati, and another branch accompanies the palatine blood-vessels, and ramifies over the soft palate. The facial branches of this division terminate on the front and sides of the face, and receive communicating filaments from the anterior facial branch of the portio dura, and with them form a plexus. The third division, the posterior maxillary nerve, gives off a branch which runs up in front of the parotid gland, and joins the portio dura; also branches called the buccal nerve, pterygoideus, and gustatory. ‘The latter descends by the side of the tongue, penetrates that organ about its middle, and vanishes in its tip. It also sends ramifications to the roots of the incisive teeth, and to the under lip. Sizth pair, or abducentes, arise by means of filaments from the medulla oblongata; this nerve gives off two or three fila- ments to the retractor oculi; but its principal destination is to the abductor, along the fascicula, of which its ramifications are equally distributed. Seventh pair, or auditory nerves. — This pair includes two separate nerves on either side; one, from its remarkable soft- ness, is denominated the portio mollis ; the other, in contra- distinction, the portio dura. The portio mollis enters the organ of hearing, and is distributed to the labyrinth. The portio dura arises from the medulla oblongata, and passes to the internal part of the ear, the tympanum and eustachian tube. It is also distributed to the temples, eye- lids, nose, lips, cheek, and neck. Highth pair, er par vagum. — At its commencement it consists of two separate portions; the first called the glosso- pharyngeal nerve, and the second the true par vagum. They arise from the corpora olivaria, and make their exit through the base of the cranium. The glosso-pharyngeus gives off branches, which join the portio dura, to the constrictors of the pharynx, and form branches which ramify in the base of the tongue. The proper par vagum, having disunited from the glosso- pharyngeal nerve, proceeds downwards to join the carotid ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 133 artery, and takes its course along the neck to the chest. Its filaments are — 1. To the cervical ganglion. 2. The pharyn- geal branch, whose filaments pass to the cesophagus and larynx. 3. Two slender branches to the carotid artery, which form a plexus. 4. The laryngeal branch. At the back part of the neck the par vagum inclines up- wards, and is found above the carotid artery ; it then passes between the two first ribs, into the chest. Having entered the thoracic cavity, it runs within the superior mediastinum ; the right nerve adheres to the trachea, crosses above the root of the right lung, alongside of the esophagus, and gains the under side of that tube before it leaves the chest. On the left side the nerve accompanies the anterior aorta, and crosses the root of the posterior aorta, and also reaches the cesopha- gus. Its branches within the chest are filaments to the tracheal and cardiac plexuses ; also, a branch called the recur- rent nerve: branches to the pulmonary plexus, and also two cords that branch out and penetrate the walls of the auricles. The recurrent nerve of the left side originates from the par vagum, by the side of the anterior aorta, and coils round the root of the posterior aorta. The recurrent nerve, so denominated from its retrograde course, passes upwardly and outwardly, and is found between the carotid artery and the trachea; having reached the top of the latter, it spreads into fine terminating branches, several of which run to the muscles of the larynx and thyroid carti- lage, and end in ramifications upon the membrane of the glottis. Its branches are filaments to the pulmonary plexus, cardiac plexus, posterior cervical ganglion, and branches to the esophagus and trachea. The par vagum runs to the stomach. The left nerve sends filaments to the heart, and others along the small curvature, which communicates with the ramifications of the right nerve ; the other crosses to the left side, and joins the great semi- lunar ganglion. The right nerve, as soon as it reaches the heart, divides into numerous branches, which join the left, and spread their ramifications upon the under part of the 134 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. heart ; some run to the pylorus, and others join the hepatic plexus. Accessory nerves to the cighth.— These nerves are con- sidered as accessory to the eighth, in consequence of their being found in close connection in issuing from the cranium ; it originates in the vertebral canal, by the union of several filaments. In its course into the cranium it receives many other fine threads, and in that cavity joins the par vagum. Beneath the atlas, the accessory nerve divides; the front di- vision runs downward, and penetrates the belly, transmitting side twigs in its course. The posterior division turns round the transverse process of the atlas to the scapula, near which it is lost in muscular substance. 'The branches of the acces- sory pass to the par vagum, anterior cervical ganglion, and communicate with the sub-occipital nerve. Ninth pair, or linguales, arise behind the eighth pair, from the corpora olivaria; it is found in company with the par vagum, near the coranoid process. ‘The nerve passes down the lower jaw, between the muscles forming the root of the tongue, and ends in the tip of the latter. It sends branches to the lingual muscles, and to the hyo-glossus longus. Tenth pair, or sub-occipital nerves. — They arise from the medulla oblongata, and beginning of the spinal marrow ; they pass out through a hole in the fore part of the body of the atlas. It then branches into a superior and inferior divis- ion. ‘The superior is distributed to the extensor muscles of the head and neck. ‘The inferior branch goes to the trachea, lymphatic glands, and muscles of the neck. CERVICAL NERVES. These consist of seven pairs, originating from the cervical portion of the spinal marrow. Each nerve, as soon as it issues from the spinal canal, forms two nervous filaments, one superior, the other inferior. The first cervical nerve makes its exit between the first and second cervical vertebre. It sends branches to different muscles, and communicates with the ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 135 Second cervical nerve, which makes its appearance between the second and third vertebree. Its superior filament sends branches to the muscles of the neck, and levator humeri, communicates with the accessory nerve, and Third cervical. 'This also send branches and twigs to the different muscles of the neck, and communicates with the fourth. The fourth, fifth, sizth, and seventh pairs pass from the spine, between their respective vertebre, and send branches to the phrenic nerve, and ramifications to the muscles, sym- pathetic nerve, and unite with the dorsal. THE DIAPHRAGMATIC, OR PHRENIC NERVE. This is formed by branches from several of the cervical nerves. It takes its course down along the inferior border of the scalenus muscle. It terminates by numerous ramifi- cations on the tendinous parts of the diaphgram. DORSAL NERVES. These consist of eighteen pairs. They pass from the ver- tebral canal in the same manner as the cervical, having supe- rior and inferior branches. The inferior branches follow the course of the intercostal blood-vessels, and are called inter- costal nerves. The superior branches are distributed to the back and loins. LUMBAR NERVES Consist of five pairs, (corresponding to the number of the lumbar vertebre. ) The first nerve ends in ramifications near the stifle, and gives off branches to the last dorsal nerve, to the sympathetic, and to the second lumbar nerve. The second nerve has communication with the first nerve, and sympathetic; also the crural. It sends one division to the fore part of the haunch, where it becomes sub-cutaneous, and ramifies over the stifle. The other division crosses the 136 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. ilio-lumbar artery, just below its origin, and takes nearly a similar course to the inward part of the haunch, and then ramifies upon the skin; in its way it detaches a considerable branch, called the spermaticus externus, which passes through the abdominal ring, and sends twigs, in the male, to the scro- tum and testicle ; in the female, filaments go from it to the uterus, udder, and external labia. The third nerve contributes to form the crural and obtura- tor. It sends small branches to the sympathetic, pease, and obturator nerves. The fourth nerve sends a branch to the sernreanteces con- tributes to the production of the crural; and also sends a branch to the obturator. The fifth nerve communicates with the sympathetic, cru- ral, and sciatic plexus. SACRAL NERVES Consist of five pairs; asuperior and inferior fascicula. ‘The superior make their exit through holes upon the upper part of the sacrum, and are there buried under a thick mass of muscle, and become cutaneous upon the outer part of the haunch. The inferior fascicula. The first nerve largely contrib- utes to the origin of the sciatic plexus, and sends a branch to. the gluteal nerve ; also to the sympathetic and second lum- bar nerves. ‘The second nerve communicates with the third and sympathetic, and sends branches to the surrounding muscles and sciatic plexus. The third and fourth have simi- lar connections. The fifth passes into the coccygeal muscles. COCCYGEAL NERVES. These issue from the spine, in the same manner as the last described. They communicate with one another, are dis- tributed to muscles in the vicinity, and end in filamentous ramifications at the end of the tail. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 137 NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. The fore extremity receives its nerves from the axillary or humeral plexus, and this plexus is formed by the union of portions of the sixth and seventh cervical nerves, and a divis- ion of the first dorsal nerve. The external thoracic nerves, six or seven in number, arise from the humeral plexus, and are distributed to the pec- toral, triceps, and other muscles ; they finally ramify into the skin. The scapular nerves are called anterior, posterior, and sub- scapular. ‘The former sends its ultimate filaments to the triceps. The posterior scapular nerve sends branches to the sub- scapularis, triceps, teres minor, and shoulder joint, and ends in the insertion of the levator humeri. The subscapular nerves run upward between the shoulder and chest, and enter the subscapularis. The spiral or external cutaneous nerve is furnished by the axillary plexus ; arises behind the humeral artery, and passes between the os humeri and the head of the triceps, through the extensors, to the external flexors of the cannon. It gives off several branches to the triceps, ramifies on the fore and outward part of the knee, and sends branches to the heads of the extensor muscles. The radial nerve descends with the humeral artery to the inward side of the elbow joint, and runs along the back part of the radius to the knee; passing under the annular liga- ment, it descends to the leg, and takes the name of the inter- nal metacarpal nerve. It gives off numerous twigs to the muscles, and finally becomes subcutaneous. The ulnar nerve originates from the humeral plexus. It passes down the radius, under the annular ligament, to the tendo perforans, and there becomes the external metacarpal nerve. It gives off internal cutaneous and subcutaneous branches, ramifies into cellular substance, penetrates the heads of the flexors, and finally disperses its ramifications in front of the leg. 18 138 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. The metacarpal nerves continue down the leg, over the fetlock joint, where they become the plantar nerves; these pursue their course behind their corresponding blood-vessels to the back part of the foot, which they penetrate to the inner sides of the lateral cartilages. The plantar nerve detaches a branch from the fetlock to the lateral cartilage ; another passes to the fatty frog. ‘The final branch enters a hole in the back, and lower part of the coffin bone, in company with the plantar artery, and there divides and distributes its ultimate branches around the edges of the sole. NERVES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. The crural nerve is derived partly from the second, third, fourth, and fifth lumbar nerves. It makes its appearance under the transverse process of the loins, and proceeds ina line with the external iliac artery. It gives off filaments to the psoas magnus, iliacus, rectus, and vastus internus muscles. It also gives off cutaneous filaments: one runs to the stifle, and ends in ramifications upon the fore part of the thigh. The other continues down the leg, and can be traced as low as the fetlock. The obturator nerve, contributed to by third and fourth lumbar nerves, sweeps round the brim of the pelvis, and detaches twigs to the obturator muscles. Its ultimate fila- ments are expended on the triceps and gracilis. The gluteal nerve, after leaving the cavity of the pelvis, accompanies the gluteal artery, and passes into the substance of the gluteal muscles. The sciatic nerve derives its origin from the sacral and last of the lumbar nerves; after leaving the cavity of the pelvis, passes between the hip joint and the tuberosity of the ischi- um, and plunges into the substance of the haunch. Here it divides into branches called the popliteal nerves. At the hock its principal branch separates into the external and inter- nal metatarsal nerves: the former runs over the flexor pedis to the os calcis. Their subsequent course and ultimate distri- ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE NERVES. 139 bution are the same as those of the plantar nerves of the fore extremity. ‘The second popliteal nerve passes between the bellies of the gastrocnemii, above the first, detaching twigs to them in its passage, and then spreads into many branches, which penetrate the heads of the flexor muscles of the foot, -and sends filaments into the stifle joint. SYMPATHETIC NERVE. This nerve derives its name from the universal influence which it has on the nervous system. It communicates with the head, neck, chest, pelvis, and abdomen, by its frequent intercourse and connection with their respective nerves. It is supposed by some writers to be a nervous system of itself. It has, at different distances, a great number of gangliform tubercles, from which ramifications proceed forward, as well as filaments backward, to the ganglia of the nerves of the medulla spinalis. It is considered generally as beginning from a branch of the fifth and sixth pair, given off at the base of the cranium. The ganglionic structures, and the dif- ferent plexuses are named from their form, location, and distri- bution; hence we have the cervical ganglion, semilunar, sacral, &c. From the semilunar ganglion nervous filaments shoot in various directions, which, from their being compared to the rays of the sun, are denominated the solar plexus. From the divergent filaments of the latter, the several smaller plex- uses of the abdomen may be said to derive their formation, taking names according to the viscera they are particularly de- signed to furnish with nerves; hence we have the splenic plexus, that sends filaments to the spleen, the hepatic plexus, mesenteric, aortic, hypogastric, and renal plexuses. The sym- pathetic nerve in the abdomen travels over the sides of the bodies of the lumbar vertebree, below the articulations of the ribs, and pursues its course into the pelvis. Here, also, it forms ganglia, which correspond in number to those of the lumbar nerves; and from every ganglion come off two fila- ments ; one which runs to the corresponding lumbar nerve ; the other crosses the aorta, and by joining the aortic plexus, 140 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE communicates with nerves coming from the sympathetic of the other side. From the loins, the sympathetic descends into the pelvis, and takes its course along the side of the sacrum, and forms five ganglia, corresponding to the sacral nerves ; it finally ter- minates by forming a union with its fellow. ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES OF THE HORSE. TRAPEZIUS, Or triangular muscle, is in the region of the withers. Origin. — From the processes of several dorsal vertebre, and from the fascia covering them. Its fleshy fibres pass over the shoulder bone, and there unite in a tendon. Insertion. — Into the spine of the scapula. — Use. —It elevates the shoulder blade, and inclines it backward. LATISMUS DORSI. Origin. — By a broad expansion over the posterior part of the back and loins. Its fleshy fibres appear upon a level with the top of the shoulder bone, and converge, in their course downwards and forwards, over the ribs, to which they are loosely attached. Insertion.— Into the inner and upper part of the os humeri. Use. — 'To draw that bone backwards and upwards. RHOMBOIDEUS BREVIS. Origin. — From the dorsal spines. In passing downwards to the scapula, it unites with the longus. Insertion. —Into the costa of the shoulder bone. Use. — To draw the shoulder bone directly upwards. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 141 RHOMBOIDEUS LONGUS. Origin. —From the side of the subflavum, near its attachment to the second cervical vertebra. Insertion and Use.