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PHILIPPINE WATER
SUPPLIES

v T5i=

BY

GEORGE W. HEISE AND A. S. BEHRMAN

152918

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1918

PHILIPPINE WATER
SUPPLIES

BY

GEORGE W. HEISE AND A. S. BEHRMAN

152918

MANILA

BUREAU OF PRINTING

1918

Department of Agriculture ani> Natural Resources

Bureau of Science

Manila

Publication No. 11

Actual date of publication July 25, 1918

CONTENTS

Page.

Illustrations 5

The Improvement of Philippine Water Supplies 7

Water for Domestic Use 19

Storage and Distribution of Water 30

Purification of Waters 38

Water for Industrial Purposes 51

Mineral Waters 69

Bottled Natural and Carbonated Waters 82

Radioactivity of Philippine Waters 88

Quality of Philippine Waters 94

Methods of Water Examination 102

Interpretation of Water Analyses.... 125

Appendices.

The Location of Artesian Wells in the Philippine Islands from

a Geologic Viewpoint 195

The Chemical Purification of Swimming Pools 203

Report on Certain Methods of Sterilization of Water Containers.. 212
Bureau of Science Directions for the Collection and Transmission

of Water Samples 215

3

ILLUSTRATIONS

[The following cuts were kindly loaned by the Bureau of Public Works: Plate II, fig. 2;
Plate IV; Plate V; Plate VII, figs. 1 and 2; Plate VIII; Plate IX; Plate X; Plate XI;
Plate XII, figs. 1 and 2 ; and Plate XIII, fig. 2 ; and photograph of Plate XV, fig. 2.]

Plate I

Fig. 1. Typical provincial outhouses.

2. Outhouse in proximity to open well, Taytay, Rizal Province.

Plate II

Fig. 1. Flowing well, Malolos, Bulacan Province.

2. Surface well lined with earthen tile curbing, near San Miguel, Bula-
can Province.

Plate III
Fig. 1. Open well, Pasay.

2. Open well near municipal building, Taytay.

Plate IV

Manduriao artesian well, Iloilo. A satisfactory type of pumping
well.

Plate V

Diagrammatic sketch of conditions necessary to secure flowing or
pumping wells.

Plate VI

Fig. 1. Water carriers at a public hydrant, Manila.

2. Carrying water in a bamboo tube; a common provincial method.

3. Transporting jars of water by boat.

Plate VII

Fig. 1. Pumping plant, Boac water system, Marinduque, Tayabas Province.
2. Hydraulic ram at work on main canal, San Miguel, Tarlac Province.

Plate VIII

Concrete standpipe on Mira Hill, twenty meters high. Singson
waterworks at Vigan, Ilocos Sur.

Plate IX
Gusher well, Sorsogon. Water rising to a height of over 26 meters.

Plate X
Spillway of Osmena waterworks dam, Cebu, Cebu Province.

Plate XI
Osmena waterworks, Cebu water supply, Cebu, Cebu Province.

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Plate XII

Fig. 1. Intake and spillway, Sariaya waterworks, Tayabas Province.
2. Bamboo waterwheel for hoisting irrigation water.

Plate XIII

Fig, 1. Water wagon used in distributing drinking water to wealthy
residents, Iloilo, Iloilo.
2. Fountain containing drinking places, faucets, wash places for
laundry purposes, and bathing facilities back of concrete in-
closure.

Plate XIV

Fig. 1. Open stone aqueduct, part of the Spanish water supply system,
Lucban, Tayabas Province.
2. Open ditches and gutters, part of the Spanish water supply system,
Lucban, Tayabas Province.

Plate XV

Fig. 1. A stream flowing through Bongabon, Nueva Ecija, a town with
malarial index.
2. Sibul Springs bathhouse, Bulacan Province.

Plate XVI

Fig. 1. Spring on seashore at Cebu, Cebu, completely covered at high tide.
2. Spring during rainy season.

Plate XVII

Near view of the Salinas salt spring, Salinas.

Plate XVIII

Fig. 1. Section of a boiler tube entirely closed with scale, taken from a
neglected boiler in the provinces.
2. Section of the same tube, showing an iron cleaning rod broken
off in an attempt to remove the scale.

Plate XIX

Fig. 1. Apparatus used in field assay of water supplies.
2. The same, ready for transportation.

text figures

Fig. 1. The two sides of one card. The top of the obverse is the bottom of
the reverse.

2. Decomposition of calcium hypochlorite in water.

3. Plan of apparatus for washing, sterilizing, and filling demijohns

used in artesian water distribution.

4. Bureau of Science form No. 41 properly filled out.

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

By G. W. Heise and A. S. Behrman

THE IMPROVEMENT OF PHILIPPINE WATER
SUPPLIES

Perhaps in no single line of endeavor has better progress
been made in the Philippines, especially during the last eight
or ten years, than in the improvement and development of
water supplies.

Previous to the American occupation little attention had been
paid to the question of obtaining suitable water or of improv-
ing public supplies. Many comprehensive studies of existing
sources, especially of mineral springs, had been published, 1

1 Among the principal articles before the American occupation dealing
with Philippine water supplies, the following may be mentioned (compiled
by J. Gonzales-Nunez, chemist, Bureau of Science) :

Abella y Casariego, Enrique, Aguas termosulfurosas en las emana-
ciones volcanicas subordinadas al Malinao, Islas Filipinas. M. Tello, Ma-
drid (1885). Hidrografia en la region del Mayon o Volcan de Albay,
Islas Filipinas. M. Tello, Madrid (1885). Hidrografia. La Isla de Biliran
y sus azuf rales, Islas Filipinas. M. Tello, Madrid (1885). Hidrografia
y aguas termales. Descripcion fisica, geologica y minera de la Isla de
Panay, Islas Filipinas. Tipo-litografia Chofre y Ca., Manila (1890).
Hydrografia y manantiales. Descripcion fisica, geologica y minera de la
Isla de Cebu, Filipinas. M. Tello, Madrid (1885). Manantiales termales
en el Monte Maquiling y sus actuales emanaciones volcanicas, Filipinas.
M. Tello, Madrid (1885).

Abella, Enrique, del Rosario, Anacleto, and de Vera, Jose, Estudio
descriptivo de algunas manantiales minerales de Filipinas. Tipo-litografia
Chofre y Ca., Manila (1893).

Becker, George F., Report on the geology of the Philippine Islands.
21st Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv. (1901).

Centeno y Garcia, Jose, Lagunas del Volcan de Taal, Islas Filipinas.
M. Tello, Madrid (1885). Memoria geologico-minera del Archipielago
Filipino. M. Tello, Madrid (1876). Noticia acerca de los manantiales
termo-minerales de Bamban y de las Salinas del Monte Blanco en Nueva
Vizcaya, Filipinas. Manila (1885).

Centeno, Jose, del Rosario, Anacleto, and de Vera, Jose, Memoria des-
criptiva de los manantiales minero-medicinales de la Isla de Luzon, Fili-
pinas. M. Tello, Madrid (1890).

De la Cavada y Mendez-Vigo, A., Historia geografica, geologica y esta-
distica de las Islas Filipinas. Imprenta Ramirez, Manila (1876).

U . it?, :T 7

8 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

but no great progress had been made in making good water
available to the bulk of the population. With comparatively
few exceptions the eight million inhabitants of the Archipelago
were entirely dependent on surface supplies, such as rivers and
shallow wells, which were often dangerously polluted. There
was probably not a single artesian well in the Islands. The
single municipal supply system worthy of the name in the Phil-
ippines, that of Manila, was not installed until 1882. As the
water had passed through a well-populated area, it was subject
to frequent and dangerous contamination. There was no mod-
ern municipal sewage system in the Philippines, not even Manila
being adequately provided.

Such conditions were typical of the Philippines and lasted for
many years after the American occupation. The Director of
the Bureau of Health has said: 2

With a few exceptions, the towns throughout the Islands are compelled
to get their water from small rivers, springs, wells, irrigation canals, rain
water, and any other source where water can be obtained; the rivers
usually have towns on both banks for almost their entire length, and as
the only system of sewage disposal is the ever-present pig or fly, the ma-
jority of the sewage is carried into the river by the first rain, if it has not
already been -thrown or deposited there by the people themselves.

Springs are never protected, wells are never covered; rain water collected
from nipa roofs is not clean and soon becomes filled with mosquito larvae
and other insect life.

Even where pure water was available, it was frequently care-
lessly handled and improperly stored, so that it became unfit to
drink.

Superstition and customs peculiar to the Philippines have also
played a large part toward rendering water supplies unsafe at
various times in the past. Pilgrimages were frequently made
by thousands of people to places of religious interest, though

Jagor. Viajes por Filipinas. Traduccion del aleman por S. Vidal.
Aribau Co., Madrid (1876), chapters 7, 8, 9, 13, 19, and 21.

Mallat, J., Les Philippines. Bertran (Editor), Paris (1846).

Mellado, Sanchez, Estudio de las aguas minerales de Carcar, Cebu,
Islas Filipinas (1887). Manuscrito.

Montero y Vidal, Jose, El Archipielago Filipino. M. Tello, Madrid
(1886), pagina 57, aguas minerales.

P. P. Jesuitas, El Archipielago Filipino. Imprenta del Gobierno, Wash-
ington (1900).

Von Drasche, Richard, Allgemeine Oro- and Hidrographie der Insel
Luzon. Fragmente zu einer Geologie der Insel Luzon, Philippinen. Wien,
Verlag von Karl Gerold's Sohn (1878). Datos geologicos de la Isla de
Luzon, Filipinas. Madrid (1881).

2 Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Health (1906), 57.

IMPROVEMENT OF SUPPLIES 9

these places often lacked proper sanitary facilities to provide for
the needs even of their own inhabitants. Thus as many as 10,000
people in one day have visited the shrine at Antipolo, a small
town until recently without adequate facilities for sewage dis-
posal. The effect of so great an influx of people, many of them
seeking relief from contagious diseases, can be readily imagined.
To quote again from the records of the Bureau of Health :

One of the greatest dangers connected with the pilgrimage [to Antipolo]
is the fact that it is customary after visiting the Virgin to bathe in the
river which flows by the town. The water for drinking and other domestic
purposes is obtained from this river at a point below where the bathing
takes place. In order to supply a better drinking water an artesian
well has been dug. Unfortunately, the quality of the water is not of the
very best, and on account of a slightly disagreeable taste it is almost com-
pletely eschewed by the people, who still continue to obtain their water
supply from the river. Another source of great danger is the lack of
proper facilities for the disposal of human excrements. The sanitary
facilities of the town are not nearly sufficient to meet the demands of the
great number of persons who go there.

Especially in the past, miraculous properties have been attrib-
uted to various water sources, notably springs, and many people
have come to such places to obtain the supposed benefits to be
derived from the waters. In some cases these waters came
from highly contaminated sources; in others, the gathering of
many people about an unprotected source gave rise to serious
contamination.

Under such conditions it is not surprising that few Filipinos
were free from intestinal parasites and that there were frequent
and violent epidemics of water-borne diseases. Though there
were, apparently, no serious outbreaks of typhoid fever, this
disease was of common occurrence in the Philippines. Cham-
berlain 3 reported the typhoid death rate in Manila as 36.8 per
100,000. Terrible outbreaks of cholera occurred, with alarming
frequency. Though cholera vibrios have been seldom isolated
from drinking water, it is beyond doubt that they can live for
protracted periods in water 4 and that water is an important
agent in spreading the disease. Dysentery, both amoebic and
bacillary, was common. Though the work of Walker 5 and of
Walker and Sellards 6 has shown that pathogenic amoebae do
not multiply in water and that the forms normally present

3 Chamberlain, W. P., Phil Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1911), 6, 299.

4 School, O., ibid., Sec. B (1914), 9, 479.

5 Walker, E. L., ibid., Sec. B (1911), 6, 259.

6 Walker, E. L., and Sellards, A. W., ibid., Sec. B (1913), 8, 253-331.

10 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

are not injurious to man, it is certain that cysts can exist almost
indefinitely in water.

For a long time Manila had the highest infant-mortality rate
of any city on record. There are not enough reliable sanitary
statistics to enable comparisons to be drawn between Manila
and the provinces, but there is no reason to believe that condi-
tions were much better outside of Manila.

Discussing the infant mortality in Manila, Musgrave has
said: 7

The next most important faulty custom consists in the dilution of milk
compounds with unsafe water. In our investigation of the causes of death
of three hundred babies, it is found that tap water, either with or without
boiling, is used as a diluent in most instances. As a majority of the houses
of these people are at considerable distances from the nearest faucet, the
water is carted by water carriers and kept in earthenware jars or other
vessels under the most unsanitary conditions; in many instances whatever
safety might be secured by boiling the water is destroyed by the subsequent
manipulations and care of the water and by the methods employed in
making the dilutions of the milk mixtures.

Soon after its establishment the present civil Government
instituted measures to improve conditions. Money was appro-
priated for the drilling of artesian wells, legislation was enacted
to encourage the installation of municipal water systems, doctors
and sanitary inspectors were sent to all parts of the Islands,
waters were analyzed to determine their potability, studies of
water-borne diseases were made, and a general educational cam-
paign was conducted. The entire credit for the progress that
has been made is not due to any one branch of the Government;
the work of different bureaus was coordinate, interdependent,
and equally important.

The construction of artesian wells and water-supply systems
was greatly stimulated by Act 2264 of the Philippine Legis-
lature. This Act, which was intended to minimize the cost of
water installations to communities and individuals, provides —

For drilling artesian wells, for the construction of water supply systems,
and for the construction of cisterns where artesian wells cannot be sunk,
whenever the provincial boards or municipalities interested shall adopt
resolutions for the appropriation of funds covering the cost of one-third
of the work, one hundred thousand pesos: Provided, That the Director of
Public Works is hereby authorized to drill wells for private individuals
upon the payment of one-third of the cost of the work, on condition that
the public be allowed the use of the well: Provided, also, That from
January first to July first, nineteen hundred and thirteen, in case of failure,
when potable water is not found, the provincial board or the municipality

7 Musgrave, W. E., ibid., Sec. B (1913), 8, 465.

IMPROVEMENT OP SUPPLIES

11

shall not be obliged to pay part of the expense occasioned: And provided
further, That the benefits of this Act shall apply to the special Provinces
of Mindoro, Palawan, and Batanes.

This Act has been extended, so that its provisions are still
in force (August 1917).

The first deep well to be constructed by the Insular Govern-
ment was installed in 1906, in Mexico, Pampanga. Since that
time the Bureau of Public Works alone has constructed over a
thousand wells, while provincial governments and private in-
dividuals have constructed many more, of which no accurate
record has been kept. The work of well-drilling performed by
the Bureau of Public Works is summarized in Table I.

Table I. — Wells drilled by Bureau of Public Works.

Year ended June 30—

Deep

wells
driven.

Jet-rig

wells

driven.

Insular
expend-
iture.

1905 _

2
3
12

8
11
15
17
41
92
55
103
139
122

Dollars.

6,500

6,000

14, 000

21, 000

55, 000

98, 500

154, 400

154, 500

186, 900

121,300

218,300

215, 900

234,700

1906

1907 :„_

1908 ._

1909

112
159
199
104
54
29

1910 ___

1911

1912

1913 _

1913 (Julyl-Dec.31) .___ __. _

1914

1915 „_. _

1916

It has been estimated 8 that deep-well water is now available
to over one-sixth of the entire population of the Islands.?

The effect on the public health of the pure water made avail-
able has been remarkable. Some towns, where artesian well
water is exclusively used, have shown a 50 per cent reduction
in mortality. 10

The first artesian waters were looked upon with suspicion,
and even now, in some sections, an artesian well furnishing

* Vickers, J. W., Quart. Bull. P. I. Bur. Pub. Works (1914), 2, No. 4, 24.

9 It should be stated, however, that the number of people to whom water
from deep wells is available is far greater than the number who actually
use such water and no other for drinking purposes. Thus a sanitary
survey of a certain town»generally considered as being supplied with artesian
water showed that all but 3,000 of a total population of 14,800 were
dependent on water from surface wells or open water courses.

10 Annual Rep. P. I. Bur. Health (1912), 73.

12 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

potable water will be abandoned in favor of an open surface
well that is almost certainly polluted, but with which the in-
habitants are familiar. In general, however, artesian water
has grown very rapidly in favor.

The increasing employment of protected springs as sources
of drinking water is another important contribution to the cause
of the improvement of water supplies. This has been made
possible, in a large measure, by the legislative Act quoted above.
Many towns now obtain their drinking waters from springs
through excellent distribution systems.

By the protection of watersheds and the construction of stor-
age and distribution systems, several rivers have been made
the basis of municipal water supplies. Manila installed a new
water supply system in 1908, which has had a very beneficial
effect on public health. Cebu and Zamboanga also have systems
using river water. About 30 towns now have their own water
works completed or under construction, and many others have
well-developed projects for obtaining such installations.

The construction of adequate sewage disposal systems has
made some progress, though perhaps not as much as has the
development of water supplies. Manila, Baguio, and Cebu now
have sewer systems.

Soon after the American occupation a large Government fac-
tory for the manufacture of ice and distilled water was installed.
This plant has a daily production of almost 50,000 kilograms
of ice and 20,000 liters of distilled water, in addition to
which it offers the largest cold storage facilities in the Islands.
Similar installations of smaller capacity have been installed
elsewhere by the Federal and Insular authorities, and by private
enterprise as well, so that ice and distilled water are now to be
obtained in the principal cities throughout the Islands. How-
ever, the introduction of distilled water, though a great benefit,
was not far-reaching in its effects because it was used only by
the foreign-born or by the wealthy Filipino population.

The industry of bottling natural, distilled, and carbonated
waters has flourished greatly. Owing to improper and careless
methods of handling, bottled waters have not been an unmixed
blessing. They, too, are used to a large extent only by the
well-to-do, so that their effect has been restricted.

Health work went hand in hand with the construction program
of the Bureau of Public Works. Quarantines were established
in times of epidemic, and sanitary regulations were enforced.
Wells were sterilized, and their surroundings were cleaned up.
In every province work for sanitary improvement was organized.

IMPROVEMENT OF SUPPLIES 13

In many towns, notably in Manila and Cebu, dangerous surface
wells were filled as soon as better supplies were made available.
Methods of sewage disposal on a small scale were devised, and
a general educational campaign was conducted. As early as
1909 a complete medical and sanitary survey of a town 31 was
undertaken cooperatively between the Bureau of Health, the
University of the Philippines, and the Bureau of Science. Sim-
ilar studies have been carried on from time to time. 12

Recently sanitary commissions have been established by the
Bureau of Health. 13 The work of these commissions, which is
carried on with the cooperation of the Bureau of Science, has
had great bearing on the problem of water supplies. A com-
mission stays in a single town about two months, making a
complete sanitary survey. In addition to the collection of vital
statistics, the examination of inhabitants for parasites, the estab-
lishment of clinics and dispensaries, the formation of clubs and
organizations that will stimulate interest in, and keep up the
work of, sanitary improvement, considerable work is done that
deals directly with water-supply problems. Maps are made,
showing the location of all available supplies, all sources are
examined biologically, and sanitary improvements are suggested.
The work of the sanitary commissions though necessarily slow
and confined to limited areas is thorough, and is producing per-
manent, beneficial results. The good that is being accom-
plished and the bearing of this work on the question of pure
water supplies may be inferred from the following : A survey
of six towns showed that only 2 per cent of the inhabitants
were supplied with privies; in one town in which a sanitary
commission had completed its labors 46 per cent of the houses
were properly equipped, and privies were available to 58 per
cent of the people.

The work of the Bureau of Science has kept pace with that
previously described. As this Bureau is the central laboratory
for all branches of the Insular Government, all the routine exami-
nations of water, both chemical and biological, have been per-
formed here. Each artesian well, or new source of municipal
supply, has been examined by the Bureau of Science before
being made available to the public. The Manila water supply

"Medical survey of the town of Taytay, Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1909),
4, 207-299.

' 12 Sanitary survey of the San Jose estate and adjacent properties on
Mindoro Island, Philippine Islands, with special reference to the epide-
miology of malaria, ibid., Sec. B (1914), 9, 137-197.
13 Long, J. D., Pub. Health Rep. (1916), 31, 2963.

14 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

has been tested daily for a period of years. In addition to the
waters analyzed for different departments of the Government,
many more have been examined at the request of private in-
dividuals. Instruction in the matters of sanitation has been
given to officials of other bureaus. Much valuable information
on water-supply problems has been collected and made avail-
able through the medium of press bulletins, pamphlets, and the
various publications of the Bureau. 14 Studies have been made
of the mineral and salt springs 15 of the Philippines. The geolo-
gists of the Bureau have given valuable assistance in deciding
the location of deep wells and have given material aid in the
installation of ne^ water-supply systems.

In addition to matters of more or less routine nature, there
has been carried on a large amount of investigation and re-
search with direct bearing on the development and improve-
ment of water supplies. The Manila water supply was the
object of intensive study, 16 and plans for its improvement were
developed. Of especially great importance have been the con-
tributions to the study of water-borne diseases, such as typhoid,
dysentery, and cholera. 17 Work has been also done on isolated
problems, such as the purification of swimming pools, 18 the
development of methods of sterilizing demijohns used for ar-
tesian water, 19 and the study and development of methods of
analysis. 20

The most important features of the work of the last three
years has been a systematic field survey of Philippine water
supplies, somewhat similar in character to the water sur-
veys made under governmental auspices in the United States.
For many practical purposes the field examination of water

14 Cox, A. J., Heise, G. W., and Gana, V. Q., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A
(1914), 9, 243-412. Heise, G. W., ibid., Sec. A (1915), 10, 135-170.
Edwards, R. T., ibid., Sec. B (1908), 3, 121-128.

16 Cox, A. J., and Dar Juan, T., ibid., Sec. A (1915), 10, 375. Cox,
Heise, and Gana, op. cit.

16 Bliss, C. H., Pub. P. I. Bur. Govt. Lab. (1905), No. 20, 10. Walker,
E. L., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1911), 6, 259. Heise, G. W., ibid., Sec.
A (1916), 11, 1.

17 For the details of the work done on these diseases, see the papers
cited in Contents and Index. , The Philippine Journal of Science, Volume
I (1906) to Volume X (1915). Bur. Sci. Pub. (1917), No. 8.

w Heise, G. W., and Aguilar, R. H., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1916),
11, 105. Gabel, C. E., ibid., Sec. B (1916), 11, 63.

19 Cf. Appendix, 212.

20 Heise, G. W., and Aguilar, R. H., ibid., Sec. A (1916), 11, 37.
Behrman, A. S., ibid., Sec. A (1917), 12, 291.

IMPROVEMENT OF SUPPLIES 15

supplies has a number of advantages over the usual routine
method of collecting samples at the source and conveying them
to a central laboratory for analysis.

Cultures for bacteriological examination are made of the
water as it emerges from the source. Chemical analysis is
completed an hour or two after the sample is drawn. Conse-
quently the data obtained in both cases are genuinely representa-
tive. More important even than this is the fact that the analyst
himself takes the sample and, by means of a careful survey,
becomes cognizant of all the factors that must be considered in
passing final judgment upon the water under examination.

It is true that field determinations are not capable of the
refined accuracy of those of the laboratory. Only "approxi-
mately quantitative" results are obtained, but for many pur-
poses they are all that are necessary. The lines dividing good
and bad waters for any purpose are necessarily broad, whether
for drinking, for manufacturing, or for irrigation. Accord-
ingly a chemical analysis will generally receive the same inter-
pretation if the results are varied by 1, 2, 5, or sometimes even
10 per cent. Furthermore any loss in accuracy is more than
compensated by the more representative nature of the data
secured and by the wealth of other valuable information that
would be impossible to obtain in the laboratory.

All of these considerations make field work particularly ap-
plicable to the Philippines. Water samples are often several
weeks in transit before they reach the central laboratory in
Manila. In addition, samples in many cases are not taken prop-
erly, and the analytical work, when performed, is therefore
wasted.

The development of a number of projects for municipal water
supplies, added to the general and rapidly increasing interest
in pure water as related to the public health, made it extremely
desirable that field investigations be performed. Accordingly,
in 1914, the Bureau of Science took the necessary steps toward
the beginning of a systematic water survey. The general plan
adopted for the work was that outlined by Leighton, 21 of the
United States Geological Survey. Practically no apparatus
suitable for the work, however, was available ; the distance from
manufacturing centers made impossible the securing of such
equipment within a reasonable length of time, and funds for
obtaining it were not available. Accordingly the apparatus de-

21 Leighton, M. 0., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1905), No.
151.

16 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

scribed by Leighton was as nearly as possible duplicated by the
Bureau of Science mechanics with such changes as the partic-
ular conditions here seemed to warrant. Reagents for the
chemical work were also unavailable and were, consequently,
made in the Bureau of Science laboratory.

The first field trip was made in September, 1914, to Mindoro,
in connection with a number of projected municipal water sys-
tems. This was the beginning of a series of similar investiga-
tions, which have been continued, with several interruptions,
up to the present time. Owing to the very limited personnel
available, it has not been possible to carry on the work as ex-
tensively as conditions would warrant, but the results secured
thus far have been of such great value that the continuance of
the water survey on a larger scale is greatly to be desired.

Even if no allowances are made for the many delays due to
transportation in the Philippines, the amount of field work that
may be actually accomplished within a short time is surprisingly
large. During the past year over 300 examinations have been
made of waters at their sources, in 8 provinces, approximately
one month being spent in each province.

Transportation is one of the most difficult features of field
work in the Islands. There are three railroads. The largest of
these operates on Luzon, north and south of Manila. The second
connects the towns of Iloilo and Capiz, on Panay, and the third
traverses the east coast of Cebu. A very limited portion of the
Islands is thus made accessible. Between the islands, water
transportation is naturally the only recourse. Numerous inter-
island steamers call at the important ports at more or less
regular intervals. Between the small towns, steamers are rare,
and small boats, with or without sails, are commonly used. In
both cases too much dependence must be placed on weather
conditions to make this method of transportation very satis-
factory. Land transportation, where available, is usually much
more expeditious. In several sections excellent roads permit
the use of automobiles. In the remainder of the lowland dis-
tricts recourse is had to a variety of wheeled vehicles. In the
mountains pack horses and cargadores are used. The equip-
ment for field work must, consequently, be of such a nature
as to meet the demands put upon it in these varied modes of
transportation.

Cooperation with the work of other branches of the Govern-
ment has! been a notable feature of the water survey. In
numerous instances, where waterworks systems were being

IMPROVEMENT OF SUPPLIES 17

proposed with little-known sources for their bases, the Bureau
of Public Works has been able to obtain from our files the
information required, without the expense or delay of a special
investigation. In one case, where the choice lay between two
sources, and the pipe was already on the ground, the water
survey party, which happened to be in the vicinity, was able to
show that one of the sources was very desirable, while the other
was only river seepage. Again several artesian wells that
had been reported unsuccessful and for which payment had been
refused because of the alleged poor quality of the water supplied
were shown to be satisfactory when analyses were made at the
sources during water-survey investigations. In this way several
thousand pesos were saved to the Insular Government, as well
as assuring a safe source of water to. the inhabitants.

The water survey has made another contribution to the public
health by its cooperation with the health officials throughout
the Islands. In one cholera-infected province, chemical, bio-
logical, and sanitary examinations were made of all commonly
used or available drinking-water supplies. In this way the
health officials were enabled to differentiate between the desirable
waters and those that might be expected to spread the scourge.
In another province, likewise cholera-afflicted, in which a number
of deep-pumping artesian wells had been abandoned on suspi-
cion of being infected, field investigations proved the purity of
the artesian waters when the wells were properly kept up and
showed the polluted condition of the surface wells that held
a high place in the public opinion. A plan for the inspection and
repair of the pumping wells was recommended to the district
health officer, who promptly accepted it and made it a provincial
health order at once. In still another province, where a barrio
of 2,000 people was entirely dependent upon two polluted sur-
face wells, it was possible, with the cooperation of the district
health officer, to create sufficient interest to cause an artesian
well to be drilled there within the next six months. "Miracu-
lous" springs have been shown to be highly polluted sources.

Nor is its contribution to public health the only practical
application of the water-survey investigations. The industries
have been frequently assisted. The choice of waters for boiler
or other industrial purposes has in a number of instances been
decided from data on file, which had been secured in a previous
field examination.

It is gratifying to note the appreciation of the work. In one
province all the expenses of a month's field investigations were

15291.8 2

18 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

borne by the provincial government, at its own suggestion. A
large industrial corporation has requested a series of investiga-
tions, also at its expense. Many letters and resolutions of
thanks and appreciation have been received from the various
municipalities and provinces where the work of the water survey
has been performed.

In short, then, the advantages of the water-survey investiga-
tions may be summarized as follows : A method is provided for
making an intensive study of water supplies. Besides their
value per se, these data are extremely useful in a variety of
problems related to municipal-water supplies, to the public
health, and to the industries. The expense of such a continu-
ous and intensive study has been far less than would be
attached to separate investigations to secure the same amount
of information.

From the foregoing it will be seen that field methods of
examination are applicable to the Philippines and that the results
obtained thus far have proved their value. The water survey
of the Philippines, however, has but fairly begun, and if it is
to keep pace with the general development more attention
should be given ^to this work in the future than has been given
in the past.

The progress that has been made in recent years in sanita-
tion and health conditions has been indeed gratifying, and the
improvement noted, though doubtless due to many causes, must
have been due in a great measure to the improvement in water
supplies. There have been no epidemics of disease in recent
years such as those that appeared in times past and decimated
the population. Manila has been free from cases of cholera
for periods of over a year at a time, and conditions in many
provinces have also shown marked improvement. Best of all,
there is a large and growing interest among the people them-
selves. Local political candidates include measures for the
improvement of water supplies as planks in their platforms;
provinces have requested and appropriated funds for surveys
of water supplies; the Insular Government is loaning money
for municipal installations ; the field surveys of the Bureau of
Science have made possible, in a number of provinces, the selec-
tion of proper bases for municipal systems; private individuals
are drilling artesian wells ; and in the larger towns the sale of
bottled artesian and spring waters is steadily increasing.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE

The most important question pertaining to water supply prob-
lems is obviously the provision of an adequate supply of water
suitable for drinking purposes. Even in temperate countries
this task is becoming ever more difficult, due largely to an in-
creasing population and to a more complex civilization. In the
Philippines, as in many tropical countries, the desired result
is rendered even more difficult of achievement by the entrance
of a number of other factors. Surface supplies, which are hard
to protect from pollution, are used in a large measure for do-
mestic purposes. In countries with temperate climates epi-
demics of water-borne diseases usually decrease in violence with
cold weather, owing to inhibition of bacterial growth in water
and the freezing of possible avenues of contamination. In
the Philippines the pollution of water and the course of an epi-
demic may proceed almost unchecked throughout the year. The
heavy rains of common occurrence in the tropics wash accumula-
tions of filth and decayed material into the surface water, so
that the amount of water-borne diseases usually increases with
the advent of the rainy season. Other factors that make it
difficult to obtain pure water in the Philippines and to keep it
uncontaminated are high temperature and humidity, and the
resultant stimulation of decay and of bacterial growth ; poverty
and low standards of living; and outside of the larger cities,
the lack of sanitary improvements. The problem is further com-
plicated by the fact that many Philippine waters are so highly
mineralized that they are not suitable for drinking purposes.

The best water for human consumption is that that is as
free as possible from organic matter and that contains only
in relatively small amounts the normal mineral ingredients of
natural water. Such waters are free from objectionable taste
or smell, and besides being low in bacterial content, must be
free from all injurious organisms. The amounts of mineral
matter may generally, however, be varied within wide limits
without producing marked physiological effects. Well-aerated
water, the mineral content of which is low, namely, below 300
parts per million, is generally considered to have the best taste.
Water that contains more than about 1,000 parts per million
of mineral matter in solution is liable to prove laxative or to

19

20 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

have an exceptional taste, although many waters, notably the
waters from mineral springs, containing as high as 2,000 parts
per million, are used constantly without deleterious effects.

A moderately hard water is probably to be preferred to a very
soft one. Though this statement can be hardly regarded as
definitely established, much evidence has been brought forward
to show that the health of people living in localities where hard
water is used is better than that of people using only soft water.
For example, it has been claimed that people are stronger and
better developed and that the nursing period of mothers lasts
longer in places where hard water is used.

Waters that are unfit to drink may be divided into two classes,
those that are naturally nonpotable and those that have been
contaminated or polluted. In the first class are included waters
that contain mineral poisons, those that contain excessive
amounts of salts or organic matter, or those that are highly
charged with gases that impart to the water a disagreeable
taste or odor. Mineral poisons are very uncommon, and the
other ingredients mentioned generally make water unpalatable,
so that this class is of no great significance in its application to
domestic supply problems. In the second class — by far the
most important — are included waters that contain sewage or
industrial waste or decaying animal and vegetable matter. It
is the second class of waters with which problems of domestic
water supply are chiefly concerned.

Under the heading Water for Domestic Use an attempt will
be made to classify waters according to their sources, to discuss
their importance as domestic supplies, and to give an account of
some of the general factors influencing the problem of obtaining
water suitable for domestic use in the Philippines.

RAIN WATER 22

Because of its softness and freedom from dissolved matter,
rain water is exceptionally good for domestic purposes. Es-
pecially in those parts of the Philippines where both ground
and surface waters are poor in quality, this source should be an
important one. The average annual rainfall is so great in most
parts of the Islands that, with proper storage systems entire
communities may be readily provided with drinking water.

22 In Manila, for example, the average annual rainfall is 194 centimeters
(76.4 inches), while in Baguio it is almost 2.5 times as great. For the
distribution of rainfall in the Archipelago, see Cox, A. J., Phil. Journ. Sci.,
Sec. A (1911), 6, 287.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 21

Unfortunately faulty methods of collection and storage have
made rain water usually a doubtful and frequently a dangerous
source of supply.

DISTILLED WATER

In the past, distilled water has been a much-used source of
drinking water, especially among the foreign population. How-
ever, in recent years its use in Manila has been supplanted in a
great measure by that of artesian well water.

Opinion is divided on the comparative values of boiled and
distilled water for drinking purposes. If a mineral content is
desirable in water, boiled water is undoubtedly better than dis-
tilled water. However, there is little evidence to show that the
continued use of distilled water is harmful. Unfortunately
water when boiled loses most of its air content and acquires a
flat taste. The same holds true for distilled water. The deci-
dedly objectionable taste that the distilled water sold in the
principal Philippine cities has acquired at various times shows
further the difficulty involved in keeping oil out of the distillate
when water is being distilled on a large scale. As distilled
water can be obtained on ship board and in the principal cities,
a traveler who has accustomed himself to its peculiar taste fre-
quently escapes the minor intestinal disturbances sometimes
caused by abruptly changing from one kind of drinking water
to another.

RIVERS AND WATER COURSES

Many of the Philippine water courses are low in dissolved
mineral content and are chemically unobjectionable. Water
from a well-safeguarded watershed is frequently very desirable
for domestic use. In the Philippines, however, it is only in
sparsely settled regions or in highland districts, such as Moun-
tain Province, that this kind of water is obtainable in quantity
from unobjectionable surroundings. In the lowlands the run-off
is usually turbid. It may contain large amounts of decaying
vegetable and animal matter. Above all, the density of popula-
tion along the average water course and the lack of sanitary
improvements in most Philippine communities make a high
degree of pollution almost inevitable.

In many parts of the Philippines rivers and ditches consti-
tute a grave menace to health. A large number of towns have
water courses flowing through them. These are generally small,
subject to tidal variations, and not very clean. Frequently they
represent the only sewage system in the town, yet they often

J22 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

furnish water for washing and other household purposes. Bar-
ber 23 has shown that they are very often breeding places for
malaria mosquitoes (see Plate XIV, fig. 2).

SURFACE WELLS

Water from shallow wells usually has only a small mineral
content and is unobjectionable from a chemical point of view.
It is only with great difficulty that such water can be kept pure
and uncontaminated. In Illinois 43 per cent of the wells exam-
ined recently were condemned. In Indiana over 50 per cent
were found polluted, and a recommendation was made that
every surface well in the state be abandoned. When such is
the opinion expressed in the United States, the general undesir-
ability of surface wells in the Philippines must be apparent.

The typical surface well in the Philippines is situated in a
crowded barrio, very near to human habitations. It is generally
open and uncovered and is frequently without casing or curbing,
so that the first heavy rain may carry surface debris into it.
The few outhouses provided for the disposal of sewage may be
only a few feet distant. Animals are usually allowed to run
loose in the vicinity. Washing clothes and bathing are com-
monly carried on at the wellside, though no adequate drainage
for the dirty water is provided. Ordinarily no one vessel is
used for drawing water, each comer bringing his own and low-
ering it into the well. It is only fair to state that in certain
sections, principally among the wealthier residents, surface wells
are lined and covered with concrete and are equipped with
pumps. But this is exceptional and not the rule, and even in
these cases lack of proper methods of sewage disposal and of
other sanitary measures in the neighborhood usually nullify the
minor precautions instituted at the well.

Practically every open surface well examined by the Bureau
of Science has been shown to be dangerously polluted. Field
bacteriological examination of surf ace- well waters largely used
for drinking in seven towns in a certain province showed colony
counts averaging 15,000 at the end of twenty-four hours and
25,000 at the end of forty-eight hours. Positive presumptive
tests for the presence of the B-. coli group were obtained in
every instance.

In spite of the many sources of good water made available,
especially in recent years, surface wells still furnish a large por-
tion of the water used for household purposes in the Philippines,

23 Phil Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1915), 10, 177-247.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 23

even in many places where better water is at hand. It cannot
be too strongly emphasized that these sources constitute a grave
menace to public health. The difficulty of safeguarding surface
supplies from contamination is shown by the fact that during
cholera epidemics excessive rainfall has increased the number
of cholera cases among the people dependent on surface wells.

It must be admitted, however, that, especially in isolated
districts, great dependence will continue to be placed on surface
wells for some time to come. In these cases an effort should be
made to enforce sanitary measures that will minimize, if not
eliminate, the dangers from drinking surface water. All wells
should be cased, curbed, covered with water-tight (preferably
cement) tops, and provided with pumps. Adequate drainage
should be provided to prevent the accumulation of waste water
or surface run-off, washing at the well side should be prohibited,
and animals should be kept at a distance. The immediate sur-
roundings should be kept clean. Above all, the well should be
located as far as possible from a dwelling, stable, or outhouse, as
pollution may occur by infiltration through the soil. These steps
will improve the quality of the well water, but will not insure
purity. A surface-well water is always questionable and should
be used only until a safer supply is made available.

LAKES 24

In the Philippines lakes are, on the whole, undesirable as a
source of drinking water. They are generally small, frequently
turbid, and usually subject to contamination. However, they
are so few and widely scattered that they have little significance
as sources of water for drinking purposes and merit no detailed
consideration here.

SPRINGS

Typical spring waters are usually more highly mineralized
than surface water; hence they are more likely to contain
chemically objectionable ingredients. They usually contain con-
siderable amounts of free carbon dioxide. In consequence they
dissolve large quantities of calcium and magnesium carbonate,
especially in limestone regions, and are, therefore, "hard" waters.
Though the dissolved minerals will usually be much smaller
in amount in shallow springs than in those that have passed
through more and deeper strata, the quantity even in the latter

34 For a description of the principal Philippine lakes, cf. Pratt, W. E.,
Phil. Journ. ScL, Sec. A (1916), 11, 223-237:

24 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

case is usually not prohibitive. There is a great variety and
abundance of springs in the Philippines, many of them com-
paring favorably with some of the best-known foreign mineral
and medicinal springs. A more detailed discussion of the che-
mical composition of typical Philippine spring waters will be
found further on.

Spring waters in the Philippines have been usually found
bacteriologically pure at the point of emergence. On the whole
they are excellent sources for household use, and it is, therefore,
not surprising that many municipal water-supply systems now
derive their supply from springs. It should be noted, however,
that springs are frequently subject to fluctuations, both in
quality and in quantity, and should be carefully studied before
they are used indiscriminately. Thus a spring of flow amply
to supply a town's needs during the rainy season may be entirely
inadequate after a long-continued period of drought. Further-
more it frequently happens, especially in limestone formations,
that surface seepage may find its way into the underground
stream that supplies the spring, thus making the water unfit
to drink. Such contamination is usually very hard to detect,
as it may only occur at infrequent intervals. In this connection
a distinction must be drawn between real springs and those
that, in spite of their appearance, are nothing but seepage
water from the surface or that are water from a neighboring
stream that has worn an underground channel for itself. In
the town of Majayjay (Laguna), for example, bacteriological
examination of a group of much-used springs on a river bank
showed a high degree of bacterial pollution. A close examina-
tion of the surroundings revealed the fact that the supposed
springs were merely the outlets for the water of a neighboring
river, the exact points where the river water entered the soil
being discovered.

Even when a spring is uncontaminated and chemically unob-
jectionable,- certain precautions are necessary to ensure a safe
water supply. If possible, the ground above the spring, from
which contamination might proceed, should be reserved from
settlement. The surroundings of the spring should be kept
scrupulously clean and guarded from trespass in much the same
way as was described for shallow wells. The outlets should be
kept clean and clear of weeds or accumulations of debris. When-
ever possible, it should be walled in, so that it cannot become
contaminated. When the water is allowed to collect in a basin
or reservoir, this should be of stone or concrete and should be

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 25

covered. An outlet pipe should be provided, from which the
water can be obtained without danger of contaminating the
entire supply. Adequate drainage for waste water should be, of
course, ensured.

BORED, DRIVEN, OR PUNCHED WELLS 25

In some parts of the Islands, where water is found at depths
not greater than 15 to 17 meters, and where there are no hard
strata to be pierced, iron tubes, generally 2 to 4 inches in dia-
meter, have been sunk by hand or by horsepower. Such wells are
frequently capable of furnishing excellent water, especially if
they penetrate clayey materials and are located far enough from
habitations so that the danger from surface seepage is minimized.

DEEP WELLS 26

In the drilling of wells in the Philippines standard machinery
was used for penetrating to great depths; for depths of less than
85 to 90 meters, and in the absence of hard or difficult strata,
small, specially designed, hand-power "jet rigs" were employed.

Many of the wells drilled in the Philippines are of the flowing
type, and most of them are "artesian," in the generally accepted
sense of the word ; that is to say, the water in them rises above the
level at which it is encountered. Deep-well waters in the Philip-
pines have been found as a rule to be more highly mineralized
than spring waters. At times the degree of mineralization is
sufficient to render the water unserviceable for drinking pur-
poses. The principal impurities noted in this connection are
abnormally large amounts of common salt and iron. Analyses
of typical deep waters will be found in Table XVI. Biologically
deep wells have been found very satisfactory, so that, on the
whole, they are the most desirable sources of drinking water
available for general use in the Philippines at the present time.

Flowing wells are to be preferred to the other types of deep
wells, not only because they require no pump, but because they
are of better biological quality. The water from flowing arte-
sian wells in the Philippines is sterile. This was shown by
Barber, 27 who found that "the waters from the flowing wells
show a remarkably high degree of bacterial purity and may be

25 For a discussion of different types of wells and their relative ad-
vantages, see Fuller, M. L., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper
(1910), No. 255.

26 For an account of well-drilling operations in the Philippines, see
Vickers, J. W., Quart. Bull. P. I. Bur. Pub. Works (1914), 2, No. 4, 24.

27 Barber, M. A., Phil. Journ. Sci, Sec. B (1913), 8, 458.

26 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

regarded as safe from pollution by pathogenic bacteria," and
has been amply corroborated by our field survey of waters.
The conclusion is a natural one. Owing to the time the water has
been underground and the filtration to which it has been probably
subjected, the initial purity of artesian water as it leaves the
deep strata may be safely assumed. In a flowing well the pres-
sure is outward, so that the ingress of surface waters,
which might introduce foreign and contaminating material, is
prevented.

One of the few precautions or sanitary measures that should
be observed with regard to a flowing well is the provision of
adequate drainage away from the source. The accumulation of
water near a well is unsightly and unsanitary, and it frequently
provides breeding places for mosquitoes.

An improvement much to be desired in connection with the use
of flowing artesian wells deals with the conservation of under-
ground water supplies. Almost every well of this type in the
Philippines is allowed to flow continuously. In this way not
only is the greater part of the water wasted, but the supply
for the future is diminished as well. The water-bearing stratum
is drained, and the flow of the well gradually diminishes or even
ceases entirely. When the flow is much greater than is needed
by the community, the outlet should be decreased in size. To
place self-closing faucets on artesian wells, so the flow would be
stopped when water is not needed, would result not only in the
conservation of the ground water, but also in the general sanitary
improvement of the surroundings.

When flowing wells are not in use the interests of the community
require that they be shut off. It is as illogical to permit flowing wells to
run continuously and to expect them to maintain their flow as it would
be to open the fire hydrants in a city and then expect the pressure to be
maintained. 28

Artesian wells are a great asset to a community, and when
once they have failed through abuse or neglect, they can be seldom
regenerated.

Deep pumping wells, though not quite as desirable as flowing
wells, usually give very excellent water if the pump is in good
condition and if the casing is intact. The results of field bac-
teriological examinations indicate that the average pumping well
will yield bacteriologically pure or impure water depending on

^Deussen, A., and Dole, R. B., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper
(1916);. No. 375, 168.

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 27

whether or not the pump is protected against, or exposed to, the
entrance of contaminating influences. A well that has to be
primed occasionally, often with water from sources that are
at least questionable, must almost inevitably become contami-
nated at some time. Sanitary conditions, in general, at the well-
side constitute, of course, a factor not to be neglected, but other
things being equal, the condition of the pump may be taken as a
fair index of the bacteriological quality of the water. This has
been shown in a number of instances by examination of a well
water, both when the pump was in poor operating condition
and again after repairs had been made and the well had been
subjected to a thorough pumping test. The results of the field
bacteriological examinations of the water of a number of typical
pumping artesian wells will be found in Table XVI.

There are two general, preeminent evils, both of them readily
obviated, that tend to lessen the value of deep pumping wells
in the Philippines. One is the unsanitary condition of the sur-
roundings of many wells. The necessity for keeping the sur-
roundings of water sources clean has been already mentioned.
Though surface seepage does not readily find entrance to a
properly constructed well, contamination is always possible
through imperfections at the junctions of pipes, especially when
the water supply is obtained from some distance below ground
level. The greater evil, however, is the general condition of
the well equipment in the provinces. In a field investigation
covering a large number of towns dependent on deep pumping
wells, the proportion of pumps entirely inoperative or in poor
condition varied from 25 to 67 per cent. It has been already
pointed out that a pump in poor condition is an invitation to
pollution. Exposing an otherwise pure water to contamination,
or entirely depriving a community of good water, is a real evil
and one that is worthy of every effort for its correction.

It has been estimated that in the United States alone substitu-
tion of pure for impure water supplies would save some 26,000
lives annually. Johnson, 29 in a discussion of water purification,
states that pure water in urban (United States) communities
alone would prevent 45,000 typhoid cases and 3,000 deaths yearly.
No such estimate has been made for the Philippine Islands,
but the generally unsatisfactory conditions of water supplies and
the difficulty of keeping them pure, due to climatic factors,
location, and local customs, make it evident that the preventable

29 Johnson, George A., Eng. Contr. (1917), 47, 46-47.

28 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

waste of life and resources is enormous. That pure water is
one of the first requisites for good health in the tropics is de-
monstrated by the fact that, in the Philippines, the improvement
of water supplies by the drilling of artesian wells or by the
utilization of springs or carefully protected water courses has
been invariably followed by a marked decrease in the death
rate. In some places, formerly dependent on surface supplies,
the introduction and general use of artesian water has been ac-
companied by a decrease in death rate as high as 50 per cent.

Conditions are still far from satisfactory in many parts of
the Archipelago. In too many cases dependence for drinking
water is put on the nearest available source, quality often being
a consideration of secondary importance. Large areas are still
unsupplied with water other than that from dangerous surface
wells or unclean water courses.

Iloilo, a city of 50,000 inhabitants, is still unsupplied with a
municipal water supply or with an adequate sewage system.
Many towns now unsupplied have easily accessible sources of
pure water, which might be utilized at small expense.

It has been estimated 30 that from 80 to 96 per cent of the
Filipinos are afflicted with intestinal parasites. The Director of
the Bureau of Health in a recent statement to the press 31 has
said that reports from six towns show infection with intestinal
parasites ranging from 94.9 to 100 per cent. There can be little
question that impure water is a great factor in bringing about
such a state of affairs.

The lack of proper methods for the disposal of human ex-
creta 32 is a great obstacle in the way of securing suitable drink-

30 Garrison, P. E., Leynes, R., and Llamas, R., Phil. Journ. ScL, Sec. B
(1909), 4, 261.

"Manila Daily Bulletin, July, 1917.

32 Voy a hablaros de dos costumbres de los moros, que tienen intima
relacion con la sanitacion: La de defecar en el agua y lavarse despues,
no importando que el sitio sea el del manantial en que se provean del
agua de beber. Cuando muere un moro los "panditas," que son los
sacerdotes, se hacen cargo del cadaver, le banan bien y le exprimen el
abdomen mientras haya liquido que le saiga por la boca y por el ano, y
despues le envuelven en una tela blanca; terminada esta operacion, la
familia del muerto, con los "panditas" y hasta los curiosos, se ponen a
comer al rededor del cadaver. Esta costumbre ha sido causa de la pro-
pagaeion rapida de varias enfermedades, especialmente de colera. [Fa-
jar do, Jacobo, El problema sanitario en Mindanao y Sulu, Actas, Memorias
y Comunicaciones de la Tercera Asamblea Regional de Medicos y Farma-
ceuticos de Filipinas (1917), 297.]

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE 29

ing water and is one of the most serious menaces to public health
in the Philippines. In six towns recently examined, only 28
houses with flush closets and 251 with other types of privies
were found; in other words, only one home in fifty was so
equipped. In poorer and more isolated communities this state
of affairs is even worse.

However, great progress has been made, and it is to be hoped
that this progress will continue. With the advance of education
and the improvement in standards of living, a corresponding
improvement in water supplies may be confidently predicted.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

Storage of water in large quantities has been practiced since
the earliest times of which we have authentic record. The pre-
historic reservoirs in New Mexico and Arizona, the remains of
tanks and cisterns in India, and the installations of the Egyptians,
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans show what stress was laid
by the ancients both on the quantity and on the quality of water.
An idea of the vastness of some of the ancient projects may be
derived from the fact that a reservoir in Ceylon, built in 460
after Christ and recently restored, holds a body of water 6
meters (20 feet) deep, having a surface area of 1,800 hectares
(7 square miles).

Storage is necessary, because of the fluctuations in quantity
of the average source of supply and because of the variation in
the average community's demand for water, depending on the
season or on the time of day. Especially in countries like the
Philippines, where the rainfall occurs, for the most part, during
three or four months of the year, water must be stored during
the wet periods to ensure an abundant supply during the dry
season. Storage, in general, would be desirable, even if not
necessary, because of the improvement in quality generally
effected in the water. This factor will be discussed more at
length under Purification.

In the Philippines storage of water on a large scale is prac-
ticed in only three cities, namely, Manila, Cebu, and Zamboanga.
In each case two types of reservoir are represented: an im-
pounding reservoir, in which water is stored by means of a
dam thrown across a river ; and a service reservoir, in which the
water is kept prior to its entrance into the distribution system.
These installations, together with some of the more important
smaller systems, will be discussed more at length later on.

In properly constructed municipal systems the impounding
reservoir serves to store a raw water, the service reservoir to
hold the purified supply. When water from a river is used, it
is essential that the reservoir should receive water only from
a watershed well protected from contamination. Therefore,
when, as is usually the case, a dam is constructed to catch the
water in a valley, the site of the reservoir is of great importance.

30

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 31

The bottom of the catchment area should be cleared of weeds,
rubbish, and other material that will affect the water delete-
riously. The reservoir should not be less than from 8 to 10 me-
ters deep, in order to inhibit the growth of algae and other
water plants that do not grow at greater depths and that may
have a harmful influence on the water. For the same reason
the sides should be as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that
no growths or sediment may adhere to them. The immediate
surroundings of a reservoir also require attention. The mar-
gins should be kept free from weeds, accumulations of leaves, and
other debris ; the adjacent strips of ground should be planted in
such a way that the soil will not be washed away and that the
water will be protected from dust ; and suitable channels should
be provided to prevent contamination from surface drainage.
In order to take the greatest advantage of the beneficial effects
of storage, the inlet should be placed as far as possible from
the outlet.

The same precautions hold for service reservoirs as for im-
pounding reservoirs. As the former are usually smaller than
the latter, they can be constructed with more care and with
greater attention to detail. The sides can be made steeper,
and special methods can be employed to ensure a uniform period
of storage or to prevent stagnation.

When only a single reservoir is provided, or when water has
not undergone a sufficiently long storage period in the impound-
ing reservoir, it is often advantageous to have a reservoir divided
into compartments. With this arrangement water will not find
its way directly from inlet to oulet. Sedimentation is facilitated,
and the major portion of the precipitate collects in the first com-
partments and can be removed without interrupting the work
of other compartments.

