UC-NRLF $C Ifi Obfl .iiV!*£;>»SW«.VV'.'-W;«. EX£RCISI ^^^ )i:AR.-ni?ATr^f?v Mn iim/F xmr ?i'fi ^®SfS ^Kas^£'A- ^^^^^Kv^<<';v/ ^^^^^^^■K£;- V\X".:: ^^^^^l^i!&^v' ' ' ^^^■■^'^■^^ K^^.'Tir .'v |^^p#tf "', •; ^BIP' ■1 ,"",- ' ■ ■" ,_■■> ■ ' '" ■ ^^^Bt-R?"'-"^ 'J?-t •". ifeife ^if^;5I:i W^^S;:y ".■"-.■■; .""'-■■; ■'■;^ ",:';-:'." ■'--vey i^',l Ag. Dept . iitia Lib. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/agriculturallaboOOwaterich AGRICULTURAL LABORATORY EXERCISES AND HOME PROJECTS ADAPTED TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS 9 > J 9 > %\',t •,? BY HENRY J. WATERS MANAGING EDITOR KjINSAS CITY IfEEk'ty STAR, LATELY PRESIDENT OF THE KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND FORMERLY DEAN OF COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AND JOSEPH D. ELLIFF PROFESSOR OF HIGH-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, AND DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR MISSOURI GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON ■ NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS ■ COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO AGfi/C, DEPT. Uoki La>. INTRODUCTION How we learn. Textbook teaching of agriculture, while very useful, is inadequate because it fails to develop the student's power to see things understandingly. It is through observing and doing that most of the knowledge of farming is acquired. The farm is a great laboratory. The operations in manuring the'taijd-, preparin^^tii soil, selecting, testing, and planting the seed, protecting the plants against injury by weeds, insects', an'd disease, gathering and saving the harvest, feeding the products to live stock so as t6'.bririg_',thf_JaiCgest r^qrii in eggs, meat, milk, wool, and work are its exercises. The farmer learns principally by experience, the best though the costliest of teachers. The authors believe that it is pos- sible, by expert teaching and close supervision of the student's work in the laboratory and field, to save a large part of this expense. The exercises are so planned as to teach the student how to make an ex- periment or an observation accurately and how to record and interpret the results correctly. This gives to the study of agriculture the disciplinary value of an exact science, besides teaching the funda- mental lessons of how to farm successfully. Selection of exercises. In choosing the exercises and projects to be included in the Manual, the authors have sought above everything else to select those which relate definitely to farming and which teach in their results the essentials of farm practice. They have endeavored to make the ex- ercises and projects cover as completely as is possible the important, interesting, and practical farm problems of the country. The instructions to the student are definite. Each exercise and home project has been tried out, and when the directions are carefully followed, results that are decisive will follow. Use of exercises and projects. The number of exercises to be completed in a year will depend upon the needs of the local community and the time given to the course. The vocational school giving one half of each day to the course in agriculture should be able to complete all the laboratory exercises and in addition provide the required six months' supervised project work. In schools giving less time the teacher should select those exercises of greatest importance to the local community. Method. It is a great waste of time and effort to require each student to do aU of the work of each exercise. In many cases the work of manipulation of apparatus and material can best be done by the teacher or by a group of students. In the table of contents this is indicated by a letter in parenthesis: (t) meaning that the work of manipulation may be done by the teacher, (g) by a group of students, (i) by the individual student. Cooperation with the best farmers. The closest cooperation between the teacher of agriculture and the best farmers of the neighborhood is necessary to insure the teaching of sound agriculture and also as a means of facihtating the adoption of the teachings of the classroom and laboratory into the farm practices of the community. Sound teaching and close cooperation will be much helped if the teacher will choose an advisory committee consisting of the most progressive farmers of the neighbor- hood and will use this committee in working out a plan of correlating the school work with the local farm work. These and other leading farmers should be invited to talk to the class on the methods of farming which they have found most feasible and practicable. Every member of the class in agriculture should be set to work on some problem on the home farm. Use should be made of the best dairy and beef cattle, the best horses, hogs, sheep, and poultry, in the community in the stock-judging work. The school ground and its use. Many of the students of agriculture in high schools are without farm experience and are taking the work as a part of their preparation for teaching in the rural schools. Many of the students are girls. Even though the girls were reared on the farm they have not, as a rule, given attention to the details of farm operations. To both of these classes some actual field work will 520.1 COPYRIGHT, I919, BY GINN AND COMPANY [ii] be of great value. Every school which has a plot of land available, or which can secure the use of as much as a few vacant city lots and can command the needed funds, should arrange to grow a number of the crops that are of principal local importance. It is true that the operations of preparing the land, planting the seed, and cultivating and harvesting the crops will be commonplace to those students in the class who have had farm experience, but the work may be so planned as to demonstrate principles of great importance. In such case the lessons will be of much interest and value to farm boys as well as to those who have had no farm experience. Project work in agriculture. Although great stress is laid on concrete class and laboratory in- struction in field, shop, and classroom, this is not sufficient. In order that a boy may really fix his knowledge of poultry husbandry, it is necessary for him to engage in the poultry business. In order that he may bring together all of his knowledge of agronomy, it is necessary for him to grow a crop in accordance with what he has learned about crop production. It is the verification and application of the knowledge gained in classroom and laboratory that is the real measure of the value of instruction in any subject. In agriculture the supervised project gives full opportunity to apply the knowledge gained and at the same time to acquire actual farm experience. Project work in secondary-school agriculture is that part of the work of the course performed at home or on the school farm, and is a fixed requirement for each pupil in all schools receiving Federal aid under the Smith-Hughes Act. Common essentials of project work.^ The common essentials of all project work are : 1. The project must be selected by the student with the advice and consent of the teacher and parent. The parent must sign a written statement to the effect that he will (i) provide all the equip- ment necessary for the project, (2) allow the student sufl&cient time to do the work, (3) allow the student the net proceeds of the project. 2. The project must cover a more or less extended period of time, enough to do the work well. 3. It must be part of the instruction in agriculture as taught in the school of which the pupil is a member. 4. It must be a problem worth while and more or less new to the pupil. 5. Some competent person, preferably the teacher of agriculture, must supervise the work. 6. Detailed records of time, method, cost, and income must be kept. 7. The amoimt of school credit for any project should be determined on the basis of hours necessary to do the work well. If school time is used, two hours on the farm should coimt as one hour in the school. 8. A full report of the work in writing must be submitted to the teacher and kept as a permanent record in the school. Kinds of projects. Projects may be classified as crop projects, animal-husbandry projects, farm- management projects, etc. They may also be classified as productive projects, demonstration projects, improvement projects, etc., as determined by the aim or purpose. A further classification into indi- vidual and group projects is possible. Growing a five-acre plot of corn on the home farm is an individual project. Growing a large vegetable garden on the school farm is a group project. Acknowledgment is made by the authors to Dr. Otis W. Caldwell of Teachers College, Columbia University, for valuable assistance in determining the plan and scope of the work, and to Charles L. Quear, of the Kansas State Agricultural College, for invaluable help in the detailed preparation of the exercises and projects and in the methods of illustrating them. Credit is given Professor J. O. Morgan, of the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College, for preparing the exercises on cotton ; and to Dean E. C. Johnson, of the Kansas State Agricultural College, for the exercises on plant diseases ; to Pro- fessor George A. Dean, of the Kansas State Agricultural College, for the exercises on insects and bees ; and to Professor Fred H. Merrill for the exercises on orcharding. HENRY TACKSON WATERS JOSEPH DOLIVER ELLIFF ' Adapted from Bulletin 364, United States Department of Agriculture. [Hi] CONTENTS Note. The column headed " Date Completed " is to be filled in by the student as the exercise is completed; the column headed " Approved " is to be filled in by the teacher. PART I. PLANT LIFE AND GROWTH ExKKCisE Date Completed Approved Page 1. The Beginning or Growth (t) 2 2. How Plants Grow (i) 4 3. How Plants Feed (g) 6 4. The Seed as a Source of Plant Food (t) 8 5. The Soil as a Source or Plant Food (i) 10 6. The Air as a Source of Plant Food (i) 12 7. How to Plant the Seed (i) 14 8. When to Plant Seeds (i) 16 9. How Some Plants Are Propagated without the use of Seed (i) . . 18 10. Propagation by Budding and Grafting (i) 20 PART II. THE SOIL AND ITS MANAGEMENT 11. The Formation and Transportation of Soil (i) 22 12. Collecting Soil Samples (i) 24 13. The Physical Analysis of Soils (i) 26 14. The Texture and Structure of Soils (i) 28 15. The Tilth of Soils (i) 3° 16. How Water gets into the Soil (i) 32 17. The Film or Capillary Water of the Soil (i) 34 18. The Movement of Film or Capillary Water in the Son. (i) . . . . 36 19. The Soil Moisture which the Plants can use (g) 38 20. The Effects of a Soil Mulch (g) 4° 21. The Effects of Working a Soil too Wet (i) 42 22. Soil Drainage (g) 44 23. Soil Waste through Erosion (t) 46 24. The Power of Soil to Take Up Plant Food from Solution (i) . . . 48 25. The Acidity of Soils (i) 5° 26. Plant Food removed by Crops (i) 52 27. Determining the Deficiencies of a Worn Soil (i) 54 28. Judging Soils (i) 36 29. The Management of the Soil (i) S8 PART m. FIELD AND ORCHARD CROPS 30. The Corn Plant (i) <5o 31. The Corn Flower (i) 62 32. A Detailed Study of the Corn Kernel (i) '^4 33. The Butt and Tip Kernels of Seed Corn (i) ~ 34. A Detailed Study of the Corn Ear (i) 35. Scoring a Ten-Ear Sample of Corn (i) 7° 36. Factors Determining the Yield of Corn (g) 7^ 37. A Field Study of the Deficiencies of Corn Plants (g) 74 38. Selecting Seed Corn from the Field (i) 7° 39. Testing Seed Corn (i) 78 [iv] 66 68 Exercise Date Completed Approved Page 40. Corn Cultivation (i) 80 41. A Study of the Wheat Plant (i) 82 42. Types .of Wheat (i) or (t) 84 43. The Properties of Wheat which affect its Value and Use .... 86 44. Judging Wheat (t) 88 45. The Commercial Grading of Wheat (g) go 46. The Commercial Grading of Oats (g) 92 47. The Commercial Grading and Scoring of Barley (g) 94 48. A Study of the Sorghum Plant (i) ; 96 49. Judging the Grain Sorghums (i) — 98 50. A Study of Legumes (i) 100 51. Inoculation of Soils for Legumes (g) 102 52. A Study of the Potato (i) 104 53. Impurity of Farm Seeds (i) 106 54. Field Study of the Cotton Plant (i) — ^ 108 55. The Improvement of Cotton (i) 110 56. Grading Cotton (g) U2 57. Crop Rotation (i) 114 58. The Silo and Silage (g) — 116 59. How to Plant a Tree (t) 118 60. Pruning the Apple Tree (t) 120 61. Harvesting and Grading Apples (g) 122 62. Packing Apples (t) 124 PART IV. INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 63. The Structure of an Insect (i) 126 64. The Life History of an Insect (i) 128 65. The Structure, Habits, and Management of Honey Bees (i) . . . . 130 66. A Study of Fungi (t) 1^2 67. A Study of Bacteria (t) 1^4 68. Controlling Plant Diseases (t) i^^ PART V. BREEDS AND TYPES OF FARM ANIMALS 69. Where our Breeds of Live Stock Originated (i) 136 70. Judging Heavy Horses (l) 1,8 71. Judging Light Horses (t) 140 72. Blemishes, Unsoundness, Faults, and Vices of the Horse (t) . . . . 142 73. JuDGixVG Mules (t) — 144 74. Judging Beef Cattle (t) ■ — . 146 75. Judging the Dairy Cow (t) 148 76. The PRODUcnoN Record of a Dairy Herd 150 77. Judging Swine (t) 1^2 78. Judging Sheep (t) 1-4 79. A Study of the Constitutional Vigor in Fowls (i) 156 80. Judging Eggs (i) icg 81. Microscopic Examination of Milk (i) 160 82. Milk Testing (t) 162 83. Methods of Producing Sanitary Milk (t) 164 . PART VI. FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 84. Plants as Food for Animals (i) 166 85. How the Animal Digests its Food (i) 168 [v] Exercise Date Completed Approved Page 86. Computing the Nutritive Ratio of Stock Feeds (i) 170 87. Computing a Balanced Ration (i) .- 172 88. Computing a Standard Ration (i) — : 174 89. Computing a Stant)ard Ration for Pigs (i) 176 90. Computing a Standard Ration for Dairy Cows (i) 178 91. Computing Standard Rations for Laying Hens (i) 180 PART VII. FARM EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY 92. The Gas Engine and Automobile (t) 182 93. The Adjustment and Use of Farm Machinery (t) 184 94. The Care of Farm Machinery (i) 186 95. Making a Farm Inventory (i) 188 96. The Community Business (i) 190 I. PRODUCTION PROJECTS Project I. Growing Corn for Profit ■ 194 2 Growing a Vegetable Garden for Profit 196 3. Finding the High- Yielding Ear for Seed • 198 4. Growing Poultry for Profit 200 5. Keeping Two Dozen Hens for Egg Production 202 II. SOIL PROJECTS 6. Preparation of a Seed Bed for Wheat — 204 7. Determining What the Soil Needs 206 III. DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS 8. Demonstrating the Value of a Balanced Ration for Growing Hogs . 208 9. Finding the Failure Cow in the Herd 209 IV. IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS 10. The Use of Concrete on the Farm 210 11. The Construction and Use of Hotbeds and Cold Frames 212 APPENDIX Table I. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents in Common American Foodstuffs 213 Table II. Plant Food Contained in Common Fertilizers 215 Table III. Feeding Standards 216 Table IV. Suggested List of Typical Home Projects 217 [vi] > )- ■, • • ? 1 MANUAL OF LABORATORY EXERCISES ■^ " " , " c PART I. PLANT LIFE EXERCISE 1 THE BEGINNING OF GROWTH Statement. Every live seed contains a plantlet which, under proper conditions, will grow. The early growth of a plant is usually more rapid than that of any subsequent period. A few days in the early period witnesses a remarkable change in the development of all parts of a seedling. Object. To discover the way in which growth begins and the conditions which are most favorable for the development of the yoimg plant. Materials. Seeds of corn, wheat, peas, and Uma beans that wiU germinate ; dinner plates ; blotters ; flowerpots or tin cans ; and clay subsoil. Directions, (i) Place seeds that are alive and those that are dead between blotters in a dinner plate ; moisten the blotters with water and set in a cold place. In like manner prepare three other plates of seeds but omit water from one of them. Place one to which water has been added and one to which no water has been added in a warm, light place. Set the other plate of seeds in a warm, dark place. Keep all moist as needed except the one to which no water was previously added. Compare results each day for a week. Make outhne drawings of the seeds of peas, beans, and wheat that germinated, showing changes from day to day. Label the parts, root, stem, and leaf, and number them in order of their appearance. (2) Fill two flowerpots or cans with finely screened clay subsoil and add water to one of the pots. Stir the soil which has been moistened until it becomes a thick, smooth batter. Plant seeds in each of the two pots and water both alike. Explain the difference in the early growth of the seeds. What does one have which the other lacks? (3) Boil some water in a small glass vessel and set it aside to cool. As soon as it comes to room temperature drop in a few kernels of corn or beans. Cover the surface of the water with a thin film of kerosene or motor oil to exclude the air. In another vessel of unboiled water place a similar number of seeds and shake the water in this vessel at least twice a day for ten days. What are the results? Explain them. Questions. What happens when seeds lack air? What happens when they lack moisture ? Heat? Light? What are the conditions necessary for germina- tion? Which part of the seedling appeared first? Which last? Is the vitality of seeds affected by their age? What is the effect of freezing upon the vitality of urunature seeds? upon mature seeds that are not dry? upon dry mature seeds? Fig. I. The beginning of growth in the com plant References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 36-37. Ginn and Company. Stoddaet, C. W. The Chemistry of Agriculture, pp. 17-21. Lea & Febiger. Hunt and Bxirkett. Soils and Crops, pp. 185-186. Orange Judd Company. [2] EXERCISE 1 (Continued) \ , . .... MAKE OUTLINE DRAWINGS ILLUSTRATING THE STAGES OF GERMINAttdN OF WHEAT ; ;, Planted Kernels Stem and Root Started Stem above Ground Fully Germinated Plant with Leaves and Root System (SoU line) MAKE OUTLINE DRAWINGS ILLUSTRATING THE GERMINATION OF LIMA BEANS Soaked Seed Rootlet Breaking Seed Coat Rootlet Breaking Soil Line Cotyledons (Seed Leaves) Pulled upwards Plant with Leaves' • (SoU line) ' On the drawing of the plant with first leaves, label primary and secondary roots, leaf stalk, leaf blade, and veins of leaf. [3] EXERCISE 2 HOW PLANTS GROW Statement. Plants are made of cells which vary in age, size, shape, and content. The mature cells may divide into two or more new cells. These in turn absorb food from the sap of the plant, develop, mature, and may divide into new cells. This is growth. Growth can take place only in the young tissues of the plant. If the cell walls become hardened, as in the heartwood of a tree, the cells no longer divide and that part of the plant ceases to grow. Growth in length of roots takes place at the tip, and the elongating region at most extends over only a small fraction of an inch. Growth in length of stems, however, is much less con- fined. It begins at the tip but the elongating region may extend eighteen inches or more back of the tip. Increase in diameter in some plants is accom- pHshed by a layer of growing cells which lies between the bark and wood, as in the case of trees. In other plants new tissues originate at the tip and the increase in diameter as a rule takes place only by the enlargement of the cells of these tissues. The growth of these cells soon ceases and the diameter of the stem is limited, as shown by the corn stalk. Object, To observe where the growth in roots and stems of various kinds of plants occurs. Directions, i. Place kernels of corn between the folds of blotting paper. Keep the blotting paper moist and covered with a cloth vmtil the grain has germinated and the roots are one-half to one inch in length. Beginning at the tip of each root of the sprouted kernels mark fine ink lines across them one- eighth inch apart, being careful not to injure the roots. Replace the kernels in the germinator and allow the plants to grow for a day or two. Explain the results. 2. In like maimer mark lines beginning at the stem tips on other plants after they are sufficiently developed. The bean is a good plant to use. 3. Obtain a young bean plant after it has put forth leaves and mark lines one-eighth inch apart along the edge of the leaf and on the leaf stem or petiole. In a few days observe the results. Compare a leaf with a plant stem in the way it increases in length. Perform the same exercise with a corn leaf. Questions. What part or parts of a young plant are first to appear from the seed ? Explain in what ways knowledge of the manner of growth of the roots is important and why it is difficult to maintain the stem growth inde- pendent of a good root growth. Has this fact any bearing upon the relation of soil texture to root development? Fig. 3. Bean plant References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 193. ' Ginn and Company. Hunt and Biirkett. Soils and Crops, pp. 187-188. Orange Judd Company. Bergen and Caldwell. Introduction to Botany, pp. 20, 67. Ginn and Company. Fig. 2. Com plant H] EXERCISE 3 HOW PLANTS FEED Statement. That part of a plant's food which is obtained from the soil must be dissolved in water before it can be taken up by the plant. The process by which soil plant food in solution passes into a plant is called osmosis. The greater flow of liquid under osmosis is always from the weaker or less dense solution to the stronger or more concen- trated solution. In this process the solution diffuses through the mem- brane and passes into the interior of the root hairs of the plant. It may then in a similar way pass into other cells of the plant. Ordinarily the plant obtains its soil food in a very weak solution, being able to live where there is as little as one part of such material dissolved in ten thou- sand parts of water. If the plant solution or sap is weaker than that of the soil solution, as in the case of dying or ripening plants, the flow may be from the plant into the soil. Object. To demonstrate how the soil food enters a plant. Materials. Glass funnel or thistle tube ; thick sirup ; a large-mouthed bottle with cork to fit ; and a piece of parchment paper or animal mem- brane, as a hog bladder. This may be obtained at the butcher shop at any time and softened in water before using. The membrane stripped from a piece of bologna, or the membrane of an egg obtained by dissolving the shell in strong vinegar, may be used. Fig. 4. Diagram showing move- ment of water from soil through the plant Directions, i. Fill a bottle three-fourths full of pure water. Close the small end of a thistle tube or funnel and fill it almost full of sirup. Tie a piece of mem- brane securely over the mouth of the thistle tube and place it in the bottle, as shown in the illustration. Remove the cork from the small end of the tube and immerse the tube until the level of the two liquids is the same. Note what has happened at the end of an hour. Record the results every hour for six hours. Join another piece of glass by means of rubber tubing to the thistle tube and see how high the water will rise. This process of diffusion of liquids through a membrane as stated above is called osmosis. 2. From the center of a potato cut two small cubes of equal size and weigh each. Place each piece in a dish of water, and to one dish of water add a teaspoonful of salt. To each dish add a few drops of iodine solution. Twelve to twenty-four hours later pour off the water, dry each piece of potato on a blotting paper, and weigh. Record and explain results on the opposite page. Apply the principles observed to plant feeding. Fig. 5. Movement of liquid through membrane by osmotic action Questions. How does the amount of liquid in the tube at the close of the exercise compare with the amount placed in the tube ? How did this water get into the tube ? Has any of the sirup passed from the tube into the bottle ? Taste the water to determine. Explain how the solution inside the roots of a plant is kept more concentrated than the solution outside the roots. Explain why ripe grapes, cherries, apples, or peaches frequently burst following a rain. Why is the green fruit not so affected ? [6] EXERCISE 3 (Continued) RISE OF SOLUTION BY OSMOSIS TiMi: One Hour Two Hours Three Hours Four Hours Five Hours Six Hours Rise of solution in inches WEIGHT OF POTATO INFLUENCED BY OSMOSIS Piece Number First Weight Final Weight Gain or Loss I . 2 References. Waters, H.J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 26-27. Ginn and Company. Coxtlter, J. M. Elementary Studies in Botany, pp. 263-264. D. Appleton and Company. Hunt and Burkett. Soils and Crops, p. 179. Orange Judd Company. [T EXERCISE 4 THE SEED AS A SOURCE OF PLANT FOOD Statement. The seed contains, in addition to the miniature plant, the food upon which the plant lives during the days when the seed is germinating, and until the young plant has unfolded its leaves in the sunlight and air and its roots have become firmly estab- plantut h ^ '^ lished in the soil. If, after the food which is necessary to nourish , the plant through these periods is consumed there remains a reserve to help the young plant get along while it is deHcate, the chances of the plant's living and producing a satisfactory harvest are greatly increased. Fig. 6. Ratio of embryo to stored food o. cross section of bean; b, cross section of com Object. To show the relationship of the stored food in the seed to the seedling. Materials. Eight flowerpots or tin cans ; sand ; corn kernels; lima beans; potatoes. Directions, i. In a pot of sand plant four kernels of corn, and in another plant four kernels of corn prepared by paring away all of each kernel except the soft, oily germ which lies on the concave side of the kernel. In a third flowerpot plant four hma beans. Water the three pots alike and place them where the plants can grow to the best advantage. As soon as the beans come up remove all but two of the plants. When the seed leaves on one of the plants begin to spread apart, and the Uttle plant appears between them, remove the seed leaves by use of a sharp knife. Leave the other plant unmo- lested. Observe them after a few days. 2. Plant in a flowerpot a nimiber of small seeds, such as timothy or radish seed, for comparison with corn and lima beans as to the size and appearance of the plants produced. 3. Select three potatoes of nearly the same size. Remove all the eyes but one from one of the potatoes. Cut the second into four equal pieces, leaving one eye in each piece. Remove an eye from ' the third potato and leave attached to it a very small piece of potato. Plant these cuttings in sand and compare the rate of growth and the size and vigor of the plants produced. Questions. When separated from the rest of the kernel, did the corn germ produce a plant? Did the Uma-bean plants live after the seed leaves had been removed ? What are the sources of food used by the yoiuig plant in promoting growth? When the material stored in the part planted is exhausted, what happens to the plant growing in sand? If the plants had been growing in a fertile soil, what would have happened when the food stored in the seed was exhausted ? Which will produce the larger and more vigorous plants, large or small seeds, plump or shriveled seeds ? Compare the size of young timothy or radish plants with corn or Uma-bean plants. What is the explanation of the differences ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 24-26. Ginn and Company. Lyon, Fippin, BucKMAN. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 480-488. The Macmillan Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 13-15. Ginn and Company. Bergen and Caldwell. Introduc- tion to Botany, pp. 6-20. Ginn and Company. [8] EXERCISE 4 (Continued) PLANT FOOD FROM THE SEED GROWTH AT THE END OF Four days Eight days Twelve days Sixteen days Twenty days Com, whole kernels Com, germ Bean, seed leaves removed Bean, untreated Whole potato One-fourth potato Small section of potato Potato eye 9) EXERCISE 5 THE SOIL AS A SOURCE OF PLANT FOOD Statement. Mature seeds contain enough food to nourish the plant through the period of germination and for a comparatively brief period thereafter. Soon, however, the growing plant must begin to rely upon other sources for its food supply. One of these sources is the soil. Object. To show that the soil supplies a part of the food required by the plants for growth. Materials. Clean sand ; garden loam ; powdered rock or pieces of rock that may be powdered in the classroom ; flowerpots ; rain water or distilled water ; seeds of corn, wheat, or beans. Directions. Take enough powdered rock, or powder enough rock material to fill a flowerpot, and in it plant six beans or corn kernels. If these materials are not at hand, clean, fine sand may be used, Fig. 7. The soil's contribution to the harvest The scene on the left represents a waste of sand which is incapable of supporting much plant life. That on the right shows the rank growth of plants on a fertile soil first heating it in a shovel or iron pan until all of the material that will burn has been removed. Fill another pot with garden loam and in it plant a like number of the same kind of kernels. Place both pots where the plants will have a chance to grow and treat them exactly alike. Water both with either distilled or rain water. Compare the plants as to the rate of growth at the end of a week and each week thereafter until results are readily apparent. Questions. In which kind of material did the plants thrive best, and why ? What part of the sand remained after it was heated? What material was destroyed by the heat? What part of the food of the plant is supplied by the soil ? In what condition does the growing plant take this material ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 72-80. Ginn and Company. Lyon, Fippin, BucKMAN. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 3-6. The Macmillan Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 26-46. Ginn and Company. Stoddard, C. W. Chemistry of Agriculture, pp. 26-27. Lea and Febiger. 10 EXERCISE 5 {Continued) COMPARATIVE SIZES OF PLANTS OF DIFFERENT AGES First Week Second Week Third Week Average Size Small Medium Large Small Medium Large Small Medium Large Pot No. I (Rain water) Pot No. 2 (Soil water) Loam Clay Humus Sand lU] EXERCISE 6 THE AIR AS A SOURCE OF PLANT FOOD Statement. The dry matter, or that portion of the fresh plant remaining after the water is evaporated, is largely composed of carbon. The growing plant secured the carbon from the air. Object. To show that plants obtain food from the air. Materials. Green twigs; test tube; charcoal; iron spoon; vinegar; two pots of growing plants; clay soil ; a shallow pan. Directions, (i) Take small twigs of green wood, about one fourth inch in diameter, and place them in a test tube. Heat until all the smoke and gas have been driven off, not allowing them to blaze. Examine what remains. Compare the pieces you have heated to a piece of charcoal. Apply a flame to one of the pieces. Charcoal is almost pure carbon and is made in a method similar to that used here. Boil some of the twigs, which have been heated, in water. Boil some in vinegar. Place the charcoal sticks in an iron spoon and heat until only ash is left. What has become of the carbon? If carbon passed into the air, did it leave as pure carbon? If not, with what did it combine and what is the compound called ? De- scribe fully how carbon enters the plant, how it is fixed and in what common forms it is stored in the plant. (2) Place some finely powdered clay soil in a shallow pan and add water slowly. Stir con- stantly, and when a thin batter has been made of the soil, pour about one-half inch of it around the plants in one of the pots. Treat the two pots alike during the next two weeks and observe results. Questions. Does charcoal burn as wood burns? Does it dissolve in water? in vinegar? What is the source of carbon used by plants? Do the roots absorb the carbon? Why is it necessary to have air in the soil? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 24-26. Ginn and Company. Coulter, J. M. Elementary Studies in Botany, pp. 268-269. D. Appleton and Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buckman. Soils their Properties and Management, pp. 480-488. The Macmillan Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 13-15. Ginn and Company. Fig. 8. Showing the proportion of carbon and ash in corn grains The tube at the left contains the com which was analyzed; the middle tube contains the carbon which was in the corn ; the tube on the right contains the ash which was in the corn. [12] surface EXERCISE 7 HOW TO PLANT THE SEED Statement. The farmer wishes to have his seeds germinate promptly and produce rugged and thrifty plants. He sows some kinds of seeds on the surface and covers them lightly. Other kinds he plants at a depth of several inches. In the depth at which he plants his seeds the farmer is governed principally by the size of the seed, the nature of the soil, and the season of the year. Object. To ascertain what factors deter- mine the depth to which seeds should be planted, and particularly to learn if there is any relation between the size of a seed and the depth to which it should be planted. Materials. Depth planting boxes (Fig. 9) filled with clean, fine sand ; two dozen seeds each of the following : timothy, millet, kafir, wheat, cowpea, and corn. Directions. Fill a depth planting box with sand, moisten the sand, lay the box on its side, remove the glass, and plant the seeds next to the glass and replace the glass. Plant four seeds of each kind on the surface, one-fourth, one-half, and one inch deep, also two, four, and six inches deep respectively. Cover the seeds planted on the surface with blotting paper and keep them moist. Keep the soil moist and maintain a temperature suitable for the germination of seeds. As soon as each plant appears at the surface, remove it and examine the seed under the magnifying glass to observe the amoimt of food remaining to aid the plant in its further growth. Record results des- ignating amoimts as none, small, medium, and large. Make note of the size, color, and vigor of the plants produced from each depth of planting. Record the number of seeds which produced plants at each depth of planting. Note and show by drawings where the whorl of feeding roots appeared on the plants from each depth. Allow the plants to grow for two weeks and note the differences in the vigor of the plants from each depth of planting. Questions. Did the seeds tested germinate regardless of their size and the depth to which they were planted? Did plants from all the seeds grow sufficiently to reach the surface regardless of the depth to which they were planted ? Did seeds of any kind fail to bring plants to the surface from any depth? Explain the reason. Did you notice any difference in the size and vigor of the different plants when they came up? Explain. In sowing timothy, clover, or alfalfa should the seed be covered as deep as the seed of oats, cowpeas, or lima beans? Why? Should seeds be planted as deep when the soil is moist as when dry ? Should seeds be planted as deep when the soU is cold as when it is warm, and why ? Should corn be planted as deep early in the season as later ? Explain. Reference. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 38. Ginn and Company. Fig. 9. A convenient device for studying the effect of depth of planting on germination of seeds and early growth of plants 14 EXERCISE 7 {Continued}. RELATION OF SIZE OF SEED TO DEPTH OF PLANTING Kind of seed Depth of planting o" 0" 0" 0" 0" 0" c" 0" Days before plants appear .... Food left in seed Vigor Depth of planting Iff 4 1" 4 Iff 4 1" 4 1" * \" 1" 4 1" * Days before plants appear .... Food left in seed Vigor ■ Depth of planting i" 1/' 2 ¥' ¥' 111 2 ill 2 r' r' Days before plants appear .... Food left in seed Vigor Depth of planting . i" i" 1" 1" i" i" l" l" Days before plants appear .... Food left in seed Vigor Depth of planting 2" 2" 2" 2" 2" 2" 2" 2" 15] EXERCISE 8 WHEN TO PLANT SEEDS Statement. The miniature plant in the seed requires, in addition to the food stored there, proper conditions of temperature, moisture, light, and soil for its growth. Plants differ in their require- ments in these respects. Some seeds may be safely sown in winter or early spring, and others only in summer. Some require fertile soil, others will thrive on poor land. Object. A study of the difference in the power of the seeds of different farm and garden crops to germinate at comparatively low temperatures or when planted in the cold soil of early spring and a comparison of the power of the different plants to withstand freezing and to grow during cool weather. Materials. Fifty seeds each of timothy, white clover, alfalfa, mustard, cabbage, turnips, rape, wheat, oats, barley, corn, cotton, cowpeas, garden peas, and lima beans. Directions. If land is available outside of the schoolroom, plant ten seeds of each kind in beds in the fall, about the time the farmers of the neighborhood have finished sowing their winter wheat or as early in the spring as the farmers sow their oats. Fill in the blank form on the opposite page. If outside land is not available, the seeds may be planted in pots or boxes in the schoolroom at any time in late autumn or early spring. By exposing to the weather the pots or boxes in which the seeds are planted, the desired climatic conditions may be obtained. Record the number of plants produced in each bed, the date when the first plant appe9,red in each, and how cold, weather affects the growth of each. Find the origin of each of the plants whose seeds are being tested and see whether there is any relation between the climate in which they orig- inated and the power of the seeds to germinate at a low temperature and of the young plants to with- stand a freezing temperature. Questions. Which plants withstood the frost and freezing temperature ? Which were, killed ? What do differences in reaction to cold suggest as to the season in which the different crops should be planted? In what order would you plant the following spring-sown crops : oats, rape, corn, garden peas, cowpeas, sorghum, barley, cotton, lima beans, kafir, and milo? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 38. Ginn and Company. Piper, C. V. Forage Plants and their Culture, pp. 86-87. The Macmillan Company. Osterhout, W. J. V. Experiments with Plants, p. 352. The Macmillan Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, p. 576. Ginn and Company. [16] EXERCISE 8 (Continued) THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE UPON GERMINATION Kind of seed Country where plant originated . . . Average temperature of that countrj' . Number of plants which appeared . . Highest temperature ....".. Lowest temperature Average temperature [17] EXERCISE 9 HOW SOME PLANTS ARE PROPAGATED WITHOUT THE USE OF SEED Statement. Some plants, such as the banana, have been propagated by other means than seeds so long that they have lost the power of producing seeds. Others, though still producing seeds, are more readily propagated in other ways than by planting the seeds. Object. To learn how plants are reproduced without the use of seeds. Materials. Mature geranium, coleus, begonia, and carnation plants; neighboring blackberry or raspberry bush or grapevine ; young shoots of willows ; boxes of clean, fine sand with pieces of glass large enough to cover the boxes. Directions, i. Cuttings. Cut pieces of geraniums, coleus, begonia, and carnations so that each piece consists of a bud (terminal or lateral), one or two leaves, and two or three inches of stem. With a sharp knife or scissors cut away most of the leaf blade. Set the cuttings in sand just deep enough so that the tip of the bud is exposed. Cover the box with glass so that a small amount of ventilation is secured. After twelve or fourteen days carefully lift some of the cuttings, and if roots are started, plant each cut- ting in soil in a small pot, taking Fig. io. Cutting from geranium Such cuttings soon take root if planted in moist sand Fig. II. Strawberry plants started by runners The runners develop new plants at the nodes, or joints care to protect it against drying, ' or against cold-air currents. Cut twigs of willow ; place them in a jar of water for a few days until roots start at the joints, then plant them in soil. 2. Layering. Bend a branch of raspberry^ blackberry, or grapevine to the ground, cover it with four or five inches of soil, leaving about a foot of the growing tip exposed. In six weeks or two months cut the old branch free from the parent plant, dig up and transplant the new branch, which in this time should have developed roots from the buried portion. 3. Runners. Study strawberry plants to see how new plants are started naturally in strawberry patches. Questions. What practical uses are made in your neighborhood of these methods of plant propaga- tion? How are Irish potatoes propagated? sweet potatoes? grapes? roses? willows? What aged wood is selected for propagation of the grape? the rose? Why? Reference. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 35-45. Girm and Company. [18] EXERCISE 10 Fig. 12. Budding A, bark cut to receive bud, as shown at B ; C, bud fastened in place ; D, growing bud ; E, P, G, showing method of preparing the bud for insertion PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING AND BUDDING Statement. Common orchard plants produce seed abundantly and may be readily propagated by that means. But the seeds of such plants do not generally " come true." Seeds of a red apple may produce a tree that will bear yel- low fruit ; the seeds of an early-bearing peach might produce a tree on which late peaches are borne. To make sure that fruit of the variety desired will be produced by the trees that are planted, orchard trees are propagated by grafting and budding. Object. To learn how to successfully propagate orchard plants by grafting and budding. Materials. Growing seedlings, in August, September, or the early spring ; scions and roots of apple and peach trees or trees near by which may be used for ^ experiment; a sharp knife; rafl&a fiber; grafting wax. Directions, i . Budding. About two inches above the soil make a slit i^^ inches long in the bark of a seedling. Across the top of this slit make another cut through the bark about an inch long, thus forming a T. Pull the bark loose along the cut enough to make room for inserting the bud which is obtained from the tree of the desired variety. Cut off this bud and a small portion of bark, starting about i inch below the bud and extending ^ inch above the bud. The bark attached should be a little wider than the bud itself, and should not include much, if any, wood. In- sert the bud in the " T-felit," draw the side bark close about it, and secure with raffia or twine, both below and above the bud. When the bud has developed well, cut ofif the raffia, and when it has developed to a length of one foot, cut the original top from the tree, just above the bud. 2. Root grafting. A young stem of the desired variety, containing 3 or 4 buds and from 6 inches to 9 inches long, is grafted to the root by the whip-grafting method. The result is the same as a budded tree. 3. Whip grafting. The tree and scion to be joined should be of the same diameter. Each is cut at an angle, and a tongue is made in each piece by slightly pushing a knife into the v/ood. The scion is then placed on the stock, cut surface against cut surface, and the tongues lapped. The cambium layers on the stock and scion must nneet ; tying will help to hold them until a union has been made. 4. Cleft grafting. In cleft grafting, a stem of large diameter — i^- inches or larger — is cut square off and a split made diametrically across. This is held open while a small scion with the end cut wedge-shaped is inserted on each side, with the cambiimi layer of stock and scion touching. The wedging tool is removed and the graft waxed. If both scions grow, the weaker may be cut out the following year. Make grafts on seedlings found in neighboring orchards and plant the trees at the proper time. Record the work done, and each successive year have the class in agriculture observe the preceding grafts as a part of the year's work. Also, when the trees bear fruit, have the class note the fruit on [20] Fig. 13. Piece-root grafting a, scion ; A, rootstock ; c, scion and rootstock joined and wrapped for protection EXERCISE 10 (Continued) grafted stock as compared with that on the native stock. Prepare an outline statement with diagrams illustrating the procedure in different kinds of grafting. Questions. What are the advantages that may be secured by the practice of grafting ? In former times fruit trees were usually grafted on the main stem a foot or more above the ground. See if you can locate illustrations of that type of grafts. Why is root grafting now most commonly used in nurseries ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 38, 42-44. Ginn and Company. Wilkinson, A. E. The Apple, pp. 407-413. Ginn and Company. Coitlter, J. M. Elementary Studies in Botany, pp. 330- 332. D. Apple ton and Company. [21 PART II. THE SOIL AND ITS MANAGEMENT EXERCISE 11 THE FORMATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS Statement. If the soils of the world were swept into the sea and the rocks beneath were left bare, the entire surface of the earth would again become covered with soil. It would require millions of years to form a new soil, as it has taken millions of years to form the soil we now have. Some kinds of rocks would be changed into soil more quickly than others. A portion of the soil would be washed or blown away from where it was formed and woyjd be deposited elsewhere, leaving at last a 2|^^ great variation in the soil covering the earth. Then, as now, some soils PJHP would be coarse and others fine ; some would be fertile and others im- productive. Object. To learn how the soils of the neighborhood were formed and how they are classified. Materials. Blank for recording observations. Directions. Make a trip to the coimtry to study the soils of the neigh- borhood and to ascertain their origin. 1. Observe the depth of the soil and subsoil in a number of locali- ties. Classify the types of soils found as sedentary or transported. De- scribe the forces which have had most to do with the formation of each class. Whence did the transported soils come and how were they brought there ? 2. Examine stones and pebbles taken from the bed of a stream and note the smoothness of the stones as compared with the sharp corners and rough surfaces of stones not subjected to the action of running water. 3. Find a large bowlder and look for places where small pieces have been slivered from its surface by the action of freezing water. 4. Compare hillside and valley in regard to the color of the soil, and the f ertil- FlG. 14. A soil which was trans- ported by the glaciers It is a mixture of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders. (Courtesy of the United States Bureau of Soils) ity of the hillside and valley as determined by the plant growth. Observe how rapidly erosion is taking place and in what way it is influenced by vegetation. Find a gully forming in a cultivated field. Note the streams in the neigh- borhood after a rain. The turbidity of the streams is an indication of the destructive erosion taking place. What becomes of the soil washed from the fields of the neighborhood ? Fig. 15. A good view of a soil, subsoil, and underlying rock [22] EXERCISE 11 (Continued) Questions. What are the ways by which soil is formed ? What materials besides pulverized rocks enter into the composition of soils? What rocks are most readily converted into soil? What rocks make the best soils? Which one makes the poorest soil? From which fields are natural agencies carrying away the most fertiUty ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 50-56. Ginn and Company. Tarr, R. S. New Physical Geography, pp. 31-50. The Macmillan Company. Mosier and Gustafson. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 11-67. J. B. Lippincott Company. Hunt and BtJRKETT. Soils and Crops, pp. 12-33. Orange Judd Company. [231 EXERCISE 12 COLLECTING SOIL SAMPLES Statement. Scarcely any other material appears to be of so little interest or importance as the soil which we thoughtlessly tread vmder our feet, yet it is the source of more wealth than all other materials in the world combined. More than twice as much wealth is obtained from the soils of the United States in a year as has been taken from the gold and silver mines of the United States in all the years since Columbus discovered America. The origin, the depth, and the texture of a soil determine largely the kind of crops it will produce and how long it will remain productive. Object. To procure samples of different types and grades of soils and subsoils for study and comparison, and to study, in the field, the texture and color of soils in rela- tion to their agricultural value. Materials. Soil auger, ruler, a dozen or more one-quart mason jars, a piece of oil- cloth about 12 by 15 inches, and labels. Directions. Sample the most productive and least productive soils of the neighbor- hood, including those from bottom land, upland, and the hillsides. To obtain a sample remove the vegetation and other rubbish from the spot where the sam- ple is to be drawn. Bore to a depth of 7 inches with the auger. Pack the surface around the auger with the foot and withdraw the auger. Fig. 16. Method of taking soU samples Place the sample on the oilcloth, examine it as suggested below, and when the examination is finished, pour the sample into a Mason jar. Seal the jar and label it, "No. i — Surface Soil." Insert the auger in the same hole and remove the soil to the beginning of the subsoil. Place this soil in another jar ; seal it and label, "No. 2 — Sub-surface Soil." Take a third sample, going into the subsoil about 12 inches, and label it, "No. 3 — Subsoil." The fourth sample should be taken to a depth of about 28 inches or 36 inches and be labeled, "No. 4 — Subsoil." The sealed samples are to be taken to the laboratory for examination of soil texture, structure, and composition. While taking the samples, observe changes in color and the depth at which they occur. Observe the apparent changes in the moisture present at different depths. Note the "feel " of the soil at different depths, that is, whether it feels coarse or gritty, or powdery and smooth, when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. Note changes in the stickiness, hardness, porosity, and density of the soil at each depth. Discuss the results of your observations and their practical application to soil values. Questions. Which of the soils sampled are fine ? Which medium ? Which coarse ? Which has the finer texture, the soil or the subsoil? Why? What inferences do you draw from the variations in the color of soils ? What are the common colors of soils ? What color of soil and subsoil do you regard as indicative of a productive soil ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 58-64. Ginn and Company. Mosier and GusTAFSON. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 116-123. J. B. Lippincott Company. Hall, A. D. The Soil, pp. 47-50. E. P. Button and Company. Note. As much as two or three bushels each of washed sand, rich garden loam, and stiff clay should be secured and stored in bins for use in later experiments in crop growth and soU management. [24] EXERCISE 12 {Continued) CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS Sample Nltiber Kind of Soil Color Texture Sedentary Transported Coarse Medium Fine 25 EXERCISE 13 Wm\ THE PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS Statement. By physical analysis the constituents of a soil, such as vegetable matter, gravel, sand, and clay, are determined and the properties of these materials observed. Object. To determine the physical constituents of the soil. Materials. Finely screened samples of soil collected in a previous exercise ; Mason fruit jars ; lime; scales accurate to one- tenth gram. Directions, i . Weigh out one hundred grams of air-dry soil and heat it at the temperature of boiling water for an hour. Reweigh and note the loss of water. Heat again for an hour and reweigh. If a loss in weight is shown, repeat until the weight is constant. Compute the loss of moisture in per cent of the original weight. Repeat for each soil to be tested, and tabulate the results. Correlate the loss due to heating the soils at this tem- perature with the fineness and structure of the soils as already determined. 2. Heat the same sample of soil to a red heat until only a reddish ash remains. As soon as the sample is cool reweigh and compute the loss. Classify the soils with respect to their loss from heating at this high temperature. To what is the loss of weight due? Which has lost the greater amoimt of weight, the soil or the subsoil? 3. Weigh three empty quart jars. Place a tablespoonful of the soil which has been heated in one of the fruit jars and fill it half full of water. Seal the jar and shake thoroughly. Let it stand for thirty minutes and shake it again for ten minutes. Let the soil settle for one minute, then pour off all the water into the second jar. Let the water in the second jar stand for thirty minutes and pour the water from it into the third jar. Evaporate the water in each jar. Note the size of the particles in each of the jars. Compare them imder the microscope. Determine the weight of dry material in each jar. Considering the loss of organic matter as determined in 2, compute the percentage of organic matter, sand, silt, and clay in each soil examined. On the basis of this comparison classify them as clay soils, sandy soils, and loams. On the basis of the amount of organic matter contained in the soils, classify them with respect to their productive power. Compare your results with the field notes made when the samples were taken. Questions. How did the color of each soil sample compare with the amount of organic matter contained in it? How did the water contained in the soil compare with the organic matter present? How did the subsoil compare with the surface soil in amount of organic matter ? How did the subsoil compare with the soil in the amount of clay it contained ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 58-66. Ginn and Company. Lyon, Fippin, BucKMAN. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 83-108. The Macmillan Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 25-29, 35-36. Orange Judd Company. [26] iirf a h c d I J (J Fig. 17. The physical constituents of a loam soil 0, gravel ; b, coarse sand ; c, medium sand ; d, fine sand ; e, very fine sand ; /, silt ; g, day. (Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils.) EXERCISE 13 {Continued) PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS Soil Sample XniBER Weight BEFORE Heating Weight after Heating Loss OF Water Weight AFTER Burning Loss OF Organic Matter Weight of Sand in Jar No. i Weight of Silt in Jar No. 2 Weight of Clay in Jar No. 3 Classification of the Soil Sample ' i 1 1 [27] EXERCISE 14 THE TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE OF SOILS Statement. The size of the soil grains and their arrangement, together with the amount of organic matter present, determine the power of the soil to absorb and to hold water. These factors, to a large extent, determine also the mellowness or tilth of the soil. Object. To determine the size, shape, color, and arrangement of the soil grains and to form an idea of the amount of organic matter present in a soil. Materials. Samples of air-dry soil ; sources of heat ; a microscope. Directions, i. Take lumps of dry soil from each sample collected and crumble them in the hand, noting the ease with which the soil mass breaks. This gives an impression of the manner in which abed Fig. i8. Soil particles as they appear under the microscope Magnified 150 times; a, coarse sand; i, medium sand; c, very fine sand; d, silt. The particles of clay are so small that they are not visible under the magnification used. the soil will act when plowed, A soil naturally cloddy and hard to crush usually contains a large amount of clay and a small amount of organic matter. 2. Place a few soil grains representing the average of the soil on a microscopic slide, moisten with a drop of water, and examine them under the microscope. Classify the soil grains according to their color. Notice the presence of a black material clinging to the soil grains. This is organic matter. 3. Pour a little water upon a liunp of soil from each sample and observe the rapidity with which the water is absorbed. This gives an indication of the readiness with which the water may be taken up by soils. Soils having a gray tint when dry become almost black when wet. When there is only a shght change in color upon wetting, the absence of, or a deficiency in, organic matter usually may be inferred. 4. By noting the effect of alternate freezing and thawing upon the different types of soil, their texture and structure may be determined. Use heavy clay soil, garden loam, and sandy loam. From each sample make two well-puddled mud balls, about the consistency of putty. Place one ball of each soil where it will dry at room temperature and place the others where they will freeze and thaw daily. When the samples are dry, pulverize each with the hands, noting the difference in the hardness as influenced by the action of freezing and thawing. [28] EXERCISE 14 {Continued) 5. Study the structure of the soil grains, that is, whether they consist of single particles or a number of soil particles. If single, they will appear transparent under the microscope. The black or dark particles imless covered with organic matter are compound. Compute the percentage of single and of compound particles. Questions. Where are the most friable or crumbly soils located, — on the table land, slope, or bottom, and why ? How does structure affect the' value of soils ? What are the principal factors determining the structure of soils? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 58-64. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 34-40. Orange Judd Company. King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, pp. 51-53. Mrs. F. H. King. HiLGAKD, E. W. Soils, pp. 83-107. The Macmillan Company. King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, p. 51. Merrill, G. P. Rocks, Rock Weathering, and Soils, p. 287. Hilgard. Soils, pp. 83-107. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SOIL PARTICLES Number of Son. Grains Color Shape Size Structure Type Average 291 EXERCISE 15 THE TILTH OF SOILS Statement. The presence of organic matter in the soil has the property of causing the soil grains to cling together in aggregates, making the soil mellow and crumbly. Therefore, a soil rich in organic matter is usually a soil of fine tilth. The presence of organic mat- ter in sandy soil increases its water-holding power without de- stroying its open or porous structure. The presence of lime makes the soil mellow by causing soil aggregates to form. Object. To show the effect of the presence of organic matter ""^^^(^^^^H and lime upon the structure and tilth of soils. ^B^^^B Materials. Clay soil ; dry, finely pulverized barnyard ma- ^aBB nure ; three shallow pans ; three flowerpots or tin cans ; seeds of ^B corn or beans; two eight-inch test tubes or slender bottles, as olive or pickle bottles; tablespoon; teaspoon; one-half pint of air-slaked Hme. Directions, i. Stir a pan of clay and water until a smooth batter is formed. Pour each of the three shallow pans almost full of this batter. To one add one-fourth pint of pulverized barnyard manure and stir it into the batter. To the second pan add a tablespoonful of Ume and stir it into the bat- ter. Leave the third pan of batter untreated. Set them all aside, and when they are dry, compare the ease with which they crvmible. Compare the crumb structure under the microscope. 2. Fill three flowerpots each three-fourths full of clay. Fill one of them the remainder of the way with pulverized manure. Pour out the clay and manure, thoroughly mix and replace them in the pot. To the clay in another pot add two table- spoonfuls of lime and stir well into the soil. Leave the other pot imtreated. Plant seeds of com or beans in each pot, and water as necessary. Compare the rapidity of growth. Explain the difference. 3. Place one-half teaspoonful of finely pulverized clay soil in each of the two test tubes, and to one add one-fourth teaspoon- ful of powdered, air-slaked lime. Fill both with water and stir vigorously. Set them aside and note which clears first. ence in the rate at which the soil settles in the two tubes and why? Questions. Which pot of soil is the best aerated? Why? How does organic matter affect soil structure ? How did Ume influence the structure of the soil particles ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentilals of Agriculture, p. no. Ginn and Company. Bxtrkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 103-108. Orange Judd Company. Lyon, Pippin, Buckman. Soils, their Properties and Manage- ment, pp. 150-160, 190-193, 218. The Macmillan Company. [301 Fig. 19. A soil of excellent tilth *.•* ^,i>m^^^ Fig. 20. A soil which lacks tilth Explain the reason for the differ- Which soil has the better tilth, EXERCISE 16 HOW WATER GETS INTO THE SOIL Statement. Drought is the universal disaster. The crops of nearly every part of the globe are injured by drought at some season of every year. In some regions, two days after a heavy rainfall the crops suffer from lack of moisture because the soil is too shallow to absorb and hold much Fig. 21. Apparatus to illustrate how water gets into the soil moisture and nearly all the water which fell ran off the surface. The water run-off on many soils is greater than the water penetration. It is the water which enters the soil and is held within reach of the plant roots that is of value to growing crops. Object. To study the conditions which favor the penetration of water into the soil and the percolation of water through the soil. Materials. Three percolation tubes or lamp chimneys ; three glass tumblers ; graduated measuring glass ; clay, loam, and sandy soils ; finely pulverized manure ; balances ; three boxes, each of the same size; cheesecloth; string; a sprinkling can. Directions, i. Cut one end of each box slightly V-shaped, as shown in Fig. 21, and fill each level full with clay soil firmly compacted. Level the surface the same shape as the end of each box and then make a soil mulch in one of the boxes by stirring the soil to a depth of three inches. Leave the second box of soil firm and smooth. Mulch the third with finely pulverized barnyard manure mixed into the surface inch of soil. Place the boxes on an inch strip (Fig. 21} to represent a natural slope, and place vessels under the end of each box to catch the water that runs off. With a sprinkling can apply to each of the boxes of soil a known and equal amount of water. Sprinkle slowly. Measure the amount that runs off and compute the percentage of absorption and penetration in each case. Explain results. 2. Perform a similar experiment, using compacted clay loam and sandy soil respectively. Com- pare results and explain. 3. Place a piece of cheesecloth in the bottom of each percolation tube or tie pieces over the bottom of lamp chimneys if they are used. Fill one tube with clean, dry sand to within an inch of the top. Likewise, fill the second tube with dry, finely screened loam, and the third with finely screened clay. Jar each tube lightly to settle the soil and suspend them in a percolation rack or in some manner so that tumblers may be inserted under them. Pour water into each tube, keeping the water level near the top of the tube. Note the time it takes the water to begin to drip from the bottom. After the water has been dripping from a tube for a time and the dripping has become constant, catch the water that percolates from each soil in fifteen minutes. Measure the water and compare the percentage that perco- lates from each soil. This is known as free or gravitational water. [32] EXERCISE 16 {Continued) Questions. Which soil absorbs water most readily ? What is the eflfect of a surface mulch upon the amount of water which penetrated the soil ? Which soil permits the most rapid percolation ? ' How may tillage be utilized to increase the absorption of water by soils ? What is meant by gravitational, or free, water ? What is meant by the water table of a soil, and what factors determine its height ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 64-66. Ginn and Company. Roberts, I. P. The Fertility of the Land, pp. 72-80. The Macmillan Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buckman. Soils, their Proper- ties and Management, pp. 264-265, 279, 713. The Macmillan Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 167-168. Orange Judd Company. Mosier and Gustafson. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 217-222. J. B. Lippin- cott Company. RECORD OF RESULTS Kind of Soil Soil Treatment Total Water Applied Amount of Sltiface Run-off Amount Percolating through Amount Retained , k 1331 EXERCISE 17 THE FILM, OR CAPILLARY, WATER OF SOILS Statement. After the free, or gravitational, water has passed out of the surface soil and the soil is dry enough to be cultivated, there yet remains considerable moisture as a thin film around the soil particles and in the small soil pores. It is this film, or capillary, water which growing plants absorb and which brings to the plant its mineral food dissolved from the soil. In general, the more such moisture a soil can hold, the better the crops growing upon it can withstand drought. Object. To show the relation of the size of the soU particles and the presence of organic matter to the capacity of the soil to hold film water. Materials. Glass tumblers ; a deep vessel, as a four-gallon crock ; three soil tubes, or lamp chim- neys ; soils of various types ; some small pebbles ; cheesecloth ; balances. Directions, i . Fill one tumbler half full of pebbles and place in another tumbler an equal volume of soil. Pour enough water into each tumbler to cover or saturate the pebbles and soil respectively. Pour off into separate tumblers that water which wiU pour from each tumbler. Measure and compute the percentage of water retained. 2. Place a piece of cheesecloth in the bottom of each of the per- forated soil tubes or tie it over the bottom of lamp chimneys. Number and weigh the soil tubes or lamp chimneys thus prepared. Fill one tube with washed sand, another with loam, and another with clay. Jar each slightly to settle the soil, which should compact to within about an inch of the top of the tube. Reweigh each tube and determine by subtraction the weight of its contents. Place the tubes in the large vessel provided and pour water around them imtil it stands a little higher than the soil in the tubes. Note the time re- quired for the water to reach the surface of each soil. Explain the cause for the differences. When all the tubes show water at the sur- face, remove them and wipe the tubes dry. Immediately weigh each tube and compute the amount of water absorbed by each soil. Cover each tube and set aside where the water will drain away. Weigh each tube at the end of an hour, then at the end of six hours, and daily thereafter until each of the tubes remains at a constant weight. Tabulate and explain all results. Questions. When the soil in the tubes showed moisture at the surface did it contain only film water or gravitational water as well? After all the water has drained away that will, what kind of water does the soil contain? Do your results show any difference in the time required for the water to reach the surface in the tubes in different soils? In which was the longest time required? In which was the shortest time required? What type of soil will retain the greater amount of fihn water, clay, loam, fine sand, coarse sand, or gravel, and why? In which type of soil may the water table be the deepest and still be of service to the crops? Which type of soil requires that the water table be near the surface ? Why will a fine soil retain more film water than a coarse one? On which of the following soils will plants best withstand wet weather: (i) soil underlaid with rock, near the surface ; (2) stiff clay; (3) silt or loam; (4) fine sand; (5) loam sand; (6) coarse gravel ? Give reasons for your answer. On which of these soils will plants best withstand drought and why ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 64-66. Ginn and Company. Mosier and GusTAFSON. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 194-215. J. B. Lippincott Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 37-38. Orange Judd Company. Stoddard, C. W. The Chemistry of Agriculture, pp. 179-183. Lea & Febiger. Lyon, Fippin, Buckman. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 206-213. The Macmillan Company. [34] Fig. 22. The structure of the soil 0, soil grain ; h, water film ; c, pore space EXERCISE 17 (Continued) WATER HOLDING POWER OF SOILS Tube No. 1 Tube No. 2 Tube No. 3 Weight of tube and soil Weight of the soil . . Weight when saturated with water Weight of water absorbed 1 Weight at end of one hour Weight at end of six hours Weight at end of one day .... .... Weight at end of two days Weight at end of three days ! Weight at end of four days Weight at end of five days Amount of free water lost Amount of capillary water lost Amount of water retained I 35 EXERCISE 18 THE MOVEMENT OF FILM, OR CAPILLARY, WATER IN THE SOIL Statement. Film, or capillary, water is capable of moving through the soil. Its movement is always toward the driest part of the soil. If the subsoil is driest, the movement is downward ; if the surface soil is driest, the movement is upward. Large quantities of moisture are stored in the subsoU at depths which the plant roots cannot conveniently reach, but by means of capillary action the moisture is brought within reach of the plants. Soils vary in the ease and rapidity with which films of water may pass through them and in the depth from which moisture may be raised. This is called the capillary power of a soil. I<^ [H| II u [^j tfu Object. To study the capillary power of dif- *\^, ,„, ,_, I ii- ,j.i =^ \ ferent types of soils. Materials. Sand; light sandy loam; silt loam; clay; four strong glass tubes (i^ to 2 inches in diameter and 2 or 3 feet long) or four lamp chim- neys ; percolation rack ; four shallow pans ; cheese- cloth; string. Directions. Tie cheesecloth over the bottoms of the four glass tubes or lamp chimneys and place them in the percolation rack. Fill each tube with a different type of soil and jar it to settle the soil. Let the bottom of each tube rest in a shallow pan and pour water.into the pans. Keep the water level, the same in all the pans, and observe the rapidity with which the water rises through the soil. Meas- ure the height to which the water rises every fifteen Fig. 23. Rack and tubes for testing the movement of capillary water in the soil minutes for an hour. If glass tubing is used, measure the height to which the water rises in five hours in each soil ; in one day. Record the amount of water taken up by each soil in one hour ; in one day ; in one week. Apply the results obtained and explain their bearing upon the value of the different types of soil of the neighborhood. Also explain what factors affect the capillary power of soils and how this power may be influenced by the way in which the soil is managed. Questions. In which soil did the water rise with the greatest rapidity ? In which did it move most slowly? If the long tubes are used, in which soil did the moisture reach the greatest height? How may the capillary power of a soil be increased ? How may the soil in which water rises rapidly for a short distance and then stops be treated so as to cause water to rise to a greater height ? Write state- ments describing capillary (and film) water and free (or gravitational) water and the value of each to growing plants. When the surface of the soil is loose and open, as when cultivated, does the moisture rise to the surface? Why? What means are used to prevent capillary moisture from reaching the surface, and what is the practical effect? How does such practice affect the power of crops to resist drought? What is the effect of rolling upon the capillary rise of water in the surface soil? Why does the farmer usually roll the land after sowing small seed like millet in dry ground? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 64-66. Ginn and Company. Mosier and GusTAFSON. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 206-208. J. B. Lippincott Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buck- KAN. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 221-243. The Macmillan Company. [36] EXERCISE 18 (Continued) CAPILLARY MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS Soil Tube No. 1 Son, Tube No. 2 Soil Tube No. 3 Soil Tube No. 4 Height of water in fifteen minutes . . Height in thirty minutes Height in forty-five minutes .... Height in one hour Height in one day Height in one week. Soil Tube No. 1 Soil Tube No. 2 Soil Tube No. 3 Soil Tote No. 4 Amount of water taken up in one hour . Amount in one day Amount in one week [371 EXERCISE 19 THE SOIL MOISTURE WHICH PLANTS CAN USE Statement. The amount of soil water which enables the plant to grow most rapidly is called the optimum moisture content. The least amount of moisture in the soil which will enable the plant to live in that soil is called the critical moisture con- tent. Plants die from lack of moisture before it is all removed from the soil. Object. To determine whether or not all soils give their water to growing plants equally freely and fully, and whether the critical moisture content is the same for different types of soils. Materials. Three tin cans or flowerpots ; lettuce, tomato, or cabbage plants ; com kernels or lima beans ; balances ; garden soil ; evaporating dishes. Directions. Fill one flowerpot with each of the following: clay, loam, and sandy soils. Transplant some tomato, lettuce, or cabbage plants into each of the three pots of soil. Plant com kemels or lima beans in the pots and grow them for three weeks before beginning the test. Keep the plants imder conditions favorable to growth until they attain a good size. Water freely. Remove a ten-gram sample of soil from each pot at a depth of an inch below the surface. Weigh each, and after heating for two hours at the temperature of boiling water, reweigh. Compute the per- centage of water present in each soil. Cease watering and observe the plants daily for evidence that they are suffering for lack of moisture. As soon as the plants in any soil have wilted, remove a ten-gram sample of soil from this pot and deter- mine moisture content. Compute the percentage of moisture present in the soil. By subtraction determine the percentage of moisture given up by the soil before the plant shows signs of suffering. When the plants in the other soils are '.. Hted as badly as they were in the first soil, remove a sample and test and compute as before. Compare the soils as to the percentage of water present in them when they no longer support plant life. Questions. Which type of soil gave its moisture most freely and fully to the plant ? What is the stmcture of a soil which gives up its water generously ? In which type of soil will plants best with- stand drought? What is the relation between the tilth of a soil and its capacity to carry plants safely [381 Fig. 24. Optimum and critical moisture content The picture at the left shows a plant growing in a soil with an optimum moisture content ; the one at the right shows a plant growing in a soil in which the moisture content has reached the critical stage. The soil in which the plant is wilted contains as much as 4 per cent of moisture. EXERCISE 19 {Continued) through a drought ? Classify the soils of your father's farm or of some farm in the neighborhood with respect to their ability to absorb and retain moisture. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 64-66. Ginn and Company. Mosiee and GusTAFSoN. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 212-213. J- B. Lippincott Company. Lyon, Pippin, Buck- man. Soils, their Property and Management, pp. 252-260. The Macmillan Company. AMOUNT OF MOISTURE IN THE SOIL WHICH THE PLANTS CAN USE Sample Number Kind of Soil Moisture Content AT Beginning Moisture Content when Plant wilted Percentage of Moisture given up BY THE Soil ^ t [39] EXERCISE 20 THE EFFECTS OF A SOIL MULCH Statement. A mulch on the surface of the soil increases the water available to growing crops in three important ways: (i) it helps the moisture which falls on the surface to get into the soil; (2) it helps to prevent the waste of this moisture through the growth of weeds ; (3) it reduces evapo- ration of moisture from the surface of the soil. Object. To compare the different forms of mulches as to their value in conserving soil moisture. Materials. Twelve flowerpots or tin cans ; loam ; clay ; sand ; balances. Directions, i . Label each flowerpot, weigh it, and record the weight. Fill four of them with fine clay, four with loam, and four with sandy soil. Use air-dry soil in each case. Reweigh and record the weight of the soil. In one pot of each soil plant weed seeds, watering as necessary, and allow them to get well started before continuing the exercise. Saturate each soil with water ; weigh and determine the percentage of water retained by each. When the surface of the soil is dry enough to work, stir the top inch of soil sufficient to make a soil mulch in one pot of each kind of soil. Remove an inch of the surface soil from one pot of each kind of soil and replace with an equal weight of dry dust. Leave the other pots untreated. Weigh each pot and record the weight. Reweigh at intervals of twenty-four hours for fourteen days and compute the amount of moisture lost daily by each. 2. That capillary action may be interrupted by plowing under weeds and rubbish late in the season may be shown as follows : Fill two lamp chimneys half full of a common type of soil and compact each. Place a layer of finely chopped straw or chaff about one inch thick in one of the chimneys and fill it with soil. Fill the other one with the soil, compact both, and set them in shaUow pans of water. Observe the rise of the water through the soil. Explain the results. 3. Test the efficiency of different kinds of mulches by filling boxes with moist soil and covering the surface of each with a different kind of mulch. Use road-dust, chopped straw, sand, and cloddy earth. Cover the surface to the same depth with each kind of mulch and weigh the boxes from day to day to determine the loss of water. Compare the results and explain the reasons for the difference shown. 4. If capillary action is permitted to bring moisture to the surface rapidly, the consequent evapora- tion decreases the soU temperature. The effect of evaporation upon the temperature may be shown as follows : Cover the back of the hand with cottonseed oil and note the apparent effect upon the tem- perature of the hand. Remove the oil and wet the back of the hand with water. Note the feeling. Wipe dry and apply alcohol. What is the effect upon the apparent temperature ? 5. Compare the moisture in the soil under a board lying on the ground with that of the uncovered soil near by, and explain. Remove the cultivated layer of soil in a cornfield or garden and compare its moisture content with that of the underlying soil and explain. Compare the dryness of a soil which has supported a rank growth of weeds with that of one near by which has been cultivated and kept clean, and explain the difference. Questions. By what means is water removed at the surface of the soil ? Explain the meaning of a soil mulch. Explain how the mulch checks the loss of water. Why should soil be cultivated after a rain? Which is the cause of greater loss of moisture, surface evaporation or weed growth? Name substances, other than soil, that may be used to produce a mulch. Is the layer of finely pulverized soil which serves as a mulch dry or is it as moist as the soil underneath, and why? What happens to the mulch when it rains enough to wet the surface soil, and why? When a crust forms on the surface what should be done? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 66-67. Ginn and Company. Mosier and GusTAFSON. SoilPhysicsandManagement, pp. 232-236. J. B. Lippincott Company. King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, pp. 185-189. Mrs. F. H. King. King, F. H. The Soil, pp. 194-202. The Macmillan Company. [40] EXERCISE 20 (Continued) SAVING SOIL MOISTURE BY MEANS OF A MULCH Pot No. 1 Pot No. 2 Pot No. 3 Pot No. 4 Pot No. 5 Poi No. 6 Pot No. 7 Pot No. 8 Pot No. 9 Weight of pot Weight of soil Weight of water retained Per cent of water retained Per cent of water lost at time of mulching Per cent lost one day after mulching Per cent lost five days after mulching Per cent lost ten days after mulching Per cent lost fifteen days after mulching k [411 EXERCISE 21 THE EFFECT OF WORKING A SOIL TOO WET Statement. The experienced farmer waits until his soil is dry enough after a rain before he cul- tivates it. He has learned that if he cultivates his soil while it is wet, it will be very hard and cloddy when it is dry. This is because the grains of a soil when cultivated too wet sUde over one another like putty until they become a solid mass instead of sticking together in small aggregates or crumbs. Such a soil is said to be puddled, which means that its granular structure has been destroyed. When a mud ball can be made of the soil or when it will not crumble in the hand, the soil is too wet to be worked. The farmer should know how to keep his soil in fine tilth. Object. To compare the effect upon different types of soils of working them too wet and to learn how the tendency of soils to puddle may be corrected. Materials. Six flowerpots or tin cans ; clay ; loam ; sand ; dry, pulverized barnyard manure ; seeds of wheat. Directions. Fill two flowerpots each with clay, loam, and sand respectively. Fill another with a mixture of equal parts of clay and finely pulverized barnyard manure. Saturate soils in each with water and stir thoroughly one pot of each kind of soil. Leave the others unstirred. Al- low the soils to dry, and plant ten kernels of wheat or five of com in each. Water as often as is nec- essary and observe the growth of the plants in each soil. Record the re- sults and explain the rea- sons for the differences. Examine each soil under Fig. 25. Showing the effect on the structure of soil of working it too wet as compared with working it when it was in the proper degree of dryness the microscope for tilth, granular structure, soil aggregates, etc., according to method described in exercise 14. Make a mud ball of each soil under experiment and allow them to dry. Test them for hardness, and examine their structure. Also make mud balls of some of the tj^e surface soils and subsoils of the neighborhood, including some from cultivated and sod lands, and compare them as above indicated. What lessons in soil handling do these results teach? Questions. Which type of soil puddles the most easily and completely ? Which soil shows the best tilth? Which the poorest? Give reasons for your findings. Which soil may be plowed with the least amount of harm while wet ? What is the effect of the presence of organic matter on the readiness with which a soil will puddle ? What is the effect on soil structure of grazing winter wheat with cattle when the soil is wet ? Does it injure the soil structure to drive a team and wagon over it while the soil is j wet ? Ask the farmers of the community whether sod land may be plowed and worked when wet with less injury than can stubble land, and why. Ascertain if land is injured as much by being puddled in the fall as in the spring, and why. Ascertain if the injury is as great from cultivating soil too wet if the weather continues wet as if it becomes dry, and give reasons. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 62. Ginn and Company. King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, pp. 231-234. Mrs. F. H. King. Mosier and Gustafson. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 136-138. j. B. Lippincott Company. Roberts, I. P. The Fertility of the Land, p. 90. The Macmillan Company. [ 42 ] [ EXERCISE 22 SOIL DRAINAGE Statement. A soil with its pore spaces filled with water is known as a dead soil. Surplus water may be disposed of in part by surface drainage if there is sufficient slope, but in such cases surface erosion or washing lisually results. Underdraitiing, by means of tiles, lowers the water table, checks surface washing, and otherwise improves the soil. Object. To show that drainage does not deplete usable soil moisture, but that it conserves such moisture by establishing a lower water table and facilitating percolation. Materials. Two 12-inch flowerpots; wooden box, tightly constructed and 12 inches deep; any common type of soil ; i-inch bit and brace ; three round wooden rods i inch in diameter, such as broom handles; a sprinkling can. Directions, i. Close the hole in the bottom of one of the 12-inch flowerpots with a cork ; fill both pots with loam. Plant kernels of corn in each pot, and water both alike. Observe differences in growth and explain the reason for any variation that appears. 2. Bore holes in one end of the box 3 inches, 6 inches, and 9 inches, respectively, from the top and equal distances from the sides. On the opposite end bore three holes at the same distance from the top and sides. Place the three rods through the box, leaving one end of each to protrude beyond the hole, as shown in. Fig. 26. Fill the box with soil, tamping it firmly to represent the natural field soil. When fuU and leveled, turn the box on end and carefully pull out the rods. If the soil is tamped thoroughly and the rods are removed Fig. 26 A simple device for illustrating carefully, the openings will remain. Pour coarse sand or gravel into the principles of soil drainage j 7 r o o ^ the holes until they are each filled, and turn the box back to its proper position. Sprinkle the surface of the soil very slowly, so that all the water will be absorbed as rapidly as applied, until water begins to nm in a stream from one of the holes in the box. From which holes does water flow first, the top ones or the bottom ones ? Plug the holes from which water is flow- ing and continue to sprinkle until water runs from the second hole. Explain what happens, and why. Repeat until the water runs from the top hole. Stop this hole also and water the soil until it is saturated. Then open the holes in their order, beginning at the upper one, and note the lowering of the water table in the box. Apply what you have observed to the soil in the field. Plan a system of xmder drainage, 1. To improve some field in the neighborhood. ' 2. To reclaim a piece of wet land in the neighborhood. 3. To stop surface washing on a farm in the community. In each case show location of drains, the size of tile required for each, the slope of each, and make an itemized statement of the cost of the improvements and of the value of the benefits which would result. Questions. Explain in what respects a soil filled with water differs from one which is only moist. Why will not the common cultivated plants grow in one as well as the other ? May the lack of suit- able drainage of a soil be detected by the kinds of plants found growing on it ? Name a half dozen plants the presence of which indicate poor drainage. A half dozen which indicate good drainage. How may soil erosion be prevented on gentle slopes ? How may water that comes to the surface at the foot of the slopes be prevented from passing over the low level ground ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 122-134. Ginn and Company. King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, pp. 292-329. Mrs. F. H. King. Buekett, C. W. Soils, pp. 161-164. Orange Judd Company. Mosier and Gustafson. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 222-229. J- B. Lippincott Company. [441 I EXERCISE 23 SOIL WASTE THROUGH EROSION Statement. The greatest waste of soil fertility is the waste of the soil itself. It is the best portion of the soil which is carried away by running water and by wind. Object. To ascertain the conditions under which soil erosion occurs and the most practicable means of checking it. Materials. Gallon of loam; two 4-to-8-gallon vessels; one half -gallon vessel; one 2-gallon vessel; two glass tumblers. Directions, i. As shown in Fig. 27, place a large vessel on a table and fill it with water to which one-half gallon of loam has been added. At B place the half-gallon vessel, at C the 2-gallon vessel, and at D the other large vessel. Connect each by one- fourth-inch rubber tubing as shown, letting the end of the tubing extend one inch below the top edge of the vessel in each case, except at A. Here the tube should extend almost to the bottom of the vessel. Start the water running between A and B. As soon as B is full, start it between B and C, and likewise when C is filled, start it running between C and D. While all are nmning, stir the water in A continually. When most of the water has been transferred into the other vessels, note the comparative muddiness of the water in each. Examine at intervals of an hour and note which vessel of water becomes clear first. Note which contains the most sedi- ment after it becomes clear. A represents the soil, B the swiftly-running surface stream, C the slower river, and D the lake or ocean. Which isr the more valuable, the sediment carried to D or that deposited at 5 ? 2. Embed a tumbler in shallow, swiftly- running, muddy water so that the top of the tumbler is one-half inch above the bed of the stream. In the same manner place a tumbler in slowly-moving water. Leave them a day and then remove and deter- mine the amount of sediment in each and whether it is sand, silt, or clay. 3. Visit local areas of badly- washed soils and plan ways to stop the erosion. Tell how erosion might be prevented by terracing, by planting crops such as pasture crops, by properly-arranged dams, and by drainage. Questions. Which tvmibler embedded in the stream contained the most sediment ? In which was the sediment the coarser? Explain the reason. Apply this principle to checking surface erosion on the fields. What is the source of the soil on bottom lands ? Fig. 27. Method of illustrating effect of rate of flow of water upon soil erosion »'%T:m.; < --'^^f-^^mjg^gm^SSOSBlhj^jt /P 9Bi^ Fig. 28. A good example of the waste of the soil through surface erosion References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 84-85. Ginn and Company. King, F. H. The Soil, pp. 50-61. The Macmillan Company. Hilgard, E. W. Soils, pp. 218-2I9. The Macmillan Com- pany. Hosier and Gustafson. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 358-375. J. B. Lippincott Company. [46] I EXERCISE 24 THE POWER OF SOILS TO TAKE UP PLANT FOOD FROM SOLUTION Statement. A fanner frequently applies barnyard manure to the surface of the soil in winter, and at other times when it is not convenient to turn the manure under immediately. The soluble portion of the manure is carried down into the soil by the rain as it percolates through the soil. Object. To learn whether the plant food is carried through the soil and lost in the drainage water or whether it is taken up by the soil and held there until the plants can use it. To determine whether all soils have equal power of absorbing plant food and whether they all give it up equally fully and generously. To determine whether the presence of organic matter in a soil affects its power to absorb soluble plant food. Materials. Four lamp chimneys ; four glass tumblers ; sand ; loam ; clay ; dry, finely pulverized barnyard manure ; cheesecloth ; string. Directions. Cover the bottoms of the lamp chimneys with cheesecloth and fill one a fourth full of clay, another a fourth full of loam, and another a fourth full of sand. Fill the fourth lamp chimney one-fourth full of a mixture of equal parts of sand and finely pulverized manure. Place the lamp chimneys in the percolation rack (Fig. 27) and place tumblers under each. Prepare a solution to pour over the soil in each as follows: Fill a gallon vessel one-fourth full of dry, finely pulverized barnyard manure. Fill the vessel three-fourths full of water and stir until the soluble part ctf the manure has colored the water. Let the organic matter settle, pour off the water, and use it to water the soil in the lamp chimneys. Observe the color of the water which percolates through the various types of soils. Record the amount of manure water which will be clarified by each soil before the drainage water begins to show color and explain the practical significance of this difference. Questions. What was the color of the first water that percolated through each type of soil ? Which soil showed percolation water when the least amount of water had passed through it? Which soil retained the most coloring matter? What was the effect of adding organic matter to sand on the amount of coloring matter retained ? Discuss the value in this respect of applying all organic matter possible to the soil. Which soil — clay, loam, or sand — is most retentive of plant food when a manure or fertilizer is applied, and why? As between a soil which admits water readily and one which admits water slowly, what difference would there be in the application of barnyard manure in winter ? As between a sloping surface and one which is only slightly rolling? As between a time when the ground is covered with ice or is frozen and when it is not ? Prepare a statement giving your views as to the proper time and method of applying manure. Compare the merits of hauling it out frequently, and composting and applying just before planting. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 72-73, 75. Ginn and Company. Mosier and GusTAFSON. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 163-168. J. B. Lippincott Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buck- man. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 349-373. The Macmillan Company. [48] Fig. 29. Percolation rack t EXERCISE 25 THE ACroiTY OF SOILS Statement. In humid regions there is likely to be a loss of basic, or alkaline, materials in soils that have been long imder cultivation, and an accumulation of acids due to the decay of humus and the excretion of acids by the roots of growing plants. As a consequence, such soils may become sour, or acid. Many plants are directly affected in their ability to grow by the acid or the alkaline content of the soil. Among the important plants which are more or less sensitive to acid, and consequently thrive best on alkaline or neutral soils, are alfalfa, red clover, Kentucky bluegrass, tobacco, barley, wheat, and oats. Some of the plants which pre- fer a sUghtly acid soil are rye, redtop, millet, and carrots. Object. To test the acidity of soils of the neighborhood and to study the methods of correcting this condition. Materials. Samples of surface soil chosen from different soil types of the neighborhood and of subsoil ; two tumblers ; an evaporating dish ; red and blue litmus papers ; blotting paper; distilled water or clear rain water; ammonia; hydrochloric acid. Directions. Collect samples of surface soil and subsoil. Secure the surface samples at a depth of seven inches, and the subsoil samples at a depth of about fourteen inches. I. Cut a piece of filter paper to fit the bottom of the glass tumbler. Place in the bottom of the timabler a piece of red and a piece of blue litmus paper, and over them place the disk of filter paper. Place soil to be tested in the tumbler and cover with distilled water. Observe any changes that may take place in the color of the htmus papers and record results at the end of thirty minutes. 