— The same as the last described muscle. LEVATOR HUMERI. Origin. — From the tubercle of the occiput, and mastoid process of the temporal bone ; also from the transverse process of the atlas, and third and fourth cervical vertebre. Insertion. — Into the fascia covering the muscles of the shoulder blade: thence it is continued down to the body of the os humeri. Use. — To raise and draw forwards the shoulder. When both muscles act, they depress the head. MUSCLES OF THE NECK. SPLENIUS. Origin. — By tendinous fibres, and fleshy ones between the occipital bone and the fifth dorsal spine. Insertion. — Into the transverse processes of the six lower cervical vertebre ; also into the atlas and mastoid process of the temporal bone. Use. — To erect and uphold the head when the pair act: one contracting alone will incline those parts to one side. COMPLEXUS MAJOR. Origin. — By short tendinous slips, from the spines of the four or five anterior dorsal vertebree ; also from the same pro- cesses of the lower five cervical. Insertion. — Into the tubercle of the occipital bones, by the side of the ligamentum subflavum. Use. — To erect the head. 142 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE COMPLEXUS MINOR. Origin. — From the spinous process of the vertebra dentata. Insertion. — Along with the complexus major. Use. — To assist that muscle in erecting the head. RECTUS CAPITIS POSTICUS MAJOR. Origin. — From the spine of the vertebra dentata. Insertion. — Into the occipital bone. Use. — To pull the head backwards. RECTUS CAPITIS POSTIBUS MINOR. Origin. — From the body of the atlas. Insertion. — Along with the last-described muscle. Use. — To raise the head. OBLIQUUS CAPITIS SUPERIOR. Origin. — From the superior border of the transverse pro- cess of the atlas. Insertion. —Into a ridge extending from the occipital tubercle. Use. — When both act, to assist in pulling up the head; singly contracting, they will turn it to one side. OBLIQUUS CAPITIS INFERIOR. Origin. — From the spine of the vertebra dentata. Insertion. — Into the superior parts of the transverse pro- cess and body of the atlas. Use. — When both contract, the atlas, and the head with it, will be raised. It also gives a rotary motion to the head. SPINALIS COLLI. Origin. —From the anterior oblique processes of the curved vertebree, and from that of the first dorsal, by tendi- nous and fleshy slips. Insertion. — Into the spines of the cervical vertebrae, with the exception of the atlas. Use. — To elevate the head, and flex the neck backwards. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 143 ANTERIOR CERVICAL REGION. STERNO-MAXILLARIS. Origin. — Fleshy and tendinous, from the cartilage project- ing in front of the sternum. Its belly is compact, rounded, and of inconsiderable breadth in comparison to its length. About three fourths of its length upwards, it terminates in a flat tendon, which insinuates itself between the parotid and submaxillary glands. Insertion. — Into the angle of the posterior jaw. Use. —'To draw the head towards the chest. They also assist the occipito-maxillaris in opening the mouth. STERNO-THYRO-HYOIDEUS. These muscles are said to clothe the upper and front parts of the trachea. Origin. — From the front cartilage of the sternum, above the sterno-maxillaris. Insertion. — 'The main part of this muscle, having crossed the front of the larynx, is inserted into the neck or spur of the body of the os hyoides. A small tendon is also fixed in the lower border of the thyroid cartilage. Use. — 'To draw the os hyroides, and larynx with it, down- wards and backwards. SCALENUS. Origin. — From the middle of the first rib. Insertion. — Into the bodies and transverse processes of the fifth and sixth cervical vertebre. Use. — To straighten the neck. RECTUS CAPITIS ANTICUS MAJOR, MINOR, OBLIQUE, AND LONGUS COLLI, Are all inserted into the occipital region, and assist in flex- ing and bending the head. The latter muscle, in addition to its insertion into the body of the atlas, is also inserted into the transverse processes of the six posterior cervical vertebre. 144 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE MUSCLES OF THE HEAD. Epicranius and 'Temporalis. Mr. Percival writes, “ These are the only two that can be considered as cranial muscles.” The former is expanded over the os frontis. Its origin is almost imperceptible. It raises the upper eyelid. ‘The tem- poralis occupies the side of the skull, and is demonstrable in the living horse. Origin. — From the temporal bones, and the fascia cover- ing it. Insertion. — Into the coronoid process of the lower jaw. Use. — 'To shut the mouth. AURAL REGIOI As these muscles are not so important as others we shall enumerate, we merely name them. Attollentes aurem con- sists of four muscles, viz., the attollens maximus, minimus, inferior, and superior. ‘These muscles all cooperate in the erection of the ears. THE PROPER MUSCLES OF THE CONCHA Are the anterior conche, rectus, oblique, and internal con- che. ‘The first three assist in the erection of the ears. The internal conch rotates the ear backwards. RETRAHENTES AUREM. These are the retrahens superior, inferior, and medius. | They retract and rotate the ears. FACIAL REGION. The muscles in this region are numerous, and some of , them complicated. ZYGOMATICUS. A long slender muscle traversing the cheek. Origin. — By tendinous fibres, from the lower edge of the zygomatic process of the os male. Insertion. — Into the angle of the mouth. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 145 Use. — 'To extend this angle, by drawing it upwards and backwards. LEVATOR ANGULI ORIS. Upon the fore part of the cheek. Use. — To retract the angle of the mouth, assist in the elevation of the upper lip, and dilate the nostril. RETRACTOR LABII SUPERIORIS. Insertion. — Into the side of the upper lip, and lower part of the nostril. Use. — To retract those parts, and thus assist in raising the upper lip, and dilating the nostril. LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORIS. Use. — 'To raise the upper lip and dilate the false nostrils. If one contracts, the lip will be distorted. BUCCINATOR. Origin. — From the lower jaw. Insertion. — Into the buccal membrane, and into the angle of the mouth. Use. —'To contract the jaws, and retain the food for mas- tication. ORBICULARIS ORIS. The use of this muscle is to close the lips. DEPRESSOR LABII SUPERIORIS. Use. —'To depress the lip, and project it forwards, and to assist in dilating the nostril. LEVATOR LABII INFERIORIS. Use. — To raise the lip, and project it forwards. HYOIDEAL REGION Comprehends the digastricus, mylo-hyoideus, genio-hyoi- deus, and hyoideus muscles. 19 146 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE Use. — They are more or less engaged in moving the os hyoideus in different directions. GLOSSAL REGION. These muscles, by their union, compose that fleshy body called the tongue. They are named genio-hyo-glossus, hyo-glossus longus, hyo-glossus brevis, and lingualis. MAXILLARY REGION Comprehends three strong and well-defined muscles. 1. 'The masseter. Origin. — From the under part of the zygomatic arch, and from the superior maxillary bone. Insertion. —Into the rough border, around the angle of the jaw. Use. — To act, in conjunction with the temporalis, in the elevation of the jaw. 2. The stylo-maxillaris. A round and compact muscle, found above and behind the jaw. Origin. — From the styloid, or coronoid process. Insertion. — Into the angle of the jaw. Use. —'To pull the jaw backwards, and depress it. 3. The pterygoideus. It takes the same course inwardly, to what the masseter does outwardly. Use. — To close the jaws. It also gives a lateral motion to the jaws. PHARYNGEAL REGION Comprehends six pairs of muscles, belonging to the pharynx. They are named as follows: — Hyo-pharyngeus, Constrictor pharyngeus inferior. Palato-pharyngeus, tf % superior. Stylo-pharyngeus, et ie medius. Use. — To dilate and contract the pharynx. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 147 MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. PECTORAL REGION. The pectoral muscles constitute the breast. They are named — Pectoralis transversus, Pectoralis magnus, Pectoralis parvus, (or Depressor scapu- lar. ) The first is inserted into the fascia of the arm, extending from the elbow nearly half way down to the knee. It con- fines the arm to the side in its motions. The magnus originates from the sternum, is inserted into the os humeri, and serves to pull the point of the shoulder backwards. The parvus, or depressor, originates from the inferior part of the sternum, is inserted into the muscles covering the shoulder joint, and assists the last named muscle. COSTAL REGION. —SERRATUS MAGNUS. Origin. — From the bodies and transverse processes of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical vertebre ; and from the eight anterior true ribs, as low down as their cartilage. Insertion. — By strong fascicula, into the upper and inward part of the scapula. Use. —It constitutes the main attachment of the scapula to the trunk, and is more or less concerned in all the motions of the shoulder blade. The costal muscles are — Superficialis costarum, Transversalis costarum, Intercostalis externi, he intern. They are all, more or less, concerned in dilating the thorax. STERNAL REGION Comprehends two small muscles that are employed in the contraction of the chest, or raising the sternum, and con- tracting the cartilages. They are named lateralis sterni, and sterno-costalis externi. 148 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE DORSAL REGION. These muscles are connected with the vertebree of the back. LONGISSIMUS DORSI. Origin. — From the six posterior dorsal spines, and by lumbar fascia, and from the crest of the ileum. Insertion. — Into the posterior angles of the ribs, viz., the twelve last ribs, and three or four hindermost cervical vertebre, and all the dorsal. Use. —'The motions of the back and loins are mainly produced by it. It is a principal agent in kicking and rearing. SPINALIS DORSI, AND SEMI-SPINALIS DORSI. These muscles are both inserted into the dorsal spines; the former is also attached to three or four posterior cervical. ~ Use. — To writhe the back, or bend the withers; to in- cline the spines backward, and to codperate with the longis- simus dorsi. LEVATORES COSTARUM. These are prominent bundles of fibres, which take a simi- lar course to the intercostalis externi. Use. — They assist the intercostalis, and contribute to the elevation of the ribs. LUMBAR REGION. SEMI-SPINALIS LUMBORUM. These are similarly distributed in the loins, to what those of the semi-spinalis dorsi are in the back. INTERTRANSVERSALES LUMBORUM. These run from the edge of one transverse process to that of the next. Use. — To approximate these processes. SACRO-LUMBALIS. They traverse the under surface of the loins. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 149 Origin. — From the anterior and lateral part of the body of the sacrum, and last lumbar vertebre. Insertion. — Into the fibres that traverse the loins, and into the last rib. Use. — They assist the intertransversales lumborum. PSOAS MAGNUS Runs along the inner part of the loins above the kidney. Origin. — From the inward surfaces of the two last ribs, close to their articulations with the vertebre ; and from the bodies and transverse processes of the last dorsal vertebra, and all the lumbar vertebra. Im its passage to the thigh, some of its fibres are blended with those of the iliacus. Use. —'To bend the femur upon the pelvis; to pull the haunch forwards in progression. PSOAS PARVUS. A smaller muscle than the last, placed between it and the spine. Origin. — From the heads of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth ribs, from the bodies of the three posterior dorsal, and from those of the lumbar, vertebre. Insertion. — By a tendon into the rough surface upon the os innominatum, below the acetabulum. Use. —'To draw the pelvis forward. When one acts, it may incline it to one side. It also assists the psoas magnus in arching the spine. ILIACUS. A muscle of considerable substance and power, placed above and in part exterior to the psoas magnus. Origin. — From that part of the crest of the ileum that has no bearing upon the sacrum, and from the anterior spinous process, and inferior edge of the bone. Insertion. —It passes down the thigh in company with the psoas magnus, with which it is inserted. (se. —'To advance the haunch. 150 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE INTERNAL COSTAL REGION. DIAPHRAGM. The diaphragm is that fleshy and tendinous expansion which divides the cavity of the chest from that of the abdo- men. Origin. —It arises by fleshy digitations from the carti- lages of the eighth, and those of all the posterior ribs, with the exception of the two last; also from the ensiform carti- lage. From these points of attachment, they converge like the radii of a circle, and terminate about midway between the ribs and spine, in a thin expansion of tendon. The crura, or appendages of this muscle, are two in number, and lie by the side of the aorta, which vessel takes its course between them; the right, much the longer of the two, arises above the artery, from the inferior part of all the bodies of the lumbar vertebre; the left, or shorter, has a tendinous origin from the under part of the body of the first lumbar vertebra, and by a separate tendinous slip from that of the second. ‘They unite and decussate each other oppo- site to the seventeenth dorsal vertebra, form a fleshy belly, and this again separates into two portions previously to its insertion, in order to admit of the passage of the cesophagus. Insertion. — Into the upper part of the cordiform tendon. About the centre of this tendon, is a perforation for the pas- sage of the vena cava posterior ; so that there are, all together, three openings in the diaphragm. Use. —It acts in opposition to the abdominal muscles in the act of respiration. STERNO-COSTALIS INTERNUS. This muscle lines the sternum inwardly ; it is interposed between it and the cartilages of the ribs and pleura. Origin. — By tendinous roots from the upper half of the sternum. Insertion. — Into the cartilages of the true ribs. Use. — 'To contract the cavity of the chest. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES, 151 THE ANAL REGION Includes a pair of muscles and a single one. RETRACTOR ANI, Which retracts the anus — draws it within the pelvis. SPHINCTER ANI, Which closes the anus, after the expulsion of the feces. COCCYGEAL REGION Includes the erector coccygis. Use. —To elevate the tail. DEPRESSOR COCCYGIS. Use. — 'To depress the tail. CURVATOR COCCYGIS. Use. —'To incurvate the tail, or laterally flex it around the quarters. COMPRESSOR COCCYGIS. Use. — To assist in depressing the tail, and to maintain it forcibly pressed against the anus. MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK. ABDOMINAL REGION. The white line, (or linea alba,) extending from the ensi- form cartilage to the pubes, marks the place of junction of the tendons of three pairs of muscles, and is perforated near the middle by the umbilicus or navel ; through which, in the foetus, passes the umbilical cord. On either side of this line is another, taking a curvilinear course, called the linea semi- lunaris: this is the line of demarcation between the oblique and transverse muscles and their tendons, denoting where the one substance begins and the other ends. Running trans- versely between these are several white lines, to which the 152 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE name of linea transversales is given: they consist of many tendinous intersections in the straight muscles. OBLIQUUS EXTERNUS ABDOMINUS. — OBLIQUUS INTERNUS ABDOMINUS. — TRANSVERSALIS ABDOMINUS. — RECTUS ABDOMINUS. These four pairs of muscles are inserted into the lines we have just described ; the latter muscle is also inserted into the pubes. ‘These muscles contribute largely to the formation of the under and lateral parts of the abdominal parietes, and to give support to the contained viscera. ‘They also compress the bowels, and by that means assist in the evacuation of the feeces and urine, and the expulsion of the fetus. The use of the last muscle —rectus abdominus —- appears to be that of strengthening the middle parts of the belly, and thereby of counteracting that tendency to relaxation which must exist from the constant dependence of the bowels. MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. —EXTERNAL SCAPULA REGION. ANTEA SPINATUS. Origin. — The anterior and superior spinatus fills up the fossa antea spinata, from which it arises, as well as from the spine and anterior costa of the scapula. Insertion. — Into the summits of the greater and lesser tu- bercles of the os humeri, and into the capsular ligament of the shoulder joint. At the point of the shoulder it sends off a tendinous expansion over the joint, between which and the tendon of the biceps we find a bursa mucosa. Use. —'To extend the os humeri on the scapula; at least, as far as that motion is admitted of. POSTERIOR SPINATUS. Origin. — From the fossa postea spinata, and from the spine of the bone. Insertion. — Into the outward part of the great tubercle of the os humeri. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 153 Use. —'To assist in the flexion of the humerus. TERES MAJOR AND TERES MINOR. Origin. — From the posterior angle and costa of the scapula. Use. — 'These muscles assist in bending the shoulder joint, and roll it outwards and inwards. SUBSCAPULARIS. A muscle of triangular figure, filling up the hollow of the scapula. Origin. — From the surface and circumference of the sub- scapular fossa. Insertion. — Into the small aera of the os humeri. Use. — 'To assist in the extension of the shoulder joint, and to turn the humerus inwards. POSTERIOR HUMERAL REGION. TRICEPS EXTENSOR BRACHII. This muscle consists of three distinct portions, called its heads. The first takes its origin from the posterior costa of the scapula; from which its fibres run to the point of the olecranon. ‘The second takes its origin from the outward sides of the neck and body of the os humeri, and unites with the former. The third arise from the inward part of the os hu- meri, and unites with the others prior to their insertion. Insertion. — By a strong but short tendon, into the olecra- non of the ulna: some of its fleshy fibres are continued down — upon the fascia of the arm. Use. — To extend the arm. ANTERIOR HUMERAL REGION Comprehends those muscles which are seen in front of the humerus. 20 154 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE CORACO HUMERALIS. Origin. — By a slender tendon, from the coracoid process of the scapula. Insertion. — Into the inner and fore part of the body of the os humeri. Use. —To assist in extending the shoulder joint, and turning the humerus inwards. FLEXOR BRACHII. Origin. — By a strong, round tendon, from the coracoid process of the scapula. Insertion. — 'Tendinous into the inward parts of the head and neck of the radius, where it adheres also to the capsular ligament of the elbow joint: from it an expansion is sent off to the fascia of the arm. Use. — To bend the arm by carrying it forwards and upwards. HUMERALIS EXTEERNUS. Origin. — From the lower and inner border of the neck and body of. the os humeri. Insertion. — Into the inner and upper body of the radius. Use. — To bend the arm. MUSCLES OF THE ARM. FLEXOR METACARPI EXTERNUS Is situated on the outer side of the other superficial flexos. Origin. — From the outer and back part of the external condyle. It has two tendons ; one is fixed in the os trapezi- um; the other passes on through a tendinous sheath to be inserted into the head of the outer small metacarpal bone. Use. — To bend the leg. FLEXOR METACARPI MEDIUS Passes along the middle and back part of the arm. It OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 155 arises from the internal condyle of the os humeri, and is in- serted into the os trapezium. Use. — 'To bend the leg. FLEXOR METACARPI INTERNUS Takes its course along the inner and back part of the leg. It originates from the internal condyle of the os humeri, adhering to the capsular ligament of the elbow joint. Insertion. — Into the head of the internal small metacar- pal bone. DEEP POSTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION. The following muscles constitute the deep-seated flexors ; they lie anterior to, and are concealed by, the superficial. FLEXOR PEDIS PERFORATUS. — FLEXOR PEDIS PERFORANS. Both these muscles originate from the internal condyle. Insertion. — The former, at the pastern joint, divides into two parts, which are fixed into the upper and back part of the os corone. The perforans continue over the os naviculare — having a bursa between them; an expanded termination passes to the concavity of the os pedis. ANTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION. These muscles form the prominent part of the arm in front, take their origin from the external condyle, and operate in the extension of the leg and foot. EXTENSOR METACARPI MAGNUS. Origin. — From the external condyle of the os humeri: its fibres also adhere to the capsular ligament; at the knee its tendon passes under the annular ligament, within a syno- vial sheath, where we find a bursa mucosa. Insertion. —Into the front and upper part of the large metacarpal bone. Use. — To extend the leg. 156 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE EXTENSOR PEDIS Takes the same course as the last described muscle. In passing over the front of the cannon, it is tied down by cel- lular membrane, and in front of the fetlock and pastern ; it adheres to and strengthens the capsular ligaments of those joints. Insertion. — By an expansion of its tendon, into the lower end of both pasterns, and coffin bone. Use. —'To extend the foot and pasterns, and assist in the extension of the knee. EXTENSOR SUFFRAGINIS. Origin. —F rom the upper and outer part of the radius and ulnar. Insertion. — Into the upper end of the large pastern. Use.— To assist in extending the knee and fetlock. EXTENSOR METACARPI OBLIQUE. Origin. —From the outward part of the body of the radius. Insertion. — Into the upper part of the os metacarpi. MUSCLES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY Are invested with a dense, strong, and tendinous fascia upon the fore, outer, and back parts; but it is thin, weak, and cel- lular upon the inside of the limb. Its chief attachments are to the ileum, the pubes, the ossa coccygis, and the stifle ; it is continuous superiorly with the aponeurosis of the external oblique, and with the fascia lumborum. MUSCLES OF THE HAUNCH. ANTERIOR FEMORAL REGION.— TENSOR VAGINA. Origin. —F rom the anterior spinous process of the ileum and fascia lata. About midway between the pelvis and stifle, OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 157 it sends off a thin expansion of tendon, by which it is in- serted. Insertion. — Into the tendons of those muscles that are fixed to the patella. It is also connected to the trochanter minor externus, and fascia lata. Use.— To assist in drawing the haunch forwards and upwards, and extend the thigh. RECTUS. Origin. —In part concealed by the iliacus, by two broad, flat tendons, from the dorsum of the ileum, anteriorly to and above the acetabulum. Insertion.— Into the upper and anterior, parts of the patella. VASTUS EXTERNUS Runs along the outward side of the rectus. Origin.— From the inferior part of the root of the tro- chanter major and minor, and outward surface of the os femoris. Insertion. — With the rectus, into the upper and outer part of the patella. VASTUS INTERNUS. Origin. — From the inward part of the neck of the os femoris and root of the trochanter minor internus, and from the inward part of the body of the bone. Insertion. — Into the patella. INTERNAL FEMORAL REGION. SARTORIUS Is a long, thin muscle, crossing obliquely over the inward side of the haunch, immediately under the fascia lata. Origin.— From the brim of the pelvis. In its course it passes over part of the psoas magnus, and obliquely crosses the vastus internus; at the inward part of the stifle it ter- 158 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE minates in a thin, delicate tendon, which unites to the gracilis. Insertion. — Into the inner and upper part of the tibia. Use. —'To assist in bending the leg ; and, when bent, to rotate the head of the tibia inwards. GRACILIS. Placed upon the inside of the haunch. Origin. —'Tendinous and fleshy, from the symphysis pubis, and inner edge of the descending ramus of the pubis. It forms that remarkable prominence upon the inside of the thigh. Insertion. — Into the inner and upper part of the tibia. Use. —'To flex and rotate the tibia inwards. PECTINEUS. Origin. — From the upper margin of the pubis, near the symphysis. Insertion. — Into the trochanter internus. Use. — To flex the haunch, and at the same time abduct it. TRICEPS FEMORIS. It has, as its name implies, three heads, which are called. abductor brevis, abductor longus, and abductor magnus. Insertion. — Into the pubes and tuberosity of the ischium, tibia, and expansions of the gracilis and sartorius. Use. —'They act as abductors. GLUTEAL REGION Includes the three gluteal muscles, and they compose the upper part of the quarter. GLUTEAL EXTERNUS. This muscle corresponds, as far as regards its relative situa- tion, to the gluteus maximus of the human subject. It originates from the third spinous process of the sacrum, OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 159 and from the fascia limborum, and is inserted into the tro- chanter. and fascia. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS. Origin. — From the spinous and transverse processes of the two or three last lumbar vertebre, from those of the two or three upper sacral, and from the fascia lumborum; from the crest of the ileum, and from its dorsal and posterior spi- nous processes, and from the sacro-sciatic ligament. From these origins its fascicula run in a convergent manner towards the trochanter major. Insertion. — Into the sides of the trochanter major. GLUTEUS INTERNUS. Origin. — From the dorsum of the ileum. Insertion. — Into the anterior and less projecting part of the trochanter major. Use. —'The gluteal muscles are extensors of the os femoris. In rearing and kicking they are in violent action. PELVIC REGION. These muscles, mostly small ones, run from the pelvis to the upper end of the os femoris: they are called — Pyriformis, Obturator internus, Obturator externus, Gemini. POSTERIOR FEMORAL REGION. These muscles are found upon the outer and back part of the haunch. BICEPS. A large fleshy mass forming the outermost part of the quarter. Origin. — From the lateral and posterior parts of the sa- crum, and from several of the ossa coccygis; from the great 160 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE sacro-sciatic ligament; from the tuberosity of the ischium, and from the fascia lata. Insertion. — Into the outer border of the patella, and to its external ligament. Use.— The heads of the biceps, from having different insertions, will perform different uses. ‘The anterior, or upper one, will assist the rectus and vasti in extending the thigh ; but the posterior will aid in its flexion; they will both have some effect in abducting the limb, and in rotating it inwards ——the hock at the time turning outwards. SEMI-TENDINOUS AND SEMI-MEMBRANOUS. These are placed behind the biceps, and originate from the bones of the coccyx, fascia lata, and tuberosity of the ischium. Use. — To flex the leg and turn the stifle inwards. MUSCLES OF THE THIGH. These muscles are included between the stifle and hock ; they are all fixed to the os calcis. GASTROCNEMIUS EXTERNUS. Origin. — By two heads, the outer one from a rough hol- low just above the external condyle of the os femoris. GASTROCNEMIUS INTERNUS. Origin. — From a little above the external condyle of the os femoris. In passing over the hock it expands, and is im- planted around the summit of the os calcis; thence it is continued down the back part of the leg, and here takes the name of tendo perforatus. Use. — 'To extend the hock, and to flex the fetlock and pastern. PLANTARIS. A slender muscle passing along the outer and back part of the thigh. OF THE DIFFERENT MUSCLES. 161 Origin. —In common with the flexor perforans, from the head of the fibula. Use. — To assist the gastrocnemii in extending the hock. POPLITEUS. The following muscles lie deep-seated, close to the tibia, between it and the gastrocnemii. The popliteus is placed at the back of the stifle joint. Origin. — By a short, round tendon, from the outer and under part of the external condyle of the os femoris. Its fleshy fibres,.which are attached to the capsular ligament, run obliquely to the inner and back part of the head of the tibia. Insertion. — Into the inner and upper part of the body of the tibia. Use. —'To assist in bending the stifle, and to roll the head of the tibia inwards. FLEXOR PEDIS ACCESSORIUS Arises just below the popliteus. Origin. — From the outer part of the head of the tibia. Use. — 'To assist the flexor pedis in bending the pastern and coffin joint. FLEXOR PEDIS Courses the back part of the tibia. Origin. — From the outer part of the head of the tibia, from the upper half of the body of the bone posteriorly, and from the fibula. At the back part of the hock joint it sends off a strong round tendon, which passes within a groove upon the inward surface of the os calcis, to the posterior part of the ieg, where it is connected with the tendons of the flexor accessorlus and gastrocnemius internus; with the former it unites, and the two become one and the same tendon; but with the latter it is only connected by cellular membrane. 21 162 ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USE OF THE MUSCLES. ANTERIOR CRURAL REGION. FLEXOR METATARSI Lies in contact with the anterior part of the tibia. Origin. —By a tendon blended with the extensor pedis, from the lower part of the external condyle of the os femo- ris, and by fleshy fibres from the fore part of the tibia. Insertion. —Into the head of the large metatarsi. ‘The tendon itself, as it emerges from the theca, splits into two: the smaller one is implanted into the large metatarsi; the larger winds round the inward part of the hock, and is fixed on the os metatarsi. Use. — To bend the hock and turn its point inwards. EXTENSOR PEDIS. Origin. — From the upper and fore part of the tibia, and lower part of the external condyle of the os femoris. Its fibres end in a flat tendon, a little above the hock, just as it descends in company with the peroneus to the large pastern joint ; above the latter, they disunite, and run separate: in their course, both are invested in a cellular sheath. In front of the fetlock joint this tendon spreads out, and its fibres con- tinue to expand in its passage over the pastern and coffin joints. Insertion. —Into the coronal process of the os pedis, and along the upper edge of the bone between the attachments of the lateral cartilage. PERONEUS. Origin. — From the head of the fibula, and the whole length of the bone. s Insertion. — With the former muscle. MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. 163 THE MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. ARTICULATIONS OF THE TRUNK. Ligaments of the spine. —'Those between the head and first and second vertebre are, Lateral ligaments, one on each side, that run from the cor- onoid processes of the occipital bone to the fore part of the atlas, and are fixed in the roots of the transverse processes. Suspensory ligament of the head is a broad ligament en- closed within the capsular. It proceeds from the body of the atlas to the occipital bone. Capsular ligament is attached to the occipital bone, around the roots of the condyloid process, and to the anterior articu- lar processes of the atlas. Superior ligament runs from the long ring of the atlas to the spine of the vertebra dentata. Odontoid ligaments are three in number: the two long pass from the sides of the process dentata, to the occipital con- dyles ; the last runs from the point of that process to the an- terior and inferior parts of the atlas. Inferior ligament runs from the inferior spinous process of the first to the second vertebra. The ligaments common to the spine are, Intervertebral ligaments. —'They are the chief bond of union by which one vertebra is bound to another. The common inferior and superior ligaments. — 'The for- mer passes obliquely along the inferior parts of the vertebre ; and the latter runs within the spinal canal. Capsular ligaments surround the smooth cartilaginous surfaces of the articulatory processes. Intertransverse ligaments fix the transverse processes of the dorsal vertebre together. Interspinous ligaments are found between the spinous pro- cesses of the back and loins. Ligamentum subflavum (or nuche) extends from the oc- 164 MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. cipital bone to the tail. It covers and connects the spinous processes of the back, loins, sacrum, and coccyx. This lig- ament forms a strong connecting medium between the spines of the vertebre. Ligaments of the pelvis. —'T'wo superior transverse liga- ments are fixed to the transverse processes of these bones above ; two inferior, below, run from the fourth and fifth transverse processes of the loins to the crest of the ileum. Sacro-iliac symphysis consists of a cartilago-ligamentous substance interposed between, and firmly adherent to, the transverse processes of the sacrum, and the inward part of the ileum. This union is strengthened by hgamentary bands, which run from the posterior spine, and border of the. ileum, to the transverse process of the sacrum. Sacro-sciatic ligaments are broad expansions, stretched across the sacro-sciatic notch. They arise from the transverse processes of the sacrum, and those of two or three uppermost bones of the coccyx, and are extended to the posterior parts of the ileum and ischium, and to the tuberosity of the latter. Obturator ligament is an expansion, thinner than the last, ‘which passes across the foramen magnum ischii. Ligament of the symphysis is the cartilago-ligamentous substance which unites the pubic bones. Ligaments of the ribs. — Every rib is connected to two vertebre by four ligaments, viz., two capsular internal and external ligaments. Capsular ligament of the head invests and holds it within the vertebral socket. ‘T'wo articular cavities are found within it, one with each vertebra, which have separate synovial linings. 