Because of the scarcity of good water and the paucity of
municipal installations in many, parts of the Philippine Archi-
pelago, storage on a small scale, usually of rain water, has been
much practiced. In Iloilo, a city of approximately 50,000 people,
rain water continues to be one of the chief sources of water for
drinking purposes. Every well-constructed house has a gal-
vanized iron roof from which the rain water flows into one or
more tanks. The town of Capiz has developed a project for
catching rain water from the roofs of the principal public build-
ings. A reenforced concrete tank with a capacity of a million
liters has been recently erected. Even in places where other
Waters are available, many people depend in a large measure on
rain water.

32 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

There is no valid objection to the use of properly collected rain
water, stored in well-constructed, frequently cleaned cisterns.
All of the rain should not be collected; the first portion should
be rejected by means of any of a number of automatic mechanical
devices constructed for that purpose. A cistern should be made
of metal, slate, or concrete rather than of wood. In the first
case it must be remembered that rain water has an appreciable
solvent action on metals, particularly lead and zinc, and that both
of these metals are deleterious to health. The use of copper or
nickel-plated iron has been recommended. 33 Cisterns should be
closed, to prevent the entrance of contaminating substances, but
should be so constructed that they can be cleaned out periodically.

Unfortunately the advantages of rain water as a source of
water supply are frequently nullified by improper methods of
collecting and storage. The rain that falls on a roof, espe-
cially one of nipa or thatch, should not be collected until all
accumulations of dust or dirt have been thoroughly washed away.
All too frequently water becomes foul and stagnant, and the
cistern becomes a breeding place for mosquitoes. The common
practice of collecting rain water in loosely covered ollas is
strongly to be condemned for similar reasons.

A settlement or community usually develops at or near a
source of good drinking water. As the community enlarges
and the chances of contamination increase, water must be
carried increasingly greater distances. It is not surprising,
therefore, that aqueducts and elaborate distribution systems
have been used since very early times.

There is great variation in the amount of water required for
each inhabitant in different cities. The supply of ancient Rome
is estimated as having furnished 1,260 liters (332 gallons) per
capita per day. The weighted average per capita consumption
of water for representative cities in the United States is 375
liters (100 gallons) per day; English practice is based on an
estimated daily consumption of 115 liters (30 gallons) ; figures
for Germany vary from 85 liters (22 gallons) to 125 liters
(33 gallons). Representative data are not available for the
Philippines, not only because of the relative scarcity of municipal
installations, but also because very frequently such installations
are not used freely and exclusively by all the community to
which water is supplied. Manila uses about 225 liters (60 gal-
lons) per capita per day.

83 Rideal, S. and E. K., Water Supplies. D. Appleton and Company, New
York (1915), 28.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 33

Municipal water installations that include elaborate systems
of house distribution are restricted in the Philippines to com-
paratively few towns. Manila, Baguio, Cebu, and San Pablo
(Laguna) are examples of towns well provided in this respect.
The more important installations will be discussed later.
In some installations water is piped directly to the various
houses; in others it is piped only to conveniently located points,
whence it may be carried in small containers to the individual
homes. In all cases, however, public hydrants are made a part
of the system, so that the people who cannot afford house con-
nections can secure water free of charge. Such installations
have invariably had a great beneficial effect on the health of a
community.

An interesting type of municipal distribution system is found
in the so-called canal towns, notably those on the slopes of Mount
Banajao, in Laguna and Tayabas Provinces. Lilio, Nagcarlan,
Majayjay, Lucban, Tayabas, and Sariaya are typical towns of
this group. By a system installed in the days of the Spanish
occupation, the water from mountain springs is brought through
ditches and open stone canals to a series of laterals, which dis-
tribute the water to all parts of the town (Plate XIV, figs. 1
and 2). These laterals are nothing but open gutters, and not
only provide readily accessible sources of water for laundry and
other purposes, but frequently furnish a means for disposing
of sewage and other refuse. Though these systems may have
furnished a better supply of water than that available previous
to their installation, they were, on the whole, extremely un-
sanitary and decidedly undesirable and dangerous sources of
water supply. In addition, these systems have been shown 34 to
be excellent breeding places for Anopheles febrifer, the mosquito
causing malaria. In view of these facts it is a source of grati-
fication to know that the majority of the towns in question have
either installed new systems (for instance, Sariaya) or else
(for example, Majayjay and Nagcarlan) have well-developed pro-
jects for obtaining a better supply.

Various other methods of distribution are employed. An in-
genious and economical method sometimes used for piping water
to a center of population from a source not very distant is by
means of a bamboo pipe line. Much of the distilled and artesian
water sold in Manila is sent to the consumer by autotrucks in
large tanks. The use of these tanks is carefully supervised
either by the Federal or the Insular authorities, and satisfactory

34 Barber, M. A., et al., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. B (1915), 10, 223.

152918 3

34 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

results are obtained. A large quantity of water is also dis-
tributed in bottles and demijohns. The difficulty encountered
in sterilizing containers, especially in some of the smaller com-
panies supplying water, has made this method of distribution
unsatisfactory in certain instances. In Iloilo, spring water
brought from Guimaras in paraos and water from surface wells
in the outlying districts are sold from cans or from small tank
carts. On the whole, this method is very unsatisfactory, because
the surface wells are dangerous sources, and even the initially
good water from Guimaras is frequently contaminated before
it reaches the consumer.

In all cases where house connections are not provided there
is necessarily an intermediate carrying of the water from the
source to the place of consumption. Unfortunately the con-
tainers used for this delivery are not always kept clean, so that
a pure water frequently becomes contaminated in transit. The
commonest vessel used is a 5-gallon gasoline or oil can. Two of
these, slung at opposite ends of a pole, or pinga (Plate VI,
fig. 1), constitute a load for a water carrier. The charge
for water thus carried depends on the distance; it varies from
about 2 to 5 centavos for the cans when a source is near and
from 10 to 20 centavos when a source is distant.

In the provincial districts the common method of carrying
water (Plate VI, fig. 2), especially among the poorer classes,
is in a section of bamboo, the joint partitions of which have
been removed. These bamboo tubes are easily made and cost
practically nothing, while empty oil cans have a considerable
market value, which increases with the distance from the large
towns.

For the sake of completeness brief descriptions of some of
the principal Philippine municipal installations are appended.

MANILA 35

The water for the municipal supply for Manila comes from
an uninhabited, guarded watershed of about 1,550 square kilo-
meters (600 square miles). A dam across Mariquina River,
above Montalban, about 25 kilometers from Manila, gives a stor-
age basin with an estimated capacity of over 4,700,000 cubic me-
ters (1,250,000,000 gallons), though this amount is not actually
available, owing to leakage through fissures and cracks in the

35 For a more complete discussion, see Heise, G, W., Phil. Journ. Sci^
Sec. A (1916), 11, 1-13.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OP WATER 35

limestone walls of the river gorge. From Montalban the water
is piped to the high ground just outside of Manila to a service
reservoir, the capacity of which is about 206,000 cubic meters
(54,500,000 gallons) ; thence it passes through a large service
pipe to Manila, where it enters the main distribution system.
In normal times the water supply is adequate for the city's
needs; in periods of extended drought, however, it has been
occasionally found necessary to resort to the old (Spanish) in-
stallation at Santolan, which takes water directly from Mari-
quina River, in a well-populated area.

The water is not treated in any way until it reaches the exit
of the service reservoir, where a small chlorination plant for
adding chloride of lime has been installed. The water reaches
the main distribution system about forty-five minutes after it has
been treated.

The new supply system is a tremendous improvement over
the old installation. Even before chlorination was introduced,
the Bureau of Health 36 pointed out that there were 300 per
cent more deaths from intestinal diseases in the years just
preceding the installation of the new supply than in the years
immediately following and showed 37 further that when the in-
adequacy of the Montalban supply made it necessary to resort
to the old Santolan system a marked increase in the death rate
occurred. However, the city supply is still far from being
entirely satisfactory. Though a considerable improvement is
effected by storage in the reservoirs, adequate sedimentation
and bacterial purification do not occur. Consequently the water
as it leaves the reservoir is still somewhat turbid, especially in
rainy weather, and has a rather high bacterial content. Chlori-
nation has failed to reduce the bacterial content to the extent
usually obtained in general practice, owing partly to the turbidity
and organic content of the water, partly to irregularities in
dosage, and partly to the accumulation of foreign matter in the
distribution system. Filter beds, as well as measures to ensure
adequate sedimentation, seem to be necessary to ensure good
results.

CEBU

The city of Cebu is supplied by the Osmeiia waterworks,
completed in 1912. A reenforced concrete dam and spillway
in a narrow gorge at Buhisan, about 6 kilometers from the city,

36 Ann. Rep. P. L Bur. Health (1912), 5.

37 Ibid., 47.

36 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

impound between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 cubic meters of
water — at least one hundred days' supply. In addition, a con-
crete distribution tank holds some 15,000 cubic meters more.
This large storage capacity gives ample time for sedimentation
and purification. A distribution system with direct house con-
nections and a number of public hydrants is provided. With
the exception of one occasion, when a large amount of mud
accumulated behind the dam, the tap water has been clear and
colorless and of a very satisfactory bacteriological quality.

ZAMBOANGA

The municipal system of Zamboanga derives its water from
a river about 10 kilometers from the poblacion. The basin
formed by the dam is about 50 meters above sea level. From
here the water is led through a 30-inch reenforced concrete pipe
to a reservoir about 4 kilometers distant. This reservoir has
a capacity of 2,270 cubic meters (600,000 gallons), approx-
imately three and two-fifths days' supply for the city. Cast
iron pipes conduct the water the remaining 6 kilometers to the
town. The intake is cleaned once every five days ; the reservoir,
once every ten.

In the cfty there are 270 house connections and 53 public
hydrants. In this way approximately 5,000 people are supplied,
or about 20 per cent of the population of the entire municipality.

BAGUIO

Baguio, Mountain Province, has a well-developed water-supply
system. It derives its water from a series of mountain springs
of excellent chemical quality, flowing directly into compara-
tively small storage basins, whence the water is pumped to the
distribution system. Though the water is unobjectionable in
quality during most parts of the year, it is planned to purify
it further with an ultra-violet light-sterilizing apparatus.

There are many other municipal distribution systems, as the
appended tabular data indicate, but most of these present no
unusual features that need be discussed here. Most of them
employ springs or rivers and operate by gravity, but several
use pumping wells with satisfactory results. In addition to the
towns listed, all subprovincial capitals in Mountain Province,
except Kabugao, have installed small gravity systems.

STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OP WATER

37

Table II. — Water works completed or under construction in the
Philippines. a

Town.

People
served.

Source of water.

Type of system.

Cost.

Antipolo

Well

Pesos.

Balayan ._

4,350

Baguio __ _.

Springs.

Bani, Pangasinan

Boac, Marinduque

Calapan

2,000
4,000

River _ _

18, 000
7,500

Wells-

Springs

Pump

Capiz

Rain water

13, 000

547,000

8,500

70,000

Cebu

38,000
2,000

River

Gravity

Duero _ __ _

Spring

Jolo__ ..-_ __ __

Creek

Loay ___ __ __ _

Moalbual _ _

1,500

5,000

600

Spring

do _

15,000
7,000
9,000

Naga __ __ _ ___ ___ _

do ._

do

Parang __ _ _______

River _

Pasig-. _______ .__ _

Wells

Sariaya__ _ __ _

4,200
5,000(?)
1,800
8,000
10, 000
5,000

Spring

36, 000
30, 000
8,500
64, 000
116,000
305,000

Sibonga _ _. _ _

do

do

Subic ... _

do

Taal

do

Vigan ___

do _..

Zamboanga _

River __ _ _

a From data furnished by the Bureau of Public Works.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS

A water from a source subject to contamination by substances
dangerous to health must be treated before it can be used for
drinking purposes. Many methods of purification have been
devised, the one to be used in any instance depending upon the
quantity of water to be treated and the special conditions or
factors affecting the problem in hand. Artificial purification of
water on .a large scale has been tried in only one case in the
Philippines, namely, in Manila, so that any discussion of methods
must be necessarily based largely on experience elsewhere. 38

The discussion under Purification of Waters will deal solely
with purification of waters for drinking purposes ; the treatment
of water for other purposes will be discussed under industrial
supplies. Methods of purification have been practiced since
very early times. Medical literature written in Sanskrit,
perhaps four thousand years ago, contains the following
statement: 39

/ It is good to keep water in copper vessels, to expose it to sunlight, and
to filter it through charcoal.

The use of alum for the coagulation of muddy waters has been
familiar to the Chinese for thousands of years. Hippocrates,
about 400 before Christ, advised boiling and filtering impure
water that was intended for drinking purposes. The old Roman
aqueducts were even provided with the "castella," a series of
chambers that gave excellent opportunity for sedimentation to
take place.

Purification of water may have reference to the removal of
turbidity or color (or odor and taste), to the elimination of in-
jurious chemicals or those (for example, iron) causing a dis-
agreeable taste, or to the destruction of pathogenic organisms.

The principal methods of purification that will be considered
here are self-purification, effected by storage, illumination, or
aeration; physical methods, such as distillation, boiling, filtra-

35 Cf. Don, J., and Chisholm, J., Modern Methods of Water Purification.
Edward Arnold, London (1911). Johnson, G. A., Purification of public
water supplies, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1913), No. 315,
Mead and Turneaure, Public Water Supplies. 2d ed. (1913).

39 Johnson, op. cit., 24.
38

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 39

tion, and the use of ultra-violet light ; and chemical methods, such
as treatment with coagulants or the addition of copper sulphate,
ozone, chlorine, or lime.

PURIFICATION OF WATER ON A LARGE SCALE

It is well known that water is generally improved greatly by
ordinary natural processes. Sunlight and aeration are so bac-
tericidal that a surprising degree of purification is frequently
effected in water, especially when it becomes well aerated, by
flowing over rocks or other obstructions. Unfortunately this
form of self -purification cannot be relied upon to any extent in
the Philippines, as the density of population along a water
course usually causes a greater pollution than would be obviated
by natural agencies.

Storage may also be of decided value in purification under
ordinary conditions both biologically and chemically. When
water is impounded in a reservoir, its flow ceases or, at least,
decreases so greatly that silt and suspended matter begin to
settle. Flad 40 observed that after twenty-four hours of storage
only 5.5 per cent of the salt originally present in Mississippi
River water remained in suspension. After ninety-six hours
this decreased to 3.0 per cent. In addition to clarification, a
decrease in color and organic matter, and usually in hardness,
is produced. The precipitate entangles bacteria and carries
them down with it, so that a considerable degree of purification
is effected by simple sedimentation. There are, however, other
ways in which storage has beneficial influence on the biological
quality of a water. Sewage bacteria and pathogenic organisms,
in general, rapidly die in water, and there is strong evidence
to show that ordinary forms disappear as well or, at any rate,
that they do not multiply persistently. In the ordinary form of
reservoir, open to the sunlight and air, a marked degree of puri-
fication takes place.

Houston, 41 in his reports to the Metropolitan Water Board of
London, found that after three weeks' storage the total number
of bacteria per cubic centimeter in Thames River water fell
from 450 to 53 ; in Lee River water, from 620 to 106 ; in New
River water from 220 to 48. The decrease in numbers of path-
ogenic bacteria was especially rapid. In the reservoir at Law-
rence, Massachusetts, where water is stored about two weeks,
the bacteria removal amounts to over 93 per cent. At Wash-

4 "Rideal, op. cit. (1915), 61.
41 Rideal, op. cit. (1915), 65.

40 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

ington, D. C, the bacterial removal is about the same as in the
Boonton reservoir, where the Jersey City supply is impounded;
a five to six days' storage in the former and a two hundred days'
storage capacity in the latter effect an average bacterial purifi-
cation of 99 per cent.

Even in the dark the influence of nitrifying bacteria in the
presence of air may effect purification. Water remaining in the
old Manila "deposito," a covered reservoir having a capacity
of about 60,000 cubic meters (16,000,000 gallons), becomes prac-
tically sterile in the course of a few weeks, in spite of a high
initial bacterial content. Preliminary experiments 42 indicate
that in the new Manila reservoir, which has about three days'
storage capacity, the various factors — sedimentation, aeration,
and light — produce a bacterial reduction of about 90 per cent.

It frequently happens that certain forms of plant life make
their appearance, especially in reservoirs of faulty construction.
These may cause odors, interfere with processes of purification,
and when dead contaminate the water with decaying material,
causing "stagnation" of the water. The remedy or preventive
measure to be applied depends on the case in hand. Reservoirs
must be frequently cleaned to remove accumulations of sediment
and decaying matter. Sometimes aeration is resorted to ; some-
times, especially when the trouble is due to algae and other
growths, the addition of very small amounts of copper sulphate
"(0.15 to 1.0 part per million) gives the desired results. Trouble
due to stagnation is, perhaps, more likely to appear in tropical
than in temperate regions. However, the experience in Manila
and Cebu indicates that, with proper construction and super-
vision, reservoirs in the Philippines need give no unusual
amount of difficulty. The Manila reservoir requires frequent
cleaning, because of the large amount of suspended matter in
the water, but no pronounced stagnation has occurred. This,
however, is hardly a criterion, because of the small storage ca-
pacity of the reservoir in question. The Cebu reservoir, which
impounds at least one hundred days' supply, has caused trouble
only on one occasion, and then the removal of the accumulated
mud in the reservoir brought about a return to satisfactory
conditions.

So far, filtration of water on a large scale has not been at-
tempted in the Philippines. Sand filters have, from time to
time, been suggested for the Manila city supply, but since ex-
periments in the Bureau of Science had shown that amoebae pass

42 Heise, G. W., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1916), 11, 5.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 41

through the average filter, their introduction was not considered
advisable. However, this objection to their use no longer holds,
as Walker 43 has shown that the amoebae ordinarily growing
in water will not cause dysentery in man.

There are two kinds of sand filters, the rapid and the slow.
Slow sand filters are adaptable to clear, raw water. They have
a daily capacity of about 23,000 cubic meters per hectare of
surface area (2,500,000 gallons per acre) ; and their cost, includ-
ing settling basins and filtered water reservoir, is about 16,000
pesos per million liters' capacity (30,000 pesos per million
gallons) . Aside from the initial cost of installation, the actual
cost of water filtration for Manila should be about 36 centavos
per capita per annum.

Rapid sand filtration is particularly applicable to water highly
colored or heavily charged with suspended matter. In the lat-
ter case a coagulant such as alum must be used to aid the separa-
tion of the substances in suspension. The filtration rate is
approximately forty times that of slow sand filters, and the cost
of installation, including the necessary filter building, filters,
and coagulating and filtered water basins, is about 6,500 pesos
per million liters' daily capacity (12,000 dollars, United States
currency, per million gallons). The cost in Manila for rapid
sand filtration should be about 30 centavos per capita per
annum.

A new open filter is not as efficient as one that has been in
operation for some time. The activity of an open filter bed is
chiefly centered in the first few centimeters and is due to the
gelatinous film that is formed from the removed suspended and
colloidal matter. In this film reside myriads of organisms,
chiefly algse and bacteria, which act on, and decompose, part of
the organic matter of the water being filtered. In rapid mechan-
ical filtration, where coagulants are employed, an inorganic
film is formed as the gelatinous mass of aluminium or iron hy-
droxide subsides.

Both types of filters generally remove 98 to 99 per cent of
the bacterial content of the water.

In recent years the sterilization of public water supplies by
means of the ultra-violet rays from a quartz-mercury vapor lamp
has been repeatedly accomplished with very good results. This
method is simple in practice and has the advantage of adding
no foreign or deleterious substances to the water so treated.

43 Walker, Phil Journ. Scl, Sec. B (1911), 6, 259. Walker and Sellards,
ibid., Sec. B (1913), 8, 253.

42 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Water can be sterilized almost instantaneously regardless of its
bacterial content. The method is applicable only to very clear
waters, so that sterilization of a slightly turbid water, such as
that of the Manila supply, is out of the question. For small
installations using clear water, ultra-violet sterilization should
prove very satisfactory. The proposed utilization of a small
sterilizer of this type in the Baguio water system should give
good results.

Sterilization by the addition of chemicals is now extensively
employed, usually in conjunction with coagulants and filtration.
A number of materials have been proposed, but actual practice
is restricted almost exclusively to alum (coagulant) , ozone, cop-
per sulphate, lime, and chlorine.

The use of alum has been already mentioned in connection
with filtration. Very turbid water must be clarified before it
is susceptible to treatment by practically any method of purifi-
cation. Alums are almost universally used for clarifying pur-
poses, since they react with the carbonates normally present
in water, giving rise to flocculent precipitates that inclose, and
thus eliminate, not only the silt and other suspended matter,
but also a large fraction of the bacterial content. There is ab-
solutely no evidence to show that the introduction into the water
supply of alums in properly regulated amounts has the slightest
deleterious effect on the human system.

The ozone treatment is relatively hard to administer, is ap-
plicable only to filtered water, and though excellent results are
claimed for it, is not, at the present time, very widely used.

That copper sulphate is valuable as an algicide has been al-
ready pointed out. It has been also used to reduce the bacterial
content of water. It is probably not injurious to health, but
its use is open to several objections. It causes turbidity with
certain classes of water, and its bactericidal effect is not all
that might be desired. Stokes 44 reports that a concentration of
one part of copper sulphate in 100,000 parts of water failed to
destroy fermentative bacteria. Experiments in the Bureau of
Science have shown that the addition of one part per 150,000
was necessary to kill cholera vibrios in Mariquina River water.

Purification of water by the use of lime alone has received
much attention in recent years. The method is being employed
at present in a number of municipal installations in the United
States and in Europe. It is essentially a water-softening proc-

44 Am. Med. (1905), 10, 1075.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 43

ess and is especially applicable to hard waters. A slight ex-
cess of lime above the requirements for softening is the basis
of the "excess-lime" method of Houston, 45 in which the excess
is subsequently removed by carbon dioxide or by the sulphates
of iron or aluminium. The materials precipitated in the treat-
ment settle rapidly and are readily filtered off.

Not only is a chemical purification obtained, but a great re-
duction in the number of bacteria as well. The disappearance
of intestinal bacteria is particularly marked. Hoover and
Scott 40 ascribe the disappearance of the colon and typhoid
bacilli to the removal of carbon dioxide from the water by the
lime treatment and state that "bacteria belonging to the colon
or typhoid group seem to require carbon dioxide for their de-
velopment." The principal reduction in the number of bacteria
is due to the coagulation of the precipitated calcium carbonate
and magnesium hydrate.

The advantages of the lime treatment are thus summarized
by Hoover and Scott:

1. The water is softened.

2. Intestinal and pathogenic bacteria are killed and thereby the water is

rendered safe bacterially.

3. The water is clarified.

4. Color is removed.

5. Lime-softened water is not corrosive to iron pipe, thus no trouble is

experienced from the accumulations of "red-water" in dead ends of

the distribution system.
,6. The sterilizing action of lime persists indefinitely.
7. Nothing is added to the water that was not there originally, as the

lime combines with the C0 2 present in the water to form calcium

carbonate (CaCOs) which is insoluble and is removed.

Because of its cheapness and general efficiency, chlorine, in
the form of hypochlorites or liquid chlorine, is now one of the
most generally used chemicals for the purification of public water
supplies or the emergency sterilization of sewage. The value
of calcium hypochlorite as a disinfectant was first pointed out
by Koch, 47 while its application on a large scale to the disin-
fection of a municipal supply was first proposed by Traube. 48
It was not until 1908, however, when hypochlorites were used

45 Eighth Rep. Metropolitan Water Board, London (1912), through
Rideal, Water Supply (1915), 175.

46 Hoover, C. P., and Scott, R. D., The use of lime in water purification,
Eng. News (1914), 72, 587.

47 Koch, R., Mitt. a. d. kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte (1881), 1, 234-282.

48 Traube, M., Zeitschr. f. Hyg. (1894), 16, 149-150.

44 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

successfully in water purification in the stock yards at Chica-
go, 49 that the hypochlorite sterilization of municipal water
supplies was adopted to any great extent.

The amount of hypochlorite necessary for efficient steriliza-
tion cannot be definitely stated, as it varies greatly with the
quality and temperature of the water, on the methods of ad-
ministration of disinfectant and distribution of water, and pos-
sibly also on other factors.

Water from the same source often requires different amounts
of hypochlorite for treatment, depending on slight variations
in the quality of the water. It may even happen that a small
quantity of hypochlorite is as effective as a much larger one. 50
In general practice the most efficient quantity is usually in the
neighborhood of one part of available chlorine per million of
water (1 milligram per liter), though the actual amount to
be used for any installation should be carefully determined by
chemical and bacteriological control.

Though no definite rule can be stated, it may be said that such
a quantity of hypochlorite should be added that ten minutes
later the addition of potassium iodide-starch indicator will give
a slight blue coloration. This rule admits of exceptions.

A decided advantage of chlorination is the absence of poi-
sonous features. The amounts of free chlorine that reach the
consumer in a well-administered distribution system are so
slight that they are of no significance.

It often happens that chlorinated waters acquire a percept-
ibly unpleasant taste or odor. This has been frequently noted
in Manila. It can be usually avoided by careful regulation of
dosage, by filtration through iron, charcoal, or sand, by storage,
or by the addition of suitable chemicals, such as sodium sul-
phite or sodium thiosulphate. A humorous feature in connection
with chlorination arises from the popular antipathy to the
use of treated water. In a number of instances 51 vigorous com-
plaints of the "chlorine" taste and odor of a water were made
some weeks before a proposed chlorination treatment had been
put into operation.

In case of epidemics or of sudden contamination of waters it
sometimes becomes necessary to use more than ordinary quan-

49 Johnson, G. A., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1913), No.
315, 65.

50 Stokes, W. R., and Hachtel, F. W., Journ. Am. Pub. Health Assoc.
(1916), 6, 1224-1236.

61 Kellogg, Rep. U. S. Pub. Health (1914), 29, 687.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 45

tities of hypochlorites, with the result that the water becomes
unpalatable. In this event the excess chlorine can be readily
destroyed by the addition of "antichlors," such as the sulphite
or thiosulphate of sodium.

Chloride of lime is still the most commonly used chlorination
agent, though at the present time both sodium hypochlorite and
liquid chlorine are being used extensively. The advantages of
chloride of lime are its cheapness, its compact form and the con-
sequent ease with which it can be handled, transported, and
stored, and the fact that its administration is comparatively
simple and easy, so that the expense for equipment, labor, and
supervision is not great.

Simple and efficient methods have been also devised for the
chloride of lime sterilization of small municipal supply systems
and for use in emergencies. With the development of munic-
ipal water-supply systems, such methods should be applicable
in the Philippines, not only for emergency, but for ordinary
sterilization.

The use of liquid chlorine for water purification, first intro-
duced on a commercial scale by Darnall 52 in 1910, is rapidly
growing in favor. In the Philippines, where there is no chlorine
gas manufactured, this method is not applicable at present, but
in countries where chlorine is a cheap by-product, its use is often
to be recommended. Its advantages are the fact that no salts
are added to the water and that, according to report, the taste
and odor of the treated water are often less than when chloride
of lime is used. The disadvantages are a higher initial cost
of installation, a somewhat higher cost for chemicals, the need
of a higher grade of labor in administration, expert supervision,
and the danger of corrosion in the administration apparatus. It
appears, however, that most of these objections can be overcome
or, at least, that the advantages under certain conditions out-
weigh the disadvantages, for, according to Birsall, 53 the substi-
tution of liquid chlorine for chloride of lime in the purification
of the municipal supply of Minneapolis has proved successful,
and the city "would never again return to the use of hypochlorite
if it were possible to avoid it."

Sodium hypochlorite is readily prepared by the electrolysis
of a solution of common salt or by the interaction of common soda
and bleaching powder. The salt is unstable; hence it is used
only in solution, generally as an alkaline liquid containing about

52 Journ. Am. Pub. Health Assoc. (1911).
53 Birsall, L. D., Eng. News-Record (1917), 78, 539.

46 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

10 per cent of available chlorine. Its disadvantages are a high
initial cost of installation and the need for expert supervision.
Its advantages are ease of administration and the fact that no
objectionable salts are added to water. The claim has been
made 54 that sodium hypochlorite has a greater sterilizing effect
than chloride of lime and that, in the end, its use is more econom-
ical. The electrolytic process appears particularly suitable
for small units, such as supplies for small towns or for troops
in the field. The Ornstein process 55 is used in the European
war for sterilizing water supplied to English soldiers. Effi-
ciency tests by the Bureau of Science on a small electrolyzer
have shown that the electrolytic process could be readily adapted
to meet Philippine conditions.

The preceding discussion has dealt almost entirely with the
removal of organisms deleterious to health. Also chemical
constituents of a water may be objectionable, either because of
their nature, or because of the large amounts present. As has
been stated, filtration may remove part of the dissolved organic
matter. The commonest inorganic materials that require
special treatment for their removal are iron and calcium and
magnesium compounds. Calcium and magnesium compounds,
though making the water "hard," are not usually objectionable
in themselves, even in comparatively large amounts, when the
water is to be used for drinking purposes only.

Iron is objectionable when present even in very small quanti-
ties. It can be usually removed by aeration. Iron is usually
present in water as ferrous bicarbonate and is acted upon by
the oxygen of the air to form ferric hydroxide, which may be
removed by filtration.

The removal of calcium and magnesium compounds, a process
known technically as water softening, is discussed at length
under industrial supplies.

PURIFICATION IN THE HOUSEHOLD

When water must be purified in individual homes, boiling is,
perhaps, the simplest safeguard in so far as contamination due
to living organisms is concerned. It has not been practiced in
the Philippines to any considerable extent by the mass of the
population, except during times of great stress, such as cholera
epidemics. Even when so practiced, the good effects have been
often vitiated by subsequent handling of the water with dirty

"Rideal, op. cit., 187.

55 Anon, Electrician (1917), 78, 750.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 47

hands and in dirty vessels. It will be a difficult task to bring
about the general adoption of this precaution ; the cost of fuel,
the inadequacy of cooking facilities in the average home, the
peculiar taste of boiled water and superstitions regarding its
harmful character, and lack of comprehension of the purpose
of boiling, all militate against its use.

Though distillation is not a common method of purification of
water for home use, it has been so extensively practiced in the
Philippines that it is worthy of brief mention here. Both the
Federal and the Insular Governments maintain their own instal-
lations. Distilled water can be obtained in most of the larger
cities, either from Government or from privately owned dis-
tilling plants. In Manila the price of distilled water has been
1 centavo (0.005 dollar) per liter, and until recently the foreign
and wealthy native population depended entirely on this supply
for drinking purposes. All dissolved or suspended matter is
removed from water by distillation. The cost of equipment
and fuel is an important factor in determining the feasibility of
distillation as a method of purification.

Another mode of purification of water for home use is filtra-
tion. Many types of filters have been devised for home use.
These usually employ sand, charcoal, or porous earthenware
and are either attached directly to a faucet or tap or are used
separately. Though many forms are really capable of purifying
water if properly cared for, the usual types are too small ade-
quately to purify the water passed through them, and they
generally do not receive sufficient care to keep them in good
condition.

Various other types of sterilization appliances are made for
use in the home, such as heating devices, electrical ozone gen-
erators, and the like. These, however, are not of sufficiently
general application to Philippine conditions to justify detailed
discussion here.

PURIFICATION IN THE FIELD

Considerable attention has been devoted to water supplies for
troops, and a number of methods of field purification are now
employed. Several of these are merely slight modifications of
the processes already described in connection with purification
of water on a large scale and so need no extended discussion.
A few, however, are possessed of special features that warrant
further mention.

In the United States Army the Darnall filter and Lister bag
are used. The first device provides for purification by means

48 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

of coagulation and subsequent filtration through flannelette
bags. Most of the suspended matter and a large part of the
bacteria are thus removed. Salts of iron or aluminium are used
for coagulation in the presence of some neutralizing agent such
as lime or soda ash.

The Lister bag is a bag of heavy canvas, holding about 150
liters (40 gallons) and provided with five spigots. Calcium
hypochlorite is added to the water in the bag, effecting chemical
sterilization.

The Darnall filter clarifies water, but does not insure steriliza-
tion. The Lister bag sterilizes, but does not clarify. A combi-
nation of the two processes should be effective.

Numerous other types of filters and "filter candles" are em-
ployed to a limited extent, but these, as a rule, have not been
found very satisfactory, except for the use of small units. The
effort usually involved in their operation on a large scale is much
greater than that required for other processes just as efficacious
and no more expensive. Most of these filters are modifications
of the Pasteur filter, consisting of porous earthenware through
which the water is forced under pressure. The Berkef eld army
filter is a good example of this type. A hollow porous tube is
inclosed in an outer metallic case. The raw water is forced
through the porous material and emerges clarified and sterile.
Another filter of this type consists of an inverted funnel about
the size of a watch, to which a rubber tube and mouthpiece are
attached. Water can be then sucked through the tube. An-
other form consists of a cup or small pail into which water
slowly filters. Such devices are satisfactory only if they are
frequently cleaned and sterilized, the latter being readily ac-
complished by baking.

Boiling is, of course, a reliable means of sterilization, and is
valuable for the use of small units. Often a weak tea is made,
to increase the palatibility of a water. For the purification of
large supplies, however, boiling is ordinarily uneconomical and
impracticable.

Sterilization by ozone or by ultra-violet rays is usually im-
practicable in the field, though it may be employed where electric
power is available. 56

On the whole, chemical sterilization appears to be the most
generally satisfactory method for troops in the field. It is
cheap and efficient. Chlorine is the sterilizing agent commonly

36 Anon, Can, Engr. (1916), 30, 189-90, through Chem. Abst. (1916),
10, 1063.

PURIFICATION OF WATERS 49

employed either in the gaseous condition or as calcium or so-
dium hypochlorite. The United States Army has devised an
efficient apparatus for sterilization with chlorine gas for camp
use, 57 and sterilization of this kind seems destined to become
more popular.

Nelson 58 describes an apparatus for preparing chlorine in
the field by the oxidation of hydrochloric acid with potassium *
chlorate. While excellent results are claimed for the appa-
ratus and its use, there can be no great advantage in making
chlorine by this process.

At present chloride of lime is more generally used than chlo-
rine gas, and a number of methods have been employed for its
use in the field. In permanent or semipermanent encampments
its applications do not differ materially from those in municipal
purification plants, which have been already discussed. For
troops in temporary camps or on the march, the time factor
is important. The usual procedure in this case is to add a
comparatively large excess of available chlorine, providing rapid
sterilization, and then to neutralize the excess with some reduc-
ing agent or "antichlor." The antichlor most commonly used
is sodium thiosulphate (hypo) , though the advantage of greater
palatability is claimed for hydrogen peroxide. 59

The chloride of lime may be used alone or in conjunction with
an alkaline permanganate solution. 60 Sodium hypochlorite may
be employed, either as such, 61 or as in alkaline solution (antifor-
min). Rhein 62 suggests the use of hypochlorous acid derived
from the action of hydrochloric acid on concentrated antif ormin.

An interesting development of field-water purification has
been the sterilization of a supply for the individual soldier. In
the movements of small parties of troops, particularly of cav-
alry, when the camp is not within reach, the question of a small
supply of potable water for immediate use often becomes a
serious one. In addition to those already described, a number
of methods of purification have been proposed, the majority
taking the form of powders or pellets of various kinds.

57 Darnall, C. R., Water purification for troops in war, Bull. War Dept. f
Office Surg. Gen. (1913), No. 2, 116.
"Brit. Med. Journ. (1915).
59 Doyon and Toda, Compt. rend. Soc. biol (1916), 79, 232-233.

60 Penan, H., Journ. Pharm. chim. (1916), 13, 377-85, through Chem.
Abst. (1916), 10, 2487.

61 Doyon and Toda, loc. cit.

e2 Rhein, M., A new method for the sterilization of drinking water in
the field, Zeitschr. f. Hyg. (1914), 78, 562-70.

152918 4

50 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

In 1901 Parkes and Rideal 68 introduced the use of sodium
acid sulphate (NaHS0 4 ) for travelers and in campaigns, in the
strength of 15 grains per pint (2 grams per liter). Such salt
was successfully used in the Boer and English war. It is
still used extensively in pellet form by the British Army. 04
The pellets are made up with oil of lemon and saccharin, to in-
4 crease the palatability, and are employed in such quantities as to
provide a concentration of 0.07 per cent of free sulphuric acid
in the water to be sterilized. A half hour is allowed for bac-
tericidal action. A great disadvantage of this method is the
corrosive action of acid solutions on the metals, such as those
used in canteens.

Many other substances have been proposed, most of which
will give satisfactory results if they are properly used. Among
them may be mentioned the use of from 4 to 6 drops of tincture
of iodine, followed by a pinch of sodium thiosulphate ; 65 the
addition first of potassium permanganate and then of sugar;
and the use of pellets and powders, such as mixtures of salt
and bleaching powder. 66

The question has been occasionally raised whether or not puri-
fied water might not be injurious to health, owing to the presence
of dead bacteria. With reference to this point, Vosmaer 67 has
made the following calculation: Assuming a water had the
enormous bacterial content of 100,000 per cubic centimeter, or
375,000,000 per gallon (3.78 liters), the space occupied by the
bacteria per gallon of water would be only 0.000024 cubic inch.
Since bacteria are 90 per cent water, he concludes that the
amount of foreign material in water, due to the presence of
bacteria, is insignificant.

63 Rideal, op. cit. (1915), 171.

64 Thorndike, Saville, Military sanitation in the present war, Am. Journ.
Pub. Health (1917), 7, 547.

« 5 Schweiz. Apoth. Zeitg. (1914), 52, 717, through Chem. Abst. (1915),
9, 495.

m Langer, H., Chem. Tech. Rep. (1914), 38, 146.

67 Vosmaer, A., Met. & Chem. Eng. (1913), 11, 705.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

So many industries require a water suitable in quality as
well as abundant in supply, that it is not surprising that the
problem of water supplies for industrial purposes should be
considered important, but rather that its importance should be
so little emphasized. The use of improper supplies is still
causing an annual loss of millions of pesos, even in countries
in which industries are well developed and intelligently super-
vised. For example, on one section of a certain railroad in the
United States the use of poor boiler water resulted in a cost, for
repairing and cleaning of locomotive boilers alone, of 10 centa-
vos per kilometer (16 centavos per mile) of distance run,
while the total mileage of the engines was probably reduced
one-half. 08 As an illustration of the saving that can be effected
by the substitution of a better water for an improper supply,
it may be mentioned that, according to estimation, the inhabit-
ants of Glasgow, Scotland, by using the soft Loch Katrine
water instead of the previous supply, save 300,000 pesos annually
on the item of soap alone. 69

In view of the undeveloped state of Philippine industries in
general, it is not surprising that the question of the fitness of
waters for industrial purposes should have been little considered
in the past. It is worthy of mention, however, that proper
attention to this problem would have effected a tremendous
saving in many fields of commercial enterprise. Even the most
obvious factor, that of quantity, has frequently been overlooked,
to the great detriment of the industry in question. Thus a
certain mining company, after investing heavily in expensive
machinery and equipment, found that the water available for
power purposes was adequate only for a few months in the year.

In another instance an agricultural enterprise, representing
a large investment of foreign capital, almost failed through the
neglect of the promoters to take into account the fact that the
annual rainfall, though more than sufficient for their needs, was
unequally distributed throughout the year. The extent to which
water is used in ordinary manufacture is frequently overlooked.

68 Leighton, M. O., U. S. Geol Surv., Water Supply Paper (1903),
No. 79, 14.

G9 Rideal, op. cit. (1915), 141.

51

52 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Thus it has been estimated 70 that from 40 to 1,600 liters of
water are used in the manufacture of a single kilogram of paper.

Failure to take quality of water into account has also proved
costly in the Philippines. An annual loss of many thousands
of pesos would have been avoided in one city alone by the sub-
stitution, for improper boiler waters, of supplies available at
comparatively small cost. A chemical analysis and its proper
interpretation would have obviated a number of costly failures
in cement and reenforced concrete construction. The use of a
very undesirable water in one of the centers of the Philippine
tanning industry has greatly impeded 71 the development of the
local manufacture of leather.

A factor of importance in the problem of industrial water
supplies in the Philippines arises from the frequent variation
in quality of certain waters. Many of the rivers that flow into
the sea are affected by the tides for many kilometers inland,
so that, at certain times of the day, they are decidedly brackish.
For this reason a certain river water used for irrigation can be
pumped on to the fields only at certain times of the day. A
study of the variation in the composition of one river water
enabled this laboratory to decide between two proposed types
of under-water construction, with the result that one, which
undoubtedly would have rapidly deteriorated, was rejected.

Up to the present time, the principal industrial use of water
in the Philippines has been for the production of steam, but the
industrial development of the last few years indicates that the
question of a suitable water for a particular purpose will assume
an ever-increasing importance.

Though many excellent boiler waters are available in the
Philippines, the problem of securing a good water is often an
exceedingly difficult one. In Manila and in Cebu the surface wa-
ters supplied by the municipal systems are fairly satisfactory;
in Iloilo, however, the waters available until recently were uni-
formly bad. The development of new supplies in the last-
mentioned place makes it probable that conditions soon will be
greatly improved. On the coastal plain of Occidental Negros,
the largest and most important sugar-producing district in the
Islands, excellent boiler waters are obtained from the surface
streams originating in the range of volcanic mountains that
forms the rocky backbone of the province. Several boilers

70 Palmer, C, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1909), No.
233, 185.

71 Cf . Gana, V. Q., The leather industry of the Philippine Islands, Phil.
Journ. Sri., Sec. A (1915), 10, 349-373.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 53

using these waters were found to be almost free from incrusta-
tions and showed no effects of corrosion after continuous use
during an entire milling season (three to six months), without
more cleaning than an occasional blowing-off of the water in the
boiler. On the other hand, cases might be cited of a power
company that has been spending approximately 500 pesos a
month in replacing incrusted and corroded boiler parts and of
a large manufacturing concern that was forced to distill its
water to be used for boiler feed purposes because of the entire
unsuitability of the raw water.

Both types of the instances mentioned are exceptional. It
would be a fair statement, however, to say that comparatively
few of the natural waters of the Philippines are suitable for
boiler purposes without previous treatment. In practice, the
nearest source is used. As intelligent treatment is the excep-
tion rather than the rule, and as, in the majority of cases, there
is no treatment at all, the usual boiler troubles are encountered.
Because of their frequency and importance, these will be dis-
cussed separately.

The phenomenon of foaming is the formation of bubbles on
the surface of the water in a boiler, thereby hindering the free
escape of the steam. This tendency is noted in waters rich in
sewage or other organic matter and is increased by the presence
of mud or other suspended matter. Probably the commonest
cause, however, is the high concentration of dissolved alkali
salts, either those naturally occurring in the water or those re-
sulting from chemical treatment of the feed water.

As foaming is largely a question of surface tension, it may be
temporarily relieved by surface blowing. The only remedy for
foaming due to high salt concentration is blowing off and dilut-
ing with fresh feed water. This is not only uneconomical in
regard to fuel, but due to the greater amount of water employed,
may increase the amount of incrustations.

Intimately connected with foaming is the condition technically
known as priming. This is the passage of water with the
steam. The tendency of a boiler to prime is affected by the
design of the boiler and by the steam space; it generally in-
creases as the steam space diminishes.

Corrosion of a boiler may be due to chemical or galvanic
action. Chemical corrosion may be due to two causes — solution
or oxidation. Stabler has developed the following formula for
determining the corrosive quality of a water from its chemical
composition, expressed in terms of parts per million:

54 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The "coefficient of corrosion/' c = H + 0.1116 Al + 0.0361
Fe + 0.0828 Mg - 0.0336 C0 3 - 0.0165 HC0 3 .

If c is positive, the water will certainly corrode a boiler. If
c -f 0.0503 Ca is negative, the mineral constituents in the water
will not cause corrosion. If c is negative, but c + 0.0503 Ca is
positive, corrosion may or may not occur, the probability of
corrosive action varying directly with the value of the expres-
sion c + 0.0503 Ca. 72

A feed water's solvent action is due principally to the presence
of acid. Mine waters with free mineral acids — usually sul-
phuric — and waters containing hydrogen sulphide or free carbon
dioxide are typical instances of acid feed waters. Marked cor-
rosive tendencies have been generally ascribed to waters con-
taining magnesium chloride, on the assumption that, at working
boiler temperatures, hydrochloric acid is split off hydrolytically.
So much evidence to the contrary has been brought forward,
however, that the exact role played by magnesium chloride is
still in dispute. 73 A water may become acid through the decom-
position of grease that works into the boiler. This may result
in serious corrosion. The presence of acid-free volatile oil is
actually beneficial in a boiler, assisting in scale prevention and
in the reduction of rust.

Very soft waters and those with a chlorine content of over 200
parts per million will be usually found to have corrosive properties.

In general, alkaline waters are not corrosive, though it has
been shown that, in the case of sodium and potassium carbonates,
there is a critical concentration below which solution of these
salts have a corrosive, instead of protective, tendency. 74 The
common remedy for acid waters is the addition of a slight excess
of alkali over the amount required to combine with the mineral
and organic acids present. Lime is inexpensive and usually
efficient. Its use often results in the formation of a thin pro-
tective scale, which prevents further corrosion. Barium hy-
droxide has been also recommended for the correction of the
acidity of mine waters, 75 but its relatively high cost would prob-
ably prohibit its extensive use commercially.

A small amount of oxidation of the boiler material normally

72 Stabler, H., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1911), No.
274, 170.

73 0st, H., Chem. Zeitg. (1902), 26, 819, 845; also Bradbury, Chem. News
(1913), 108, 307.

74 Friend, J. Newton, The Corrosion of Iron and Steel. Longmans,
Green & Co., New York (1911), 132.

75 Griffin, M. S., Joum. Am. Chem. Soc. (1899), 21, 676.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 55

occurs in all boilers not protected with a scale or other coating.
All natural waters contain oxygen, and this, introduced with the
feed water, may attack any unprotected iron with which it
comes in contact. This action may be especially marked at
the feed-pump discharge. Corrosion resulting from this factor
may take the dangerous form of pitting, due to the accumulation
of air in pockets. Ost 76 ascribes the oxidation of the iron,
in part, at least, to the decomposition of the hot feed water.

"Iron cannot rust in water unless oxygen is present." 7T Oxy-
gen accelerates corrosion by removing the protective film of
hydrogen, which is the product of electrolytic action. The re-
moval of the oxygen from the feed water before it enters the
boiler is, therefore, to be recommended. This is accomplished
preferably by means of an open preheater or by various chem-
ical methods, such as an alkaline tannin solution.

Corrosion may be due to galvanic as well as to chemical action.
If there is any difference of potential between the parts of a
system immersed in an electrolyte, an electrochemical action
will be set up. Two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte, and in
electrical contact, will start such an action, in which the more
electropositive metal will be worn away. Thus copper or
brass feed pipes in contact with iron will set up an electro-
chemical action at the expense of the more electropositive iron.
Iron may itself set up electrolytic couples even if it is not segre-
gated, owing to physical strains occasioned by previous heat
treatment. 78

Dissimilarity of metals is not an essential condition for elec-
trochemical action. Unequal stress, distortion, or temperature
in different parts of the same piece of metal or lack of homo-
geneity may give rise to differences of potential.

It has been often observed that brass steamship propellers
corrode most rapidly near the propeller shaft. This is fre-
quently due to the fact that there is a greater strain at that point
than at the edges, when the propeller is in motion. A differ-
ence of potential is thus set up and electrolysis takes place, in
which the center of the propeller is anodic and is consequently
corroded.

76 Ost, H., Chem. Zeitg. (1902), 26, 820.

77 Cushman, A. S., and Gardener, H. A., The Corrosion and Preservation
of Iron and Steel (1910) 101.

78 Buergess, C. F., Boiler corrosion as an electrochemical action, Journ.
Western Soc. Eng, (1909), 14, 375.

56 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The attention of the Bureau of Science was recently directed
to some very badly corroded copper fire tubes in a number of
locomotive boilers. These copper tubes were used in conjunc-
tion with a number of small brass fire tubes, all being embedded
in a copper fire sheet at one end and in an iron end-sheet at
the other. The corrosion of the copper tubes occurred where
they were embedded in the fire sheet, the brass tubes and iron
end-sheet showing little or no corrosion. Potential measure-
ments made with a millivoltmeter while the boiler was in opera-
tion showed differences of potential between different parts of
the copper tubes, as well as between different parts of the
system copper-brass-iron. The copper tubes at the points of
greatest attack were anodic to all other parts of the system.
Here the phenomenon was thermoelectric.

Stray currents are frequently the cause of corrosion. This
is true particularly in tropical regions, where proper insulation
is made exceedingly difficult by the saturated condition of the
ground during the long periods of continuous rainfall. Many
cases of excessive boiler corrosion observed in Manila have been
accompanied by appreciable differences in potential between the
boiler parts and the surrounding objects.

Several methods have been suggested and some successfully
adopted, for the prevention of electrolytic corrosion. They are
all based on the fact that iron will be corroded only when it is
the anode. Any method, therefore, that makes iron the cath-
ode, will bring about the desired result. Zinc, which is electro-
positive to iron, is often connected to iron. As iron is cathodic
to zinc, it is thus protected from corrosion. Many cases have
been recorded where zinc has been employed very satisfactorily
in this way to protect boiler parts and condenser tubes. How-
ever, it must be remembered that the protective influence of zinc
extends only over short distances and that the zinc dissolves
rapidly and must be replaced. In some cases, too, a non-conduct-
ing adherent coating of zinc salts is formed, which decreases the
protective action. If this coating is of zinc oxide, corrosion
may be even greatly accelerated, instead of inhibited, due to
the fact that zinc oxide is cathodic to iron. 79 Aluminium has
been suggested as a substitute for zinc. Until a satisfactory
method has been devised for its application, however, it is open
to even greater objection than the zinc, as a coating of alumi-
nium oxide forms quickly and is very adherent.

79 Friend, J. Newton, op. cit. (1911), 266.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 57

Another proposal that has been made 80 is to make iron the
cathode by impressing a counter electromotive force from stor-
age batteries or a small dynamo. In the absence of any depo-
larizer, dissolved oxygen especially, a very small current should
produce an electromotive force large enough to neutralize the
tendency of the iron to pass into solution. The density of the
current required can be calculated, within the limit of experi-
mental error, from the loss in weight of the unprotected metal
under the given conditions. For boiler protection, a rod of iron
or carbon connected to the positive pole of a dynamo serves as
the anode, the other pole being the boiler plates or tubes. A
number of successful applications of this treatment have been
recorded.

Still another suggestion to prevent corrosion is to passivify
the iron. Certain chemicals, notably oxidizing agents, render
iron passive and resistant to the ordinary forms of attack. It
has been calculated that the addition of 1 kilogram of potassium
dichromate to 12.5 metric tons of water would prevent corro-
sion. 81 This procedure, however, cannot be recommended for
general practice, because, under certain conditions, oxidizing
will increase, not inhibit, corrosion. For a very pure water,
passivity will take place in a. bichromate solution y 160 normal, 82
and corrosion should be inhibited. In the presence of salt a
reaction takes place, whereby an acid is formed, in accordance
with the equation : 83

H 2 + K 2 Cr 2 7 + 2NaCl ±? K 2 Cr0 4 + Na 2 Cr0 4 + 2HC1.

The hydrochloric acid formed not only may be expected to
destroy the passivity of the iron, but it also attacks it, so that
corrosion would be greatly accelerated. Furthermore, in the
presence of free acid, potassium bichromate does not passivify
iron, but instead actually accelerates corrosion, because of its
strong depolarizing effect — that is, by the removal of hydrogen.
This accelerated corrosion has been determined experimentally
by Watts. 84 Recent experiments in this laboratory have shown
that under certain conditions the corrosion of iron in acid solu-
tion may be proportional to the concentration of bichromate.
The most general boiler trouble experienced in the Philippines,

80 Clement and Walker, Tech. Paper, U. S. Bur. Mines (1913), No. 15.
sl Cushman, A. S., Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr. (1907), No. 30.

82 Cushman, op. cit.

83 Friend, J. N., Journ. Iron Steel Inst. (1908), 2, 9, quoted by Friend,.
J. N., Corrosion of Iron and Steel (1911), 163.

84 Watts, 0. P., Trans. Am. Eleetrochem. Soc. (1912), 21, 232.

58 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

however, is the formation of scale. The limestone formation,
so common in the Islands, gives rise to a large number of waters
with high calcium and magnesium contents. In other sections
the volcanic origin of the land surface and the nature of the
secondary formations are shown in high sulphate concentrations.
Scale is caused by the deposition of suspended or dissolved
material within the boiler shell or on the tubes and is termed
sludge, sediment, or incrustation according to its texture and
position. The deposition of the dissolved material at the high
boiler temperature may be due to reduced solvent properties,
to chemical action and precipitation, or to the concentration and
crystallization that accompany the evaporation of the feed
water. Mud, other suspended matter, and a portion of the
dissolved organic matter may be baked into an adherent coat-
ing, which will be soft or hard, depending on the nature of the
other scale-forming ingredients in the feed water.