2. Fill two tumblers three-quarters full of distilled or rain water. To the first add a few drops of ammonia. Then into each tiunbler stir for three minutes a tablespoonful of the soil to be tested, being careful to use two spoons and to keep each in its respective glass. At the end of two hours examine the contents of each glass. If the soils need lime, the water standing above the soil in the glass in which the ammonia has been added will have a dark, reddish-brown, or black appearance, while the water in the other glass will be very nearly clear. On the other hand, if the soil is well stocked with carbonates of lime or magnesia, the soil water in both glasses will be entirely clear. 3. Make a mud ball, mold it cup-shaped, and pour several drops of hydrochloric acid on it. If bubbles escape, it is a sign that there is an abvmdance of carbonates. If there is no effervescence, the soil lacks carbonates and is probably acid. Questions. What are some of the conditions which cause a soil to become sour? What are the best ways to correct acidity in a soil? What effect does acidity have upon plant growth? The presence of what plants indicates an acid soil ? What an alkaline soil ? What does ground limestone cost a ton in [SO] Fig. 30. Clover on an alkaline and an acid soil. The growth of clover on an alkaline soil is represented by the pile of hay on the left. That produced on an equal area of acid soil is contained in the straw hat on the right. (Rhode Island Experiment Station.) EXERCISE 25 (Continued) your community ? What does lime do in addition to correcting acidity ? How much ground limestone is usually applied to the acre ? How much air-slaked lime ? Name the principal crops of the neighborhood which are most sensitive to acid in the soil. Do your tests indicate that the soils of the neighborhood are acid ? Is lime used locally as a soil corrective ? In which form is it generally used, as ground lime- stone or as slaked lime ? Explain the difference in the preparation, composition, cost and proper use. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 63. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, p. 104. Orange Judd Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buckman. Soils, their Properties and Management, pp. 375-391. The Macmillan Company. Bulletin yj, United States Department of Agriculture. [51] EXERCISE 26 PLANT FOOD REMOVED BY CROPS Statement. The rate at which a fanner exhausts his soil will depend in large part upon what he takes off the soil and what he returns. The wise farmer keeps books with the fertility in his soil just as he does with the naoney he has in the bank. Materials. Pencil ; paper ; tables in Appendix. Directions. Assume that the element nitrogen is worth 20 cents a pound, phosphorus 8 cents a poimd, and potassium 8 cents a pound. I. If an acre of com yields 30 bushels, assuming that it is removed from the farm, compute the amoimt and value of the plant food removed. How does the value of the plant food removed by the grain and the value of the grain itself compare at the present market price ? Compute and record in a Fig. 31. In which form should the fann products be sold? a, in a load of 50 busbeb of wheat sold from the farm how much plant food is removed and what is it worth as compared with the wheat ? t, in a load of 6 fat hogs weighing 250 pounds each how much plant food is removed and what is its value compared with that of the hogs at present market prices ? c, in a load of cream of 1 500 pounds, how much plant food is there and what is it worth compared with the cream, assuming the cream to contain 38 per cent butter fat ? table on the following page the amount and value of plant food removed from an acre by each of the following crops : wheat, i6 bushels; oats, 26 bushels; red clover, i ton; timothy, i ton; alfalfa, 3 tons ; apples, 70 bushels. Compute the market value of each of these crops and compare it with the value of the plant food removed from the soil. 2. A ton of alfalfa hay removes $11.45 worth of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassiima. A ton of hogs remove $7.71 worth, and a ton of cream removes $1.85 worth of these materials. Is the plant food contained in these products counted when the buyer fixes the price which the farmer is to receive for them, or does the farmer sell his products and " throw in " the plant food ? What does the farmer receive for a ton of each of the products named at present market prices ? 3. American farmers produce about 3,ooo,ooo,cxx) bushels of corn, 700,000,000 bushels of wheat, 1,000,000,000 bushels of oats a year. Compute the value of the plant foods taken from the soil each year by each of these crops. Considering only these three crops, compare the value of the mining operations of the farmers in value of mineral removed with that of the gold mined, the silver mined, and the coal mined in the United States in a year. Questions. What is the most exhaustive crop grown in your community considered alone from the standpoint of the plant food taken from the soil ? The least exhaustive crop ? What types of farming are most exhaustive of soil fertility? What types are least exhaustive? Make a plan of farming which you think would be profitable and maintain the land. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 83-84. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 266-274. Orange Judd Company. Roberts, I. P. The Fertility of the Soil, pp. 20-29. The Mac- millan Company. Lyon, Fippin, Buckman. Soils, their Properties and Management, p. 418. The Macmillan Company. [52] EXERCISE 26 (Continued) AMOUNT AND VALUE OF THE PLANT FOOD REMOVED PER ACRE BY DIFFERENT CROPS Ckop Yield per Acre Nitrogen REMOVED (pounds) Phosphorus REMOVED (pounds) Potassium REMOVED (pounds) Value of Plant Food Value of Crop Difference IN Value • fS3: EXERCISE 27 DETERMINING DEFICIENCIES OF A WORN SOIL Statement. Any cultivated soil not fertilized naturally by such means as frequent overflows will eventually need to be fertilized artificially, as by the use of green manure, barnyard manure, or com- mercial fertilizers. In some soils one element of plant food will become depleted first and another ele- ment first in another soil. In some soils depletion already has been carried so far that two or more elements must be applied for successful crop growth. To apply to a soil only the elements which growing crops need is scientific practice. To apply the wrong elements or elements in addition to those needed is waste. Object. To determine the plant needs of worn soils of the neighborhood. Materials. Infertile soil ; dry, finely pulverized barnyard manure; steamed bone meal; sodiimi nitrate ; wood ashes ; nine flowerpots of tin cans ; labels ; seeds of wheat. Directions. Laboratory test. Number the flowerpots and fill each with an infertile soil from the neighborhood. Treat them as follows: Pot No. I is to be left untreated as a check with which the others are compared. Pot No. 2 is to receive 10 grams of nitrate of soda; No. 3, 10 grams of dry, pulverized barnyard manure; No. 4, 10 grams of steamed bone meal ; No. 5, 10 grams of unleached wood ashes ; No. 6, 10 grams of nitrate of soda and 10 grams of steamed bone meal; No. 7, 10 grams of nitrate of soda and 10 grams of wood ashes; No. 9, 10 grams of nitrate of soda, 10 grams of steamed bone meal, and 10 grams of wood ashes. Plant six wheat grains in each pot and place the pots where plant growth can take place to the best advantage. Be sure that all pots have equal advantages. Water each pot with clean rain water. At the end of six weeks compare the plants as to color, vigor, size, etc. Continue the test untU the plants in some of the pots cease to grow. Carefully remove the plants from each pot, wash the soil from the roots, and compare the size of an average plant from each pot. Compare the root, stem, and leaf development of each. Under which system of fertilization was the greatest growth produced? Weigh the green plants produced in each pot. Place them in a labeled envelope, allow them to become Jair dry, and weigh. Record and discuss results. Apply the lesson to the farm practice of the community- Questions. Under which system of fertilization did the plants have the best color and attain the greatest size? To what do you attribute this result? What did barnyard manure supply that was lacking in the other fertilizers used? What manures and fertilizers are most generally used in your neighborhood ? What amounts are usually appHed to the acre and to what crops ? Is all the barn- yard manure made in your locaUty preserved and applied ? To what crops is it usually applied and at what rate per acre? How is it applied, with a hand fork or a manure spreader? Which method should be used ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 79-84. Ginn and Company. Warren, G. F. Farm Management, pp. 183-203. The Macmillan Company. Parker, E. C. Field Management and Crop Rotation, pp. 269-280, 290-305. Webb Publishing Company. Mosier and Gustafsgn. Soil Physics and Management, pp. 389-407. J. B. Lippincott Company. [54] EXERCISE 27 (ConHnued) RECORD OF RESULTS OF POT EXPERIMENTS Pot Numbf.r Treatment Date of Planting Appearance OF Plants AT FIRST Appearance AFTER Two Months Appearance after Four Months Weight of Plants Gain over Plants in Pot No. i Remarks [SS] EXERCISE 28 JUDGING SOILS Statement. A soil is judged on the basis of its capacity to produce crops for a long time and accord- ing to the kind of crops to which it is adapted. A farm is judged by its location (with respect to market, church, and school), its improvements, the kind of people living in the community, and the character of the roads, as well as by the quality of the soil. Object. To judge the soil of the neighborhood as a producing unit. Materials. Soil ; score card ; pencil. Directions. Make a study of certain tj^es of soils of the neighborhood as producing unit's, evaluating each on the basis of the points given on the score card. The student should be required to apply all the soil knowledge he has thus far obtained in performing this task. In judging a soil note carefully the kind of rocks from which it is derived and learn the bearing of the origin of a soil upon its value. The depth of the soil and the depth and nature of the subsoil are of much importance and should be ascertained by observing the banks of gullies, roadway cuts and the like. One of the surest indexes of the present productiveness of a soil is the character of the forest, weed and crop growth, but this is not necessarily a safe guide to a knowledge of the wearing qualities of land. The degree to which a soil is eroded or will be eroded when cultivated should be considered. Proper drainage and the probabilities of injury from overflow should be considered. Note also the degree to which the land has been worn by continuous cropping and tillage, and in making an estimate of its value make due allowance for the time and money required to build the land up again. Take as a standard a soil that is well drained, free from overflow, deep, friable. A soil which will not wash, and which will produce a fair crop in wet and in dry seasons and a maximum crop in a favorable season. Such a soil should be adapted to a variety of the leading crops of the community. Compare the student's estimate with the production of each type of soil in so far as it can be ascertained or approximated. Repeat this work until the student has acquired soil judgment. Questions. What was the original growth of forests and other plants on the best soils of the neigh- borhood ? What on the poorest soils ? What is the difference in the present weed and shrub growth in these three grades of soil? Which soils have the largest proportion of legumes? Which the largest proportion of plants common to sour soils, as sorrels and docks ? What is the diiTerence in the color of different soils of the community, and what relation do you find between certain soil colors and productiveness ? What relation do you find between color and adaptation to special crops, such as fruit trees, and why ? What textures of soil and subsoil do you regard as indicative of good orchard land ? What is the depth and the color of the subsoil of each type of soil found in the neighborhood ? To what extent has each been eroded or surface washed ? How does the slope or topography affect the value of land ? How does topography affect the degree of surface erosion ? Does the exposure or direction of the slope affect the quality and value of the soil? On which slope — the north, the east, the west, or the south — do you find the deepest layer of soil and the largest plant growth ? Give reasons for what you find in answer to these questions. Which slope would you prefer as a site for an orchard? Why? If you were purchasing a farm, describe fully how you would determine its value and on what facts you would base your judgment. Make a map of the soils of a district based upon their adaptability to the staple crops of the community. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 62-63. Ginn and Company. Warren, G. F. Farm Management, pp. 517-535. The Macmillan Company. Hunt, T. F. How to Choose a Farm, pp. 36-55. The Macmillan Company. I 56' EXERCISE 28 (Continued) THE SOIL AS A PRODUCING UNIT (SCORE CARD) , Possible Score Field No. 1 Field No. 2 Field No. 3 Field No. 4 Field No. S Fertility Color Texture • Structure Depth of soil Character and depth of subsoil . Character and nature of forest, weed and crop growth . . . Total 5 5 S lO lO S 40 Topography Influence upon yield Influence upon ease of cultivation Influence upon erosion .... Influence upon drainage .... Total 10 5 10 10 35 Physical condition Ease of cultivation . . . '. . Retention of fertility and moisture Adaptability to staple crops of the community Total 5 5 ^ 25 Total 100 [57] EXERCISE 29 THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL Statement. If fields of the same size produced at the same rate regardless of their topography, fertility, structure, and methods of manipulation, the study of these factors by the student would be unnecessary. Object. To study the differences in the productiveness of different farms" and fields in the neighbor- hood, and the reasons for these differences. Materials. Three or four fields in the vicinity of the school which during the past season were planted to the same kind of crop, such as three or four corn fields, orchards, wheat fields, cotton fields, or alfalfa fields. • Directions, i . Determine the size of the fields selected, either by actual measurement or by con- sultation with the owners, and by similar consultation find what was the total yield (bushels, pounds, or tons) from the year's crop on each field. Enter these facts in the blank on opposite page. A second blank is provided for use in case estimates are made of two kinds of crops. (2) In a similar manner whenever possible learn the history of the management of the soil of two or more farms in the neighborhood in which the management has been strikingly different. Observe the cumulative effect upon the productiveness of the land of a judicious system of rotating the crops .and the regular use of manure or fertilizer in comparison with that of growing tilled crops continuously without fertilization. (3) Study in detail the methods of soil management of two or three of the best farmers of the neighborhood. Ascertain if theirs was the best land in the commimity when they began to cultivate it. Note whether it has been improved under their management at the same time that they have produced the largest local crop yields. Study their system of crop rotation. To what crops do they apply manure or fertilizer and how much to each acre? Write an account of how their system of soil management differs from that of their neighbors. Questions. What is the variation in acre yield in your conmiunity as shown by your investigation ? Can you accoimt for the difference in the yield by any difference in the nature of the soil ? by the crop which preceded the one studied ? by the amount and character of the manure or fertilizer applied ? by the method of preparing the ground for the crop ? by different kinds of corn, cotton, wheat, alfalfa, that were grown ? by the farming methods used in growing the crop ? by the time and methods used in harvesting the crop ? How much more would it have been worth to the farmer who got the smallest acre yield if his field had produced the same acre yield as that of the most productive field ? Suggest ways that are practicable whereby the smaller yield might be substantially increased. Are the larger yields as great as it is feasible to secure ? How might they be increased with profit ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 82-90. Ginn and Company. Warren, G. F. Farm Management, pp. 183-203. The Macmillan Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 556-562. Ginn and Company. Parker, E. C. Field Management and Crop Rotation, pp. 50-62. Webb Publishing Company. [58] EXERCISE 29 (Continued) COMPARATIVE CROP YIELDS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS Kind of Crop Field Number Location Size of Field in Acres Total Crop Yield Yield per Acre \S9\ PART III. FIELD AND ORCHARD CROPS - tassel -leaves internodes EXERCISE 30 THE CORN PLANT Statement. Our interest in farm operations is greatly quickened if we understand fully the life habits of the plants and animals which we are raising. Besides, such knowledge pcwnts the way to the most successful farm practice. Corn is the most important crop in American agriculture, and this plant is more dependent upon man's care than any other of the great cereals. Therefore a detailed knowledge of the corn plant is of the highest importance. Object. To learn how the com plant grows, its structure, and the relationship of its parts. Materials. Microscope ; grains of com which have been soaked in water for twenty-four hours; seedlings of com which were started at periods of one, two, and four weeks before the date of the exercise ; mature com plants. Directions. Study the oldest seedlings and make a sketch show- ing accurately roots, stem, and leaves. Trace these structures back through younger seedlings and finally to the grain, and discover the stages in the development of the different parts. Examine a transverse section of a mature stalk of com. Describe its stmc- ture. Examine a cross section under the microscope and make drawings to show the plant fibers. What are they called, and what purpose do they fulfill ? Note the hard outer fiber around the stalk. What is its use ? Note the shape of the stalk between the joints. Observe the manner in which the leaves are arranged on the stalk. Notice the shape of the leaves and how they are equipped to with- stand a strong wind. Take hold of a leaf near the end and pull it around as if to break it from the stalk. Study the sheath. Notice where it bends and how difficult it is to break from the stalk. What purpose does it serve? Observe how water is prevented, from passing into the sheath. Explain the advantage to the plant of this arrangement. Note the whorls of roots just above the sur- face of the ground. Explain their value. Explain how a corn plant assumes an upright position after having been blown over by a wind. Questions. Is the shape of the internodes of any advantage to the plant? What is the most valuable part of the plant to man ? Is the remainder of the plant of any value ? In what respects ? Name as many products as possible that are made from the corn plant. About how many days does it require for corn to mature from the date of seeding? What is the average yield of com in your community ? What is the highest yield ? What is the average yield for the United States ? References. Waters, H.J. Essentialsof Agriculture, pp. 26-27, 138. Ginn and Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 26-38. The Macmillan Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, p. 6. Orange Judd Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 80-88. The Macmillan Company. [60] Fig. 32. Parts of the corn plant i r EXERCISE 31 THE CORN FLOWER Fig. 33. Com tassel and ear showing silk Statement. The flowers of the com plant are arranged in clusters in two different parts of the plant. The male flowers form in the tassel, while the female flowers form on the cob and are surrounded by the husks. The flowers in the tassel contain the pollen grains which, when ripe, are liberated from pollen sacs. When a pollen grain falls upon a com silk it begins to grow, and the long, slender thread which it puts forth reaches the base of the silk and carries with it the cell which fertilizes the female cell within the undeveloped kernel. This fertilized cell grows and becomes the embryo corn plant and the kernel then develops to maturity and is ready to reproduce its kind. Object. To observe how the com flower is pollinated, where the pollen forms, and how it is distributed. Materials. Ears of mature com ; a microscope ; com tas- sels and ear shoots which were preserved in formalin just as the flowers were opening, or fresh flowers if available. Directions. Examine ear shoots and mature ears, noticing where the silks are attached. Examine the tassel of the corn plant and observe how the pollen sacs are attached to the tassel. Examine a pollen sac under the microscope and make a drawing to show its shape. Show in the drawing where the ripe pollen escapes from the sac. Examine the surface of a pollen grain under the microscope. Describe it. Observe whether the pollen grains and silks of a stalk of corn ripen at the same time or whether the silks of one plant are, as a rule, pollinated by the pollen from neighboring plants. In other words, observe whether the corn is self- or cross-pollinated. Observe the nature of the surface of the silks and how dust or pollen grains stick once they come in contact with the silks. Explain the significance of this. Notice the amount of pollen a com plant produces. Ob- serve the groimd, the plants, and your clothing when walking through a field of corn that is in full bloom. Does there seem to be a scarcity of pollen ? Questions. What does a pollen grain do after reaching the silks ? Is there an excess of poUen produced ? What happens if pollen from one kind of com fertilizes the female cell of another kind of corn ? Is corn inbred or crossbred ? When two varieties of corn are planted side by side will the crop from each be pure and true to the seed planted ? Explain fully what will happen and how it is brought about. How far may corn pollen be carried by the wind ? In growing pure seed corn what precautions should one take ? Are the same precautions necessary in growing pure seed of other farm crops and why ? Fig. 34. Results of poor pollination When scanty pollination occurs, few ovules are fertilized and few kernels develop. References. Waters, H. J. Southern Field Crops, pp. 88-89. Orange Judd Company. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 138. Ginn and Company. Duggar, J. F. The Macmillan Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, p. 185. 62 I EXERCISE 32 —crown starch ■homy starch shoot of embryo homy starch germ root of embryo tip starch -— hull ■— tip cap Fig. 3s. Physical parts of com kernel A DETAILED STUDY OF THE CORN KERNEL Statement. In selecting seed com it is very important to choose a type which is adapted to the conditions of soil and climate under which the crop is to be grown. Object. To determine how near com kernels conform to the standard and to develop skill in judging seed corn. Materials. A small piece of board or a shingle ts inch thick ; ears of show or seed com ; a sharp knife ; a few small naUs. Directions, i. Cut notches in the board or shingle into which com kernels of the proper size and shape for the locality will fit and use this form in measuring the length, breadth, and thickness of kernels from the standard varieties of com ; from different types of the same variety and from different parts of the same ear. 2. Choose a dozen type ears and compare and classify the kernels with respect to uniformity in size, shape, and color ; in depth, width, and thickness, using the specifications of the score card as a basis. Compare the germs as to size, shape, plumpness, and color as discussed in the text. Select tJie type of kernel best suited to rich land with abundant moisture ; the type best adapted to upland or a dry season. With the aid of the teacher and the most successful corn growers of the community choose the type of grains best suited to the soil and climatic conditions of the locality. Measure the grains chosen and determine their approximate dimensions. Compare these dimensions with those of grains which are believed to be unsuited to local conditions. Make natural-sized drawings of the desirable kernels and discuss fully their qualifications. Give the reasons for your conclusions. 3. In consultation with the experienced stockmen of the neighborhood classify the selected corn kernels according to their value as feed for fattening stock, giving in writing the reasons for your classification. Compare in detail the character of the best class of kernels for feeding stock with those which you have chosen as the best for planting. Questions. Which part of the ear shows the most uniformity in size and shape of kernel ? How may the size and shape of the kernels planted influ- ence the yield ? Why is a thin kernel undesirable to plant ? What relationship does the size of the germ have to the early growth of the plant ? Why should we grade seed com before planting it? How is com usually graded? Should kernels with dark colored or moldy germs be chosen for seed? Give reasons for your answer. Should kernels with small or shriveled germs be chosen? Give reasons. What does a deep, narrow, thin, chaffy kernel indicate as to the nature of the soil and chmate required by the type of corn it represents? What does a shal- low, broad, flinty kernel indicate? In what respects wiU the season affect the type of kernel pro- duced? A dry season; an ideal season; a wet season; a short season or one in which the com fails to mature fuUy. How do the seasons affect the feeding value of the grain? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 140-145- Ginn and Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 84-85. Orange Judd Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 92-95. The Macmillan Company. Morgan, J. O. Field Crops for the Cotton Belt, pp. 159-160. TheMac- millan Company. [64] mm Fig. 36. High and low producing seed grains At the left, strong, vigorous grains with well-formed germs; seed of the ear from which these grains were taken yielded 8i bushels to an acre in an ear-row test in Kansas; at the right, weaker grains of the same variety as at the left ; germs not so well developed ; yield of seed from this ear 51 bushels. \ EXERCISE 33 Fig. 37. Desirable and undesirable types of kernels THE BUTT AND TIP KERNELS OF SEED CORN Statement. In the development of the corn ear the silks attached to the butt kernels mature first, therefore the butt kernels are the first to form their embryos. The silks attached to the tip kernels mature last, and the kernels are the last to form their embryos. The pollen which first ripens is usually produced by barren stalks or by plants which because of their earliness are small. The pollen last produced is from late-maturing stalks, many of which are weak and unproductive. Since the butt and tip kernels are fertilized by pollen from these undesirable plants, such kernels should not be used for seed. Also, the tip kernels do not contain enough stored food for the little plant, nor are they properly shaped to contain a strong germ. Object. To compare the relative value of butt, body, and tip kernels for seed. Materials. Ears of corn ; a corn planter ; plot of ground, or a box of sand if no plot of ground is available ; a corn grader. Directions, i. Examine kernels from the butt and tip. Note the shape, soundness and size of the grains. 2. Prop up a corn planter and by turning the wheels test the accuracy of the drop, first using body kernels of corn and then using kernels from the entire ear ; then from the butt ; then from the tip. 3. Plant in one row of the seed plot or of the box of sand butt kernels of corn. In another row plant body kernels and in the third row plant tip kernels. Give the three rows the same treatment and observe any differences that may occur. Record the number of barren stalks pro- duced in each row; number of ears of corn; amount of corn by weight; number of "suckers," and uniformity of stand. If the exercise is performed indoors, only the early growth can be observed. 4. Sort one-half peck of shelled corn through a corn grader. Figure the percentage of kernels that are removed. Is the grading of corn in this manner a slow or difficult process? Take the corn that has passed through the grader and sort it by hand, removing any broken, ill-shaped, or undesirable kernels. Fig. 38. Good and poor butts and tips Questions. What percentage of the kernels are found to be undesirable when run through the grader ? Consider- ing what would have been lost by planting the bad kernels, would it be worth while to hand grade the kernels ? How do uniform kernels help to produce a uni- form stand? Explain how a kernel of seed corn which has been fertilized from a weak or barren stalk is likely to be affected in its power to produce. References. Waters, H. J. Essentialsof Agriculture, p. 143. Ginn and Company. Hxtnt, T. F. Cereals in America, pp. 148, 200. Orange Judd Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 78-79. Orange Judd Company. [66] EXERCISE 34 A DETAILED STUDY OF THE CORN EAR Object. To estimate the points of superiority in ears of com and to determine the character of the qualities essential to good seed corn. Materials. Three ears of corn for each student in the class, with a few extra ears for further comparison. Textbook statements of what constitutes a good ear. Directions. In each vertical column in the follow- ing outline enter the statements which express your judgment of the character of each of the qualities listed for an ear of corn. Repeat this for two other ears ; then compare your statements and compare the ears to see if you have described them accurately. Classify the shape of ears as cylindrical, tapering, or irregular. Length of ears should include extreme length, considering projecting cob as a part of the ear. The circumference should be taken at one third the distance from the butt to the tip. Color of kernels should show the number of kernels not of the same color as the ear. Indentation should be classed as broad, deep, or chaffy. The number of rows depends upon the type and variety of corn. The spacing of the kernels should be such Fig. 41. Deep and shallow kernels At left, deep; at right, shallow Fig. 39. Grand sweep- stakes. Single ear at the Iowa State Corn Show as to allow a maximum amount of corn; that is, the kernels should fit tightly one against another. Designate the spacing at the crown and at the cob as close or loose. Classify the pairing of the rows as distinct or indefinite ; classify tips as blunt or taper- ing; classify butts as expanded, contracted, or cylindrical; classify shanks as large, medium, and small. Questions. What is the proper length for an ear of dent corn in your community? What has hap- p)ened when ears of corn display more than one color? Describe the appearance of a chaffy kernel of corn. In what dimension is a chaffy kernel usually deficient ? If kernels are narrow, what about the spacing at the crown? If narrow, what about spacing at the cob? If narrow, how is size of the germ affected ? References. Waters, H. J. Essen- tials of Agriculture, pp. 142-147. Ginn and Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. loi-iii. The Macmillan Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 75-87. Orange Judd Company. [68] Fig. 40. Wide and narrow spacing on the cob Fig. 42. Undesirable ty-pes of ears At the left, grains spaced too wide ; in the middle, ear too slender ; at the right, ear too short and thick EXERCISE 34 (Continued) A DETAILED STUDY OF AN EAR OF CORN Ear No. 1 Ear No. 2 Ear No. 3 Ear No. 4 Ear No. 5 Ear 1. Shape 2. Length 3. Circumference . Kernel 1. Color 2. Amount of indentation 3. Shape Narrowside Rows 1. Number 2. Spacing At crown of grains • At cob 3. Pairing of rows Tip Butt . . ; Shank [69] EXERCISE 35 SCORING A TEN-EAR SAMPLE OF CORN Statement. When an individual is able to compare and judge ears of corn rapidly and accurately, he has developed " corn judgment," a trait which can only be acquired by experience and study. To a beginner a score card designating the principal points to be considered is very helpful. It is not a rule ; it is only a device to aid in forming correct judgment. Object. To determine the relative merits of ears of corn from a physical examination. Materials. Ten selected ears of corn for each pupil; tape measure 12 inches long; a sharp pocket knife ; a magnifying glass. Directions, i. Score each ear of the ten selected, and record the score of each on the score card which follows. After your score has been gone over by the instructor, make notes at the bottom of the score card showing where errors were made, and why. After all exhibits are scored, examine carefully those re- ceiving the highest score. 2. Each pupil should select the best single ear from his ten-ear exhibit and enter it in a single-ear contest. After the best ear in the entire lot is selected, mount it and label it the prize winner from the standpoint of appearance. In a home project exercise outlined later the prize winner will be chosen from the standpoint of per- formance in an ear-row test. Selection by means of physical examination is very helpful and is the only feasible plan of general seed selection, but the final test is the record of performance in the field. 3. Save for future use all the ears judged, being sure to keep them properly tagged so that their history may be traced at any time. Questions. What points on the score card are given the most consideration ? Why? What is the required length for a standard ear of corn in your community? Why does the size of the ideal ear vary in different regions ? If a kernel of corn produces a stalk containing one or two average-sized ears, how many kernels are produced from the one planted ? How many ears of average size for your com- mtmity are required to plant an acre? How many acres of com will a bushel of seed plant? At $1, $2, $3, $5 a bushel respectively, what is the seed cost for an acre? If properly selected seed will produce five bushels an acre more than ordinary seed how much more could the farmer afford to pay for it rather than use ordinary seed ? How many hours could he afford to spend growing or selecting such seed rather than plant the unselected sort ? References. Waters, H.J. Essentialsof Agriculture, pp. 138-148, 211. Ginn and Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, pp. 170-171. Orange Judd Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 75- 87. Orange Judd Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. loi-i 11. The MacmiUan Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 253-259. The MacmiUan Company. Fig. 43. A grand sweepstakes exhibit at the Indiana State Corn Show [70] EXERCISE 35 (Continued) SCORE CARD FOR INDIVIDUAL EARS OF CORN Scale oj Points Pos- sible Score Points Deficient Student's Score Corrected Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Variety type. The ear should conform to the general type of the variety to which it belongs, in respect to size and shape of ear, color of kernels and cob, and width, thickness, depth, shape, spacing, and indentation of kernels. When variety type is not known, give perfect score on this point . . . 2. Maturity and soundness. The ear should be well- matured, dry, firm when twisted, and of good weight for its size and condition. Sappiness, moldiness at the crowns of the kernels and at the cob, looseness of com on cob, chaffiness, adherence of tip caps to cob and of consider- able chaff to the tips, are all indications of immaturity. Decayed, mouse-eaten, and insect-injured kernels are unsound and also indicate a poor seed condition . . . 3. Purity, (i) 0/ kernels. Kemeb should be free from mixture with com of other colors. Mixture in yellow corn is shown on the caps of the kemels and in white corn usually on the sides. Deduct one-half point for each kemel distinctly showing undesired color. If in competition, ten or more mixed kernels should bar the ear. (2) 0/ cob. Cobs in yellow com usually should be red (the shade of red desired varying with variety) ; and in white com, white. For pink cobs, cut according to shade. A cob of distinctly undesired color, unless a variety characteristic, should be given a score of zero, and if in competition, the ear should be barred .... 4. Shape of ear. In general a well-shaped ear should (i) be nearly cylindrical; (2) have straight rows miming directly from butt to tip; (3) be full and strong in the middle portion; (4) not be flattened. Such an ear will shell a high percentage of uniformly shaped kemels 5. Size and shape of kernels. Size of kemels includes the depth, width, and thickness. For average corn-belt con- ditions a medium depth of kernel usually produces the largest yield of mature com. The width, thickness, and shape of kemels vary with varieties. As a general rule, however, they should be keystone-shaped, permitting the edges of the kernels to touch from crown to tip. As to thickness, the kernels should number about six to the inch in the row S 15 S 10 10 S 10 s s s s — — — 6. Uniformity of kernels. The kemels should be uniform in depth, width, thickness, and shape throughout the ear. Irregular kernels are objectionable 7. Size and condition of germs. The germs should be long, wide, thick, smooth, and bright and should not be shriv- eled, blistered, shrunken, moldy, or discolored. The embryo proper should show a fresh, oily, and live appear- ance and be yellowish-white in color 8. Butt. The butt should carry out the circumference of the ear uniformly and not be pinched, enlarged, expanded, or flattened. It should be well rounded out with straight rows of regular kemels having nearly the same depth, width, thickness, and shape as the body kernels. The grains on the butt should be uniformly arranged around a medium-sized, cup-shaped cavity 9. Tip. The tip should be covered to the end of the cob with kernels arranged in straight rows and having nearly the same size and shape as the body kemels. Shallow, narrow, irregular, glistening, and shot-shaped kemels are objectionable — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — 10. Space between rows and kernels. Large, open spaces between the rows cither at the crowns or the tips of grains or between the kemels in the same row are objectionable. There should be only enough space to permit satisfactory drying of the ear. Too close spacing is also objectionable. 1 1 . Proportion of grain to cob. The proportion of grain to cob differs with varieties and with the latitude under which grown. A reasonably good seed ear should shell from 85 to 87 per cent. The occurrence of one or more of the follow- ing factors may indicate a low proportion of grain to cob: (i) large cob; (2) moist and heavy cob ; (.3) shallow ker- nels ; (4) wide space between rows either at the crowns or the tips of the kernels in the same row ; (5) butts and tips much exposed ; (6) butt and tip kernels extremely shallow. 71 EXERCISE 36 ■£% Js^la isv^SSS^B mlS/^St^U l^^Mie^^t^^^ ^^^m b^tJA^SlASH <>5!!^^£^>SflSK^W I^J^ ;, )'-'>a'5'r^'3S ^x^ ,V-:ii3S^3 %%«1 ^^^■l^^g^^z ^^^1 £«^^ .^^^^esSSm * ;^ SS*4a :^^Ss^3S^ i '^E^BfvSsB ^^^ Ss^B 's^S^a ^flPv *»M a»a9| S^^B jBSS JMBPL^fe^ ^•3 5a if iS| 1 c^^B la >lw ^ as^F '^^W ^ ^ FACTORS DETERMINESTG THE YIELD OF CORN Statement. The average corn yield of the United States is about 24 bushels an acre, while the best fanners secure from 70 to 100 bushels. As many as 228I bushels have been produced by a Com Club boy in South Carolina. Is the reason for the low average yield the small size of the ears produced, or the small number of ears, or both ? Object. To determine the cause for the wide variation in the acre production of com. Materials. Scales; tape measure; ears of com of average size. An ear weighing six ounces and one weighing approximately 2^ ounces. Directions, i. Have each student secure an ear of corn of approximately the average size for the locality. Ascertain the weight, length, and circum- ference of these average ears and compare the results with the standard for your section of the state as determined by the score card of your Agricultural College or Corn Growers' Association. 2. When corn is planted in hills 3^ feet apart each way, there are 3556 hills on an acre. 3. Compute the yield of com per acre with three stalks to the hill, a perfect stand, and each stalk bearing an ear, assuming that each ear weighed the same as the average of the ears brought in by the students. How does this yield compare with the actual yield of the neighborhood ? 4. Compute the yield, assuming that the ears weigh 6 oimces each. How does this yield compare with the local yield ? Secure a 6-ounce ear. How does it compare with the average ear brought in by the students? 5. Compute the yield on the basis of a 2§-ounce ear to each stalk. Compare this yield with the local yield and with the average yield of the United States. Compare a 2^-ounce ear with the ears brought in by the students. 6. Assuming that the students have brought in ears of average size for the neighborhood and assuming the average yield for the United States to be 24 bushels an acre, what proportion of the stalks have ears on the basis of a perfect stand of three stalks to the hill ? What proportion have ears on the basis of two stalks to the hill and a perfect stand ? Questions. Is the low yield of the neighborhood due to the small size of the ears or to the small num- ber of ears produced per acre ? Is the small niunber of ears produced due to the imperfections of stand or to the large number of barren stalks, or both? How in your judgment may the com yield be most readily increased? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 135. Ginn and Company. Duggak, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 114-119. The Macmillan Company. Morgan, J. O. Field Crops for the Cotton Belt, pp. 243-244. The Macmillan Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 57-58, 122-123. The Macmillan Company. [72] Fig. 44. Comparative weights of ears of com a, 12 ounces; i, 6 ounces; c, 23 ounces. Which of these ears of corn represents the size of ear produced in the neighborhood ? Is the small size of ear the principal cause of low yields? ► EXERCISE 37 A FIELD STUDY OF THE DEFICIENCIES OF CORN PLANTS Statement. Low yields of corn are not due to a single cause. The deficiencies in the average field of com are numerous and require wide knowledge of soils and plant life to correct them. Object. To determine the influence of the stand and the proportion of barren to fruitful stalks upon the yield of corn ; also the causes of poor stands and of barrenness of stalks. Materials. Measuring stick or tape measure ; spring balances ; a bag or bushel basket. Directions. Select a row of com that represents, as nearly as may be ascertained by the eye, the average of the field and measure the distance between the rows. If the rows are 3^ feet apart, a row 125 feet long will be the equivalent of one hundredth of an acre. In any case, measure off a row long enough to be the equivalent of one hundredth of an acre. Count the hills in the row ; the number of hills missing ; the number with one stalk, with two stalks, with three stalks, with more than three stalks. Compute the average number of stalks in a hill ; the total number of stalks in the row. Count the nmnber of stalks with one good ear, with two good ears; the mmiber bearing nubbins (ears under five inches in length) ; the number of barren stalks ; the total number of ears; the total weight of ears; the percentage of stalks bearing good ears ; the estimated 5deld ; and the number of ears to the acre. 1 Compute the yield per acre on the basis of a perfect ' stand and each stalk bearing an ear weighing 12 ounces, and compare the result with the actual increase in yield per acre if each stalk found barren or producing only a nubbin had borne a normal ear. Explain some of the causes for poor stands and barrenness and how these defects may be remedied. Fill in these data on the form opposite and discuss the results obtained. Questions. How could the farmer have increased his yield ? Would the row you have examined be a good place Fig. 45. High and low yielding ears The difference in the yielding power of different ears of com of the same variety is well illustrated by the produc- ing record of the ears shown. These two ears were selected from the same field as good seed and the grains planted side by side and given the same care. The seed from the ear at the left yielded i6 bushels to the acre, and seed from the ear at the right yielded 70 bushels per acre. (Courtesy of the Kansas State Agricultural College) for the farmer to obtain seed for the next year's planting ? On the basis of 90 per cent of a perfect stand what would have been the yield of the row you counted ? What would have been the yield if each stalk had borne a 12 -ounce ear? Will the ears be as large and the proportion of fruitful stalks as large with a perfect stand as with 80 per cent of a stand? In a very dry season is a thick or a thin stand best and why ? In a wet season which is best and why? On rich land? On poor land? Which when the variety planted is large? When it is small? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 137, 141- The Cereals in America, pp. 196-197. Orange Judd Company. [74] Ginn and Company. Hitnt, T. F. EXERCISE 37 (Continued) FIELD SURVEY OF CORN Row No. 1 Row No. 2 Row No. 3 Row No. 4 Number of hills counted Number of hills misslns Number of hills with one stalk ' . Number of hills with two stalks Number of hills with three stalks Number of hills with more than three stalks . . . Total number of stalks Average number of stalks per hill Number of stalks with one good ear Number of stalks with two good ears Number of stalks bearing nubbins Number of barren stalks Total number of ears Percentage of stalks bearing good ears Estimated acre yield Estimated number of ears to the acre Average weight of each ear With each stalk producing one 12-ounce ear what would have been the yield per acre ? I [75] EXERCISE 38 SELECTING SEED CORN FROM THE FIELD Statement. After the measurements .of a desirable ear of com are known and the shape and char- acteristics of the various parts understood, there still remains the practical application of the principles. Selecting seed from the field applies these principles and develops in the individual the power of quick decision and sound judgment. Object. To learn how to select seed corn in the field. Materials. A bag swung over the shoulder like a game sack or a basket ; a tape measure ; a note- book ; some small tags ; a field of well-bred, mature corn. Directions. Each student should go into the field and select ten ears of seed corn, noting carefully the points governing seed selection. The blank form on the opposite page should be used, and all data ^^^ m \ >A "'^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^i ^^^B % % WT - . ^Jm Uflffl ^^^^^^^^SlEK^^^lMl^k^*^ -^^^^^^^^BI^SlI -■ ^fe^^i/i: I I ^^^^IB^BBKMBBu^S^^yi^^ttif'^m^^Bi^^ U^ •0^ ^^^H/ ;•,■■; HhI^^h f5^ ^ ,. ., j£:^ fe^S^-^-,'' Fig. 46. Students acquiring com judgment and securing seed for their home project concerning the ears chosen and the plants which produced them should be entered. Wrap and number each ear selected so that it may be preserved and identified. Keep a complete record for reference. After selecting the ten ears and collecting the data return to the laboratory and place the ten ears side by side. Judging from the appearance of the ears and from the data collected concerning them, select the best ear of the ten. Enter it in competition with the ears selected by other students in an ear-row test to be conducted the following summer as a home project and as a means of securing good seed. Use, also, in this ear-row test the ear selected in Exercise 35. At the close of the competitive judging each pupil should be required, as a home project, to select enough of his father's seed corn for the next season's planting or to select enough seed further to develop and fix his judgment. Questions. What determines the value of an ear of seed corn ? What are the advantages of field selection over crib selection? When, in the fall, should seed corn be selected? How should it be [761 EXERCISE 38 {Continued) protected after being selected ? What are the most common defects of seed com used in your com- munity ? Suggest three convenient ways of storing seed corn so that it will dry quickly and be protected against injury from mice and rats. Is seed corn injured by low temperature when moist ? When dry ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 139-142. Ginn and Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 85-93. The Macmillan Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, p. 196. Orange Judd Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, p. 70. Orange Judd Company. Morgan, J. O. Field Crops for the Cotton Belt, pp. 192-196. The Macmillan Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 130-13 1. The Macmillan Company. SCORE CARD FOR SELECTING SEED CORN IN THE FIELD Possible Score Ear No.l Ear No. 2 Ear No. 3 Ear No. 4 Ear No. 5 Ear No. 6 Ear No. 7 Ear No. 8 Ear No. 9 Ear No. 10 Stalk The stalk should be strong and vigorous but not coarse. It should be medium sized, well developed at the base, and taper gradually to the tassel. It should stand up well, show- ing a good root system. The ears should be borne at a height of from three to four feet, which is most convenient for husking. Record the average height of the ears from the ground on each stalk from which you make a selec- tion. Record the nimiber of ears on each stalk ; the number of stalks in the hill ; the distance in each direction to the next stalk ; the leaf surface of the plant from which ears are selected. A large leaf area indicates well- developed ears containing hardy, well-filled kernels. 30 Shank The shank should be of medium length and size. If large or too short the ear will stick up when mature, which is objectionable. If the shank is large, it makes the ear difficult to break off in husking. The shank should not be excep- tionally small or it will not support the ma- turing ear, which will break sharply over, thus cutting off its own food supply. 10 Ear 40 The ear should be strong, mature, well devel- oped, cylindrical, and its circumference near three fourths of its length. It should have straight rows of well-filled kernels and tips filled with well-filled kernels. Ears with double- pointed or flattened tips should be discarded. Kernels 20 The kernel should possess medium indentation. If the kernels are smooth, they are generally quite shallow, and if too rough, the strain is not likely to produce well. The kernel should show purity of color. 77 EXERCISE 39 Fig. 47. Gennination-box tester TESTING SEED CORN Statement. Only vigorous seeds will produce vigorous plants. Only a germination test made before the seeds are planted will answer the question as to what proportion of the seeds will grow. Object. To ascertain what proportion of the corn which the farmers of the neighborhood are expecting to plant will germinate and which ears will produce vigorous plants. Materials. Shallow box, clean, fine sand ; nails ; string ; a piece of white cloth ; seeds to be tested such as 50 ears of com. Directions, i . Germination-Box Method. Entirely aroimd the top of the box drive nails partly into the edges, 2 inches apart. Tie string to these nails both ways across the box in such a manner that the box will be divided into 2-inch squares. On the edge across the top and between the nails letter each space. On the edge down one side and between the nails number each space. Label each ear of com to be tested by placing a tag on it marked A-i, A-2, A-3, etc. Plant in the square six kernels taken from different parts of an ear. When the tester is filled, cover the kernels with sand to a depth of about one half an inch. Water as needed. After the kernels have germinated, record the results. 2. Rag-Doll Method. On the strip of cloth about 12 inches wide and 2 yards long mark a heavy black line lengthwise in the center. Mark cross lines about three inches apart on one half of the cloth. Number each rectangle thus made and place ker- nels of com, from ears numbered to correspond, in the space. Beginning at the end of the cloth that is not Uned, roll it up, being careful not to disturb the kernels. Tie the roll at the ends and at the middle. Soak the roll for an hour in water and place it in a warm place for the seed to germinate. At the end of a week examine the seeds. Questions. Is it possible to determine by the appearance of the kernel or germ whether or not the grain will germinate? Is vigorous seed of more importance at the first planting when the ground is wet and cold than for late planting when the soil is warm, and why ? What does it cost per acre to plant com over? What when the ground must be replowed? Which is the better prospect for a good crop, com which is planted early or that which is planted late? Get the judgment of some of the best farmers of the neighborhood on this point and their reasons for their answers. Ask them also what they estimate to be the loss per acre in planting corn over, including the possible reduction in the yield due to later planting. What is the safest insurance you can suggest against a poor stand? Does your school test the seed corn for the farmers of the community? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 147-148. Ginn and Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 192-195. The Macmillan Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 71-72. Orange Judd Company. Morgan, J. O. Field Crops for the Cotton Belt, p. 238. The Macmillan Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 138-139. The Macmillan Company. [78] Fig. 48. Rag-doll tester EXERCISE 39 (Continued) RECORD OF GERMINATION TEST Ear No. A-1 Ear No. A-2 Ear No. A-3 Ear No. A-4 Ear No. A-S Ear No. A-6 Ear No. A-7 Ear No. A-8 Ear No. A-9 Ear No. A-10 Number of dead kernels . . . Number of weak kernels . . . Number of strong kernels . . . Average germina- tion .... RECORD OF GERMINATION TEST Ear No. A-1 Ear No. A-2 Ear No. A-3 Ear No. A-4 Ear No. A-5 Ear No. A-6 Ear No. A-7 Ear No. A-8 Ear No. A-9 Ear No. A-10 Number of dead kernels . . . Number of weak kernels . . . Number of strong kernels . . . Average germina- tion .... RECORD OF GERMINATION TEST Ear No. A-1 Ear No. A-2 Ear No. A-3 Ear No. A-4 Ear No. A-5 Ear No. A-6 Ear No. A-7 Ear No. A-8 Ear No. A-9 Ear No. A-10 Number of dead kernels . . . Number of weak kernels . . . Number of strong kernels . . . Average germina- tion .... [79] EXERCISE 40 CORN CULTIVATION Statement. Some crops, such as the pasture grasses, are grown successfully without cultivating the soil in which they are growing. Other crops, such as wheat and oats, need only the tillage required properly to prepare the seed bed. A large number of important crops, like corn, cotton, fruits, and garden vegetables, must have the soil about them tilled several times during their growing period if satisfactory results are to be obtained. Object. To understand the purposes and proper methods of cultivating corn. Materials. Kernels of corn; three large boxes at least two feet square and one foot deep, with holes in the bottom to provide drainage, and filled with finely screened garden soil. Directions. Labelthe boxes i, 2, and 3, respectively, and in each plant three kernels of com. Wet the soil in each box, using the same amoimt of water for each. As soon as the soil is dry enough to work stir the surface in box i to a depth of one-half inch and leave the others untreated. Observe whether this makes any difference in the time required for the plants to get above groimd. Explain. Fig. 49. The effect of cultivation on the growth of com The field at the left was plowed, harrowed, and cultivated three times ; yield 40 bushels an acre. The field at the right was plowed and harrowed, but not cultivated ; the weeds so completely choked the corn that the yield' was less than half a bushel to the acre. (Courtesy Illinois Experiment Station) After the com is up and growing well, remove all but one healthy plant from each box. Give each box the same amount of water. Every ten days after the plants are up cultivate the soil in boxes i and 2 . Cultivate box i three inches deep the first time, two inches deep the second and third times, and one inch deep the last. Cultivate box 2 four inches deep each time. In cultivating do not stir the soil within two inches of the plant. Leave box 3 imdisturbed, allowing the weeds to grow. Toward the end of the experiment cease watering the plants and allow them to suffer for moisture as corn plants do in a drought. Compare the growth of the plants as long as it is possible to continue the ex- periment and note under which treatment the plants best withstood the effects of the drought. Study the root system of the plants in each box and note where the roots are located and if any roots were destroyed by any system of tillage. Remove the weeds in box 3 at the surface. Weigh them and compare this weight with that of the corn stalks cut off at the surface. Compute the pro- portion of moisture used in corn growth and weed growth respectively. Questions. What are the principal benefits of cultivation of com ? In what ways do weeds hinder the growth of the corn plants ? When and how may weeds be most easily and completely destroyed ? [801 EXERCISE 40 (Continued) What depth of mulch is most effective in conserving moisture and keeping down weed growth ? How many times and at what stages of growth should corn be cultivated? At what stage of development should the crop be cultivated the last time or " laid by "? What principles should guide the farmer in regard to the depth to cultivate corn, (a) when the plants are small; (b) when the plants are large and their roots have fully permeated the soil ; (c) in a wet season when there is a rank growth of weeds to be killed ; (d) in a dry season when there are no weeds and the surface is covered with a mulch ; (e) when a thin crust is formed on the surface ? Name the principal implements used in tilling com in the community. How many acres can a man till in a day, when the corn is small? When it is ready to be " laid by " ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 150-152. Ginn and Company. Duggak, J. F. Southern Field Crops, pp. 158-188. The Macmillan Company. Morgan, J. O. Field Crops for the Cotton Belt, pp. 245-251. The Macmillan Company. Myrick, Herbert. The Book of Corn, pp. 123-128. Orange Judd Company. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crop, pp. 197-214. The Macmillan Company. Mosier, J. G., and Gustafson, A. F. Bulletin 181 Illinois Experiment Station, Urbana. [81] EXERCISE 41 A STUDY OF THE WHEAT PLANT Statement. The plant consists of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit. The relationship of the parts and the difference in the time at which they appear are strikingly shown in the case of the wheat plant. Object. To study the structure and relationship of the principq.1 parts of a wheat plant. Materials. Wheat seedlings grown in the classroom and a bundle of full-grown plants. Directions, i. Study the arrangement and structure of the roots, stems, and leaves of the wheat seedlings and of the mature plants. Make a diagram showing the position and relation of the parts. Compare the wheat seedlings and a full-grown plant to determine what changes have occurred, and what new structures have appeared. Examine the relationship of the grain formed to the husks surrounding it. Explain how the kernel is pro- tected. Determine how the flower is pollinated. 2. Ascertain, by counting, the average nimiber of plants on a square foot in a near-by wheat field, (i) in the fall, shortly after germination, and (2) in the spring when the plants are starting their growth again. Explain the cause for the difference shown. Count the number of shoots coming from different plants and compute the maximum and minimum number produced by a plant. Note any evidence of winter killing and explain the cause. Is the damage uniform throughout the field? If not, ex- plain why. (3) Visit the wheat field as late in the season as possible before school closes and note the thickness of the stand and the size of the heads on the different shoots of a plant. Compare the size and type of the heads of different plants. Note the difference in the rankness of growth, color of foliage, and thickness of stand between different spots in the field. Explain the reason for any difference that may exist. Give the cause for any lodging that may have occurred. Draw graphs on the opposite page, showing results of your observations. Questions. How does one wheat seed produce a number of plants ? How does the habit of stooling affect the crop of wheat? Why is spring wheat seeded thicker than winter wheat? Why is the former seeded thicker in the late sown than early sown wheat ? Are the pollen and ovules of the wheat present in the same flower? How does the wheat plant differ from the corn plant in this respect? Is wheat self fertilized or cross fertilized ? Explain the difference between the two. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 156-158. Ginn and Company. Carleton, M. A. The Small Grains, pp. 27-32. The Macmillan Company. Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat, pp. 11-29. Orange Judd Company. [82] Fig. 50. A young wheat plant showing the beginning of an elaborate system of roots, stalks, leaves, and heads EXERCISE 41 (Continued) A STUDY OF WHEAT GROWTH Seed Sown per Squake Foot Number of Plants Produced Number of Shoots Produced Number of Heavy Healthy Heads 60 SO 40 30 20 10 . 0 Number of Lodged Shoots Number of Diseased and Chaffy Heads Number of Diseased Plants Number of Heads Off Type 20 IS 10 5 0 83 EXERCISE 42 TYPES OF WHEAT Statement. There are eight types of wheat: common wheat, club wheat, durum, speltz, emmer, einkorn, polish, and poulard. About 90 per cent of the wheat grown in the United States is of the common type. Common wheat is divided into two principal classes : winter wheat and spring wheat. Object. To distinguish the types of wheat and to learn the points of merit of each. Materials. A collection of heads represent- ing all the local types of wheat. These should be collected before fully ripe, but after the grains are formed. They may be fastened in shallow boxes, and when dry may be kept for class use for a long time. Since the school is not in session when wheat is ripening, this col- lection should be assigned for home work for pupils. Besides the dififerent types, varieties of each type should be obtained. Directions. Make sketches showing the sur- face characters of each type of head. In your notes describe the way in which the heads are formed. Remove and study a cluster of kernels (spikelet) from the wheat head, and make a drawing to show how the spikelets are attached to the stem (rachis) and how the kernels are protected. Does the number of kernels vary in different spikelets? Notice how the spikelets are arranged on the rachis. Count the number of kernels in each head ; the nmnber of heads produced by a plant. Find the embryo or germ in a wheat kernel. In proportion to the size of the grain how does it compare with the germ of the corn kernel ? Classify wheat heads which are examined on basis of the spacing of the spikelets on the rachis as (i) close and (2) wide. Classify them on basis of the beards as (i) bearded, (2) slightly bearded, and (3) beardless. Measure the length of each head. Note whether it is slender, medium, or club shaped. Fill out the descriptive blanks given on the opposite page. Questions. Name the types of wheat. Name two classes of common wheat. How many rows of spikelets on an average wheat head ? Which yields the more kernels when planted, a kernel of com or a kernel of wheat ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 158-160. Ginn and Company. Carleton, M. A. The Small Grains, pp. 27-87. The Macmillan Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, pp. 47- 55. Orange Judd Company. Ten Eyck, A. M. Wheat, p. 21. Campbell Soil Culture Publishing Company. DONDLINGER, P. T. The Book of Wheat, p. II. Orange Judd Company. r84i ' ¥iG. 5 1 . Heads of some of the principal types of wheat Top row (from left to right) : common (karkov), marquis, polish, speltz, emmer (spring) ; lower row (from left to right) : poulard, einkom, durum, club » Type. EXERCISE 42 (Continued) TYPES OF WHEAT Variety_ Head No. 1 Head No. 2 Head No. 3 Head No. 4 Head No. 5 Vigor (appearance of vitality) Number of stalks per plant Leafiness of plant Number of spikelets per head Spacing of the spikelets Length of the head Number of kernels per head Total weight of kernels per plant Resistance to disease Color of kernels Adaptability to locality GRADING WHEAT Sample No. 1 Samplf. No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Sample No. 6 Sample No. 7 Sample No. 8 Sample No. 9 Sample No. 10 Class .... Grade .... Weight per bushel Description . . t 85 EXERCISE 43 THE PROPERTIES OF WHEAT WHICH AFFECT ITS VALUE AND USE Statement. The physical properties of wheat indicate its milling properties, its value as seed, and its freedom from disease. The properties of first interest to the miller are quality and yield of flour, which is indicated by the color, texture, hardness, and gluten content. These properties are also of first interest to the fanner, for in general the value of wheat for nulling purposes determines its value for seed. Object. To study those physical properties of wheat which are factors in determining its food and seed value. Materials. One-half pint sample of each tj^je of wheat obtainable. Directions. From the various samples of wheat select kernels showing variations of color, from whitish to deep red. Select kernels with a bright luster and glossy in appearance ; also kernels that are dull and bleached. Find kernels that are light colored, translucent, and hard. Such kernels are described as clear amber in color. Compare different varieties of wheat as to color ; as to hardness ; as to texture. In general the darker wheats have a high gluten content, and are very hard and flinty in texture. These are desirable characteristics in the milling of wheat. The light-yellowish, translucent kernels are also hard and flinty and even more desirable in these respects than the darker wheats. Durum wheat is an ex- ample of the clear amber-colored kernels. The color, hardness, and texture of a wheat are indications of the gluten content. The dark-colored and amber-colored wheats have Fig. 52. A comparison of the size of the loaf of bread made from the same quantity of soft and hard wheat The slice at the left was cut from a loaf made of soft winter wheat ; the one at the right from a loaf made from the same quantity of hard wheat a flinty texture, contain a high percentage of gluten, and have high milling qualities. The gluten content of hard and soft wheats may be compared as follows : Place twenty-five grams of flour from each in a cup and add water sufficient to make a dough of the proper consistency for bread-making purposes. Work each to a uniform dough, cover, and allow to stand one hour. Wash out the starch with ruiming water, using a cheesecloth screen to prevent the loss of bits of gluten during washing. WTien the gluten is apparently free from starch, work out as much water as possible without the gluten's becoming too sticky to handle, and dry at a moderate temperature, as in a warming oven, but do not burn. Weigh it as dry, crude gluten. Record the re- sults in the blank form. Repeat the exercise with other types of flour and compare the results. Questions. For what purpose is flour that is high in gluten used ? For what purpose is flour that is low in gluten used? Name the principal hard- wheat regions of the United States; the principal soft- wheat regions. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 158-163. Ginn and Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, pp. 59-60. Orange Judd Company. Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat, pp. 10, 48-49. Orange Judd Company. Lyon and Montgomery. Examining and Grading Grains, pp. 9-14. Ginn and Company. [86] EXERCISE 43 (Continued) CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT KERNELS Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Hardness I. Soft 2. Medium 3. Hard 4. \'ery hard Texture (cross section) 1. Starchy 2. Dull (denoting mealy texture) a Flinty Color I Whitish . . 2. Yellowish 3. Deep red 4. Clear amber GLUTEN IN WHEAT Type of Wheat Amount Weight after Drying Dry Crude Gluten Per Cent of Dry Gluten [871 EXERCISE 44 JUDGING WHEAT Statement. The value of wheat varies with its quality and the purpose for which it is to be used. Those conditions which determine quality are considered in detail in judging and grading wheat. Object. To take up systematically the points influencing the commercial grades of wheat and to score samples on these points. Materials. A number of peck samples of wheat and a grain tester. Directions. As a preliminary step toward the commercial grading of wheat and assigning a market value to it, the student should learn to recognize quickly and. accurately the defects and impurities of the grain. He must also acqviire skill in determining the test weight per bushel of wheat. Examine each sample and record the scores on the next page. In judging the factors enumerated in the score card observe the following points : Weight per bushel (25). Grain is now purchased by weight rather than by volume as formerly, and from 59 to 61 pounds, depending upon the type of wheat, constitutes a bushel, regardless of the volume required. While the miller buys wheat by weight he knows that the heavy, plump grains yield a higher percentage of flour of better quality, and, there- fore, are the most valuable. Soundness (25). Soundness is very valuable, for the flour-making value of wheat is largely dependent upon the soundness of the kernels. Smutted kernels may be detected by the grayish color, the ease with which they are crushed, the black powdery internal composition, and by the foul odor. Moldy kernels produce an irritating, unpleasant odor, and the kernels affected are readily visible. Sprouted kernels have a peculiar puffed appearance and a tiny sprout projects from the kernel. Bin-burned kernels become grayish and dull and later they are usually badly molded. Stack-burned kernels become dark, especially at the germ. Insect injury may either completely destroy the inside of the kernel or merely the germ. Purity (10). Wheat should be true to type, free from other grains, weeds, or trash. Each type of wheat mills a little differently from another and requires a different adjustment of the machinery. A mixture of types that is not uniform cannot be milled to the best advantage. Plumpness and size of kernels (15). Plumpness indicates that the wheat will test well. It is desirable that the grains shoiild be of uniform size to mill to the best advantage. Hardness and texture (15). Hardness of wheat bears close relationship to gluten content, and this, in turn, influences the value of the flour. Texture determines the milling qualities of wheat, especially the percentage of flour which can be obtained. Color (10) . Color is an indication of the hardness and texture and also indicates whether or not it is bleached or stack- or bin-burned. Questions. What causes stack burning? What causes bin burning? How may wheat be treated to prevent smut ? Is smut present in the wheat of your community ? Collect samples of wheat heads aflflicted with smut just before they are ripe. Describe them. Does there seem to be more than one kind of smut? Distinguish between them. Name the factors that influence the yield of wheat. References. Waters, H.J. Essentialsof Agriculture, p. 156. Ginn and Company. Standards for Grading Grain. United States Department of Agriculture. Office of Markets and Rural Organization. Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat, pp. 36-37. Orange Judd Company. [88] Fig. 53. Apparatus for making test weight of wheat In addition to the scale and vessel a wooden straightedge for striking the vessel is required. To avoid error in making the test a funnel device is used for filling the vessel in such a manner that the grain flows into it at a uniform rate and from a constant height EXERCISE 44 (Continued) SCORE CARD FOR WHEAT Possible Score Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 -5 Wheat to grade No. i should weigh as follows : hard red spring wheat, 58 pounds ; Durum and hard red win- ter wheat, 60 pounds; soft red winter and white wheats, 60 pounds per bushel. A measured bushel contains 2150.42 cu. in., and wheat varies from less than 50 pounds to more than 65 poimds per measured bushel. Cut the sample two points per pound defi- cient in weight. Soundness Smutty kernels 5 Sprouted kernels S Bin- or stack-burned 8 25 Insect iniurv 2 Total Cut the sample two points for each per cent of smutted, moldy, and sprouted kernels. Cut the sample two points for each pwr cent of bin- or stack-burned kernels and one point for each per cent of insect- damaged kernels. Purity 10 Cut the sample i per cent for each per cent of foreign matter, or kernels decidedly off type. IS Cut the sample one point for each 2 per cent of shriveled and undersized grains. Hardness and texture 15 Cut the sample one point for each per cent of soft or starchy grains. Color 10 Cut the sample one point for each 3 per cent of kernels not uniform in color. (891 EXERCISE 45 THE COMMERCIAL GRADING OF WHEAT Statement. The most important factors in determining the commercial grades of wheat are class, soundness, purity, moisture, content, dockage, and test weight. In grading wheat, official standards have been prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture, imder which wheat of any class may be classified and graded.^ Object. To study the factors which affect the quality of wheat. Materials. Samples of wheat from at least ten different homes or that number of samples from a local mill or elevator. Directions. Grade the samples obtained, and in the following blank form record the grades. In grading wheat the region in which it is grown largely indicates the class to which it belongs. Most of the wheat grown east of the Mississippi River is classed as " Red Winter " ; in eastern Kansas, Missouri, and in the south, it is Red Winter; Kansas and Nebraska produce Hard Red Winter, and Minnesota and the Dakotas, Hard Red Spring wheat; Durum wheat is grown chiefly in western North and South Dakota and Minnesota. Wheat of the Pacific coast states is Pacific Coast White or Pacific Coast Red, according to color. If there is a flour mill or a grain elevator in the town, invite the grain buyer to give one or two illustrated lessons to the students, on grading wheat, oats, corn, etc., and then secure the privilege of taking the class to the mill or elevator and using the equipment and material in one or more laboratory exercises. Perform these exercises at the mill or elevator and have the students do the grading under the supervision of the teacher and the manager. In testing the sample of wheat first determine the dockage. All other determinations are based on grain free from dockage. The materials removed from dockage include sand, dirt, weed seeds, stems, straw, chaff, grains other than wheat, shriv- eled or undeveloped wheat, wheat grains, small pieces of wheat kernels, and any other material which may be readily removed from wheat by means of the sieves shown in Fig. 54. Commercial wheats are divided first into classes, of which there are five : (i) Hard Red Spring, with three subclasses : Dark Northern, Northern Spring, and Red Spring; (2) Durum, divided into three subclasses : Amber Durum, Dunmi, and Red Durum; (3) Hard Red Winter, divided into three subclasses : Dark Hard Winter, Hard Winter, and Yellow Hard Winter; (4) Soft Red Winter, divided into two subclasses: Red Winter and Red Walla; (5) Common White, divided into two subclasses : Hard White and Soft White. The classes and subclasses are again divided into grades, of which there are sis, designated as Fig. 54. Sieves for determining dockage of wheat Fig. 55. Showing the perforations of the wheat dockage sieves The one on the left is the scalper sieve, with circular perforations ^5 inch in diameter; next is the buckwheat sieve, with triangular perforations J of an inch ; the next is the fine-seed sieve, with perforations ■j'j of an inch in diameter; and the one on the right is the chess sieve, with slot perforations -^X i inch. (Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture) I-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5- and 6-sample respectively. The specifications for the numerical grades are given in the table on the opposite page. Sample grade comprises all wheats which do not fall into one of the numbered grades of the class by reason of unsoundness, excessive moisture, garlicky odor, etc. Such wheats are sold by sample instead of by grade. ' For complete regulations in reference to grading commercial grains write the Bureau of Markets, United States Department of ^ Agriculture, Washington, D. C. [90] EXERCISE 45 {Continued) Questions. In what class does the wheat of your locality belong? What is the legal weight of wheat per bushel ? Does the weight per bushel of wheat have anything to do with the price when it is sold to the miller ? How does weight per bushel indicate quality ? How does the miller determine the exact weight per bushel ? When a farmer says that his wheat tests sixty pounds, what does he mean ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 156. Ginn and Company. Lyon and Mont- gomery. Examining and Grading Grains, pp. 17-21. Ginn and Company. Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat, pp. 223-224. Orange Judd Company. FEDERAL WHEAT GRADES Grade Nlmber Maximum Limits op — XlDnnDM Weight per Bushel in Pounds Percentage of moisture Percentage of damaged kernels Percentage of foreign material other than dockage Percentage of wheats of other classes Class Hard Red Spring Classes Durum, Hard Red Winter, Common White, and White Club; and subclass Red Winter Subclass Red WaUa Classes Hard Red Spring and Durum Classes Hard Red Winter, Soft Red Winter, Common White, and White Club Total Heat damage Total Matter other than cereal grains Total I' 2 3 4 3 58 57 35 53 50 60 58 56 54 51 58 56 54 52 4Q 14.0 14-3 13-0 16.0 16.0 13-3 14.0 14-3 13-5 15-5 2 4 7 10 15 O.I 0.2 o-S I.O 30 I 2 3 5 7 0-5 1.0 2.0 3-0 5-0 5 10 10 10 10 RECORD OF STUDENT'S GRADE Sample NCMBEH Class Test Moisture (Weight per Bushel) Wheat of Other Classes Damaged Kernels Inseparable Foreign Materials Grade Total Heat damaged Total Kinghead, corn, cockle, vetch darnel, wild rose, either singly or combined ' The wheat in grade No. i shall be bright ; the wheat in grades Nos. 1 to 4, inclusive, shall be cool and sweet ; the wheat in grade No. s shall be cool, but may be musty or slightly sour. [91] EXERCISE 46 THE COMMERCIAL GRADING OF OATS Statement. In grading oats the matter may be considered from the standpoint of the miller, the feeder, or the person who will sow the seed. In the score card on the opposite page emphasis is placed on those points which most affect the feeding value of the grain. Object. To examine oats with reference to their commercial value. Materials. A number of peck samples of oats and a grain tester. (See Fig. 54.) Directions. Score samples in accordance with the following score card and record all scores. Observe the following points under each heading: Weight per bushel (35). A good sample weighing 32 pounds or more indicates that the grain is mature, well filled, and does not contain a high percentage of hulls. Soundness (20) . Factors principally affecting soundness are mold, smut, and sprouted kernels. Color (15). The color of the grain should be bright and uniform. Purity (10). The sample should be free from other grains, weed seed, chaff, and any other foreign matter. Per cent of hull (20). Good oats may test as high as 30 per cent of hull. The commercial grade of oats is determined by the foregoing factors, although various states have rules established by grain-inspection departments for deter- mining the grades. Nearly all grading and inspection of oats is in accordance with the rules adopted by the Grain Dealers' National Association. The rules below are those adopted by this association for the grading of white oats : No. I White Oats shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, bright, clean, free from other grain, and weigh not less than 32 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 White Oats shall be 95 per cent white, dry, sweet ; shall contain no more than i per cent of dirt and I per cent of other grain, and weigh not less than 29 pounds to the measured bushel. Standard White Oats shall be 92 per cent white, dry, sweet ; shall not contain more than 2 per cent of dirt and 2 per cent of other grain, and weigh not less than 28 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 White Oats shall be sweet, 90 per cent white ; shall not contain more than 3 per cent of dirt and 5 per cent of other grain, and weigh not less than 24 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 White Oats shall be 90 per cent white ; may be damp, damaged, musty, or very dirty. Questions. If oats were being purchased for feed, which would be the more objectionable factor under purity, the presence of chaff or the presence of other grains than oats ? Which would be the more objectionable if the oats were being used for seed ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 169-170. Ginn and Company. Hunt, T. F. The Cereals in America, p. 313. Orange Judd Company. Lyon and Montgomery. Examining and Grading Grains, pp. 51-66. Ginn and Company. [921 Fig. 56. A typical head of white spring oats (Swedish select) EXERCISE 46 {Continued) SCORE CARD FOR OATS Possible Score Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Weiffht oer bushel 35 The legal weight of oats per bushel is 32 pounds. Cut the sample four points for each pound deficient. Soundness Moldy 10 Smutted 5 20 • Sprouted S Total The sample should be bright, dry, and free from damaged grains. Cut the sample one point for each per cent affected. Color 15 Purity Cut one point for each per cent of mixture, and one point for each per cent of foreign matter. . 10 Per cent of hulls 20 Cut the sample two points for each per cent above 30, and for each point below add one point to the score. 100 [93] EXERCISE 47 THE COMMERCIAL GRADING AND SCORING OF BARLEY Statement. In scoring barley the points considered are those affecting the commercial grade, as approximately one half of the barley produced is sold on the market. Object. To study the factors influencing the grade and quality of barley and to become familiar with the different grades. Materials. Peck samples of barley to be scored and a grain tester. Directions. Score samples and place results on the following page. Note the instructions given below. Trueness to type (5). Take 100 kernels, constituting a fair sample of the grain. Divide the kernels not true to type into three grades. In the grade badly off type cut one-tenth point for each kernel ; in the next grade cut one-tenth point for each 2 kernels, and in the best grade cut one-tenth point for every 3 kernels. Kernel uniformity in size and shape (5). The kernels should be uniform in size and shape. Classify and cut samples as in " True- ness to type." Color of grain (15). Sk-rowed barley should be yellowish white ; two-rowed barley nearly dead white in color. Classify closely and cut sample as under "Trueness to type." Size of kernels (10). All kernels should be large and plump. Classify into three groups : large, medium, and small and shriveled. Cut the sample as under "Trueness to type." Texture (10). Barley should be mealy to somewhat vitreous in texture. Take 10 repre- sentative kernels and cut each crosswise. Cut one-tenth point for each kernel vitreous throughout in its texture. Purity (30). Factors chiefly affecting purity are other grains, foreign material, dam- aged, smutted, and moldy kernels. For each foreign grain cut the sample one-fifth point. Fig. 57. Type heads of barley From left to right: two-row; common six-row; common six-row (Parallelum); true six-row (Pyramidalum). Courtesy of the Wisconsin Experiment Station Use 100 grains in examining for purity. Also cut the sample one-fifth point for each per cent of foul material and one-fifth point for each per cent of damaged, smutted, moldy, or bin-burned kernels. Cut the sample from one to ten points for bad odor. Weight per bushel (15). The standard weight per measured bushel is 48 pounds in most states. Cut one point for each pound below the legal weight per measured bushel in your state. Viability (10). Barley should have a germination test of 100 per cent. Cut one-half point for each per cent deficient in germination. The commercial grading of barley is influenced by the above factors, but the grain-inspection depart- ments of the various states provide rules governing the inspection and grading. For example, the following rules govern the inspection of barley in many states. No. I Barley shall be sound, bright, sweet, clean, and free from other grain. No. 2 Barley shall be sound, dry, and of good color. No. 3 Barley shall include shrunken, stained, dry barley unfit for No. 2 grade. No. 4 Barley shall include tough, musty, dirty barley. [94] EXERCISE 47 (Continued) Questions. In what climate does barley thrive to the best advantage ? Where in the United States is barley most generally grown? What country produces the largest share of the world's crop of barley ? What are the principal uses to which barley is put ? References. Lyon and Montgomery. Examining and Grading Grains, pp 68-82. Ginn and Company. Davis, K. C. Productive Plant Husbandry, pp. 212-215. J- B. Lippincott Company. SCORE CARD FOR BARLEY • Possible Score Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Trueness to type 5 Kernel uniformity in size and shape 5 Color of grain i.S Size of kernel 10 Texture . . 10 Purity Other grains ,30 Foreign material Damaged and diseased kernels .... Total . . . . 10 Weight per bushel 15 Viability 10 Total 100 [951 /'::' , EXERCISE 48 A STUDY OF THE SORGHUM PLANT Statement. The yield of kafir, milo, feterita, or other grain sorghum will depend greatly on the variety chosen. Some varieties require as much as one hvmdred and thirty-five days to mature, while others will mature in less than one hundred days. Some varieties are adapted to poor soil, others to rich soil ; some to high altitudes, others to low altitudes. Object. To study the characteristics of the varieties of grain sorghums. Materials. A mixed lot of sorghum seed containing black-hull kafir, pink kafir, yellow milo, white milo, feterita. Freed sorghum, kaoliang, Jerusalem corn, brown durra, shallu, and varieties of sweet sorghum ; the heads and stalks of the different varieties to be studied ; description of the varieties as contained in the publications named in the references. Directions, i. From a mixed lot of sorghum seed pick out twenty-five grains of each kind of grain sorghum. Place each kind on a separate piece of paper. Compare each kind of seed with seeds of a known variety and thus identify each lot. Compare each kind of seed with . the heads of the different varieties and with the printed descriptions. Identify each lot and submit the results to the instructor for verification. 2. Fill in the form on the opposite page, giving the color, relative size and shape of seed, length and shape of heads, and, if growing in the field, height of stalk, number of leaves per stalk, relative juiciness and sweetness of the stems, and the date of ripening. 3. Write a statement of the principal uses to which two selected types of sorghums studied are put, how they are grown, and the kind of season and soil which is best suited to them. Questions. What are the leading varieties of sorghimis in your community? Which is the more drought-resistant, corn or sorghum? Can you explain why? Describe the climate to which the sor- ghums are best adapted. How are sorghums planted ? How cultivated ? How harvested ? How utilized? References. Waters, H.J. Essentialsof Agriculture, pp. 223-230. Borman, T. A. Sorghums, The Kansas Farmer Company, Topeka. Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, p. 384. The Mac- millan Company. Bulletin 218 (1Q18), Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Fig. 58. Types of sorghum heads From left to right: kafir; sweet sorghum; milo maize; feterita. (Courtesy of the Kansas State Agricultural College) [96] EXERCISE 48 {Continued) VARIETIES OF SORGHUMS Sample No. 1 SVMPLE No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Sample No. 6 Color of seed Size of seed (small — medium — large) ...... ShaDe of seed Shape of head Average number of leaves per stalk Juiciness and sweetness of stems Variety [97] EXERCISE 49 Fig. 59 Sectional view of a high-yielding Kafir head with long main stem and large seed- bearing capacity Fig. 6o. Sectional view of the in- terior of a low-yielding Kafir head with short main stem and light- yielding seed-bearing stems JUDGING GRAIN SORGHUMS Statement. Sorghums are similar to corn in many respects, each producing an abundance of both grain and forage. Sorghums are especially valuable in their ability to withstand severe droughts, thus being enabled to grow in the semiarid regions of the United States. A knowledge of what constitutes a good head of sorghum for seed is im- portant and is the first step in successful sorghum production. Object. To judge standard varieties of grain sorghums. Materials. Samples to be scored and descriptive sheet on the following page. Directions, i. Arrange an exhibit of ten heads. Score one head at a time while learning to use the score card. Beginning with head No. i, estimate the score that should be given for each point. When judg- ing single heads, the score for uniformity will be based on the degree to which the head conforms to the most common type in the exhibit and the type of the variety it rep- resents. Repeat the estimate for each of the ten heads and find the average score for them. Compactness of the head is an important consideration. To determine this quality cut away the branches on two sides of the head as shown in the illustrations and note carefully the length of the main stem and the seed-bearing stems, and how thickly and uniformly the seeds are set on. 2. After scoring single heads each member of the class should arrange a ten-head exhibit. Then the entire display should be judged by each pupil, using the ten-head exhibit as a imit. Total the values and rank the exhibits. Questions. What are sorghums that have an abimdance of sweet juice called? Name some varieties of sorghum that do not contain sweet juice. In your community is sorghum grown for sirup, for grain, for forage, or for the brush? Why are sorghums grown in preference to corn in parts of the semiarid regions of the Great Plains area? What is the average yield of grain of the varieties of sorghmns produced in your community? References. Waters, H.J. Essentialsof Agriculture, pp. 223-228. Ginnand Company. Bqrman, T. A. Sorghums. The Kansas Farmer Company, Topeka. Montgomery, E. G. The Corn Crops, pp. 279-328. The Macmillan Company. Livingston, G. Field Crop Production, pp. 228-239. The Macmillan Company. 98 Fig. 61. The interior of a dwarf Milo head of desirable form Fig. 62. Interior of a good head of Feterita All photographs on this page from " Sorghums : Sure-money Crop," Kansas Farmer, Topeka EXERCISE 49 {Continued) DESCRIPTION SHEET FOR THE STUDY OF SORGHUMS* • Common name Names sometimes used . 1. Stalk: Tall, medium short, dwarf. Thick, mediimi, thin. Peduncles : erect, inclined, recurved. Internodes : long, medium, short. Stooling : abundant, not abimdant. Pith : soft, fibrous. Juice : abundant, not abundant, sweet, slightly sweet. 2. Leaf: Number per stalk Wide, medium, narrow. Thick, thin, long, short. Sheath : overlapping — little, much. 3. Head: General color : black, dark red, light red, brown, yellow, green, white. Length in inches Width in inches Length equals times width. Very open, open, compact, very compact. Flattened, equally developed on all sides, cylindrical. Spherical, ovoid, obovoid, umbelliform. Rachis : erect, drooping as long as panicle. Branches : short, long, very long, erect, tips drooping, drooping, strongly drooping. 4. Spikelet : Elliptic, oval, obovate, broadly obovate. 5. Glumes : Color : black, straw, gray, greenish. Spreading, not spreading. Short, long, large, open, covering seed. Wrinkled. Pubescent, slightly pubescent. 6. Seed: • Brown, red, white, ivory white, white with spots, yellow, reddish yellow. Conical, spherical, cylindrical, round, flattened, much flattened. 7. Lemma: awned; awnless. 8. Characters for identification. From Kansas State Agricultural College. f99I EXERCISE 50 A STUDY OF LEGUMES Fig. 63. A typical young red clover plant Courtesy of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture Statement. Wherever legumes thrive, and wherever many members of this great plant family grow wild, the farmers are almost certain to be prosperous. Wherever legumes do not thrive farming is likely to be conducted under great difficulties and is generally unprofitable. Object. To study the legumes adapted to the community and the uses to which they are put. Materials. Collecting case ; spade ; access to the farms of the neighborhood. Directions, i . Early in the fall or late in the spring take the class to the coimtry and study the growth habits of both wild and cultivated forms of legumes present. Have the students make a collection of representative plants of each for detailed study in the laboratory. Make careful note of the types of soil upon which each is found growing most abundantly and also the types upon which each thrives least well. Make note of the place of the legume in the crop rotation and explain the reason for the rotations followed by the farmers. 2. In the laboratory make a detailed study of the more important types of legumes collected, compare their leaves, stems, seed pods, seeds, roots, and root tubercles. 