2 Capsular ligament of the tubercle surrounds it at its ar- ticulation with the transverse process of the vertebra. — External and internal ligaments consist of strong fibres, which connect the neck of the rib, above and below, to the spine. Intercostal ligaments are broad fibrous bands which run MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. 165 obliquely across the intercostal spaces, and hold the ribs and their cartilage firmly together. Sternal ligaments. —'These several pieces of the breast bone are united to each other by intervening cartilaginous substance ; in addition to which they are connected by liga- mentary bands, both inwardly and outwardly. 'The fore part of it is surmounted by a broad portion of cartilage, which runs along its under part. ARTICULATIONS OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. Shoulder joint. —'The capsular ligament around this joint is strengthened in many places by additional fibres dispersed upon its exterior. It is fixed to the rough margin of the glenoid cavity, and to the neck of the os humeri. A synovial mem- brane lines it, which may be followed upon the cartilagi- nous surfaces of the bones. Externally, this hgamentous cap- sule is clothed on every side by muscle; and to them is attributed the main strength of the joint. Elbow joint.—'The ligaments of it are two lateral and a capsular. Knee joint. —In the knee there are five distinct articula- tions; one between the radius and the three small bones of the upper row; a second between the small bones, above and below ; a third between those of the lower row and the metacarpal bones; a fourth between the os trapezium and the os cuneiforme ; and a fifth between the os pisiforme and os trapezoides: they have all separate capsular ligaments and synovial linings. The ligaments of the knee, and the tendons passing over it, are girt by broad, glistening, ligamentous bands, which retain the latter in their places, and render the joint stronger and more compact. Between these ligaments, fascia, and the ex- tensor tendons, are some small burse. External lateral ligament runs from a tubercle upon the radius to the head of the external metacarpal bone. Internal lateral ligament consists of two parts, which 166 MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. proceed froma similar tubercle upon the inside, and from the body of the radius. The longer is fixed to the inner head of the metacarpal bone, and the shorter to the fore part of the metacarpal. Ligamentum annulare passes from the os trapezium to the ossa scaphoides and cuneiform: it confines the flexor tendons. Fetlock joint. — Capsular ligament is attached to the articulatory surfaces of these bones ; and the synovial mem- brane, after having lined it, is reflected upon their cartilages : it is guarded in front by the extensor tendon. Long lateral ligament is fixed to a projection upon the side of the metacarpal bone, and to the os suffraginis. Short lateral hgament runs underneath the latter. 'These ligaments prevent motion sideways. The ligaments of the sessamoid bones are seven, viz.: su- perior suspensory, the long inferior, the short inferior, the two lateral, and the two crucial. Pastern joint is formed by the adaptation of the ossa suf- fraginis and corona. It has a capsular, and two pairs of lat- eral ligaments. The capsular ligament is inserted into the smooth cartila- ginous ends of these bones: it is blended with the extensor tendon in front, and behind with the long inferior ligaments of the sesamoids. The lateral ligaments are inserted on the sides of the os corone and suffraginis. Coffin joint is made up of three bones: the ossa corone, pedis, and naviculare. Capsular ligament envelops the articulatory surfaces, and is inserted beyond their limits; in front it is united with the extensor tendon ; behind it is strengthened by the tendo per- forans. In addition to the capsular, there are three pairs of ligaments. The first pair passes from the superior edges of the os pedis to the lateral parts of the os corona, and are inserted about its middle. The second pair is stretched from the extremities of the os MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. 167 pedis to the os corona, and are fixed below and behind the first. Third pair arise from the sides of the coronal process, and terminate in the cartilages. The ligaments of the os naviculare are four, viz., two single, and one pair. Superior ligament runs from its upper and posterior part to the tendo-perforans. Inferior is a very broad ligament, arising from the whole of the lower edge of the bone, and thence extending to the os pedis, above the long extensor tendon. Lateral ligaments fix the os naviculare, by its two ends, to the sides of the os corona. ARTICULATIONS OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. Thigh joint is formed by the reception of the head of the os femoris into its socket. Capsular ligament is attached around the cervix of the os femoris and the margin of the acetabulum; it is thickly clothed on every side by muscle, which assists to maintain position. The acetabulum is surrounded by the circular ligament, whose border turns inward to embrace the cartilaginous head of the os femoris. The notch in this cavity, to its inward side, is crossed by the transverse ligament, which here makes up for the deficien- cy in the bone. Ligamentum teres consists of a bundle of ligamentous fibres enclosed in a sheath, which proceed from a pit in the inner and upper part of the ball toa similar one in the roof of the socket. Another portion of it leaves the cavity under the transverse ligament, and is implanted in the pubes. The synovial membrane lines the socket, and is reflected over these parts. Stifle joint is composed of the os femoris, the tibia, and patella. 168 MECHANISM AND FUNCTIONS OF THE JOINTS. Ligamenta patella are composed of four strong cords, which descend over the condyles of the os femoris, and are insert- ed into the tubercle of the tibia. ‘The external one passes upon the outer and anterior part of the external condyle ; the internal, upon the inward part of the internal condyle; and the middle one, between them; they approach each other in their descent. Concealed by the external one is the fourth ligament of the patella; it runs to the outward part of the tibia. The patella, with its articulatory surface of the condyles in front, forms a joint of its own, perfectly distinct from that between the tibia and os femoris. Its capsular ligament is fixed to its surrounding border. Internal lateral ligament descends from the internal con- dyle to the inner and upper part of the tibia. External lateral ligament — stronger than the internal — runs from the external condyle to the upper end of the fibula. Crucial ligaments, short and strong, and deeply buried within the joint, run from the space within the condyles to the tibia. The synovial membrane, after having lined the capsule, is reflected upon the cartilages and ligaments included within it. Hock joint has four lateral ligaments, two on each side, called internal and external. Capsular ligament includes the lower end of the tibia, and the pully-like part of the astragulus; to both of which, and the lateral ligaments, and to the os calcis, it is firmly attached. The os calcis forms a joint with the os cuboides, and the ossa cuneiforme are also a joint, and the middle and small bones make joints with the cuboid above, and the metatarsi below ; hence, there are six articulations in addition to what we com- monly understand by the hock joint, that between the tibia and astragulus. 169 A TABLE OF THE BONES IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE. * No. rOnale ye ann sinsign snjeisinyn «\-in's,n1a eeinjqyoluseinjae epmiepa bite ginieid uicjcjem (ote © BATICtal, N Nae. A name sometimes applied to road horses, and such as have been docked, in contradistinction to those that have long tails, or are used in harness. Narcotics. Medicines which stupefy, relieve pain, and promote sleep. There are, however, two different ways to effect these objects, and, of course, two different characters of remedies to be used for the purpose. 'The popular method is to administer opium, whose natural tendency is to depress the vital powers, and deprive them of sensibility. All mixtures, in any form, that contain opium, though soothing for the DICTIONARY OF THE VETERINARY ART. 261 present, are ultimately and surely pernicious. ‘The true plan is to give antispasmodics. (See ANTISPASMODICS. ) Nares. The nostrils. Necrosis. The mortification and separation of a portion of dead bone from the other parts of the bone. _ Nepuritics. Medicines that act on the kidneys. Nerves. We have already observed that the brain consists of two portions: one large, called cerebrum, and one small, called cerebellum. 