Calcium and magnesium are almost always the predominating
basic substances in scale and, in the form of carbonate and sul-
phate, ordinarily constitute over 90 per cent of the incrustations.
Iron and aluminium, although normally present in Philippine
natural waters, are usually in such small amounts as to have
practically a negligible effect in scale formation.

As the method of removal of the scale-forming elements is
dependent on their nature, it will be necessary to discuss the
character of the different calcium and magnesium compounds
as they occur in the raw feed water.

The usual distinction made is indicated by the terms "tem-
porary hardness" and "permanent hardness." Under the former
head are included those compounds of calcium and magnesium
that are more or less completely decomposed and precipitated
by simple heating, thereby removing the basic elements. The
compounds of calcium and magnesium that cause permanent
hardness, however, are not removed by simple heating, and
chemical treatment must be resorted to.

Under temporary hardness are included the carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. Normal calcium car-
bonate is almost insoluble in water, while magnesium carbonate
is slightly soluble. In the presence of free carbon dioxide,
however, both carbonates are dissolved to a much greater
degree, forming the soluble bicarbonate. This condition is met
with in nature by ground waters passing, often under pressure,
through decaying organic matter or other sources of carbon
dioxide and simultaneously or subsequently through limestone

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 59

strata. In this way high concentrations of calcium and mag-
nesium bicarbonates may be produced. On the escape or
removal of the carbon dioxide, such as effected by heating, the
normal carbonates are reformed and precipitated. Simple boil-
ing will precipitate practically all of the calcium carbonate and
most of the magnesium carbonate present.

Neither the precipitated calcium nor magnesium carbonate
produces a hard scale in the absence of other scale-forming
ingredients. Ordinarily a loose, bulky sediment is formed,
which may be washed out or blown off.

Permanent hardness is ascribed to the chlorides and sulphates
of calcium and magnesium. Magnesium sulphate and chloride
and calcium chloride are increasingly soluble with increasing
temperatures, so that, obviously, heating will not remove them.
Calcium sulphate is unusual in that its solubility diminishes
with increasing temperature, and it may, therefore, be precip-
itated under boiler conditions. It is deposited as fine crystals,
which mix with the mud and other scale material to form a
very hard, vitrified scale, which can be removed only by
chipping.

Magnesium sulphate alone does not form a scale. In the
presence of calcium carbonate, however, one of the hardest
scales known is formed. Magnesium chloride has no signifi-
cance in scale formation when alone. The corrosive effects
ascribed to it have been discussed.

If the chemical analysis of a feed water is available, the
probable amount of scale can be fairly accurately calculated.
Stabler 85 has developed a formula in which the analytical results
expressed in parts per million may be used to calculate the
amount (in pounds of scale per thousand gallons of water) of
scale and sludge liable to be deposited on a boiler operated under
the usual conditions of modern practice. The formula is:

Scale

=0.00833 suspended matter +0.00833 colloidal matter (=Si0 2

+Al 2 O s +Fe 2 8 ) +0.0107 Fe+0.0157 Al+0.0138 Mg+0.0246 Ca.

Recalculated to express the amount of scale in kilograms per
cubic meter of water, this formula becomes :

Scale

=0.001 suspended matter+0.001 colloidal matter+0.0013 Fe
+0.0019 Al+0.00166 Mg+0.00295 Ca.

The following formula of Stabler's shows in pounds per
85 U. S. GeoL Surv., Water Supply Paper (1911), No. 274, 176.

60 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

thousand gallons the probable amount of material that will be
deposited as hard scale:

0.00833 SiO 9 +0.0138 Mg+ (0.016 Cl+0.0118 SO 4 -0.0246 Na

-0.0145.K).

Expressed as kilograms per cubic meter, the formula becomes :

Hard scale=0.001 SiO 2 +0.0166 Mg+0.001 (1.92 Cl+1.42 S0 4

-2.95 Na— 1.74K).

Stabler obtains a coefficient of scale hardness by dividing the
amount of hard scale by the total scale. From this coefficient
"h" he forecasts the nature of the scale as follows:

1. Soft scale: "h" not more than 0.25.

2. Medium scale: "h" more than 0.25, but not more than 0.5.

3. Hard scale: "h" more than 0.5.

Based on the amount of encrusting ingredients, several more
or less arbitrary classifications have been suggested for the suit-
ability of waters for boiler purposes. The following scheme 86
is considerably used:

Parts per million. Class.

Less than 90 Good.

90 to 200 Fair.

200 to 430 Poor.

430 to 680 Bad.

Over 680 Very bad.

The amount of estimated incrustants for use in the above
classifications may be conveniently determined as parts per
million from Stabler's formula modified as follows:

Encrustants = suspended matter (turbidity) -f colloidal matter
+1.3 Fe+1.9 Al+1.66 Mg+2.95 Ca.

The incrusting ingredients are also sometimes taken as equal
to the ' 'soap-consuming power/' 87 This method of estimating
the scale-forming materials is used as the basis of the follow-
ing classification of boiler waters, adopted at a meeting of the
American Association of Railway Chemists in May, 1887:

Less than 15 grains per gallon (258 parts per million), good.
From 15 to 20 grains per gallon (258 to 344 parts per million), fair.
From 20 to 30 grains per gallon (344 to 515 parts per million), poor.
From 30 to 40 grains per gallon (515 to 697 parts per million), bad.
Over 40 grains per gallon (697 parts per million), very bad.

"Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. & Maint. Way Assoc. (1904), 5, 595.
87 Parr, S. W., Bull III. State Geol. Surv. (1909), No. 10, 57.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 61

It will be observed that the limiting values in the two tables
differ considerably. This is to be expected. The suitability
of a water for boiler purposes is dependent on so many factors
that a simple method of diagnosis is hardly possible. Series of
numerical standards, like those given above, are of value as
indications of the quality of a water. The only final criterion,
however, is actual trial under working conditions.

SCALE PREVENTION AND WATER SOFTENING

The undesirability of scale in a boiler needs little comment.
Rankine 8S states that calcium carbonate conducts heat eighteen
times as badly, and calcium sulphate fifteen times as badly, as
iron. It is estimated 89 that one-sixth of an inch of scale neces-
sitates the use of 16 per cent more fuel; one-fourth, 50 per cent;
and one-half, 150 per cent additional coal. Schmidt and Snod-
grass, 90 as a result of their investigations, conclude that the
structure of the scale is of as much importance in these heat
losses as, or even of more importance than, its thickness or
chemical composition, except in so far as the latter affects the
structure.

Furthermore a thick scale frequently causes overheating.
The heated parts may swell and bulge to a very considerable
extent, sometimes even resulting in a fracture. Again cracks
may occur in thick scale, allowing sudden contact of the water
with the overheated boiler surface, and blistering or cracking
or even an explosion may result.

The most obvious remedy for scale formation is the removal
of the scale-forming elements before the water enters the boiler.
In spite of the logic of this method of treatment, it is common
practice to allow the incrusting material to be precipitated in
the boiler. Dependence is then often placed on "boiler com-
pounds^ or on various mechanical devices to induce the forma-
tion of a soft, nonadherent scale or sludge, which can be blown
down readily or otherwise removed. Almost without exception,
the prevailing practice in the Philipines is to apply feed-water
treatment in the boiler itself.

The number of patented processes for the purpose of mak-
ing the scale loose and bulky is exceedingly great. Among the
mechanical methods may be mentioned the use of wires, chains,
and brushes, to entangle the deposit. The electrolytic liberation

88 Quoted by Rideal, S. and E. K., Water Supplies (1915), 142.

89 Rideal, loc. cit. See also Shealy, E. M., Steam Boilers (1912), 287.

90 Bull Univ. III. (1907), 4, No. 15, 1.

62 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

of hydrogen from the boiler surface to remove scale has been
attempted, but without coming up to expectations. 91

Kerosene, paraffin oil, and substances containing tannin, such
as wood extracts, have been successfully used to keep the scale
in a loose and pulverized form, in which condition it may be
readily blown off. These materials enter into a large number of
commercial boiler compounds. Grease of any kind is to be
avoided, because it is hydrolyzed and decomposed at high tem-
perature, and acids may be formed that will corrode the iron.
In some cases where tallow is used the scale has been found to
contain from 12 to 26 per cent of iron from the boiler plates.

The removal of scale-forming ingredients from a water is
technically known as "water-softening." It cannot be too
strongly emphasized that this process should be carried on out-
side the boiler. Much of the money spent on mechanical devices
for scale prevention would yield better interest if used in prelim-
inary water softening. It is still largely the custom, however,
to soften water within the boiler and to remove the precipitated
material in the most convenient method possible.

The removal of temporary hardness is comparatively simple,
and may be effected by heating, by chemical treatment, or by a
combination of the two procedures. The heating process is best
carried out in an open feed-water heater, by which the water is
raised to the boiling point, when nearly all of the carbonates
and a portion of the sulphates are precipitated. The sediment
is easily removed from an open heater, while the pipes of a
closed heater are soon clogged up and cleaned with difficulty.
Another advantage of the open heater is that the escape of the
dissolved gases is facilitated, quickening the precipitation of the
scale-forming material and lessening the corrosive tendencies
of the water.

Nearly all of the calcium carbonate and most of the mag-
nesium carbonate are thus precipitated.

The same result may be achieved by the addition of an alkali,
such as milk of lime or caustic soda. As the former is much
cheaper and adds no soluble salt to the treated water, it is gen-
erally used. In this case the reactions may be represented by
the following equations:

Ca (HC0 3 ) 2 +Ca (OH) 2 ~^2CaC0 3 +2H 2 0.
Mg(Hcd a ) 2 +Ca(OH) 2 -^MgC0 8 +CaC0 3 +2H 2 0.

The second reaction does not proceed to completion with the
theoretical amount of lime, due to the solubility of the magnesium

91 Rideal, op. cit., 143.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 63

carbonate. A further amount of lime is, therefore, added to
precipitate the magnesium as the more insoluble hydroxide.

The removal of permanent hardness is about nine times as
costly as that of temporary hardness. As has been stated,
calcium sulphate may be removed by heating under pressure,
but as such heating is done preferably outside the boiler, this
method of removal is uneconomical. Accordingly chemical treat-
ment is employed.

Calcium sulphate is removed by the addition of soda ash
(sodium carbonate) according to the equation:

CaS0 4 +Na 2 C0 3 ->CaC0 8 +Na 2 S0 4 .

Soda ash is the most important ingredient of many boiler
compounds.

Magnesium sulphate, which cannot be completely precipitated
as the carbonate, is more completely precipitated as the less
soluble hydrate by the addition of both lime and soda ash :

MfirS0 4 +Na 2 C0 8 +Ca(OH)- 2 ->Mg(OH) 2 +CaC0 8 +Na 2 S0 4 .

The lime-soda process is fairly efficient and comparatively
cheap and is the method most extensively employed for water
softening. The proper amounts of reagents calculated, the
amount of scale-forming ingredients, are added to the feed
water, either hot or cold, and the precipitate is allowed to settle.
This settling takes place more rapidly with hot than with cold
water. After the sediment has subsided, the clear water is
withdrawn and conducted to a storage tank. A vertical type
of water softener provides a small chemical tank on top of the
softener proper, a mixing chamber, and a storage space for the
softened water. The chemicals are introduced with the raw feed
water into the mixing chamber by an automatic proportioning
device. After precipitation has taken place, the treated water
flows downward through a quartz filter into the storage space
below.

The amounts of lime and soda ash required to soften a water
can be determined from its chemical analysis. According to
Stabler 92 the number of pounds of lime (90 per cent Cap) and
soda ash (95 per cent Na 2 C0 3 ) required per thousand gallons
of water may be calculated from the following formulas :

Lime required=0.00931 Fe+0.0288 A1+0.0214 Mg+0.258 H
(from mineral acidity) +0.00426 HCO, + 0.0118 C0 2 .

92 Stabler, H., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1911), No. 274,
170.

64 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Soda ash required=0.0167 Fe+0.0515 Al+0.0232 Ca+0.0382
Mg+0.462 H-0.0155 CO 3 -0.00763 HC0 3 .

Recalculated to express the lime and soda requirements in
terms of kilograms of the reagent per cubic meter of water,
these formulas become :

Lime required = 0.001117 Fe + 0.0034§6 Al + 0.002568 Mg +

0.030960 H+0.000511 HCO 3 +0.001416 C0 2 .

Soda ash required==0;002004 Fe+0.006180 Al+0.002784 Ca+

0.004584 Mg+0.055440 H-0.001860 CO 3 -0.000917 HC0 3 .

A negative value for the second formula shows that no soda
ash is required.

A rapid chemical method 93 for determining the lime and soda
requirements is the treatment of a definite quantity of the water
first with a standard calcium hydroxide solution and again
with a standard sodium carbon/ate solution, ascertaining by
titration with acid in each case the amounts of alkali consumed.

Considerable attention has been recently directed to the navy
standard boiler compound, developed in the United States Navy.
The ingredients are sodium carbonate, starch, tannic acid, and
trisodium phosphate. The purpose of the sodium carbonate is
to take

Care of any chemical reaction and render the solution noncorrosive.
The tannic acid and starch are added to prevent the formation of scale,
the action being to hold the impurities in suspension in the colloidal state.
The trisodium phosphate prevents the rise of the surface tension of the
solution and consequent priming caused by the impurities in the water
and by the application of the other ingredients in the compound.

In using this compound, the proportions of the ingredients
are varied according to the composition of the raw water. To
prevent corrosion,

A sufficient quantity must be added to each boiler to render the alkaline
strength of the water in the boiler 3 per cent of normal or above, and
the alkaline strength must be maintained in each boiler. 94

The precipitated material is easily blown off or washed out of
the boiler. A number of instances of successful applications
of this treatment have been recorded.

Among the other methods of water softening the "permutit"
process deserves special mention. Dr. Robert Gans, of Berlin,

93 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage. Amer-
ican Public Health Association, 755 Boylston Street, Boston, 2d ed. (1915),

. 69-70.

94 Babcock, Allen H., A novel method of handling boilers to prevent
corrosion and scale, Journ. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. (1916), 38, 530.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 65

in the course of his geological researches, observed that certain
members of the group of rock minerals called zeolites had the
property of softening waters that passed over or through them.
In 1906 Gans patented a process for the synthetic production
of zeolites. The following is an empirical formula for the mate-
rial now sold commercially as permutit :

2Si0 2 • A1 2 3 ■ Na 2 • 6H 2 0.

When a water containing calcium or magnesium compounds
is passed through a porous filter or mass of this sodium-permutit
(which is insoluble in water), the sodium in the permutit is
replaced by the calcium or magnesium. Thus calcium sulphate,
in passing through a filter of permutit, would be converted to
sodium sulphate, the calcium remaining behind, forming a cal-
cium permutit, also insoluble. By regulating the flow according
to the capacity of the filter, water of zero hardness may be ob-
tained. The material is regenerated by passing through it a
10 per cent solution of common salt, whereby the calcium is re-
placed by the sodium and passes out as calcium chloride. Com-
mercial installations of permutit have been made both in the
United States and in Europe, and one for feed-water softening
has been recently ordered by a large factory in the Philippines.

Related to permutit are the Allagit and the Reichling pro-
cesses, which consist in passing the raw feed water through
a filter of rocky material, which removes the scale-forming
ingredients.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the characteristics of
a good boiler water are freedom from acidity; absence of sul-
phates and magnesium salts ; low concentrations of calcium com-
pounds, suspended and colloidal matter, and dissolved gases;
and the presence of only small amounts of sodium and potassium
salts.

How hard a water may be used without treatment is decided
most practically by a comparison of the cost of artificially soft-
ening the water with the savings effected by thfe use of the
softened water.

The benefits of softening include: 95 Saving in boiler cleaning,
in boiler repairs, and in fuel due to decrease in scale; fewer
idle boilers; decreased depreciation of boilers; value of mate-
rials removed by softening plant; and reduced liability to
accident and involved losses.

95 Slightly modified from Aubert and Rogers, Industrial Chemistry for
the Student and Manufacturer (1913), 52.

152918 5

66 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The cost of softening includes : Labor and power for operating
softener; softening chemicals; interest on cost of installation,
depreciation of softening plant; and waste in changing water
due to increased foaming tendency of the water.

While it is almost invariably true that practically any cost of treat-
ment will pay returns on the investment, the fact must not be overlooked
that there are certain waters which should never be used for boiler purposes,
and which no treatment can render suitable for such purpose. In such
cases the only remedy is the securing of other feed supply or the employ-
ment of evaporators for distilling the feed water as in marine service. 96

WATER FOR OTHER INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Besides its use for steam making, water plays a most impor-
tant role in the industries, not only in the process of manufac-
ture, but often as part of the finished product.

While, in general, the qualities most desired in a water for
industrial purposes are softness and freedom from suspended
matter, there are certain industries for which waters of a par-
ticular composition are the most suitable. Water that is en-
tirely unsuited for one manufacturing process may be very
desirable for another. Waters containing sodium chloride
are undesirable for soap making, yet are sometimes decidedly
advantageous in brewing. Hard waters entirely unsuited for
laundry or boiler use may be quite suitable for irrigation pur-
poses. Waters containing calcium and magnesium sulphate,
adaptable to brewing, are undesirable for soap making or boiler
use.

In the making of beverages and other food products, not only
must the water be chemically satisfactory, but it must be hygien-
ically acceptable. Typical cases in the Philippines are found
in the preparation of carbonated water products, which have
been already discussed, and the manufacture of ice. In con-
nection with the latter, it should be remembered that artificial
ice contains all the impurities of the bulk of water from which
it was made, this being frozen entire. In the formation of
natural ice, on the other hand, the impurities remain in the
fluid portion. Cummings 97 found in natural ice exceedingly
small amounts of solid residue, usually below 10 parts per mil-
lion. He further observed a very large reduction in the bac-
terial content of the ice as compared with that of the water
from which it was formed. In three cases this reduction was
from 12,000 to 125, 520 to 3, and 1,400 to 10, respectively.

9t Babcock & Wilcox Co., Steam: Its Generation and Use (1913) 100.
97 Cummings, H. S., Journ. Am. Med. Assoc. (1916), 67, 751.

WATER FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES 67

While in the Philippines distilled and artesian waters are used
almost exclusively in the manufacture of artificial ice, an im-
pure and unwholesome product sometimes results from the care-
less handling of the initially pure water. Though bacteria
usually die rapidly in ice, undue reliance should not be placed
on this form of self -purification.

The effect of the substances commonly found in water on a
number of the industries will be discussed under interpretation
of analyses.

The Filipinos are primarily an agricultural people. The two
principal crops in the Philippines that require any great amount
of cultivation are rice and sugar cane ; both of these, especially the
former, require much water for their development. Irrigation
has been long known in the Philippines in connection with rice
culture; it reaches a remarkable stage of development in the
wonderful terraced paddies of the Ifugaos and other non-Chris-
tian tribes of northern Luzon.

While hitherto the rains have been relied upon to supply the
water necessary for the growth of sugar cane, irrigation is
coming into use in those localities where it can be employed.

The question of the desirability of a water for irrigating pur-
poses has always been an important one. Surface waters are
naturally most commonly used, due to their availability and to the
comparatively small effort involved in their employment. In
some localities spring waters, when available and of desirable
quality, are used to a considerable extent. In other places,
notably in certain districts in the western part of the United
States, the surface waters have been of such poor quality as
to necessitate the perforation of deep artesian wells at great
expense. In the Philippines surface waters are most exten-
sively employed, though, in the case of "wet weather" streams,
the water is oftentimes available only in the rainy season.
Spring waters are also used, but to a less extent. The drilling
of artesian wells to supply water for agricultural purposes is
not practiced in the Philippines.

The commonest deleterious substances in irrigating waters
are salts of the alkalies, notably the carbonates, chlorides, and
sulphates of sodium and potassium. Calcium and magnesium
carbonates are seldom present in objectionable amount, both
because of the fact that even very high initial concentrations are
usually lowered by aeration and removal of carbon dioxide and
because the addition of these carbonates very often has a bene-
ficial fertilizing action.

68 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Land would probably be injured by the best of natural waters if irrigated
with them for a long period of time without natural or artificial drainage,
for all irrigating waters contain alkali, and evaporation in and from the
soil would result in a gradual accumulation of toxic salts. 98

Loughridge " found the relative toxicities of the alkalies to-
ward common cultures of bacteria to be about as follows :

Toxicity.

Sodium as Na 2 C0 3 10

Sodium as NaCl 5

Sodium as Na 2 S0 4 1

The investigations indicate further that about 1,680 kilograms
per hectare (1,500 pounds per acre) of sodium with a relative
toxicity of 1 (as above) in 1.2 meters (4 feet) of soil is barely
sufficient to affect injuriously the more sensitive common crops.
Stabler used these and other similar experimental data as
a basis for the calculation of an alkali coefficient that may
be made from a water analysis by the means of the following
formulas :

(a) When Na— 0.65C1 is zero or negative,

2040
alkali coefficient K = .

CI

(b) When Na— 0.65C1 is positive, but not greater than

0.48SO 4 ,

6620
alkali coefficient K = •

Na +■ 2.6C1

(c) When Na-0.65Cl-0.48SO 4 is positive,
alkali coefficient K =

Na-0.32Cl-0.43SO 4

Based on the values of the alkali coefficients thus obtained,
the following approximate classification of irrigating waters is
given :

Alkali coefficient. Class.

More than 18 Good.

18 to 6 Fair.

5.9 to 1.2 Poor.

Less than 1.2 Bad.

95 Stabler, Herman, TJ. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1911), No.
274, 177.

99 Stabler, loc. cit.

MINERAL WATERS

The term "mineral water" is somewhat confusing. Prac-
tically all natural waters contain dissolved mineral matter and
might be properly classified as mineral waters. However, in
the more restricted meaning of the term, only those waters
are included that have peculiar characteristics distinguishing
them from ordinary spring or well water. According to Griin-
hut, 100 a mineral water is identified by (a) a high content of
soluble matter, (b) a high content of rare or unusual substances,
or (c) a high temperature. Table III shows the substances
on the basis of which he makes his classification and the limiting
values for each substance:

Table III. — GriinhuVs basis for classification of mineral water.

Substance.

Parts per million.

Total solids

1,000

Free carbon dioxide

250

Lithium (Li)

1

Strontium (Sr)

10

Barium (Ba)

5

Ferrous or ferric iron (Fe)

10

Bromine ion (Br)

5

Iodine ion (I)

1

Fluorine ion (F)

2

Arsenic (As)

1.05

Total sulphur (S)

1

Metaboric acid (HB0 2 )

5

Alkalinity

400

Radium emanation

3.5 Mache units

per liter.

Temperature

20° C. a

a Obviously this value could not be used in a country like the Philippines, where in many
localities the average temperature is much higher and water is usually from 25° to 30° C.

If any of these values 101 is exceeded, the water may be re-
garded as a mineral water.

Mineral waters are further classified on the basis of the
ingredients that give them their predominant characteristics.
One of the best systems of classification is that of Haywood and
Smith, 102 which is generally used in technical work. A simpler,

100 Griinhut, L., Zeitschr. f. Balneol. (1912), 4, 433^6; Wasser u. Abwasser
(1912), 5, 417-20; Pharm. Zentralh. (1914), 55, 180.

101 This classification has been adopted by the Verein der Kurorte und
Mineralquellen-Interessenten Deutschlands, Oesterreich-Ungarns, und der
Schweiz.

102 Haywood, J. K., and Smith, B. H., Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur.
Chem. (1905), 91, 11.

69

70 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

less complete classification, sufficient for the purpose of this
paper, is as follows: 103

I. Thermal, Example, Los Baiios springs, Laguna.

II. Carbonated (or bicarbonated) .

1. Alkaline, containing:

a. Sodium bicarbonate.

b. Potassium bicarbonate (rarely). Example, Dinalupihan

Spring, Bataan.

2. Magnesium, containing:

a. Magnesium bicarbonate. Example, Hot Spring, Puerto Galera,
Mindoro.

3. Calcareous, containing:

a. Calcium bicarbonate. Example, Bolocboloc Spring, Barili,
Cebu.

III. Chalybeate (iron, ferruginous).

1. Containing the sulphate or bicarbonate of iron. Example, Lanot
Spring, Ambos Camarines.

IV. Muriated waters.

1. Containing salts, mainly sodium or potassium chlorides. Example,
Mainit Spring, Bontoc.

V. Aperient or sulphated waters.

1. Containing sodium sulphate (Glauber's salt). Example: Klondike

Spring, Benguet.

2. Magnesium sulphate (epsom salt). Example, Tancalao Spring,

Tabaco, Albay.

VI. Bromide and iodide waters.

1. Containing the bromides or iodides of sodium and potassium.
Examples, Maaslom Spring, Cebu. (Few definitely known in
the Philippines.)

VII. Sulphuretted or hepatic waters.

1. Containing sodium or hydrogen sulphide. Example, Sibul Spring,
Bulacan.

VIII. Arsenical.

1. Containing arsenic. Example, Tiwi Spring, Albay.

IX. Lithia.

1. Containing lithium salts. No good example known. 104

There are other classes of water, such as iodic, borated, and
lithic; but these are not so common, or else their properties are
indicated by their names, so that they need not be further dis-
cussed here.

It is not the intention to discuss at length the medicinal prop-
erties of different Philippine waters. At best, the physiologic
action of various ingredients in the minute quantities present
in waters must remain in doubt. The curative properties some-
times attributed to various mineral springs appear grossly exag-
gerated, and it hardly seems plausible that the small amounts

103 Cf . Rideal, op. cit., 12.

104 No lithium-bearing minerals have been found in the Philippines.

MINERAL WATERS 71

of mineral salts contained in such waters would have the won-
derful power ascribed to them. For example, 105

Though it is true that many drugs are as efficient when given in very-
small, but frequent doses, as when given in one large dose, the therapeutic
value of 1 part per millon of lithium (the amount present in some waters
widely advertised as lithia waters) may well be questioned, because a
physician would have to prescribe 200 tumblerfuls of the water in order
to administer an ordinary minimum dose.

No doubt the pleasant surroundings of the average medicinal
spring resort, combined with fresh air, good food, and general
relaxation and exercise, contribute their share toward the im-
provement in the health of a patient and help make possible
the remarkable cures often recorded.

Our experience in the Philippines has shown that little reli-
ance can be placed on popular opinion as a criterion of the value
of mineral waters. Springs supposed to be of great medicinal
value have been frequently found to be of very ordinary che-
mical content, whereas many waters that compare favorably
with those of well-known baths and springs in foreign countries
are regarded with complete indifference. A certain town has
an artesian water very similar chemically to that of Sibul
Springs, yet there was, until a short time ago, a decided anti-
pathy to its use. Very recently wonderful curative properties
were attributed to a certain artesian well, and hundreds of
people traveled many kilometers to partake of its waters; yet
this water is in many respects similar to a supply in another
province that people frequently refuse to drink. Observations
were made on one of the best-known and most popular springs
a short time ago, 106 with some curious results:

In order to ascertain whether the water has laxative or constipating
properties a record was kept of a large series of cases for the effect which
water had upon persons who visited there, with the result that diarrhoea
was produced in approximately one-third of the people, constipation in
another third, and the remaining third was apparently unaffected in so
far as action of the bowels was concerned.

However, the value of mineral waters is now so generally
accepted that their use has become firmly established in ther-
apeutic practice. The following statement of the medicinal
values 107 of different classes of mineral waters is taken directly
from Haywood and Smith. 108

105 Dole, U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1910), No. 254, 25.
103 Ann. Rep. P. I. Bur. Health (1913), 32.

107 Compare also the statements on the effect of various ingredients in the
chapter on Interpretation of Water Analyses.

108 Op. cit., 12.

72 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The physiological action and therapeutic applications of the various
classes of mineral waters here given do not represent the results of
experiments carried on in the Bureau of Chemistry, but are gathered
from works which are considered authoritative on the subject. 21

[Footnote : a Among these are Crook's Mineral Waters of the United
States and Canada, Schweitzer's Mineral Waters of Missouri, and Cohen's
System of Physiologic Therapeutics.]

Carbonated or bicarbonateol alkaline waters. — This is one of the most
important groups of mineral waters. As a class these waters are used
to stimulate the secretions of the digestive tract, neutralize superacidity
of the stomach, increase metabolism, dissolve uric acid, increase the
flow of urine, correct acidity of the urine, and dissolve uric acid deposits.
They are therefore of value in catarrhal conditions of the mucous mem-
branes, rheumatism, gout, diabetes, etc.

Sodic carbonated and bicarbonated alkaline waters. — Sodium carbonate
or bicarbonate appears as a normal constituent of the blood, lymph, and
nearly all secretions of the mucous membrane. Where conditions arise
that cause any of these fluids to become acid, this class of waters is of
great value in counteracting the effect. The sodic carbonated waters in-
crease metabolism, dissolve uric acid, and allay irritation of the mucous
membrane of the urinary tract. They have therefore been used with
excellent results in treating acid dyspepsia, rheumatism, gout, and diabetes.
Such waters are also of value in breaking up and eliminating uric acid
deposits and uric acid sand and gravel.

Potassic carbonated and bicarbonated alkaline waters have very much
the same action as the sodic carbonated, except that they are perhaps
better for increasing the solubility and elimination of uric acid. The
chief use of such waters as these is in the treatment of stone in the
bladder.

Lithic carbonated and bicarbonated alkaline waters. — While lithium
seldom or never occurs in waters in large enough quantities to be a pre-
dominating basic constituent, still it does often appear in sufficient quan-
tities to have a decided therapeutic action. These compounds are active
diuretics and form a very soluble urate which is easily eliminated from
the system. Waters of the above class therefore find, their greatest ap-
plication in the treatment of rheumatism, rheumatic tendencies, and gout.
In cases of gravel and calculi they are also valuable disintegrating agents.

Magnesic carbonated and bicarbonated alkaline waters. — Such -waters
as these act as mild laxatives and are perhaps the best of all the carbon-
ated alkaline waters in correcting an acid condition of the stomach and
curing sick headaches caused by constipation. They favor the solution
of uric acid, are valuable agents in breaking up deposits in the bladder,
and are much used in catarrhal conditions of the mucous membrane of
the urinary organs.

Calcic carbonated and bicarbonated alkaline waters. — This class of waters
is quite different in its effect from the carbonated waters previously men-
tioned. While the foregoing waters are evacuant and promote secretions,
this class of waters constipates and decreases the secretions. Very ob-
stinate cases of chronic diarrhea have been cured by a sojourn at a spring
rich in calcium bicarbonate. Uric acid gravel and calculi are also dis-
integrated and eliminated by the free use of the above waters.

MINERAL WATERS 73

Ferruginous bicarbonated alkaline waters. — These waters increase the
amount of haemoglobin and in connection therewith increase the tempera-
ture, pulse, and weight. They also increase the appetite and reduce intes-
tinal activity. Such waters give excellent results when used as a tonic.
They find their principal application in anaemia and in general debility
brought about by sexual diseases. Too long use of waters rich in iron
results in constipation and derangement of the digestion.

B orated alkaline waters. — There are comparatively few springs of this
description which have been used to any extent. Their therapeutic ap-
plication, therefore, is somewhat obscure. It may be said, in general,
that such waters act as anti-acids. They promote the menstrual flow,
and so may be used in catamenial irregularities. Applied locally to catar-
rhal mucous membranes, they are of value.

Muriated alkaline-saline waters. — These waters are especially valuable
in the treatment of catarrhal conditions of the mucous membrane of the
stomach, intestines, and biliary passages, and urinary tract. They in-
crease the flow of urine and the excretion of uric acid. The stronger
ones are often used as a gargle.

Sulphated alkaline-saline waters. — These waters, like the preceding
class, are valuable in the treatment of catarrhal conditions of the mucous
membrane. They also act as diuretics. In large quantities they act as
purgatives by increasing the peristaltic movement and liquefying the in-
testinal contents. Such waters as these are especially indicated in obesity.

Muriated saline waters. — As a whole these waters stimulate the secre-
tion of the stomach, increase digestion, favor a more complete absorption
of foods, and act as diuretics.

Sodic muriated saline waters. — Where these waters are very heavily
charged with sodium chlorid they are often used for baths, to increase
the action of the skin, and by absorption act as a tonic. Such waters
when taken internally are usually diluted. They increase the flow of
gastric juice, improve the appetite, increase the flow of urine, and
the urea in the same. They also prevent putrefactive changes in the
intestines.

Potassic muriated saline waters. — The authors do not know of any
waters which belong to the muriated saline group and yet contain potas-
sium as a predominating constituent. However, potassium is sometimes
present in these waters in considerable quantities. Its therapeutic action
is very much like that of the sodium salt.

Lithic muriated saline waters. — Such waters as these would have the
usual action of the muriated saline class, with an intensified diuretic
effect, due to the lithium.

Calcic muriated saline waters. — These waters usually have sodium as
the predominating basic constituent, along with notable amounts of calcium
and sometimes magnesium. In general debility these waters act as a tonic.
They increase the flow of urine, sweat, and bile, and are used in the
treatment of scrofulous diseases and eczema.

Sulphated saline waters. — As a class, these waters are laxative or purga-
tive according to the quantity taken, and should generally only be used
in moderate amounts. They are especially indicated where long-continued
stimulation of the intestinal activity is desired without stimulation of
the vascular system.

Sodic and magnesic sulphated saline waters. — In small doses these

74 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

waters act as laxatives and in large doses as purgatives. They increase
the flow of the intestinal fluids and of the urine, the latter being accom-
panied by an increased elimination of urea. Such waters as these are
of great service in eliminating syphilitic, scrofulous, and malarial poisons
from the system and in throwing off mercury and other metallic poisons.
Persons suffering from obesity, dropsy, derangement of the liver, and
Bright's disease are perhaps the most benefited by this class of waters.

Potassic sulphated saline waters. — While potassium may be present in
large enough quantities in the sulphated saline waters to deserve mention,
the authors do not know Of any waters in which it is a predominating
basic constituent. In so far as it is present, however, it has very much
the same effect as. the two salts mentioned above.

Calcic sulphated saline waters. — This class of waters forms what is
known as the permanently hard group. They have no well-known ther-
apeutic action.

Ferruginous sulphated saline waters and aluminic sulphated saline
waters. — Iron and aluminum usually occur together when either is present
as a predominating metallic constituent in sulphated saline waters. Since
waters containing large quantities of iron and aluminum along with sul-
phuric acid ions are practically always acid, it is best to consider them
under the sulphated acid group.

Nitrated saline waters. — The authors have only found one water which
belongs to this class, and are undecided, on account of not being able to
examine the surroundings of the spring, whether the nitrates are due to
organic nitrogenous matter which is in active state of decomposition or
to nitrogenous matter which has been oxidized in times long past and is
therefore no longer injurious. In either case, however (especially in the
latter) , the existence of one water containing predominating quantities
of nitrates necessitates a classification to cover this group of waters. The
medicinal action of these waters has not been determined.

Acid waters. — This group of waters is principally composed of the fer-
ruginous-aluminic sulphated class, although there are a few acid springs
which contain comparatively little iron and aluminum, but quite large
amounts of calcium, sodium, or magnesium. These waters are used in
relaxed conditions of the mucous membrane, especially when characterized
by diarrhea or dysentery. These are also used in the treatment of exhaust-
ing night sweats and impoverished conditions of the body brought about
by intemperance or specific diseases. Locally they are used in treating
inflamed or relaxed conditions of the mucous membrane such as are found
in conjunctivitis, chronic vaginitis, etc. The ferruginous waters of this
group have the usual effect of all iron waters, such as has already been
described under ferruginous carbonated alkaline waters. When a water
is desired for its tonic effect it is best to give it in the ferruginous car-
bonated form, since it is more easily absorbed and assimilated.

Iodic and bromic waters. — Since iodin and bromin usually accompany
each other in mineral waters, they should be considered together. Waters
of this class act as alteratives. They stimulate the lymphatic system
to greater activity and promote absorption in all the tissues. Their
employment is therefore indicated in the treatment of scrofula, syphilis,
goiter, chronic exudations, etc. They also favor the elimination of mercury
and other metallic poisons. The bromic waters also act as sedatives.

Arsenic waters. — These waters act as an alterative, increase the ap-

MINERAL WATERS 75

petite and digestion, and improve the whole nutrition of the body. They
do this not only by increasing the secretion of the gastro-intestinal
membrane, but also by checking katabolism. Such waters as these are
especially valuable in the treatment of anaemia and a number of skin
diseases. They are also indicated in the treatment of chronic malarial
poisoning, neuralgia of anaemia origin, scrofulosis, etc.

Silicious waters. — The medicinal value of these waters has not been
thoroughly investigated, althought one or two investigations have been
made which seem to show that they would be of value in the treatment
of cancer. It has been stated that silica taken internally has caused
albumin and sugar to disappear from the urine.

Azotized and oxygenated waters. — Both nitrogen and oxygen are present
in all waters that have come in contact with the air. On account of the
limited solubility of both they can not occur in waters in very large
quantities. Neither of them as they occur in waters has any medicinal
value.

Carbondioxated waters. — These waters contain free carbon dioxid as
distinguished from the carbonated or bicarbonated waters which contain
carbon dioxid in combination. Usually the heavily carbondioxated waters
are also bicarbonated, but this is not necessarily true. Free carbon
dioxid is present in practically all natural waters to some extent, but
in some waters, notably the Saratoga, it is present in very large quanti-
ties. Such waters are extremely palatable and large quantities can be drunk
without causing a "full feeling." These waters tend to increase the flow
of saliva and intestinal fluids, also to increase the peristaltic movements
of the stomach, and therefore increase digestion. They also tend to
increase the flow of urine. Obstinate cases of nausea are often relieved
by the use of this class of waters.

Carbureted waters. — These waters sometimes occur in coal and natural-
gas regions. They are not known to have any medicinal value, but are
usually considered unfit for drinking purposes.

Sulphur eted waters. — These waters increase the action of the skin, in-
testines, and kidneys. They also possess a decided alterative effect. They
have been used in the treatment of syphilis, chronic metallic poisoning,
rheumatism, and gout. They have also given excellent results in many
skin diseases, hypersemia of the liver, and catarrhal conditions of the
pharynx, larynx, and bronchi.

The radioactive waters should be added to this list, as these
have been frequently found to be of therapeutic value. Because
of the importance of this class of waters, they will be discussed
under a separate heading.

As a general rule, better therapeutic effect has been obtained
by the use of waters directly at the source than when taken at a
distance, and this for a variety of reasons. Radioactivity is
an evanescent quality, which cannot be conserved by bottling;
natural waters are unstable and undergo changes on standing;
and above all the physiological effect of imbibing waters at the
source is of importance. At considerable distances from desir-
able sources, however, the use of bottled waters is much practiced.

76 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

There is sound basis for this procedure, especially among trav-
elers, who find it a great convenience and a direct benefit to
health to be able to go from place to place without changing the
kind of drinking water.

As there is no inherent difference between a natural water
and one artificially compounded, it is but natural that numerous
successful attempts have been made to impregnate waters with
salts in order to make them approximate the composition of
famous mineral-spring waters. Transportation charges are thus
lessened, the amount of water that can be placed on the market
is not limited by the flow of a spring, and the cost of water is
generally reduced materially. An artificial "Karlsbad" salt has
even obtained 109 a place in the German pharmacopoeia. Its for-
mula is as follows: Parts

Anhydrous sodium sulphate 22

Potassium sulphate 1

Sodium chloride 9

Sodium bicarbonate 18

A supposedly better tasting preparation is compounded as
follows :

Parts.

Potassium sulphate 1.6

Sodium chloride 10.0

Sodium bicarbonate 27.5

Anhydrous sodium sulphate 15.0

Precipitated calcium sulphate 5.0

Anhydrous magnesium sulphate 2.0

No systematic study of mineral waters has been yet under-
taken on a large scale by the Bureau of Science, so that our
records are still too incomplete to warrant a detailed discussion
of the springs of the Philippines. The best published data on
this subject are the monographs and bulletins of the Spanish
Government, to which reference was made in the first footnote.
The data secured by the Bureau of Science are shown in the tables
of analytical results, especially Table XII.

Practically every province in the Philippines has many excel-
lent springs, some of them with great reputations for medicinal
virtues. In addition, the drilling of artesian wells has made
available a large number of excellent mineral waters. Popular
preference, however, is usually given to water from a spring.

A few of the more important Philippine mineral waters are
briefly described below. The list contains only those that have
been examined by members of the Bureau of Science staff and

109 Cohn, H., Sammlung Chem. u. chem. tech. Vortrage (1906), 10, 409-500.

MINERAL WATERS 77

includes several that are not really mineral waters, but that
have reputations for medicinal properties. Other sources are
given in the tables.

Albay. — The hot springs at Tiui have been described by Adams
and Pratt, as follows: 110

Tiui Hot Spring. — The most noted hot springs of this region are near
Tiui; they have been described by Jagor, von Drasche, and Abella.
Abella considered them as subordinate volcanic emanations of Malinao.

"Hot water accompanied by sulphurous gas issues at a place termed
Jigabo, in the bed of a small stream, the Naga. This place has the
nature of a fumarole. The stones in the river bad have been largely
decomposed by the chemical action of the waters, and the ground and
stones in places are coated with a sulphurous efflorescence. This spot is
but a short distance to the west of Tiui. A small bath house has been
constructed, and a pit walled up with stones serves as a pool for bathing.
The temperature of the bath is regulated by conducting the desired
amount of cool water from the stream into the ditch which leads the
hot water to the pool. Farther up the stream there is a place where
some gases emanate from the ground and the water is somewhat miner-
alized. Naglagbong, which lies down the stream, is the principal point
at which the hot waters of Tiui are found. There is a pool about 20
meters in diameter filled nearly to the rim with water, which steams
very slightly. Around it there is a white, silicious deposit which shelves
out over the water. The pool is transparent, and in the depths the water
has beautiful, blue colorings, and fantastic, silicious deposits may be seen
forming the sides of the basin and the narrow, irregular opening in the
bottom. There is white, silicious sinter near by, covering a considerable
area and grading off into bluish mud. Many minute cracks and vents
occur in the sinter, from which small quantities of sulphurous gas, mixed
with steam, arise.

"The water near by in the shallow pools is hot, and bubbles of gas
break on its surface at some places. The silicious sinter has been built
up in a low, irregular, convex area on which there is what is termed the
white cone. This place at one time must have contained a central opening
in which the hot waters arose. The silica deposited from the water grad-
ually built a rim around the opening and then sealed its mouth, leaving
a small basin-like depression on the top. To the northwest on the white
cone, there is another large pool of hot water and beyond it the deposits
are tinged and in part vividly colored with red oxide of iron. Fantastic
forms of the silicious material may be seen simulating coral growth.
Foreign substances which have accumulated i\ear the hot waters are coated
with the sinter."

The waters are thermal, sulphureted, and arsenical.
Ambos Camarines. — The Lanot and other springs on the west
coast of San Miguel Bay are ferruginous, carbon-dioxated.

In addition to the spring above mentioned, attention may be called to

110 Adams, G. L, and Pratt, W. E., Phil. Journ. Scl, Sec. A (1911), 6,
468-469.

78 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

the hot springs near Manito, across the bay from Legaspi. One of these
on the beach is covered at high tide, but at low water it sends up a small
column of steam which can sometimes be seen from passing steamships.
There are other hot waters and a number of mineral springs in the region
of the cordillera, but they are considered of little importance at present. 1 "

Batangas.— There are a number of thermal and other mineral
springs in Batangas, which, however, have not been much
studied. A flowing artesian well at Batangas is worthy of men-
tion (see radioactivity) as the most radioactive source yet found
in the Philippines.

Bulaccm. — Of the many mineral waters of Bulacan Province,
only two have been sufficiently studied to merit description here.

The springs at Sibul are nonthermal, mildly suphureted
sources of very great capacity. A splendid bathhouse has been
erected here by the Insular Government. People come from great
distances for the waters, which have^ perhaps, the greatest
reputation for medicinal virtues of any waters in the Islands.
The usual statements based on the chemical analysis regarding
the therapeutic value of these springs are undoubtedly erro-
neous, as the waters are only moderately mineralized. How-
ever, the springs are among the most radioactive yet found in
the Philippines.

The artesian well at Marilao has acquired a great reputation,
and a bathhouse has been built. The waters are nonthermal
and are not sufficiently mineralized to be classed as mineral
waters. They are not radioactive. There is no apparent reason
why they should be considered medicinal.

Cebu. — At the request of the Speaker of the Philippine As-
sembly an investigation of the mineral springs of Cebu was
conducted by Mr. Gana, 112 of the Bureau of Science. The results
of his work are incorporated in Table XII (spring waters).

Cebu has many excellent thermal and mineral springs. Boloc-
boloc Spring, at Barili, is nonthermal, sulphurated, bicarbonated,
carbon-dioxated. Other sources are "Mainit," Naga, a thermal
spring; a nonthermal sulphureted spring at Dumanjug; a hot
spring at Malabuyoc; and others, whose analyses are shown in
the tabular data.

Iloilo. — Perhaps the best-known springs are those on Guimaras
Island. They are chiefly nonthermal, calcic, bicarbonated.

Laguna. — Laguna Province is well supplied with springs,

111 Adams and Pratt, loc. cit.

" 2 Cox, A. J., Heise, G. W., and Gana, V. Q., Phil. Journ. Sci, Sec. A
(1914), 9, 273.

MINERAL WATERS 79

especially in the vicinity of Mounts Maquiling, Banajao, and
San Cristobal.

There are many springs in the neighborhood of Los Baiios
and on the slopes of Mount Maquiling. A large sanatorium has
been erected at the town of Los Banos, which attracts many
visitors.

The Los Baiios hot springs are only moderately mineralized.
They are, however, the most highly radioactive thermal sources
known in the Philippines.

Pansol Springs, between Calamba and Los Baiios, have
no abnormal chemical characteristics. It is popularly believed
that they are alternately hot and cold. This erroneous im-
pression is due to the fact that they are really a series of hot
and cold springs, of very different chemical composition, which
emerge into the same pool of water. These springs are located
in a very beautiful grotto.

A large spring, called Bumbungan, is located near Pagsanjan,
on the river bank near the famous Pagsanjan gorge. A stone
bathhouse, dating back to Spanish times, has been erected. The
water is of very ordinary mineral composition and is only very
moderately radioactive.

There is a very picturesque spring at Pakil, which flows into
a large pool or basin. Medicinal properties are attributed to
this source, and religious pilgrimages are made to it. The water
is only slightly mineralized and is moderately radioactive.

Among other well-known springs, the following may be men-
tioned: Sinabac, Majayjay, of ordinary mineral composition
but highly radioactive, and a series of moderately radioactive
springs of no abnormal chemical characteristics, such as San
Diego and San Vicente, Nagcarlan; Baiio and Baiiadero, San
Pablo; and San Mateo, Lilio.

Leyte. — This Bureau has little first-hand information con-
cerning Leyte mineral waters. Adams 113 mentions a number
of thermal and cold mineral springs. He says :

Besides the springs already mentioned as associated with the solfataras
on Biliran Island and near Burauen in Leyte and those related to the
extinct volcanoes, Mount Amandiuing and Mount Cabalian, there is a
small hot spring on the west side of the point of land which projects
from Leyte opposite Poro Island in the Biliran strait and a hot sulphur
spring on Mount Ogris south of Mount Nipga between Abuyog and Baybay.
South of Abuyog in the barrio Buenavista there is a cold mineral spring.
To the west of Alangalang, on the west side of the Cabayong River, there
are some small and apparently nearly buried hills which are probably

113 Adams, G. I., Phil. Journ. Sci, Sec. A (1909), 4, 345-6.

80 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

outliers of the Cordillera and at the base of one of these there is a cold
mineral spring,

Mindoro. — Comparatively little is known of Mindoro. The
thermal, sulphureted, sulphated, bicarbonated springs of Puerto
Galera may be mentioned in passing. At Calapan there are a
few hot and sulphur springs that were used as baths in Spanish
times.

Misamis. — Springs in great variety and abundance are found
in Misamis. 114

Mountain Province. — As might be expected in a volcanic,
mountainous region, Mountain Province is plentifully supplied
with springs. Owing to the difficulty of travel and the back-
ward state of the inhabitants, these springs are comparatively
little visited. Only a few of the better known hot and heavily
mineralized springs will be mentioned here.

Klondike springs are situated on Benguet Road, on the west
bank of Bued River. They are very hot and only moderately
mineralized and sulphated.

There is a series of hot, sulphureted springs that have been
used for medicinal purposes for many years about a kilometer
below Balongabong, or Twin Peaks, on the west bank of Bued
River. These springs have a temperature of 50 °C.

At Itogon, only 15 to 17 kilometers from Baguio, is a series
of hot, heavily mineralized springs, which were once much
visited. In recent years a landslide covered some of them and
changed the character of others, but they are still capable of
development. As they are comparatively close to Baguio, they
could be readily utilized.

The hot springs near Cervantes, notably at Comillas, also have
a considerable reputation for medicinal virtues.

There is a remarkable series of springs at Kiangan used, in
a great measure, for irrigation purposes. Though not charac-
terized by any abnormal chemical ingredients, these springs are
highly radioactive. One of these springs (Adukpung) is worthy
of more than brief mention. It emerges from the wall of a
rice paddy, only a few centimeters below the level of the water
in the field, and has all the appearance of a seepage spring. It
is asserted, however, that it flows throughout the year, even
when the rice paddy is dry. The high radioactivity of this
water and the data obtained from its chemical analysis as com-

114 Rev. Selga, S. J., secretary of the Weather Observatory, recently
visited the springs on Camiguin Island and furnished the Bureau of
Science with a report, which should be of value when the opportunity
arrives to do intensive work on mineral waters.

MINERAL WATERS 81

pared with that of the rice paddy water indicate that it is a true
spring. It would be interesting to examine the water-bearing
strata at this place.

There are many saline springs, some of which are, or have
been, used for salt making. Chief among these are the boiling
hot Mainit Spring near Bontoc, whose waters, though used for
salt manufacture, 115 are also used for medicinal purposes; Ba-
lotoc, 10 kilometers east of Lubuagan, boiling hot and very
highly mineralized; and Tukukan, Ahin, and Bungubungua, in
Ifugao. Salt making at Amdangle, Ifugao, and at Asin, near
Daklan, Benguet, has been discontinued, because landslides have
ruined the springs.

Negros. — Springs of many different kinds are common on
Negros, but no intensive study of them has been yet made.
There is a small sulphureted spring with reputed medicinal
properties near Isabela, Occidental Negros. The springs at
Mambucal on the sides of Mount Canlaon are very highly prized.
Two springs in Oriental Negros are especially worthy of men-
tion, namely, Masaplud, acid aluminic, sulphated, and a thermal
saline spring at Palimpinon.

Nueva Vizcaya. — The mineral waters of Nueva Vizcaya have
not been intensively studied. The saline spring at Salinas 116
is used for salt-making. This spring issues from the top of a
great white mound of calcium salts deposited from the water
(Plate XVII). The water is only very slightly thermal.

Palawan. — There is a salt spring at Culion.

Sorsogon. — Many mineral waters are to be found in Sorsogon
Province. A hot spring at Bulusan yields ferruginous, bicar-
bonated, muriated water; a thermal, carbon-dioxated spring is
located at Irosin; a "gushing" artesian water at Sorsogon is
calcic, bicarbonated.

The foregoing discussion is merely complete enough for the
interpretation of the new data presented in this paper. In a
country like the Philippines, where large amounts of bottled
water are consumed, and almost a hundred thousand pesos'
worth is imported annually, mineral waters are an asset whose
utilization would be of great economic benefit. An intensive
study of Philippine mineral springs should be carried on. The
cost of such investigation would be only a small fraction of
what is now spent annually for imported waters of no better
quality than those available locally.

115 Cox, A. J., and Dar Juan, T., Phil Journ. Scl, Sec. A (1915), 10, 389.

116 Cf . Cox, A. J., and Dar Juan, T., ibid., 390.

152918 6

BOTTLED NATURAL AND CARBONATED WATERS

The use of bottled waters in the Philippines is comparatively
widespread. The report of the Bureau of Customs for 1916
showed that the value of imported waters for that year
was 80,000 pesos. This was only 8,000 pesos less than the
previous year, in spite of war conditions. When it is remem-
bered that the great bulk of the imported waters is consumed
in a relatively few port towns, this item becomes of considerable
importance. The value of domestic bottled waters is much
larger, though exact data are not available.

Several causes contribute to the extensive use of bottled wa-
ters in the Philippines. One is the natural fondness of the
Filipino for carbonated water products, particularly the flavored
ones. Another reason, which applies especially to the larger
towns, is the employment of these products in connection with
alcoholic beverages. By far the greatest single factor, however,
that contributes to such use is the unsatisfactory condition
of many of the water supplies and the desire, on the part of the
consumer, to obtain a water whose purity is beyond suspicion.
As has been previously mentioned, the importance of pure
water for drinking purposes was not emphasized until after
the American occupation. Manila alone had a municipal water
system, and even this often supplied polluted water to the
consumers.