3. Make a list of all the legumes, domestic and wild, found growing in the neighborhood, together with a state- ment of the value of such as have economic importance. Name the more important cultivated legumes of the United States and state the principal uses to which each is put. 4. Explain in detail how you would proceed to secure a stand of red clover and alfalfa, and how you would manage each to secure the best results. Questions. What do you consider the two greatest values of legumes? Give reason for each answer. What legume is of most importance in the local community and why ? What other legumes than those grown locally should be introduced? At what place in the rotation does the legume usually come? What crop usually precedes the legume in the local farm practice ? At what stage of devel- opment would you cut red clover for hay ? At what stage would you harvest alfalfa for the largest yield ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 78-79, 204-206. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 143-152. Orange Judd Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil FertiUty and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 210-214. Ginn and Company. [1001 Fig. 64. A tj^aical young alfalfa plant Courtesy of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture EXERCISE 51 DTOCULATION OF SOILS FOR LEGUMES Fig. 65. Taking soil from an alfalfa field with which to inoculate soil upon which alfalfa has not been grown successfully Statemfcat, Attaehcd to t|ip roots of growing legumes are many nodules, or tubercles, which were caused by bacteria. These bacteria penetrate the roots of the plant and draw part of their sustenance from the legumes and part from the air. They have the power to use free, or pure, nitrogen from the air and change its form so that the legume can use it. The legume in turn absorbs the substance of the nodules and is nourished thereby. In this indirect way legumes are able to use free nitrogen. Object. To ascertain whether the presence of bacteria is necessary for the best growth of legumes. Materials. Roots of as many legumes as can be ob- tained; soils from an alfalfa or red or sweet clover field where bacteria are present ; alfalfa seed ; clean fine sand ; a one-gallon or two-gallon pail; flowerpots or tin cans; formalin ; distilled rain water. Directions. Fill the two flowerpots or tin cans with clean fine sand. Heat the sand for half an hour at a temperature which will destroy all life. Place 10 cubic centimeters of formalin in 50 cubic centime- ters of distilled water and place alfalfa or red clover seeds in the solution for five minutes. Remove and wash with distilled water and plant the seeds in the two pots of soil previously heated. Water one pot with distilled water and the other with water prepared by filtering distilled or rain water through a pail half full of soil from an alfalfa or clover field contain- ing plants upon which root tubercles have developed. Stir the soU and water thoroughly and after the soil has settled pour off the clear water and use it. Use fresh soil each time that water is to be prepared. Let the plants grow until a difference is apparent in their growth. Remove the plants and examine their root systems. Questions. What do bacteria supply to the plants? From whence is it obtained? Suppose the clover crop is removed from the field and only the roots left, has much fertility been added to the soil ? Do you think that clovers in the rotation will solve the soil-fertility problem if the crops are largely removed and only the roots and stubble are returned? References. Waters, H.J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 78-79,205-206. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C.W. Soils, pp. 143-152. Orange Judd Company. Hopkins C. G. Soil Fertility ^^^^^ ^^^^^^1^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ „^ ^^^ ,„„t, „f ^j^, and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 210-214. Ginn and Company. cowpea [102] I EXERCISE 52 A STUDY OF THE POTATO Fig. 67. Desirable and undesirable types of tubers Note the sunken eyes, peaked ends, and irregular forms of the lower line of tubers in contrast with the regular outline and smooth sur- face of those in the upper row. (Courtesy of the Pennsylvania State College) Statement. Some plants store most of their food in the seed, as in the case of wheat or corn ; others in the stem, as the sugar cane ; others in the leaf, as the cabbage ; others in the roots, as the sugar beet or the sweet potato ; others in enlarged underground stems called tubers, as in the Irish potato. Object. To study the growth and habits of the potato and to learn how to select and care for seed potatoes. Materials. A supply of potato tubers ; a box or pot of potatoes growing from cuttings planted four weeks previously ; some potatoes which have been allowed to sprout in a damp, partially lighted cellar or the school basement. . Directions, i . Make a study of buds (eyes) and determine if there is a scale or leaf-like structure at the sides of the buds; note its position; note whether the buds are arranged in any regular order ; whether they are equally abundant at both ends of the potato. Make a cross section of the potato and observe the smaller cells which represent the woody stem tissues. Note the arrangement of the starch grains in the tubers. Examine the sprouts and the planted potato cuttings; determine, and make sketches showing, how new potato plants grow from old ones, and where the young plant obtains its sustenance. 2. Keep one lot of half a dozen tubers in a warm cellar so that by planting time they have produced long sprouts and keep another lot of similar tubers in a cool cellar so they will remain dormant. Expose the dormant tubers to the light until short sprouts appear. Plant the lots alongside of each other and note which produces the earliest plants, the most vigorous growth, and the largest yield. 3. Make a collection of the varieties of potatoes commonly grown in the community and grade them according to the commercial grades. Have stu- dents judge them according to the fol- lowing score card. Questions. Are the tubers used for planting in your locality home-grown ? If not, where do they come from and why are they the best to plant? Do the farmers use certified potato seed and why? Where does the potato come in the local crop rotation and why? What fertili- zers are best for potatoes in your locality and what amount should be applied per acre ? References. Potato Culture, Extension circular 45, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pennsyl- vania. Commercial Handling, Grading, and Marketing of Potatoes, Farmers' Bulletin, 753, United States Department of Agriculture. [104] Fig. 68. Potatoes at the time of planting The proper condition of the tubers at the time of planting is shown by the speci- mens on the plate at the right ; the vitality of the tubers on the plate at the left has been lowered by the growth of the sprouts. (Courtesy of the Pennsylvania State College) EXERCISE 52 (Continued) ' SCORE CARD FOR POTATOES Perfect Score Students' Score Uniformitv of exhibit 20 Conformity of type 10 Shaoe of tubers . 15 Size of tubers . 15 Eyes 5 Skin 5 10 Soundness ... 10 10 Total 100 fiosi EXERCISE 53 IMPURITY OF FARM SEEDS Statement. The value of a seed depends first upon its vitality. If it will not grow well, then all other considerations are of no value. Next comes the quality of the seed. Pure-bred and pedigreed seeds are always to be preferred, but we have not begun to pedigree clovers and grasses generally. However, something of quality may be judged by the size, brightness, and uniformity of the seeds. The amoimt of impurities affects their value in two ways. Cracked and broken seeds, trash, and chaff add to the bulk and cause the farmer to pay more for the seed he actually obtains. Much more harmful, however, are the weed seeds acquired with impure seed, because they add to the cost of the seed purchased and cause much damage to the cultivated crops, or else entail expense in keeping the weeds in check. Object. To determine the comparative value of seed samples. Materials. Commercial seeds of red and alsike clover, alfalfa, timothy, etc. Directions. Determine by actual calculation from the samples the relative amounts of dirt in the seed, the amount of weed seed, and the amount of seed of the kind supposed to have been bought. Then count out loo grains of seed from the weediest sample and loo grains from the purest sample of the same kind of seed and plant both lots to determine whether more or less of the weedy seed than of the pure seed is growing seed. Questions. Can you determine what kinds of weed seeds are present in the above samples ? What are the objections against buying and using seed which contains weed seed ? Which sample contains dirt ? What is the actual cost per bushel of pure seed obtained from the poor seed purchased because of its low price? References. Hillman, T. H. " Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and the Rural Schools," Farmers' Bulletin 428, United States Department of Agriculture. Davis, K. C. Productive Plant Husbandry, pp. 50-53. J. B. Lippincott Company. Fig. 69. Some noxious weed seeds found in farm seeds o, sand burr; J, wildcat; c, chess; rf, darnel; c, quack grass ;/, dock ; x, black bindweed ; A, Russian thistle ; »', com cockle; j, white campion; k, bladder campion ; I, night-flowering catchfly ; m, cow cockle ; », pennycress ; o, field peppergrass ; p, large-fruited false flax ; q, smali-f ruited false flaK ; r, ball mustard ; s, black mustard ; /, English charlock. Enlarged and natural size [106] % EXERCISE 53 {Continued) IMPURITY OF SEEDS Sample No.l Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3 Sample No. 4 Sample No. 5 Sample No. 6 Sample No. 7 Sample No. 8 Sample No. 9 Sample No. 10 Total number of seeds in sample Per cent of dirt . Per cent of dam- aged seeds . . Per cent of weed seeds .... Per cent of good seed .... Per cent of vitality [1071 EXERCISE 54 Fig. 70. Flower of upland cotton, showing sepals, petals, and stigma (Courtesy of Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture) A STUDY OF THE COTTON PLANT Statement. Cotton is the world's most important fiber crop. The cotton belt of the United States produces more than two thirds of the world's supply of this staple. Object. To learn something of the con- ditions of growth, form, structure, and characteristics of the cotton plant. Directions. Carefully remove the soil from the base of a growing plant containing squares, flowers, green ])olls, and open bolls. Note the number, depth, and size of the roots. What is the function of the tap root ? Of the fibrous roots ? What would be the effect of deep, close cultivation at this time ? Note the size, height, and color of the central stem. Describe its structure. Study carefully the branches and distin- guish between the fruiting and vegetative branches. Of what use are the vegetative branches ? At what place on the main stem are the longest branches produced ? The shortest ? How are the leaves arranged on the stem? Are there differences in the shape, size, and arrangement of the leaves on the fruiting branches and the vegetative branches? Describe the cotton flower according to the fol- lowing outline : (i) calyx — size, shape; (2) corolla — color, size, shape ; (3) petals — number, separated or united ; (4) stamens — number, position ; (5) pistils — ■ number, position. Make drawings as follows : (i) front view of bud showing bracts and calyx ; (2) ventral view of flower with bracts removed showing arrangement of calyx, calyx lobes, and petals ; (3) draw a cross section of a half-grown boU showing each part ; (4) make a collection of open bolls and classify them according to their size, shape, number and size of seed, amount and length of fiber, and propor- tion of fiber to seed ; (5) make a collection of the plants and open bolls of the principal varieties of cotton growing in the community and compare them for earli- ness, productiveness of lint and seed, and for length of fiber. Write a description of each, laying emphasis on the advantages and disadvantages of each variety, and kind of soil to which each is best adapted. Questions. Which are the principal cotton-producing states of the Union? What is the highest yield of cotton per acre in the localitv and what is the average yield ? What is the lowest yield ? What . ' . [108] Fig. 71. Stamens and stigma . Egyptian cotton (Courtesy of the Bureau of Plant In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture) Fig. 72. A cluster of bolls from a prolific plant in different stages of development (Courtesy of Ed. Kosch, San Marcos, Texas) J EXERCISE 54 (Continued) makes the difference in the yield? What insects are most injurious to cotton and what are the most feasible ways of combating them ? State in writing how the injuries of the cotton boll weevil may be prevented and indicate which of the ways suggested is more generally used in the neighborhood. Has the presence of this insect changed to any degree the cropping systems of the south ? Have these changes been advantageous and in what way and why? State in detail how the yield of cotton in the neighborhood may be increased. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 177-185. Ginn and Company. Bergen and Caldwell. Introduction to Botany, p. 313. Ginn and Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops. The Macraillan Company. ^ L [109 EXERCISE 55 Fig. 73. A poor cotton plant A late unproductive plant ; the joints are long and the bolls are far out from the center or base of the stalk ; the limbs have few joints and few bolls THE IMPROVEMENT OF COTTON Statement. Cotton, like all other domestic plants, is susceptible of improvement, and very rapid strides have been made in this direction in recent years. As a result of natural variation, selectfon, and breeding there are many types, varieties, and strains of cotton, just as there are of corn, apples, and strawberries. Much of this im- provement has been made by selecting for propagation the best of each season's crop. To make such selection intelligently, the breeder must know what characteristics are of greatest importance, and must be able readily to detect these characteristics in the field. Object. To develop further the cotton industry by learning how to select the best cotton seed for planting. Material. A field of cotton ready to pick; a small balance; pocket comb ; small ruler graduated to tf inch. Directions, i. Select five early- and five late-maturing plants. Com- pare the two groups of plants as regards (a) the height at which the first leaves are borne on the main stem ; (b) the length of the internode on the fruiting hmbs ; (c) the position of the bolls, whether mostly at the top of the plant and on the outer end of the branches, or whether they are borne mostly in the central and lower portions of the plant ; ((f) leafiness. 2. Select twenty-five of the least productive plants and twenty-five of the most productive plants in the 'field. Pick the cotton from each of the two groups of plants separately and weigh it. How many plants of each type would be required to give a yield of 1500 pounds of seed cotton or one bale of 500 pounds of lint? 3. What is the average number of bolls per plant for each group ? Pick the cotton from 100 large bolls and weigh it. Do likewise for 100 small bolls. How many bolls of each class would it take to yield 1500 pounds of seed cotton? 4. Select five fuUy-open bolls, which in opening have per- mitted the walls or burrs to curl backward to the extent of allowing the seed cotton to be easily blown out by the wind. Select also five fully-open bolls in which the burrs have not curled backward "sufliciently to make picking easy. Is there any relation between the extent to which the burrs curl back- ward and the thickness of the burr ? 5. Select bolls showing each of the following defects : small- size spots on the burr due to disease, imperfectly developed lobes. 6. Pick the cotton from ten boUs from each of five different plants, keeping the five lots separate. Place these lots of cotton in the sun and allow them to dry. Remove the seed from the lint by hand. For each lot carefully weigh the seed and lint separately. Is there any difference in the percehtage of lint produced by the different plants ? 7 . By means of the hands carefully separate the lint on a seed of cotton into two equal parts without removing the lint from the seed. Carefully comb the two portions of lint out straight in opposite directions and determine its length. Compare different plants as regards the length of lint; the color of the lint, and the strength of the fiber. From which should seed be selected ? [1101 Fig. 74. A productive cotton plant, the sort from which to select the seed for next year's crop EXERCISE 55 (Continued) Questions. What are the leading varieties of cotton of the country? Of the local community? What varieties are best adapted to rich soils? Which to poor soils? How many planters in the neighborhood use pedigreed seed? How many grow a distinct variety? How many make field selections of seed? Describe the method oL selecting seed for the largest yield, naming the charac teristics of stalk, stem, leaf, boll, lint, and seed most desirable. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 185-186. Ginn and Company. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops. The Macmillan Company. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 222 ; Farmers' Btd- letin SQi- Cotton score card published by the state agricultural college ; state cotton growers' association, if there is one; Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 66; Farmers' Bulletin 501. Ofi&ce of .Experiment Stations Bulletin, 33. PP- 211, 212. SCORE CARD FOR THE COTTON PLANT* Score PLART (Vigorous, Stocky) — as Points Size : medium to large as influenced by soil, location, season, and variety Form: symmetrical, spreading, conical, height ; and spread according to soil, etc Stalk : minimum amount of wood in proportion to fruit Branches : springing from base, strong, vigorous, in pairs short-jointed, inclined upward Head : well-branchol and filled, fruiteid umformly FRUITING — 24 Points Bolls : large, abundant, uniformly developed, plump, sound, firm, well-rounded, apex obtuse, singly or in clusters Number of boUs : according to variety, soil, and season BoUs per plant: thin uplands, 10-20; fertile uplands, 20-25 ; " bottoms," so- 100; special selection, 100- Soo Bolls per pound of seed cotton : large, 40-60; medium, 60-7S ; small, 80-110 Character of bolls : number of loclis 3 to s ; kind of sepals; retention of cotton Opening of bolls : uniform including top crop, classify as good, medium, poor YIELD (Standard i Bale per Acre) — 30 Points Seed cotton (estimated by average plant, distance of planting, per cent of stand, plants per acre) : thin up- lands, 10,000; fertile uplands, 6,500; " bottoms," 4,500; distance of plants 3J by 1} feet, 4J by i\ feet, 4} by 2 feet, respectively Per cent lint : not less than 30, standard 33 to 35 Seeds : 30-50 per boll, large, plump, easily delinted, color according to variety ; germination not less than g5 per cent QUALITY AND CHARACTER OF LINT — 21 Points Strength : tensile strain good, even throughout length Length : common standards for upland, short J to i inch, premiimi i A to li inches ; long staple, i A inches and better Fineness : fibers soft, silky, and pliable, responsive to touch Uniformity : all fibers of equal length, strength, fineness Purity : color dead white ; fiber free from stain, dirt, and trash Possible Student's Corrected ' For plants departing only slightly from the variety standard as to size, a cut of i to ij points should be made. If the depar- ture is very marked, a cut of 3 points may be made. For excessively long joints and poorly placed and developed branches, cut a maximum of 2 to 5. For slight defects in these respects, cut from 2J to 3 pxiints. For a plant which develops a single central stem bearing numerous horizontal fruiting branches, allow five points as the perfect score. When the head is full, on account of the superabundance of long upright branches, cut a maximum of three points. As these faults are less pronounced, reduce the cuts until for slight defects on these accounts a minimum cut of one half point should be given. Adapted from directions published by the Georgia State College of Agriculture. I [111; EXERCISE 56 GRADING COTTON Statement. Cotton is graded on the market on the basis of the length, body, color, and strength of the fiber, and also on its purity or freedom from foreign substances. Fixed grades have been estab- lished by the United States Department of Agriculture and by the cotton exchanges of the country on which all com- mercial cotton is bought and sold. Materials. Samples of fiber of different grades, copy of the Cotton Standards of the United States Department of Agriculture. Directions, i . In examining the fiber, attention should be given not only to the length and purity of the sample, but also to the maturity and strength of the fiber and its color. Examine also the body of the fiber and observe whether it is firm and solid or fluffy. 2. If there is a cotton gin or warehouse in the vicinity ask the cotton buyer to give the students one or more demonstrations in cotton grading and then take the class to the gin or warehouse and give the members one or more laboratory exercises in grading under joint supervision of the teacher and buyer. The grading exercises should be made to embrace all the types and grades commonly produced in the country and especially all those usually grown in the neighborhood. Compare the market prices of the different grades and estimate the proportion of the normal crop of the commu- nity that will fall into each class. This work should be of recognizing with a fair degree of accuracy each of the on them rVmcrican-Kiowa cotlon fibers The four principal commercial types are shown as fol- lows: a, sea island; 6. Egyptian; c, long staple upland; d, short staple upland ; the fibers are combed to show the relative lengths of the staples. (Courtesy of the Bu- reau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture) continued until the students are capable principal grades of cotton and of placing their approximate market value. Questions. How many grades of cotton are recognized in the United States standard ? Name them in the order of their commercial value. What grades are recognized by the cotton ex- changes above this list ? What grades are recognized by them below this list? Ascertain the market value of the principal grades produced in the com- munity. Of what grade is most of the cotton produced in the community ? How may the plant- ers most easily and profitably improve the grade of their cotton ? Fig. 76. Baled cotton being taken to market References. Duggar, J. F. Southern Field Crops. The Macmillan Company. Cotton score card pub- lished by the State agricultural college; Department Bulletin 62 ; Farmers' Bulletin J02, J64, §gi. Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 33, pp. 351-360, 381-384; United States Department Agriculture, Office of Markets and Rural Organizations, S. R. A. i. [112] i EXERCISE 57 CROP ROTATION Statement. Growing one kind of crop on the land year after year favors the accumulation of insects, plant diseases, and weeds injurious to that crop. Also some crops, as corn, are classed as " exhaustive," while other crops, as legumes and pasture grasses, to a limited extent, are considered to rest the land upon which they are grown and are classed as " restoratives." By alternating exhaustive and restora- tive crops the land is not so rapidly depleted as by growing exhaustive crops only. The labor load of the farm is better distributed throughout the year by growing a variety of crops one or two. instead of only Fig. 77. The effect of crop rotation on the yield of com At the Missouri Experiment Station a test of the value of crop rotation has been in progress for twenty-five years. The crib at the left shows the average amount of com {20.3 bushels) an acre produced when grown in com continuously, and the crib on the right shows the amount of corn (34 bushels) produced by an acre in a rotation of com, wheat, and clover. The figures give an average production for twenty-five years Object. To study systems of crop rotation as applied to the com- mtmity and to plan systems of ro- tation which will give a balanced agriculture. Materials. A diagram of the home farm, or one in the neighbor- hood, showing the number of fields and area of each ; a statement of the nature and type of soil and the kind of farming practiced. Directions, i. In planning a rotation decide first which are the main crops, and which secondary or restorative crops will best fit in with the main crops and produce a well-balanced cropping system. Study the most successful rotations of the neighborhood and apply one such to the farm for which you are planning a rotation. Make a drawing, dividing the farm into as many units as there are crops in the rotation chosen. For convenience each field should be numbered in laying out the system. Some such form as that shown on the opposite page may be helpful. The first column contains four units, the same as the number of crops in the rotation chosen. A unit may consist of any number of fields, but all units should be as nearly the same size as possible. 2. Plan two-, three-, four-, and five-year rotations respectively, using the crops grown in your com- munity. Plan a desirable rotation for a general Uvestock farm, using corn, oats, and clover, and plan a rotation system for a grain farm, using corn, wheat, oats, and clover, in which only the grain and the seed of the clover are sold. Plan a rotation in which cotton, cowpeas, and corn are the principal crops. Fill in the forms on the opposite page. Discuss each rotation planned and explain the reason for the arrangement of crops. Questions. In planning a crop rotation show how excessive spring plowing may be avoided. Explain how a crop rotation will help to control weeds. Explain how it will help to control diseases. Name two plant diseases that are controlled by crop rotation. Name the important restorative crops ' of the United States. Which of these are adapted to the locality in which you live? References. Waters, H. J. Essentialsof Agriculture, pp. 86-87, 164, 287, 291, 310. Ginn and Company. Hopkins, C. G. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 318, 362, 389. Ginn and Company. Burkett, C. W. Soils, pp. 266-282. Orange Judd Company. Warren, G. F. Farm Management, pp. 402-416. The Macmillan Company. [1141 EXERCISE 57 {Continued) CROP ROTATION FOR GENER.\L FARMING Cnit Number Fields Number Total Acres First Year Second Year Third Y'ear Fourth Year I I and 2 34 Wheat Clover Corn Oats 3,4, and 5 1 41 Oats Wheal Clover Corn 3 6, 9, and 11 41 Corn Oats Wheat Clover 4 7, 8, and 10 36 Clover Corn Oats Wheat ROTATIONS PLANNED BY STUDENTS 3 4 I 2 3 4 [US] EXERCISE 58 THE SILO AND SILAGE Object. To understand the construction and function of the silo and the manner of preparing silage, and the method by which it keeps. Also to learn how this material is used. ^^^^^^^^ --«*gl w ^II^^^^^^^^^H ■■■1 pt 1 ^"' -'^^^^^^ ■ pv .._jr ^" ' '^' i"^ p"^^"*^ piHm i MH"^ .Ui'*l'- ^.mmm ■|g|^M| ijh— ^^^H In:^^^"*^ ^^^.^ji^jsyr^SJIKgitv' 1 i -^ ^H V . ' J ^^^ m HH^MM'i^b.T'^' . - ' ^ -.-,...-..„, ' - . ' . . -'i? Fig. 78. All classes of live stock eat silage with a relish Materials. A neighborhood silo and apparatus for filling it ; sales- man's descriptions of the different kinds of silos; the textbook data upon quantities of corn and other material required to fill silos of given size, and upon the amount of silage needed to feed different kinds of farm animals. Directions. The class should visit one or more good silos under the guidance of the teacher and the farmer who owns the silo, when the silo is being filled and later when the silage is being fed. 1. The points to be studied in the first visit should include the structure and size of the silo, its relation to the barn and to the stock to be fed, material used for silage, the stage of maturity when harvested, how cut and loaded, the arrangement of wagon racks, methods of unloading, cutting, and filling the silo. All the members of the class should be permitted to go into the silo and to help distribute the silage and tramp it around the edges. Make a complete record of all the above facts and note any particulars in which improvements might be made with profit. 2. On the occasion of the second visit the points to be considered should include condition of silage, number of inches of silage used each day, amount of silage that is lost by decay, where the loss occurs, the changes in temperature, color, and odor which have occiurred in silage between the time when the fresh material was placed in the silo and the time when it is fed. Note the relish with which the animals eat the silage. And how much each kind eats daily- Questions. Ascertain the number of animals of each class on each farm visited and calculate the amount of silage required to feed them throughout the season ; the dimension of the silo or silos neces- sary to contain the feed. Estimate the number of acres of corn, sorghum, or kafir required to supply this amount of fresh material. What would be the approximate cost of erecting such a silo or silos and what would it cost to fill them? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 248-259. Ginn and Company. Plumb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, pp. 298-300. Webb Publishing Company. Wilson and Warburton, Field Crops, pp. 91-92. Webb PubUshing Company. [116 Fig. 79. Before the silo came into general use, one of the principal drudgeries of feeding stock was digging corn fodder out of the snow i EXERCISE 59 HOW TO PLANT A TREE Marks indicate where to prune main trunk and branckes New ground line ._ Nursery ground •r^^i^ line ' Line to which roots should be pruned Statement. Nature if ]et alone maintains a balance between the root area and the top area of growing plants. In transplanting trees this balance is disturbed, because most of the roots are cut off when the tree is removed from its growing place. Unless the top is cut back to correspond to the new root system the tree will usually die. Object. To learn how to plant trees properly. Materials. Trees to be planted ; planting board ; sharp knife ; shovel or spade. Directions, i. Drive stakes at the exact place where each tree is to be planted. Before digging the hole stake the planting board in place as shown in Fig. 83. Remove the planting board and stake, marking the loca- tion of the tree, and dig the hole. The hole should be large enough to contain all the roots without crowding and deep enough to set the tree about an inch deeper than it grew in the nursery. Prune from the roots any broken, straggling, or inter- lacing parts, replace the board, and place the tree in the hole. One person should hold the tree in the proper position while dirt is filled in by another. Top soil should go in first re^Iar curve indica^swhere'the roots should and should be tramped firmly about the roots as the hole is filled. ' After the dirt is in place and has been firmed, a little loose soil should be spread over the top to prevent the surface from baking. The top of the tree needs to be cut back in proportion to the severity with which the roots are pruned, but the shaping of the top may be left until the first year's pnming. „ „ -,, ^. , , 2. One tree should be properly root-pruned and Fig. 82. Planting board . f t- j f ™ ,,.,,,,, . , . , , ^ ,, , ^ . , branch-pruned m the presence of the class, then 1 he board is held firmly in place by stakes at the end notches ; the '^ .' middle notch indicates where to dig the hole and later just where to the pruned tree and an unpruncd onc Compared in set the tree in the hole j i 1 i ^i 11 i • 1 -n i- order to make clear the problems which will face the two trees when they are planted. From the work and discussions write a statement of the proper procedure in planting a young fruit tree. Make diagrams showing depth of planting, preparation of hole for the tree, and appearance of the properly pruned tree. 3. Invite the local nurserjonan or an experienced orchardist of the neighborhood to assist in the demonstration and if possible have each student plant fruit trees of different kinds and ages so as to bring out the essential points in root and top pruning and in the formation of the head best adapted to the local climate. Also require the students to plant a suflS.cient number of ornamentals to be- come familiar with the habits of this group of shrubs and trees. [118] Fig. 80. Method of pruning trees before planting The tree at the left is a one-year-old whip and is cut back to form the head ; the one at the right is a two-year-old and needs to be top-pruned as well as root-pruned. The ir- Fig. 81. The right and wrong wajrs of cutting off branches At the left the right way ; the next branch was cut too slanting ; the next too far from the bud ; the one on the right, too near the bud. Courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry EXERCISE 59 (Continued) 4. An improvement project should be planned to follow this exercise in which the student will be encouraged to undertake the better planting of his father's home grounds, the school campus, a portion of the dty park or some neglected part of the town. In such a project the practical details pertaining to the care of trees and shrubs after they have been planted, so that they may be carried safely through the critical period caused by a drought in the first or second summer, will be emphasized. Also the proper cultivation of the plants to insure their rapid development will be considered. Questions. In what maimer does it damage a tree to leave the roots exposed to the air before planting? How is such exposure largely prevented by the nursery men in shipping trees ? What are the advantages of a planting board ? Why is it important to pack fine soil firmly about the roots? Why is it advisable to cut back the top of a tree at planting time? How close together should apple trees be planted? peach trees? pear trees? How many trees of each are planted on an acre ? Fig. 83. The use of the planting board The board was removed while the hole was being dug and was replaced. When the tree was placed in the notch it occupied the proper position. The dirt should be carefully worked among the roots. (Courtesy of Purdue University) References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 268. Ginn and Company. Wilkinson, A. E. The Apple, pp. 71-75. Ginn and Company. Waugh, F. A. The American Apple Orchard, pp. 40-41. Orange Judd Company. 119 EXERCISE 60 Fig. 84. A two-year-old apple tree before and after pruning The picture on the right shows the tree after pruning ; note the even distribution of scaffold limbs ; an excellent type of an open- headed tree PRUNING THE APPLE TREE Statement. All fruit trees require to be pruned from time to time for the production of fruit of the highest quahty. It is by removing the excessive wood growth through judicious pruning that the fruitfulness of the tree is increased. Also the size and quality of the fruit are improved, and insects and dis- eases are more readily controlled. Object. To learn how to prime bearing apple trees. Materials. A neglected orchard ; a pruning saw ; a pair of hand shears ; a ladder ; a pail of paint and a brush for each squad. Directions. For this work a visit should be made to a neglected orchard or an orchard which is in need of bei^g pruned. In working over old trees the dead and diseased limbs should be removed first. Then cut out all twisted, weak, and crossing or rubbing branches as well as those which grow back through the center. The ideal tree should have a low head, and an open top with the bearing wood distributed throughout. Old and neglected trees usually re- quire heading back. Cut each upright limb in the top of the tree back to a strong limb spreading toward the outside of the tree. Thin the remaining limbs, so that the sunlight may have access to all portions of the tree, by removing the weaker limbs and leaving the best fruit-bearing wood. The removal of large limbs hastens the work of reno- vation, but the large scars are slower in healing than the small ones. If the trees are devoid of fruit-bearing wood along the main limbs, head back all healthy water sprouts to about three inches in length and in this way convert them into fruit spurs. In removing limbs cut close to the remaining limb, leaving a smooth surface, sloping so as to shed water. Paint all cuts larger than one inch in diameter to pre- vent infection of wood which is exposed. j If the same orchard can be used for several years, an excellent opportunity is offered for studying the effect of pruning on the character of the fruit and the vigor of the trees. (Questions. What are the objects of pruning ? Do water sprouts have any value ? Why is it neces- sary to remove the diseased wood? Why should the wotmds be painted? How can excessive height growth be remedied? Describe in detail how to renovate a neglected orchard. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 268-270. Ginn and Company. Wilkinson, A. E. The Apple, pp. 83-90. Ginn and Company. Waugh, F. A. The American Apple Orchard, pp. n-gi. % Orange Judd Company. [1201 Fig. 83. Before and after pruning The tree at the left is a well-cared-for tree before being pruned ; on the right is the same tree after it has been pruned. Notice the limbs on the ground at the left of the pruned tree which were removed. Note also how much more open the top is and that all interlacing limbs have been removed EXERCISE 61 HARVESTING AND GRADING APPLES Statement. The proper time for picking fall and winter apples is when the fruit has reached full size and is well colored, but before it has begun to soften. Neither immature nor over-ripe fruit keeps well in storage, and its eating qualities are not up to standard. Success in orcharding will in consider- able degree depend upon the skill and intelligence used in picking, grading, and packing the fruit. Object. To learn how to harvest and grade apples. Materials. Ladders ; picking sacks ; orchard crates ; grading table ; sizing board ; a well-sprayed orchard laden with ripe fruit. Directions. Picking. Divide the class into squads of four each and assign each squad to a block of trees. Have two students pick all the fruit that can be reached from the ground, have a third pick from the ladder, and the squad leader direct the work under the guidance of the teacher and the proprietor of the orchard. In, picking the fruit raise and turn each apple slightly so as to avoid pull- ing out the stem or breaking off the fruit spur. If the stem is pulled out, the opening into the flesh of the apple is likely to become in- fected with the organisms which cause it to decay. The fruit spurs are the source of future crops and should be carefully guarded against injury. Handle the fruit carefully to avoid bruising, and as soon as a sack is filled its contents should be carefully emptied into boxes. Grading. The apples are next placed on the grading table, where they are graded for size, color, and blemishes. First remove all injured or diseased fruits. Then, using the sizing board, which is graduated to one-eighth inch, separate the apples into the various sizes. Learn the standard of sizes demanded by the general market or for the special market for which you are grading and make the classification conform to their requirements. These should, in turn, be graded for color so that each lot will consist of perfect specimens that are uniform in size and color. After the student's eye is trained, the sizing board may be discarded and the grading be done by hand. Questions. Why should the fruit be handled carefully ? Of what value are the fruit spurs ? W^a^ is the proper time for picking apples? Which separate from the spurs more readily, the ripened or tho immature specimens ?* How does the grading for color affect the appearance of the apples ? Why should the diseased and injured fruits be removed? Why should apples be graded into the different sizes? References. Waugh, F.A. The American Apple Orchard, pp. 149-165. Orange Judd Company. FletcherJ S. W. How to Make a Fruit Garden, pp. 131-135 (old). Doubleday, Page Company. Wilkinson, A. E.J The Apple, pp. 270-271. Ginn and Company. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 274-275. Gir and Company. [1221 Fig. 86. Picking apples No successful substitute for hand picking has been invented in harvesting apples, cot- ton, £ind com. The sack is the best receptacle for the picked fruit EXERCISE 62 PACKING APPLES Statement. Fruit which reaches the consumer in perfect condition demands the highest price. To obtain this price requires not only that good healthy fruit be grown but that it be so marketed that it is not bruised and that it is uniform in size, color, and quality. This means that apples must be care- fully packed. Object. To learn how to pack apples in boxes and barrels. Materials. Several bushels of apples graded for size and color, as explained under Grading, and standard-sized apple boxes and barrels. Directions. Boxing. First line the box with paper, folding it at the bottom to prevent tearing. Refer to the table for the style of pack that is adapted to the size to be packed. The 3-2 pack, which is adapted to the greatest number of commercial sizes, and the one best adapted to general require- ments, is here described. The principles involved, however, are the same as for other diagonal packs. Place an apple, stem end down, in each of the two lower Corners of the box. A third apple is placed midway between these two. The location of the third apple is important, since if incor- rectly placed it will destroy the regularity of alignment. In the two spaces formed by the three apples of the first row two other apples are placed. These should slip part way between the first apples, but should not slip into line with them. The next rows are alternately comprised of three and two apples each until the layer is completed. These should fit snugly and the rows should be straight. Two apples are used for the first row of the second layer, and they should be placed in the open spaces in the first row of the first layer. The layer is then packed as described for the first. The first, third, and fifth layers are started with three apples, and the second and fourth are started with two. The last layer is packed stem end up since this end bruises less readily than the blossom end. A well-packed box should have regular rows that fit firmly. The apples at the ends should be even with the ends of the box and the apples in the middle should be slightly higher. This bulge aids in maintaining a tight pack. The papers should now be folded over and the cover nailed on, using a cleat at either end. The packed boxes should be turned over and the top removed to show the appearance of the pack. Barrelling. Follow the approved practices of the community and whenever possible work under the direction of an experienced fruit packer. Questions. Why should the box be lined with paper? Why should the paper be folded? Is the location of the apples in the first row important ? Why ? How many apples in the first row of the first, third, and fifth layers? of the second and fourth layers? Why is there less injury in the diagonal than in the straight pack ? How high should the apples be at the end of the box ? What is the value of the bulge in the center ? Describe the procedure in packing apples in barrels. Fig. 87. The standard apple packs At the left is shown the 3-2 box pack ; in the center, a straight box pack ; at the right, a good barrel pack References. Wilkinson, A. E. The Apple, pp. 293-312. American Apple Orchard, pp. 165-171. Orange Judd Company. [1241 Ginn and Company. Waugh, F. A. Thej I EXERCISE 62 (Continued) BOX-PACKING TABLE Diameter Style Position Number af inches 3-2 diagonal Flat 163 jf inches 3-2 diagonal Flat 150 2J inches 3-2 diagonal Flat I2S 3 inches 2-2 diagonal Flat 112 3J inches 2-2 diagonal Flat 104 3i inches 2-2 diagonal Flat 96 3f inches 2-2 diagonal Flat 80 35 inches 2-2 diagonal Flat 72 [1251 PART IV. INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL EXERCISE 63 THE STRUCTURE OF AN INSECT Fig. 92. Frontal view of head Statement. Some insects are beneficial, others injurious, yet others are both helpful and harmful, and yet others are apparently of no direct importance. Man has been able to meet and utilize these relations largely by first learning how they carry on their life activities, such as feeding, breathing, and reproduction. Since all of these activities are directly related to certain structural features of the insect, a knowledge of its structure is essential. Object. To study the structure of the common grass- hopper. Materials. A common grasshopper ; hand lens ; drawing pencils and eraser. Directions. Study the body covering and note that it is rigid and is composed of a series of ringlike units called segments. These seg- ments differ in various parts of the body, but the similar ones are grouped together to form the three body regions, head, thorax, and abdomen. I. The head appears to comprise but one segment, but in reality six are fused together to form it. Two slender antennae extend from the upper part of the head. Two compound eyes and three simple eyes (ocelli) are also easily observed. The mouth parts are of the biting type and composed of four distinct superimposed sets, namely, upper Up, or labriun ; a pair of jaws, or mandibles ; a lower pair of more complex jaws or maxillae ; and the lower lip or labium. The maxillae and the labium bear each a pair of jointed ap- pendages known as palpi. 2. The thorax, or middle-body region, is composed of three segments, each of which bears a pair of legs. The first segment (prothorax) is covered on the top and the two sides by a heavy, thickened, saddle-shaped shield. Each of the next two segments (mesothorax and metathorax) bears a pair of wings. A diagonal line (suture) extends across the side of each of these last two segments, making them appear to be four segments instead of two. Just above the base of the middle leg and in the Fig. 88. Dorsal view cricket of Fig. 89. Lateral view of head Fig. 90. Lateral view of thorax Fig. 93. Mouth parts Fig. 91. Lateral view of abdomen [1261 a, labrum ; b, mandibles ; ilia: ; d, labium c, max- EXERCISE 63 (Continued) groove between the meso- and metathorax is a slitlike opening (spiracle), one of the breathing pores. Aside from certain inconspicuous basal parts, each leg consists of a femur (or thigh), a tibia, and a tarsus (or foot). 3. Ten segments are easily counted in the abdomen. The basal segment bears a pair of conspicuous, oval auditory organs, at the front edge of each of which is a spiracle. Each of the following segments bears a pair of lateral spiracles. In the female the abdomen terminates in two pairs of short, pointed organs which constitute the major part of the egg-laying organ (ovipositor) , while in the male the end of the abdomen is rather blunt and bears a pair of short movable plates (claspers) . 4. Make drawings of a grasshopper similar to those shown of the cricket. References. Sanderson, E. D., and Jackson, C. F. Elementary Entomology, p. 372. Ginn and Company, CoMSTOCK, J. H. Manual for the Study of Insects, p. 701. Comstock Publishing Company. THE GRASSHOPPER Make drawings of the parts indicated below, similar to the drawings of the cricket. 