'There are three pairs, or columns, of nervous matter proceeding from the brain, through the back bone, or spinal column: these disperse themselves into branches and twigs, and are distributed over the system. By a great number and variety of experiments upon living animals, Dr. Bell and others have proved beyond dispute, that the nerves of the anterior (towards the belly) columns are distributed to all the voluntary muscles, and designed to pro- duce voluntary motion; that those of the posterior, or towards the back, are distributed to all the sensative tissues, and designed to convey to the brain all the impressions derived from the presence of external objects. These two arrangements are styled the nervous system of external rela- tion. By similar experiments it was discovered that the two lateral or side columns of nervous matter are distributed to the muscles concerned in the act of respiration. Lastly, seated principally among the thoracic and ab- dominal viscera, there are large quantities of nervous matter, having only slight connection with the sensative and mo- tive nerves. This system has many knotty appearances, from the union and distribution of its fibres; these are again dis- tributed to different parts. These are called plexuses, and the whole structure is called the sympathetic nerve. It is some- times named the nerves of nutrition. Dr. Curtis observes, ‘‘ It has long been a subject of inquiry what is the modus operandi of nervous action. Some have supposed that the nerves are solid cords that vibrate, like the strings of musical instruments; others, that they are sheaths containing a subtile fluid, that darts through them as electricity 262 DICTIONARY OF THE VETERINARY ART. does through metallic wires; others suppose that the motion is that of electricity itself. My own opinion is, that it is based on the principle of elasticity. It is well known that, if any number of ivory balls be suspended in contact, and in a direct horizontal line, and a blow be struck on the first in the direction of all the rest, all remain at rest except so many at the other end as exactly equal the momentum of the blow. These fly off from the rest. If the blow be equal to one ball, only one ball flies off. Now it would be the same if the balls were confined in a tube, were the tube ever so crooked, as is proved by the hydrostatic balance of fluids in crooked water-pipes. I believe that the nerves are sheaths filled with extremely elastic globules of matter, and the impressions, or momenta, communicated to one end are transferred to the other, not by the locomotion of the whole globule, but by the elastic spring of its centre. If the impression be made on any of the intermediate globules, the result is the same. It is remarkable that in whatever part of a nerve the impression is made, the effect produced is referred to the extremity.” (See Distrisution or Nerves, part first.) Nervine, Nerve Oreration. It consists of cutting out a portion of the nerve which supplies the foot, either just above the fetlock joint, which is named the high operation, or in the pastern, which is called the low operation. In the former the sensibility of the foot is supposed to be entirely destroyed, and in the latter only partly so. Dr. White observes, serious mischief, such as the loss of the hoof, has sometimes followed the higher nerve operation. “‘ After the division of a nerve, the extremities of the divid- ed portion retract, become enlarged and more vascular ; but especially the upper portion ; and coagulable lymph is effused, which soon becomes vascular. In a few days the coag- ulable lymph from each portion becomes united, and anasto- mosis forms between the blood-vessels ; the lymph gradually assumes a firmer texture, and the number of the blood-vessels diminishes, and the newly-formed substance appears to con- tract, like all other cicatrices, so as to bring the extremities DICTIONARY OF THE VETERINARY ART. 263 of the divided portions nearer and nearer to each other. It is difficult to determine, from an experiment on the limb of an animal, the exact time at which the nerve again performs its functions after being divided. In eight weeks after the divis- _ionof the sciatic nerve, I have observed arabbit to be in some degree improved in the use of its leg; but at the end of eighteen weeks it was not perfect. When the nerves of the leg of a horse are divided just above the foot, they are suffi- ciently restored to perform their functions, in some degree, in ‘six or eight weeks ; but it must be observed that these nerves are only formed for sensation, and it is very different with the nerves of nutrition, voluntary motion, &c.; the reunion is sometimes accomplished by granulations. Secondly, I would observe, that punctures and partial divisions of nerves heal in the same way as when there has been a total division; and that, even on the first infliction of the wounds, the function of the nerves is very little impaired.” (See Swan’s work on morbid local affections. ) Mr. Sewell finds, “that in cases of entire section of a nerve, sensation returns in about two months; but in others, in which a portion of nerve has been excised, that the period of restoring feeling can by no means be foretold: in one of his own horses, he ascertained that there was no sensibility in the foot, even at the expiration of three years; and in some others, after a longer interval, the organ appeared to be wholly destitute of feeling.” Nicxine. An operation often performed on horses, to raise the tail, and make them carry it more gracefully, or rather to suit the taste of man. Nivrers. The two front teeth, above and below, have been thus named. Nirre. An indirect diuretic. It causes a large secretion of urine, but does not provide for the excretion. The author has in his possession the bladder of a horse, the muscular fibres of which are lacerated, in consequence of over distention of that organ from the use of nitre. Dr. White remarks, ‘I have seen a dose of four ounces given, which occasioned 264 DICTIONARY OF THE VETERINARY ART. alarming symptoms, and appeared to have a poisonous effect.” } Nosrrirs. The nostrils are sometimes diseased, as in glanders. Nutrition. (See part first.) O Oats. According to Sir H. Davy’s analysis,.oats contain 742 parts of nutritive matter out of 1000, which is composed of 641 mucilage, or starch, 15 saccharine matter, and 87 gluten, or albumen. New oats are difficult of digestion. Osuique Muscurs. The muscles of the abdomen, or belly, are thus named. ‘There are four of them: two external and two internal. Some of the muscles of the eye are also named oblique muscles. Occieut. The back part of the head. (EpEma. A watery or dropsical swelling. (EsopuHacus. The tube passing from the mouth to the stomach. Orntments. Unctuous substances of the consistence of butter; when made considerably thinner by the addition of oil, they are termed liniments; but when their solidity is in- creased by wax, rosin, &c., they are termed plasters. Ourcranon. The head of the bone named ulnar, (see cut, ) in the horse ; it affords a powerful lever for the triceps exten- sor cubiti muscle to act upon, in straightening the fore arm upon the humerus. (See SKELETON. ) Ouracrory Nerves are spread over all the interior of the nostril, and constitute the sense of smell. Omentum. ‘The omentum, or caul, is a double membrane, containing within its folds a considerable quantity of fat, in the human body and many animals. But in the horse this is never seen ; nor does the omentum contain much fat; what there is lies in the region of the stomach. Opacity. A want of transparency in those parts of the eye named pupil, or cornea. DICTIONARY OF THE VETERINARY ART. 265 Opiates. (See Narcoric.) Orium. A narcotic vegetable poison. Mr. Coleman “thought, from some experiments made at the veterinary college, that opium has no apparent influence over the ner- _ vous system of the horse, and that it does not alleviate pain.” Dr. White says, ‘“‘I think that opium, as to its effect on the horse, does not possess that soothing anodyne, and soporific _ quality, for which it is justly distinguished im human medi- cine.” Opium always tends to depress the vital organs in proportion to its quantity. OpopeLpoc, or Soap Liniment. A solution of soap and camphor in spirits of rosemary. Optic Nerve. ‘The nerve on which sight depends. Orsir. ‘The socket of the eye is thus named. Oreanic.