In 1900 the military authorities began the construction of a
plant in Manila for the manufacture of ice and the distillation
of water and for cold storage purposes. In June of the fol-
lowing year the first ice and distilled water were sold. In
1902 the plant was taken over by the Insular Government and
constituted the Bureau of Cold Storage. Five years later it
became the division of cold stores of the Bureau of Supply, by
which designation it is known at the present time.

The use of distilled water for drinking purposes was at first
confined largely to the American and European residents, but
gradually spread so as to include the wealthier portion of the
Filipino population. In 1913 the Bureau of Health suggested
the employment of pure artesian water instead of the distilled
product, as it was thought the former might be more wholesome
82

BOTTLED NATURAL AND CARBONATED WATERS 83

and palatable. Accordingly an artesian well was drilled for
the division of cold stores. As water of excellent quality was
obtained, the sale of distilled water has been greatly reduced
since that time, its use being supplanted in great measure by
that of artesian water. The Federal Government still operates
distilling plants and distributes large quantities of water, not
only in Manila, but in other parts of the Islands in which army
posts are found. The Insular Government also operates a
similar ice, cold storage, and distillation plant in Baguio,
Mountain Province.

Private individuals were quick to follow the example of
the Insular Government. Several corporations were formed, a
number of artesian wells were drilled, and the sale of artesian
and distilled water soon became an important business enter-
prise. Spring waters, too, received attention, notably those of
Sibul and Los Banos.

Several methods of distribution to the consumer have been
employed. A few large tank carts are in service. More gen-
eral, however, is the use of demijohns, holding about 19 liters
(5 gallons), and of 1-liter bottles. Water that is initially pure
may be unfit to drink when it reaches the consumer, due to
unsanitary methods of bottling. Examinations made at the
request of the Bureau of Health of samples taken at random
from the distribution carts of various companies frequently
have shown large numbers of undesirable bacteria and in some
instances dangerous pollution. As these waters are not only
extensively used by private individuals, but constitute the entire
drinking supply of practically all of the hotels, hospitals, clubs,
and other public and semi-public institutions as well, their super-
vision is a matter of vital importance to the public health. The
contaminated condition of several of these waters, at various
times, has been a real menace to the community.

In 1916, at the request of the manager of one of the largest
artesian water companies in Manila, the Bureau of Science
investigated the methods of bottling employed in his plant. It
was found that in this, as in several similar establishments,
steam sterilization for the water containers was relied upon,
; though the equipment used was entirely inadequate for the
'purpose. Under the conditions existing, it appeared that thor-
ough sterilization by steam could not be economically prac-
; ticed. Accordingly a plan of chemical sterilization was devised.
, This was adopted and installed by two of the largest privately
, owned artesian water companies in Manila. The method has
; proved to be very efficient and economical. A detailed dis-

84 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

cussion of the process will be found in the Appendix, in the
form of a . report made by the section of water analysis to
the Director of the Bureau of Science in October, 1916.

Outside of Manila the bottling of natural waters is confined
almost entirely to a few of the large towns like Cebu, Marilao,
Iloilo, and Zamboanga. Several of the United States Army
posts, as has been mentioned, supply distilled or artesian water
to the inhabitants of the vicinity.

Accurate estimates of the extent to which bottled natural
waters are employed in the Philippines cannot be made from the
data available, either for the Islands as a whole, or for Manila in
particular. It may be said that, even in Manila, the use of these
waters has increased steadily, despite the improvements in the
city supply. Their sale was at first largely among the American
and European residents, but is now general among the better
classes of all races.

The division of cold stores, distributor of bottled natural
water, sells monthly about 4,500 pesos' worth of artesian and
distilled water, principally the former. Of this amount 95 per
cent is delivered directly to the consumers throughout the city.
Water is supplied at the rate of 1.5 centavos per liter delivered
to points in the city and of 1 centavo when sold at the plant. Ap-
proximately the same charge is made by the privately operated
companies, though the price varies somewhat with the distance
from the plant.

The largest privately owned bottling company in Manila has
a monthly output of natural and aerated waters valued at about
25,000 pesos, divided almost equally between the two kinds of
products. Another large concern distributes each month about
2,300 pesos' worth of bottled natural waters and an amount of
carbonated waters of about equal value. A large part of the
output of both companies is shipped to provincial districts.

When to these sales are added those of the dozen other water-
bottling companies in Manila, an idea may be derived of the
large extent to which these table waters are employed.

While, as has been mentioned, the use of bottled natural waters
is restricted almost entirely to Manila and a few of the other
large towns, bottled carbonated waters are found in the most
isolated provincial districts. In the more thickly settled sections
almost every center of population has its plant for making "aguas
gaseosas," or carbonated waters. The largest and best-equipped
of these are located in Manila and in the immediate vicinity. In

BOTTLED NATURAL AND CARBONATED WATERS 85

some cases they are part of a plant devoted to the bottling of
natural waters and use the same water as the latter.

In Manila the operations and products of these plants are
subject to careful inspection by the Bureau of Health. Bacteri-
ological purity is required, though no arbitrary standards have
been fixed. The use of saccharin as a sugar substitute and
of harmful dyes is prohibited.

The carbonated water beverages now being sold in Manila
are, generally speaking, of good quality. The bacterial content is
usually small, and sometimes it is practically nil. Harmful dyes
are rarely encountered, both because of their scarcity and be-
cause of the abundance of cheap vegetable dyestuff s. Saccharin,
which was commonly used in the past, is now found in less than
1 per cent of the samples examined in the Bureau of Science.

In the provincial districts constant supervision is unfor-
tunately impossible. As a result, the carbonated water prod-
ucts manufactured and sold there are often very undesirable
hygienically.

In the course of the sanitary survey of an important provincial
town, bacteriological examinations were made of 26 samples of
carbonated water products, taken directly from the factories.
The average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter was found
to be 14,000, while organisms of the B. coli group were found
in 38 per cent of the samples. In another town 54 per cent of
39 samples showed the presence of organisms of the B. coli
group. These instances are typical.

The unsatisfactory condition of these products must not be
necessarily ascribed to the original quality of the waters em-
ployed in their manufacture. Formerly waters from any source
were used, rivers and dug wells having a prominent place. The
efforts of the Philippine Health Service, however, have resulted
in a more or less general abandonment of these undesirable
sources, with the substitution of more suitable ones. Never-
theless unwholesome beverages are often produced, even when
unquestionably pure water, such as that from flowing artesian
wells, is employed in their manufacture.

The root of the trouble, therefore, as in the cases of the bot-
tling plants in Manila, must be sought in the methods of manu-
facture and handling. The equipment for the manufacture of
carbonated water products in the provincial districts is usually
very primitive. It is often located in a dirty, poorly lighted
room in the rear of a tienda. An exceedingly simple apparatus
serves for the generation of carbon dioxide from sodium bicar-
bonate (baking soda) and sulphuric acid. The bottles are poorly

86 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

cleaned, a single rinsing with cold water often sufficing. The
bacteriologist who collected samples of soda water in a certain
town found that "open well water was used in cleaning the dirty
bottles" and that "flies were very numerous." The sirups are
poorly made, saccharin being sometimes employed. Instead of
"crown" caps, corks are frequently employed, these being inserted
and wired without previous sterilization.

Under these conditions it is scarcely surprising that the bac-
teriological quality of bottled waters is sometimes very poor
and that fermentation of the sweetened beverages results in
evil-tasting and unsalable products. At the present time the
great production and sale of highly polluted bottled waters are
a constant menace to health in the Philippines. It is to be hoped
that funds will be soon available to provide adequate supervision
of the various factories supplying the market, so that only high-
grade products of uniform purity may be eventually furnished
the public.

It has been found difficult, even in American and European
countries, to fix standards for the bacteriological quality of
bottled waters. Obst 117 sent out a questionnaire to a number
of bacteriologists associated with sanitary and allied problems,
in an effort to learn their attitude in regard to bacterial tolerance
in bottled waters. A variety of answers was secured, varying
from the advocation of absolute purity to no rigid standard of
any kind. Many considered the presence of B. coli the best
criterion.

In France, Bon jean 118 has held that it is impossible in practice
to bottle a water in a strictly aseptic manner ; that the number
of germs increases rapidly in the bottle after filling and would
not justify the statement "not contaminated;" and that, while
B. coli might indicate contamination, this germ could gain ad-
mission from atmospheric dust at the time of bottling.

Obst 119 aptly remarks that :

It is reasonable also to assume that when people pay from 2 cents to $30
per gallon for bottled water they expect to obtain a pure, or at least a safe
water. * * * Before a person undertakes to operate a water business
he should be prepared both in equipment and in operating knowledge to
turn out a product free from contamination. This is demonstrated to
be commercially possible, without burdensome restrictions, by the number

117 Obst, M. M., Bacteria in commercial bottled waters, Bull. U. S. Dept.
Agr. (1916), No. 369.

118 Bon jean, Ed., The repression of frauds in the bottled water trade,
Ann. Falsifications, 2, 169-76, through Chem. Abst. (1909), 3, 1654.

119 Op. cit., 2, 3, 6, 7.

BOTTLED NATURAL AND CARBONATED WATERS 87

of firms already marketing water free from contamination. It is equally
evident in the ability of other firms to produce clean water after the need of
doing so has been emphasized by court action. * * *

The results clearly show that bottled waters can be made to conform
to the requirements of the United States Public Health Service for drinking
water furnished upon trains; that is, that not more than one 10 cc sample
out of five should show the presence of B. coli.

Experience in the Philippines has likewise demonstrated that
waters can be profitably bottled under aseptic conditions. The
best proof of this is the fact that the two largest bottled-water
plants in Manila, employing the methods devised by the Bureau
of Science, and mentioned above, are turning out products that
are practically sterile. When this desirable degree of purity
is so easily attained, it seems only fair to constitute it the
standard condition for this class of products.

The Philippines are provided with an abundance of excellent
spring and artesian waters comparable in quality with foreign
waters of great reputation. Many of them could be bottled,
carbonated, and marketed economically. There seems to be no
good reasons per se why the local demand could not be practically
entirely supplied by home manufacture, thus obviating the pay-
ment of relatively high prices for imported waters of no greater
intrinsic value.

RADIOACTIVITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 120

In 1896 Becquerel 121 found that uranium salts gave off peculiar
radiations, which had the power of affecting a photographic
plate, even though the plate was wrapped in black paper.
This discovery paved the way for a series of investigations,
in the course of which some thirty new elements, the so-called
radioactive elements, have been discovered. 122 These elements
are characterized by the fact that they give off different types of
radiations and that they themselves undergo decomposition dur-
ing that process. The discovery of the element radium, the
typical member of the radioactive series, was reported in 1898. 123

The high market value of radium, approximately 250,000
pesos per gram, is dependent on the scarcity and importance
of the substance and on the extreme care and enormous labor
involved in its extraction. Thus the largest American company
devoted to the extraction of radium turned out only 14 grams of
radium element in a period of about three years. To achieve this
production, it was necessary to work about 5,000 tons of carnotite
ore. The process of extraction is laborious and expensive and re-
quires expert supervision. Incidentally the ore available in the
United States is becoming poorer in quality, according to recent
reports, so that it is becoming increasingly difficult to operate.
It may be noted, in passing, that the United States Bureau of
Mines hopes soon to be able greatly to reduce the cost of radium
by the introduction of improved methods of extraction.

In recent years the action of radioactive substances on vital
processes has been much studied, with the result that the curative
properties of radium are now generally admitted. 124 A quan-

120 The following is essentially an abstract of papers previously published
and presents only a brief synopsis of the work of the Bureau of Science
on the radioactivity of water. For complete details of this study, the
original papers [Wright, J. R., and Heise, G. W., Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A
(1917), 12, 145; Heise, G. W., ibid., Sec. A (1917), 12, 293, 309; and
Heise, G. W., Rev. Fil. Med. y Farm. (1917), 8, 169-175] should be
consulted.

121 Becquerel, H., Compt. rend. Acad. sci. (1896), 122, 420.

122 Soddy, F., The Chemistry of the Radio-elements. 2d ed. Longmans,
Green & Co., London (1914).

123 Curie, P., Curie, Mme., and Bemont, G., Compt. rend. Acad. sci.
(1898).

124 Turner, P., Radium, its Physics and Therapeutics. Wm. Wood & Co.,
New York (1911).

88

RADIOACTIVITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 89

tity of radium salt has been recently imported to the Philippines
by certain doctors to be used in medical work.

The therapeutic value of radioactive substances is believed
to be due primarily to the so-called B- and Y-rays. Since ra-
dium produces only B-rays of feeble intensity in addition to
L-rays, whereas the B- and Y-rays are produced principally by
its decomposition products, it is clear that the disintegration
products of radium should have therapeutic value. 125

In addition to the study of the nature and properties of radio-
activity and radioactive elements, radioactive investigations have
come to include a large amount of work on the radioactivity
of natural substances, such as rocks, soils, waters, and air. Not
only is such work an important contribution to pure science,
but it is also of practical value in its bearing on the geology
and the development of natural resources of a country.

Early in the history of radioactive investigations it was dis-
covered that many of the natural waters from different parts
of the world showed a high degree of activity. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that mineral waters that are radioactive
should find a place in medicinal practice. 126

Investigation has shown tliat this activity was usually due to
radium emanation (the first disintegration product of radium)
and only in a few isolated cases to actual radium content. The
radioactivity of waters can only be effective medicinally imme-

125 A unique suggestion and one that appears to be of practical im-
portance was made by H. Schlundt in Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc. (1915),
28, 424. To quote his own words:

As the supply of radium increases and its therapeutic uses unfold, its
efficient use and distribution will become a matter of growing importance.
The distribution of the emanation instead of radium will greatly facilitate
its more general use and practically obviate the risk of loss. Speaking
then not from the viewpoint of the expert in radium therapy, but as one
greatly interested in the conservation of our radium supply, I venture to
suggest the establishment of centers for the distribution of radium eman-
ation, that is, radium banks as dispensatories of radium emanation. For
example, from a radium preparation containing a gram of the metal,
five tubes of emanation each equivalent in the therapeutic value to nearly
200 milligrams of radium can be prepared initially, and then as the ema-
nation accumulates a dose equivalent to 160 milligrams of radium can be
separated daily thereafter for a good many years, as the half -life period
of radium is nearly two thousand years. The loss of one of these tubes
of emanation would be relatively insignificant in comparison with the loss
of its radium equivalent.

126 Curie, Mme. P., Die Radioaktivitat, Akad. Verlagsgesellschaft M.
B. H. Leipzig (1912), 2, 505-506.

90 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

diately after waters issue from the ground, since radium emana-
tion is a gas that can be readily removed from water by shaking
or aeration, and like other radioactive substances, it soon decom-
poses and disappears. In a little less than four days the activity
of a water, due to its emanation content, would be normally
reduced to half its original value, and at the end of four weeks
it would be too slight to be of any significance. These facts
serve to explain the phenomenon that certain waters of very
ordinary mineral content seemed to possess medicinal properties
and, furthermore, that they seemed to lose their therapeutic value
when not imbibed immediately after they were taken from the
source. This behavior has been repeatedly noted with mineral
waters even before their radioactivity was discovered; and it is
to be expected, if the medicinal effect of a water is due to
radioactivity.

The usual process of bottling does not conserve the emana-
tion content, and since radium is so seldom found in natural
waters, it is extremely doubtful if any of the ordinary bottled
waters from radioactive springs contain appreciable amounts of
emanation. It is obvious that, in order to obtain any benefit
from radioactive waters, they must be imbibed directly at their
source. Statements regarding bottled waters based on the ac-
tivity of these waters at the source are generally erroneous and
misleading.

In the Philippines there are many springs and deep wells high
in radioactivity. In the course of an extensive study during 1916
and 1917 about one hundred twenty-five typical Philippine water
supplies, including many of the best-known mineral springs, were
tested for radioactivity. 127 Though no water was found whose
radioactivity was abnormally high, there were many that were
sufficiently radioactive to compare favorably with some of the
best-known foreign mineral springs. The work further gave
indication of a number of local deposits of radioactive material.

An interesting feature of this study is the fact that there
is no apparent connection between the radioactivity of any
source and its reputation for medicinal virtues. Many of the
waters high in activity are regarded with entire indifference
by the people, whereas certain other waters, very highly regarded,
showed no abnormal mineral content and were entirely free
from activity. Some of the waters, however, such as those of
Los Banos and Sibul Springs, with perhaps the greatest reputa-
tions, have relatively high activities.

127 Wright, J. R., and Heise, G. W., Phil Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1917), 12,
145. Heise, G. W., ibid., Sec. A (1917), 12, 293.

RADIOACTIVITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS

91

The radioactivity of a number of typical Philippine waters
is shown in Table IV, coupled, for purposes of comparison, with
the results of measurements on typical foreign waters. In all
cases measurements of activity were made directly at the source,
by means of the well-known shaking method of Schmidt. 128
Plate XIX shows the type of apparatus used, as assembled for a
field determination. The measurements in the table represent
radium emanation content and are expressed in terms of the
weight of metallic radium that would remain in radioactive
equilibrium with that amount of emanation.

Table IV. — Radioactivity of typical foreign and Philippine spring waters.

Location.

Source.

Radium
emanation.

Grams

X 10-12 per

liter.

Foreign.
Austria, Bad Gastein __.

Rudolfs spring

a 142

a 24, 000

bl39

c 1, 100

d69-13, 800

el20-4, 730

2,106
00

1,284

1,293

negative

539

528

1,297
526
880
146
365
713
606
324

nil
242
trace

Do

Tavern tunnel springs

England, Bath _ __

King's well __

England, Buxton.. _ .. _

Japan _ ._

Springs _ _

United States of America, Colorado

do .

Philippine.
Batangas, Batangas. _ _._ __.

Artesian well

Do

Crater Lake, Taal Volcano

Bulacan, San Miguel de Mayumo, Sibul
Springs _

Sibul Springs _

Do

do

Laguna, Calamba, Pan sol — _

Pansol Springs

Laguna, Los Banos

Hot spring near sanitarium

Laguna, Majayjay, Olla

Laguna, Majayjay, Malinao ._ .

Olla Spring,. _ _

Sinabac Spring _ _

Laguna, Nagcarlan .

San Diego Spring

Laguna, Pagsanjan, Maulauin ___ _ _ _ _

Small artesian well

Laguna, Pagsanjan, Pinagsanhan

Laguna, Pakil .. ...

Bumbungan Spring _

BafLo Spring

Laguna, San Pablo _.

Laguna, San Pablo, Maganpun . _

Bano Spring _

Laguna, San Pablo, Santa Maria

Anos Spring.

Laguna, Santa Cruz

Artesian well, 459 __

Municipal spring

La Union, San Fernando

La Union, Tomas

Artesian well _ __

a Mache, H., and Bamberger, M., Sitzb. kais. Akad. Wiss., Wien., Abt. Il-a (1914), 123,
325-403, through Chem. Abst. (1915), 9, 411.

*> Masson, I., and Ramsay, W., Journ. Chem. Soc. (1912), 101, 1370-1376.

c MacOwen, quoted by Rideal, S., and Rideal, E. K., Water Supplies. Appleton & Co.,
New York (1915), 11.

<* Isitani, D„ et al. Proc. Tokyo Math. Physic. Soc. (1914).

e Schlundt, H., Journ. Phys. Chem. (1914), IS, 662.

f Tested for radium content only. Negative results with 250 cubic centimeters.

'Schmidt, H. W., Physik. Zeitschr. (1905), 6, 561-566.

92

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table IV. — Radioactivity of typical foreign and Philippine spring waters —

Continued.

Location.

Source.

Radium
emanation.

Grams

X IO-12 per

liter.

Philippine.
Mountain, Baguio

194

381

650

negative

nil

nil

nil

nil

1,325
720

1,058
trace
114
111
263
137
95
480
195
632

Mountain, Banave

Bognakan Spring

Do

Kiakop Spring

Mountain, Bontoc ._

Spring adjacent to municipal spring

Mainit Spring

Mountain, Bontoc, Mainit

Mountain, Buguias _ .

Mountain, Cervantes _____

Hot spring on river bank opposite town _
Hotsprings _ _

Mountain, Itogon

Mountain, Kiangan

Do

Do

Mountain, Klondike _ _ _

Mountain, Mancayan___

Spring on Balili trail

Mountain, Sagada

Mountain, Sagada, Tetepan

Small spring at Salido. _

Do _

Nueva Vizcaya, Salinas _

Salinas Spring. _ _ __ __

Nueva Vizcaya, Santa Fe

Santa Fe* Spring .

Nueva Vizcaya, Solano

Rizal, Parafiaque __

The highest radium emanation content encountered in the
course of this study was noted in a flowing well in Batangas
and was equivalent to 2100 X 10 -12 grams of radium. The
highest activity in a spring water was equivalent to 1300 X 10" 12
grams. It is of interest that this maximum for a spring water
was shown by three sources, namely, Sibul Springs, Bulacan;
Sinabac Spring, Majayjay, Laguna; and Adukpung Spring in
Kiangan, Ifugao, Mountain Province.

In only one Philippine water was any actual radium content
found, and in this case it was present in almost negligible
quantity.

There was no apparent relation to be drawn between the
radioactivity of waters and either their chemical quality or
the geology of the strata from which they were obtained.

Although emanation taken into the system by the drinking
of water may be different in effect from that applied in the
usual medicinal treatment and may further be different in effect
from that taken into the lungs by breathing, the following
analysis may be of interest :

Assuming that in ordinary respiration the average human

RADIOACTIVITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 93

being at rest breathes 7 liters of air per minute or 10.1 cubic
meters per day, the emanation thus brought into contact with
the human system is 770 X 10" 12 curies, if the normal emana-
tion content of the air 129 in the Philippines be taken as a basis
for calculation. A person would, therefore, have to drink about
three-fourths of a liter of Sibul Springs water or one and
one-half liters of Los Baiios waters in order to take as much
emanation into his system as he secures by ordinary daily
respiration alone.

Before leaving this subject, it may be of interest to point
out that a recent study 130 of Sibul Springs has shown that
the radioactivity of a ground water may be remarkably constant
for long periods of time, in spite of comparatively great fluctua-
tions in the quantity of water emitted. This indicates that
radioactivity is a constant quality of water and that measure-
ments of radioactivity have more than transitory value.

129 Wright, J. R., and Smith, 0. F., Phil. Journ. Scl, Sec. A (1914),
9, 51-77.

130 Heise, G. W., ibid., Sec. A (1917), 12, 309.

QUALITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS

The work on Philippine water supplies has not progressed
sufficiently to justify many generalizations on the quality of
waters; and other factors make it appear extremely unlikely
that many generalizations can be made, at least for some time
to come. The Philippine Archipelago is composed of about a
thousand islands, many of which, "continents in miniature,"
with comparatively small area, must be regarded as units in
a study of waters. The heterogeneity of the geologic forma-
tions in many parts causes waters from sources very near to
each other often to show enormous variations in quality. This
variation is found both in surface and in ground waters. Thus
a recent examination of the waters of the surface wells within
the limits of a small town gave the following results :

Table V. — Chlorine content of surface wells.

Chlorine content (parts per million) . Wells.

Between and 20 10

Between 20 and 40 11

Between 40 and 60 8

Between 60 and 100 8

Between 100 and 150 2

Over 150 1

Of the forty wells examined, the minimum chloride content
was 9.8, and the maximum was 192. The variation in the
chloride content of adjacent wells was as great as that of widely
separated ones. Similarly in the case of deep wells borings
within a short distance of each other may encounter different
strata, and the water from them may be markedly different.
Two deep wells drilled on the Bureau of Science grounds within
50 meters of each other are different, both in regard to the water-
bearing strata from which their supplies are derived and in the
quality and quantity of water encountered. The water of well
1 contains 725 parts per million of total solids and 70 parts
of chlorine, whereas that of well 2 has 500 parts per million of
total solids and 12 parts of chlorine. Three wells in Iloilo (at
the Iloilo Electric Company's works), located within about 15
meters of each other and drilled to about the same depth, show
similar irregularities, two being approximately similar but dif-
fering from the third.

94

QUALITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 95

However, so far as our experience goes, there is surprisingly
little change in the quality of most waters, considered individ-
ually. Leaving out of consideration such factors as the ad-
mixture of tidal streams by sea water, changes in water-bearing
strata due to earthquakes, the deterioration of well casings, or
in general, the contamination of water sources, it may be said
that the quality of any water is a definite, constant property of
a source over extended periods of time.

In the following discussion an attempt will be made to de-
scribe briefly both the quality of the water from various sources
and the various factors influencing their composition.

Rain water. — In the Philippines the amount of rainfall varies
both with the season and with the location. Many parts of
the Islands have a rainfall more or less evenly distributed
throughout the year ; in other parts most of the rain occurs
within a period of three or four months, followed by a season
of comparative drought. 131

As might be expected in an Archipelago like the Philippines,
the composition of rain water is greatly influenced by the
presence of the ocean. Salt is carried far inland by the winds
and is brought down with the rain. A series of measurements
made on the rain water collected on the roof of the Bureau
of Science 132 for a period of over a year showed a minimum
chloride content of 2.2 parts per million, a maximum, during
stormy weather, of 19 parts per million, and an average of
a little over 5 parts per million. The average chloride content
is equivalent to about 8.5 milligrams of common salt per liter
of rain water. On the basis of the average annual rainfall
for the city of Manila, these figures indicate a precipitation
equivalent to about 165 kilograms of salt per hectare of land.
It is of interest, though perhaps of no significance, to note
that this figure is of the same order as that (120 kilograms)
given by Prudhomme 133 as the salt requirement per hectare
of coconut-palm plantations.

Rivers. — It is hardly necessary to point out that rivers vary
greatly in flow under the influence of rain. Many streams that
are almost dry in periods of drought become raging torrents
during the rainy season. Under these circumstances, changes
in quality are inevitable. However, in rivers that have consider-

131 For the distribution of rainfall in the Philippines according to locality
and season, cf. Cox, A. J., Phil Journ. Sri., Sec. A (1911), 6, 287 ff.

132 Most of these determinations were made by J. Gonzales Nunez,
chemist, Bureau of Science.

133 Quoted by Beccari, 0., Phil. Journ. Sci, Sec. C (1917), 12, 41.

96

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

able flow throughout the year such changes may be surprisingly
slight. This is well illustrated by a series of measurements
made on Mariquina River, the source of the Manila water supply.
In 1903. when the intake was at Santolan, the tap water was
examined over a period of months, including the rainy season,
at very frequent intervals. The following maximum variations
were noted: Total solids, 153 to 220; chlorides, 2.1 to 4.4; and
oxygen consumed, 0.65 to 2.20. 134 Since the intake has been
moved to Montalban, 10 or 12 kilometers upstream, a point
above which there are no human habitations or cultivated lands,
the fluctuations have been even less. Total solids have varied
from 150 to about 200, usually being in the neighborhood of
160. A recent series of determinations, 135 during a period of
frequent heavy rains, showed chloride contents varying from
3.5 to 4.1 and "oxygen consumed'' varying from 0.67 to 1.4.
Making due allowances for the effect of storage, changes of this
magnitude in a water subject to tremendous fluctuations in
quantity and even in appearance appear to be comparatively
insignificant. It may be of interest to note, in this connection,
that the temperature variation of Mariquina River water in
the service reservoir was only 4° C. for an entire year.

Of far greater effect on quality is the influence of the tides.
Many Philippine rivers show tidal ebbs and flows for many
kilometers inland. Owing to the difference in specific gravity
between fresh and ocean water, the latter apparently can move
far inland in a river at high tide before it mixes with and
contaminates the water of the stream. Thus samples taken
from Pasig River about 1 kilometer from the sea showed the
following analyses :

Table VI. — Analyses of water from Pasig River.

Surface water.

Water taken near
the bottom.

At high
tide.

At low
tide.

At high
tide.

At low
tide.

90
75
8,000
69
100
3,800
380

Turbidity

60
70

760
36
17

310
40

70

70

780

18

2.8

124

5.4

95

110

31,000

Alkalinity (as CaC03> ._

Total solids

Silica (Si02)

Calcium (Ca)

320
14, 600
1,500

Chlorides (CI) ___

Sulphates (SO4)

1 Bliss, C. H., Pub. P. I. Bur. Govt. Lab. (1905), No. 20, 10.
'Heise, G. W., Phil Journ. Scl, Sec. A (1916), 11, 4.

QUALITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 97

It may be mentioned that a tidal effect on the quality of Pasig
River water has been noted for a distance of several kilometers
upstream. The stream waters analyzed, with the exception of
tidal rivers and water courses known to be contaminated, range
from 45 to about 550 parts per million in total solids and from
2 to 150 in chlorine.

Surface wells. — Like rivers, surface wells show great changes
in quantity of water with the season. Many that are capable
of yielding much water in times of rain are absolutely dry dur-
ing dry weather. The frequent influx of large quantities of
surface run-off, after a heavy rain, may change materially the
quality of water in a surface well. Quality of surface wells has
not been much studied, except with regard to their potability.
They are similar in composition to average river waters. Their
waters show no marked peculiarities, and they have not been
sufficiently studied to justify generalizations. The surface wells
listed, with the exception of a few located so near the ocean
that they were obviously contaminated by sea water, range in
total solids content from 164 to 1,230 parts per million and
in chlorine content from 5.5 to 436 (average, about 150).

Springs. — As might be expected, springs generally show great
fluctuations in quantity under the influence of various factors.
Most of them show a decidedly greater flow during the rainy
season, even though they are protected from surface seepage.
It is interesting to note that with deep-seated springs there is
decided "lag," that is to say, a marked increase in flow does
not occur until after a month or more of rainy weather, and
furthermore, the increased flow does not materially diminish
until far into the dry season.

Tidal variations are also of frequent occurrence, many springs
having a much greater flow at the flood than at the ebb. This
is to be expected, since the general effect of tides may frequently
be an increase of the hydrostatic pressure of subsoil waters.
In some cases the flow may entirely cease at low tide. A peculiar
case in point has been already discussed. 136 A series of springs,
some fresh, some brackish, are found on the seashore at Punta
Oslob, Cebu, both above and below high- water mark. The fresh-
water springs have no flow at low tide and are covered at high
tide, but water can be obtained from them as it emerges into
the supernatant sea water. As the only springs available at
low tide are brackish, and as both fresh and salt springs are
close together and are easily mistaken for one another, the

13fl Heise, G. W., Phil. Journ. Scl, Sec. A (1916), 11, 125.

152918 7

98

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

erroneous belief has developed that the same springs are fresh
at high tide and salt at low tide.

Spring waters vary widely in quality. The total solids con-
tent ranges from 24 to over 40,000 parts per million, and chlorides
range from 0.7 to over 20,000. Many of the springs are so salty
that ordinary salt can be recovered very profitably from them.

No such variations occur in quality as have been noted in
quantity. Even the temperature appears to be surprisingly
constant for long periods of time. Occasionally springs are
reported as alternately hot and cold, but this observation, as was
pointed out in the discussion of mineral waters, is generally un-
founded. In regard to chemical quality, our records indicate
that, except for seismic disturbances or other unusual factors,
no material changes in quality occur, in spite of marked fluctua-
tions in quantity. This constancy in composition of spring
waters may be inferred from a comparison of two analyses of
Sibul Springs, one published in 1890, 137 the other made in 1915.

Table VII. — Analyses of Sibul Springs water.

Analysis by —

Centeno
in 1890.a

Bureau

of
Science
in 1915>

Total solids -_ _ __ _

532
30

477
13
42

154
17

550
15

460
nil
32

150
14

Silica

Bicarbonates (HCO3)

Sulphates __ _

Chlorides

Calcium

Magnesium

* [Recalculated as parts per million and to same terms as those used in standard practice.
b Analysis by F. Pefia, chemist, Bureau of Science.

Considering the length of time that has elapsed between
the two analyses, the differences in analytical methods employed,
and the fact that for a period of years Sibul Springs was neg-
lected, better agreement could be hardly expected.

Deep wells. — The fluctuations described for springs are also
encountered in deep wells. Water is encountered at many dif-
ferent depths, depending on the locality in which well-drilling
operations are carried on. 138

337 Centeno, J., et al., Memoria Descriptiva de los Manantiales, etc., de
la Isla de Luzon. Madrid (1890), 39.

138 For a discussion of the location of artesian wells, see the article by
Pratt, reprinted as the first appendix of this work.

QUALITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 99

A large number of the wells drilled in the Islands have a natural flow,
some of them supplying enormous quantities of water, notably, the famous
gusher at Bayambang, Pangasinan, which supplies 1,000,000 gallons
[3,800,000 liters] daily. The water from the latter is distributed through
j. two main supply pipe lines, one leading to the military post at Camp
? Gregg, and the other to the town of Bayambang. In many of the provinces
Mt is necessary to drill wells ranging from 600 to 800 feet [200 to 250
\ meters] in depth in order to obtain good water. In the town of Wright,
[ Samar, good water was not encountered until a depth of 1,025 feet was
J reached, when flowing water of excellent quality was tapped. This well
; is the deepest in the Islands which supplies good water. A number of
;, wells have been drilled to greater depths, however, but in every case except
I the one mentioned above salt water was encountered below 1,000 feet. The
\ deepest well ever drilled in the Islands was located on the trade school
I grounds at Iloilo, and was sunk to a depth of 2,285 feet without encountering
i fresh water. An interesting feature in connection with some of the wells
| is the effect the ocean tide has upon the fresh-water flow, one remarkable
| instance being the well at Bauan, Batangas, drilled to a depth of 298
\ feet, which flows 250 gallons per minute 18 inches above the ground surface
; at high tide, and 50 gallons per minute at low tide at the same elevation;
; in other words, the flow at high tide indicates an increase of 400 per cent
( over the flow at low tide, notwithstanding the fact that analyses of water
; samples collected at both high and low tide give identical results and show
s the water to be potable and free from salt-water contamination. 139

In many borings, especially near the coast, brackish water
\ is encountered during the first 30 to 70 meters, even though
fresh water may be found at lower levels. In some rather excep-
tional cases, in which salt water was encountered at great depths,
continued drilling developed a supply of fresh water. At
< Wright, Samar, salt water was found at 180 to 215 meters ; this
; was cased off, and drilling was continued. At 312 meters fresh
water was found under sufficient pressure to cause a flow, which,
.although slight even at ground level, did not cease entirely at
12 meters above the earth's surface. As a general rule, however,
. it may be stated that fresh water is seldom found underlying
salt water, and in the few cases in which such fresh water has
been utilized, the well has frequently "gone bad" after more
or less continued use.

Of interest in this connection is a phenomenon noted occasion-
ally in the Philippines, especially on small islands. It has hap-
pened that water of fair quality has been encountered in deep
j wells; when the amount of water pumped was large, the waters
| have become too brackish for use, due, no doubt, to infiltration of
Jsea water. On allowing the pumps to rest, or on decreasing
r the rate of pumping, fresh water has been again obtained.

; * 9 Vickers, J. W., Quart. Bull. P. /. Bur. Pub. Works (1914), 2, No. 4, 27.
I Many wells, for instance, at Iloilo and at Argao, Cebu, flow only at high tide.

100 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The minimum temperature of deep wells drilled in the low-
lands is about 28° C, but the temperature range is great.

The deep-well waters range in total solids content from about
120 (well 129, Nueva Caceres, Ambos Camarines) to 8,200 parts
per million (Janiuay, Iloilo) and in chlorine content from 1.5
(San Jacinto and Binalonan, Pangasinan) to 4,471 (Janiuay,
Iloilo).

The highest free ammonia content recorded is that of a well
at Los Banos, Laguna, 70 meters deep, which showed 32.7 parts
per million.

Except under very exceptional circumstances, such as those
previously discussed, the chemical quality of a deep-well water
remains practically unchanged for long periods of time. This
observation is in harmony with the experience in other coun-
tries. 140 There is generally an appreciable variation in quality
immediately after a well is drilled, but this appears to be due to
a leaching-out of soluble ingredients from the neighboring soil
and soon ceases. As was pointed out under the heading of the
interpretation of analytical results, these variations often greatly
impair the value of the available laboratory data and emphasize
the necessity for allowing a well to reach equilibrium before
its water is sent to the laboratory for analysis. Chemical qual-
ity, though generally not as subject to change as biological
character, also undergoes marked; alterations, so that inter-
pretation of the analysis of old- water samples is sometimes very
difficult. Free and albuminoid ammonia and, in general, nitro-
gen in its various forms will change greatly. The amount of
free carbon dioxide originally present in a water diminishes
comparatively rapidly on standing, particularly if the initial con-
centration is high. Many natural waters that are clear when
they emerge from a well or spring quickly become turbid, owing
to the escape of carbon dioxide and to the resulting precipitation
of salts of metals (calcium, magnesium, and iron) previously
held in solution in the form of bicarbonates. While the rela-
tions existing between free carbon dioxide, bicarbonates, and
normal carbonates are not exactly understood, there is no doubt
that the escape of carbon dioxide affects the equilibrium of the
system. It has been observed in this laboratory that samples
of water kept for a considerable period of time rapidly lost their

140 Hintz, E., and Kaiser, E., Zeitschr. /. prakt GeoL (1915), 23, 122-126,
through Chem. Abst. (1916), 10, 1741, state that the composition of deep-
seated waters from wells is remarkably constant.

QUALITY OF PHILIPPINE WATERS 101

"acidity" due to free carbon dioxide. As long as an appreciable
excess of free carbon dioxide was present, the bicarbonate value
remained constant, but as soon as the free carbon dioxide reached
a limiting concentration — in this case, zero — normal carbonates
began to form at the expense of the bicarbonates, which suffered
a corresponding reduction of concentration. Other changes,
such as the precipitation of suspended matter and variations in
color, odor, and taste, may also occur.

Such variations often lead to erroneous interpretations of
water analyses, a fact which will be discussed more at length.

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION

The usual difficulties encountered in laboratories devoted to
water-supply problems are, on the whole, greatly increased in
the Philippines. Chief among these has been the difficulty in
getting representative samples in proper condition for analysis
to the Bureau of Science, in Manila, which is the central labor-
atory for the Archipelago and is the only laboratory properly
equipped to do water analyses. Many samples have to be trans-
ported hundreds of kilometers before they can be analyzed.
Since much of the transportation is by water, samples are often
three or four weeks old when they reach the Bureau of Science.
With the exception of those taken in Manila and at points easily
accessible to it by railroad, samples rarely reach the Bureau
within the time limits prescribed by the American Public Health
Association. 141 The uniform, high temperature in the Philip-
pines accelerates the changes that normally occur in bottled
waters and greatly increases the importance of the time factor.
It is not surprising, therefore, that many samples, when they
do* arrive at the laboratory, are not representative.

Another handicap to constructive work in the Philippines
has been the difficulty in securing properly taken samples. For
many years the Bureau of Science has sent out properly packed,
sterile, glass-stoppered bottles, suitable for water and has issued
instructions for the collection of samples. The directions of the
Bureau of Science for taking water samples, as prepared for
general distribution, are shown in the appendix. However, the
primitive conditions in many isolated districts have resulted in
improperly taken samples, usually in unsuitable and frequently
in unclean containers, accompanied by little or no information
that would assist in the proper interpretation of the results
obtained from an analysis or would make such analysis of
permanent value.

In addition, there is a peculiar difficulty, for which general
conditions, rather than individuals, are to blame. As has been
mentioned, judgment by the Bureau of Science must be made
on all artesian wells drilled by the Insular Government. The

141 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage
(1915), 1-2.
102

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 103

great cost of well-drilling apparatus and the constant demand
for new wells make it impracticable to keep machinery and crew
idle for any length of time. Accordingly, when a well-driller
strikes water that he believes to be potable, he takes a sample
and forwards it to the Bureau of Science for analysis.

It frequently happens that the first water from a well is not
a representative sample of that well under working conditions,
so that the analysis is of doubtful value as a matter of permanent
record. It has been our experience that a new well, or one
that has been in disuse for any protracted period of time,
should be given a thorough pumping test before a sample of
the water is taken for analysis.

The general methods employed in the examination of water
are three, namely, a sanitary survey, a microscopic and biologi-
cal examination, and a chemical analysis. The sanitary survey
consists of a study of the surroundings of a source and gives
information concerning the possible sources of contamination;
the chemical analysis, as the name implies, is a determination
of the composition of the foreign ingredients suspended or dis-
solved in water; the biological examination is a differentiation
in kind and frequently in quantity of the smaller floating or-
ganisms, both animal and vegetable (technically known as plank-
ton), usually found in natural waters. These general methods,
together with a discussion of the interpretation of the results
of a water examination, will be taken up in the order named.

SANITARY SURVEY

The sanitary survey legitimately includes all external factors
that might have influenced the quality of the water when the
sample was taken and might affect the quality in the future.
These factors, of course, vary to some extent, in every case. In
addition to general information on the quantity and apparent
quality of the water, possible sources of contamination, etc., the
following data should be noted :

Wells:

A. Artesian. Depth of well; depth of casing; head; capacity; va-

riations; distance from nearest houses. If pumping well, kind
and condition of pumps; nature of soil and subsoil; drainage of
waste water, etc.

B. Surface. Depth of well; kind and depth of casing; height of

curbing; nature of covering; nature of receptacles used for
drawing water; distance from habitations; kind of pump, if
any; nature of soil and subsoil; elevation with respect to sur-
roundings; drainage of waste water; density of population,
possible sources of contamination, etc.

104 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Springs. Water-bearing stratum; apparent direction of flow; elevation;

liability to contamination with surface water; distance from houses;

density of population; nature of soil; variations, etc.
Rivers. Nearness and relative number of houses along course; nature

and slope of valley; variations, etc.

It is also important to note the weather conditions at the
time the sample is taken. This applies particularly during
periods of heavy rains or long droughts.

In all cases, the location of the source should be stated as
fully and accurately as possible, to prevent the slightest pos-
sibility of confusion with any other point in the vicinity.

Local opinion is obviously of great importance. Prejudice
and preconceived ideas have in numerous cases led to the unjust
condemnation of good water and the unwarranted approval
of bad.

In connection with the field examination of potable waters,
the general hygienic and sanitary conditions in the neighbor-
hood of the source should, of course, be noted. In addition,
information should be obtained as to the prevalent diseases
and to the occurrence of epidemics.

BIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

Both laboratory and field methods are used in making biologi-
cal examinations of water. The laboratory tests are made in
the Bureau of Science by the biological laboratory, and the
field work is done by chemists of the division of general, in-
organic, and physical chemistry.

LABORATORY METHODS

The usual laboratory procedure includes 24- and 48-hour colony
counts, a presumptive test for B. coli or related organisms, and
an examination for the commoner protozoa. The routine meth-
ods of bacteriological examination employed in the biological
laboratory of the Bureau of Science are as follows :

1. Agar plates are poured with 1 cubic centimeter, 0.1 cubic centimeter,
and 0.05 cubic centimeter of water, counts being made at the end of
twenty-four and forty-eight hours. The reported number of colonies is
the mean of the two serial counts (a total of six individual counts).

2. Five fermentation tubes containing not less than 30 cubic centimeters
of lactose peptone broth or bile are inoculated with 10 cubic centimeters
of the water under examination, incubated for forty-eight hours at 37°C,
and then observed for gas formation (presumptive test for B. coli group).

3. From each tube showing gas, litmus lactose or Endo plates are
made and observed for red colonies at the end of twenty-four and forty-
eight hours' incubation (isolation of organism of colon group).

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 105

Special methods are, of course, employed when necessary for
the isolation and differentiation of uncommon organisms.

FIELD METHODS

The bacteriological examination in the field consists of two
parts. One of these is a colony count, made from two plate
cultures. The other is a presumptive test for the presence of
organisms of the B. coli group, made with one or more culture
tubes.

The culture medium used in both cases is litmus lactose agar
(1.5 to 2.0 per cent agar, 1 per cent lactose). The reaction of
this medium is almost neutral, there being present barely enough
alkalinity to give a slight blue color. It is put up in test tubes,
in 10 cubic centimeter portions, and is thoroughly sterilized.

The Petri dishes used for the plate cultures are packed into
individual envelopes and then sterilized. The envelopes, made
of heavy Manila paper, are about the same width as the dishes
and about twice as long as they are wide. Packages of six
plates, well wrapped with paper, may be transported with little
danger of breakage and will remain sterile indefinitely.

The pipettes used hold 1 cubic centimeter and are about 20
centimeters long. If these are not available, they may be readily
made from glass tubing. The pipettes in lots of six are well
wrapped in cheesecloth, having several folds of cloth between
one pipette and the next. The ends of the package are tied
together, and the package is inserted in a tin can just large
enough for the purpose. The closed tin can containing the
pipettes is then sterilized. While warm, the can is sealed with
adhesive tape. When cool, the tape is well covered with paraffin.
Pipettes so packed will remain sterile almost indefinitely.

For several kinds of work sterile bottles may be employed.
Instead of the ordinary cotton plugs, which are often either
pushed in or which come out during transportation, we use
a cotton-covered cork; This arrangement has been found to be
very satisfactory.

Ordinarily two plate cultures and one tube culture are made
of every sample. Three tubes of media are thus required. The
tubes are melted by heating in water over an alcohol lamp, then
cooled to 45°.

Plating is done at a temperature of 40 to 43° C. For a water,
such as that from a spring or artesian well believed to be com-
paratively pure, 0.5 and 1.0 cubic centimeter cultures are made.
For a water suspected of contamination, plates may be made of
0.2, 0.1, or 0.05 cubic centimeter, depending on the apparent

106 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

degree of contamination. The water is introduced into the Petri
dish, the liquefied agar added, and the plate manipulated to
insure thorough mixing. After thorough cooling, the plates are
returned to their envelopes and carried in an inverted position
to prevent spreading of the colonies by water of condensation.

The tube culture for the presumptive test is made by intro-
ducing the desired amount of water into the tube of liquefied
agar and mixing thoroughly by agitation. Usually 1 cubic centi-
meter is taken for this test, though more or less may be employed.
The upper limit will be determined by the fact that 1 per cent
agar is the weakest that will solidify on cooling to the tem-
peratures ordinarily encountered (25° to 30° C).

Incubation is at the ordinary temperature. No special ap-
paratus is, therefore, required.

Colony counts are made both at the end of twenty-four and
forty-eight hours, using a lens magnifying at least five diameters.
The average of the two counts is the recorded value.

When the number of colonies is high, the plate is marked into
sectors of convenient size, and the total number of colonies is
estimated, or else the number on representative areas of 1 square
centimeter is determined (a small card with openings of appro-
priate size and shape has been found very convenient for field
work) , and the necessary calculation for the total area is made.
The presence of red colonies is noted.

The presence of organisms of the colon group is indicated by
the formation of gas in the tube cultures and by the formation
of acid, as shown by the change of litmus from blue to red.

Bacteriological methods are, in general, notably inexact, al-
though the data thus secured are of the greatest value. Further-
more the results obtained are subject to a wide range of inter-
pretation. For these reasons a discussion of the probable error
involved in the field methods of bacteriological examination is
scarcely necessary. The interpretation of the data thus secured,
however, will be dealt with in the following chapter.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Both laboratory and field examinations of water are made by
the Bureau of Science. As the methods used differ consider-
ably in the two instances, they will be discussed separately.

LABORATORY METHODS

The methods of chemical analysis employed in the Bureau of
Science laboratory are, in general, the standard methods of the
American Public Health Association. A few changes and omis-

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 107

sions have been made. The most important of these is with
regard to the determination of nitrogen in the form of nitrates,
nitrites, and free and albuminoid ammonia. None of these
determinations is now made in a routine mineral analysis and
only in special cases in a sanitary analysis of a water.

The status of nitrogen determination has entirely changed
during the last few years. As Barnard 142 has pointed out,
streams loaded with sewage are often surprisingly low in
nitrates. Nitrates show greater variation due to high or low
water than to sewage or oxidation of nitrogenous material. Free
and albuminoid ammonia generally depend more on low and high
water, temperature, and normal vegetable growth than upon
pollution. Furthermore, since the nitrogen content of deep wells
is almost sure to be misleading, since single determinations are
of doubtful value, and since the nitrogen in its various forms
can be determined accurately only on fresh samples of water,
the nitrates, nitrites, and free and albuminoid ammonia deter-
minations may be omitted for all but exceptional cases.

Similarly the determination of "oxygen-consuming power"
is very seldom made when only single analyses are required.
It has been repeatedly shown that this determination does not
measure accurately the amount of organic matter in a water,
that the values obtained vary widely with the method used,
and that numerous errors may be introduced by the irregular
behavior of many dissolved substances. 143 This determination is
valuable chiefly as a sensitive indicator of fluctuations in a
water supply kept under constant control. When a single analy-
sis only is made, the results obtained for the oxygen-consuming
power are of questionable value.

In this laboratory the determination of oxygen consumption
by digestion at room temperature with alkaline permanganate
solution 144 is preferred to the standard procedure 145 of the
American Public Health Association, namely, 30-minute di-
gestion at boiling temperature with ^cid permanganate solu-

142 Eng. Record (1913), 68, 291.

143 For a discussion of the factors influencing the determination of
oxygen-consuming power, cf. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Sewage (1915), 26-30; also Heise, G. W., and Aguilar, R. H.,
The oxygen-consuming power of natural waters, PhiL Journ. Sci., Sec. A
(1915), 11, 37-47.

144 Method of Schultze, Dingler's polytech. Journ. (1868), 188, 197, as
modified by Winkler, L. W., Zeitschr. f. analyt. Chem. (1914), 53, 561.

145 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage
(1915), 29.

108 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

tion. The directions for the method of procedure followed in
this laboratory are as follows:

Put 100 cubic centimeter samples of water into scrupulously
clean bottles, add 10 cubic centimeters of (0.01 N) perman-
ganate solution (containing 20 grams of sodium hydroxide per
liter), and allow the samples to digest for twenty-four hours
at room temperature. Acidify with 10 cubic centimeters of
dilute sulphuric acid (10 per cent), allow to stand for one or
two minutes, and add 2 cubic centimeters of 10 per cent potas-
sium iodide solution. Titrate the liberated iodine as quickly as
possible with 0.02 N sodium thiosulphate solution. The solution
must be acidified before the potassium iodide is added, else
nitrites will not be oxidized and concordant titrations will not
be obtained.

This method greatly reduces, but does not eliminate, the error
due to the presence of chloride, so that, when the chloride
content is large (approximately 150 parts per million or over)
it is best to shake a water sample with silver oxide, to remove
chlorides 146 before proceding with an analysis.

Total hardness has been usually determined by calculation
from the gravimetric determinations of calcium and magnesium
and reported in terms of calcium carbonate. Recently the
Blacher method 147 for the determination of total hardness by
titration with a solution of potassium palmitate has been studied,
and this method, in slightly modified form, is now included
among the standard methods employed in this laboratory. 148

The only other deviation from the standard methods worthy
of mention has been the substitution of dimethylaminoazo-
benzene (butter yellow) in place of lacmoid, methyl orange, and
erythrosin in the determination of alkalinity. Recent work
indicates that the first-named indicator gives the most reliable
results, the end point being almost independent of carbon
dioxide. 149

The following determinations are made in a routine water
analysis as carried out in this laboratory : Color, turbidity, alka-
linity, acidity, total solids, silica, iron and aluminium oxides, iron,
aluminium, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, normal carbonates,
bicarbonates, sulphates, and total hardness.

146 Sachs, J. H., Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1916), 8, 406.

147 Blacher, G., Griinberg. P., and Kissa, M., Chem. Zeitschr. (1913),
37, 568.

148 Behrman, A. S., Note on the Blacher method for the determination
of hardness in water, Phil. Journ. Sci., Sec. A (1916), 11, 291.

149 Norton, J. F., and Knowles, H., Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. (1916), 38, 877.

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 109

Results are reported in terms of parts per million and in
numerical values of two significant figures (except in the case
of 5 in the place of the third significant figure, which is so
reported) . This method of reporting in terms of two significant

laboratory No...

BUREAU OF SCIENCE
WATER

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

[Results expressed as parts per million.]

Physical characteristics.. Chlorides (CI) •

Color Normal carbonates (as _ CCh)

Odor Bicarbonates (as CO3)

Turbidity (us SiOt) Sulphates (SO t ) -

Alkalinity (as CaCOs) Nitrates (N(h) -

Acidity (as C(h) Nitrites (NOz)

Total solids Three ammonia

Fixed solids Albuminoid ammonia

Loss on ignition Oxygen consumed

Appearance on ignition Total hardness (as CaCOi)

Silica (SiOz) Temporary hardness.

Iron & aluminium oxides (FezOz+AlzOz) Permanent hardness

Iron (Fe) Estimated encrustants

Aluminium (Al) Classi&cation for boiler use

Calcium (Ca) ....

Magnesium (Mg) Remarks

Sodium (Na)

Potassium (K)

BIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

Date ...
Colonies per cc. 24 hrs / 48 hrs Presumptive test

ProtozoA — Attempt to isolate B. coli .

B. SC. POKM No. 41.

BUREAU OF SCIENCE

MANILA, P. I,

WATER

laboratory No Day and bonr of co Uection ,

location _

(Province.) (Town.) (Barrio.)

Source

Type

When installed

Capacity per minute:
Flows

Report on sanitary survey..

Quality of water.

Effect of pumping .

Temperature

Owner.

Depth of well

Depth of easing .
Diameter

Mead above (+) or below (— ) surface..
Variations ..—

Water-bearing stratum Sample collected hy

I,ocal opinion

Nature of examination _ Analysis requested by..

Fig. 1. The two sides of one card. The top of the obverse is the bottom of the reverse.

figures is now generally accepted 150 as being consistent with
the errors involved in determination. Any unusual physical
characteristics such as taste and odor, not measurable quanti-
tatively, are recorded.

150 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage
(1915), 14.

HO PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

FIELD ASSAY

Recent developments in water analysis have emphasized the
importance of making examinations at the source, whenever
possible. The work of the Bureau of Science has shown, as
indicated in a previous chapter, the need of field investigations
and the peculiar applicability of field methods to Philippine
conditions. Accordingly field work has been made one of the
most important features of our study of water supplies.

Owing to the comparative isolation of the Philippines, the
great, distance from scientific or manufacturing centers, and the
consequent loss of time when apparatus and supplies are procured
from abroad, we have found it necessary, to a large extent, to
build our own apparatus, to prepare our own reagents for field
use, and to devise and adapt methods suitable to our needs.

The field work of the Bureau of Science has been now carried
on for three years. Because of the importance of field methods
at the present time and because workers in the Philippines will
continue to be dependent, in a great measure, on their own
resources, we thought it advisable to describe our field methods
and apparatus in detail.

Our methods are based upon those described by Leighton. 151
However, several changes have been made. A "tabloid" deter-
mination of acidity and a rough estimate of the total amount of
solid matter have been added ; the soap method for total hardness
has been replaced by a new and more accurate procedure; and
several minor modifications in the details of manipulation of some
of the old methods have been introduced. Other minor changes
have been made in apparatus, as will become evident in the
detailed description to follow.

In connection with the study of potable waters, a field bacterio-
logical examination is also made. This consists of 24- and
48-hour colony counts at ordinary temperature and a pre-
sumptive test for B. coli or related organisms that would indicate
faecal contamination. The uniform tropical temperature (25 to
30° C.) makes this bacteriological work a very simple, while a
very valuable, feature of the examination.

The outfit has been gradually reduced in size, although the
number of determinations made has been increased, so that now
enough apparatus and materials for a month's chemical work
can be carried in an army telescope. This makes a package
weighing less than 22 kilograms, which fits well on one side

151 Leighton, M. 0., Field assay of water, £7. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply
Paper (1905), No. 151.

I; METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 111

of a packsaddle or on the back of a cargador. The outfit
required for bacteriological work is not large, as may be seen
by Plate XIX, in which the complete equipment is shown.

A comprehensive sanitary survey, embracing, in so far as
possible, all those features that may influence the quality of
the water under examination is, of course, included in field work.

The details of the methods employed in regular field examina-
tion are as follows. Quantitative: Color; turbidity (as Si0 2 ) ;
alkalinity (as CaC0 3 ) ; acidity (as C0 2 ) ; iron (Fe) ; chlorides
(CI) ; normal carbonates (as Na 2 C0 3 ) ; bicarbonates (as CaC0 3
or HC0 3 ) by calculation; sulphates (as S0 3 ) ; total hardness (as
CaC0 3 ) ; estimated encrustants, by calculation. Qualitative:
Odor ; total solids ; appearance on ignition ; calcium ; classification
for boiler use.

Color is determined with the United States Geological Survey
color outfit described by Leighton, 152 consisting of a standard
length aluminium tube that is filled with the water under
examination. The color of this column of water, viewed longi-
tudinally, is matched by disks of colored glass that have been
rated in parts per million to correspond to the platinum-cobalt
standard.

Iron is conveniently determined with the same outfit as used
for color as described by Leighton. The only extra equipment
required is a series of prepared colored disks corresponding to
those by treating standard solution of iron. These disks have
not been available. In lieu thereof, red and yellow glasses from
the Lovibond tintometer have been employed in connection with
two matched Nessler tubes in galvanized iron outer tubes.
When 100 cubic centimeters of water were used in a determina-
tion, it was found that a summation of 6.0 on the Lovibond scale
was very nearly equal to 1 part per million of iron (as Pe).
The following is the procedure employed :

To 100 cubic centimeters of the water under examination in a
Nessler tube add 4 cubic centimeters of concentrated nitric acid.
Mix thoroughly by pouring six or seven times from one tube
to another and allow to stand at least five minutes to insure
complete oxidation. Then add 6 cubic centimeters of a 2 per
£ent solution of potassium sulphocyanide, mix thoroughly by
several pourings, and allow to stand ten minutes for the color
±o develop. Exactly at the end of ten minutes make the color
^comparison with the Lovibond glasses under the empty Nessler
tube, using a piece of white paper to reflect the light. Hold
the tubes with one hand sufficiently high to reflect all the light

* 162 Loc. cit.

112

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

possible. Interchange the tubes several times to avoid inequaU
ities of light. The tubes should be held in such a position that
both may be seen with one eye. Obviously the final reading
may be made either by using all the glasses under the empty
Nessler tube or with some under the water as well. In this
way intermediate values sometimes not otherwise obtainable may
be found. In all cases the nitric acid used should be tested be-
forehand for iron, this being a not infrequent impurity.

Turbidity is determined with an electric turbidimeter, de-
scribed in Leighton's paper. By means of an electric flash light,
a cross of light is provided at the bottom of a long graduate tube!
The well-shaken, turbid water is poured in until the sharp image
disappears and the hazy cross of light just disappears. This is
taken as the end point in the lower part of the tube. In the
upper part of the tube (that is, for slightly turbid liquids) there
is no hazy cross of light, and the end point is taken as the
depth at which the sharp image of the cross disappears, giving
place to a slightly blurred one, that is, it seems out of focus.
Table VIII is provided for converting the turbidimeter depths
to parts per million silica.

Table VIII. — For converting readings in depths by the turbidimeter into
parts per million of sulphate.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

S03.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

SOs.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

SOs.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

SOs.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

SOs.

Read-
ing.

Parts

per

million

SOs.

cm.

cm.

cm.

cm.

cm.

cm.

1.0

522

3.2

173

5.4

104

7.6

75

10.8

53

19.0

30

1.1

478

3.3

168

5.5

103

7.7

74

11.0

52

20.0

29

1.2

442

3.4

164

5.6

101

7.8

73

11.2

51

21.0

28

1.3

410

3.5

159

5.7

99

7.9

72

11.4

50

22.0

27

1.4

383

3.6

155

5.8

97

8.0

71

11.6

49

22.5

26

1.5

359

3.7

151

5.9

96

8.1

70

11.8

48

23.0

25

1.6

338

3.8

147

6.0

94

8.2

69

12.0

47

24.0

24

1.7

319

3.9

144

6.1

93

8.3

68

12.4

46

25.0

23

1.8.

302

4.0

140

6.2

91

8.5

67

12.6

45

26.5

22

1.9

287

4.1

137

6.3

90

8.6

66

12.8

44

28.0

21

2.0

273

4.2

133

6.4

88

8.7

65

13.0

43

29.0

20

2.1

261

4.3

131

6.5

87

8.8

64

13.5

42

31.0

19

2.2

250

4.4

128

6.6

86

9.0

63

14.0

41

33.0

18

2.3

239

4.5

125

6.7

84

9.1

62

14.5

39

35.0

17

2.4

230

4.6

122

6.8

83

9.3

61

15.0

38

37.5

16

2.5

221

4.7

119

6.9

82

9.5

60

15.5

37

40.0

15

2.6

213

4.8

117

7.0

81

9.7

59

16.0

36

43.0

14

2.7

205

4.9

115

7.1

80

9.8

58

16.5

35

46.5

13

2.8

198

5.0

113

7.2

79

10.0

57

17.0

34

50.0

12

2.9

191

5.1

110

7.3

78

10.2

56

17.5

33

55.5

11

3.0

185

5.2

108

7.4

77

10.4

55

18.0

32

62.0

10

3.1

179

5.3

106

7.5

76

10.6

54

18.5

31

68.0

9

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 113

Turbidity may be also determined with the turbidity rod,
which consists merely of a bright platinum wire fastened at
|; right angles to a tape. Under the proper conditions the tape
is lowered into the water under examination, and the end point
is taken as the depth at which the wire just disappears from
view. The tape is calibrated directly to read parts per million
silica.

The disadvantage of the turbidity-rod method is the required
nicety of adjustment of conditions, involving the use of a large
sample under circumstances often impossible. The turbidimeter
I method, on the contrary, is independent of most of these con-
ditions. Only a small sample is required. Since the method
is based on the diffraction of light, the accuracy of the deter-
mination is almost independent of the intensity of the light and,
/ therefore, of the condition of the batteries and bulb. It follows
|; directly that the original calibration as given by Leighton is
| applicable to any well-constructed turbidimeter. No difficulty
|i was experienced in having a suitable instrument constructed
!{ for our purposes.

'), Sulphates are also determined with the turbidimeter, as de-
a, scribed by Leighton. To 100 cubic centimeters of the water are
\[ added 1 cubic centimeter of HC1 (50 per cent concentrated acid
\ by volume) and 1 gram of powdered crystals of solid barium
/' chloride. Precipitations are conveniently made in 250 cubic
; ( centimeter glass-stoppered bottles. The water is allowed to
stand for ten minutes, with frequent shakings. The turbidity
|< produced is then determined with the turbidimeter as before.
The sulphate content (as parts per million of S(X) is read from
the table of turbidimeter depths.

Calcium was formerly determined turbidimetrically by the
United States Geological Survey method, but this has been
abandoned because of its inaccuracy.
| The qualitative field test for calcium is made by adding enough
ammonia to some of the water in a test tube or bottle to make
it alkaline to litmus and then adding some ammonium oxalate.

Total solids are determined qualitatively by evaporating 50
cubic centimeters of the water in a porcelain casserole to dry-
ness over an alcohol lamp. The solid content is reported merely
as "very small/' "moderate/' "large/' etc. The residue is then
ignited, and any change in "appearance on ignition" is noted.
This may be a browning or blackening due to organic matter
or a deep red-brown coloration due to the oxidation of con-
siderable amounts of iron present. The last is of value as a
confirmatory test for large amounts of iron.

152918 8

114 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Odor is reported, wherever possible, in such a way that both
the derivation and the relative amount are indicated, namely,
"very slightly sulphuretted," "strongly acid," etc.

Alkalinity, acidity, chlorides, normal carbonates, and total
hardness are determined by the use of tablets, as outlined by
Leighton. In brief, this method consists of the use of pellets
containing known amounts of reagents, instead of standard solu-
tions. The titrations are performed in a small (100 to 150 cubic
centimeters), heavily glazed porcelain mortar, a pestle being
used to crush the pellets and to stir the liquid. The volume
of water used for a titration is conveniently measured from a
tall 100 cubic centimeter graduated cylinder, provided with a
double scale, so that both the water withdrawn and the volume
remaining can be directly read. What are practically duplicate
determinations can be made very rapidly in the following
manner : A few pellets are crushed in the mortar, and water is
added from the cylinder till the end point is reached. The
volume used is noted. Several more pellets — preferably the
same number as before — are added, followed by water from the
cylinder until the second end point is obtained. In this way
not only is it possible to secure more accurate results by taking
the mean of the two values obtained than by making a single
determination, but in addition, any gross error that may arise
from an unclean mortar, contaminated indicator, or defective
tablet can be detected and corrected.

The following reagents are used in tablets in the various
determinations :

Sodium acid sulphate for alkalinity and normal carbonates;
sodium carbonate for acidity; silver nitrate for chlorides; and
potassium palmitate for total hardness.

Kaolin is used as the filler and binding material for the
sodium carbonate and silver nitrate pellets, while glucose is
employed for those of sodium acid sulphate and potassium
palmitate. Glucose is superior to kaolin, as it is completely
soluble and consequently does not obscure the end point. It
cannot, however, be used in the first two cases, because un-
stable pellets result. Water is used in all cases in making up
the pill mass. The reagent is dissolved in water and carefully
stirred into the binding material. The mass is kneaded in a
mortar, more water being added if necessary, until it is homo-
geneous and of the desired consistency.

The tablets are made in a tablet mold. We' use a hard rubber
mold (No. 10, Whitall Tatum Co., for making 50 one-grain
tablets at a time). The molded pellets are dusted with pow-

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 115

dered talc, dried in the air and then in a desiccator over
calcium chloride, after which they are packed in glass tubes
about 15 centimeters in length holding about forty pellets each.
The tubes are sealed with paraffin, and those containing pellets
of silver nitrate are covered with heavy black paper. Need-
less to say, the silver nitrate pellets are made in a dark room.

The silver nitrate and sodium carbonate pellets retain their
strength almost indefinitely without change. Those of sodium
acid sulphate lose strength very slowly and should be restandard-
ized every month. The potassium palmitate pellets lose strength
rather rapidly and should be restandardized weekly.

For the determination of alkalinity, pellets are molded from
a pill mass containing 6.5 grams of crystallized sodium bisul- ,
phate and 150 grams of glucose, the proportions that will
yield a pill of very nearly the desired strength (one pellet
equivalent to 1 milligram CaC0 3 ) . The pellets are standardized
by crushing five of them in a mortar with a little distilled
water and adding a drop of butter-yellow indicator solution
(0.2 gram butter yellow in 100 cubic centimeters of alcohol).
Tenth-normal sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate is added
till the end point is reached. From this titration the reacting
value of the pellets may be readily calculated.

The field determination of alkalinity is analogous to the
standardization of the pellets. The 100 cubic centimeter cylin-
der is filled to the mark with the water under examination.
Two or three of the pellets are crushed in the mortar with
a little of the water, and a drop of the indicator is added,
followed by more water from the cylinder till the end point is
reached. The volume of water used in the titration is noted,
readings being taken to the tenth of a cubic centimeter. Two or
three more pellets are added, followed by more of the water to
the second end point.

The alkalinity, expressed as parts per million calcium carbon-
ate, is readily calculated from the number and strength of pellets
and the volume of water used in the determination. Thus, if 4
pellets of sodium bisulphate, each equivalent to 1.10 milligrams
of calcium carbonate, require 22.4 cubic centimeters of the
water for interaction, the alkalinity will be

1,000X4X1.10

=196

22.4

and would be reported as 200 (that is, in terms of two significant
figures).

If normal carbonates (or hydroxides) are present, the water

116 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

will give a pink coloration with phenolphthalein. In this event
the amount of normal carbonates is determined with pellets
of sodium bisulphate. The procedure is identical with that
for the determination of alkalinity, except that five drops of
phenolphthalein indicator solution (1 per cent alcoholic) are
used instead of the one drop of butter yellow. Where the
normal carbonates are present only in small amount, half, or
even a quarter, of a pellet may be all that can be used.

As phenolphthalein is sensitive to carbonic acid, the end point
in this determination is reached when only half of the alkali
is neutralized. Accordingly the same sodium bisulphate pellet
that was equivalent to 1.10 milligrams of calcium carbonate
in the determination of alkalinity will be equivalent to twice
that amount, or 2.20 milligrams, when used in the determination
of normal carbonates.

Thus if 2 of these pellets require 57 cubic centimeters of the
water for the reaction, the results, expressed in parts per
million of calcium carbonate, would be

1,000 X 2 X 2.20 ^^

57 ~~

When, as is usually the case with Philippine waters, the phe-
nolphthalein alkalinity is less than half that determined with
butter yellow, the alkalinity of a natural water is caused by
bicarbonates and normal carbonates and is equal to their sum.
If, therefore, no normal carbonates are present, the alkalinity
is numerically equal to the bicarbonates, when both are expressed
in terms of calcium carbonate. If, when normal carbonates are
present, the alkalinity is found to be equal to the normal car-
bonates — that is, when the phenolphthalein titration is one-half
that with butter yellow — the absence of bicarbonates is indicated.
If the alkalinity is found greater than the normal carbonates,
the difference will be the bicarbonates, all expressed as calcium
carbonate.

If, however, the phenolphthalein titration is more than one-
half that with butter yellow, waters contain calcium or other
alkaline hydrates (caustic alkalinity) . In this case the phenolph-
thalein alkalinity subtracted from the butter-yellow alkalinity
is equal to one-half the normal carbonate alkalinity. The caustic
alkalinity is the difference between the normal carbonate and
the total alkalinity. In case the phenolphthalein and butter-
yellow titrations are identical, all of the alkalinity is due to
hydrates.

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION

117

The relations between the various forms of alkalinity just
discussed are shown in Table IX. 153

Table IX. — Relation between normal carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydrates
in natural waters, as indicated by titration with sulphuric acid (sodium
bisulphate) in the cold.

Car-
bonates.

Bicar-
bonates.

Hy-
drates.

P===0_._ _ __

2P

2P

2 (B-P)

B
B-2P

O

2P-B
B

P<iB

P=i B

P>* B _.._

P=B

P = Phenolphthalein titration.

B = Butter-yellow titration.

Table X. — Conversion of turbidimeter readings in centimeters to parts
per million of turbidity.

Reading.

Turbidity
as S1O2.

Reading-.

Turbidity
as S1O2.

Reading-.

Turbidity
as S1O2.

Reading-.

Turbidity
as S1O2.

Parts per

Parts per

Parts per

Parts per

cm.

million.

cm.

million.

cm.

million.

cm.

million.

2.3

1,000

6.3

350

10.5

210

19.6

110

2.6

900

7.3

300

11.0

200

21.7

100

2.9

800

7.6

290

11.5

190

23.0

90

3.2

700

7.8

280

12.1

180

25.0

80

3.5

650

8.1

270

12.8

170

28.0

70

3.8

600

8.5

260

13.6

160

31.0

60

4.1

550

8.7

250

14.4

150

35.0

50

4.5

500

9.1

240

15.4

140

42.0

40

4.9

450

9.5

230

16.6

130

52.0

30

5.6

400

10.0

220

18.0

120

70.0

20

When it is desired to express normal carbonates as sodium
carbonate, the calcium carbonate value is multiplied by 1.06.
Similarly the bicarbonates may be converted to the bicarbonate
radical by multiplying the calcium carbonate equivalent by 1.22.

If a water reacts acid to phenolphthalein, the presence of
carbonic or a mineral acid is indicated. In the first case bicar-
bonates may be present, but normal carbonates will not. In
the second case, neither bicarbonates nor normal carbonates can
be present, and the water will react acid to butter yellow or
methyl orange as well as to phenolphthalein.

Mineral acidity, when present, is determined with pellets of
sodium carbonate, using butter yellow as an indicator. Total
acidity, due to the combined effect of mineral and carbonic
acids, is also determined with pellets of sodium carbonate, but

J Cf . Standard Methods of Water Analysis, p. 39.

118 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

in the presence of phenolphthalein as indicator. The carbonic
acid acidity is the difference between the total and the mineral
acidities.

Mineral acidity in natural waters is rarely encountered in
the Philippines. Acidity is practically always due to free carbon
dioxide and is, therefore, determined with sodium carbonate
pellets, using 5 to 10 drops of phenolphthalein solution as in-
dicator. The manipulation is identical with that described for
"alkalinity" and "normal carbonates," except that, ordinarily,
only one or two tablets, or even less, will be required for a
titration. Furthermore, since the kaolin in the pellets slightly
obscures the end point, the discrepancy between duplicate deter-
minations is usually 0.5 cubic centimeter and often 1 cubic
centimeter.

In the manufacture of the sodium carbonate pellets 4 grams
of anhydrous sodium carbonate are used to 130 grams of kaolin.
This gives a pellet of approximately the desired reacting value,
namely, 1 milligram of carbon dioxide. To standardize, 5 of
these pellets are triturated in a mortar with recently boiled
distilled water, 5 drops of phenolphthalein solution are added,
and the solution is titrated with 0.1 N sulphuric acid.

If, in a field determination, it is found that 24 cubic centi-
meters of the water is the average of two readings taken for
the reaction with one pellet equivalent to 0.95 milligram of car-
bon dioxide (phenolphthalein being used as indicator), the
acidity, expressed in parts per million of carbon dioxide, would

equal ^™ B =40.

24

For the determination of chlorides, "weak" and "strong"
pellets of silver nitrate are employed. The former are each
equivalent to about 1 milligram of chlorine, the latter to 10
milligrams. In the manufacture of the weak pellets, 12.5 grams
of silver nitrate and 200 grams of kaolin are used, while 156
grams of silver nitrate and 250 grams of kaolin are the pro-
portions used for the strong pellets.

The pellets are standardized with a sodium chloride solution,
which is conveniently made to be equivalent to 1 milligram of
chlorine per cubic centimeter. Potassium chromate is used as
an indicator.

The determination of chlorides in the field is rapid and simple.
A small quantity of water, usually only 10 or 15 cubic centi-
meters, is introduced from the filled 100 cubic centimeter
graduate into the mortar, and 5 drops of potassium chromate
solution (5 per cent) are added as indicator. If the chlorine

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 119

content of the water is high, "strong" silver nitrate pellets are
| added one at a time, with thorough mixing, until an excess is
| indicated by the rose color of silver. chromate. If the chlorine
; content is low, "weak" pellets are added until the end point is
> passed. If the chlorine content is low, that is, under 10 parts
f; per million, a half or even quarter tablet will be sufficient. In
i any case, after an excess of silver nitrate has been provided,
j more water is added from the cylinder until the rose color is
'. entirely displaced by a bright yellow, corresponding to the shade

used in standardization. Check determinations may be made

\ as before by adding more pellets and titrating.

! If, to react with a half of a "weak" tablet (a whole tablet

'being equivalent to 0.96 milligram CI), there were required 76

|! cubic centimeters of the water under examination, the chlorine

; content, expressed in parts per million of chlorine, would be

I * a * 4-1. . ni 100 X 0.5 X 0.96 a Q
found from the expression CI— - — — — =^ =6.3.

I For the determination of hardness, pellets of potassium pal-
mitate, made from a pill mass of glucose and potassium palmi-
tate, are used. One hundred grams of glucose are used with
| an amount of potassium palmitate corresponding to 15 grams
; of palmitic acid. To make potassium palmitate, palmitic acid
( is dissolved in alcohol and neutralized with normal alcoholic
i, potash solution, using phenolphthalein as indicator. The result-
, ing alcoholic solution is then evaporated to dryness. The resi-
le due may be used without further treatment for making the
I pellets.

I The following method is employed for the standardization of
I the pellets : A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is pre-
I; pared from pure calcium oxide. The normality of this is deter-
mined by titration of 25 cubic centimeters with 0.1 N sulphuric
j acid, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. One hundred cubic
centimeters of the calcium hydroxide solution are then pipetted
into a 200 cubic centimeter volumetric flask. A few drops
of phenolphthalein solution are added, followed by normal sul-
phuric acid to acid reaction. Add 0.2 N alcoholic potash, drop
by drop, until a faint pink is produced. Distilled water, which
has been previously boiled to expel carbon dioxide, is added to
the mark.

The calcium sulphate solution thus prepared is used to stand-
ardize the pellets. Five of these are crushed in a mortar with
a little distilled water, and 5 drops of phenolphthalein are added.
The standard calcium sulphate solution is then added from a
burette, until the last trace of phenolphthalein pink disappears.

120 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

From the number of cubic centimeters used and the determined
strength of the calcium hydroxide solution, the strength of the
pellets, expressed in terms of calcium carbonate, is calculated.

Since a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide is about 0.04
N, the standard calcium sulphate solution as prepared above
will be about 0.02 N, that is, 1 cubic centimeter will be equi-
valent to about 1 milligram of calcium carbonate.

The potassium palmitate. tablets, as prepared above, will each
be found to be equivalent to 1.5 to 2 milligrams calcium
carbonate.

These pellets should be standardized every week, as they lose
strength fairly rapidly. What this loss of strength is due to
is not yet certain, but from the data at hand it seems at least
possible that it may arise from an acid fermentation of the
glucose, bringing about a decomposition of the potassium pal-
mitate with the separation of palmitic acid.

For use in the determination of total hardness, 1 cubic centi-
meter graduation marks were etched on a 100 cubic centimeter
cylinder, so that volumes up to 105 cubic centimeters could be
read.

For a determination, 100 cubic centimeters of the water,
measured in this cylinder, are transferred to a dry 250 cubic
centimeter bottle (the glass-stoppered variety is convenient).
A very small piece of methyl orange paper is suspended in the
liquid by means of a platinum wire, while normal sulphuric
acid is added from a dropping bottle until the paper becomes
red. The paper is then removed to avoid coloring the liquid.

The liquid is then aspirated for five minutes with a continuous
pressure bulb operated by hand. After aspiration, 1 cubic centi-
meter of phenolphthalein is added, followed by 0.2 N alcoholic
caustic potash from a pipette, till a faint pink coloration de-
velops. The liquid is now returned to the cylinder, the bottle
being drained as completely as possible. The volume of the
liquid is noted within 0.5 cubic centimeter. This will usually
be between 102 and 105 cubic centimeters.

About 10 cubic centimeters of the liquid are then introduced
into the mortar. One or more potassium palmitate pellets are
then added, until an excess is present, that is, when a pro-
nounced phenolphthalein coloration is produced. More water
is then added from the cylinder, until the phenolphthalein color-
ation completely disappears. The volume of water used is
noted. Several more pellets are then added, followed by water,
till a second end point is reached. The two determinations
should check each other within 0.5 to 1 cubic centimeter.

METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 121

It is well to use four or five pellets in the two titrations to
avoid any considerable error due to the lack of uniformity in
the pellets.

To calculate the total hardness, it is first necessary to reduce
the number of cubic centimeters of the water as used in the
determination to the equivalent number of cubic centimeters
of the original water, that is, before it was diluted with sul-
phuric acid, phenolphthalein, and alcoholic potash. Then the
total hardness is computed from the value and number of the
pellets used.

For example, let us suppose that the original volume of 100
cubic centimeters had been diluted to 104.5 cubic centimeters
before titration with the palmitate pellets, each equivalent to
1.80 milligrams calcium carbonate. Obviously the 48.5 cubic
centimeters used for the determination are equal to

48.5
^46.4

104.5 X 100

cubic centimeters of the original water. Therefore the total
hardness would be derived from the expression

1,000 X 4 X 1.80

46.4

Or, using the data above, we may represent the entire cal-
culation in one line as follows. Total hardness (as parts per
million calcium carbonate) is equal to

10 X 104.5 X 4 X 1.80 _ lg5

48.5

Total solids are estimated with the aid of Dole's formula, 154
slightly modified. For Philippine ground waters, the following
will be found satisfactory :

100 + normal carbonates (as Na 2 C0 3 ) + bicarbonates (as
CaC0 3 )+1.7 SO3 + I.6 CI.

Estimated encrustants are calculated (for the clear water)
from Dole's formula: 155

Estimated encrustants =

Bicarbonate alkalinity (as CaC0 3 )
-j- CaS0 4 + total hardness (as Ca C0 3 )

154 Dole, R. B., U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper (1916), No.
399, 304.

168 U. S. Geol Surv., Water Supply Paper (1910), No. 254, 232.

122 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Assuming the sulphates present to be there as calcium sulphate,
the CaS0 4 in the above formula becomes 1.7 S0 3 . In this form
the formula is available for field work.

Classification for boiler use is based upon the amount of esti-
mated encrustants, according to the scheme of the American
Railway Engineers' Maintenance of Way Association, which
has been quoted in the discussion on industrial waters.

The use of the Berkefeld army filter to clarify turbid waters,
as suggested by Leighton, has been discontinued in our field
work, and this for several reasons. Comparatively few of the
waters examined on the average field trip are turbid. An
analysis of only the clear portion of a turbid water is ordinarily
not of great value, and when it is desired, a clear sample is
readily obtained by sedimentation or by filtration through cotton
or paper. Turbidity interferes appreciably only with the deter-
mination of sulphites. Its effect can be readily overcome by
determining the turbidity of the liquid after adding hydro-
chloric acid and before adding barium chloride and subtracting
this from the reading obtained after the sulphates have been
precipitated. The difference represents the sulphate turbidity,
and the amount of sulphates can be determined from the table
without appreciable error. In short, the Berkefeld filter has
found such limited application in our work that the minor benefits
derived from its use have not been commensurate with the
trouble and inconvenience of carrying it.

While field methods do not claim the exactness and accuracy
possible in the laboratory, it is interesting to note that in several
cases the values obtained by the two procedures do not differ
very widely. As has been previously stated, results obtained
in laboratory determinations are expressed in terms of two
significant figures only. This mode of expression itself involves
limits of accuracy, which permit a maximum error of about 4
per cent. The average accuracy of field determinations, as
stated by Leighton and confirmed in our own work, is roughly
about 5 per cent. Turbidity shows the widest variation, ranging
from about 3 per cent with turbidities of 500 to 1,000 parts
per million to about 16 per cent with a turbidity of 30 parts
per million, the deviation increasing fairly regularly with de-
creasing turbidities.

There are several sources of probable error, of which the
following are the most important. Using a 100 cubic centi-
meter graduated cylinder, volumes cannot be read more ac-
curately than to the nearest tenth of a cubic centimeter and often

I METHODS OF WATER EXAMINATION 123

I

f not that accurately. Further, when the mortar is washed with

I I the water under examination, a certain amount remains in the
! mortar to affect the volume subsequently employed for the next
[ titration. Further the lack of uniformity in the pellets may
j introduce a very appreciable error.

h In our own work additional sources of probable error have
f been encountered with "tabloid" methods. Our pellets are
[ molded by hand and are consequently not as uniform as machine-
i; made pellets. This is especially true of the potassium palmitate
pellets, which form a sticky pill mass that dries very quickly
| and that is very difficult to mold uniformly. Again kaolin is
I used in the sodium carbonate and silver nitrate pellets and
I obscures the end points, thus decreasing the accuracy of the
f determinations.

I In the "tabloid" determinations outlined above our methods

I differ from Leighton's in that, in the determination of chlorides

| and of total alkalinity, Leighton treated a known quantity of

| water with an excess of reagent to obtain an end point, while

f in all cases we titrate a known amount of reagent with the water

to secure an end point. The former method gives values that

lie between certain limits, as the excess of reagent is added in

the form of parts of a pellet, and consequently the exact amount

of reagent required for the titration is not determined. By

making the excess small, the deviation from the true value is

correspondingly decreased.

By our method, however, the exact titrating volume required
is determined quickly and fairly accurately. The approach to
the end point is thus reversed. This probably introduces an
error in the determination of chlorides, which is, however, cer-
tainly much less than that involved in Leighton's method. It
I should be also remembered that the standardization of the pellets
| is made in the same manner as the field determination, thus
decreasing the probable error. In the case of the determination
| of alkalinity, however, where methyl orange or butter yellow
is employed as indicator, the reversed approach to the end point
(that is, from acid to alkali) is theoretically the more correct
of the two procedures and should, therefore, further increase
the accuracy of the method as outlined above.

Summing up the whole question of the accuracy of field meth-
ods, it might not be out of place to quote from the introduction
of Leighton's paper:

To the methods hereinafter proposed the term "assay" readily lends
itself. There is no attempt at water analysis. The plan contemplates

124 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

the determination of ingredients which give to water certain well-known
characteristic. The methods ' * * * have been found to be more nearly
accurate than was at first anticipated, though this fact, it is believed, has
not greatly increased their usefulness for the purpose in view. By their
use, combined with a fair amount of common sense, the essential charac-
teristics of waters can be ascertained at small expense. In almost every
situation in which such determinations are significant they will afford
sufficiently satisfactory data. In the case of finely balanced consider-
ations of a purely physical, chemical, or geologic nature, however, they
are practically useless. They are intended for practical purposes and
have no place in pure science.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

When a water is very good or very bad, the judgment of its
quality is usually a simple matter. Unfortunately for the
analyst, however, one cannot, generally speaking, classify waters
as unqualifiedly "good" or "bad." Both in laboratory and in
field work it is generally impracticable to make more than one
examination, and it must be admitted that a single test fre-
quently affords insufficient basis for the interpretation of results.

In passing judgment on the quality of water supply, one must
know the purpose for which the water is intended. Water
entirely unsuitable for one use may be well adapted to some
other. Thus a supply that might be dangerous for drinking
might be excellent for use in manufacturing processes; a hard
water unsuited for laundry or boiler purposes or for soap manu-
facture might be advantageously used for brewing or irrigation ;
water with moderate salt content is often desirable for brewing,
though it is unsuitable for soap manufacture ; a water supposed
to have great medicinal value might be unfit for boiler use.

Sufficient has been said in preceding discussions to show that
many factors must be considered in passing judgment upon a
water. Difficult as it is to set up arbitrary standards even for
waters designed for industrial use, the problem of judging sup-
plies intended for human consumption is even more difficult, for
here the effect of various ingredients cannot be determined as
accurately as it can be for technical applications.

Considering first the technical applications of water, some of
which have been discussed under industrial supplies, the signifi-
cance of various ingredients may be summarized briefly some-
what as follows: 156

Free acids, — Free mineral acids rapidly corrode metal work,
and in addition to this destruction may introduce a portion of
the dissolved metal into the finished product. In the paper and
textile industries acids rot and streak the fabrics, in addition
to decomposing some of the chemicals and dyestuffs. In the
Philippines, however, very few minerally acid waters are found.

156 These statements, which are only general in character, are based
chiefly on the classifications by Dole, R. B., TJ. S. Geol. Sum., Water Supply
Paper (1910), No. 254, 232, and by Klut, H., Eng. Rec. (1910), 60, 498.

125

126 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Total solids. — Over 300 parts per million of total solids (res-
idue on ignition) generally make water undesirable for boiler
purposes, although under certain conditions waters with many
times as great a mineral content may be used.

Suspended matter. — Suspended matter is objectionable in all
process in which water is used for washing or comes into con-
tact with food materials. It frequently causes stains or spots.
For this reason even a small amount of suspended matter due
to precipitated iron is especially injurious. Suspended vegetable
or animal material is liable to decomposition and partial solu-
tion. Water should be, therefore, freed from suspended matter
before being used for laundering, dyeing, bleaching, starch and
sugar making, brewing, distilling, and similar processes.

Color. — Color in water is due principally to solution of vege-
table matter, though in freshly drawn spring and well water it
may result from iron. The chief objection to color due to
vegetable matter is in the paper and textile industries, where
the finished product may be tinged.

Iron. — More than 0.1 part per million of iron may be objection-
able in the industries. It forms greenish or black substances
with materials containing tannin, which discolor hides in tan-
ning and barley in melting, and which give beer bad color, odor,
and taste. In all cleansing processes, especially if soap or alkali
is used, precipitated iron is liable to cause rusty or dull spots.
Waters containing large amounts of iron may develop growth
of Crenothrix, a small filamentous plant colored with iron oxide,
which clogs pipes, valves, and faucets and causes rust stains on
clothes washed in the water.

Manganese. — In any appreciable quantity, manganese gener-
ally makes water unfit for industrial purposes.

Calcium and magnesium. — The effect of waters used for boiler
purposes has been already discussed. For many other indus-
trial purposes they are just as undesirable. In laundering, the
soap (which is a compound of sodium or potassium with certain
fatty acid radicals) is decomposed, with the formation of a
curd of insoluble calcium or magnesium "soaps," which have no
detergent or lathering properties. Soap will continue to be
wasted, and no lather will be secured, until all the calcium and
magnesium have been used up. Calcium carbonate wastes eight
times its weight of soap. In laundries supplied only with hard
water, softening is imperative.

High calcareous waters cannot be used in distilleries, because
proper action is hindered by the deposition of alkaline earth

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES 127

salts on the grain in boiling, nor can they be used for diluting
spirits, because they cause turbidity.

In cooking, a hard water is objectionable, as a deposit of lime salts
is formed upon the surface of tea leaves, meat, vegetables, etc., which
hinders their extraction or hardens their tissues. It has been asserted
that 'ten ounces of tea made with soft water is as strong as 18 ounces
brewed with hard water'; and M. Soyer * * * proved that in the
making of soup more meat is required with a hard water, and the operation
takes a longer time. Vegetables have their colour darkened by the action
of carbonate of lime. * * * In baking, the dough rises better, and the
bread is lighter in colour, when soft water is used. im

The presence of calcium and magnesium compounds may
sometimes be advantageous. Thus, in brewing certain beers
and ales, calcium sulphate is desirable. In paper making
slightly hard waters are preferable to very soft ones, as the
latter dissolve part of the calcium sulphate used for loading.

Sulphates. — Hard waters with sulphates predominating are
desirable in tanning heavy hides, because they swell the skins,
exposing more surface for the action of the tan liquors. Sul-
phates interfere with crystallization in sugar making, so that
the amount of sugar retained in the mother liquor is increased.

Chlorides. — More than 100 parts per million of chlorine may
be injurious to plants ; more than 200 are generally detrimental
to boilers. Salty waters should not be used in concrete construc-
tion. In tanning, chlorides cause the hides to become thin and
flabby. Waters with high salt contents obviously cannot be
employed in soap making or in laundry work, as soap is insoluble
in them.

Beverages and food products, of course, cannot be treated with
waters very high in chlorides without becoming salty. In sugar
making, the animal charcoal used in clarification is deprived of
its bleaching power by absorption of salt, and saline salts are
incorporated in the finished sugar crystals. In the preparation
of alcoholic beverages chlorides in large amount prevent the
growth of yeast and interfere with the germination of the grain.

Silica. — If present in large quantities, silica is considered
objectionable for boiler purposes.

Nitrates. — A high nitrate content spoils water for brewing,
fermentation, or sugar refining.

Ammonia. — Ammonia interferes with starch, brewing, or fer-
mentation industries when more than a trace is present.

Carbon dioxide. — Free carbon dioxide as a rule accelerates
corrosion.

a67 Rideal, S. and E. K., Water Supplies (1915), 141.

128 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Hydrogen sulphide. — Hydrogen sulphide is poisonous. In
addition, it is corrosive even in small quantities, and may also
injure materials by discoloring and rotting them. This sub-
stance is associated with such large amounts of dissolved salts
in many waters that they are unfit for industrial use for reasons
other than their gaseous content.

Organic matter. — Organic matter of fecal origin is, of course,
dangerous in any water that comes into contact with food pro-
ducts. Even when not necessarily capable of producing dis-
ease, it is undesirable in industrial supplies because it induces
decomposition in other organic materials, such as cloth, yarn,
sugar, starch, meat, or paper, by rotting and discoloring them.

Other substances. — Other substances commonly occurring in
Philippine waters are normally present in such small amounts
as to render discussion of them unnecessary.

The changes that take place in a water sample on standing
frequently help to make interpretation of analyses more dif-
ficult. As a typical instance may be mentioned the changes in
carbon dioxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate content, previously
discussed. These ingredients frequently change to such an
extent that the analysis is misleading.

As was pointed out in the preceding chapter, the examination
of water consists of three parts — chemical analysis, bacterio-
logical examination, and sanitary survey. One of these is often
sufficient to determine the potability. As a general rule, how-
ever, it is not enough to know that a water is good at the time
of examination ; it is just as essential to find out whether it has
been contaminated in the past or whether it is subject to con-
tamination in the future. All methods at our disposal are gen-
erally needed, therefore, to enable us accurately to judge the
potability of a water.

Considering first the chemical features of a water examina-
tion, the common ingredients and properties of waters with
respect to potability may be classified as follows: 158

Color, odor, taste, turbidity. — The best water for drinking
purposes is clear and is free from objectionable color, odor, or
taste. Color and turbidity in themselves are not important
except when they are caused by harmful or objectionable
substances.

Total dissolved content. — The total dissolved content in itself
has no significance. When the solid content is very high, waters
are sometimes laxative or objectionable in taste.

158 Cf. also Klut, loc. cit.; Dole, loc cit.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES 129

Hardness. — When hardness is high, it may affect the taste,
but in itself it is of little importance hygienically.

Alkalinity. — Alkalinity is not believed to be as objectionable
as it was formerly considered to be, some waters having an
alkalinity of 900 to 1,200 parts per million being palatable and
having no noticeable ill effect. 159

Silica. — Silica in the quantities normally found in natural
waters is not considered to have any appreciable effect on
potability.

Chlorides. — Chlorides are generally an indication of the
amounts of salt in water. Salt in itself is not objectionable,
except in so far as it affects taste or indicates sewage pollution.
In the latter case it is not the actual amount of salt present,
but the deviation from, the normal for any given district, that
is the criterion. In some parts of the Philippines people have
accustomed themselves to waters containing 800 parts of chlo-
rine per million, and experience in this and other countries has
demonstrated that such quantities in drinking water are not
injurious to health per se.

Nitrogen. — The importance of nitrogen and the forms in which
it may be present have been discussed under methods of analysis.
Aluminium. — Aluminium has no hygienic importance in the
quantities normally found in water.

Iron. — Iron, like aluminium, has no significance in the small
quantities normally found in water, but it is sometimes objec-
tionable because it imparts an unpleasant taste to water and
because it promotes the growth of Crenothrix in pipes and re-
servoirs. A good water usually contains less than 2 parts of
iron per million.

Calcium. — Calcium has no significance so far as known.
Magnesium. — In the presence of sulphates, magnesium causes
intestinal disturbances when present m large amounts.
Sodium.- — Sodium and potassium have no significance.
Arsenic. — Arsenic is poisonous. At least one case is known
where a natural water in the Philippines contained enough
5 arsenic to be dangerous for drinking purposes.
i: Lead. — Lead is a cumulative poison whose presence renders
| water unfit to drink. It is seldom found in natural waters.
I Copper, zinc, and tin. — Copper, zinc, and tin are not found
f in natural waters in objectionable quantities.
f Sulphates. — (See Magnesium.) In themselves sulphates are
( unimportant. Over 500 parts per million can be present in

j 159 Ruediger, E. H., Am. J own. Pub. Health (1913), 3, 1904.

152918- 9

130 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

water without causing bad effects, though when present with
magnesium, or even with sodium, large quantities sometimes
cause intestinal disturbances.

Hydrogen sulphide. — Hydrogen sulphide is poisonous; hence
it is objectionable in large quantities.

Oxygen-consuming capacity. — The oxygen-consuming capac-
ity is an indication of organic matter and is often valuable when
a fresh sample can be secured and when a water source can be
kept under observation for some time. Philippine waters have
not been sufficiently studied to enable a standard to be set up.

Dissolved oxygen. — Dissolved oxygen is a valuable indication
of the purity of a water when the determination is performed
at short intervals. It, too, can be measured only in fresh
samples.

From the foregoing it is evident that, in general, the mineral
content of a water may vary within wide limits without affecting
its potability. It is further evident that hard and fast standards
cannot be set up. It is the exception, rather than the rule,
that the substances found in water by chemical analysis are
in themselves injurious to health.

The object of a chemical analysis, therefore, is not usually
the discovery of harmful ingredients, but the determination of
substances whose presence or absence indicates the possibility
of contamination by material dangerous to health. Thus in mak-
ing a sanitary analysis of waters, it has been customary to
determine, among other things, the chloride content. Chlorides,
generally present as common salt, are neither poisonous nor
dangerous. However, they are found in sewage; hence a high
chlorine content, or a sudden variation in the content, might
be due to an influx of sewage and must be viewed with suspicion.
A variation in chloride content, as, for example, a sudden shift
from 50 to 150 parts per million, is to be viewed with suspicion,
whereas a constant chloride content of 200, or even of 250 parts
per million would not indicate contamination. It is necessary
to determine the normal mineral content of waters in different
localities and to base judgment of waters on their deviations
from such normals. Unfortunately the work done in the Phil-
ippines has been insufficient to develop normals, and as pointed
out previously the waters from comparatively small districts in
the Philippines show such great fluctuations that it does
not appear probable that they can be developed for some
time to come. Since standards, to be reliable, must be based on
normals, it is clear not only that no arbitrary standards can be
set up for the Philippines at the present time, but also that

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES 131

the application of foreign standards will lead to confusing or
incorrect results.

The many attempts that have been made to develop bacte-
riological standards of purity for water have shown that bacte-
riological examination, like chemical analysis, must be interpreted
with great caution and in conjunction with other essential fac-
tors to ensure satisfactory conclusions. Also, as with chemical
analysis, only the very good or very bad waters are easily
classified.

Because of the essentially different bacteriological character
of waters from different types of sources, it is extremely unlikely
that a single fixed standard can be developed. The organisms
normally found in certain classes of waters might indicate a high
degree of pollution in others. A river free from pathogenic
organisms might have a colony count high enough to cause a
deep well to be viewed with suspicion.

A water that has a high bacterial count is obviously un-
desirable for human consumption, for the presence of many
organisms, even harmless ones, indicates, other things being
equal, that pathogenic organisms may readily find access to
the water. Just what limit shall be fixed, however, is not easy
to say. The standard adopted by the United States Treasury
Department for drinking water supplied to the public by common
carriers in interstate commerce 16 ° provides that the total num-
ber of bacteria on standard agar plates, incubated for twenty-
four hours at 37°, shall not exceed 100 per cubic centimeter.
For public water supplies obtained from a river Frost 161 recom-
mends a limit of 100 colonies per cubic centimeter on agar plates
incubated for forty-eight hours at 20° and states that a really
good water should show not more than from 10 to 50 colonies
per cubic centimeter on standard agar incubated at 37° C.

A factor that frequently increases the difficulty of inter-
preting bacteriological colony counts is the rapidity with which
changes take place in the number of organisms existing in water.
It has been estimated l(i3 in the United States that un-iced speci-
mens of water examined twenty-four hours after collection
may safely contain 200 colonies (agar plates; 20° C. incubation)
and that from forty-eight to seventy-two hours after collection
500 colonies may result. Though the authors conclude that the

160 Anderson, J. F., et al., U. S. Pub. Health Rep. (1914). 29, 2959-2966;
Eng. News (1914), 12, 1203-4.

161 Frost, W. H., Eng. Contr. (1914), 42, 250, through Chem. Abst.
(1914), 8, 3606.

162 Albert, H., Hinman, J, J., and Jordan, G., Journ. Bad. (1916), 1, 119.

132 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

results of tests on un-iced specimens may be relied upon if prop-
erly ( ?) interpreted in the light of sanitary survey, great depend-
ence cannot be placed on such methods. Especially in tropical
countries like the Philippines the high average temperature, as
compared with that of a temperate country, makes fluctuations
more rapid and much greater than the figures just quoted
indicate.

The examination for organisms of the colon-typhoid group
is a test, not so much for specific bacteria that are inimical
to health, but rather for those, more readily determined, that
indicate the possibility of the presence of associated pathogenic
organisms. In general, the occasional presence of B. coli in very
small numbers is considered permissible. According to Ander-
son and others 163 not more than one out of five 10 cubic centi-
meter portions of a water sample should show organisms of the
B. coli group ; according to Frost 164 these organisms should never
be found in 1 cubic centimeter samples and should be absent in
from 70 to 90 per cent of samples of 10 cubic centimeters.
According to McLaughlin 165 potable water should show not more
than 2 B. coli per 100 cubic centimeters, taking the average of
many samples by the Phelps method.

Unfortunately the test for the B. coli group, as usually per-
formed, is by no means conclusive. It has been demonstrated
that organisms resembling B. coli in their behavior, but not of
faecal origin, are found in surface waters even in temperate
climates. 166 Certain cultures from grains belong to this type.
Abundant experience in tropical water-supply problems 167 has
shown that a presumptive test for the colon group can be obtained
under conditions that practically exclude the possibility of
fecal contamination. Waters from almost sterile wells in the
Philippines have caused gas formation in litmus lactose agar.
Zammit and Marich 168 record instances where springs in Malta,
believed to be uncontaminated, showed coli-like organisms, as
did even carefully collected rain water.

To what extent the standards just discussed are applicable to
Philippine problems is not established. They are typical of
standard procedure elsewhere and may serve as a basis for

163 Op. cit.

164 Loc. cit.

165 McLaughlin, A. J., Pub. Health Rep. (1914), No.. 204.
160 Rogers, L. A., Journ. Bad. (1916), 1, 82.

167 Clemesha, W. W., Journ. Hyg. (1912), 12, 463.

168 Zammit, T., and Marich, E. R., Journ. State Med. (1916), 24, 76-81.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES 133

future work. It is certain, however, that the standards that
hold for temperate regions are not to be used without modifica-
tion for tropical countries. This has been pointed out in con-
nection with the various factors already discussed and is sup-
ported by the evidence from other countries. Thus Bowles 169
has shown the inapplicability of ordinary bacteriological stand-
ards to the water-supply problems in Panama and Mexico. So
far as experience in the Philippines is concerned, the following
general statements concerning bacteriological interpretation seem
justified : '

Flowing artesian wells are practically sterile.

Deep pumping wells in good condition are very low in bacterial
content. The colony count should not run over 50 per cubic
centimeter. If a higher bacterial content is indicated, an exami-
nation of the pump should be made, as this is frequently the
source of contamination. If the high content is not due to the
pump, as demonstrated by a second test after necessary repairs
have been made and the well has been subjected to a thorough
pumping, contamination is indicated, and the water is not above
suspicion.

Springs, in general, are more liable to contamination than
deep wells ; hence they must be examined with special care. To
be above suspicion, a spring water should show less than 50
colonies per cubic centimeter.

Surface wells in the Philippines, with comparatively few ex-
ceptions, are subject to contamination and must be viewed with
suspicion, regardless of the bacterial content indicated by a
single examination.

Rivers in the Philippines, unless draining a district known
to be uninhabited, are to be viewed with suspicion, even though
a single bacteriological examination might show them to be satis-
factory at the time of examination.

Bottled natural and carbonated waters should be sterile.

The presumptive test for B. coli must be interpreted liberally,
in conjunction with the chemical analysis and the sanitary sur-
vey. A positive presumptive test obtained from a water that
shows only a low colony count is not conclusive.

The scope and possibility of the sanitary survey have been
already described and need no detailed explanation here. Each
case presents individual characteristics and problems, the proper
interpretation of which depends upon the ingenuity and expe-

169 Bowles, J. T. B., Am. Joum. Pub. Health (1916), 6, 1173.

134 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

rience of the man in the field. It cannot be too strongly em-
phasized that an intelligent study should be made of the source
of every water of which analysis is requested, and further that,
whenever possible, this survey should be made by the person
called upon to interpret the analysis.

Before leaving this subject, it may be mentioned that evidence
other than that furnished by the ordinary examination may be
needed to establish the quality of a water. Special methods are
frequently adopted to secure such evidence. Thus connection
between a well and a possible source of pollution may be occa-
sionally demonstrated by placing a kilogram or two of salt on the
suspected area and noting any appreciable rise in the chlorine
content of the water. Fluorescin may be used for the same
purpose, its presence giving a characteristic fluorescence to
water. Or, since liquids might filter unchanged through a soil
that would remove bacteria, a culture of some easily recognized
organism might be used instead of salt or fluorescin. Bacillus
prodigiosus has been so used with satisfactory results.

The problem of judging the potability of waters can be sum-
marized somewhat as follows : Each water should be regarded as
a separate case and should be judged accordingly. One of the
special advantages of a chemical analysis lies in the fact that
it sometimes gives an indication of pollution in the past; hence
the possibility of recurrence of contamination, in cases where
bacteriological examination gives no indication of danger. A
bacteriological examination is extremely valuable in that it makes
contamination evident even in some cases in which neither
chemical analysis nor a sanitary survey would detect pollution.
On the other hand, neither chemical nor biological work might
detect a source of danger that a sanitary survey would locate.
Chemical and biological examinations are complementary;
neither is all-sufficient"; and valuable as both are, they should
be carefully interpreted in the light of the knowledge gained
by an accurate and painstaking sanitary survey.

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES

135

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140

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

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INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

141

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142

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

TABLE XII. — Spring waters

a Fe 2 03+Al20 ;} .

b Potassium (K), 8.1; sodium (Na), 19.

c Turbid ; turbidity not determined quantitatively.

d Sodium (Na), 355; manganese (Mn), strontium
traces.

« Manganese (Mn), 2,2; alumina (A1 2 3 ), 2.3; sodium (Na), 110
potassium (K) , trace.

f Alumina (Al 2 Oji), trace; sodium (Na), 88.

s Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), lithium (Li), trace; manganese (Mn),
170; potassium (K), 17; sodium (Na), 45.

h Metaboric acid (B0 2 ), lithium (Li), trace; manganese (Mn), 11
potassium (K), 10 ; sodium (Na), 24.

Labora-
tory No.

Year.

Location.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Source.

Tempera-
ture.

118745

60883-1

60883-2

9704

115071

101757

101757

12568

119649

121856

18654-1

18654-2

18654-3

105433

115732

84437

84438

84439

84440

124202

119022

97865

93928

97168

120478

119828

124388

115229

122140

1914
1908
1908
1904
1913
1912
1912
1904
1915
1916
1905
1905
1905
1912
1913
1910
1910
1910
1910
1917
1914
1912
1911
1912
1915
1915
1917
1913
1916
1913
1911
1913
1910
1906
1915
1907
1910
1910
1910

Albay, Tiwi ___

Albay, Tabaeo. _ _

Tiwi

°C.

Tancalao _ __

do

do

Ambos Camarines, Lagonoy, Goa _ __

Lalo _ __ -

do

Lanot . __

Ambos Camari nes, Paracale

Ginobatan _

do __

Cabeza Reginos

Ambos Camarines, Pasacao __ __

Punta Mainit

hot

48.9

Antique

Apdo _

Antique, San Jose" de Buenavista _ __

Tuban

Bataan, Dinalupijan _

Hot Spring

hot
warm
warm

37

do_ ___

TibioNo. 2 ____

do

TibioNo. 3

Balong Anito -

Batangas, Balayan, Gapas _

Batangas, Taal __ ;

do—. —

do _„

do

Batangas, Tanauan, Ambulong__

nonthermal

Bohol, Anda, Ylaya _- __ __

Bohol, Duero _ __ __ : __ .

Bohol, Loay

Bohol, Tubigon___ _ __ ._

do _.

Ubuhan

Bulacan, San Miguel de Mayumo

Bulacan, Santa Maria, San Jose

Sibul Springs ._

Capiz, Dumalag, Sohut -

do__ _._ _ _

Cavite, Silang . __ _.

Lucsuhen

Cebu, Barili __ _

Bolok-bolok

■31.1

114039

37929

120479

51541

Cebu, Carcar-_ _ ~ _

Spring

do _

34.2

____ do :_.

Bohol, Loay (?) - __ - _-

Tocdog __ _

Spring ..

Mainit — North

Mainit— South

Spring A

34.5
34.5
35.0

_ „do

Cebu, Oslob, Mainit

( Sr ) , potassium ( K ) , lithium ( Li) ,
phosphoric acid (P0 4 ),

9.4; alumina (Al 2 Os)»
alumina (AlaOg), 75;

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
)/ the Philippine Islands.

143

(c)

(?)

(c)
nil

nil
50.0

nil

nil

a a

MV

250

245

195
380
17.0

300

235

O

o

nil

4.6

nil

16.0

1,900
650
97
150
505
10, 500
370

1,900

2,200
680

4,200
600
690
720
770
690
370
280
250
350
270
310
550

2,400
240
531
224

300

315
390

630
100
90
130
160

46.5

50

69
120
110
110
140
110

78

73

74

59

72

16

20

13.5

40

22.5

15

24

18

14.0

19

24.5

15

25

96

98.0

36

a 7. 6
250
120
6.3
17

2

0.2
trace
trace
trace
trace
a 2. 4

a 1.8

a 1.8

*1.6

1.6
1.4
*2.5
al.2
*0.4
trace
trace
trace
0.72

63.4
18.76
90.33
50
64.5
92
110
92.8
80

27.5
5.5

35
3.4

26.72

10
5.9

11

0.52
*1.2
1

al.2

a 0.37

1.3

trace

a0.8

*2.6

a 1.4

1 Sodium (Na), 420.

3 Sodium (Na), 435.

k Sodium (Na), 140.

1 Potassium (K), 54; sodium (Na), 520; lithium (Li), 0.86.

m Potassium (K), 9.2 ; sodium (Na), 86.

n Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), 1.6; potassium (K), 6.6; sodium (Na), 17.

Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), trace; potassium (K), 2.1.

p Iodine (I), trace; potassium (K), 2.8; sodium (Na), 29.

* Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), trace; potassium (K), 8.5; sodium (Na), 150.5.

r Bromine (Br), trace; potassium (K), 6.7; sodium (Na), 150; strontium

s Iodine (I), trace; potassium (K), 6.0; sodium (Na), 65.

11
260
150
220

42

51

790
38
83
92
29

640
59

47.8
41.7
38.4
15.4
41
87.3
76.6
42.9
59.4
96.5

148

150

2.9
75.5
28
79
24

59

27

8.8
20
92
97
26
110
34
14
14
13

7.8
120

2.1
11
22

5.1
11
14
trace

5

.6

'u

2
o

m
0)
+-»

oO

<&
O

CO

-p

Jo

s

m

-M

CO

w.

O

CD

1

O
05

s

4.3

26

00

00

00
(*)

trace

2,100

trace

1,100

400

high

79

160

nil

280

22

00

14
15
52

32

<*)

5,600

nil

5

trace

22

nil

300

4.5

650

30

415

53

0)

760

22

345

58

0)

140

trace

240

9.4

00

670

1,400

0)

(m)

56

nil

410

32

110
130
150
130
6.1

85
91
108
94
23

nil

300

9.2

4.9
10

nil
10

7.2

13

9.1

12

nil

340

45

32

nil

460

nil

1,000

13

nil

110

5.4
110

nil

370

25

4.9

nil

115

4.2

00

17

nil

370

42

00

21

27

21
21

(p)

nil

300

4

9

nil

287

trace

4.5
120

3
230

00

290

120

nil

294

240

00

64.5

nil

338

29.5

<■)

(Sr), 4.0.

144

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XII. — Spring waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Year.

Location.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Source.

Tempera-
ture.

1910
1910
1910
1910
1910
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1914
1913
1913
1912
1917
1910
1915
1907
1911
1916
1910
1913
1906
1915
1912
1913
1913
1916
1916
1913
1907
1914
1914
1917
1912
1912
1912
1911
1917
1917
1917
1912

Cebu, Oslob, Mainit

35.8
29.9
33.0
32.5

.____do

Cebu, Sibonga, Kanaga

North

do

South

Cebu, Toledo, Kambang-og_

123969-1

123969-2

123969-3

123969-4

123969-5

118260

117934

111156

98446
123955

78433
121644

51255

93063
123300

77156
113260

27577
120335

97081
117796
117427
122293
123779
116154

44865
119066
118570
124780

99591
104286
101638

90174
124780
124218
124218

98796

Guam

Agat _

do _

Asan

do

do

Fonte Dam

do

Ilocos Sur, Bantay, Paing___

Canyau

Ilocos Sur, Danglas _ _

Hot

hot

Ilocos Sur, Vigan ___

do

do

Ilocos Norte, Vintar_ _.

Bisaya spring

Iloilo, Guimaras

Jolo, Jolo

Candasulig

34.0

Laguna, Los Bafios

Isuan

Laguna, Binang-

Laguna, Los Bafios ._

Hot

70.5

Laguna, Mabitac__

Galas _ .

Laguna, Majayjay, Oobi

Laguna, Pagsanjan

Laguna, Pansol _ .

Laguna, San Pablo

Leyte, San Isidro _

Villahermosa

Misamis, Agusan, Hibong

Aspeitia

Misamis, Cagayan___

do .__. __

Misamis, Catarman

Coot

Mindoro, Bulalacao, Mansatay

Mindoro, Calapan

Mindoro, Puerto Galera

Hot

very hot

Mountain, Daklan

Mountain, Baguio, Camp John Hay__

Mountain, Baguio

do

do

Mountain, Buguias.- ._

Mountain, Cervantes __

Abra River

hot

do

Mountain, Baguio

Pakdal

t Potassium (K), 5.8; sodium (Na), 64; iodine (I), trace.

"Potassium (K), 4.0; sodium (Na), 27.

v Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), trace; sodium (Na), 29; potassium (K), 5.4; metaboric acid
(B0 2 ), present.

w Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), trace; potassium (K), 5.4; sodium (Na), 3.0; strontium (Sr),
2.3 ; metaboric acid (B0 2 ), present.

x Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), arsenic acid (As0 4 ), trace; metaboric acid (B0 2 ), present; po-
tassium (K), 3.4; sodium (Na), 180.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
(the Philippine Islands — Continued.

145

•ok

.So

O
3

"3
<■

IX!

o

6
3

55

Pi
2

a

.2
'o

O

a

si

CO

oO

a
O

m
0)

4J .

oO

5

01

GO

CO

a

1 i
o

CO

s

32

a 1.4

£»1

40

67

337

29
24

(t)
w

(w)

40

«1

60

50

29

342

23

al.6

69

42

25

350

22

21

a3.9

70

37

30

nil

361

28
180
trace

22

»2.7

60

21

125

270

4.4

170

9.2

200

trace

0.14

77

2.1

14

nil

210

3.4

150

4.6

190

trace

0.14

70

3.1

15

nil

190

trace

10

230

19

510

8.0

0.28

100

6.6

110

nil

280

13

28

76

10.0

140

3.0

1.9

6.1

7.5

11

nil

90

nil

4.6

160

nil

210

8.0

0.44

54

1.6

15

nil

200

nil

180
2,100

32
130

a0.7
*19

39
160

7.4
6.5

3.2
230

7.3

965

(y)

nil

21

270
220
250

45
46

58

a2
al
0.18

66
44
11

9.8
7.1
3.7

4.75
4.4
3.5

trace

11
trace

180

nil

21

180

250

6.7

a0.5

69

3.8

8.8

nil

342

4 3

(»)

85

150

59.5

0.25

12

9

7.2

nil

103

trace

160

a 1.2

90

19

370

190

27

315

1,400

71
220

a0.4

0.18

38
40

13
15

16
500

17.5
30

<5

220

18.0

nil

270

880

93

a 1.8

81

33

360

nil

319

22

100
290
850

2.9
18
250

nil

210

135

trace

39

20

10

260

37

210
435

35

22

a 1.3

61
94

5.1

14

12

46

22
11

(aa)
(bb)

390

47.5

all

1,200

4.4

7,200

460

nil

320

32.2

780

27

0.20

99

93

7.6

395

trace

5.0

350

37.0

370

36.0

0.16

98

20

6.1

nil

430

trace

350

480
490

110

a 1.7

51.1

16

4.4
38
56
520

nil

270

trace

(cc)

72
80

a 1.7

87
170

8.7
220

6.5
580

(dd)

38

980

5,600

2,900

4,600
63
310

400
17

450
2.2

32
3.6

40
2.8

420
trace
2.9
990

3,000
56

185

al3

475

61

nil

490

425

350

53

(ee)
(ff)

41

130

590

nil

21

55

11, 000

130

0.70

400

90

5,000

nil

640

60

82

10

1,700

100 .

0.6

180

4.6

400

nil

100

570

5

58

2.3

1,100

45

0.14

72

3

360

nil

70

200

92

yp

POJ, 1

4 ; sodi

um (IS

a), 390;

potass

mm (K)

, 84.

2 Manganese (Mn)
aa Potassium (K),
bb Potassium (K),
cc Phosphoric acid
dd Potassium (K),
ee Potassium (K),
ff Phosphoric acid
152918 10

, potassium (K), trace; sodium (Na), 5.0.
2.8; sodium (Na), 53.

16; sodium (Na), 3,650.

(POJ, 1.04; potassium (K), 6.9; sodium (Na), 22.
355; sodium (Na), 2,900.

42; sodium (Na), 630.

(POi), potassium (K), trace; sodium (Na), 390.

146

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XII. — Spring waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Year.

Location.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Source.

Tempera-
ture.

124462
124462
118663
1085
124779
124780
115164
115164
115260
119824
112523
78654
78655

78656
78657
81824
119905
102294
75529
60638
60637
120033-1
120439
115733
119406
116187
19608
19608
120044
121249
116421

1917
1917
1914
1903
1917
1917
1913
1913
1913
1915
1913
1910
1910

1910
1910
191Q
1915
1912
1910
1908
1908
1915
1915
1913
1914

1905
1905
1915
1915
1913

Mountain, Itogon _ ___ ___ _

°C.

Mountain, Kiangan

Mountain, Mainit

Salt hot spring

Saline springs.

hot

Nueva Vizcaya, Dopol

Nueva Vizcaya, Oriong

Spring _„

Nueva Vizcaya, Salinas _

do

Occidental Negros, Mambucal ___

39
39

do

do _

Medicinal

Oriental Negros, Tanjay

Mainit _

hot

Pangasinan, Mount Balungao.

Rizal, Antipolo . _ ___

Mabolo

do

Bocal ng Tandang

Yang.
DelaVirgen._

do

do __ _

Marurunong

Rizal, Malabon, San Bartolome _ _

Near church

Rizal, Pasig, Bagong-Ilog

Matang Tubig

Rizal, Santa Inez

Mount Cailapa __,

Rizal, Tanay ._

Samar, Catbalogan___ ._

Naval hot

do

Villahermosa

Pagsipi

hot

Tayabas, Lucban___ __

Tayabas, Mount Banahao

Tayabas, Gasang Malbog__

Mineral

Tayabas, Guinayangan, Maulauin

Tayabas, Sariaya .,__ __

Tayabas, Tayabas _ _

Laurente

do

Taliong

do ...

Tayabas, Tayabas, Silangan Palale _

Lalo

Mainit _

48

Coron, Uson Island (?) __

ss Potassium oxide (K 2 0), 23; sodium oxide (Na a O), 460.

hh Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), metaboric acid (B0 2 ), trace; potassium (K), 14; sodium (Na),
40.

11 Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), 0.71 ; potassium (K), 15 ; sodium (Na), 50 ; metaboric acid (BO a ),
trace.

3 i Sodium (Na), 9.6; potassium (K), metaboric acid (B0 2 ), trace.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

147

=1

>>

'it

5

O

+>
S

"S

02

o

o

03

h

c
8

'of

O

'a
.s

'5
73
o

S

c3

3

S
o

02
<D

03 •
OO

03

CD

I s

s

m

ftS

CO

g

a
o

OD

120
10

370
260

nil
30

2,400
520

190

44
195
110

60
110
135
170
9.2

44.5

35

13
0.2

a88

0.60
1.8
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace

180
130

91
280

54
900

57.5

41

60

210

5,100

26

19

0.66
140

37
220

21

14
4.1
150

little

650

6

750

22,000

8

20,000

3

21
8.9
2,700
15,000
2.8
2.3

21
1.9
53.5
38

21
nil
210

410
320

350
105
295

(«).

40
390

40,000

460

465

340

6,400

26,000
240
230

290
170
470
250
250

90
800

340
1,800

nil
65

28
nil
nil

nil
nil

360
2,200
390
320
380
230
23

trace
900

11

11
6.1
260
710

(hh)

(«)
(ii)

(kk)

145

70

nil

25

9.8

nil

180

nil

100

trace

34

11

2.3
29
54

5.1

6
110
22

2.5

7

7

5.2
890
10

180

2.8

00

750
450
140
105

1,200
330
110
120
100
100

1,800
57

54

62
50

72
4
75

0.7
trace

a2.4

trace
4.0

5.4
11
260

86
3.7

5

3.9
48
11

1.5

trace
nil
nil
nil

65
49
940
320

nil
nil

87

14
trace

(mm)

260

43
37.5

57.5

1.6

8

4

nil
32

52
6.1

4.1

17

*3.6

2

2.1

£

kk Metaboric acid (B0 2 ), bromine (Br), iodine (I), present; manganese (Mn), trace; po-
tassium (K), 26; sodium (Na), 4,200.

11 Potassium (K), 3.5; sodium (Na), 16; metaboric acid (B0 3 ), 1.2 ; alumina (A1 2 3 ),
trace,

mm Phosphoric acid (P0 4 ), lithium (Li), trace; potassium (K), 22; sodium (Na), 101.

'

148

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

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INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

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PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

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Misamis, Cagayan, poblacion

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran,

poblacion.
Occidental Negros, Isabela, po-
blacion.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

153

A P

18,000
3,000

88, 000
6,000

Fair

Good

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do

do____

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do

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154

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

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156

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

TABLE XV.— Well waters

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

uepwi capacity r ,
of well, per minute. ^ 01 °r.

Depth

Capacity

11705
122307
119419
123067
123123
121784
121866
112669
122069
118001
124395
115366
123066
122138
122321
122492
122577
118685
119990
123394
123739
125020
124762
120565
118656
118814
119202

71804

74040
119112

97406

. 119601-1

119601-2

119601-3

119601-4

117935-1
117935-2
117935-3
117935-4
117935-5
117935-6

117935-7

117935-8

117462

78712

550
809
680
953
968
849
881
494
890
578

1004
505
944
904
912
929
932
601
717
971
990

1032

1017
777
615
648
657
118
129
443

(?)

507
164

1913
1916
1914
1916
1916
1916
1916
1913
1916
1913
1917
1913
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1914
1915
1916
1916
1917
1917
1915
1914
1914
1914
1909
1909
1914
1912
1914
1914
1914

1914

1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913

1913
1913
1913
1910

Albay, Albay

Albay, Bacacay

Albay, Bato, Cabugao .

Albay, Camalig

do _

Albay, Guinobatan

do .___ _.

Albay, Ligao

do

Albay, Malinao

Albay, Malilipot

Albay, Oas

.—.-do

Albay, Polangui

.—.do

do.

.-_-do__ — _.-

Albay, Tabaco

do _„ ._

do

do

do

do

Albay, Tiwi

Albay, Virac

do—

Albay, Virac, Calatagan _.

Ambos Camarines, Nueva Caceres

do _-.

Ambos Camarines, San Jose

Ambos Camarines, Calle Dasmarinas ?

Bataan, Orion, Calle Pangani ban

Bataan, Orion, Calle Real

Bataan, Orion, Calle Tangaran, Plaza P.

Gomez.
Bataan, Orion, Calle Bagumbayan, Plaza P.

Gomez.

Bataan, Pilar, Calle San Pedro ;

Bataan, Pilar, Calle Mabolo, Sta. Rosa

Bataan, Pilar, Calle Masantol, Sta. Rosa

Bataan, Pilar, Calle San Jose _

Bataan, Pilar, Calle San Pedro

Bataan, Pilar, Bataan Pequefia, Calle San

Jose.

Bataan, Pilar, Calle Kansas

Bataan, Pilar, Sta. Rosa (Luwasan)

Batangas, Alitagtag

Batangas, Balayan

a Yellow.

Meters.
85.3
99.7
42.7
50.2
38.1
145.3
47.2
91

96.0
114
56.4
152
61.0
57.9
25.9
57.9
47.2
121.9
147.8
112.8
103.5
48.7
107.3
102.4
265.8
59.4
235.9
11
58
37

Liters.
P45
F 23
P49
P379
F 68
P303
P151
F 38
F 57
F 170
F 227
P284
P76
F 57
P568
F 87
P379
F 57
F 114
F 114
F 416
F 38
F 76
F 38
P23
P681
P61
P189
P151
P68

113
114

P189
F 227

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
of the , Philippine Islands.

157

>>

>>

5

O

9

'3
<

CO

o

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3

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+3 .

Mo

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CD

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1,800

64

3.6

23

trace

960

33

160

2,200

160

3,700

71

1.0

83

60

700

2,600

130

slight

120

1,600

30

trace

36

6.3

570

nil

145

43

15

195

14

460

85

0.8

47

22

26

nil

240

110

50

230

20

570

80

1.6

50

33

30

nil

280

140

high

165

190

1,800

74

13

210

240

36

200

39.5

160

9

445

77

0.6

55

18

18

nil

190

100

450
460

62
69

2.0
0.68

20
18

11

10

32
29

trace
trace

35

340

5.3

nil

420

990
220

67
60

trace
0.60

51.5
7.5

43
17

218
11

95
nil

5

150

4.6

nil

180

605
940

68
54

3.6
1.5

11
50.0

10
19

107

275

trace
trace

40

380

18

nil

415

53

520

32

620

80

2.8

78.0

38

43

nil

640

trace

5

350

27

460

73

2.4

76

24

7.6

431

trace

55

520

22

580

76

1.0

77

32

29

630

trace

32

580

23

710

50

1.2

73

40

62

nil

710

trace

210
570

60
65

3.7
0.5

1.2
8.9

nil
12

6.2

85

88
trace

(b)

245

nil

300

160

4.6

300

70

0.38

2.2

<2.0

12

nil

200

trace

<5

90

nil

140

60

0.20

5.1

1.4

4.4

nil

110

trace

20

70

10.0
nil

210

105
90

0.06
0.24

9.7

1 6

5.5

nil

80

nil

120

250

trace

trace

7.2

nil

150

trace

' (*>)

370

1, 100
420
670
560

150

trace

7.0

8.7

190

7.6
191
130

nil

450

120

26
22

1.7
1.7

37
64

30
31

44
24

390
120
290
490
235

18
6.3
4.3
150
6.2

1 high

86

7.7

31

3.4

92

: nil

130

90

trace

25

11

nil

160

, trace

: nil

140

235

85

trace

25

11

8.2

nil

170

trace

j n "

140

235

90

trace

22

11

6.2

nil

160

trace

»«1

130

235

90

trace

22

12

6.2

nil

160

trace

290
270
275
300
290
290

300
280

98

2.5

16

60.3

12
4.4
3.4

12

13

13

12
2.5

trace

0>)

I

91

trace

4.8
i 2.8

27

14

380
395

74
93

43
53

8.9
15.5

4.4

7.4

trace

i

I

d Filtered.

158

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well

No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

79221
98447
118046
119051
119111

119211
119293
119420
119581
120551
120614
120733
120831
121352
121146
121451
121566
68518
113010
117608
117610
117444
117897
117898
119134
123402
123759
124295
124667
124511
119073
119255
119564
122156
121282
121284
121351
121837
122416
105125
122690
122771
122889
122977
123054
123196
124967

175
354
584
670
673

681
686
690
697
785
794
800
804
815
839
852
860
79
495
499
522
555
563
571
638
982
997
1000
1020
1011
640
672
688
712
780
822
846
847
882
420
942
946
952
955
961
966
1031

1910
1912
1914
1914
1914

1914

1914

1914

1914

1915

1915

1915

1915

1915

1915

1915

1915

1909

1913

1913

1913

1913

1913

1913

1914

1916

1916

1917

1917

1917

1914

1914

1914

1916

1915

1915

1915

1916

1916

1912

1916

1916

1916

1916

1916

1916

1917

Batangas, Balayan

Batangas, Balayan, Calatagan

Batangas, Batangas

Batangas, Batangas, Calle Jaena

Batangas, Batangas, Plaza of Government
Building.

Batangas— _.

Batangas, Batangas, Calle P. Burgos.- _.

—_do

do ____ .

Batangas, Batangas, Paharang _.

Batangas, Batangas, Sampaga _

do __.

Batangas, Batangas, Tolo

Batangas, Batangas, Dumantay

do ___

Batang-as, Batangas, Santa Rita

Batangas, Batangas, Mahabang Parang

Batangas, Bauan

do .....

_do.
-do.
.do.
..do.

Batangas, Batangas, Lagnas _
Batangas, Batangas, Asias ___

.-.do _

Batangas, Batangas, Cupang _

Batangas, Bauan

Batangas, Bauan, Alolam .__.._

Batangas, Bauan, Bulibay

Batangas, Bolbok ___

.-..do

Batangas, Bolbok, Sico

Batangas, Bolbok, Quipot

do _

Batangas, Bolbok, Talahiban_.
Batangas, Batangas, Bolbok _.

Batangas, Bolbok __.

do.

Batang-as, Lipa

do .

do

Batangas, Lipa, Antipolo

Batangas, Lipa, Anilao

do

do

Batangas, Ibaan._

a Yellow.

Meters.
114
238
145. 7

74

77.7

128.6
136
128
115.8
65.5
67.6
80.5
87.1
67.3
68.8
106
99.6
80.7
91
125
128.9
152
153
158
46.0
79.2
68.3
67.4
94
82,9
142.9
138.7
179.8
236.2
132
160
101.5
172.2
182

43.3
37.5
34.7
43.6
19.2
102.1
47

Liters.
F 568
P95
P151
P379
P379

P379
P189
P114
P132
P95
P114
P114
P114
P114
P473
P114
P45
P303
F379
P76
P76
P303
P189
P 757
P132
P38
P30
P45
P45
P45
F 19
F 57
F 76
P76
P114
F 76
P95
F 114
P30
P246
P45
P45
P45
P45-
P45
P 30
P 38

nil
nil
nil

00

nil
nil

00

6.0

2.0

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

c Brown.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

159

+3

si

>>

<

O

o

is

<

"o

w
3

O

3

a

|

'3
o

"a

.2
13

S' 5

Q

.s

m
■*■»

oO

»H V -'

B3

m
oO

m

380
1,300
330
380
390

360
380
370

81
63
59

74
78

68
68
6.5

3.6
3.2
1.7
3.7
3.7

3.7
trace
trace

40
15
43
35.5

28

40
15
43

15

4.7
16.6
17
18

14
15
16

8.5
455
4.7
10
9.2

11.5
9.9
6.3

41.6
9.2
7.3

11

7.2
7.2
43

CO

0>)

nil

270

nil

190

nil

250

360

57.5

trace

48

19

7.2

nil

280

4.1

nil

320

515

90

trace

95

22

30

nil

390

nil

nil

225

380

92

2.0

57

19

14

nil

270

nil

nil

245

385

90

trace

77

22

10

nil

300

trace

nil

250

400

100

3.0

52

22

10

nil

305

6.0

255

400

83

0.25

56

24

14

nil

310

trace

260

370

76.5

0.7

31

22

7.7

nil

320

8.2

285

420

74.5

1.1

50

22

9.3

nil

350

trace

220

370
700
360
370
420
380
380
360
390
400

100

0.7

39

13

8.2
5.4
7.8
8.5
7.0
5.6
6.9
4.2
13
8.4

270

trace

74
79
73
88
81
71
76
95

2.0
2.8
4.8
0.4
trace
2.9
7.7
1.2

41
46
39
60
39
42
50
45

16

15

17

27

14.5

17

11

15

7.0
3.6
6.4
4.4

trace
5.1

100

trace

00

60.0

250

7.0

nil

300

<5.0

170

23

440

80

0.28

49

11

25

nil

190

<5.0

10.0

280

14

420

90

0.95

56

20

10

nil

340

trace

65.0

210

10

410

160

1.3

38

12

7.6

nil

260

3.0

60.0

380

11

530

90

0.80

90

28

10

nil

470

8.2

860
980
825

32
38
32

3.7
3.7
2.5

1.2

18
10

1.2

11
nil

166
250
110

nil

12.1

nil

slight

550

nil

650

75.0

550

16

1,500

85

6.8

49

15

490

nil

670

trace

505

910

60

1.1

34

19

175

nil

620

trace

540

1,400

72.5

1.15

7.1

8.9

200

nil

660

trace

240

380

80

1.15

45

16

8.7

nil

290

trace

nil

510

13

920

37

1.3

14

9

160

nil

625

trace

85.0

520

5.4

1,400

68

1.8

29.5

28

440

640

trace

295
270

94
100

3.0
0.22

35
18

10
6.2

7.8
12

15
5.9

3.0

120

32

nil

150

10.0

160

35

320

80

0.22

35

16

16

nil

200

10.0

30.0

170

45

490

100

1.9

57

53

36

nil

210

18.0

<5.0

160

32

330

100

0.5

32

12

15

nil

200

7.8

nil

125

33

290

120

0.16

26

7.5

12

nil

150

trace

200

120

23

330

200

1.6

20

<5.0

7.3

nil

140

trace

250 1

170

13

300

85

0.18

26

11

11

nil

200

trace

* Turbid

160

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

nil
nil

00

nil
00

00

125009
124929
93292
95430
122578
120438
119898
119947
119984
120041
115331
70173
117463
123530
123618
108462
109934
121739
87828
83743
81901
74636
118223
79477
79478
83330
83331
117767
96694
80289
91226
118408
118556
105141
85759
87524
89432
97049
98529
118047
118305
118596
47956
43533
105809
49775
78825
44052

1050
1045
307
339
935
779
713
730
736
744

92
529
988
995
436
469
873

577
3?
2?

551

167

192
619
400
224
246
279
345
364
586
603
616

162

1917
1917
1911
1911
1916
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1913
1909
1913
1916
1916
1912
1912
1916
1911
1910
1910
1909
1914
1910
1910
1910
1910
1913
1912
1910
1911
1914
1914
1912
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1914
1914
1914
1907
1907
1912
1907
1910
1907

Batangas, Ibaan __.

Meters.
32
41

Liters.
P 38
P 38
P 23, F 19
P 151
P 45
P 114
P 95
P 95
P 95
P 95

Batangas, Ibaan, San Jose

Batangas, Nasugbu ___

do.

47

59.1

48.8

35.7

36.6

29.3

29.3

Batangas, Rosario

Batangas, San Isidro

Batangas, San Jose (plaza)

Batangas. San Jose, Calle Burgos

Batangas, San Jose, Calle Biacnabato

Batangas, San Jose, Nomel

Batangas, Santo Tomas

Batangas, Taal

189

113
80.5
90.5

337

128
50

Batangas, Taal, Balisong

P 189
P 30
P 30
P 189
P 189
P 45

nil
nil
00

nil

do._

Batangas, Taal, Calumpang

Batangas, Tanawan ___.

do .__

do

Bohol, Albuquerque __

Bohol, Bacloyon, Laya _ _._

do

P 61

Bohol, Dimiao, near municipal building

Bohol, Inabanga

10
130.1

P 38

Bohol, Loboc, Ilaya__ _

do

Bohol, Loboc, Sauang

Bohol, Loboc, Villaflor

Bohol, Loon .___

79.2

P 57

Bohol, Panglao, Tagnan

Bohol, Tagbilaran r

Bohol, Tagbilaran, Mansasa - __

171

P 227

do

213

28.7
142
152
119
163
124
180
157.3
135.9
134.1

P 227
P 379
F 303
F 95
F 719
F 57, P 114
F 151
F 47
F 114
' F 76
F 227

do_. . _

Bulacan, Angat __ _. _ ._ __

Bulacan, Baliuag

do—.

do

do

do

Bulacan, Baliuag, Camboag

Bulacan, Baliuag, Tanauan _

Bulacan, Baliuag, Sabang __

Bulacan, Bigaa._ __

Bulacan, Bulacan _

do

Bulacan, Bocaue __

128
124

Bulacan, Calumpit _

F 64

Bulacan, Guiguinto ._

1 Yellow.

c Brown.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands— Continued.

161

>>

5

(M

o
u

>>

<

CD
CQ

Is

+»

o
H

O
3

33

2

"c3
O

la

.2
"5

u

0>O

9

.s

m

oo
**"— '
O

tfi

«-£

go

s

CO

-CO
ft S

w

nil
10.0

120
160

40
16

330

350

640

650

400

485

330

300

365

320

270

5, 100

490

350

370

325

280

340

330

1,500

1,300

460

800

410

520

460

565

1,100

700

2,150

1,600

240

420

1,400

1,000

1,100

1,050

1,100

900

580

970

1,100

400

700

600

260

340

1,400

100
100
120

78.5
50
SO
77.5
77.5
80
120

0.14
0.24
4.0
6.5
0.48
4.0
0.5
nil
trace
0.6

34
36
4.7
23
52
71.5
50
27
63
19

9.2
8.6
2.16

20

13

29

17.5

13

21

13

27

26

58
220

17

25

21
9.0

20

20
6.9
2,600

25

13
8.8

12
9.4
1.6
7.8
590
500

75

18

11

13

28

41
410
140
985
670
3.3

42
740
510
600
560
610
470
280
540
585
100
230
165

26

49
650

nil
nil

150
200

nil

trace

68.0

19

20

4

16.5
12
14
12.5

5.0

high

00

nil

nil

00

180
320
150
175
200
130

48
13

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

220
390
180
210
240
130

10.0
95.0
00
00

nil

170
140

28
28

100
200
72
84
90

0.42

0.68

6.0

3.8

0.4

31
18
36
25
39

1.2
3.0
7.6
6.7
10

nil
nil

230
170

8.5
trace
57
32
33

160

nil

195

13

0.5

170

121

295

30

4.9

140

73

155

23
17
8.4
11
56
23
98
14
24
85
27
23
21.5
18
18
18
18
21
80

2.6
2.05
4.4
15.0
0.4
trace
7.7
1.3
0.4
2.0
1.0
0.2

2.0
3.3
7.7
1.7
0.6
0.8

140
170

66
110
100
130

23

94

42

24

26

30

32

29

12

21

33
4.7
9.9

trace
trace

53
14
87

6.0
4.7
3.0
1.0
1.2

little
1.3
1.1

trace
0.84
0.36
0.4
4.8

288
280
81
25
180
114
27
7.2
1.9
6.7
9.5
little ;
6.1
12
14
4.8
130
1.2
1.5

93

87

1.2
trace

5.9
39

1.2

14

2.2

152918-

b Turbid.

-11

162

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

69012

1909

74181

1909

121872

1916

118110

1914

42794

1907

47957

1907

53508

1907

109843

426

1912

58273 "

1908

124858

1028

1917

125022

1040

1917

57479

1908
1911

113638

489

1913

111547

472

1913

115332

513

1913

117442

531

1913

102056

389

1912

60640

1908

60639

1908

119411

374-A

1914

79649

146

1910

119934

726

1915

120042

746

1915

120162

764

1915

123598

772

1916

120815

813

1915

123596

830

1916

123599

880

1916

98259

1912

78903

165

1910

123030

1916

80288

180

1910

83352

215

1914

119058

659

1914

119172

678

1914

119505

684

1914

119623

708

1914

119742

718

1915

121719

869

1916

74811

131

1909

83799

201

1910

118396

611

1914

118686

631

1914

118813

646

1914

124592

1008

1917

124756

1025

1917

124930

1039

1 1917

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio,)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
L per minute.

Color.

Meters,

Liters.

Bulacan, Hagonoy, Inchausti No. 1

Bulacan, Hagonoy, Inchausti No. 3

Bulacan, Hagonoy, Santo Nino

Bulacan, Marilao

Bulacan, Malolos, municipal well

Bulacan, Malolos, provincial well .

Bulacan, Meycauayan

Bulacan, Norzagaray

Bulacan, Obando

do

do

Bulacan, Polo

— -do

Bulacan, Pulilan

Bulacan, Quingua

Bulacan, San Ildefonso__

Bulacan, San Rafael

Bulacan, Santa Maria

Bulacan, San Miguel de Mayumo, San Miguel

Bulacan, San Miguel, San Jose

Cagayan, Tuguegarao ___.

Capiz, Capiz

Cavite, Bacoor, Alima___

do ____

do

Cavite, Bacoor, Maliksi

do

— _do__

Cavite, Bacoor, Zapote

Cavite, Cafiacao

Cavite, Caridad

do

Cavite, Imus

do _

Cavite, Imus, Talipapa

do

do

do

Cavite, Imus, Medicion 1« _

do._ ___

Cavite, Cavite

Cavite, Cavite?

Cavite, Kawit, Santa Isabel

..___do , _

Cavite, Kawit, Binacayan ;

Cavite, Maragondon ,

Cavite, Kawit

-___do '_.. _.'. ..

a Yellow. c Brown.

56

130
137

F 19
F 38

233
216
146
174
169

F 151
F 189
F 76
F 95
F 379

395

56.4
80.4

P 114
P 76
F 49
F 57

129.8
136.9
91.4
90.8

F 76

F 26

136

P 207

72

76
135.3

77.2
250.8

91.1

160
183
119

94.5
125

58. i

20

P 151

F 26

F 379

F 57, P 5

P 76

F 227

F 45

F 26

P 189

F 38, P 227

F 61, P ;

F 23, P 379

F 34, P 227

P 144

P 150

F 114

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the .Philippine Islands-^ Continued.

163

>>

>»

Id

<

O

u

?
"5

<

02

o

O

GQ

o
35

o
u
t— i

"a"
O

.3
"3

o

<p

.5

'u
o

Q

1

oo

a

0Q
+> •

oO

03

0)
W

44

1.25

14

10

100

425

50

36

0.25

43

21.5

290

140

260

nil

189

nil

340

60

0.2

11

1.8

33

nil

230

little

30

75

3 7

trace

17

8.6

162

15

880
610
250
820
230
260

34

40.5

27

18

28

23.0

0.5
0.6
1.6
1.2
1.6
0.13

45
23
1.6

26
2.0
2.2

25

14

trace
0.78
0.9

trace

420
160

15
440

24

15.0

9.6

3.0

nil

trace

trace

nil

190

nil

16.8

200.0

trace

nil

180

nil

270
220
17, 000
850
870
770
2,200
280

20.0

0.36

trace

trace

18.0
12

8,100

16
420
387
760

18

16.8

180.0

trace

28
94
51
36
33
18

3.2
trace

10.4
3.2
6

157
23
29
11
33
3

210
3.0
2.0

trace
0.54
60

836

12

17

little

trace

21

400
380
510

119

89
40

00

195

28

trace

71.5

11

nil

238

5.2

2,870
420

17
65

0.6
trace

30
21

0.87
1.0

1,500
80

250

nil

200

nil

240

8.0

220

2.4

435

90

0.7

12

6.0

46

nil

270

17

nil

220

365

80

nil

14

nil

20

trace

240

trace

nil

240

410

86

0.10

4.1

1.0

16

■ 6.7

290

<5.0

nil

225

400

85

trace

10

trace

22

nil

270

14

nil

220

520

94

0.35

11

5.4

80

nil

270

<5.0

nil

290

10.0

390

77

0.5

36

18

14

nil

350

<5.0

510
510
760

77
71
54

1.0 .

0.4

1.1

14
9.6
18.0

5.6
2.1
120

74.5
32
160

39

<10.0

340

nil

nil

410

39

380
400
380
400
350

84
89
94
78
67

2.2

1.9
1.7

12

trace

37
40
8.3
38
25

14
trace

3.2
12.5

2.2

.9.6
12
18

9.2

29

39

70

11

12

205

nil

250

16w 5

nil

275

390

80

trace

36

15

11

nil

335

1.3

nil

275

440

72.5

trace

43

13

8.0

nil

335

8.0

300

372

78

0.8

50

10.5

7.2

nil

365

little

500
500
440
460
430
370

88
81

76
84

76 ...
130

1.6
trace
1.7
3.7
1.7
0.28

4.6
1.1

23

20
5.5

36

0.96
9.1

11
0.72

16

79
80
17
19
23
8.7

23

43

5.6

31

nil

240

19

nil

300

10

<5.0

290

9.8

470

90,

0.16.

.12

3.8

34

nil

350

3

nil

290

6.5

450

70

0.20
t>T

29 .
arbid.

10

19

nil

350

trace

164

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.-— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

124774

1023

1036

1044

147

599
604
617
135
562
574
585
590
479
503
517
527
532
552

182
274
289
313
433
457
474
844
855
892
901
921
376
831
1013

967
970
956
1018
473

■

1917
1917
1917
1910
1908
1914
1914
1914
1910
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913

1910
1911
1911
1915
1912
1912
1912
1915
1915
1916
1916
1916
1912
1915
1917
1910
1909
1913
1913
1913
1914
1913
1916
1916
1916
1916
1917
1913

Cavite, Maragondon

Meters.
21

58
38
49.7

Liters.
P 106
P 106
P 106
P 57

nil
nil
nil

124866
124931

do _.__ _

do

77565

Cavite, Naic _ ______

58756

Cavite, Novel eta, Manila R. R. Co

118166

do

93

97.2

34.4

116
94.5
97.5
93.3
83.5

178

158
52
11

166

113

184

55

77

92
247

99

76

82

93

95.4
128
107.6

90

62.2

17

F 45
P 379, F 95
F 11, P 227

F 19
F 23, P 379

F 38
F 76, P 379

F 45

P 57

F 23

F 76

F 57

P 170

P 303

F 114, P 151

P 68

P 76

P H3

F 4, P 189

F 38
F 114

F 57
P 114
P 114
F 114

P 76
P 227

P 76

P 19

00
(«)

nil
nil
nil

nil

118262

Cavite, Noveleta, San Juan _

118555

Cavite, Noveleta, San Jose __

77981

Cavite, Rosario __ _ '

117646

do _

117808

do

117889

do

118002

Cavite, Rosario, Bagbag

112413

Cavite, San Francisco de Malabon

114008

do

114934

do..

115333

do

116860

do

117443
80790

Cavite, San Francisco de Malabon, sitios of

Bucal and Tejero.
Cavite, San Roque

88873

Cavite, Santa Cruz de Malabon

88878

do _

119961
107605

Cavite, Santa Cruz de Malabon, Amaya

Cavite, Santa Cruz de Malabon ___

109674

do

110193

do

121241

121464

Cavite, Santa Cruz de Malabon, Hulugan

Cavite, Tanza

122018

do

122241

do ____

122402

Cavite, Tanza, Jalayjay ___

99397

Cebu, Argao _

121013

Cebu, Asturias __

124712

Cebu, Bogo

75585

Cebu, Cavit Island, quarantine station

71504

Cebu, Cebu, municipal well

117474

Cebu, Cebu, Calle Juan Luna

23
24
40
20
29

P
P
P

117475

Cebu, Cebu, Lapulapu

117476

Cebu, Cebu, near railroad station

118277

Cebu, Cebu, Bagumbayan

117478

Cebu, Cebu, Carbon public market

P

nil
nil
<5
nil
nil

121877

Cebu, Cebu, customhouse __ _

123124

Cebu, Cebu, Piza

26.8
26.5
26.2
33.8

P 265
P 114
P 265
F 114
P 227

123177

Cebu, Cebu ___

123178

do ._

124518

Cebu, Cebu, Mambalin _

114822

Cebu, Dalaguete _

Brown,

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

165

>»

2d

<

O

u

Is

"3

m

IS

"o
m

•a
+■>

o

O
3

Ed

|

i

Hi

.2

bo

9

.5

o

03

fl'w

oO

a
O

CD

£>

oO

s

m

O

CQ

nil

250

30

380

110

0.27

40

14

11

nil

310

trace

2

140

30

350

120

0.48

36

14

8.9

nil

170

nil

nil

210

33

350

110

0.32

39

13

17

nil

260

trace

355
800
430
440

99
72
80
90
84
110
86
79
82

6.4
0.8
3.7
0.5
0.1
3.8
1.2
trace
0.5

30

67

31.5

25.5

21

38

35

34

31

9.1
12

8.1
2.95
9.1
11

7.2
8

9.4

trace
5.3
trace
22
11

trace
48
62
24

10

12

13

14

12

11

13
9.3

16

19
6.9
9.9

14

430
440
420
420
410
380
410
360
390
400

84
84
97
87
88

1.2

4.8
4.8
3.6
2

21
9.4
37
31
16

4.6
0.42

16
7.8

trace

20

17
9.4
14
20

410

515
400
390
340

88

86
81
79
95

8

1.6

2.8

1.4

trace

22

3.8
40
36
36

4.7

0.25
13
13
16

10

76
9.9
9.9

10

11

52

29

27

4

230

nil

280

420
410
370
430
430

88

81

88

82.5

81

4.8
2.4
2

0.55
0.55

13
32
32

50
58

4.3
11
12
16

9.6

22
14
6.9
15
14

29
30
12

260
230

nil
nil

320
280

trace

nil

260

nil

410

80

0.4

32

12

12

trace

320

12

235

16

380

110

0.36

39

13

11

nil

290

13.5

45

240

5.4

390

93

0.5

38

8.9

11

300

11

CO

520
620

28
15

3

2.4

33
25

20
9.6

120
130

63
6

300

nil

370

<5

190
5, 650

20

380

trace

0.20

94

21

15
2,800
21
9.6
91
6.9
38
18.1
200

nil

350

trace

450
400
760
390
470
540
895

44

0.8

53

14

trace

■ r

!

48

2.5

62

20

20

nil

430

nil

49

0.36

23

20

nil

530

47

10

290

20

440

33

0.30

110

14

8.2

nil

350

50

270

23

420

33

1.8

100

15

8

nil

350

40

nil

280

28

460

35

0.48

110

16

8

nil

340

60

30

320

14

480

53

3.1

80

23

8.7

nil

390

33

1,400

1 9.6

3.6

135

1 39

530

100

b Turbid.

166

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

124427

1012

1917

91642

299

1911

97268

327

1912

119323

689

1914

120047

682

1915

123511

933

1916

110499

439

1912

113543

482

1913

107186

428

1912

108062

452

1912

109063

461

1912

110053

471

1912

111546

480

1913

115624

530

1913

115942

500

1913

115946

580

1913

115947

1913

118167

600

1914

117271

541

1913

117452

1913

117739

568

1913

118057

592

1914

122955

1916

94862

308

1911

117452

97

1913

115943

1913

85947

218

1911

119138

122

1914

123041

1916

123136

1916

123311

1916

67315

1909

120297

756

1915

120627

787

1915

93552

330

1911

93927

336

1911

94992

343

1911

94993

347

1911

121478

805

1915

97537

356

1912

118119

587

1914

119055

671

1914

122092

871

1916

115625

526

1913

116335

540

1913

116824

548

1913

105449

1912

119382

685

1914

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth Capacity
of well, per minute.

Cebu, Danao

Cebu, Mabolo '..

do

Cebu, Toledo

do .

Cotabato, Carpenter __

Ilocos Sur, Candon

do

Iloilo, Iloilo

do _ _.__

do--. ■

do

Iloilo, Iloilo, Molo

Iloilo, Iloilo _

_...do

Iloilo, Iloilo, Molo

Iloilo, Iloilo, Ortiz Street

Iloilo, Iloilo

__-do

Iloilo, Iloilo, customhouse

Iloilo, Iloilo

do ._.,

Iloilo, Iloilo, Lapus-lapus

Iloilo, Janiuay „_-

Iloilo, Jaro

Iloilo, Manduriao

Iloilo, Pototan

Iloilo, Santa Barbara

Iloilo, Iloilo, San Miguel road, km. ll._-_

Iloilo, Iloilo, km. 11.8

Iloilo, Iloilo, km. 12.5

Laguna, Los Banos (?), Bay

Laguna, Bay

.—.do

Laguna, Binan __■ __

.___do

Laguna, Cabuyao _

Laguna

Laguna, Calauan

Laguna, Calamba

Laguna, Famy

Laguna, Mabitac

Laguna, Los Bafios

Laguna, Lumbang

do

do

Laguna, Pagsanjan, No. 39 Calle Blanco

Laguna, Pagsanjan

c Brown. a Yellow.

Meters.

60.4
187
255

42.7

51.5

44.5

76
137

77

77

79

79

91
104

99

91
61

78.9
80.5
66

348

178

10.7
152
57.9

144.8

93

75

42

40
181
110
114

93.6
114.3

91
128

95

90.2

Liters.
P 227
P 379
P 132
P 61
P 61
P 151
P 38
P 53
F 76
F 38
F 8, P 114
F 68
F 57
F 11
F 76

F 45
P 57
F 57
F 11
F 45
P 76
F 57
P 76

F 132
F 19
F 45
F 30

F 246
F 57, P 189

F 114

F 454

F 454

P 170

P379

F 68
F 114; P 265

P 57

F132

F227

F151

F606

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Is lapds— ^Continued.

167

Turbidity
(S1O2).

5

6

4J

"5

3

in

O
Eh

O ■

3

W

h

u

"a
u

If

.5

O

OS j3

•S

'u
S,

en

a .

00

«3

CO

go

^ prj

ly*— • '
S

05

aS

Xfl

8

410

nil

580
340
320
800
1,400

30

28
43
44
30

0.60

4

1.8

1.7

0.7

19
38
105
100
86

11

41
1.1

17
30

35
6

7.8

160

465

1,600

235

1,100

730

800

1,050

700

360

1,500

800

390

830

855

240

870

1,800

875

730

4,500

1,200

275

76

245

5.2

6.6

6.1

24

29.5

38

15

12

13

16.5
21
8.3
5.4
60
37
13
10
13
190
170

20.7

460

25

29
12

47

77

150

480
90

19

nil
nil

580
110

1,400

2,500

2,200

2,200

2,750

2,150

1,500

3,300

2,200

1,600

' 2,700

2,300

1,100

2,200

3,850

2,300

2,100

8,200

3,000

1,450

630

1,100

580

420

410

790

720

470

390

380

755

350

670

370

255

520

470

260

320

290

820

740

12
1.6
67
65

44.5
72
64
55

0.8
0.4
1.6
trace
9
4

1.6
8

4.8

13
120
120
230
100

83

70

1.4

8.2
30
56
96.5

48

48.5

77

15

51
6.6
5.3

15

18

49

trace

00

CO

54

27

56

52

61

41

25.5

58

1.7
trace

3.2
27
10

0.31
10
trace

130

6.4
140
280
120
160

45

18

4.4
88
170
58
70
37
18.5

trace
nil
trace
trace
trace
23

2.05
trace

10

740

38

nil

900

77
26
54
47
50

27
7.7
0.18
0.26
0.38

110

4.1

5
22
40

0.64
0.36
5
23

26

66
2.2
trace
trace
trace

5

nil

nil

475
340
330

nil
nil
18

6.2
nil
nil

565
420
500

nil
nil

640
460

85
80
97
93
87
92

110
83
76
82

110
78
84
79

trace
trace
0.1
trace
2.2
0.8
2.3
2.2
1.7
0.5
5.2
3.6
0.8
0.8

93.5

36

36

33

37.5

0.28
38

39

31

13

17

21

26

21

34
22
15
17
18
19
29
19

2.1
32
5.7
4.3
5.3

nil
nil

760
565

nil

nil

11.5

5

5.6

7.5
nil

15

460

nil

560

1.6
4.9
nil
nil
nil

80.0

330

16.

nil

360

72

trace

10

16

66.4

b Turbid.

168

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

119655
119976
114448
58483
58575
111668
107603
110480
112984
122359
122949
119196
92745
94767
117609
117772
123562
124576
68197
68605
68956
68930
15434
32180
54050
58254
58797
101821
104361
115482
117875
118013
118752
108775
118904
119326
119426
121039
121450
122494
123753
118767
119182
119407
118644
112111
115133
117402

703
723

508

27
440
459
493
907
949
674
326
341
553
566
984
998

78

87
93

(?)518

410

484

501
515

1915
1915
1913
1908
1908
1913
1912
1912
1913
1916
1916
1914
1911
1911
1913
1913
1916
1917
1909
1909
1909
1909
1905
1906
1907
1908
1908
1912
1912
1913
1913
1914
1914
1912
1914
1914
1914
1915
1915
1916
1916
1914
1914
1914
1914
1913
1913
1913

Laguna, Pagsanjan

Meters,
70.7
133.2
155

Liters.
F 76
P265
F322

Laguna, Pagsanjan, Buboy

Laguna, Pila

Laguna, Santa Cruz, No. 1 __

Laguna, Santa Cruz, No. 2

Laguna, Santa Cruz .._

175

194

175

170

193.2

110

137.5

108

64

121.9
121.9
144.8
107.9

52

F757

F L02

F 1, 325

F927

F53

F379

F 64

F 38

F189

F151

F151

F 19; P 45

F 23; P 76

00
(*)

00

3.0
nil

.....do ..

do ....

do

do

Laguna, Santa Cruz, Gated ...

Laguna, Santa Maria__

Laguna, San Pedro Tunasan

Laguna, Santa Rosa _

Laguna, Siniloan .

do

Leyte, Baybay __ ..

<5.0

a nil

00

do ..

Leyte, Carigara

Leyte, Carigara, Sawang

Leyte, Carigara ._ _

69

52

do ... .

Manila, Singalong farm

Manila, Isla del Provisor

122

Manila, Manila railroad station ... . _

Manila, Corregidor Island-. _

107

F265

Manila, Manila railroad station ___.

Manila, Santa Cruz, No. 12 (int.) Misericordia .
Manila, Sanitary Steam Laundry

Manila, San Miguel, Calle Aviles

Manila, No. 133 Calle Principe

do (?) _

Manila, St. Scholastica's College.. _ ___

Manila, San Miguel Brewery

Manila, Philippine General Hospital grounds.
Manila, No. 1338 Juan Luna

Manila, Insular Ice Plant

229

do

15.0
nil
nil
nil

Manila, 1001-1023 R. Hidalgo

Manila, Germinal Cigar Factory ...

Manila, Bureau of Science grounds

Misamis, Agusan, Cabadbaran _.

do

Misamis, Cagayan __

131
167.6

50.6

93
192

P568
P227

do_ _

Mountain, Camp John Hay _.

Mountain, Tagudin..

P 57
F 19

do__. _ '

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

169

>>

•So

cs a
5

I

is

'3

m

CD

o

EH

O

3
33

fa

8

S-l

"c3
O

|

o

8

o
.5

'u

o

m

-p
aJ .

oO

a
O

CO

O

4-> •

oO

<y w
S

V

am
m

nil

00

150
525

400

860

215

220

450

.430

490

450

450

617

260

1,300

400

390

230

240

820

810

1,300

1,300

1,200

1,500

900

1,800

1,800

660

220

270

250

310

2,100

545

690

594

540

630

250

260

380

375

730

230

170

1,300

490

120

790

790

*>Tur

80
80
73
76
72
90

110
98
94
62
70
38
93

100
40
54
55
35

110

110

0.1
0.4

trace
2.4
4.0
2.0
4.4
1.6
2.0
1.4
0.28

16

trace

trace
3.2
4.4
1.0
0.66
2.0
4.0

21.5

82

17

15

21

37

28

29

35

19

20

61

50

44

17

24

37

34
270
340

8.7

83

12
9.4

16
8.9
5.1
5.1
6.3
7.5

12

26.5

10.0

15
5.3
4.3

14

25

62

90

41
160
5.4
5.5

20

20

24

20

20

62.5
9.1
280
6.9

16

17.5

13
310
300

35

36

39

43
190

nil
nil

190
640

25
14
trace
nil
trace
7.7
9.0
trace
trace
trace
trace
360
16
17
nil
trace
nil
trace
10
16

50
<5.0

430
180

16
nil

nil

520
220

5.0
20

220
220

4.6
nil

nil
nil

270
270

0>)

oo-

trace
55
35
71
22

trace
0.40
1.6

2.8
0.4

13

46.5
57
51
1.7

trace
0.72
23
24
trace

165
108
28
trace
trace

870
86

00

31
35

50
100

65

7.0

11

trace

trace

150
210
30
160
32.5
34.5
35
57
69
2.4
1.9
440
30
2.5
390
400 •
Green.

25
62
66
26
31
43
13
50
22
74
10
70
40
22
20
bid.

8.6
trace

1.7
trace
trace

0.3
trace

1.5

1.7
16
10
22

5.2
trace
trace

19
5.5
6.9
1.8
3.0
6.4
4.6
6.9

17

14

20
2.6

19
2.9
7.1

11
trace

2.1

nil

trace

trace

trace

0.4

6.4
11
33
17

2.1

0.78
trace

€

67

114
3.3
20
66.5
38
130
120
150
11
0.6
6.0
nil
trace
nil

% .

nil

nil
10.0

68
70
48
75
290

nil

nil
18
15.5

8.9
14

83
49
26
73
320

(*>)

460

nil

560

170

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

118958
120313
120867
122810
94613
119531
119755
120056
123431
124253
119074
119257
119595
79220
82585
120303
121120
121502
121834
119699
119843
119897
120018
122083
122646
123512
120603
124519
118529
118597
118654
118687
118905
118906
119186
119187
119188
122972
122872
122871
121000
122126
122858
122859
122366
123492
122973
122367

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

613

769
788
908
317
691
716
731
959
992
662
677
687
179
214
762
821
848
864
711
724
737
749
884
887
947
789
1009
597
629
633
634
635
650
653
661
664
945
937
954
752
825
883
889
897
909
915
919

1914
1915
1915
1916
1911
1914
1915
1915
1916
1917
1914
1914
1914
1910
1910
1915
1915
1915
1916
1915
1915
1915
1915
1916
1916
1916
1915
1917
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1916
1916
1916
1915
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916

Nueva Ecija, Aliaga . _ _

Meters.
142.3
129.8
157.9
175.6
189
185.3
138.7
136.9
222.5
138.7
132.6
110.9
170.1

25

24

Liters.
F 42
F151
F 170
F 45
F284
F45
F132
F151
F23
F26
F95
F151
F8;P151
P76
P132 :

nil

nil
nil

00

do _

do .

do

Nueva Ecija, Cabanatuan __ _

do

do .

Nueva Ecija, Cabanatuan, Mayapyap

Nueva Ecija, Cabanatuan _ _

do _ __

Nueva Ecija, Cuyapo

—..do

do _

Nueva Ecija, Gapan___

do

do

do

146.3
107.3
99.1
92

102.7

32

107

114.9

182.3

213.4

128.6

101.2

164.0

33.5

43.9

36.9

30.5

28.3

27.4.

58.2

84.4

136.9

79.2

75

16.2

4.3

32.6

59.4

20.1

42.7

33.2

29.6

F114
F 19
F45
F473
F530
F76
F379
F 95
F114
Fll
F30
F34
P151
P76
P265
P 76
P 114
P 76
P 76
P 57
P 95
F11;P284
P 132
F 19
P 76
P 212
P 76
P 76
P 76
P 114
P 189

nil
nil
nil

nil
nil
nil

nil

( e )

dnil
nil
nil

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
d5.0

Nueva Ecija, Gapan, Baluarte

Nueva Ecija, Gapan, Santo Cristo

Nueva Ecija, Nampicuan

do

do.

Nueva Ecija, Nampicuan, Alemania __

Nueva Ecija. Quezon. _ __

Nueva Ecija, San Antonio _

do

Nueva Ecija, San Isidro, Pulo

Nueva Ecija, Zaragoza. __

Occidental Negros, Bacolod___

do

do __„

do

do

do .

do

Occidental Negros, Bacolod, Tangut ___

Occidental Negros, Bacolod, Sumog.

Occidental Negros, Binalbagan ____ —

Occidental Negros, Cadiz -__ _.

do .

Occidental Negros, Escalante

do _.__

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Narauis

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Paticui

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran

do _ _ _

Occidental Negros, Isabela

do

c Brown.

d Filtered.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the. Philippine Islands — Continued.

171

>>

-p

il

1 3

>>
-p .

'.So
~o

<

O

o

"5
<

22

"o

en

!$
o
H

O
m

'a
Q

Is

;S
o

bo

8

CD

.s

'u

O

3
o

CD

oo

«o

o3
U

05

go

s

■P , j
03-^ !
^O

Xfl

200
210

22
19

0.3
trace

3.8

7.2

1.0
trace

7.0
9.0

12

170

nil
nil

nil

160

nil

150

210

12

trace

7.0

trace

20

trace

190

6.0

nil

135

nil

180

9.0

0.33

4.5

trace

9.4

11

140

trace

240
200

23
15

trace
nil

3.1
5.0

0.48
nil

29
15.5

19
2.1

130

nil

70

nil

115

210

15

nil

1.7

nil

24

nil

140

2.0

110

205

16

4.5

2.0

30

13

95

9.2

<5.0

190

nil

240

17

0.36

2.1

0.7

11

21

190

trace

nil

160

nil

230

15

0.10

2.9

trace

18

21

160

trace

270
370
380

3.7
36

45

1.7

3.7

trace

18
30
23.2

2.95

8.2

5.5

3.2
1.0

8.2

nil
8.9
1.0

nil

220

nil

270

570
320
275

55
60
20

3.2

1.8

trace

100
58
3.5

21
16
trace

76
11
15

35

4.4
trace

nil

200

24

240

200

280

20

0.2

7.1

trace

12

8.9

230

120

180

370

13

0.4

7.1

trace

58

trace

220

trace

nil

220

300

19

0.2

little

trace

27

12

270

trace

(o)

260

380

27.5

trace

14

5.0

10

nil

320

6.0

nil

255

365

30

nil

7.0

2.2

10

nil

310

trace

nil

250

435

45.5

nil

39

23

34

nil

305

14

nil

225

350

- 16.5

trace

trace

7.5

32

nil

270

12

nil

180

nil

245

27

0.44

2.1

trace

11

5.9

210

4.5

nil

240

nil

355

15

0.35

10

trace

22

11

290

8.0

nil

270

nil

360

23

0.52

4.0

trace

9.7

21

290

trace

nil

175

265

22.5

trace

7.2

trace

18

36

210

21

nil

180

nil

420

23

0.36

6.8

trace

21

17

190

6.1

320
240
240
250
270
290
260
320
360

100
100
120

7.7
1.7
9.7

20
15.5
8.3

9.5
7.3
0.06

9.0

65
6.4
3.0
6.5
4.0
5.4
3.8

29
1,700

10

4.2
330
trace

100
110
88
100
100

0.3
1.7

7.7
24
1.7

20
20
11
11
21

22.5

19
5.6
5.6

24

43

2.0

9.7

(*>)

nil

29

150
<10

310
210

24
5.0

nil
nil

370
260

310

74

1.1

30

18

trace

5.0

210

5.0

310

58

1.2

33

16

10

nil

260

13

325

545

20

1.2

140

19

34

nil

400

14

nil

340

16

445

12

0.24

110

11

16

nil

410

trace

10

390

14

790

72

0.64

12

11

125

nil

480

50

nil

270

5.0

550

90

0.98

little

trace

70

nil

330

21

70

320

16

58

2.1

66

29

365

385

trace

60

250

4.6

760

50

0.70

37

40

230

nil

310

trace

300

120

24

| 215

! 45

10

27

8.3

7.3

nil

150

<1.0

high

120

10.7

' 250

1 92

4.2

26

7.2

12

150

trace

b Turbid.

: Green.

172

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

122974

931

1916

122975

936

1916

122976

943

1916

120931

771

1915

121853

776

1916

120932

778

1915

120933

790

1915

120934

801

1915

121420

807

1915

121421

808

1915

121422

816

1915

121423

817

1915

121424

818

1915

121425

823

1915

121854

827

1916

121426

828

1915

121855

833

1916

121427

834

1915

118094

538

1914

122127

858

1916

111866

462

1913

119185

594

1914

119977

707

1915

120598

795

1915

120597

796

1915

119907

733

1915

119991

734

1915

120137

740

1915

120136

741

1915

120928

745

1915

120929

750

1915

120930

759

1915

121654

851

1915

121728

867

1916

122336

875

1916

122024

893

1916

122118

900

1916

122257

905

1916

122288

918

1916

119102

621

1914

123354

969

1916

123821

987

1916

123822

994

1916

119090

654

1914

118410

588

1914

118478

620

1914

121056

829

1915 1

121653

842

1915

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

jjeptn capacity p ,
of well, per minute. ool °r

Occidental Negros, Isabela

do __._ __

.— .do

Occidental Negros, La Carlota _
do

.do_
-do.
_do.
_do.
-do.
-do.,
.do.
_do_
.do .
_do.
_do_
..do _

Occidental Negros, La Carlota, Tabao

Occidental Negros, Murcia

Occidental Negros, Sagay

Occidental Negros, San Carlos

do „._.

do ;___.

Occidental Negros, San Enrique.

do

Occidental Negros, Valladolid, Pulupandan_

Occidental Negros, Valladolid, Paloca

Occidental Negros, Valladolid

do

do

do

do

Oriental
Oriental
Oriental
Oriental
Oriental

do ..

do -

Oriental
Oriental
Oriental
Oriental
Oriental
Oriental

do__

Oriental
Oriental
a Yellow.

Negros,
Negros,
Negros,
Negros,
Negros,

Ayuquitan

Ayuquitan, Amblang _ .

Ayuquitan

Ayuquitan, Tandayag..
Ayuquitan

Negros,
Negros,
Negros,
Negros,
Negros,
Negros,

Bacong

Bais_-_ _ ._

Bais, Cambagroy.

Bais, plaza__

Dauin

Dumaguete

Negros,
Negros,

Sibulan

Sibulan, Bolocboloc .

Depth

Meters.

30.5

?26.2

27.4

46.9

. 50

43.3

33.2

14.3

19.8

35.7

33.8

16.5

46.3

33.5

13.7

20.4

18.3

17.7

209.4

158.5

139

245.4

198. 1

22.6

22.9

19.5

21.9

28.3

22.3

40.5

32

58.2

32.6

40.5

43.9

42.1

26.2

150
80.5
56.4
77.7
65.5

141.7
6.7
71.6
48.8

Capacity

Liters.
P 227
P 227
P 76
P 61
P 68
P 57
P 68
P 246
F 26
P 95
P 76
P 303
P 61
P 45
P 322
F 34
P 379
P 284
P 95
P 76
F 57
P 114
P 38
P 76
F 38
P 76
P 95

P 95
P 76
P 95
P 95
P 201
P 227
P 114
P 265
P 132
P 136
P 95
P 95
P57
P76
P76
F151
F 1, 136
P38
P38

; Brown.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

the Philippine Islands — Continued.

173

>>
-p

>>
-p .

Id

<

O

o

1

"5
<

o

O

3

o
W

"a?

a
o

1$
O

If

.2

'o

bo
eg

5

o

'§

2

Q

Cm

m

§6

m

00

150

120

24

230

100

2.4

28

4.7

8.2

nil

150

1.4

300

130

29

300

100

6.4

35

6.3

28

nil

160

trace

100

170

14

280

70

2.8

43

8.7

8.5

nil

210

nil

00

225

375

65

2.4

39

15

6.5

nil

270

21

00

219

9.0

330

88

4.3

75

13

.7.2

nil

270

23

nil

190

335

80

1.5

29

16

6.0

nil

235

16. 5

00

210

355

65

2.4

39

17

7.0

nil

260

16.5

nil

190

325

70

0.3

21.5

12

13

nil

235

12

220

350

91

0.25

46

16

7.2

nil

270

14

(b)

200

335

79.5

2.8

35

16

nil

250

13

1 (b)

190

310

81.5

2.2

19

11

7.2

nil

230

13

(b)

300

96.5

1.1

34

13

5.15

nil

230

trace

(b)

200

310

80

2.8

31

15

7.2

nil

240

trace

. (b)

190

305

86

1.7

34

16

6.2

nil

230

trace

00

159

13

260

110

1.0

130

16

5.1

nil

194

trace

175

310

100

0.4

34

12

9.3

nil

210

trace

nil

194

4.3

330

94

0.6

19

11

12

nil

240

trace

200

350

82

0.7

13

20

14

nil

240

16.5

; < b >

20

160
650

46.5
12

4.5
2.6

17
16

10
5.7

11
62

6.2
42

410

nil

12

480

310
360
330

37
14
30

3.2

1.7
trace

19
1.2
trace

3.37

nil

trace

7.9
32
10

26
16
trace

nil

250

nil

260

nil

185

315

90

trace

23

11

12.5

nil

230

trace

, nil

190

320

82.5

trace

29

11

15

nil

230

trace

nil

360

2,600

70

0.8

25

42

1,020

nil

440

220

nil

245

400

90

trace

trace

trace

3.0

340

12

* nil

250

1,200

80

trace

12.5

24

372

nil

300

110

00

180

360

90

trace

26

11

17

nil

220

45

nil

220

585

70

0.6

14

7.6

84

nil

270

41

nil

200

415

80

1.8

21.5

13

14

nil

240

51

nil

210

390

70

1.5

25

11

16

nil

260

12

270

500

84.5

0.55

102

17

45

nil

330

12

130

460

34

0.7

trace

7.4

140

17.0

140

33

5.0

180

16

2,400

64

0.4

110

51

1,109

225

100

nil

114

nil

340

38

0.32

trace

little

60

nil

140

trace

50

274

nil

500

58

5.4

32

60

58

nil

330

35

100

210

27

330

80

2.04

53

17

11.5

nil

260

10

280

590

42

0.6

trace

trace

83

12

340

49

250
260

100
28

12

0.48

17
27

4.3
7.0

4.3
7.5

23.64
22

10

190

nil

nil

240

<20

250

nil

960

30

2.0

56

30

340

nil

300

42

10

220

nil

430

22

0.48

27

14

87

nil

270

15

00

388
2,320

100
22

3.7
1.7

40
150

8.7
93

40
1,030
6.9
60

64
160

220
740

100
60

1.7
trace

18
60

4.0
14

16
37

160

nil

192

, "

69

370
*>Tu

100
rbid.

0.7

40

12.5

47
Filtered

nil

85

60

174

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

119409
117541
117565
61055
111327
113697
-48270
61945
62810
62811
113343
106871
108533
48268
61343
48269
59529
59530
119337
116861
48263
48214
48312
43673

48210
59195
59955
72249
70464
70464
64527
64528
67353
68471
69116
72964
39318
58527
61056
121974
106337
118044
121049
121506
121937
119437
85906

676

525

470
492

434
450

519

("A")
("B")

853
415
535
832
837
870
655
226

1914
1913
1913
1908
1913
1913
1907
1908
1908
1908
1913
1912
1912
1907
1908
1907
1908
1908
1914
1913
1907
1907
1907
1907

1907
1908
1908
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1907
1908
1908
1916
1912
1914
1915
1915
1916
1914
1911

Oriental Negros, Zamboangnita _ _

Meters.

42.7

Liters.
P303

Palawan, Iwahig- Penal Colony

do

Pampanga, Arayat, Santa Ana _

139.9

P95

(<0

Pampanga, Arayat_ _ __

157

183

P303
P189

do

Pampanga, Bacolor _~_

Pampanga, Bacolor, Tinajero __ _

Pampanga, Bacolor, Cabetican _

00

Pampanga, Bacolor, Cabalantian _.

Pampanga, Bacolor ___ _ _ _ _

Pampanga, Candaba ___ _

91
102

F 189
P 189

00

do

Pampanga, Guagua _ .

Pampanga, Guagua, Betis _ _ __ _ __.. _

00

Pampanga, Lubao _

Pampanga, Lubao (B. Legarda's) _ _

do

Pampanga, Lubao ___ __. _

00

1

Pampanga, Mabalacat ___ __ _

P95

F227
F13

Pampanga, Macabebe_ _ _

Pampanga, Mexico

Pampanga, Minalin __ _ __.

Pampanga, San Esteban, hacienda (provin-
cial well).
Pampanga, San Fernando (municipal well)

F38

do

Pampanga, San Fernando, San Jose

Pampanga, San Fernando, at new market _ _

Pampanga, San Luis, at market

Pampanga, San Luis, Santa Cruz_ __ .

00

Pampang-a, Santa Rita, San Jose _ _

Pampanga, Santa Rita, San Matias

Pampang*a, Santa Rita, San Isidro

Pampanga, Santa Rita, Santa Monica. _

Pampang-a, Santa Rita, San Vicente

Pampanga, Santa Rita, San Juan__ __ _

Pampang-a, Santo Tomas

do _

Pampang-a, Sexmoan___

Pang-asinan, Aguilar

31.4

182
93.3
24.4
61.3

102.4

229.2

117

F 8; P 76
F568
P379
P227
P. 114
P76
P38

F6;P95

nil

nil
nil
nil

.00

Pang-asinan, Alcala _

Pangasinan, Asingan ___

do _

Pang-asinan. Asingan, Macalong _

Pangasinan, Asing-an

Pangasinan, Balungao

Pang-asinan, Bay ambang

c Brown.

* Yellow.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

175

>>
-P .

is
5

O

o

<

W

-p
O

O
g

o
w

8

5-i

'is
o

.3

'o

bo

as p

5

2

on
a>

•P

oo

03

Q

CO

§6

5-i H-<

M

*

-P .
P.CO

w

nil

240
28
410
290
390
550
450
570
650
520
280
400
420
1,200
1,000
310
390
380
310
250
359
430
230
1,020

420
470
490
400
280
480
260
250
250
290
260
320
465
240
495
510
230
270
260
210
250
515
810

90

trace

22.5

5.4

4.2
, trace

11.5
7.2

12

19

14

30

42

36
8.3
6.0
8.8
305
250
3.5

nil

120

20
nil

1.7

_

50

1.2

25

80

(b)

100
110
90

2.4
2.4
0.6

12
6.3
3.6

7.5
1.6
0.9

14
30
nil

90

75
80

1.6
1.6

2.8

3.4
5
11

trace
0.18
12.5

280
19
trace

80
90
83
80
90
40
80
.30

0.8
2.0
0.8
1.7
6.4
1.0
1.4
1.8

2.6
24
23

2.6
25
17

1.8
13

1.9

12

11
0.78

10
3.4
1.0
1.4

1.9

faint

faint

nil

20

1.5

2.8

0.66

9.7
4.2
58

34.5
9.2
135

55

30

20

10

13

32

11
6.8
7.6
8.2
8.7
8.5
4.4
8.0

16

36

20

12

14

11

15
220
360

80

0.6

3.4

1.4

2.6

40

4.0

13

2.0

185

20

90

72

nil

70
40
70
30
40
100
35
50

3.3
0.6
7.7

trace
0.5
1.1

trace
4.6

trace
5.0
41.5
62
60
27
21
50

trace

trace
4.2

12

trace
5.0
1.2
5.8

47

88

189

17

76

18

trace '
9.0 ;

24. 5

13

45

157
110
120
40

nil

nil
nil
nil
nil

190
130
150
50

b Turbid.

176

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

86306
69857

80060
123771
115144
121022
94707
68617
60753 .
67973
117520
121956
64008
64559
114821
116862
124905
91192
119637
119936
120889
93693
119676
119721
123785
120464
120615
120907
120974
121064
121240
123128
120789
118045
119079
122065
122240
123129
123122
69625
92450
122537
105444
122189
123216-A
123393
124577

259

181

521

824

335

80

75
556

39

486
533

310

698
727
811
328
714
722

761
803
810
835
840
845
962
782
558
602
898
902
923
940
90
325
927
408
899
975
985
991

1911
1909

1910
1916
1913
1915
1911
1909
1908
1909
1913
1916
1909
1909
1913
1913
1917
1911
1915
1915
1915
1911
1915
1915
1916
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1916
1915
1914
1914
1916
1916
1916
1916
1909
1911
1916
1912
1916
1916
1916
1917

Pangasinan, Bayambang

Meters.
30.5

Liters.
F 1,893

Pangasinan, Bautista (property of Matias

Gonzales) .
Pang-asinan, Bautista _

00

75
112.8

82

52.4
120

58
125

67

68

F38

Pangasinan, Bautista (property of Y. Sontua) _
Pangasinan, Binalonan

nil

P454

P95

F 132; P 265

F189

do

Pangasinan, Binmaley

Pangasinan, Calasiao

Pangasinan, Dagupan

do

F568
F227

do

do ___.

nil

Pangasinan, Lingayen

198

F189

do

do

268
166

F757
F170

(»)

do

Pangasinan, Lingayen, capitol site _

Pangasinan, Malasiqui

91

133.8
119.8
19.8
32
53.3
48.8
107
31.7
32.6
36.6
25.9
21.3
29

25.6
27.7
107.6
220.7
47.6
85.6
256.6
114.6
132
35
29.3
137
29.3
29.6
28
33.2

P946
P227

P170

F284
F322
F 283. 9

do

Pangasinan, Manaoag.__

Pangasinan, Manaoag, Pan _

Pangasinan, Mangaldan

do

do

do

nil

Pangasinan, Mangatarem. _

P227
F227
P227
P227
F151
P284
F114
P189
P379
P227

F57
F379

F38
F 76; P 95

do_.__ __

do

do

do-__ .__

nil
nil
nil

do

Pangasinan, Natividad

Pangasinan, Pozorrubio

Pangasinan, Rosales

do__ _..

Pangasinan, Salasa

nil "
nil
<5.0
nil

do _ ___

Pangasinan, Salasa, Samat

Pangasinan, Santa Barbara, „

Pangasinan, San Carlos

Pangasinan, San Fabian

F606
F170
F95
P61

P95
P95

do.__ ____

nil

Pangasinan, San Jacinto

Pangasinan, San Manuel

5.0
nil

Pangasinan, San Nicolas

— __do„_ __

Pangasinan, San Quintin

a Yellow. c Brown.

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES

177

the Philippine Islands — Continued.

51

Eh

>>

3

O

o

is

'5
<

m
m

O

3

AS

b

p

"e3
O

.5

5
.5

O

in

0)

eu .

fi'S

SO

m

a)

s

Wl

am

GO

310

280

260

730

33

1.4

10

3.9

50
32

22

240

30

00

72
40

0.8
0.56

4.1
24

slight
2.4

23

60

112

160

nil

nil

200

225

250

34
15

little

2.5

1.5
6.2

36

25

150

nil

18

800
350
120
270
2,300
1,500

48
80
40
26
50
40

8.7
0.4
0.8
0.2
4.8
0.28

18
11
6.0
11
92
36

5.7 *
1.4
0.72
0.66

38

23

140
23
120
3.6
1,100
605

15

trace

trace

28

26

12

00

nil

400

5.3

nil

490

600
780

1,240
595

1,900
790
690

18
23
45
50

3.2
2.6
3.2
2.0

17
29
70
24

1.9
2.5
3.9
little

230
360
600
180
900
11
250

trace
8.6
0.24

trace

60
50

1.8
1.0

93
35

24.7
11

60
trace

00

210

nil

260

nil

115

320

60

nil

13.5

trace

74

nil

140

23

nil

280

400

50

3.0

67

16

12

nil

345

10

760
440

38
35

1.8
trace

12
29

6.4
3.4

160
29

22
21

nil

220

nil

268

nil

240

440

25

trace

28

9.0

34

nil

290

17

5

180

nil

450

47

0.16

16

1.3

150

nil

220

32

nil

195

275

50

trace

36

35

19

nil

240

nil

nil

180

230

50

trace

21.5

33.0

13

nil

220

nil

nil

165

270

45

trace

45

35

9

nil

200

trace

nil

230

320

52

trace

68.

33

14

nil

280

6.2

173

290

47

trace

33

33

27

nil

210

23

160

220

60

0.15

17

31

10

nil

195

trace

5

90

10

140

35

0.60

20

7.7

3

nil

120

trace

nil

235

350

45

3.0

70

15

5.5

nil

290

20

320
190
260

34
18
46

1.7
1.7
0.62

55
8.3

85

14
6.9
21

11
7.3
11

6.4
nil
40

nil

200

nil

240

nil

210

nil

400

30

0.16

17

5.0

70

nil

255

9.4

50
10

60
150

nil
nil

1,700
14

nil
nil

70
180

290

35

0.4

20

3.1

<5.0

1,440
250
190

730
3.0
5.8

40
23

2.4
0.34

56
64

4.8
6.6

33

46

5

170

nil

nil

210

270
290

33

93

4.4
3.5

45
45

4.2
4.6

1.5

16

38
27

130

110

5.3

nil

130

<5

130

9.2

170

27

0.26

28

2.1

4.5

nil

150

trace

<5

110

4.6

160

29

0.36

27

10

5.2

nil

130

<5.0

35

120

nil

200

38

0.92

28
urbid.

10

5.2

nil

140

11

152918-

178

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

108254
117102
106814
122783
122948
124859
124962
118174
118300
118411
118617
118746
118812
119057
87525
88594
94089
93776
96857
97143
117570
117683
117992
112549
113818
121664
122139
122360
122538
122698
123053
123195
123457
123617
124449
124586
118055
119335
119548
122113
122190
122389
122539
122736
122890
119614
119692
119334

445
516
403
920
958
1021
1043
598
605
614
630
637
642
645
257
283

323

302

565
570
557
447
504

894
910
928
941
951
965
983
993
1014
1019
105
683
695
895
906
916
925
938
950
546
720
520

1912
1913
1912
1916
1916
1917
1917
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1914
1911
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1917
1917
1914
1914
1914
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1914
1915
1914

Pangasinan, Santo Tomas_ __ _ _

Meters.

142

179
98

148.1
33.5

128
36.6
77.7
84.7
71.3
31.7
40.8
29.9
72.5

302

174

Liters.
F61
F61
F76
P57
P114
P76
P95
F95
F57
F341
F76
F265
F190
P227
P379
P681

nil

a nil

nil

nil

do . __

Pangasinan, Sual _.

Pangasinan, Tayug _ . ... _

do _

Pangasinan, Umingan

Pangasinan, Umingan, San Leon

Pangasinan, Urdaneta

do _ „

Pangasinan, Urdaneta, Mabini __ _-

Pangasinan, Villasis

do

Pangasinan, Villasis, San Blas___ .

Pangasinan, Villasis __ __

Rizal, Alabang

do

Rizal, Alabang, stock farm

(«)

Rizal, Antipolo . __ _

78
246

P189
P76

do

Rizal, Antipolo, magnetic station ._ _ __

Rizal, Antipolo __ _

19.5
11.9
96
223

94

P132
P151
P132
P379
P189

5.0
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
anil
nil
nil
nil

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

do

do „

Rizal, Binangonan . _._ __

do _. „__ .

Rizal, Binangonan _ . .

40.8

84.4

72.8

73.1

30.5

55.5

34.8

42.7

45.4

61

218

204.8

182.3

123.4

86.9

87.5

71.6

65.5

92.4

19.8

31.1

163.1

d.

P57
P76
P57
P57
P38
P76
P57
P151
P38
P38
F76
F 15; P 76
F95
P76
P76
P76
P76
P189
P132
P114
P114
P57

do

do

do____

do

do

do

do ._„ :

Rizal, Cainta _

Rizal, Cainta, Santo Nino

Rizal, Caloocan

do _ __

do _

Rizal, Caloocan, Balintauac

Rizal, Caloocan-

do

do

do

Rizal, Caloocan, Kaypascuala _ _

Rizal, Cardona

do

Rizal, Jalajala _ __ _

c Brown. <* Filtere

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES

179

the Philippine Islands — Continued.

>>

Eh

JH CO

.So

5

O

O

x>

is

'5

<

'o

CD

o

O
3

P
W

o

O

la

"3
O

bo

.s

'u
£>

o

xn
O

"S .

oo

O

Bicarbonates
(HCOs).

CO

-p .
CO

275
310

820
230

63

80
70
40

1.0
0.8
1.6
0.75

34

26

105

10

6.6
4.3
23
2.0

15

4.7
265
9.0

21
nil

45
trace

20

170

2 5

nil

200

180

150

9.5

230

80

2.0

33

10

5.5

nil

180

trace

20

130

nil

250

22

1.1

9.8

0.55

22

5.6

150

19

10

240

6

290

35

0.40

45

13

3.4

nil

290

nil

270
265
270
230
250
250
240
410

80

85
85
42
40

3.7
3.7
0.5
nil
1.7

31
30
30
35
33

2.5
3.4
0.06
24

15.0

16

17
9.2
9.7
9.7

14

17

34
31
16
12

40
90

3.7
1.8

34
34

5.2
9.4

25
16

440
440
200
465
230
300

80
90.

120
80
50

120

3.6
trace
trace

6.4
trace

4.0

27
28
16
60
70
28

5.7
6.5
3.5

18

trace
5.0

27
30

8.9
80

7.0
14.0

21
2.4

3.8
17
25

4.3

(b)

190
230

4.0
3.0

110

0.9

20

6.3

2.5

470

70

1.4

30

28

63

13

<>)

460

90

trace

50

2

35

70

80

trace

185

25

3.0

trace

trace

35

nil

100

21

20

310

16

645

40

0.84

70

35

70

nil

380

45

55

300

27

520

100

1.7

30

16

56

360

trace

7

270

9.3

480

44

0.42

30

28

70

nil

340

8.3

nil

300

4.6

430

40

0.38

30

27

38

nil

370

8.4

5

365

70

465

90

0.32

60

31

12

nil

445

<5.0

10

290

4.6

410

70

0.50

30

30

25

nil

360

<5.0

20

210

35

360

100

0.70

44

10

10

nil

260

4.4

5

170

9.0

580

100

0.40

45

9.0

37

nil

210

160

<5

210

14

730

100

0.56

140

11

140

nil

260

93

nil

180

4.6

730

90

nil

80

24

160

nil

220

110

320

40

8.6

4.4

trace

10

12.0

250

24

300
325

45
20

nil
nil

trace
3.6

trace
1.1

17
13

2.3

13

nil

185

nil

170

35

150

nil

240

37

2.4

4.2

1.0

10

12

160

17

00

140

nil

190

22

0.26

5.1

trace

4.0

18

170

trace

55

170

250

42

1.0

2.3

trace

5.7

50

150

trace

6

230

nil

290

26

0.92

33

11

6.3

nil

280

trace

5

230

nil

300

47

0.50

44

13

5.6

nil

280

trace

10

200

nil

260

38

0.72

20

4.8

4.7

nil

240

<5.0

(*>)

225

765

130

1

70

23

103

nil

270

65

<»)

225

450

80

1

64

20

30

nil

270

41.0

(6)

1,130

275

30
b "p

400
urbid.

18

50

18

180

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

119513

701

120595

791

120764

806

86881

1

86881

2

123525

386

123597

392

50515

1

40608

2

59533

(i)

54655

6

57372

7

61809

8

67895

9

70116

10

68960

114443

512

115193

524

116336

534

117175

547

117532

561

117673

569

118666

627

118863

649

119028

665

119122

675

124906

72622

74671

1

74672

2

74673

3

74674

6

74675

7

112498

406

112499

423

113542

498

117553

448

117554

502

117555

546

121238

826

121540

850

121687

868

121908

876

65576

116467

117895

579

Year.

1914
1915
1915
1911

1911

1916
1916
1907
1907
1908
1908
1908
1908
1909
1909
1909
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1914
1914
1914
1914
1917
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1909
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1913
1915
1915
1916
1916
1909
1913
1913

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well

-do.
_do.
_do.

Rizal, Las Pifias — San Pedro Tunasan road,

Camp Gordon.
Rizal, Las Pinas — San Pedro Tunasan road,

Camp Hyson.

Rizal, Las Pinas, poblacion... _

Rizal, Las Pinas, Pamplona

Rizal, Fort William McKinley _

do

do

do

,.-_do

do

do

do ..

Rizal, Malabon

do

do_.__

do ._ _

Rizal, Malabon, Julong-Duhat __

Rizal, Malabon, Panjulo_,_

Rizal, Malabon _ _

do ■__„ _ ____

Rizal, Malabon, Baritan

Rizal, Malabon, Tanyong

Rizal, Malabon, Tansuya

Rizal, Malabon, Malabon Sugar Co

Rizal, Mariquina

Rizal, Mariquina, Bayan-bayanan

Rizal, Mariquina, Santo Nino

do

Rizal, Mariquina, San Roque

Rizal, Mariquina, Calumpang

Rizal, Montalban

do _

do

Rizal, Morong

do _.

Rizal, Morong, Cardona

Rizal, Morong, Calle Sumulong

Rizal, Morong

do

Rizal, Morong, Maybancal

Rizal, Navotas _

Rizal, Navotas (Varadero)

Rizal, Navotas, Tanza. __

1 Composite source.
a Yellow.

Capacity
i. per minute.

Meters.
36.6
70.7
34.1
46

146

120

306

260

266

213

229

246

177

184

143

162

143

110
92.7

113.1

143.3
82.3
91.7

12
17

167
88.4
88.4
29
79.2
43.6
25.6
87.5

162

213

Liters.
P114
P 114
P 151
P151

P76

F 15; F 57

F10
Fll
P151
P76
P95
P76
P227
F 6; P 114
P76
P114
P114
P76

P 53
P 76
P 76
P 114
P 76
P 132
P 114
P 76
P 38
P 38

F 9; P 95

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

181

>>

<

O
O

*>>

"o

'o

d
S

55

"of

a
o

O

Is

.2

58 .2

5

CD

.5
"S
,o

m
CD

oO

gS
O

oO

w

aw
w

high

CO

<*)

345

275
290

1,235
600
800
395

450

580
640
780
2,330
430

165

50
85
80

110

84
90

15
3.0
6.0
0.8

0.6

0,44
1.3

220
110
125
33

65

7.0
32

40
24
21
5.1

22

trace
16

29
15
11
12

28

110

170

330

1,300

nil
nil
nil

420
340
350

420

170

230

15

13

25
5.0

<5

nil

250
210

nil
7.0

nil
. nil

300
260

70

1.6

29

8.3

49
17
7.9

trace

.

390
380
370
380
435

60

70
64
70

1.1
1.2
2.4
0.8

22 7.8

8 6

26
23
27

8.0
7.3
8.0

11
13
44
16
69
59

{

trace
trace
trace

1

i

200
250

30

trace
1.6
7.2
4.8
2.0

trace

6.0
3.4

15

13
2.9
6.1

trace
trace
trace

4.2
nil
trace

i

i

trace
trace
trace

17

14
trace

320 49
1, 090 94
410 | 66
280 ! 54
300 60

550
115
32
19
54
140

~

270
430
370

i

40

3.7

5.5

5.8

1

74

46

18
2,260
8.9
1.6

15
2.0
3.4
140
2.9
6.4

10.0
9.3
2.4
130
8.2
7.2
8.7
9.2

26

27
110

340

68

3.7
0.20

4.1
930

0.36
9.0

6.5

170

25

33

20

4,620
380
200
400
380
250
700
185
160
170
330
320
810
330
330
340
340
270
350
320

17

nil

40

0>)

33

32
20
97
91
78
84
99
97
107
47

nil
1.4
2.4
4.4
1.6
5.6
2.0
1.35
0.4
1.3
0.2

39
32
38
33
41
100
52
28
20
35
3.0

7

8.2

7.7
22
30
36
20
trace
19
21

2.8

11
5.5
9.0
16
8.2
87
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace

00

(*0

220
220
230
234

18

nil
nil
nil
nil

270
270
280
285

I

17

1.1

5.5

trace

36

> Turbid.

c Brown.

182

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

118141

595

118456

609

104599

417

105142

421

105638

424

123525

99

123525

404

67694

45

68454

80594

116

106255

429

112021

116(?)

119808

719

119823

438

119867

732

119983

438-A

120109

755

120205

120206

768

120366

121.713

856

121907

877

122147

896

122369

914

122688

934

80095

133

120101

753

123104

793

124753

1026

98991

380

116975

539

120108

763

120143

767

120278

773

120359

781

121373

798

121503

859

121737

863

121738

872

121620

P.B.

121838

878

121935

885

68170

77

112114

466

118571

258

120339

775

120520

786

120705

802

Year.

1914
1914
1912
1912
1912
1916
1916
1909
1909
1910
1912
1913
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1910
1915
1916
1917
1912
1913
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1915
1916
1916
1915
1916
1916
1909
1913
1914
1915
1915
1915

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.— Well waters of

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Rizal, Navotas _•

Rizal, Navotas, Tangos

Rizal, Paraiiaque _

do . ....

do ..._

do __...

do

Rizal, Pasay

do

do

do

do

Rizal, Pasay (market)

Rizal, Pasay, San Roque

Rizal, Pasay

Rizal, Pasay, San Roque

Rizal, Pasay, Santol___ _.

Rizal, Pasay, Calle Protacio

Rizal, Pasay _.

Rizal, Pasay, Calle Protacio

Rizal, Pasay

.—.do

do

do

do _.„.

Rizal, Pasig-

Rizal, Pasig - , Bagong Hog

Rizal, Pasig

Rizal, Pasig, Santolan

Rizal, Pateros

Rizal, Pililla, Kisao__ _

Rizal, Pililla

do

do

do

Rizal, San Felipe Neri

do... _

Rizal, San Felipe Neri, Hag-dan Bato .

Rizal, San Felipe Neri

Rizal, San Juan del Monte

do

do

Rizal, San Mateo

do

Rizal, San Pedro Macati

do __ _.

do _

Rizal, San Pedro Macati, Guadalupe _.
c Brown.

Depth

jL»tjpLn capacity p ,
of well, per minute. uo,or -

Meters.
181.7
214

96
136
274
148
178
229
227
142

158.5
39.6

74.4
157.3

82.6

140.2
139.6
165.5
134.7
182.3
268
34.4
29.9
81.4
35
57
30.2
45.7
45.4
48.8
263.3
13.1
9.1
104.5
213
63.7
67.4
44
266
104.2
105.5
91.7
108.2

Capacity

Liters.
P 47
P 227

P 227
P 170

P 568
P 151
P 189
P 189

P 45
P 114
P 114
P 57
P 57

P 303

P 227

P 76

P 38
P 114

P 76

P 38
P 227
P 227

P 38

P 95

F 19
F 9; P 227

F 76
P 284

F 38

P 19
P 114

P 38

P 57

P 45
P 76

P 189
F 11; P 76

P 76

P 76
P 114

e Green.

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES

183

? the Philippine Islands — Continued.

>> 1

5 W

O

o

"u
<

m

'o

CO

O

E-i

O
53

"a?

o
u

8

S

s

73

bo

Si" 3

5

o

o

m

<a
+j
c3 •

Cm

oO

o

CO

§o

m

w

400
710
360
880
770
1, 100

46
22

1.7
3.8

11

27

20

120
330
42
247
175
340

44

79

80
74

3.8
1.8

0.44

6.7
7.0
32

2.6

1.3

trace

48
75
50

nil

270

nil

nil

330

nil

340

nil

670
4,900

680
1,070

410
1,815

975

78

0.20

3.0
180

trace

68

100

1,095

210

320

6.4
870
370

10

390

27

62
49
92

3.6
2.2

47
32

37
12

41
6.8

clear

220

62

trace

50

13

nil

270

41

(b)

215

1,475

90

0.4

93

38

600

nil

260

29

0>)

240

395

80

0.4

29

22

24

nil

290

trace

00

210

1,250

82

0.2

93

37

560

nil

250

31

nil

250

550

70

nil

7.2

nil

64

nil

270

53

nil

250

500

65

trace

11

trace

55

nil

305

41

nil

250

700

80

trace

29

14

170

trace

305

26

nil

250

400

90

trace

56

23

27

nil

305

nil

280

460

68

1.1

trace

trace

21

nil

345

27

nil

290

nil

490

80

0.36

trace

trace

49

30

300

trace

15

280

nil

535

78

0.4

7.7

trace

13

18

310

24

nil

250

1,165

90

trace

69

31

455

300

25

nil

220

nil

580

59

0.30

6.2

trace

76

5.9

270

93

3,600
395

60
32

0.8
0.5

300
34

15
11

2,000
44

120

0>)

210

nil

260

trace

20

240

40

370

1.3

35

12

20

nil

290

trace

<5

210

3.2

340

70

0.72

37

3.6

38

nil

250

nil

(b)

2,400
320
360

61
100
105

5.8
2.8
0.9

155
27
36

71
12
13

1,100
13
13

trace

16.8

nil

210

nil

260

nil

nil

220

315

82

trace

29

20

10

nil

270

nil

nil

225

355

100

trace

54

16

11

nil

270

trace

nil

200

350

92

trace

27

13

24

trace

240

trace

58

500

52

0.85

7.5

2.0

79

34

32

155

180

310

80

0.55

25

trace

9.3

220

trace

nil

170

2.7

290

83

0.4

22

8.7

5.0

210

trace

nil

140

560

40

0.4

4.4

1.3

190

nil

170

17

nil

110

250

15

0.6

9.3

trace

27

16

104

32

nil

166

320

55

0.36

3.7

trace

16

18

190

trace

55

180

nil

300

80

2.2

8.0

trace

7.2

5.9

210

trace

240
295
300
370

35
85
40
85

0.8

2.8

0.1

trace

36
36
0.21
36

7.7
7.6
0.02
13

4.5
6.9
40
8.0

trace

trace

. 270

nil

265

trace

320

nil

nil

160

300

80

trace

7.0

trace

23

nil

195

nil

nil

65

185

20

trace

l

trace
3 Turbid

trace

11

32

79

trace

184

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV.-— Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

121029
121350
124061
101739
104044
97863
97864
97869
114276
119789
119848
119883
120043

94640
98157
118477
118544
118610
118707
123663
124325

117681
105977
118476
119498
119638
117451
117988
123020
123156
123227
123430
120102
120964
118526
118992
119203
122286
122722
121926
122158
10. 7 944
110866
118593
120128
108992

Well
No.

814
841
1002

352
355
362
506
721
729
742
747
272
340
344
612
626
632
639
996
1005
311
441
393
491
692
702
537
560
948
964
976
981
715
770
593
618

862
891
437
456
223
636
419

Year.

1915
1915
1917
1912
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1915
1915
1915
1915
1911
1911
1912
1914
1914
1914
1914
1916
1917
1911
1913
1912
1914
1914
1915
1913
1913
1916
1916
1916
1916
1915
1915
1914
1914
1914
1916
1916
1916
1916
1912
1912
1914
1915
1912

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Rizal, San Pedro Macati

Rizal, San Pedro Macati, Masilang

Rizal, San Pedro Macati, Zobel building.

Rizal, Taguig

do

Rizal, Tanay

do

do

Rizal, Tanay, Barras

Rizal, Tanay

do._

do

Rizal, Tanay, Wawa

Rizal, Taytay

do„

_do.
_do.
-do.
_do.
-do.

Rizal, Taytay, San Juan..

Rizal, Taytay, Dolores

Samar, Catbalogan

Samar, Villareal

Samar, Wright

Sorsogon, Bacon _-.

Sorsogon, Bulan

do

Sorsogon, Casiguran

do

Sorsogon, Gubat _

do _.

do_._

do

Sorsogon, Irosin __

do _.__

Sorsogon, Juban

do ._ __ _.

Sorsogon, Magallanes

Sorsogon, San Fernando ._

Sorsogon, San Fernando, Buyo_.

Sorsogon, San Jacinto___ _.

do.

Sorsogon, Sorsogon

do _.__

Surigao, Butuan ___

Surigao, Surigao __

Tarlac, Camiling

a Yellow.

Depth
of well.

Meters.
106.7
98.1
98.1
149
120
19
49
34
91
63.1
41.5
45.7
139.3
155
98
242
48.8
15.2
25.9
25.9
29.3
26.5
242
216.4
311
174
106.1
129.2
156
123.4
103.6
110.3
134.4
103.9
167.6
132.6
159.7
146
121.9
106.7
109.7

94

79.2
135.9
152

Capacity
per minute.

Color.

Liters.

P 76

P 76

nil

P 265

nil

P 132

P 132

P 45

P 114

P 45

P 379

P 38

P 76

P 76

F 49

00

P 227

P 189

P 189

P 132

P 132

P 76

P 132

P 57

nil

P 76

nil

P 114

00

P 38

00

F 6; P 23

00

P 114

F 19

F 38

P 76

00

P 57

F 19; P 76

nil

F 28; P 114

nil

F 23; P 114

nil

P 76

nil

P 38

P 67

P 45

P 30

P 114

F 1,817

F 8; P 26

nil

F 15

<5.0

P 76

trace

F 95

F 57

P 38

P 95

c Brown.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
the Philippine Islands — Continued.

185

■2S

<5

00

CO

CO

50

00

<5
<5

CO

00
nil

<5

10
<5
<5.0
nil

(b)

100

(b)

100

(b)

nil

190
235
190

250
250
245
220

150
310

O

250
255

260
240
290
290
280
355

2,100
340
740
370

150

14
4.6

29
20
30
16

310

75
11

340

440

290

1,110

1,070

340

340

370

380

415

365

330

260

660

730

610

280

460

660

370

800

390

420

1,480

990

1,000

1,800

1,295

330

330

700

730

840

530

515

675

380

380

1,300

2,500

420

1,030

425

240

420

1,510

2,570

270

82
42
91
82
50
87
79
86
75
70
77
80
73
95
63
46
88
96
88
83
63
38
19

&
g

15
2.2
0.16

12
1.8
4.4
4.8

,4.0

trace
nil
0.5
0.7
1.5
7.2

trace
2.4
3.7
0.1
9.7
1.7
0.20
0.20
0.2

trace

2.9
35

2.8
18.3
31
54
52
65
41
46
70
82
32
65
92
61
18
58
55

9.8
90
33

1.5

62

0.5

67

2.5

75

trace

93

28.0

36

trace

77

0.24

25

0.36

80

0.32

74

0.5

100

0.7

120

3.0

120

5.7

110

20

9.7

1.7

93

3.0

15

56

10

31

4.6

88

4.6

89

2.8

60

3.7

25

trace

27

0.4

25
72
57
29
43
110
120
130

73
14
20
50

450
42

125
60
19
54
40

125
23

bn

trace
9.4
1.0

trace
5.6

21

19

14

35

27

14

22

19

23

18

18
1.7

19

0.24
5.1

11

11

trace
23

9.2

1.2
6.5

17

16

25

14

49

37
1.2
6.0

32
145

40

56

32

10

27

68

76

14

14
15
12
305
300
3.9
4.9
4.9
13
3.0
8.0
8.0
6.7
32
170
61
6.5
11
72
14
26
5.2
54
290
150
380
760
380
6.4
43
130
180
210
76
27
38
8.7
9.7
520
140
21
130
20
6.4
9.5
630
1,120
trace

oo

6.4
nil

14

nil
nil
nil
nil

nil
nil

SO

nil
nil

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

nil
nil
nil

nil

220
290
210

305
305
300
230

180
380

300
310

320
290
350
360
350
445

2,620
420
900
455

180

*0

3
W

15
trace
2.1
130
155
11
11
10
14
nil
nil
nil
6.0
250
12
170
trace
18
85
3.1

nil
34
157

18
100

82

10

23

12

17

22
<5.0

31

86
nil
nil

52
trace
nil

18
trace

79
7.0
500

120
trace

b Turbid.

186

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XV. — Well waters of

Labora-
tory No.

Well
No.

Year.

Locality.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Depth
of well.

Capacity
per minute.

1

Color.

110789
113292
117689
116713
80297
122947
105742
121225
121226
87526
80450
117938

80287
84983
113237
114248
96819
120899
120408
120493
122348
118409
121625
122308
119882
99418
99418

451
478
549
509

359
1
2
3

178
212

316
799
735
792
623
576
866
879
699
1
2

1912
1913
1913
1913
1910
1916
1912
1915
1915
1911
1910
1913

1910
1910
1913
1913
1912
1915
1915
1915
1916
1914
1915
1.916
1915
1912
1912

Meters.
133
181
159.1
234

64

75
259

48.8

55

47

49

Liters.
P 265

P 76
P 132
P 265

P 76

00
00
00

nil

nil
00
00

do

Tarlac, Gerona __

Tarlac, Tarlac (municipal well) _ _

Tarlac, Victoria _. __

Tayabas, Atimonan _ .

P 38

P 61

P 61
F 9; P 38
F 3.8; P 19

Tayabas, Boac_

do___

do __

Tayabas, Gasan

Tayabas, Hondagua, Manila railroad com-
pany.
Tayabas, Lucena _

105
205

F 38
F 76

00

do

Tayabas, Lucena, Hospital de Pobres .

Tayabas, Laguimanoc.

244

268
39.6
34.4
21.9

269.7

131.1
36.6

103.6
75

Tayabas, Pagbilao__ __,

P 76
P 38
P 53
P 114
P 38
P 246
F 57
P 45
P 132

00

3.0

140.0
nil

00

do

Union, Balaoan

Union, Bangar

do _

Zambales, Botolan _____

Zambales, San Narciso_-~ __

do

a Yellow. c Browr

i.

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES

the Philippine Islands — Continued.

187

>>
■p

•Cm

>5

.So

da

MO

<

o

Q

is

'3

<

0}

m
%
O

O
W

1u
fa

a
o
}->

p

O

9 i

OS p

5

.2

o

CO

Cm
OO

&o

eS
O

xn

go

S

CO

0)

ftco

P

00

290
110
460
470
345
450
490
255
465
525
400
1,100

950
1,800

460
1,800

990
1,300
1,080

870

980

240
1,100
1,700

720
1,100

635

43

2.0

42

41

4.5

10
140

81

16

73

60

11

13

28

31
245

150
700
27
610
245
475
400
290
140

5.4
430
815
225
480
190

1

11

52

94
82
30
46
27
11
29
66
45

25
59

trace
3.6
2.8
0.40
1.6
0.1
0.07
3.4
2.8
4.5

1.4
1.8

. 20

28

40
4.7

70

49
trace
7.3

26

21

4.1
16

3.5
9.0

20
3.0

17

11
5.0
5.3
9.2

14

1.1
3.7

trace

nil

28

9.6

68

5.3

trace

12
230
140

140
260

00
<5

210

nil

nil

260

:=

165
350

nil
nil

200
430

1

i

68
90
67
12
40
60
40
22
40
60

trace
3.6

10

trace

trace
1.5
3.7
1.2
1.2
2.2

190

96

18

32

71
4.6

51
trace
165

93

65

51

45

11

24
9.1
8.6

12
3.8

25

110

34

trace

nil

trace

trace

14
trace
nil

33

trace
nil
nil
29

400
370
400

780

nil

325

300
330
640

65
00

320
250
135

5.4

trace
nil

390
300
165

1

b Turbid.

188

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XVI. — Artesian wells of

Well
No.

Location.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Date.

Tem-
pera-
ture.

Odor.

Turbidity.

2
3
1

Cebu, Asturias, poblacion

1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916

1916
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917

1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
drawn.

°C.

28

31.

29

28.8

27

28

28.5

29

31.7

32.5

29

Nil

nil

(»)

nil

(a)

nil
trace
trace
00
nil
nil
trace

Cebu, Balamban, poblacion _ __

H2S „

Nil

do

Cebu, Balamban

do

Cebu, Toledo, poblacion

do

do

H2S

.._. -do

do

Nil

Cebu, Tuburan, poblacion

Laguna, Bay, poblacion

Hydrocarbons _
do

do

685
703
723
27
28
493
440
459
907

907

889
883
919

Laguna, Calamba, poblacion

Nil ...

Laguna, Calamba, Canlubang... _ .

do

Laguna, Los Banos, San Antonio

31.8

31

32

28

34.5

31.5

36

38

37.5

31.5

28.5

32.5

30.5

29

30

30

29.5

27.8

29.2

28.4

30

29.7

28.3

29

29

29

28

27.5

27.7

27.7

28

28

28

28

do

45 1

Laguna, Pagsanjan, town

H2S -

nil

Laguna, Pagsanjan, Maulaoin ___

.-_ do

nil

Laguna, Pagsanjan, Buboy ...

H2SandC02_-_
H2S .

00 1

nil

Laguna, Santa Cruz, town

do

- do

nil

Laguna, Santa Cruz __

do

H2SandC02_-
H2S

nil
nil !

Laguna, Santa Cruz, Santo Angel

do

nil
slight
nil
nil
nil
20

nil
nil
(«)
nil

(a)

(»)

Laguna, Santa Cruz, Umboy...

Nil

Laguna, Santa Cruz, Patimbao _

do

Laguna, Santa Cruz, Umboy

Laguna, Santa Cruz, town _

C02

Nil

Laguna, San Pablo, Santa Maria, Magda-

lena.
Misamis, Cagayan, poblacion

do

do

Occidental Negros, Bacolod, poblacion

Occidental Negros, Bacolod, Mandalagan___

Occidental Negros, Bacolod, poblacion.-.

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Aranda

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Hacienda
Guanco.

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Paticul

Occidental Negros, Hinigaran, Naravis

Occidental Negros, Isabela, poblacion

do __._

do

do ___.„__.

do

do

do

Nil

nil
trace
00
00
trace

nil
00
00

nil

nil
00

nil

do

do

931

do „___ _

H2S .

do ,

Nil

Occidental Negros, Saravia, poblacion

do __

do

do

do

do

Occidental Negros, Saravia. Tabigue

Occidental Negros, Saravia, Gahit

do__

H2S

Occidental Negros, Saravia, poblacion

Occidental Negros, Saravia, Alicante

do...

Nil

do

* Nil when

INTERPRETATION OF WATER ANALYSES
"the Philippine Islands.

189

nil
20
23

8.3
46

23

33

31

15

18

31

nil

nil

37

trace

11

15
trace
nil
trace

27

11

51

nil
32.5
17
17
40

nil

nil
33
25
30

25'
30
36
20
18
nil
31

0.47

2.4

0.7

1.5

0.07

1.2

3

3.7

0.83

0.6

0.37

0.07

4

1.1

0.25

4.5

0.33

nil
0.17
0.5

nil
0.1
0.25
0.6
0.25
1.7

0.47
2.7
2.2
1.2
11

1

12

11

11
4

2.1
3.8
2.1
0.8
0.4
3.7
0.8

150

260

9

35

15
150
380
125

33

42
9
7.2

41
150

41
160

47

18

41

40

28

11

10

62

13

24

32
5.3

c R 2

53

77

8.3

5

7.3

6.6

4

5

6

6
18

110
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
uil
nil
nil
nil

trace

trace
ni
nil

trace
nil
nil
nil

trace
nil
nil
nil
nil

78
nil
nil
nil
nil
trace

oO

trace
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

nil
nil
trace
nil
nil

450
560
490
670
520
670
670
560
850
630
340
280
480
320
210
700
430
490
440
490
455
360
180
570
290

305
280
230
240
305
330

*6
ftc/2

12
26
9.6
nil
18
32
65
80
nil
nil
trace
trace
trace
100
16
trace
nil
nil
nil
trace
nil
nil
nil
trace
trace
28

nil

trace

trace

trace

nil

nil

r-i TO

59

520

310

250

440

330

340

500

170

180

150

140

200

41

44

400

120

110

82

74

94

100

79

79

100

200

135

TO +J

220
510
360
400
450
460
490
540
440
350
220
190

ft pj

Poor___
Bad ...
Poor.__

do -

Bad „_
.....do.

do.

..„.do.

do .

Poor...

do .

Fair.._

190

250
230
220
230
280
390
380
460
490
540

18
nil
nil

trace
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

trace

Fair .

58
1
5

12

Negative.
Do.

Negative.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Negative.

Do.
Positive.

13

55
11
9

10

83

1

10

36

18

45
13
5
3
10
18
66

Negative.

Positive.
Negative.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Negative.
Do.

Negative.
Do.

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

Negative.

Negative.
Do.
Do.

* Clear when drawn ; turbidity develope on standing.

190

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Table XVI. — Artesian wells of

Well
No.

344
121
120
126
127

233
101

229

91

82
77
111
250
242
466
243
103

272
340
626
632

Location.
(Province, town, barrio.)

Occidental Negros, Silay, poblacion

Occidental Negros. Silay, Mambulac

Occidental Negros, Silay, Balaring

Occidental Negros, Talisay, poblacion __.

do

do

Occidental Negros, Talisay, Bagaas

Occidental Negros, Victorias, poblacion .

Occidental Negros, Victorias, Viejo

Nueva Vizcaya, Bagabag, poblacion

Nueva Vizcaya, Bambang, poblacion

Nueva Vizcaya, Bayombong, poblacion _ .

Nueva Vizcaya, Solano, poblacion

Rizal, Cainta

Rizal, Mariquina, San Roque

do

Rizal, Mariquina, Santo Nino

Rizal, Mariquina, Bayan-bayanan

Rizal, Mariquina, Santa Elena

Rizal, Montalban, poblacion

do

do _.

do

Rizal, Montalban, Burgos

Rizal, Montalban, San Jose

do

Rizal, Pasig, Bagong Hog

Rizal, Pasig, poblacion

do

Rizal, San Mateo, poblacion

do

do

— .-do

Rizal, San Mateo, Guinayang

Rizal, San Mateo, poblacion

do

do

do

Rizal, Taytay __.

do

do

do

Sorsogon, Bulan, town

Sorsogon, Irosin, town _

Sorsogon, Masbate, poblacion _.

do

do _._.

Sorsogon, San Fernando, poblacion

Sorsogon, San Fernando, Buyo

Sorsogon, San Fernando, Batuan _

Date.

1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1917
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916
1916

Tem-
pera-
ture.

°C.

28.4

28.5

28.3

29.4

29.5

29

28

28.9

27.5

27

25.8

27.5

29.3

28.1

28.3

28

28.3

28

28

28

27.8

28

28

27.5

27.5

28.8

28.8

29.5

29.7

27.8

28

28

27.4

29.3

28.2

28

28

29

29

29.3

29

34.8

31.2

30

29

33

31.4

32.2

Odor.

Nil .

.-do.
__do .
„do.
-do.
__do .
__do_
..do.
-do .
..do.
..do .
-.do.
..do.
__do.
-do.
.-do.
__do.
-do.
_.do.
-do.
__do.
-_do.
._do.
-do.
-do.
_-do.

Nil .

_do .
_do.
_do .
.do.
-do.
-do.

H 2 S

Nil..

_do_
-do.
_do.
_do.
_do.
-do.

H 2 S .

_do-

_do.
.do.

CO2-.
Nil..

Turbidity.

-do.

(a)

<•)■

nil
(»)

nil
(•)
(•)
00

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
very slight
nil
. nil

w

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

nil

trace
nil
nil
faint trace
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

(a)
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
slight

<*)
nil

trace

(»)

trace
trace

1 Nil when drawn.

INTERPRETATION OP WATER ANALYSES

191

the Philippine Islands — Continued.

150
180
270
260
260
240
150
180
180
160
140
130
160
300
530
600
430
140
250
210
210
190
200
190
230
200

360
200
280
270
300
260
160
280
250
240
310

370
320
410
430
570
630
3,300
460
390

30
27
12
14
20
18
56
33

7

32
19

5.1
26
14
48
41
92
38
100
41
13
12
16
35
14
11

18

20

5

5

40
37
26
13
38
37
46
12
22
40
37
15
23
16
23
31
1,100
16
24

3.7
5

0.87
1.4
0.53
1.6
11
5

0.47
4.3
0.13
1.7
0.73
0.17
0.45
0.41
6

0.17
0.2
0.33
0.33
0.07
0.57
0.33
0.2
0.23

1

1.5

0.4

0.57

1.2

0.67

0.07

0.92

1.8

1.2

2.6

0.4

0.5

0.63

0.17

4.5

4.5
130
12.5
12.5

7

11

8

6

12.5

12.5

10

6.3
170

15
7

38

10
100

10
7

10

10

11

17

10

c8 <u^5

0+J o

<3Q

— ^O

*o

^fli!

£o

fc

m

nil

180

nil

220

nil

330

nil

320

nil

320

nil

290

nil

180

nil

220

j nil

220

ftt/3

1.7
1.6
0.8
3.8
4.5
2.9
2.1

10

11

13

13

12

9

8

14

10

7

24

23

17

13

90

820

29

140

43

970

220

27

14

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

370
650
730
520
170
305
260
260
230
240
230
280
240

nil
nil
nil
trace
nil
trace
trace
trace
nil
22
44
24
20
160
trace
trace
trace
trace
100
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace

440
240
340
330
365
320
195
340
305
290
380
460
440
590
450
390
500
525
695
770
1,030
560
475

150

150

140

160

230

160

150

150

52

270

118

110

90

96

80

96

92

Q S
+-> 03

•n u

§1

'■So

to O aa

nil
nil
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
240
24
38
100
large
53
290
trace
250
trace
trace
trace

170
180
150
170
400
350
380
290
96
350

160
140
150
140
120
150

Fair ....

do.

do .

Fair ___
Poor___

do.

do .

do.

Fair ._.
Poor.__

91
80
80
120
130
140
150
170
280
220
250
140
380
1,900
250
190

250
140
180
180
200
180
110
190
170
160
220
460
270
350
360

Fair ___
.—do .

do.

do .

do .

do .

350
540
360
690

2,600
360
290

1

Poor

Fair

do ...

do ...

Poor

Fair

do ...

do ...

do...

do..

Poor

Bad

Poor

do._

do„

Bad

Poor

Bad

Poor

Bad ____

do _.

Poor

do.

"DOS

J2 2 c

ft •

a to

17

12

174

18

12

422

(?)

2

6

2
200

15

23

9

18

5

28

95

19

8

210

230

40

65

Negative.

Negative.

Negative.
Do.

(?)

Negative.

Positive.

Do.
Negative.
Positive.

Do.
Negative.

Do. (?)

Do. (?)

Do. (?)

Do.

Do.

Positive.
Negative.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Positive.
Negative.
Positive.

Do.

Do.

Do.
(?)

Negative.
(?)
Negative.

Positive.
Negative.
Do.

a Nil when drawn.

APPENDICES

152918 13 193

; APPENDICES

: THE LOCATION OF ARTESIAN WELLS IN THE PHILIP-
PINE ISLANDS PROM A GEOLOGIC VIEWPOINT *

It will be assumed that the reader is conversant with the
principles governing the phenomena of artesian wells, and in
the following discussion no attempt will be made to consider
the numerous factors which control the subsurface accumu-
lation of water under hydrostatic conditions.

The conditions under which water-bearing rocks, like inter-
calated sandstone^ and shales, were laid dpwn in the Philip-
pines, wb^re the distribution of land masses i$ irregular and the
interruption of sedimentary processes by vulcanism yvm fv$-
quent, were so variable that no single bed nor any §eries $f
beds extends uniformly over great distances. Thus it is not
ppssjibje here, $s it is, for instance, in Australia, %q map ejosely
the outcrop of the "intake beds" nor to calculate the depths %t
which such beds will be encountered over large $re$8?

It is probable th&t very often wells will be drilled &t towns
which need most urgently a supply of potable w&ter, iryespeetive
ef the ehances of obtaining water. Frequently there will fee
little chpjce between different possible locations in a small town,

and it inay be found expedient to l§<pte the well on the ®lm% m

$t some otber eentr&J point without taking into consideration
my other controlling f&stprs. however, where towns &re so
situated as to Include within their area p$rt§ pf different geo-*

; }ogie formations, there may be opportunity to excise s§m§

\ discretion in choosing a drilling §ite<

A large proportion pI the flowing well§ in the Philippines wijj

> ®e$se t® flow if the casing is continued e?en a, few mete^§ §feoye

t the ground surfeee; that is to s§y, if su^b welte h&d been drilled

I fifem a plightly higher elevation, It would h&ye been nectary

\ t§ pump them, It follpwp that, other things feeing equ&l, the

[< tower of two possible sites is preferable, Jioweyer, |be ©opir

i feility of surface anamination should be kept in mind In this

i oonneetion. A well on low ground i§ more often contaminated

f fey surface waters than one on higher ground- It i$ true also

I; ' '"

\ *3?y Wallace E. Pratt, *eprinte4 fyom PhS< Jwrn. Se*,, Sep. 4 U9JS),

I 10, 23 J.

I 195

196 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

that a well should not be located too near the seashore in an
attempt to get it on low ground. Too often in such a location
the well encounters brackish water.

Through the cooperation of the Bureau of Public Works the
Bureau of Science has had access to drillers' logs for about 700
artesian wells. Samples of the drill cuttings have been sub-
mitted for examination in the cases of about half of these wells.
These data, and a knowledge of the general geology of the Phil-
ippines, are made the basis of the following discussion.

For their consideration in relation to artesian waters the geo-
logic formations of the Philippines may be classed and sum-
marized as shown in Table I.

LITTORAL AND ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS

A large proportion of the population of the Philippines lives
in regions in which the land is made up of littoral and alluvial
deposits. The important areas of alluvium are found in great
structural valleys like the Central Plain of Luzon, the Cagayan
Valley in northern Luzon, the Bicol Valley in southeastern Luzon,
the Iloilo Plain in Panay, and the Cotabato and Agusan Valleys
in Mindanao. The littoral deposits make up the coastal plains
which fringe many of the islands, like the plain upon which
the town of Cebu is located. The structural valleys have
been filled up by loose clays, sands, and gravels carried down
from the adjacent highlands by shifting streams and deposited
along an ever-advancing shore line. The coastal plains have
been built up in the same way; in many cases they rest upon a
base of coral reefs, which have grown up offshore from the
various land masses. Both the filled structural valleys and the
coastal plains combine alluvial and littoral deposits in their
structure, since the alluvium carried by streams was deposited
largely at the seashore where part of it was worked over again
by wave action. In either situation the littoral and alluvial
deposits are surprisingly thick; in very few cases have wells
passed through them into the underlying formations.

A majority of the wells drilled by the Bureau of Public Works
have penetrated these classes of material. A majority also of
the successful wells have obtained their water from sands and
gravels of littoral or alluvial or combined littoral and alluvial
origin. It cannot be said, however, that littoral and alluvial
deposits are uniformly productive of artesian water. Such
deposits are irregular, and individual beds do not extend over
large areas. On the contrary, the formation is characterized by
narrow- lenses of sand or gravel or clay, such as would be ex-

ARTESIAN WELLS

197

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198 PHiLii¥iMfi wAtfii Applies

pected in the beds of modern streams or along beaches. It is
due to this feature of littoral and alluvial deposits that so often
a flowing well will be secured adjacent to a drilled hole which
has obtained no water or only pumping water* A striking ex-
ample is the case of two wells drilled within 50 meters of each
other between the Philippine General Hospital and the Bureau
of Science in Manila. The first well reached a depth of 178
meters and obtained only 113 liters of water pet minute, The
second well obtained 322 liters pier minute at a depth of only 137
meters. On the completion of the second well work wag resumed
on the first well in an attempt to get water at the 137-meter
horizon, but all efforts to this end failed. Neither of these wells
flowed, but numerous experiments have demonstrated that in this
class of deposits flowing Wells, nonflowing wells, and dry wells
may be situated side by side.

As has been said, littoral and alluvial deposits hfe made up
of loosely consolidated sands* clays, and gravels. The loose
character of the formation is responsible for the commonly noted
phenomenon that in wells situated near the Coast line the level
of the water in the well varies with the Stage of the tide in the
adjacent sea. The fresh water in the upf>er part of the land
mass is always percolating through pOrous beds toward the sea,
and in the region of the seashore it is in some measure in a condi-
tion of hydrostatic equilibrium with the sea water, "Which satu-
rates the porous beds outcropping on the sea floor. The rising
tide actually increases the hydrostatic pressure on the ground
water in the adjacent porous beds. This effect is especially
marked where an old Coral reef haS been included between the
deeper beds of the formation, because the loose structure of the
coral reef affords unusually free passage f dr water.

Another factor which must be considered in connection with
littoral and alluvial formations is the possibility of obtaining
salt water in wells adjacent to the CoaSt. Littoral deposits are
contaminated by the salt water in which they were formed.
Close to the coast line percolation of the fresh ground water
may not have been extensive enough to have removed all the
original salt, particularly where the formation contains clay,
which is not easily permeable. Salt w&ter is almost inevitably
encountered at depth in wells near the coast line. The ground-
water circulation appears to be most vigorous at depths generally
less than 180 meters. Consequently, if potable water is encoun-
tered in littoral or alluvial deposits at depths of from 60 to 150
meters, it is usually advisable to make arrangements to use this
water even though it be of limited quantity and require

IffHfopilg* tf&th€? thM t® dontiftUG drilling in the htfpe of bbtein-
jtig flowing w^tet &r Water in greats quantity at e&tre*ife

*'d£jpt&& Ocicasioft&lly* where it has been possible td fe&se notil

| salt water, wells have been deepened and have obtained ftfc$h

J water at low^i* levels* but as a rul&> fi*esh water has not been
found below salt water.

The discussion of alluvial and littoral deposits and combina-
tions of these two classes of deposits may be extended and ap-

\ plied to intermingled alluvial, littoral, and fragmental volcanic
material as well. Volcanic tuffs are often and extensively

1 interbedded with alluvium and with littoral deposits in the
Philippines; less frequently volcanic breccias and agglomerates

Alternate with alluvial or littoral material. Volcanic tuffs, as
a matter of fact, usually contain interbedded alluvium, and
siihilarly alluvium usually includes some volcanic tuff. Hie com-
binations of these several classes of material yield water about

| p,s commonly and under about the same conditions as littoral and

[,' alluvial deposits themselves.

I CORALLINE LIMESTONE

I

i Coralline limestone is generally dry where it occurs over
I extensive areas and in thickness. It is so porous and so thor-
1 oughly jointed and cavernous that water percolates through
I it with little hindrance. Only in coralline limestone that is
interbedded with impervious beds of clay, marl, or other material
i& water confined so as to be available under hydrostatic pres-
sure. Fortunately a great deal of the recent coralline limestone
in the Philippines Is interbedded with impervious material and,
S therefore, can often be made to yield water. Coral reefs have
I been found in buried littoral deposits, and in this position were
j Saturated with water under pressure. More commonly coral
S reefs have been found in deposits of water-laid volcanic tuffs
/hi relations which made the coral reef a natural reservoir for
I ground water. But the commonest condition tinder which water
I has been obtained from coralline limestone is that of interbedded
coralline limestone and clayey marl. The thick marl beds are
ithpefvious and confine the water ill the intervening frdfous
$§Ml-re&f meifrberS of the series.

Coralline limestone is mo&t abundant in the Visayah Islands,
i&jpedi&lly in Cebti and BohoL On both theke islands it included
ifliJrl b£ds. Good wells have been obtained ih this formation
i& G&iy &bdut 50 £er cent of the trials made. The fehaftcfc df
Sfte§uftteriiig salt Water is gte&t if the Well is drilled to a d#tft
WBM €a»iesl it much beloW sea levsl. Ih drilling ttoatigh

200 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

coral, the hole should not advance far beyond the casing, even
though the wells may stand up well, and especial watch should
be maintained for impervious layers which may act as confining
agents,

VOLCANIC BRECCIAS AND AGGLOMERATES

Volcanic breccias and agglomerates, made up of varyingly
coarse and fine fragmental material embedded in tuff, are very
common in the Philippines. These rocks have usually been
deposited on the sea floor and, therefore, have been worked over
and roughly stratified by water, but heterogeneous breccias and
agglomerates of subaerial deposition are also known. These
rocks are found in the immediate vicinities of old volcanoes and
along lines of former volcanic activity. Much of the material
is indurated and impervious, but an equal proportion, perhaps,
is loose and porous.

In massive breccias or agglomerates there is only slight chance
of obtaining artesian water, but where the fragmental material
has been deposited on a sea floor, and is, therefore, somewhat
bedded, artesian water may be obtained. Wells on the south-
eastern and eastern shores of Laguna de Bay have yielded
good flows from this class of rock. There is a considerable
area of bedded volcanic agglomerate around the base of Mount
Isarog in Camarines which ought to yield water, and likewise
in northern Camarines and in Sorsogon there are places at
which it is suspected rocks of this nature are water-bearing.
6ft the whole, however, volcanic breccias and agglomerates are
rather uncertain territory for the artesian-well driller.

Mineralized water is often encountered in massive volcanic
agglomerate. Hot springs and other evidences of solfataric
action are associated with these rocks, so that in addition to
the possibility of encountering no water there is the further
chance that if water is encountered it may be too thoroughly
mineralized to be potable.

BEDDED VOLCANIC TUFF

Bedded volcanic tuff is found extensively in southwestern
Luzon and has proved to be particularly reliable as a source
of artesian water. This tuff has not been indurated nor con-
solidated through folding processes; it is distinctly bedded and
generally porous, but the successive beds are varyingly fine-
grained, so that conditions for confining water under some pres-
sure are very good. Many of the wells in the bedded tuff have
yielded flows, and a great majority have yielded either pumping

ARTESIAN WELLS 201

or flowing water. The bedded tuff formation is, perhaps, more
uniformly water-bearing than any other 1 of the Philippine
rock series.

TERTIARY SEDIMENTARIES

The Tertiary (Miocene) sedimentaries consist of shales, sand-
stones, conglomerates, and limestones. The formation is en-
countered in various parts of Luzon; it makes up nearly the
whole of the area of Samar; and it is important in Leyte, Cebu,
Panay, and in parts of Mindanao. Coal and petroleum are found
only in the Tertiary sedimentaries in the Philippines, and the
distribution of these minerals may be used as a guide in this
connection. The shales and sandstones are made up in large
proportion of volcanic material. The series as a whole is in-
durated and close-grained; consequently it carries but little
water. Moreover the fine-grained beds retain a great deal of
their original salt content, and this contaminates any water
which is obtained from them. Only a small number of wells
have penetrated the sedimentary series, and only a small pro-
portion of these have been successful. Where this series of beds
constitutes the underlying formation, a serious effort should be
made to obtain potable waters in the surface alluvium if it
is available. Deep wells are to be undertaken only as a last
resort.

It must be admitted that some artesian water has been obtained
from the sedimentary rocks, but the flows are invariably small,
and no eminently satisfactory wells have been drilled into the
formation. The sandstones and the conglomerates yield water
under favorable conditions, but even these rocks are too dense
to be of great promise. The limestone members of the series
are very cavernous and jointed, and water percolates through
them readily. The lower limestone, which is very close to the
base of the sedimentary series, is undoubtedly the most im-
portant possible source of artesian water in this formation.
At its outcrop this limestone is corroded and jointed until it
is a very porous rock. The sedimentary series is usually found
flanking the Cordilleras and dipping away from them, so that
very often this basal limestone is exposed in a region of heavy
rainfall and lies at an angle which accelerates the percolation
of water along it. If the limestone in this relation were pene-
trated by a well, it ought to yield water copiously. The diffi-
culties are that the basal limestone is thin, discontinuous, and
broken by faulting; that inasmuch as its porosity in surface
exposures is due largely to solution, the limestone may not be

202 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

porous below the permanent level of grouftd water ; and finally*
that its stratigr&phic position is stich that it is commonly too
deeply buried, except in mountainous and consequently unin-
habited regions, to b& accessible by drilling. The conditions
afford a chance, however, which should be tested when oppor-
tunity presents.

MASSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

Massive igneous rocks abound in all of the truly mountainous
portions of the Philippine Islands. Igneous rocks* wherever
present to the exclusion of other rocks, constitute the formation
least favorable to the accumulation of potable artesian Water.
They are impermeable to water because of their dense nonporous
texture and the absence of bedding planes. It is generally im-
material in this connection whether the igneous rock is of the
deep-seated, holocrystalline type, such as the diorites* gabbros,
peridotites, and occasional granites, or is one of the surface
lava flows, such as the widely distributed andesites and less
common basalts, rhyolites, and dacites* although infrequently
solidified lava flows are so vesicular and porous as to be per-
meable to water. Very rarely do common igneous rocks yield
water in quantity. No Philippine wells have encountered w^ter
in massive igneous rocks, although a dozen, perhaps, have been
drilled into them. Minute quantities of water are contained
along fractures and joints in igneous rocks * and often mineral-
ized water is encountered in the occasional veins and sheai 4 zones ;
otherwise the rocks are almost invariably dry. Obviously* there-
fore, igneous rocks are to be avoided in chodMng sites for
artesian wells.

metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic types of rocks are represented in the Philip-
pines principally by schists, with subordinate gneisses and mar-
bles. Because of their dense nature metamorphic rocks are not
common sources of artesian water. In the Philippines they are
of limited distribution and consequently unimportant; as yet
fro wells have been drilled into them. Water might be obtained
from buried marble, which is often cavernous, but schist and
gneiss would probably be found to be dry.

Schists and gneisses, together with massive igneous rocks,
ai*e the basal formations in the Philippine rock series and will,
therefore, be encountered ultimately in practically any locality
in the Islands if the drilling proceeds to a sufficient depth.
Since they are devoid of water, ho attempt should be made to
continue drilling once these formations are encountered.

THE CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF SWIMMING POOLS 1

The purification of Swimming pools has long been the subject
of much study, and a vast literature has been developed con-
cerning it. Many methods have been suggested, notably filtra-
tion, sterilization with ultra-violet rayS* and the use of ozone,
topper sulphate, liquid chlorine, tod the hypochlorites of sodium*
fnagnesium, or Calcium. Although these methods* or combina-
tions of two or more of them, have beeii f ouiid satisfactory Under
8iost Conditions, great discrepancies exist in the results recorded.
In spite of the fact that there are many factors influencing the
purification of swimming 1 pools, many experimenters have treated
their particular problems as though they were of general ap-
plication ; henCe has arisen much difference in opinion concerning
the relative merits of different purifying agents, amounts neces-
sary for efficient purification* methods of application, and the
like. In many cases too little attention has been paid to im-
portant factors SUch as quality of water, temperature of pool,
number of persons bathing turbidity and the like to enable
general conclusions to be drawn from the results of different
Workers. T*he treatment that is highly efficient for One water
under certain Conditions may fail Utterly for a different Water
under Slightly Changed conditions.

Of the methods mentioned, the Use of chlorine either &S

liquid chlorine or as a hypochlorite is probably the most widely

practiced, and because of their Cheapness and because Of the ease

with Which they can be administered, hypochlorites are em-

; ployed more than liquid chlorine.

t The problem of maintaining a swimming pool in Manila in a
( Sanitary and attractive condition is rather complicated. The
{ Water from the municipal Supply is always slightly turbid, So
I that the bottom Of a pool is generally invisible. This turbidity
I not Only makes a pool unattractive and increases the danger
from accidental drowning, but also militates against the action
6f disinfectants, The temperature (27° C, to 80° C.) is an added
factor, aS it is nearer the bacterial optimum than that of typical
I United States installations, and bacterial growth is correspond-
ingly stimulated.

*6y Gm. W. Heise mid R; H. Agtiil&r, abstracted from Phil Jbum.
ScL, Sec. A (1916), 11, 105-123.

208

204 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

Obviously filtration should be employed as a preliminary meas-
ure in the treatment of waters of the kind described; however,
the lack of filtration facilities and the desirability of improving
the sanitary condition of the local installations as rapidly as
possible made it advisable to see what could be done with chemical
methods of purification alone. Three pools were accordingly
kept under observation.

When water was left untreated in the local swimming pools,
the bacterial count invariably reached enormous figures about the
second day, and organisms of the B. coli group were practically
always to be found in 1 cubic centimeter water samples after the
first day. The usual chemical analyses gave little indication of
this state of affairs. A slight sedimentation occurred during
the first day or two in which the water was used, leading to
a decreased turbidity and corresponding fluctuations in oxygen
consumption and chloride content. Differences during the week
in total solids and alkalinity, if any, were too slight to be of sig-
nificance; neither chlorides nor oxygen consumed showed the
steady increase that might have been expected ; turbidity, after
the initial drop, remained practically constant.

The use of copper sulphate as a disinfectant both for public
water supplies and for swimming pools has been frequently rec-
ommended. 2 For example, Thomas, 3 in a recent article, showed
that a greater degree of bacterial purification had been effected
in a swimming pool with daily additions of 0.4 part per million
of copper sulphate than had previously been accomplished with
a single addition of 2.5 parts per million of "hypochlorite" [0.8
( ?) part of available chlorine] , and he concluded that the copper
sulphate method was cheaper and more effective and was further
superior to hypochlorite treatment because it caused no odor and
was not irritating to the eyes. Unfortunately the author gives
no data concerning the chemical quality of the water used nor
the exact strength of hypochlorite employed. The water was
filtered and refiltered, and alum was used as coagulant. As the
author points out, the coagulation with alum and subsequent fil-
tration removes the carbonates and bicarbonates that would
otherwise hinder the action of copper sulphate.

Our results with copper sulphate show clearly the unsuitability
of this method to a water high in substances that react with a
copper salt. The test was conducted for two weeks, 1 part of
crystalline copper sulphate per million parts of water being

2 For partial bibliography see Manheimer, Publ. Health Rep, (1915) f
30, 2796.

*Journ. Ind. Eng. Chem. (1915), 7, 496.

THE CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF SWIMMING POOLS 205

employed during the first week and 2 parts per million (with
fresh water) during the second. In neither case was an effect
on the bacterial content apparent after the first day, and long
before the end of the week the colony count had reached an
enormous figure, the copper sulphate seemingly exercising not
the slightest inhibiting effect.

The chemical analysis of the water showed little or no varia-
tion. Upon addition of copper sulphate the turbidity of the
water increased greatly, owing to interaction with the bicar-
bonates present and subsequent precipitation of hydroxides and
carbonates of copper, calcium, or magnesium. This action would
account for the removal of copper sulphate and its failure as
a germicide in this series of tests. Owing to the turbidity re-
sulting from its use and to the lack of efficient sterilizing action,
it is apparent that, without filtration, the use of copper sulphate
is not to be recommended for water similar to the one under
observation.

A number of attempts were made to secure adequate purifi-
cation with chloride of lime, different quantities being used each
week.

The first attempt with chloride of lime was made with an
addition of 0.5 part of available chlorine 4 per million parts of
water. The effect on the bacterial content was apparent for
only one day, after which the count was excessive and B. colt
appeared. No better results attended the addition of 1 part
per million, and only with an addition of 2 parts per million could
an appreciable effect on the bacterial content on the second day
be ascribed to the chemical added. After the second day the
bacterial increase proceeded unchecked. In none of these cases
was the effect on the chemical constituents great enough notice-
ably to affect the alkalinity or total solid content of the water.

It might be well to note parenthetically that, although the last-
mentioned concentration is far in excess of that generally em-
ployed for purification, there was no complaint from users of
the pool, except in one case, where a few people complained of
irritations of the eyes and of the mucosae of nose and throat.
In this instance it was shown that the trouble was due to careless
and improper administration of the disinfectant, which allowed
undissolved lumps to get into the tank. The odor was strong
and persisted for days, but was not sufficiently disagreeable to be
a real drawback to the use of hypochlorite.

*A11 hypochlorite used was analyzed with arsenious acid, using starch-
potassium-iodide paper as indicator.

206 PHILIPPINE WATER SUfTXJEB

The chlorination having failed to give the desired results, a$
attempt was made to study in detail the causes of the failure
and to overcome the difficulties invqlyed.

It was noticed that, in general, the city water showed nq trace
of "free chlorine" when it left the mains, as determined chemjU
cally by acidifying 200 cubic centimeter samples of water m$
adding a drop of methyl orange, 5 the presence of chlorine feeing
indicated by the bleaching of the indicator. This result wa$
rather surprising, since the water arrived at the swimming pools
probably within three, almost certainly within five, hours after
chlorination had taken place. Moreover, in spite of the relatively
large additions of chloride of lime to the swimming pools, all trace
of "free chlorine" was lost, usually within twenty-four hours,

A laboratory study of the decomposition of a clear (filtered)
solution of chloride of lime added to (unchlorinated) city water
gave the results indicated in Table I.

Table I, — Decomposition of chloride of lime in water.

Minutes. Arable chlorine in

parts per million.

0.8

2 0.0

30 0,3

120 Q,d.(?)

From the foregoing it is apparent that the chloride of lime
lost its effective strength very rapidly and that in two hours
its concentration had fallen below 0.1 per million. Just what
is the minimum concentration of chlorine that will keep water
free from dangerous organisms is not known; certainly it cannot
be much less than the concentration mentioned above.

The destruction of hypochlorite must be due either to sponta-
neous decomposition or to interaction with substances dissolved
in water. Hypochlorites decompose, even in the dark, 6 with
measurable velocity. The reaction is greatly accelerated by
light, 7 especially by the visible and ultra-violet rays, and by heat.
The temperature of a bath, therefore, becomes a matter of no
small importance in studying purification of water with hypo-
chlorite, and the amount of daylight falling on a pool may greatly
affect the rate at which hypochlorite disappears.

The interaction of chlorine with substances dissolved in water

"Winkler, ZeifachF. f. mmw- Ghem. (191§), 2$, I, 22.
*Bhaduri, Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chem. (1897), 13, 385.
1 Lewis, Joum, Ghm, Sqc, (l%l%), 101, P371.

THE CHEMICAL PURIFICATION QP SWIMMING POOLS

207

has been much studied in recent years. 8 The phenomenon w
generally associated with a high organic content in water, A
large amount of "free chlorine" disappears immediately, alter
which decomposition proceeds more slowly, but does not reach
equilibrium for a long time. The amount of chlorine consumed
appears to be dependent on the concentration in which it is
added ; the more hypochlorite added, the more will be decomposed
in a given time. The reaction proceeds more rapidly at high
temperature than at low.

as

07

OS

as

10 20 30 40 50 60 7

80 SO WO 110 120

Fig. 2. Decomposition of calcium hypochlorite in water.

Many substances are known 9 to effect the chlorine consume
tioii, notably albumin and its decomposition prpdiicts, urea,
glycqcpl, peptone, asparagin, and the Uke. We have determined
the chlorinerconsuming pqwer of $ number of different pub-
stances, using the following method :

Two hundred cubic centimeter ^mples of water, qx else the
Substances under examination dissolved in 200 cubic centimeter
gt clistilled water, were placed in glass-stoppered bottles, Tq
e&ch sample a known excess of clear (filtered) calcium foypo-
cJalorite solution was added. The bqttle was stoppered and al-

8 Cf. Glaser, Arch, f, Hyg. (1912-13), 77, 165; Hairi, Zeitsch T . f. Hyg,
(1913), 75, 40.

a Cf. Elmanowitsch and Zaleski, Zeitsehr. /. Hyg, (1914), 78, 473; Hairi,
ibid. (1913), 75, 46.

208

PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

lowed to stand at room temperature (30° C.) for two hours in the
diffused daylight of the laboratory. After digestion with hypo-
chlorite, 2 cubic centimeters of 10 per cent potassium iodide
solution and 2 cubic centimeters of 25 per cent phosphoric acid
were added to each sample, and the liberated iodine was titrated
with 0.02 N sodium thiosulphate solution, starch being used as
an indicator.

The differences in chlorine consumption are shown in Table II.

Table II. — Chlorine-consuming power of different substances.

Substance.

Chlorine
added.

Chlorine

con-
sumed.

Chlorine
con-
sumed
per liter.

Remarks.

Distilled water .

mg.
6.5
6.5
6.5
1.0
6.5

6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
3.4

mg.

0.15

0.2-0.5

0.2-0.6

0.24

0.75

0.28

0.7

4.4

5.6

2.0

rag.

0.75

1. 0-2. 5

1. 0-3.

1.2

3.75

1.4
3.5
22.0
28.0
10.0

Varies from day to day.

Do.
Bureau of Science well.
From aquarium.

Reservoir water (unchlorinated)

Tap water (chlorinated) _ _ .

Artesian well water _.

200 cubic centimeters distilled water:

Plus 0.0025 gram oxalic acid

Plus 0.005 gram oxalic acid

Plus 1 cubic centimeter urine

Plus 0.5 cubic centimeter ± sweat-
Plus 0.5 cubic centimeter saliva...

It is significant that the substances given off from the human
body cause the consumption of relatively large amounts of
chlorine. This emphasizes the necessity of personal cleanliness
on the part of the users of swimming pools if the purification
of tank water by means of chlorine is to be successful. A
thorough bath with soap should be taken before the pool is
entered to remove all body products so far as possible, not
only to avoid introducing into the water substances noxious per
se, but in order to prevent the destruction of the hypochlorites
to which the purifying action is due.

There are, then, two distinct actions or effects: the first, the
germicidal action of chlorine or hypochlorites; the second, the
specific interaction between the chlorine and the substances in
water. There is evidently a minimum concentration below which
effective purification does not occur ; if this is reached in a short
time, purification will not be adequate or lasting in its effect.
It thus becomes necessary to maintain at all times in the water
of a swimming pool an excess of "free chlorine" sufficient to keep
up effective purifying action.

With these conditions in mind, the purification of a swimming

THE CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OP SWIMMING POOLS 209

pool becomes a comparatively simple matter. A relatively small
amount of hypochlorite will effectively purify the water, after
which it becomes necessary to keep the bacterial content within
safe limits by means of repeated additions of disinfectant. That
this is true is evinced by the results obtained during a series
of tests in which chloride of lime was used in quantities repre-
senting a daily addition of 0.5 part of "available chlorine" per
million parts of water. Throughout this series the bacterial
content was kept below 200 and no B. coli was found. In all
cases the water remained in the pools for two weeks and was
safe during the entire period. That there was no cumulative
effect and that there was no large excess of chlorine at any
time were shown by omitting chlorination for a single day, when
the bacterial content immediately increased to dangerous propor-
tions. It took more and more chlorine to produce the same effect
as time went on; therefore it became advisable to change
the water after about ten days or two weeks, even under the
unfavorable circumstances existing in Manila; and if the water
be changed weekly, the danger of contamination is very slight.

An attempt made to reduce the quantity of hypochlorite to
0.25 part of available chlorine per million resulted in adequate
sterilization of one swimming pool, but a decidedly unsatisfactory
state of affairs in another. The former pool was used by more
bathers than the latter, but the apparent anomaly was explained
by the fact that the second pool was exposed to direct sunlight
at certain hours of the day, which decomposed the hypochlorite
and subsequently permitted bacterial infection.

It is doubtful if such high concentrations of hypochlorite as
those used in Manila would be necessary under average condi-
tions. In addition to the poor quality of the water, the added
effects of excessive temperature (almost 30° C.) and of light
must be taken into account. Even in the tanks under obser-
vation, where conditions were fairly uniform, each case required
special treatment. The best-lighted tank required greater addi-
tions of chlorine to maintain an excess of disinfectant than
did the others ; while in the most poorly lighted tank the decom-
position rate of hypochlorite was also the lowest. This furnishes
explanation for the fact that the treatment with 0.5 part of
chlorine, found necessary in one tank, was greater than the
requirement for another, while the same treatment in the third
caused numerous complaints of excessive and disagreeable odor.

In disinfecting municipal water supplies or sewage there is
a certain quantity of contaminating material present; once this
is destroyed or removed, there is usually no further influx of

152918 14

210 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

noxious matter. Glaser, 10 in contradiction of the findings of
Grether, 11 concluded that a single addition of disinfectant is
as efficaceous as the same amount added at intervals in smaller
quantities. His results may be correct for ordinary water or
for sewage, but it is obvious that different conditions obtain for
swimming pools, where the contaminating substances are being
continually added. In the latter case the periodic addition of
chlorine in small quantities, but sufficiently great to effect puri-
fication, is not only preferable, but even necessary, to provide
adequate protection to people using the pool. The fractional
addition has the further advantage that the objectionable fea-
tures of high dosage (odor, irritation of mucosae, and the like)
are largely eliminated.

Obviously the water in a swimming pool should be as clear as
possible, not only because clear water makes a pool more attrac-
tive and lessens the danger of accidental drowning, but also
because it is more susceptible than turbid water to the disinfect-
ing action of chlorine. Therefore water should be subjected to
filtration, with or without coagulation, wherever practicable.
Aside from its coagulating effect, the action of alum is beneficial
in that it reacts with bicarbonated waters in such a way that the
action of chloride of lime or copper sulphate is interfered with
as little as possible.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The chemical purification of swimming pools has been studied
with special reference to the action of copper sulphate and
chloride of lime.

The work was done on water that was turbid, high in bicar-
bonate alkalinity, and bacteriologically unsatisfactory.

Copper sulphate was found unsuited to a water of the type
used.

As much as 2 parts per million of available chlorine, adminis-
tered as chloride of lime and at a single dose, failed to keep the
bacterial content of the water within safe limits due to the rapid
disappearance of available chlorine from the water. It was
only with daily additions of chloride of lime that adequate puri-
fication resulted. With this procedure, however, it was found
possible to keep a pool bacteriologically clean for two weeks
without change of water. There were noted no objectionable
features arising from the large quantities of disinfectant added

10 Arch. f. Hyg. (1912), 77, 279.
"Ibid. (1896), 27, 189.

' THE CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OP SWIMMING POOLS £ll

(daily additions of 0.5 part of available chlorine per million parts
of water). The advantages of the periodic administration of
hypochlorites in small quantities over the addition of the same
total amount at a single dose are discussed.

The factors influencing chlorine consumption and the chlorine-
binding power of various substances were studied. The tempera-
ture of the water and the amount of light a pool receives greatly
influence the decomposition rate of hypochlorites. Body products
have an especially great binding power for chlorine, a fact that
emphasizes the need of great personal cleanliness among users
of swimming pools.

Determinations of dissolved chlorides or of oxygen consump-
tion give little or no indication of the purity of swimming-pool
water. The tests that apparently give the most information are
determinations of available chlorine and of chlorine-consuming
capacity.

In the purification of the water of swimming pools each case
should be considered as a separate problem, since the procedure
adapted to one may be entirely unsuited to another. Chemical
study is as necessary as bacteriological to obtain the best results.
The minimum quantities of hypochlorites necessary to maintain
an excess of available chlorine should be first established by
experiment, and these quantities should be administered at short,
regular intervals. Once the dosage proper for ordinary circum-
stances is known, it becomes an easy matter to keep a pool in
sanitary condition.

REPORT ON CERTAIN METHODS OF STERILIZATION OF
WATER CONTAINERS

The autoclave method of sterilizing with steam the demijohns
and corks used in certain local artesian water distribution com-
panies has not been satisfactory. The boilers used were too
small to maintain the necessary temperature and pressure, and
insufficient time was allowed for adequate sterilization, even had
the necessary temperature been reached. It is doubtful whether
sterilization could be effectively accomplished with steam at
sufficiently low cost to ensure the companies a margin of profit
at the existing prices for artesian water.

The following methods were introduced into one of these plants,
and supervision was maintained until the manner of operation
was such that success was automatically assured.

STERILIZATION OF CORKS

The corks are boiled in water for ten minutes. They are kept
in a 0.2 per cent solution of formaldehyde until ready for use.
Just before insertion in the demijohn, they are rinsed with fresh
water from the filling spout.

STERILIZATION OF DEMIJOHNS

The demijohn, as it comes from the consumer, is taken to the
sink. Here it is closed with a cork (preferably of universal
size, with easy-gripping handle), and the outside is scrubbed
with soap and water. As far as possible, the water for the
scrubbing is supplied by the overflow from the filling stand.
After scrubbing, the demijohn is showered with fresh water
from the reserve water tank, in which a circulation is thus main-
tained. The cork is then removed and the demijohn is taken to a
tank (A). Here the inside is rinsed with hot lye solution, kept
at a temperature of 45° C. by a closed steam coil. Thence it
passes to a tank (B), where it is rinsed twice with hot water,
also kept at 45° C. by a closed steam coil. It now goes to the
third tank (C), where it is filled with chloride of lime solution
(two pounds to approximately a cubic meter of water, unheated
except incidentally by the warm empty demijohns from tank
B. After remaining in the chloride of lime solution for ten

212

METHODS OF STERILIZATION

213

; minutes, the demijohn is taken to the filling stand. Here it is
first rinsed by inversion over a fountain spray, with occasional
turnings to assure thorough treatment. The demijohn is then
filled as usual from the filling spout, after which a boy, with
rubber gloves, inserts the sterilized and rinsed cork, as described
under sterilization of corks. The demijohn is now ready to
receive the paper cap and sealing wax, after which it is ready
for transportation to the consumer.

NOTES

Following the plan outlined above, the demijohn never touches
the floor from the time it is scrubbed until after it is corked.

_Trom_^ump

To waste

** Fig. 3. Plan of apparatus for washing, sterilizing, and filling demijohns used in artesian
j water distribution.

j The idea of sterilization with potassium permanganate was
| abandoned, as the process was tedious, disagreeable to the opera-
| tors, and, under present conditions, expensive.

The chloride of lime bath is changed twice a day, with a daily
output of from three to four hundred demijohns. The lye tank
is refilled daily, the rinsing tank twice a day.

The filler and rinsing spouts are provided with half -throw
cocks, instead of ordinary valves, to economize time.

214 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

The three tanks are provided with overhead connections to
fresh cold water, which may be used for filling the tanks, renew-
ing rinse water, etc.

RESULTS

The methods outlined have effected economies in fuel, time,
water, and chemicals. The time now necessary for a demijohn
to make the complete cycle of the process is about fifteen minutes.

The quality of the product obtained is satisfactory. Twenty-
four hour counts made September 20 on two demijohns selected
at random showed 4 and 40 colonies per cubic centimeter, re-
spectively. Similar counts made on two samples submitted to
this Bureau on September 26, after the last type of shower-rinse
had been adopted, showed 4 and 20 colonies, respectively. Pre-
sumptive tests for B. coli gave negative results in all four cases.

BUREAU OF SCIENCE DIRECTIONS FOR THE COLLEC-
TION AND TRANSMISSION OF WATER SAMPLES

The following directions have been prepared by the Bureau
of Science for general distribution to the public:

Before requesting a water analysis, it is well to consult the
District Health Officer or District Engineer. Furthermore it
is advisable to communicate with the Bureau of Science, as it
is possible that a reliable analysis of the source has been already
made and that the information desired is already on file.

Whenever possible, leave the taking of samples of water to the
District Health Officer, the District Engineer, or other person
qualified to do such work. In this way unnecessary analyses will
be eliminated, undue expense will be avoided, and the analyses
will be easier to interpret. Remember that the Bureau of Science
can determine only the condition of a water as it arrives at
the laboratory ; if a sample is incorrectly taken, if it is too old
when it reaches the laboratory, or if necessary information
regarding the source is withheld or is inaccurate, the results of
an analysis will be misleading.

QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED FOR ANALYSIS

The minimum quantity necessary for making the ordinary
physical, chemical, and microscopical analyses of water or sewage
is 2.5 liters ; for the bacteriological examination, 100 cubic centi-
meters. In special cases larger quantities may be required.
For a complete mineral analysis, five liters should be sent.

BOTTLES 1

When possible, obtain bottles directly from the Bureau of
Science or through the Bureau of Health or Bureau of Public
Works. These bottles are properly cleaned, sterilized, and packed
in suitable containers for shipment.

The bottles for the collection of samples shall have glass stop-
pers, except when physical or microscopical examinations only
are to be made. Pottery jugs or metal containers shall not
be used.

Sample bottles shall be carefully cleansed each time before

1 "The greater part of the material under this head and all under Time
I Interval Between Collection and Analysis is quoted verbatim from Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage (1915), 1-2.

215

216 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

using. This may be done by treating with sulphuric acid and
potassium bichromate or with alkaline permanganate, followed
by a mixture of oxalic and sulphuric acids, and by thoroughly
rinsing at least four times with water and draining.

When clean, the stoppers and necks of the bottles shall be
protected from dirt by tying cloth and thick paper over them.

For shipment bottles shall be packed in cases with a separate
compartment for each bottle. Wooden boxes may be lined with
indented fiber paper, felt, or some similar substance or shall be
provided with spring corner strips to prevent breakage. Lined
wicker baskets also may be used. Bottles for bacteriological
samples shall be sterilized.

TIME INTERVAL BETWEEN COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Generally speaking, the shorter the time elapsing between the
collection and the analysis of a sample the more reliable will be
the analytical results. Under many conditions analyses made
in the field are to be commended, as data so obtained are
frequently preferable to those made in a distant laboratory after
the composition of the water has changed en route.

The allowable time that may elapse between the collection of
a sample and the beginning of its analysis cannot be stated
definitely, as it depends upon the character of the sample and
upon other conditions, but the following may be considered as
fairly reasonable maximum limits under ordinary conditions :

Physical and Chemical Analysis,

Hours.

Ground waters 74

Fairly pure surface waters 48

Polluted surface waters 12

Sewage effluents 6

Raw sewages 6

Microscopical Examination.

Hours.
Ground waters 72

Fairly pure surface waters 24

Waters containing fragile organisms immediate examination.

Bacteriological Examination.

Hours.

Samples kept at less than 10° C. 6

COLLECTION OF SAMPLES

Rinse the sample bottle several times with the water to be
examined, the last time filling the bottle completely before drain-
ing. Then fill the bottle and insert the stopper firmly, leaving

TRANSMISSION OF WATER SAMPLES 217

a very small air space between the surface of the water and the
h stopper. A piece of cloth or thick paper should be tied over the
; stopper and neck to insure cleanliness and security.

The sample submitted for analysis should be a representative

\ one. Thus, if the water is from a pumping well, house connec-

l tion, or any piping system, the water should be allowed to flow

; long enough to clean out of the small pipes any accumulation

of rust or sediment, as well as the water that has been in con-

; tact with the pipe for some time. If taken from a surface well

or surface stream, the sample should be taken from a depth

sufficient to avoid both surface scum and bottom mud. If taken

from a spring, the water should be sampled, whenever possible,

where it leaves the water-bearing stratum.

BUREAU OF SCIENCE

MANILA, P. I.

WATER

Laboratory No.. ^ Day and hour of collection ..mQ.l-.Xn>_,

location S&4&&?. £.ckTi£^__Crv»x* $»Waxijm-.

__Jl«i*AuiA^fe „ - ----- - SMs^-AO...., WO.

Source ***»^^ T ^$M&.W^^i3,M RepoH Qn eanitary survey _^^ u _^ rL _^^

Type J*H£crvi? , ^b=a.

When installed. §v^r>ju_}.J51l. _ ..%<*iV^^..«£**4^.,^

Capacity per minute: ' . . , - . , t

Flows .rrr. — ; 1 *^ !: '- ■ - —

Pumps &J}.A*%*^.-&4^-J??>v>yxx£ju _9^*-*^.Jl£7^rv_._.V^

" " _&:<nj-L& oi. w-cubuv C^JU* /vuLAA/ tJkjL/ UKit,

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Temperature- !USL!.Cul _ J&--*&y*^--'^-..M&S&...$^?^^

° wner syy^^^^ t^^i^«JtW-v........

Depth of well LOO..*?}^^. .

Depth of casing ._„__ J.9.0. wm&sAA &$&^..Jy^.--b**™..cry£..r±&^

Diameter &.**&&&<*£&&*.... 3_oJ^J^.^.iu^y^

""- J -*- — ' "■ — - below (— ) surface ..—A0.OCYy*£v±b'.

Variations .

Water-bearing stratum. .. /y^.. Ayu^ry. .... Sample collected by <L d^ T^rvjt^ &U£\l*Jt

local opinion... .fe&SfiJaMA*. & >kajfc0v gJ|p-ttO.

Nature of examination M-^y^Joj^.^ _ _ Analysis requested by:.. o^vy-r^.<^^\^^L

Fig. 4. Bureau of Science form No. 41 properly filled out.

DATA ACCOMPANYING SAMPLE

Of great importance, also, are the general data relating to the
conditions of the source and its surroundings. These data are
listed on one side of the Bureau of Science water analysis card
(Form No. 41). A copy of this form, properly filled out, is
shown in fig. 4.

Most of the data requested need no explanation. A few, how-
ever, deserve special emphasis.

1. Location. This should be stated as fully and as accurately
as possible. A properly stated location should be complete
enough to prevent the slightest possibility of confusion with
any other point in the vicinity.

2. Quality of water. Any marked color, odor, turbidity, or

218 PHILIPPINE WATER SUPPLIES

other abnormal characteristic should be noted. If the water is
normal when drawn, but develops turbidity, color, or odor on
standing, a statement of these changes should be made.

3. Local opinion. What do people in the neighborhood think
of the water? In case medicinal or other properties are as-
cribed to it, these should be stated.

4. Nature of examination. State the purpose for which the
analysis is desired, such as "for boiler purposes," "for pot-
ability/' etc.

5. Report on sanitary survey. This should include all data
relating to the surroundings of the source that might have
affected the quality of the water at the time of sampling or that
might affect it in the future. Information on the following
points is especially valuable :

a. Distance and relative number of nearest dwellings, out-
houses, etc.

6. Condition of immediate surroundings. Is adequate drain-
age provided for waste water, or does it accumulate near the
source, possibly contaminating it? Are washing, bathing, etc.,
carried on nearby? Are pigs or other animals allowed to come
near the source?

c. Topography. Is the source lower or higher than its sur-
roundings? Is it liable, therefore, to be contaminated by sur-
face run off? Are there any other topographic features that
might affect the water?

d. Nature of soil and subsoil.

e. Weather conditions prevailing when sample was taken.

/. Variations in quantity and quality of water with season,
weather changes, tide, etc.

The foregoing directions for sampling water are primarily for
potability tests. For samples for technical purposes, such as
suitability for boilers, etc., the data required under "(5) Report
on sanitary survey," -may be disregarded. However, it is very
important that a representative sample be secured, and the con-
tainer should be thoroughly cleaned and well stoppered.

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