1 . Face view : antennae ; compound eyes ; simple eyes ; mouth parts. 2. Mouth parts: labium; mandible; maxilla; labrum; palpi. 3. Lateral view of thorax with wings and legs removed: leg and wing attachments; spiracles; intersegmental grooves. 4. Abdomen, lateral view : ear ; spiracles ; abdominal segments. [127] EXERCISE 64 Fig. 94. Cabbage worm or larva of the cabbage butterfly- Dorsal and lateral view. (After Dean) THE LIFE HISTORY OF AN INSECT Statement. Before we can control insects we must learn something of their Ufe history ; that is, when and where they lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, into what forms they develop, what they feed upon. where and in what stage they pass the winter, and how many gener- ations are produced each year and what their natural enemies are. Object. To study the Ufe history of the cabbage worm. Materials. A flowerpot for each student in which a yoimg cabbage plant is growing ; a lantern globe, the top of which has been covered with cheesecloth ; a number of breeding cages large enough to hold several of the potted cabbage plants ; insect nets and cans or jars. Directions, i. A few days after the cabbage is set in the spring observe the white butterflies with black spots on the wings, which may be seen flying about near the ground. Observe how and where their eggs are deposited. Describe the eggs. With the insect net capture mating pairs of the butterflies and place each pair in a jar or can so they may be taken imin- jured to the laboratory. In the laboratory one pair should be placed in each of a number of breeding cages. The pots containing the young cabbage plants can be placed in the cages and daily observations made for the presence of eggs. Make notes and drawings of where the eggs are deposited, how they are grouped, their color, size, and shape. 2. After the eggs hatch, the potted plants should be removed from the breeding cage and the large lantern globe, the top of which has been covered with cheesecloth, should be placed over each plant to prevent the escape of the larvae. Make notes and draw- ings describing the newly hatched larva, showing the number of molts and the length of time in the larval stage. If possible, observe the transformation of the larvae to the pupal form. 3. After pupation the pupae that are wanted for immedi- ate use should be placed in a light, warm room, where they will probably emerge in a few days. Determine and make notes of date and method of emergence. Describe the adult. Questions. What are the feeding habits of larvae? Will the arsenical sprays kill them ? When and how often should the sprays be appUed? Is it practical to hand pick the larvae from young plants? Where and in what position are the eggs laid? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 300-312. Ginn and Company. Sanderson, E. W. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard. J. Wiley & Sons. Farmers' Bulletin 766, United State Fig. 95- Pupa or chrysalis of the cabbage butterfly Dorsal and lateral view Dean) (After Fig. 96. Cabb^j; ,j!_nL lujurud by the cabbage worn ;; (After Dean) Fig. 97. Cabbage butterfly (Ponlia rapa) on cabbage leaf (After Dean) Department of Agricultiure. [128] I EXERCISE 65 Fig. 98. The honey bee a, worker; b, queen; c, drone THE STRUCTURE, HABITS, AND MANAGEMENT OF HONEY BEES Statement. The honey bee produces more food for man than any other insect — directly by gather- ing nectar from the flowers and changing it to honey, and indirectly — by pollinating fruit blossoms. The bee gathers nectar, a natural product which would otherwise be wasted. Object. To study the structure, habits, and man- agement of the honey bee. Materials. Hives of live bees ; veil ; smoker ; hive-tool ; queen ; excluding board. Directions, i. For the first examination of the colony, select the middle of a warm spring day dur- ing the period when fruit trees are in bloom. Light the smoker, put on gloves, adjust veil. Blow a few puffs of smoke in the entrance and give a few sharp raps on the body of the hive, raise the cover, blow a few puffs of smoke over the tops of the frames, grasp the frame from the middle of the hive at each end and carefully lift it from the hive (Fig. loi). Hold it over the hive in such a way that the comb will be in vertical position. Study the brood, which is in concentric rings. Distinguish the queen, workers, and drones (Fig. 98), the eggs, larvae, and pupae (Fig. 99), and the different kinds of cells (Fig. 100). Note whether there are any insect enemies present, or any bee diseases. 2. Take to the classroom some dead workers and drones for further study. Notice the mouth parts, the brushes, and the pollen baskets on their legs. Tell how the bees gather pollen and make bee bread. Examine on the front leg the comblike device through which the bee draws its anteimae to clean them. Examine the rings on the under side of the body from which wax is secreted. 3. The last examination should be made in the fall of the year. Determine whether or not they have sufficient food to enable them to pass the winter successfully and if there are enough bees in the hive. Questions. Name the three kinds of bees in a colony. What is the relative number of each? What is the sex of each kind? What service in the colony does each kind render ? What is nectar and where do bees obtain it ? Into what is it made ? What use do bees make of honey ? What is bee bread, from what is it made, and to what use is it put by bees? What is the comb ? From what is it made and to what use is it put ? In what way do bees aid in fruit production ? How many pounds of honey does a colony of bees usually produce in a season above their own needs ? How may you know whether there is enough honey stored to support the colony during the winter? When should you make inspections for this purpose? If there is not enough, what is the remedy ? Name the principal honey-producing plants of the community and state the season in which bees feed upon each. Which plants produce the best quality of honey ? Which the poorest^ References. Dadant, C. P. 'First Lessons in Beekeeping," American Bee Journal. Pellet, F. C. Productive Beekeeping. J. B. Lippincott Company. Root, A. Land E. I. "ABC and X Y Z of Bee Culture," 1917 ed. A. I. Root Company. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 300. »Ginn and Company. [1301 d Fig. q9 b, young larva; c, older larvae ; d, pupa a. egg; Fig. 100. Queen cells Fig. ioi. One-story stand and hive with metal cover EXERCISE 66 A STUDY OF FUNGI Statement. Fungi are found on both living and decaying organic matter, and are present in abun- dance practically wherever there is dead organic matter. Many fungi attack plants and break down the living tissue, causing the plants to become diseased. The fol- lowing fungi, some of which attack living plants, can usually be found : corn smut, wheat smut, soft rot of apple, brown rot of peach or plum, mold on peaches, cherries, or improperly preserved fruits, and mold on oranges or lemons. Object. To grow and study fungi. Materials. Stale wheat bread ; tumbler; microscope; slides and cover glass ; other fungi obtainable, as corn smut, wheat smut, or soft rot of apple. Directions, i. A typical fungus of bread mold may be obtained in from three to five days. Moisten a small piece of bread with water, place it in a large tumbler, and allow it to stand exposed to the air in the room for an hour or two. Add a few more tablespoonfuls of water and cover the tumbler with a saucer or a piece of heavy cardboard. Keep this in a warm room. Within a few days a white, threadlike growth known as mycelium will develop. Mount a very small portion of this in a drop of water on a slide, using a cover glass. Examine this under the low and high power of the microscope. When the spore cases appear make additional studies. 2. In a similar Fig. I02. Corn smut manner Collect and mount small bits of the spore masses (black dust) of corn or wheat smut and examine them. Compare these black-dust spores with bread-mold spores for size. Compare various spores as to their color, shape, and size. Notice any particular markings on the walls of the smut spores and describe each of them. 3. Place an apple, peach, plum, orange, or lemon which shows signs of a soft rot or decay in a dish and cover tightly for a day or two. A fungus will develop sufficiently to be easily seen with the unaided eye. Often diseased fruit with the fimgus cropping out will be found hanging on the tree. Frequently diseased fruit or vegetables can be found in the grocery store. Examine small portions of any of the fungi which are cropping out from diseased fruit under the low and high power of the microscope, just as the bread mold was examined. [132] One of the best-known plant diseases. Common on Indian corn all over the United States. The black smut masses are composed of smut dust — a very great number of spores. (Photograph by L. £. Melchers) Fig. 103. Mold on orange This may easily be found on oranges and lemons in any grocery store. If a small portion is scraped off with a knife, mounted in water, and examined under the high power of the microscope, the spores are easily seen. (Photograph by L. E. Melchers) EXERCISE 66 {Continued) Questions. Of what does the mycelium consist ? What do sporangia contain ? What f imctions do these bodies have ? Describe the spores as to their size, shape, and color. How do fungi reproduce ? How does corn smut spread ? How does wheat smut live over from one season to another ? Name all the farm plants that you know to be attacked by smut. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 288-289. Ginn and Company. Duggas, B. M. Fungous Diseases of Plants. Ginn and Company. Stevens and Hall. Diseases of Economic Plants, p. 486. The Macmillan Company. r [133] EXERCISE 67 A STUDY OF BACTERIA Statement. Bacteria are microscopic single-celled plants living either singly or in groups. Under natural conditions they are present on almost every object and are exceedingly abundant in the air, soil, and water. Most bacteria are harmless, many are beneficial, while some cause disease. Tuber- culosis, t)^hoid fever, and cholera, the wilt of melons and cucumbers, and the crown gall common to apples, alfalfa, and many other plants are common bacterial diseases. Object. To study bacteria and observe the effects of bacterial action. Materials. Four small bottles ; boiling water ; cotton; Bulgar tablets ; microscope; cover glass and slide. Directions. Secure four small bottles or tumblers holding approximately half a pint. These should be thoroughly cleaned by placing them in water and bringing it to the boiling point for a few minutes. Fill each half full with sweet milk (not pasteurized). Buy some Bulgar tablets or tube cultures at the drug store ; these contain the living bacteria. Bacillus bulgaricus. Place half a tablet in each of two tumblers of milk. .Do not put anything in the other samples. Insert in the mouth of each bottle a firm cotton plug made by rolling the cotton into a roll. Place one of the tumblers contain- .' • ,- ■Ke.' . .. ■".:i^ ft' . . •■j.a Jng tjig Bulgar tablet, and one of the tumblers which was not inoculated with a tablet, in a refrigerator. The other two ah b tumblers should be placed in a room where the temperature is Fig. 104. A group of bacteria and two com- about 80° F. At the end of twelve, twenty-four, and thirty-six smut spores hours Compare the two samples of milk containing the bacteria All are magnified soo^times, showing relative ^j^}^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ Untreated Samples as to their odor and taste and record any difference that may be apparent. Describe what you have discovered. Note the appearance of the milk in each sample. Record any difference in the physical and chemical state of the samples. Return the bottles to their respective places and reexamine samples at the end of forty-eight and seventy-two hours. Notice the differences between the souring of the various samples, the characteristic odor, and the physical changes in the milk. Examine a drop of sour milk under the highest power of your microscope. Can you see the bacteria ? Describe what you see. In which sample are the bacteria most numerous ? Questions. What was the effect of bacteria upon milk ? How did the temperature at which the milk was held affect the action of bacteria? At what temperatures do bacteria grow most rapidly? What temperature is required to kill them ? What are the common ways of holding bacteria in check or killing them ? Why do we store perishable products in the ice box ? Explain how low tempera- ture retards the souring of milk. How does it retard the spoiling of meat and eggs ? How does boiling and sealing while hot prevent spoiUng in canned fruits and vegetables ? Why was the cotton stuffed in the mouth of the bottles in the experiment above ? Will dirty miUc keep as well as clean milk ? Will milk keep as well when placed in dirty vessels as in clean ones? What is meant by sterilization and how may it be accomphshed ? What is the effect of sterihzation ? What is meant by pasteurization and how may it be accomphshed ? What product is most generally pasteurized ? Name some of the most common disinfectants. Why do' we spray fruit trees? Name some common diseases of plants which are due to bacteria and describe the best method of preventing them. What are some of the common diseases of farm animals caused by bacteria? References. Conn, H. W. Agricultural Bacteriology. P. Blakiston's Son and Company. Lipman, J. G. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. The Macmillan Company. [1341 Fig. 105. Oat smut This is common in oat &elds wherever oats are grown. It is easily controlled by disinfecting the seed. The illustration shows one good head and three diseased heads. (Photograph by L. E. Melchers) EXERCISE 68 CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES Statement. Much of the great loss due to bacterial plant diseases may be controlled by disinfecting the seed. One of the most efficient substances for this purpose is formalin. This disinfectant is used successfully in the case of stinking smut of wheat, smut of oats, barley, sorghums, and potato scab. Object. To treat seed by the formalin method for bacte- rial disease. Materials. Pint of formalin ; peck samples of wheat and oats which are smut infested ; pails for immersing the seed. Directions. Buy a pound of formalin from the drug store, and secure samples of wheat and oats which contain smut from the. elevator or from the farm and a sample of potatoes from a field which suffered from potato scab. Pre- pare the formalin mixture, using one pound of formalin in forty-five gallons of water. Place each sample to be treated in a cloth bag and immerse it in the formalin solution. Leave it immersed for ten minutes and then spread out to dry. Plant the seed as soon as possible after receiving the treatment. If you live on the farm apply treatments at home to seed to be used on the farm. It will be necessary to figure out the exact quantity of solution needed for treating a small lot of seed or potatoes. Do not use a stronger or weaker strength than recommended. After treating, plant the seed and ob- serve results, as compared with the results from tmtreated seed planted alongside or in the fields of the neighborhood. Questions. What are the most destructive plant diseases in your community ? How are bacteria and fungi distributed ? Where may they be found ? What is the value of treating seed for smut? In what form is smut present on seed ? Kame as many methods of control of plant diseases as you can. Is it much trouble to treat seed with formalin? Is it expensive? If 5 per cent of the crop is saved by treating the seed, does it pay? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 287-298. Ginn and Company. Duggar, B. M. Fungous Diseases of Plants, pp. 372-380. Ginn and Company. Stevens and Hall. Diseases of Economic Plants, p. 346. The MacmUlan Company. [ 135 ] Treating seed oats for smut prc\cntion The method shown is the new "dry" method, concentrated formaldehyde solution being used. Every shovelful of grain is given one "shot " of very fine spray. (Photograph liy L. E. Melchers) PART V. BREEDS AND TYPES OF FARM ANIMALS EXERCISE 69 WHERE OUR BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK ORIGINATED Statement. In times when men, women, and children had to provide food, clothing, and shelter with their own hands and had to carry their burdens on their own backs, the people remained un- civilized. Those races of people which early learned to tame wild animals and make them help to provide food and clothing, and to bear burdens soon began to establish orderly ways of living. They soon had food all the year around, wore clothes in- stead of skins and lived in houses instead of caves or trees. Also those races which made the greatest improvement in the use- fulness of their domestic animals have developed the highest forms of agriculture and have been the world's most intelligent farmers. Much of the history of man's progress from a state of savagery to the highest state of civilization is revealed by a study of the origin of our breeds of farm animals. Object. To fix in the pupil's mind the countries which have contributed most to the improve- ment of the breeds of live stock that are conunon in the United States. Materials. Outline maps of the world and text material showing where each of our com- mon breeds of farm animals originated. EXERCISE 69 (Continued) f P Directions, i. Indicate on one of the outline maps where each of our important breeds of horses originated, representing the draft and coach breeds by one color, the light horses by another, etc. 2. On another map indicate where oUr hogs originated, distin- guishing between the lard hog and the bacon hog. 3. On a third map show by different colors the origin of our beef and dairy cattle. 4. Indicate on another map the origin of our principal breeds of sheep, differentiating between the wool and the mutton breeds. 5. On another map show the origin of the important breeds of chickens, representing the heavy types by a different color from that of the light breeds. 6. On a sixth map show the origin of all improved ani- mals, indicating horses, cattle, and swine, etc., by different colors. Questions. List the countries of the world and the improved breeds of live stock furnished by each. List the animals found on local farms. Where did each originate? Consult the yearbook of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture and rank the countries as to the value of animal products. Rank the animals in the order of impor- tance in your state ; in your com- munity. State why local farmers produce various classes of live stock. References. Waters, H. J. Es- sentials of Agriculture, pp. 330-339, 395-407. Ginn and Company. Bailey, L. H. Encyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. 3, pp. 1-15. The Macmillan Company. Shaler, N. S. Domesticated Ani- mals. Charles Scribner's Sons. EXERCISE 70 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES Object. To study in detail the points of importance in judging the value of a horse and to fix in mind the ideal market and breeding types. Also to train the eye in detecting weaknesses, defects, and blemishes, and to understand their importance in estimating the usefulness and selling value of horses. Materials. Pictures of prize-winning horses clipped from live-stock journals and mounted on cards ; stereopticon and slides ; score card on opposite page ; suitable animals for practice in judging. Directions. The work should be begun by a study of the illustrations and by practice in locating on the living animal each of the most important parts. A study of the types and breed characteristics of horses is also necessary. Practice should be given in the use of the score card. Note how nearly each part conforms to the standard given ; express judgment in writing of the worth of each part. It is well in the early exercises for the student to compare his score in detail with that made by his classmates and by the instructor. Comparative or competitive judging. The use of the score card is preliminary to the more practical method of judging — that of taking in with the eye, quickly and accurately, the ^^ general conformation of an animal and form- ing a sound judgment as to the comparative worth of a number of animals presented in competition. At the beginning of competitive judging it is well to limit the number to three or four animals and whenever possible to choose animals that have obvious differences in form and value. Students, working inde- pendently and without conversation, should be required to place the animals in the order of their worth and to give written reasons for their placings. After the work is completed the fullest discussion should be had and the teacher should offer constructive criticism of the work. Judging contests. Contests between high-school teams in judging the principal classes of live stock, either at the farm of some prominent breeder or at the local or state fair, will be of much value in stimu- lating interest in live-stock production and in developing school spirit. Questions. How do we measure the height of horses? What are the advantages of a medium sloping shoulder? or of a close back coupling? of a medium sloping pastern? Describe accurately the kind of foot desired on heavy horses, and why. Name the breeds of draft horses. Name and de- scribe the market classes of heavy horses and state the uses of each. Has the use of the farm tractor and auto truck affected the use of this type of horses, and how? What breeds of draft horses predomi- nate in your neighborhood ? References. W.^ters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 330-352. Ginn and Company. Gay, C. W. Pro- ductive Horse Husbandry, pp. 139-144. J. B. Lippincott Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 361-325. R. G. Adams and Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 92-97. Ginn and Company. [138] Fig. 107. The points in judging a horse I, mouth; 2, nostril; 3, chin; 4, nose; 5, face; 6, forehead; 7, eye; 8, ear; g, lower jaw; 10, throatlatch; 11, windpipe; 12, crest; 13, withers; 14, shoulder; 15, breast; 16, arm; 17, elbow; 18, forearm; 19, knee; 20, can- aon; 2 1 , fetlock joint ; 22, pastern; 23, foot; 24, fore flank ; 25, heart girth; 26, coupling; 27, back; 28, loin; 29, rear flank; 30, belly; 31, hip; 32, croup; 33, tail; 34, buttocks; 35, quarters; 36, thigh; 37, stifle; 38, gaskin or lower thigh ; 39, hock EXERCISE 70 (Continued) SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES Scale of Poikts Score Possible Student's Corrected Ace, estimated. yr. actual yr. GENERAL APPEARANCE — 26 Points Height : estimated hands ; actual hands Weight : over 1600 lb. in good condition ; estimated lb., score according to age Form : broad, massive, symmetrical, blocky Quality : refined ; bone clean, large, strong ; tendons dean, defined, prominent ; skin and hair fine ; " feather," if present, silky Action : energetic, straight, true, elastic ; walk, stride long, quick, regular ; trot free, balanced, rapid . Temperament : energetic ; disposition good Style : stylish and graceful carriage HEAD AND NECK — 8 Points Head : proportionate size, clean-cut, well-carried ; profile straight Muzzle : neat ; nostrils large, flexible ; lips thin, even, firm Eyes : full, bright, clear, large, same color Forehead: broad, full Ears : medium size, tapering, well-carried, alert Lower jaw : angles wide, space clean Neck : medium length, well-muscled, arched ; throatlatch fine ; windpipe large FORE QUARTERS — 23 Points Shoulders : long, moderately sloping, heavily and smoothly muscled, extending into back Arms : short, heavily muscled, thrown back, well-set Forearm : long, wide, clean, heavily muscled Knees ; straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, well-supported Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns : moderate slope and length, strong, clean Feet : large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog large, elastic ; heels wide, strongly supported Legs : viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot ; from the side, a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints ahd the back of the hoof .... BODY — 10 Points Withers : moderate height, smooth, extending well back Chest : deep ; breastbone low ; girth large Ribs : deep, well-sprung, closely ribbed to hip Back: broad, short, strong, muscular Loin : broad, short, heavily muscled Underline : long, low ; flanks well let down HIND QUARTERS — 33 Points Hips : broad, smooth, level Croup : long, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping Tail : attached high, well-carried ■ Thighs : deep, broad, heavily muscled Quarters : deep, heavily muscled Stifles ; clean, strong Gaskins (lower thighs) : long, wide, heavily muscled Hocks ; large, strong, wide, deep, clean Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns: moderate slope and length, strong, clean Feet : large even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog large, elastic ; heels wide, strongly supported Legs : viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, and foot ; from the side, a pcrpentiicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle, and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon ToUl [139] EXERCISE 71 tio. io8. A grand chanipiun saddle horse JUDGING LIGHT HORSES Object. To fix clearly in mind the conformation peculiar and desirable to each type of harness horse, and of the saddle horse. To accomplish this the student must first learn the history of the development of each type, and know the uses of each. Materials. Charts showing the names of the parts of a horse ; pic- tures of prize-wirming animals of each class clipped from live-stock journals; stereopticon and slides; score card on opposite page and suitable animals for judging. Directions. After a careful study of the draft horse, it will be less difficult to judge the other classes of horses. The parts are named the same, defects occur in common, and indications of con- stitution and quality are similar. The differences are those which fit the animals for their particular work: in the draft horse, pulling power; in the heavy horse, style, action, and conformation ; in the light harness horse, style, action, speed, and endurance ; in the saddle horse, gaits, style, temperament, and carrying strength ; in ponies, style and tractable disposition. Score the animals of the different classes according to the points which are outlined in the score card. Compare your own score card with the score cards of your classmates, and also with that of your instructor. Does your score differ from theirs ? Discuss fully the points wherein your score varies with that of the instructor or of the other students. Questions. Name the breeds of light horses and write a brief sketch of the origin, distribution, and present uses. How has the automobile affected the use and value of light horses ? What are the factors of first importance in light horses ? How many light horses are there in your neighborhood, and to what use are they being put ? Are there fewer or more than there were ten years ago? Why? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agricul- ture, pp. 330-350. Ginn and Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 7-92. Ginn and Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 352-372. R. G. Adams and Company. Gay, C. W. Productive Horse Husbandry, pp. 144-148. J. B. Lippincott Company. Fig. 109. The Shetland pony, Locust, wh;....ji^iv^ the highest price in the history of the ;or over $2000, breed [140] I EXERCISE 71 {Continued) SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES' Scale of Points Age : estimated yr., actual y r. GENERAL APPEARANCE — 28 Points Weight : estimated lb. ; actual lb Height : estimated hands ; actual hands Form : symmetrical, smooth, stylish Quality : refined ; bone clean, fine ; tendons clean, defined ; hair and skin fine Action : energetic, straight, true, elastic ; walk, stride long, quick, regular ; trot, free, balanced, rapid Temperament : active ; disposition good ; carriage stylish HEAD AND NECK — 8 Points Head ; proportionate size, clean-cut, well-carried ; profile straight Muzzle ; neat ; nostrils large, flexible ; lips thin, even, firm Eyes : full, bright, clear, large, same color Forehead : broad, full Ears: medium size, tapering, well-carried, alert Lower jaw : angles medium wide, space clean Neck : long, well-muscled, arched ; throatlatch fine, clean ; windpipe large FORE QUARTERS — 23 Points Shoulder: long, sloping, smoothly muscled, extending into back Arms : short, strongly muscled, thrown back, well-set Forearm : long, wide, clean, strongly muscled Knees : straight, wide, deep, strong, clean, strongly supported Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns : long, sloping, strong, clean Feet : medium and even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog, large, elastic ; heels wide, strongly supported Legs : viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot ; from the side, a perpendicular Une dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and the back of the hoof .... BODY — 10 Points Withers: moderate height, smooth, extending well back Chest : deep, wide ; breastbone low ; girth large Ribs: deep, well-sprung, closely ribbed to hip Back : broad, short, strong, muscular Loins : broad, short, strongly and smoothly muscled nnderline : long, low ; flanks well let down HIND QUARTERS — 31 Points Hips : broad, smooth, level Croup : long, wide, muscular, not markedly drooping Tail : attached high, well-carried • Thighs : deep, broad, strongly muscled Quarters : deep, heavily muscled Stifles : strong, clean, muscular Gaskins (lower thighs) : long, wide, strongly muscled Hocks : large, strong, wide, deep, clean . Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns: long, sloping, strong, clean Feet : medium and even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog, large, elastic heels wide, stroncly supported Legs: viewed from behind, a pcrjxrndicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, and foot ; from the side, a perpendicular line from the hip joints should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle ; and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon Total Score Possible Student's Corrected 4 4 15 3 ' For saddle horses the light-horse score card should be used, including, under .\ction, the five gaits; namely, walk, canter, rack, fox trot, and slow pace or running walk. For coach horses it should be remembered that high and stylish action are preferable to speed. [1411 EXERCISE 72 BLEMISHES, UNSOUNDNESSES, FAULTS, AND VICES IN H0RSE3 Statement. In judging a horse both unsoundness and conformation are vitally important and largely determine the placing the animal receives. Horses have many defects which lessen their value to a greater or less degree. Some of the important defects are listed below. 1. Blemish. A healed injury of the skin or of the parts immediately underlying it. Example: Scars as a result of wire cuts. 2. Unsoundness. Any condition that interferes with the animal's usefulness or which will make the animal less useful in the course of time. The following forms are recognized : a. Temporary unsoundness. A condition amenable to treatment and without leaving after-effects. Example : Lameness as the result of a nail puncture. b. Permanent unsoundness. A condition which interferes with, or may at any time interfere with, the natural usefulness of the animal. Example : a bone spavin. c. Serviceably sound. This means that the animal is sound, but may carry a blemish, such as a scar, which does not and will not interfere with its usefulness. 3. Defect. This term refers more to a bad form with which the animal was born, though at times it may be an acquired condition. Two varieties are usually recognized : a. Absolute defect. This may be as serious as an unsoundness and decrease the value of an animal for all forms of service. Example : very narrow chest or small nostrils. b. Relative defect. Such a defect disqualifies for certain forms of service only. Examples : a straight shoulder on a horse intended for speed, or a sway-back on a horse intended for carrying heavy loads. 4. Vices. These are mental rather than physical defects. The term "fault" is sometimes used to designate a mild vice, as halter pulling, while a true vice, such as kicking or running, makes the animal more or less unserviceable or dangerous. Object. To recognize the above defects readily. Materials. Horses showing examples of the various unsoundnesses and blemishes. Directions. Invite the local veterinarian to hold a clinic at the school and ask him to secure typical examples of as many important blemishes and unsoundnesses as possible for student practice in locating and recognizing them. Classify all unsoundnesses as temporary, permanent, and serviceably sound. Classify all defects as absolute or relative. Use the following outline in making your classification : x^v - ' 'x^jP.JKi' Fig. 110. Types of blemishes, defects, and unsoundness From left to right defects are indicated by x : bog spavin ; bone spavin ; splint ; thoroughpin ; curb ; ringbone ; sidebone. (Courtesy of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture) [1421 EXERCISE 72 (Continued) LOCATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMMON UNSOUNDNESSES The name of the unsoundness is given opposite the place where it occurs, and in addition, in so far as possible, all blemishes are indicated by the abbreviation " bl." ; temporary unsoundnesses by " t. un." ; permanent unsoundness by " p. un." ; serviceably sound by " s. s." ; absolute defects by " ab. d." ; relative defects by " rel. d." ; faults by " f." ; and vices by " v." The list deserves careful study, in the beginning of judging work, both with the aid of charts and diagrams and with animals. WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHAT TO LOOK FOR WHAT TO LOOK FOR I. Head III. Back 7. Coronets: I. Region of the poll : I. Withers: a. Sidebone (p. un. or s. s.) o. Poll evil (t. un.) 0. Fistula (t. un. or p. un.) b. Quittor (t. un.) b. Scars of previous operations (bl.) 2. Eyes: a. Blindness (p. un.) IV. Tail c. Low ringbone (p. un. or s. s.) 8. Feet: a. Navicular disease (p. im. or s. s.) b. Blue-eyed I. Tail: b. Founder (t. un. or p. un.) 3. Ears: 0. Unhealed docked end (bl.) c. Toe cracks (t. un.) 0. Overmobile indicates b. False tail attached d. Quarter cracks (t. un.) (i) Viciousness (v.) c. Lateral curvation (a.) (2) Nervousness (f.) d. Limp or paralyzed tail (rel. d. or VI. Hind limbs (3) Blindness (ab. d.) p. un.) I. Hips: b. Immobile indicates a. Broken ilium (t. un.) (i) Deafness (p. un.) V. Fore limb b. " Knocked down " hips (p. un.) (2) Sluggishness (rel. d. or f.) I. Shoulder: 2. Stifle: (3) Lockjaw (t. un. or p. un.) a. Collar boils (bl. or t. un.) 0. Dislocated petells or stifle (t. im. 4. Nostrils: b. Sweeney (bl. or t. un.) or p. un.) a. Discharge indicates c. Abscess or fistula (t. un. or p. b. Dropsical swelling (p. un. or s. s.) (i) Catarrh (t. un.) im.) 3. Hocks: (2) Glanders (p. un.) 2. Elbow: a. Thoroughpin (p. un. or s. s.) (3) Diseased molars (t. un.) a. Shoe boil. (bl. or t. un.) b. Curb (bl., t. un., p. un., or s. s.) b. Signs of 3. Knee : c. Spavin: (i) Roaring (p. un. or s. s.) a. High splint (p. un.) (i) Bone (p. un. or s. s.) (2) Heaves (p. un.) b. Broken knee (2) Bog (p. un. or s. s.) 5. Muzzle and lips: c. Buck knee (ab. d.) d. Capped hock (bl., t. un., or p. un.) a. Bit sores (bl.) d. Calf knee (ab. d.) 6. Teeth: e. Capped knee (bl., t. un., or p. un.) VII. General diseases 0. Diseased molars (bl. or p. un.) b. " Bishoped " (bl.) c. " Parrot " mouth (ab. d. or rel. d.) d. Undershot jaw (ab. d. or rel. d.) 4. Cannon : a. Splints (bl., t. un., or p. un.) b. Thick tendons (bl., t. un., or p. un.) c. Grease heel or scratches (bl. or t. un.) 1. St. Vitus' dance (p. un.) 2. Crampiness (t. un. or p. un.) 3. Stringhalt (t. un. or p. un.) 7. Tongue : a. Mutilation — end cut off to pre- 4. Roaring (p. un. or s. s.) 5. Heaves (p. un.) vent lolling (bl. or p. un.) d. Scars of unnerving to prevent lame- ness due to ringbone (s. s.) Vlli. Faults II. Neck 5. Fetlock : :. Cribbing (f.) I. Upper border: a. Windgalls (bl. or s. s.) 2. Wind sucking (f) 0. Broken crest (bl.) b. Interfering sores (bl.) 3. Halter pulling (f.) b. Braided mane c. Cocked ankles (ab. d.) 4. Shying (f.) 2. Lower border: d. Grease heel or scratches (bl. or t. 5. Rolling in stall (f.) a. Roaring (p. un. or s. s.) un.) b. Broken windpipe (bl. or p. un.) 6. Pasterns: IX. Vices 3. Sides: a. High ringbone (p. un. or s. s.) I. Balking (v.) a. Unilateral functionless jugular b. Scars or unnerving, to prevent 2. Biting (v.) vein (bl.) lameness due to navicular 3. Kicking (v.) h. Bilateral functionless jugular vein disease (s. s.) 4. Running away (v.) Questions. Upon what will the importance of an unsoundness depend ? What defects may a horse show and still render excellent service ? What is the relation of conformation to the possible occurrence of unsoundness ? What will be likely to occur to a draft colt having a narrow, light-boned hock ? References. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 298-394. R. G. Adams and Company. How to Select a Sound Horse, Farmers' Bulletin j-jg. United States Department of Agriculture. Craig, R. A. Common Diseases of Farm Animals, pp. 143-200. J. B. Lippincott Company. [143 1 EXERCISE 73 JUDGING MULES Object. To study systematically the conformation of the mule ; to develop ability to select animals that are efficient machines, and to detect and evaluate imperfections. Materials. Illustrations and charts showing the parts of a mule ; pictures of good individuals clipped from live-stock journals ; score card on opposite page, and available animals for judging. Directions. Since the mule is essentially a draft animal for use under conditions which require both strength and agility, the chief points in judging relate to size, weight, and action. Mules should be somewhat more rangy than horses. Plenty of bone is an essential point and a clean cut head and neck is to be looked for. Note carefully the temperament of mules as it is quite important for the com- fort and convenience of those who are to use them. Study the parts of the animal and score the various animals available in accordance with the rules given in the score card on the following page. Note that the work is very similar to scoring horses and should occa- sion but little difficulty if the horse has been carefully studied. Judge two or more animals in competition and place them according to their worth. Give reasons in each case. Opportunities for comparative judging are present at almost any time, as a team of animals will do for the work and can usually be found. The eye should be trained to see the excellences and the de- ficiencies of an animal almost at a glance. Such skill can only be acquired by constant practice in comparative judging. The habit of "sizing up" every animal one sees should be formed early. The degree to which the members of work teams match in size, color, conformation, and action should be observed. The animals which show evidences of thrift should be noted and compared with those which are always unthrifty. Questions. What are the market classes of mules? What are the specifications as to height, weight, and type of each? To what uses is each adapted? What is the relative value of each class in your local market ? Where are the principal mule markets of the United States ? In what condition are mules most readily salable, and why ? What is the predominant type of mule produced and used in your neighborhood? At what age is the mule put to work? At what age is he at his prime? At what age does he usually begin to decline in value? How does the mule compare with the horse in its capacity to withstand hardship ? Fig. III. A champion pair of mules References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 339-349. Ginn and Company. Gay, C. W. Productive Horse Husbandry, pp. 309-314. J. B. Lippincott Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 413-418. R. G. Adams and Company. Pujmb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 161-167. Ginn and Company. [144] I EXERCISE 73 {Continued) SCORE CARD FOR MULES Scale of Points Age : estimated yr., actual yr GENERAL APPEARANCE — 26 Points Height: 16 hands or over; estimated .... actual Weight: 1200 to 1600 lb. in good condition; estimated lb., score according to age Form : broad, massive, symmetrical, blocky Quality : bone clean, large, strong ; tendons defined ; skin and hair fine Action : energetic, straight, true, elastic ; walk, stride long, quick, regular ; trot, free, balanced, rapid . . Temperament : active, good disposition ; stylish carriage HEAD AND NECK — 9 Points Head : proportionate size, clean-cut, well-carried ; profile straight or slightly Roman-nosed Muzzle : neat ; nostrils large, flexible ; lips thin, even, firm Eyes : full, bright, clear, large, same color Forehead : broad, full Ears : large, tapering, fine texture, well-earned, alert Lower jaw : angles wide, space clean Neck : medium length, well-muscled, arched ; throatlatch fine ; windpipe large FORE QUARTERS — 22 Points Shoulders : long, moderately sloping, heavily and smoothly muscled, extending into back Arms : short, heavily muscled, thrown back, well-set Forearm : long, wide, clean, heavily muscled Knees : straight, wide, deep, strong, well-supported Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns : moderate slope and length, strong, clean . . . -. Feet : large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog large, elastic ; heels wide and strongly supported . . Legs : viewed in front, a perpendicular Une from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot ; from the side, a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and the back of the hoof ... BODY — 10 Paints Withers : moderate height, smooth, extending well back Chest ; deep, wide ; breastbone low ; girth large Ribs : deep, well-sprung, closely ribbed to hip Back: broad, short, strong, muscular Loin : broad, short, heavily muscled Underline : long, low ; flank well let down HIND QUARTERS — 33 Points Hips : broad, smooth, level Croup : long, wide, heavily muscled, not markedly drooping Tail : attached high, well-carried Thighs : deep, broad, strong, heavily muscled Quarters : deep, heavily muscled Stifles: strong, clean, muscular Gaskins (lower thighs) : long, wide, clean ; tendons large, heavily muscled Hocks: large, strong, wide, deep, clean Cannons : short, wide, clean ; tendons large, clean, and well-defined, set back Fetlocks : wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns : moderate slope and length, strong, clean Feet : large, even size, sound ; horn dense, waxy ; soles concave ; bars strong, full ; frog large, elastia; heels wide and strongly supported Legs : viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, and foot ; from the side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle ; and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon Total Score Possible Student's Corrected [145 EXERCISE 74 JUDGING BEEF CATTLE Object. To study the factors determining the value of beef cattle from the standpoint of the breeder, feeder, and butcher; to study the proportion and general symmetry of an animal so as to form an accurate judgment regarding its size, weight, condition, quality, and general conformation. Fig. 112. Poor type of feeder This steer is lacking in depth of body and expanse of stomach char- acteristic of the better type of feeder FjG. 113. bhurlhorn steer — .Merry iVlonarch Grand champion steer at the International Livestock Exposition in 1917. Fed and exhibited by Purdue University Materials. Pictures of good types of animals clipped from live-stock journals and mounted on cards ; stereopticon and slides ; score card on opposite page ; suitable animals for judging. Directions. Observe carefully the illustrations showing the parts of a beef animal and be able to locate the parts on the animal before beginning the judging. Beef cattle are judged by both the eye and the hand. The eye determines the form, symmetry, size, color ; the hand determines the thickness Fig. 114. Hereford steer — California Favorite Grand champion steer at the International Livestock Exposition of 1916. Bred, fed, and exhibited by the University of California Fig. I IS- Aberdeen .'Vngus steer — Victor Grand champion at the International Livestock Exposition in 1911. Fed and exhibited by the Iowa State College of flesh, pliability and looseness of the skin, and the texture of the hair. In judging the covering run the tips of the fingers along the backbone, the loin, shoulder top and side, and the tail-head, which are the parts least likely to be well covered. Test the quality of the skin by picking up a roll over the back rib while the animal's head is held directly forward. In judging a beef animal the standpoint from which it is judged is of much importance. Check the ten most important items in the score card from the standpoint of the breeder; of the feeder; of the [ 146 ] EXERCISE 74 {Continued) butcher. Give a verbal description of how a" good feeder should appear. Contrast it with the type that makes a poor feeder in stomach capacity, hair coat, mellowness of the skin, etc. The score card is not a set of rules. It is intended to help pupils to form an opinion and make their judgment of the worth of an animal correct. After a pupil has become familiar with the points to be considered and their relative worth he shoufd undertake comparative judging. Constant observation and practice in comparative judging will enable a student to place an exhibit of animals without recourse to the score card. Practical judging resolves itself into the problem of weighing one fault against another and comparing one virtue with another and quickly estimating values. Place an exhibit of animals and give oral reasons for your placings. Questions. Name the qualities in a beef animal which the butcher most desires ; those which the cattle producer emphasizes most. What is meant by quality in beef cattle ? How may it be detected ? What does a lustrous hair coat denote? What part of the carcass brings the highest price? What the lowest price ? What part of the body is last to be covered with fat ? How do you determine the degree of fatness in beef cattle ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 381-392. Ginn and Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 169-175. Ginn and Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 19-51. R. G. Adams and Company. SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE Standass of Excellence Score Possible Student's No. 1 No. 2 Corrected No. 1 No. 2 Weight : estimated lb., according to age Form '. straight top line and underline ; deep, broad, low-set ; compact, symmetrical Quality : hair fine ; bone firm but strong ; skin pliable ; mellow, even covering of firm flesh, especially in region of valuable cuts ; absence of ties and rolls Condition : prime ; flesh deep ; evidence of finish especially marked in cod, at tail-head, flank, shoulder, and throat ; absence of ties or rolls Head : clean-cut, symmetrical ; quiet expression ; mouth and nostrils large, clear, and pladd ; face short ; forehead broad, full ; ears medium size, fine texture, erect Neck : thick, short, tapering neatly from shoulder to head ; throat clean Shoulder vein : full Shoulder : well covered with flesh ; compact Brisket : full, broad but not too prominent ; breast wide Dewlap : skin not loose and drooping Chest : deep, wide, full Crops : full, thick, broad Ribs : long, arched, thickly fleshed Back : broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed Loin : thick, broad ; thickness extending well forward Flank : low and full Hooks : smoothly covered ; width in proportion to other parts, but not prominent Rump : long, level, wide, and even ; tail-head smooth, not patchy Pin bones : not prominent, width in proportion with other parts Thighs : full, fleshed well down to bock Twist : deep, full ; purse full Legs : straight, short ; arm full ; shank fine, smooth Total Animal Student Date [147] EXERCISE 75 JUDGING THE DAIRY COW Object. To learn how to select a profitable dairy cow by her form, temperament, and handling quali- ties. It is possible with proper education and experience to determine by these means, and with very few mistakes, whether a cow is a good, medium, ■« 52 __-sT — ~x or poor dairy cow. Fine distinctions can be made only by weighing and testing the milk for a year. Fig. 1 16. Outline of a dairy cow with parts named I, poll; 2, forehead; 3, bridge of nose; 4, cheek; 5, jaw; 6, neck; 7, crest of neck; 8, throat; g, dewlap; 10, brisket; 11, withers; 12, shoulder; 13, point of shoulder; 14, elbow; 15, arm or forearm; 16, knee; 17, shank; 18, ankle; 19, hoof; 20, fetlock; 21, crop; 22, chine (back); 23, loin; 24, flank; 25, milk well; 26, mammary vein or milk vein; 27, navel; 28, udder; 29, teats; 30, hook (or hook bone) hips; 31, pelvic arch; 32, pin bone or rump bone; 33, thigh; 34, stifle; 33, hock; 36, switch or brush of tail; 37, escutcheon FlG. 117. Arteries (In white) leading from the heart to the udder, and veins (in black) leading from the udder to the heart Materials. Charts ; pictures ; score cards ; dairy cows. Whenever possible, cows whose milk or butter recordj are known should be used so that a check may be had on the student's judgment. Fig.- 1 18. Outlines of dairy and beef types compared a, front view ; b, back view ; c, side view. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Directions. First become acquainted with the parts of the cow mentioned in the score card and be able to locate them on the animal. A study of the illustrations followed by a study of the conformation of the animals will be helpful. Score a number of dairy cows, then weigh and test the milk produced by each. Compare your judgrnent with that of the owner of the cows. Follow carefully the score card given on the next page. Fig. 119. Types of udders a, type of good udder; b, c, and d, types of poor udders. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 353-364. Ginn and Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 243-249. Ginn and Company. Vaughak, K. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 1 13-13 1. R. G. Adams and Company. [148] EXERCISE 75 (Continued) SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE Scale of Points GENERAL APPEARANCE — i8 Points Form : inclined to be wedge-shaped Quality : hair fine, soft ; skin mellow, loose, medium thickness ; secretion yellow ; bone clean, fine . . Temperament : nervous, indicated by lean appearance when in milk HEAD AND NECK — 7 Points Muzzle : clean cut ; mouth large ; nostrils large Eyes : large, bright, full, mild Face ; lean, long ; quiet expression Forehead: broad Ears : medium size, yellow inside, fine texture Horns ; fine texture, waxy Neck: fine, medium length; throat dean ; light dewlap FORE QUARTERS — s Points Withers : lean, thin Shoulders : li^ht, oblique Legs : straight, short ; shank fine BODY — »6 Points Chest : deep, low ; girth large, with full foreflank Barrel : ribs broad, long, wide apart ; large stomach Back : lean, straight, open-jointed Loin: broad Navel : large HIND QUARTERS — 44 Points Hips : far apart, level Rump: long, wide Pin bones : high, wide apart Tail : long, slim ; fine hair in switch , .' . . . Thighs : thin, long Udder : long, attached high, and full behind, extending far in front and full, flexible ; quarters even and free from fleshiness Teats : large, evenly placed Mammary veins : large, long, tortuous, branched, with double extension; large and numerous milk wells . Legs : straight ; shank fine Total Score Possible Student's Corrected SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY HEIFER CALVES Scale of Podjts Score Possible Student's Corrected 10 10 10 8 2 6 2 2 6 4 ■ IS S 10 8 2 GENERAL APPEARANCE — 40 Points Estimated Actual Form : deep, long, wide ; ribs well sprung ; top and bottom lines parallel ; rump long, level, and wide Cnlor ■ (Hstinct and characteristic of brood CONSTITUTION AND HEALTH — 20 Points Skin • clean, nliable and oiW CONDITION — 30 Points BoHv ■ medium well fleshed indicative of dairv form MILK ORGANS — 10 Paints Mammary veins : extending well forward as determined by wells , Total 149 EXERCISE 76 THE PRODUCTION RECORD OF A DAIRY HERD I of hiJ Statement. Some dairy cows return a substantial profit to their owners. Others, receiving the same care, are kept at a loss. The one is a success, the other a failure. As we have already learned, we may judge the producing power of cows with considerable accuracy by their physical characteristics. However, it is not sufficiently accurate to discover to the owner which of his cows are most successful and which are failures. It is only by weighing and testing the milk of each cow for three days in the middle of each month for a year that this information can be obtained. This record may be kept by the farmer himself, by the agricultural student of the high school, or through the cow-testing associa- tion of which the farmer may be a member. Object. To ascertain by means of an accurate milk, butter fat, and feed record the dairy value of each cow. Materials. Cows to be tested ; Babcock tester ; scales ; blank on opposite page. Directions. A farmer had his herd tested by the high-school students, and the records of two of cows were as follows : One cow produced 16,355 pounds of milk, which contained 691.7 pounds of butter fat in a year. She consumed during the year 6590 pounds of silage, 1760 poimds of clover hay, and 2428 pounds of mixed grain. She was on pasture six months. Another cow produced in the same year 2466 pounds of milk, which contained 83.3 pounds of butter fat. She consumed in the year 5040 pounds of silage, 1494 pounds of clover hay, and 1328 pounds of mixed grain. She was also on pasture six months. Compute, at the local market prices, the cost of the feed consumed by each animal, and the value of the milk and butter fat produced. Compute the return each cow made for each dollar invested in her feed. Compare the gross returns and gross profit from a herd of twenty such cows as the first one ; from twenty such cows as the second one. Questions. Is there a wide difference in the efficiency of the two cows tested as regards their ability to convert feed consumed into milk and butter fat? What did cow No. i do with a part of her feed that cow No. 2 did not do ? How did cow No. 2 use the feed which did not go for milk production ? Which of the two cows, No. i or No. 2, would you select as the better beef type of animal? Whicji is the better type of dairy animal ? Reference. Eckles, C. H. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 132-149. The Macmillan Company. Fig. 1 20. The patriot and the slacker cow The cow whose picture is shown at the left produced 691 pounds of butter fat in a year ; the one whose picture is shown at the right, in tlie same herd and given the same care as the others, produced only 83 pounds of butter fat in one year. (Courtesy College of Agriculture, Uni- versity of Wisconsin) [ISO] EXERCISE 76 {Continued) RECORD FOR THE MONTH OF Cow No. 1 Cow No. 2 Cow No. 3 Cow No. 4 Cow No. 5 Cow No. 6 14 A.M. . . . P.M. . . . IS A.M. . . . P.M. . . . 16 A.M. . . . P.M. . . . Total Per day Total for month .... Per cent fat Total fat Value FEED RECORD Cow Number Date Kinds or Feeds Amounts Value Total Value per Month I -' 0 . 4 5 Fig. 121. Holstein Aaggic Acme of Riverside 2d, No. 164467 Fig. 122. Guernsey cow Langwater, Dairymaid The cow shown in Fig. ui had a record in three hundred and sixty-five days, of 24,682.7 pounds milk and 1331.41 pounds butter — the world's record in butter production for one year. [151] EXERCISE 77 JUDGING SWINE | Object. To learn the characteristics of the different breeds and types of hogs ; to learn the adapta- bility of each to different conditions, and to acquire skill and accuracy in choosing those animals which most nearly conform to the ideal of their class and which will produce the greatest profit on the farm. Fig. 123. The lard and bacon types compared At the left a typical Berkshire boar which sold for $10,000. At the right a champion Tamworth boar Materials. Pictures of prize-winning hogs clipped from live-stock journals and mounted on cards ; stereopticon and slides ; score card on opposite page ; suitable animals for practice in judging. Directions. A study of the type and breed characteristics of swine and of the score card and charts showing location of the different parts of the animal should be made before beginning judging practice. The student should be able to recognize readily the leading breeds of swine, and special emphasis should be placed upon those types and breeds which are of greatest importance in the community. Score several animals of each class. One specimen should be as nearly perfect and in as nearly finished condition as possible, to serve as a type. The others may be of inferior type in one or more important particulars, to emphasize not alone \ the valuable qualities to be sought for but also to fix in the pupil's mind the more important defi- ciencies to be met with in judging swine. At first the score card on the next page should be carefully followed and the ideals described applied to as many different animals as opportunity will permit. Later, opportunities for practice in competitive judging should be provided. Questions. What are the principal differences in the type and uses of lard and bacon hogs ? Sketch briefly the history, characteristics, and uses of the breeds of hogs common to the United States. What Fig. 124. Champion Duroc Jersey barrow at the International Fig. 125. Grand champion Poland China barrow at the Inter- Livestock Exposition national Livestock E.xposition 1152 1 EXERCISE 77 (Continued) is the approximate territory of each in the United States? At what age are pigs usually weaned, and at about what weight? At what age and at what weight are hogs usually marketed? What are the common diseases of swine in your locality, and how are some of the most important ones controlled ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp, 395-401. Ginn and Company. Day, G. E. Productive Swine Husbandry, pp. 9-22. J. B. Lippincott Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 467-554. Ginn and Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 237-256. R. G. Adams and Company. SCORE C.\RD FOR FAT, OR LARD, HOGS Scale of Points Score Possible ' Student's Corrected GENERAL APPEARANCE — 32 Points Weight : according to age Estimated Actual pounds Form : deep, broad, low, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs Quality : bone dean ; hair silky ; skin fine Condition : deep, firm, even covering flesh, giving smooth finish . . . HEAD AND NECK — 6 Points Snout : medium to short, not coarse Eyes: full, mild, bright, large Face : short ; cheeks, full ; without wrinkles Ears : fine, medium size ; soft, neatly attached Jowl : strong, neat, broad, full to the shoulders Neck : thick, short, broad on top FORE QUARTERS - Shoulders : broad, deep, full, smooth, compact on top . Breast: wide, roomy Leg : straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set . . . Pasterns: strong, straight, upright II Points BODY — 32 Points Chest : deep, broad, large girth Sides : full and smooth from hams to shoulders, close ribbed Back : broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed .... Loin : wide, thick Belly : straight, wide FUnk : even with underline HIND QUARTERS — 19 Points Hips: smooth Rump : long, wide, level, well filled out Hams : heavily fleshed, deep, wide, thick Legs : straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set Pasterns: strong, straight, upright 2 3 10 Total . Fig. 1 26. A chart for teaching names of the parts of the hog Fig. i 27. Outline for chart for teaching wholesale cuts of pork In Fig. 126, I denotes the snout; 2, eye; 3, face; 4, ear; 5, jowl; 6, neck; 7, shoulder; 8, foreleg; 9, hindleg; 10, breast; 11, chestline; 12, back; 13, loin; 14, side; 15, tail; j6, fore flank; 17, hind flank; 18, hip; ig, rump; 20, belly; 21, ham; 22, stifle; 33, hock; 24, pas- terns; 25, dewclaws; 26, foot. In Fig. 137, I represents the head ; 2, shoulder; 3, loin; 4, belly; $, ham [153 1 EXERCISE 78 JUDGING SHEEP i'lG. 128. The mullun lypc The champion coUege-bred Southdown wether at the International Livestock Exposition. Bred and exliibited by the University of Ohio Statement. Sheep may be classified according to type and breed or according to how they are sold on the market. According to types or breed, sheep are classified either as fine-wool type or as mutton type. According to market demands, sheep are classified as fat or mutton, feeders, or breeders. Object. To become familiar with the classification of sheep and to be able to judge quickly and accurately the value and comparative worth of an animal. Material. Pictures of pure-bred sheep clipped from Hve-stock magazines and mounted on cards; stereopticon and shdes ; score card on opposite page ; suitable animals for scoring. Directions. In handling live sheep, seize them by the leg ; never catch them by the fleece. The fleece is examined for quality over the heart, where the wool fibers are finest, on the lower outside part of the thigh, where the wool is coarsest, and at the mid-ribs, where the fiber is of medium fineness. Select a natural seam in the fleece, opening it with the backs of the two hands and pressing the fleece back so as to expose the fiber its full length and also to expose the skin, which should be inspected for color and condition. Score animals at first according to the score card given on the next page and later judge a number of animals, in each case giving reasons for your placings. Questions. Why has the sheep been called the animal with a " Golden Hoof " ? In what important ways did the sheep help man on his way toward a civilized life ? What are the distinctive types of sheep, in what respects do they differ, and where is each principally found ? Of what service is the sheep in a system of clean farming ? What pet animal most seriously interferes with the development of the sheep industry ? What is the remedy ? About how much wool is produced by a sheep in a year ? What is its worth at your local market ? What is the ap- proximate live weight of the mutton sheep when mature ? of the wool type ? What breeds of sheep are most common in your neighborhood ? Which is best adapted to local conditions ? In what respects might the methods of handling sheep in the neigh- borhood be improved ? Contrast the methods and results of one or two of the best sheep raisers of the neighborhood with those of the average, and write a statement showing the particulars in which general improvement of the average might be made. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 409-417. Ginn and Company. Plumb, C. S. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, pp. 333-455. Ginn and Company. Vaughan, H. W. Types and Market Classes of Live Stock, pp. 159-179. R. G. Adams and Company. Gay, C. W. The Breeds of Live Stock, pp. 327-380. The Macmillan Company. [154] Fig. 129. The fine-wool type. RambouUlet Ram " Laramie " and his world record fleece which weighed 46^ pounds at fifteen months' growth Owned by the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College i EXERCISE 78 (Continue^ SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON SHEEP ScAis OF Points Score Possible Student's Corrected GENERAL APPEARANCE — 38 Points Weiglit : according to age Form : long, level, deep, broad, low-set, stylish Quality : bone clean-cut ; hair silky ; skin pink ; offal light Condition, or Finish : covering deep, even, firm, free from patches ; dock thick ; purse and flank full ; neck thick HEAD AND NECE — 6 Points Head : short, clean-cut ; forehead broad and full ; eyes large, clear ; ears fine, alert ; muzzle large ; lips thin ; nostrils large, open Neck : short, thick, free from folds ; shoulder vein full FORE QUARTERS — 6 Points Shoulders : smooth, evenly covered, compact on top Brisket : broad, neat Legs : short, straight, wide apart ; forearm full ; shank smooth, fine BODY — 33 Points Chest : wide, deep, full . . : Back : broad, long, straight, thickly covered ; ribs well-sprung, close together Loin: broad, thick, long, strong HIND QUARTERS — 15 Points Hips: wide, level, smooth Rump: long, level, wide Thighs : deep, wide, full Twist: deep, full Legs : short, straight, wide apart ; shank smooth, fine WOOL — 12 Points Quantity : long, dense, even . Quality: pure, fine, uniform, free from dead or black fiber; crimp close, regular Condition : clean, bright, lustrous, sound, soft, light color ; yolk plentiful Total 10 10 S 10 wn |B ^^^.■^^ ;fi W^l. 1 ;:csa£^"- — "^ — I — m-^k>mmma^ma^ f^^--^^r:m *■ ,f...V'- 1 . V ^ . ] Fig. 130. Yearling Shropshires Winners of first prize at the Panama Pacific International Exposition. Bred and exhibited by San Ramon Rancho, San Ramon, California [155] EXERCISE 79 A STUDY OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR IN FOWLS ^^^^^i^ G^- ©^ ^^Hl^ Co) J^^H ^^Eik. ^fl^H 0^^ l^i^^^^H (2?i ®i® --. Fig. 131. A White Wyandotte cock, showing con- stitutional vigor The points of a fowl are marked and are as follows : o, beak; i, comb; 2, face; 3, wattles; 4, ear lobe; 5, hackle; 6, breast; 7, back; 8, saddle; g, saddle feathers ; 10, sickle feathers of tail; 11, lesser sickles; 12, tail cov- erts; 13, body and fluff section; 14, fluff; 15, wing; 16, point of heel which is the division between the breast and the body and fluff sections; 17, thigh; 18, hack joint; ig, shank; 20, spur; 21, toes Statement. Only fowls which have much constitutional vigor are good producers. All the organs of the body, es- pecially those which have to do with digestion, respiration, and reproduction, and the nervous system which controls these organs, must be healthy. Object. To learn to judge fowls in respect to their con- stitutional vigor. Materials. Fowls to be judged ; score card on page 159. Directions. In accordance with the instructions given score a number of fowls. Indicate in the proper blank space the cuts given each part and explain by underlining the corresponding words, under Remarks. I. .Make a careful study of the actions and movements of the fowls to be judged, as these are probably the best indications we have of their physical condition. Fowls that are weak are likely to be inactive and dull, and more likely to sit than to stand. They seldom range to any extent in search of forage and do not scratch in search of feed. The loudness and frequency of the crow of the male and the cackle of the female are indications of physical strength and superiority. Weak fowls seldom crow or sing. 2. Observe the form of the body for evidences of strength or weakness. The strong bird has a bright, prominent eye, a well- developed, blocky body, bright plumage, an erect carriage, bright comb and wattles, and should be active and sprightly in move- ment. A long neck, thin beak, narrow head, long, slender body, long legs and thighs, or a stilted appearance indicate lack of constitutional vigor. 3. In the young chick low vitality is indicated by a stunted growth, by slow feathering, a pronounced crowlike beak, drooping wings and head, and a low-squatting walk. Fig. 132. A heavy- and a light-laying bird compared The hen shown above is Lady Eglantine. She laid 314 eggs in one year and holds the world's record. The hen shown below laid 56 eggs in a year when well cared for. Notice the long straight beak of the poor layer as compared with the stout curved beak of Lady Eglantine; also the comparatively undevel- oped comb and wattles of the poor layer and the lack of body capacity as compared with the world^s record hen Questions. Define and give the advantages of selection. What are some of the causes for lack of vigor in fowls? What are some of the signs of vitality and the lack of it? What does the action of a fowl indicate and how may it be judged? References. Lippincott, W. A. Poultry Production, pp. 128-138. Lea and Febiger. Lewis, H. R Productive Poultry Husbandry, p. 256. J. B. Lippincott Company. Bulletin 45, Cornell Reading Course, [156] J EXERCISE 79 (Continued) STANDARD AND SCORE CARD FOR JUDGING CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR IN FOWLS Value Cut Remarks General appearance. The bird shall give the im- pression of strength and vigor. It shall be styl- ish in carriage and active in movement. The body must be compact and well balanced . . IS Not strong, lacks style in carriage, not active, gangling, not symmetrical Condition. The fowl shall be free from diseases or deformity and the plumage smooth, clean, and glossy 10 Diseased, deformed. Plumage rough, dirty, lacks luster Head. Shape (4) The head should be carried well up and be broad, deep, and of medium length for the breed Beak (4) The beak shall be strong, stout, medium in length, well curved, and broad at its base Eyes (2) The eyes shall be strong, large, full, brilliant, and clear Face (3) The face shall be full and bright red in color Comb and Wattles (6) The comb and wattles must be well developed, firm, smooth in texture, and bright red in color 19 Poorly carried, narrow, shallow, long Beak wide, long, straight, narrow Eyes weak, dull, sunken Face lacks fullness, poor color Comb and wattles poorly developed, poor color, coarse, flabby Neck. The neck should give the appearance of strength and be well arched and well feathered . 3 Weak, straight, poorly feathered Back. The back shall be long and broad for the breed. It shall be flat at the shoulders and the width carried well back towards the tail. The oil gland at the base of the tail shall be well developed 10 Short, narrow, rounding. OU gland not well developed Wings. The wings shall be medium in size, well folded, and carried close to the body .... 2 Large, poorly folded, jx)orly carried Tail. The tail shall be well feathered, well spread, and not drooped 2 Not well feathered, poorly spread, drooping Breast. The breast shall be broad, full, and round- ing 10 Narrow, peaked, sharp Body and Fluff. This section shall be wide, deep, and long, showing evidence of capacity. The abdomen shall be well tucked up and firm. The keel shall be straight 14 Narrow, shallow, short, crooked keel. Abdomen flabby Shanks. The shanks shall be stout, straight, and smooth 5 Rough, crooked, weak Thighs. The thighs shall be stout, straight, well muscled and set well apart at the hip and hock joints 5 Weak, not parallel, poorly muscled, set too close together Toes. The toes shall be stout, straight, and smooth. The nails shall be short, strong, and well worn . S Crooked, weak, rough. Nails long Total 100 [157 EXERCISE 80 JUDGING EGGS Statement. Several million dollars are lost each year in the United States through the improper handling of eggs. It is only recently that we have begun to sell eggs according to grade and quality. This method of marketing eggs, together with the critical judging of eggs, will do much to educate people in the proper care of this important food material. Object. To determine the market clas- sifications and value of commercial eggs. Materials. Eggs of different sizes, colors, shapes, and degrees of cleanhness and freshness for detailed study; a number of selected exhibits of a dozen eggs each, for comparative judging ; a candhng device. Directions, i. Study the explanations given in the score card on the following page and score exhibits in accordance with the plan given. After scoring exhibits com- pare your score with that of the instructor and fill out the corrected score column. Discuss fully the points wherein your score varies from that of the instructor. 2. Skill may be acquired in determining the freshness of eggs by means of the candling device.' In the newly laid egg the contents completely fill the shell. When the egg has cooled a small air space is observable at the large end. As the egg grows older the space grows larger. Questions. Why does the air space in an egg enlarge with age ? What does this show regarding the porosity of the eggshell ? At what temperature should eggs be kept ? Can eggs be properly kept in contact with musty or unpleasant odors? Ex- plain. In judging exhibits why is uniformity of size, shape, and color important? What happens if an egg is kept at a high temperature (ioo° F.) for a few days ? for three weeks ? Should eggs be washed ? Explain what portion of the eggshell is removed by washing and how this affects the keeping quality of the egg. References. Lippincott, W. A. Poultry Produc- tion, pp. 463-480. Lea & Febiger. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 431. Ginn and Company. [158] Fig. 133. Comparison of ungraded and graded eggs Those shown above (ungraded) are not uniform in size, shape, or color, and many of them are soiled ; those shown below (graded) are standard in size, color, form, and condition Fig. 134. A convenient candling device EXERCISE 80 (Continued) SCORE CARD FOR EGGS Value Cut Remarks Weight. One dozen eggs should weigh be- tween twenty-four and twenty-six ounces l8 • Too light, too heavy Uniformity. The whole dozen shall be uniform in size and shape and color 6 Not even in color, size, or shape Shell shape. The shell should be symmetrical with reference to the longitudinal axis. It shall be oval in general outline but distinctly more pointed at one end than at the other. It shall be free from ridges or roughness . 6 Same size at both ends, ridged, too long, too short, too round, uneven, unsym- metrical Shell color. The color should represent the respective breed. If white, the shell is to be free from gloss or creaminess, showing what is ordinarily spoken of as " dead white." If brown, it shall be of such shade as represents a fair average of the respective breed. It shall show the bloom of a new- laid egg. Each egg in the dozen of what- ever color shall be free from spots and even in color throughout 4 Too light, too dark, imeven, not clear, spotted Shell condition and texture. The shell shall be sound, perfectly clean, and unwashed. It shall be smooth and fresh from excres- cences of any sort. It shall be of such strength and thickness as to afford reason- able protection to the contents .... i8 Washed, dirty, cracked, shiny, lacks bloom, tough, thick, thin, rough Contents, fullness. The contents of the egg shall nearly fill the shell. The air cell shall be barely visible at the large end of the egg and stationary 12 Shrunken, air cell too large, misplaced, or movable Contents, yolk. The yolk shall be dimly visible before the candle. It shall be free from spots, clots, or bloodrings, and show no signs of heating or incubation. It must float freely in the white when the egg is revolved before the candle i8 Heated, bloodrings, incu- bated, stuck clots, spots Contents, white. The white shall be viscous, clear, and free from spots. The tendency to be weak and watery shaU be severely dis- criminated against i8 Weak, watery, off color, mold Total lOO [159] EXERCISE 81 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF MILK Statement. Whole milk after having most of the butter fat removed as cream is called skim milk. Skim milk is valuable as feed for calves, pigs, chickens, etc., as well as exceedingly nutritious for man. It should be more generally used as a human food. Skim milk contains all the food materials found in the whole milk except the small percentage of butter fat, averaging less than 4 per cent. The removal of butter fat changes the physical characteristics of the result- ing products. Olaject. To determine the physical characteristics of skim milk, whole milk, and cream. Materials. Three test tubes or shallow vessels ; samples of skim milk, whole milk, and cream, respectively. Directions. Study the appearance of each sample and de- scribe the differences. Place a slide showing skim milk imder the microscope and observe the size, shape, and number of the fat globules. Also note the presence of any foreign materials, as dirt or bacteria. In like, manner observe the slides showing whole milk and cream. Compare the three and explain the reasons for the differences noted. Examine under the microscope milk just drawn from a cow recently fresh. Examine milk from a cow of the same breed which has been in milk for several months. Compare the two samples as to size, number, and color of the fat globules. Also compare the fat content of milk samples from different breeds of cattle. Make drawings on the opposite page of what the microscope shows in the case of skim milk ; in the case of cream. o -5J»* ' °0 ' ftSLO ^:mv^- ; «, o(P ' o 0° o. ■» OS <^ - o o = . . .0 Fig. 135. Butter-fat globules Reading from above downward, samples are shown of cream, milk, and skimmed milk under the same magnification. Proportionate numbers of fat glob- ules are shown Questions. Describe the fat globules. What is their average size ? Does the length of time a cow has been in milk influence in any way the fat globules ? If bac- teria are present in the sample, explain from what sources they might have come. Which is the heavier, skim milk, whole milk, or cream? Which material contains the greater proportionate mmiber of fat globules, whole milk or cream? Explain the reason for the difference and how the con- centration of globules occurs when milk is set, and how it is brought about when the centrifugal separator is used. Did you observe any difference in the size of the fat globules in a given sample, or were they all of uniform size ? Did you find that the globules were uniformly larger in some samples than in others ? Are they larger in the milk of some breeds than in that from others ? Which breed produces milk containing the largest globules, which the smallest? State what difference there is between the size of the globules of skim milk and cream. As a rule, which globules are left in the skim milk, the smaller or the larger ones, and why? What is the relation between the size of fat globules and the rapidity and completeness of creaming either by the gravity or the centrifugal method ? Name two methods by which cream may be removed from milk. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 372-375. Ginn and Company. Eckles and Warren. Dairy Farming, pp. 168-172. The Macmillan Company. Weng, H. H. Milk and its Products, pp. 16-35. The Macmillan Company. Note. Slides of skimmed milk, whole milk, and cream should be prepared previous to the class period and adjusted in the microscope. [160] Y i EXERCISE 82 MILK TESTING Statement. Before the Babcock method of testing milk was discovered milk was purchased by the gallon or poxmd without regard to its richness. Thus, for example, milk which contained a small amount of butter fat brought as much as that which contained a great amount of fat. Now most of the milk sold on the market is tested for fat, and its value is determined by its fat content and its freshness and cleanliness. In a word, milk is now sold on its merits. The dairyman who takes the pains necessary to produce rich, clean milk is rewarded, and the careless dairyman is penalized, j Object. To test different milk samples and milk products. Materials. Babcock tester, milk-testing bottles, and cream-testing bottles; sulphuric acid (commercial, Sp. Gr. 1.82); 17.5-cubic-centimeter, i8-cubic-centimeter, and 17.6-cubic-centimeter pipettes; milk, cream, and cheese to be tested. Directions. To test for butter fat in milk proceed as follows : Clean a milk-test bottle (graduated from I to 10) and a 17.6-cubic-centimeter pipette. By suction draw into the pipette 17.6 cubic cen- timeters of milk to be tested. In securing the sample be careful that the milk is well stirred, so that the sample tested will be representative of the entire amount. Holding the milk-test bottle at an angle let the milk rim from the pipette into the bottle. In like maimer, with the 17.5-cubic-centimeter pipette add commercial sulphuric acid. Let it run down the neck of the bottle so as to wash down any milk that may be in the neck. Holding the bottle by the neck give it a gentle rotary motion until the acid and milk are mixed. When mixed properly they should have a rich chocolate-brown color. Repeat for other samples. Place the bottles in the tester and whirl for five minutes at the speed indicated on the tester. Fill each bottle to the neck with warm water and whirl again for two minutes. Add warm water until the butter fat stands in the bottle neck and whirl again for one minute. Remove and read the test. For testing skim milk, where it is desirable to read the small fractions of i per cent, two forms of bottles have been devised. In one two pipettes full of milk are used and the graduations have half the ordinary value ; in the other the bottle has two necks, one for the introduction of milk and acid, and the other, extremely narrow in size, in which the fat is measured. The ordinary milk-test bottle may be used if neither of these can be had. 1. Test a milk sample taken from the first milk drawn from a cow and a sample taken from the milk last drawn. 2. Test milk from a Jersey cow, a Holstein, a Guernsey, an Ayrshire, a Shorthorn, a Hereford. 3. Test a sample of buttermilk. 4. Test a sample of skim milk taken (i) from milk skimmed by hand and (2) from separated milk from different separators in the community. 5. Test cream in the same manner as milk, only use an i8-cubic-centimeter pipette and a cream- test bottle, which is graduated to 35 per cent or more. 6. Test butter and cheese for butter fat, only weigh out 18 grams instead of measuring. Place it in the bottle, add a Uttle water and then add acid to dissolve it. Proceed as in the case of milk. Questions. In what way does the acid affect the milk? What should a good sample of milk test? What is the value of testing milk? How does the creamery determine the value of the cream pur- chased ? Is there any advantage in the farmer's allowing a large amount of milk to go to the creamery with the cream? Does he lose the milk? How might he save a part of it? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 372-379. Ginn and Company. Eckles and Warren. Dairy Farming, pp. 59, 196-199. The Macmillan Company. Stockd^g, W. A. Manual of Milk Production, pp. 109-136. The Macmillan Company. r]621 EXERCISE 82 {Continued) MILK TESTING Kind of Material Source of Sample Date Sample Was Taken Butter Fat Test ,. [163] EXERCISE 83 METHODS OF PRODUCING SANITARY MILK Fig. 136. Types of milk pails The pail at the left is the better, because the hood helps to keep the dirt out of the milk Statement. The souring of milk is due to the growth of bacteria in the milk. The more numerous the bacteria in the milk the more rapidly it sours. Bacteria which sour milk are not generally present in the milk before it is taken from the cow, but enter the milk in dirt, from the air, etc. There should be as little dust as possible in the air of the barn at milking time, and no dirt should be permitted to ' gain access to the pail. Object. To determine some of the factors which influence the keeping quality of milk. Materials. Cows which the pupils may milk; open and covered milk pails ; place for cooling milk; a number of one-half-pint bottles. Directions, i . Milk one cow, using for the milk container an open pail. Milk another, using a partly closed pail. Have both pails steriUzed immediately before using them. At once take samples of milk from each pail, keeping the samples in clean, steriUzed milk bottles, well sealed. Place the two samples under the same con- ditions of heat and light. Observe the results. 2. Let sour nailk stand for a while in each of two milk bottles. Later wash one bottle and sterilize it with boiling water. Drain the water and do not dry with a cloth. Pour the milk out of the other bottle but do not wash it. Fill the two bottles with fresh milk from the same pail, seal and set aside under the same conditions. Observe results. 3. Obtain two samples of fresh milk; cool one sample im- mediately after milking and leave the other sample to cool gradually at room temperature. Otherwise, keep the samples under the same conditions and observe results as to the rate at which each sours. At the end of twelve hours, observe each sample taken above as follows : a. Taste each sample and record whether it is sweet or sour to the taste. b. Place a definite portion (20 cubic centimeters) of each sample in a white dish and add phenol- phthalein solution, drop by drop from a burette, with constant stirring. Note and record the number of cubic centimeters of solution added before the milk changed color. Since phenolphthalein solution turns red in the presence of acid, this test tells which milk is the sourer. I Questions. How do bacteria gain access to milk ? Mention several methods by which the number of bacteria in milk may be lessened. Does cooling milk at once after milking decrease the number of bacteria entering the milk or does it decrease the rapidity with which they multiply? Might dirty milk be kept sweet for a reasonable length" of time if kept at a low temperature ? How should milking utensils be treated to keep them clean and also free from bacteria? How may dirt largely be prevented from gaining access to milk? What precautions should the dairyman take with regard to his clothing when milking cows or handling milk? What precautions should he take regarding his hands? With regard to the cleanhness of the cow's body, udder, and teats? What is the objection to feeding hay to cows in the milking barn just before milking time ? What are the objections to sweeping the barn at that time? Can you state the grades of market milk and what are the quaUties required in each? Wliat is the relative market price of each? Describe the conditions xmder which grade A milk may be produced. \ References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 374- Ginn and Company. Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools, pp. 157-159. The'Macmillan Company. Eckles and Warren. Dairy Farm- ing, pp. 177-183. The Macmillan Company. [164] EXERCISE 83 (Continued) SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION Sample Ndicbek How Treated Taste of Sample Amount of Phenol- phthaledj solution Used Amount of Acm Large Medium Small I 2 3 4 5 6 I [16S] PART VI. FEEDING FARM AT^IMALS EXERCISE 84 PLANTS AS FOOD FOR ANIMALS Fig. 137. The food components of shelled com Statement. Plant substances are the original source of nourishment for animals. The science of feeding rests upon our knowledge of these substances and of the needs of animals. Animal food compounds are classified as water, ash, protein, fat, nitrogen-free extract, and crude fiber. , Object. To determine the presence of some of the food compounds in plant and animal substances. Materials. Potato ; white of an egg ; balances ; evaporating dish ; nitric acid ; concentrated hydro- chloric acid; ammonia; iodine solution; ether or gasoline; FehHng's solution; a-Naphthol solu- tion; sulphuric acid; substances containing grape sugar or cane sugar; other plant and animal substances to be tested. Directions, i. Water. To determine the amount of water in a plant substance weigh out a ten- or twenty-gram sample and dry it for two or three hours in an oven at the temperature of boiling water. Reweigh the sample, place it in the oven, and heat again. Reweigh and continue heating and weighing until the weight be- comes constant. The loss in weight is water. Compute and record the percentage of water lost. Compute the percentage of dry matter in the fresh sample. 2. Ash. The sample after being dried is burned to a white ash. Weigh and compute the percentage of ash on the basis of dry substance; on the basis of fresh sample. Compute by difference the percentage of organic matter in the dry substance ; compute the percentage in the fresh substance. Compare results with those given in Appendix. 3. Protein. Place some white of egg in a dish or test tube and add a few drops of nitric acid. Note the color which appears. Heat the mixture slightly, rinse off the acid, and add ammonia. Note again the color. The colors which appear indicate the presence of protein. Place a little nitric acid on a piece of finger nail. A yellow color indicates protein. Test such substances as wheat flour, meat, and milk for protein. 4. Nitrogen-free extract. Nitrogen-free extract consists in part of sugars and starches. Sugars may be detected by the taste in those substances which contain a large amount. To test for grape sugar place a raisin or crystals of grape sugar in a test tube or dish and add water. Shake the mixture and to a little of it add a drop of Fehhng's solution and heat. Note the change in color. A yellow to red color indicates the presence of grape sugar. To test for cane sugar or glucose proceed as follows : Place a piece of cane sugar or glucose not larger than a pin head in a test tube. Add 4 or 5 drops of water and 2 drops of a ten per cent solu- tion of a-Naphthol in chloroform. Add 2 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid in such manner as to allow the heavy acid to form a separate layer at the bottom of the tube. Note the color of the ring which forms. After a few minutes add 5 c.c. of water. What colored precipitate forms? To test for starch place a few drops of iodine solution on the cut surface of a vegetable such as the potato. The blue color indicates the presence of starch. Test corn kernels, wheat, flour, rice, etc., for starch. [166] EXERCISE 84 {Continued) 5. Crude fiber. Remove the seed coat from a bean or kernel of com. Examine the outer layer of a mature corn stalk. This hard, woody material is principally crude fiber. Cotton and flax are examples of crude fiber that may be readily examined. 6. Fats. Fats are extracted with ether. Cover a little cottonseed meal, linseed meal, or corn meal with ether ; stir about a minute and pour off the ether. Set aside untU the ether evaporates, as indicated by the absence of the odor of ether. The substance remaining is fat. (Gasoline may be used if ether is not obtainable.) Test wheat bran, castor beans, peanuts, cottonseed, flaxseed, and sunflower seed for fats. Questions. Mention two plant products from which starch is obtained for commercial purposes. Mention two plant products from which oil is obtained for commercial use. From your examination of crude fiber would you consider it a very valuable part of the plant ? Is it easily digested ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, p. 25. Ginn and Company. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 11-16. The Henry Morrison Company. Jordan, W. H. The Feeding of Animals, pp. 7-9. The Macmillan Company. [167] EXERCISE 85 HOW THE ANIMAL DIGESTS ITS FOOD pharynx-- •--longue lower muTidible' 0/ beak »eeond portion of esophagus \ proventrioilus, or glatidular stomach gizzard, or, muscular stomach small intestines entrance of urinary duct rectum Statement. Just as the plant is unable to take food from the soil until it is dissolved, so the animal is unable to use food for its nourishment until it has been digested. Digestion begins with masti- cation and continues up to the time the undigested part of the food leaves the body. The mineral matter, crude protein, fat, sugar, starch, and fiber, each undergoes diges- tion in the alimentary tract. Object. To learn the processes of digestion and where in the alimentary tract each food is digested. Materials. Colored pencils and pictures of the diges- tive tracts of animals to be studied. Directions, i . Using different colored pencils or ink to represent mineral matter, crude protein, fat, sugar, starch, and fiber, respectively, trace their passage through the digestive tract to the place where each is largely changed into another product. Indicate in writing the manner in which each change is brought about. Note in what organ of the body each change takes place. Explain where and how the digested food is absorbed into the circulatory system. Determine where and for what purpose each kind of digested food is used by the animal. 2. Make a careful study of the digestive tracts of the chicken, the horse, and the ox as shown in the diagrams and described in reference books. Also state in writing the important particulars in which each differs from the other. Show how fowls masticate their food, and how in detail the ox masticates food, and what is meant by the expression, "chewing its cud." To what class of animals is the expression applied? Indicate the difference in their systems with respect to their ability to handle coarse fodders. 3. Describe the digestive processes rectum which go on in the mouth and name the compounds which are active in bringing about the changes which occur there. Describe the changes which take place in the simple stomach, and name the juices which are active. State what changes occur in the small in- testines. Indicate the action of the pancreas and the liver. What proc- esses take place in the large intestines ? State where and how each part of the digested material is assimilated by the body. Explain how the fats, carbohydrates, and protein are digested. Mention the part which bacteria play in the digestive process and in which class of animals they are the most important. [168] -cloaca Fig. 138. The digestive tract of a chicken Diagram from Iowa State College roof of riMuOi longue i pharynx-- — large colon small colon Fig. 139. The digestive tract of a horse From Iowa State College imall intestines EXERCISE 85 (Continued) Questions. In what respects does the alimentary canal of an ox differ from that of a pig? In what respects does the digestive tract of a chicken differ from that of the ox? of the pig? Which of these animals is most capable of handling coarse food, and why? Why does the chicken need gravel or crushed stone? Explain the effect of grinding grain upon the ease and rapidity with which it is digested. Is a foodstuff containing much crude fiber more or less readily and completely digested than one containing little fiber, and why ? How many stomachs has the ox ? What is meant by the term "ruminant" and to what class of animals is it applied? Consult the tables in the Appendix and state what proportion of com and other common feeds is digested. „ -n, j- »• * * t ° Fig. 140. The digestive tract of a cow „ , „r TT T T- 1- 1 Diagram from Iowa State College References. Waters, H. J . Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 320-329. Ginn and Company. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 18-33. The Henry Morrison Company. Jordan, W. H. The Feeding of Animals, pp. 98-126. The Macmillan Company. Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools, pp. 58-63. The Macmillan Com- pany. roofofmoulh tongue \ pharynx- ealivary omasum, or ducts manypUes reticulum, or Koneycomb dboniasum, or rennet (true stomach) [169] EXERCISE 86 COMPUTING THE NUTRITIVE RATIO OF STOCK FEEDS Statement. The successful stockman gives his animals feeds containing protein and carbohy- drates in the proportions in which they require these materials for their best development, just as the skilled mechanic mixes sand and cement in the proper ratio to make good concrete. The ratio between the digestible protein and digestible carbohydrates in a foodstuff is called the nutritive ratio of that material. Object. To determine the nutritive ratio of feeds and to compare different feeds as to their value in compoimding rations. Materials. Pencil and paper, and tables giving the composition of feeding stuffs. (See Appendix, Table I.) Directions. In computing the nutritive ratio only the digestible portion is usually considered. Included in the carbohydrates are the starch, sugar, crude fiber, and fat. As the fat contains about two and one fourth times as much energy as starch or sugar, the amount of digestible fat in the feeding stuff is multiplied by two and one fourth before it is added to the other carbohydrates. This process is termed converting fat into carbohydrate or starch equivalent. The nutritive ratio is obtained by dividing the per cent of total digestible carbohydrates by the per cent of digestible protein contained in the foodstuff. In stating the nutritive ratio the protein is expressed as i and the carbohydrates as the quotient obtained. As an example, corn (according to Table I, Appendix) contains 7.5 per cent of digestible protein, 67.8 per cent of digestible carbohydrates, aside from fat, and 4.6 per cent of fat. Multiplying the fat by 2^ (4.6 X 2j) and adding the product (10.4) to the carbohydrates (67.8), we have as the total carbohydrates 78.2. Dividing this amount (78.2) by the amount of protein (7.5), we have as the quotient 10.4. Thus the nutritive ratio of corn is one part digestible protein to 10.4 parts digestible carbohydrates, written i : 10.4. This means that for every pound of digestible protein in corn there are 10.4 pounds of digestible carbohydrates. Feeds in which the difference between the amount of protein and carbohydrates is small are said to have a narrow nutritive ratio, as i : 3, while those feeds in which the difference is large, as in the case of corn, are said to have a wide ratio. The importance of such a calculation is based on the fundamental principle that no other constituent of feeds can take the place of protein in forming new tissue or replacing old, or in making milk, eggs, wool, feathers, etc. Therefore we must begin the building of a ration with a certain minimum of protein. It is true that there are three sources of carbohydrates, fat, starch and sugar, and crude fiber. For the purposes of calculating the nutritive ratio we convert these values into that of carbohydrates, but later we shall learn that they have widely different values. Problems. Compute the nutritive ratio of each of the following feeds and classify them as narrow, medium, and wide. Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, wheat, bran, wheat middlings, oats, kafir grain, alfalfa hay, clover hay, cowpea hay, corn silage, wheat straw, and corn stover. (See Appendix, Table I.) Questions. What are the principal uses which the animal makes of protein ? What common food- stuffs supply protein most abimdantly? What are the principal sources of protein in your locality? What are the principal uses to which animals put carbohydrates ? What are the principal sources of carbohydrates in your neighborhood? What are some of the foodstuffs in your neighborhood which have a narrow nutritive ratio? Name six feeds possessing a wide nutritive ratio. Name some of the common feeds which have a medium nutritive ratio. References. Plumb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, p. 272. Webb Publishing Company. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 37-38. The Henry Morrison Company. Jordan, W. H. The Feeding of Animals, p. 283. The Macmillan Company. Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools, p. 359. The Macmillan Company. {1701 EXERCISE 87 COMPUTING A BALANCED RATION Statement. The nutritive ratio required by young and rapidly growing animals is narrower than that for grown animals. A dairy cow in full flow of milk needs a ration containing more protein than does a steer that is being " roughed " through the winter. A ration with a nutritive ratio which is adjusted to the needs of the animals to which it is being fed is said to be a balanced ration. One which does not supply the nutrients in the proper proportion is said to be an unbalanced ration. The needs of all classes of farm animals have been carefully studied and what constitutes a balanced ration for each has been approximately determined. The nutritive ratio required by most of such classes is shown in column five of Table II of the Appendix. Object. To learn how to compound a balanced ration for different classes of farm animals. Materials. Paper ; pencil ; Table II, Appendix. Directions. Assume that weanling pigs are fed corn meal 20 poimds and skim milk 80 pounds. C imputing the nutrients in this ration we have : Amount of Feed Protein (in Pounds) Carbohydrates (dj Pounds) Nutritive Ratio (in Pounds) Corn, 20 pounds Skim milk, 80 p)Ounds . . . Total, ICX5 pounds .... Wolff-Lehmann Standard . . 2.88 4.38 15-64 4-44 20.08 1 : 4-57 1:4.5 This ration is properly balanced. In a like manner work out the following problems : 1. Pigs weighing 100 poimds are being fed corn meal 80 parts, and wheat middlings 20 parts. Are they receiving a balanced ration ? If not, what change would you make in the proportion of com to middlings to balance the ration ? 2. A cow giving milk is receiving a ration consisting of corn chop 6 pounds, cottonseed meal 2 pounds, wheat bran 2 pounds, corn silage 30 pounds, and timothy hay 10 pounds daily. Is the ration balanced ? What changes would you make in the proportions ? What would be the effect of substituting alfalfa for timothy ? 3. A pen of laying hens weighing between 5 and 8 pounds each are being fed a ration of 3 pounds cracked corn, i pound wheat, i pound corn meal, i pound oatmeal, i pound bran, and ^ pound meat- scrap. What is the nutritive ratio of this ration ? What is the proper ratio for hens of this size ? (See Appendix, Table II.) Change the proportions so as to give the proper ratio. 4. A caff is being wintered on timothy hay and corn stover. Is the ration balanced ? Show what the effect of substituting half clover, affalfa, or cowpea hay for timothy would have on the ration. 5. Ascertain what rations are most commonly used in the neighborhood in feeding work horses ; weanling colts ; calves ; dairy cows ; fattening steers ; wintering cattle ; pigs weighing 50 pounds, 100 pounds, and 200 pounds, respectively. Compute the nutritive ratio of those rations which are most important to the neighborhood and ascertain how far they deviate from a balanced ration. Suggest how their deficiencies may be corrected, using home-grown feeds whenever possible. References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 328, 392-393. Ginn and Company. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 106-116. The Henry Morrison Company. Plumb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, pp. 274-288. The Webb Publishing Company. Harper, M. W. Animal Husbandry for Schools, p. 65. The Macmillan Company. [1721 EXERCISE 87 (Continued) 1. FOR PIGS WEIGHING ONE HUNDRED POUNDS K.DID OP Feed Amount of Feed Digestible Crude Protein. Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Corn meal 80 Wheat middlings . . . 20 Total Standard 2. FOR A COW IN MILK Kind or Feed Amount of Feed Digestible Crude Protein Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Com chop Cottonseed meal .... Wheat bran , Corn silage Timothy hay Total Standard 3. FOR LAYING HENS Kind of Feed Amount of Feed Digestible Crude Protein Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Cracked com Wheat Oatmeal Bran Meat scrap Total Standard 4. MAINTENANCE RATION FOR CALF Kind of Feed Amount of Feed Digestible Crude Protein Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Timothy hay Corn stover Total Standard ...... 173 EXERCISE 88 COMPUTING A STANDARD RATION* Statement. A ration which supplies nutrients in proper amounts as well as in proper proportions is called a standard ration. Object. To learn how to compound a standard ration for different classes of farm animals using, as far as possible, the common feeds of the farm. Materials. Paper; pencil; table of feeding standards. See Table II of Appendix. Directions. Compute a standard ration for pigs weighing from 50 to 75 pounds each, and assume that one feed most convenient to use is corn. Pigs of this age require 45 to 52 pounds of dry matter, 6.3 pounds of digestible protein, 32.96 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and a nutritive ratio of 1:5.2 daily per icxxj pounds of live weight of animal. The table of feeding standards is designed to show the pounds of each nutrient required for 1000 pounds of animal. When the feeds for 1000 pounds of weight are determined, the amount required for the animal or animals under consideration may be readily computed. Using corn alone the ration would contain 67.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and 4.6 pounds of fat in 100 pounds. Multiplying the fat by 2.25 and adding it to the carbohydrates gives 78.2 poimds of carbohydrates in 100 poimds of corn. Therefore, to furnish 32.96 pounds of carbohydrates would require 42.15 pounds of corn. This amoimt of corn contains only 3.16 pounds digestible protein, which is too small an amount. The nutritive ration of corn, i : 10.4, is entirely too wide. 1. Instead of feeding corn alone, make the ration of com 20 pounds and wheat middlings 20 poimds daily per 1000 pounds of live weight. Compute the pounds of dry matter, protein, and carbohydrates contained in this ration and compare with the standard. 2. Assume that the ration consists of corn 27 pounds and skim milk 87 pounds per 1000 pounds, live weight. Calculate the pounds of dry matter, digestible protein, and digestible carbohydrates supplied and the nutritive ratio of the ration. Compare this with the standard. 3. In a similar manner compute a standard ration for pigs of this age, using corn, wheat middlings, and meat-meal or tankage. Place all figures in the blank on the following page. 4. Compute a standard ration for growing yearling steers, using corn silage and wheat straw as the basis, and purchasing cottonseed meal. Compute a standard ration for fattening two-year- old steers with corn, sorghum silage, and alfalfa hay as the basis, and the privilege of purchasing cottonseed cake or old process linseed meal. Make up a ration for fattening steers with corn stover, oat straw, cowpea hay, and cottonseed meal as the basis. Questions. How does the local farm practice compare with the feeding standards ? Are the farmers using too much or too little protein ? How may the farmers of the community secure additional protein without purchasing it? Which is the more costly to buy in feedstuffs, protein or carbohydrates? How many farmers are feeding their pigs on corn alone or on corn and pasture grass ? Which class of animals requires the greater quantity of protein or the narrower rations, growing or grown animals, working or idle horses, milking or dry cows, laying or barren hens ? What is the effect of an ample supply of protein on the quantity and luster of the hair coat of animals ? Which shed or molt the earlier, those which are liberally or those which are sparsely supplied with protein ? References. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 423-433. The Henry Morrison Company. Plximb, C. S. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, pp. 281-287. Webb Publishing Company. Jordan, W. H. The Feeding of Animals, pp. 280-295. The Macmillan Company. ' In farm practice it is frequently advisable to depart somewhat from the accepted feeding standard. For example, when feeds rich in protein are high priced and those rich in carbohydrates, Uke com, are cheap, it will pay to feed a wider ration than the standard prescribes. The successful feeder, however, conforms as nearly to these standards as the cost of his feed and the value of the products will allow. [174] EXERCISE 88 {Continued) Kind of Feed Amount op Feed Amount of Dry Matter DiGESTKLE Crude Protein Carbohydrates NuTRTTiVE Ratio Com Wheat middlings . . . Total Wolff-Lehman Standard Kind of Feed Amount of Feed Amount of Dry Matter Digestible Crude Protein Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Corn Skim milk Total Wolff-Lehman Standard Kind of Feed Amount of Feed Amount of Dry Matter Digestible Crude Protein Carbohydrates Nutritive Ratio Com Wheat middlings . . . Meat meal or tankage . Total Wolff-Lehman Standard [175] EXERCISE 89 COMPUTING A STANDARD RATION FOR PIGS Object. To ascertain what combinations of common feeds will fatten young and growing hogs most cheaply. Materials. Paper; pencil; table of feeding standards in Appendix. Directions. Assmne that pigs weighing 150 pounds each are to be fed until they weigh 200 pounds, or through the second feeding period, which is a period of growth as well as of fattening. The feeding standard for pigs in this period requires daily for each 1000 poimds of live weight from 36 to 45 pounds of dry matter, which should contain 6.4 pounds of protein, 30 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.6 pounds of fats, and should have a nutritive ratio of i : 5.2. 1. Suppose wheat middlings and corn are combined in the proportion of 32 per cent middlings to 68 per cent corn, or 9 pounds of middlings to 27 pounds of corn. What is the nutritive ratio and how does it compare with the standard? 2. Let us suppose that tankage is added to make a ration of 25 pounds of corn, 8 pounds of wheat middlings, and 2 pounds of tankage, or corn 62 per cent, wheat middlings 32 per cent, and tankage 6 per cent. Compute nutrients, and compare with the standard. Compute, and compare with the standard, rations made up of the following feeds offered in the proportions named, estimating the amount of each which should be fed daily : shelled corn, 100 pounds; sweet potatoes, 100 pounds ; pea- nut meal, 50 pounds. Also shelled corn, 100 pounds ; cas- sava, 100 pounds; peanut meal, 50 pounds. Questions. What rations are most commonly used in your community for brood sows, for mothers and young pigs, for weanlings, for fattening hogs? What are the most common hog pastures in your neighborhood ? Which is the best ? With clover or alfalfa pasture, is as much protein re- quired in the grain as when the hogs are confined to a dry lot ? Is as much required when hogs are running on bluegrass or bermuda grass ? What are the most common commercial proteins available for swine feeding? What is the principal source of carbohydrates in swine feeding? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 402-406. Ginn and Company. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 347-350. The Henry Morrison Company. Day, G. E. Pro- ductive Swine Husbandry, pp. 142-185. J. B. Lippincott Company. [176] Fig. 141. The effect on the growing pig of feeding an unbalanced ration The upper picture shows how the pig looked at the be- ginning, weight 28 pounds. The lower picture shows its appearance at the end — after having been fed all the corn it would eat for six months, weight 31 pounds Fig. 142. Effect on the growing pig of feeding a balanced ration The upper picture shows the appearance of the pig at the beginning of the test, weight 17 pounds. The lower picture shows how it looked after having been fed for six months on a balanced ration, weight 200 pounds. This pig is full brother to the one shown in Fig. 141 EXERCISE 89 (Continued) COMPUTING STANDARD RATIONS FOR HOGS Kind of Feed Amount of Feed (dj Pounds) Dry Matter (in Pounds) Digestible Protein (in Pounds) Digestible Carbo- HTfDRATES (in Pounds) Nutritive Ratio Standard . . Kind of Feed Amount of Feed (in Pounds) Drv Matter (in Pounds) Digestible Protein (in Pounds) Digestible Carbo- hydrates (in Pounds) Nutritive Ratio Standard . . Kind or Feed Amount of Feed (in Pounds) Dry Matter (in Pounds) Digestible Protein (in Pounds) Digestible Carbo- hydrates (in Pounds) Nutritive Ratio Standard . . [177] EXERCISE 90 COMPUTING STANDARD RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS Object. To leam the requirements of cows giving milk and the most economical sources of the nutrients required. Materials, i. Assume that the cow is producing 24 pounds (three gallons) of milk containing 4 per cent butter fat daily, and that she weighs 1000 poimdsj assimie that corn and timothy hay are the most convenient feeds to use. The requirement of such a cow according to the feeding standards is 29 poimds of dry matter, 2.5 pounds of protein, and 14. i pounds of carbohydrates daily. Ten pounds of corn and 15 pounds of hay daily would supply approximately the amount of carbohydrates required. Ascertain whether this ration furnishes the required amoimt of digestible protein and dry matter. Ascertain also how the nutritive ratio of this ration compares with the standard. Substitute alfalfa, clover, or cowpea hay for timothy, giving 10 pounds of grain and 25 povmds of hay a day, and compute the amount of each group of nutrients supplied and compare them with the standards. Reduce the com to 7 pounds daily, the clover or alfalfa hay to 20 pounds, and add 2 pounds of cottonseed meal. Compute, and compare with the standard in quantity of nutrients and nutritive ratio. 2. Make a study of the rations most commonly fed in the neighborhood and compare them with the standard. Suggest improvements in the amount or kind of grain used ; in the amount and kind of roughage used. Ascertain to what extent the legumes are used as the principal hays and to what extent silage is the principal source of non-legume roughage. 3. Compute the nutrients contained in the rations for milk cows suggested in the text and compare them with the accepted standards. Suggest other rations which might be profitably used in your locality. Questions. Should all the cows in a herd be given the same amoimt of feed ? How may the proper amount of grain for a cow be ascertained ? How much roughage should be fed to cows giving milk ? How may one know when a cow is being underfed ? overfed ? At what season of the year is milk produced at the least cost for feed, and why ? Ask an experienced dairyman of the neighborhood whether it is practicable " to bring a cow back to her milk " after the milk flow has been allowed to decline. Record these answers. References. Henry and Morrison. Feeds and Feeding Abridged, pp. 247-279. The Henry Morrison Com- pany. EcKLES, C. H. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 260-287. The Macmillan Company. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 364-367. Giim and Company. [178] 1 EXERCISE 91 COMPUTING STANDARD RATIONS FOR LAYING HENS Statement. The problem of supplying a proper ration for poultry of all classes is one of the most important considerations in the practical handling of birds. The breed, age, housing, season, and range must all be taken into account in compounding the ration. Object. To learn the requirements of the laying hen and the most profitable sources of the nutrients required. Materials. Paper, pencil, table of feeding standards, and digestible nutrients for chickens. Directions, i. Assume that the hens are in full laying and weigh 3 to 5 pounds each, and that the feeds available are corn, wheat, oats, bran, shorts, and meatscrap. 2. According to the feeding standard the requirements of such hens per hundred pounds live weight, are 5.5 pounds of digestible dry matter, i pound of protein, 4.53 pounds of carbohydrates daily. ■ If we fed 2 pounds corn, 2 pounds wheat, I pound oats, 2 pounds bran, i pound shorts, and .5 pound meat- scrap, we should supply approxi- mately the amount of carbohydrates required. Determine whether this arnount of feed furnishes the re- quired amount of digestible protein and dry matter. Ascertain also how the nutritive ratio of this ration compares with the standard. Sub- stitute I pound of kafir and i pound of com meal for the wheat, compute the amount of each group of nutri- ents supplied, and compare with the standards. Drop the oats from the ration and add i pound of corn meal and substitute oil meal for the meatscrap. Compute nutrients supplied and compare with the standard in quantity of nutrients and in nutritive ratio. 3. Make a study of the rations most commonly fed in the neighborhood and compare them with the standard. Suggest improvements in the amount or kind of grain used ; in the amount and kind of high protein feed used. Ascertain to what extent carbohydrates and fattening feeds are used. 4. Compute the nutrients contained in the rations suggested in the text and compare with the standard. Suggest rations which you could profitably use in your locaUty. Questions. What should the relative proportion of grain and mash be ? Why do we feed the flock instead of the individual ? Why is it difficult to feed a flock of mongrels, or a mixture of breeds that vary in size and temperament, with good results ? At which season of the year are eggs produced at least expense? Why isn't it profitable to Umit the amount of feed below normal at times when feed is scarce and high in price? What is a scratch feed and of what may it be composed? What is a dry mash and of what may it be composed? At what time of day is a scratch feed given and how is it fed? At what time of day is the dry mash given and how is it fed? Of what advantage is green feed in winter and how may it be obtained ? Fig. 143. Influence of a balanced ration on egg production In the basket at the left are i lo eggs, the average first-year production of ungraded hens fed on a balanced ration. In the basket at the right are 65 eggs, the average first-year production of ungraded hens receiving an unbalanced ration. (Courtesy of the Kansas State Agricultural College) References. LiPPrNCOTT, W. A. Poultry Production, pp. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 427-428. Ginn and Company. [180] 359-376. Lea & Febiger. Waters, H. J. PART VII. FARM EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY EXERCISE 92 THE GAS ENGINE AND AUTOMOBILE Inlet valve' Spark plug Exhaust, valve Fig. 144. Suction stroke Suction of the mixture of air and gas through inlet valve takes place during the com- plete outward stroke of the piston, the exhaust valve being closed Inlet vcdve WMMMWW/M/^MMM^^MM WWWMMWm^^ Statement. There is no machine that has been so widely and rapidly introduced on the farm as the gas engine. Probably no other machine can be put to so many uses or can save so much himian energy. Object. To study the important parts of a four-stroke-cycle gasoline engine, its operation, and the essen- tial parts of an automobile. Materials. Gasoline engine and an automobile which may be examined. Directions, i. Examine a gas engine and learn the function and location of the following parts : fuel tank, fuel-regulating valve, carbu- retor, inlet valve, exhaust valve, igni- tion system, engine cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crank, crank shaft, flywheel, valve gear shaft, two-to- one gears, governor, cylinder jacket, cooling system, lubricators. Explain in writing the action of the four-stroke-cyrle gasoline engine, indicating the function of each of the above parts. 2. Before attempting to start the engine examine the fuel supply, try out the ignition system, see that the lubricators are working properly, retard the spark to the starting posi- tion, open the fuel-regulating valve, and crank the engine, always pulling upon the crank. As soon as the en- gine picks up adjust the fuel valve for best fuel economy and advance the spark to the running position. Stop and start the engine until you are familiar with the operation. Ex- plain in writing causes for a gasoline Fig. 145. Compression stroke On the return stroke of the piston both valves remain closed and the mixture of air and gas is compressed between the piston and the closed end of the cylinder Inlet valve ' Spark plug Exhaust^ volte \WWMWMJ^WM/^MM^/;77777Z AWmmmmmmm/mm/z/^^w/^, Fig. 146. Ignition and explosion Just before the compression stroke is completed the compressed mixtiu-e is ignited by a spark and rapid combustion or explosion takes place The increased pressure within the cylinder due to rapid combustion of the mixture drives the piston on its second forward stroke. This is the only stroke in the cycle in which power is generated. Both valves remain closed during this stroke engine's failing to start. Give directions in writing for operating gasoline engines. 3. Examine an automobile and learn the location and function of the following parts : motor, clutch, transmission gearing, differential, universal joint, steering system, control system, service [182] Give directions in writ- farm tractors are used IrUet vaht Spark plug Exhautt / veUvt ^m/AVM/////& EXERCISE 92 (Continued) ' brake, engineering brake, fuel system, ignition system, carburetor, and starter, ing for starting, stopping, oiling, cleaning, and handling an automobile. If in the neighborhood either bring one to the school for detailed study or take the class to the store or farm where a tractor is and give the stu- dents the opportunity to go over the machine in detail and at least to witness it in operation. Get cata- logues of the principal types and standard makes of tractors and ex- plain the advantages and disadvantages of each. Assign the class the problem of listing all the ways in which a tractor may be profitably used on the farm the year round. References. Potter, A. A. Farm Motors, Chaps. V and VI (Second Edition). McGraw-Hill Book Company, through whose courtesy the cuts used in this exercise were obtained. Haeshfield and Ulbeight. Gas Engines for the Farm, pp. 6-28. John Wiley & Sons. Fig. 148. Exhaust or scavenger stroke During the fourth stroke the exhaust valve remains open and the burned gases are driven from the cylinder into the air by the return of the piston [183] EXERCISE 93 THE ADJUSTMENT AND USE OF FARM MACHINERY Statement. With large machinery the farmer has been able to use the strength of animals such as the horse and the ox, and also the power of wind, water, steam, gas, and electricity. This has multiplied his efficiency many times. With hand tools a man can cultivate scarcely more than two acres of land. With modern labor-saving machinery, he can cultivate one hundred and sixty acres or more. Machine agriculture develops a much more intelligent farmer than hand agriculture. He must under- stand the construction and uses of the machines he operates and must know how to keep them properly adjusted and repaired. Object. To learn the structure, adjustment, use, and management of farm machinery in common use. Materials. Catalogues of the leading farm machinery manufac- turers; posters; charts and photo- graphs; machines in stock at the local dealers or owned by neighbor- ing farmers. Directions, i. Arrange with one or more local implement dealers to let the students help in the work of setting up and adjusting for use their binders, mowers, gang plows, disks, cultivators, corn and cotton planters, and wheat drills. Have Fig. 149. Adjusting the drop of the com planter (Courtesy of the International Harvester Comi)any) them study the methods of adjusting each machine for effective work with the least friction or wear. Study the construction and regulation of the knotter in the binder, the dropping parts of the planters, and the feed of the drill. If feasible, arrange through a local dealer for the traveling representatives of some of the more important implements to demonstrate their proper care and use. 2. Test a com planter for regularity of drop with graded and ungraded seed corn. 3. Learn how to thread a binder and test the adjustment by running some bundles of straw through the machine. 4. Look over the repair parts of a binder, planter, and seeder and make a list of those which are most frequently needed and what they cost. 5. With the aid of the dealer have each member of the class make a list of the machines and tools required for a typical farm of the locality, the retail price of each, and the total cost of the complete equipment. Questions. What are the principal sources of power on the farms of the community ? Name the half dozen principal labor-saving machines used on the farms of the neighborhood. Write a brief history of the invention and development of each. How did the farmer perform the operations which these machines perform before they were invented? Where does the farmer obtain repairs for his implements ? References. Waters, H. J. Essentials of Agriculture, pp. 449-455. Ginn and Company. Wikt, F. A. Farm Machinery. John Wiley and Sons. Ramsower. Equipments for the Farm. Ginn and Company. [184] EXERCISE 94 THE CARE OF FARM MACHINERY Statement. After land, buildings, and live stock, the largest investment of the American farmer is in machinery. Unless the complex and costly machines are properly used and cared for, great loss results. The average life of a wheat binder, perhaps, does not exceed six years. There are many cases in which a binder has rendered regular service for twenty -five or thirty years. A mower is usually rusty, worn, and discarded at the end of six or seven years. Many such machines have been made to last more than twenty years. Object. To learn the proper care of farm machinery and to study conditions under which they will give the greatest service. Materials. Notebook ; pencil ; access to the implements of several representative farms. Directions, i. Take the class to two or three representative farms and have them make a study of the use and care of the farm machinery on each. Have them make a list of the machines and tools and record the uses to which each is put, the average number of days each year each machine is used, the number of crops on which it is used yearly, and its average period of service. If the machines and tools are housed when not in use, estimate the cost of the shed required. Estimate the annual cost of providing such shelter. If no shelter is provided, make the plan of a suitable shed and estimate the cost of erecting it. 2. Assume that a farmer grows 30 acres of wheat a year and owns a binder for his exclu- sive use, how many days a year will the binder be used? Assume that the binder lasts six years, how many days of service will it give? At the local price of a binder, allowing interest at 6 per cent, estimating the cost of repairs at $5.00 a year, and assuming that the machine lasts six years, what is the annual cost to the farmer of his binder ? What has been the binder cost for each acre of wheat Fig. 150. A long-lived binder This binder has harvested an average of nearly a hundred acres of grain a year for 28 years in Michigan and is still in use. The canvas has been removed and the maciiine kept under cover when not in use Fig. 151. Such neglect of machinery as is shown in this picture is common on the American farm 1^. ■iBlaekimith j Shop •tfjvxv»r**j-fxiva»% %iM ]l^ 12 Copper win PROJECT 10 THE USE OF CONCRETE ON THE FARM Material. Clean coarse sand, gravel, or crushed stone; cement; measuring cup; trowel; spirit level; screen; measuring box ; materials for forms ; reenf orcing wire ; tools for constructing forms. Directions. 1. Fence post. Concrete fence posts should ordinarily be 5" or 6" square. The length is de- termined by the height the post is desired above ground. Construct a mold as shown in Fig. 155, using i" dressed lumber. After the mold is assembled give the inside a thin coating of soft soap or crude oil to prevent concrete from sticking. Make a mixture of 1:2:4 concrete ; mix thoroughly while dry and then add sufficient water to make the concrete mushy after being well mixed. At once place concrete evenly in the form to a depth of |", and place two reen- forcing wires (No. 9) the length of the post and f " from each edge. Pour in con- crete until the molds are filled within |" of the top, and place two more reenforcing wires. Fill the mold, tamp lightly, and level across the top. To provide for fastening fence wire to posts take two pieces of No. 12 copper wire, 6" long, and twist the halves together, leaving the ends free for about 2". While the concrete is being placed in the form, set two or three of these wires in the concrete the proper distance apart for stringing wires, as shown in the illustration. The posts should not be disturbed for at least ten days, to give the cement time to set. 2. Concrete walks and steps. Excavate to a depth of about 6" and to a width of 3" more than desired for the walk. Fill the space excavated with broken stones, coarse gravel, or cinders, to within 4" of where the top of the walk is to be. Tamp the mate- rial thoroughly, using water to help pack it. Place the form for the walk (2" X 4" pieces smooth on the inside) on the foimdation. Make one side from \" to |" lower than the other, so the water will not stand in pools on the walk after a rain. Pre- pare a mixture of i : 3 : 5 concrete and fill the forms to within 1" of the top. Tamp this mixture until water stands on the surface and at once place the fin- ishing coat, consisting of one part of cement to one and one half parts of sand mixed to a mushy mortar. Smooth the finishing coat, but do not trowel too long and do not allow the walk to be exposed to intense sunshine, freezing temperature, rain, or dust while it is hardening. The walk should be divided into sections to prevent bulging when it expands in [210] Fig. 156. End of a post showing how to place reenforcing wires and copper wire Fig. 157. A wooden tamper Fig. 158. Concrete steps PROJECT 10 (Continued) warm weather or cracking when it contracts in cold weather, and it may be divided by building a section at a time, or by cutting the walk into sections while " green," by means of a trowel. 3. To make steps of concrete proceed as above for the foundation. Make frames for each step desired as shown in Fig. 158. 4. Hog troughs. A hog trough may be made by making a narrow box frame for the outside form and using a small straight section of a log for the inside form. Grease the inside of the forms and pour full of concrete made by mixing one part of cement to three parts of coarse sand moistened imtil it is a thick mortar. Tamp the concrete gently until water rises on the top, level with a straightedge, and smooth with a float or trowel. In about ten days remove the forms and soak the trough with water. While it is wet, paint the inside with a coat of pure cement mixed with water to the consistency of heavy paint. Keep the mixture thoroughly moistened for some time after applying, for unless it dries very slowly it will crack and peel off. Fig. IS9- Cross section of hog trough [211] PROJECT 11 THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF HOTBEDS AND COLD FRAMES Materials. Window sashes and lumber ; spade ; soil thermometer ; manure prepared as explained below, and angle irons and bolts. Directions. The hotbed should be 6' wide, located on the south side of a building and on high ground. In the fall, before the ground is frozen, dig a pit i8" deep and a few inches larger than the outside dimensions of the frame. If the bed is to be set early, that is, before the middle of March, it is better to dig the pit 2' deep. Construct the frame as shown in Fig. 160. Window sash may be used to cover the frame. Double glass sash is best, as it avoids the necessity for extra coverings during cold nights. Gather fresh horse manure, mix it with one fourth its bulk of straw or leaves, and put it in a compact pile to heat. After it has heated for three days fork the heap over. On the fifth day repeat this opera- r 10 ■ \i Fig. 160. Concrete hotbed lion, and on the eighth day place the manure in the pit, tamping thoroughly as it is placed, and wet it thoroughly. Fill the pit to within an inch of the surface. Put the frame in place and bank earth or heating manure around the outside to retain the heat and shed surface water. Supply a layer of rich garden soil about 6" deep in which the plants are to be grown. Moisten the soil and place the sash on the bed. There will be a gradual rise in temperature at first, and later the temperature will slowly drop. When the temperature of the soil falls below 90° F., plant the seeds. From this time keep proper temperature by ventilation and water the plants as needed. Plant such crops as later may be transplanted in the school or home garden. Record all results as : variety and number of plants produced ; daily temperature of the hotbed ; and length of time required for the germination of the different kinds of Seeds and the rate of growth of the plants of each. After serving its purpose the hotbed may be used as a cold frame. A cold frame is like a hotbed except that there is no manure pit and no source of heat except the sun. The soil layer should be the same, and the covering may be sash, as in the hotbed, or it may be cloth if the season is well advanced. Record the crops produced and the results obtained, and compare the value of a cold frame with that of a hotbed. 212 APPENDIX TABLE I. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN COMMON AMERICAN FOODSTUFFS Nahe of Feed Concentrates: Grains, Seeds, Etc. Corn (No. 2 Grade) Corn cob Com-and-cob meal Gluten meal Gluten feed Wheat Wheat middlings Wheat bran Rye Rye middlings Barley Oats Buckwheat Rice Canada field pea Cowpea Soybean Kafir grain Sorghum grain Milo grain Millet seed Flaxseed Linseed meal (old process) . . . Linseed meal (new process) . . Cottonseed Cottonseed meal Cottonseed hulls Sunflower seed Peanut kernels Peanut shells Dried brewer's grain Wet brewer's grain Malt sprouts Dried distiller's grain Wet beet pulp Dried beet pulp ........ Sugar beet molasses Cow's milk Cream Cow's milk (Colostrum) . . . Skimmilk Buttermilk Whey Fat hogs Meat scrap Dried blood Tankage — 60 per cent protein . . Tankage — 40 per cent protein . . Total Dry Matter IN 100 Pounds 86.0 86.0 84.9 90.5 90.8 89.5 88.8 88.1 91-3 88.2 89.2 89.6 86.6 87.6 85.0 8S-4 88.3 90.1 87.2 91.0 87.9 90.8 90.2 91.0 89.7 93 -o 88.9 91.4 930 89.9 91-3 23.0 90. S 92.4 10.2 91.6 79.2 12.8 25-4 9.4 9.9 6.2 Digestible Nutrients IN 100 Pounds Crude Protein Carbohy drates 89.3 91-5 93-0 92.0 7.8 1.4 4-4 29.7 21-3 8.8 '130 11.9 9o ii.o 8.4 8.8 8.1 6.4 19.7 16.8 29.1 5-2 4-5 4.9 7-1 20.6 30.2 315 12.5 37-6 0.3 14.8 26.7 2.6 20.0 4-9 20.3 22.8 0.5 4.1 4-7 3-4 17.6 2.9 3-8 0.6 66.2 70.9 58.0 38.0 66.8 44.8 60.0 42.5 52.8 67-S 45-7 42.0 69.4 S2-9 653 49.2 48.2 79.2 49-3 S4-9 23-3 44-3 61. 1 44.8 48. S 17. 1 32.0 35-7 30.0 21.4 33-2 29.7 12.6 9.2 32.2 9-4 46.0 39-7 7-7 64.9 54-1 4.8 2.7 5-3 3-9 S-O 4.0 Fat 4-3 0.4 2.9 6.1 2.9 1-5 4-S 2-5 1.2 2.6 1.6 4-3 2.4 0.4 0.4 I.I 14.6 1.4 2.8 1-3 2-5 29.0 6.9 2-4 17-3 9.6 1-7 18.2 46.7 2.8 6.0 1-7 1.4 n.6 3-7 '3.6 0.3 i.o 0.2 13-4 2-5 9.0 1 1.0 Nutri- tive Ratio Nitrogen 9.6 32 151 1.9 2.8 8 4-3 4 7.6 5-3 8.2 6.7 6.6 : 12.3 :2.5 :3-4 : 1.9 :9.i : 14.1 :9-7 :7.6 3-9 :i.6 1-3 :5-4 : 1. 1 123 4-7 4-3 S-9 2-3 ; 2.7 ; 2.2 : 2.9 ; 15-4 :i5-8 :ii.5 :3-8 :o.6 : 2.1 :i.6 :9.o :o.4 :o.8 :o.4 :o.8 Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds ok Material 16.05 3-9° 13.60 54.80 40.00 20.80 27.00 24.60 17.60 22.90 16.00 17.60 18.10 10.50 37-9° 35-42 53 -60 16.90 14.80 17.10 17.40 32.80 52.10 60.00 29.40 69.00 6.70 26.10 44.60 40.00 10.70 42.10 49.90 1.40 12.90 14.50 5'7o 4.00 28.20 5-20 6.40 1. 00 17.60 114.00 135-00 96.00 Phos- phorus 3.00 0.26 2.50 1.40 1.60 3-40 11.30 XI. 60 3-70 S-30 3 -40 3.00 3.01 0.80 3.61 4-56 4-47 2-39 3-54 2.40 2.80 5-70 7.08 7.48 4-50 13-28 1-85 5-25 5-33 6.92 1.81 7.48 2-58 0.13 0.95 0.22 0.83 0.64 2.84 0.92 0.73 0.47 3-14 34-87 S-80 16.27 Potas- sium 3-22 3-39 2.66 0.28 0.23 4-30 7.64 7.64 4.80 S-42 390 4.00 2.49 0.70 5-71 14.00 7.12 2-54 2.66 2.66 1.86 8.00 10.38 7-57 6.16 13.12 5-88 3.16 7-17 1-13 0.28 11.24 0.96 6-44 1-75 20.51 1-41 0.65 0.62 1.66 0.90 I-I3 0.50 4-35 5-45 Calcium [213] APPENDIX TABLE I. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN COMMON AMERICAN FOODSTUFFS {Continued) Name of Feed Dried Roughage and Hay: Corn fodder, ears remaining Corn stover, ears removed Com husks Com leaves Timothy Barley Oats Barnyard millet .... Cat-tail millet Hungarian grass .... Prairie grass Red clover Mammoth red clover . . Alsike clover Crimson clover .... Japan clover Sweet clover Soybeans Cowpeas Alfalfa Peanut vine Velvet bean Sanfoin Oat and pea Straw: Wheat straw Rye straw Oat straw Barley straw Field bean straw (pods) Soybean straw Green Roughage: Corn fodder Kafir Yellow milo Sorghimi Sugar cane Roots and Tubers: Potato Common beet Mangel Sugar beet Flat turnip Carrot Rutabaga Artichoke Sweet potato Chufa Total Dry Matter IN lOO Pounds 57-8 59-5 49.1 70.0 86.8 85.0 86.0 86.0 89.0 86.0 90.8 84.7 78.8 90.3 90.4 89.0 90.8 88.2 89-5 91.9 92.4 90.0 85.0 89-5 90.4 92.9 90.8 85.8 950 89.9 20.7 I7-S 16.8 20.6 15-8 20.9 "•5 9.1 13-5 9.9 11.4 11.4 20. s 28.9 20.5 Digestible Nutrients IN 100 Pounds Crude Protein 2-5 1-4 0.8 2.8 2.8 S-7 4-7 5-2 7.2 S-° 3-0 7-1 6.2 8.4 lO-S 9.1 lO.O 10.6 9.2 10. S 6.7 9.6 10.4 7.6 0.8 0.7 1-3 0.9 3-6 2-3 I.O 0.9 I.I 0.6 1 .1 1.2 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.8 1.0 1-3 0.8 0.6 Carbohy- drates 34-6 31.2 33-8 37.8 42.4 43-6 36.7 38.6. 41.6 46.9 42.9 37-8 34-7 39-7 34-9 37-7 37-0 40.9 39-3 40-5 42.2 52.S 36.S 41-5 3S-2 39-6 395 40.1 39-7 40.1 11.9 9.0 9-3 11.6 9-5 iS-7 7-9 5-S 9.8 6.4 7-7 8.1 14.7 22.9 9.1 Fat 1.2 0.7 0.2 0.8 1-3 1.0 1-7 0.8 1.0 I.I 1.6 1.8 2.1 I.I 1.2 1-4 1-5 1.2 1-3 0.9 3-0 1.4 2.0 i-S 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.4 o-S 0.3 0.3 0-3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0-3 0.2 0.2 0-3 5-6 Nutri- tive Ratio 1 : 14.9 1 : 23.4 1 : 42.8 1 : 14.1 1 : 16.2 1:8.0 1:8.6 7.8 6.1 9.9 15-5 5-9 6.3 S-o 3-6 4-5 1 : 4.0 1:4.1 1 : 4.6 1 : 4.0 1:7-3 1:5.8 1:3-9 i:S-9 1:45.1 1 : 57-9 1:31.8 1 : 46.0 I : II 1 : 18.4 i: I2.» 1 : 11.2 1:9.1 1 : 20.5 1 : 20.4 1:14.5 1:6.8 1:5-9 1:7.7 1:7-3 i: 10.5 1:8.5 I : II. 6 1 : 29-S 1:35-7 Fertilizing Constituents IN 1000 Pounds of Material Nitrogen 7.2 8.00 4.10 9.80 9.40 14.10 14.20 16.90 18.50 12.10 9.90 19.70 19.90 20.50 24.30 22.10 27.70 23-80 21.50 23.00 17.10 22.40 23.70 16.50 5.00 4.00 5-80 6.40 6.80 2.90 2.70 2.10 1.90 3 -40 2.40 1.90 1.60 2.10 1.80 1.90 4.20 2.40 Phos- phorus 2.32 1. 00 1.42 2.88 1-85 i.85 2.50 2.15 1.72 2.45 2.12 2.53 2.21 1.38 2.15 2.62 -95 1. 10 1.29 0.80 1.08 4-7 0.47 0-3 0.39 0.70 0.34 0-39 0.40 0-39 0-39 0.52 0.61 0.34 Potas- sium 5-03 6.16 8.02 14-35 16.27 8.70 15.00 '7-85 7.40 15-19 15-86 7.80 7.70 6-55 8.30 10.23 3-56 7.10 10.00 8.80 5-88 3.22 1.92 2-49 4.80 2.71 3-15 3.20 1.92 1-47 2-77 2.66 2.09 Calcium 214] APPENDIX TABLE I. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN COMMON AMERICAN FOODSTUFFS {Continued) Name of Feed Total Dry Matter IN lOO Pounds Digestible Nutrients IN loo Pounds Nutri- tive Ratio Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds of Material Crude Protein Carbohy- drates Fat Nitrogen Phos- phorus Potas- sium Calcium Silage: Com 31-53 23-9 1.4 • O.I 2.7 I-S l8.I I3-S ■9.6 8.6 0.7 0.2 1-3 0.9 i: 14 1:139 1 : 4.6 1:7.1 4-30 1.30 6.60 430 0.48 0.66 0.51 0.65 3 -07 1.58 4.24 2.60 1.40 Sorcrhuni Kafir 25-8 20.' CowDca vine ......... TABLE II. PLANT FOOD CONTAINED IN COMMON FERTILIZERS Name of Fertilizer Fertilizing CoNsirruENTS in iooo Poukds of Material Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Calcium Barnyard manure . . Dried blood .... Sodiiun nitrate . . . Ammonium sulphate Steamed bone meal . . Raw bone meal . . . Raw rock phosphate Acid phosphate . . . Basic slag Wood ashes (unleadied) Kainit Potassium chloride . . Potassium sulfate . . Raw limestone . . . Burned lime .... Water-slaked lime . . 5.00 140.00 155-00 200.00 10.00 40.00 I. so 0.80 125.00 90.00 125.00 62.50 80.00 S-00 4.00 1.60 50.00 100.00 480.00 500.00 0.60 0.40 400.40 774.60 S40.00 [215; APPENDIX TABLE III. FEEDING STANDARDS' Dry Matter Per iocxj Pounds Live Weight Digestible Nutrients Nutritive Ratio Protein pounds per 1000 pounds Carbohydrates poimds per looo pounds Fat pounds per 1000 pounds Swine, Growing : Pigs, first period Early fattening Late fattening 45-52 36-45 28-35 6.3 6.4 3-2 29.0 30.0 21.0 1.8 1.6 1-4 1:5.2 1:5-2 1:7-5 Swine, well Grown Brood sows 12-16 13-17 25-35 1-7 2.6 9.0 8.8 21.0 •5 .6 1-4 1:6.7 I : 6.0 1:9-3 Gilts Fattening Cattle, Dairy: Maintenance lo pounds of milk 40 pounds of milk 13-22 21-28 27-35 .6 I.I 2.6 6.6 9.0 15-0 .1 .2 .8 I : II. 4 1:8.6 1:6.1 Cattle, Beef: Maintenance Early fattening Late fattening 12-21 26-32 24-30 .6 3-0 2-5 6.6 15.0 16.0 .1 ■7 •7 I : II. 4 1:5-51 i: 7.0 Horses : Light work . Heavy work 18-23 24-28 1-5 2.4 9-5 13.6 •4 .8 1 : 6.9 I : 6.4 Sheep, Lambs: Weaned 25-27 ,27-31 3-2 3-0 15.0 16.S ■7 •5 i: 5-2 1:5-9 Fattening Sheep, Full Grown: Maintenance Fattening 18-22 23-31 I.O 2.7 9-5 16.S .2 .8 1:9.9 1:6.8 1 Computed on the basis of the amount of the different constituents required daily for each 1000 pounds of live weight. After Wolff, Lehmann, Kellner, Armsby, Haecker, and Eward. [216; APPENDIX TABLE IV. SUGGESTED LIST OF TYPICAL HOME PROJECTS [Those marked with an asterisk are outlined in the manual.] I. PRODUCTION PROJECTS Field Crops 1. *Growing Com for Profit 2. Growing One-half Acre of Potatoes 3. Growing One-half Acre of Cotton 4. Finding the High Yielding Ear for Seed 5. Growing an Acre of Alfalfa Orchard and Garden Crops 6. *Growing a Vegetable Garden for Profit 7. A Home Fruit Garden 8. Planting and Caring for Fruit Trees 9. Managing Bearing Orchards 10. Renovating a Neglected Orchard 11. Strawberry Production 12. Commercial Vegetable Garden Animal Husbandry 13. The Care of a Sow and a Litter of Pigs 14. Feeding Weanling Pigs for Market 15. Raising Baby Beef 16. Raising a Calf 17. Raising a Group of Lambs 18. Raising Dairy Calves 19. Dairy Cow Management 20. Keeping a Yearly Record of Dairy Cows 21. *Keeping Two Dozen Hens for Egg Production 22. *Growing Poultry for Profit 23. *Managing Incubators and Brooders 24. Managing Half-dozen Stands of Bees 11. SOIL PROJECTS 1. Renovating Worn Soil by Means of Crop Rota- tion, the Use of Green or Barnyard Manure or Commercial Fertilizers 2. The Value of Legumes as a Preceding Crop Preventing Surface Erosion by Means of Ter- racing, Dams, and Tiles or Underdrainage *Preparation of a Seed Bed for Wheat *Determining What the Soil Needs III. IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS 1. Making a Self-feeder for Swine 6. 2. Making a Farrowing House for Sows 7. 3. Making a Brooder for Chickens 8. 4. Making Chicken Houses 5. *Construction and Use of a Hotbed or Cold Frame *The Use of Concrete on the Farm Planting the Home Grounds Planting and Care of Trees and Ornamentals on the School Grounds IV. COOPERATIVE SCHOOL PROJECTS I. Making an Exhibit at the County or State Fair of the Farm and Garden Products by the Students in Their Home-project Work, together with Itemized Statements of the Yields, Cost of Production, and Profits of Each Product Maintaining a Similar Exhibit in the County Agent's Office or in Some Other Public Place, but on a Smaller Scale and Changed Periodically so as to Bring in All the Stu- dents and All Important Products during the Year V. CONTROL PROJECTS 1. Hog Cholera 2. Texas Fever 3. Chinch Bugs 4- 5- 6. [217] Grasshoppers Hessian Fly Gypsy Moth APPENDIX VI. MANUFACTURING PROJECTS 1. Curing Meat, Pork, and Beef ' 3. Making Cheese 2. Making Butter 4. Making Ice Cream Vn. MARKETING PROJECTS 1. Distributing Milk 3. Distributing Poultry Products 2. Distributing Fruit and Vegetables 4. Distributing All Farm Products Vin. RECLAMATION PROJECTS 1. Reclaiming Wet Land by Drainage 4. Reclaiming Sour Land by the Use of Lime or 2. Converting Waste Brush Land into Pasture Ground Limestone 3. Renewing Worn-out Land by Means of Green 5. Reclaiming Arid Land by Means of Irrigation Manuring or Dryland Farming IX. DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS I. *Demonstrating the Value of a Balanced Ration . 2. Finding the Failure Cow in the Herd for Growing Pigs [218] TL Ub7ZU 578520 5ffr UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY