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112-/

v. 5

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iM,Googlc

A HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP

iM,Googlc

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE

C r. CLAY, Manager.

lonlrait; FETTER LANE, E,C.

esinSutslit loo, PRINCES STREET.

litoij: F. A. BROCKHAUS. Snlln: A. ASHER AND CO. ^rto 8n<i: G. F. PUTNAM'S SONS. Vnnki)) antt dtalnitl*: MACMILLAN AND CO.

h. i."ih,Googlc

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ving in Schrtick's Abbildangcn bcriikmUr Gilck, (LeipzLE, 1766), i pi. 30.

//glc

A HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP

VOL. Ill

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY IN GERMANY,

AND THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN EUROPE

AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, LITT.D.,

CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

iM,Googlc

Die Bahn ist breit genug, um vielen Beweriern urn den PrHs neben anander Raum zu gebm ; darum woUen wir nichl nut neidios, sondern auch mit dankbarer Anerkennung dm Leislungen unserer amwartigen Milkampfer gereekl werdeit.

BuRSiAN, CI. Philologie in Deulschland, p. 1248, 188.1.

Une renaissance des Hudes classiquts iest manifesfie chez nous. Elk se distingue par Palliance des qualitis franfaises de darti et de mithode avec la soliditi de Vkrudition et la connaissana des Iravaux Strangers.

S. Reinach, Manuel de Philologie Classique, i 13, 1883.

TTiis century is the first since the revival of learning in which a serious challenge has been thrown down to the defenders of the humanistic tradition. But I think it will be found that the position of humanism in this country at the close of the century is much stronger than it was at the beginning.

Jebb, Humanism in Education, p. 30, Oxford, 1899-

European scholars., find that they have to count with a neiv factor and have to recognise in our philological work a national stamp.

GiLDERSLEEVE, Oscillations and Nutations of Philo- logical Studies, p. II, Philadelphia, 1900,

iM,Googlc

6.

7 /

CONTENTS.

List of Illustrations

Bibliography. See vol. ii p. xv

Outline of Principal Contents of pp. i — 485

Index ....

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.

page

History of Srholarship, 1700 — 180O xiv

„ „ 1800— 1900 4S — 49

iM,Googlc

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS continued from Vol. II p. xiv.

(41) J. A. Fabbicius. From the engraving in Schrock's Abbildungen brruhmtrr Gelehrien (Leipzig, ij66), i pi. 30 . . . Fronlispiict

(41) J. A. Ernbsti. From an engraving by J. Elias Haid (Augsburg, 1776) of a portrait by Anton Graff 11

(43) Reiskb. From the portrait by J. D. Philippin geb, Sysangin, printed as frontispiece to the Oratorei Gra^H (1770) .... 16

(44) Hevne. From C. G. Geyser's engraving of the early portrait by Tischbein 37

(+5) F. A. Wolf. From Wagner's engraving of the portrait by Jo. Wolff (1833); printed as frontispiece to HotTmann's edition of Wolfs AUer- Ikutns-lVissenschaft (iSjj) SO

(46) NiEBUHR. From Sichling's engraving of the portrait by F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld 76

(4J) Gottfried Hermann. From Weger's engraving of the portrait by C. Vogei; frontispiece to Kijchly's CoUjried Hermann (1874). For a latter reproduction of the same portrait, see frontispiece to Hermann's Aeschylus (1851) . ' 88

(48) BOECKH. Reproduced (by permission) from the frontispiece to Hoffmann's .4u,^vj/ fwi'M (Teubner, Leipzig, 1901) . . . . 9C

(49) Mbinekb. Reduced from Engelbaeh's lithcgraphed reproduction of the presentation portrait by Oscar Begas 116

(50) Lachmann. Reduced from A. Teichel's engraving of the photo- graph by H. Biow 116

(51) RITSCHL. Reduced from a hthi^raphed reproduction of the drawing by A. Hohneck (1844). published by Henry and Cohen, Bonn, with autt^raph and motto nil lam difficUut quin quatraida investigari pcsstil {Terence, Haul. 675) '38

(51) Franz Bopp. From the frontispiece of the Life by Lefmann (Reimer, Berlin, 1891) facing p. 105

(53) Karl Otfried MIjller. Reduced from a drawing by Temite lithographed by Wildt 111

(54) Thbodor Mommsbn. Reduced from the original drawing by Sir William Richmond (1890), now in the possession of Prof. Ulrich von Wila- mowitz-Moellendorff 334

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. vii

(55) BOISSONADE. From the Medallion by David d' Angers ; reduced from a cast in the possession of W. Salomon Reinacb . . . ^48

(56) CoBET. Reproduced from 1 copy (lent by Prof, tlartman of Leyden) of the presentation portrait drawn by J. H. Hoflhieisler and lilho-

. graphed by Spamer 174

(57) Madvig. From a. photograph reproduced in the Opusrula A(a- demica (ed. 1887) and in the Nordisk Tidskrifi. Ser. 11, vol. viii . 310

(58) Thomas Gaisfokd. Reproduced (by permission of Messrs Ryman, Onford) from a proof copy of the mezzotint by T, L. Atkinson of the portrait by H. W. Pickersgill, R.A., in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford (1848) 396

(59) Richard Clavbrhousb Jegb. Reproduced (by permission) from a photc^raph taken l)y Messrs Window and Grove, London . . 41J

(60) Hugh Andrew Johnstone Munro. From a phott^raph taken in Cambridge by Sir William Davidson Niven, K.C.B. . . -431

(61) Georgb Grotb. From a reproduction of the portrait by Slewartson (1814), now in possession of Mr John Murray . . . fming f. ^ifi

{6t) Medallion of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (igSi); Panathenaic Vase, with olive-wreath and inscription, irofi- Birau 01Xat ^M, Aesch. Eum. looa. Reproduced from the original block, lent by Prof. J. R. Wheeler, New York, Chairman of the Managing Com- mittee of the School 470

iM,Googlc

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

BOOK IV. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, (onlinutd r-+6

Ckrmalagica/ Tahli, 1700 — iSoO A.D. . xiv

CHAPTER XXVI. Germany in the Eighteenth Century, (i) Leibnitz.

J. A. Fabiicius, Bergkr. C. G. Schwan, Heinecke, Hederich, Walch,

Funck, Heumann. Heusinger, Kortte. J. M. Gesner, Damm. Scheller, J. G.

Schneider. Ernesli. Reiske. Reii 1 — tg

CHAPTER XXvn. (ii) J. F. Christ, Winckelmann, Lessing, Herder, Wieland, Heinse, Heyne, Eckbel, Rasche. Schiilz . . 10 — 46

BOOK V. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Chronological TabUs, 1800— 1900 A.D. . 48—49

CHAPTER XXVIII. F. A. Wolf and his contemporaries, Voss, Ilgen,

Jacobs, Doring, RosE, E. F, Wilslemann, Creuzer, W. A. Becker, W. von

Humboldt, Goethe and Schiller. A. W. and F. von Schl^el. SUvem.

Rotscher, Bbliiger, Sillig, A. Malthiae. Heeren, Niebuhr, Spalding,

Schleiermacher, Heindorf, Buttmann.Bekker . . - 47—8;

CHAPTER XXIX. Hermann and Boeekh . . . 88—101

CHAPTER XXX. Grammarians and Textual Critics, from I-obeck to

Ritschl. Lobeck, Spitiner, G. W. Nitzsch, NageUUch, Spohn, Lehrs.

Seidler, Reisig, Wunder, Pflugk, Naeke, Heinrich, Thiersch, Ast, DoederLein,

Dissen, Passow, Wellauer, Goltling, Hand, Nipperdey, Meineke. Kri^er,

Kuhner, and Ahrens. Schneidesvin and von Leutsch. Bemhardy, Teuffel,

Nicolai. Meislethans, K. L. Schneider, K. G. Zumpt. J. F. Jacob, Forbiger.

Lachmann, Kochly, Haupt. F. Haase. Ritschl, Fteckeisen, Studeniund,

Corssen, W. Wagner, Brix, Lorenz and O. Seyffert . . 101 — 143

CHAPTER XXXI. Editors of Greek Classics. ( Virse etc.), K. W. and

L. Dindorf, Harlung, Bergk. A. Scholl. Buchholz. Nauck. Tycho Monim-

sen, LUbbert, Mezger, M. Schmidt, and W. Christ. Obeidick, Kaibel and

Prinz. Velsen, Kocit, and MUUer-Strllbing. Ziegler, Ahrens and A. T. H.

Frilzsche. O.Schneider. Weslphal and Rossbach; J. H. H. Schmidt, von

■^'"' h. i., ii,l^.OO^IC

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. ix

(fl-Dje), Dahlmann. Poppo and Classen, K. SchenkI, Bieitenbach and Hug. Stallbanm ; Orelli, Bailer and A. W. Windtelmann ; K. F. IlennaDn, Cron, and Deuschle. Westennann, Sauppe, MaeUner, K. C. Schiller, Scheibe, Bremi, Rauchenstein, Frohbei^er, Schomann, Meier, Benseler, Voemel, Pankhaenel, E. W, Weber, Rehdanti, Franke, Schulu, Arnold Schaefer, Bohnecke, F. G. Kiessling, and F. Blass. Brandts, Zeller, Riller and Preller, Tiendelenbui^, Biese, Schw^ler, Wailz, Bonitz, Bemays, Teich- ■nuller, Spengel, Prantl, Susemihl, Onclten, Torstrik, Heitz, Rose, and Ueberweg. Walz and Schubart. Volkmann. Usenei. Hultsch. Lehmann, Jacobitz, F. V. Frilzsche, Sommerbrodt. Hercher. Rohde. Kuhn. Dielz, and J. L. Ideler . . 144—187

CHAPTER XXXII. Editors of Latin Classics. {C^rsf), Ribbeck, Lucian Mliller. Baehrens. Umpfenbacii. Ililler, P. Wagner, l.adewig, and Gossrao. Keller and Holder, Meineke, Lehrs. Merkel. Editors of Valerius Flaccus, Lucan, Statius, Persius, Juvenal, Martial, and Claudian. Bocking, Peiper. Traube. {Pruse), R. Kloli, Nobbe, Halm, Theodor Mommsen, R. Scholl, Mendelssohn, Hertz. Jordan. Eyssenliardt. Nip- perdey, Kraner, Doberenz. Alschefski, Kreyssig, Weissenbom, Klllinasl. Ritter, Draget, Hetaeus, Schweizei-Sidler. K. L. Uilichs. Keil. Geoi^es, Paucker, Ronsch 18S — 104

CHAPTER XXXIII. Comparative Philologists. Bopp, Benfey, Leo Meyer, Georg Curtius, Steinlhal, Schleicher. The New Grammarians. Fick. Ludwig Lange. Benaiy, Corssen 105 — ill

CHAPTER XXXIV. Archaeologists:— K.O. Milller,Welcker, Gerhard, Panofka, Biaun, Otto John, Brunn, Helbig, Kohler. Wieseler, Stephani. Architects: — Schinkel, von Klenze, Semper, Boetticher, Strack, Bohn. Schliemann. Stark, Friederichs, Overbeck. Bursian. Benndorf, Malz.

Get^raphers : — Forcbhammer, H. Ulricbs, Kiepert. Historians etc. of Gre^e-.—ErnU Curtius, Curt Wachsmuth. (G. Hirschfeld and Karl Humann.) Duncker, Droysen, Hertzberg, Holm. Willielm Wachsmuth, Philippi, Gilbert. Historians, etc. of j?i"HC ; — Schwegler, Karl Peler, Drumann, Hoeck, Ihne, Theodor Mommsen. Hilbner. Gregorovius. Mytholt^ists, etc.: — Preller, Kuhn, Mannhardt 113 — 140

CHAPTER XXXV. Italy in the Nineteenth Century. Mai and Feyron. Vallauri. Pezzi and Ascoli. Bonghi. De-Vit, Corradini, Gandino. Com- paretti. Archaeologists : — Canina, Borghesi, Cavedoni, Avellino, Garrucci, Fabretti, the Duca di Serradifaico, Cavallari, Fiorelli. Bruzza and De Rossi. Spain and Portugal 141 — 147

CHAPTER XXXVl. France m the Nineteenth Century. Gail, Chardon de la Rocheite, Boissonade, Courier, J. L. Barnouf, Cousin, Patin. Qui- cherat, Alexandre, Littr^. Disir£ and Charles Nisard, Eqimanuel Milter,

,^.oogic

X OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

Gustav d'Eichthal, E^jer. Martin, Tannery. Daremberg, Thurot. Tour- nier, Weil, Couat, Benoist, Riemann, Giaux. Barthelemy Sainl-Hilaire. C. Waddington.

Geographers and Hislorians ; — Baron Walckenaer, Desjardbs, Tissot, Renier, M^rimee, A. Thierry, De Presle, De Coulajiges, Arehaeologials : — Millin, Quatrem^re de Quincy, Comte de Clarac, Raoul Rochette, Letroane, Le Bas, Texiei, Due de Luynes, Charles and Franijsiis Lenormanl, Long- perier, BeuW, Laborde. The School of Athens. W. H. Waddington, Mion- net, Cohen, and de Saulcy. Rayet. Villemain, Wallon, Duruy. K. B. Hiae and Diibner. Cougny. Didot. Victor Henry. Betant . 348—173

CHAPTER XXXVII. The Netherlands in the Nineteenth Century, (i) Holland. Pupils of Wyttenbach :— Mahne, D. J. van Lennep, and P. W. van Heusde. Peerlkamp and Hoeufit. Bake, Rinkes and Suringar. Geel. Reuvens and Janssen. Limbourg-Brouwer. Karsten and Francken. Boot. Cobet. Pluygers. Naber, Halbertsma, and Du Rieu. Cornelissen. Van der Vliet. Dutch ui

(ii) Belgium. Belgian universities. Baion de Witte. Ghent :— Ronlez, Gantrelle and Wagener. Liege :— Roersch ; Fuss. Louvain :— G. J. Bekker, Baguet, Nive, Thonissen, Wiltems 191 — 309

CHAPTER XXXVilL Scandinavia. Denmark :— university of Copen- hagen, Sivcnttcnth Century; — Bang, Laurembei^, Oluf Boich. Eightemth Century ;— Gram, Falster, Jacob and Torkil Baden, Nyerup, Schow, MUnler. NineteeiUh Century;— Thorlacius, Bloch, Krarup. Iceland: — Magniisson and Amessen. Archaeologists : — Zoega, Brondsted, F. C- Petersen, Kelleiniann. Madvig. Henrichsen, Eiberling, Bojesen, Wesenberg, Tregder, Lund. Ussing. Hutzhom. Compaiative Philologists ; — Rask and Vemer . . 310—330 Norway: — university of Chrisliania. Sophus Bugge . . 330 — 331 Sweden : — Fifteinlh Century, Conrad Ro^e. Sixteinth Century : — Johan- nes and Glaus Magni. Upsala, Dorpat and Abo. Greek in Sweden ; — Gustaf Trolle, Laurentiua Andreae, Olaus and I-aurentius Petri, Laurentius Petri Go- thus, Glaus Martini, Jacob Erik ; SeuiaitetUh Century ;— J. Rudbeck, Stalenus, Ansius. Latb Verse ; — Sixlcmlh Century :— Henricus MoUerus (Hessus), Lanrentius Petri Gothus; Seventeenth Century, Fomelius. Buraeus and Stiern- hielm. Loccenius. Queen Christina's patronage of learning: — Grotius, Isaac Vossius, N. Heinsius ; Descartes and Salmasius ; Marcus Meibom and Naude ; Bochart and Hue! ; Conring, Comenius, Freinsheim, Boekler, Schefler; Spanheim. University of Lund; the Collegium Antiquilatum. Verelius, Figrelius, Johan Columbus, Lageriof, Upmaik, Nornnan, Sparwen- feldl ; Eighteenth Century, Benzelius. Historians of Greek in Sweden. Flo- deras. Lund ; — Norberg, Lundblad ; NiTulecnth Century, Lindfors, Tegner, Linder, Walberg and Cavallin. Upsala; — Spongbeig, Aulin, Lofstedt, Knos ; Kolmodin, Torneros, Peteisson, Ha^sltom, Prigell, Lagergren, Sand- Strom. Upsala under Oscar II. The Tidshyift for Fitologi, and the Nordiska

fildogmSten 33S— 3S»

„.,,n,^.OOglC

OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. xi

CHAPTER XXXIX. (i) Greece -.—Sixtantk and Srvenleenth Centuries. Greek Scholars from Crete, the Ionian Islands, and Chios ; Greeks in England. State of learning in Greece. Schools of Constantinople, Tripolilza, loinnina, Athos, Mesolonghi, Dimitzana ; Patmos, Chios and Smyrna ; Trebizond and Sinope ; Bucharest and lassi. The Phanariols, Alexandros and Nicolas Mavrocordatos. Eightitnlh and Ninttecnth Centuries ; — Eugenics Bulgaiis. Koraes. Kodrikas. Kumas. Photiades. Dukas, Bardalachos, Georgios Gennadios and his pupils. The Ionian Islands and the university of Corfu ; Asopios, Phijelas, Pikkolos ; Musloxydes ; Oeconomides ; Thereianos. The university of Athens; Ross and UlHch ; Latin scholarship { works on Homer, Sophocles and Euripides :—Semilelos and Papageorgios ; on Iso- ctates etc.: — Kypiianos; Plutarch's Moralia: — G. N. Betnardakes; the Greek Gianimar of D. Bernardakes : the Greek History of Paparrigopulos ; the Greek Lexicon of Constantinides. Translations by A. R. Rangabes. Ancient Greek verse imitated by Levkias and Philippos loannu. The con- troversies on language, and on pronunciation. Greek MSS at Constantinople, Cyprus, Jerusalem, Patmos, Megaspelaion, Athens, Athos. Minoides Menas and Conslantine Simonides.

Archaeolt^ls ; — Pittakes, A. R. Rangabes, Kumanudes. Constantinople and Smyrna 353 — 384

(ii) Russia : — Sevenlienth Centuiy, ecclesiastical Academy of Kiev, and Graeco-Latin Academy of Moscow. Universities of Moscow {1755), Kiev {1833), St Petersbu^ ('8.'9'. Kazan (1804), Odessa (1865), and Kharkov (1804). Dorpat (1631); Abo (1640), and Helsingfors (i8ij). Germans in Russia. Atchaeoli^ts 384 — 390

{iii) Hungary: — Tilfy and Abel 390 — 391

CHAPTER XL. England in the Nineteenth Century. Roulh ; Mallby and Kidd ; Elmsley and Gaisfoid.

Greek scholars of Cambridge :— Samuel Butler ; Dobree, Monk, C. J. and E. V. Blomfield, E. H. Barker, the Valpys, Burges, Scholefield, B. H. and C. R. Kennedy, T. W. Peile, Chr. Wordsworth, Blakesley, Lushinglon, Shilleto, Thompson, Badham, Cope, Donaldson, Paley, T. S. Evans, W. G. Clark, Babington, H. A. Holden, Holmes, Jebb, Shuckbui^h. Warr, Neil, Adam and Strachan. Greek scholars of Oxford ;— Liddell and Scotl, Jowett, George Rawlinson, Greenhill. (Comparative Philolt^sts; — Max MuUer and Cowell.) Chandler, Grant, W. E. Jelf ; Eaton and Congreve ; Riddel) ; Lin- wood, Conington ; Worsley, Lord Derby, Gladstone, Monro, Simcox, Haigh. Greek Scholars in Scotland : — Adams, Dunbar, Sandford, Veitch, Blackie, Geddesj Latin Scholar! :—PilIan5, Carson, W. Ramsay.

Latin Scholars in England : — Cambridge etc. : — Tate, Keighlly, Key, Long! W. Smith, Rich; Hildyard, Munro, A. S. Wilkins; Oxford:— Conington, Sellar, Fumeaux, Henry Neltleship. Dublin : — Henry, Allen,

Historians :— Thirl wall, Grole, Mure, Fynes Clinton; Arnold, G. C. Lewis, Long, Merivale; M^ne; Freeman; Evelyn Abbott j Pelham. Topo-

xii OUTLINE OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.

grapheis: — Leake, Cramer, Law, fllis. Archaeolt^sts : — Fellows, Spialt, Murdoch Smith, Porcber, Dennis, Lajard, Newton, Penrose, A. Murray, Bum, Parker, Middleton. The Hellenic Sodety and the Schools of Athens and Rome. Literary Discoveries 393 — 449

CHAPTER XLI, The United Stales of America. Ov\A'i Mttamorf hosts translated in Virginia (iSJS). Early editions of the Classics. Colleges and Universities. E. Robinson. Harvard :— Tickoor, Everett, Bancroft, Felton, E. A. Sophocles, Beck, Lane, {Brown : — Lincoln, Harkness, Frieze,) Greenough, J. H. and W. F. Allen ; F, D. Allen, Minton Warien, Hayley. Vale :— Kingsley, Thacher, Tyler, Woolsey, Hadley, Packard, W. D. Whitney, Seymour. New York :— Anthon, Drisler, Tayler Lewis, Charlton T. Lewis, Merriam, Earle. Classical Periodicals. The Schools at Athens

and Rome 450 — 470

Retrospect 471 — 476

ADDENDA. Zeller, Kirchhoff, Ditlenberger, Von Hartel, Furtwangler, Biicheler, Von Schwabe; Boissier, Hauvette; Walter Headlam 477—485

iM,Googlc

CORRIGENDA.

CORRIGENDA.

>. 143 1. II i for Leignitz, read Liegniu.

1. 167 I. 7 ; for poems of Tbet^is, read Theogonia of Hesiod.

I. 140 U30; Von Hariel has since died (1907); see Addenda, p.

). t6s '■ 8; for 1794 — 1860 read 1803 — 1871.

>. 36S n. 1 I. J ; for Athanasios, read Anaslasios.

iM,Googlc

Histoty of Scholarship in the Eighteenth Century.

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OgIC

CHAPTER XXVI.

GERMANY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

(i) Fabricius, Gesner, Ernesti, Reiske.

In the year 1700 the earliest of German Academies was founded in Berlin. The intellectual originator of that Academy was the many-sided man of genius, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646 — 1716), whose scholarly tastes are represented by his Latin poems', by his speculations on the origin of language', and by his prompting the empress Catharine of Russia to collect the vocabularies of many nations'. At the age of eight, he had taught himself I^tin with the aid of an illustrated edition of Livy and the Opus Chrona/ogicum (1605) of Calvisius. Before he was twelve, he wrote Latin verses and had begun Greek. At Jena, in 1663, he attacked the imitators of the harsh and obscure Latinity of Lipsius*, and published a treatise in which he proposed to prove the spuriousness of the ' Epistles of Phalaris ' on the ground of their being written in the Attic dialect and in the style of Lucian'. In 1670 he wrote an essay on philosophic style as an introduction to an edition of the Anti- barbarus of Nizolius'; and in Paris, three years later, during his correspondence with Huet on a proposed edition of Martianus Capella, he protested against the contempt for Plato and Aristotle

' Roenickius, Carmina Lalina Scleetiara (1 ;48), 3 (. ' Benfey, Gisth. dtr Sfrackwissens^haft, I43 f; Haupt, Ofmc. ni i lis — 11* (Butsian. i 358 ").

' Max MuUei's Lectures, i 144 n. 18'.

* Julian Schmidt, Gesch. da gailigeH Lebins in Dcutschland von Leibnitz bis Leisings Torf (1681— 1781), i loi.

» Hanpt, Ofusc. in i 119.

* Sorley on Leibniti, in Enc. Brit. ; ii 1 46 n. s supra.

"^ s. III. I,. i,Mh,Googlc

2 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

expressed by certain students of the natural sciences'. To the end of his life he could still recite long passages from Virgil.

A celebrated theologian of Augsburg, J. J. Brucker {1696 — 1770), author of the Hisloria Critica Philosopkiue, was elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1731, but, in the first half of the century, the interests of classical learning were far less pro- moted by the Academy than by masters of German schools, who studied the Classics in connexion with the general history of literature.

Foremost among these was Johann Albert Fabricius (1668 — 1736), a student in the university of his native town of Leipzig, who, from 1699 to 1711, was succes- sively an assistant-master and a head-master at Hamburg. He had already produced, in the three small volumes of his Biblioiheca Latina, a comprehensive biographical and bibliographical work on the Latin literature of the classical period (1697)'. He was still holding a scholastic appointment, when he began his far more extensive Bibliotheca Graeca, a work that, in the course of fourteen quarto volumes, traverses the whole range of Greek literature down to the fall of Constantinople (1705-28)'. It is founded, so far as possible, on a first-hand knowledge of every edition quoted, and it has supplied the basis for all subsequent histories of Greek Literature. The 350 quarto pages, assigned to Homer alone, include indices to all the authors cited in the scholia and in Eustathius. The earlier work on Latin litemture was subsequendy continued in the five volumes of the Bibliotheea Latina mediae et infimae aetaiis (1734)*, while the modern lite- rature of Classical Antiquities was surveyed in the Biblioiheca Antiquaria (1713-6), and that of Numismatics in a new edition of Banduri's Bibliotheca Nummaria (1719). The varied learning and indomitable industry displayed in these four and twenty volumes may fairly entitle their author to be regarded as the modern Didymus. But the list of his published works is not yet

' Haupl, /. c, HI f ; cp. PaltJson, Essays, \ 378.

' Finally revised ed. 1711 ; also in two vols, quarto, Venice, 1718 (better than Ernesti's ed. of 1773 f), and in six vols. Florence, 1858.

• Ed. Harless in 11 vols. 1790 — ^1809 (incomplete); index, 1838.

* Suppl. by Schiittgeii, 1746; also ed. Mansi, Padua, 1754.

h. i., iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXVr.] J. A. FABRICIUS. BERGLER. SCHWARZ. 3

exhausted. He edited Sextus Empiricus, the life of Proclus by Marinus, and the commentary of Chalcidius on Plato's Timaetts', while his valuable edition of Dion Cassius, including a full com- mentary, was completed after his death by his son-in-law and biographer, Reimar'.

Fabricius counted among his coirespondents ihe leading scholars of his age. He was assisted in ihe compilation of ihe BibliolAtca Lalina by theDanish scholar, Christian Falsler'; and, in that of the Bibliotkeia Graeea, by Kilster'. He was also lai^ely aided in the latter by Slephan Bergier (^. i6So— c. 1746), who, by his knowledge of Greek, oiighl have attained a place among the foremost scholars of his lime, but was reduced to the level of a literary hack by an insatiable craving for drink. Early in the century he was a corrector of proofs at Leipzig ; in 1 705 he left for Amsterdam, where he produced indicts to the edition of Pollux begun by Lederlin and con- tinued by Hemsterhuya, and himself completed Lederiin's edition of Homer (1707). We next find him helping Fabricius at Hamburg and elsewhere. During his second stay at Leipzig, he produced an excellent edition of Alciphron (ijrfji his edition of Aristophanes was published after his deatli by the younger Burman (1760); his work on Herudotus is represented only by some critical notes in the edition of Jacob Gronovius ([7r5); while his Latm translation of Herodian was not published until i^Sg. His rendering of a modern Greek work on moral obligations' led to his being invited to undertake Ihe tuition of the author's sons at Bucharest, a position for which his intemperate habits made him peculiarly unfit. However, he was thus enabled to send Fabricius a few notes on (he Greek Mss in his palnsn's library. Aflei this he disappears from view. On his patron's death in 1730, he is said to have left for Constantinople, and to have adopted the religion of Islam. If so, he probably ended his days m perfect sobriety".

Antiquarian and legal lore was the domain of Fabricius' contemporary. Christian Gottlieb Schwarz (i6;5— I76r), who by his wide and varied learning raised the reputation of the university of Altdorf. A large part of that learning lies buried in a vast number of " programs, and in the exegetical and critical notes to an edition of the Panc^iic of the younger Pliny (174*'}'.

' Printed wilh the ed. of Hippolytus.

' H. S. Reimar, Dc VUa d S.riplis J. A. F. Cammmlarias, Hamburg, 1737; Bureau i 360-1 ; for portrait see /'Von/u/i>« to this volume. ' Cp. chap, xxxviii init.

' Nic. Mavrokordatos, xepl rSiv saBiiKSiiTav, 1721.

' Cp- Burman's Ariiiophams, i 1-14; Reimar, De Vita Fabi-icii, 169 f, 111 f; Saxe, Onom. vi 78 — 811 Bursian, i 361-4. ' Bursian, i 371 f-

1. ii^fooglc

4 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

The study of Roman Law is well represented byJohannGoHlieb Heinecke, Hcinecke ^tinttcius (1681 — 174'), professor at Halle, where he pro-

duced a celebrated -Syn/afaia, which owes its abiding popularity to its excellent Latin style'. His own treatise on style was more than once reprinted'.

An inteUigent knowledge of the subject-maltei of the Classics was promoted

Hed ri h ^^ '''* '''''''^"* "^ '''^ Saxon schoolmaster, Benjamin Hederich

(1675— 1748), and especially by his oft.reprinted Lexicon 1^

Mythology. His Latin and German Dictionary was long in use, and his Greek

and Latin Lexicon {1711) attained the honour of a new edition more than

a century later^.

Among the numerous elementary editions of the Classics which appeared in Wal h ''''* century, a place of honour is due to those produced in

1711-S by Johann Georg Walch of Meiningen (1693 — 1775). the well-known author of the Historia Crilica Laliaae LinguaeK In this work he traces (he history of (he language from the earliest times to the Revival of Learning, adding a survey of the principal works in each age*. The history of Latin was far more minutely treated by Johann Nicolaus Funck, or Funccius (1693 — 1777), the author of a series of ten con- siderable treatises on the fortunes of the language, the titles of which are taken from the successive stages of human lifel The last two remained unpublished. Their place is inadequately taken by the work of Jacob Burckhard (1681 — 1753) on the fortunes of the langu^e in Germany (1713-it)'.

Among scholars who were natives of Thuringia, mention may here be made oF Christoph August Heumann (16S1 — 1764), for many years a professor at Giittingen. Besides producing a considerable amount of miscellaneous literature on classical subjects, he edited many of the speeches of Cicero, and the ' Dialogue on the causes of the corruption of eloquence', which he ascribed to Quintilian and not to Tacitus (1719)'- His countryman, Johann Michael Heusinger (1690 — 175J), who ended his days as head of xht gymnasium at Eisenach, is best known as the editor of Cicero, Dt OfficUs, posthumously published in 1783'. Latin usage was studied, and Latin MSS diligjently collated, by Gottlieb Kortte, KortM CoTtius (1698—1731), who in his short life distinguished him-

self as an able editor of Sallust (1714). His edition of the Letters of the younger Pliny was completed and publislied by his pupil, Paul

' Afitiquitatum Ramanorum jurispntdetitiam illuslratUium Synlagma steundum ordintm instilulionum Juitiniani digistam (1719); republished in r84i.

* Ed. Gesner, 1748, and Niclas, r766. Cp. Bursian, i 371 f.

* Bursian, i 374. * [716; ed. 3, 1761. ° Bursian, i 377 f.

' Dt origint, pmritia, adoUscentia, etc. Latitat linguat (1710-50). ' Bursian, i 380-3. ' Bursian, i 393-6.

' Bursian, i 396 f.

.oogic

CHAP. XXVI.] HEINECKE. FUNCK. J. M. GESNER. g

Daniel Longolius (1744), while his work on Lncan was first given to the world

byK. F.Weber (i8»8)'.

One of the greatest scholars in the eighteenth century was Johann Matthias Gesner (1691 — 1761), who, by his published works and by his influence as a teacher, did much towards raising the standard of classical studies in Northern and Central Germany. He was still a Student at Jena, when he produced a striking treatise on the Philopatris ascribed to Lucian, as well as a work on Education giving proof of wide knowledge and remarkable maturity of judgement'. For the next twenty years he was a school-master at Weimar, Ansbach, and Leipzig, where the Thomas-Schuk flourished under his sway. In 1734 he was called to the uni- versity of Gottingen, then in course of being founded by Geoi^e II; and, for the remaining twenty-seven years of his life, he there remained as professor of Poetry and Oratory, as head of the classical and educational Seminar, as university librarian, as chief inspector of the schools of the Hanoverian kingdom, and as an active member of the Academy founded in 1751 as the second of the learned societies of Germany".

As a Greek schobr, he contributed an admirable I.^tin trans- lation, and many excellent notes and emendations, to the great edition of Lucian, which bears the names of Hemsterhuys and Reitz (1743 f); and towards the end of his life he was engaged on an edition of the 'Orphic' poems (1764)*. As a head-master at Leipzig, he published a Chrtstomaihia Graeca {1731), which pro- moted the introduction of the best Greek Classics into the schools of Germany. In the province of Latin literature, he did similar service by his selections from Cicero and the elder Pliny, and by an important preface on the proper method of reading classical authors, originally prefixed to an edition of Livy (1735)°. In the same year he edited the Scriptores Rei RuUicae, which were soon followed by the Tnstitutio Oratoria of Quintilian, and the Letters

■ Baisian, i 397 f.

* InstilnlioHes rti schotastUat, 1715. Cp. Paulsen, ii 16^ n.

* Socittai Rtgia Scientiarum Gctlingtnsis.

* Posthumously published at the above date.

* Ofttscula Minora, vii 189 f.

6 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

and Panegyric of the younger Pliny, and ultimately by Horace, and Claudian (1759). In the preface to the latter he candidly states that his aim had been, not to make a display of learning, but simply to explain his author; that he had frankly noticed any- thing he had failed to understand; and that, with a view to forming the students' taste, he had drawn attention, not only to passages that were beautiful and poetical, but also to those that were at variance with nature and the best literary models. It will thus be seen that Gesner anticipated Heyne in introducing the prin- ciples of taste into the interpretation of the Classics'. In all these works the textual criticism is inadequate, but the explanatory notes are models of their kind. All, except the Horace (founded on Baxter's edition), are equipped with excellent indices. The whole range of classical Latin literature is traversed in the four folio volumes of his greatest work, the Novus Linguae el Erudi- ttortis Romanae Thesaurus (1749).

He had already produced, in 1726-35, his two revisions of the TAaaums of Faber (ij/i), Ibe besl edition of which appeared in the same year as his own Thesaurus. Gesner's work, which was founded on Faber, and on the recent London reprint of the Thesaurus of Robert Stephanus, was the resnlt of ten years of strenuous labour. We here find a tnarked iniprovemenC in the correction of many errors; words and names unconnected with classical Latin are removed; phraseology is treated more fully than before; and difficult passages are explained. On the other hand, less is done for the writers of prose than for the poels, and there is a certain unevenness in the execution, while the historical developemeni of the use of individual words and phrases is n^lected. Nevertheless, it marks the most important advance in Latin lexicogrB|ihy since the time of Stephanus'.

While Gesner breaks new ground in many of his works, he represents the traditions of the typical Polykistor of the seven- teenth century in the outlines of an encyclopaedia of philology, history, and philosophy, which he produced as the syllabus of a course of lectures given at the request of the authorities of the

■ J. Schmidt, i 480.

' Cp. J. E. B. Mayor in/™™a/o/a.a«^5fl,«rf/»j7o/a^,ii 179 (.855), ' By rejection of encyclopaedic articles and of barbarisms, by many insertions, and particularly by interpretations of veiled passages, (Gesner's Tkesaarus) did very much towards simplifying and enlarging the science: indeed for fulness, neat arrangement, and exactness without pedantic minuteness of explanation, il has strong claims to be regarded as the best that has appeared '■

,..,,„,^.oogic

CHAP. XXVI.] J. M. GESNER. 7

university of G6ttingen. These lectures, which consisted of observations on almost all the 1543 items of the syllabus, were afterwards published by one of his pupils'.

Gesner was one of the foremost leaders of the movement known as the New Humanism. 1'he Old Humanism had aimed at the verbal imitation of the style of the Latin Classics, and at the artificial prolongation of the modem life of the ancient Latin literature. This aim was gradually found to be impracticable, and, about 1650, it was abandoned. I^tin was still taught in schools ; it also survived as the medium of university instruction and as the language of the learned world. But the ancient litera- ture came to be considered as a superfluity ; neglected at school, it was regarded simply as a waste and barren field, where the learned might burrow in quest of the facts required for building up the fabric of an encyclopaedic erudition. Such was practically the view of the School of Halle.

The School of Gottingen, as represented by Gesner, found a new use for the old literature. The study of that literature was soon attended with a fresh interest. Thenceforth, in learning Greek (as well as Latin) the aim was not to imitate the style, but to assimilate the substance, to form the mind and to cultivate the taste, and to lead up to the production of a modem literature that was not to be a mere echo of a bygone age, but was to have a voice of its own whether in philosophy, or in learning, or in art and poetry. The age of Winckelmann, Lessing and Goethe, was approaching, and Gesner was its prophet and precursor'.

Latin, in Gesner's view, should be learnt, not by commiuing lo memory the rules of Grammar that make the language hateful to the learner, but, in the first place, by reading a Latin rendering of the New Testament. It was also lo be learnt by practice. The master should converse with his pupils in Latin, ringing the changes on the shortest and simplest phrases ; and ihe pupil should be encouraged lo speak Latin, even if he made mistakes at lirst. Gesnec frankly records his earliest attempt, when, on meeting his master in the street after sunset, he gaily accosted him with the ungrammatical sentence : — Domiae fraectptor, prttor It bona hox*. At a later stage he recommends

' Primac Lineae /sagega in Erudilionem Unhieriahm, ed. J. N. Niclas,

' Cp. Paulsen (ed. 1896-7), ii i5> '■

D„:,iP,.-iM,G00glc

GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

the cursory reading of lai^e masses of ihe best Latin with a view to the appreciation of (he Latin Classics as litenttDte'.

As a school-master at Leipzig, Gesner abolished the use of the old Latin compendium^ and introduced the Latin Classics in its place, carrying his pupils in a, few months through the whole of Terence, and insisting on the literary and educational value of the continuous study of a single author. For a quarter of a century, in his Seminar at Gottingen, he was constantly training a chosen band of the future preceptors of Germany, his aim being to produce intelligent teachers rather than erudite scholars. He set a high value on the study of Greek literature: — Latin itself {he held) could not be thoroughly understood without Greek, Boys at school (he added) should not be allowed to give up Greek. After learning the elements of the Grammar, they should go on to easy reading, such as Aesop, Lucian and the Greek Testament, and afterwards take up Homer. When he lectured on Homer (in and after 1739) he always had a good class*.

' The interest in Hotner i9 a note of Ihe New Humanism. Thus far the Odyssty and Ihe Iliad had only once been rendered in German, in 1537 and 1610 respectively. But the middle of the eighteenth century was marked by two translaiioRs of the early books of the Iliad, followed in 1754 by the illustrated translation that was Goelhe's iirst introduction to Homer. The text was edited by Emesti in 1759-64. This was foUoned by live new translations, culminating in that completed by Voss in 1793, which was immediately succeeded by the edition of Wolf, with its memorable ProlegBmma (1794-5). and by the edition of Heyne (1801 f)'.

Gesner's life and works are well portrayed in Latin prose by Ernesti, his successor as the head of the school in Leipzig*. He assures us that the Cambridge scholar, Dr Askew, on coming to Leipzig, said of Gesner, whom he had just left at Gottingen, taletn virum nunquam vidi^. The bi<^rapher also notices Gesner's learning and his social gifts, his refinement and courtesy, his services as an educational reformer, his disapproval of 'conjectures'

' Preface to Livy,

* IsagBgc% IS4, p. i;i. ' Paulsen, ii 7' f,

* Narratii>...ad Ruhnkcnium in Opincula Ora/oria, 307 — 541, reprinted in Biogr. acad. Golting. i 309 f.

" Opusi. Or. p. 308.

.OOgK

CHAP. XXVI.] DAMM. 9

in his useful editions of the Greek and Latin Classics', his merits as a Latin lexicographer, his interest in Oriental and European languages', and his skill in literary portraiture. He adds that the satirical touch was the only flaw in the excellent portrait of Gesner, which forms the frontispiece of the Latin TA^saurus'.

In connexion with Gesner we may here notice some of the other lexicographers of the same century. Christian Tobias Damm (r6g9— r778), the head of the oldest gymnasium of Berlin, besides producing a work on the elements of Greek and an annotated edition of the Battle of the Frogs and Mice {ii%2-^, made his mark, thirty years later, with his great lexicon to Homer and Pindar', In the same year he translated into German the text of the Gospel according to St John, and, in the following year, was required, on theological grounds, to resign his head-mastership. But he remained true to his two favourite Greek authors. His prose translation of both was completed in 1771. In his translation of Homer he un- happily endeavoured to represent the simplicity of a primitive age by constantly resorting to the language of the lower classes, but his renderings served to make both poets better known among the German people. In his work in general he was prompted by a conviction that the Greek language and literature were superior to the Latin. He held that the imitation of Greek models was necessary to raise the level of German culture, and, in the increasing interest in Greek literature, he saw the sign of a new Renaissance'. A very few years later, the ' imitation of Greek

' P- 331- Canjecturas ingeniesas laudaial magis quam firabaial ; cl nihil magis qvant dutett ilia! ingenii illaibras injudieanda cavenduin monebat.

* P' 3'Si ""' '''<' admirabatur vtlim, ut cimttmttirrt netntiores.

' p. 341. Other bit^iaphical notices by J. D. MichaeJis in Biagr. acad. Gotting. i ■m—iid, and by Niclaa, ib. Hi 1—180, 187—496. Cp. Gesnet's Epp. (1768 f), Sfluppe'a Vorirag (1856) and ' Gbctjngen Proressoren' in Got- tingen Abhandl. ([871) p. jg f ; Julian Schmidt, i 475 — 481; and Eckstein's Ride (1869); Jahn, Pepuldre Aufidtze, 15; also Bursian, i 387—393, and Paulsen, ii rs- 18',

* 1765; ed. 1, 1774. The arrangement is etymological, all the words being placed nnder 300 roots. Its contents were republished in alphabetical order by J. M. Duncan {i8it), whose edition was improved by V. C. F. Rost (■831-3).

' ' Videor jam saeculum renascentis apud nos Giaecitatis cemere animo :

ro GERMANY. [CENT. XVIH.

models ' in the world of Art was to be the theme of the earliest work of his most famous pupil, Winckelmann, who was an enthusiastic student of Homer. Winckelmann was under his tuition for a single year (1735-6), the year of the publication of the edition of the Battle of the Frogs and Mice, but the master's appreciation of Homer did not prevent the pupil from placing him in the class of pedants'. Damm appears in fact to have taken more interest in the vocabulary than in the poetry of Homer. That poetry was better appreciated by Moses Men- delssohn, who, with Friedrich Nicolai, resorted to him for instruc tion in the language that was now exciting a new interest in Germany. Nicolai complains that the master's delivery was monotonous, but adds that he had an admiration for exceptionally euphonious lines, and even smacked his lips over the finely sounding phrase xoXu^XoiV^oio SnXoirinjs'. His interest was not confined to Greek literature. He produced an edition of Nama- tianus, translated the Panegyric of Pliny, with two of the Speeches and all the letters of Cicero. His small hand-book of Greek and Roman Mytholc^ long remained a standard work'.

As a Latin lexicographer, Gesner had in the next generation a worthy successor in Immanuel Johann Gerhard Scheller (1735 — -1803), successively Rector of the school at Lubben, S.E. of Berlin, and of that at Brieg, S.E. of Breslau. His Latin-German Dictionary' was founded on an independent study of the authors, and on a careful and intelligent use of the best commentaries and lexicons. It was enlarged and improved in two later editions, and subsequently abridged by the lexicographer himself, who added a German-Latin Dictionary in 1792. He has been chained with borrowing from Forcellini (1771) without mentioning his name". It is also alleged that

i1 lustres viri, imoet roeminae, ailamate incipiunthas lileras et in pre tio habere', Programm of 1752 (Justi's IVinckelmann, i 34 n). ' 'praecep'orcsdfKiiniout ' ijusli, i 34).

• J-l, i Jd.

' Buisian, i 385-7; cp. Justi's fVincielmann, i 30 — 36.

* Attsfuhrticha u. mSglichsl voUitatidig/s latiitiisih-deutsehes Lexicon oiltr Worlerbuih zunt Behu/e dcr Erilarung der Alien a. Uehtug in der laiein- ischen Sprache, i vols. 1783; ed. i, in 3 vols. 1788; ed. 3, in 5 vols. 1804-5.

s ' Censor Germanus ', quoted in Fumaletlo'a ed. of Forcellini.

X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XXVI.] SCHELLER. J. G. SCHNEIDER. II

' if he studies a more scientific arrangement, if he displays con- siderable reading, and if he has not neglected new discoveries in criticism, his arrangement is still defective, his criticism is un- critical, and his reading mainly limited to Caesar, Cicero, and other classical authors' '. But his independence has been amply vindicated, and his appreciation of the importance of the authors of the Silver Age and his other merits have been fully set forth by Professor Mayor'.

Scheller's counterpart among Greek Lexicographers is Johann Gottlob Schneider (1750 — 1822), who was born in Saxony, and died as professor and university libra- rian at Breslau. His Greek lexicon' marked a great advance on the manuals of Schrevelius, Hederich and others, in fulness of material, and in critical skill and method. It was also the first comprehensive and independent work that had appeared in this department since the lexicon of H. Stephanus (1572)'. Schneider did much in the way of collecting and explaining technical and scientific terms. His knowledge of natural science, in combina- tion with classical literature, is exemplified in \\ls Ec/ogae Physicae, and in his editions of the zoological works of Aelian and Aristotle. He also edited the Politics and the second hook of the Oeconomics, and the whole of Theophrastus, Nicander, and Oppian, as well as the Scriptores RH Rusticae, and Vitruvius.

Gesner's efforts as an educational reformer were ably seconded by Johann August Ernesti (1707 — 1781). Born ii Thuringia and educated at Schulpforta', and at

' Olto on Lai. Ltxicpgraphii in Allg. Monalschrifl, Braunschweig, iSjJ, p. 990 IT.

* Journal of CI. and Sacrid Philelogy, ii 183—190 (1855).— Scheller also produced in two volumes the Praeetpta stili htiir Latini (1779), a longer and a shorter Latin Grammar (1779 f and 1780 r)i >" Introduction to the exposition of the Latin Classics and to the proper imitation of Cicero (1770), with Oliservations on Cicero and the first six books of Livy (1785). Cp. Bursian, i 507-9-

' Kriliitkts grieckhchis WSrterbuck, in Iwo vols. 1797 f; ed. i, 1805-6; ed. 3, 1819-, Sappl. 18] [; abridged by F. W. Riemer, 1801-4.

* It has supplied the basis for the lexicons of Passow (1819-J4 etc.), and Passow's for that of Rost and Palm (1841-57) and that of Liddell and Scott (.843 etc.).

' Far in advance of his fellow-pupils in a knowledge of Greek, he was

J. A, 1

12 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

Wittenberg and Leipzig, he lived at the last of those seats of learning for half a century. He was for three years the colleague, and, for a quarter of a century, the successor of Gesner as head of the great local school. For the last seventeen of those years he was also professor of Eloquence in the university, and, on resign- ing both of those positions, in 1759, became professor of Theology for the last twenty-two years of his life. His reputation as a scholar depends mainly on the edition of the whole of Cicero, completed in six volumes in 1739, and supplemented in its third

already reading to himself in class the last book of Herodian, while the master was slowly expounding the first. Cp. Opuicula Oraloria, 3 1 1 f.

J. A. Ernesti.

Vir clarhjimus, /aculi huius Cicero, qui tt docendo et firihetide rebus tSuinis huntatiisqut plurimum luminis attuHt.

Prom an engraving by J. Ellas Haid (Augsburg, 1776) of a portrait by Anton Graff.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXVI.] J. A, ERNESTI.

edition by historical intioductions and critical notes (1777). The most permanently valuable part of the original work is the Clavts Ciceroniana', an excellent dictionary of Cicero's vocabulary and phraseology, tc^ether with a conspectus of the Roman laws men- tioned in the orator's pages. The explanatory and critical notes are kept within reasonable limits, and the choice between con- flicting readings is generally determined by a fine taste for Cicero- nian usage. But the standard of Cicero's style was injudiciously applied in his editions of Suetonius (1748) and Tacitus (i753)> He was still a school-master, when he edited the MemoradHia of Xenophon and the Clouds of Aristophanes. On resigning that position he produced an edition of Homer (1759-64}, founded on that of Samuel Clarke; he also edited Callimachus (1761), and (in 1764) re-edited Casaubon's Polybius. The orations and dis- sertations collected in his Opusatla', as well as the prefaces to his Latin texts, are written in an excellent style, and the same is true of the small encyclopaedic text- book of Mathematics, Philo- sophy and Rhetoric, the Initia Doctrinae Solidioris.

Superficial as a writer, but intelligent as an expositor, Emesti has long been over-rated. Even his explanatory notes are meagre. What the Dutch commentators had carried to the excess of an inordinate prolixity, he carried to the opposite extreme. His pious horror of conjectural criticism did not prevent him, as an editor of Cicero, from accepting his own guesses, while he rejected the emendations proposed by his predecessors. But he deserves the credit of having contributed much towards the wider diffusion of classical education in Germany'.

or (he three other scholars, who bear the same name, the best known is his favourite nephew, Johann Christian Gottlieb Ernesli (i7s6 — rSoi), who was profeawr of Eloquence in Leipzig for the twenty years that succeeded his uncle's death, and produced, among other works, a ' lechiiological lexicon' lo

' Ed. Rein, 1831,

' Opusisda Oratoria (1761) and Opuscula Phili>li>gica (1764), both published at Leyden; also a Nbvum Valwaen of the former (1791)1 ^"^ Opusc. Varii Argumenti (1794), both published at Leipzig.

* Urlichs, 105'. Cp. Bursian, I 400— 404. Emesti's opinions on classical education may be studied in his rectorial speeches (in the Opmcula Varii Arg.), especially those of 1736 and 1738, and also in his official scheme for the schools of Saxony, 1773 (ably analysed by Paulsen, ii 19 — 31').

X'OO'

SIC

14 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

Greek and Latin rheloric (1795-7)- An elder nephew, August Wilhelm (1733 — 1801), the son of an elder brother, edited Livy in 1769 etc. For other pupils of Ernesti the briefest mention must suffice. Among these are Johann Tobias Krebs (1718-85), Rector of Grimma, and editor of Hesiod (1746); J. F. Fischer (1716-99), who, for the last thirty-two years of his life, was one of Emesti's successors as head-master in Leipzig, and, besides producing several volumes of Animadversions on Weller's 'Greek Grammar', edited Anacreon and Palaephatus, and many dialc^ues of Flato, white he published no lesG than fourteen dissertations on the Cralylus; and lastly, K. L. Bauer {1730-90), who completed Goltleber's edition of Tbucydides and produced a German-Latin Dictionarjr. All of them have been characterised as 'learned and industrious and dull scholars'". Besides these there was C. A. Klotz (i;38-7i), professor in Gottingen and Halle, best known for his controversies with Burman and Lessing', and S. F. N. Moras (1736-93), professor in Leipzig, and editor of Isocrates' Panegyruus, 'Longlnus', and Xenopbon's Cyrepaedcia, Anahash and Htllenica. A pupil of Moms. C. D. Beck (1757 — 1S31), joined him id an extensive edition of Mu^rave's Enrifida ( 1 778-88), to which he contributed an excellent Index Vrrhorum. His numerous editions include a diffuse Commentary on Demosthenes, De Paa 11799). ^^ '1*° wrote De Philologia Satculi Plelcmaairvm (1818), and reviewed the progress of philol'^cal and historical studies during the fifty years ending in iSjq*.

When Gesner died at Gottingen in 1761, his vacant Chair was offered first to Emesti, who, twenty-seven years before, had succeeded Gesner as a head-master in Leipzig. Ernesti declined the offer and suggested the name of Ruhnken, who, eighteen years previously, had been advised by Emesti to learn Greek, not at Gottingen under Gesner, but at Leyden under Hemsterhuys. Ruhnken also declined, and suggested Ernesti's former pupil, Heyne, whose distinguished career at Gottingen will be noticed in the sequel*. Ernesti appears to have deliberately ignored the claims of Reiske, who had been living for the last fifteen years in Leipzig and had already given proof of being among the foremost Greek scholars of the day.

Johann Jacob Reiske (1716 — 1774), who had been well grounded in Latin at Halle, entered the university of Leipzig in 1732. He attended no lectures what- soever ; indeed, on Greek, there were none to attend. He worked

' Uriichs, 105°.

> Harless, VUae Philol. i 168-iri; p. liiinfra.

" Cp. BuTsian, i 417 — 416.

* p. 36 infra.

i.Mh,Googlc

CHAP. XXVI] REISKE. I5

by himself at a few Greek authors, but found Demosthenes and Theocritus too ditlicult at that stage of his reading. He also studied Arabic until 1738, when, notwithstanding his poverty, he left for I^eyden to attend the lectures of Schultens, whom he ultimately surpassed in his knowledge of the language'. At Leyden he supported himself by helping D'Orville in his edition of Chariton, and by correcting the proofs of Alberti's Hesyekius'. Under the stress of want, he was driven to the study of medicine and took the degree of M.D. in 1746, though he never practised. Shortly after his return to Germany, he settled once more in Leipzig, supporting himself for twelve years by hack-work, while Ernesti and other influential persons, who had it in their power to help him, looked with suspicion on his frankness and indepen- dence of character". Ernesti even warned visitors to Leipzig 'not to call on that strange man". It is lair, however, to re- member, that, in Reiske's darkest days, it was Ernesti who invited him daily to dinner'. Notwithstanding all his difficulties, he never lost courage, his eager enthusiasm in the cause of scho- larship never abated. In 1748 he attained the barren honour of being appointed 'extraordinary professor of Arabic' at an almost nominal stipend, and even this was irregularly paid. But, early in 1756, his knowledge of the language led to his being invited to Dresden to catalogue the Arabic coins in the Elector's cabinet. During the six months that he thus spent amid many hardships, the keeper of the cabinet brought him a gem engraved with minute characters, which no one had been able to decipher. Reiske solved the riddle and was permitted to take the gem to l^ipzig, where he wrote and printed a description for the owner, the Graf von Wackerbart, who at once presented Reiske with 100 thalers and, two years" later, at a critical point of Reiske's career, when he was a candidate for the office of Rector of the Nicolai-Schule in Leipzig, intervened in his favour, secured him the appointment, and pkced the poverty-stricken scholar in a position of dignity and emolument for the remaining sixteen years of his life (1758)'. He thus obtained some of the leisure needed

' On Reiske's Arabic scholarship cp- Ene, Brit.

' Ltbensbeschniliung, Ji, 37 f.

' ii- 67. * it- 147- ° **• 77- ' »A 74— J9-

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

l6 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

for the completion of a number of important editions of Greek authors. In 1764 he married a lady of high spirit and noble temper, who, for her husband's sake, learnt Greek and Latin, pledged her jewels to enable him to pay for the printing of his Demosthenes', helped him in the collation of Hss', and com- pleted and published the works that he left unfinished at his

The earUest proof of Reiske's profound knowledge of Greek was his (ditio pritueps of the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus on

' Ltfxnsieschreikung, 94. nole. ^ ib. 93.

From the portrait by J. D. Fhilippin geb. Sysangin, fronlispiet Oralens Gra/ci (1770).

OgIC

CHAP. XXVI.] REISKE. 17

the customs of the Byzantine court (1751-4). His edition of three books of the Palatine Anthology contains much that is valuable in the departments of criticism, exegesis and literary history (1754). He had meanwhile printed at his own expense his 'Animadver- sions' on Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, including some excellent emendations (1753-4)- In the five volumes of his further*' Animadversions' on Greek authors (1757-66), he pro- posed many corrections in the texts of the Characters of Theo- phrastus, Diodorus, Dion Chrysostom and Dion Cassius, as well as the Moralia of Plutarch, with Thucydides, Herodotus, Aristides, Poly bins, Libanius, Artemidorus, and Callimachus. He set a high value on' this work'. As a school-master, he devoted some years to the study of Cicero. He edited the Tksculan Disputations with notes and various readings on the first two hooks, but he soon abandoned Cicero for Demosthenes and the other Greek Orators. The first-fruits of his study appeared in the form of a vigoroiis German translation of the Speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines, with explanatory notes (1764). He began this translation on the day on which the Prussians evacuated Leipzig (15 Feb. 1763)'. His edition of the Orators involved ten years of arduous labour. For the text of Demosthenes he used a MS from Munich, and four from Augsburg ; for that of Aeschines, a MS from Helmstadt, obtained with the aid of Lessing; while Askew, whom he had met at Leyden in 1 746, sent him materials collected by John Taylor'. His work on the Orators extended to eight volumes (1770-3), followed by the 'Apparatus Criticus' and 'Indices' to Demosthenes, in four. The last three of these were edited by his widow.

Before translating Demosthenes, he had prepared a rendering of all the Speeches of Thucydides, but had generously kept it back for a year, in the. interest of a translation of the whole of Thucydides produced in 1760 by his friend, the Gottingen pro- fessor, J. D. Heilmann (1727-64). At the request of a publisher, he subsequently completed, in the short space of three months, a hasty edition of Theocritus, which includes many acute sugges-

' it. 70. 'Sie sindjfffi ingftiii me'i, wenn man andera meinem in^nk nicht pmneBtfiortm absprichl '.

' ib. 87. ' Cp. Nichols, Lit. Anttd. v

,v?.ooglc

l8 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

tions for the improvement of the text (1765-6). Shortly .before his death he revised the text of Maximus Tyrius. He lived to see the publication of the first two of the six volumes of his Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and the first of the twelve of his Plutarch. His important edition of Libanius was published by his mdow, who also produced his Dion Chrysostom. ^

The slory of his life is unfolded in the pathetic pages of his aulobiogmphy. He there tells us of all his weaij struggles and his days of deep depiession, and also of his gratitude lo those who had at last enabled him to oblain the leisure needed for his farther labours. He says of himself: —

God has given me gifts, not (he best (perhaps), and yet, not the worst ; He has also endued me with the impulse and desire lo use them for His glor; and for the common good... Doubt less 1 might have done much more, if the age in which I lived had been more favourably disposed towards my line of study, and if I had received more help and encouragement from my contemporaries; yet I have done more than a thousand others would have done in my position- Having made good use of my ' one talent ', I can meet my Lord with a cheerful courage, to render an account of my stewardship.

His devoted wife adds to the autobiography a brief sketch of his character, dwelling on his transparent honesty, his enthusiasm in the cause of learning, and his generosity even to those who had served him ill. Only those who could not (or would not) know him, called him a misanthrope. Apart from his wide reading in Greek and T.atin and Arabic, he was familiar with the best poets of Germany, France, Italy, and England, and among his favourite works were the Sermons of Tillolson and Barrow',

In the latter part of Reiske's life, and for some years after his

death, a professorship of Greek and Latin was held at Leipzig

from 1768 to 1782 by Morus', one of the best of the pupils of

Ernesti. Morus was succeeded by Friedrich Wolfgang

Reiz (1733 — 1790). His eminence as a teacher is

attested by his famous pupil, Hermann*. He concentrated his

' pp- 146-9- The volume includes (he letters he received from Abresch, Askew, Gesner, Heilmann, Klotz, D'Orville, Reimar, and Wesseling, and

one from Winckelmann. Cp. Moms, De vita Reistii, 1777; S. G. Eclt, in Fro1scher'sA'or™(<i»<«{i8i6),i3 — 77; Wyttenbach, Bibl. Crii. iK (i) 34, and Opusc. i 413 f; Mtiemesyne, i sj and viii 297 — js' J Mommsen, hscr. Confeed. Hib). (1854) p. xii; Haupt, Ofmsc. iii 1371; Jahn, Popaliire Aufsalu, 16; L, Mliller, A7- PhUal. in den NUdtrlanden, 76 n.; Bur^an, i 407 — 416; and Fiirster in A.D. B.\ Britfe, ed. Forster, 1897 ; Kammel, Ntue fakrb. 190S, 200f. 'p. i4i«/,-a.

» Opu!(, viii 453 f. He is also highly praised by F- A. Wolf, KL Sehr. ii 1155-

CHAK XXVI.] REIZ. 19

powers on the thorough exploration of the limited field of grammar, metre, and textual criticism. His works include a treatise on the Greek and Latin moods and tenses (1786), and on accentuation {1791). In the province of metre he was the first to introduce into Germany the opinions of Bentley, whom he was in the habit of describing as ' the most perfect pattern of a critic '. These opinions he set forth in a brief treatise*, and applied in an edition of the Rudens'. Specially interested in Aristotle, he anonymously contributed to the criticism of the Rhetoric and the seventh and eighth books of the Politics, besides publishing a text of the treatise on Poetry (1786), He also edited the first four books of Herodotus. Finally, he prepared a full description of De France's cabinet of antiques at Vienna, and a series of lectures on Roman Antiquities, published after his death. His greatest glory lies in the fact that he was the preceptor of Hermann and that he was highly praised by Wolf.

' ' Bunnannum de Bentleii doctrina metrorum TeienlLanonim judicare non poluisse' {1787).

' Described by a reviewer as ' the beginning of the true criticism of Plantus '.

* Buisian, i 419—4.11.

n,g,t,...l7t?OOglc

CHAPTER XXVII.

GERMANY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

(ii) WlNCKELMANN, LeSSING, HERDER, HeVNE, ECKHEL.

In the eighteenth century the study of Classical Archaeol*^ received an important impulse from the teaching of Johann Friedrich Christ (1700 — 1756). Born of a good family in Coburg, he was a man of many accomplishments as an artist, a linguist, and a poet ; he studied law at Jena, and professed history and poetry at Leipzig (1734). As a specialist in Latin literature, he was a constant student of Plautus, knew Horace by heart, had a high admiration for Juvenal, read Tacitus through once a year, and keenly appreciated and frequently imitated Aulus Gellius, By travelling in Italy he became an expert in ancient and modern art ; and he gathered round him a large library and a considerable collection of engravings, coins, and gems. In a memorable course of lectures he ui^ed his audience to become familiar, not only with the literature, the inscriptions, and the coins of the ancients, but also with their architecture and sculpture, their gems and their vases. These lectures, which were published long afterwards, mark the beginning of archaeological teaching in Germany'. In studying the monu- ments of antiquity from the artistic and aesthetic, and not merely from the antiquarian, point of view, he resembled his French con- temporary, the Count de Caylus, while, in his appreciation of the distinctive style of Greek sculpture, he was a precursor of Winckel-

' Ed. Zeune, Ahhandlungen Sbir die Litttralur und Kunstw^rkf, vor- nthmlith des Allaihums, 1776.

CHAP. XXVII.] J.F.CHRIST. WINCKELMANN. 21

mann. He made a special study of gems, publishing a catalogue of the Kichter collection at Leipzig, and a revised Latin version of the descriptive letter-press to the first zooo casts in Lippert's Dactyliotheea, a work subsequently completed by Heyne. His varied interests are attested in the thirty-two papers on Roman law and antiquities, on textual criticism, and on the history of literature and of scholarship, collected in his Nodes Academicae (1727-9). He also dealt with the monograms of artists, the vasa myrrkina of the ancients, and the various representations of the Muses. In support of his fantastic opinion that the fables of Phaedrus were composed by the Italian humanist, Perotti', he himself translated two books of Aesop into Latin verse- On his death in 1756 a Latin oration in his memory was delivered by Ernesti', who, with the aid of manuscript copies of his prede- cessor's lectures, continued the tradition of his teaching. But the abiding influence of the original lectures themselves is better exemplified by the fact that it was from this source that Lessing and Heyne derived their earliest interest in ancient art'.

While an interest in the artistic side of ancient life had been thus awakened by J- F. Christ, the permanent recognition of its importance was due to the genius of Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717— 1768), The son of a cobbler at Stendal (about sixty miles W. of Berlin), he succeeded in learning Latin at the local school, and in acquiring a certain knowledge of books in his master's library, while the prehistoric tombs in the neighbourhood awakened his interest in ancient monuments, and led to his even dreaming of a pilgrimage to the Pyramids. In 1735 he went to Berlin, to spend a year in learning Greek under Damm, who was undoubtedly familiar with the vocabulary of Homer*. Three years later he left Stendal to

' ii 71 iupra. ' Opusc. Oral., l^^—\%■i.

■ Cp.Jasti's Winckelmttnn,\n^—i%\; Stark, 159 f; "QatSti.y.F.CkrUt, stilt Leben u. seim Sehrifiat (i8;8) ; and Bursian, i 404-6.— The year of bis death was also thac of the death of Ihe pupil of Chiist and Emesti, Johann Angusl Bach (r 71 1-56), who vindicated the character of the Eieusinian Myste- ries (174J), discussed the legislation of Trajan, edited Ihe Oetoiumicus of Xeno- phon (1747) and wrote an ofl-reprin(ed Iiistocy of Roman Jurisprudence (1754). Cp. Bursian i 406 (.

* P- 'o ^/'■i-

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

22 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

complete his schooling at a place still further west, SatzwedeL In the same year Fabricius died, and, two years afterwards, when his books were to be sold by auction in Hambui^, the young student walked all the way, a distance of more than eighty miles, simply to purchase a few copies of the Greek and Latin Classics', He soon entered the university of Halle, where he attended the lectures of J. H. Schulze, a collector of coins, who discoursed on Greek and Roman antiquities', and of A. G. Baumgarten, who, a few years later, was the first to apply the term ' Aesthetics ' to the science of the beautiful'. He continued his studies at Jena, where, with a view to the medical profession, he worked at comparative anatomy. His early interest in miscellaneous learning was, how- ever, soon afterwards merged in a keen admiration for Greek literature, and, during five years of hardship as a schoolmaster at Seehausen, N. of his native place, he devoted the greater part of his nights to the study of Homer and Sophocles, and Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plato*. The six years that be subsequently spent in the library of the Count von Biinau, near Dresden, enlarged his interest in history and politics, and in the literature of France, England, and Italy {1748-54). At that time the finest collection of works of sculpture and painting in all Germany was to be found in Dresden ; and it soon became clear to Winckelmann that the study of art was henceforth to be the main purpose of his life. It was also clear that he could not continue that study, to any serious purpose, without living in Italy, and, as the only means for carrying out this design, he finally resolved on joining the Church of Rome'. But it was not until a year later that the grant of an annual pension from the Elector of Saxony enabled him to start for the South. He employed the interval in studying gems and other examples of ancient art, and in composir^ his earliest work, ' Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek works in Painting and Sculpture' (1755)- I" words that soon became memorable he here describes Greek art as characterised by ' a noble simplicity and a calm grandeur". The first two years of his residence in

' Jiisti, i 41. ' i!/. i 54-6. ' ib. i 7S — So.

* 1743-81 ib. i 136-160. • II July, 1754.

* p. II (p. 314 of 'Selected Works', ed. J. Lessing) tine idk EinfaU und line stilU Gresie, a phrase probably inspired by Oeser (Justi, i 349, 410).

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXVII.] WINCKELMANN. 23

Rome were devoted to studying the great galleries of Sculpture and describing some of the finest works of ancient art in the Vatican Museum. He afterwards spent three months in Naples, examining the results of the recent excavation of Herculaneum and Pompeii. He also visited the great Greek temples at Paestum and Girgenti. In 1760 he produced a descriptive CaOlogae of the Stosch Collection of gems in Florence, dedicating his work to the Cardinal Albani, who had already received him into his house and had made him his librarian and supervisor of his fine collection of ancient sculptures. Meanwhile, he had been study- ing the descriptions of works of Greek art in Pausanias, and the Greek conception of the Beautiful in Plato. All these studies culminated in the two quarto volumes of his classic ' History of Ancient Art ' (1764), the earliest book in which the developement of the art of Egypt, of Phoenicia and Persia, of Etruria, and of Greece and Rome, is set forth in connexion with the general developement of political life and civilisation. The work was received with enthusiasm, and a second edition appeared in 1776. Meanwhile, in 1767-8, he had produced the two volumes of his Monutfuit/i AtttUhi Jrieiiiti, describing more than two hundred works of ancient art, mainly reliefs from Roman sarcophagi, in the explanation of which he had shown for the first time that the designs were derived, not from the scenes of ordinary life, but from the legends of Greek mythology. In the following April, he left Rome for the North, The mountains of Tirol, which had inspired him with wonder on his journey into Italy, now awoke in him a sense of the profoundest melancholy. He was bound for Berlin, where he proposed to see through the press a French edition of his great History. During his stay in Augsburg, Munich and Vienna, he strove in vain to throw off the intense depression by which he was haunted ; from Vienna he returned alone to Triest, and arranged to cross the water to Venice, While he was preparing for his voyage, he lived incognito for several days at a hotel, where he became imprudently familiar with an Italian adventurer, indiscreetly showed him some of the large gold medals he had recently received at Vienna, and was treacherously murdered on the 8th of June, 1768. The date of his birth, the 9th of December, has since been repeatedly commemorated by

A.oogic

24 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

the publication of papers on classical art and archaeolc^ in Rome, as well as in Berlin and in many other homes of learning in Germany, Of his portraits the best is that painted by Angelica KaufTmann'. The bust, once placed by Cardinal Albani beside the tomb of Raphael in the Pantheon, has been removed to the Capitoline Museum ; a statue has been erected in his memory at the village where he was born, and a monument in one of the churches of the town where he died. As the votary of all that was beautiful in the art of the ancient world, he has been im- mortalised by an able and eloquent bi<^rapher, who bids farewell to his hero in the impressive words : — Er Ubt in GotI, dem UrqueU des Schonen, dessert Abglanz er hier gesucht und geahnt hat*.

The services rendered by Winckelmann, in bringing the old Greek world into connexion with modern life, were continued in a still larger measure by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729 — 1781). His father was curate of Ka- menz, a small- town N.E. of Dresden. At the age of five, when it was proposed to paint his portrait with a bird-cage beside him, the future scholar vehemently protested :—' you must paint roe with a great, great heap of books, or I won't be painted at all'.' At thirteen, he was sent to the famous school of St Afra at Meissen, N.W. of Dresden. The education there given was mainly classical, and the boy's private reading included Anacreon and the Characters of Theophrastus, as well as Plautus and Terence, He was only seventeen when he entered the university of Leipzig, where J. F. Christ was already lecturing on ancient art, and on Plautus

' Justi, ii (a) 440; ib. Frontispiece, and Konneclte's BiUirallas, ed. 1 ( I post »30-

' Complete ed, of his works in 11 vols., published al Donaueschingen (1835-9) *■"* Pralo (l8so-4). Die Gistkichte der Kunst ila AlUrthums 0 764)1 and GedaiiJUn iiber die Naehahmung der griahisehm IVeritlij^s), and some minor works, reprinted wilh Life and Introduction by Julius Lessing (ed. I, Heidelberg, [881). Cp. Heyne's Leii^Ari/i, and Herder's Denkmal (1778, vol. viii 4J! f, ed. Suphan); Goethe's Winekilmann und sein Jakr- kundirl, 1805 (vol. Kxiv of ed. in xjix vols.); F A Wolf, laetne Sehrtftm, ii 730-743; O. Jahn, Biogr. Aufsdtze, i— 88; Julian Schmidt, 11 113— 131; Justi, fVimitlmatiH, sein Leben, selru Werke und sane Zettgmossm, in 3 vols,, 1866-71; Slark, 193— jo6; and Bursian, 1 416 — 436

' Picture reproduced in DUntier's Lessings Ltbm, 17, and in Konnetke's BiiJerallas, 131,

CHAP. XXVII.] LESSING. 25

and Horace', and Emesti was 'extraordinary professor of Eloquence ', while Kastner, the young professor of mathematics, was soon to give proof of his special interest in literature, and — in Leasing. At Leipzig the young student became convinced that ' books might make him learned, but could never make him a man", and it was there that he produced his earliest play, a satire on the conceited self-complacency of a youthful pedant'. The author had just become conscbus of his own pedantry, his honzon had been widened, and the spirit of modem ' enlightenment ' had breathed life into the dry bones of scholarship'. Early in 1749 he went to Berlin, and, besides making his mark as a dramatic critic, produced three plays, one of them founded on the Trinummus'. Late in 1751 he left for Wittenberg, where he stayed for less than a year, Spending most of his time in the university library, every volume of which (he afterwards declared) had passed through his hands. At Wittenberg he studied the Roman poets, especially Horace and Martial, whose manner is reflected in his own terse and epigrammatic style, and especially in his Latin and German epigrams'. In his Letters, and in a separate treatise, he satirically attacked an inadequate translation of Horace, and vindicated the poet's character'. On returning to Berlin, he won the friendship of Nicolai and of Moses Mendels- sohn, both of whom were interested, like himselt^ in English literature ; and he chose England as the scene of his first important tragedy, a 'household play', which was part of his protest against the servile imitation of antiquity then prevaleht in France'. His interest in the drama led to his writing a treatise on the life and works of Plautus, a translation and examination of the Captivi', and an essay on the tragedies of Seneca'". A still more important influence on his career as a critic may be traced

' Julian Schmidl, i 618. ^ Letter to his mother, it. i 6it>.

' Dirjunge Gilehrle. * Sherer, ii 49, E. T,

' Der Schali. ' i 17 — 67 Goring.

' Briefly in 175J (vi 300, ed. Goring) ; Vademecum.... and Ritluiigm des Horax, I7j;4 (xv i [—71). Cp. Sime's Lessiag, \ i.ij.

' Miss Sara Sampion. ' vi 11—144,

'" vii 162 — 136. Cp, Dietsch in /'hilologen-Versammlung xxii (Meissen) 18 f-

,i^.ooglc

26 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

to his study of Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Rhetoric, and Poetic^, and of the masterpieces of Greek tragedy, especially the plays of Sophocles'. After nearly three years at Leipzig, he published at Berlin his ' Prose Fables ' and his ' Treatises on the Fable ', the latter being among the best of his essays in criticism {1759)'. It was during his five years at Breslau (1760-5), that he began the best known of his critical works, his Laokoon, or, ' on the limits of Poetryand Painting', completed and published at Berlin in 1766*.

Simonidea had vividly descrilied ' Poelry as a. speaking Picture and Painting as B silent Poem ', but Plutarch himself, in quoting this epigram, had observed Ihal Poetry and Painling 'differ in their matter, and in their means of imitation '°. Nevertheless, the limits of the two arts had been left undefined, and Luigi Dolce, in his diaic^e on Painting (ijSi), had even maintained that a good poet must be a good painter*. Addison, again, in his Dialogues on Medals (1701), had illustrated the designs on Roman coins by means of passages from the Latin poels, and viee versa \ Spence, in his Polymitis {l^^^), had aimed at explaining the poels of Greece and Rome by the aid of monu- ments of ancient art ; and, in France, Count Cayius had urged artists to find their inspiration in Homer (1757). Thomson's Seaionr had meanwhile awakened a passion for word-painting among (he poets of Germany and Switzerland. Winckelmann himself saw noreasonwhyPaintingshouldnothave as wide boundaries as Poetry', and inferred that 'it ought to be possible for the painter to imitate the poet''. He had previously spoken of ' poetic pictures', and had described Rubens as a ' sublime poet''. He had also illustrated the . ' noble simplicity and calm grandeur '* of Greek art by the subdued expression

' Letter to Nikolai, 1 Apr. 1757, and to Mendelssohn, j Nov. 1768; Hamh. Dram. nos. 37—39, 75, 81-3, 89, 90, 101-4 ; cp. Gotschlich, Lessiag't Aristotelisehe Studien (Berlin, |8;6).

" Leben des Soph. (1760), xi 13—96. ' i 194—191.

'xi — 167; Fragm4nts,\(A — 334, Goring: ed. Blilmner, 1 876 ; Hamann, i8j8; E. T., Sir R. J. PhilUmore (1875) and E. C. Beasley (1879 etc.); cp. Sherer, ii 65 f; Justi's Winckelmann, i 450— 4J7; Sime, i 147-308; Zimmern, 175-194; E. A. Gaidner, Gk Sculpture, ii 468—47"; facsimile of p. I in Dllntzer's Lessings Leben, 313.

* Plutarch, De Gloria AtA. 3, p. 346 f (and 347 a), echoed in Ad Htrenn. iv 39, 'poema loquens pictura, pictura taciturn poema debet esse', and in Horace, A. P. 361, 'ut pictura pogsb', where the reference is only to the external aspects of the two kinds of art (Orelli); cp. Dryden's Parallel of Poetry and Painting (1695I.

* Laokoon, svl p. 337 Blumner.

' Eriduterung der Gedanten U.1.V1. (1756), p. 347, ed. 1883.

* Gedanken u.s.w. p. 335. ' p. 13, n. 6 tufra.

.oogic

CHAP. XXVII.] LESSING. 2;

of pain in Ihe sculptured fonn of Laocoon, who. in contrast to the Loocoon of Virgil, bravely endures his pain, ' like the Philoctetes of Sophocles '.

Leasing, however, at (he very outset of his Essay, shows that Philoctetes in the play, so far from suppressing his groans, fills the stage with loud laments, and, instead of supplying a cortirasi to Vir^l's Laocoon, realty resembles him. Winckelmann (he continues) had overlooked the essential difference between Sculpture and Poetry. The poet and the artist were equally right, both (allowed the prindples of their respective arts. The sculptor did not 'aim at expressing a higher moral character in making his Laocoon suppress the cry of agony; he only obeyed the highest law of ancient art, — the law of beauly'. The artist is limited to a moment of time; Che poet is not. 'The artist represents coexisleHce itt spcue, the poel succession in li»ie'. This point is illustrated from Homer, and in paiticulai from his vivid story of the making of the Shield of Achilles, which is far more life-like, far more truly poetic jhan Virgil's dead description of the Shield of Aeneas. In Homer the great work grows under our very eyes ; scene after scene starts into life ; while Vii^l toils in vain by tediously drawing our attention to a series of coexistent im^es. Thus Lessing condemns dead description in poetry, as contrasted with life-like action and movement. ...He ends by criticising some minor points in Winckel- mann's ' History of Art ', which had meanwhile been published.

While Winckelmann had a first-hand knowledge of works of ancient sculpture, and was also well versed in ancient literature, Lessing had approached the subject almost wholly from the literary side; he had read all that had been written on his theme; he had, in fact, been partly anticipated by the Abb^ Dubos' in France, and by James Harris' in England; but this does not detract from the merits of hb (realise as a lucid and masterly piece of convincing criticism. It is the most perfect specimen of his terse and transparent style, and it owes part of its perspicuity to the avoidance of parenthesis. It was bailed on all sides with enthusiasm. Herder read it through three times between noon and midnight. Goethe, then a student at Leipzig, afterwards said; — ' One must be a youth to realise the effect produced upon us by Lessing's LaBitK/n..,T\ie phrase ut pidura poisis, which had so long iieen misunderstood, was at once set aside; the difTerence tietween art and poetry was now made clear''. When (he work reached Winckelmann in Rome, 'Ks, first impulse prompted him to say : — ' Lessing writes as oneself would wish to have written. ...As it is glorious to be praised by competent persons, so also it may be glorious lo be held worthy of their criticism''. Long afterwards, Macaulay read the Laokann, 'sometimes dissenting, but always admiring and learning'; it was one of the books that filled him 'with wonder and despair'". Lessing's

' inflexions critiques sur lapeiste et la peinture (1719). ' On Music, Painting, and Poetry, c. v § 1 (■744). Cp- Blumner on Lnokeen, 173 f.

' Dichtung und Wahrhtit, I c. vili ; cp. Sime, i 304.

' Josti, ii (1) 134—346; Zimmem, 1(15. ' Life, a 8 (ed. 1878).

h. i., iiA.OOgIc

28 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII,

opinions have, however, been correcled, or enlarged, by later authors. It is now agreed that the Laocoon-group does nol belong lo the time of Titus, but to the beginning uf the rule of Augustus'. Again, in discussing the difference between paittling and poetry, Lessing starts by examining a master-piece of sculpture, and adds that, * whenever he speaks of painling, he means sculpture as well', — B point for which he has justly been criticised by Herder'. Lessing's belief, that tbe ' Borghese gladiator ' was a statue of Chabrias, was afterwards abandoned at the prompting of Heyne'; and the use of the aorist instead of the imperfect in the signatures of Greek sculptors is no longer accepted as an indication of a late date*.

The Laokoon remained a torso. Instead of completing it, the author left Berlin for Hamburg, where, as ' critic of the plays and actors ', he produced more than a hundred chapters of brilliant dramatic criticism (1767-9)'. That criticism is mainly founded on Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, a German translation of which (with notes and essays) he had himself reviewed in 1753'. He repeatedly comments on Aristotle's opinions', finding in Aristotle's definition of tragedy, or rather, in his own interpretation of that definition, the true essence of the drama'.

He was at the same time involved in a controversy with C. A. Kloti, a professor of Rhetoric and editor of three literary journals at Halle. Lessing had expressed his regret that ' a scholar of otherwise just and refined taste ' had disapproved of the Homeric episode of Thersites'. Lessing himself had declared that there was no great number of pictures for which ancient artists were indebted to Homer'", had rejected Pope's suggestion that Homer was 'not B stranger to aerial perspective ' ", and had observed that, while modem artists had represented Death as a skeleton", the ancients had represented him as the twin-brother of Sleep. All these opinions were attacked by Klotz in an

' Two of the three sculptors were priests of Athena Lindia in B.C- Ji — 1 1 (Blinkenberg and Kinch, in Danske Vidensiab. Selsk. Forhandl. 1905, 99; cp. Michaelis. Arch. Enid. 169; and E. A. Gardner, in The Veal's Wort (19OJ), 3*0-

' P- 35 iiifra. ' Ant. Briefe, no. 37 (jiiii 98 Goring).

• c. xxvii, p. 307 Blumner; cp. Stark, 110.

. ' HamburgUckt Dramaturgie, vol, xii Goring; E. T. in Prose IVorks (1879).

• xii 31 Goring. ' p. 26 n. [ supra.

' Lessing attributes to tragedy ' a direct moral purpose ' and also holds that 'fear is always an ingredient in pity ', E. T. 435 f (see Bernays, Breslau .4i^»i//. {1857} inil.. and index to Butcher's ed. of Ar. Poel.).

• Laokoon, c. xxiv ult. 1* c. xxii.

i.MM,Googlc

.CHAP. -XXVIL] LESSING.

'Essay on Gems' (1768), and defended by Lessing in his 'Anliquarian Letters ' (1768-9), and in his admirable Essay 'on the Ancient Represenlajions of Death'' where he shows thai ihe ancients personified Death, not as a ghastly skeleton bul as a beautiful ' Genius ' with an inverted torch. The essay was greeted with a transport of delight by the youthful Goethe at Leipiig', and the gladness of Goeihe found an echo in Schiller's * Gods of Greece". I( is in (he same Essay that we lind the memorable distinction between the mete 'anti- quarian ' and the ' archaeolc^st '. ' The former has inherited (he fragments, the latter the spirit of anliquily( the former scarcely thinks with his eyes, the lattei sees even with his thoughts ; before the former can say thus it vxts, the latter already knows whether it could be so''. The extant portraits of Kloti give us Ihe impression of his having been a weak and conceited person'. Unfonunately hi; life was cut short at the early ^e of thirty-three, and few would now remember him, unless he had been embalmed forever in the trans- lucent amber of his great opponent's style.

As librarian at Wolfenbiittel for the last eleven years of his life, Lessing published inter alia a few short papters on the Epigram, and on some of the principal Epigrammatists', also on Paulus Silenliarius and on the arithmetical problems of the Greek Anthology', while his abiding interest in the Classics is attested by his 'Notes on Ancient Writing", and by his 'Col- lectanea". It was during this period that, in 1775, ''^ spent nine months in Italy with a prince of Brunswick. On a day in Rome he was missed by the prince's attendants, who at last found him in the Vatican Museum gazing with rapture on the group of Laocoon,

Lessing was the most versatile of men, a writer on theology and on aesthetics, as well as a poet, a critic, and a scholar. As a theological controversialist, and as the author of Nathan der Weise, he was a champion of religious toleration, — but we are

* Vol. xiii Goring (the essay is translated by Miss Zimmem in Stlect Prase Works, 1879; cp. ]\et Lift of Lessing, 334 — 151).

. * Diehtungund fVahrieit,ic.-n«.

.' Stania 9 of Second Version, Seine Fae-kel senkC ein Genius.

* E. T. p. 309.

' DUntier's Lessings Leben, 337, and Konnecke's BiM/ratlas 333. Ruhn- ken, writing to Heyne {Epp. ad Div. p. 15), calls him homiium vanissimitni el vix mediocriter erudHuni. Cf. Heeren's Heyne, 73, 81 f; Sime's Lessing, a 63 — 81; Bursian, t 444 — 451,

' xv 73— IS4 Goring. ' XV 199 f, 136 f.

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30 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

here concerned with him as a scholar and a critic alone. By his influence on his contemporaries he undoubtedly opened a new era in the appreciation of Homer and Sophocles ; he also promoted the intelligent study of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, and threw a clearer light on the aims of Plautus and Terence, and on the merits of Horace and Martial. His writings have a never-failing charm that is mainly due to their clearness and precision, and to their classic purity of style.

Action is, with him, not only the highest theme of poetry; it is also the true end of man. He has an eager delight in conversarion, a perfect passion for controversy. He prefers the unceasing and untiring quest of Truth, even to its immediate possession and fruition'. He is an ardent patriot, a resolute hater of tyrants ; amid the strain of poverty, he retains his frank independence of character, and his cheerful devotion to a hterary hfe. He is ever the keenest of critics ; ever the many-sided man of letters and of learning, who declines to degenerate into a pedant.

Von Gebler, writing to Nicolai, describes Lessing as 'that rare combination, a truly great and amiable scholar". It is also said that, in the uniform neatness of his dress, he was distinguished from the typical man of letters of his day. In his manner, he was firm without arrt^ance ; and every variety of feeling, whether radiant gladness, or frank independence, or keen indignation, found expression in his deep blue eyes. The best of all his portraits' is that painted at the age of thirty-seven,— the age at which he wrote his Laokoon*.

' Daflik, c. 1 adjinem (xviii 41 Goring).

• Zimmem, Lessing, 311.

' Konnecke's Bilderatlas, p. 131 f.

* Works in 13 vols. <A. Lachmann {i8j8 f ) and Malliahn {1853 f) ; also in to vols. (Hempel, 1868 f); 8 vols, illustrated (Grote, 1875 f ) ; and 30 voU. ed. Goring (Cotta, 1881 f). Lives, in Gennar, by K. G. l-essing, 1793; Daiuel- Guhrauer, 1850-4; Stahr, 1859; DUntzer, 1881 ; and Goiing; and, in English, by J. Sime, 187; (and in Rnc. Brit.), and H. Zimmeni, 1878. Cp. Julian Schmidt, Von Leibrtils bis auf Ltssings Tod, fassim, esp. i 6l7^ia(i, ii 6, 194 — 306; Justi's iVin^telmann ; Stark, loS — 311; Bursian, i 436 — 454; also Sherer, ii 47 — 81 E. T., and the other current histories oC German literature, and lastly, Kont's Ltssingit rantiquiti, 1894-9.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXVII.] HERDER. 3I

One of Lessing's most important allies in promoting an interest in Greek literature in Germany, and in waging war against Klotz and his adherents, was Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 — 1803). Humbly bom at Mohntngen, amid the marshes near Konigsberg, he was grounded in Latin by an awe-inspiring master named Grimm. He regarded the Grammar of Donatus as a ' book of martyrdom ', and Cornelius Nepos as the ' author of torment' ; but he rejoiced in wandering in solitude beside the local lake and through the ' Wood of Paradise ', where, on a day in autumn, he burst into tears over the lines in which Homer compares the passing generations of man to the fading and falling leaves of the forest'. A Russian officer helped him to enter the university of Konigsberg, where he attended the lectures of Kant, and was thereby stimulated to critical inquiry without becoming an adherent of that teacher's opinions. As a student he was specially interested in Hebrew poetry, and in Pindar and Plato, In his maturer years we note three main periods : — first, the time at Riga (1765-9) ; next, the tour in France (1769), the visit to Slrassbutg (where he made a profound impression on the youthfijl Goethe'), and the years spent as court preacher at Buckebei^(i77i-6); and lastly, his residence in a similar position at Weimar (1776 — 1803).

It was at Riga that he published his three collections of Fragments on modern German literature (1766-7). The first of these deals with the developement of language ; the second in- cludes a discourse on the study of Greek literature in Germany, emphasising the connexion between the taste of each people and its material environment in successive ages. In answer to the question, 'how far do we undersland the Greeks?', he sketches the outline of a future History of Greek Poetry and Philosophy ; and, in connexion with the further inquiry, 'how far have we imitated the Greeks?', he characterises the several branches of Greek poetry, and the foremost poets of Greece, and similarly in the case of Roman poetry, with a marked appreciation of Lucretius and the Heroides of Ovid. In the third, he touches on the German imitations of Latin poets, on the baneful influence of

• //, vi 146?; tAtia^an, Herdrr and his lima, lof. ' OUhhtag und iVahrheil, Fart ii, book to.

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32 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

the Latin spirit in modern Germany, and on the proper use of ancient mythol(^ in modem poetry. The following is the

purport of a few passages : —

The history of a language is as ihe history of man from the lisping of child- hood, through Ihe passion and music of youth, to Ihe calm wisdom of age.... We see Ihe remains of the childhood of man in Ihe poems of Homer. The first authors in every nalion are poels, and these poets are inimilable....Wilh the inlroduction of writing, and (he growth of political life, prose became possible, singing ceased, and poetry became a thing of art; instead of Homer, we have Tyrtaeus and the great tragedians, closely followed by the hlslorians; lor prose was the living language, till KnaJty it reached its perfection in Plato'.

How far can the Germans be said really to unJentand the Greeks, whom tliey imitate P... Our imitations are merely failures. It is absurd to mention Bodmer and Homer in the same breath.... Klopstock, again, is really more akin to Vii^l than lo Homer. Still less can we hope to imitate the dithy- rambic poets. ...Our Anacreons do not succeed much better. Gessner wifh his Idylls falls far below Theocritus. ...Even more absurd is the comparison between Sappho and Anna Karschin. We might say to her, as Sappho said to her maid; — 'Thou hasi no part in the roses of Pieria', where the Muses and Graces have their haunt •.

Laiin was from Ihe firs! the enemy of German, which might have resisted il, had not Charlemagne and the monks let loose upon us the barbarous deluge of Latin literature, Latin religion, and Lalin speculation. O that we had been an island, like England!.. .Zn^in, being considered an end in itself, is ruining our education..,. What would the real florace say, if he were compelled to read such poels as Kloti, or the work of any of our Lalin pedants? We sacrifice everylhing to that accursed word, ' classical '. We must begin our reform by giving up Latin,' — not as a learned language, but as a means of arli^lic ex- pression and as a lest of culture^. In Ihe second fragment he urges that Homer should be Iranslaltd*, Homer the true poet of Nature, whose song has a very different ring from tliat of Virgil and the artificial poets of modem limes'.

In his second great work he imagines himself roaming through the 'woodlands of criticism". He has a high appreciation of Lessing's Laokoon, but he does still more justice to Winckelmann'.

Opposing Lessing's theory as lo the Greek expression of the emotions, he s that Philoctetes does not shriek without restraint*, while he demurs

' Fra^mie, i {ij6S') isi—ii4(=iVerie,i 151— 155 + ii 60— 88 Suphan);

Vinson, 106.

' Fri^m. ii (i »8s— 351 S) ; Nevinson, 106.

■ Fragm. iii {i 362— +14 S) ; Nevinson, 108 f. ♦ i 389 S.

" Cp. Julian Schmidt, ii 315. ' Krilischi fValdir, 1769.

' Cp. Herder to Scheffiier, 4 Gel. 1766 ; Julian Schmidt, ii 314, jjj,

" ICaVfliW, i 8 1 iiii nfS).

A.oogic

CHAP. XXVII.] HERDER. 33

to the dogma (hal all poetry must represent action, a tlt^ma limiting poetry to the epic and dramatic, to the exclusion of the lyric and the song'. At a later point he critlci^s the Epistelae HomcrUai and other works of Klotz, justilies the comic element in epic poetry, discusses the proper method of studying Horace, and insists that every work of Art or Poetry must be interpreted in the tight of the people and the period, in which it came into being. He par- ticularly objects to the Homeric poems being criticised by the standard o( modem taste'.

It was on the deck at night, during his voyage from Riga, that he first formed his theory of the genesis of primitive poetry and of the gradual evolution of humanity. In France he drew up a scheme of educational reform, banning by overthrowing the predominance of his old enemy, the Ladn grammar, and in- sisting that, in education, variety was absolutely essential.

As to languages, the mother-longue must be thoroughly studied, French must be taught in conversation, Latin should be learnt for the sake of its literature, but even Latin is best taught by conversation. Greek and Hebrew follow in their turn, and the course is complete'.

At Strassbui^ in 1770 he wrote the Essay on the Origin of Language that was crowned by the Berlin Academy*. The Academy had proposed the question: — 'Was man capable of inventing language, if left to his own resources, and, if so, by what means could he have invented it?' Herder answers the first part of this question in the affirmative ; and, in reply to the second, lays down four 'natural laws' governing the invention and developement of language, and its division into various tongues. The essay was written in less than a month, but the subject had been long in his mind, and, fortunately (perhaps) for himself, he had no books to hamper him. The result has been recognised as an important part of the first foundations of Com- parative Philology'.

He was still at Buckeburg when he published 'A New

' WaUckin, i 3 :6 (iii 133 fS); cp. Nevinson, 113-5,

' Witldchtn, ii caps, i and iii fvol. iii 133 f, 3«> f, S).

' Ktisi-jeumal (vol. iv ad fiium, ed. Suphan); Nevinson, 118 f; cp. Paulsen, ii 41 — 44, 193-6.

' Ueber dm Ursprtms dtr Spraeht, \■^^\■, ed. t, 1789; lVerkt,tA. rSoj f, Phiiosofkie und Geschkhu, iii — 183 (vol. viwii. ed. Suphan); cp. Goethe, u. J.

' Benfey's GtschUhU dtr Spnukitdsiaischq/i, 193 f 1 cp. Jalian Schmidt, ii 493; and Nevinscm, l6i f.

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34 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

Philosophy of History", beginning with a sketch of the prt^ess of man from his childhood in the East, through his boyhood in Egypt and Phoenicia and his youth in Greece, till in Rome he reached man's estate, and attained his still maturer years in the Middle Ages and in modem times.

Here, as elsewhere, he touches on the question of the originality of Greece; — 'That Greece received from some other quarter the seeds o( civilisation, languafie, arts and sciences, is, to my mind, undeniable, and it can be clearly proved in the case of some of ihem, — Sculpture, Architecture, Mythology, and Literature. Bui that the Greeks, practically, did not receive all this; that, on the contrary, they gave it an entirely new nature, that, in each kind, Ihe Beautiful, in the proper sense of thai term, is certainly their work ; — ihis, I think, is obvious'.

Similar opinions recur in his 'Thoi^hts on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind' (1784-91), a vast work, only partially completed during his latest days at Weimar. Near the middle he dwells on the 'Education of the Human Race", and, in the latter half, surveys the growth of civilisation in ancient times and in the Middle Ages, devoting two most suggestive books* to Greece and Italy. ' Wifk Greece the morning breaks',— ^\xc\\ are the opening words of the enthusiastic passage on Greek life and history that was specially admired by Heyne and Goethe". In other works connected with classical antiquity' he shows an interest in the historical treatment of the growth of Greek civilisa- tion and especially of Greek poetry and art, regarding both of them as a ' School of Humanity '.

He is peculiarly interested in Homer. He was in fact one of the first to elucidate the general character of the Homeric poems. He finds in them the fullest illustration of the idiosyncrasy of national poetry'.

' Au€h line FhiUsephie der Ges€kickte, (J74 (v 475 fS). ^

' V 498 fS ; cp. Nevinson, 211-S- ' Idem, hooks viii — \n (vol. xiii S).

* xiii and xiv (Bursian, i 461 f), reserved for vol. xiv S.

" Ideea, book xiii init. ; Nevinson, 366.

" Ursachm des getmtkenat Gisckmaiks, 177s (v 595 S); Ucber die Wirkung iler Dichlkumt, lySr (viii 334 f ) ; Briefen %ar Befdrderuiig der Humaniiitl, series 3—8, 1794-6 (vols, ivii, xviii); cp. Bursian, i 463.

' Ueber Ossian und dii Liider alter Volker, 1773 (v 321). His later writings include Homer ein Giinstling der Zeil, 1795 (xviii 4J0), and Homer vnd das EpBs, 1803 (xxiv 129, cp. 233) ; cp. Bursian, i 464 f.

A.OO'

1C5IC

CHAP. XXVII.] HERDER. 35

Homer is unique. When Homer had suug, we could expecl no second Homer in his particular type of poetry; he had plucked Ihe (tower of the epic crown, and his successors were fain to rest content with the leaves alone. Hence the tragic poets took another line; they ate, indeed, as Aeschylus says, from the table of Homer, but they also prepared for the age, in which ibey lived, another kind of banquet'.

In the context he contrasts Epic poetry with History, and with Tragedy', and elsewhere he enters on a full discussion of Aristotle's definition of the latter'. He produced metrical render- ings of nine of the Olympian Odes of Pindar', and wrote an enthusiastic description of his characteristics as a poet'. He also discriminated between the several periods and types of Greek lyric poetry in his Essay on 'Alcaeus and Sappho". He is specially interested in Horace'. In his essay on the critical efforts of the past century, he duly recognises the importance of Bentley', and even notices the lesser lights, William Baxter and Thomas Creech'.

His interest in ancient art is specially displayed in two treatises. In his work on Sculpture" he observes with surprise that Lessing had not cared to distinguish between Sculpture and Painting. Herder accordingly endeavours to establish the laws of this distinction. His short treatise 'on the Representation of Death by the Ancients'" su^ests that the 'Genius with the inverted torch ' on Greek tombs is not (as Lessing held) Death, the brother of Sleep, but Sleep, the brother of Death, or possibly a mourning Cupid. This last thought finds an echo in Herder's pathetic poem on the death of Lessing". Finally, he insists on the importance, and indeed the necessity, of the study of ancient Art for the study of classical literature".

' xxiv 144 Suphan. > xxiv 141 f, 144 f, S.

' Dai Drama, xxiii 346—369 S. * xxvi 188 f S.

' Pindar an Beit der Oilier, xxiv 335 S. ' xxvii 181— 19S S.

'xxvi3i3fS. «xxivi83fS.

° xxiv 198 f, tJ3 f, S; also Samuel Qarke, ib. iti f.

'" Plastii; 17J8 (vol. viii Suphan); Nevinson, 310-4.

" Zerslreute Blattir, i;86 (iv 656 f S), IJ96'.

" Dtr Tod, $'m Gcsprdth an Ussings Grabe, in Zerslnute Blaller, i (1785, 1791'), xxviii 1358.

" XX 183 r Suphan. — First edition of Herder's Pfarks in 45 vols, in three series, Tubingen, 1805-101 best ed. in 31 vols. ed. Suphan, 1877-99 — ■ CP'

D„:,i.,3T7^"'.OOglc

36 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

In the latter part of a long literary career. Christian Martin Wieland Wieland ('Ui—'^'i) did much for the diffusion of an interest in the

old classical world, although the influeuce of French literature is apparent in his classical romances, the best known of which is Agath/m, while the modem element is also prominent in his poem, Musarion. He had a far higher appreciation of Euripides than of Aristophanes, and one of his fovourlle authors was Xenophon. He produced a rather free translation of nearly the whole of Lucian, with notes on points of texluaJ, historical, or aesthetic criticism (1788-9). He had already translated the £/«//« and i'H/iViM of Horace (1781-6), and, in his 7ith year, he began a rendering of Cicero's Letttrs in chronological order, a work completed by Grater (1808-11). The Atlischa Museum, which he founded, and edited in 1796 — iBii, included translations of Attic writers of the ages of Pericles and Alexander'. Among

Wieland's pupils at Erfurt was Wil helm Heinse (1746— 1803),

the translator of Petronius, and the author of the romance of Ardinghelh (ii%-3), the scene of which is laid in Italy in the sixteenth century. Like his Lelltrs, it gives abundant proof of the familiarity with ancient and modem art, whichjie had acquired during a residence of three years in that classic land'.

Among professional scholars, Christian Gottlob Heyne (1729 — 1812) has been justly praised for the new interest

in ancient literature and ancient art, which he awakened both by his teaching and by his published works. He was the eldest son of a poor weaver in Upper Saxony, and, as a boy at school, when he first heard of a tyrannicide, he burned to be a Brutus and thus to avenge the wrongs inflicted on his parents by the tyranny of middle-men. Having no text^books of his own, he was compelled to borrow those of his school-fellows, and to

Julian Schmidt, ii 316—316, 35*-5 ; 4'5— 4^3; 446—450; 463-8; 49°-4. 596—601; 686—690; H. Nevinson's Herder and his Times, 1884, and the earlier literature there quoted ; later Lives in German by Haym (t88o-5), Kuehnemann (1895) and Bueikner (1904), alsoSuphan in Goedeke's Grundrisz, IV i 174 — lit, with bibliography, ib. 182 — 199 (1891'); cp. Herder's .:4nj«-A/«i des tl. AHertkums, ed. Danz, 1805-6; G. A. Scholl, Herder's Verdienst urn Wurdigang dtr Aatike and der bildeiiden KunsI, and A. G. Gemhard, Herder als Humaitist, pp, 193 f and 155 f of Weimarisches Herder- Album (Jena, 1845) ; L. Keller, Herder und die KuUgtsellschaficn des Humanismus (Berlin, 1904^ ; and Bursian, i 454 — 469. Portrait in Nevinson, and several in Konneclte, 248 f.

' Bursian, i 470-5. Portraits in Kiinnecke, 24) f. Cp. Goethe's ferce Gutter, Helden und Wieland.

* Bursian, i 475 f; portrait in Kiinnecke, 256; Ziegler in Baumeister's Handbuch, i (1) 157.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXVII.]

From C. G. Geyser's engraving of Ihe eaily portrait by Tischbein.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

38 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

copy out the portion required for each lesson. He complains that (like others since his time) he was compelled to make Latin verses before he had read any authors, or acquired any store of words. His master himself had only 'an Owen", 'a Fabricius", a couple of 'Collections of Epigrams', and a few sacred poets, from whose pages he used to dictate verses for his pupils to paraphrase ^ To learn Greek he had to borrow Weller's Grammar, and his god-father's copy of 'Pasor". In his last year at school a new master came, by whom he was happily introduced to the Ajax of Sophocles. At the age of nineteen he went to Leipz^, there to endure all the miseries of a poor student's life. But he succeeded in gaining admission to the lectures of Ernesti, and it was thus that he first learnt what was meant by 'the inter- pretation' of the Classics*. Professor Christ, whose lectures were 'a tissue of endless digressions', took some interest in him, and recommended the poor youth, who was almost destitute of books, to follow the example of Scaliger and read all the Classics in chronological order. Heyne had to borrow the necessary books, and for half-a-year slept for only two nights in each week, and consequently fell into a fever. At the end of four years he graduated, and in the following year some Latin verses of his attracted the attention of Count Brubl, who made him an under- clerk in his library at Dresden, where Heyne shared a garret with a youi^ divine, and was content to sleep on the floor, with a few folios for his pillow. In the library he made the acquaintance of Winckelmann, who was then preparing for his journey to Italy". During this period Heyne produced an edition of Ti- bullus and of Epicletus (1755-6). In the latter year Dresden was attacked by Frederic the Great, and BriihI's library was destroyed'. Heyne thereupon promptly obtained a tutorship in the Schijnberg family, where he met his future wife ; accompanied young Schonberg to Wittenberg, where he continued his own

' John Owen, Epigratnmaia, 1614 etc.

' Georg von Goldschmied (ai*Z\x.n\mlz), El/gaiiliae Poelicae, 1554, Poeniata Sacra, 1560, Dc re paetka, 1565 elc.

' Heeten, /Tft'"', ij-

' Geoig Pasor, Maniiale graecarum veeiim N. T. 1640 (Leipiig, 1735); Gramm. gr. sacra N. T. 1655-

* Heeren, 30. ' Heeren, 44. ' Heeren, 61.

h. i., iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXVII.] HEVNE. 3g

Studies tilt he was driven out by the Prussian artillery ; and returned to Dresden, only to be expelled by another bombard- ment, in which all his books and papers were burnt (1760)'. His future wife had already suffered a similar fate, but they were happily united in the following year. On the death of Gesner at Gottingen, Ernesti at Leipzig was consulted as to the choice of a successor. Ernesti (as we have seen)' suggested Ruhnken, and Ruhnken suggested Heyne, who had shown how much he knew of Latin literature by his Tibullus ; of Greek, by his Epictetus. Ruhnken added that Hemsterhuys agreed that Heyne was the only one who could replace Gesner, and ended with the assurance that such was Heyne's genius and learning, that ere long all Europe would ring with his praise^. In June, 1763, Heyne settled at Gottingen, where he lived for forty-nine years, loyally devoting himself to his duties as professor of Eloquence, as director of the philological Seminar, as university librarian, as secretary of the local Academy, as editor of the local Review, and as an active administrator in business affairs con- nected with the University and with education in general.

He had a weak voice, an unimpressive presence, and a certain lack of form and method, but his lectures were largely attended. They owed their main attraction to the lecturer's undoubted learning and to his lively interest in his subject. They ranged over a wide field, including the exposition of Greek and I^tin authors, especially the poets, the history of Greek and Latin literature and antiquities, and the technology of ancient art During a brief journey to Hanover, he perused Lessing's Laokoon (which had just been published), admiring the author's taste, which he considered superior even to that of Winckelmann, and agreeing with Lessing in his depreciation of Virgil in comparison with Homer'. The immediate influence of Winckelmann and Lessing is manifest in the fact that, in the very next year, Heyne announced for the first time a course of lectures on archaeology (1767)".

' Heeren, 61, 87. . , ^ p, n supra,

• Ep. 18 Oct. 1,761 (Heeren, 74).

* LeUetofK July 1766 (Heeren, 154 f).

' Heeren, gi. Heyne afterwards published a syllabus of this course (Elnltilung, 1771), expanded by J. P, Siebenkees (1758-96), ed. i799f. Heyne's laler lectures of 1791 were published in 1811 (Bursian, J 478 n).

h. !■, ii,l^.OOglc

40 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

Much of his reputation rested on the excellent manner in which he trained the future school-masters of Geimany in his small and select Seminar.

Heyne was not an original genius. He was a many-sided scholar, who studied and expounded ancient life in all its successive phases, and became the founder of that branch of classical teaching that deals with the study of Reatitn, the science of ' things ' as contrasted with that of ' words ', archaeology (in its widest sense) as contrasted with language and literature'. He was 'the first who with any decisiveness attempted '...'to read in the writings of the Ancients, not their language atone, or even their detached opinions and records, but their spirit and character, their way of life and thought".

The criticism and exposition of ancient poetry is represented in his editions of TibuUus', Virgil', Pindar', and the Iliad*. Like Gesner, he is comparatively weak in textual criticism ; his choice among different readings is guided more by personal preference than by an impartial weighing of the evidence. In his explanatory notes he assigns a subordinate place to points of grammar and metre. The preparation of the metrical part of his Pindar was entirely entrusted to Hermann, then twenty-five years of age. Heyne's own interest lay, not in the metre, but in the subject-matter of the Odes, flis commentary supplied all that was immediately necessary for the understanding of the text, everything else being reserved for an Excursus. In his ex- planations (as in his textual criticism) there is a certain lack of decision. He has the merit, however, of being interested in the aesthetic interpretation of his author. Of the above editions the most important, as a whole, is the Virgil, the least successful part being the treatment of the subject-matter of the Georgits. His edition of the Iliad, which cost him fifteen years of labour, has far less permanent value. His interest in the subject was mainly

' Herbst, Voss' Lebtn, i 70 ; Paulsen, ii 35'.

' Carlyle, Heyat, in Misc. Essays, ii iii (ed. 1869). Cp. Ziegler in Baumeister's HoHdbuck, \ (1) 155 f; Paulsen, i 603-5', " 36 — 4'°-

* '755i ed. 3, 1798.

* 1767-75. The best ed. is the German Prachtausgabe ot 1800.

* s vols., 1798 i cp. Heeren, 163-6. * 8 vols., i.

.oogic

CHAP. XXVII.] HEYNE. 41

aroused by the publication of Robert Wood's Essay on the original Genius of Homer (1769)'. The treatment of grammatical questions, in the course of the fifty-three appendices, is full, without being sufficiently exhaustive, or sufficiently precise. The work, as a whole, was practically a compilation, and the date of its appearance (1803) inevitably suggested a comparison with Wolfs Prolegomena (1795), a comparison which was bound to be to the disadvantage of Heyne.

Heyne failed (o appreciate the importance of the Cadix Vemtus A, and the accompanying ic^o/tii, published by Villaison ■□ 178S. He found himself uiuble to break loose from the (exl of Samuel Clarke and Ernesti. The questions as to the origin of the Homeric poems, which Wolf had handled in a masterly and methodical inajiuec, were discussed in an uncertain and tenlatire way by Heyne, first in a paper presented to the Gottingen Academy later in the same year*, and subsequently in two excursuses (o the likst book of the lliad^. Heyne emphasises the fact that we have no trustworthy historical tradition, either as to Homer's personality, or as lo the origin atid the early fortunes of the Homeric poems. We must therefore rest content with conjectures, which cannot go beyond the bounds of mere probabittly. Such are the suggestions that Hoiner is not a historic person, that his name may be derived from the collecting of his poems, that certain parts of the Iliad were composed at different times by diflereDt poets, thai these parts were recited separately for a long period of lime by various rhapsodes, and were, at a comparatively lale dale, collected into a comprehensive whole {possibly by Peisistratus and his sons), and made generally known by being reduced lo writing. These sug- gestiotis are practically those of Wolf, and it is deemed impossible lo determine how far Ihis identity of opinions Was independently attained by Heyne. Yet some points are clear. In 177; Heyne had no doubt as to the historic person- ality of Homer'- In 1790 he wrote toZo^a:— ' As to theageoflhe Homeric poems, how could il occur lo me lo go beyond the existing data? All the rest is a dream. To myself it t^tvaf. probable that at first there were separate songs, which were subsequently combined. This, however, is on\y 3. fossibUily...".

' Heeren. no f; cp. vol. ii, p. 4J1 supra.

* I Aug. 1795, De anliqua Homeri Uilione indagamla, dtjadicaftda el reililuenda, in Cammentaliana Si}eielalis...ColliHgtnsis, xlii 159 — iSi.

' De Iliade universe et dt eius partibus rhapiodiarumqui eompagi, and De Hotnere Hiadis auclere.

* De arigitu et eaassU fabularum Homerkarum in Nmii Cemmentarii Sac. GolHng. viii 3+— jS.

' Welcker, Zoega's Lehen, ii 60 f (Bursian, i 48] n.). On ihe controversy raised by Heyne'a statement that he had held these views for 30 years, and had expressed them orally, and in writing, cp. Wolf, Briefe an Heyni, 179J, and (in Heyne's favour) Bibl. der red. Kunste, vols, iv, v, and Heeren's Heyne, 110-119.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

42 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII.

But, after Ihe publication of Wolf's Prolegomena, Heyne's references to the points in controversy become more full and more definite. Some of the questions had doubtless been in (he air, ever since the publication of Wood's Eiiay in 1769. Wolf staled all these questions with greater precision and established Ihem on a scientilic basis. As his work on Homer begins a new era, its further consideration is reserved for the next chapter.

The only writers of Greek prose edited by Heyne were Epictetus and ApoUodorus. His edition of the latter is a repertory of the mythol(^cat literature of the ancients, followed by genealc^cal tables and an index of all the authors cited.

Heyne is the founder of the scientific treatment of Greek mythology. He regards the old Greek myths as the summing up of the stories and the opinions of a primitive people prior to the introduction of writing, and he emphasises the difference between the religious conceptions of that early age and those prevailii^ in later times'. He also wrote much on ancient history. Among the most important of his numerous historical dissertations are those" on Castor's chronology of the successive epochs of sea- power, on the Greek colonies, on the institutions of Sparta, on the treaties between Rome and Carthage, on the civilisation of the Ptolemies, and on the authorities followed by Diodorus.

In the domain of art he followed the lines laid down by Winckelmann. He had neither the enthusiasm and the artistic penetration of Winckelmann, nor the critical and philosophical acumen of Lessing ; but he surpassed both, in a full and accurate knowledge of antiquarian details, and in a trained aptitude for methodical historical investigation. In points of chronolc^y and history he is able to correct Winckelmann'. He discusses many of the ancient masterpieces, from the Chest of Cypselus' down to the group of Laocoon', and discourses on the Philostrati and Callistratus, and on the ideal types of Greek divinities. He edits excerpts on ancient art from the elder Pliny'. He also gives proof of his knowledge of numismatics and welcomes the new impulse given to that study in his own life-time'.

As inspector of the school at Ilfeld, be used his influence in 1 770 in favour of the revival of a liberal education. The school had fallen into decay, but all,

' Bursian, i 484—490. ' Opusc. v 338—391.

' Vorlesung, 1770- * Anliqiuirische Atifsalzt, 1778-9, ii i.

' 1790, 181 1 ; cp. AnI. Aufi. i 3, ii 3—5. ' Bursian, 1493-6.

1,1^.001^10

CHAP. XXVII,] HEVNE. 43

he felt sure, would be well, if a little Greek were introduced ; he would then feel no anxiety about Latin and all the other subjects known as humaniera, while, wherever Greek was neglected, everything else would remain ' mere patch-work and perpetual botching''. His report of 1780 also proves him to have been an enlightened proniolei of the New Humanism'.

In 1803, during the French war, his intercession with Napoleon led to the university of Gottingen being protected from peril, and to the surrounding district being exempt from hostile invasion. In 1809 his 8ath birthday was celebrated with a procession of professors and students, and with gifts of garlands of flowers. He delighted in roses, and always kept a bunch of them in water on his desk. His house was embowered among rose-bushes, and he was fond of the fields and skies, and could lie for hours on the grass reading a book^ His son-in-law and bi<^rapher supplies us with a detailed time-table of his well-spent day from five in the morning to eleven or twelve at night*. His shortness of sight led to his sometimes making odd mistakes about strangers from a distance who came to pay him their respects. It also disqualified him from being a good judge of the larger varieties of ancient sculpture. In 1798 he was much interested in helping to prepare the illustrations to Homer collected by Tischbein, who more than once painted his portrait^ His reputation spread to other lands, and he was once surprised to find in an English newspaper 'an extract of a letter from a Gentleman at Gottingen to his friend in Cambridge': — 'A Mr Hevne, to whom I was lately introduced, ought to be mentioned as the first genius of Gottingen". On the eve of his eightieth year, his second wife showed him a pass^e in which Gibbon had referred to Heyne's 'usual good taste".

■ /fur Sliickmerk and ewig Stiimpirei. ' Paulsen, ii 38" f. > Heeren, 411 f; Carlyle, 109, uj. ' Heeren, 315-8.

■ Heeren, frontispiece, and p. 411. The earlier portrait has been engraved by C. G. Geyser {p. 37 suprii) \ the later, by Riepenhausen. 'ITiere is also an engraving by F. Mltller.

• Morning PosI, 10 April, 1775 (Heeren, 331 f).

' Heeren, 333. In iv 419. 509 Bory, Gibbon calls Heyne ' the encellent editor of Vii^l ', and 'the best of his editors'. In 1770 Heyne ' the last and best editor of Virgil ' had called thi; unknown author of Gibbon's anonyraons Observ^ons on the Sixth Aeneid a dociMS..M ehqutnHsHmus Britannus (AiUob. 85).

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

44 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIir.

'On the whole' (says Carlyle), 'the Germans have some reason to be proud of Hejme: who shall deny that Ihey have here once more produced a scholar of the right old stock ; a man to be tanked, for honest; of study and of life, with (he Scaligets, the Bentleys, and old itlustrious men, who. ..fought like gianb...for the good cause?' Pointing lo the example of the 'son of the Chemnitz weaver', he adds: — 'Let no lonely unfriended son of genius

While the study of coins was one of the many departments of learning that attracted the notice of Heyne, it was the life-work of his contemporary, Joseph Eckhel (1737— 1798), the founder of the scientific study of Numismatics, Early in life he had begun that study as a teacher at various schools in Vienna, Toextend his knowledge, he left in 1772 for Italy, where he was invited to rearrange the collection of coins belonging to Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the second son of the Empress Maria Theresa. On his return, the Empress appointed him professor of Antiquities in the university of Vienna, and director of the Imperial Cabinet of Coins and Antiques (1775-6). He arranged the coins according to his own system and published in two folio volumes a complete catalogue, which is a model of its kind (1779)- In his system (which had been only partially anticipated by the French numismatist, Joseph Pellerin) ancient coins were divided into two great classes. The first of these consists mainly of Greek coins of States, Peoples and Kings, together with colonial and imperial coins, all arranged in geographical order, passing from the West to the East of Europe, and, after traversing Asia, coming round again to the West through Egypt and North Africa. The second class was reserved for Roman coins alone, beginning with the consular and gentile coins in the alphabetical order of the gentes, and ending with the Roman imperial coins in chronological order. This

' Afiic. Essays, ii 113. On Heyne, see (he 'biographical portrait' by Heeien (511 pp., Gottingen, 1813), and its 'miniature copy' in Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essays, ii 75— 114, ed. 1869. Cp. Paulsen, i 601-s, ii 34—41'; Stark, 113-5; and esp. Bursian, i 476— 496, with the literature quoted by him, 477 n., and by Stark, 115, who considers Hettner {Lit. Gach. des xviii Jahrh. iii 3, 1. p. 339 f) fairer to Heyne than Justi, who calls Heyne a typical German Univeriilais-philisler (Winckelmann.ii (1) 130-1). See also F. Leo, in Gottingen Feslschri/l {fitAvti, 1901), ijS — 134.

CHAP. XXVIlJ ECKHEL. 45

system was applied to all the extant ancient coins in the eight volumes of his classic work, the Docttina Numorum Veternm^- The general Introduction deals with the history of Greek coinage, the technique, weight, value and size of coins, the right of mintage, the officials of the mint, inscriptions, types of coins, etc., etc The fourth volume closes with general observations. The re- maining four begin similarly with an Introduction and end with general observations on Roman coinage'. A modern expert, who dedicates his work to the memory of Eckhel, characterises the Historia Numorum Veterum as 'a marvellous compendium of wide research and profound erudition, a work which can never be altogether superseded'. But he also points out that its author was imperfectly acquainted with the history of Greek art and with metrolc^y, both of which fields of study have been thoroughly explored in later times, and that the absence of extant specimens of certain coins (such as the electrum staters of Cyzicus, now represented by as many as 150 varieties) led him to doubt the literary evidence for their existence'. It may be added that a comprehensive lexicon of ancient coinage was pro- duced by J. C. Rasche (1733 — 1805), who was bom near Eisenach and was the pastor of a place near Meiningen. His lexicon extended to fourteen volumes (1785—1805). It was begun before the beginning but not finished until after the com- pletion of Eckhel's Historia*.

Our survey of the eighteenth century in Germany must close with the name of Christian Gottfried Schutz, who lived far into the nineteenth {1747 — 1832). He was professor at Jena for the twenty-five years that elapsed between the six years of his first and the twenty-eight of his second tenure of office at Halle, where he died at the great age of 85. A man of wide attainments, and remarkable freshness and force of in- tellect, he is well known as an editor of Aeschylus". In the text of that author many passages are arbitrarily altered, but we find

' Vienna, 1791-8; also Addenda and portrail, t8i6; ed. 4, T84t.

' F. Kenner, Ktir/m^ (Wien, rSjOl Stark, iii f ; Bursian, i 496-9.

' B. V. Head, Doclrina Numorum, (887, Preface.

* Bursian, i 499 f.

' 1781-94; ed. I, 1799—1807; ed. 3, 1809—1811.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

46 RETROSPECT. [CENT. XVIIl.

frequent proof of critical acumen and of poetic taste'. He had already edited the Phoenissae and the Clouds ; he afterwards began a more extensive edition of Aristophanes, but the first three plays alone were published. He is perhaps best known as an editor of Cicero. After commenting on the Rhetorical works', and on all the Letters in chronological order', he produced \ complete edition in twenty volumes, ending with a lexicon and with various indices^ The substance of the twenty-four programs of his time at Jena was pubUshed in 1830 ; and he is remembered as the founder, and for nearSy fifty years the editor, of the Allgemeine Liiteraturzeitvng^ which, for the first twenty years of its existence, was the foremost critical Review in Germany, and, for the next forty, found a rival in the Review started at Jena in 1S04 under the influence of Goethe°, whose relation to the Classics will engage our attention for a brief portion of the following chapter.

Early in the eighteenlh century the whole range of Greek and Lalin litera- ture was traversed by the erudite Fabricius. The Latin scholars, Gesner (1731) and Emesti (1773), promoted the study of the Greek Classics in the schools of Germany, Reislte taught himself Greek at Halle ^.\^i^,\ while, in 1743 and [770, Ruhnken and Wyttenbach learnt their Greek aX Leyden. But, between those dates, the land which they deserted was awakened by Winekel- mann to a new sense of the beauty of Greek art {1755), and learnt from I-essing the principles of literary and artistic criticism (i?*^)- Winckelmann and Lessing had an immediate influence on Heyne's teaching al Gottiogen (1767). Germany was next impelled by Herder to appreciate Homer as the national poet of a primitive people (1773! i Ihe popular ear was won for Homer by the poetic version of Voss (i 781-93} ; and ihe close of the century saw the triumph of the New Humanism with Homer for its hero. In and afier 1790 we find its foremost representatives in the literary circle of Weimar and Jena, in Herder, in Goethe and Schiller, and in Wilhelm von Humboldt. The last of these was the earliest link between that circle and F. A. Wolf, who, in the time of transition from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, was destined, by his published work and by his professorial teaching al Halle, to do two eventful things :— to raise the Homeric question by the publication of his Prolegomena (1795), and lo map out the vast province of classical learning, and find in a perfect knowledge of Ihe many-sided life of the ancient Greeks and Romans the final goal of the modern study of the ancient world.

' e.g. in Eum. i68 f (Wecklein), icTii-ofpout relciji is corrected into i.vTittna'' &n Tl/rgi, and Ufa S' /kii, tIs into i<l'ti Si tet tu.

' 1804-8. ' 1809-13. » i8r4-li. ■ Buisian, i 514-6-

„.,,n,^.OOglC

BOOK V.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Aiie bisherigen Anskhttn iaufen zu diesem vortuhmsten Zielt wU zu einem Mitlelpunkte zusammen. Es ist aber dieses Ziel ktin anderes als die Kenniniss der alterthiimlichen Menschheii selbsi, wekhe Kennlniss aus der durch das Studium der alien Ueberreste bedinglen BeobacMung einer organisch enlwickelten bedeutungsvoUen National- BiMung kervorgeht. Kein niedrigerer Standpunkt als dieser kann allgemeim und wiuenschaflltche F^rschungen iiber das Alterthutn begriinden.

F, A. Wolf, Darstellung der Alterthums-Wissensche^, p. 124, 1807.

Excolere animum et mentem dodrina, rerum utilium observa- tione et cogniiione ingenii dotes omms acuere, inUlUgendi facultatem in dies augere, Vetera nosse et cognita emendare et amplijieare, nova excogitando reperire, inquirere in rerum causas, perscrutari rerum originem et progressum, ex veleribus praesentia expiicare, obscura et intricata expedire, ubique vera a falsis discemere, prava et vitiosa corrigere,futilia et absurda confutare, labefactare, tollere, el, ut uno verba absoh'am, verum videre, hoc demum est humane ingenio ac ratione dignum, hoc pabulum est animi, hoc demum est vivere.

C. G. CoBET, Protrepticiis ad Studla Humanilatis, p- 6, 1854.

The humanistic studies ha^e, during this century, become wider and more real. They have gradually been drawn out of a scholastic isolation, and have been brought more and more into the general current of intellectual and literary interests. So far from losing strength or efficacy by ceasing to hold that more exclusive position which they occupied two or three generations ago, they have acquired a fresh vigour, a larger sphere of genuine activity, and a place in the higher education which is more secure, because the acceptance on which it rests is more intelligent.

R. C. Jebb, Humanism in Education, p. 34, 1899.

h. i., iiA.OOgIc

History of Scholarship in the Nineteenth Century. Gennanr, Austrui*, and Gaman Switzeiiuidt.

lAUn	OrMk	1 aiMk (cnid.	mrtmyand AnttqulUw	Owwrapny rtc.
Spalding	F A- Wolf	L. Sptngtl'	H«ren	Rob
iTfa-iSii	.739-'«M	iBoj-iBSo	1760—1841	i8o»-i8^
Htmrich	llg«n ^.^-834	Bcn»ler		H. N. uKichi
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tS.'Sr;*'	■764-i8», ,	.Bo(-iB69	Niebufar'	^.Brt-iB99
G. H. Schiefrt'		.776—831
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■791- 1 Wj		1S09-1881	wiTBcrtcr	l833-i«as
^fissr	.8.;»-i8M ^	1808—1893
Mythology
.'s^-	o'.'SsS,,	1810- 1836 Bcrek'i8ia— 81	".13'^	•la.
■*"-'■»	i77»-'8*«	B«S.^ .8.4-68	UeniEn	Cr™«rW
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Hitschlf			iBia-tSai "S-iBa,
		.818-1878 TychoMomn,«.n	Schi«!gl=r "819-1897
^sf>	B3?.Tr	Hcrcher	i!^'!"	Rohdtf .84J-1B98
"iX""	f/Puss™' 1786-18J3	M. SchmiSi	iajMBBs
"ai.^,	G. W, NiiisEt 17M-1861	RStr	g!'*^™^;:^,.	Hin
M. Styffeti	V.aF.RcBt	iBa3-ie9a	IB45— IS7B
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	C, A, BiindiB	lia^—tKi		W.lckeri-
„-s>	,7pn->S67 Mcineke'	SJ"	OrMk	c'e^Ti-^
„r— '	.790—1970	i8a&'IgDi	W. Wachsmu.h 1784-1866	K'^lS?or^'
lB.8-,«gS	"w'J-iaeB	• K. S=h?S<l	Dahlmann	1797—1840
Hlr	17SJ— i«ag	^^'^hTir	.Sir	Panofka iBoi-1858
	Suiltaum	1831—1906	sjs^r*	K. B^itidicr
.Ss-Ti^	.793->«6-		lto«-l889
H, K.LI ^*	Sir'W		1796-185S	SE«
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glc

F. A. Wolf.

From Wagner's engraving of the portrait by Jo. Wolff (1823). Fiontisfuece oS. F, W. HoSmaan's ed. oi WoM's AlletiAHmi-IVisstHicAa/l, 1833.

n,g,t,7rJM,GOOglC

CHAPTER XXVIII.

F. A. WOLF AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.

A NEW eta begins with the name of Friedrich August Wolf (1759 — 1824). His father was the schoolmaster and organist of the little village of Hainrode near Nordhausen, south of the Harz, and it was to his mother that he owed the awakening of his intellectual life. Before he had attained the age of two, he knew a large number of Latin words, and, be- fore he was eight, had acquired the rudiments of Greek and French, and could read an easy Latin author. His memory was as ■ remarkable as that of Porson, who was bom in the same year. His parents soon removed to Nordhausen, where, by the age of twelve, he had learned all that his instructors could teach him. At his new home, the first of his three head-masters was Johann Andreas Fabricius (1696 — 1769), the author of a History of Learning^. Towards the end of his school-days he became his own teacher. Starting once more with the declensions, he 'read with new eyes the Latin and Greek Classics, some carefully, others more cursorily; learnt by heart several books of Homer, and large portions of the Tragedians and Cicero, and went through Scapula's Lexicon and Faber's Thesaurus'. During this time of strenuous study, 'he would sit up the whole night in a room without a stove, his feet in a pan of cold water, and one of his eyes bound up to rest the other". Happily this severe ordeal ended with his removal to the university of Gottingen,

On the 8th of April, 1777, he entered his name in the matriculation-book as Studiosus Philoiogiae. The Pro-Rector, a professor of Medicine, protested : — " Philology was not one of

' Abriss eintr ailgemtinm Historic der Gdehrsamkdt, 3 vols., 1752-4. ' W. Korle, i 11 f; Patlison's Essays, i 341 f.

h. |.4M-rt.OO'^lc

52 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

the four Facullies; if he wanted to become a school-master, he ought to enter himself as a 'student of Theoiogy'". Wolf insisted that he proposed to study, not Theology, but Philology. He carried his point, and was the first student who was so entered in that university'. The date of his matriculation has been deemed an epoch in the History of German Education, and also in the History of Scholarship. He next waited on the Rector, Heyne, to whom he had presented a letter of introduction a year before. Hastily glancing at this letter, Heyne had then asked him, who had been stupid enough to advise him to study ' what he called philology ', Wolf replied that he preferred ' the greater intellectual freedom' of that study. Heyne assured him that 'freedom' could nowhere be found, that the study of the Classics was ' the straight road to starvation ', and that there were hardly six good chairs of philology in all Germany, Wolf modestly suggested that he aspired to fill one of the six; Heyne could only laugh and bid farewell to the future ' professor of philology ', adding that, when he entered at Gottingen, he would be welcome to attend Heyne's lectures gratis. When he actually entered, Heyne, who was a busy man, treated him with a strange indifference. How- ever, Wolf put down his name for Heyne's private course on the Iliad, noted all the books cited in the introductory lecture, gathered all these books around him, and carefully prepared the subject of each lecture, but was so disappointed with the vague and superficial treatment of the subject, that, as soon as the professor had finished the first book, he ceased to attend. In the next semester, he found himself excluded from the course on Pindar. However, he went on working by himself; to save time, he spent only three minutes in dressing, and cut off every form of recreation. At the end of the first year, he had nearly killed himself, and, after a brief change of air, resolved never to work beyond midnight. By the end of the second, he had begun to give lectures on his own account, and, half a year later, was appointed, on Heyne's recommendation, to a mastership at Ilfeld. There he remained for two years and a half, married, and, for little more than a year, was head-master of Osterode. At both ' There had been iaolaled entries of phiMogicu stuiUoU ax Erlangen in 1745-7+ {Gudeman's Grundriss, 193).

h. i., iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXVIII.] F. A. WOLF. S3

places he made his mark. At Ilfeld he began to brood over the Homeric question, and also to work at Plato. In 1782 he pro- duced an edition of the Symposium, in which he followed a recent innovation by writing the notes in German. His aim throughout was to interest young students in the study of Plato. In the preface he introduced an adroit reference to Frederick the Great, -the philosopher on the throne', and to his 'enlightened minister', von Zedlitz, to whom Frederick had addressed his memorable letter on education only three years before"; he also paid a compliment to Gedike, who then had great influence with the minister". This preface, and the proof of his success as a school- master, led to his being invited by the minister to fill a chair of ' Philosophy and Padagogtk ' at the university of Halle. The stipend was only ^£4$ a year, with no house, but the offer was accepted, and thus Wolf, at the age of twenty-four, found himself in a position rich in ample opportunities. He had been com- missioned to remove from Halle the only reproach to which it was then open, — that of not being a 'school of philolt^y'. In a few years he entirely changed the spirit of the university, and, 'through it, of all the higher education in Germany, waking in schools and universities an enthusiasm for ancient literature second only to that of the Revival in the sixteenth century'". One of the means whereby he raised the level of classical studies was the institution in 17S6 of a philological Sdminarium for the training of classical teachers'. The other was his work as a public lecturer. During his twenty-three years at Halle, lecturing on the average for rather more than two hours a day, he gave at least fifty courses on classical authors.

His lectures on (he lUad, begun in 1 785, were resumed in alternate years ; he lectured thrice on the Odyssty, while his other courses dealt with the Homeric Hymns, Hesiod, Pindar, Theognis, the Dramatists, ind Callimachus, and, in prose, Herodotus, Demosthenes, Aeschines, Plato, Xenophon, Lucian, Aristotle's treatise on Poetry, and 'Longinus', as well as the usual Latin authors, together with the elder Pliny's outline of the history of ancient art. He also gave fifteen courses of original lectures, including an introduction to

' Paulsen, ii 71'.

' PP- '33 f of reprint in Kleint Schrifttit, i 131—157 ; abstract of Sym- posium, ii. ii 593.

' Fattison, i 359 f. ' Details in Pattison, i 367-9.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

GERMANY. [cent. XVIII f

Homer and Plato, Latin Compo^tion, Histoiy of Greek and L^iin Uteiatare, Greek and Roman Antiquities, Ancient Geography, Principles of History and Survey or Ancient History, Ancient Paiating and Numismatics, History of Philology, and, as a general introduction, a course on the 'Encyclopaedia, of Philology''. This last course, which was first announced in 178;, assumed its final form when it was printed ai Berlin in 1S07 as a. survey of the whole field of clauical learning and a conspectus of all ils component pacts*.

His lectures were fully prepared beforehand, but were delivered with the aid of only a few notes. Goethe, who, in 1805, more than once prevailed on one of the professor's daughters to conceal him behind a curtain in the lecture- room, tells us that the language impressed him as 'the spontaneous utterance of a full mind, a revelation springing from thorough knowledge, and diffusing itself over the audience". His aim was, not to communicate know- ledge, but to stimulate and suggest. The spirit of critical inquiry that breathed through all his lectures was symbolised by the fact that the sole ornament of his lecture-room was a bust of Lessing.

When Wolf went to Halle, the 'philanthropists' serving under the banner of Basedow in the school of Dessau* had, for the first time since the Revival of Learning, succeeded in discrediting the study of the ancient languages in North Germany. Wolf 'represents the reaction against the new realism'', and his conflict with the modern school of useful knowledge brought into clear relief his ideal of a culture founded on Greek traditions. In 1807 he defines this ideal as a 'purely human education', an 'elevation of all the powers of the mind and soul to a beautiful harmony of the inner and outer man".

Everything that he wrote arose out of his public teaching. Early in his career he had produced an edition of Hesiod's Theogonia {17S3), of all the Homeric poems (1784-5), and of four Greek plays (1787)', His reading of Demosthenes in con- nexion with Attic Law bore fruit in his edition of the Lepttnes

' Cp. Kiitte. 11 114-S; Arnoldt, i 119 f; Bursian, i 511.

* Xleitu Schrifltn, il 808 — 895, Dariittlung dtr Alterlhumt- WittenichafU ' Tag- und Jahra-Hijie i8os. xxx 155 Colta's Jubil. ed. (xiiv 195 ed.

DUnUer); Paitison, 1371.

« Paulsen, ii 51'. ' Pattison, i 373.

• Patlison, i 374.

' Aesch. Ag., Soph. O.T., Eur. Pheen., Arist. Eccl.

h, i.MM,Googlc

CHAP. XXVIII.] F. A. WOLF. 55

(1789), which was intended for advanced students, and not for schools. It was welcomed by scholars, not excluding Heyne ; and the way in which Greek Antiquities were treated in the Prol^mena inspired one of Wolf's greatest pupils, Boeckh, with the design of writing his 'Public Economy of Athens'. The corrected edition, announced twenty-seven years later, never appeared; of his 'Select Dialogues of Lucian', only one volume was published (1786); and his Herodian (1792) remained un- revised. He was fond of lecturing on the Tusculan Disputations, and printed a text for the use of his class ; for the purport of his own exposition, which has been described as 'rich in keen remark on the force of words and phrases', we have to turn to the end of Orelli's edition of 1829'.

Even his famous Prolegomena to Homer (1795) had a purely casual origin. His text of 1784-5 being out of print, he was asked to prepare a new edition, and, as there were to be no notes whatsoever, he proposed to write a pre&ce explaining the principles on which he had dealt with the text. He did far more than this, for he roused into life the great controversy known as the Homeric question. Some of the points connected with the earlier stages of this controversy may here be noticed.

Josephus*, writing about 90 A.D., had held that Ihe ait of writing 'couM not have been known to the Greeks of ihe Tiojan war', and 'thejr saj' (he added) 'Ihat even Homer did not leave his poelty in writing, but that it was transmitted by memory, and afterwards put ti^ether from the separate songs ; hence the number of discrepancies'. This passage had been noticed in 1 58J by Casaubon', who remarked that 'we could hardly hope for a sound lenl of Homer, however old our mss might be'. Bentley, in IJ13, had supposed that a poel named Homer lived about 1050 B.C. and '■airoli a scffuel of songs and rhapsodies... These loose songs were not collected together in the form of an epic poem till Pi^tratus' time, above 500 years after'*. In 1730, the Italian scholar. Vico, had muntained that 'Homer' was a collective name for the work of many successive poets; but Vico'a views were at Ihis lime unknown to Wolf. He was, however, familiar with Robert Wood's Essay an the Origi?utl Genius af Homer {1769)'. Only seven copies had then been prinled, but one of them had been sent to Goltingen, and was reviewed by Heyne', It was soon translated into German'. In the course of some pages on the leambg

' Pattison, i 377. ' Centra Afiisnem, i a.

* On DIog. Laert. ix it. * Vol. ii 408 supra.

° Vol. ii 43a supra. ' Gatt. Get. Anz. 1770, 31.

' ByJ. D. Michaelisof Gottineen(i773; 1778^); and English ed. 1775.

..oogic

5$ GERMANY, fCENT. XViri f

of Homer, Wopd had argued that the art of writing was unknown lo the poet. Wolfreters to this passage, and builds his theory upon it*. The icholia of the cedei Vmelus of the Iliad, published by Villoison in 1788, supplied evidence AS to divci^encies between the ancient lexis. Wolf mainlained that these divei^encies were due to the Homeric poems having long been transmitted by memory alone. He contended that it was impossible to arrive at the original text, and that an editor could aim at nothing more than a reconstruction of the text of the Alexandrian age.

The PtQlrggmena, written in great haste, formed a narrow octavo volume of iSo.pages. The author begins by discussing thedefectsin the existing editions, due to an imperfect use of Eustalhius and the ickolia. He next reviews the history of the poems from about 950 lo 550 B.C., and endeavours lo prove the four following points:^

'(1) The Homeric poems were composed without the aid of writing, which in 950 B.C. was either wholly unknown to the Greeks, or not yet employed by ibem for literary purposes. The poems were handed down by oral recita- tion, and in the course of that process suffered many alterations, deliberate or accidental, by the rhapsodes. (2) . After the poems had been written down Hrca 5JO s.c, they suffered still further changes. These were deliberately made by 'revisers' (iuioitewiffTflf), or by learned critics who aimed at polishing the work, and bringing it into harmony with certain forms of idiom or canons of art. (S) The Iliiui has artistic unity ; so, in a still higher degree, has the Odyssey. But this unity is not mainly due to the original poems ; rather it has been superinduced by their artificial treatment in a later age. (4) The original poems, from which our Iliad and our Odytiiy have been put tc^ether, were , not all by the same author''.

In the Prokgemena Wolf supposes that Homer 'began the weaving of the web' and 'carried it down to a certain point'^, and, further, that Homer wrote ;the greater part of the songs afterwards united in the Iliad and Odyssey. In the preface to the text, dated March 1795, he adds, 'it is certain that, alike in .the Iliad and in the Odyssey, the web was begun, and the threads were carried to a certain point, by the poet who h^d firsi taken up the theme... Perhaps it .will never be possible to show, even with probability, the precise points at .which new filaments or dependencies of the texture begin ; but... we must assign .to Homer only Ike greater fart of the songs, and the remainder to the Homer- idae, who were following out the lines traced by him".

' He has himself told us, in memorable words, how he felt on turning from his own theory to a renewed perusal of the poems. As he steeps himself in that stream of epic story which glides like a cl^ai river, his own aiguments vanish (totri his mind ; the pervading harmony and consistency of the poems assert

> Freleg. c. n, n. 8.

' Jebb's Homer, 108 f; cp. Volkmann's GeschichU utsdXrllikdcr IVol/scHea Frolegomena, 1874, 48 — 67 ; and Bursian, i 516 f.. " c,.i8 adjinem, and c- 31. < Praefat.^. xxviii (Jebbj.iog), A'/. Sehr.iii f.

ih,Googlc

CHAP. XXVin.] F. A. WOLF.

The book was dedicated to Ruhnken". In the foliowing year, on Ruhnken's proposal, Wolf was invited to fill a professorship then vacant at Leyden ; the invitation was declined, but Wolf visited Holland, and thus made the personal acquaintance of Ruhnken and Wyttenbach. For the present, not a single autho- ritative voice was raised in favour of Wolfs views in Holland, England, or France. The publication of the Prolegomena was r^arded as a 'literary impiety' by Villoison, who regretted that his edition of the scholia had helped to forge the weapons of the German critic'. A favourable review in a French periodical* aroused Sainte-Croix to attempt the refutation of the literary paradox', Fauriel in France, and Elmsley in England, were only twenty-two when the Prolegomena appeared; the former 'trans- planted the Wolfian idea fo French soil ' at a later date*; the latter showed little interest in the question in his review of Heyne's Homer''. In Germany Wolfs views were welcomed by Wilhelm von Humboldt, and by the brothers SchlegeP; but they were disapproved by the poets, by Klopstock and Schiller and Wieland, and by Voss, the translator of Homer'. Goethe was at first in favour of Wolf"*, but, writing to Schiller in 1798, he was more than ever convinced of the unity of the Iliad". Mean- while, Herder had published an anonymous paper headed 'Homer, Time's Favourite'", in the course of which he incidentally remarked that the rhapsodic origin of the Homeric poems had long been known to himself; that as a boy he had discovered the distinct authorship of the Iliad and Odyssey, and that the

' .*. xxir(Jebb, 110).

' Vol. ii 460 sufra ; on Wolf and Ruhnken, see S, Reiter in Neut Jahrb. f. kl. AH. xviii (1906) 1 — 16. 83—101.

" Vol. ii 398 sufra. ' Caillard in Millin's Magatin Encycl. \\\ 10.

• RifulatUnifun paradexe HUhairt de M. Wolf ^,l^•^)\ Volkmann, 106 f.

• PaUison, ■ 383.

^ Editi. Rev. July, 1803. In 1804 Flaxman, wriling as an artisi, said: 'ihe Prolegomena sironglj enforces' Ihe Inith, 'thai human excellence in ail and sdence is the accumulaled labour of ages' (Korte, ii 1*4 f).

' Volkmann, 74, 77 f. ' Bursian, i 519.

» Korte, i 577 f. " Korte, i 180 i Volkmann, 75 f,

" Htrett, Sept. 1795 ; xviii 490 — 446, ed. Suphati.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

S8 GERMANY. [CENT. XVUI f

suspicions of his boyhood had been confirmed by the newly- published Venetian scholia, which he had seen during his recent visit to Italy'. Wolf, who regarded Herder's article as a kind of plagiarism, wrote to Heyne complainit^ of Herder's behaviour, and begging Heyne to review the Frekgomena. Heyne had already written his review, and had treated the work as ' the first- fruits of the unexampled labours of Villoison ', adding that he had always held the same views himself, and even intimating that Wolf had originally derived them from Heyne's lectures*. Wolf reminded Heyne of the Essay on Homer which he had sent him in 1779; Heyne replied that he had foi^otten the Essay, but remembered conversing with Herder on Homer as early as 1770. Heyne's chaise of plagiarism was not repeated, but it was not withdrawn'. In 1797 Wolf replied by publishing, in the form of a pamphlet, his 'Letters to Heyne". Heyne's Homer appeared in i8oi, and was reviewed in an exceedingly bitter spirit by Voss and Eichstadt, who were aided by WolP, It was not until the next generation that the Prolegomena bore fruit in the continued study of the Homeric question. Meanwhile, the author's only subsequent Homeric publication was the singularly beautiful and correct edition of the text printed by Gbschen at Leipzig, with Flaxman's illustrations (r8o4-7).

Wolf was still at Halle when he edited Cicero's four orations fitfsl redi/um (iSoi). Their spuriousness had been suspected by Markland (1745)'; their genuineness had been maintained by Gesner (1753)'. Markland's suspicions were approved by Wolf, who in the following year even denied the genuineness of the pro Marcello*. Not a few of the faults criticised by Wolf have since been removed with the aid of better Mss. Wolf's opinion was approved at the time by Boissonade in France, but the in-

' Pattison, i 386 f ; Volkmann, 79 — 83 ; Bursian, i 464 f.

> Gotl. Gel. Anz. 11 Nov. (and 19 Dec.J 1795.

> Heyne's letter of 38 Feb. 1796 (Pallison, i 388).

* Reprinted al Ihe end of Peppmliller's ed. oflhe ProUgomtna (1884). "Jena l.Uteraluneiiung, Mai iSo], in 16 of Ihe numbers 113 — 141;

Bursian, i 531 \ Volkmann, 116— 119.

* Vol. ii 413 supra. ' Ccmm. Gelt, iii 113 — 184, Cicero rfsU/ufus.

* Kl. Schr., i 369—389; Korte, i 3JI-8. » KI. Schr. i 389—409; Korte, i 318 f.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP, xxvrir.] f. a. wolf. 59

vestigations have been characterised by Madvig as 'superficial and misleading". Wolf produced a comprehensive edition of Suetonius in 1S02, while his interest in the best modem Latin led him to reprint Ruhnken's eulogy of Hemsterhuys, with Emesti's oration on Gesner".

The twenty-three years of WolFs memorable career at Halle were brought to a sudden end in 1806 by the catastrophe of Jena. On the 17th of October the French troops took possession of Halle, and, three days later, the French general closed the university and sent the students to their homes. Under the advice of Goethe, Wolf spent part of his enforced leisure in revising his survey of the domain of classical learning, which was to be the opening article of the ' Museum ' of Alterthums- Wissenscha/t founded by Wolf and his pupil Buttmann in 1807. From the spring of that year he lived at Berlin for the remaining seventeen years of his life, but it proved impossible for the State to utilise his abilities either at the Board of Education or in the newly-founded University (1810). Thenceforth he produced little, and that little not of the best quality. In 1816 he published his Anakcta, in which he gave proof of his interest in the careers of the leading scholars of England'.

At Halle, Wolf had invited his pupil Heindorf to join him in preparing a complete edition of Plato. As Wolf's plan made no progress, Heindorf, who had meanwhile left for Berlin, produced in i8oi the first of the four volumes of his twelve select dialogues (1802-10). It was dedicated to Wolf, but Wolf was dissatisfied, and, with the aid of Bekker, produced in 181 z a text of three dial(^ues', in the preface of which he announced his intention to publish the whole. In April, 1816, Wolf, in the preface to his ' Analecta, referred to Heindorf in ungenerous terms', which aroused a protest ascribed to the joint authorship of some of the foremost scholars of the day'. Heindorf died at Halle two months later, and, not long afterwards. Wolf's health b^an to fail. He pro-

' MadvLg's pref. to Nutzhorn's ed. (1869); Opusc. Acad. (1841), ii 339, and Adv. Crif. (iSjj), ii 211.

' 1788; c^. Jena Lilt. Ztitung, 1791. ' Kl. Sekr.n 1030— II16.

* Euthyphro, Apol., Crito; Praef. in Kl. Schr. i 418 f.

* Kl. Sckr. {i 1011.

* Buttmann, Schleiemutcher, Schneider, Niebuhr, Boeckh (Kiirte, ii 106 f).

60 .GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

duced nothing after 1820, A serious illness in 1822 was followed two years later by his being ordered to Nice ; on his way, he died at Marseilles, where a Latin epitaph marks the approximate site of his grave. A bust, copied by Heidel from that of Tleck, commemorates him amid the scenes of his greatest success as a teacher, in the aula of the university of Halle, A portrait, painted by an artist bearing the same surname as himself, represents him in the year before his death'. ' In personal appearance Wolf had an imposing, dignified, somewhat imperious air. He was slightly above the middle size, broad-shouldered, deep-chested ; hands and feet well-proportioned. A capacious forehead, prominent eye- brow, searching blue eye, combined to express keenness and force of mind '^. His greatest work is to be found, not in the books that he produced but in the pupils that he stimulated to be the future leaders of classical learning in Germany during the first half of the nineteenth century. He himself claimed to be a teacher rather than a writer, and his published works were only parerga'. But in the broad survey of the whole range of classical learning, which formed part of his teaching, he was the first to present a systematic description of the vast fabric that he called by the name of Alterthums- Wissensckafi, to arrange and review its component parts, and to point to a perfect knowledge of the many-sided life of the ancient Greeks and Romans as the final goal of the modem study of the ancient world. He raised that study to the rank of a single comprehensive and independent science, and thus deserved to be reverently regarded by posterity as the eponymous hero of all the long line of later scholars'. Like Bentley, to whom he was drawn by the admiring sympathy of a kindred genius, he was one of the founders of a right method in the historic criticism of ancient literature. Like Herder, he regarded the Iliad and the Odyssey as part of the popular poetry of a primitive age, but it was not until the next generation that his theory as to the origin of those poems was widely discussed by scholars'.

' Reproduced on p. 50.

' Pallison, i 411. " Kl. Sehr. ii :oi9.

* Cp. Niebahr, Kl. Schr. n 117 (ip. Bursian, i 548).

' Prolt^muna ad Hontirum, 1795 (1859'; cuiii Bikkeri noHs, 1871); h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP, xxvrii.] . VOSS, 6l

While Wolf, with his views as to the divided authorship of the songs composing the Homeric poems, appealed to scholars alone, and received little recognition even from scholars in his own age, the ear of Che German people had happily been won for Homer by a poet, who doubtless found a new reason for resisting the Wolfian theories in the fact that he had himself succeeded in preserving in his German version ' that uniform tone of simplicity and nature, which distinguishes the Homeric poetry from all artificial writing". The famous trans- lator of Homer, Johann Heinrich Voss (1751 — 1826), was born at Sommersdorf in the district of Mecklenburg in North Germany. Entering the university of Gottingen in 1772, he b^an by attending Heyne's lectures on Homer, but was soon estranged by the influence of some of the youthful poets of the day'. He was mainly self-taught. Homer was the centra of his early studies, and, before leaving Gottingen, he had begun to translate parts of the Homeric poems into German hexameters. He published the first specimens of these translations in 1776, in his rendering of ■ Blackweli's Enquiries into the lift and writings of Homer. He soon afterwards formed the design of translating the whole of the

Brie/ean Hryttt, 179;; both reprinted by PeppmUller, 1884. Kliini Sckriften, 130O pp., ed. Bemhardj', 1 vols., 1869, including Wolfs Darsteltuag der Alterikunis-Wissenschafi. Eaeyclefaidie der Philoiogie. ed. Slockmann, 1831, '8«5 ; VorUstiMgin iibir die Ene. dtr Alterthamsviisanschaft, ed. GUrtter and Hoffmann, 5 vols. 1831-5; Vorlttut^n iibtr dU erstm mtr Gadngt der Iliai, ed. Usteri, 1830-1- Bibliography la Goedeke's Gruttdriss, vil' 807-11.

Life by his son-in-law, W. Korte, 3 vols. (1833), and by Amoldt in pari i of F. A. W. in seinem Verhdllrtisse num SchuheeieH (1861-3); cp. A. Baunislarlt, F. A. W. and die Gelehrlenschule (1864). Patlison's Fisayi, i 337 — 414; Bursian, i J17 — 548; Paulsen, ii 108 — 117'; W. Schrader, Gesch. der Univ. Halle, i (1894) 434—462 ; A. Harnack, Gesch. der preuis. Akad. ii 565 f, 660 f; M, Becnays, Goethe! Brieft an W. 186H ; S. Reiter, Wolfi Briefe an Goethe, in Goethe-yahrb.xx^\\(i<tafi) 3—96; on Wolf, id. \a Ntue Jahrb. f. kl. All. xiii (1904) 89 — Ml, and on Wolf and Ruhnken, id. p. 57, note 1 lufra.

1 Pattison, i 384 f.

" Herbsl, i 67. Voss' notes of Heyne's lectures, apparently copied from those of a (ellow-sludent, show that Heyne drew special attention to the works of Blackwell (1736) and Robert Wood (1769), and that he held that the Iliad and Odyssey could not have been reduced to writing, while he expressed no doubt as to the personality of the author or the unity of each of the two poems.

„.,,„, ^.oogic

6X GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

Odyssey. He began by attacking the episode of Polyphemus and the eight lines on Sisyphus', brooding over the latter during his lonely walks for a whole fortnight. His earliest rendering of this passage, approved by Klopstock in 1777, was subsequently sub- mitted to no less than four successive revisions. In the final version the toilsome effort to heave the stone up to the crest of the hili is effectively rendered : — Eiius Afarmors Sehwere mil grosser Geivall fortheben ; and the swift rebound to the valley is no less effective : — Hurlig mil Donnergepolter entrolUe der tikk- isehe Marmor'. Meanwhile, Voss had settled near Hamburg (i77S-8z), being for the last four of those years master of the school at Ottendorf on the estuary of the Elbe. His Odyssey (J781) surpassed all previous attempts to render the original in German veise'. In the same year he translated into Latin the Homeric Hymn to Demeter*, and his abiding interest in that poem is attested by the improved text, translated into German verse and accompanied with a comprehensive commentary, which was post- humously published in 1S26. His Odyssey was followed twelve years later by his Iliad (1793), and by a closer rendering of the Odyssey, which, in the opinion of competent critics, is not an improvement on his earlier version". He applied the same prin- ciples of rigidly literal translation to his subsequent renderii^ of the whole of Virgil, and the Metamorphoses of Ovid, as well as Tibullus, Propertius, and Aristophanes; but his method had by that time become unduly mechanical, and he failed to represent either the variety of Aristophanes or the charm of Ovid. As master of the school at Eu tin, amid the lakes of Holstein {1781 — i8oz), he began his work on Virgil with an edition of the Georgics including a translation in German verse, and a German com- mentary, mainly on the subject' matter (17S9). Its publication led to a feud with Heyne, who, in his own edition, had neglected that part of the commentator's duty'. Eight years afterwards,

' xi 593 ^- " Herbst, i 30, 303.

• Herbsl, 11(1)78 f. * <*. i 138.

» So Wieland, A. W. Schlegel, Goethe, Herder, SchUler. W. v. Humboldi, and Hermann (n^. ii (i) 107, jij) ; cp. M, Bernays, Intred. to reprint (1881) of first ed. of Odyssey.

' BuiKln, i 553 n.

X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XXVIII.] ILGEN. 63

Voss published a similar edition of the Eclogues (1797)^- On resigning his mastership, he lived for three years at Jena (1802-5), and, for the last twenty-one years of his life, enjoyed the status and stipend of a professor at Heidelberg {i8o5--z6). It was there that he produced his translation of Tibullus, in the preface to which he showed, on chronological grounds, that the third book of the Elegies was the work of another poet. He added a critical edition of the text. He also translated and expounded Aratus {1824). To the Vast review of Heyne's Iliad, already mentioned', he contributed by far the lai^est share*. His own commentary on the first Iliad and on part of the second was posthumously published'. Of his prolix exposition of the Odyssey only two specimens were printed, an essay on the Ocean of the Ancients', and a paper on the site of Ortygia'. While he was rash and injudicious as a textual critic, he was too cautiously conservative to appreciate the value either of Wolf's Prolegomena', or of K. O. Miiller's investigation of the old Greek legends. Apart firom his translation of Homer, his best work was in the field of ancient Get^aphy', a work continued by his pupil, F. A. Ukert {1780 — 1851)'. In his mythological studies there were two periods, marked by his opposition (i) to Heyne and his school, and (2) to Creuzer. The evidence for the former is contained in his Mythologische Briefe (1794); that for the latter, in his Antt- SymboUk (1824-6)'".

The Homeric Hymns, with the Batrachomyomachia and its later imitations, were edited in 1796 by Karl Ilgen (1763 — 1834), who inspired his private pupil, Hermann, with his earliest interest in the Classics (1784-6), and when the

' Ed. and Georg. republished in four vols., 1800, wilh a plate in iii 100 giving 17 illnsl rations of Virgil's 'plough', 1, 1, 3 derived from the Virgil published by Knaplon and Sandby (London. 1750).

' p. jS, n. s supra. ' Reprinted in his KritUche Bldltcr, i 1 — 168.

* (S. i i6g — IS4. ' Antisyrnbclii, ii (45 — 15J.

= Boie's Deulsches Museum (1 780), 301 f.

' Volkmann, on Wolf, 71 f, and Wosi' Brief i, ii 113—254 (Buisian, i 639").

' KrilUcke Btatter,\\ 12J — 4J1.

' Gtographie dtr Griichenund Rimer, 1816-46.

" Bursian, i 559^5^'- O" Voss in general, see Ihe admirable work of W. Herbsl, 1873-6 ; and Bnraian, i 548—561 ; 583 f.

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64 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

important position of head-master of Schulpforta was declined by Hermann, was appointed at Hermann's instance to an office whicb he long continued to fill with the highest distinction

(r8o2-3i)'.

The Greek Anthology is permanently associated with the name of Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Jacobs (1764 — 1847), who was born and bred at Gotha, studied at Jena and Gottingen, and, with the exception of a few years at Munich (1807-10), spent the rest of his life in his native place, first as a master in the local school, and afterwards as Librarian and Director of the Cabinet of Coins and the Museum of Art In connexion with the Anlkology, he produced (l) an edition in thirteen volumes (1794 — 1814), in which the text of the epigrams in Brunck's Anakda is followed by a learned and judicious com- mentary'; (2) a text in three volumes (1813-7), printed from a transcript of the Palatine ms made by Spaletti, the Secretary of the Vatican Library; (3) a selection for the use of schools (1826); and (4) a translation of 700 epigrams In German verse (1803-23)'. He published the first complete edition of the Antekomerica, Homerica, z.x\A Posthomerica of Tzetzes (1793). He also edited Achilles Tatius (1821), the Philostrati and Callistratus, with notes by Welcker (1825), and Aelian's Historia Animalium (1S32), and produced Animadversions on Athenaeus (1809) and on Stobaeus*. He contributed to the emendation of the text of Euripides' and the Bucolic poets' ; executed an admirable rendering of the Philippics and De Corona of Demosthenes, and discussed the text of Horace' and the Dirae of Valerius Cato". He also wrote many papers on the history of Greek literature and civilisation', besides promoting the improvement of elementary text-books by his Greek and latin Readers (1805-9). He showed a special

■ Kikhljr's Hermann, 4, 18, 114, 118 ; Bursjan, ii 666.

* Vols. 1—4 (text), 5 (indices), 6—13 (animadversiones).

'On Jacobs' friend, I. G. Hvischlte (ij6i — 1S18), author <^ Analala Crilica, anil Lileraria, cp. Bursian, i 641 f.

' Lationti Subemes, 1817. ' Animadv. 1790.

■ ExerHtationa Crilieae, 1 796.

T Vermhchlt Sckriften (in nine vols., 1813-61), v 1— 404. > ib. 637 f.

* ii. iii I f, 37s f, 4»5 f; i" '57—554! v 517 f; viu 71 f.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXVIII.] JACOBS. CREUZER. 65

aptitude for conjectural criticism, a sound judgement, and a wide knowledge of classical literature, while, in personal character, he was one of the most attractive and amiable of men. Among his literary interests was the higher education of women. His portrait represents him in a smoking-cap, seated at his desk and busily engaged in writing, while his left hand rests on a large open volume'.

The circle of scholars at Gotha included F. WiUielm Dorii^ (175^ — 1^37)1 fo' forty-seven years head of the local school, who, in his editions of Latin Classics, such as Catullus {1788-92), and Horace (1803-24), and in his con- tinuation (1816-24) of Stroth's Livy (1780-4), is as apt as Heyne to be vague in his textual criticism and evasive in his exegesis*. It also included Valentin Christian Friedrich Rost (1790 — 1862), best known in coiuiexion with his Greek Grammar (1816, 1856'), his German-Greek and Greek- German Lexicons (1818-zo), his improved edition of Damm's lexicon to Homer and Kndar, and his contributions to the Greek Lexicon of Passow'. It was at Gotha also that Ernst Friedrich Wustemann(i799 — 1856) edited Theocritus, revised Heindorf's Satires of Horace and Monk's Akestis, ^' ^^J^^"**" besides writing on the Gardens of the Ancients, and publishing in a tasteful form a well-arranged collection of select sentences from the Latin Classics*.

Mythology and Neo-Platonism were the main interests of Georg Friedrich Creuzer( 1 77 1 — 1858), who studied at his native place, Marburg, and at Jena, and, after holding a professorship for four years at the former university, spent the remaining fifty-four years of his life at Heidelberg, with the exception of a single semester at Leyden. His earliest work dealt with Herodotus and Thucydides, in connexion with Lucian's treatise on the proper method of writing History ; he also dis-

' Frontispiece of Persettalttn, ed. 1840. On his life and works, see ib. Verm. ScAr. vii; E. F. Wueatemann'a laudaHo (184S); and Bursiati, i 634—640.

* Jacobs, ii. vii 591 f ; Eckstein in A. D. B. \ Buman, i 640 f.

* Barsian, i 636 f.

* Promfluaritim Stnlmtiarum (1356, 1864); Bursian, i 640.

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66 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIIl f

cussed the historical works of Xenophon, and the origin and developement of the historical art of the Greeks. This early interest in History was continued at Heidelberg, where he formed a plan for collecting all the fragments of the Greek Historians, — a plan that was only partially executed. He began an edition of Herodotus but lefl its completion to his industrious pupil, Christian Felix Bahr (1798 — 1872), who produced an eradite work in four volumes*. While Creuzer was still at Marbui^, he had been stimulated to the study of ancient Law by his colleague, Savigny (1779 — 1861), afterwards eminent as a jurist in Berlin. Creuzer's continued interest in that study was represented by an Outhne of Roman Antiquities, a treatise on Slavery in Ancient Rome, and editions of Cicero, De Legibus, De Republka, and the second of the Verrine Orations'. He also edited the De Natura Deorum, De Divinatume, and De Faio, in conjunction with his pupil Georg Heinrich Moser(i78o — 1858), who himself produced editions of the Tusculan Disputations and the Paradoxes, and of six books of Nonnus.

Creuzer's main interest, however, lay in Mythol<^. In his autobiography he confesses to an iimate vein of mysticism *, which was further developed by his attending the highly imaginative lectures on Philosophy and Mythology delivered at Heidelbei^ in 1801-8 by Joseph Gorres. He was specially attracted to the study of the indications of Egyptian and Oriental influence on the Greek legends of Dionysus'. This study culminated in the four volumes of his Symbolik^.

He here aims at representing the religious life of the ancient world, not only in its outward aspects, its various cutts, and the poetic versions of its mythology, but also in its inner essence, beginning with the origin of religious

■ 1830-5 ; new ed. 1855-7. ^It ^'so edited some of Plutarch's Hvts, and produced several useful books of reference,— a History of Roman Litera- ture {i8a8, etc.), with supplementary volumes on the Christian PoeU and Historians (1836) and Theolt^ans (1837), and on the Latin Literature of the Age of Charles the Great (1840).

' Act. ii. Or. i. In all these edd. he was assodated with Moser.

» DeuUcke Schriften, v (i) ra.

* Siudim, ii aa4— 3»4 (1806); Dimysm (1808).

' 1810-2; new ed. 1819-11 ; ed. 3, 1837-43; P'cnch transl. by Gaigniant in 10 vols., 1815-41.

lOO'

SIC

CHAP. XXVIII.] CREUZER. W. A. BECKEBL 6^

ideas aitd ending wi(h the downfall of paganism. The work is in fact a natural history of Gentile religions, especially those of ihe Greek and the Ilalian world '. It assigns a large space to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Creuzer's mystical views on Greek mythology were attacked, with pleasantry' and with learning', byLobeck; with perfect courtesy and good-temper, by Hermann*, and, in a violent and polemical spirit, by Voss'.

The death of that persistent critic permitted Creuz«r to spend the evening of his days in the undisturbed study of Neo-Platonism and Archaeology. He had ah'cady published a critical and ex- planatory edition of Plotinus, De Pukhritudine (1814), with contributions from Wyttenbach. It was at the suggestion of the latter that Creuzer was asked by the Clarendon Press to prepare a complete edition, published in three quarto volumes in 1835'. Creuzer's interest in Classical Archaeology is represented by papers on the Greek vases in the collection at Carlsruhe (1839), and on Varro's book of portraits (1843). One of his latest works was a sketch of the History of Classical Philology (1854)',

One of the allies of Voss in bis controversy with Creuier was Wilheln Adolf Becker' (1796 — 1846), who had already produced an ,„ . j^ ^ edition of some of the minor works of Aristotle*, and was after- wards to present Roman and Greek life in a popular form in his Callus and Charidts, to write on Roman topography, and to begin (in 18+3) the publication of a well known hand-l>ook of Roman Antiquities, which was continued by Marquardt and Mommsen.

Among the contemporaries of Wolf there were several men of mark, who, without being professional scholars, had, in different

' Bursian, i 570-* ; cp. Otto Gruppe, Gr. Culle u. Mylhm, i (1887) 34 — 43.

* Jena LiUtratur-Zei/ung, 1810, 137 f.

* Aglaophamtis, sivt de Iheehgiae mystieae Craeeorum eausi's, 1 vols., (8j(j.

* Brie/e iiier Hemcr u. Hesiodus, 1818 j cp. Ofauc. ii 167—116 ; also his Brie/of 1819.

' lena Lilt. Zeilung, May, rSii, and Anti-Symbdik, 1814-6.

' Moser helped in lliis work, and in the new ed. of the BntitaiUt (Didot, ■85s).

' Dculuke Sckrifleit, v vol. ii, Zur Gtsekichte da- cl. PAileiogie, ij8 pp. Autobiography in Deutsche Schriflen, V vol. i (1848), with portrait, and iii (1858); cp. L. VTeAtxva Halle Jahrbucker.K (rSjS) n. ror— 6, and R Stark in Vortriige etc. (iSSo) 3go — 408, 480—507, and in Handbuck, 161 f; and Bursian, i 561—587.

» DerSymbolik Triumph, Zerbst, 1815. » De semno ale, 1813.

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68 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

degrees, a close connexion with the scholarship of that age Wolf had a loyal friend in Wilhelm von Humboldt ^ bowt"" (1767^1835), then a leading Prussian statesman, the elder brother of Alexander, the celebrated naturalist and traveller. At the age of 19, he wrote an essay on the opinions of Socrates and Plato on the Godhead and on Providence and Immortality', A pupil of Heyne at Gottingen in 1788, he produced a poetic version of several odes of Pindar (1792 f), and, in the same year, the friendship formed with Wolf in Halle led to his studying the Greek Classics as an essential element in a completely humane education. His correspondence with Wolf has left some interesting traces in that scholar's survey of classical learning'. During the year and a half (1809-10), in which Humboldt was at the head of the educational section of the Prussian Home Office, the university of Berlin was founded {1810), and the general system of education received the direction which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the whole century'. In i8r6 he produced a highly finished rendering oit)KAgamemium. A visit to Spain, in 1799 f, during the four years of his residence in Paris, had meanwhile led to his taking an interest in the general history of language. In this connexion he studied Basque, as well as the languages of North America, of Malacca and of Polynesia, together with Sanskrit and Chinese. The results of these studies appeared from time to time in the lyansactions of the Berlin Academy. His greatest work in this department, that on the ancient Kawi language of Java, posthumously published in 1836-9, begins with a remarkable introduction on ' Diversity of Language, and its Influence on the Intellectual Developement of Mankind'. The latter, which was criticised by Steinthal, and edited and defended by Pott (1S76), has lieen described as 'the text-book of the philosophy of speech '. It may be added that, after all his linguistic studies, he came to the conclusion that the Greek language and the old Greek culture still remained the finest product of the human intellect'.

1 Gesammelti Schrifttn, i (1903) 1—44.

» Nolea ia Kl. Sehr. ii 884-6, 888—890.

• Paulsen, u' *oo f. 148 f, j8o f.

' Letters te Wikker, ed. Haym, roi, 134. On W. v. Humholl in general,

. „.,,„, ^.oogic

CHAP. XXVni.] W. VON HUMBOLDT. GOETHE. 69

As a student at Leipzig, Goeflie (1749 — iSj^) had been profoundly ii pressed by Lessing's Laokoon, and by the writings of Winckel- mann ; at Strassburg, he had been prompted by Herder 10 study Homer'. In r77i he Iranslaled Pindar's Fifth Olympian^ and in 1780 produced a free imitation of the first part of the Birds of Aristophanes'. In his 'first period' he also wrote his Prcmelheus. During his tour in Italy (1786-8), he rejoiced in living amid the memories of the old classical world ; it was on the Bay of Naples and in Sicily that he first realised the beauty of the scenery of the Odyssey. At Palermo he translated the description of the Gardens of Alcinoiis, but did not commit his rendering to writing until mai^y years later (c. 1795)'. Under the influence of the Homeric translations of Voss, he meditated the composition of an Arhillds ; and, at the suggestion of Wilhelm von Humboldt, studied Wolf's Proltgomma, and once more read the Iliaii^. 'The theory of a colltcHvi Homer' (he writes) 'is favourable to my present scheme, as lending a modem bard a title to claim for himself a place among the Hemeridcu'*. In the spring of 1796, he thanks Wolf for thai theory'; in December, he 'drinks to the health' of the scholar, 'who at last has boldly freed us from the name of Homer, and is even bidding us enter on a broader road''; and he writes in the same spirit on sending Wolf a copy of Wilhelm Meisler*. Bui, after abandoning his proposed Achillas, he returns to the old faith, and sings his palinode in Samtr viieder Homer"'. He had already translated the Hymn to the Drlian Apollo", and, in later years, he endeavoured to restore the plot of the Phaelhon of Euripides" with the aid of the fragments published by Hermann. The Eumenidrs of Aeschylus has left

cp. Gis. Schriflen, in 1 1 vols., 1 903-4 ; Benfey, Sfrachwissemckaft in Denlsch- land, 515 f; EinUitutig to Pott's ed. of the treatise Uiber die Verschiedenheit dis menschlichin Sprathbaues, 1876; Seeks. ..Aufsiitu, ed. Leilzmann, 1896; Delbruck's EinUitung in das Sprachstudium, c. ii p. 16 f, ed. 1893; Bursian, i 587 — 591 ; and Sayce, in Enc. Brit.

' Herder etc., Briefean Merck, 43 f, ed. K. Waller.

' BriefeanF. A. Wo/f, ed. M. Bemays (Berlin, 1868), 111 f.

' Werke, vii 379 / (Cotla's Jubilee ed.).

* Published by Suphan in Geelhe-fahriuch, 1901.

* G. Lolholi, Das Vtrhaltnis Wolfs und W. v. Numboltits m Goethe und Schiller, 1863.

* Paltison, i 385. ^ Briefe U.S., 16 f. ' Elegit, Hermann und Dorothea, 1. 17 f.

' »6 Dec. 1796 (Kiirte, i 178).

'° ii 181, 339, c. 1811 ; cp. Letter lo Schiller, t6 May 1798, no. 463, Ich bin rnehr all Jtmalsvon der Einheil umt Untheilbarkeit des GedicAts (sc. der /Has) uberteugi u.s.w. (Korte, i j8o; Volkmann, 75; cp. Briefe, 81 f; xxix 557 f Hempel ; Patlison, i 385) 1 F. Thalmayr, Goethe unJ das classische Alterthum, 118—137.

" Schiller's Horm (1795), ix 30. " xxix joo — 516 Hempel.

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70 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

its impress on the second pari of Faitit', and on some fine passages in the

Iphigenii auf Taurit\

Goethe's familiarity with the scientific literature of the ancients is apparent in the first part of his FarbtnUhre. Late in life he is prompted by a program of Hermann's to examine Ihe tragic tetralogies of the Greeks'; he discusses the meaning oi katharsii in Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry*; he reviews the similes of the Iliad^, and introduces a classical Walpurgimarhl into the second part of Faust.

His interest in ancient art, first awakened in the gallery at Mannheim in 1771, had been enhanced by his lour in Italy and his residence in Rome. It was in Rome that he first met Ihe Swiss painter, Heinrich Meyer (1710 — 1831), a diligent student of Ihe writings of Winckelmann and an admirer of the Roman masterpieces of ancient sculpture and modern painting. At Goethe's sugges- tion, Meyer was appointed instructor, and afterwards director, of the Academy of Art at Weimar. Meyer was the first link between Goethe and Schiller. Under (he inspiration of Winckelmann, Goethe contributed papers on ancient art to the pages of Schiller's /^ar™', and wrote on the group of the Laocoon' and on other themes of ancient art, in the shorl-lived PrBfylam, besides discussing Ihe paintings of Pol ygnotus in the Lisrhe aX Delphi^ In 'Winckel- mann and bis Century ', while Wotf leviews Ihe early studies of the future historian of ancient art, Goethe himself poitrays the man and the author, and uiges the publication of a complete edition of his works. Goethe's friend, Meyer, joined Bottiger in preparing a monograph on Ihe celebrated painling in the Vatican, known as the ' Aldobrandini marriage' (1810}, and himself produced, as his latest and maturest work, a history of Greek Art (1814-6).

Goethe was also under the influence of the accomplished architect, Aloys Hirt (1J59— 1837), according to whom it was the 'characteristic' and Ihe 'indi- vidual', and not the 'beautiful' (as held by Winckelmann), that was Ihe true aim of the best Greek sculpture. Hirt elucidated his views in his BiltUrbiuk (t8oi|~t6), in his important works on Ancient Architecture*, and in his History of Ancient Art (183,1), which, however, could hardly compete with the excel- lent Handbook recently published by K. O. Miiller {1S30). In iSiG Goethe

' ii 3, 8647-96.

' 1051-70; 1119-38; 1341^64 (Breul in Camb. Rev. 6 Dec. 1906). Cp. Otto Jahn, Pafuldre Aufsiilte, 353—401; F. ThUmen, Iphigtnimsage, 1895'.

' xxix 493 f, Ilerapel.

' xxix 490 f, Hempel; Autgldchung, aussohnendi Abrundtoig; cp. Lettei to Schiller, J8 April, 1797, no. 304.

' Ufber Ktatst und AHerthum, iii (1) i f and (3) i f.

' i (1) 19— SO, '795-

' Atifsatie mr Kvnst, (1798) xxxiii 114 f, Colta.

' ib. 131 f, 861 f, Hempel.

• DU Baukunst nach dm Grundsdtztn dir AUtn (1809); Die Geschickte der Baukunsl bet den Allen (1 Hi 1-7).

,;.,,n,^.oogic

CHAP. XXVIIL] SCHILLER. SCHLEGEL. 7 1

fbunded a review, in which he published hi9 paper on 'Myron's Cow*', while he also allempled to reconstruct for artistic reproduction the supposed originals of the pictures described by (he Philostrati'.

Schiller (17S9— 1805) had been well grounded in Latin, but, in the study of the Greek nuslerpieces, he had to rely on translations; even his own poetic rendering oS the Iphigentia at Aulii and the Phoeniisae was founded on the Latin version by Joshua Barnes. The first period of his poems opens with the 'Parting of Hector', while the second comprises 'Troy', and 'Dido', and the two versions of his memorable 'Gods of Greece'; and the third, the 'Lament of Ceres', the 'Festival of Eleusis', the 'Ring of Polycrates', 'Hero and Leander', 'Cassandra', and the 'Cranes of Ibycus'. This last was not published until it had been examined and approved by Bdttiger*. It includes a free rendering of the song of the Furies which Schiller had studied in Wilhelm von Humboldt's fine translation of the Eumaiides, and the influence of that play is also apparent in his 'Bride of Messina", which was directly inspired by the Otdipus Tyrannus, and is pre- faced by a suggestive Essay on the Chorus in Greek Tragedy. His interest in Greek literature is no less manifest in his paper on the Tragic Art'. His conception of the old classical world and of the diflference between the ancient ■nd the modem spirit had a great effect on his countrymen. In his Essay ' On naive and sentimental poetry' he is peculiarly felicitous in comparing the merits of several of the ancient poets*.

It was under the influence of Schiller that the characteristics of the ancient drama were fruitfully studied by

A. W. von Schlegel (1767 — 1845), who had at-

tended Heyne's lectures at Gottingen, and in 1796 was appointed professor at Jena, where he made the acquaintance of Goethe and Schiller, and began the excellent translation of Shakespeare, which he continued after his appointment as pro- fessor in Berlin (1801). In 1805 he accompanied Madame de Stael, the fiiture author of Corinne, on a tour in Italy, France,

' Aufsatie iur Kutul, xxxv 145, Cotta.

' »*. 69 — 139. On Goethe and the CUssics, cp. J. Classen in Philnhgen- Vtrsammtung kx (Frankfurt) 13 — j6 (1863); Urlichs, Goethe und dit Aritiki in ' Goethe- Jahrbuch' ii (1881) 3 — 16; Bursian, i 592 — 607; Carl Olbrich, Goethe's Spracht und die Antike (1891); F. Thalmayr, GoeShe und das tiasiische AUerthum, 1897; and Otto Kem, Goelht, Bikilin, Mommsen, 19—53 (1906). On Goethe and ancient Art, cp. Stark's Handbuch, 113 — 130.

■ K. A. Bijltiger, Eitit biagr. Skiiie von Dr K. W. BSItiger {1837), 136.

* i986f. • iv 517 f, ed. 1874; p. 1019 ed. 1869.

' i* 6ii f; p. T070. Cp. L. Hiizel, Ueber Sthiller't Baiehvngtn aum AUertkumi (Aarau, 1871 ; 1906'), and Bursian, i 607 — tti ; also £, Wiliscb, ia'Jfeui fakrb.f. U. Alt. xiii (1904), 39 — Jl.

Schlesel

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72 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

Gennany, and Sweden; in 1813 he became Secretary to Bema- dotte, the future kii^ of Sweden, and, having studied Sanskrit in Paris, first under the Indian civilian, Alexander Hamilton (1762^1824)', and next under Bopp, he became professor at Bonn in 1818 and held that position for the remaining twenty- seven years of his life.

As the fruit of his Sanskrit studies, he published at Bonn his Indische Bibliothek (1820-6), and established a press for the printing of the Udm&yana (1825) and the Bhagavad-Gtta (1829).

Schlegel, who was specially skilful in his translations from Greek poets, and wrote a drama on the same theme as the Ion (1803), is best known as the author of the ' Lectures on Dranriatic Art and Literature,' delivered in 1808 before a brilliant audience in Vienna'. Nearly half of the thirty Lectures deal with the Ancient Drama, and of these few, if any, are more familiar than the Lecture comparing Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in their treatment of the theme of Electra. Schlegel, who here censures the Electra of Euripides, had not succeeded in im- proving upon the Ion, but he shares with Goethe the honour of having been among the first of modem critics to appreciate the Bacchae".

While the Greek Drama was reviewed in a critical spirit by A. W. von Schlegel, the Epic poetry of Greece von"scbieeei attracted the attention of his younger brother, Friedrich (1772 — 1829), who studied law in Got- tingen and Leipzig and, after living in Dresden, Jena, Berlin, Paris and Vienna, was appointed Austrian counsellor of legation at the Germanic Diet (1814-8). He afterwards returned to Vienna, resumed his literary work, and died at Dresden in r829. Early in life, in 1797, he had produced the first volume of his

^ Helmioa von Chezf, Vnvtrgessenes^ i 150, j68 {Benfey, Guch. der Sfraihwisstnickajt, 358, 379-81).

" Ed. 1 (1817), reviewed by K. W. F. Solger (1780— 1819), the author of an excellent tianslation of Sophocles (tSoS). This review, reprinled in Solger's Works, ii 493 — 618, and regarded by Siivetn as the profoundesl work that had ever been written on the subject of Tragedy, represents Irony as the very centre of the Dramatic Art and also deals with the conception of Fate and the significance of the Chorus (Butsian, i 614 f).

' p. Ixxxvi, ed, Sandys.

,1^.00'

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CHAP. XXVIII.] SiJvERN. 73

historical and critical inquiries on the Greeks and Romans, including an extensive treatise on the study of Greek poetry. Instead of completing the work, he began another, on the History of Greek and Roman Poetry'. Among his later works the most important is the short treatise 'On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians' (1808)", the fruit of his study of Sanskrit under Alexander Hamihon'. An important impulse was thus given to the comparative study of language in Europe. The elder brother's example, as a lecturer in Vienna, was ably followed by Friedrich in 1812, in a course of Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modem (iSig)'.

The Greek Drama was critically studied by Johann Wilhelm Siivem (1775—1829), who, after residing at Jena and Halle, prepared himself for an educational career in Berlin, and, after seven years' experience as Director of the Schools at Thorn and Elbing, and two years' tenure of a professorship at Konigsberg, passed the remaining twenty years of his life as a prominent official in the Educational Department in Berlin". While he was still at Halle, he was prompted by C. G. Schtitz to study the Greek Tragic poets, and Aeschylus in particular. His earliest work was a German translation of the Septem (1799), followed by an essay on Schiller's Wallenslein in relation to Greek Tragedy (1800). Later in life, he wrote on the tragic element in the historical works of Tacitus*, and on the historical character of the Greek Drama^ He also discussed the date and aim of the Oedipus Coloneus% and the historic purpose of the Clouds and the Birds oi Aristophanes*.

' Vol. 1, part i, 1J98.

* Trans, by Miltinglon (1849) \n Aestielic and MiicMatteaus Works CBoYta), 415 — 465 ! MiK MilUer's Z«(««j, i 181'; Benfey, 357-69.

' 1803-7. Cp. p. 71 supra.

* Trans, in Bohn's Standard Library; Lectures i — iv on Greek and Roman Liletature.

* Ueber den Kumkharactcr da Tacitus, Berlin Acad. 1811-3 ('815), 73 f. ' .■*. i8is(i8j8), 75f.

« ib. f8»8(i83r), if.

' 1816-7. Translaled by W. R. Hamilton (l8,ls-6). On SUvem, cp. Fassow (Thorn, i860), and Bursian, i 617 — 613.

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74 GERMANY. [CENT. XVHI f

The same department of study is represented by the early Rfibich "°^^ °^ ^' ^" ^'''s^''*''' (1803— 1871X the author

of ' Aristophanes and his Age' (1827), a work de- fending the poet's treatment of Socrates, and representing that philosopher as the enemy of the Greek world of his own day. A similar view was afterwards held by Forchhammer (1837) ; but both of these writers were reviewed and refuted by Zeller'.

The literary and artistic circle of Weimar and Jena included .. . Karl August Bottiger (1760 — 1835), who was edu-

cated at Schulpforta and Leipzig, and, under the influence of Herder, held for thirteen years a head- mastership at Weimar (1790 — 1804). For the remaining thirty-one years of his life, he resided at Dresden as Director of the Museum of Antiques, and was singularly active as a journalist and a public lecturer. As a schoolmaster, he had published a considerable number of pedagt^c and philological programs'. His archaeotc^cal works, mainly produced at Dresden, fall into three groups; (i) Private Antiquities, (2) the Greek Theatre, and (3) Ancient Art and Mythology, (i) is best represented by his ' Sabina, or morning- scenes in the dressing-room of a wealthy Roman lady ', which was promptly translated into French and served as a model for Becker's Gallus and Charicks. It was continued in the fragment called ' Sabina on the Bay of Naples ". (2) His interest in the theatre dated from the time when he was a dramatic critic at Weimar ; his unfavourable critique on A. W. von Schlegel's Ion was withdrawn at the request of Goethe. It was mainly as a school- master at Weimar that he wrote his papers on the distribution of the parts, on the masks and dresses, and on the machinery of the ancient stage*, as well as a dissertation on the masks of the Furies (1801)'. (3) His work in the province of ancient art* and mythology" was popular and superficial. It may be added

1 c. X of Socrates and Iht Socralu ScAnols, E.T.— Bursian, i G23 f. " Opascula, ed. Sillig, 1837 ; bibli<^raphy in KlHni Schrifien, ed. Sillig, i83jf,ixiii-cxviii. » Kt. Schr. iii 143 f.

* Opuscula, 210—734, »8s— 398.

* Kl. Schr. i 189— 3;6. ' KL.Sckr. a. 3—341-

' Kl. Schr. i 3—180, and (his latest independent work) Idem €ur JCunst- Mythelogie (a (erm invented by Botti^r).

CHAP, xxvirr.] bOttiger. sillig. a. matthiae. 75

that he supplied the descriptive letter-press to the German edition (1 797 f ) of Tischbein's reproductions from Sir William Hamilton's second collection of Greek vases, and thus introduced the study of Greek vase-painting into Germany. He published lectures on the History of Ancient Sculpture (1806) and Painting (181 r), and edited the three volumes of an archaeological periodical entitled Amalihea (1820-5), including contributions from the best of the classical archaeologists of the day'.

Bbttiger's example was followed by his pupil, Karl Julius Sillig (1801 — 1855), who edited many of his master's works. Bom at Dresden, he studied at Leipzig and Gottingen, and was a schoolmaster at Dresden for the last thirty years of his life. His Caialogus Artificum (1827) was a useful work in its time. His edition of Catullus is far less important than his edition of the elder Pliny*. As an editor he is too much given to the accumulation of de'tails, and is deficient in judgement and in critical method'.

Among the pupils of Heyne at Gottingen was August Matthiae (1769 — 1835), a son of the custos of the University Library, who had adopted the Latinised name of Matthiae instead of the German name of Matthiesen. After leaving the university, the son spent four years as a private tutor at Amsterdam, and, for the last thirty-three years of his life, was Director of the gymnasium at Altenburg. The most important of his works was his larger Greek Grammar'. He also published an extensive edition of Euripides in nine volumes, with the Fragments and the scholia (1813-29); a tenth volume includes addenda io^e scholia, s.nA Indices by Kampmann (1837). Lastly, he collected the Fragments of Alcaeus, and published 'animad- versions ' on the Homeric Hymns, as well as scholastic works on Greek and Roman Literature, and on Latin Prose Composition'.

' Biegrafhiiehe Skitu, by K. W. Bbltiger (i8.i7)( Eichslaedt, Oputi. Oral. 665-~67» ; Stark, 52, 71 ; Buisian, i 618—634.

* i8ji-6 in 5 vols ; la^er ed. io 6 vols., with two toIs. of Indices by Otto Schneider.

' Bursian, i 634. * 1807; ed. 3, 1835.

° Lire by his soo Konstantin (184;), including an account of August's elder brother Friediich Christian (1763 — 1811), editor of Aratus, etc. (1817) ; Butsian, i 641 f.

h. i.MiA.OOt^lC

NiEBUHR, From Sichling's engraving of the portrait by F. Schnorr von Carotsfeld.

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XXVIII.] HEEREN. NIEBUHR. "JJ

The study of History was well represented at Gottingen by Heyne's pupil, son-in-law, and bic^rapher, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren (1760 — 1842), After writing on the Chorus in Greek Tragedy, and editing the rheto- rician Menander's treatise on Encomia^ he went abroad for nearly two years to collate the Mss of the Eclogue of Stobaeus, his publication of which extended over a considerable period (1792 — 1801), Meanwhile, he had already begun to devote himself to those historical studies with which his name is mainly associated. He produced, in 1793, the first volume of his well-known work on the Politics and Trade of the foremost peoples of the ancient world'; and, in 1799, his Handbook of the History of Ancient States, with special reference to their constitution, their commerce, and their colonies'. He also wrote several monographs on the commerce of Palmyra and India. The criticism of the authorities for Ancient History, a field of research first opened out by Heyne, was the theme of several papers by his pupil'. Heeren published, in 1797 — 1801, a History of the Study of Classical Literature from the Revival of Learning, with an Introduction on the History of the works of the Classical authors in the Middle Ages. In the second edition of 1822 this work Is entitled a History of Classical Literature in the Middle Ages, the first part going down to the end of the fourteenth century, and the second including the Humanists of the fifteenth*.

A shorter life was the lot of another historian, the historian of ancient Rome, Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776 — 1 831). His father had been famous as a traveller in Arabia and Persia. Born at Copenhagen, and educated at Meldorf and at Hamburg he studied at Kiel and Edinburgh. After holding civil appointments at Copenhagen, he entered the service of Prussia, and in 1810 was appointed professor in the

' Ed. 4 in 6 vols.; vols. :o—ts of ' Hislorical Works', 1814-6: E.T. 1833.

> Ed. 5, i8)8; E.T. 1811).

* Trogus Pompeius, Plutarch's Lives, Slrabo, and Ptolemy are discussed in fols. i, iii, iv, V, kv, of the Committtatiorus of the Royal Society of Gottingen.

' Characlerised by Bursian {p. 5) 3$ ' superficial and sketchy ' ; it deserves credit, however, for its lucid arrangement, and its breadth of view. On Heeren's life, cp. his ' Hisl. Works ', i xi f : Karl Hoeck's Gidiichinissnde in 'Neuer Nekrolog der Deulschen', xi 117 f; and Bursian, i 645-7.

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78 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

newly-founded university of Berlin. His lectures on Roman history were attended by a distinguished audience, and thence- forth he regarded the history of Rome as the main interest of his life. He completed the first two volumes of his History in i8i2. He was Prussian ambassador at Rome in 1S16-23, but was discontented with Rome and with Italy, and made little progress with his literary work. For the rest of his life he settled at Bonn, where he delivered lectures on ancient history, ethno- graphy and geography, and on the French Revolution. The revolution of July, r83o, filled him with apprehensions for the future of Europe. In the following winter he caught a chill during his return from a news-room, where he had heen eagerly studying the account of the trial of the ministers of Charles X ; and early in i83r he died,

Voss, the translator of Homer, was a frequent visitor in the house of Niebuhr's childhood, and the German Odyssey was the deUght of the future historian's early years'. At the age of fourteen he was absorbed in the study of a MS of Varro, which his father had borrowed from the library at Copenhagen. The boy discovered for himself that the difficulty of many passages was really due to lacunae, which had not been indicated in the printed editions". During a visit to Scotland he acquired a new appreciation of the beauties of nature, and he afterwards admitted that his 'early residence in England* gave him 'one important key to Roman history ' : — ' it is necessary to know civil life by personal observation in order to understand such States as those of antiquity ; I never could have understood a number of things in the history of Rome without having observed England'*. In Berlin, his friends were Spalding, Savigny, Buttmann, and Heindorf. He stood in no such relation to Wolf*. In his History of Rome he describes 'the poems, out of which' (in his view) 'the history of the Roman kings was resolved into a prose narrative", as 'knowing nothing of the unity which characterises the most perfect of Greek poems'\ thus ignoring the

Herbst. Vois, i 117.	' ii. ii [36.
Enc. Brit.
EadofTnf.toJ/iil.<i/Xi>i?u,ed. i.	• iisBf, E.T„ed. 1837.
	h. !■, ii,l^.OO^IC

CHAP. XXVIir.] ■ NIEBUHR. "^^^

results of Wolf's Prolegomena. But the critical spirit, which inspired Wol^ was in the air, and its influence affected Niebuhr. His theory that the early l^ends of Rome had been transmitted from generation to generation in the form of poetic lays was not new. It had been anticipated by the Dutch scholar, Peri- zonius', but Niebuhr was not aware of this fact until a later date'. Similarly, a French scholar, Louis de Beaufort, had published in Holland (1738-50) a work on the uncertainty of the first five centuries of Roman history, but this was purely negative in its results. Niebuhr's work marks an epoch in the study of the subject. His main results, ' such as his views of the ancient population of Rome, the origin of the piebs, the relation between the patricians and the plebeians, the real nature of the ager publicus, and many other points of interest, have been acknowledged by all his successors ", He was the first to deal with the history of Rome in a critical and scientific spirit*. His History of Rome grew out of his lectures at BerUn. The same theme was predominant in certain courses of lectures delivered at Bonn, which were not published until after his death'.

Niebuhr's work as a scholar was far from being confined to the domain of History. The two volumes of his 'minor historical and philological writings' (1828-43) include much that is con- nected with the history of classical literature and the criticism of classical texts. In i8r6, with the aid of Buttmann and Heindorf, he published in Berlin an improved edition of the remains of Fronto (which had been printed for the first time in the previous year from the Bobbio ms found by Angelo Mai at Milan). Late in the summer of 1816, on his way to Rome,

* A»imadvirHotiti HiiloHcac (1685), c 6; vol. ii 331 supra.

* i IS* E.T., and Pnf. vii. His discovery led him to propose Perizonius as the theme for a prize-essay ; the result was Gustav Kramer's £iy(um (1818).

' Schniitz, quoted in Enc. Brit.

* RStniscke Giickuhte, vot. i, 1811 (ed. t, 1817, ed. 3, 1818); vol. ii, iSii {ed. I, 1830); vol. iii, ed. Classen, 1831. Complete ed. in one vol. 1853 ; new ed. 1873-4. Engt. Transl. 1818-41, by Thirlwall and Julius Haie ; lasted. 1847-51-

' Lectures on Ethnography, 1851 ; on Ancient History, 1847-51; on Roman History, from the earliest times to the fall of the Weatern Empire, 1846-8 (E.T. 1B53); and on Roman Antiquities, 1858 { — Hist, und philol. Vortragr lot der Univ. Bonn gehalttn, ed. Islei and M. Niebuhr, Berlin, 1846-58).

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8o GERMANY. [CENT. XVIIl f

he discovered, in a palimpsest of the Capitular Library at Verona, the 'Institutions' of the Roman jurist. Gains; he immediately informed Savigny, and an edition of the work was accordingly published by the Berlin Academy'. In Rome he discovered in a Vatican ms certain fragments of Cicero's Speeches pro M. Fontew and pro C. Haiirio'. In the course of his edition of Fronto, he had criticised Mai's arrangement of the fragments of Cicero, pro Stauro, and his own arrangement had been confirmed by a MS discovered by Peyron at Milan'. Mai, on his appointment as librarian of the Vatican, was somewhat jealous of Niebuhr's acumen as an editor, and Niebuhr was not disposed, as the representative of Prussia, to ask the Vatican for favours which he might readily have sought as an ordinary scholar. , However, he generously contributed to Mai's edition of the Vatican palim- psest of Cicero, De Republica, several learned notes, together with a historical and a verbal index (1822). Niebuhr was the first to make use of Lagomarsini's vast collection of various readings preserved in the CoUegio Romano; he also identified the mss collated by that scholar*.

In 1812 he addressed, to a young friend, a memorable letter, in which he sets forth a high ideal of a scholar's life. The authors specially recommended for study are Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Pindar, with Herodotus, Thucydides, Demosthenes and Plutarch, and Cicero, Livy, Caesar, Sallust and Tacitus'. All these were to be read with reverence, not with a view to making them the themes of aesthetic criticism, but with a resolve to assimilate their spirit. This (he declares) is the true 'Philology' that brings health to the soul, while learned invest^ations (in the case of such as attain to them) belong to a lower level'.

' Ed. Goschen and Bethmann'Hollweg, iSii; ed. 1, 1S34; cp- K. G.

Jacob's Abhandlang, 6i f.

^ Ed. iSio, wilh a fragment of livy, xci, and fragments of Seneca.

' K. G. Jacob, %-i f. * K. G. Jacob, 89.

" Horace's Satires are recommended (less strongly Ihan his Odes), with only a few of Juvenal's. No other poets are named. Vii^l and Horace aje depreciated in his Lectures on Roman History, no. 107, iii 135—142 E.T.

' Brief an einen jangen Philolagen, printed in Lebenmaehrichten, ii )oof ; and by K. G. Jacob, p. n^ ; translated by Julius Hare, On a Young MiaCs Stadia, in (he Edticational Magazine, 1B40.

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CHAP. XXVIir.] NIEBUHR. 8l

Niebuhr also wrote a historical outline, and several topo- graphical articles, for the Description of the City of Rome undertaken by the artist, Ernst Platner, who had resided in Rome since 1800, and by Bunsen, who arrived in 1818, as Niebuhr's Secretary of Embassy. At Naples Niebuhr collated a MS of the Dialogus de Oratoribus, and a ms of Charisius (formerly at Bobbio), and afterwards handed over these collations to Bekker and Lindemann. On his way back to Germany in 1813, his attention was drawn in the library of St Gallen to a palimpsest including considerable fragments of poems, and a panegyrical oration, which he identified as the work of the Spanish poet and rhetorician, Merobaudes. He immediately produced an edition at St Gallen, followed by an improved edition after his arrival at Bonn.

At Bonn he organised a plan for publishing a series of critical texts of the, Byzantine historians, with Latin introductions, trans- lations and notes. His principal contribution to the Corpus Scriptorum Hhtoriae Byzantinae was an edition of Agathias (1829). After his death, the series was continued under the auspices of the Berlin Academy, and, hy the end of 1855, forty- eight volumes had been published. He must also be remembered as Che founder (in 1827) of the Rheinisches Museum, in which he was associated with Brandis and Boeckh.

His early connexion with Denmark did not prevent his being perfectly loyal to Prussia, but neither in England nor in Italy did he succeed in assimilating himself to his surroundings. It is said that a certain excitability of temper kept him from feeling at perfect ease either in public or in private life; but he was undoubtedly inspired with the loftiest aims, and had a warm heart, and a magnanimous and noble spirit. The main interest of his greatest work, the History of Rome, has been found in its 'freshness, its elation of real or supposed discovery, the impression it conveys of actual contact with a great body of new and unsuspected truths". He may perhaps have been justified in saying:^' the discovery of no ancient historian could have taught the world so much as my work ' ; but his prediction, that new discoveries would 'only tend to confirm or develope' ' Garaelt in Etu. Bril.

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82 GERMANY. [CENT. XVIII f

his principles, has not been entirely fulfilled. His theory of the derivation of ancient Roman history from popular lays was refuted by Sir George Comewall Lewis, in his Essay on the Credibility of Early Roman History; and archaeological discoveries have corrected his attitude of general scepticism as to early traditions' ; but 'the main pillars of his grand structure are still unshaken". Among Niebuhr's friends at Berlin was Georg Ludwig Spalding (1762 — 1811), a scholar of Pomeranian birth, who had been educated in Berlin, and who, after studying at Gottingen and Halle, became in 1787 a professor at a gym- nasium in Berlin. Besides writing on the Megarian School of Philosophers, and preparing an edition of the Speech of Demos- thenes against Meidias, he produced in 1798 f the first three volumes of a memorable edition of the Institutio Oratoria of Quintilian'. On his visit to Rome in quest of materials for his Quintilian, he unfortunately gave W, von Humboldt the im- pression of being a trifler and a pedant*.

The popularisation of Plato was an important part of the work of Schleiermacher (1768 — 1834). His translation (1804-10) in- cluded all the dialogues except the Laws, Eptnomis, TYmaeus

' Niebuhr himself 'repeatedlj expresses the conviction that the various vicis^tudes by which learning has been promoled are under the conlrol of an overruling Piovidence : and he has more than once spoken of the recent dis- coveries, by which so many remains of Antiquity have tieen brought to lighl. as Providential dispensations for the increase of our knowledge of God's works, and of Hia creatures'. Julius Hare, in Guesst! at Truth, 61 f, ed. r8(56.

' Dr Schmiti, Prefme to first ed. of the Engl, transt. of Mommsen's Histury, quoted by R. Gamett in Enc. Brit. ed. 9. The chief authority for his Life is the Ltbensnackrichttn, consisting mainly of letters, linked by a brief biographical narrative by his friend, Frau Hensler (3 vols., 1838 f). The letters are reduced and the biography expanded (with selections from the Kltine Schriften) in Miss Winkworth's ed. (185]'). Cp. Julius Hare's Vindi- catiott of Nitbuhr, 1S39; Francis Lieber's ^<ininiif«»fM (igjj) ; introduction to K. G. Jacob's reprint of the Brie/ aa linen jimgiit Phiiolageii (1839); Classen's Giddchlmsschrifi (r8j6) ; Eyssenhardl's Biographiscker Vtrsuck (1886) ; Bursian, i 647—654 ; and R. Gamett in Enc. Brit. ; also A. Harnack, Gesch. der prtass. Akad. i 614 f, 670 f, ii 379—409.

» Vol. iv was seen through the press by Buttmann ; and new materials for the criticism of the text were supplied in voL v by K. G. Zumpt (1819). Vol. vi contained an admirable Lexicon Qaintilianeum by Bonnet (1834).

* Vamhagen, Verm. Sthrifua, ii 141*, in Eyssenhardt's Nitbuhr, 48.

CHAP. XXVIII.] SCHLEIERMACHER. HEINDORF. 83

and Critias. As a professor, and- as a university-preacher at Halle in 1804, he had been familiar with Wolf, and had been stimulated by that scholar in his Platonic „^i^'"^" studies. When Halle became part of the new Napoleonic kingdom of Westphalia, both of them fled to Berlin, where their friendship was, for a time, unimpaired. Schleier- macher's translation was the earliest successful attempt to render a great writer of Greek prose in German of an artistic and literary type. His Introduction presented a complete survey of Plato's works in their relation to one another. The dialt^ues were there divided into three groups: — (i) preparatory or elementary dialogues ; (z) dialogues of indirect investigation ; (3) expository or constructive diali^^ues, — a division taking inadequate account of chronolc^cal sequence'. Schleiennacher also broke new ground in his researches on some of Plato's precursors. Among the most important of these was his treatise on Heraclitus' and his paper on Socrates'.

Julius Hare describes him as 'gifted with the keenest wit', and as 'the greatest master of irony since Plato'. 'Vet... the basis of his character, thekejf- iiote of his whole being, was. ..a love which deiighted in pouring out the boundless riches of his spirit for the edifying of such as came near him, and strove with unweariable zeal to make ihem partakers of all that he had. Heteby was his heart kept fresh through the unceasing and often turbulent activity of his life, so that lh« subtilty of his understanding had no power to corrode it ; but when he died, he was still, as one of his friends said of him, tin fiinfundiahzigjahrigir JUti^ing'*,

The circle of scholars at Berlin included Ludwig Friedrich Heindorf (1774 — 1816). Bom in Berlin, he was an eager and enthusiastic pupil of Wolf at Halle. After teaching for a time in the dty of his birth, he was appointed to a professorship at Breslau (1811-6), and died soon after his accept- ance of a call to Halle. Heindorf, who was ignobly disowned by his master, Wolf, is well known in connexion with the edition of twelve dialogues of Plato (iSoz-io), which (as we have seen) led

' Zeller's Plato, etc E.T, loo; Grote's Plata, i 171.

' Siimmt. Wirkt, in, ii if.

* ib. ii 147 f. Cp., in genera], Schleiermacher's Ltben in Brie/en, 1858- 63; Zeller's Vorirdge, 1865; Lives by Dillhey (1867) and Schenkl (1868); Bursian, i 663 f.

* Gutsses at Truth, IJ4, ed. 1866.

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84 GERMANY. [cent. XVIII f

to a breach between himself and his master'. His editions of Cicero, De Natura Deorum, and of the Satires of Horace, both published in 1815, are specially useful for their explanatory

Berlin was the scene of the active life of the distinguished grammarian, Philipp Karl Buttmann (1764^1829), a member of a family of French Protestant refugees, whose original name was Bouderaont. Born at Frankfurt and educated at the local school and under Heyne at Gottingen, after- spending eight months with Schweighauser at Strassburg, he became a master for eight years at ngymnasium in Berlin (1800-8). In 1806 he was elected a member of the Academy and, in 1811, keeper of the Royal Library. Without belonging to the cor- poration of the newly-founded university, he took part in the superintendence of the ' philological seminary '. His best-known work was his Greek Grammar, first published as a brief outline in 1792, and constantly expanded and rearranged and improved in many subsequent editions. In its expanded form, it was known as the 'intermediate Grammar", to distinguish it from the new School Grammar of 1812 ; and from the 'Complete Grammar' of 1819-27, to which additions were made by Lobeck. The success of his ' Intermediate Grammar ' was due to its remarkable clearness. The rules deduced from ihe observation of grammatical facts are here laid down in a lucid form, but without any attempt to trace the linguistic laws on which those rules depend. The introduction of this Grammar led to a marked improvement in the Greek scholarship of the schools of Germany*.

In his Lexilogus'' he proves himself an acute investigator of the meanings of Homeric words, and displays a keen sense of the historic developement of language, but is obviously unconscious of the importance of the principles of comparative philology*. We can hardly, however, be surprised at his ignoring Bopp's work on

' P- 59 supra. ' Bursian, i 544, 654.

» E. T. 184O! ed. 3, 1848.

' Bursian, i 655 f; Eckstein, Lat. und Gr. Unlerricht, 394 f; Wilamowiti in Riform dts . . Sckultaatni, ed. Lexis, 1901, 164. > 18TS-15: ed. 4, 1S65; b1so£.T. « G. Oinms, PHtuipUs of Ci Elym., i 17 E.T.

h. i.,-iM,Googlc

CHAP. XXVIII.] BUTTMANN. BEKKER. 8$

the Conjugations (1816) and Jacob Grimm's German Grammar (iSig f). when we remember that even Hermann and Lobeck regarded the new science with suspicion. Buttmann's editions of Greek Classics have no claim to being considered as independent works. His edition of four Platonic dialogues is founded on that of Biester ; that of the Meidias, on Spalding ; that of the Phiio- deles, on Gedike, and his scholia to the Odyssey, on Mai. He also edited Aratus. His study of Latin literature is represented by a few papers on Horace, one of which was the precursor of many less judicious attempts to discover interpolations in the pages of that poet'. But his main strength lay in Greek Grammar and Homeric Lexicography. His keen interest in Homer even led to his giving his children the Homeric names of Helen and Hector, Achilles and Alexander'.

The textual criticism of the Greek Classics was ably represented by Immanuel Bekker (1785 — 1871), who was born and died in Berlin. Educated under Spalding, he studied at Halle under Wolf, who made him inspector of his ' philological seminary '. He gave early proof of his familiarity with the Homeric poems in his reviews of Heyne's Iliad and of Wolf's Homer'', On the foundation of the university of Berlin, he was appointed to an extraordinary, and, in the following year, to an ordinary, professorship, — a position which he held for sixty-one years without making any considerable mark as an academic teacher. The few courses of lectures that he announced on the speeches of Thucydides, or on selections from Isocrates and Aeschines, were either not delivered at all, or were attended by a very small audience, before whom he scattered a few of the golden grains of his learning with every appearance of a certain reluctance in parting with his treasures. On the other hand, he set a brilliant example to all the younger generations of scholars by the industry and the ability that he lavished on the collation of mss and the preparation of improved texts of important authors. The number of MSS that he collated, either in whole or in part, exceeded four hundred. In 1810-12 he was sent by the Berlin Academy to

' Horax und Nicht- fiorat, appendix to his Mylkalogus (1818-9).

' D. Boileau in E.T, of Gi Gr. p. xiii. Cp., in general, Barsian, i 655-8.

• ffopuriicht Bldiltr, 19 f.

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86 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX

work in the Paris Library. The firetfniits of his labours in France appeared in the editw princeps of Apollonius Dyscolus, On the Pronoun (1811). In 1815 he transcribed (for discussion in the future Corpus) the Greek inscriptions collected by the Abb^ Fourmont in 1728-30'. In 1817-19 he was collating the mss of Aristotle in the libraries of Italy. On his return he revisited Paris. Part of 1820 was spent in Oxford, and, after a few further visits to England, he returned to Italy in 1 839. With the ex- ception of the lyric and the tragic poets, there is hardly any class of Greek authors whose text has not been definitely improved by his labours. He produced two editions of Homer ; the first, pub- lished in Berlin in 1843, was founded on the principles of Wolf, and aimed at restoring (so far as practicable) the recension of Aristarchus; the second, published at Bonn in 1858, was an attempt to attain an earlier text than that of the Alexandrian critics. The principles, on which this edition was founded, were mainly set forth in a series of papers, which were presented to the Berlin Academy and afterwards published in a collected form ', He also produced an edition of the scholia to the Iliad{\%2^-2i), which, without being exhaustive, or perfect in all points of detail, has the advantage of presenting the scholia of the Codex Vtnetus in their proper order and in a trustworthy form'. Of the later epic poets, he edited Aratus, Coluthus and Tzetzes, and the ' Helen and Alexander ' of Demetrius Moschus. For his editions of Theognis, he was the first to use the important ms at Modena. For the two volumes of the text of Aristophanes, published in London with the ancient scholia in 1828, he collated afresh the Venice ms, and the Ravenna MS, the importance of which had, after 250 years of neglect, been brought to light by the Roman lawyer, Invernizi (1794). On the basis of a careful collation of MSS, Bekker edited Thucydides with the scholia, as well as Pausanias and Herodian. He also prepared new editions of Herodotus, Polybius, Dion Cassius, Diodorus, Appian, Josephus, and the Lives of Plutarch, as well as the ' Bibliotheca ' of Apollo- dorus, together with Heliodonis and Lucian. There is less

' Cp. R. C. Christie's Sekctid Eiiays, 86 ; p. 99 infra.

* Homtrische Blatter, 1863-73.

> Cp.lAR<Kite,Texe,ZacAtiiuruiSciaiienda..C«iiexyautui[iS6i),i'jf.

„.,,„, ^.oogic

CHAP. XXVIII.] BEKKER. 87

originality in his work on the twenty-five volumes which he con- tributed to the Corpus of the Byzantine Historians. A marked advance is, however, shown in his editions of the whole of Plato (with the scholia and a full critical commentary)', and the whole of Aristotle'. He prepared a new recension of Sextus Empiricus. His edition of all the Attic Orators was published first at Oxford (1822), and in the following year at Berlin. New materials for the history of Greek Grammar and Rhetoric were provided in the three volumes of his Anecdota Graem, and new texts of gram- matical works in his editions of the Syntax of ApoUonius, the Bibliotkeca of Photius, the lexicons of Harpocration and Moeris and Suidas, the Homeric lexicon of ApoUonius, and the Ono- masfuon of Pollux. As a contribution to Greek lexicography, he produced a new edition of the small Greek lexicon of Niz, in which the words are arranged according to their etymology. The only Latin texts which he edited (apart from a few items In the Byzantine series) were Livy, with short notes by Raschig, and Tacitus, with the commentaries of earlier scholars. His extra- ordinary activity as an editor seems to have left him little energy for anything else ; he was held in the highest esteem by scholars, but he did not shine in ordinary conversation. It was said of the editor of some sixty volumes of Greek texts, and the collator of more than four hundred mss, that he could be silent in seven languages'.

' 8 vols., 1816-23. ' 4 vols., 1831-36.

* E. J. Bekker, Zur Brinnerung an laeitun Voter in Prtuss. fahrb. (187a), ""i* 553 ft 6+1 f; H. Sauppe, Gotlingen, 1871; Haupt, O^te. iii 118 f; Halm, in A.D.B. ; and Buisian, i 658—663 ; also M. Hertz, in Dattukt Rundschau, Nov. (885 (on Boeckh and Beltker) ; Leutsch, in Philol. Aat. xvi 114 f; Ilamack, Gesch. da- prmss. Akad. i 857 f; and Gildeisleeve, in ^.y./-. xxviii(i907)'i3-

iM,Googlc

GOTTFKIED HBKMANN.

Hbkmann.

From Weger's engraving of the portrait by C. Vogel (1841); fronlispiece to Kochly's Get^ied Hermann (1874).

h. i."iM,Googlc

CHAPTER XXIX.

HERMANN AND BOECKH.

In the generation next to that of Wolf, the two great scholars, Gottfried Hermann and August Boeckh, were conspicuous as the heads of two rival schools of classical learning. The first was the grammafieal and critical school, which made the text of the Oassics, with questions of grammar and metre and style, the main object of study. The second (already represented by Niebuhr) was the historical and antiquarian school, which investigated all the manifestations of the spirit of the old classical world. The precursors of the first school were to be mainly found among the scholars of England and Holland; those of the second, among the scholars of France. The first was concerned with words, the second with things ; the first with language and literature ; the second with institutions, and with art and archaeology. The adherents of the first were twitted by their opponents with a narrow devotion to notes on classical texts ; those of the second were denounced as dilettanti. It is now, however, generally agreed that, while, in theory, the comprehensive conception of the wide field of classical learning formed by Boeckh is undoubtedly correct, in practice a thorough knowledge of the languages is the indispen- sable foundation for the superstructure. That knowledge is in fact (to change the metaphor) the master-key to all the departments of the intellectual life of the ancient classical world'.

Hermann (1772 — 1848) was bom at Leipzig, where his father was the senior member of the local court of Sheriffs ; his mother, a very vivacious and interesting person, Hemlnn'' of French descent, retained her marvellous memory

' Bursian, ii 665 f.

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90 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

to the age of ninety. A boy of delicate frame, high spirits, and unruly temper, the young Hermann was fortunate in being en- trusted, at the age of twelve, to the strict discipline and the stimulating teaching of Ilgen, the future Rector of Schulpforta', Matriculating at Leipzig at the early age of fourteen, he attended the lectures of F. W. Reiz, who pointed out the importance of the study of metre, and set before him the example of Bentley. From Reiz, whom he always remembered with gratitude, he learnt three things in particular, (i) never to study more than one writer, or one subject, at a time, (2) never to take any statement on trust, and (3) always to be able to give a good reason for holding any opinion which he deemed to be true'. He joined the university of Jena for a single semester, with a view to attending Reinhold's lectures on Kant (1793-4), which were not without their influence on the logical precision which subsequently marked his own teaching of metre and grammar'. Passing rapidly through the preliminary stages at Leipzig, he became professor of Eloquence in 1803 and of Poetry in 1809. His mastery of Latin prose was manifest in all the speeches and letters that he composed on be- half of the university, while a long line of enthusiastic pupils first learnt from his eloquent lips the true meaning of the old Greek poets. As a teacher, he had a singularly attractive and eng^^ing personality, combined with a primitive simplicity of character and an unswerving love of truth. His lectures, which were usually delivered in latin, were simple and clear in style, and free from all striving for rhetorical effect; but they were inspired with a keen enthusiasm for the old classical world. His talent as a teacher was most conspicuous in his lectures on the Greek tragic poets, and on Pindar and Homer ; but he also lectured on Hesiod and Theocritus, on Thucydides, and on Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry, and on Plautus and Terence. Of his other courses the most important were those on metre and grammar, and on criticism and hermeneutics, while he occasionally lectured on Greek litera- ture, on the Greek festivals, and on the antiquities of the Greek

' Otto Jahn, Siogr. Au/sdtu, 91 f; p. 63 suj>ra.

* Opusc. viii 453 f; Jahn, 96 f; Kochly's Hermann, sf, ii5f.

' Jahn, 99, Cp. p. 91, n. 8 infra.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXIX.] GOTTFRIED HERMANN. gi

theatre*. But his main interest was in the study of the ancient languages', and he always insisted on the supreme importance of a first-hand acquaintance with the writings of the ancients'. In an early work he urged that a strictly logical and rational method should be applied to the study of Greek Grammar (i8oi)*, and in the following year dealt with a number of points of Syntax in his additions to the German version of Viger's work on Greek idioms". Of his later discussions on Syntax the most notable were his papers on 'Ellipse and Pleonasm", his dissertation on ovm', and his 'four books on the particle av'^. He was opposed to the com- parative philologists of his day^

In his writings on ancient metre he had no important modern precursors except Bentley and Porson. Bentley's only separate treatise on the subject was his brief Schediasma on the metres of Terence, while Porson had been led by a careful observation of facts to formulate rules for the ordinary iambic and trochaic metres of the Greek drama. Brunck and Reisig had also paid some attention to the subject Hermann's work, however, was more systematic; he began by studying the ancient authorities, above all Hephaestion, expounding and correcting them by the light of his own study of the Greek poets'*. He elucidated the rhythms of Greek poetry by the effective recitation of passages from the poets, and for this purpose he abandoned the customary Reuch-

■ Cp. Thiersch, Ueber gelihrli SckuUn, 'u 115 (Bnisian, ii 66911.), ' Jahn, 104, 108 f. ' Opusc. vii 98 f.

* Dt imeadanda ratioru Graicae Gramniaticae, pars prima.

* Di fratcipms Greucae dictionis idiotismis (1617), ed. iSoi elc, and, finally, 183+. Cp. Jahn, 106 f.

* Opusc. i 148 — 144. ^ ib. i 308—341.

' a. iv I — 304. Cp. Koecbly, 30 f. For protests against the melaphysical treatment of Syntan by Hermann and others, see Gildersleeve, in A.y.F.n 480; and W. G. Hale, in Canull Studies, i {Cum-Constrwrlions, 1887-9) 7, 98, 147, and in^ Cenlitry of Mdaphysical Syntax (Free, Si Louis Congress, 1904, vol. iii).

° Pref. to Acta Sec. Graecae, xii, quoted in vol. i n n. 5 supra.

'* His earliest treatise, Dc Melris Foetantm Graceerum tt Romatiorum {1791), is enlai^ed in his German 'Handbook of Melrik' (1799), and is further developed in his EUmenta Docirinae Mttricai (1S16) with the conesponding Epitame (\%\%). Goethe was much interested in his 'Haadbaolc'(KoecbIj, 17),

92 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

linian method of pronunciation for one which was closely akin to that of Erasmus '.

In textual criticism his conjectures rest on a Ane sense of Greek idiom. When the text is clearly corrupt, he relies mainly on his own sense of what the original author ought to have written. But he does not resort to conjecture for its own sake ; his aim is strictly to make his author say what he really meant to say*. Textual criticism, he maintained, must go hand in hand with exegesis. The exponent of the Classics must explain the individual words, elucidate the historical references, set forth the author's aim, and the general scheme of his work, with its merits and its defects*. But he must always be conscious of the limits to our knowledge of the ancient world : — est quaedam etiam msciendi ars el sdentia*.

Among his published works a foremost place must be assigned to his editions of the Greek tragic poets. As a specimen of his Aeschylus, he put forth the Eumenides in 1799, but more than fifty years elapsed before the appearance of his posthumous edition of the whole (1852)°. His work on Sophocles was connected with that of his pupil, Etfurdt (1780— 1813), who had produced in i8oa-i I a critical edition, which was completed by the publication of the Oedipus Co/onetis by Heller and Doederlein in 1825, while Erfurdt's proposed lexicon was ultimately produced by EUendt (1834). Erfurdt had also begun a smaller edition for the use of students; his Antigone appeared in 1809, and the series was completed by Hermann in 1811-25. Between 1810 and 1841 Hermann produced separate editions of thirteen plays of Euri- pides'. In place of an edition of the Medea, we have his notes on that of Elmsley^. The only play of Aristophanes that he edited was the Clouds.

The different kinds of interpolations in the Homeric Hymns

' Koechly, 24. ' Jahn, 116.

* Dt officio inlerpretisyK-aOpascsv. 1)1 i.

* Ofmsc. ii a88. Cp. vol. ii 319 d. 3 supra.

* Here, liio, Suppl. 1S11, Bacchae (mainly supplementary lo Elmslef's ed.) 1813; Ion, axAAlc. {with notes from Monk), 1817 j /&„ Ifk. AtiL, Ipk.T., Hel., Andr., CycL, Phoen., Or. {1831-41).

■ .' 0/<«£. iii 143— 161-

h, i.MiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXIX.] GOTTFRIED HERMANN. 93

and in Hesiod's Theogonia are distinguished in the Letter to Ilgen prefixed to Hermann's early edition of the former {1806). His mature opinions on the Homeric question are presented in his papers of 1831-2'.

He here defends the hjrpothesis of Wolf against the opinion of ihe most important and most scholarly of its opponents, Nitisch, who held that Homer composed the Iliad with (be aid of older poems, and that he probably also composed the Odyssey, in which he was more original and l«ss indebted to his predecessors. Wolf had held that the weaving of the Homeric web had been earritddmon to a certain foint by the first and chief author of the poem, and had been continued by Others. Hermann, improving on this opinion, su^ested lha( the original sketch of our Iliad and our Odyssey had been produced by the first poet, and that the later poets did not carry on ike lexlure, but completed the design wilhin (he outline that was already drawn',

Hermann made many valuable contributions to the criticism and exposition of Hesiod'. His edition of the Orphica {1805) supplies a much improved text, with an appendix showing, on metrical and linguistic grounds, that the date of these poems lies between that of Quintus Smyrnaeus and Nonnus'. It is of this appendix that Lehrs remarked that nothing, had appeared in modern times more worthy of the genius of Bentley'.

Pindar was the theme of his hfe-long study. As early as 1798 he had contributed to Heyne's Pindar a treatise on the poet's metres. In a later paper he showed that Ihe language of the different odes had an Aeolic or a Doric colouring which varied with the rhythm in which they were composed'. His text of Bion and Moschus was published in 1849.

His work was mainly limited to the Greek poets, the only

' Opuse. vsi-77(i833),vi(i)7of (183.), and viiirif (1840). He had printed a Tauchniti text of Homer in 1835 (Praef. in Opun. iii 74—81).

' Opase. VI (r) 86 f ; Jahn, 109 ; Koechly, 36 — 40 ; Jebb's Homer, 119 f. In connexion with the method of reciting the Homeric poems enjomed by Solon, Hermann opposed the views of Boeckh in two papers on the meaning of the term bropoMi {Opusc. v 300, vii 65) ; cp. vol. i 19 n. sufra.

* Review of Goetding's ed. 1831 in Opusc. vi (i) 141 f. In vii 47 he suggests that the Theogonia originally consisted of 156 stanzas of ; lines each.

' Cp. Q^^. iii-i7(i8ir).

' Lehrs, Quaesliones Bpicae, 155 ; Koechly, 37, 169,

• Opiise. i I4S f; see also iii 11 f (on Nim. vii), v 181 f (df^vt), n (l) 3 f Ireview ofDissen); also emendations etc. in vii jip f, viii 68 — 118 ; cp. Jahn, III f.

. D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC

94 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Greek prose text' which he edited being Aristotle's Poetic (1802) with a dissertation on tragic and epic poetry*. The early interest in Plautus, which he owed to Reisig, bore fruit in editions of the Trinummus", and the Bacckides, the former of which was highly praised by Ritschl'. His attention was drawn to Greek Mytho- logy by Creuzer, whose views he elaborately examined in 1819. In his papers on Greek Inscriptions (mainly on those in metre), he severely criticises the way in which they had been handled by archaeologists such as Boeckh and Welcker',

His lectures, no less than his dissertations, gave proof of his command of an excellent style in Latin prose. For 23 years he hardly ever failed to send on New Year's Eve a set of Latin verses in remembrance of the birthday of his friend Carl Einert', and in 1817 he celebrated the tercentenary of the Reformation in no lines of Latin Elegiacs. He exemplified the difference between the stately style of Greek tragedy, and the spasmodic movement of modern drama, by some thoroughly idiomatic renderings from Schiller's Walknstein, which he executed amid the distractions of his drawing-room'. His life-long practice in riding lends a special value to his brief papers on the various phrases used in Greek to denote the different paces of a horse'. An officer of dragoons was so struck by the excellence of his horsemanship that he asked the professor whether he had ever served in the cavalry; and a scholar, who had learnt much from one of his reviews, described him, in the words of Horace, as grammaticorum equitum docttssimus*. Even at his professorial lectures he was wont to appear in his blue riding-coat, and in high boots and spurs'°, and his pupils were

' Except his text of Photius {1808).

* Koechly, 31, 151. ' iSoo; ed. 1, 1853.

* Kl. Philoi.Schr. ii 190. Cp. Jahn ii6f: Koechly, 46 f, 185—191.

' Ufber Herm Profissor Boeckk's Behandlung der griuhiscAen ImchriJUn (1816); also Opusc. iv 303—332, v 164—181, vii 17+— 189. « KoecUy, 61 f, 165—386. ' 0/«if. V3SS— 361; Koechly, 197 f, " On Xen, De St Eq. c. 7, in Opuse. \ 63 f.

■ Goltling's //■«/«/, Ptol^. xxjdi ; Koechly, 393; p. iiT^-iinfra. " Koechly, 7, 70, 313 f; Jahn, 101 ; Donaldson, Schidankip and Ltaming,

,Cooglc

CHAP. XXIX.] BOECKH. 95

vividly impressed by the brightness of his eyes and the breadth of his lofty brow, by the singular transparency of his character, and by the simple eloquence of his language. The Greek Society, which he founded at Leipzig, numbered nearly 200 members during the half-century of its existence. It is these who in a special sense founded the school of Hermann, and they included scholars of such note as Passow, I'hiersch, Meineke, K. F. Hermann, Trendelenburg, Spengel, Classen, Ritschl, Sauppe, Haupt, Bergk, Koechly, Bonitz, and Arnold Schaefer'.

While Hermann, the representative of pure scholarship, con- centrated his attention on the language, and especially on the poetry, of the old Greek Classics, it was the historic interest that predominated in the case of his great contemporary, August Boeckh {1785 — 1867). At the school of his birth-place, Carlsruhe, he attained that proficiency in mathe- matics which lends distinction to several of his maturer works. At Halle he studied theology, philosophy, and philology, with a view to a clerical or a scholastic career; but the influence of Wolf led to his concentrating himself on the Greek Classics, while the lectures of Schlelermacher guided him to the special study of Plato. His earliest work dealt with the pseudo-Platonic Minos (i8o6). He next spent a year in Bellermann's Seminar at Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Heindorf and Buttmann. In 1807 he returned to his native land of Baden, and became a full professor at Heidelberg only two years later. His lectures at that university covered a wide range of authors and of subjects'. His continued interest in Plato was proved by his four papers on the TYmaeus', and by his edition of six pseudo-Platonic dialogues (rSio)*. At the same time, his study of Aeschylus, Sophocles,

' Koechly, S9, t$J. Cp. in general Olto Jahn's Giddchtnissrede 41849), reprinted in Biogr. Aufsatzr, 91 — 135, ed. 1866; K. F. Ameis, G. Htrmann'i pUdagB^uher Etnfiust (1850); H. Kiicllly, G. Hermann (1874), 350 pp.; Paulsen, ii 404-8'; Urlicha, 115-8'; Bursian, ii 666—687, and in A. D. B.\ Wilamowiti, £Mr. /fe". i 135-9'. Opuscula in eight vols., i^vii (1817-39), viii (1876).

* Bursian, ii 688 n. 1.

' Kl, Sthr. iii 109 f, 181 f, iig f. 166 f.

* Bratnscheck, A. Betckk ah Plalpniker, in Bergmann's Philes. Mtmats- hiflen, i 371 f.

,i^.ooglc

BOECKH.

From the frontispiece to Max Hoffinann's August Boakk (1901).

h. !■, ii,l^.OOglc

CHAP. XXIX.] EOECKH. 97

and Euripides boTe fruit in a treatise on those poets, in which verbal criticism is very subordinate to questions of wider literary interest, such as the extent of the chaises early introduced into the original texts by actors, etc' This treatise was dedicated in eulogistic terms to his future critic, Hermann, to whom he was then unknown. At Heidelberg he also gave early proof of his study of Pindar in three papers, the longest of which deals with the poet's metres, proving that words must never be broken in two at the end of the lines '. The greater part of his Pindar must have been practically finished while he was still at Heidelberg, at a time when he was more interested in the literary than the historical and antiquarian aspects of classical learning. The first volume was published in 1811, and it was completed in iSsi with the aid of his friend, Ludolph Dissen, who wrote the commentary on the Nemean and Isthmian Odes. In this edition the text is founded on the collation of numerous Mss, and the exegesis on a renewed study of the scholia printed in the first part of the second volume. It is still more important for the light that it throws on the poefs metres, and on the principles of his composition.

In the spring of i8ir he left Heidelberg for the position of professor of Eloquence and of Classical Literature in the newly- founded university of Berlin, and for 56 years he continued to be one of the chief ornaments of that seat of learning. The wide range of his earlier lectures was gradually narrowed into a course extending over two years, and including a general survey of classical learning, with special courses on Metrik, Greek Antiqui- ties and Greek Literature, and lectures on Pindar, on a play of Euripides or Sophocles (generally the Antigone), a dialogue of Plato (usually the Republic), and a speech of Demosthenes. His delivery was not so animated as that of Wolf or Hermann, but his maturer students could not fail to appreciate the depth and solidity of his attainments and his perfect mastery of his subject. In Berlin the publication of his Pindar was delayed for several years by the Napoleonic war, but some important papers on that poet

J GroKoe tragMdicu frindfum... num... geniiinB omnia sirtt... {1808).

" This had been assetted (without proof) by C. W. Ahlwardt (1760—1830), in I798f, and had been noticed, as an almost invariable rule, by J. H. Voss in his Zeitmessung, 343 {Herbst, ii (1) 164, 310 0-

>1^

.tX-)C5IC

98 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

were laid before the Berlin Academy'. His papers on the Antigone (1824) were printed in his edition of the text together with a free translation, the publication of which, in 1845, was prompted by the first performance of the play with Mendelssohn's music in Berlin in 1841*. The date of the Oedipus Coionais was discussed in 1825-6', and the distribution of the first choral ode among the members of the chorus in 1843*. A paper on a corrupt passage of Euripides supplies an exceptional example of his success as a conjectural critic'. Meanwhile, his continued interest in Plato had led to his writing a valuable paper on Philolaus (1819).

In the historical and antiquarian province of classical learning Boeckh is represented by two important works, which have laid the foundation for all later research in the departments with which they are concerned. The first of these is the Public Economy of Athens, originally published in two volumes' with an Appendix of Inscriptions on the Athenian Navy (1840). The second is the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum. The former was partly inspired by WolPs Prolegomena to the 'Leptines', and it is dedicated to Niebuhr. It supplies us with a full and systematic statement of the economic side of the Athenian constitution in its actual working. The treatise on the Silver Mines of Laurium arises out of the same subject and is included in the English translation of 1838'.

The second and third German editions have an appendix of inscriptions relating to the finances of Athens. In the course of the preparation of the original work, the author formed a plan for a complete collection of such documents. The proposal was supported by Buttmann and Niebuhr, and accepted by the Berlin Academy. The first two folio volumes of the Corpus (1825-43) were edited by Boeckh, the third (1845-53) by Franz, the fourth was begun by Ernst Curtius and continued by Kirchhoff, and the whole was completed when Roehl's Indices were published in 1877,

' KI. Schr. V 148, vii 369.

' Cp. Jebb's ed. xli ; Max Hoffmann's Boeckh, 96 f.

» Kl. Schr. iv ai8. * ib. 517.

' iph. Aal. 188, om Ka.Ta.T(vSi \iay (for KanvrH \tav a') tyii.

« i8r; jE. T. 1818 and 184J); ed. 3, 1851 (E. T. Boston, 1857); ed. 3, 1886.

' Ed. 1, [843.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXIX.] BOECKH. 99

more than fifty years after the work had been begun by Boeckh. The first part of the first volume was severely reviewed by Her- mann in 1825', and this severity was largely justified. Boeckh, who had had no experience in examining or copying inscriptions in situ, had not recognised the fact that an exact facsimile was a necessary preliminary to the successful restoration of the text. He had generally accepted the transcripts on trust, and his restorations had often done violence, either to the evidence of those transcripts, or to the laws of the Greek language. On the other hand, he had shown great judgement in deciding questions as to the genuineness of these documents. The twenty-six inscriptions, which the French traveller, Michel Fourmont, had professed to have found among the ruins of Amyclae, had been already suspected in England by Payne Knight and in France by Boissonade, and were conclusively proved by Boeckh to be forgeries*. In the scientific handling of inscriptions, he had no precursors worthy of the name, except Corsini and Chandler; so that he is practically the founder of this branch of learning. The first systematic work on the subject, that of Franz', is based entirely on Boeckh's labours^. In editing the inscriptions of Greece, Boeckh applied his mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the investigation of important points of chronology', in which he was aided by Ideler (1766 — 1846)'. His mathematical skill is also shown in his examination of the weights, the coinage-standards, and the measures of the ancients

1 p. 94 sufira. Itie best accouni of the long controversy between Hermann anil Boeckh, a,nd their final reconciliation, is [n Max Hoflhiann's Life of Boeckh (1901), 48— 65.

" C. I. G. i p. 61 f. While all the inscriptions published, or left ready for publication, by Foarmont were forgeries, there were hundreds of genuine inscriptions, transcribed by himself, which he never published. Cp. R. C Christie's SiUcied Essays, 86-9; p. 86 supra.

* EUmmta Epigraphiees Graaae, 184O. Cp. Ctaben, £pigraphit S'''^9'"< 1507.

* The inscriplions of Attica have since been edited anew, with large additions, in the foor volumes of the Cerput Mscr. AUicarum {1873-95), Mlowed by the earhest Greek inscriptions (1S81), and by those of Sicily and Italy (1890), N. Greece (1891), and the Greek Islands (1895).

' On the lunar cycles of the Greeks, A?. Sckr. vi 339 f ; on Manetho and die Dog-star period, 1*. iii 343.

* Author of the ^BfxiiftM-A (1835 f) and the Zi^Ar^wi-^ (1831) of Chronology, and of many papers on the history of ancient Astronomy.

h. i., i7-x^oot^lc

lOO GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

(1S38), a work that gave the first impulse to all subsequent in- vestigations. His wide and comprehensive view of the various branches of classical learning was attested in the course of lectures repeatedly given by him at Berlin and since published by one of his pupils'. His systematic account of the field of learning, as a whole, is practically founded on that of Wolf, the details of whose system he criticises with some severity. Boeckh's system, how- ever, shows a marked advance on that of Wolf; and other systems are reviewed by Boeckh himself. Among the many subsequent schemes are those of Emil Hubner, and of Martin Hertz'.

The list of his pupils includes not a few distinguished names. He was keenly interested in the subsequent career of K. O. MiilJer at Gbttingen, and of Edward Meier at Greifswald and Halle, and in the later work of Gerhard in Berlin, Among his other pupils were Gottling and Doderlein, Trendelenburg and Spengel, Droysen and Preller, Lepsius and Diinker, Otto Jahn and Bonitz, and Ernst and Georg Curtius'. Some of them, such as Trendelenbuig and Spengel, had already been pupils of Hermann, and several of the foremost of Hermann's pupils, such as Ritschl, Kochly, and Arnold Schaefer, were among the warmest admirers of Boeckh*.

' Encyklopadit und Mtthodohgii der pHUoIogischai Wisscmehafitn, ed. Bratuscheck (1877), 814 pp.; ed. 1 (18S6). Cp. Bursian, ii 703-5, and Max Hoflmann's .5i'«:SA, 147 — iji-

> Encyklepiidii etc. p. 64 f.

' Reviewed by Buraiin in Jahresb, vii (i8;6) 145, and xi (1877) 36, respectively.

* Max Hoffmann. 79 f. Cp. Jakrb.f. Pkild. Ixxv 138 f.

" %b. 138 f. — Many of Boeckh's monographs are collected in his JCltine Sckriflen, 7 vols. (1858-74). On his life and works, cp. R. H. Ktfliisen, in S. F. Hoffmann's LtUmbUder btriihmter Humanistm, i (1837) 19 f; B. Stark, Ufher Boeekh's Bildvngsg(aig in VorirSge elc. (1880) 409-, and in A. D. B.\ Bursian, ii 687 — 705 ; Urlichs, 128' f ; Britfaicchstl xwischtn August Botckh und JCat-l Olfried Mueller (1883I ; Ernst Curtius, Allerittm und Gegetmmrl, iii 1 15 — 155 (1885)1 I'n'l Via.t. Hoffmann, August Boeckh, Ltitnsbesckreiiung und AusToahl aus setnem wisitns<haflHckm BriiJviecAiel [his correspondence with Welcker, Niebuhr, Thiersch, Schomann, Gerhard, A. Schaefer, Ritschl, A, v. Humboldt; followed by his Pindaric Ode of 1819], 483 pp. (1901}; also Leutsch, in Philol. Am. 1886, 131 f ; S. Reiler, in Neue Jakrb.f. kl. Ail. xiii (1901) 436—458; and GiLdersleeve, in Oscillatioiu and J^ulations, 1 — 7, and in A. J. P. xxxviii 131.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXrX.] BOECKH. lOI

Hermann and Boeckh, as the great representatives of pure and applied scholarship respectively, are men of whom all the votaries of classical learning may well be proud. At a later point we shall return to Boeckh's devoted pupil and friend, K. O, Miiller'. Mean- while we must briefly trace the careers of some of the scholars who belonged to the school of Hermann.

' Chap, xxxiv inil.

iM,Googlc

CHAPTER XXX.

GRAMMARIANS AND TEXTUAL CRITICS FROM LOBECK TO RITSCHL.

The grammatical and critical school of philology is partly represented by two of Hermann's contemporaries, who were not, however, in complete agreement with his views. The works of both were defective in aim and in method; and their authors may be described as independent members of the parliament of scholars.

Gottfried Heinrich Schaefet (1764—1840), the librarian of Leipzig in 1818-33, ™^ essenlially a student, and not a teacher. In three successive editions of Viger, Hermann stated that he had only been able to make a partial use of the itiargiHalia placed at his disposal by Schaefer. This statement gave offence to the latter, who in his commenlaiy on Demosthenes retaliated by attacking Reisig and other pupils of Hermann*. A man of wide learning, especially in the province of Greek prose, Schaefer buried much of that learning in the works of others'. The most important of his own works was the Apparatus Crilicus to Demosthenes, including excerpts from all the earlier commentators, with valuable additions of his own'. His editions (usually accompanied by prolix commentaries of the old Dutch type) included Dionysius of Halicamassus, Dt Csmposiliotu Virborum. His edition of Gr^orius Corinthius, and other writers on Greek dialects, was equipped with a valuable CrnnmetUalio Palaeograpkua and facsimiles by Bast^. He also edited many of the Tauchnitz Classics, with emendations of bis own, but there is a marked absence of any definite critical principles or any methodical recension of the text'.

The same defect is obvious in the productions of an abler critic, Friedrich Heintich Bothe (t77o— 1855), who held no educational posi- tion, but spent his whole life in the mechanical manufacture of classical books. His best work was connected with the Greek and Roman

' Koechly's Hermann, 115 f.

' i.g. in the London ed. (181s f) of the Greek T'iejau™! of H. Slephanus.

' S vols. (London, 1814-7); ^"l- vi, /wfirw by E. C. Seller (1833).

* ii p. 397 sufra. ■ Burdan, ii 707-9.

CHAP, XXX.] LOBECK. IO3

drama. He repeatedly edited all (be Greek Dramatists, including the frag- ments, with criticisms on Aristophanes (iSoS) under the pseudonym of Hutibius (an approximate anagram of Bothius). His criticisms on the Greek Comic fragments were published under his own name in the Didot series (1855). Plautus, Terence and Seneca, were edited by him separately, as well as in a collected form (1S34). In all these works there is a lack of critical method, but tbere aie many excellent emendations. The same holds good of his editions of the Homeric Poems, and of Horace and Phaedrus'.

One of the earliest and most distinguished of the pupils of Hermann was Christian August Lobeck (1781 — i860), who taught at Wittenberg in 1803-14, and was professor at Konigsberg for the remaining 46 years of his life. Hermann himself has dwelt in glowing terms on the profound learning that pervades every page of his pupil's edition of the Ajax'. The same learning, combined with a singular faculty for grouping large masses of facts under general laws of language, is manifest in his second great work, his edition of the Atticist, Fhrynickus (1820). A fragment of Herodian is appended to the latter, and the last 300 pages are mainly devoted to the laws of word-fornution in Greek, Simitar subjects are treated in his Faralipomena GramntatUae Graecac (1837) and his Rhematikon (1846), The terminations of Greek nouns are the theme of eleven dissertations comprised in the Prolegomena to the Fathologia Sermonis Graed (1843), followed by the two parts of the Patho/ogia (1843-62), His valuable additions to Buttmann's Greek Grammar have been already mentioned*. All of these works are marked by a singularly comprehensive know- ledge of the whole range of Greek literature, by an acute perception of real or apparent analogies, and a fine sense of the life of the language. His clear insight and wide erudition enable him to deduce definite laws and rules of usage from an almost overwhelming multitude of details. He holds aloof from the methods and the results of the Comparative Philology of his day, but one of the foremost of Comparative Philologists has

' Bursian, ii 709-11.

* Pnuf. ad Sufh, Aiac. ed. 4 p. vi, 'cuius in edilione nulla pagina est qua perlecta non docliorem se factum sentiat qui discere didicerit'.

* 1809; ed. 3, 1866.

* p. 84 supra.

h. i.MM,Googlc

104 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

stated that the suggestions modestly put forward by Lobeck ' are always combined with such a wealth of learning, such fine philological discrimination, and such careful regard for tradition, that they contribute much to the comprehension of the principles of Greek Etymology, and, even where his results cannot be accepted, the process of his inquiry is exceedingly valuable".

His interest in the history of Greek religion is exemplified by the anonymous notice of Creuzer's Dionysus, in which he makes merry over the mystic meanings which Creuzer sees in the pots and pans of ancient houses and temples'; by the similar review of the Symbolik, where he attacks the author's passion for 'finding symbols under every stone"; and, above all, by his Agiaophamus\ a masterly work of astounding learning, in which all that is really known as to the Greek mysteries is set forth in instructive contrast to the fanciful speculations of the Symbolists.

Lobeck's wit and humour, as well as his devotion to the old Greek texts, are well exemplified in a short letter to Meineke t —

What is this that I hear, my dear friend? I can hardly believe my ears. Are you rtally wanting to visit Italy ? Why Italy, of all parts of the world f Simply to see a few statues with biokeo noses? noI If I cannot visit Niagara, or the Mississippi, or Hekia, I prefer sitting here beside my own warm stove, reading grbek scholiasts, — which is, after all, the true end of the life ofman'.

Twenty years later, Hermann, at the age of 70, wrote as follows, when he was endeavouring to induce his old pupil to pay him a visit at Leipzig : —

Yoa talk of your 'old pain in the chest'. Whyt /, who, as a matter of fa.ct, have a constant cough, and am not anfreqoently coughing, day and night, for four weeks tc^eCher, never stop to inquire whether I have one limg or two, so long as I can breathe with the lung that I have. You also talk of 'life's setting sun'. Whyl that, in the phrase of 'Longinos", would give us the promise of a new Oifyiseya^ the counterpart io tiit Iliad ot yim AgloBpAamm'' .

' G. Curtius, Principles of Gk Elym. i I+, E. T.

^ Jena Allg. Liltiralur-Zeilung (1810), no. 18 — 10, p. 137 f.

' ib. 1811, no. gfif; cp. 1811, no. 71—73.

* Sive lU thealogiae mysticae Graecervm caiais, t vols., 1391 pp. ((8*9). Cp. Koechly's ^iirRiiniR, 45, 183.

" Milthiilungen aus Lobeckt Briifaiecksel, ed. FriedlSnder, 67 (iSii).

« C.9.

' Br. p. Ill (1843); Ausg. Briefe, ed. Ludwich, p. 317 f. On Lol>eck, cp. Lebrs, Erinntmngen in Ftpttliirt Au/satu (1875*) 479 f ; Friedlander's

CHAP. XXX.] SPITZNER. NITZSCH. lO;

Among the earliest pupils of Lobeck in his Wittenberg days, were several who did good work on the Greek Epic poets. Frani Ernst .

Heinrich Spitiner (1787— 1841) produced an edition of the '"

Iliad with 3 critical commentary, and a number of eicursuses founded on a careful observatioo of the language and the pro»idy of the Homeric poems. His Observations include many excellent emendations on Quintus Smymaeus'.

Another pupil of Lobeck, Gr^or Wilhelm Nitisch (1790 — 1861), was a professor for ij years at Kiel and, for the last nine years of his life, at Leipzig. With the exception of some papers on the history of Greek religion and on Plato, with an edition of the Ian, his work as a scholar was mainly devoted lo Homer. Grammatical exposition is well represented in his explanatory notes to the first twelve books of the Odysuy (1816-40); bul he is best known as an early and an effective opponent of Wolfs theory on the Homeric question.

While Wolf regards Homer as a primitive bard, who began lo weave the web of the Homeric poems, and Only carried it down to a certain point, Nitisch looks upon him as a 'great poetical artist who, coming after the age of the short lays, framed an epic on a larger plan'*. Thus Wolf places Homer a[ the ttginning of the growth of the poems, Nitzsch nearer to the end. Nilisch regards the Jliadas mainly the work of Homer, but this view does not exclude the introduction of minor interpolations aod changes at a later date. The Odysiey he considers to be the work of perhaps the same poet, who (he holds) was more Original here thati in the Iliad. In the course of the controversy Nitisch observed that some of ihe 'Cyclic' poems of the seventh and eighth centuries B.C. presupposed our Wmf and Oi^jjg' in something like their present form, and, further, that the Greek use of writing was probably older than Wolf had assumed'.

Nitzsch was conscious of a certain obscurity of style, which prevented his views from becoming widely known, but he worked on to the very end at the favourite theme of his life. On the day of his death, a sultry day in July, when he was about to lecture at noon on the Odyssey, he hastened to his house to fetch

MitthHluTtgen etc. (lS6[); and Programmen (1864), i, iii — v; Lehnerdt's Auswahl aus LabecUt akademisrken Jteden (1865); Autgewdhlte Briefe (1801- 7S) von und an C. A. Loieck und K. Lehri, ed. Ludwich, 1049 pp- (1S94) ; Bursian, ii 571-5, 711-4.

' Bursian, ii 713 f.

' Jebb's Homer, n ( .

* (l) De Historia Humeri, maximtque de scriftorum carminum aetatt meUtemaia (Hanover, 1830-7), with supplements in Kiel programs 1834-9; (a) IHe Heldemage der Criechen wxch ihrer naiiomdeit Gelbtng (Kiel, 1841) i

(3) Die Sagenpoesie der Griccken irilisch dargestelll (Braunschweig, 1851);

(4) Batragi air CeschichU o!w episthen Poesie der Griichen (Leipag, i86i).

„.,,„, ^.oogic

I06 GERMAMV. [CENT. XIX.

a book that he had forgotten, and died of the sunstroke which befell him on his way back to the lecture-room'. A funeral- oration by Overbeck described him as one whose name would be remembered forever in the history of learning by the side of Wolf and Lachmann and Welcker. A strict integrity of character is the leading trait that strikes one in his broad and square-set face as it appears in the portrait prefixed to his life'.

Among th« CDrrespondenlsofNilzsch none, perha|>s, agreed more complelety with his views on Homer than Karl Friedrich NSgelsbach ^^ (1806—1859), who, after teaching for 15 years at tbegymna-

sium of Nuremberg, spent the last 13 years of his life as a professor at Erlangen. Nitisch and Nagelsbach had also a coramon interest in the theology of the Homeric poems*. The published works of Nagelsbach include Notes on the Rist three books of the Iliad, omitting the Catalogue of Ships (1834), and two important volumes on Homeric and Poithomtric Thtclogy (1840-57), besides papers on Aeschylus and a posthumous edition of the Agamemnon (1863). The most widely appreciated of his works is that on 'Latin Style', with special r^^rd to the difTerences of idiom between Latin and German piose*.

Among the pupils of Lobeck, Spitzner and Nitzsch were even surpassed in ability by Friedrich August Wilhelm Spohn (1795 — 185*) who, for the last nine yeais of his brief life, was a teacher in the university of Leipzig. Following iu the track of WolF, he wrote a short paper on the discrepancies in the topography of the Trojan plain, as represented in the Iliad (1814), and a commentary supporting the opinion of Aristophanes of Byzantium and of Aristarchus, that the conclusion of the O^ssey was a later composition (1816). He also published, with supplementary noteii, Morus' edition of the Panegyricus of Isocrales, a school- edit ion of the Works and Days of Hesiod, with the critical marks invented by the Alexandrian Grammarians, a monograph on Tibullus, and textual criticisms on Theocritus, He was the first of German scholars to attempt to decipher the hieratic and the demotic writing of the ancient Egyptians'. He was proposing to produce works on the ancient Geographers, on Ihe Mytboli^ of the Eastern and Northern

' F. Lubker, 87.

" F. Lubker, G. W. NHsseh in seintin Ltben und Wirhtn (1864), esp. 14 f, 8+ f| 8q, ios f, 108 — 110, 119 — H3, with biblit^raphy on 188 — 193; also Volkmann, GescA....der Wolfschen Pro/eg. 184 — 190, 104, 116; Barman, ii- 7i4-7t6.

' Liibker's Niltsck, 105-7, '85-7-

* Laleiuischt Slilisltk, 1846; ed. 9 (Iwan MUlIer, with fiill Index), 1905. Cp. in general Diiderlein's Oeff. Rtden, i860, 139 f, and Liibker's Lebembilder, 1861 ; also Bursian, ii 715 f.

• Letter to Lobeck in Lobeck's Briefaieckul, ed. Friedliinder, 74 f, and Ludwich's ed. of Ausg. Briefe, 7 f.

CHAP. XXX.] NAGELSBACH. LEHRS. I07

nations, and on the literature of the Augustan age, when hU life came to an nntimelf end'.

The foremost of Lobeck's pupils at Konigsberg was Karl Lehrs (1802—1878), who was one of his master's colleagues for the last 29 years of that master's life, and was himself the head of the Konigsberg School for 18 years after. Under Lobeck and Lehrs the School was distinguished by a Special interest (i) in the history of grammatical studies among the Greeks from the beginning of the Alexandrian to the end of the Byzantine age, (2) in the study of the language, metre and composition of the Gre^ Epics, from Homer down to Nonnus and his imitators, and (3) in the investigation of the religious opinions of the Greeks, with special reference to the ethical content of the myths, excluding all attempts to interpret those myths by means of the phenomena of Nature. Lehrs made his mark in all three lines of research.

In the fiisi, his principal work related to the 'Homeric Studies of Aristar- chus". In the earliest of his Quaeslianes Epicae (183;) he showed that Wolf had exaggerated Ihe value of the grammarian Apion's services to the text ef Homer. Hb papers on the history of the Greek originals of the terms /^';b- li>S"^i gratnmalUu!, and critieui*, and on the grammarian Asclepiades of Myrlea, were reprinted as an appendix to an improved edition of three minor works of Heroilian*, which paved the way for the great edition of the whole of that grammaiian's works by the pupil of Lobeck and Lehrs, August Lentz ([810—1868)=. Lastly, in his volume on the sc/ii>/ia to Pindar (1873), be arranged Ihe confused mass of the extant scholia in certain groups anif endeavoured to determine the dale of each.

(3) In his Quaestiotus EpUat', after examining the iVoris and Days of Hesiod, he arrives at the conclusion that the original nucleus of the poem is to be Toniid in lines 383 — 694. In the same work he investigates the linguistic

' Life by G. Seyf&uth, prehxed to Spohn, De littgva it lilterii vcttntm AegypHontm (iSjj) ; Bursian, ii 716-8.

' De Arislarcki Studiii Homericis, 1833, 1865', 1881' (506 pp.). In the Epimiira to ed. 1 and 3 he deals with the lexici^raphy, grammar and metre of the Homeric poems, and with questions as to the genuineness of single lines or larger portions of the poems. He handles amilar questions in Ihe Appendix to his pupil Eduard Kammer's work on the Unity of the Odyssey (1873).

* Cp. vol. i6— II supra.

* ttfiX /top^pouj WEei«, irepl 'IJaaiCT! ■wpotlfKa.t, rtpi Sixpirf, 1 848.

* Herediam ttcknUi reliquiae (1867-70), with Indices by Arthur Ludwich. ■ ■79t-

.oogic

108 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

and metrical peculiarities of Nonnus, and the characteristic differences between the genuine Halitutita ol Oppian and the Cynegelica erroneously attributed to that a.uthor.

(S) In his 'Popular Essays" he maintains that the Greek Mythology is founded on an elhical basis, and not on the phenomena of Naturt, thereby ascribing lo the infancy of the Greek race an atlilude of mind that is more in Iteeping with its maturer age. In the same Essays, however, he gives proof of a fine perception of the moral and religious opinions of the Greeks during the time of their highest developement.

His researches on the Greek Grammarians have won a far wider approval than his criticisms on Ovid's Heroides, and on Horace, many of whose Odfs he rejected (1B69)'.

The interest in the Greek epic poets and grammarians is a tradition of the Konigsberg School, which has been well main- tained by living scholars.

Returning from the line of the descendants of Lobeck to the immediate pupils of Hermann, we note the name of Lobeck's fellow- student and friend, Johann Friedrieh August Seidler (1779 — 1851), who, under Hermann's direct influence, made a brilliant banning with a work of pemianenl value on the dochmiac metre (181 i-i), and edited three plays of Euripides' on the model of Erfurdl's edition of Sophocles. Hermatm had so great a respect for his former pupil's ability as to print in the preface to his /m some 16 pages of notes supplied by Seidler.

Another pupil of Hermann, Carl Christian Reisig (i 791 — 1819), left Leipzig for Gottingen, served as a Serjeant among the Saion troops that fought Napoleon in 1813-15, ^"'^1 ^^itr studying for two years at Jena, became a professor at Halte in 1810, and, nine years after, died on his way to Venice, at the early age of 37. He was a man of marked ability and energy, and of singularly sound judgement. His general character re- sembled that of Wolf. At Wolfs university of Halle he lectured mainly on the Greek Drama, as well as on Horace and Tibullus, Demosthenes and Cicero, with Greek and Roman Antiquities, and Greek and Latin Grammar. The importance of his lectures on the last subject may be gathered from the edition afterwards published with valuable supplements by his pupil, Friedrieh Haase'. Of the three subjects treated in this volume, Etymolt^, Semasioli^y, and Syntax, the second owes its origin to Reisig. The work published by himself

' Populdrt Ati/ial^se, 1856, 1875*.

' Cp. E. Kammerinfto^r./oArf. for 1878, 14—18; SnV/e, ed. Farenheid (1878); BrUfean M. Naufit {iSgi) ; AusgeuMlte Briefe, &A. Lndwich {1894); Butaian, ii 718—714; KUiat Schriflen, with portrait, ed. Ludwich (1901), 581 pp., and Ludwicb's Rede, ipoj, ib. 554 f.

* Tro. 1811 ; El. and Iph. T. 1813. Cp. Bursian, ii 715 f.

* VitrUsungen uber lot. Sprackviissemckafl (\'&i^\.

h. i.Mh,Googlc

CHAP. XXX.] REISIG. WUNDER. IO9

was mainly concerned with Aristophanes and Sophocles. A copy of [he second Jontine edition of Aristophanes was his constant compaaton during his cam- paign against Prance, and, in the following year, he dedicated to Hertnann a series of conjectures on the text, mainlf suggested by considerations of metre (1816). His critical edition of the C/o»*- appeared in 1810, while his interest in Sophocles is attested by his very full commentary on the Oedipus ColoHeus'^ . Lastly, his emendations on the Promethtus Vinclus of Aeschylus were published by Ritschl, who was one of his most devoted pupils at Halle*.

Much was meanwhile done for the exegesis of Sophocles by Eduard Wunder (idoo — 1869), who spent the last +3 years of his life at the Saxon school of Grimma. In the interval between his early studies on Sophocles and his explanatory edition o( 1831-50, he produced an elaborate commentary on Cicero, pro Pltotcio (1830), besides publishing readings from an important ms of Cicero, then at Erfurt and now in Berlin*. Wander's edition of Sophocles appeared in the series edited by Jacobs and Rost at Gotha. In the same series, seven plays of Euripides* were edited by August Julius Edmund Pflugk (1803—1839). PAugk

On the early death of Pflugk at Danzig, four more pla}^' were added to the series by Reinhold Kloti'.

Hermann's pupil, August Ferdinand Naeke (t788 — 1838), distinguished himself at Bonn as an able lecturer on some of the principa] Greek and Latin poets, and on the History of Greek poetry. Singularly fastidious in his taste, he produced only one important work, a collection of the fragments of the epic poet, Choerilus. His edition of the Dirae and Lydia, which pike Scaliger) he ascribed to Valerius Cato, was posthumously published in T846. His minor works were collected in two volumes of Ofimcula, the second of which includes the fragments of Calli- machus. His paper on Latin alliteration is only to be found in the Rhanischa MiiStum', of which he was an editor for a few years. The outlines of his courses of lectures, still preserved in the library at Bonn, were described by Ritschl as marked by the same devotion to the discovery of truth, and the same calm judgement, as his few published works'.

One of Naeke's colleagues at Bonn, Karl Friedrich lleinrich (1774 — 1838), was educated at Gotha and Gottingen, and, after holding a mastership at Breslau, was professor at Kiel in 1804-18, and

Heinrich

• 3 vols. (18JO-13).

" Ritschl, Opuic. i 378—393 i cp. A7. Phiioi. ScAr. v 95 f ; Ribbeck's Life of Ritschl, i 34 — 5* ; Haase's Preface to the Vorhsungen, v f ; and Borsian, ii 726.

* V<aiiu Ltctiimes {\%^^y

* Med., Hec, Andram., HeraeL, He!., AU., Hen. Furem,

• Phoett., Or., Iph. T., Iph. A.

• p. ri5 infra.

' iii (18*9) 3*4 f.

* ib. N. F, xxvii f93 f. Bursian, ii 719 f.

n,5,t^rjM,G00glc

no GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

at Bonn for the remaining ]0 years of his life. At Bonn he lectured with marked success ou the Roman satirists, and was even more successful as the director of the classical Seminar. While still a student under Heyne at Giittingen, he produced an edition of Mnsaens, and three volumes of explanatory notes on the Atneid. He was aided in the latter by Georg Heinrich Noehden {1770 — 1S16), who published a work on Porphyry's scholia to Homer, with appendices on the Townley and Eton Mss', and for the last fifteen years of his life held an appointment in the library of the British Museum. As a master at Bteslau, Heinrich produced not only a treatise on Epimenides, but also an edition of Nepos and of Hesiod's Shield of AchUles. These early works had been prepared under the influence of Heyne, the rest were produced under that of Wolf. At Kiel, in 18 r6, he published, in conjunction with Andreas Wilhelm Cramer (1760 — 1833). the fragments of Cicero /ro Scaurs, firo TuUio. ariA pre Flacca, recently discovered by Mai in the Ambrosian Library; at Bonn, he edited the speech of Lycurgus against Leocrates (1S11) and Cicero, De Ripttblica (1S13-8). His editions of Juvenal and Persius were posthumously published. His critical notes on the treatise of Frontinus on the Koman Aqueducts were included in Dederich's edition (1S41). Heinrich had intended to edit the work in conjunction with the eccentric scholar, Chrlsloph Ludw^ Friedrich Schulti (1780 — 1834), who &tncilu1ly regarded the works of Vitru- vius and Pomponius Mela as fabrications of the Middle Ages'.

Among the earliest and most important of the pupils of Hermann was Friedrich Wilhelm Thiersch (1784 — i860). Educated at Schulpforta under Hermann's former tutor, Ilgen, he studied the Greek poets, and acquired an exceptional facility in Greek verse, under Hermann at Leipzig. In 1807 he was drawn to Gottingen by Heyne; two years later he left for Munich, where his success as a school-master led to his being entrusted with the direction of a philological Seminar which was incorporated in the Bavarian university on its transfer from Landshut to Munich in 1826', He also lectured on Greek Art, after studying the sculptures in the Louvre and the British Museum (1813-5). These studies were continued in Munich itself on the founding of the Glyptolhek by the Crown Prince, Ludwig, and were still further extended by half a year's absence in Italy (1822-3). Classical studies were languishing at Munich during the later years of Ast, when they were revived by the eneigy of Thiersch, who, for 15 years, was ably supported by

' Goltingen, 1797. * Bursian, ii 731-3.

' Papers by the director and his friends (including Doderlein, Spengel, and Halm) were published in the Acta Philologaruni Monacensium, iSii-ig.

CHAP. XXX.] THIERSCH. 1 1 1

Spengel. His jubilee as a Dcx:tor was celebrated in 1858; he retired from active work in the following year, and he died in i860.

Thiersch took an important part in the organisation of the schools and universities of Bavaria, as the champion of classical education and of intellectual freedom'. In 1837, at the celebra- tion of the centenary of Gottingen, he brought into existence an annual congress of the scholars and school-masters of Germany. He also took a warm interest in the cause of Greek independence, and in the organisation of the Greek kingdom under Otho of Bavaria*. He was a prolific writer on political and educational questions, and on general literature. His contributions to classical learning fall under three heads : — (i) Greek Grammar; (2) criticism and interpretation of Greek poetry; {3) archaeol(^, including topography and epigraphy.

(1) His 'Greek Grammar, with special reference 10 (he Homeric dialect' (iSi^). reached a third edition (1S19)', his shorter Grammar (iSij) was considerably enlarged in its fourth edilion (i8ss)'. The Grammar of i8is led to a controversy on Homeric moods with Hermann'. His life-long interest in grammar was further proved by papers on Greek word -formal ion and on Greek particles', preparatory to a proposed edition of the Asamemiuin. He was also familiar with modern Greek, but his paper on the langu^e of the present inhabitants of N.E. Laconia' has since been superseded by more accurate investigations'.

(3) He was also interested in Hesiod and the early el^iac poets, and in Pindar and Aeschylus. In one of his first papers, he maintained that the poems bearing the name of Hesiod were fragments from various poems of diffcrent ages, the relics of an old Boeotian school of epic poetry'. He regarded the (Vorks andDayi as composed by several poets, and also treated it in connexion with the gnomic poetry of Greece'. He edited Pindar, with an introduction and explanatory notes, and with a German translation in the

' Thiersch, U^r gehhrle Sthulm (1816-31) ; cp. Paulsen, ii 418—430*. ' His interest in modem Greece is attested in bis work, Dt PStat actud dtlaCri^e, i vols. (1833).

' Cp. Eckstein, Lai. und Gr Unlerrickt, 396.

* Thiersch, .4rfo/Ai7.jW(w. i l, 175, 435, 468, and Hermann's O/bj^. ii i8f. ' Munich Acad., Denksdri/len, xivii 379, xxx 30J, xxxiii i.

' M. Deffner, Zaionisehe Gramntatik, 1881. » Denkscknfim, iv (1813).

• Acta Phil. Moil, iii 389, 567.

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112 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

original mettes. He wrote on lacunia in Aeschylus and on passages calling for correction by transposition of lines', and left behind him, ready for press, a lengthy commentary on (he Aganitmmm.

(3) In archaeology, his earliest work conMSIed of three papers on the 'Epochs of Greek Art'*. They represented a relapse from the sounder views of Winckelmajui, and were strongly opposed by K. O. MilUer', though supported by Thiersch's pupil, Feuertiach (1798 — rSji). Thiersch's vial to Italy ted to his planning a great work on Italy and its inhabitants, and its treasures of art in ancient and modem times, hat the only portions that ever appeared were his own account of'his tour, and Schom's description of Ravenna and Loretto (1826). A plan for a similar work on Greece ended in some papers on Pares and Delphi, and on the Enchtkewa*. The collection of Greek vases formed by king Ludwig I prompted a paper showing that the vases found in Etruscan tombs were really Greek and mainly Athenian', and also opposing the opinioo that they were connected with the Mysteries*.

Among the immediate predecessors of Thiersch in the Bavarian university, Georg Anton Friedrich Ast (1778 — 1841) was a classical professor for the last 36 years of his life, first at Landshut, and next, at the new seat of that university, in Munich. Besides editing the Characters of Theophrastus, he had made his mark as an expositor of Plato, had written on Plato's Life and Works, had edited all the Dialogues with a Latin translation, had annotated the Protagoras, Fhaedrus, Gorgias and Phatdo, and had crowned all this with ' his celebrated Index to Plato {1834-8). In his later years he was somewhat remiss as a lecturer, and it was then that (as we have seen) a new life was breathed into the classical studies of Munich by the enet^y of the youthful Thiersch. Thiersch was strongly supported in Munich by Leonhard Spengel, who was then a master at the Old Gymnasium, and who worked with Thiersch for 15 years at the university'. From 1843 Thiersch had the

1 Denkschnfttn, xxi (1846).

' Era of (1) religious Style, ending c. 580 B.C. ; (j) artistic developement, 580—490 B.C. ; (3) perfected style, from Pheidias (500 — 430) to Hadrian (d. 138 A.D.) and M. Aurelius (d. 180 A.D,). Ed. 1, 1819.

> Kleine deutsche Sehriflm, ii 3IS f-

* Dentschri/lea, xxi (1849) J9; xivii (1850) 99, ajo.

' Abkandlungea of Munich Acad., iv (1844) i f.

■ Cp., in general, Ufe by H. W. J. Thiersch (1 vols., 1866) j Bibliography in J. Poll's Rede (Munich, i860) ; Buraan, ii 733, 738-49.

' p. 180 in/ra.

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CHAP. XXX.] AST. UOEDERLEIN. DISSEN. II3

support of the eminent Aristotelian, Carl Prantl (1820-88)', and, from 1844, that of Ernst von Lasaulx (1805 — 1861).

Classical education in Bavaria was also ably promoted by Ludwig Doederlein (1791 — 1863), who was born at Jena and educated at Schulpforta. His studies, begun at Munich under Thiersch, were continued at Heidelberg, Erlangen, and Berlin. As a professor at Bern he produced in 1819 a volume of philological papers in conjunction with Bremi'. At Erlangen he was professor from 1819, and head- master of the local school from 1819 to 1862. As director of the philolc^cal Seminar, he had for his colleague, first, Joseph Kopp {1788 — 1842), a man of vast learning who, on principle, produced nothing ; next, the eminent stylist, K. F. Nagelsbach', and lasUy, the future editor of the Latin Grammarians, Heinrich Keil, who, on Doederlein's death in 1863, continued his work until 1869, when he left for Halle. As a university lecturer, Doederlein was interesting and stimulating, but unduly prone to paradox. As head of the local school, he made his mark by his impressive personatity and by his forcible eloquence*. He was less happy as a writer of works on Latin Synonyms, and on Greek and Latin Etymology, in which he was apt to be unduly subtle, while his wide learning gave a factitious support to fanciful and eccentric views'. The same eccentricity and lack of method are evident in his editions of Homer and the Oedipus Coloneils, and of Theocritus, the Epistles and Satires of Horace, and Tacitus'. Henry Sidgwick, who met him at Brunswick in i860, describes him as 'a dear old man with such a loving face, and, at the same time, very refined features, expressing the thorough scholar in the Cambridge sense of the word".

Among the other schoolfellows of Thiersch at Schulpforta was Ludolph Dissen {1784— r837), who was also his fellow-student under Heyne at Gottingen.

* PkHologiscki Bdtrdge aus der Sehweii (1819). ' p. 106 supra.

* Rtden etc., 1843, 1847, i860.

" Lat. Synonymen und EtymologUn, 6 vols. ( 1 8*6-38) ; Lot. Synonymik {l8j9, 1849'); Lai. Etym. (1841); Horn. Gluitanum, 3 vols. (1850-8). ' Bur^an, ii 749 f, and in A. D. B. ' Life, 59.

s- III. I,. |., ii,l^5i)O^IC

1 14 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Dissen did not actually belong to Hermann's school ; he was in feet opposed to Hermann's method of interpreting the Classics; but he was none the less a representative of the grammatical and critical type of classical learning. With the exception of a brief stay at Marburg (1812-3), ^^ resided at Gottingen from 1808 to his death in 1837, At Gottingen he produced his earliest work, that on Greek moods and tenses*; at Marburg he published an inaugural discourse on the Memora- bilia of Xenophon'; and, late in life, he wrote a paper on Plato's Theaetetus'. But his main interest, as a classical scholar, lay in the investigation of the Laws of poetical and oratorical composition. As a leading exponent of the artistic and aesthetic interpretation of the Classics, he illustrated his principles in his editions of Pindar (1830)' and TibuUus (1835)* and of Demosthenes, I>e Corona (1837). The acumen and the powers of observation, which Dissen applies to the study of these works, are worthy of all praise, but his method is unduly artificial and tends to obscure our sense of the living genius of the poet and the orator*.

A fine sense of the beautifiil in poetry and art, combined with a thorough knowledge of the classical lai^uages, and a methodical skill in the collection of lexi- c(^raphical materials, are the main characteristics of Franz Passow (17S6— 1833). A pupil of Jacobs at Gotha, he attended Hermann's lectures for two years at Leipzig, before studying ancient art at Dresden. After showing special aptitude as a school-master at Weimar and near Danzig, he left for Berlin, where he attended Wolfs lectures at the age of z8. For the last 18 years of his life he was professor at Breslau, where his ap- pointment led to a revival of classical studies at that university. He was warmly supported by that thorough scholar, Karl Ernst Christoph Schneider {1786 — 1856), who afterwards edited Plato's

' Kleint Sckrifttn, i f. » ii. 89 f. ' ib. iji f.

« Criticised by Hermann, Opusc. vi (i) 3—69, and Boecltb, Ges. il. Sckr, vii 369 f{cp. Briefwecksil swischen Beeckh vHd K. 0. MuIUr, 489 — 19')- Dissen had already contributed to Boeckh's ed. of iSi l a commenlary on the Ncmeim and Isthmian Odes.

' Criticised by Lachmann, Kl. Sihr, ii 145 f.

' Bursian, ii 751-3. Dissen'sAr«)M...&in/(«i{i839)indudereniiniscences by Thiersch, Welcker and K. O. MiiJIer.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXX.] PASSOW. WELLAUER. GCTTLING. 1 1 S

Repuhlu and took part in the Didot edition of Plato, besides producing a critical recension of Caesar's Gallic War, and claiming for Petrarch the 'Life of Caesar' wrongly ascribed to 'Julius Celsus'. Passow had hitherto been mainly interested in Peisius, Musaeus, and Longus; he now devoted himself to the laborious task of producing in 1819-23 a greatly enlarged and improved edition of the Greek lexicon of J. G. Schneider (1750 — 1822), then one of the senior professors at Breslau. The work was so lai^ely altered that, in the fourth edition, Passow's name alone appeared on the title-page {1831)'. Passow contributed to Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopaedia articles on Aeschines and on the Latin Anthology, which are reprinted in his ' Miscellaneous Works ', with his article on Bast, his essays on Hieronymus Wolf and Henricus Stephanus, and his paper on Philostratus the elder. Next to his lexicographical labours, his most important works were his extensive program on the Persae of Aeschylus, and his shorter papers on Sophocles and Aristophanes, and on late Greek authors'. He made some preliminary pre- parations for an edition of Stephanus of Byzantium, which he proposed to produce in conjunction with August Wellauer {1798 — 1830), the editor of Aeschylus and of Apollonius Rhodius, and the compiler of the Lexicon Aeschyleum. The only Latin texts edited by Passow were Persius and the Germania of Tacitus, It may be added that it was at his instance that the Leipzig publisher, B. G. Teubner {1784 — 1856), began in 1824 his celebrated series of Greek and Latin texts, and, in 1826, the Jahrlmcher fur PMlolegie und

Among PiLSSOw'a earliest pupils at Weimar was his life-long friend, Karl Wilhelm Gottling (i793— 1869). who, for the last 47 years of Q>|„]in his life, was a professor at Jena. He lectured on classical

' It was subsequently made the foundation of a lai^e lexicon prepared by V. C. F. Rost, in conjunction with Fiiedrich Palm and other scholars (1B41-57). Meanwhile, Wilhelm Fape (1S07— 1854) had added to his Lexicon of 1S43 a lexicon of proper names, which, in Benseler's improved edition of 1863-70, became an admirable work of reference, well described as a ' model of com- pendious learning' (Toier's Gisgraphy of Greece, 335 n.). Cp. p. 168 infra.

' Opusc. Acad,

' Patsow's Lehen uml Bri'/e (18^9) ! Bursian, ii 753 — 761.

■,?i^.ooglc

.^ ^/'»-^ _,

Meinbke.

Reduced fiom Eugelbacb's litlu^raph of Che presentation portrait by Oscar B^as.

„.,,„,^.oogic

CHAP. XXX.] HAND. NIPPERDEY. MEINEKE. Il7

archaeology as well us classical literatuie* ; and he edited Aristotle's Pelitics and Ecmmmics, as well as Hesiod. The help derived from Hermann's severe review of (his last was acknowledged in grateful and generous terms in (be improved and corrected edition of 1843*.

Among Gotlling's colleagues at Jena was Ferdinand Gotthelf Hand (r786 — 1851)1 a many-sided scholar, best known as Ihe author ^ .

of the unfinished work on Latin particles known as Hand's Tursillinus', and also of a manual on Latin style. Gflttling's colleague in the next generation was Karl Ludwig Nipperdey (i8jt — 1875), the editor of Caesar. Nepos. and Tacitus, and the author of an important paper on the Ltgts Annalts of the Romans*.

Gottling, the university professor of Jena, was far surpassed, as a scholar, by his contemporary, the Berlin school- master, August Meineke{r79o — 1870). Bom in the old Westphalian town of Soest, he was educated under his fether at Osterode in the Harz, and afterwards under Ilgen at Schulpforta. While he was still at school, he wrote scholarly papers on the death of Cato, and of Regulus, and his valedictory dissertation consisted of criticisms on many of the Greek poets*. At Leipzig he came under the immediate influence of Hermann. His own influence was no less effective in both of his head- masterships, during his 9 years at Danzig and his 31 years at Berlin, where, as a scholar, he was the peer of the leading professors: — Boeckh and Bekker, Buttmann and Lachmann'. Elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1830, he lectured on Horace and Aeschylus in 1852-3'. As an editor of important classical works, he was the first sitice Bentley to make his mark on the criticism of Menander and Philemon (1823). His 'Critical History of the Greek Comic Poets ' appeared as an introduction to his ' Fragments of the Comic Poets ', which filled three further volumes {1839-41). In this edition, the fragments of Aristophanes were collected by Meineke's assistant-master and future son-in-law, Theodor Bergk. The fifth volume was published in two parts

' A wide range of subjects is covered in his Abhandlungm (i8$i ; ed. 3, 1S63), and his 0/wcu!a ([36g).

* p. Kxxii, 'quem ego virum fortissimum lubeotissime sequi soleo. habent enim eius arma hoc cum armis illius herois commune, ut etiam medeantur, dumsauciant'; cp. p. 94 n. 9 la/™. ' Four vols. (1819-45); ii 369 jw^a.

* Abkandl. siic&s. Ges. d. Wiss. v.

' F. "Ranyx, August Miineke, aof. ' *i, 63. ' il>. 115.

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Il8 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

(1857), including an excellent index by Heinrichjacobi (1815-66), Meanwhile, a new edition of the Fragments had appeared in two volumes (1847). Meineke's work on Attic Comedy was completed by his text of Aristophanes, with a prefatory Adnotatio Critica (i860), and a postscript entitled Vindkiarum Aristophanearum liber (1865).

His study of the Alexandrian poets is best represented by his Analecta Akxandrina (1843), a collection of monographs on Euphorion, Rhianus, Alexander Aetolus, and Parthenius, and by his third edition of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus {1856). Less important than these are his Callimachus (1861), his selections from the Greek Anthology (1842), and his edition of the gec^raphical poems of ' Scymnus of Chios ', and of Dionysius, son of Calliphron {1846). His study of the geographical poets led him to produce a new recension of Stephanus Byzantius (1849), while his preliminary work for a proposed commentary on that lexicon ended in his publishing a new edition of Strabo, with a pamphlet of Vindiciae Strabonianae (1852).

The rest of his works originated mainly in his study of Attic Comedy, namely his text of Athenaeus with the Analecta Critica, and his Stobaeus and Alciphron. His editions of Joannes Cinnamus and Nicephorus Bryennius in the Corpus of Byzantine historians were works done to order, in which he took little interest. His friendship with Lachmann led to his contributing to Lachmann's Babrius a collection of fragments of the Greek choliambic poets, while his position as head-master of a great classical school prompted his editions of the Antigone and Oedipus Colomtis, both of them followed by critical monographs. It also prompted his edition of the Odes of Horace, in which he applied the rule, simultaneously discovered by himself and Lachmann, that all the Odes of Horace are written in stanzas of four lines (1834)'. The preface to the second edition (1854) includes many fine criticisms, which are only marred by the editor's ex- cessive fondness for suspecting the presence of interpolations.

As a keen and vigorous textual critic, not uninspired by a poetic taste, he estended to all the Greek Comic Poets the work which his great prototype, Bentley, had begun in the case of ' The only exceplion is Che Ode to Censorinus [iv S).

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXX.] KRUGER. 1 19

Philemon and Menander'. As a school-master he was a man of remarkable moral force and thoroughly religious spirit. He had a strong physique, a broad brow, prominent cheeks and thin lips. The quiet voice of his ordinary conversation rang out loud and strong, whenever he had occasion, as a master, to use the language of reprimand^. His resignation of his mastership in 1856 was commemorated by the painting of his portrait, which was re- produced in lithograph with a line in his own hand-writing : — ouK iuTi KoAXof olov aAi/^ti' t^*''' ^^ ^^^ y^^*^ °^ ^'^ retirement, he excused himself from lecturing in the university by humorously remarking: — 'if any one asks why I do not lecture, you have only to tell htm that, after teaching for forty-one years, I have at last made up my mind to try and learn something myself*.

One of Meioeke's assislan I -masters from 1817 to 1838 was the eminent Greek Grammarian, Karl Wilhelm KtUger (1796—1874}, who ^^ ^^

was bora at a small village in the heart of Pomerania, and wns a student at Halle from 1816 to iSio. On resigning his mastership al the age of 41, he devoted himself to the preparation of text-books, published by himself in Berlin and elsewhere, until his death at the little town of Weinhelm in the Odenwald, N. of Heidelberg.

His Greek Gra.mmai for Schools" is divided into (wo parts, (1) on the Attic, and (3) on the other Dialects, and each of the two parts is divided into Inflexions and Spitax. This arrangement is convenient for educational purposes, but it conveys a false impression as to the historic developement of the language. The rules a.re, however, stated with clearness and precision, and are illustrated by excellently chosen examples. Kriiger declined to re- CC^ise in his Grammar any of the results of Comparative Philoli^y, and he even attacked the principles followed in the Greek Grammar of G. Curlius (i85») in a series of polemical writings, the bitterness and violence of which can only be excused by their author's many misfortunes'.

Grammatical exegesis is the strong point of his editions of Xenophon's Anaiatiy, and of Herodotus, Thucydides, and Arrian. Wider interests are apparent in his critical questions on the Life of Xenophon, his treatise on the Anabasis, his edition of the historical work of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and

' Cp. Ranke, ii(|— 111. ' Ranke, 8if.

' Ranke, 13* ; p. 116 lu^a.

* ii. 140. On Meineke, cp. Lebembild by Ferdinand Ranke, 175 pp. (1871)} also Sanppe's Eritmerung (187a); Haupt, Opusc. iii iiSf; and

. Bursian, ii 764-^.

• Griechischt SfrachUhri, Berlm, 1843 ; ed. 5, 1B73-9.

' Cp. Krllger's pamphlet of 1869, and the epilt^e on pp. 193 — 114 of Part II, vol. ii of his Grammar, ed. 3, 1871,

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120 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

his later writings on the Life of Thucydides, his supplements to his Latin translation of Fynes Clinton's Fasti Hdltnki, and his two volumes of Historical and Philological Studies'.

As a Greek Grammarian, and as an editor of Xenophon, Kruger found an „„. able rival in Raphael Kiihner (tSoi — 1878), who was bom

and educated at Gotha, studied al Goltingen, and was, from 1814 (o 1863, a master al the Lyceum of Hanover, where he died 15 years aflenraids. His large Greek Grammar in two volumes (1334-5)" '^ > ^^^t repertory of grammatical lore, that has attained a third edition in four volumes under the editorial care of Btass and Gerth (1890 — 1904). He also produced a Greek Grammar for Schools (1836), and a still more elementary work on the same subject (r837), which has gone through many editions, together with corresponding works on Latin Grammar (1841 etc.). On retiring from his mastership, he published a large Latin Grammar (1877-9), which is a monu- ment of learning and industry. His work as an editor is best represented by his commentary on Cicero's Tusculan Disputations^.

The study of Greek Dialects was advanced hy Heinrich Ludolf Ahrens (1809— 1881), a native of Helmstedt, who studied at Got- liagen, and, after holding several scholastic appointments, was Director of the Lyceum of Hanover in 1849-79, having Kiihner as one of his senior assistants for 14 of those years. Ahrens was still a master at Ilfeld when his great work on the Greek Dialects was being published al Gottingen (1S39-43)'. He published a Grammar of the Homeric and Attic Dialects", an important critical edition of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, with many papers' in the Pkilologvs founded at Gottingen by his fellow-countryman and friend, Friedrich Wilhelm Schneidewin, and continued by Ernst Ludwig von Leutsch. The two scholars last mentioned were also associated in a com- plete edition of the Greek Paroaniographi (1839-51).

Schneidewin {1810-56), who had studied under K. O. Miiller at Gottingen, was a school-master at Brunswick

aehoeiaewln „ n , 1 , , ■ .

from 1833 to 1836, and there came under the in- ' fluence of Adolph Emperius (1S06 — 1841), who edited Dion Chrysostom, and of Hermann's pupil, Ferdinand Bamberger (1809 — 185s), who was specially interested in the criticism of Aeschylus. Thus, although his academic training was mainly archaeological, he proved his affinity to the critical school of Hermann by the editions of the Greek Lyric Poets, which he

' W. Poke], K. W. Kriigcr's Ltbensabriss, with portrait and bibliography, 40 pp- (1885) ; Halm in A. D. B. ; and Eursian, ii 769—771.

" Trausl. by W. E. Jelf, 1841-5. ' 1819; ed, 5,1874. Bursian, ii 771 f.

* Recast by R, Meister (1881 0- ' '853 ; ed. », 1869.

• Kleint Schrifitn {Zur Spriukwissenschi^), 1891.

CHAP. XXX.] KOHNER. SCHNEIDEWIN. BERNHARDY. 121

Ix^an at Branswick and continued at Gottingen, where he held a professorship for the last 20 years of his life. At Gottingen he produced his excellent edition of Sophocles, with introductions and brief German notes (1849-54), besides many papers on that poet'. He contemplated a similar edition of Aeschylus, but only lived to complete the Agamemnon (1856), He produced two editions of Martial (1842 and 1853), and an edition of the speeches of Hypereides/«J Euxenippo 3Jidpro Lycopkrone^ in the same year as Churchill Babington's tdiiio pritueps (1853)*.

Schneiiiewin's colleague, Von Leutsch (1808—1887), edited the fragments of the Cyclic Thtbais (i8jo). and produced an outtme of lectures (with exiracis from ihe ancient authorities) on Greek Metre (1S41). Almost all his energies were afterwards devoted to editing the PhUologu! and the PhiloUgischer Artuigtr, and he did little else, except completing in 1851 the joint edition of the Parotmiographi*.

A new impulse was given to the systematic study of Syntax by one of the last survivors of the school of Wolf, Gottfried Bemhardy (1800 — 1875), who was bom of Jewish parentage at Landsbeig an der Warthe, and was educated in Berlin, where he was baptized at the age of sixteen. He studied under Wolf and Boeckh, besides displaying the most assiduous industry in his private work. After holding minor scholastic appointments (for which he was not specially suited), he qualified for a university career in Berlin by producing a learned dis- sertation on the Fragments of Eratosthenei. This was followed by an edition of Dionysius Periegetes. Meanwhile, he had become acquainted with Meineke and Buttmann, Zumpt and Lachmann, and had written in a Hegelian organ published in Berlin some excellent reviews of works such as Hermann's Opuscula and Lobeck's Aglaophamui. In 1829 he published a volume of some 500 pages on the 'Scientific Syntax of the Greek Language". Syntax is here regarded in relation to the History of Literature, and the author's characteristic tendency towards the systematic and the encyclopaedic method of treatment receives its earliest

' Gottingen AbhandtungeH, v r59f, vi 3f, ttgi; Philalogus, iv 450 f, 633 f, Yi 593 f. ' Bursian. ii 774 f.

• Bursian, ii 776 ; Biogr. fakrb. 1887, 41—48. ' Supplemented in the Paraiipomina, 1S61.

D„:,iP,.-iM,G00glc

122 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

exemplification. In the same year he was appointed to succeed Reisig at Halle, a position which he held for the remaining 46 years of his life, besides being an efficient librarian for the last 31 of those years. As Pro-Rector he published in the winter session of 1841-2 a program on the History of Halle, concluding with an admirable eulogy on Wolf. The influence of Wolf is apparent in Bernhardy's conception of classical learning as a whole, and in the thoroughness with which he explores its several parts. That of Heget is no less apparent in the profundity of his research, and in the obscurity of his style. In 1832 he published his own System of Classical Learning, in which Grammar is treated as the instrument of that Learning, and Criticism and Interpretation as its elements, while a subordinate place is assigned to the History of Art, with Numismatics and Epigraphy'. This work was published after his History of Roman Literature (1830)', and before his History of Greek Literature (1836-45)'. In both of these important works the subject is divided into two parts, (i) a general account of the historical developement of literature in chronological order ; and (2) a special account of its several departments, with biographical and bibliographical details on each author. This division involves the frequent repetition, in the j/rf«a/ portion, of points already mentioned in the genera/ survey; and, although three volumes are devoted to Greek literature, the special history of Greek Prose is never reached. Both works, however, deserve to be remembered with respect, in so far as they were the first to set a distinctly higher standard of what is meant by the History of Literature,

Bernhardy's edition of Suidas (not completed until 1853) was already in the press when that of Gaisford was published (1834), It was partly founded on a study of the Paris MS, but owed its value mainly to the notes, and to the eommentationes in the second volume'. His principal colleague as a classical professor

' Volkmann's Goltfried Bemhardy, 40, 131.

' Grundlinitn lur EneykhpOdie der Fhilo/ogii, 410 pp. (1831). Volkmann, 77—80.

* Grandriti der rSmischen LilteriUur, ^. 5, 187a.

* Grundriss der g?iahischttt Litleraiur, ed. 4 in 3 vols. (1876-80) ; ed. 5 of vol. i, 844 pp. (ed. Volkmann, 1891).

* Volkmann, 65 — 68, 91 f.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXX.] TEUFFEL. 1 23

was M. H. E. Meier, the specialist on Greek Antiquities, and, although their rivalries in the management of the classical Seminar put a severe strain on their relations with one another, there was no lack of generosity in Bemhardy's obituary notice of his colleague'. It was mainly owing to Bemhardy's efforts that Meier was succeeded by Bergk, who soon, however, became estranged from Bernhardy, and, happily for the latter, left for Bonn in 1869, when he was succeeded at Halle by a more congenial colleague in the person of Heinrich KeiL In the same year a proposal to commemorate Wolfs connexion with Halle bore fruit in the excellent edition of his Minor Works', produced by Bernhardy, the last survivor of the great master's immediate pupils.

He had a delicate constitution, but his very early hours, his simple diet, his habit of constantly standing at his desk near an open window, his fondness for swimming, and for walking for an hour or two every day (with his arms thrown behind his back), helped to prolong his years, to the age of 75. He was im- mediately commemorated by a medallion portrait at the place of his birth, and by a generous eulogy on the part of his colleague at Halle, Heinrich Kei!'. Of his many pupils, few owed more to his guidance and his suggestiveness than Nauck*. The best tribute to his memory is the sketch of his career ultimately written by another of his distinguished pupils, Richard Volkmann'.

Bemhardy's work on Roman Literature found a rival in that of Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel (1820—1878), who ^^^^^^ taught at Tiibingen during the last 34 years of his comparatively short life. Much of his time was devoted to the continuation of the Real-Encydopddie begun at Stuttgart in 1839 by August Pauly (1796 — 1845). His work on Roman Literature (1870), the fourth edition of which was revised and supplemented by L. Schwabe (1882) and translated by G. C. W. Warr (1900),

' Pn^rara of 1806, 'On the age of Harpocration' ; VoUtmann, 96. ' F. A. Wolf, Kteiiie SehrifUn. uoo pp. " Volkmann, 116, cp. 158, and Ritschi's Iribule (in 1871), 109. ' ib. ijof.

■ Gottfried Bimkardy, eur Erinturung an sein Lebm und Wirken., 160 pp., with portrait (1887) ; cp. Eckstein in A. D. £., and Buisian, ii 776—780.

124 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

tboi^h not characterised by the profundity and the originality of Bemhardy, excelled in clearness of style and arrangement'.

Bemhardy's three volumes on Greek Literature were mainly confined to

the poets. An endeavour was afteiwards made by Rudolf

Nicolai of Beilin to supply a complete History of Classicat

Greek Literature in three volumes', followed by a History of Modem Greek

Literature, and of Roman Literature. His History of Greek Literature

was regarded by a competent critic as completely inadequate'. That of

Bergk (to which we shall shortly return) extended to four volumes, midnly on

thepoels. — While 'ScienlificGreek Syntax' had been ably treated by Bemhardy,

Syntax was well represented in the elemenlBry Greek Grammars produced in

South Germany {i8j6etc.) by Baumlein (1797 — 1S65), and in North Germany

(i868) by Aken [1816— l8;o). The Grammar of the Attic Inscriptions was

successfully handled by Konrad Meisterhans (1858—1894).

who studied at Zurich under Hug and Blilmner, and, after

spending a year in Paris, in the course of which he worked through all the

Greek inscriptions of the Louvre, was appointed 10 a mastership at Solothnm,

and held that portion for the remaining eleven years of his brief life. The

work by which he is best known was su^ested by Hug, and was dedicated to

Kaegi*.

The earliest author of a systematic Latin Grammar, in Germany, was

Konrad Leopold Schneider (1786— 1811), who in the last

Schii^der three years of his short life produced a large Grammar, which

is, however, confined to Accidence. The only works that he

had found useful were the Aristarchus of G. J. Vossius (1635) and the

Imtiiuliona of Thomas Ruddiman (173J-31). The usage of Latin authors

on points of Accidence was afterwards set forth in lull detail by Christian

Friedrich Neue (1798 — 1886), a master at Schulpforta in i8io-3r, and a

professor at Uorpat in [831-61, who spent the last »5 years of his life at

Stuttgart'.

Syntax is included in the comprehensive Latin Grammar of Karl Gottlob Zumpt (1792 — 1849), who studied at Heidelbei^, as well as at the university of his

' Described by Bemhardy, in pref. to ed, 5 of his own work, as ant mil gilekrlen Belc^n und Sludim ausgalatlelc Chrottik. Teuffel drew up a con- spectus of the literature of Plato (1874), with a view to a History of Greek Literature. His early works included editions of the Clouds and Persat. The variety of his interests is indicated by his ' Stndies and Characteristics ' (1871; ed. 1, 1889). Cp. Biogr.Jahrb. 1878, 1 f.

> 1865-7 i ed- '> I873-8- ' Bur^ian, ii 779.

* Grammatik dtr atlischen Insckriftm 1885 ; ed. 3, 1900. Schulthess in Biegr. /ahrb. 1896, 35—44.

' FirrmenleAre U%6i-6), ed. 3 Wiener, in 4 vols. incl. Index {1888— 1905).

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXX.] ZUMPT. R, KLOTZ. 12$

native-place, Berlin, where he had 15 years' experience as a school- master, besides holding a professorship of Roman Litera- ture for the last 21 years of his life. His Latin Grammar of 1818, which was limited to classical prose, passed through many editions and was translated into English. It held its own in Germany until it was superseded in 1844 by that of Madvig. Zumpt also produced a useful Chronol(^y of Ancient History down to 476 A.D.' Roman Antiquities were the main subject of his lectures in the university, and of his papers in the Academy of Berlin. He also produced editions of Curtius, the Verrine Orations of Cicero, and the Institutio Oratoria of Quintilian*.

Latin Giammat and Lexicography were [he main interests of the many- sided but somewhal superficial scholar, Reinhold Klotz (1807 — 1870), who studied at Leipiig, where he held a pro- fessorship for the last 38 years of his life. His admirable ' Handbook of Latin Style', which owed its excellence to the author's Constant study of Cicero, was posthumously published by his son. Cicero had been the theme of his earliest work, the Quactliatas Tullianat; he also prepared critical notes on the Cato maior and Lailius, md commentaries on all [he Speeches and the Tusculan Disputations, with a complete edition of the text (1S50-7)'. He further edited Terence, with the ancient commentaries, and devoted his practical experience of agriculture to an edition of the Georgia, which he unfortunately failed to finish. The Greek texts which he edited included several plays of Euripides*, the Somnium of Lucian, and the works of Clement of Alexandria. A<i a textual critic be is extremely conservative ; passages that ate clearly corrupt, he attempts to defend by means of highly artificial explanations, while his own emendations, which he vainly endeavours to support by palaeographical devices, fail to carry conviction.

His intermediate Latin Dictionary (iS;3-7) was to have been fomided throughout on the direct study of the Latin Classics, but pressure on the part of the publishers compelled him to call in the aid of F. Lubltei and E, E. Hudemann. This led to a certain unevenoess in the execution, and also to the introduction of errors arising from unverified references borrowed from the Dictionary of Freund (r834-45)*, which is little more than a compilation from ForcellinL He added much new material in his edition of the work of Devarius on the Greek particles*. He also planned a History of Latin

> Annalet, 1819, 1S61.

' On his supplement to Spalding's ed.,see p. 81 supra. Cp. A.W. Zumpt, De CaroH Timotkti Zumptii vita el studiii narraiio (iSji) ; Bursian, ii 783-5.

' Also numerous papers in/ahrb./. PhiloL, which he edited in 1831-56.

* Phoen., Or., Iph. T., Iph. A.

' b. (of Jewish parents) 1S06, d. 1894 (at Breslaa); compiler of Triennium Fhilologicum etc ' Vol. ii p. 78 supra.

Lachmann. Reduced from A. Teichel's engiaving of the phott^raph by H. Biow.

OgIC

CHAP. XXX.] J.F.JACOB. FORBIGER. LACHMANN. 12?

Literature on a large scale, but the only part that was published ( 1S46) hardly reached the threshold of the subject'.

A passing notice is here due to Johann Friedrich Jacob (1791 — 1854), the Director of the school at Lilbeck', (he editor of the Adna, and of Fropertius, as well as the Epidicus of Plautus. and the astronomical poem of Manilius. He was also a translator of Terence, and the author of a work on Horace and his friends. Munro describes his edition of the Aetna as, 'like his Manilius, sadl; wanting in precision and acumen', while 'its prolixity exceeds all bounds of toleration'*.

Latin lexicography and Latin style were among the interests of Albert Forbiger (1798 — 1878). His fether, Gottlieb Samuel Forbiger ('75' — i8i8), was for 33 years Rector of the Nicolai School at Leipzig. The son, who was for nearly 40 years on the staff of that School, left in 1863 for Dresden, where he spent the remaining 15 years of his life. His early dissertation on Lucretius was followed by an edition of that poet and of Vii^l, both of them marked by laborious industry rather than by critical acumen. Meanwhile he had produced a German-Latin Dictionary and a work on Latin Style. He also published a comprehensive work on Ancient Geography*, a translation of Strabo, and, in extreme old age, a popular work entitled Helta! und Horn'. The name of Forbiger is familiar to the readers of Lachmann's commentaiy on Lucretius. In the case of Forbiger in particular, the habitual sternness of Lachmann even ' passes into ferocity'"; bnt (as Munro' charitably adds) ' most of his errors, that scholar could hardly avoid in the circumstances in which he was placed '.

Karl Lachmann (1793 — 1851) was the son of an army- chaplain, who was afterwards appointed preacher at a church in Brunswick, where his son was born and bred. Karl studied for a short time under Hermann at Leipzig, where he was already interested in Mss of the Greek Testament,

' NtkrologmJaJa-b.f. Pkihtl. cd {l%^\) iS3f; Bursian, ii 785-8. » Life by J. Classen Qena, 1855).

* Aetna, p. 47. Cp. Bursian, ii 934.

* Bursian, ii 1118. ' ib. 1195. Cp. BUgr.Jahrb. 1878, 3f.

* e.g.f. 13, Forbigero iniuriam faciat qui eum vel minimam rem per se inlell^ere postutet ; 14, Forbiger nihil usquam laudabile gessit ; 15, (nostri)

n Forbigeri operam, in qua neque ratio ullaesseC neque diltgentia, e debebant ; note on i ?So, Forbiger, quod absurda lam fortiter concoquere possit, laudari poslulat; i 814, a Forbigero indicium expectari non potuit ; ii 734, hoc saeculum avaritia librariorum nutrit Forbigeri sordibus ; ii 760, Forbiger quid fiiceret, nisi contenineret ? ii 795, impudenter respondet ad haec Forbiger; iii 476, Forbigeri mendadum ; cp. i 923, 996; ii 501; iii 361, 1088; iv 391; vi s6f- ' Lucretius, vol. i p. ii'.

.oogic

128 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

and for six years at Gottingen, where Lachmann and Bunsen joined in founding a Philological Society, with Dissen as president. Meanwhile, he had taken his degree at Halle on the strength of a dissertation on TibuUus (rSii). In 1815, when he had just completed, but had not published, the first of his two editions of Propertius, he joined the volunteers and marched into France, not foigetting to taJte with him his favourite copy of Homer. Napoleon had been defeated at Waterloo before Lachmann crossed the Rhine. However, the volunteers pressed on, and Lachmann visited Paris twice, saw the treasures of art in the Louvre, and found the triumphal arch of Julius Caesar imbedded in the walls of Rheims', In 1818-24 he was a pro- fessor at Konigsberg, where the best of his pupils was Lehrs. But Lachmann found himself overshadowed at Konigsbei^ by the fame of Lobeck, and accordingly failed to win that scope for his great abilities which he obtained in 1825 at Berlin, where he was one of the foremost professors for the remaining 26 years of his life.

As a Latin scholar he produced, besides his early edition of Propertius (1816), a second edition of that poet, together with Catullus and Tibullus (1829)'. He also edited the poem of Terentianus Maurus, de litteris, syllabis, el me/ris', and the Fables of Avianus*. Late in life he produced his masterly edition of Lucretius (1850). His Lucilius was posthumously published in 1876. Of all these, by fer the best known is his Lucretius, The first serious thought of this undertaking occurred to him on the deck of a steamer between Bamberg and Schweinfiirt, during a tour in the autumn of 1845 in the company of Haupt, who warmly supported the proposal'. As to the merits of this work, it will be enough to quote the generous eulogy written by another great editor of that poet : —

' This illustrious scholar, great in so many deparlments of philology, sacred, classical and Teutonic, seems to have looked upon Latin poetry as his peculiar province. Lucretius, his greatest work, was the main occupation of (he last live years of his life, from the autumn of 1845 to November 1850. Fortunately, he had the full use for many months of the two Leyden Mss. His native sagacity, guided and sharpened by long and varied experience, saw at a glance

' Hertz, 17

' a. 138.

o^^ic

CHAP. XXX.] LACHMANN. 129

theii relations to each other and to the original frotn which Ihey were derived, and made clear the arbitrary way in which the common texts had been con- structed. His zeal warming as he advanced, one truth after another revealed itself to him, so that at length he obtained by successive steps a clear insight into the condition in which the poem left the hands of its author in the most essential points..., Though his Latin style is eminently clear, lively, and appropriate, yet from his aim never to throw away words, as well as from a mental peculiarity of his, that he only cared to be understood by those whom he thought worthy to understand him, he is often obscure and oracular on a first reading.,,. But, when once fully apprehended, his words are not soon forgotten''.

Among his papers on Latin poets, may be mentioned his review of Dissen's TibuUus* ; his chronological, critical, and metrical observations on the Odes of Horace*; his attempt to distinguish between the genuine and the spurious Heroides* ; and his attribution of the Latin Homer of ' Pindarus Thebanus' to the time of Tiberius'. In the department of Latin prose, his name is associated with two editions of Gaius, and with the text of a joint edition of the Roman land-surveyors*.

In the editing of texts of Greek prose he is represented by his important recension of the Greek Testament finished in 1850, and by an edition of Gencsius contributed to the Corpus of Byzantine Historians at the request of Niebuhr, His interest in the Greek poets is exemplified in his able review of Hermann's edition of the Ajax' ; a paper on the date and purpose of the Oedipus Coloneiis" ; and two Konigsberg prt^rains on the Choral Odes and the Dialogue in Greek Tragedy, contending that the total number of lines assigned to each Chorus and each Dialogue, as well as the total number of the lines assigned to each actor, was divisible by seven,— a contention that has not been generally accepted.

The discovery of a MS of the Fables of Babrius by the Greek Minas in a monastery of Mount Athos, and its somewhat hasty publication byBoissonade in November, 1844, led to Lachmann's producing in the space of four months an excellent edition of the text, to which contributions were made by Meineke, Eekket,

' Munro's Lucretius, i p. loT * Kleiaert SchrifUn, ii lo*.

' Kl. Schr. ii 77, * ib. ii 56. ' ib. ii 161.

' GromaHH Veleres\ Hertz, Ijjf. ' Kl. Schr. ii if.

' Kt.SikT.Xx 18.

s- III- ,..,-Mh,Gcx")glc

I30 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Hermann, and Haupt, the first of whom added an Appendix of the fragments of all the other choliambic poets'.

Lachmann's study of Wolfs Prolegomena led him to apply the principles of that work to the great German epic of the NiebeluHgen-noth, and to show that the latter, which attained its final form early in the thirteenth century, could be resolved into a series of twenty primitive lays'. More than twenty years after- wards he applied the same principles to the Homeric poems themselves in two papers presented to the Berlin Academy'.

' Lachmann dissected the Iliad into eighteen separate lays. He leaves it doubtiiil whether Ihey are to be ascribed to eighteen distinct authors. But at any rate, he majntaitis, each lay was originally more or less independent of all the rest. His main lest is the inconsistency of detail. A primitive poet, he argued, would have a vivid picture before his mind, and would reproduce it with close consistency. He also affirms that many of the lays ate ulteriy distinct in general ^irit' '.

Lachmann was the true founder of a strict and methodical system of textual criticism. He has laid down his principles most clearly in the preface to his edition of the Greek Testament. Here and elsewhere his great example is Bentley'.

The restoration of an ancient literary work involves a two-Fold process, (1) an investigation of the author's personality, and of the original form of the work, and (il), an exposition of his thoughts and feelings, as well as the circumstances which gave rise to them. The hrsi of these two processes is Crilicism ; the second, Interfrtlalien. Criticism has three stages, (t) the delerminaiion of the text as it is handed down in Mss (rtctnsire), (i) the correction of corruptions (tmendare), and (3) the discovery of the original form of the work (origintm dftegere). The original form of a work may be ascer- tained in two ways, (n) by weighing the evidence of the mss, and (J) by correcting their evidence when it is false. It is therefore necessary, in the lirst place, to ascertain what has been attested by the most credible witnesses ;

' Hertz, 136 f.

> KUina-i Sckriftm, i i f (i8i6) ; Herti, iiSf.

' Hitrachtimgm Ubtr Hsnun IHas (1837-41) ; reprinted with additions in 184?. 1865. '874-

* Jebb's Homer, 118 f; for criticisms on Lachmann's theory, cp. Fried- lander's Horn. Krilik, rSja, i7f; Bonilz, Vortrag, i860, +7*f.

' In his Studien und Kritiktn (1830), 8jof. he admires the grossarlige fVcist of Bentley, dis grdislen Kritikers dtr mutrm Zeit. In his Lufrilius p. 13, he writes:— 'In iuvenijibiis Benileii schediasmatis permultasunt summo et perfecio artifice dignissima'.

■X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XXX.] LACHMANN. 13I

in the second, to form a judgement as to what the writer was in a position to write ; and, in the third, to examine his personality, the time when he lived, the circumstances in which, and the means whereby, he produced his work. The first business of the critic, reansio, the settlement of the test handed down to us in the best MSS, can (and indeed must) be carried out without the aid of inlerpnlalio. On (he other hand, the two other stages of the critical process are most closely connected with interprelalio ; for ( i ) evieiidalia, or conjectural criticism, and (1) the investigation of (he origin of any given work {or the ' higher criticism ' as it is called), assume as their foundation an understanding of the work, while, on the other side, a cempUte understanding can only be attained by the aid of the results of a critical examination.

These principles were applied by Lachmann in all his editions of Latin or Greek orUerman texts. His aim in all was, Rrstly, the dttemiinatieit of the earlUit form of the text, so far as it could be ascertained with the aid of mss, or quotations ; and, secondly, the resloration of the original form by means of careful emendation'.

' The influence of Lachmann on the general course of philolt^cal study ' was 'probably greater', says Netlleship', 'than that of any single man' during the nineteenth century. 'Many scholars who never saw him, and to whom he is only known by his books, have been inspired by the extraordinary impulse which he gave to critical method ; Greek, Latin, and German philoli^y have alike felt the touch of the magician.' ' Hardly any work of merit ' (says Munro') ' has appeared in Germany since Lachmann's Lucretius, in any branch of Latin literature, without bearing on every page the impress of his ex- ample'.,,,' His love of merit of alt kinds incites in him a zeal to do justice lo all the old scholars who have done anything for his author; while his scorn and hatred of boastful ignorance and ignoble sloth compel bim to denounce those whom he convicts of these offences'.

'In their activity of mind and body' (says Donaldson*), Hermann and Lachmann came nearer to Englishmen than 99 out of 100 Germans ; and both of them made more progress in classical composition than any GeUhrlen of their time '....Both 'were little, why, and nimble men, full of spirit and enei^ — as different as possible from the usual type of German bookworms'.

' Cp. Haupt, De LachmantiB Criltco, in Belger's Haupt, 43 ; Bursian, ii 789 f

» Essay,, i 9.

* Lucretius, i p. ao".

* Scholarship and Learning, 157 f. Cp. Lachmann, h'Uinere Schri/len, 1 vols. (18711) ; Briefe an Moris Haupt, ed. Vahlen, 164 pp. (1891) ; M. Herii, Biographie (1851); J. Grimm, Rede (1851), reprinted in Grimm's Kleinere Schnften, i 145—161; Haupt, De Laiknmnne Critico ; M. Schmidt, De C. Lachmanni iludiis melricis, 1880; and Bursian, ii 78a — 791; also F. l^o (Gottingen, 1893), tS pp.; Vahlen, Berlin Akad. Bericht. 1893, 615 f; Wein- hold. Bed. Akad. 1894, 37 pp.

"i^foo^ic

132 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

In connexion with the Homeric question, the earliest follower of Lachmann in his theory of lays was Hermann Kochly (1815 — 1876). The son of a Leipzig publisher, he was educated at Grimma under Wunder. At the university of Leipzig he was an enthusiastic pupil of Hermann ; he commemotated the centenary of his master's birth by de- hvering in 1872 an admirable oration in his memory, and by publishing it in 1874 with a full appendix of authorities. Three years of experience as a schoolmaster at Saalfeld, near Meiningen, were followed by nine at Dresden, where his career was cut short by the political events of May, 1849, which compelled him to flee from Saxony'. He escaped to Hamburg and Brussels, where his study of the Greek Tragic poets was resumed in his examina- tion of the problem of the Promethsus, and in his other early work on the Alcestis, Hecuba, and Helena. He also continued his critical edition of Quintus Smyrnaeus, and, in three weeks, he had finished his notes on the last five books, which, in his busy Dresden days, might have taken three years. He further undertook to edit Manetho for the Didot series, in the hope that it might ultimately lead to a professorship'. Meanwhile, he was actually appointed to fill the place which had remained vacant at Ziirich since the death of Orelli. He held that position from 1850 to 1864, when he was invited to Heidelberg, to hold a professorship at that university for the remaining twelve years of his life.

The structure of the Iliad is examined in his seven Ziirich dissertations {1850-9), and in a paper on 'Hector's Ransom' (1859); that of the Odyssey in three Ziirich dissertations (1862-3). The results of his examination of the liiad were embodied in a practical form in an edition of sixteen lays published at Leipzig in 1861'.

Kdchly's 'lays' do not, however, correspond to Lachmann's. 'The two operators take different views of the anatomy'. A theory of short lays, ' whatever special form it may assume, necessarily excludes the view that any one poet had a dominant intluence on the general plan of the poems'*.

' E. Biickel, Hermann Kdchly, 105 — 155 ; Gustav Freytag, Erinnertatgen, 1887; E.T. 1890.

' Biickel, 137—131. ' Cp. Bocltel, 187 f.

* Jcbh's Homer, 119.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXX.] KOCHLV. 1 33

Apart from works on educational policy, most of Kochly's publications were concerned with the post-homeric epics. He produced a critical edition of Hesiod, in conjunction with his pupil Kinkel, as well as a plain text (1870). Meanwhile, he had edited Aratus, with Manetho and Maximus, in the Didot series, and had published a separate edition of Manetho, two editions of Quintus Smyrnaeus (1850-3), and lastly, Tryphiodorus and Nonnus.

As early as 1840 he gave a lecture on the Antigone, and the performance of that play at Dresden in 1844 led to his delivering his first popular lecture on Greek Tragedy'. He gave proof of his critical skill by his emendations (1860-2) on the Tauric Iphi- geneia, by his edition of that play (1857), and by his paper on the Birds of Aristophanes. In a course of lectures on Schiller, he traced the influence of the Greek and Latin Classics on the poetry of Germany'. At Ziirich, the exile from Saxony was joined in 1852 by other exiles from that land, by Haupt and Jabn and Mommsen ; and we learn that, in a private reading of Antony and Cleopatra, the historian of the Roman republic took the part of Octavius Caesar'. Kochly was the heart and soul of similar readings of the Agamemnon, the Antigone, and the Baahae at Heidelberg*, and brought about a fine performance of the Persae at Mannheim in 1876'. At Ziirich and at Heidel- berg he gave a course of six public lectures on Demosthenes', whose speech De Corona he translated into German', as well as Cicero pro Ststio and pro Milone^. He joined the military expert, Riistow, in translating Caesar, and he also wrote an Introduction to the Gallic War (1857). In 1863, his work on Caesar was specially recognised by Napoleon HI.

While he was a devoted pupil of Hermann, he was led by the advice of Wachsmuth to enlai^e the range of his interests by the study of the writings of Boeckh, and he was also attracted to K. O. Miiller's ' History of Greek Literature'*. In conjunction with Riistow, he wrote a ' History of Greek Warfare' {1852), and

' ib. ,^^.

' 0/«/..Ui48f.	> Bockel. 44.
* Bockel, 331.	" <A. 3S«, 387.
' U. 183; anon. i8s6.
» (*.4i, IJ7; cp.esp.173f.

.oogic

134 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

edited the Greek writers on Tactics (1853-5)- As President of the Congress of Scholars and School- masters at Heidelberg in 1865, his influence with the Grand Duke of Baden led to the military experts being authorised to construct full-sized models of the baliista and caiapulta^ ; and, at the Congress at Wiirzburg, in 1868, he gave practical illustrations of the handling of the haslit amtntata of the ancients*.

In his proposals for the terorni of German secondary education, iniiteaii of vainly alteiiipting to exact a complete command of the Latin language in speaking and in writing, he prefeired to promote a perrect understanding ai the classical texts and a historical grasp of the ancient world'. He urged that the modem languages should be learnt first, that Latin and Greek should not be begun until the age of fourteen, and that a knowledge of the Greek and Roman world, in its historic aspect, should be the main object in learning those languages*-

The dream of his life was a visit to Greece. That dream was fulfilled in the autumn of 1876, and in the company of his pupil, the prince Bernhard von Sachsen-Meiningen. But, unhappily, his health was already failing ; he fell from his horse on the field of Marathon, and died at Triest. He was buried at Heidelberg, where an admirable oration was delivered in his memory'.

While Kochly was connected with Lachmann in maintaining that the Iliad was formed from a number of primitive lays, there was a still closer connexion between Lachmann and Haupt (1808 — 1874). Both of them were inspired with a keen interest in German as well as Classical Scholarship, and both of them devoted their main energies to the criticism of the Latin poets. They were also united by the closest bonds of friendship, and were su(X:essively professors in Berlin. Moritz Haupt was bom at Zittau in Saxony. From his father, a man of poetic taste and of fiery temper, he inherited a keen and im- petuous spirit, as well as a vivid interest in poetry. At Leipzig he was the pupil of Hermann, whose daughter he afterwards

• Bockel, I4I. ' ib. 319. ' ib. jo.

' ib. 9+. Cp. Paulsen, ii 4(19' f.

' Bernhard Stark, Vortrage etc. +17 f; cp. A. Hug, Hermtmn Kochly {1878), 4.1 [^.; Eckstein in Eisch and Gruher; Bursian, ii 798; and esp. Ernst Biickel, Hemtattti KSchly, an Bild seines Lebens, with portrait, 416 pp. (1904).

,Cooglc

CHAP. XXX.] HAUPT. 135

married. It was by reading Hermann's edition of the Bacchae that he first leamt what was meant by 'really understanding an ancient author". He spent seven years at Zittau, tending his aged father (1830—7), and working at Catullus and Gratius; in 1834 he accompanied his father to Vienna and Berlin, where he first met his life-long friend, Lachmann', and in the same year he printed his exempla poisis Latinae medii aevi*. In 1837 he began his professorial career at Leipzig by the publication of his QuaeiHones CatuUianae. In 1850 he was suspended from his professorship on political grounds, and, although he was acquitted by a court of justice, he was arbitrarily deprived of his office. For the last twenty-one years of his life he filled with distinction the professorship vacated by Lachmann in Berlin.

From 1837 to 1854 his interests as a professor had been equally divided between old German and Latin poetry, but, for the last twenty years of his life, the place of the old poets of Germany was taken by those of Greece. At Leipzig he had been highly successful as the Director of the Latin Society which flourished by the side of the Greek Society founded by Hermann, and his double interest in Classical and German philology ted to his frequently lecturing on the Gertnania of Tacitus- He also expounded the JHad, with select plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Plautus and Terence, and Theocritus, Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius.

His Quaestiones CaiuUianae (1837), a work of special import- ance in connexion with the textual criticism of Catullus, was succeeded by his critical edition of the Halieutica of Ovid and the Cynegetica of Gratius and Nemesianus, and by his Observa- tiones Grammatkae, including a number of fine grammatical and metrical criticisms on the Roman and the Alexandrian poets. In 1847 he added a supplement to Lachmann's 'Observations' on the Iliad, and, in 1849 and 1852 respectively, published Hermann's posthumous editions of Bion and Moschus, and of Aeschylus. In 1850 he produced his own edition of the Pseudo- Ovidian Epicedion Drusi, and, in 1852, a tastefully printed text of Horace.

His entry on his professorship at Berlin was marked by his > Betger, Merits Haupt, 17 f. ' ii. 48.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

136 GERMANY. [CENT, XIX.

treatise on the Eclogues of Calpumius and Nemesianus. He abo published a school-edition of the first seven books of Ovid's Metamorphoses, and elegant editions of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius, and of Viigii. His first edition of this last author was anonymous; the second included, among the Pseudo- Virgiiiana, an improved text of the Aetna. In Latin prose, he only edited the Germania with brief critical notes. A wide range of interests is covered in his published papers, in the lectures and speeches delivered before the Academies of Leipzig and Berlin, and in an unbroken series of 42 Latin programs, for the corre- sponding Semesters of all the zi years from 1854 to 1874 inclusive. He was a frequent contributor to the Rheinisches Museum and the Philohgus, and finally to Hermes, which he founded in 1866.

Haupt, like Lachmann, perpetuated in an intense form the polemical spirit of his master, Hermann'. Among his main characteristics was his masterly precision as a critic, and his skill in applying his familiarity with the early poetry of Germany and France to the attainment of a profounder knowledge of the poetry, and especially the epic poetry, of Greece and Rome. His energy, his proud self-consciousness, his high ideal of the scholar's aim in learning and in life, the keenness and the remorselessness with which he condemned all that was mean or common, and even all that was merely weak or immature, in fact everything that failed to satisfy his own high ideal, has been coramemorated by Bursian^, who was one of his' pupils at Leipzig. His lectures on the Epistles of Horace at Beriin, which b^an with an exposition of the principles to be followed in constituting the text, and included a running fire of criticisms on Orelli, were attended by Nettleship, who then iearnt for the first time to appreciate the true greatness of Benttey. One of Haupt's life- long friends was Gustav Freytag. In the Verlorne Handschrift the character of Felix Werner is to some extent founded on that of Haupt, who himself suggested part of the plot'. Freytag has told us how Haupt, who had a great flow of language in the company of his friends, and could even rise to eloquence in the presence of a congenial audience (as in the case of his famous

' Belger, 19. ' ii Soof. ' Belger, ig, 34 f.

h. i., 11,1^.001^10

CHAP. XXX.] F. HAASE. 1 37

eulogy of Boeckh'), had the greatest difficulty in composing any- thing that would satisfy his own standard as a writer. All that he wrote, however, was admirably terse and transparently clear'.

Haupt's contemporary, Friedrich Haase (1808 — 1867), was bom and bred at Magdeburg, studied under Reisig at Halle, and was a school-master at Charlotten- bui^ and Schulpforta, where the fact that he was a member of a political association of German students led to his being con- demned in 183s to six years' imprisonment at Erfurt He was released after a year, and proceeded to Halle. He afterwards visited the libraries of Paris, Strassburg, Munich and Vienna, and, for the last 27 years of his life, was a distinguished professor at Breslau.

His earliest independent work was a commentary on Xeno- phon's treatise on the constitution of Sparta (1833). His interest in military tactics was exhibited by the illustrations to that work, and by his study of the mss of the Greek and Roman tacticians during his travels abroad'. He contributed to the Didot series an edition of Thucydides, with an excellent Latin translation, and afterwards published papers on points of textual criticism in that author'. In L.atin scholarship his proficiency is proved by the notes to his edition of the Lectures of his master, Reisig", and by his own Lectures on Semasiology, with an introduction on the History of I^tin Grammar". As a textual critic he is best known through his editions of Velleius Paterculus, Tacitus, and Seneca. Separate passages of Greek and Latin authors, and Greek inscrip- tions, with questions of lexicography and literary history, are treated in his Miscellanea Phihhgica. He also paid special

' Belger, ejf.

' A. Kirchhoff, Giddchlnissrids (1875); Gus(av Freytag, Im Ncuen Reich (1874) 3+7f; Haupt, Opunula, 1 vols. 1875-6 (with portrail); C. Belger, Meritt Haupt ah aiadtmischer Lehrer, 340 pp. (1879) ; Nellleship, Essays, i I— n; Bursian, ii 800—805.

* De militarium s<riptortim...edilisne (184;).

* Lucubrationes Thuc. (1841, 1S57)- He also published an important paper on the Athenischt Slammverfassung (Brestau Abhandl. 1857), and articles on Palaesira, Phalanx, Pkrygia elc. in Ersch and Gruber.

' p. 108 supra.

' Car/esungen, ed. Eckslein and Peter (:874-8o).

A.oogic

cm a lithc^raph of the drawing by A. Hohneck (1844), published by Henry and Cohen, Bonn, with nutt^raph and motto, nil tarn d^iiUst quin quae- rendu invesligari fossitt (Tei. Haul. 675).

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XXX.] RITSCHL. 139

attention to the History of Classical I^earning'. His own con- tributions to that subject included a paper on the Subscriptiones in I^tin mss', and a valuable disputation on the philological studies of the Middle Ages'. As a man of frank and straight- forward character, and full of fresh enthusiasm for high ideals in public life and in scholarship, he exercised a healthy and a lasting influence on all who came under his care. In his portrait the most striking point is his steady gaze, looking upward*.

The birth of Haase and Haupt was preceded by two years by that of a still greater scholar, Friedrich Ritschl (1806— 1876). The son of the pastor of a Thurin- gian village, he was educated at Erfurt and Wittenbei^ under Spitzner, and studied for a short time under Hermann at Leipzig, and for some years under Reisig at Halle. Under the influence of Reisig, his early interest was directed towards the Greek poets. That interest bore fruit in his dissertation on the age of Agathon (1829), and in his articles, in 'Ersch and Gruber', on the Greek Ode, on Olympus the aulltls, and on the poet Onomacritus. About the same lime he produced an edition of Thomas Magister (1832}, discussed the Greek grammarians Orus and Orion, and published, with appendices, his essay on the Alexandrian Libraries (1838). Meanwhile, his four years of university teach- ii^ at Halle {1829-33) had been followed by a call to Breslau. The rest of his life falls into three periods during which he was professor first at Breslau (1833-9), i^^^ ^t Bonn (1839-65), and finally at Leipzig {1865-76).

His interest in Plautus was first displayed at Breslau. It was there that in 1834 he wrote the review of Lindemann's work, in which he promised a critical edition of his own. In i8j5 he edited the Bacckides, and, about the same time, contributed to the RheinUches Museum a bibliographical survey of the criticism of Plautus'. In 1836-7 he visited Italy and spent several months of a bitterly cold winter in deciphering the Ambrosian palimpsest

' F. Salgo (pseudonym), Virgangmkeit und Zukunft der PhUologu 0835); Bufsian, ii 810-1.

' Breslau pr^ram, i860. ' id. 1856.

* C Fickerl, Breslau Gymn. progr. 1868 ; Bursian, ii 8oj — 813.

» Ofusc. ii I— 165.

A.oogic

140 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

of Plautus at Milan. He embodied the results in a letter ad- dressed to Hermann, in which that scholar's views on Plautine prosody were amply confirmed^. The accuracy of Ritschl's report of the readings of the palimpsest was in vain attacked by Karl Eduard Geppert (iSii— 1881), who had studied at Leipzig under Hermann and under Boeckh in Berlin, was an adept in music and in recitations from Shakespeare, was interested in the Greek and Roman theatre, and had revived several of the Plautine plays in Berlin, and edited nine of them*. The pahmpsest has since been deciphered (so far as practicable) by Gustav Lowe and Wiihelm Studemund. Meanwhile, in 1841, Ritschl started a new series of papers on Plautus, which were published with additions in 1845 under the title of Parerga, and won for him the name of sospitator Plauti. In 1848 he began his edition of Plautus, and, by the end of 1854, had published nine plays'. He produced new editions of these nine, and entrusted the preparation of the rest to three of his ablest pupils: — Gustav Lowe, Georg Gotz, and Friedrich Schbll. Ritschl's papers on Plautus, and his edition of the text, mark an epoch in the study of that author. The field that had been inadequately cultivated by previous editors, such as Weise, Lindemann, and Bothe, now attracted the attention of eager and well-trained scholars of the new generation. Ritschl himself studied the laws of the ancient Latin language with the aid of the oldest Roman inscriptions, and applied the results to the extension or correction of the views expressed in his Prolegomena. Many points of detail were taken up by his friends and pupils, while others attempted to support the traditional text.

Ritschl's Plautine studies led him to investigate the history of the Latin language. His numerous papers on that subject are included in the fourth volume of his collected works. But the most important monument of his labours in this department is his great collection of Ancient Latin Inscriptions*. Many points

' ii 166—101. ' Biogr.Jahrb. 18B4. 131-6-

* Ttinummui, Milts, Batchidei (1849); S/ichus, PseudoJus (iSjo) ;

Mimuchmi (1851); Mostetlatia (rSsj) ; Ptrsa, Meriator (1854).

' FHscae latinitatis monumenia cpigraphica {1861); Supplementa in KUine

Schriftin,\y i,>j^—f,-iv.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXX.] RITSCHL. 141

of early Latin Grammar are here illustrated, either in the descrip- tive letter-press or in the elaborate indices. It was followed by an important paper on the History of the Latin Alphabet'. In the investigation of the laws of ihe Satumian verse, Ritschl held that we should begin, not with the fragments of Livius Andro- nicus and of Naevius, as recorded by the grammarians, but with the inscriptions ; and he discovered that the fragments of Cato's Carmen de moribui were written in Satumian verse'. His exami- nation of the early fortunes of the plays of Plautus led him to inquire into the literary activity of Varro, to set forth the wide extent of his labours, and to determine the character of his Disciplinarum Librt, his Imagines, and his Logistorici Libri*. He also wrote an important paper on the survey of the Roman Empire under Augustus*. Some of his minor papers were concerned with the modem pronunciation of Latin", the recent History of Classical PhiIol<^y°, and the Plautine studies of Veit Werler {ft. 1507-15)' and Camerarius*, with biographical sketches of Passow and Reisig'.

The completion of 25 years of successful teaching at Bonn was celebrated in 1864 by the publication, not only of a volume of papers by eight of his pupils of that time"*, but also of a collection of papers contributed by no less than 43 pupils of former years".

While Ritschl is associated mainly with I^tin Scholarship, it must not be forgotten that almost all his early career as an Academic teacher was connected with Greek". It is to be regretted that he did not begin his work on Plautus at an earlier date, and that he was diverted from the completion of his edition by taking up a number of points incidentally suggested by his Plautine studies. At Bonn he was a most successful teacher for 26 years. It was at his su^estion that Otto Jahn was invited to accept a professorship at that university, and it was owing to

■ Kliinc Schrifien, iv 691 — 716. * ui 743f-

' V 91 — 98. " Liter Miscellaneus.

" Symbola Pkilohgorum BonnenHum (1864-7), ^^' F'eckeisen.

" He edited Aesch. Septem \

ib. 81 f.	= ib. iii 35»— 59*-
	MLi67— 19.

,i^.ooglc

142 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

unfortunate differences between Jahn and himself that he resigned his professorship and withdrew entirely from Prussia, to spend the rest of his life at the Saxon university of Leipz^'.

Foremost among Ihe supporters of Ritschl's views was Alfred Fleckeisen FleckeiKn ('820-99), * native of WolfenbUtle], who was educated al Helmstedt. and who studied under Schncidewin at Goltingen. In his earliest independent work, the ExtTtitationcs PtaMlinat (1841), he was inspired by (he example of Bentley. Reiz, Hermiinn and Rilschl. Fruin that time forward he was closely associated with RitschI, and, on the appearance of Che first volume of the edition of Flaulus, welcomed it as supplying in all important points a firm foundation for the liiture study of the text'. In this spirit he edited the Teubner text of ten plays, with a full Efitstala Criiica addressed to RitschI (i8jo-t). He also published a text of Terence (1857), which marked tbe first important advance since the time of Beiitley. Fleckeisen was for many years Conreclor of a School at Dresden, and for 43 years editor of lYte/ahrbuikfrfiir Fhihlogie^.

Wilhelm Sludemund (1843—1889), besides transcribing and publishing

in 1874 the palimpsest of Gains discovered by Niebuhr at

Verona*, devoted himself with the moat strenuous industry

to the deciphering of ihe Ambiosian palimpsest of Plaulus '. He also produced

a large number of papers on Plautine subjects, together with monographs on

points of early Latin Grammar and Prosody prepared by his pupils under his

direction at Strassburg". The conservative side, among editors of Plautus,

was meanwhile represented by Geppert' and Moritz Grain, and by the Danish

scholar, Johann Ludwig Ussing. Ritscbl's Plautine studies were acutely

criticised by Bergk in a series of reviews and programs', and in a special work

on the final D in Latin (1870). His views on the relation of the word-accent

to the verse-accent in Plaulus were opposed by an eminent investigator of the

early history of the Latin language, Wilhelm Corssen (iSio —

1875), in liis work on Latin pronundalion, vocalisation and

' Curt Wachsmulh in Ritschl's KUine Sehriflen, iii pp. x — xviii ; L. Miiller, Fr. RitschI, tine wissemchaftlUkc Biographic (1877 ; ed. i, i8;8) ; and esp, O. Ribbeck, F. W. Ritsekl, tin Btilrag sar Gesfhichte dtr Pkilologit, t vols. 384-t-S9i PP-. 1879-81 (with two portraits); cp. Bursian, ii 811—840; Rohde, Kl. S(hr. ii 451-461 ; Gildersleeve, in A.J. P. v 339— JSS- Bililiography in Ritschl's Kleini SchHflen. v 715— 75^-

^ Jahrb.f. PkilolXaiz^i; Ixiiyf.

" Biogr. lakrb. 1900. 115 — 147; portrait in Corm anai {1890).

* p. 80 !up,a.

' Apografhum, posthumously published in 1890.

« Sluditn, 1873—. Cp. Biogr. Jahrb. 1889, 81—11

'' p. 140 supra. * Plaulina in

A.oogic

CHAP. XXX.] FLECKEISEN. STUDEMUND. CORSSEN. 143

accent uition (1858-9). Corssen aJso wrote on the early history of Roman poetry (i84(5),on the language of the Volsci(i8j8tand the Etruscans (1874-5), besides papers on Latin Accidence (1863-6) and articles in Kuhn's Zeilscfirifl'^, and in the Ephirmrii EfigraphUa (1874). The dispute between Corssen and Ritschl prompted one of Ritschl's pupils, Friedrich SchiiU, to collect and sift all the evidence of (he old grammarians on Latiti accent, and (o inquire into the nature of that accent and the importance of the word-accent in Latin verse (1876). The evidence of the old grammarians had already been discussed at Bonn in 1857 in an important dissertation by another of Ritschl's pupils, Peter Langen (1835 — 1897), the author of Plautine Beilrage (1880) and Sludien (1886), who was a professor at MUnster for the last 1^ years of his life'.

Among the scholars inspired with the new interest in Plautine studies was Wilhelm Wagner of Hamburg (18+j— 1880), who edited the Anlularia, Trinummus, and Menaechmi, as well as the whole W. Wagner of Terence, with English notes. Julius Brix (1815— 18S7). ^itai who was born and bred at Gorliti, and studied under Ritschl at Breslau, was in 1838 awarded the priice for an essay on the principles followed in Bentley's Teremi, and in 1S41 produced a dissertation on the prosody of Plautus and Terence. After holding minor scholastic appointments, he was Pto-Rector at Leignitz in 1854-83. At Leigniti he produced several editions of the Trinummus, Caplivi, Menaechmi and Miles Gleriosus^. August Lorenz (b. 1836), who was educated at Copenhagen and ultimately became a school-master in Berlin, edited the McsUllaria, Milts Gloriosus and Psrudolus (18615-76), and vrrote many papers and reviews on Plautine subjects. Lastly, Oskar Seyffert (r84i— 1906), who was educated in Berlin r, o a, under his namesake, Moritz Seyffert (1809—187!, the editor ' *''

of Cicero's Laelius), and was for forty years on the staff of the Soph ien- gymna- sium of Berlin, devoted a large part of his enei^ies to the study of Plaulus*. He saw through the press Studemund's Apograpkon of the Ambrosian palimpsest, enriching it with an important Index Orlhographicus (1889); and he was ever ready to place his minute and varied learning at the service of other students of his favoyrite author".

' Vols, x, xvi, xviii.

* Editor of Val. Flaccus (p. 194 infra) ; Bicgr. Jahrb, 1898, i — 13.

* Biegr.Jahrb. 1887, 63—68.

* His works include Sludia Plautina (1874), and surveys of Plautine lite- rature (1883-94), i" Bursian's_/b4r«i^i-ii:A(.

' He expanded and improved E. Munk's Nisiory 0/ Latin Literature; and himself produced a Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (188]), the English edition of which was revised and enlarged by H. Nettleship and J. E. Sandys (iSgi). See esp. E. A. Sonnenschein, in Alkenaemn. 4 Aug. 1906, p. 130 f.

A.oogic

CHAPTER XXXI.

EDITORS OF GREEK CLASSICS.

In turning to the other contemporaries, and the successors, of Ritschl, we shall find it convenient to group them according to the main subject of their studies, beginning with the editors of the Greek Classics.

Karl Wilhelm Dindorf (1802— 1883), the eldest son of a professor of Hebrew at Leipzig, lost his father at the age of ten. Having thus been mainly left to his own resources, he acquired a singular independence of cha- racter and a habit of indomitable industry, not unaccompanied by a certain lack of principle and a disregard for social con- ventions. At the age of fifteen he studied at Leipzig under C D. Beck and Hermann, supporting himself by correcting proofs for the press. He began his career as an editor by completing in seven volumes (1819-26) the edition of Aristo- phanes begun in two by Invernizi (1797), and continued in four more by Beck (1809-19). He also produced critical editions of separate plays, reprinting the notes of Hermann, Monk, and Elmsley, together with a complete collection of the Fragments (1829). Meanwhile, he had brought out an edition of Pollux and of Harpocration, and had published, for the first time, certain of the works of the grammarians, Herodian and Philoponus, besides a new edition of Stephanus of Byzantium. For the Teubner series of Greek texts with critical notes, begun in 1824, he edited Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, as well as Aeschines, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and the Memorabilia of Xenophon. His brother Ludwig {1805 — 1S71) edited the rest of Xenophon, together with Hesiod, Euripides, and Thucydides.

lOO'

SIC

j:HAP. XXXr.] DINDORF. I45

In the new series of texts begun in 1849, Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Demosthenes were edited anew by Wilhelm, and Xenophon by Ludwig. All the Greek dramatists were further edited by the former, with notes and scholia, for the Clarendon Press (1832—63), The text of the whole was first printed in a single volume in 1830, the well-known Poetae Scenki Gnuci, which attained a fifth edition in 1869. The Lexicon Sophodeum of 1871 was withdrawn from sale, owing to an unauthorised use of the lexicon of EUendt (1834 f), a new edition of which was published by Genthe in 1869-72'. Dindorf's Lexicon Atschyleum, founded on that of Wellauer (1830), was completed in 1876. His volume on the metres of the dramatists, with a chronoiogica scenica, was a careful and useful work (1842). His editions of Aeschylus and Sophocles were founded on a careful collation of the Laurentian MS by Diibner. He edited, for the Didot series, Sophocles and Aristophanes, with Herodotus, Ludan, and part of Josephus; and, for the Clarendon Press (besides the dramatists), Homer and Demosthenes with the scholia; also the scholia to Aeschines and Isocrates, the lexicon of Harpocration, and the works of Clement of Alexandria. To the new Tauchnitz series he contributed a text of Lucian. Among the texts prepared by him for other publishers were Athenaeus, Aristides, Themisrius, Epiphanius, the praecepta ad Antioehum of Athanasius, and the ' Shepherd ' of Hermas. The credit of taking part in producing the first edition of this undoubtedly genuine work was unfortu- nately impaired by his publication of the 'palimpsest of Uranius' on the chronology of the Egyptian kings, which had been fabricated by the discoverer of the genuine Hermas, the notorious Con- stantine Simon ides.

At an early age Dindorf was nominated to 'extraordinary' professorships at Berlin and Leipzig. Failing to be appointed to succeed Beck in 1833, be took up the task of K. B. Hase, as editor' of Didot's Paris edition of Stephanus' Thesaurus Graeciiatis, and the main part of the work, ending with 1864, was done by the brothers Dindorf, who had begun to help as early as 1831. The younger brother, Ludwig, was thrown into the shade by his

' Cp. Dindorf in Jakrb. f. cl. Pkitol. xcix 103, 105; and Genthe in ZdUchrift f. Gyma, xxvi.

,k.^.?)O^IC

146 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX,

elder brother, and, as he never appeared in public, a legend arose that he did not exist, but was invented by Wilhelm to help to account for the extraordinary number of editions that appeared under the name of Dindorf. Ludwig edited (in addition to the texts already mentioned') Dion Chrysostom and the Greek Historians, including Xenophon, Diodorus, Dio Cassius, Polybius, the Historid Graeci Minores, with Zonaras, and the Didot edition of Pausanias.

Wilhelm Dindorfs industry and thrift made him, in the eariy part of his career, a prosperous man, and in 1837 he became a Director of the Leipzig and Dresden Railway. But his life ended in gloom. In i87r he had to lament the death of his younger brother. A few months later, at the age of 70, he lost his all by speculations on the stock-exchange, and was even compelled to part with his library. But he still worked on, producing (in 1873-6) his lexicon to Aeschylus, and {in 1875-80) his complete edition of the scholia to the Iliad. His hand-writing remained clear to the very last, and there was but little failure of his bodily powers. After his death, the greatest misfortune that befell his memory was that even his former friends forgot and disowned him'.

The Greek poets were the main (heme of study with Dindorfs con- temporary, Johann Adain Harlung (1801 — 1SS7), who studied at Erlangen and Munich, and was Director of the gjunnasium at Erfuit for the last three yeai^ of his life. An ovet-fondness for conjectural criticism was his main characteristic as an editor of the texts of the Greek elegiac, melic, iambic, tragic, and bucolic poets, which he published with verse- translations, and with critical and explanatorj^ notes. He also ttanstated Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry, with notes and excursuses. In his Euripides RfiHliilus ([S43-5), a work inspired by an unbounded admiration for the poet whose name it bears, he analj'ses all the extant plays, and even discusses (he plots of those that have survived in fragments alone. His earliest works were on Greek Particles, and on Roman Religion. The second of these was of far higher value than his latest work on the Religion and Mythology of the

The Lyric Poets of Greece are associated with the name of Theodor Bergk (iSu— 1881). At his native place, Leipzig, he studied in 1830-5 under Hermann;

' Biogr.Jakrb. 1883, in— iii ; Bursian, ii 861—870.

CHAP. XXXI.] HARTUNG. BERGK. 147

four years later, in Berlin, he was assistant- master to Meineke, his future father-in-law; he was afterwards a professor at Marburg and at Freiburg; then, for twelve years, at Halle (1857-69); and, for the last twelve years of his life, at Bonn (1869-81).

Grateful as Bei^k was for all that he owed to Hermann, he was not unconscious of the one-sidedness of his master's teaching, and sought to widen his own interests by learning of Boeckh and Welcker and K. O. Miiller. While he was still a student, he printed a Comtneniatio on the Fragments of Sophocles. He began his public career by editing the genuine Fragments of Anacreon, and by producing his Commmta Hones on the Old Attic Comedy, a work warmly welcomed by Welcker. Bergk contributed to Meineke's 'Comic Fragments' an edition of the Fr^ments of Aristophanes, which was followed by several editions of the plays. Meanwhile, he had completed at Marburg, in 1843, the first edition of his Poetae Lyrici Graeci, a work whose merit depends less on any systematic use of the extant mss than on the felicity of the editor's emendations. In the Olympian Odes alone, eleven of these were afterwards confirmed by the mss. The defects of this work were sharply criticised by Schneidewin in 1844, and improved editions appeared in 1853, r866, 1878-82. Bergk's paper on the Age of Babrius was first published in the Classical Journal of 1845'. In 1858 he produced a text of Sophocles, followed by an edition of the Lexicon Vindobonense (1859-62). His familiarity with the Epic poetry of Greece is attested not only by the first volume of his 'Greek Literature', but also by several minor works'. He is less well known in connexion with his papers on Greek, Latin and Cypriote Inscrip- tions, on Latin Grammar and the textual criticism of Plautus, and on ancient Prosody, on Greek Mythology and Archaeology, and on the text of the Greek Philosophers and the Alexandrian Poets.

His studies were for a time interrupted by political duties. In 1848 he represented the university of Marburg in the Hessian Parliament, and was one of the delegates to the federal conference

' Opasc. a 547—569-

' Opusc. ii 415—444 (Unity of II. i), 409—414 (Tabula Iliaca), and Enemiatiottes in Halle Piogtams of 1859 and 1861.

h. i.,loA3.00^IC

I4S GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

at Frankfurt. To this period belongs the only portrait of Bei^k that was ever painted'. In 1852 he accepted a call to Freiburg in Breisgau, where he lived for five years an idyllic life, surrounded by congenial colleagues, and busy with the text of Aristophanes and Sophocles. His subsequent time at Halle was marked by bad health, due in part to over-work. On settling in 1869 at Bonn, a university to which he was attracted by the presence of Otto Jahn, his health improved, and he continued to lecture until 1876. At Bonn he began his 'History of Greek literature' and completed the ms of four volumes in the course of ten years. He also wrote papers on the history and topc^aphy of the Jiheinland in Roman times, and incidentally gave proof of his being an excellent strat^ist'. Though he was able to prepare a fourth edition of his Poetae Lyrici, and to exhibit a singular acumen in the identification of the two Berlin fragments of Aristotle's Constitution of Athttts", he was in failing health for the last five years of his life. The baths of Ragaz in Switzerland, which had proved efficacious in former years, were of no avail in 1881, when his strength finally failed him, and he passed away on the 20th of July.

As a classical teacher, he was thoroughly familiar with the langu^e, literature, and monuments, of Rome as well as Greece: He was characterised by a remarkable breadth of knowledge, and a singular d^ree of acumen. A severe critic of his own work, he left many of his most elaborate papers unSnished. Opinions, which he deemed unsound in point of scholarship, he was wont to attack with a sharpness which, in the years of failing health, approached the limits of positive rudeness. But, in every con- troversy, his constant aim was the attainment of the truth ; and in all that he said or wrote, the advancement of classical studies was the joy and the glory of his life'.

The Greek drama was one of the main interests of Adolf SchoU (1805— 18S3), who studied at TiibingeD, Gottingen, and Berlin, and b^ao his literar; career with a dissertation on the origin of

' Frontispiece of Qpuse. 1.

^ PeppmUUerin Bei^k's Opusc. I Ixxxixf. * 0/<«c n 50S— 553-

' Arnold Scbaerer, in Btagr. Jahrb. 1881, 105 — no; also Peppmiiller in

Bergk's Opuscula, 718 + 813 pp. (i88«-6), iixiij— xcv; Buraian, li 819, 871-5.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lc

CHAP, xxxi] A. schOll. buchholz. nauck. 149

the drama (1818). He aTletwards owed much to Che influence of K. O. Miiller, whom he accompanied on the fatal journey to Greece. Meanwhile, he had produced important papers on tragic tetralogies', and had translated Sophocles and Herodotus with the highest degree of literary skill, besides writing a monc^raph on the ' Life and Work of Sophocles ' (1841) '. In the same year he was appointed professor of Archaeology at Halle, leaving in the following year for the directorship of the Art Museum at Weimar, where he died nearly forty years kter".

The subject'malter of Homer was the principal theme of theclassical studies of Eduard Buchholi (1815 — i88j), who was educated under B. R. Abeken at Osnabrilck, studied under K. F. Hermann and Schneidewin at Gottingen, and ended his scholastic career at the Joachims- thai gymnasium in Berlin (1871-81). His German plays on classical subjects are less widely known than his comprehensive and instructive work : — Die Homerisclun Rtalitn*.

The text of the Greek tragic poets is associated with the name of August Nauck (1822—1892). The son of a ^^^^^

village-pastor in NE Thuringia, he was educated at Schulpforta, studied at Halle (mainly under fiernhardy) in 1841— 6, and, after holding scholastic appointments in Berlin, was in 1859 elected a Member of the Academy of St Petersburg, where he was also professor of Greek Literature in 1869-83. His first important work was an edition of the Fragments of Aristophanes of Byzantium (1848), suggested by Bemhardy. His text of Euripides (1854) was followed by an excellent edition of the Fragments of the Greek Tragic Poets (1856), the design for which had occurred to him during his study of the scholia in connexion with his edition of Aristophanes of Byzantium. He was busy with the Fragments while he was still an assistant- master to Meineke, and it may be assumed that the editor of the ' Comic Fragments ' was interested in his assistant's work in a similar domain. This undertaking made it necessary for bim to traverse the whole range of Greek literature. He thus found traces of the Aeschylean simile of the 'struck eagle", not in Aristophanes alone, but also in Philo, Dionysius of Halicarnassus,

' Beitrdgi zur Cesch. der attischen Tragitrr (1839), i. * Also on Shakespeare and Sophocles ntjahrb. der deiilschia Shakespcare- GtsilUckafi UUi).

' Biogr.Jahrb. i88j, fij^^g.

■* 3 vols. (1871-8S). Biogr. Jahrb. 188;, «8 f, " Frag, 139.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

1 50 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Athenaeus, Aristides, Galen, and Eustathius. A line, which violated Porson's rule as to the final cretic', had been quoted from the Canones of either ' Ion ' or ' loannes '; it had been rashly ascribed to Ion by Heyne ; but it was more judiciously assigned by Nauck to Joannes Damascenus, and was subsequently found in that grammarian's works'. Another of Meineke's assistant- masters was Adolf Kirchhoff. Kirchhoff and Nauck were simul- taneously preparing editions of the text of Euripides. Nauck placed at Kirchhoff's disposal his own collection of quotations from Euripides, while Kirchhoff, both before and after his visit to the Italian libraries in 1853, kept Nauck informed of points that were likely to interest him as an editor. The second edition of Nauck's Euripides included ProUgomena on the life, style, and genius of the poet, in which the subject is tersely and succinctly treated, while the original authorities are added in the notes. Like Porson and Elmsley', for both of whom he had a high admiration, he was specially strong in his knowledge of metre.

In 1859, on the proposal of Stephani, he was elected a Member of the Academy of St Petersburg, and in that year, and again in 1862, he laid before that Academy the two instalments of his ' Euripidean Studies ''. Most of his subsequent work, apart from editions published in Germany, appeared in the Transactions of the Russian Academy, and unfortunately attracted little notice in the land of his birth'.

From 1856 onwards he was repeatedly engaged in the critical study of Sophocles. Every few years he produced a new revision of Schneidewin's school-editions of the several plays. His own edition of the text (1867) was severely reviewed by Bergk, while he himself was no less severe in his review of the ' Comic Frag- ments ' of Kock. He was less strong in the ' recension ' of the text as a whole than in the details of its 'emendation '. In one of his papers he drew attention to the fact that his own conjectures had repeatedly been confirmed by the Mss*.

' imfKut d^itjiToit tv SiapSpa! SaxriXois.

» T. G. F. p. xiii. * Melanges Gr. Rom. iv 61, joSf.

* Mimoins, Sir. vil, i no. 1 1, and v no. 6. ' Milangis Grhe-Rotnains, six vols.

• (■*. 11135. "317, 333, 453-

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXr.] NAUCK. igi

In his edition of the Odyssey (1874) and the Iliad (1877), the text of Aristarchus is generally retained, resolved fonns of diphthongs only introduced where necessary, and conjectures added below the text. To ascertain his actual views as to the textual criticism of Homer, we have to consult his Kritische Bemerkungen^. He there avows that the aim of the Homeric critic is to bring the text as near as possible to the original form ', with the aid of Analogy and Comparative Philology.

While his first decade at St Petersburg had been mainly devoted to Sophocles, and his second to Homer, the third was assigned to Porphyry and his circle. Here again, the first impulse had come from Bernhardy. In 1846 he had spent three months collating Porphyry mss at Munich. On his return to Halle he collected many of the fragments, but, on reaching the Byzantine writers, he left his original task unfinished. At St Petersburg, however, with the aid of his colleague, Chwolson, he became acquainted with the Arabic authorities on Porphyry's philosophy. In i860 he produced Teubner texts of three of Porphyry's tracts, namely the Life of Pythagoras, the treatise On Abstinence, and the Letter to Marcella. Here {as elsewhere) he did more for ' emendation ' than for ' recension '. Indeed, it was shown in 1871 that the Munich ms, which he had followed, was only an ordinary copy of the Bodleian ms'. His examination of the Laurentian ms of lamblichus' 'Life of Pythagoras' in 1879 resulted in an edition of that work {1884), followed by a second edition of the Porphyrii Opuscula Sekcla (1886).

The main achievement of his life was his final edition of the Fragments of the Greek Tragic Poets. The first edition had appeared in 1856. The publication in 1862 of the first part of the second collection of Volumina Herculamnsia, including many passages quoted from the poets by Philodemus, led to a long and friendly correspondence with its able editor, Professor Gomperz of Vienna. The loan of a Vienna ms enabled him to publish the ElymologicuM Vindobotiense in 1867, and, three years afterwards, a Vatican ms of that lexicon revealed the name of its author,

' 1861, 1863, 1867, and esp. 187:.

* Mil. Cr. Rom. iii 109 j see esp. Biogr. Jahrb. 1893, 44 H

» Val. Rose, in Hermts, v j6j f.

A.oogic

152 GERMANY. fCENT. XIX.

Andreas Lopadiotes'. The final edition of the Tragic Fragments appeared in 1889, and the complete Index in 1892. The aged editor had lately lost the sight of one eye and his memory had bt^un to fail him ; yet he was eagerly planning fresh works for the future, when his life came to an end*.

A crilkal editioD of Pindar was produced in 1864 by Tycho Mommsen (1819—1900), a younger brother of the historian. After Momm«n studying in 1838-43 at Kiel, which was then a Danish uni- versity, be visited Greece and Italy in 1846, and, in 1846-7, collated MSS of Pindar in Rome and Florence. Further collations were made in 1861. The results appeared in his edition of 1864 ; he also edited a large part of ihe ichatia (1861-7), He was Rector of the school at Oldenburg from 1856, and Director of the gymnasium at Franltfurt from 1864 10 the end of his life. The greatest work of his closing years was an investigation of (he usage of Ihe prepositions vir and ihtA in Greek literature beginning with the poets (1874-9) '"d ending with the writers of prose'.

Numerous papers on Pindar were produced by Eduard Luhhert (1830 — I iiViK rf '889), a professor al Giessen in 1865-74, and at Bonn from

1881 to his death. The series began with a JIalle prc^ram of 1S53 and ended with the end of his life*.

A brief and suggestive Commentary on Pindar was prepared by Friedrich ^^^ _. Meiger (1833—1893), a son of the Rector of the gymnasium

of St Anna al Augsburg, who studied at Eriangen and Leipzig, and, after teaching under his father for eight years at Augsburg and under- taking similar work for eight years at Hof, returned to bis father's school in iSyi, and ihere taught for the remaining three years of his father's life, and for seventeen years after. The fruit of many years of study appeared in his Commentary of 1880, a work intended for those who desired to study the poet for his own sake, without being distracted by the divergent views of his interpreters, with which Meiger himself was perfectly familiar, his own library including some 300 works on the subject. It may be added that he was led to hb well-known theory of catch-words in Pindar by the practice of learning each ode by heart before commenting on it'.

Eoeckh's lectures on Pindar at Berlin were attended by Morii Schmidt (1813 — 1888), who had already studied under Haase at the university of his native place, Breslau. For the last thirty-

' Stein's lai^er ed. of Herod. I Ixxvf; Krumbacher, % 138' (first half of

* Iwan MUller in Bicgr. Jahrb. 1893, I — 65 (with complete bibliography) ; cp. Bursian, ii 8 70-1.

' Beitrdge lu der Lehre von den griechischin Prapositiontn (1886-95), 847 pp. Cp. Biogr. Jahrb. 1904, 103 — 117.

* Biogr. Jahrb. 1891, 135 — 171, with list of papers on 169 — 171. ' Biogr. Jahrb. 1894, 78 — 86.

h, i.MiA.OOgIc

M. Schmidt

CHAP. XXXr.] MEZGER. M.SCHMIDT. W.CHRIST. I53

one jtKta of his life he was a professor at Jena. He began his career wilh a treatise on the dithyramb and the remains of the dithyrambic poets (i8+s)- He afterwards collected the fragments of Didymus (1854), and produced as his o/uj- magnum the edition of Hesychius in five volumes, with Quaestionn Hnychianae in Che second half of volume iv, and elaborate Indices in volume v {1S58-68). He subsequently published in a single volume (1864) the nucleus of Hesychius, in the form of a restoration of (he epitome of the lexicon of Pampbilus, which Schmidt regarded as identical with (he small lexicon of Diogenianus'. He also produced papers on the inscriptions of Lycia (1867-76) and collected those of Cyprus (iS;6); edited the fables of Hyginus and ihe Ars Poetiea of Horace, the Foetu of Aristotle (with a translation), and (he first Book of the Politics, besides discussing the Pseudo-Xenophontean treatise on the Constitution of Athens. In his works on Pindar (i86g, 1881} and Horace (187]), and his editions of the Oedipus Tyrannus and the Aniigont {1871-80), he showed a special aptitude for conjectural emendation. His discussion of the metres of Pindar, and of the Tragic Choruses, was founded on a careful study of Aristoxenus, a translation of whose treatise on rhythm was placed by Schmidt at the disposal of Westphal. He endeavoured vrith very doubtful success lo solve Ihe difficulties in the choral metres of Pindar and Sophocles (1870) by Ihe aid of the modern theory of music. Maturer work in this field is to be found in his papers on the Choruses of the Ajax and on the structure of Pindar's Strsfhae. He did much for the text of Aeschylus, and gave proof of an artistic and tasteful style in his excellent translations of the Oedipus Tyrannus and of Pindar's Olympian Oda\

Homer and Pindar formed a principal part of the wide province of Greek literature which was illustrated by the life-long labours of Wilhelm Christ (1831 — 1906). Bom near Wiesbaden, he studied at Munich and Berlin ; was a pupil of Karl Halm at Hadamar and Munich, and of Thiersch, Spengel, Boeckh, Bopp, and Trendelenburg at Munich and Berlin ; and, for more than half a century, was one of the praeceptores Bavariae, first as a master at the Max-Gymnasium and for the remaining forty-five years as a professor in the university of Munich. Under the influence of Halm, he became interested in the textual criticism of Cicero, De Divinatwne, and De Fato. Under that of Boeckh, he ultimately edited a text of Pindar, followed by a commentary {1896). Under that of Spengel and Trendelenburg, he produced a text of Aristotle's Poetic and Metaphysics'. As a former pupil of Bopp, he lectured in alternate

' See index to vol. i s.v.

» Biogr. Jahrb. 1889, 83—130 ; Bursan, ii 875-7,

* Beitriige in Munich S. Ber. 1886, 406 — 423.

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154 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX,

years on Comparative Grammar. He also repeatedly undertook subjects that would otherwise have been unrepresented in the list. His lectures on Homer resulted in his text of the Iliad (1884)'; those on the Odes of Horace, in his Studies on Rhythm and Metre, and on the chronology of the poems in general ; those on Demosthenes, in his paper on the edition by Atticus (1882); and those on the Germania of Tacitus, in his Studies on Ancient Geography, a subject which he constantly kept in view during his travels in Greece and the Troad. His comprehensive hand-book of Greek Literature has passed through several editions'. He was one of the most versatile of scholars. He was capable of examining in archaeology, and of lecturing on ancient philosophy, besides taking an interest in astronomy. His services on the Bavarian Board of Education were recognised by his receiving, among many public distinctions, that of the 'Star of Bavaria*. Even in the last few months of his long life, he had large audiences attending his lectures on the Greek Theatre. He was a loyal and generous colleague ; a man of noble nature, and of cheerful temper ; one who found his chief happiness in his work, and in his home'.

The Suppliies and Pcrsae of Aeschylus were edited by Johannes Oherdick

(1835 — 1903), who studied al Mlinsler and Bonn, and at

Breslau, where he received an honorary degree in :874. His

principal scholastic appointment was that of Director of llie Catholic gymnasium

of Glatz. He was interested in Latin Orlhc^aphy*, and was a corresponding

Memlier of the Academia Virgitiana of Mantua".

An edition of the Ekctra of Sophocles (1896) was one of the finest of the works produced by Geoi^ Kaibet (1849 — 1901), who was born and bred at Liibeck, and studied under Ernst Curtius and Sauppe at Gottingen, and under Jahn and Usener and BiJcheler at Bonn. He was a student of the Archaeological Institute in Rome in 1873-4, and visited Italy for his health in the winter of 1877-8. In 1878 he published his Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus conlecta, a work

' Also in papers on 'repetitions' and 'contradictions' in the Iliad; Munich S. Ber. 1 880-1. On the substance of his PioUgomena, cp. Jebb's /fum^r, 116 f. ' Ed. 1889 ; ed. 4, 1905, 996 pp. (with appendix of 43 portraits). ' E. W(olfBin), va Btilagc zur Allgtmtmt Ztitnng, u Feb. igolS, 169 f. * Siudicn in 4 parts {1879-94). ' Biogr. Jahrb. 1904, 10 — n.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXI.] OBERDICK. KAIBEL. PRINZ. VELSEN. IS5

containing some 1200 epigrams extending in date over ten centuries. From 1879 to 1886 he was successively professor at Breslau, Rostock, and Greifswald ; then, for ten years, at Strass- burg, and for the last five years of his life at Gottingen. His principal works, beside the edition of the EUdra, were his critical text of Athenaeus (1886-90), his collections of the Greek Inscrip- tions of Italy and Sicily and the West of Europe (rSgo), the edition of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, in which he was associated with his life-long friend, Wilamowitz (1891), and his independent work on the 'Style and Text' of the treatise (1893). He had only published the first part of his proposed edition of the 'Fragments of the Greek Comic Poets' (1889), when his brief life came to an end'.

A critical edition of Eufipides was begun by Rudolf Prinz (1S47 — 1890), who studied mainly at Bonn, under Olto John, Arnold .

Schaefer, and Usener. Afler spending eight months in Paris examining the MSS of Sophocles and Euripides, he published the Medea and Alttstis (1878-9). In 1880 he was at work in (he Vatican and Laurenlian Libraries, and came to the conclusion that the Laurentian MS of Sophocles was in the position of princep!, lathei than thai of paicr or avas, in relation to the other Mss ; but his proposed edition of Sophocles never appeared. Work in the cold Italian libraries inflicted permanent injury on his health, and even prevented him from having sufBcient energy to make foil use of his own collations. In iS8i he left his appointment in the library of Brestau to superintend that of MUnster ; in the following year he pubiished the Hecuba ; in 188S he became librarian at Konigsbei^, where he suffered from strange mental delusions, and left for a private asylum, where he died'.

Apart from the complete editions of the text of Aristophanes by Bekker, Dindorf, Bergk, and Meineke, there were many editions of separate plays^. Critical editions of five' were produced by Adolf voa Velsen (1831 — 1900), who studied at Bonn, and was for many years a school-master at SaarbrUcken. On the failure of his health, his collections were handed over to Zacher with a view to the continuation of the work. Four of the plays' hafi meanwhile been edited with German notes by Theodor Kock (iSio— 1891}, who had studied at Breslau, Halle, and Berlin, and, after holding several scholastic appointments, wa; Director of a gymnasium in Berlin (1860-85). and then settled for the rest of his life at Weimar. He wrote several German dramas on classical themes;

I Biogr. Jahrb. 1904, 15—71. ' Btogr. Jahrb. 1891, »i— 31.

> E.g. Thesm. Ran. ed. F. V. Frilzsche (1838-45). * Eq. Thesm. Ran. Plut. Eal. (1869-83). ° Nub. Eq. Ran. Av. (1851-^4).

D„:,i.,.-iM,G00glc

I $6 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

waa keenl; interested in modem music and ancient art, a.nd paid nine visits to Italy, and two to Greece. He attained a high degree of excellence in trans- lating the whole of Goethe's tphigenU into Greek Iambic verse (1861). His latest work, the ' Comic Fragments' (1880-8), was intended to serve as a new edition of Meineke's EdxHo minor, but a higher standard was expected in 1S80 than that which had sufficed thirly'three years before. The new editor attempted to trace lost fragments of Greek Comedy in the prose of Lucian and other late Sophists, and also elsewhere. He even found a fragment of a 'comic tetrameter' in a passage which he failed to identify as part of the sublime language of St Paul'.

The value of Aristophanes as a historical authority was submitted to a

careful and discriminating examination by Hermann MUller- SirUbinr .Slriibing (iSii — 1893), who studied in Berlin, and, owing to

the part which he played in political movements among (he students of Germany, was condemned to death in 1835. His sentence was commuted to imprisonment ; and, on his subsequent release, he spent the last forty-one years of his life in London. His constant researches in the British Museum led to his discovery of an excellent MS of Vitruvius, and, in con- junction with Valentui Rose, he published a critical text, which is still the standard edition (1S67). His polemical work on 'Aristophanes and historical criticism' was published in 1873*. He here enlarges on the unintelUgent and uncritical use of Greek Comedy as evidence for the political history of Athens. In his subsequent publications he paid more and more attention to the historic criticism of Thucydides, investigating the dales at which the different parts of the history were composed, and discovering difhculties in his account of the sii^e of Plataea and the affairs of Corcyra'. Among the best of his papers were those on the Pseud o-Xenophontean treatise on the Constitution of Athens ((880), and on the legends as to the death of Pheidias (iSSif.

The text of the Greek Bucolic Poets was edited by Christoph Zi^ler

(1814— 1888), who was educated under Moser at Ulm. He

studied under Hermann at Leipzig, where he was the first student from Wiirllemberg, who chose 'philolt^' as his sole profession; he also studied at Tubingen under Wak. His interest in archaeology and in the

' 1 Tim. iv 6, iyi> yip ^Sii ar^iSo/uu kt\. (Kock, iii 543 fr. 768 ; Classical Rai. iii 35). On Kock's life, cp. Bingr. Jakrb. 1901, 44—49 (with full bibliography).

' Buraan'syaAnfj*. ii 1001-57, 1360 f.

» Kritik da Thukydidts Textts (1879): ThuSi. Forsckungm (rSSi); Das ersle Jahr des pel. Kneges (1883); Bctaseruag von Plataia (1885); Dit Korkyrdisckm Ndndel (t886) ; Verfasiang von Alhtn (1893). The last four vaNeueJahrb. /. PhU. i883-(»3,

* His treatment of Thucydides is ably criticised by Adolf Bauer, Tkak. und B. MUllcr-Slrubing, Ei» Beitrag xur Gcsch. der philologischeit Melhmle (Nordlingen, 1887). Life and biblit^raphy in 5»D^r. /oArA. 1897,88—105.

lOO'

SIC

CHAP. XXXI.] ZIEGLER. . O. SCHNEIDER. WESTPHAL. IS/

uss of Theocritus led to his paying foui visils Co Italy. After the first of these (1S41-1) he published the earliest of his critical editions (1S44). During his second visit in 1864 he discovered in the Ambrosian Library what is now known as Idyll xxx. Two further editions followed in 1867-79. ^^ ^^ edited the Ambtosian scholia, as well as Theognis, Bion and Moschus, with four school-editions of the Ipiigeneia in Tauris. Lastly, he produced an excellent series of illustrations of Roman topography'. He was a school -master at Stuttgart for Chiily-one years (184S-76), led a frugal and a happy life, left his library to his school and devoted the rest of his resources Co founding stipends for poor students at Stuttgart and Ulm '.

The text of the Bucolic Poets was ably edited in 1855-9 by H. L. Ahrens (1S09— t88i), the learned explorer of the Greek dialects'. Theocritus was fully expounded by Adolph Theodor Hennann Ahreni Fritische (1818—1878), a pupil of Hermann, and a professor PritjBth"' at Giessen and Leipzig. Of his two editions, the first had German notes*; the second, a very elaborate Latin commentary'. He also expounded the Saltrcs of Horace (1875), and edited \a the early parf of his career the eighth and ninth books of the Nicamackian, and the whole of the Eadanuat Ethics (1847-51)'.

Two editions of Apollonius Rhodius nere published in 1851-4 by Rudolf Merkel (1811—1885), who is even better known as an editor of Ovid'. Callimachus was elaborately edited in 1S70-73 by Otto Schneider (1815 — 188a), who studied under Schomann at Gieifewald, and under Boeckh and Lachmann in Berlin, where his closest friends were Merkel and Hertz. His earliest work was on the sources of the scholia to Aristophanes (1838), and he afterwards proposed many emendations ol the text'. Meanwhile, he had published his Nicandrta (1856), the two volumes of his index to Sillig's Pliny (1857), and his school -edit ion of selec- tions from Isocrates (1859-60). From 1843 to 1869 he was a school-master at Gotha, where the present writer remembers visiting him after he had retired from scholastic work. Eminent as a scholar, he was also excellent as a teacher, and frank and straight -forward as a man*.

The theory of Greek Rhythm and Metre was ably treated by Rudolph Westphal and August Kossbach. Westphal (1816—1895), who studied at Marbuig, became a ' privat'docent ' at Tubin- gen, and an 'extraordinary' professor at Breslau {1858-61), and, after livmg

O. Sch

Westphal

• 1873-7; school-ed., 1881.

' Biogr.Jahrb. 1888, 47-53. ' Cp. p. 130 supra.

• 1857; ed. 1, 1869. * 1865-9.

• Biogr./ahrb. 1878, i. ^ p. 19J >«fra.

« fhilal., and Fleckeisen's/aAr*. (1876-80). ' Biogr.Jahrli. 1880, 8 f.

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158 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

at Halle and Jena, and spending six years in Russia, passed the rest of his life at Leipiig, and al BUckeburg, the place of his billh'. Rossbach (1813 — 1898) studied under Hermann at Leipdg and under Bergk at Marbu^, where he made the acquaintance of Westphal, and married his sister. He taught at Tubingen (iSji-C), and was professor al Breslau for (he last forly-lwo years of his life. He is there commemorated by a portrait-bust as the founder of the archaeological museum. His independent works included a Teubner text of Catullus and Tibullus, and Researches on Roman Marriage {1853). illustrated (in 1871) by sculptured monuments'.

In the study of Greek metre, Rossbach went back to Che original aathority, Aristoxenus, and, in conjunction with Westphal, formed a plan for a joint work on (1) Rhythmik; (3) Metrik; (3) Harmonik, Orgaaik, md OrchesHk. Rossbach's volume on Rhythmik (1854) was the first to set forth the ancient system of Rhythm, with constant reference to Pindar and the Greek tragic poets. Their joint work on MeSrik (1856) marked a great advance, and was well received by Boeckh, and by Bergk and Lehrs, and even by (he strictest adherents of Hermann. This was followed by Weslphal's Harmonik and Milepoie (1863), his 'General Greek Metrik', his revision of Rossbach's Rhythmik, and his edition of ' Plutarch', Dt Musica (1865).

After ten years of associated work, Weslphal had meanwhile patted from Rossbach. Westphal afterwards produced a Teubner text of Hephaestion with Vk^ scholia {i%id), and an edition of Arisloxenus (1883-93). His treatise on Greek Music (1883) was followed in 1885-7 by a third edition of Rossbach and Wcstphal's joint work, under the new title of ' The Theory of the Musical Arts of the Greeks'. The work has been widely recognised as a masterpiece which marks an epoch in the study of the subject.

The first edition of Rossbach and Westphal's .^^/rii formed the foundation

of the work of J. H. Heinrich Schmidt (born in 1830) 'on the

Schmidt ' artistic forms of Greek poetry, and their significajice '. The

choral lyrics of Aeschylus and Pindar are included in the first

volume {1868); those of Sophocles and Aristophanes, in the second (1869);

and those of Euripides, in the third (1871), while the fourth volume (1871)

states tlie author's views on Prosody and on musical Rhythm, in which he

ignores the ancient writers on the theory of Rhythm and Metre, and trusts

solely to the evidence of the extant remains of choral lyric poetry'.

' Biogr. Jahrb. 1895, 4.0—90; Bursiat^ 11981 f. His earliest independent works were papers on the taw of the final syllable in Gothic (iSjl)) and on the form of the oldest Latin poetry. His 'Latin Verbal Flexions' (1871), and 'Comparative Grammar' (1873), were krgely founded on the labours of others.

" Biogr.Jahrb. 1900, 75 — 85; Bursian, ii 9S4 f.

' Bursian, ii 990 f. His introduction to the Rhythmic and Melric of the Classical languages was translated by Prof. J. W. White (1877-9). He is also the author of four large volumes on Greek 5fnonj'B>(i6(i8j6-86). C^.A.J.F. vii 406 f. It ha!< been ascertained that he is stilt living, and tliat, amid the

lOO'

SIC

CHAP. XXXI.] DAHLMANN. POPPO. CLASSEN. 159

The musical instruments and ihe musical theories of the Greeks were specially investigated by Karl von Jan (1836—1899), who studied at Erlangen, Gotlingen, and Berlin. In Berlin he ^""J""

was led by Gerhard to examine the stringed instruments of the Greeks. He next turned his attention to the study of the texts, and took part in the con- troversies excited by the publications of Westphal. The discovery of the Delphic hymn gave the final impulse to the publication of the work of his life:— his edition of the i'(Ti>'i>r«/l/ujtr:i' GnuH (iS^s)'.

Passing from scholars concerned mainly with Greek poetry to the special students of prose, we note that the Life of Herodotus was the theme of an interesting work* by Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1786 — 1860), who studied at Copenhagen, Halle, and Dresden, and was professor at Kiel, and at Gottingen from 1829 to 1837. In the latter year, Dahlmann and the brothers Grimm, and Gervinus, were among the seven professors who were dismissed for protesting against the violation of the constitution by the king of Hanover'. He sub- sequently lived at Leipzig and Jena, and passed the last eighteen years of his life as a professor at Bonn'.

Among the editors of Thucydides a place of honour must be assigned to Ernst Friedrich Poppo (1794 — 1866), who studied at Leipzig, and was Director of the gymnasium at Frankfurt on the Oder from 1817 to 1863. His larger edition, in eleven volumes, appeared in 1821-38; his smaller, in four, was first published in 1843-51.

Johannes Classen (1806 — 1891), who was born at Hambui^ and studied at Leipzig and Bonn, was for twenty years a master at Liibeck, for eleven Director of the gymnasium at Frankfurt on the Main, and from 1864 head of the school of his native place, where he died at the age of 85. His earliest work, De Grammaticae Graecae Primordiis (1829), was followed, many years later, by his excellent edition of

active occupations of a hale old age, he has applied his metrical principles to the newly discovered nomos of Timotheus and to the odes of Bacchylides. On the recent history of the study of Greek and Roman Metrik in Germany, see Radermachet \ti Jakresb. cxxiv 1 — ii,

1 Biogr./ahrb. 1900, 104— 114.

' Herodot. Aus siineiit Buche sdn Ltbm (1814) ; E. T. 1845.

' Cp. Boeckh and K. O. Muller's Briefwechstl, 401.

' G. Beselet in Unsere Zeil, vi 68—78; A. Springer (Leipzig, 1870).

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j6o GERMANY. [CENT. XIX,

Thucydides with German notes, first published in 1862-78, At the age of 70 he wrote an interesting monograph in memory of Niebuhr, in whose house he had Hved as a private tutor before beginning his scholastic career'.

A critical text of Xenophon' was produced in 1869-76 by Karl Schenkl (1827 — 1900), who studied at Vienna and, after holding a mastership at Prag, was ap- pointed to professorships at Innsbruck (1858), Graz (1863), and Vienna (1875). His other works included a Greek-German (1858') and German-Greek school-lexicon (1866^), and editions of Valerius Flaccus {1871) and Ausonius (1883). With Benndorf and others, he took part in editing the Imagines of the Philo- strati; in conjunction with W. von Hartel, he founded the Wiener Studien ; he was general editor of a useful series of Greek and Latin texts published in Prague and Vienna; and, late in life (like Bonitz in his day), he was pubUcly honoured as the Prae- ceptor Austriae'.

The Oeeonomiai!, AgtsUaus, Hieron, Hellaoia, Memorabilia, Cyropaediia and Anabasis were all edited between 1841 and 1875 bjr Ludwig Breitenbach (1813 — 1885), who was bom at Erfurt, educaled at Scbulpfona, studied under Bernhardy at Halle, and was from 1840 to i860 a master, mainly at Wittenberg. He was ultimately compelled to resign that position owing to extreme deafness. His favourite authors were Xenophon and Goelhe*.

The Anabasis has often been edited separately. An improved text was produced in 1878 by Arnold Hug {1831 — 1895), who studied under Kiichly at Zurich, and under Welcker and Ritschl at Bonn, was a master at Winteithur from 185$ and professor at Zilrich from 1S69 to 1SS6, when he was laid aside by paraly^s Tor the remaining nine years of his life. He collected some of his popular lectures on Demosthenes etc. in ^isSltiditn (i88i); he also produced a critical text of Aeneas Poliorce- ticus {1874), while his explanatory commentary on Plato's Symposium (1876)' attuned a second edition in 1884. He was prevented by illness from completing his careful revision of the StaatsaUerthiimir of K. F. Hermann*.

' Life in A. D. B., and in Biogr. fahrh. 1905, 19 — 33.

' Anabasis and Libri Sixratiii.

' Cp. Wurzbach, Biogr. Lex., and esp. Karl Ziwsa in Osltrreich. Millil- sckuh, 15 pp., and Edmund Hauler in ZHtsck-f. osterreich. Gymnasiea, 1900, xii, 14 pp. ; also Deulseher NekroUg, v 351-8.

* Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, 295-6.

» Also expounded in 1875-6 by G. F. Reltig (1803—1897).

* Biogr. Jahrb. 1896, 95 — 104.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXI.] K. SCHENKL. STALLBAUM. ORELLI. l6l

The text of Plato had been published by Bekker in 1816-23.

A useful edition in ten volumes, with Latin notes, was produced between 1827 and i860 by Gottfried Stallbaum (1793—1861), who had been educated at Leipzig, and spent the last forty-one years of his life at that place, having been appointed Rector of the Thomas-Sekuk in 1835, and extra- ordinary professor in the university in 1840,

Meanwhile an excellent edition of the text was produced at Ziirich by Baiter, Orelli, and Winckelmann (1839- 42), Of these Johann Caspar Orelli (1787 — 1849), the younger cousin of Johann Conrad Orelli (1770 — 1820)*, was educated at Ziirich, where he was inspired with an interest in the Classics by his cousin, and by an older scholar, Johann Jacob Hettinger (1750 — 1819). As chaplain and schoolmaster in the reformed community at Bergamo, Orelli produced a new edition of Rosmini's Vittorino da Felire (1812) ; as a master at Chur, an improved text of Isocrates, De Ptrmutatione, together with an edition of Isaeus, De Menedidis hertdiiate, by his elder cousin, Conrad, and notes on Xenophon's Symposium by that cousin's son, the younger Conrad (1814). As master and professor at Ziirich, he prepared an important critical text of the whole of Cicero (1826-38), the second edition of which was completed by Baiter and Halm (1846-62). Of his many other works the best known are his annotated editions of Horace (1837-8) and of Tacitus (1846-8).

Orelli's principal partner in the edition of Plato, and his successor in that of Cicero, was Johann Geoi^ Baiter (1801 — 1877), *ho was born at Ziirich, studied at Munich, Gotdngen, and Konigsberg, and from 1833 was one of the principal masters at the gymnasium, and extra- ordinary professor at the university of Ziirich. He was not only associated with Orelli as an editor of Cicero and Plato, but also with Sauppe in their joint edition of the Oraforts Atiici.

The third of the partners in the edition of Plato was Ai^ust Wilhelm Winckelmann, who was born in Dresden (1810), and began his career by editing the Eulhy- wincit^unn demus of Plato, and the fragments of Antisthenes.

' Editor of the Opasatla Graaorum vito-um smientiosa it maraUa, i8i()-ii. s- I". I,. I ., II, iJft")O^IC

l62 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

He was on the Staff of the school and university of Ziirich from 1834 to 1845, when he returned to his native place. The edition of Plato, in which he was concerned, was founded on the Paris MS and the Bodleian ms, and marked a decided advance on that of Bekker.

The text of Plato was afterwards edited in 1851-6 by Karl Friedrich Hermann (1804 — 1835), who studied at mBiin^ **"■ Heidelberg and Leipzig, and was professor at Mar- burg in i83a-4z, and for the remaining thirteen years of his life at Gottingen. His interest in Plato is well represented by the only volume of his 'History and System of the Platonic philosophy' (1839), and in his 'Collected Papers' {1849). He led the way in forming a true estimate of the value of the uas and the scAo/ia of Persius' and Juvenal'. The points of difference between Hermann and Jahn on the scholia, and the over-fondness for quotations displayed by both scholars, were pleasantly satirised by Haupt'. A still wider reputation was won by Hermann's Manuals of Public, Religious, and Private Antiquities, originally published in 1831-52, with a concise text, full quotations from the ancient authorities, and references to the modern literature. He abo wrote monographs on Laconian Antiquities (1841), on Greek legislation {1849) and penalties {1855), and many programs on points of Attic law*. The range and depth of his learning were most remarkable; the general purport of his teaching on the history of classical civilisation is preserved in a work published by his pupil Gustav Schmidt'.

Plato was the central theme of the extensive studies of Christian Cron

(1813 — 1893) for the last thirty-five years, of his life. Bom at

"" Munich, he held scholastic appointments at Erlangen (1838-

53) and Augsburg (1S53-S5). He produced successful school -editions of

Plato's Ap(^ogy atid Crito (1857), and LcKha (i860); also a treatise on the

Gorgias (1870) and a paper on the Eulhydemus (1891)'. In

DeuKhIt j^^ ^^^ ^j. ^ |.^ \,^^f,„ life, Julias Deuschle {1818— 1861),

■ Ltctianes, 18+1; Anaiecia, 1846; text, 1854, ' De codd. 1847; Schol. 1849; f'iW«-iiw, and text, 1854. ' Belger's Haupl, 61 f. * Bursian, ii ii6j n.

' Cttlturgtschichte der Grie<htn u. RBmer (1857-8). Cp. Bui^an, ii 1.61-3.

' S-Bei: MunUh Acad.

CHAR XXXL] K. F. HERMANN. WESTERMANN. SAUPPE. 163

who was on the staff of a gymnasium in Berlin, wrote able dissertations on Plato's Cralylas^, and the Platonic Mjlhs', and edited the Gargias and Praia- geras {vi;,^i).

The Attic Orators formed a. large part of the theme of the elaborate 'History of Eloquence in Greece and Rome' published in 1833-5 ^y AntoQ Westetmann (1806—1869), who, with the exception of his schooldays at Freiberg in Saxony, spent the whole of his life in Leipzig, nhete he was a full professor from 1S34 to 1865. Though not a brilliant, or even a stimulating, teacher, he was always clear and thorough. His four papers on questions connected with the history and criticism of DenHtsthenes' and on the documents quoted in the Meidias* and other speeches', were followed by his well-known edition of Select Speeches'. He also edited a text of Lysias, Plutarch's Solen, the Philostrati aod Callistratus, and the Greek Paradoxcgrafhi, Mylhografhi, and Biograpki'.

Baiter's colleague as editor of the Oratorts AlfUi. Hermann Sauppe (1809 — ^1893), was born near Dresden, and studied under Hermann at Leipzig (1827-33). tJ" Hermann's recommendation, he obtained an appointment at Ziirich, where he spent twelve years as a master at the newly organised cantonal school, besides being from 1837-8 public librarian, and 'extraordinary' professor. He was subsequently director ef the gymnasium at Weimar (1845-56), and classical professor for many years at Gottingen (1856-93).

It was at Zurich that he was associated with Baiter in the comprehensive edition of the Attic Orators in two large quarto volumes (1839-50), the first containing the text founded on the best Mss, and the second the scholia, with Sauppe's edition of the Fragments, and a full Index of Names. Sauppe celebrated Hermann's Jubilee in 1841 by sending him an Epislola Critica of 152 pages of print, with many criticisms on the text of the Orators and of Plato*. He had already been associated with Baiter in an edition of the Speech of Lycurgus against Leocrates

» PlatBt's Sptackphilmopkie {^axhaig. 1851). ' Esp. that in the Fhaedru! (Hanau, 1854). ' Quaistiants Dimesthenkae, 1830-7.

* Dc litis instrumentis (1844).

' Unttrsuchung uberdu...Urkunden (}%i,6).

• Otynthiats and Philippics, Dc Pact and Ciers. ; De Cor., Lepi. ; Aristocr., Con., Eubul. (18JO-1, etc.).

^ Bursian, ii 890-3.

' Reprinleil in AiisgewdhUc Schrijt/n, pp. 80 — 177.

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l64 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

(1834), and of the Fragments of that orator, and, in the interval between the first and second volume of the Oratores Altici, they brought out a translation of the second edition of Leake's Athens (1844).

Sauppe's independent work included an edition of the First Pkilippk and Ofynthiacs of Demosthenes with Latin notes, and a German edition of Plato's Protagoras; an edition of Philodemus, Tt-tp\ KUKiiav, and an admirable discussion of the authorities followed by Plutarch in his Life of Pericles ; also a long series of papers on Greek inscriptions and antiquities, on Lucretius, Cicero, and Floras, and other Latin authors, together with a large number of festal discourses on classical subjects, and funeral orations on classical scholars, mainly delivered at Gottingen'. He was the first to improve the text of Lysias, Isocrates, and Demosthenes, by closely following the best ms of each. His most striking features were the clearness of his style and the simplicity of his character. This simplicity was, however, combined with a pro- found knowledge of human nature, and both aUke had a strong influence on all who were brought into contact with him in the course of a long and strenuous life'-

The Speech of Lycurgus against Lcocrales was edited by Fr. Osann,

G. Pinzger and W. A. Rlume. and the fragments by GusUv

Kiessling. Antiphon and Dinarchus, as well as Lycorgus,

were edited in 1S36-41 with ciitic&l and explanatory notes by Eduacd

Maetinet, who was bom at Rostock (1805), and, after studying at Greifswald

and Heidelberg, was a school -master at Bromberg in 1831-5, and in 1838

became Director of the first high-school for gitls in Berlin. His later work

. was mainly connected with English and French Grammar.

Andocides was edited in 1834 by Karl Christian Schiller (1811 — 1873), w''" K C Schill '"^^ Maeiiner) was bom at Rostock; he edited Andocides immediately after the close of his university career at Leipiig. A text of Lysias was first produced in iBji by KarL Friedrich Scheibe (1814 — 1869), Rector ol ^ gymnaaum at Dresden. Select Orations of Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes and the whole of Aeschines, had been edited in 1813-34 by Johanu Heiorich

1 Cp. Amgauiihlte Schriften {ii^), 86a pp.

* His library now belongs to the Columbia Univ., New York. His portr^dt is prefixed to the Ausg. Sckr. Cp. Bursian, it 849, 858-60; Wjla- mowiU, in Gelt. Gtlekrt. Nathr. 1894, 36—49; and LothhoU in N. Jahrb. 1894, 199—304-

,1^.00'

SIC

CHAP. XXXI.] SCHdMANN. l6S

Bremi (1771 — 1837), a nalive of Zurich, wbo was educated at his native place by Hottinger, and afterwards studied at Halle under F. A. Wolf. He republished Wolfs edition of the Lefiiines in iSji. In the early part of his career he edited Nepos (1796) and Suetonius ((800), and, from that dale to rSig, was a professor at Ziiiich'.

Select Orations of Lysias were admirably edited with German notes by Rudolph Rauchenstein (1798 — 1879), who b^[an his classical studies under Doederlein at Bern, and continued them under Fassow at Breslau, where he produced a prize -dissertation on the order of the Olynthiais (1819)'. In 1811-66 he was Master (and for many years Rector) of the cantonal school at Aarau, and continued to take an active interest in the school lo the end of his long life. He edited Selections from Lysi^ (184^, <Az.) and Isocrates (1849, etc.)^. He also published papers on Pindar*, and on the Agamaunim and Eumtniiiis', and on the Akeslis and Iphigenda i'h Tauris*.

Selections from Lysias, with long and elaborate German notes, were subsequently published in 1866-71 by Hermann Frohhercer _ (1830—1874), who studied at Leipzig and was a school- master for the rest of his short life.

An able and comprehensive edition of Isaeus was published in 1831 by Geoi^ Friedrich Schomann (1793 — 1879), a scholar of Swedish descent, the son of an advocate and notary at Stralsund. Afler studying at Greifswald and Jena, he was for seven years a school-master at Greifswald, and for fifty-eight a teacher in the university, being professor of Eloquence for the last fifty-two years of his life. He was Rector of the university on four occasions, including the commemoration of its fourth centenary in 1856, when he discharged his duties with the highest distinction. As a student at Jena, he had owed little to the teaching of Eichstadt, whose superficially elegant Latinity formed a striking contrast to the pithy and eminently original and yet thoroughly classical style of Schomann. His own love of concrete facts attracted him to the difficult and almost unexplored province of the constitutional system and

' Bursian, ii 749 n. 1.

' Published with Preface by Passow and Observations on the Philippics by Bremi (i8ii); also abridged and revised in Bremi's Dem. Oral. Sili^lae (iSlg). ' Paneg. and Areop.

< Einleitung, 1843; Comminlaliima, 1844-5. ' 1855-8. • 1847-60. Cp. Bivgr. fahrb. 1879, i — %.

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l66 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

legal procedure of Athens. His early Latin treatise, De Comitiis Atheniensium (1819), was published two years after Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens, and was dedicated to Boeckh, under whose influence it was written. Meanwhile, in i8io, Boeckh's favourite pupil, Moritz Hermann Eduard Meier, was invited to Greifswald. In the same year Schomann produced his treatise De sortitione judicum aptid Aihentenses, and, in 1823, was nomi- nated to an extraordinary professorship. In 1824 Meier and Schomann published their joint work on Attic Procedure^. Meier left for Halle in 1835, while Schomann remained and became a full professor in 1837 and librarian in 1844. His interest in Attic law led to his producing his translation (1830) and his annotated edition of Isaeus {1831), while his equal interest in Greek constitutions prompted him to edit Plutarch's Agis and Cleoments (1839). In the previous year he had produced his systematic Latin work on the Public Antiquities of Greece', followed in 1855 by his German ' Handbook ' on the same subject'. In 1854 he published his able critique on Grote's treatment of the Constitutional History of Athens'.

Partly under the influence of R. H. Klausen (1807 — 1840), the author of the Theologutnena Aeschylea (1829), Schomann became interested in ancient Religion. He was thus led to produce an edition, and a German translation, of the Prometheus Vinclus, with an original German play on the theme of Prometheus Solutus (i844);_to translate and expound the Eumenides {iZ\$), to comment on Cicero, De Natura Deorum (1850 etc.) and on the T/ieogony of Hesiod, besides editing the whole of the text (1868).

Similarly, the influence of Otto Jahn, his colleague in 1842-7, may be traced in his papers on classical archaeology in 1843-7'. In his public lectures be devoted much attention to Greek and

' Der atlische Process, iRi+; ed. Lipsiua, 1883-7.

' Antiquitaies jvrii pubUri Gratconim, 1838.

* HatKibmh der griichischen AtterthuHur, r85s-9 (E.T. vol. i, 1880); ed. 4 I.ipsius, 181)7 — 1901-

' E. T, by Bernard Bosanquet, 1878.

» Uebcr die Schonkeit {\»^^\ Winekeimann smA Die Genien {\%i,iy, Hera (,8+j).

„.,.,n,>..OO^^IC

CHAP. XXXI.] SCHOMANN. 167

Latin Syntax, and in 1864 wrote a paper on the teaching of the old Greek Grammarians as to the Article', and a treatise on the points of permanent value in the ancient views as to the Parts of Speech", In 1827-68 he produced a long series of university programs, collected in the four volumes of his Opusoita (1856-71), including papers on his special departments of study, and also on the poems of Theognis, and on 'the silence of Homer".

In the preface to his 'Greek Antiquities' he states that his aim was never to leave his readers in any doubt as to what he regarded as certainly trae, or as only probable. His Latin prose has been already noticed ; his German style is regarded as in the highest degree plain, popular, and perspicuous. His polemical writings supply examples of every variety of tone. He is respectful towards Grote, conversationally familiar towards K. J. Caesar, humorously ironical with G. W. Nitzsch (whose merits he fully recognises), and unsparing in the severity with which he exposes the 'ignorance' of Bake.

He was a bom teacher, but he preferred lecturing to small classes of thoroughly industrious and attentive students. Among his many distinctions he received that of the Prussian ' Order of Merit' in 1864. With the exception of three half-years as a student at Jena, he spent the whole of his academic life in a small but not undistinguished university in the extreme North of Germany, where he found himself able to concentrate his powers on those studies in which he was a recognised master. He had a certain hardness of manner, which made people shy of him, but they soon found themselves reconciled to it by his strict sense of justice, and he was not without traits of distinct good-will. Though he loved a life of retirement, he was always cheerful in really congenial company. In his latter days, he was almost the sole survivor of the great age in which the foundations of modem scholarship were laid under the influence of Wolf*.

' Jahrb.f. Philol. Suppl. v. ' Du l^hre von den RtdetheiUn nach d/n Alien.

' iti 1—29. For his views cm the Homeric question cp. his review of G. W. Nitzsch lajahrb. /. Phil. Ixix (1854), 1 f. iigf. * F. S(usemihl) in Biogr. Jahrh. 1879, 7—16.

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l68 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Schiknann's collaborator in Ibe Atlische Prociss, M. H. E. Meier (1796 — '855), who was professor at Halle for the last iwenly years of bis life, produced many programs, mainly On Andocides and Theopbrastus, whicb were afterwards collected in his Opuscula (1861-3).

Isocrates was studied with the minutest care by Qustav Eduard Benseler (1806— 1868), who was born and bred in the Saxon town of Freiberg, to which he returned after studying at Leipzig under Hermann in 1825-31. At Frei- berg he was a school-master from 1831 to 1849, when his public career was interrupted for five years by his imprisonment on political grounds in the castle of Ostenstein at Zwickau. For the remaining fourteen years of his life he lived in retirement at Leipzig.

In 1829 he began a translation of Isocrates, which did not extend beyond the fourth volume (1831). His other early works were his editions of the Areopagiiicus and Evagoras (1832-4), followed by his careful and comprehensive treatise of 557 pages on Hiatus in the Greek Prose of (i) the Attic Orators, and (2) the Historians (1844), While he was still in prison, his critical text of Isocrates was in course of publication in the Teubner series'. It was during the same interval of seclusion that he prepared his text and translation of selections from Isocrates (1854-5). This was followed by a text and translation of Aeschines in three parts (1855-60), and of Demosthenes in ten (1856-61)5 of which five at least were by Benseler. His Greek and German School-lexicon was published in 1859, and his excellent edition of Pape's lexicon of Greek proper names in 1863-70. He was also one of the editors of the fifth edition of the Greek lexicon of Passow*.

While critical editions of the whole of Demosthenes had been produced by Bekker, Dindorf, and Baiter and Sauppe, the text and the I^tin translation were edited in Didot's series in 1843-5 by Johann Theodor Voemel (1791 — 1868), who afterwards published editions of the Public Orations in 1856, and the De Corona and De Falsa Legations in i86z, with full and elaborate apparatus criticus. Voemel had Studied at Heidelberg. After holding minor scholastic appoint-

' Vol. 1(1856), vol. ii (1851). " Cp. Bursian, ii 903, and p. 1 1

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XXXI.] BENSELER. VOEMEL. A. SCHAEFER. 169

ments at Weitheim and Hanau, he passed the last fifty years of his life at Frankfurt, where he was Rector of the gymnasium for more than thirty years (1822-53). ^''^ ^^^ ™°s' elaborate of his Demosthenic editions were produced after he had retired from that office.

Editions of the speech against Androlion (1831} and of the Olynlhiaet (1834) were produced by Karl Hermann Funkhaenel (1 808-7 +), for many years Director of the school at Eisenach, and the author of numerous critical papers on Demosthenes. The speech against ^m/^ra/<.waselaboralelyeditedini845byErnst(Chrislian) ^ ^ ^^^^ Wilhelra Weber (1796—1865), for forty years on the staff of ' " the gymnasiuBi at Weimar.

Select Speeches were edited with German coles by Weslennann' in l8jo-l, and by Carl kehdanlz (i8t8— 1879), whose edition of the 'Twelve Philippics' (i860) was superseded by thai of the ' '""

'Nine' (i86i). Bom at Landsberg an der Wirlhe, east of Berlin, he was educated for six years at the principal gymnasium of that city, and for three at the university. He was himself a master at the above gymitaiium from 184O to 1851, and at Halberstadt until 185S. In 1859 he visited Italy In connexion with his study of Demosthenes. He was successively Reclor of the schools at Magdeburg, RudulstadI, and Kreutzbuig in Upper Silesia; and he transformed the last two of these into classical schools in accordance with the Prussian requirements. Even his illness during the last year of his life did not prevent his conlinning lo take the work of his highest class. He was an admirable teacher, and had a special genius for interesting his pupils and inspiring them with lofty ideals. His earliest work, on the Lives of Ipbicrates, Chabrias and Timolheus (1845)1 appeals to scholars rather than to school'boys, for whom he subsequently produced an excellent edition of the Anabasis (with a critical appendix). The thoroughness of his sludy of the Allic Orators is attested, not ordy by his editions of the Public Speeches of Demosthenes, but also by ihat of the speech of Lycurgus, and by numerous papers In the Jahrbuchir fiir PhUologie*.

The Philippics of Demosthenes and the speeches of Aeschines were edited by Friedrich Franke {1805—1871), Rector of St Afra's at Meissen for the last twenty-six years of his life. An etahorale critical edition of AescKines was prodaced in 1S65 by Ferdinand Schultz (h. 1819), afterwards Director ol "Cdk gymnasiam at Charlottenbui^.

The Life and Times of Demosthenes were elucidated in 1856-8 in an admirable historical work by Arnold Schaefer (1819— 1883), who was educated at Bre- men, where he selected the De Corona as the theme of his

' p. 163 supra. ' Biogr. fahrb. 1879, 1—4.

„.,,„, ^.oogic

I70 GERMANY. [CENT, XIX.

valedictory discourse. Ac Leipzig, he studied mainly under Hermann and Haupt, as well as Klotz and Wachsmuth, while among his contemporaries at that university, and his life-long correspondents, were Max Miiller and Hercher. During his tenure of a mastership at Dresden, he produced a treatise on the Pseudo-Plutarchean 'Lives of the Ten Orators'. At Dresden he saw much of Georg Curtius, and of Kochly, until the latter became more and more perilously interested in politics. Though less advanced than his friend, Schaefer published many articles on the critical events of 184S-9. In 1847 he produced the first edition of his frequently reprinted 'Chronological Tables'. In 1851 he was placed on the staff of the school at Grimma, and, in that pleasant and quiet little Saxon town, found time for a large amount of scholarly work'. It was there that he produced the first two volumes of his work on 'The Age of Demosthenes' {1856), followed by a third and final volume two years later. From Grimma he often went over to see his friends at Dresden, and it was there that he first met the future Lord Goschen, in whose home he was stimulated to a new interest in English literature, and especially in the Histories of Thirlwall and of Grote.

In 1858 he entered on ofl!ice as ordinary professor of History at Greifswald. In his published papers he discussed the Spartan Ephors, and the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars; and, in connexion with his lectures, put forth an Outline of the original Authorities on Greek History ending with Polybius (1867), to which a second part, on the Roman Empire down to Justinian, was added in 1881. This outline is justly recc^ised as a most valuable introduction to the study of Ancient History.

In 1S65 he was appointed professor of History at Bonn, devoting most of his time to lecturing, with admirable lucidity of style and attractiveness of manner, on Ancient History down to the end of the Western Empire. In the address which he de- livered as Rector in 1871, he traced the influence of the study of the ancient world on the critical study of History, in and after the days of Niebuhr.

His History of the Seven Years' War, founded on the Prussian Archives and on those in the British Museum, and inspired by a » Das anmulige itUli Grimma (Ptef. to Dtm. u. s. Zdt).

CHAP, XXXI.] bSHNECKE. F. G. KIESSLING. 17I

warm admiration of Frederick the Great and of William Pitt, was begun in 1867 and completed in 1874. In October of that year he started on a tour in Greece, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, taking Rome on his return in the following spring. His love of teaching led him to decline the honour of being Director of the Public Archives. In the spring of 1879 he visited Sicily and Romei in 1880, Olympia and Athens; in 1881, Spain and Algiers. A severe attack of rheumatism during his return compelled him in the autumn to resort to Gastrin, Baden, and the Isle of Wight. In November, i88z, the completion of the zsth year of his professorship was celebrated by the publication of a volume of historical papers by nineteen of his former pupils. In 1883, after spending some weeks at San Sebastian, he returned with renewed strength to prepare the second edirion of his historical work on Demosthenes. On November 19th, he lectured in the forenoon, attended a meeting of the Faculty in the evening, enter- tained some of his pupils at his house, was attacked by a sudden stroke of paralysis at midnight, and passed away by a painless death at an early hour of the following morning. He was remark- able for the depth and extent of his attainments, for his gift of lucid exposition, for the perfect harmony of his being, and the nobility of his character'.

Many chronological points connected with ihe life and times of Demosthenes had already been minutely investigated' by a pupil of Niebuhr living in Berlin, — Karl Geoig Bohnecke, who subsequently criticised' Schaefer's results. He maintained the genuineness of all the documents i]uoted in the Attic Orators, and only too often devoted his un- doubted acumen and his wide reading to the elaborate snpport of untenable opinions '.

Hypercides was discussed in three papers of 1837-46 by F. Gustav Kiessling (1809-84). The eoiiitf /finfc/j of the Speech against _ _ ~. Demosthenes {1850), and those For Lycophron and Eunenip- pus ([853), published in England by Churchill Babington, gave a new impulse lo the study of that long-lost orator. Of the literature thus produced in Germany it may suffice lo mention Schneidenin's edition of the Lycophron and

' J. Asbach in Biogr. Jahrb. 1883, 31 — 40, and Zur Erinnerung jwilh portrait) 1895, 80 pp.; cp. Bursian, ii 913. ' Forschu»stH {j%^i),

' Dim., Lykurgos, Hyfiireidts, and ihr Zeilatler (1804). * Bursian, ii 914.

i-MM,Googlc

■173 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Euxenippus (1853), and Weslermmn's 'Index Veibotum' to all three speeches (1859-64).

The History of Attic Eloquence was made the theme of an admirable historic survey by Friedrich Blass {1843 — 1907)' Born at Osnabriick and educated at the local gymnasium under B. R. Abeken (the author of Ciixro in seinen Brirfen), he studied at Gottingen under Sauppe, and at Bonn under Ritschl and Otto Jahn. After holding scholastic appointments in various parts of Germany, he distinguished him- self as a classical professor at Kiel in 1876-92, and at Halle for the remaining fifteen years of his life.

A dissertation on Ihe rhetorical (realises of Dionysius of Halicamassus, written for bis degree at Bonn in 1863, was the germ of his earliest substantial work, that on the history of Greek oratory from the age of Alexander to that of Augustus (1865). This was followed by the greatest of hb works, the four volumes of Die Allische Btrtdsamkiit (1868-80), which attained a second edition in 1887-98. For the Teubner series he edited texts of all the Attic Orators except I.ysias and Isaeus; he repeatedly revised Rehdantz' Fhilippies, and produced a school edition of the Di Corona, and of eight of Plutarch's Liiiis. His critical texts of the 'kBi^raiat ToXirtfiL (tSQi) and of Bacchylides (1898) passed through several editions. His treatise on the pronunciation of Ancient Greek' and his Grammar of New Testament Greek were translated into English; and he produced a carefully revised edition of the first half of Ktlhner's Gretk Grammar, and critical editions of the two works of St Luke, besides writing on the 'Philology of the Gospels' and the 'Criticism of the New Testament '. In the interval between his two works on the Rhythm of Greek Prose', he published a sober and sensible treatise on Interpolations in the Oifyssey {1904), in which the Peisistratean edition of the Homeric poems is frankly denounced as 'an absurd l^^d '. His latest works were his com- mentaries on the Choepkoroe (1906) and the Eumemdes (1907).

He held that the rhythm of artistic prose {in Latin as well as in Greek) depended on the symmetrical correspondence between the clauses viUhin the period, and not solely on the metrical value of (he last few syllables of the sentence ; and he applied this principle to the text of the 'Aflijrafui' mXirf/o, as well as to that of Demosthenes. In the latter he assigned a perhaps exag- gerated importance to the evidence derived from citations and imitations, and also to the law of composition, whereby Demosthenes, so far as possible,

' 1870 etc.; E. T. ofed. 3 by W. J. Purton (Cambridge, 1890).

' (1) Rhythmen der Attiscken Kunstprosa {1901); (i) DU Rhylkmm der Asianischen und Ronischen Kunstprosa (1905), noticed by J. E. Sandys in CI. Ra,. xxi (1907), 85 f,

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXXI.] F. BLASS. BRANDTS. ZELLER. 173

avoids the juxtaposition of three or more short syllables'. His published works frequently brought him into friendly relations with English scholars. In r879 ^^ '"'^ '^' guest of the editor of the aStie princeps of Hypeieides, Churchill Babington; in that year, and again, many years later, he visited Cambridge, while, in London and Oxford, and in Dublin (where he received an honorary degree in 1891), he repeatedly gave proof of his remarkable skill in deciphering and identifying the fr^ments of Greek papyri and in restoring the lacunat in the Aflnrolui' xoXirila and in Bacchylides. One of the most modest and most unselfish of men, he was ever ready to place the results of his learning and of his acumen at the serviee of others'.

From the scholars who studied the Attic Orators we turn to the exponents of Greek philosophy. Histories of Greek and Roman Philosophy (1S35-66), and of the influence of Greek Philosophy under the Roman Empire (1862-4), were published hy Christian August Brandis (1790 — 1867), who was born at Hildesheim, studied at Kiel and Got- tingen, was privat-docent at Copenhagen in 1813, secretary to the Prussian Embassy in Rome in 1816, and (with the exception of two years at the court of king Otho in Greece, 1837-8) professor at Bonn from 1821 to his death in 1867. His earlier works included a treatise on the Eleatic philosophers (1813), and an edition of the Metaphysics of Aristotle and Theophrastus, with the ancient scholia (1823-37). He afterwards edited the scholia for the Berlin Aristotle*.

Eduard Zeller, who was bom in Wtirttemberg in 1814, and studied at Tiibingen and Berlin, was successively professor at Bern, Marburg, and Heidelberg (1862- 72), and since that date at Berlin. The first edition of his well- known History of Greek Philosophy in three large octavo volumes (1844-52) was begun while he was a privat-docent in Theology at Tiibingen, and was finished while he was professor of Philosophy at Marburg.

' Cp. Demosthenes, First Phil, and Olynthiacs, ed. Sandys, pp. Ixxii-iv.

' J. E. Sandys in Ct. Rai. xxi (1907), 75 f ; cp. J. P. M(ahaffy) in Athi- naettm, 16 March, 1907. Complete bibliography in preparation by H. Rein- hold of Halle.

* E. CurtiusinGotlingen JViirinVAfew, 1867, 551; Trendelenburg's Hw/«(f, Berlin Acad., iStiS. His portrait is included in the monument in memory of the Emperor Friedrich III at Koln.

lOO'

SIC

174 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

The History of Greek and Roman Philosophy ex fontium locis conlexta was first published with notes in 1838 by Ritier Heinrich Ritter (1791 — 1869) and Ludwig Preller

preiier (1809 — 1861)'. The wofk was begun while both

were still at Kiel, and was published when Ritter was already professor at Gottingen, and Preller was leaving for Dorpat, where he stayed for a year only, previous to his appoint- ment at Jena. For the last fourteen years of his life, he was librarian at the neighbouring Court of Weimar. Preller's earlier works included the Fragments of the traveller Polemon (1838). He is well known as the author of standard works on Greek and Roman Mythology (1854-8)'.

Adolf Trendelenburg (1802 — 1871), who was born and bred at Eutin, studied at Kiel^ Leipzig, and Berlin, where he became a full professor in 1:837. His earliest work, o;i Plato's doctrine of ideas and numbers, as illustrated from Aristotle (i8z6), was followed by his edition of the De Anima, his treatise on the Categories (1833), and his Elements of Aristotelian Logic (1826)'. His 'Historical contributions to Philosophy' were pubhshed in three volumes in 1846-7, and his minor works in two (1871)'. Franz Biese, a school- Bteae master at Putbus, (woduced in 1834-42 the two

waiti volumes of his comprehensive work on the Phi-

losophy of Aristotle; Albert Schwegler (1819 — ■ 1857), professor at Tiibingen, edited the Meiafhysus in 1847-8, and also made his mark by his History of Rome (1853-8), and his Histc«y of Greek Philosophy (1859)"; while Theodor Waitz (1821 — 1864), who was bom at Gotha, and studied at Leipzig and Jena, and taught at Marburg for the last twenty years of his life, produced an excellent edition of the Organon (1844-5). The Ethics were edited in 1820 by the versatile Karl Zell (1793 — 1873) and in 1878 by G. Ramsauer. , The able Aristotelian, Hermann Bonitz (1814 — 1888), was 1 Ed. 7, 1888.

' Ed. 4, Carl Robert, 1887-94; Ausgewakltc At^Stie, 1864. Stichling, Geddcklmssride. 1863. » Ed. 8, 1878.

* Bonili, Zur Erimurung. Berlin Abhandlung, 1872 ; Bratuschek (wilh photograph), 1879; Prantl, Gedacklnissrcdt, 1873. ' Teuffel, Sttidien (tfiji), no. 14.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXI.] . BONITZ. 175

educated under Ilgen at Schulpforta, and studied at Leipag under Hermann and Harteiistein, and in Berlin under Boeckh and Lachmann. For thirteen years " he was a schoolmaster at Dresden, Berlin, and Stettin ; for eighteen a professor in Vienna (1849-67), after which he returned to Berlin as Director of the School ' am Grauen Kloster '.

At Hartenstein's first course of lectures at Leipzig, only three students appeared, and it was solely owing to a fourth presenting himself in the person of young Bonitz, that the course was, given at all. This event had an important efiect on the future career of that student; for it was through Hartenstein's giving the Austrian minister, Exner, in 1842, a letter of introduction to Bonitz, — his only acquaintance in Berlin, that the latter ultimately accepted an invitation to hold office in Vienna, and to reform the educational system of Austria.

In his earliest work, the 'two Platonic disputations' of 1837', he gave proof of independence of view, by maintaining that Plato's opinions were not always consistent. He returned to Plato in his 'Platonic Studies' of 1858-60*. Schleiermacher's attempt to deduce a comprehensive scheme of Plato's teaching from the dialogues as a whole was attacked by K. F. Hermann and by Bonitz, who laid stress on the gradual growth and de- velopement of the philosopher's opinions.

Afler thirteen years of scholastic work in Germany, he ac- cepted in 1849 an invitation to fill the Chair of Classical Philology in Vienna, an3^ aid in the reorganisation of the schools and universities of Austria. In 1854 his scheme came into force, and the consequent recognition of Natural Science, as an educational instrument by the side of Classics, was the work of a classical scholar. As professor, he lectured on Sophocles, and on Greek' Public Antiquities, as well as on Plato and Aristotle. The lec- tures were well attended, and the students crowded to his house for advice and guidance on all manner of subjects. His popular lecture on the origin of the Homeric poems is described as an excellent specimen of his manner of teaching'. His suggestions

' (1) Di PlatonU idea boni; (i) De animal mimdanae apud Platontm dementis.

' Ed. J, iSjs; ed. .1, r886. > 1860; cd. j, (88r.

ogic

176 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

on Thiicydides ( 1854) were nearly all of them accepted in Kruger's second edition. In those on Sophocles {1856-7) he aimed at restricting the extent to which Schneidewin had seen 'tragic irony ' in the plays of that poet.

Meanwhile his studies on Plato were being continued, those on Aristotle were attaining their ultimate maturity, and his vast Index Arislotelicus slowly approaching completion. After 1866, when Austria came into conflict with Prussia, fionitz left the land of his adoption for the land of his birth. He accepted the Directorship of an important school in Beriin ; and it was there that, in 1870, he completed his Index Aristotelicus, a work justly eulogised by Haupt in Berlin' and by Vahlen in Vienna'. It marked for Bonitz the close of a long series of labours connected with Aristotle. Those labours had begun with his critical obser- vations on the Metaphysics (1843), Magna Moralia and Eudemtan Ethics {1844), and had been continued in his edition of the com- mentary of Alexander of Aphrodisias on the Metaphysics (1847), and in his own commentary (1848-9). His work on Aristotle, interrupted for a time by his transfer to Vienna, bore its ripest fruits in the five parts of his 'Aristotelian Studies' (1862-7), which had been preceded by his treatise on the Categories (1853). His dream of a new edition of the text of Aristotle remained unfulfilled owing to the pressure of official duties at Berlin. He was undoubtedly one of the greatest scholars of his age. He was in fact a perfect master of that province of classical learning, which includes Greek philology and Greek philosophy'.

Jacob Bemays (1824 — 1881), the son of a Jewish Rabbi, was bom and bred at Hambuig, and studied at Bonn

erniym .^ 1844-8 Under Ritschl and Brandis. After spend-

ing thirteen years at Breslau as a classical professor in a Jewish seminary, and as a teacher in the university (1853-66), he re- turned to Bonn, where he was university hbrarian and 'extra- ordinary' professor for the remaining fifteen years of his life.

During the earlier of the two periods of his life at Bonn, he ,

' OfU!C. iii 168. " Zeilichr.f. d. Sslerr. Gymn. 1872, 531.

• Gompen in Biogr. Jahrb. 18S8, 53—100 (with biblic^raphy, 91— ioo>; cp. Karl Schenkl's Rtde {i888J; Bellermann's Vertrag, and von Hand's K'r/>a^(i889) ; Paulsen, ii 475 f, 563 f, S74fi Bursian, ii 913 f.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXXI.] BERNAVS. 177

obtained the degree of Doctor by producing the first part of his important work on Heraclitus (1848)'. He had already written a prize essay on Lucretius (1846), and, as a 'privat-docent', he lec- tured on that poet and on the introduction of Greek philosophy into Rome, and, subsequently, on the literature of the Epicureans and Stoics. His lectures on the Speeches in Thucydides included a survey of Greek History and Greek Rhetoric, and there were similar surveys in his lectures on Cicero's Letters and Aristotle's Politics. In 1852 he published an excellent text of Lucretius.

After leaving Bonn for Breslau, he produced his classic work on Scaliger', his paper assigning the authorship of the P/iocylidea to a Jew of Alexandria*, and his celebrated treatise on 'Aristotle's lost discussion of the effects of Tragedy' (1857)', In the latter he maintained that, by KadafKri-;, Aristode meant, not a purifica- tion, but a purgation of the emotions of fear and of pity. His reputation was greatly enhanced by this treatise and by the con- troversy that ensued".

Meanwhile in 1852 he had been invited to England by Bunsen, who was eager for aid in his Biblical researches. The result of this visit was an eptstola critica containing a new instalment of his Heracleitean studies'. It was at this time that he gained the friendship of Max Miiller and of Mark Pattison. To Max MuHer he dedicated his work on the Chronicles of Sulpicius Severus, published in 1861 as a contribution to Classical and Biblical study'; to Pattison, his important treatise on the Dialogues of Aristotle in relation to his other works (1863)'. His subsequent work on Theophrastus' treatise On Piety (1866) is described by himself as 'a contribution to the history of religion', with critical and explanatory remarks on Porphyry's treatise On Abstinmce*.

' Cp. Rkein. Mus. i8+(), * 1855 ; Goropen, Essays, itc, 1 17 f.

' 1856; Grt. AM. i 191—161;

* Reprinted in Zvni J ihandtuHgm {t88o).

' Bemays had been anticipated by Weil (i8*7)- Spengel's attempl of 1858 to support Lessing's interpretalion was refilled by Betnays. See also Gompcrz,

• Appendix to part iii of BaasKxCs Artaltcta Anlenkaena (1854); cp. Khan. Mus. 1853.

' Gomperz, Essays, etc., tij-?. ° Gompera, I.e., ii^f.

S. 111.

..m-)glc

1/8 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Imbedded in Porphyry he identified important fragments of the lost work of Theophrastus, besides analysing the treatise, and adding instructive comments on the most varied points of ancient philosophy and on the history of religion and literature. The work was dedicated to the Berlin Academy.

On his return to Bonn (1866), in addition to his earlier courses of lectures, he discoursed on the Pre-Socratic Philosophy, on Suetonius' Life of Augustus, and on the History of Philology from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries'. It was these last lec- tures, and those on Plato, that proved the most popular; those on Aristotle were less well attended, owing to the high standard of work exacted by the lecturer. During the same period he published his treatise ' on the Heracleitean Letters ', a contribu- tion to the literature of philosophy and of the history of religion'; and a translation of the first three Books of Aristotle's Politics, with more than a hundred suggestions for the correction of the text, as well as explanatory comments intended for the general public (1872). In 1876 he presented to the Berlin Academy the text of the Pseudo-Platonic treatise ' on the indestructibility of the world ', the order of which he had restored by detecting in 1863 that certain pages had been misplaced. This was followed by a brief and interesting pamphlet protesting against Lucian's unfair treatment of the Cynics {1879)'. In the following year he republished his two papers on Aristotle's 'Theory of the Drama'; and shortly before his death, he completed a work on ' Phocion and his recent critics' (1881)'. Meanwhile he had produced a large number of articles on Heracleitus and Aristotle, and on Lucretius, Horace, and Cicero, His published works give proof of a wide range of interests, and a rare combination of great critical acumen and profound philosophic insight. Towards the end of his brief life he was contemplating extensive monographs on Gibbon, on the Prophet Jeremiah, and on Erasmus; a new edition of his ' Scaliger ', and a comprehensive statement of his

' He published articles on Polilian and Georgius Valla, on Scaliger, and

on the Corrispsndenci of Bentley (Bicgr. Jakrb. 1881, 80).

' iSfip; cp. Gompera, Essays, etc., 111-3. ' '-*■ "3-5-

' a. 124. Criticised by Gomperz, in Wuner Studim, iv. Die Akademit

und ikr vermiinllkhir Philemacedonismm.

CHAP. XXXI.] BERNAYS. TEICHMULLER. r^g

views on all the writings of Aristotle. It was at his instance that the Berlin Academy began the publication of the Greek commen- tators on Aristotle; he was also eager for the publication of the works of the Neo-Platonists, and for the preparation of a lexicon of Greek philosophy. In German literature his favourite authors were Lessing and Goethe. As a strict Jew, he saw nothing of general society, but he had a high capacity for friendship, and a wide circle of scholarly correspondents. He died in the faith of his fathers and was buried in the cemetery of his community at Bonn, after bequeathing to the university library a complete collection of his works, including all his Scaligerana^.

The Jew and the Greek were united in the person of Bernays, who was at once a strictly orthodox Jew, and a devoted adherent of Hellenic culture'. To Bernays 'Philology' was always the handmaid of History, and History the servant of practical life. Like his great exemplar, Scaliger, he never published lists of emendations, or programs on microscopic points, preferring to deal with each successive theme of his choice as a complete and historic whole'.

Gustav Teichmiillei' (1831—1888), who wa.s bom at [Irunswick, studied under Trendelenburg and others al Berlin. After holding a t 1 >. -11 scholastic appointment for four years al St Petersbui^, he was a professor at Giittingen and Basel, and, for the last seventeen years of his life, at Dorpat. Up to ihe age of forty, his work had been mainly limited to investigations of (he Aristotelian philosophy on the lines of Trendelenburg. In this spirit he had already published the lirst two volumes of his 'Aristotelian Researches'*. His call to Dorpat was the beginning of a new departure marked by the third volume". In his subsequent 'Studies' he (rated the history of philosophical conceptions from Thales to Plalo and Aristotle, and dealt with (he influence of the Greek philosophers on the Fathers, and finally on Spinoza, Kant, and Hegel'. The study of Plato now took a more prominent place in his interests, he came into controversy with Zeller and others, and was led to investigate the Chrouolc^y of the Platonic Dialiigues 0^79)' *"•* the 'Literary Feuds of (he Fourth Century B.C.' (1881-4). He regarded the

' Schaarschmidl, in SiP^r./nir*. 1881, 65—83; cp. Biicheler, in Rkait. Mas. xxxvi 479 f, Bursian, ii 845 n., and Gomperz, Essays etc., 106 — ill- ' Gompeti, /.<:., 109. ' ii. 108 f.

* P(Ktii(im^), Kunst (1869).

» Gesch. As Bigriffs dtr Parmie (1873).

* StadvM zar Gesch. der Begrige, 1874; 1876-5.

n,5,t,7);«iT<£00<^lc

iSo GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Dialt^ues as a series of manifeslos, the date of which was to be determined by polemical refetences to Xenophon, Lysias, and Isocrales, as well as Aristophanes and even Aristotle himaeK. The first of the two volumes on this theme was unfavouiably reviewed by Susemihl and by Blass'.

The eminent Aristotelian, Leonhard Spengel (1803 — 1880), who was educated under Thiersch at Munich, studied under Hermann at Leipzig, and Boeckh and Bekker in Berlin, and was on the staff of the ' old gymnasium ' in Munich until 1835, when he became a professor in the university. After an interval (1841-7), during which he held a professorship at Heidelberg, he returned to Munich, where he occupied a similar position for the last thirty-three years of his life. His early edition of Varro, De Lingua Latina (i8z6), was followed by a survey of the history of Greek Rhetoric down to the time of Aristotle'. In the year of his temporary departure from Munich, he delivered an academic address 'on the study of Rhetoric among the Ancients' (1841), and in that of his return, he edited the Rhetorita ad Alexandrum (1847), which (like Victorius) he assigned to Anaxi- menes. He also published a text of the Rhetores Graea {i&^i-6), and an important edition of Aristotle's Rhetoric with the old Latin translation and with a full commentary {1867). In the Transactions of the Munich Academy he traced the indications of rhetorical artifice in the Public Speeches of Demosthenes', and also criticised the Poetic, the Ethics, Politics, Oeconomics, and Physics of Aristotle*.

His younger contemporary, Carl Prantl (1820 — 1888), a pupil of Thiersch and Spengel in Munich, studied for a time in Berlin. He was on the staff of the univer- sity of Munich from 1843 to the end of his life, having been full professor of Philology from 1859, and of Philosophy from 1864. His first publication was a dissertation on Aristotle's Historia

' Bursian'syo^ritj^. xxx i and 134. Biogr.Jahrb. 1888, 7 — 17.

n scriptores ab inilits usque ad editos 130 pp.,— still a leading authority on this subject.

' Abhatidl. ix (i) (1), and x (i).

* A. Spengel in Biogr.Jahrb. 1880, 3S--59; W. v. Christ, Gedachtnissredt, Munich Acad. (i88i); Buruan, it 736, 915, 9*4> Thurot, Rev. de Philol. v 181—190.

D„:,iP,.-ih,C00glc

CHAP. XXXI.J SPENGEL. PRANTL. SUSEMIHL. l8l

Animalium (1843). His early career was embittered by bigoted attacks on his philosophical opinions ; and at the age of thirty- three his objections to a 'confessional philosophy' led to his finding himself forbidden to lecture on philosophical subjects. Instead of discoursing (as heretofore) on Logic and the History of Philosophy, he was only allowed to deal with the safer topics of the Greek Tragic Poets (1852), and the 'Encyclopaedia of Philology' (l855^. In 1864, however, he was expressly appointed professor of Philosophy, and thenceforth he was neither attacked nor otherwise hindered in respect to the subjects of his lectures. His principal course on Logic and the general survey of Philosophy was attended by more than zoo students from all Faculties.

Meanwhile, he had devoted his enforced leisure to beginning the main work of his life : — the four volumes of his celebrated 'History of the Study of Logic in the West' (1855-70), beginning with Aristotle and ending with the year 1534- He also published a Survey of Greek and Roman Philosophy ', and translations of Plato's Phaedo, Phaedrns, Symposium, Republic, and Apology, and of Aristotle's De eoloribus. Physics, and De Caelo etc., besides Greek texts of those treatises. But his interests were far from being confined to Philosophy and Philology ; he was a Polyhistor in the best sense of the term. His published works include university history, and bic^aphy, and a long series of reviews'.

Franz Susemihl (1826— 1901), who was born in Mecklenburg, and studied at Leipzig and Berlin, settled in 1850 at Greifswald, where he was full professor of Classi- cal Philology from 1863 to the date of his death. Besides writing an important work on the developement of Plato's philosophy", he contributed to the Classical Journals many papers on Plato and Aristotle. He is still better known through his edition and translation of Aristotle's Poetic^, and his three editions of the Politics, (i) the critical edition with the old Latin translation of William of Moerbeke {1872), (2) the Greek and German edition

' 1854; newed. T863.

' Biblic^raphj in Almanack of the Munich Academy, 1S8S, continued in Christ's Gtdachtnissrede, 45—48. Cp. K. Meiser in Bwg. Jahrb. 1889, 1— 14. ' Dit gcaclische EtUviickelung <Ur Platonisehfa PhilosophU (1855-60). * :865 ; ed. a, 1879.

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l82 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

with explanatory notes (1879)', and (3) the Teubner text of 1882, The main results of the seven parts of his Quaesliones Crilicae on xhe^ Poiitics {1867-74) were summed up in a pamphlet of iz8 pages published in 1886*, showing that there were many lacunae in the text, and that the transposition of clauses and paragraphs was often necessary. He also produced a Teubner text of the Ethics (1887), in which, in common with other critics, he proposed many transpositions, especially in the fifth Book. Lastly, towards the end of his life, he puMished a full and minute History of Greek Literature in the Alexandrian Age (1891-2).

The historical and political purport of the Politics was the theme of an important work published in 1870-5 °'"='"" by Wilhelm Oncken (1838— 1905)', who studied at

his native place, Heidelberg, and at Gottingen ; and, after spend- ing eight years as a teacher at Heidelberg, was professor of History at Giessen for the last thirty-five years of his life. He was a member of the German Imperial Parliament in 1874-6, and organised an important series of historical works, to which he contributed three volumes on Modern History. His paper on the Revival of Greek Literature in Italy forms an interesting page in the History of Scholarship*.

Aristotle, De Anima, was edited in 1862 by Adolph Torstrik, who was a master in the Bremen gymnasium until Toriirik his death in 1877. The Fragments of the lost RoK works were carefully collected and elaborately dis-

cussed by Emil Heitz (1825 — 1890) who was a professor at the university of his native place, Strassburg"; and by Valentin Rose, who studied at Bonn as well as in Berlin, the place of his birth (1825), and has been on the staff of the Royal Library in Berlin since 1855*.

' Books I— V have been edited in English with introduction, analysis, and commenlary \)y Susetnihl and R. D. Hicks (1S94).

= Extract bom Jahri.f. d. Phihi. Suppl. nv.

' Die Staalslekre dis Ar. in historitch-folilischin Umriiuit, preceded by Isxratts u. Atken (1861), and HcUas u. Athin (i86g-6).

* VtrhandlungiH dtr xxiii Fhilelogenversammhmg, 1865, ' Dit verlortnm Sthrifien da Ar. (1865). '

• Dt Arhlolelis librorttm ordine It auclarilali (1854); Aristotelcs pstudipi-

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CHAP. XXXI.] ONCKEN. UEBERWEG. VOLKMANN. 183

Friedrich Ueberweg (1826 — 1871) studied at Gottingen and Berlin, began his professorial career at Bonn, and was professor at Konigsberg from 1862 to the end * 'rweg of his life. He was the author of a prize dissertation on the genuineness and the chronology of the Platonic writings^, and an editor and translator of Aristotle's /'oeiie (1875). Ancient Phi- losophy is the theme of the first volume of his valuable Grundriss of the History of Philosophy (i86a-6), — a volume, which, in its e^hth edition, has been revised by Heinze (1894).

The Greek Rhetoricians were edited by Ernst Christian Walz (1802 — 1857), who was educated at Tubingen, where he was appointed 'extraordinary' and 'or- dinary' professor in 1832 and 1836 respectively. The former date marks the beginning and the latter the end of the nine volumes of his Rhetores Graed, a series including many works then printed for the first time. He also wrote archaeological and mythological articles for Pauly's Encyclopaedia, and, in 1838-9, was joint editor of Pausanias with Heinrich Christian Schubart (1800— 1885), who afterwards produced the Teubner text of 1852-4. Schubart, who was bom at Marburg and studied at Heidelberg, travelled in Italy and Sicily, and was for 47 years librarian at Cassel'. Spengel's edition of the most important of the Rhetores Graed, and his other works on ancient Rhetoric, have been already mentioned'.

A systematic conspectus of Greek and Roman Rhetoric' was produced by Richard Volkmann (1832 — 1892), who studied under Bernhardy at Halle, and, after hold- ing minor scholastic appointments, was Director of the ^mnasium at Jauer from 1865 to his death. Besides editing Plutarch's treatise on Music, he wrote an interesting monograph on its author, . as the precursor of Neo-Platonism. Two of his main interests were the study of Neo-Platonism and of Epic Poetry.

^ro/Aiu (1863); Arislotdis qui /crebatUur iibrerum fragments, printed 1867, published in vol. v of Berlin Ar. {1870), and in Teubner text (1886). > Wien, 1861.

* Biogr./ahrb. 1885, 89 — 95. ' p. 180 supra.

* 1871-4 ; ed, 2, 1885 i also a. summary in Iwan Muller's Handbuih ii, ed. 1,637—676.

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184 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

The former is represented in his admirable work on Synesius of Cyrene, and his Teubner text of Plotinus ; the latter, in his early dissertation on Nicander, his papers on Ancient Oracles in hex- ameter verse (1853-8), his Commentationes Epicae, and his critical survey of the influence of Wolf's Prolegomena (1874)^

The Religion, Philosophy, and Rhetoric of the Greeks were only a part of the wide field of learning traversed by Hermann Usener (1834 — 1905), who studied at Heidelberg, Munich, Gottingen, and Bonn, where he was pro- fessor for the last thirty-nine years of his life. The breadth of his erudition is attested by writings on the most varied themes, beginning with Homer', and even including Byzantine Astronomy*, and the scholia on Horace and Lucan. Among his works were the Quatstiones Anaximmeae (1856), and the Analecta Theo- phrastea (1858). In the latter year, in conjunction with his friend, F. Biicheler, and five other scholars in Bonn, he produced an improved edition of the Annals of Granius Licinianus. He published editions of the scholia on Aristotle by Alexander of Aphrodisias and Syrianus, and of the rhetorical works of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, viz. (i) the treatise De Imitatiotte, and {2) a critical text of the whole, in conjunction with Radermacher. His Epicurea is a critical collection of all the ancient authorities on Epicurus, with an elaborate introduction and excellent itidias*. He also wrote on the text of Plato^ and on the history of Greek and Roman Grammar"; on ancient Greek metre', and on Greek cycles*; on the names of the gods', on the mythology of the old Greek epic'", on the History of Rel^ion", and on the legends of

' Gtschichte and Krilik der SVoIfichen Prolegomena zu Homer, 364 pp. 187+, Cp. Biogi: Jahrh. 1891, 81-103.

' De Itiadis caituiue quodam FAeeaieaiiSji).

' Adhistoriam astroiiamiae symbala (1876) ; Be Siephani Alex. (1880).

* Leipzig, 1887.

" Vnser Plalolext,'\Ti Gdltingen Naehr. 1893,35 — 50, 181—115. ' Eitt iilli! Likrgebdude der PAilelogie, in S.-Ber. of Munich Acad. 1892, S8J-648.

' Attgrieckiseher Versbau (1887). r

" Gr. Oktaeteris in Rhcin. Mus. xxxiv 388 f.

• Cr. GSttenmmen, 1896.

« Gr. Epos, in .9. Ber. Vienna Acad. 1897.

" See (in/^r o^ifl) Comm.in honorem Jtfommseni {iHj'j), Sinjiulsagen (1899),

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CHAP. XXXr.] USENER. A. KIESSLING. l8S

certain Saints'. His Anecdoton Holderi (1877) threw light on Cassiodorus and Boethius, and the Roman chronology is illustrated by his edition of the laterculi iviperatorum Romanorum Gram. Some of the ablest scholars of Germany passed through his Seminar, and the high ideal kept in view in his life and in his works has been eloquently set forth by his colleague, Biicheler'.

Polybius was ediled in 1867-71 by FriedtLch Otto Hullsch (1833—190(5), who was born and bred in Dresden, where he was appointed h It h

Rector of his old school, after studjiing in Leipzig. His high malhematical ability was exemplified in his careful editions of Heron and Pappus (1876-8}, and in his important work on Greek and Roman Metrolog}'*.

The text of the ' Roman Archaeology ' of Dionysius of Halicarnassus ■ was edited in 1860-70 by Adolph Kiessling (1837— 1893), who studied at Bonn, and was a professor at Greifswald and at Strassburg. He produced several valuable papers on Plautus and Horace', and was associated with Rudolph Scholl in the joint edition of the commentary of Asconius on Five Speeches of Cicero (1875).

Lucian was edited in 1821-3: by John nn Gonlieb Lehmaim (1781— i8,i7), Director of the gymnasium at Luckau, and in 1836-41, and 1851-3, by Karl Gottfried Jacobitz (1807—1875!, while jbcoT™ F. V. Frilzsche (1806—1887*, editor of the Tkcsmopko- F. V. Fritische riiaasae and Ranat of Aristophanes) produced, in 1860-81, '*'"'"" ^ three volumes of an elaborate critical edition, and Julius Wilhelm Sommerbrodt (1813— 1903) edited selections with excellent German notes and published the readings of the Venice MSS, besides writing valuable papers on the Antiquities of the Greek Theatre'. His critical edition of Lucian was completed in 1899.

The text of the Greek NovelisLs' was ediled by a Member of the Berlin Academy, Rudolph Hercher (1811-1878), who also edited ^^^

the Greek Efislc/ografki, with the minor works of Arrian,

Dreihtit (1903), and Weihnachhfiil (1889) ; and cp. Archivf. Riligionswmm- sthafl, (905. ' S. Pelagia, S. Marina, S. Theodosius.

' Nimjakrb.f. kl. Alt. 1905, 737 — 741 (with portrait); also Wendland in Preuss. Jahrb. 1905, 373f; Dieterich, in Archivf. Religionswiss. 1906, i— xi ; E. Schwartz, Rtik (Berlin, 1906); Olio Kern, ^iot (Rostock, 190(5), 8—10; Usener's Vmiriigi und Aufsdlit, 1907.

' i86j; ed. 1, 1881; F. Radio's /i/aeiruf at Basel Philohgen-Veriamm- lung, Sept. 1907.

* Hursian, ii 848, n. 1. ' Biogr.Jnhrb. 1887, 99— lot.

* 1876, Scenica Collicla. ' Erotici Seriflarti Gratti, 1858-9-

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Aeliln, Aeneas Poliocceticos, and Apollodonis. Hercher was one of Ibe founders of Hermes^.

The Histoiy of the Greek Novel was admirably wriUen in 1876 by Rohde '^''*'" ^"''"'^ (1845—1898), who was educated at Jena and

Hambui^, and was a devoted admirer of Ihe teaching of Rilschl at Bonn and Leipzig. At Leipzig, he and his friend, Nietzsche, com- bined an enthusiasm for riding with an intense interest in classical learning, and they scandalised the more normal students by coming in riding-costume 10 the classical lectures. Both alike were sworn foes of every form of pedantry. When the friends parted in 1867, Rohde went to complete his studies under Ritschl's future biographer, Ribbeck.

His literary career b^an with a paper on the Lucius of Lucian. It was continued by a dissertation on the authorities of Pollux on the Greek Theatre, by his History of the Greek Novel', a brilliant and masterly work (which was partly supplemented by a lecture at Rostock in the same year), and by his sketch of the later Sophists and of their connexion with Asianism'. He lectured with great success at Jena (1876) on Ancient Rhetoric, and at Tubingen (1878) on Greek Philosophy.

Next to the History of the Greek Novel, he altaclted the problems con- nected with the growth of the ancient history of Greek Ulerature. He proved that in the hiogiaphies preserved by Suldas the term "y^ate must refer to the date when an author flourished, and not to the date of his birth'. His subsequent studies on the Chronology of Greek literary history' were models of their kind, and led to important results.

During his brief tenure of a professorship at Leipzig in 1886 he gave a course of lectures on Homer, and, in the same year, he was invited to Heidelberg. The third of his three main interests as a scholar, bis interest in Greek Religion, was first displayed in his lecture on the Eleusinian Mysteries (1880). Its culminating point was reached in his Psyche (1891-4)*, the most important work on the subject that had appeared since Lobeck's Agtaophamus, and far more popular in its method of treatment, and in its style. His main thesis was that the cult of souls was the most primitive stage of religious worship throughout the world, and that there was no reasoti for excepting the Greeks from this general rule- The apparent inconsistency of this cult with the Homeric theology was solved by an analysis of the earliest epics, showing in Homer, and still more in Hesiod, the existence of rudimentary survivals of a more ancient cult. The religion of Ihe old Epics was thus put in a new light ; and the Homeric theology stood out against the dark background of an earlier type of religion. Rohde's interest in the life of Creuzer, one of his predecessors at Heidelbei^, was partly inspired by Ms own study of the history

' BiogT.Jahrb. 1878, 9 f.

' Der griechischt Soman und seine Vorldufer, 1876; ed. i, 1900.

' Rhein. Mus. xli (1886) rjof.

' 1878-9 ; Rhciti. Mus. xxxiit r6i f, 638 ; xxxiv 610.

' t*. xxxvi 380 f, 5i4f. • Ed. 1, 1897,

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CHAP. XXXI.] ROHDE. KUHN. DIETZ. IDELER. 187

of rdigion, and led to his publishing a work which was a conlribuiion to the History of Romance rather than to the History of Scholarship'. He lived to produce in [897 a second edition of his Psycht, in which many additions were made to the notes. He died at the age of 53. The three stages of his literary life had been marked by the study of three historic problems connected with (1) the Greek Novel, (3) the Chronology of Greek Literature, and (8) Greek Religion. His treatment of all three was marked by thoroughness of research, and clearness of exposition'.

The medical literature of Greece was criticised and expounded by Karl Gottlob Kuhn ([754—1840) and Friedrich Reinhold Dieti (1804 — 1836), professors at Leipzig and Konigsbei^ respec- d t

tively. KUhn's edition of the Greek medical writers, publL'Jied in 1811-30, extends to twenty-six volumes, including a Latin translation, with critical and eiegetical commentary and indices. Galen stone iills twenty volumes, and the rest are devoted to Hippocrates, Aretaeus, and Dioscorides, this last being edited by Kurt Sprengel (1766—1833), professor of Medicine at Halle. Dietz, after editing 'Hippocrates on epilepsy' (1817), collated many medical MSS in foreign libraries, but did not live to make use of more than a small part of bis collations, which are now preserved in the library at Konigs- berg. Another short-lived scholar, wbo was also an adept in Natural Science, was Julius Ludwig Ideler (1809 — 1841), who wrote on Greek and Roman Meteorology (1831), and edited Aristotle's Me- idelor

Itorolegica (1834-6), and the Pkysici el Medici Griuci mtnoni*.

' Friedrich Craaa-a, Karolitu v. Giinderedt (1896).

* W. Schmid in Biagr. fahrb. 1899, 87^1 14 (with bibliography); and biographical Essay by O. Crusius, 196 pp., with portrait (rgoi); also E. Weber in Deutscher Nekmlog, vi (1904) 450 — 465. Kleine Schriften in 1 vob., ed. Fr. Scholl, 1901-

* Bursian, ii 931 f.

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CHAPTER XXXII.

EDITORS OF LATIN CLASSICS.

The study of the Latin poets has already been represented by Lachmann, Haupt, and Ritschl'. Ritschl was succeeded at Leipzig by one of the earliest of his pupils, Otto Ribbeck (iSz; — 1898), who studied in Berlin and Bonn, and, on returning from a tour in Italy, held scholastic appointments in Germany. After filling professorships at Bern and Basel (1856-62), he was successively professor at Kiel (1863^72), Heidelberg {1872-7), and Uipzig (1877-98).

His work was mainly limited to the history and the criticism of the earlier Latin poets. He published an important collection of the Fragments of the Latin Dramatists', as well as an edition of Che Miles Gloriosus, a work on Roman Tragedy in the age of the Republic*, and a valuable History of Roman Poetry in three volumes*. He also published a comprehensive critical edition of Virgil, in five volumes', as well as a smaller edition of the text. His work on Virgil had been preceded by his text of Juvenal', and was succeeded by his Epistles and Ars Poelica of Horace, in both of which he evinced an inordinate suspicion of textual interpolations. His numerous minor papers included an important treatise on Latin Particles (1869).

His study of the Latin dramatists led him to their Greek originals. He accordingly published a lecture on the Middle and the New Attic Comedy (1857), discussed Greek and Roman Comedy in his Alazon, a work including his German rendering of the Miles Gloriosus (1882), and wrote on the early cult of

1 Chap. xxK. ' 1855-5; ed. 1, 1871-3; ed. 3, 1897-8.

iSs^-fiS. abridged ed. 1895.

iSjg. Cp. Dcr ecklt »nd der anechte Juvenal (1865).

i-MM,Googlc

CHAP. XXXII. RIBBECK. LUCIAN MULLER. 189

Dionysus in Attica (1869). The story of his life has been partly told by the publication of his Letters, while his own Life of Ritschl is itself a monument of learning, enthusiasm, and good taste'.

Lucian Mullet (1836—1898) was educated at Berlin under Meineke, Moritz Seyffert, and CMesebrecht, and studied at the university of Berlin under Boeckh Maier and Haupt, and at Halle under Bemhardy. After living for five years in Holland (mainly at Leyden), and for three at Bonn, he was appointed professor of Latin Literature at St Petersburg, where he worked for the remaining twenty-seven years of his life.

While he was still a student in Berlin, he produced a dissertation on the Latin abridgement of Homer bearing the name of Pindarus Thebanus. In 186 1 he published his treatise De re metrUa, on the prosody of all the Latin poets except Plautus and Terence, an original work of wide learning, which was only marred by a bitterly polemical spirit A compendium of the same appeared in 1878, tt^ether with a summary of Latin orthography and prosody, followed by a text-book of Greek and Latin Metres'. His critical acumen was attested in his editions of Lucilius (1872) and Phaedrus, and in the Teubner texts of Horace, and of Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertius. In his edition of Horace he adhered closely to the mss, while he admitted some of the best modern emendations, and assumed the existence of interpolations. He also edited the Odes and Efodei with German notes, and produced a text of Namatianus and Porfyrius, as well as papers on the Latin Grammarians, on the Tragedies of Seneca, and on the Latin Anthology. His edition of Lucilius was followed by a sketch of the life and work of that poet, ending with a restoration of a number of scenes from his Satires (1876). In 1884 he wrote a work on Ennius, and published the remains of Ennius, and the fragments of

' Olio Ribbtck, Ein Bild seines Leiens aus seinen BrUfen (1846-98, mainly to relations and friends, including six to Ritschl), ,;5i pp. with two portraits by Paul Heyse (1901); Rfdm und VorlrSge, 1S99; cp. Bursian, ii 713, 84of; Deutsche RuHdschau (Dec. 1898, W. Dilthey), (Feb. 1901, A. Hausralh).

= 1880 ; ed. 5, 1885 ; tiaiisl. into French. Italian, Dutch, and Engliib.

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I90 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Naevius' epic on the Punic War. In the following year he edited the fragments of the plays of Livius Andronicus and of Naevius, and published a work on the 'Saturnian Verse". The fragments of the old Roman poets led him to Nonius, and he accordingly produced in 1888 an edition of that grammarian and lexicographer, extending over 11 27 pages, the index alone filling 55, This led him to write a treatise on Pacuvius and Accius (1889 f), followed by two works of general interest on the artisUc and the popular poetry of the Romans (1S90). After that date he prepared three important works: (i) an enlarged edition of his De re metrica (1894); (2) an annotated edition of the Satires sxvA Epistles of Horace for the use of scholars (1891-3); and (3) a similar edition of the Odes and Epodes, posthumously published in 1900. His ' Life of Horace' had appeared in 1880.

As a child, he had lost the sight of one of his eyes, and was very short-sighted ; as a boy, he repeatedly read through Zumpt's larger Latin Grammar and made himself the best Latinist in his school. During his brief experience as a school-master, he proved an inefTeclive disciplinarian ; his head-master, in the hope of improving the discipline of the boys, solemnly told them that they 'did not deserve to be taught by so learned a master', and repeated this remark to Miiller, who replied, ' YeS ! that is exactly what I have told them myself. He held that, for a great scholar, it was essential that he should have, not only wide learning and clear judgement, but also a strong power of concentration on a definite field of labour. It was this that led to his own success in the province of latin poetry. But he was far from neglecting Greek, for he also held that, without Greek, a fruitful study of Ladn was impossible. He was a skilful writer of Latin verse, and insisted on the practice of verse composition as a valuable aid towards the appreciation of the Latin poets. He was impressed with this fact during the prepararion of his ' History of Classical Philolc^y in the Netherlands' (1865), and he returned to the point in his biographical sketch of the life of Ritschl {1877-8), in the course of which he urged that it was, on the whole, more important for an eminent classical professor to train first-rate school-masters than to turn out classical specialists'.

■ Biogr.Jahrh. 1899, 6j -86 ; cp. Bursian, ii 934-6.

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CHAP. XXXIt.] BAEHRENS. UMPFENBACH.

One of Lucian MilUer's rivals as an editor of Latin poets was his former pupil at Bonn, Emil Baehrens (18+8— 1888). He owed much, not only to the leaching of L. Muller, but also to that of Jahn and Usener; he afterwards studied for a year under Ritschl at Leipiig. In 1871 he visited the Italian lihraries, remaining six months in Rome. In 18J3 he settled for a time as * privat-docent' at Jena, hnt in the next year he was already working in the libraries of Louvain, Brussels, and Paris, and, in 1S75, in those of Paris, London, and Oxford. In 1877 be was appointed professor of Latin at Gioningen, and, being unfamiliar with Dutch, delivered in Latin an inaugural address on the History of Scholarship from the Revival of Learning. He was professor at Groningen for the remaining eleven years of his life.

He began his literary career with a dissertation at Jena, on the Satire ascribed lo Sulpicia. This was followed by his Analecta Catulliatia, and his editions of the Panegyrid Lalini and Valerius Flaccus; his text of and com- mentary on Catullus (1876— 1H85) ; and bis editions of the Silvat of Stalius, and of Tibullu5. In 1878 he produced his Mis<sllama Critiia, a little-known volume of 300 pages including emendations on Q. Cicero, Propertius, Horace's Ars Pottica, and the Agticola of Tacitus. His principal work was his edition of the Poiliu Lalini Minores in five volumes (1879 — 1883). In the laborious preparation of this work he examined more than 1000 MSS. It was supple- mented by his Fragmenla Poetarum Romarurrum (t886). Meanwhile, he was editing Propertius, and the ZVafo^r of Tacitus, proposing as many as 125 con- jectures in the 41 chapters of that work, and, lastly, a text of his favourite Classic, the (?r/aT>ji» of Minucius Felix. The mere titles of all that be produced in the last eighteen years of his life would fill four and a half pages of print.

He was a most industrious scholar, and an excellent teacher, especially in the case of the more diligent students ; and he did much 10 improve the pronunciation of Latin in Holland. But many of his works were marred by over-haste. He saw one of the principal MSS of Catullus for the first time in March, and the other in May, and completed his edition of the text in September. Similarly, the Commentary, for which he had long been making collections, was prepared for the press in less than eleven months. Among his other defects were an exaggerated self-assertion, and an unduly polemical spirit. He excluded himself from society, and accordingly did not know how lo 'give and take'. In his Commentary on Catullus, as well as in his criticisms of the Roman renderings of Aratus, he very seldom quotes from the Alexandrian poets, — an omission which has been attributed to a very superficial knowledge of Greek'.

For the textual criticism of Terence a firm foundation was laid in 1870 by the critical edition prepared by Franz Umpfenbach (1835 — 1885), who, after studying at his native place, Giessen, and also at Gottingen under K, F. Hermann,

' Halbertsma in Biosr. Jahrb. 18^, 7 — 46 ; cp. Baisian, ii 936-8.

D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC

192 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

at Bonn under RitschI, and in Berlin under Boeckh, spent two years in Italy collating the Mss of Terence (1863-5). He began by publishing all the scholia of the Bembine ms, during his five years' stay in Munich'.

The expenses of his seven years' preparation for his edition made it necessary for him to take school-work for three years at Frankfurt, followed by eleven years of similar work at Mainz. A man of good breeding and good manners, he found his later years clouded by his failure to obtain any university appointment, and by his increasing deafness. In the end his brain was touched, and his powers of speech failed him'.

Tibullus is the poet specially associated with the name of Eduard Hiller (1844 — 1891), who was educated under Classen at Frankfurt, and studied under Ritschl and Jahn at Bonn, and under Sauppe and E, Curtius at Gottingen. He was a ' privat-docent ' at Bonn (1869-74), and a professor at Greifswald (1874-6) and Halle (1876-91). His early work was connected with the Greek Grammarians, and Eratosthenes; he also prepared a new edition of Fritzsche's Theocritus and of Bei^k's Poeiae Lyrici, as well as an Anfhologia Lyrica. He edited Tibullus in the Teubner texts, and in Dr Postgate's Corpus Poetarufn Laiinorum (1890)*.

Among the successors of Haupt and Ribbeck, as editors of \'irgil, menlion

may here be made of Philipp Wagner (1794 — 1B73) who

broughl out a new edition of Heyne's Virgil, followed by a

brief commentary. A commentary, followed by a critical lent, was published

by Theodor Ladewig(i8i3 — iS;8). An excellent Ladn com-

Qota^u n«ntary on llie Aeneid alone was first produced in 1846 by

Gottfried Wilhelm Gossrau (1810— 1888), who was educated

at Schulpforta, studied at Halle, and was a leacher at Quedlinbui^ from 1835

to 1875. One of the best of his other works was his Lalriruscki SprachUhre^.

The editors of the text of Horace fall into three groups, characterised as (i) conservatives, (2) more or less ■n^Hoider moderate liberals, and (3) radicals. The first group is represented by Otto Keller (b. 1838), now pro- fessor at Prag, and by Alfred Holder (b. 1840), librarian at

' Hermei, 11337—401. ' Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, t— lO.

' Bio^. Jahrb. 1891,83—113.

* 1869; ed. 1, 1880. Bio^r, Jahtb. 1888, 107-118.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXII.] HILLER. MERKEL. 193

Karlsrahe, in their joint edition of 1864-9'. The second, by Meinelte, Haupt, and Lucian Miiller ; the third, by Lehrs and Octo Ribbeck, and by Gustav Linker "h™^

(1827 — 1881), formerly professor at Pr^ in his edition of 1856. Among commentaries on Horace may be mentioned that in Latin by Wilhelm Dillenburger'; and those in German, on the Odes and Epodes by K. Nauck and H. Schiitz ; on the Satires and Epistles by G. T. A. Kruger (1793— 1874), and A. T. H. Fritzsche. In 1854 f a bulky edition of the Satires was produced by Karl Kirchner (1787 — 1855), Rector of Schulpforta. The early quotations from Horace were industriously collected in the Analecta of Martin Hertz'.

The textual criticism of Ovid was promoted not only by Alexander Riese (b. 1840)*, Otto Korn (1842 — 1883)*, and Hermann Peter {b. 1837)', but also by Rudolf Merkel (1811 — 1885), who produced at his own university of Halle his earliest work, the Quaestiones Ovidianae Criticae. He had proposed to qualify for an academic career in that university, but the part he played in certain political dis- turbances led to his being imprisoned in Berlin. In prison he went through a severe course of study, borrowed mss from Leyden and Gotha, and worked through the letters of the Dutch scholars and the materials left by N. Heinsius, with a view to the preparation of an edition of Ovid. On his release (which was apparently due to the absence of sufficient proof of his guilt), he remained in Berlin and there produced his edition of the Tristia (1837). He was afterwards a school-master at Schleusingen and elsewhere. In 1841 he published the Fasti, probably his most important work (including information as to the Calendars and the Religious Antiquities of Rome, with the fragments of Varro on that subject); followed, in 1852-4, by his two editions of Apollonius Rhodius. In 1863 he visited Italy, and his 'transcript'

' Ed. mittor 1878 ; cp. Keller, in Rhein. Mus. xix 11 1 f, and Epilegomena {1879 0- In this ed. Ihe Codices Blandinii of Cruquiua are r^jarded as of minor importance ; cp. Schanz, Rom. Lilt, g 363.

> i8«; ed. 6, 1875. '1876-80. Bursian, ii 943 f.

» Ed. of Sauppe's Met. i— vii, and ed. of viii— xiv (1876). « Ed. ^3j/i(i874; ed. 3, 1879).

,„(aiogic

194 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

of the Laurentian ms of Aeschylus was afterwards printed by the Clarendon Press {1871). Meanwhile he had produced two papers on Aeschylus (1867-8), and an edition of the Ptrsae. He held a mastership at QuedUnbui^ until 1879, when he removed to Dresden, where he spent his time in the study of Aeschylus and Archaeology. He edited the Metamorp/ioies in 1874. Many of his conjectural emendations are excellent'.

Among the imitators of Vii^it, Valerius Flaccus was edited, not oaXj by Georg Thilo and by Emil Baehrens, but also by Karl SchenkI (1S7O; 'n explanitory edition was the latest work of Peter Langen (1896-7). The ancient scholia to Lucaji were published by H. Usener from mss at Bern (1869), and the text was edited by C. Hosius (1891) ; the MSS o( Sitius Ilalicus were carefully discussed by Hermann Blass'; the textual criticism of the Thibais and AckilUis of SlatJus was advanced by Otto Miiller and Philipp Kohlmann ; the AchilUh was edited by Alfred KloK, and the Silvae by Kloli (1900) and, wilb a commentary, by Fr. Volhner (1898).

Persius was edited in 184] and 1851 by Otto Jahn, and Juvenal in 1851, a.nd both (ti^ethei with the Satire of Sulpicia) in 1868; Martial, bj Schneidewin (1^43-53). and Friedlander (1886); and Claudian, by Ludwig Jeep {1876-9), and Theodor Birt (1891).

The Mosilla of Ausonius was edited in 1845 by Eduird Biicking ([801— 1870), who was bom at Trarbach on the Mosel, and was pro-

Priper^ fessor of Law at Bonn from 1835 to his death ; it has since been edited by Hosius (1894). The text of the whole was revised in 1886 by Rudolf Peiper, and in 1883 by Karl SchenkI of Vienna. Peiper (1S34 — 189S) studied at the university of Breslau. and, from 1861 to his death, was a master in the local gymnasium, but his real interest liy in scholarly research. One of his ambitions was to produce a Ccrfiut of the mediaeval Latin poets. Me collected evidence as to the study of PIbuius and Terence', and of Catullus', and wrote an important paper on 'prolane comedy'", in the Middle Ages. In addition to his Ausonius, he edited the tragedies of Seneca, as welt as Boelbius and the Heptateuch of the Gallic poet, Cyprian. His mediaeval texts included Waltharius, Walter of ChStillon, and the Carmina Buraita, but the first of these was superseded by the editions of W. Meyer, A. Holder, and P. Wiolerfeld. In 1883, when he received an honorary degree from the university of Breslau, he was described as 'de litlerarum per extrema pereuntis antiquitatis saecula studils augendis ac pro- pagandis bene merit us''.

' Georges in Biogr.Jakrb. 1885, loo-l.

* ^akTb. f. Philol. Suppl. viii 159. ' Rkein. Mus. xxxii 516—537.

* Beilrdge, 1875. ' ArckivfUr Lit. v 493 — 541. ' Traube in Biogr. fakrh. 1901, (4— »7.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXII.] PEIPER. TRAUBE. HALM, I95

In the MoHumeala Cermaniae Hhtoriia the third volume of Ihe Po'Hae Latitti aaii CatBlini' was ably edited in 1886-96 by Ludwig Traube (1861 — 1907), Born in Berlin, he was coniiecled, for ""

priictically the whole of his academic career, with the. university of Munich, where B call to Giessen in 1902 led to his being specially retained as professor of ihe Latin Philology of the Middle Ages. He was an eager and able pioneer in an obscure and intricate region of classical learning, and by his independent research he acquired a profound knowledge of mediaeval palaeo- graphy, and of the history of the survival of the Latin Classics*. In con- nexion with the literature of the early Middle Ages, he edited the Orations of Cassiodorus*. and elaborately investigated the successive changes in the text of the Rule of St Benedict*. It is deeply to be regretted that most of the memo- rials of his erudition have to be sought in academic and periodical publica- tions', and that he never produced the comprehensive History of the Latin Literature of the Middle Ages, which was once announced under his name- But his work as a teacher is perpetuated by his pupils, some of whom have contributed to the important series of Qutllen und Untinuikungai* which he instituted only three years before his lamented death'.

From verse we turn to prose. An edition of, Cicero in eleven volumes (1850-7) is the best known work of Reinhold Klotz {1807— 1870), professor at Leipzig Nobb^" from 1832 to his death; while a widely popular edition in a single folio volume" had been produced some thirty years previously by Karl Friedrlch August Nobbe (1791 — 1878) who studied under C. D. Beck and Hermann at Leipzig, where he was for fifty years Rector of the NicolaiSchule.

A far higher fame as an editor of Cicero was won by Karl Fehx Halm (1809—1882), who was bom and bred in Munich, and studied at the university of his

' Cp. KarvHngischt Diehltaigen utttersuehl, i6[ pp., Berlm, tSSS ; also O Rama noiilis, in Abhandl. of the Munich Acad, xix ii, 1891, 199 — 395.

' E.g. Ueberlteferungsgesckkktc, in S. Ber. id. 1891, Heft 3 ; on Suetonius, in Niues ArMv, 190J, 266 f ; on Ammianus, in Mel. Boissier, 1903.

* Mon. Germ. Hist. 1894. * AiAandi. of Munich Acad. 189S.

" E.g. OTi /'erroHa Sealtervm, in S. Btr. 16. Dec. 1900; and on Seduliusof IMgK, ni Abhandl. 1891 ; also faria libamaita critua, Mutiich, 1883-9!.

' E.g. E. K. V.iaA, fohaane! Siatlus ; S. Hellmann, Sedulius Seottus.

'' Cp. Ludwig Traube zum Gedacklnis (Seven Funeral Orations, Munich, 11 May, 1907, with portrait) ; P. Marc and W, Rieiler in Betlage aur Allge- tneine Ztilung, it, ii May, p. 133 ; and W. M. Lindsay in CI. Rev. xxi 188 ; biblit^aphy by P. Lehminn.

' AUo in 10 small Tauchnitz vols. Biogr. JoHrb, i8j8, ig.

196 GERMANY. [CENT, XIX,

native place. After fifteen years' experience as a school-master at Munich, Speyer, and Hadamar, he was in 1849 appointed Rector of the newly founded gymnasium at Munich, and in 1856 director of the public library and professor in the university. During forty-eight years of active life, he did much towards extending an interest in Classics among his pupils. His editorial labours were mainly limited to the field of I^tin prose.

His early papers on the orator Lycurgns, and on Aeschylus, his elementary work on Greek Syntax, his Greek Reader, and his J^ctiones Stobe/ists, were followed by editions of Cicero, /^o Sulla RnApro Sestio (1845) and in Vatinium (1848). On the death of Orelli in 1849, he joined Baiter in completing the second edition of the whole of Cicero'. Meanwhile, he had begun the preparation of the first edition of seven Select Speeches with German notes (1850-66), followed by a text of eighteen (1868). He also published a critical edition of the Rhdores Lalini Minora and of the Institutio Oratorio of Quintilian. He further edited Tacitus and Florus, Valerius Maximus, Cornelius Nepos and Velleius Paterculus. In connexion with the Vienna Corpus of the Latin Fathers, he examined the Swiss mss, and himself edited Sulpicius Severus, Minucius Felix, and Julius Firmicus Matemus. To the Monumenta Germaniae Hiiforica he contributed an edition of Salvianus and of Victor Vitensis.

His previous work on Greek authors was resumed in his Aesop, and in his papers on the Rhetoric of Anaximenes and the minor works of Plutarch. To the History of Scholarship he contributed many biographies of German scholars*. As librarian, he organised the preparation of the great Catalogue of mss, and himself took part in the Catalogue of the Latin mss.

His early career had been a noble example of triumphing over difficulties. The son of an art dealer, he lost his father as an infant, and had only passed through the lower divisions of his school, when he was sternly compelled by his step-father to enter a grocer's shop, where he had to work from six in the morning till nine in the evening, and could only read his favourite Classics in the dead of night. He was only released from this drudgery on

' Speeches, 1854-6; PhUosophical Works, 1861.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXII.] THEODOR MOMMSEN. 197

promising that, as soon as he had completed his education at school, he would maintain himself. It was during the two quiet years at Hadamar (1S47-9) that he had the leisure for preparing his edition of the speeches and philosophical works of Cicero. It was not until he had reached the age of 70, that he resigned his professorship '.

The criticism of Latin authors, as well as Latin Inscriptions, Roman Antiquities and Roman History, formed part of the wide field of learning traversed by Theodor MomnnVn Mommsen (1817 — 1903). Born in the province of Schleswig and educated at Altona, he studied law and philology at Kiel, travelled in Italy and France from 1845 to 1847, and was appointed 'extraordinary' professor of I_aw at Leipzig in 1848. The part that he played in the political movements of the time led to his being exiled from Saxony in 1850. Together with Jahn and Haupt, he left for Zurich, where he held a professorship for an interval of two years (r852-4). On his return to Germany, the four years of his professorship at Breslau (1854-8) were followed by his call to Berlin, where he was professor of Ancient History and a member of the Academy for the remaining forty-five years of his life.

In the field of I-^tin literature, Mommsen did much for the study of manuscript evidence. He transcribed the palimpsest of part of Livy discovered by Mai at Verona, and edited Books III — VI with the readings of other important mss'. In conjunction with Studemund, he contributed to the textual criticism of the third decade in the Analecta Liviana of 1873. His edition of Solinus had meanwhile appeared in 1864'. Those of Cassiodorus', lordanes', and the Chronica Minora^, were con- tributed to the Monummta Germaniae Hutoriia. He produced important papers on Cluvius Rufus as an authority for the early part of the Histories of Tacitus', on the Life of the Younger Pliny' (with the historical index to Keil's lai^er edition), and

' Butsian, ii 949 — 951, and in Biogr. fahrb. 1881, i — 6; bibliogfaphy in Wolfflin's Gtddchlnissrtde, i88j, 33 f.

' Berlin Acad. :868. ' E<1. 1, 1895.

* Ckron. 1861; Varia, 1894. ' 1881. ' 1891—1898.

' Hermts, iv 395 f. * i*. a\ 31—139 (Hist. Schrift. i 366—468).

A.oogic

igS GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

on the chronology of the Letters of Fronto', besides many contributions to the Transactions of the Academies of Saxony

and of Berlin". His important works connected with Latin Inscriptions and Antiquities and History will be mentioned on a later page'.

The Commentary of Asconius on Five Speeches of Cicero was edited in 187s by Adolph Kiessling*, in conjunction with Rudolf Scholl ■ ' (1844—1893, son of Adolf Scholl of Weimar), who studied

at Goltingen and Bonn, and held professorships al Greifswald, Jena, Strasstmrg, and Munich. I^le was specially interested in the Public Law of Athens and of Rome. His earliest work was a Dissertation on the Laws of the XII Tables. His edition of the ATozielliu, begun in 1880, was compUled byW. Kroli (1895). To the volume in honour of Mommsen he contributed a paper on certain extraordinary magistracies al Athens, and other pa|>ers on the Public Antiquities of Athens were among his later works. At the time of his death he had made extensive preparations for a new edition of Phrynichus''.

The textual criticism of Cicero's Letters 'Ad Familiares' was much ad- varvced by the critical edition published in [S93 by Ludwig Mendelssohn (1851 — 1896), who studied under Sauppe and C- Wachsmuth at Gollingcn and nnder Ritschl al Leipzig. His earl; trori was connected with the literary chronology of Eratosdienes, and the Roman decrees quoted by Josepbus. After qualifying as a teacher in Leipzig, he visited Italy with a view to collating Mss of Cicero's Letters and of Appian and Arisleas. His edition of Appian was the first to mark a real advance on that of Schweighanser ; he also edited llerodian and Zosimus. His edition of the Letter of Aristeas, a document of importance in connexion with the history of the Septuagint, was completed by Wendland ; and the materials he had collected on the subject of the Sibylline Oracles were handed over to Hamack. His most successful work was his edition of Cicero's Letters, in which a new weight was assigned to the evidence of MSS other than the Medicean. The last twenty years of his life were spent at the Russian uni- versity of Dorpat. The decline of German influence in that university cast a gloom over his later years, and he was hoping to transfer bis home to Jen*, when he met his end in the waters of the Embach at the early age of 44^

For the textual criticism of the Latin historians and

grammarians much was done by Martin Hertz

(1818 — 1895), who was born in Hamburg, and

educated in Berlin. After studying under Welcker at Bonn, he

' ib. viii 198 f, * Bursian, ii 951-4.

' p. 235- * P- l85™/ra.

» Siagr, Jahrb. 1897, 9—40. • Goetz in Biegr. Jahrb. 1898, 49—60.

..oogic

CHAP. XXXII.] R. SCHOLL. MENDELSSOHN. HERTZ. 199

returned to Berlin, and worked under Boeckh and Lachmann. He was a ' privat-docent ' in that university in 1845, went abroad to examine Mss for his editions of Gellius, Ptiscian, and the scholia to Germanicus, until 1847; and was professor at Greifewald from 1855, and at Breslau from 1858 to his death, thirty-seven years later.

He produced the standard edition of Priscian in 1855-9; he also edited a text of Gellius, prior to his great critical edition of 1883-5, Meanwhile he had edited Livy. He also wrote papers on the grammarians, Sinnius Capito and Nigidius Figulus, and on the annalist, Lucius Cincius, and his namesake, besides delivering popular lectures on ' Writers and the Public in Rome ', and on ' Renaissance and Rococo in Latin Literature ', a subject suggested by his study of Gellius,

After completing his edition of that author and collecting his Opuicula Gtlliana (1886), he returned to the literature of the golden age. . He had contributed to the criticism of Cicero, pro Seslio, had traced reminiscences of Sallust' (and of Gellius*) in the pages of Ammianus Marcellinus, and (in his Anaketa) had followed the traces of the study of Horace down to the sixth century. In 1892 he edited Horace with short critical notes, including much that was not to be found elsewhere. Georges dedicated the seventh edition of his Latin lexicon to Hertz, who had contributed to its pages. From 185S, when the proposal for a Thesaurus of the Latin language was first made at Vienna, Hertz never left the scheme out of sight, but it was not until he was president of the Congress at Gorlitz, that he publicly proposed that such a work should be undertaken by the German Academies. A conference followed in 1890, and in the following year Hertz drew up the report'.

His interest in archaeology at Greifswald may be traced to the influence of Welcker; his lectures on the general scheme of classical learning' to that of Boeckh. Similarly his interest in the Roman historians was due to Niebuhr, and that in the

' 1874. " Opmi. GelUana.

' BerichU n\ Berlin Acad. 1891,671—684.

* Cp. his paper Zur Eruydepddie der PhilologU in the Mommsen Comm. 507-517 {1877).

A.oogic

200 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Latin grammarians to Lachmann. His bic^aphy of Lachmann is a masterpiece of its kind {1851); he also wrote several articles on Boeckh, and gave an excellent lecture on the early humanist, Eobanus Hessus. His work was marked by minute and con- scientiotis accuracy ; and, in his own person, he was characterised by a strong sense of justice towards others, and an exemplary mildness of manner, even towards his opponents. He will be remembered as the erudite editor of Priscian and of Gelliiis, and as the unwearied promoter of the scheme for the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae^.

Sallust was edited in a cumbersome form in 18*3-31 ''7 ^ •^- Getlach

('793— '876), professor and librarian a1 Basel, who also 3«lluit° edited Nonius in 1S41 in conjunction with his colleague,

Karl L. Roth (1811— iSlSo). The historian's diction was specially studied in the editions of J. F. Krili, a school-master at Erfurt {i79»— 1869), and E. W. Fabri (1796— 184s). In that produced by K. H. Frolscher, the head-master of Freiberg (1796—1876), the test was taken from Kortte and the notes from Havercamp, The Mss were discussed by K. L. Roth, and a critical edition published in 1859 ''X ^- l^ietsch (1814 — 1875), head-master of Grimma.

A critical edition of greater importance was produced in 186G (ed. I, l8;6) I . by Henri Jordan (1833 — 1886), a professor at Konigsberg, who

had been a pupil of Haupt in Berlin and of Ritschl at Bonn, and was a friend and ally of Mommsen, and a son-in-law of Dioysen. He also edited the historical and oratorical wnrksof the elder Calo, with 109 pages of Prolegomena (i86o). He visited Rome for the first time in 1861, and produced several valuable works on Roman topc^aphy (1871 — 86), and on the ancient religion of Rome, as well as critical conliibutions to the history of (he Latin language (1879). In 1864 he published a critical edition of the Siriptons Histuriae Augiis(ai, the first that had appeared in Germany for

76 years*. The joint editor of this work was Franz

Eyssenhardt (1838 — 1901), who (like Jordan) had been bom in Berlin and had studied under Boeckb and Haupt. In i866-;i Eyssentiardt edited Martianus Capella, Phaedrus, Macrobius, Apuleius, the Historia Miialla. and Ammianus Marcellinus. After completing these editions, he devoted much of his lime to studies in the history of civilisation. He had a remarkably ready pen. Two of his popular lectures were on Homeric poetry, and on Hadrian and Florus. He also wrote a biographical Essay of 186 pages

' Biogr.Jahrb. rgoo, 43—70; cp- Bursian, ii 955 f; Tkes. J p. iii, 'causae ancipili ac situ quodam pressae sua contentione et commendatione favorem conciliavit'.

■ Biogr. fakrb. 1886, 117 — 149 (with biblit^raphy).

.^.oogic

CHAP. XXXlrJ JORDAN. EYSSENHARDT. 201

on Niebuhr. He spoke seven languages Huenllj', and travelled widely, especially delighting in his visits to Italy, but also extending his joumeys as lar as Scotland, while he kept up a constant correspondence with Lucian Mullet in St Fetersbu^'.

Commentaries on Caesar (1S47), Nepos (1S49), and Tacitus (1851), were published by Karl Ludwig Nipperdey (1811 — 1875)1 who was a professor *al Jena in 1855 ; an acute critic, who had a fine k^JJJ^''' taste in Latin prose, and gave proof of his familiarity mlh Dobereni Roman Antiquities by his treatise on the Ltget Anitales\ Caesar, De Belle GaUice, and De Bella Civili, were edited with German notes by Friedrich Kraner (i8ii — 1863), Rector at Leipiig, and by Altierl Dobereni (181 1 — 1878), Director of '^t gymHosium at Hildburghausen.

Materials for the textual criticism of Livy were supplied in 1859-46 by the editions of Books t — x, xxi— xxiii, and xxx by s \. r ■\,' K. F. S. Alschefski (1805—1851). A higher critical faculty K^J^.tig was displayed in the complete edition of J. G. Kreyssig WeiBsenborn ('779 — '854)t a master at the Saxon School of Meissen. The best commentary with German notes was that first published in 1S50-1 by Wilhelm Wcissenborn (1803—1878), for more than forty-three years a master at Eisenach* The Syntax of Livy was laboriously set forth in 1871 by Ludwig Kuhnast (181,^—1871), a school-master at Marienwerder-

Tacitus was edited, not only by Orelti, Halm, and Nipperdey, but also, in and after 1834-6, by Franz Ritter (1803 — 1875), for many years professor in Bonn, who produced editions of Horace ^'??*'

(1856-7) and of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry (tSjg). The Hereeus

Annals and Agricola were edited in 1868-g with German notes by A- A- Diager (iSio — rSgs), who studied at Leipzig, and was Director of the gymnasium at Aurich. He was also the author of a useful work on the 'Syntax and Style of Tacitus', followed by a comprehensive volume on the 'Historical Syntax of the Latin language''. Among good editions with German notes may be mentioned chat of the Hislories by Karl Heraeus (r8i8— 1891), who studied at Marburg and Gottingen, and was for the last thirty-four years of his life a master at the Westphaliaji Gymnasium of Hamm"; the Dialogui by G. Andiesen ; the Agricola by F. K. Wex (1801—1865), F- Krilz, and Karl Peter. Critical texts of the Agricela were produced by K. L. Urliclis, and of the Dialcgut by Adolf Michaelis. The Gemiania was edited by Milllenhoff, Schweiier-Sidlet, A. Baumstark,and A- Holder. The LtxUon rof('/«<m {1830) of W. Boetticher (A. 1850) has been superseded by the exhaustive work of A. Gerber of Glilck- stadt and A. Greef of Gottingen {'903). — Of the other historians, Curlius was

' Biogr. Jakrb. 1901, 100 — 137 (with bibliography). Cp. Bursian, ii 958 f.

' Abhandl. of Saxon Acad. v. Cp. Bursian, ii 761.

» Biogr. Jakrb. i8;8, 33—38. * Biogr.Jakrb. \%t^, 91-4.

..oogic

GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

edited bj E. Hedicke and Tb. Vogel ; Justin by Jeep; and Eulropius by W, Haitel and Hans Droysen^. The more important worlts on Cicero and t^intitiaa have been already mentioned'.

Amonj; the above-mentioned editors of the Germaaia of Tacitus aplace of special honour a due to Heiniich Schweizer-Sidler (1S15 —

Sidler ' '^94)' *''° studied at Zurich and Berlin. For forty of the more than (illy years of his work at Zurich, he taught at the local school as well as at the university. He had studied Sanskrit under Bopp, and he was frequently visited by Muir and by Henry Nettleship. His Latin Grammar of 1869 was recast in r888, and attained a wide recognition. Hia study of German Antiquities led him to lecture on the Gtrniania, which he repeatedly edited with Gertnan notes. He also prepared an elaborate revision of Orelli's edition of the treatise'.

The discovery and collation of the Bamberg MS of the elder Pliny in i8s»» by Ludwig von Jan (1807— 1869), then master at Schweinfurt and ultimately Reclor al Erlangen, had an important influence on Sling's edition of 1853-5. The criticism and explanation of Pliny were afterwards pro- ■' " ' moled by Karl Ludwig von Urlichs (1813-1889), a native of

OsnabrUck, who was educated at Aachen, and studied under Welcker at Bonn (1819-34). After spending live years in Rome, as tutor in Bunsen's house, and doing much for the study of Roman topography', he returned to Bonn in 1840, remaining there until his call to Greifswald in 1 847. In the same year he visited the British Museum, and there discovered an important aneaioUn on the literary activity of Varro'; was in the Prussian Parliament from 1849 to 185J, and professor at WUrzhui^ from 1855 to his death, thirty-four years later.

From 1847 to 1S55 he was mainly occupied with Pliny and the History of Ancient Art. This wort bore fruit in his Vindiciae Pliniamu (1853-66), his Chrtslomalhia Pliniana (1857) and his conspectus of the authorities for the books of Pliny on the History of Art (1878)'. The text of Pliny was edited in 1860-73 ^1 ^- Detlefsen ; and von Jan's edition of 1854-65 has been edited anew by C. Mayhoff in t875-i9o6.

The best editions of the text of the younger Pliny were those produced in

„ 1853 and 1870 by Heinrich Keil (1831—1894), "•>" studied

at Gottingen and Bonn, and spent two years in Italy (1844-6),

taught at Halle (1847-55) and Berlin (1855-9), ^i"! was appointed professor in

1859 at Erlangen and 1869 at Halle, where he resided for the remaining

twenty-five years of his life. His earliest work was his critique on Properlius

' Bursian, ii 964 f. ' p. '95 f.

' Biagr. Jahrb. 1898,96—13].

' He took part in the Beichreibung, and published the codex urbis Roniae tofi^grafiinis {iSti}, etc.

' Ritschl's Ofuse. iii 411 f.

' Wecklein in Bicgi: Jakrh. 1893, 1 — 15, and H. L. Urlichs in Pref. to Iwin Mtitler's Handbuch, i (1891).

OgIC

CHAP. XXXir.] URLICHS. KEIL. GEORGES. 203

(1843), followed by his texts of 1850 and 1867, During his slay in Italy, and in France (1851). he collated many mss for his friends and for himself; he supplied Merkel with the scholia to Apolloniua Rhodius, and O. Schneider with those on Nicander, and his collations, though less extensive than those of Bekker, were more accurate. At Halle Tie edited the Commentary of Probui on the Eileguii and Georgia. His vast edition of the Grammaiici Latini was published in 1857-80, five of the seven volumes being edited by himself, and the two volumes of Prrscian by Herli. Of his other works the most Important were his elaborate editions of the agricultural works of Cato andVarro (1884-94), with Tenbner texts of both (1889 and 1895)'.

Vilruvius was edited, in 1867, by Valentin Rose and Hennann MUller- Strilbing' on the basis of the MS of the ninth century collated by the latter in the British Museum. An Index was produced in 1876 by Kohl.

Among modern Latin lexicographers a place of honour must be reserved for Karl Ernst Georges (1806—1895), who Spent nearly the whole of his life at Gotha. It was originally intended that he should succeed his father as chief-glazier to the local Coart, aitd he was even removed from school for that purpose ; but, at his earnest entreaty, he was allowed to continue under the tuition of Doering and Wuestemann, and the fiammarian and leucographer, V. C. F. Kost. Being la delicate health, he was sent for a change of air to Noidhausen, where he received mach encouragement from the lexicographer, Kraft. He afterwards studied at Gottingen and Leipzig, where he helped in revising a new edition of Scheller. His German-Latin lexicon was completed in 1833' and accepted at Jena in lieu of a dissertation for his degree. In 1E39-56 he was one of the higher masters at Gotha, but a weakness of eyesight, and a desire for further leisure, led to his retiring on a pension, and devoting all his time to his lexicc^aphical

The series of excellent Latin-German lexicons had been begun by that of Scheller (1783). On the death of Luenemann in 1830, the preparation of a new edition of Scheller was taken over by Georges, whose name appears on the litle-page of the edition of 1837. Of the seventh edition in two volumes, filling 6,088 columns, 15,000 copies were printed in and after 1879. This work was confessedly founded on those of Gesner, Foreellini, and Scheller, as well as on his own extensive collections. It was warmly eulogised by Wdlfflin, the editor of the Arckiv and the otganiser of the new T/usaums; and, on the completion of 60 years of lexicographical labour in 1888, the indomitable veteran was congratulated by English scholars in the following terms :—

' Id scilicet laudamus in Lexieo luo Latino, multo labore et adversa interdum valetudine condito, quod artem ita adhlbutsti criticam, ut inter omnia huiusmodi opera linguae Latinae studiosis sit utilissimum'*.

A.oogic

204 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Geor^s also b^an a Titiaurus, conlioued by MUhlmann down 10 the letter K. In his later years, when his sight began to fail, he prepared a useful lexicon of Latin Word.forms (1890). By 1891 six editions of his small Latin-German and German-Latin SanduiarUrhuih, and five of the corre- sponding Schuhwrlerbttck, had been published. His German-Latin lexicon was the foundation of the English- Latin work of Riddle and Arnold- lie was a constant correspondent of scholars in England, as well as France and Germany, and liberally placed his stores of Uaming at the service of others. His little world was his library, enriched with a complete set of the Corput Inscripttonum Lalinarum presented by the publishers, and adorned with portraits of his fellow-labourers in the field of Latin lexici^raphy. His small and neat round hand resembled that of Fr. Jacobs. Even bodily pain never prevented him from going quietly on with his life-long work. It was only in his biogiaphical notice of Wuestemann and in a Latin Gnomolegia that he deserted the domain of Latin lexic<%raphy '■

In connexion with Latin lexicography, two names may here be added. Karl von Paucker (1810—1883) "as the author of the

RSnic" Addenda Uxkis Laixnis, b^un in 1871- After studying at

Dorpat and Berlin, he returned to the former univeraily as professor in 1861. Towards the close of his life he began to collect his scattered lexicographical papers in a comprehensive volume of Supfileaitnta, which was unfortunately left unfinished'. His Viirarbtilfn for the history of the Latin language were, however, published soon after his death by Hermann Riinsch (1811— i888t, the learned author nMttda and Vatgatd'.

' R. Ehwald in Btogr. Jakrb. 1896, I43— 150; Wiilfflin's Archiv, 1895, 6i3fi G. Schneider in ///. Ztitung, 1897, lagf. In 1880 he gratefully ac- cepted Prof. Mayor's dedication of his ed. of Book iii of Pliny's Letlets, stni indefasB, Latirtai linguat lexkographsrum quolguot kodic vivutit Nestari.

* Ronsch in Biogr. Jahrb. 1883, 93 — 96.

» 1869 i ed. 1, 18JS ; ib. 1889, IS9— 17-4-

iM,Googlc

iM,Googlc

s^

V*'*v»^ //f./ ■*^y^/?

Franz Bofp. 1 the fronlis[iieee of the Life by Lefmann (Reimer, Berlin, 1891)-

[To face p. 505 "/ l^"'- ■///■

.oogic

CHAPTER XXXIII.

COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGISTS.

The founder of the comparative study of language in Germany was Franz Bopp (1791— 1867). Born at Mainz, and educated at Aschaffenburg, he hved in Paris from r8i2 to 1815, studying Arabic and Persian under Silvestre de Sacy, and teaching himself Sanskrit with the help of the Grammars of Carey (1806) and Wiikins {1808), and the translation of the Bhagavadgita by the latter, and that of the R&m&yana by the former. In the university of BerUn he was an 'extraordinary professor' in 1821, and full professor for the last forty-two years of his life'. From the publication of his earliest work on the comparison of the conjugational system of Sanskrit with that of Greek, Latin, Persian, and German (1816) to the very end of his career, he was engaged in the unremitting endeavour to explain the origin of the grammatical forms of the Indo-Germanic languages. This was the main object of his 'Comparative Grammar' (1833). But his endeavours were regarded with in- difference or distrust by the leading scholars and grammarians, such as Hermann' and Lobeck'. The method and the results of comparative philology were also attacked, with more wit than wisdom, by the Greek archaeologist, Ludwig Ross*. This lack of appreciation was not so much due to any limitation of vision on t^he part of the scholars of the day, or to an excess of conservatism, or a contempt for their contemporaries. It was mainly prompted by the uncertain and tentative methods of the earlier pioneers, by their imperfect knowledge of the languages with which they

' Lefmanr, F, B., sein Lehen u. stint iVinenscha/l {Berlin, 1891-6}.

" Prcf. 10 Ada Soc. Graaae, quoted in vol. i p. 11 n. 5.

* Pref. lo Pathol, p. vii ; but even Lobeck would have been ready to study Comparative Philolt^, had life been long enough foi the purpose {ParaUp. ,,7).

' Italiker und Graikta ([858 f.).

A.oogic

206 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

were concerned, and by their indifference to the rules of classical syntax. This distrust has, however, passed away. Its departure is due to the labours of those who have taken up the science created by Bopp, supported by Jacob Grimm', and developed by Pott' and Kuhn' and Schleicher' and others, and who have applied its method to Greek and Latin, and have thereby laid a sure foundation for the new fabric of the Etymology of those languages'.

Foremostamong these was TheodorBenfey (1809 — 188 1), whose father, a Jewish merchant in the kingdom of Hanover, taught him the Talmud and aroused in bim an interest for language. It was at Frankfurt that the son prepared a trans- lation of Terence, and also (under the influence of Foley) devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit. In 181 7 he settled at Gottingen, and, with the exception of a year at Munich (1827-8), he there abode for the remaining sixty-four years of his life. In 1848 he left his ancestral faith for that of Christianity, and was in the same year appointed to a poorly paid 'extraordinary' professorship; it was only for his last nineteen years that he was a full professor.

In the introduction to his 'lexicon of Greek roots', which was the first scientific treatment of Greek Etymology (1839-42), he drew up a scheme for a series of works treating of Greek Grammar in the light of Comparative Philology, but this scheme was never carried out. Its author devoted most of his subsequent career to the study of Sanskrit Grammar, and to researches in the Vedas. He, however, published many articles on subjects connected with Greek and Latin Grammar in the Transactions of the Gottingen Academy, and in his quarterly review, Orient und Occident (1861-6). His principal works were an edition of the Sdmaveda (1848), a complete Sanskrit Grammar (1852), the

' 'German Gramnutr', iSig'-ii*. On Rask and Veraer, see chap, xxxviii.

' ' Eljmoli^cal Investigalions', 1833-6.

" On Adalbert Kuhn ([811—1881), cp. Biegr.Jahrh. 1881, 48—63.

* p. 109 infra. Cp-, in general, P. Giles, Manual of Comparative Phile- '''!?>■ (i8!)s)§§ 39-44-

' Bursian, ii 971 f. Cp. Delbriick, Einltitung in das SfrachstuditiTH, cap. i ; Benfejr, Gisch. der Sprackuiissensckafl, 370-9, 470—515 ; and TJiow- sen's Spregvidenskabtns Hislnrii (Copenhagen, 1901); a brief sketch in J. M. Edmonds' Comparative PMlohgy (Cambridge, 1906), 189 — joa

X'OO'

gic

CHAP. XXXIII.] BENFEV. L. MEYER. G. CURTIUS. 207

Fanischaiantra (1859), and the History of the study of language and of oriental philology in Geraiany {1869)'.

Benfey's pupil, Leo Meyer (b. 1830), on his appointment as professor of Comparative Philology at Dorpat in 1865, had just completed the second volume of his Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin*, dealing only with the doctrine of sounds and the formation of words. Meanwhile, he had published a brief comparison between the Greek and Latin declensions (1853). His Grammar remained unfinished, but he investigated the Greek aorist {1879), and published a number of minor papers on the diction of Homer*. He has since resided as an honorary professor at GOttingen.

The recognition of the comparative method among Greek and Latin scholars and school-masters was mainly due to Georg Curtius (1820 — 1885), the younger brother of the historian of Greece. Bom and bred at Liibeck, he studied at Bonn and Berlin, and, after spending four years as a master at Dresden, and three as a ' privat-docent ' in Berhn, he was professor for five years at Prag, for eight at Kiel, and, for the remaining twenty-four years of his life, at Leipzig. In his inaugural lecture at this university he stated tfiat it was his pur- pose, as professor, to bring Classical Philology and the Science of Language into closer relation with each other*. His zeal and success in carrying out this purpose were attested, not only by his own works, but also by the ten volumes of ' Studies ' on Greek and Latin Grammar produced by his pupils {1868-78), by the papers connected with the Science of Language published in his honour in 1874, and by the five volumes of 'Leipzig Studies', edited by himself and three other professors in 1878-82. The principal works produced by himself were his 'Greek Grammar for Schools' (1852), his 'Principles of Greek Etymology' (1858-62), and his treatise on the 'Greek Verb' {1873-6). The first of these was published at Frag, while Curtius was a professor in

' Bezienberger in Biogr. yahrb. 1881, 103—107 ; Delbrtlck, 36; Bursian, "973-

' 1 vols., 1861-S ; ed. » of vol. i, in two parts, 1170 pp., 18S1-4 ; Benfey, 591. ' Bursian, ii 97s f.

* Philoiegit und Sfrathiuiisttischafl, 1861 (also in A7. S^hr. i) ; cp. Die SpTochvtr^eichung I'lt tArtm Vtrhdllitiss lur cl. FhHalagit (i848>), E. T. Oxford, 1851. 1^ i,^ iiA.OOQlC

2o8 GERMANV. [CENT. XIX.

that university. It was primarily intended for use in the Austrian schools, then in course of reorganisation under the guidance of Bonitz, and, notwithstanding the bitter and violent opposition of K. W, Kriiger', it was widely accepted in the schools of Germany', It was followed by a volume of 'Elucidations' for the use of teachers'. His early work on 'Greek and Latin Tenses and Moods in the light of Comparative Grammar' (1846) was the precursor of his important work on the 'Greek Verb". His 'Principles of Greek Etymology' reached a fifth edition in 1879°. The first Book contains an introductory statement on the principles, and the main questions, of Greek Etymol<^ ; the second deals with the regular representation of Indo-Germanic sounds in Greek, exemplified by a conspectus of words or groups of words arranged according to their sounds ; and the third investigates the irregular or sporadic changes'. . ' Curtius was not a student of language, availing himself of the aid of Latin and Greek to attack the general questions of linguistics, but a classical scholar studying the languages of Greece and Rome in the light of comparative philology".

The leading representative of the study of language in its psychologiml A%^&X was H. Steinthal (1823 — 1899), who studied in Berlin (1843-7) ^^^ Paris (1852-5), and was professor of the Science of Language in Bertin from 1863 to his death. He wrote on the origin of language", the classification of languages', the developement of writing; also a work on grammar, If^ic, and psychology, their principles and their mutual relations (1855), which was expanded in his Intro- duction to the Psychology of the Science of Language (1871); and lastly, a History of the Science of Language among the Greeks and Romans, with special reference to Logic".

' p. 119 ja/ra. ' Ed. 11 (Gerlh); E. T. 186;.

' 1863 ; E. T. 1870. * E. T., Wilkin3 and England, :88o.

» E. T., Wilkins and England, 1875-6; ed. 1, 1886.

' Bursian, ii 975-8 ; cp. Angennann in Beizenberger's Bcilragt, x ; E. Curtius in vol. i of his btolhei's Kleine Schrtflen ; and Windisch in Biogr, Jahtb. 1886, 75—118 : also E>elbruck, 39 f.

' Wilkins in Class. Rev. i 163.

' 1851 ; ed. 3. 1877.

» 1850; ed. 1, i860; cp. Benfey, 787 f,

'" 1863 ; ed. 1, 1890-1 ; cp. Bursian, ii 980. ,-, ,

n,5,t,7rjM,CjOOglC

CHAP. XXXIII.] STEINTHAL. SCHLEICHER. 209

August Schleicher {1821 — 1868), who was born at Meiningen and educated at Cobuig, studied Theology at Leipzig and Tubingen, and Philology under Ritschl at Bonn. In 1845 he became ' privat-docent ' at Bonn, in 1850 extraordinary professor in Prag, and in 1857 honorary professor at Jena, where he died in 1868. In his ' Compendium of the Com- parative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic languages", he stated the results of all the recent investigations on the vocal changes in a series of 'laws of sound". 'With all his wide linguistic attain- ments', he was not a classical scholar, either in the first or even in the second place. ' He was at heart a Darwinian botanist, who handled language as if it were the subject-matter of natural and not of historical science".

The series of Indo-Germanic Grammars, published by Breitkopf and Hartel in Leipzig, included a volume on the physiology of sound by Eduard Sievers (1876)', an Introduction to the history and method of the comparative study of language by Delbriick (1880), and a Greek Grammar (1880) by Gustav Meyer (1850 — 1900)°. A Latin Grammar has been produced by Sommer (Heidelberg).

' The physiology of sound does not suffice to enable us to attain a clear conception of the work of man in the province of speech.. ..We need a science that takes Grtmmariiiin c(^nizance of the psychic factors, which enter into the innumerable movements and changes of sound, and also into all the workings of analogy'. Such is part of the programme of the New Grammarians, as it is unfolded by its most active repre- sentatives Hermann OstholT of Heidelberg, and Karl Brugmann of Leipzig". The outline of such a science had been already drawn in Steinthal's Essay on assimilation and attraction in their psychological aspects'. Other representatives of the New School are August Leskien' of Leipzig and Hermann Paul' of Munich. ■ i86[ ; ed. *, 1866; E.T.

* Bunian,ii9;8f; BenfeyiSSyf; Lefmann'siiiW (1870); Delbriick, 41-56. ' Wilkins, in CI. Rev- i ^63. ' Ed. 4, 1893 {Grumhuge der Fhenelik). ° Biegr. Jakrb. 1901, I — 6.

' Osthofl and Brugmann, pref. lo Morphcl. Untersuchungen, i {1878).

' ZeUschr.fiir Vdlterfsycholagit, i 93 f.

' Dtcl. im Slavistk-Ulauischm u. Gtrmatihehen (1876).

* Printifitn der Sprachgtiehicku (1880 etc.).

S. III. h, l-rll>,(b4(.")0<^IC

2IO GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

The principles of this school are (i) that all changes of sound, so far as they are mechanical, are under the operation of laws that admit of no exception^ and (2) that the principle of analogy, which plays an important part in the life of modern languages, must be unreservedly recognised as having been at work from the very earhest times.

The first of these principles has been opposed by the later followers of Benfey, especially in the periodical edited by A. Bezzenberger of Konigsberg'. — One of the representatives of the New School, August Fick, formerly professor at Breslau, and the author of a 'Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Germanic languages", produced an excellent work on the formation of Greek names of persons (1894), showing that originally all names of persons among the Indo-Germanic peoples were compound words formed from two roots, and that from these compound words names including a single root were formed either from the first or the second of the two elements. The names thus resulting were Kosen-namen, or 'names of endearment". The principles of the New School are set forth in H. Paul's 'Principles of the History of Language", and far more fully in Karl Brugmann's ' Grundriss of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-Germanic Languages". An estimate of the movement has been given in the above-mentioned 'Introduction' by B. Delbrijck, the author of a 'Comparative Syntax of the Indo-Germanic Languages' {1893 ()■

Among the workers in this field who have already passed away was Ludwig Lange (1825 — 1885), professor at Leipzig from 1871'. Twenty years previously he had given a lecture at Gottingen, in which he had insisted on the importance of the historic method of investigation, and had illustrated it by the use of the prepositions in Sanskrit and Greek'.

' Beilragt sur Kunde der indegerm. Sprackcn.

' 1870-1; ed. 3, 1874-6; ed. 4, 1891 f. ' Bursion, ii 999.

* Eng. adaptalion by H. A. Strong, 1888. See also Paul's Grundriss, i (:89i etc.).

» i886f {E.T. i888r); ed. 1, i89;fi 'Short Comparative Grammar', 1904.

" Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, 31—61,

' Bursian, ii looi.

.oogic

CHAP. XXXIII.] FICK. L. LANGE. BENARY. COKSSEN. 211

The first to attempt to set forth the history of sounds in Latin, in the light of the new science of language, was

Albert Agathon Benary {1807 — 1860)'. Abundant materials for the historic grammar of the Latin language wer^ subsequently supplied by the researches of RitschI, Mommsen and others, on Plautus, on the early Roman inscriptions, and on the remains of the old Italic languages. These materials were applied with considerable acumen and independence, and with constant regard to the results of the comparative study of language, in the investigation of the changes of the Latin con- sonants and vowels by Wilhelm .Corssen (1820 — 1875). Bom at Bremen, he studied in Berlin {1840-4), and was a master at Schulpforta {1846-66), living after- wards in Berlin, and, from 1870, in Rome. His principal work was on the ' Pronunciation, Vocalisation, and Accentuation of the I^tin language", a work dealing with the orthography, pro- nunciation, and prosody of Latin in connexion with the old Italic dialects, and in the light of comparative philology'. It was partly supplemented by the work on the vocalisation of vulgar Latin published in 1866-8 by Hugo Schuchardt (b. 1842), formerly professor at Graz.

The general results of Comparative Philology were incorporated in Kiihner's larger Latin Grammar, and, more systematically, by Heinrich Schweizer-Sidler*, in his outline of the elements and forms of I-atin for schools {1869), and by Alois Vanicek (1825 — 1883)', formerly professor at Prag, in his elementary Latin Grammar (1873), and his Etymological Dictionary of the Latin language (1874), followed by his Greek and Latin Etymological Dictionary (1877). A Comparative Dictionary of Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and German, published at Vienna in 1873 by Sebastian Zehetmayr, was expanded in 1879 into a comprehensive etymo- logical Dictionary of all the Indo-Germanic languages*. A Greek Etymolf^cal Dictionary has since been published by Prellwitz'.

' Die rSmische Lauthhre, tprathvergleichind dargistelll CEttyva, 1837). ' 1858-9 ; ed. 2, 1868 — 70. For his oiher works, see p. 141 f siipra. ' On Corssen, cp. Ascoli's Kritkche SludUn, p. ix (Delbrilck, 41). * p. 101 sttpra. ' Bisi^. "Jahrb. :884, jfif.

' Bursian, ii 1003-6. ' GStlingen, ed. 1, 1905.

Karl Otfried Muller. a drawing by Ternile lilhographed by WUdt.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

CHAPTER XXXIV.

ARCHAEOLOGISTS AND HISTORIANS.

Down to the time of Winckelmann and Heyne the in- vestigation of the political, social, religious, and artistic life of the ancients had occupied a subordi- muiim™ nate position in comparison with the study of the Greek and Latin languages. The new impulse then .given had been carried forward by Niebuhr' and by Boeckh', while, among their immediate successors, the most brilliant and versatile, and the most widely influential, was Karl Otfried' Miiller (i 797—1840). Bom at the Silesian town of Brieg, he studied at Breslau, where the perusal of Niebuhr's ' History of Rome ' prompted him to concentrate his enei^ies on historical subjects. In Berlin, under the influence of Boeckh {1816-7), he acquired a new interest in the history of Greece, and it was to Boeckh that he owed the earliest successes of his literary and academic career. He began by pub- lishing a monograph on the ancient and modem history of Aegina*. Part of this work was on the Aeginetan Marbles, which had been discovered in i8ir", and had recently been purchased (in 1812) by Ludwig, the Crown Prince of Bavaria. At that time Muller's sole authority for these works was a description by the sculptor, J, M. Wagner, with criticisms on the style by F. W. J, Schelling

1 p.77rj«/ra. ' p.^ifmfra.

' His original name was simply Karl. To distinguish himself from the many Karl Mullers, he added the name of Gottfried, which, on Buttman's advice, he changed to Otfried in :Bi7 (aflei the publication of his first work). The form Ottfried is incorrect.

* Atginilamm liber; scripsH Carolus MuiUer, Siksius {l%\^^).

' By Cockerel! and Foster, in conjunction with Mailer von Hallerstein, and Linckb. Cp. Michaelis, Die archMegiichtn Enldickungm (1906), 31 f.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

214 GERMANY. [CENT, XIX.

(1817). It was not until his appointment to a Chair of Classical Allerthumswisunschajt at Gottingen in the summer of 1819 that he was able to study some of the actual remains of ancient art at Dresden. At Gottingen in 1820 he gave a course of lectures on Archaeology and the History of Art ; two years later he enlarged his knowledge by visiting the collections in Paris and London, and he continued lecturing on the above subjects with ever increasing success until the end of the summer-term of 1839. In September of that year he left for Italy and Greece, and on the first day of August, 1840, he died at Athens of a fever contracted while he was copying the inscriptions on the wall of the Fcribolos at Delphi. A marble monument marks the spot where he was buried on the hill of Colonos.

At Gottingen he lectured repeatedly on Mythology and the History of Religion, on Greek Antiquities, Latin Lileratnre, and Comparative Grammar, and also on Classical authors, such as Pindar, Aeschylus, Herodotus, Thucydides, Tacitus, Persius and Juvenal. His early work on Aegina was followed, three years later, hy thai on ' Orchomenos and the Minyae" ; in 1814, by ihe two volumes of the 'Dorians'"; in the next year, by his ' Prolegomena to a scientific Mythology '■[ and, in 1818, by his 'Etruscans'*.

Five years later, he published his edilion of the Euinenidts, with a German rendering and with two Dissertations, (1) on the represenlalion of the play, (i) on ils purport and composition'. In the preface to this work, he was prompted by Hermann's attack on Dissen's Pindar' to describe Hermann as ' the distinguished scholar, who has long been promising us an eililion of Aeschylus, and who is ready to allack all who write on thai poet before proving that he possesses a clear conception of the connexion of thought and the plan of a single play, or indeed of any work of ancient poetry''. While MuUer poured contempt on the professional scholars of the day, he added that another race of men had already arisen, men who were asking the old world deeper questions than could be answered by any mere Notm- gtUhnamkeit. Hermann naturally protested, pointing out that MUller's attitude was ' mislaken ' as well as ' presumptuous '. This review, severe as it was, did nut prevent the just recognition of Miiller's Eunienides as a dislinctly useful edilion. The editor had set special store by his translation, and Ihe accuracy of that portion of the work was not contested by his great opponent, while the first of the two dissertations certainly threw new light on the Greek theatre and led to further research on that subject.

' 1844". ' E. T. 1850. • E. T., Leitch.

* 1877 ed. Deecke. ' E. T. ed. ], 185J.

« Ofusc. vi. 3-69-

' ib. vi (i) ri ; Muller and Donaldson's Gr. Lit. I xxiv ; Bursian, ii 675.

CHAP. XXXIV.] K. O. MiJLLER. 21$

In the same year as the firsi edition of the Eumeniiia, Muller published a critical edition of Varro, De Lingua Latina (1833). He had been drawn in this direction by his Etruscan studies. Following in the lines laid down by Spengel, he introduced many corrections into the text, but he left much to be done by his successors, and Spengel himself relumed to the work of his youth and prepared a new edition, which was published by his son. Mullei also emended and annotated the remains of Feslus, tt^ether with the epitome ofihe same by Faulus (1839, i868>).

An invitation from the London Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge led to his undertaking a ' History of Greek Literature ', which he began in 1836, but left unfinished on bis departure for Greece. The iirst Iwenty-lwo chapters were translated by George Comewall Lewis, to whose suggestion the work was due, and the rest by Dr Donaldson in 1S4O, when the greater part of the work was published. The work was subsequently com- pleted by Donaldson, who wrote chapters 38 — 60 for the edition published in three volumes in 1858'. The original author's aim was to show 'how those illustrious compositions, which we still justly admire as the classical writings of the Greeks, naturally sprang from the taste and ihe genius of the Greek races and the constitution of civil and domestic society as established among them '*.

Mllller had naturally been led 10 study the archaeology of art by the duties of his professorship. In (his domain he produced a considerable number of separate treatises, as well as a comprehensive cpnspectus of the whole field. The former included his papers on Ihe Delphic tripod, the cult and temple of Athena Polias, and the life and works of Pheidias. The latter is embodied in his well-known 'Handbook of the Archaeott^y of Art''. Illustrations to this work were supplied in Muller's Dentmaltr (1831), continued by his pupil, Friedrich Wieseler. MUller also wrote on Hesiod's Shield of Htraclts, Ihe Apollo of Kanachos, the date of the temple at Bassae, the vases of Vulci, the topc^aphy of AnlitKh, the frieze of the temple of Theseus, and the fonifications of Athens*. His account of the Museums of Athens was the only part of the results of his visit lo Greece that was published by his fellow- traveller, Adolph Schiill (1S43).

' As a classical scholar, we are inclined (says Donaldson) to prefer K. O. Miiller, on the whole, to all the German philologers of the nineteenth century. He had not Niebuhr's grasp rf original combination, he was hardly equal to his teacher, Bockh, in some branches of Greek. ..antiquities; he was inferior to Hermann in Greek verbal criticism ; he was not a comparative philolc^r, like Grimm and Bopp and A. W. Schlegel, nor a collector of facts and forms like Lobeck. But in all the disttuclive characteristics of these

' MLiiter's German text was published, from the rough drafts, by his younger brother in 1841; ed. 4 (E. Heitz), 1881-4. » i I ed. Donaldson (i8j8).

* 1830; ed. 3 (Welcker) 1848; ed. 4, 1878; E. T., Leitch, 1850.

* Klane dnitscht Sckrifien, vol. ii, 1848.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

2l6 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

eminent men, he approached them more nearij than most of his con- lemporaries, biiJ he had some qualifications lo which none of them attained. In liveliness of fancy, in power of slyle, in elegance of lasle, in artistic knowledge, he far surpassed most, if nol all, of them'*.

While K. O. Miiller, even in his study of ancient mythology and art, mainly followed the historical method of research, the poefic and artistic side of the old Greek world had won the interest of his predecessor at Gdttingen, Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker {1784 — 1868), who was born thirteen years before him, and survived him by no less than twenty-eight'. The son of a country-clergyman in Hesse, he worked by himself at Giessen, where he afterwards lectured, first on theolc^ical subjects, and next on Plato's Symposium, and the Prometheus. In 1806-8 he visited Italy, holding a tutorship in Rome in the family of Wilhelm von Humboldt. In Rome he came under the influence of the able Danish archaeologist, Zoega, subse- quently writing his life, and translating and publishing his works'. In 1809 he became a professor at Giessen ; in 1814, a volunteer in the war against Napoleon; in 1816, a professor at Gottingen, and in 1819 at Bonn, where he was also librarian and director of the Museum of ancient Art, the earliest institution of the kind. At Bonn he continued to live for nearly fifty years, the last seven of which were spent in retirement owing to failing eyesight. During his long tenure of office in that university, he spent two years travelling in Greece', Asia Minor, Italy and Sicily.

His lectures at Bonn covered a wide range, including Gieek and Latin poets, Greek mythology, and the history of ancient art. His audience was profoundly impressed by his noble personality, and by a fulness of thought, which was nut accompanied by any remarkable richness or clearness of language'. ^

1 On the Life and fV.ilings of K. O. Miiller, p. XKxi, in Hut. of tki Lit. of atieienl Grerce. I xv— xxxi (with portrait) ; cp. LeliensHld by K. F. Ranke (Berlin, Gymn. Prop., 1870) : Erianerungen by E. MUUer, and F. Lliclte ; Briefauchsel with Boeckh (Teubner, 1883) ; and Bursian, ii 1007 — 1018 ; also K. Hildebrand in Fr. transl. of Gk Lit., 1S65, 17 f; E. Curtius, Alt. u. Cegeiiwarl, ii'i^yf; Hertz, Breslau, 1884 ; K. Dilthey, Gottingen, 1S98.

' On Muller and Welcker, cp. Michaetis, Die areh. Bntd., 153.

* Chap, xxxviii infra (Denmark). < TagAmk (1S65).

° Classen, quoted by Kekul^, I74f.

D„:,i.,.-iM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXIV.] WELCKER. GERHARD. 217

His eeneral aim was to realise and 10 represenl the old Greek world under the three aspects of Religion, Poeliy, and Art. His researches in Greek mylhology were embodied in the three volumes of his Grieehische GSlUrlchre {1857-61). This was supplemented by his edition of Hesiod's Theegony, with general introductory essays on Hesiod, and a special dissertation on the Tkeognny.

In the earlier part of his career he had been attracted bj (he Greek lyric poets and Aristophanes. He translated the Clouds and the Frogs, with explanatory notes; wrote a paper on Epicharmus*, and several on Pindar'; collected the fragments of Alcman and Hipponax, Erinna and Corinoa ; and repeatedly defended the character of Sappho*. In an edition of Theognis, he arranged the poems according to his own views, adding critical and explanatory notes and full prolegomena. He also pubKshed a Sylhge of Greek Epigrams, and criticised Hermann's proposals for restoring the text. His works on the tragic poets began with a treatise on the Aeschylean trilogy of Prometheus, which was attacked by Hermann, and defended by Welcker in a treatise on the Aeschylean trilogy in general. The most extensive of his works on the drama was that on the ' Greek Tragedies in relation to the Epic Cycle '*. As a preliminary to this he had produced a work on the Epic Cycle itself. In the department of Greek prose authors, he supplied Fr. Jacobs with archaeological notes on the Philostrati and Callistratus ; he also wrote papers on Prodicus', and on the rhetorician Aristides^

His main strength as an archaeolc^st lay less in the hiilory of art than in its inlerprelalien. At Gotlingen, the greater part of the single volume of the Zeilschrifi on the history and interpretation of art was wiillen by Welcker alone {1818); and at Bonn, he published an explanatory catalogue of the Museum of Casts'. He was a member of the ' Roman Institute for Archaeological Correspondence' from its foundation in 1819, and frequently contributed to its publications, and to other archaeoli^ical periodicals. The most important of his papers were collected in the Ave parts of his Alle Dcnkmalir (1849-64), which had been partly preceded by the live volumes of his Ktdnt Schriften (1844-67)".

While Welcker's interests traversed the literary as well as the artistic sides of the old Greek world, a narrower field was covered by his friend and fellow-labourer,

' Kliinc Sckriflin, i 171 — 356. • ii 169 — 114, v 151 f.

' i 110 — iJj, and esp. ii 80—114; cp. iv 68, v iiS — 14*. For papers on other lyric poets, cp. i 89, 116; ii iij, 356.

* 3 vols, 1839-41. * 1835 ; ed. a, 1865 (pan ii, 1849, ed. 3, i88j).

* Kl. Schr. ii 393— 541. ' iii 89—156. ^ 1817; ed. 1, 1841.

* Uursian, ii 1018— 1046; cp. Life by Kekul^, with portrait (1880); Cone- spondence with Boeckh, in Max Hoffmann's Boeckh, iji — 108) also Wilamo- witi in Eur. Her. i' 139 f.

h, i.MiA.OOt^lc

2l8 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Eduard Gerhard (1795 — 1867), who regarded archaeology as ' that part of the general science of the old classical world which is founded on the knowledge of monuments ', and claimed for it an independent place by the side of ' philolc^y ' in the narrower sense of that term. Born at Posen, he studied at Breslau and Berlin, but was compelled by weakness of sight to abandon the work of teaching that he had begun at Breslau and at the place of his birth. He visited Italy in 1819-20 and 1822-6, and again in 1828-32, and in 1833 and 1836. In 1837 he became director of the Archaeological Museum in Berlin, and was a full professor from 1844 to his death in 1867,

It was hi9 first visit to Italy that inspired him with his earliest enthusiasD) for ancient art, and during his long residence in that land he hecame familiar with archaeologists ol other nations, such as Btiindsted {1780— 1841), the representative of Denmark, and Slackelberg (1787—1834), llie Esthonian nobleman, who was then preparing his two great works on the Temple of Bassae {iSi6), and on the Graves of (he Greeks (1837). Stackelberg had fallen under the spell of Creuzer's Symbolii, and it was owing lo the influence of Stackelbei^ that Gerhard was led to believe that the woiks of art found in ancient lambs were connected with the cult and the mysteries of Dionysus.

In 1813 Gerhard was joined by Theodor Panofha (1801—1858), who entered the university of Berlin in 1819, and, after promoting the interests of the international Archaeological Institute in Rome and in Paris, returned tn Berlin, where he became a Member of the Academy, and, for the last fifteen years of his life, an 'extraordinary' professor. A man of wide but rather confused learning, he had an undue fondness foi discovering mythological explanations of works of ancient art', for finding traces of allegory in the most unimportant objects, and for indulging his fancy in matters of etymology, as well as in the interpretation of works of art or handicraft*.

The influence of Panofka is apparent in Gerhard's Venus Proserpina, in his Rami aniike Bildtoerie^, his Prodromus to the mythological interpretation of art, and his Hyperboreiscke-romischt Studien. Ilis views were not materially altered in his Berlin* papers, or in the two volumes of his 'Greek Mythology' (i8s4-5).

• Vcr/egme Mylhen (1840) ; cp. Bursian, ii 1049 n. 3.

' Among his more valuable works are his Res Samionim (t8li), his Bilderatlas antiken Lebcns (1843), his Crieckinnen uiui Criechm ttach Atitittn (1844), and his descriptions of the terra-cottas in Berlin and Naples, and in private collections elsewhere.

' In Plainer and Bunsen's Besehreibung der SlaiU Rom, i 177 — 334.

* GesammiUe Akad. Abhandlungen {with 4to vol. of Plates), ilt66-8.

CHAP. XXXIV.] PANOFKA. BRAUN. 2ig

Gerhard had a remarkable aplilude for classifying andent monuments, a maiTellous memory Tor all the known representatives of each class, and an ample store of illustrative classical learning. Even his weakness of e;esi);ht did not interfere with a rapid apprehension of the silieot points, and the general style, of any work of ancient art. This is exemplified in his descriptive catalogue of the Vatican Museum, and in bis unfinished account of the works of ancient art in Naples. Apart from his catalogues of the collections in Berlin, his best-known works were his four volumes on Greek vase-paintings', his descriptions of Etruscan mirrors', and his numerous papers on the mythology and cult of the Greeks'.

During his third slay in Kome {182S-31), Gerhard, in conjunction with Bunsen and Kestner, look in hand the foundation of the ' International Institute for Archaeological Correspondence'. Gerhard, Kestner. Fea, and Thorwaldsen met at Bunsen's official residence, the Palazzo Caflarelli on the Capitol, on the anniversary of the birth of Winckelmann, the glh of December, to draw up a scheme for the new Institute, which was to be founded in 1819, on April 11. the traditional date of the founding of Rome. Its publications subsequently included a monthly BuUetino, annual volumes of Annali and Manumenli, and, in and after :87i, the Ephemeris Epigraphka.

The success of the Institute in Rome was largely due to the ability of its secretaries. Bunsen was general secretary in 18S9-38, and was aided, al first, by Gerhard and Panofka, and (on Gerhard's departure) by Ambrosch, and by the chaplain of the legation, H. Abeken, and the Danish scholar, 0. Kellermann (18051—1838). The last of these was the first to propound a great scheme for a critical colleclian of Latin inscriptions.

When Gerhard returned to Rome in 1833, he was accompanied by an able amanuensis, August Emil Braun {1809 — 1856), who was bom at Gotho, and had studied classical archaeology in Gottingeti, Munich, Dresden, and Paris, and who acted as secretary of the Institute until his death. Braun was an authority in mailers of archaeology, but in later years he developed an inordinate repugnance to the use of ancient literature in illustration of the remains of ancient art*.

As secretary, Braun was associated with the celebrated Egyptolc^sl, Richard Lepsius, and with Wilhelm Abeken (1813 — 1843), the author of a work on the early inhabitants of ancient Italy, and Wilhelm Henzen (1816— 1887), Welcker's pupil and fellow-traveller in Greece, who afterwards (under the influence of Mommsen) devoted most of his energy to the Corpus Inscrip- lienum Latinarum^.

' AuserUseiu Gr. VasmUlihr (i840-£S). ' 4 parts (1843-68).

' Life by Otto Jahn in Gerhard's Abhandlungtn, \\ i — 111 ; cp. Uriichs in A. D. B., and Bursian, ii 1046 — T06G.

* His chief works were Antike Marmorwerkt (1844); XII Basrelie/s (1845); Cr. GStterlekrt (1854); VarsckaU der KumtmytMegie (1854). Cp. (A. Michaelis), Gesch. des deutschen ArchSal. last. 53 f, lOi f, liif, Hj f.

* Biagr.Jahrh. 1888, 135—160.

220 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Gerhard's biographer was the able and scholarly archaeologist, Otto Jahn (1813— 1869), who studied at Kiel, Leipzig, and Berlin; was a ' privat-docent ' at Kiel in 1839, professor at Greifswald in 1841-7, and at Leipzig from 1847 to 1851, when he was dismissed on political grounds and found a city of refuge in Ziirich. For the last fourteen years of his life he was professor at Bonn, and, in 1869, he died at Gottingen.

An adept in music, he found his chief interest in classical scholarship, and in the scholarly study of classical archaeology. Under the influence of Nitzsch al Kiel, and Lachmanu in Berlin, he hecame an eager sludent of the Greek and Latin poets. His earliest interest in archaeology was aroused by his visits to Paris in 1837 and Rome in 1838, when he came under (he influence of Emit Braun. Greek vases were the thetne of a lai|^ number of his papers ; he also wrote an introduction to their study in his Descriplion of the Collection in the Munich Pinakothek (1854). Shortly after his return from Italy, he began his career as an academic teacher. That career was only interrupted by his political activity at Kiel in 1848, by the enforced leisure of 1851-5, ^i"^ by ihe illness that immediately preceded his death.

His well-equipped series of text-books for univer^ly lectures included the Story of Cupid and Psyche from Apuleius, the Descriplion of the Athenian Acropolis in Pausanias', the Eleetra of Sophocles, the Symposium of Plato, and the treatise on the Sublime'. All except the last were emheilished with illustrations from works of ancient ait. His annotated school-editions included the Btutus and the Oralur of Cicero'. His critical recensions comprised Persius (1843} and Juvenal (1S51), followed by a new edition of both (1868)) also Florus, and Censorinus, and the Perioehat of Livy, together with Julius Obsequens. One of the best of his papers was that on the Subscriptiones at the end of MSS of the Classics*.

His work in archaeology, apart from Ihe Introduction to Greek Vases already mentioned, includes a large number of masterly monc^aphs. The Bubjecti of the earlier group included Telephus and Troilus, the paintings of Polygnolus, ' Pentheus and the Maenads ', ' Paris and Oenone ', with discourses on Ancient Tragedy and Goethe's IphigenU, on Welcker and Winckelmann, and on Hellenic Art, as well as an essay on the Palhidium', and the collected papers entitled Archaologischc Aufidlzt ixA Seilrage {tS^^-j}.

At Leipzig he published numerous papers in the transactions of the local Academy, including one on the art'criticisms of the elder Pliny*, and on

' i860; ed. 1 (Micbaelis) rSSo; ed. 3, 1901. ' 1867 ; ed. 3 (Vahlen), 1905-

• 1849-si ; ed. 3, 1865-9; ed. 4of/?™Cm, 1877.

* Sa^it. Berichte, iii (1851) 337 f. * Fhiielagus, i 55 f. " Satis. BtrichU, ii 105 f.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXXIV.] JAHN. BRUNN. 221

scenes from Gieek poets on Gteek vases*. He also contributed to the publica- tions of the learned societies of Munich, Vienna, Zurich, Bonn, and Rome.

His lectures at Bonn were lucid and unadorned in style, and while the salient points were brought into clear relief, there was a perfect mastery of all the details. He lavished his resources on (he collection of a splendid library, which enabled him to acquire a minute familiarily with the remotest comers of ancient lire, a ramiliarity eiemplified nol only in his learned commentary on Persius, but also in his elaborate paper on the ancient superstition of the

It was at Bonn that he delivered his two discourses on the general position of Classical Studies in Germany (1859-61)*. Even in his years of failing health he produced much of the worit that appears in his ' Popular Essays * (1868). His latest work, that on Ihe Greek inscribed reliefs of mythologtcal and historical scenes, was edited after hJa death by his distinguished nephew and paful, Adolf Michaelis*.

A new life vfas given to the Archaeological Institute by Henzen, and by Heinrich Bninn (i8ij — 1894), a pupil of Welcker and Ritschl at Bonn, where he submitted for his degree a dissertation on the sources of Pliny's chapters on the History of Art (1843). He resided in Rome from that date to 1853, the year of the publication of the first volume of his well-known ' History of the Greek Artists ' *. After a brief interval at Bonn, he lived once more in Rome from 1856 to 1S65, when he became professor at Munich, holding that position with conspicuous ability for nearly thirty years.

Many of his published papers were preparatory to a comprehensive ' History of Greek and Roman Art ', the early portions of which were printed in 1893-7. A volume of Essays entitled Grtichische Gollirideale was published by himself (1893)1 '"^ minor works have since been collected in three volumes' ; and a series of fine reproductions of ' Monuments of Greek and Roman Sculpture', liegun in his life-lime, has been continued since his death. His style as a teacher was marked by simplicity and clearness, by enthusiasm for his subject, and by a complete absence of rhetorical adornment. Not content with giving results, he also pointed out Ihe strictly scientific

" Abhandl.\\\^^i.

» Sikhs. Btrkhti, vii (1855) 18— iJO.

* Winckelmann, Hermann, and Ludwig Ross are admirably treated in his Bu>gnjfAiscki Au/sdize {ed. i, iS6ti).

* BildenhroniJun (1873). Cp. Michaelis in A. D. B., and Arch. Enid. 154; also Bursian, ii 1070-80, esp. the quotations on p. 1075; Vahlen, i8jo, J4 pp.; Momrosen, in RiJen und Aufsdtst, 458 f.

* "853-9 f ^- *> '889. * 1898— 1905-6, with portraits.

,^.oogic

HelbiK

223 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

method by which Ihey had been atlained'. Among his numerous discoveries may be mentioned his recognition of the so-called ' Leucothea' of the Munich Glyptothtk as the ' Eiiene and PUitus' of Cephisodotus'; and his identiliC3tion of a series of scattered works of sculpture (all beloriging to a Roman find of ■5 [4) as the remnants of the four groups of figures set up by Attalus 1 on the Acropolis of Athens to commemorate the battles of the Peti^amenes against Ihc Gaiatians, of the Athenians against the Persians and the Amazons, and of the Gods against the Giants'. The relations Iwtween the literature and the art of Greece are exemplified in his paper on the indications of artistic inspiration in Greek idyllic poetry'. The discovery in modem times of many works of ancient art unreci^nised by Pliny or Pausanias has led to a more independent study of Greek sculpture for its own sake, and to a closer attention to the analysis o/ artistic slyle. The pioneer in this new movement was Heinrich

Brunn's successor as secretary at Rome was Wolfgang Helbig (b. 1839), a pupil of Jahn and Ritschl, who is best known as the author of two volumes on the wall- paintings of Pompeii, proving that nearly all of them were repro- ductions of Hellenistic works (1868-73), ^1^*^ "'^'^ °^ ^ volume in which the Homeric poems are illustrated by the remains of ancient art (1884). His guide to the Roman Museums was published in 1891.

Immediately after the Institute had become an Imperial insti- tution, a branch was opened at Athens (1874). The first secretary at Athens was Otto Liiders, a pupil of Welcker, and author of Du dionysiscfun Kunstler (1873)'. He was suc- ceeded by Ulrich Kohler (1838 — 1903}, for many years editor of the Mittheilungen and of several volumes of the Corpus Inscriptionum Ailicarum'.

1 G. Korte, in Berl. Philel. IVoch. 1899, 88j f. At Bonn, in 1843, Bninn had maintained that 'he would rather err tailh method, than hit upon truth wilAout '.

* 1867 ; A7. Sehr. ii ji8 — 340; cp. Michaelia, Arch. Enid. (1906) 267.

' 1870; Kl.Schr.ii ^ti — 430; cp. E. A. Gardner, Cii ii:ii^i'»r(, 457 — 460-

* 1879; A7.i'c4r.iii 117—318.

* Cp- Michaelis, Arch, Enid. (1906) 36a f. On Brunn, cp. A. Emerson in Amir. Journ. of ArchaeeUgy, ix (1894) 36a — 371 (with two portraits) ; on his pupils, cp. Bursian, ii lo88.

' See, in general, (A. Michaelis), Gesch. dts lUulschtn archaal. /nsliltUi, 1819-79.

' Deutscher Nrkrclog, tgoj; Biogr. Jahtb. igo6, ta—sg (with bibliography). On Dittenherger (d. 1906) and Furtwangler (d. 1907) see Addenda.

A.OO'

ic^lC

CHAP. XXXIV.] WIESELER. STEPHANI. 223

Among the represeniatives of the 'slatistfcal' type of archaeologists, who (like Gerhard) aimed al collecting alt ihe exlant remains of ancient art and inlerpieling Ihem in the light of literary and artislic evidence, a foremost place must he assigned to Friedtieh Wieseler (1811 — 189]). After studying at Giitlingen and lietliii, it was at the former university thai he passed through all the successive stages of a professorial career extending over Ihree and fifty years. In his earliest works he discussed the text and the plot of several Greek plays', besides writing on the ThymeU, and publishing an illustrated folio volume on Ihe Greek and Roman Theatre (iSji). He produced numerous papers on archaeology, and on mythology in an'. He is best known for his continuation of Milller's Denkmdttr^.

Another archaeologist of the same general type was Ludolf Stephani (1816 — 1887), who studied at Leipzig under Hermann and W. A. Becker, and published in 1843 Ihe topographical and epigraphical results of his (our in Northern Greece. In 1846 he was called to ihe university of Dorpat, where he continued the study of Greek inscriptions ; and, in 1850, was made a Member of Ihe St Petersburg Academy, and Keeper of the coins and other antiquities in Ihe Hennitage. To the publications of the Academy he contributed a number of exhaustive monc^raphs'. He also prepared, on a scale of unprecedented magnificence, the reports on the archaeological exploration of the Crimea', and Ihe twenty volumes of the Cempln-rendus of the Imperial Archieolc^cal Commission, It^ether with the descriptive catalogue of the vases in the Hermitage, and of the antiques in ihe palace at Pawlowsk'.

Among those who conlribuled to the study and appreciation of Greek arcbileclure were Karl Friedrich Schinkel (i;8i— 1841), a practical architect, whose design for the erection of a royal palace on the platform of the Athenian Acropolis was happily never carried out; Leo von Klenie (1784— -1864), Ihe author of a work on the temple of Zeus at Agrigenlum (1811) ; GoEtfried Semper (1803— 1879), the author of an imporlani volume on archilectural style'; and Karl Boetlicher (1806—1889}, the author of the Ttklettik dtr HelUntn\ Johann Heinrich Sirack (1805 — 1880) wrote a monograph on the ancient Greek Theatre (1843), and brought about the complete excavation of Ihe Theatre of Dionysus at Athens (1861)*. Richard Bohn (1849 — 1898) was among the architects em- ployed in Ihe exploration of Olympia and Pergamon '°.

> Eum. (1839), P. V. and .4iwj (1843) etc. > Bursian, ii \o^i note.

* Biogr. Jakrb. 1900, 9^41 (with bibliography).

» Der ausruhende Herailii (1854) ; Nimbus und SIraklenkrans (1859) etc.

• Antiquith du Boiphare Ciaimlrita (1854) ; also Antiquith dt la Scythit (i8«, ,873).

< Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, 138—^63 \ Bursian, ii 1091-5.

' 1860-3; ^' '. '878-9; Biogr. Jahrb. 1879, 49—831 Bursian, ii iio7f.

' '843-51 ; ed. I, [873-81 ; Biogr. Jakrb. 1890, ;i — 81.

» Biogr. Jakrb. 1885, 96^16*. ■» Conie in A. D. B. xlvii 81.

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224 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Archaeoli^ical research in man; lands was promoled by ihe excavations initiated by Heinricli Schliemann (iSai — 1890). The son of a German pastor, he had often heard his falher lell Ihe story or the Trojan war, and, at the age of eight, he resolved on excavating the site of Troy. At (he age of fourteen, as a grocer's apprentice, he heard a miller's man, who had known belter days, recite a hundred lines of Homer, and he (hen prayed thai he might some day have the happiness of learning Greek. At the age of twenly-live, he founded an indigo business at St Petersburg, and by the age of thirty-six had acquired a sufficient fortune to be able lo devote himself entirely to archaeoli^y. He had then been studyii^ Greek for two years, not having dared to do so before, for fear of falling under Ihe spell of Homer and neglecting his business. In his earliest work, that on ' Ithaca, Peloponnesus, and Troy' (1869), he inferred from Pausanjas' that ihe graves of the Atreidae at Mycenae must be sought iHside the wall of the citadel, and he supported the opinion that the site of Troy was on the hill of Hissarlik. The hil! was excavated in 1870-73, and the results published in 1874-5. His exploration of Mycenae (1874-6) was (ally descrilied in 1877. Resuming his work at 'Troy' (1878-9), he published his results in /iias {1S80). After excavating ihe 'treasury of Minyas' at Orchomenos (1880-1), he returned to Troy, and published 7r0/<i (1884). An imperfect exploralion of the ' mound of Marathon ' was followed by successful work at Tiryns (i88j). In the island of Cytbera he discovered the ancient temple of the Uranian Aphrodite (t888), and on that of Sphacteria the o!d fortilicatians mentioned by Thucydides'.

He had a palatial house at Alhens inscribed with the words lAIOT MEAA- dPON ; the floor was adorned with mosaics representing vases and urns from ' Troy ' ; along the walls ran painted friezes with epic landscapes, and Homeric quotations. The porter's name was Bellerophon, the footman's Telamon, and Schliemann himself would be generally engaged in reading some Greek Clas^iic He had married a Greek wife, who was as enthusiastic as himself in the exploration of Mycenae ; he called his daughter Andromache, and his son Agamemnon. When the archaeological world was looking forward lo his proposed exploralion of Crete, he died suddenly in Naples. He was buried at AthetB in the Greek cemetery south of the Ilissus. His desire that his body should there rest in the land of his adoption was carried out by Dorpfeld, who had taken a leading part in the excavations at Tiryns, and who afterwards published an important work summing up the results of the exploration of Troy, which was finally completed by Doipfeld alone'.

' ii 16, 4.

' ivji, 1.

' Traja tind Ition (1901). Cp. in general, Schuchardt, SchlUmanm Amgrabungen (1890), E.T. (with bit^raphy); also Bulsian, ii 1113-9; Joseph (Berlin, 190J') ; 'SitxTin, Kl. Schr. iii 179 — tSt; and Michaelis, Arch. Enid. iSif.

CHAP. XXXIV.] STARK. OVERBECK. BURSIAN. 225

All the provinces of archaeological research, — the history of archaeology, the history and interpretation of ancient art, as well as mythology, antiquities and historical topography, were traversed in the professorial teaching, and in the published works, of Karl Bernard Stark (1824 — 1879). After studying under Goltling, Hermann, and Boeckh, and travelling in Italy, he settled at Jena in 1848, and, in 1855, was called to Heidelberg, where he held a professorship for the last twenty-four years of his life. Meanwhile, he had produced his first important work, that on Gaza and the Philistine coast (1851), followed by his monograph on Niobe {1863). He spent his latest years in preparing a comprehensive Handbook to the Archaeology of Art, and the first part, including the general survey of the subject, and the history of its study, was post- humously published in 1880. His Lectures and Essays on Archaeology and on the History of Art were published in the

Another short-lived archaeologist, Karl Friederichs {1831 — 1871), was the author of a full description of the Berlin Museum of Casts {1868; ed. 2, 1885), and of works on Praxiteles and the Philostrati,

An important history of ancient sculpture' was published by Joannes Overbeck {1826 — 1895), a native of Antwerp, who was educated at Hamburg and who studied at Bonn, and was professor of Classical Archaeology at Leipzig from 1858 to his death. All the Greek and Latin texts on ancient art are conveniently collected in his SchriftqueUen {1848). Mythology in art is the sphere of his great series of illustrations connected with the heroes of the Theban and the Trojan Cycle (1853), and with the gods of Greece (1871 tf. His standard work on Pompeii {1856), written before he had visited the place, was afterwards repeatedly enlarged and improved.

Conrad Bursian (1830 — 1883), who has done due honour to archaeology in connexion with the history of classi- cal philology, received his early education under Stallbaum at Leipz^, where he continued his studies under Haupt

Biogr.Jahrb. i8j9, 40 — +5 ; Bursian, ii 1100-2. i857f ; ed. 4, 1894. " Bursian, i

S. III.

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226 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

and Jahn. He also worked for a short time in Berlin under Boeckh. After travelling in Greece (1852-5), he held professor- ships of Classics and Archaeology at Leipzig, Tubingen, Ziirich, and Jena, and for the last nine years of his life was a professor at Munich.

Apart from papers on Greek geography and archaeology, his early works included an edition of the elder Seneca (1856). It was at Tiibingen that he completed the first volume of his important 'Ge<^aphy of Greece' {1867), reserving the second for publication in three parts in 1868—72. Its completion was delayed by his comprehensive monc^raph on Greek Art in ' Ersch and Gruber'. His interest in Greek Geography was further shown in his editions of several of the minor Greek Geographers. In 1877 he founded an important periodical for the annual survey of the progress of classical learning'. He spent his last ten years on the crowning work of his life, his * Histor}' of Classical Philology in Germany".

Otto Benndorf (1838 — 1907), who studied at Erlangen and (under Jahn) at Bonn, was successively professor of archaeology at Ziirich, Prag, and Vienna, where he was placed at the head of the Austrian Archaeolc^cal Insti- tute on its foundation in 1898. He began his brilliant career by producing at Bonn in 1865 a well-known dissertation on the Epigrams of the Greek Anthology relating to works of art In conjunction with R. Schoene he described the ancient sculptures of the Lateran Museum (1867); he also published a work on Greek and Sicilian vases (18691), and a monograph on the ' metopes of Selinus {1873), He was associated with Conze and Hauser in the second Austrian expedition to Samothrace (1875), with Petersen in the exploration of the heroon of Giolbaschi near Myra in Lycia (1881 f ), and with Heberdey and Wilberg in the excavations at Ephesos {1896)'.

Another pupil of Jahn, Friedrich Mati (1843—1874), begin his brief career with a paper in which he took up a posidon belween that al Karl Friederichs, who had attacked, and IleinKch

' Jahrethtriekt iibtr die Fortichrilte dtr dassischea Alterlkunisiaissenschaft. « 1171 pp. (:883); Biogr.JaJirb. 1883. i— ri.

* Cp. Bursian, ii 10S5, and Michaelis, Ar^h. Entd. gSf, ijSf, i64f; Forschun^n in Epkesos, vol. i (Vienna, 1907).

CHAP. XXXIV.] BENNDORF. FORCHHAMMER. 22/

Brann, who had defended the authenlicily of the pictorial descriptions of the two Philostrati (1867),

Among the earliest of the Germans who took part in the topographical exploration of Greek lands were Friedrich Thiersch', and Ludwig Ross (1806 — 1859), the explorer of the Greek Islands (1840-52) and the author of a work on the Attic Denies {1852)'.

Peter Wilhelm Forchhammer (1801—1894), who was educated at LUbeck and studied at Kiel, travelled in Italy, Greece aud Asia Minor from 1830 to 1836, and was a professor at Kiel for the remaining nriy-eight years of his life. The observations made during his earlier Greek travels appeared in his HtUenika (1837). During his second tour of 1838-40, he visited the Troad with the English naval officer, T. A. B. SpratI, whose map was published with Forchhammer's 'Observations on the top<^raphy of Troy' (1843-50). He also wrote on the topography of Athens (1841), and, nearly forty years afterwards, on the linds at Mycenae. In his numerous mythological papers he contended that Mytholt^y had its origin in natural phenomena, especially in those connected with water.

In the earliest of his archaeological publications he rightly maintained, against Boeckh, thai cases of homicide were not removed from the jurisdiction of the Areopagus by (he reforms of Ephialles ; and, in his work on ' Socrates and the Athenians', he paradoxically represented Socrates as a revolutionist and the Athenians as prompted by their reverence for the law in condemning him to death*. After Kiel had been incorporated with Prusaa, Forchhammer became a Member of Parliament. He lived to be more than ninety, and was a keen student of mythology and of art to the very end. His abiding interest in the old Greek world was proved by bis discussions of school-reform in 1882, and his paper on 'mind and matter' in 1889'.

A life of far shorter duration was the lot of another native of Northern Europe, Heinrich Ulrichs (1807—1843), who was born at Bremen, and, during his stay in Greece, explored E>elphi and Thebes and the intervening district, as well as the harbours of Athens. He was professor of Latin at Athens in 1834, and died there nine years later'.

The whole of the Orbh Vtteribiis Nolut was traversed in the course of the life-long labours of Heinrich Kiepert ([818 — 1899). In his native city of Berlin he attended the lectures of Boeckh and of Karl Ritter, began his travels in Asia Minor in 1841, was appointed Director of the Geographical Institute at Weimar in 1845, and, after returning to Berlin in 1855, was successively elected a Member of the Academy (1855), 'extraordinary' professor (1859) and 'ordinary' professor of Geography

» p. Ill supTi. » Jahn, Biogr. Au/s. 133—164. > p. 74 sufra.

* Biogr. Jahrb. 1897, 41 — 63 (with bibliography).

" Life in vol. ii of his Reisen und Forschttngot (1840-63), ed. Passow.

h. I .^s-t^ooglc

H. Ulrichs

228 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

(1874). He gave lecluies in all these capacities. Apart from many separate maps of the highest degree of excellence, the publications by which he is best known are his comprehensive and hieid tenl-book of Ancient Geographj (i87fi), his Alias Antiquus (iSsg) and his Atlas von Hellas (1871). His Alias Antiquus has attained a twelfth edition, and the publication of his Forntat Orbis Antiqui has been continued since his death'.

In Greek topography a wide field was covered by the com- prehensive work of Bursian', and also by the ElTuttiuV ^^"^^ labours of Ernst Curtius (1814— 1896). Bom and bred at LiJbeck, where his father was the Biirgermeister of that ancient Hanseatic town, he had no sooner come to the end of his I^hrjakre at Bonn and Gottingen and Berlin than he began his four years of Wanderjahre in Greece (1836-40). His travels and researches bore fruit in an admirable work on the Ptloponnesos (1851-2). Meanwhile, he had taken his degree at Halle, and had begun his distinguished career in Berlin (1843). He was a professor at Gottingen from 1856 to 1868, when he returned to Berlin, and was one of the ornaments of that university for the remaining- twenty-eight years of his life.

His History of Greece was published in 1857-67', while he was still at Gottingen, It has justly been regarded as a brilliant achievement. The author's travels had enabled him I0 give a vivid impression of the gei^raphical characteristics of the country. The narrWive was lucid and interesting, and literature and art found due recognition in its pages'.

A lecture on Olympia, delivered in 1844 in the presence of the King of Frassia, led to his being appointed tutor 10 the Crown Prince Friedrich, whom he accompanied to the university of Bonn, and whom he inspired with an interest in ancient and modern art. He was thus enabled in after years to secure high patronage for the exploration of Olympia', the successful com- pletion of which was largely due to his influence. His study was adorned with a copy of the Nike of Faeonius, the first-fruits of the rich harvest of the Olympian plain. His own marble bust, the gift of his admirers, was also there, and a replica of the same was appropriately placed in the Museum at Olympia. His light hair, his sparkling eyes, and the clear cut profile of his

' Autobiography in Globus, 18Q9, no. 19.

> p. T.-A supra. ' Ed. 6, 1888 ; E. T. by A. W. Ward, 1868-73.

* His theory that the mainland of Greece was colonised by the lonians of Asia Minor, long before Asia Minor was colonised by a reluming wave of colonists from Greece, was first proposed in a paper of 1855, Die /enter vtir tier uniscken IVanderung, energetically opposed in A. von Gutschmid's Beilrdge of 1858.

" 1875—1881; Ergtbttisse, 1881-37.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CWachimi

CHAP. XXXIV.] E. CURTIUS. C. WACHSMUTH. 229

face, as well as his charm of manner, made him a singularly a.ltraclive personality. He had a sirong physique and enjoyed excellent health. Al the age of eighty, he once stood for an hour, delivering without note an admirable discourse on the hereditary priests of Olympia. In his old age, however, his failing eyesight compelled him to submit to several operations for cataract.

Apart from his early work on the Pelofoniusoi, and the 'History' of his maturer years, we have the fruit of his old age in a comprehensive and well-ordered 'History of the City of Athens' (1891)'. His occasional discourses on ancient and modern topics have been collected in the three volumes entitled AlUttkum und Gegmwart (iSjs-Sp), and his more learned papers in two volumes published in 1894. A special interest attaches to the articles which he wrote in memory of Colonel Leake, as well as of Boeckh, K. O. Miiller, and his younger brother, Geoi^ Curtius'. His bust has been already mentioned ; his portrait was painted in oils by Koner for the National Gallery in Berlin, and also by Reinhold Lipsius*.

The first volume of Die Sladt Alhen im Allerthum (1874-90) was dedicated to Curlius by Curt Wachsmulh (1837 — 190s), profes! Marburg, Gottingen, Heidelberg and Leipzig, who in published the first two volumes of an important edition of the Anlheiogium of Stobaeus, followed in 1895 by his excellent Introduction to the study of ancient history*.

The exploration of Olympia during the first two seasons (1875-7) "as entrusted 10 Gustav Hirschfeld {1847—1895), who had studied in Berlin under Curtius, whom he accompanied on a tour in Asia Minor, besides working at archaeology during his own travels in Italy and Greece. In 1S77-8 he was at work on the Greek Inscriptions of the British Museum, his edition of which was published in 1893. He look a prominent part in the discussions as to the authority of Pausanias ', and as to the date of the foundation of Naucratis and the antiquity of the early Greek inscriptions*.

' The Sitbai Karten zur Topagrapkie van Atktn {1868) were followed by Curtius and Kaupert's ..4/^ij von Athen (1876) and Karten van Altiia (1881- 94), and by Milchhofer's Uebersicklskarte von Ailika (1903).

' Allerth-um und Gegettwart, vols, ii, iii.

■ Gurlitt, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1901, irj — 144; cp. Ein LdemHld in Brieftti (1903); also Bursian, ii iii9f, mfii; Brotcher, in Preuss. Jahrb., 1896, 581—603; Kekule's^tat, 1896; Keep, in ^././•.xix 111— 137; T. Hodgkin, iuProc. Brir.Aead. ii (Feb. 1 905), 14 pp.; and (A. W. Ward) £din. Xeviejo, 1904 (i) 403 — 431 ! A. Michaelis, in Deutscher Nekrelog, (1897) s6 — 88.

* F. Marx, in Deutscher Neirolog, (1907) 4I f.

' Arch. Zeitung, 1SS1, gj—iy> ; /tiMri. /. il. Pkihl. 1883, 769 f.

• v(<:*i'n«>'. 9 July, 10 Aug. 1887; 4 Jan. 1890; Rkein. Mus. XLII (1887) logf; Rtv. des Hudes grecques, 1890, m f. Cp. Bisgr. Jahrb. 1898, 65—90 [with bibliography).

,1^.00'

gic

230 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

Hirschfeld was the fiist to ui^e the impoitance of the eicavalion of Peiea- man ; but it was owing to Ihe energy of Alexander Conze, who had left Vienna for Berlin in 1877, that the explorations begun in um«nn ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ilumann {1839—1896) were successfully con-

tinued in 1878 by that eager excavator and his colleagues. The exploration of the acropolis and its precincts, completed ia t886, has disclosed a new chapter in the history of Greek Sculpture and of Greek Architecture'.

The erudite historian, Max Duncker (i8ir — 1886), was bom in Berlin, and studied philosophy al Bonn under Brandis, and hislory under Loebell. He began his literary career with a Latin disserta- tion on the various methods of treating history (1834). The part that he played in a political movement among the students at Bonn led to his being condemned to imprisonment for a term of six years, reduced by (he royal favour to six months, which he spent in strenuous study. During his eighteen years at Halle, he passed from the early history of the Germans to that of the Indo-Germanic peoples, publishing in 1851-7 the four volumes of the first edition of his GeschUkte des Alterthuim. The work was ultimately expanded into nine volumes, but its concluding portion, the History of Greece, goes no further than Ihe age of Pericles.

His political opinions led to his resigning his position at Halle ; and, after two years at Tubingen (1857-59), he left for Berlin, where his interest in politics was unabated. For seven years (1867-74} he was the 'general director' of the Prussian archives, and he subsequently published several important papers on Greek history. Imprisoned in his early career for the crime of being in advance of his lime;^, he lived to see his Pan-Germanic opinions approved by Prussia, to be (he rect^ised exponent of modern history at the military academy of Berlin, and even to become the official historiographer of the house of Brandenburg. His tomb in Berlin lies between (hose of (he two historians, Ni(zsch and Droysen'.

Gustav Droysen (1808 — 1S84) studied in Berlin, where he remained until 184O. In 184O he became professor of History a( Kiel, in 1851 his political opinions compelled him to leave for Jena ; in 1859 he was called to Berlin, where he held a professorship for the rest of his life. In the early part of his career he was keenly interested in the Greek poets, publishing a translation of Aeschylus', and (in 1S35) a free and vigorous rendering of Arislophanes, which attained the honour of a third edition. His earliest historical work, that on Alexander the Great (1833), was followed by his well-known hbtory of the successors of Alexander {:836-4i). In Iheir second edition, these works were fused into the three volumes of the ' History of Hellenism' (1877-8). Besides important works on modern history, he publbhed papers on the Athenian generals, on the trial for the mutilation

' Cp. Michaelis, Anh. Enid. 140-8, 305, and i 153' n. 3 sapra. On Humann, see Come, in Deulschtr Nekrolog, 189;, 369 — 377. * Biop-.Jahrb. 1886, 147— 174, ' 1884*.

CHAP. XXXIV.] DUNCKER. DROYSEN. HOLM. 231

of Ihe Hermae, and on the coinage of Athens and of Dionysius I, He was a born teacher, and continued lo lecluie with unabated spiiit foi more than half a century '.

The whole range of Greek history has been covered by the meritorious labours of Guslav Herliberg {b. i8j6), who in 1851 began his long career at Ilalte. The (irsi volume of his ilistory of Greece ( 1S31) ended with the invasion by Roger of Sicily, while the third and fourth (old the slory of the Greek Revolution. His outline of Greek History down (o Ihe beginning of the Middle Ages appeared in Ersch and Gruber. He has also written three volumes on Greece under the Romans (1866-75), and four on the period beginning with Justinian and ending with the present day (1876-9)*. In part of his labours he has had the advantage of being pre- ceded by Carl Hopf, the author of an important History of Greece from Ihe beginning of the Middle Ages to the year i8* 1 '.

The able historian of Sicily and Greece, Adolf Holm (1830 — igoo), was, tike Ernst Curiius, born at Lubeck. Educated at the local school under Fr. Jacob and Classen, he was hardly seventeen when. he entered Leipzig, where he studied under Hermann and Haupt and Olto Jahn. From Leipzig he went to Berlin, where he studied under Boeckh, Lachmann, Curiius, Kanke, and Ritter. His work under Trendelenburg resulted in his producing a priiC'disaerlation on the ethical principles of the Polilici of Aristotle.

His first appoiolment was a mastership in French at his old school at Lubeck ; he accordingly studied the language strenuously in I'aris, but he made a far greater impression on his pupils when he took them through the sixth Book of Thucydides a year or so before the publication of the first volume of his own 'History of Sicily'. In 1857 he carried out his long- cherished plan for visiting Rome and Naples.

In 1863 he paid a second visit to Paris, this time with a view to studying the Due de Luynes' collection of the coins of Sicily and Magna Graecia. In 1866 be was busy with the topography of Sicily, while his former pupil, Schubring, who had lived at Messina, became one of his colleagues at Lllbeck. The year 1870 saw the result of (he labour of fifteen years in the publication of the first volume of his ' History of Sicily'. In the winter he paid his first vi»t to the island, and it was noticed (bat he actually knew his way about the country even better (ban the local guides. The second volume (1874) brought the history down to the ere of (he first Punic War. In 1876-7 he spent (he winier in Sicily. His Florentine friend, Amari, had meanwhile become Minister of Education, and, owing to this fact, Holm found himself invited, a( the ^e of 46, to be professor of History at Palermo. The

1 Max Duncker, in Siogr. JtUirb. 1884, 110—118; Giesebtecht, Munch. Akad. 1885, 108— tig; Kkine Schri/ien, 1893 (including his paper on Ihe spuriousness of the documents in the Dt CBrana).

- Bursian, ii 1148. ' In Ersch and Grubei, vols. Ss, 86.

lOO'

gic

232 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

offer was accepted, and ihe six years of his professorship (1877-8J) mark the zenith of his career. In tSSi he visited England 10 examine the Greek coins in Ihe British Museum, and this visit led to a closer study of English history and to 1 better appreciation of the merits of Grote. In 1883 he produced, in conjunction with Cavallari. a great archaeolc^cal work on Ihe topi^raphy of Syracuse. In 1883-96 he held a professorship at Naples, spending most of his lime on his ' History of Greece ', which he hnally brought down to Ihe Battle of Aclium'. His historical work in general gives proof of the influence of Ranke and Classen, while his artistic skill as a writer reflects the teaching of Fr. Jacob. He has himself said, in one of his reviews: — 'even works of learning ought to be works of art ; unhappily they seldom are'. Freeman has spoken of ' the sound judgement of Holm ' as a historian of Sidly, and an English review of his History of Greece justly commends its 'conciseness ', ils 'sound scholarship', and its 'conscientious impartiality'. In Ihe spring of 1897 he left Italy for Freiburg in Baden, where, a[ the close of the year, he wide the preface to the third and last volume of his 'History of Sicily', published four and twenty years after the second. It includes no less than joo pages (with plates) on the coinage alone, and it gives us an instructive comparison between Cicero's accusation of Vcrrcs and the modem impeach- men! of Warren Hastings, a comparison doubiless inspired by Holm's visit lo England. Towards the end of his life in the South he gave a new proof that

Liibeck, v

the sanest

TbePu

Halle, wh professorsh traversed (. A laboi Philippi oratoTB. li (o the hisi Attic law c Ephelae ' { the Greek

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XXXIV.] W. WACHSMUTH. PHILIPPI. GILBERT. 233

Pollux. About 1893 he resigned his professorship. His inlerest in art and archaeologj' led lo his residing in Dresden, where he wrote his autobiography'.

An excellent Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities was published in 1881-5' by Guslav Gilbert (1843—1899), the son of a nubiTt

Hanoverian pastor, who was educated at Hildesheim, and studied at Gotlingen, Leipiig. and Berlin. It was prnbably at Sauppe's recommendation thai, in 1871, he was appointed to a mastership under Marquardc at the gymnasium of Gotha, and he held that position lo the end of his life. Some ot his earliest works related lo the primitive conslhutionai history of Sparta and Athens. These were followed by his ' Contributions to the internal history of Athens during the Peloponnesian war ' (1877). It was the success of this work thai led lo his being inviled by its publisher jTeuhner) lo prepare the ' Handbook ' which was the principal literary achievement of his life. It supplies a clear outline of the subject with the original authorities, and references to the modem Mteialure, at the fool of each page. The second edition of the volume on Sparta and Athens (1893) includes an e>;cellent monograph on the 'Afl?ji'ofwi' troXiTtia^. Of his later publications the most valuable is that on 'the history of the developement of Greek law and legal procedure' (1896). His favourite authors were ?Iomer, Horace, and Goethe ; and his characlei has been aptly summed up by a life-long friend in the words : — er tear ein Ehrenmann, trru wie Giild,/rti und edtl gisinnt*.

The study of Roman History in the critical spirit of Niebuhr was continued by Albert Schwegler (1819 — 1857), professor at Ttlblngen, the three volumes of whose History ended with the Licinian Ri^ations; and by Karl Peter (1808^1893), for many years Rector of Schulpforta, who brought his History down to the death of Marcus Aurelius'. He is well known as the author of the ' Chronolc^cal Tables of Greek and Roman History''. In i8j8 he edited Cicero's Orator, in conjunction with Christian GoltlobWeller( 1810— 1884), a pupil o/ Hermann, who was for many years a master at Meiningen' : this was followed by Peter's edition of (he Brutus (1839). Towards the close of his life, while he was honorary professor at Jena, he produced two editions of the Agricola of Tacitus (1876-7)'.

Of those who have treated a limited period, we may here notice Wilbelm Drumann (ij86— 1861), professor at Konigsberg. who pro- duced in 1834-44 a history of the transition from the Republic ^""^" to (he Empire, dealing with Pompey and Caesar, and jj^ handling Cicero with singular severity. The history of Rome

' BiBgr.Jahrb. 189s, 156-176- ' Ed. », 1893 ; E. T. of vol. i, 189^.

' This volume was translated into English (1895) by E, J. Brooks and T. Nicklin (with a prefatory note by J. E. Sandys).

* Dr R. Ehwald, in Gotha program, March, (899, 54—17, with list of his conlribotions to PhiM. ^aAJakrb.f. kl. Philel. ' 1853-69 etc

• 1835-41 etc. ; E. T. of the Greik Tables (Cambridge, 1883).

' Biegr.Jahrb. 1884, 64. ' ib. 1895, 110—151.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

Schweeler

Theodok Mommsen.

From ihe original drawing by Sir William Richmond (i8go), now in the pos^ssion of Fiof. Ulricli von WilamowiiZ'Moel lender If.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXXIV.] THEODOR MOMMSEN. 23S

rrom ihe decline of ihe Republic to the age of Conslantine was treated in IhiM volumes (1841-50) by Karl Hoeek (1799 — 1864), professor at Marhurg. Wilhetm Ihne (1S11--1901), professor at Heidelberg, published in 1868-90 a History in eight volumes' founded on a critical study of the authorities, and avowedly written for the general public rather than for specialists. The eighth volume ends with the battle of Acdum.

A far wider range of historical and antiquarian research was traversed in the memorable career of Theodor Mommsen (1817^1903), the outline of whose life has been traced on a previous page, in connexion with his work on Latin texts'. He had begun by making his mark in the study of Roman Law. At Kiel, in 1843, he had produced his two earliest works: — (i) his dissertation on the law de scribis et viaioribm, and (z) his pamphlet on the Roman Collegia and Sodalicia. In the following year, he published a treatise on the Roman ' tribe ' in its administrative relations. Having thus given proof of his legal learning, he next produced his two linguistic works, his 'Oscan Studies' (1845-6), and his ' Dialects of lower Italy' (1850). During his absence in Italy (1845-7) he had studied inscriptions with the aid of Borghesi and Henzen, and he now began a series of papers on that subject in the Transactions of the Leipzig Academy, besides preparing his 'Inscriptions of the Kir^dom of Naples' (1852). In that work he showed a consummate skill in applying the results of epi- graphical research to the elucidation of the constitutional history and the law of the Italian communities. He also presented to the I^ipzig Atademy a valuable treatise on Roman Coinage^ which, in its expanded form, became an authoritative history of that subject*.

Such were the preliminary studies that paved the way for his 'Roman History', a work in three volumes (1854-6)', ending with the battle of Thapsus. It was a history, not of Rome alone, but also of Italy, from the earliest immigrations to the end of the Roman Republic The plan of the series unfortunately pre-

* Ed.a of vols.i, ii, 1893-6; vols, vii, viii, mainly by A. W. Zumpt. Eng. ed. TS7r-8i, five vols.

* p. r97 supra. ' Sachs. Abhand/., ii (1850) tti — 417.

* r86o; Fr. T. i86s-;s-

» Ed. g, 1903-4; E. T. 1861, new ed. 1894-j.

1. iiA.OOgIc

236 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

eluded the quotation of authorities, and points of detail were attacked by Karl Wilhelm Nltzsch (1818— 1880), professor of History in Berlin', by Karl Peter', and by Ludwig Lange (1825 — 1885)', professor at Leipzig, and author of the three volumes of an elaborate work on Roman Constitutional Antiquities (1856-71). Mommsen's critics desired to revert to the view of Roman History that had been held before the time of Niebuhr, and to accept the tradition of the Roman annahsts, and of the other writers who uncritically transcribed, or rhetorically adorned, the work of their predecessors. Mommsen afterwards took up the History of Rome at a later point, by publishing a work on the Roman rule of the Provinces from Caesar to Diocletian*. In connexion with his Roman History he had meanwhile pro- duced a ^ork on Roman Chronology', his aim being to justify certain of his own opinions, and incidentally to refute those of his brother, August'. The controversy excited by this work served to stimulate a renewed activity in the field of chronological investi- gation. One of the leading explorers of that field was G. F. Unger, professor at Wiirzburg, whose papers appeared in the ' Philologus ', and in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy.

Many of Mommsen's papers on Roman history and chronology and public antiquities, and on the criticism of historical autho- rities, were collected in the two volumes of his ' Roman Re- searches". While the absence of quotations from authorities was one of the characteristics of the widely popular ' History of Rome', students and specialists found an abundance of learned details in the work on 'Roman Public Law", which takes the place of the corresponding portion of the Handbook of Roman Antiquities begun by W. A. Becker and continued by Joachim Marquardt (1812 — i88z), the Director of the gymnasium at Gotha, who had studied under Boeckh and Schleiermacher at

' JaAri./.il. FAihi.ixxiiiT 16 (,U\vi^og(; Die !-l>/ais.:AeAtina!isiii{jSji).

' Sludien (1863) ; p. 133 lUfira. > Biogr.Jakrb. 1886, 31—61.

* i88s (with 8 maps)! ed. 5, 189+ ; E. T. 1886. ' 1858; ed. 1, 1859.

' b. iSji ; author of RUmisihe Dalen (1856), articles in Rheiit. Mus. xii, xiii, Pkilol. xii, N. Jahrb. Suppl. 1856-9; Gr. Heorlologie (1864); Gr. ChranoUigic (1883).

' Riimische Forsckuitgm ^lS6■i-^tf).

" Romisches Staatsrecht, 1871-88; Fr. T. 1887-96 ; Abriss, 1893.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXIV.] THEODOR MOMMSEN. 237

Berlin, and under Hermann at Leipzig. The revision of this Handbook by Marquardt and Mommsen made it practically a

The early preparations for a Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum are associated with the name of August Wilhelm Ztimpt (1S15 — 1877), who aimed at little more than extracting and reananging the inscriptions that had been already published. His papers on inscriptions' brought him into frequent conflict with Mommsen, who laid his own scheme before the Academy in 1847'. This scheme, which ensured a strictly scientific exploration of the whole field, was approved, and its execution was entrusted to Mommsen, whose great powers of work and capacity for oi^anisation ensured its complete success'. An excellent selection of inscrip- tions was published in 1873 by G. H. C. Wilmanns (1845—1878), whose early death prevented his completing his work on the in- scriptions collected in Tunis and Algiers {1873-6).

Mommsen's edition of the Digest (1868-70) formed the larger part of the subsequent edition of the Corpus iuris civilis (1871 etc.)^ He also edited the Monumentum Ancyranum\ the Edict of Diocletian (1893), and the Codex Theodosianus (1904-5)'. Some of his texts of Latin authors have been already mentioned*. A volume of his Speeches and Essays was published in 1905 ; the series of his Collected Writings, beginning with three volumes on Roman Law (1905-7), already includes the first of the volumes on Roman History (1906).

Mommsen was the greatest of German scholars since the time of Boeckh. Beginning with Roman jurisprudence, he applied to

' Vols. 1 — iii were prepared by Mommsen ; iv — vi (on Roman administra- tion) and vii (on private life) by Marquardt.

' Collected in Conim. Epigrafihicae, 1850-4.

" Reprinted in Harnack's 'History oflbe Berlin Academy', ii (1900) S'^f'

* The volumes containing the early Latin (i), oriental (iii), and central and southern Italian (ix, x) inscriptions were edited by Mommsen ; the inscr. of Spain (ii) and Britain (vii) by Hiibner; those of S.Gaul by O. Hirschfeld ; of Pompeii etc. (iv) by Zangemeisler ; of N. Itaiy (ni) and Rome (vi) by Bormann, Henzen and Huelsen.

' Including Imlilutiotus, ed. P. Krilger.

■ 18651 ed. 3, 1883; Ft. T., i88s.

' In conjunction with P. M. Meyer. * p. tgj sufira.

..oogic

238 GERMANY. [CENT. XIX.

the investigation of Roman History the strict intellectual training that he had derived from the study of Roman I^w, Equally skilful in negative criticism, and in the art of the historic recon- struction of the past, he brought to bear on the science of history a singular mastery of the science of language. He combined breadth of learning with a lucid and a lively style, and vast powers of work with a genius for scientific oi^anisation'.

Latin Epigraphy and Archaeology were the special province of Emil Hiibner {r834 — 1901), who was the son of an accomplished artist at Dusseldorf. After his early education at Dresden, be studied at Berlin and Bonn, and travelled in Italy, Spain, and England. Meanwhile he had settled in Berlin (1859), where he was appointed to an 'extra- ordinary' professorship in 1863, and was a full professor for the last thirty-one years of his life. His travels in Spain resulted in his volumes on the 'ancient works of art at Madrid', on the Inscriptions of Spain', and on the 'Monumenta linguae Ibericae'. His travels in England were undertaken with a view to the Latin Inscriptions of that country'. In recognition of this work in particular he received an honorary degree at Cambridge in 1883, and, to the end of his life, he had a most friendly regard for England. He was for many years an editor of Hertrus (1866-81), and of the Arehdologische Zf//wff^ (1868-72). Among his most useful works were his elaborate and comprehensive Outlines of the History of Roman Literature', of Latin' and

' Bibliography in Zangemeisler, T. M. ah SckriftslcUer (1887), completed by E. Jacobs, 188 pp. (1905). Biographical notice? by Bardt (1903); K. J. Neumann in Mht, Zrilsckr. 1904, 193—338; E. Schwartz in CeU. Naihr., 1904! Gompen, Essays, 133—143; Hamack, Kedi (1903); Huelsen, in Mitt, dfulsch. archnal. Imt. xviii 193— Jj8; C. Wachsmnth, in Sachs. Ctsell. d. Wiss. 1903, 153— J73; L. M. Hartmann, in Biegr. Jahrb. u. Dtulschir Nekrolog, ix (1906) 44'— 5'5- Portrait in Ces. Schr. i, and two in Rtden. The portrait by Ludwig Knaus represents the historian in his study, with a bust of Julius Caesar ; the drawing by Sir William Richmond is repro- duced on p. 134; a characteristic photograph, taken by Mr Dew-Smith, is published by Messrs Hefier, Cambridge. The Cambridge Address Gtrnianiat suae novo Varroni (written by Prof. Mayor) is printed in Lileraiure, 18 Dec. 1S97.

« C. I. L. vol. ii. » C. I. L. vol. vii.

' 1869 etc., ed. Mayor, 1875. » Ed. 1876 etc.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXXIV.J HUBNER. GREGOROVIUS. PRELI.ER. 239

Greek' Grammar, and of the History of Classical Philolc^', including an excellent biblic^raphy, which has often been of service in the preparation of the present work'.

The History of Rome in the Middle Ages was written by Ferdinand Gregorovius (1821 — 1891), who was bom on the eastern borders of Prussia. He once said that he should never have written on mediaeval Rome, if he had not spent his boyhood in a mediaeval palace of the German knights. It was on a day in 1855, as he stood on the Ponte Sant' Angelo, looking 'across the Tiber at the former Mausoleum of Hadrian, that he was first inspired with the design of writing the History of Rome in the Middle Ages. He had already written on Hadrian (1851), and was to return to this theme at a later date (1884). The publication of the eight volumes of his History of Mediaeval Rome extended from 1 859 to 1872', and was followed by that of his two volumes on Mediaeval Athens (1889). Rome was his head-quarters from 1852 to 1874, and the remaining seventeen years of his life were spent in Munich, On leaving Rome he wrote : — " I can say with Flavius Blondus : ' I brought into being that which was not already there ; I threw light on eleven dark centuries of the city, and gave the Romans the History of their own Middle Ages'". In 1876 the Senate of the new capital of Italy enrolled him as an honorary ' citizen of Kome', and, when he publicly dechned all congratulations on completing his seventieth year in Munich, he signed his name with no other title than Civis Romaniis'. The interest of the historical works already mentioned, as well as that of the five volumes of his Wanderjakre in I/alien, his Capri and Korju, his poem of Pompeii {Euphorion) and his 'Graves of the Popes', is enhanced by the charm and the clearness of his style.

Passing from mediaeval Rome to prehistoric Greece, we may assign a foremost place among modern works on Greek Mythology to the classic treatise' of Ludwig

' Ed. 1883. * 1876; ed. I, 1889.

' Seeesp. Gildersleeve, in A.J.P. xxii 113.

' Ed. 5, 1903 ; E. T. by A. HamiUon,

" Biogr.Jakrh. 189J, 106 — 113.

* i8j4 ; ed. 4, witli excellenl Indices, by Carl Robert, 1SS7-94.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

240 RETROSPECT. [CENT. XIX.

Preller'. Pteller, like Heyne and Welcker, regarded the oldest and the most important of the Greek myths as myths of Nature, as representations of ' the elementary powers and processes of Nature, the sunshine and lightning, the falling rain and the flowing river, and the growth and ripenii^ of vegetation". His Roman Mythology, a work of less note, appeared in 1858,

Comparative Mythology, in connexion with Comparative Phi- lology, was well represented by Adalbert Kuhn (i8iz— 1881), Rector of one of the schools in Berlin'. Comparative Ethnology was the dominant interest in the mythol(^cal works of J. W. E. Mannhardt (1831 — 1880), who laid the foundation for the future fabric of a Mythology of the Germanic nations by a complete collection of the folklore of tillage and harvest in his great work on forest and field-cults'. Ancient Mythology, which is little noticed in the first part of this work, holds a prominent place in the second, where the primitive cults are explained in the light of the traditions of Northern Europe'.

We have lingered long in the lands united by the common tie of the German language, but we have seen far less of Austria and of German Switzerland than of Northern and Southern Germany. No part of those lands has been so prolific in classical scholars as the protestant North, It is true that the birthplace of Boeckh was in Baden, but the principal scene of his learned labours was Berlin. Classical education was reorganised in Bavaria by Thiersch, in Austria by Bonitz, both of them North Germans bom beside the same stream in Saxony. German Switzerland has been repre- sented partly by Baiter and Orelli ; Austria by Karl Schenkl and the cosmopolitan Otto Benndorf. Theodor Gomperz and Wilhelm von Hartel are happily still living. From our survey of ' Germany,' in the widest sense of the word, we now turn to the latest fortunes of the land which was the earliest home of the Revival of Learning.

' p. i-}^sufira.

= Gr.Atyth. p. i; q^ Bursian, ii 1196-7; Block mjahresb. vol, 114, 419 f,

' Bursian, ii 1100-2, * Wald- vnd Fcldkulti, 1875-7.

» Bingr.Jakrb. 1881, 1—6.

OgIC

CHAPTER XXXV.

ITALY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

EftRLY in the nineteenth century one of the foremost scholars in Italy was the learned Jesuit, Angelo Mai (1782 — 1854). Born in the province of Bergamo, h6 be- came Librarian of the Ambrosian and Vatican Libraries, and was raised to the dignity of a Cardinal in 1838.

As Librarian in Milan (1811-9), ^^ published, frooi uss formerly at Bobbie, tegmenls of six Speeches of Cicero', the correspondence of M. Aurelius and Fronto, portions of eight Speeches of Symmachus, fragments of the Vidttlaria ai Plautus, as well as siiolia and pictorial illuslralions from the Ambrosian MS of Terence (1814-5). His publications from Greek MSS included a lai^ addilion to the Speech of Isaeua De Aireditale Clamymi, a hitherto unknown portion of the Reman AnliquilUs of Dionysius of Hali- camassus (1816), and an ancient fragment of the Iliad (with illastralions) as well as scholia on the Odyssey (1819) ; he also took part in an edition of the newly discovered Armenian version of the Eusebian Clironicle (l^l^)- ^i' Rome he polilished from a Vatican palimpsest large portions of Cicero's lost 1reatiseZ>f^<7)tfj/if'a( 1811), collected the remains of the prae-Justinian Civil Law (1813), and summed up his wonderful work as an editor of hitherto unknown texts by producing from the MSS of the Vatican three great series, of ten volumes each, the Sifipioritm veterum nova colUctia (1815-38), the Classici auclons (1818-38) and the Spicilegium Romanum (1839-44), After an interval of eight years the Spicilegium was followed by the Palrum nova colUclio o( the last two years of his life (1851-4)'.

Cardinal Mai died at the age of 72. The age of 85 was attained by an able but less productive worker in the same field, Victor Amadeo Peyron (1785 — 1870), **™''

formerly a professor at Turin. His best-known work is an edition of new fragments of the Speeches pro Scauro, pro TulHo and In Ciodium, and of the remains of the fro Milone, from the Turin

' Pro Scaufo, Tullio, Flacco, in Ciodium el Curionan, dt atre alieno Milonis, and dtregi AUxaadrino (1814; ed. 1, i8ij).

* Life etc. by B. Prina (Bergamo, iSSi) ; G. Polelto (Siena, 1887). S. III. I,. I ., II, H&KV^IC

242 . ITALY. [cent. XIX.

and Milan mss formerly at Bobbio, together with an inventory of the Bobbian mss made in 1461 (1824). He also published fragments of Empedocles and Parmenides {1810), a commentary on the treatise on prosody by Theodosius of Alexandria {1817) with a new fragment of the latter (1820), and an account of the Greek papyri at Vienna (1824) and Turin (1826-7)'.

Beyond the bounds of Italy the Turin professor, Tommaso ValIauri{i8o5 — 1897), was best known as the oppo- nent of the principles maintained by RitschI in the textual criticism of Flautus. His edition of four of the plays' was followed by a critical text of the whole (1873). Ritschl's discovery that the true name of the poet was T. Maccius Plautus' was opposed in i868 by Vallauri, who adhered to the traditional name of M. Accius Plautus. He also wrote a critical history of Latin literature {1849), and edited a large number of school-texts of Latin Classics'.

Comparative Philology has been well represented by Pezzi and Ascoli. Domenico Pezzi was professor of the Comparative History of the Classical and Romance Languages at Turin (1844— 1906). His principal work, Latingua greca antka (1888), begins with a historical sketch of the study of Greek, followed by a systematic account (i) of the phonology and morphology of the language, and (2) of the Greek dialects'. Graziadio Ascoli (1829 — 1907), who was appointed professor of Comparative Philology in Milan in i860, was the founder of the 'Archivio Glottolt^ico Italiano' {1873). His lectures on Comparative Phonology and his Critical Studies have been translated into German, and bis edition of the 'Codice Irlandese' of the Ambrosian Library (1878) is an im- portant aid to the study of Celtic*.

' Sclopis, in Aiti di accad. diTerita, 1870, 778^807-

" AuL,Milis, Trin., Men. (1853-9).

" Parerga, 9—43 ; Ribbeck's Jiilichl, ii 100.

* Autobiography (1878) ; Bursian, ii 824 n, 1, II39.

' CI. RtB. iii J09 f. His earlier work, Glottologia Aria Ricintissima {1877; E. T. by E. S. Roberts, 1879), practically ends with Ascoli's discovery of the 'velar' gullurals (1870).

• A. de Gubematis, Did. Internal., s.v. ; Alhena^um, 1 Feb. r907, p. 136 ; JfivisladiFil.i^Tiao.i; Bursian's jfiAre/*. Ivi 168(1 GWes, Comf.Phil.%^i.

„.,,„,I..OOglC

CHAP. XXXV.] PEZZI. ASCOLI. BONGHI. DE-VIT. 243

The study of Greek has for obvious reasons been less promi- nent in Italy than that of Latin. Plato has, however, been translated by the Italian statesman, Ruggero Bonghi (1828— 1895), who is also known as the author of a History of Rome', and of a work on Roman Festivals^

Among Latin scholars, a place of honour is due to Vincenzo De-Vit (iSio— 1892), who was educated at the Seminary of Padua, was Canon of Rovigo and Librarian of the local Academy (1844-9), became a member of the Institute of Charity founded by Rosmini at Stresa (1849-61), and, after a year, in Florence, spent the rest of his life mainly in Rome- His revised and enlarged edition of Forcellini, begun before 1857, was completed in 1879. This was supplemented by his Onomaslicon, extending from A to O (1869-92). His earliest work was on the Fragments of Varro (1843); he also collected the Inscriptions of the region of Adria (1853), and wrote lexico- graphical articles on Latin inscriptions, besides discussing the Britons and the Bretons', and the inscriptions and the historic associations of the Lago Maggiore and the Valley of the Ossola. It was in the College of the Rosminists at Domodossola that he spent the last few months of a life consecrated to the duties of a priest and a scholar'.

Forcellini has also been edited anew in 1864-90 by Fr. Corra- dini(i8zo — 1888). This edition, founded to a con- siderable extent on the work of Reinhold Klolz', was completed by Perin, who (like Conadini and De-Vit, and Forcellini himself) was an alumnus of the Seminary of Padua.

Among other Latin scholars may be mentioned Giovanni Battista Gandino (1827 — igosX professor of Latin at Bologna, who (apart from a number of successful school-books) published studies on ancient Latin {1878), contri-

' Vol. 1, 1888 ; Lectures on Ancient History, 1879.

* UFaURonume, 1891; Germ. T., [1891]. » Opae, vol. X (ed. 1889).

■ * ErmaDQO Ferrero, in Btogr. Jahrb. 1899, 16 — 30-

• Cp. Geoi^es, in Bursian's Jakrab. ii 14J6, ui 1 70, and Phtlol. Ata. iii ♦46f.

., (^,-tfoo^ic

244 ITALY. [CENT. XIX.

buted valuable articles to the Rivista di J^ilologia\ and produced an excellent work on Latin style (1895)'.

No account of Classical Scholarship in Italy would be complete without the name of the Italian Senator, Domenico Comparetti, who was bom in Rome (1835) and became professor of Greek at Pisa and Florence. He produced a critical text of Hypereides, pro Euxenippo, and of the Funeral Oration {1861-4). He is widely known as the author of the standard work on 'Virgil in the Middle Ages", He subsequently produced an important edition of the 'Laws of Gortyn' (1893), and a text and translation of Procopius. Among his numerous papers may be mentioned those on the papyri of the Villa of the Pisos at Herculaneum*. He was the founder of the ' Museo Italiano d' antichitk classica' (1884 f).

Classical Archaeology has been studied in Italy with ever ArchKoioeisis '^Creasing success. In the first half of the century one of the foremost authorities on ancient archi- ■""' tecture was Luigi Canina (1795 — 1856), who studied in Turin and, in 1818, left for Rome, where he produced in 1844 the second edition of his classic work in twelve volumes, entitled V architeitura aniua'. He wrote besides on the exploration of Tusculum and Veii, and on the topography of Rome. Rome was also the scene of the archaeoli^cal work of Guattani (d. 1830) and Fea (d. 1 836), the representatives of Italy among the founders of the Archaeological Institute in 1829. Bat the Italian interest in archaeology was far from being confined to Rome. In the first half of the century there was no country in Europe that could vie with Italy in the number and the variety of the separate Academies for the study of local archaeology. That study assumed divergent forms in Naples, Rome, Florence, Turin, Modena and Venice, while the most distinguished archaeolc^ist in all Italy, Bartolommeo Borghesi (1781 — 1860), whose archaeological correspondence covered every part of the peninsula, spent the last thirty-nine years of his life in

' V 101—160 (Gen. in -as) ; vi 453—4.73 (termination of the comparative).

s A. de Gubernatis, Dul.s.v. ' 1873; ed, j, 1896 {E. T. 1895).

* A. de Gubernatis, j. v.\ esp. in Comparetti and De Petra's Villa Eno- (lanwif, folio (1883).

° 'Luigi Caninas phantasievollen Arbeilen' (Michaelis, Arch. EntJ. 117).

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXV.] COMPARETTI. CANINA. BORGHESl. 245

the smallest of the Italian States, as citizen and podest^ of the still-independent Republic of San Marino. His activity was mainly devoted to the study of coins and inscriptions. He pro- duced two volumes on the new fragments of the Fasli Consulares (1818-20), and his collected works filled nine volumes (Paris, 1862-84)'. The Corpus Inscrtptionum Latinarum owed much to his friendly aid. The study of coins was long represented at Modena by Don Celestino Cavedoni (179s — 1865), the author of 'Observations on the coins of the Roman gtntes' (1829-31)'.

In Naples Francesco Maria Avellino (1788 — 1850) was pro- fessor of Greek, and (in and after 1839) director of the Museo Borbonico. He wrote on the acs grave of the Museo Kircheriano, and the inscriptions of Pompeii, and contributed largely to the Bullettino Arckeologico NapoHlano, which was founded by himself, and continued to the end (i86i) by Minervini (1825 — 1895)'. Naples was the birth-place of the learned Jesuit, Raffaele Garrucci (1812 — iS85),who published the first edition of his Graffiti di Pompii shortly before the thirty years of his residence in Rome. He pre- pared a Sylloge of Inscriptions of the Roman Republic (1875-7, 1881); his latest work, that on the 'Coins of Ancient Italy', was published in Rome in the year of his death. The antiquities of Etruria were fruitfully studied by Ariodante Fabretti ( 1 8 1 6 — 1 894), professor of Archaeolt^y and director of the Museum at Turin, the author of a Corpus of ancient Italian inscriptions (1867-78). Meanwhile, the antiquities of Sicily had been set forth in five folio volumes in 1834-42 by the Duca di Serradifalco with the aid of Saverio cavaUari Cavallari*, the able archaeologist who was asso- ciated with Holm in the great topographia anheologica di Siracusa^.

' Noel des Ve^rs on Marc Aurilt (Paris, 1860) ; Hcnzen, in Fleckeisen's ^dAri. Ixxxisftg— 575-

' NoliHe, Modena, 1867.

» Biogr. Jahrb. 1900, 18—10.

* 1809—1898; L. Sampolo, in fiu/Zi/Wiw of Palermo Acad. (1899) 41 f.

' Palermo, 188 j; Germ. ed. B. Lupus (Stiassburg, 1887).

■ h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

%

246 ITALY. [cent. XIX.

The political union of Italy, begun in i860 and completed in 1870, had an important effect on the organisation of archaeological research. On the expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples in i860, Giuseppe Fiorelli (1824 — 1896) was placed at the head of the great local Museum, and superintended the systematic excavation of Pompeii (1860—75) until he was called to Rome to become Director General of Museums and Excavations. The municipality of Rome had established an archaeological com- mission in 1872, and soon began the publication of a monthly BuUeltirm. At Bolt^na an important Museum was founded for the preservation of prehistoric, Etruscan, and other antiquities, and an Etruscan Museum was also founded in Florence. The revived interest in archaeology extended to the utmost limits of Italy, and antiquarian periodicals were published in many places, extending from Turin in the North to Palermo in the South'. But the centre of archaeological interest has remained in Rome. 189015 the date of the discovery of the inscription commemorating the ludi saeculares and including the statement ; carmen composuit Q. Horatius Flaccus'. Since the end of 1898 the excavations in the Roman Forum have comprised the discovery of the site of the 'Lacus Curtius', the base of the colossal statue of Domitian described in the Silvae of Statins, the pavement on which the body of Caesar was burnt, the legendary tomb of Romulus, and the earliest of all Latin inscriptions.

Latin inscriptions were among the most important of the anti- quarian interests of Luigi Bruzza and Giovanni Battista de Rossi. Bruzza (i8iz — 1883) was a Earnabite monk, who taught Latin and Greek in Piedmont and in Naples, and first made his mark as an antiquarian at Vercelli. Called to Rome by his Order in 1867, he incidentally produced an important monograph on the inscriptions on the marble blocks of the recently discovered Emporium on the Tiber (1870), and also a complete collection of the Roman inscriptions of Vercelli (1874), a work that won the highest praise from Mommsen", while the grateful citizens of Vercelli called their local Museum by the name of Bruzza and struck a gold medal in his honour. He was president of the Roman Society for the cultivation of Christian ' Cp. Stark, 301-4. = C. /. L. vi 4 (a) p. 3141. » 1*. v 736.

h. i., 11,1^.001^10

CHAP. XXXV.] FIORELLI. BRUZZA. DE ROSSI. 247

archaeolc^ ; and it was while he was superintending the excava- tion of the crypt of St Hippolytus that he met with an accident which ultimately proved fatal. On his death, his services to the cause of archaeolc^y were warmly eulc^ised by de Rossi'.

Giovanni Eattista de Rossi (1822 — 1894) was great in many branches of archaeology and especially great in Latin epigraphy. One of his most important achieve- ments in that department was the publication of all the early collections of Roman inscriptions'. He took part in collecting the inscriptions of Rome for vol. vi of the Corpus. He also did much for the study of Roman topography, including the ancient lists of the Regions of the City. In 1849 his methodical inves- tigations resulted in the discovery of the fragmentary inscription which led to his identification of the cemetery of San Callisto'. He is justly regarded as the founder of the recent study of Christian Archaeology in Rome', but De Rossi himself had a special reverence for the memory of 'the true Columbus' of the Catacombs, Antonio Bosio (1575 — 1629), the learned and indus- trious author of a far earlier Roma Sotterranea (1632).

Late in the eighteenth century, Don Jos^ Nicolas de Azara (1731 — 1804), a friend of Winckelmann and Mengs, returned to Spain from Rome with a valuable col- p^r^gai^ lection of ancient busts, now in the Royal Gallery of Sculpture, Madrid'. Hiibner's visit in 1860-1 aroused in Spain and Portugal a new interest in Latin inscriptions and in works of ancient art". But the study of Greek has long been at a low ebb, and the modern literature of the subject is mainly limited to translarions'.

' Biogr. Jakrh. 1884, H1-4! and F. X. Kraus, Essays, ii (1901), 31 — 39.

' Syltogt EinsidUnsis elc. in liner. Christimiae, vol. ii, pars i (i883), and in C./.i.vi.Bj/'. (1876-85).

' Inscr. Chrisliatiae (i85;-88) ; Roma Sottirranea (1864-77).

* Biogr. Jahrb. 1900, 1 — 17; BaiirnEarten, De fforn (Kdln, 1891!; Kraus, Essays, i (1896) 307—314.

' llMhoKT, Die aniiken Bild-Bitrie in Madrid {t^j), ti)S.

' Stark, 30J; Bursian, ii 1141.

^ Apraiz, Apunl/s fara una historia de los atiidics heleniios en Espaiia, 190 pp. (1876I, ad Jinem, reprinted from Jievisia de Espaiia, vols, xli — xlvij (cp. Ch. GrauK, in Revui Critique, \^ aaQt, 1876).

A.OO'

ic^lC

CHAPTER XXXVI.

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

The literary life of the industrious scholar, Jean Baptiste

Gail (1755 — 1829), is equally divided between the

eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries. During

the eighteenth, his published works were connected with Lucian

and Theocritus, Anacreon and the Greek Anthology, and the

BOISSONADB.

From a cast of the Medallion by David d' Angers.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXVI.] GAIL. BOISSONADE. 249

authors included in the fourteen volumes of his Scriptores Graeci; during the nineteenth, with Homer, Thucydides, and Herodotus. He also edited the speech of Demosthenes, Dt Rhodiorum Zibertate, and was the author of certain Observations grammaticalef au cilibre M. Hermann (1816). Appointed professor of Greek at the College de France in 1792, and Conservateur of the Paris Library in 1814, he edited during the next fourteen years of his life a classical periodical called Le Phihlogue. His numerous publications attained only a moderate degree of excel- lence, their main value depending on their collations from Paris MSs'. His contemporary, Simon Chardon de la Rochette (1753— 1814), Inspector of the Paris ^^ u*'r^'i." tte Libraries, published a notice of the Greek scholia on Plato (1801) and three volumes of Melanges on criticism and philology {1812)',

A far higher reputation attaches to the name of Jean Francois Boissonade de Fontarabie (1774 — 1857), who suc- ceeded Larcher as professor of Greek in the uni- versity of Paris (1813), and Gail as professor at the College de France {1828). He began his classical career by editing the Heroicus of Philostratus (1806). In the course of nine years (1823 — 32), he produced the twenty-four volumes of his annotated series of Greek poets. A greater novelty characterises his publica- tion of the first edition of the Greek translation of Ovid's Metamor- phoses hy Maximus Planudes (1822), the editio princeps of Babrius (1844)^, the five volumes of his Aneedoia Graeca, and his Anecdota Nova. The larger part of his editorial work was connected with the later writers of Greek prose, e.g. the Letters of Aristaenetus (1822), and Philostratus (1842); and, in his prefaces to such writers, he was fond of modestly saying that the mediocrity of their genius was suited to the mediocrity of his own ability. But he also published an Aristophanes (1832), and spent many years

^ Cp. Dader in Mim. de PAcad. des Inscr. ix 11 ; and BShr, in Etsch and Gniber.

• He was a friend of Koraes, whose Letters to Rochelle were published in 1873-7; cp. Theteianos, KoraH, i 176 f. and/awiw; also preface to Didot ed. o\Attlk. Pal. 1 ix.

* p. I J9 supra.

A.oogic

2SO FRANCE. [cent. XIX.

over a proposed commentary on the Greek Anthology. He con- tributed largely to the new edition of the Greek Thesaurus, and among his correspondents abroad were Wolf and Wyttenbach, »nd the Greek lexicographer, Edmund Henry Barker. It is said that the whole of his first lecture at the College de France was devoted to the exposition of the first three words of Plato's lon^; and his love of detail led him to si)end half-an-hour on the elucidation of the term adamas. In his lectures he also gave proof of his being a fluent translator, but he only once began his course with a general introduction on the life and works of the author whom he proposed to expound. The exception was in the case of Plutarch (1813). He seldom lectured on any author so late as Plutarch, while he seldom edited any author so early. It is to be remembered to his honour that, but for his editorial aid, many of the minor Greek authors might still have been buried in oblivion'.

An edition of Longus was produced in i8ro by Paul Louis Courier (1773 — 1825), the brilliant writer and officer of artillery, who translated the Hipparchicus and De re equestri of Xenophon {1813), and the Asinus of Lucian (i8i8), besides annotating a new edition of Amyot's Heliodorus (1822), and leaving notes on the Memoraliilia, which were post- humously published by Sinner (1842). He completed the trans- lation of Pausanias (1814-23) by his brother-in-law, 6tienne Clavier (1762 — 1817).

We may briefly notice Jean Louis Burnouf (1775—1844),

the author of a celebrated Greek Grammar, and

the translator of Tacitus; and Joseph Naudet

(1786 — 1878), the editor of Oberlin's Tacitus, and of Catullus

and Plautus, and the author of works on the

postal organisation of the Romans, on the Roman

Noblesse, and on the public administration from Diocletian

to Julian. We next reach the notable name of the versatile

' rbt'luitu xalpiw.

' E^er, in M^ui. de lilt. am. 1861, i— 15; also nofices by Le Bas, Nandet, and Saint-Beuve ; some of hb Letters in the correspondence of P. L. Courier.

' Father of EugJne Bnrnoiif (1801-52), the critic of Bopp (1833), and the lirst decipherer of 'Zend', one of the foremost orientalists of France.

,Cooglc

CHAP. XXXVI.] COUSIN. PATIN. QUICHERAT. 25 1

Victor Cousin (1792 — 1867), who was professor at the Sorbonne

in 1815-22 and 1828-30, and Minister of Education

in 1840. He is connected with Greek scholarship

by his edi/io princeps of Proclus (1820-7), ^"^ by his French

rendering of the whole of Plato {1S21-40)'. He threw new light

on the less-known works of Abelard, and contributed to the

elucidation of the history of the scholastic philosophy.

Cousin's contemporary, Henri Joseph Guillautne Patin (1792 — 1876), dean of the Faculty of Letters in Paris, and a member of the French Academy, is known as a translator and an exponent of Horace, as the author of a course of lectures on the history of Latin poetry, and a series of studies on the ancient Latin poets', and on the Tragic poets of Greece', — a work which has been justly characterised as admirable in its learning and in the soundness of its taste'.

Latin lexicography is represented by Louis Marius Quicherat (1799^1884), who in 1849 received an appointment in the department of mss in the Bibliotheque Sainte- Genevi^ve, rose to be Conservateur of that library in 1864, and retired in 1882.

His appointmeDt hnppily left him sufiRcient leisure for lileraiy work. For liis Thesaurus FeSicus Linguae Lalinae, lirsl published in i8j6, he worked through all the Latin poets, and, in Ihe course of its preparation, he incident, ally edited Virgil, Horace, Persius, Phaednis, the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and the Andria and Adelphi of Terence (1818-31). He also edited Nepos and Curtius, Ihe G/imania and Agrieola of Tacitus, and the Brutus and Somnium Seipianis of Cicero (1819-41). Except in the case of Nepos, the notes to these editions were in Latin, in accordance with the custom that slill prevailed in France. His Thesaurus Feiticus was followed in [844 by his Latin and French Dictionary, in which he was aided by A. Daveluy, afterwards Director of the French School at Athens. His Dictionary of Latin Proper Names (1846) included about 19,000 items, while his Addeniia Lexicis Latinis (1861-80) supplemented the existing lexicons with more than 1000 words. His French and Latin Dictionary of 185S filled as many as 1600 pages of three columns each, and passed through 16 editions. To hb three Dictionaries he

> Ra>. de tintlr. Pubttque, 1867, 679; Naudet's Notice (Paris, 1869); portrait in Ihe ^cole Nariaale Supirteure.

' itudes sur la Palsie laline, i vols. 1 868-9.

' 4 vols. 1841-3 ; ed. 5, 1879.

< Cp. Boissier and Legouve, Discours A tAcail., and Caro, Journal des Savants, 1876 (Reinach, Manuel de Phihlogie, inn. 1 1).

A.OO'

ic^lC

252 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

devoted thirty j'cais of his life. The same department of leaming nas repre^ sented in his edition of the Latin lexici^rapher and grammarian, Nonius {tSjFj). During the next seven years he was engaged on the preparation of a new issue of his Thesaurus Peelicui, in the preface of which he laments the decline in the interest in Latin verse in France. His minor works were connected with French and Latin versification, white some of them gave proof of his special skill in Music. In r879 he published a collection of 3a of his articles under the title of MHangis di Philalogie. He regarded with suspicion certain reforms in Latin orthography suggested by Ritschl and his school, but he was no blind follower of the beaten track. In his own work he always insisted on going back to the original authorities. While he made his mark mainly as a Latin lexici^p-apher, and an editor of Latin Classics, it may he added that he produced editions of some dialogues of Lucian, the De Corona of Demosthenes, the Ajax of Sophocles, and the Iliad of Horaer'.

An excellent Greek and French lexicon was produced by his contemporary Charles Alexandre (1797— 1870), who is also known as the editor of the Sibylline Oracles (1841-56, '69')*. The eminent French lextct^rapher, Maximilien Paul Emile Littre (iSoi — 1881), began his brilliant and varied career as a student of medi- cine. In 1839 he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. In the same year he commenced his celebrated edition and translation of Hippocrates, which was completed in ten volumes in 1861, and laid the foundation of the modern criticism of this author.

The popular side of classical lite tature was represented by Desir^Jean Marie Napoleon Nisard (1806^1888), professor of Latin Eloquence at the College de France, the author of Studies on the Latin Poets of the Decadence (including Phaedrus, Seneca, Persius, Statlus, Martial, Juvenal, and Lucan)", and on the four great Latin Historians', and also of an ingenious essay on Zoilus'. Personally interested in ancient literature, be nevertheless had no pretensions to being a scholar, and he was less of a historian than a literary critic. In his Notts el Soieuenirs, he frankly confesses that he had no concern with erudition, which he regarded with suspicion as an importation from Germany. In his opening lecture at the Scale Normale he even warned lib audience against that form of leaming, notwithstanding the presence of the Director of the School, Guigniaut, whose own reputation had lieen made by his elaborate edition of Creuier's SyiiiboUk.

> Emil Cbatelain in Biogr.Jahrb. 1884, 158—133.

' Guigniaut, Acad, dts Inscr. xxix.

' 1 vols. 1834, etc. ' 187+.

.oogic

CHAP. XXXVr.] ALEXANDRE. LITTRfe. 2SJ

Dtsiri Nisard was Ihe edilor of a popular series of French translations from the Latin Classics, while his younger brother, Charles Marie Nisard (1808—1889), contributed IQ the series a iranslalion of " " "' all (he elegiaj: poems of Ovid (except the Hereides), as well as Martial, Valerius Flaccus, and Forlunatus', with part of Livy and Cicero, and a separate volume of notes on Cicero's LetlersK The earliest of his works ostensibly connected with (he History of Scliularship was the study of ihe careers of Lipsius. Scaliger, and Casaubon, contained in his Triumvirat IMttraire au XVI siiiU (iSjiJ. In the preface he tells us how his MS of a complete index of persons and places in the I^tin Classics, which he kept at his office in the Tuiteries, perished in the flames in February, 1S48, when the MS of his Triumvirat Liltiraire happily escaped a similar fate. This work, so far from really being a chapter in the History of Scholarship, is mainly a study of literary manneis, teeming with amusing anecdotic details on the lives wid the quarrels of ihe scholars concerned. It is doubtful whether the author ever made any serious attempt to comprehend the chronological researches of Scaliger, the account of which fills a few pages borrowed from Haihim'. He deserves credit, however, for making the personages whom he studies live and move before the reader's eyes, and, if he says too little of their works, he is certainly familiar with their foibles*. Another work of Ibe same type, bearing the fanlaslic title of Les gladialeurs de la ripublique det Utins au XV~XVn siicUs (i8«o), contains studies on Filelfo. Poggio, Valla, Scioppius, and the elder Scaliger, and also on Fr. Garasse (1J85— [63i)< ^ Jesuit of Angoulfme, who violently attacked Ihe Calvinisis, Casaubon and Estienne Pasquier". Here again, as in the Triumvirat, he is absorbed in (he analysis of polemical pamphlets. Himself the most peaceable of men, he had almost a passionate interest in the literary quarrels of others. In 1876 his election as a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in the place of Didot stimulated him to work on with renewed enei^ (o the age of So. In the year after his election, he published the correspondence of the Comte de Caytus, the Abb^ Barthetemy and P. Mariette, with (he Tbeatine priest. Paciaudi (t i757-(5!), a correspondence proving that Paciaudi had a conader- able share in the editing of the last live volumes of the Kecatil dAntiquiUs of Cayius*.

' His papers on this poet were republished after his death by M. Boysse, with a bibliography on pp. 193 — leo.

* Severely reviewed in x'bs Philotogische Wochmschrift 1883, 1156. » Hist. Lit. i sjo*.

* The work is characterised by Bernays, J. J. Scaligtr, 19, as unworthy of mention from a scholarly point of view, and as having misled an able reviewer into believing (hat Scaliger was a trh franchtnient mauvais homme.

' Cp- Mimoires de Garasst, ed. Ch. Nisard (18S0).

* Nisard also wrote on (his subject in the Kivui de Frame. Cp. Stark, 147-9, ""^ ^^P- S- Reinach, in Biogr.Jahrb, 1889, (53-

,i^.ooglc

254 FRANCE. [cent. XIX.

In contrasl lo the biolhers Nisard, whose principal aim was the popular- ising of Ihe Classics, Iheir contemporary, Knigne Eoimanuel ' " Clement Miller (iSll— 1886), was an unweaned student of

MSS, uho found a greater delight in adding new words lo the Greek Thesauras than in setting forth Ihe merits or the masterpieces of the ancient world. In 1H34 Miller entered the manuscript department of the Paris Library, and under the influence of K. B. Ilase, who had l>een in that department for nearly thirty yean, he was inspired, not only with a passion for Ihe quest of new words, but also with a keen interest in the exploration of the later Greek literature. In the course of his researches he became one of the most expert palaeographers in Europe. In iHj5 he was sent to Italy 10 examine the Ji'&)/j<> on Aristophanes. In 1839 he published an edition of Ihe minor Greek geographers, Marcianus,. Artemidoros, and Isidore of Charax, and in 1841 a new Greek version of Aesop- For five years (1840-5) he took a leading interest in the ahott-lived Rtvne dt Bibliographie Analytique. In 1843 he was sen! by Villemain to explore Ihe libraries of Spain ; his Catalogue of Ihe Greek diss of Ihe Escurial appeared in 1848, and his supplement to Iriarte's Catali^ue of ihe Madrid mss in 1884. Among the mss brought by 'Mynas' from Mount .Alhos in 1840, Milter fortunately identified part of the Phi- losBphumena of Origen, and edited il for the Clarendon Press (1851). Meanwhile, he had left the Library in the Rue Richelieu for that of the ' National Assembly ', and he was the head of that Library from 1849 to 1880. In 1855-7 Ji* published the tSiO*" lines of the Byianline poet, Manuel Philes. After exploring the libraries of Russia, he found among the MSS of ihe Seraglio at Conslanlinople the work of the Byzantine hislorian, Crilobulus of Imbros. During his subsequent examination of more than 6000 MSS al Mount Athos, be paid a visit to Thasos, which led lo important discoveries connected with Greek inscriptions and Greek sculptures'. In 1868 and 1875 respectively, he produced his Milanges de lilleralure grecque, and dt pkilelogie et iptpigraphii. In the former he published, among many inedited texts, the Etymologicum Florinlinum and Ihe El. paiTum, with certain works of Aristophanes of Byzantium and Didymus of Alexandria. He also published Ihe historical poems of Theodoras Prodromus (1873}, ihe Greek historians of Ihe Crusades (i8;5-8i), and the Chronicle of Cyprus (i88j). He preferred exploring the avia loca of Byzantine literature to lingering amid the Classics of the golden age \ and probably no one since the days of Leo Allatius and Du Cange was more familiar with mediaeval Greek than Emmanuel Miller'.

In 1867 Miller, in conjunction with BeuU and Brunet de Presle, was one

of the founders of Ihe Association for the encouragement of

Greek studies. Another of the founders was Gustave d'Eichlhal

(1804—1886), a Sainl-Simonian, who represenled philosophy as well as

philology, and who wrote on the doctrine of Socrates, as well as on the study

' Cp. Michaelis, -4«^. £n/rf.'88.

' Salomon Reiaach in Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, i

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXVI.] MILLER. D'EICHTHAL. EGGER. 255

of modem Greek. In 1S33 he spent nearly two years al Athens, and at that time, as well as thirty years later, advocated the adoption of a purified form of modern Greek as a universal language. In 1874. he wrote in favour of Lechevalier's view that the site of Troy was to be found on (he hills above Bunirbashi (1785} and not on Schliemann's mound of Hissarlik, pleading al the close ofhis article for the sanitation ofihe plain of Troy and the rebuilding of the 'palace of Priam ''. His paper on the religious leaching of Socrates (1880) was translated into modem Greek by Valettas. To Greeks residing in Paris, or passing through it, he was one of the two perpetual proxmi of their nation. The other was itmile E^er'.

Egger (1813 — 1885) was of Austrian descent. At the early age of twenty, he became a Doctor of letters on the strength of his two theses on Archytas of Tarentum and on Roman education. He began his literary career by editing ' Longinus ' On the Sublime^ and Varro De Lingua Latina (1837), These were followed by the fragments of Festus and of Verrius Ilaccus (1839), by a prize essay on the historians of the rule of Augustus (1844), and by an edition of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry'. This last was originally appended to his excellent essay on the 'History of Criticism among the Greeks' (1850), which was republished separately after the author's death. His 'elementary notions of comparative grammar' (1852) was the earliest work of its kind in Europe ; and, under the title of 'Apollonius Dyscolus' (1854), he published an essay on the history of grammatical theories in antiquity. He wrote much on Greek papyri^ and on Greek inscriptions, as well as on the language, history and literature of Greece and Rome. Many of his papers were collected in his Mkmoires of ancient literature, and of ancient history and philology (1862-3). In connexion with the History of Scholarship, he wrote on Polemon the periegetes, and on the Due de Clermont-Tonnerre, while (apart from his admirable essay on the History of Criticism) his most important and most popular work was his 'History of Hellenism in France' (1869). He was himself one of the first in France to assimilate the strict and scientific methods of German scholarship, and to clothe its results in the lucid and elegant style characteristic of his

> Annaaire de e Astociaihn, 1874, 1—58.

' Salomon Reinach, in Biogr. Jahrb. i8S(i. 14 — 19; Queux Saint-Hilaire, in d'Eicblhal's collected Mimoires d Notkes (1864-84), 1887. * 1849; ed. 1, 1S74.

2S6 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

countrymen. In the last three years of his life, he was blind, and was compelled to avail himself of the services of a secretary. But he continued in all other respects to have perfect possession of his faculties, and, even in extreme old age, to retain the enei^y and the vivacity of youth '.

The versatile scholar, Thomas Henri Martin (1813 — 1884), studied natural sciences as well as classical literature at the ^cole Normale, where he also attended the lectures of Victor Cousin. His career as a scholar began with a critical analysis of Aristotle's treatise on Poetry'. For more than forty years he was an active member of the Faculty of Letters at Rennes.

It was there that he prepared the two volumes of his studies on Plato's Timaeus (1841), including the text and explanatory translation, analysis and commentary, and a series 9f treatises showing a wide knowledge of ancient Music, Astronomy, Cosmo- graphy, Physics, Geometry and Anatomy. The work was crowned by the Academy, and, in conjunction with his edition of the Astronomy of Theon of Smyrna {1849), led to his name being widely known abroad.

During his study of the Timaeus he formed a plan for a comprehensive history of ancient Astronomy and Natural Science. This prompted the publication of his second great work, the Philosophie Spiritualiste de la Nature in two volumes (1849), being an introduction to the ancient history of the physical sciences. The admirable survey of the study of the natural sciences among the Greeks down to 529 a.d. (included in his second volume) led to his election as a corresponding member of the Berlin Academy. He subsequently produced many important monographs on special portions of the subject of this work, e.g. on the writings ascribed to Heron of Alexandria, and on Cosmography and Astronomy. Thenceforth, his published works were almost ex- clusively devoted to the natural sciences, as studied by the ancients, and were very seldom connected with the Greek litera- ture that was the main theme of his public lectures. These lectures, however, suggested his writing papers on the Greek

' Salomon Reinach. Biosr. /ahri. 1885, loS— III. » Caen, 1836.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXVI.] MARTIN. DAREMBERG. THUROT. 2S7

Aspirates (i860), and on the tril(^ of the Prometheus^. In his other writings his ideal was that of a Christian philosopher. His work on the Christian doctrine of a future life (1855) passed through three editions'. — In the next generation the history of Greek science was ably treated by Paul Tannery {1843 — 1904), the editor of Diophantus'.

A history of medical science was published in 1872 by Charles Victor Daremberg (1817^ — 1872), the translator of Oribasius (1851-76), and of select works of Hippo- crates and Galen (1854-6), and the joint editor (with SagHo) of the celebrated Dictionary of Antiquities.

The able Aristotelian, Charles Thurot (1823— 1881), was the son of Alexandre Thurot (1786 — 1847), the trans- lator of one of Heeren's historical works. After passing through the Acole Normak, he was a professor at Pau, Rheims, and Bordeaux, and finally, in 1849, ^^ Besan^on, where he formed a life-long friendship with the eminent Greek scholar, Henri WeiL From 1854 to i86i he was professor of Ancient History at Clermont-Ferrand; from 1861 to 1871, Maitre dt Confirences in Grammar at the £iole Normale; and, for the remaining eleven years of his life. Director of Latin studies at the Acole Pratique des Hautes-Atudes, as the successor of Gaston Boissier. He succeeded Villemain as a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and was also a member of the Munich Academy.

His scholarly labours were mainly concentrated on the philosophy of Aristotle, and on the history of Grammar. He published valuable papers on Aristotle's Rhetoric, Poetic, and Politics, and on the Animalium Historia and the Meteorologica*. He fiirther distinguished himself by his edition of the commentary of Alexander of Aphrodisias on Aristotle de sensu et sensiNli'. He also supplied an introduction and notes to his uncle's' trans- lations of Epictetus and the eighth book of the Ethics (1874-81).

As a Latin scholar, he was mainly interested in the History of

■ Mhi. Jcad. Inscr. xxviii (») 1875.

* Biegr.yahTb. 1884, 119 — 118. ' ib. 1906, 46 — 48.

* ViM^y ia Rome Arckialogique, 1861-70; \\%\.m Biegr. Jctkrb.\%%i, 14^ ' Nelites et Extrails, xsv (1), 1875, pp. 454.

' Francois Thurot (1768—1831), professor at the Collige de France,

S. III. ,..,■, 11. tyOOt^lc

258 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

Education and in the Grammatical Studies or the Middle Ages. In his theses for the degree of Doctor, he dealt with the mediaeval organisation of the university of Paris', and with the Grammar of Alexander de Villa Dei (1850). He also published documents on the history of the university of Orleans', while the results of his careful examination of some hundred mss were incorporated in his valuable collection of materials for a history of the grammatical doctrines of the Middle Ages'. In a controversy with Prantl he held that the Latin form of a synopsis of Logic by Petnis Hispanus was the original, while Prantl maintained the or^inality of the Greek form of the synopsis by Michael Psellus. Thurot's opinion has since been confirmed'. He was- a scholar of wide outlook ; he did much towards making France familiar with the results of foreign scholarship ; he was a great admirer of Madvig, and, in his lectures, drew special attention to the value of the first volume of the Adversaria Critica'.

Sophocles was ably edited in 1867 by Edouard Toumier

(1831 — 1899); and seven plays of Euripides {1868)

and the principal speeches of Demosthenes {1873-7)

by Henri Weil (b. 1818)'; while Aristophanes and the Alexandrian

poets were tastefully studied by A. Couat (d. 1899).

The Latin Classics were the field of labour chosen by Louis Eugene Benoist (1831 — 1887), who, after twelve years' experience as a teacher at Marseilles, was on the staff of the Faculty of Letters at Nancy from 1867 to 1871 ; and, after a few years at Aix, succeeded Patin as professor in Paris (r874-87). In 1884 he was elected a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, but was prevented by ill health from doing much for the remaining three years of his life.

While he was still al Marseilles, he edited the CisUllaria and Xuiitns of Plautus and the Andria of Terence, but his main attention wa3 devoted to

1 Dezobry, Paris, :85o, 131 pp,

' Bi61. di CEcoU da CharUs, xixii (1871) 376—396.

• Notices it Extraits, xxii (i) 1869, 591 pp. ; cp. Dacunuuls in Cotnpta rendus of the Acad, of Inscr. vi (1870) 341 — 170.

" Slapferio Feslschr., Freibui^ in B., 1896, 130-8; Byz. ZeitschrM ^^^{. " Biogr.Jahrb. 1881, J3— 19, after Ren. Cril. 341 f; Riv. Hist. 386 f; Hev. di Philol. 171-S; S.Ber.bayir.Akad.m^i^-(,\?X\lQT\%%i\\ Baiily, i886.

* Aeschylus, 1884, 1907'; &tudes, 1S97-1900; cp. MilangtsH. Writ, 1891.

.oogic

CHAP. XXXVI.] BENOIST. RIEMANN. GRAUX. 259

Lucretius and Vii^I. His (iTst edition of Virgil appeared in three volumes in i86;-7i. His course of lectures in Paris began nilh a eulogy of his pre- decessor, I'atLn. while, in the following year, his sludie:^ in Plaulus were appropriately combined with an encomium of Ritschi'. His larger edition of Virgil was puhlished in [876-80. With the aid of Lantoine, he published In 1834 an edition of the llfth book of Lucretius, followed by a school-edition in t886. Meanwhile, he had embarked on an edition of Catullus, for which the translation into French verse was executed in i8;8-8j, by his celebrated pupil, Eugene Rostand, but this edition was never completed. Besides numerous articles on the authors above mentioned, he wrote on ' Horace in France'', but he failed to linish his proposed edition of that poet. In conjunction with his able pupii, O. Riemann, he produced an edition of Livy, \xt — xxv {1881— 3), in which Riemann was responsible for the text and notes and the critical and grammalicaJ appendices, while Benoist dealt with the religious, civil, and military institutions. His literary activity extended over a quarter of a century, during which he devoted unsparing toil to the textual criticism and exegesis of the Latin Classics. He was thoroughly familiar with the work of the Latin scholars of Germany, and his editions were distinctly superior to those that had hitherto held the field in France. Among the able Latin scholars that belonged to his school were Riemann, Waltz, Uri, Constans, Goliier, Plessis, and Causeret^.

Olhon Riemanti (1853—1891), as a student of the French School of Athens, spent two years {1874-5) 'i llalyi collating Mss of Xenophon and Livy. His third year was reserved for the Ionian islands. As a teacher at Nancy, he produced his theses on the language and grammar of Livy and on the text of Xenophon's HeUtnua, with his archaeoli^cal researches on the Ionian islands and the first part of his studies on the evi- dence of Inscriptions as to the Attic dialect. In Paris, shortly after 1881, he succeeded Thurot as professor of Greek at the £cole Normale. During the latter part of his short life, he published an enlarged edition of his admirable work on Livy, and two editions of his excellent Latin Syntax ([886-90)''.

Daring a brief life of thirty years, the highest distinction in palaeography was attained by Charles Graux (1852 - — 1882), who began his studies in the Collige of his native town of Verviers. For his sound knowledge of Greek he was indebted to an aged cur^, whose learning was only equalled by his modesty. He continued his study of Greek under Toumier in Paris, where he worked at Comparative Grammar under Br^al.

■ Rev. dePhiigI.ii)t. ' Rev. pelilique et litt. viii (1875) 719 f. » BiBgr.Jakrh. 1887, lu— 117.

' Since enlarged in Riemann and Goelzer, Gram. Comfarit du Gree it du Latin, i vols. (1899—190:). Siogr.Jahrb. 1891, 133 f.

h. i,«a-t?.oot^lc

26o FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

At the age of 21, he was already editing in a scientific spirit the Revue de Pkilologte and the Revue Critique. His proficiency in Greek Palaeography led to his being repeatedly sent to explore the Mss of foreign libraries. In 1879 he published a catalogue of the Greek mss of Copenhagen ; and, during his journeys in Spain, he examined the contents of no less than sixty libraries, while he devoted special attention to the treasures of the Escurial. He there found the materials for his Essay on the origins of the department of Greek mss in the Escurial, which includes a sketch of the Revival of Learning in Spain*. In the Royal Library of Madrid he discovered a new recension of certain of Plutarch's Lives. During his stay in Madrid, he was presented to the King of Spain, and characteristically seized the occasion to suggest the possibility of lending Spanish mss to scholars in France. To the Rwue de Phtlologie he had contributed an im- portant article on ancient Stichometry', and he kept this subject in view during all his researches abroad. Some of his earliest works had been connected with the Greek writers on fortifications, and he had published the treatise of Philon of Byzantium, as well as a memoir on the walls of Carthage. He had thus chosen the application of critical scholarship to the study of ancient history as his special field of labour. Early in 1881 he was appointed to the new office of instructor in Greek History and Antiquities in the Faculty of Letters in Paris. Before beginning his Course, he visited Florence, and stayed for a longer time in Rome, where he aided the officials of the Vatican in dating the Greek mss which they were then er^aged in cataloguing. On his return to Paris, after a brief respite from work, he announced his first lecture, but, before the date fixed for its delivery, he was carried off by a sudden illness in the thirtieth year of his age. His memory was honoured by the publication of a volume of papers contributed by seventy-eight of the leading scholars of Europe ; and his lite- rary remains were collected in memorial volumes including the edilio princeps of certain of the works of Choriclus, an edition of Plutarch's Lives of Demosthenes and Cicero, founded on the

» Bibl. de r£co!e dts kautes /tudts, XLVl (1880).

' Rev. de Philol. 1878, 97 — 143, (Lydus, rtpl Jhwd,u«ibi-, ib. 1896, '3— 35')

„.,,„A.OOglC

CHAP. XXXVl.] SAINT-HILAIRE. 261

Madrid MS, a revised text of part of Xenophon's Oeconomicus, and the treatise on fortifications by Philon of Byzantium'.

Some of the French translations of the Latin Classics have been noticed in connexion with Ihe brothers Nisard. Cicero was translated by Joseph Victor Le Clerc (1789—1865)', and Sallnsl by rani ators

Moncourt. In the department of Greek literature, Homer was translated by Giguet, Thucydides by Zc!vort, the Anlidosis of Isocrates by Cartelier, Demosthenes by Sti^venart and by Dareste, Dio Cassius by Gros, and the DioHysiacii of Nonnus by the Cotnle de Marcellas (1795 — 1861), (who presented to Ihe Louvre the Venus de Milo'). Lycophron and the Greek Anthology were rendered by DehJque (d. 1870), who counted ^tg*' sioong his pupils; Aeschylus and the Metaphyncs of Aristotle, as well as M. Aurelius and Plutarch, by Fierron, the author of Histories of Greek and Lalin literature (d, 1878)'.

Aristotle was expounded, as well as translated, by Barthdlemy- Saint-Hilaire (1805 — 1895), ""''^^ "^ professor of . Greek and Latin philosophy in 1838, and, during gaint-H™^ his public career, was principal secretary of the provisional government of 1848. His translation of Aristotle, begun in 1832, was completed in 1891'.

The following critique is from the pen of Lord Acton': — ' He knows Greek thoroughly for working purposes, but not exquisitely as a scholar; and he has done little, on the whole, far his idol Aristotle in the

way of consulting the MSS and improving the unsettled text ' He ' is quite

at the top of scholars and philosophers of the second class. Not a discoverer, not an originator, not even clever in the sense common with Frenchmen, not eloqaent at all, not vivid or pointed in phrase; sufficient in knowledge, but not abounding, sound, but not supple, accustomed to heavy work in the darkness, unused to effect, to influence, or to applause, unsympathetic and a little isolated, but high-minded, devoted to principle, willing, even en- thusiastic, to sacrifice himself, his comfort, his life, his reputation, to public duty or scientific truth.... Not the least of his merits is that, having spent his life on Aristotle, he told me that he thought more highly of Plato; and in his

' Ttxlesgrees, 1886; Notices bibliogr. 1884; Graux et Martin, MSS gncs m Suide (1889), Espagne et Portugal (1893), Fac-simiUs (1891)- Biogr. Jahrb. 1881, 18 — »i; portrait, life by Lavisse, and biblii^raphy in Milanga Graux, 1884.

" Notiu by Guigniaut, 1866. » Cp. Michaelis, Arch. Enid. 45 f,

* See also ^ger's HeUiitisme m France, ii 469 — 476.

" Index of subjects in two vols. (1891). Picot, Notice! Nisloriijues, i (1907) 107-148.

* Leitert, 1904, 37—39 (17 Sept. 1880).

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

C.Waddington

Walcken

262 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

Imroduction lo the Ethics he showed the weakness of his hero's attack on Platonism '.

In his fdilion and )ra.ii$latioii of the Politics (1S37), the Books are arranged in the following order; — I, 11, III, vii, viii, IV, vi, v. It was a French translalor, Nicolas Oresme (d. 1381), who was the first to place Books Vll and vni iinmedialely after I, II, ill, while Saint-Hilaire was the firsl to place Vl

The 'physiology' of Aristotle was the subject of a thesis by Charles Waddington (born in i8iq), a member of an English family which settled in France in 1780. He lectured on Logic at the Sorbonne {1850-6), but, being opposed as a Protestant, withdrew to Strassbui^. On returning in 1864, he lectured on philosophical subjects. He wrote a monograph on Ramus (1855), followed by works on Pyrrhonism (1877), on the authority of Aristotle in the Middle Ages (1877), and on the Philosophy of the Renaissance and its antecedents (1872-3).

The study of ancient geography was advanced by Clia.rIeB Athanase Baron Walckenaer (1771 — 1851). who lived in Scotland during (he French Revolution, and was in the service of France from 1816 to 1830. In 1840 he became Secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions. His lieal-known work is that on the Ge<^aphy of GauP. He also edited the Irishman Dicuil's treatise De maaura otbis lerroi (180;), and wrote on the life and works of Horace'. The ancient geography of France was similarly . studied with marked success by A. E. E. Desjardins (i8'3—

f?^ '"* 1886), who also made his mark in Latin Epigraphy, while the Renter diplomalisl, Charles Tissol (1818— 1884), published an im-

portant memoir on Caesar's campaign in Africa (1883). The Roman inscriptions of Algiers were systematically edited by Leon Renier (1809^1885), the author of an able monograph on the siege of Jerusalem by Tilus, and the compiler of a large coMeclion of Roman military diplomas*. The historian Prosper Mctim^ (18OJ-70), besides pioducing " two volumes on Catiline, and on the Social War, look part in the preparationof the ffi>Wi>iru!(C/j(ir published in 1865-6 by Napoleon III (1808—1873), while Amidee Thierry (i797— 1873) wrote on Rufinus, .Stilicho, and Eulropius*, and Brunei de Presle

> SusemihI-Hicks, Polilks, p. 16, n. 4.

' 3 vols., with atlas, 1839.

' Naudet's Notice, 1853 ; Saint-Beuve's Lundis, vi.

' Salomon Reinach in Biogr. Jahrb. viii ( 1885) roj f ; Chatelain in Rev. dt Phil. x(r886) if.

' Also author of Hist, lies Gaulois, and HisI, de la Gaule; notice by G. L^vjque, 1873.

A. Thierry

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CHAP. XXXVI.] C. WADDINGTON. DE COULANGES. 263

(1809 — iS7g), a specialist in modem Greek, treated of Ihe Greeks in Sicily (1845) and of Greece under Roman rate (1859)'.

As a member of the French School at Athens, Fustel de Coulanges (1830—1889) published a memoir on the island of Chios'. His Latin thesis on the ' Cult of Vesta', written on his return to France (1858), contained the germ of his best-known work, La Cili Antique (1864), a work coinciding in many points with Sir Henry Maine's Ancient Law (1861). In 1874 he began the publication of his 'History of the Institutions of France', and in the following year became professor of Ancient History at the Sorbonne, where, in all his lectures, he strongly insisted on the study of the original authorities. A proposal to found in his honour a new Chair of Mediaeval History was delayed until Gambetta had been assured in 1879 that the recognition, in the Citi Antique, of the important part played by religion did not really imply the author's sympathy with modern ' clencalism ', After spending three years as Director of the ^cole Normale, he resumed for the last six years of his life his fruitful labours in the Chair of Mediaeval History at the Sorbonne'. His Gaule Romaine was posthumously published in 1890.

Among (he dislinguished representatives of Classical Archaeology in Franeewas Aubin LooLs Millin de Grandmaison (1759 — 181S), author of the MonumoUs oHliqaes itUdiis (t8o5-6), and of Mnii

the Gaiirie mylhelogiqut (i8ii)*. Of Italian descent, he learned German in Strassburg, and, for the last twenty-three years of his life, edited a journal that formed a valuable link between the archaeoli^ical studies of France and Geimany. In the course of his travels he produced one of the fullest descriptions of the Roman remains in the South of France, and his visits to Italy led to the first systematic examination of monuments connected with the Oresteia (iSij)", He introduced into classical archaeology the terms mcnvmtnts antiques and antiquili figurie^.

A. C. Qualremtre de Quincy (iJSS — '8+9), in his illustrated volume, Lt Jupittr Olympim (1814), was the first to enable archae- ologists Co form a clear conception of the chryselephantine

' Queux Saint' Hilaire, in Assoc. Eludes grecs, 1875, 341.

* Archiitt des missions scitntifiquis, vol. v.

* Paul Guiraud in Biagr.Jakrb. xii (1889! 138—149.

* Plates in his PeitUura dt vases antiques (1B08-10) and Pierres grcailts inedites (1817-15) republished by S. Reinach, 1891-5.

* Stark, 157 f. • ib. so.

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264 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

work of the ancients. It was not until he actuallj saw the sculptures of the Parthenon in 1818 tha.t he fully appreciated their importance'. He was the first to recc^ise the value of ' Carrey's' drawings of those sculptures*.

An epoch in the study of ancient sculpture was made by Jean BaptUte Comte de Clarac (1777—1847), who, after living in Switzer- land, Germany and Holland, returned to France, and became tutor in the family of king Murat at Naples. He there wrote a report on the discoveries at Pompeii (1813). In 1818 he succeeded Visconti as Conservator of the Louvre. His catalogues of 1810-30 ultimately became a manual of the history of ancient art (184J-9). Under the title of Mtisie de sculpture antique el mcdtme he published two volumes of outline engravings of the sculptures of the Louvre (1816-30), followed by two further volumes containing more than JS"" copies of the 'Statues of Europe', arranged according to subjects (185J-7), and completed by a volume of reliefs, and another of Egyptian, Greek and Roman Iconography. This vast collection of outlines was the foundation of all subsequent works on ancient sculpture'. Raoul Rochette (1783 — 1854) produced in his Monumem inidits (1818) a work of the same title and general aim as that of his contem- Rochettc porary, Gerhard. As the successor of Millin at the Louvre he published during twenty-live years a large number of papers on archaeological discoveries. He wrote a critical history of the Greek Colonies, and a work on (he antiquities of the Crimea. He was specially interested in the Pe^amene artists, and in the sculptured representations of Greek heroes*. His views' and those of Guigniaul (1754 — 1876), the learned translator and reviser of Creuzer's Symbolik, were keenly criticised by Jean LeticiBDe Anioine Letronne (1787—1848), the author of works on ancient geography, including a critical essay on the topography of Syracuse (1812), researches on Dicuil, de meniura orbis terrae (1814), and on the Periplusof 'Scylax' (i8j6) and the fragments of Scymnus and ' Dicaearchus ' (1840). He also discussed the fragments of Heron of Atenandria (1851), and wrote masterly papers on ancient a-stronomy, and on the statue of Memnon*. His gjreater works were connected with Greek and Roman coinage (1817-35), and with the Greek and Latin Inscriptions of ^[ypt (1841-8)'.

Philippe Le Bas {1794 — t86o), who had leaml his Greek from Boissonade, made the acquaintance of Italian and German archaeo1<%ists during his residence in Rome as tutor in the family of queen

• Letters to Canova. » Stark, 158 ; vol. ii, p. 199 supra.

' Stark, 367 f. S. Reinach, Clarac de Poche (1897 — 1904); t«isl in the

• Stark, 197; portrait by his daughter engraved by her husband, Luigi Calamatta.

• PHntures antiques inMites {1836). ' Inscr. de t'£gypte, ii 315 — ^ia. ' Longp^iier, Notice, 1849; Egger, Mini, de Philol. 1 — 14. Milanges

(with Walckenaer's ^hgt), 1860; CEuvres Ckoisies, 1S81-5.

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CHAP. XXXVI.] LENORMAMT. 26$

Hortense. The Iwo years of his mission to Greece and Asia Minor (1943-4) were devoted lo the collection or 450 drawings of ancient monuments, and 5000 inscriptions. Several part* of the Voyagi archiologique en Gria el m Asie Mineurt were published in 1847-8. After the death of Le Bas, the collection of the inscriptions was greatly enlarged in 1861-1 by W. H. Waddington, who extended the quest to Syria and Cyprus, and by P. Foucart'. The results of the exploration of Asia Minor in 1833-7 ^1 Texier (1794 — 1860) were published in 1849'.

The Due de Luynes (1803 — 1S67), who played an important part in the early history of the Archaeoli^cai Institnle', and generously supported the publication of the two volumes of Neuvelles Luvnes

Annales for 1838-9, independently produced by the French section of that Institute in 1S40-5, distinguished himself by bis admirable works on the exploration of Metapontum (1836), on (he coins of the Satraps (1848), and on the coins and inscriptions of Cyprus (1851). He was the liberal patron of archaeoli^cal work at home and abroad, but, in all his varied interests, he ever relumed to the art of ancient Greece as the ' shrine of beauty'. He lavished his resources on Simart's restoration of the chrysele- phantine statue of Athena Parthenos. He was to France what the Earl of Arundel was to England, and he left all his vast collections of works of ancient art to the Museum in the Paris Library*.

Charles Lenonnant {1816 — 1881), the discoverer in j86o of the fine relief of the divinities of Elensis, was the author of the five volumes of the Trher de Humiimatique el de glyfli/ue, and of tbe threi of the £lite des immuinniei ciramographiques. He also produced a comme laiy on Plato's Cralylus (1861)- He died during his travels in Greece, and w bnried on the hill of Colonus". His son Fran9ois (1837 — 1883) was a versatile explorer in the most varied fields of archaeology, epigraphy, and numismatics. Among his principal publications were his ' archaeolr^cal researches at Eleusis ' (1861), and his monograph on the sacred 'Eleusinian way' (1864). His earliest important work was his Essay on the Coins of the Ptolemies (1857). Among the most comprehensive of his articles in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionary were those on the Alphabet, and on Bacchus and Ceres. He produced numerous memoirs on Greek and Latin inscriptions, on works of ancient sculpture, and on numis- matics. He took part in preparing seven volumes of masterpieces of ancient art, mainly from the Museum at Naples, and in producing highly popular works on Magna Graecia, and on Apulia, and Lucania. In conjunction with

> Stark, 319. Plates published by S. Reinach (1888). ' Cp. Michaelis, Arch. Entd. 76, rso-

" ib. 186; Michaelis, Geuh. d. Inst., 44, 63, 85, 9S- * E. Vinet, in L'art el Varchhlegie, 468 f ; Stark, 300 f.

> Netiees by Wallon, 1859 ; and Laboulaye, 1861 ; portrait in the Gaietle arehiale^qut, i88s.

„.,,„, ^.oogic

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266 FRANCE. [cent. XIX.

Baron de Witle, he founded ihe Gazelle Archlolagiquc in 187s ; on Ihe death of Beuli in the previous year he was appointed professor of Archaeolc^ at the Biblioth^ue Nalionale, and held that position with the highest distii>ction for the remaining nine years of his life'.

Among archaeolf^ts intermediale in age between the elder and the I-onnrfrltr J""'"E^' Lenormant were Adrien de Longperier (1816—1881), g^^ who wrote on the Bronzes of the Louvre (1869) and on the

Coins of the Sassanides (r88j), and whose archaeological papers were collected by Schlumbeiger" ; and Charles Ernest Beule (1826 — 1875), who helped to popukrise archaeology by his works on (he Acropolis (i8i;4) and the Coinage (1858) of Athens, on the Peloponnesus (i^SS)! '"'^ 01 Che arts at Sparta, on Greek art before Pericles, and on Pheidias. He also wrote on Augustus (a political pamphlet), and on Tiberius and Titus'. The h™j mediaeval topography of Athens was excellently illustrated

by the work of Leon de Laborde on Athens in centuries XV — XVII (1854). Athens and the Acropolis were the theme of a woik by Emile Bumouf (1877), the second Director of the French School (1 811-1907)*. Though the Due de Luynes was one of the warmest friends of the Archae- ological Institute of Rome, the Due de Blacas its first presi- ^f\^heni' '*^'"' ^^^ '^^ learned Guigniaul (the friend of Panofka and the 'father of the School of France'') one of the earliest members of Ihe Institute, nevertheless It was not (he Institute of Rome that suggested the foundation of (he School of Athens. The germ of (he French School was the Roman Academy of France, the Academy of artists founded by Colbert in 1666*. The School of Athens was founded in 1846 ; during the first six(y years of its existence it has had five Directors; — Ameiife Daveluy (1846-67). ^mile Burnouf (1867-75), Albert Dumont (1875-78), Paul Foucart {1878-90) and Theophile HomoUe, the present Director; and the story of its fortunes under these five Directors has been admirably told by (jeoiges Radet'. It has explored and excavated in Asia Minor, in Cyprus, Syria, North Africa and even in Spain, as well as in Greece, in Thrace and Mace- donia, and in the islands of the Aegean. It has lately won fresh laurels at both of the ancient shrines of Apollo, at Delos and at Delphi. It has also added much to the learning and to the literature of France. Among the students entered under Daveluy we find Charles Lev6que', Emile Bumouf, ' Babelon in Biogr. Jahrb. 1884, 151 — 163 ; Rayel's &ludis, 405 — 414. ^ 1881, with complete biblii^raphy ; Rayet's Eludes, 396 — 404. ' Gniyer, in Gaa. cUs Bmux Arts, 1874 ; portrait in G. Radet's History of the French School of Athens, opp. p. 174.

* Portrait in Radet, p. isg.

' Portrait in Radet, opp. p. io8.

* Ilomolle, quoted by Radet. 4.

' VHistoin d I'CEuvre dt I'Scole Franfoise d'Alkims, 1901, 491 pp., with 153 illustrations, including portraits of all the Directors. ' La Seieitu du Beau (i86i).

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CHAP. XXXVI.] SCHOOLS OF ATHENS AND ROME. 267

Jules Girard, Beule, Edmond About, Fuslel de Coulanges, Heuzey, Georges Ferrol, Paul Foucarl, Wescher, Decluufnie, and Albeit Dumont. lAmong those entered under Emile Bumoiif: — Rayel, Collignon, HomoUe, and Riemann ; under Albert Duinoni : — Paul Girard, Jules Ma.rtha. Bernard Haussoullier, and Edmond Pottier; and under Paul Foucart : — -Hanvette, Salomon Reinach, Monceaux, Pietie Paris, Diehl, Radet, Deschamps', Fougires, Lechat, and Victor B^rard. Many of these names are widely known, there are none of them that are not ttuaiirrTa, uiwfrow-u', and there is Sundance of promise and more than promise among their successors, the pupils of Theophile Homolle. Most of the names represent various depart- ments of classical archaeology, but the study of Greek lileralure is also repre- sented by E. Burnouf, J. Girard, Perrol, Decharme, and Hauvelte, and the linguistic »de of classical learning by the careful treatment of Attic usage in (he epigraphic works of Foucart, Riemann and S. Reinach. and by Homolle's preliminary paper on the primitive dialect of Delphi. Greek texts were edited by Wescher; while Riemann collated the Anibrosian MS of Xenophon's HelU- nica and examined the icholia on Demosthenes and Aeschines in the monastic library of Patmus'. Part of the recent pn^ress of excavation and discovery in the Hellenic world has been traced by S. Reinach', and [he documentary history of the French exploration of the East in the seventeenth and eighteenth centniies has been published by H. Omonl*. The French School of Athens published its results first in the Arehivis des missions sdmiifiquts tt litlfrairis, and next in a BulUlin begun in (868 and transformed into the well-known Bullttin dt corrtspoHdance kclUniiut in 1879- The French School of Rome is the younger sister of the School of Athens. When {by the Versailles decree of 187 1 ) the Archaeological Institute of Rome was placed under the control of the Berlin Academy and thus ceased to be 'international', a French School of Rome became a necessity, and it was accordingly founded in 1873. Its work is partly represented in the Bihliolhique of the Schools of Athens and Rome (which includes De Nolhac's volumes on Petrarch and Hnmanism, and on the Library of Fulvio Orsini); its special oi^n is Milangcs d'arcUologic el d'hiiloirt; and its present Director is Mgr Duchesne.

The study of epigraphy and numismatics was ably represented by William Henry Waddinglon (18H}— 1894), a cousin of Charles Waddington'. He was born at the family chdieau near ji^ *''*'"''" Dreux, was educated in Paris and at Rugby, rowed in the university.boat at Cambridge, and was a Chancellor's Medallist and second in the first class of the Classical Tripos of that university in 1849. His early travels in Greece and Asia Minor resulted in his Veyagi en Asie Mineure au

' La Grice tV aujeard^ hui (1891) etc.

'' Details in Radet, 397, and, in general, 379—414.

' Ckroniques d'OrienI, j vols., 1891-6.

* Missions aTckiolggiqua, % vols. 4I0, xvi + 1137 pp. (1903).

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268 FRANCE. [cent. XIX.

point de vui ttumismaHqui (1853)'. This was followed by his Milcatget di numismatiipii et de philologit (1861-7), his edition of the Edict of Diocletian (1864), the Greek and Latin Inscriptions in his continuation of Le Bas' Voyage arehhhgique (1868), his 'Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Syria' (1870) and his ' Fasli of the Asiatic provinces of the Roman Empire (ed. i, 1872)'. He was elected a member of the Chamber of Deputies in 1871, and of the Senate in 1876, was Minister of Public Instruction in r876-7, and Ambassador of Fiance to England in 1883-93. As a. Member of the Academy of In- scriptions in Paris (1865) and of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and an Honorary Doctor of the University of Cambridge (1884), he was an archaeolf^st who conferred distinction on the land of his ancestors as well as on the land of his adoption. ' His manly loyalty to France lost nothil^ by the discipline of Rugby and Cambridge, and he adorned public life without ceasing to deserve well of archaeolt^ '*. It is nevertheless true that he would have served Chat science still better, had he withdrawn from public life two-and-lwenty years before his death. He might thus have lived to complete and publish his long-expected work on the Coinage of Asia Minor*, a work founded on the studies of a life-time and illustrated by an unrivalled collection consisting entirely of coins (hat were either very rare or absolutely uniqae'. His political popularity was probably at its height in 1877-g, when he was Minister of Foreign Affairs and Plenipotentiary of France at the Congress of Berlin (June, 1878). It was to Waddington that Greece then owed the promise of a rectificalion of her frontiers. Early in 1880, on ceasing to be responsible for foreign affairs, he paid bis tirst visit to Rome, where Salomon Reinach met him in the Lateran Museum. Waddington had at that moment an immense reputation as a philhellene, and Reinach suggested a tour in Greece. 'On vous recevra' (he added) 'sous des arcs de triomphe,' ' Mais pr^cisfment ' (replied Waddington} 'je n'aime pas les arcs de triomphe.' A more sober form of gratitude would doubtless have been preferred by that calm and dispassionate politician and archaeolt^ist who, in all his writings, seldom, if ever, allowed himself to lapse into a rhetorical phrase. Attracted mainly towards (he solution of diflicult problems of chronology, he

' Rivut numismaliqut, 1851-3.

' All these works (except the MUanges) originally formed part of his continuation of ' Le Bas.' He also wrote on the chronology of the life of the rhetorician Aristides (Mint. Acad. Inscr. 1867), and on the coinage of Isauria and Lycaonia (ffw. «um. i88j) and the inscriptions of Tarsus {B. C. H. 1883).

' Jebb in/. H. S. av p. vii.

* In course of completion by Babelon and Theodore Reinach, for publica- tion by the Academy of Inscriptions.

' Purchased for the Cabinil de M/daillei in 1897 (Babelon's laomiaire Sommaire, 1898; Waddington, Babelon, Th. Reinach, Recueil de Monnaies d'Asie Mimure, 1904-7).

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CHAP. XXXVI.] W. H. WADDINGTON. RAYET. 269

regarded the sciences of epigraphy and numismatics solely as handmaids to tustoiy or (if we must deny ourselves that phrase in such a context) solely as aids lo the attainmenl of historic truth'.

Among important works on Numismatics may be mentioned the well- known DtseripHeit dt nUdatlle! antiques grecquts el romaines (iSo6f) by Mionnet (1770 — 1843), the consular and imperial Roman coins of Cohen (ed. 1, 1881); and the Byzantine coins (1838} of De Saulcy (1807^1880), the oriental traveller and archaeologist^.

Our survey of the classical archaeolc^sts of France cannot close without some I'ecord of the brief but brilliant career of Olivier Rayet (1847— -1887}. At the £cole Normale he came under the in- spiring influence of his future father-in-hiw, Ernest Desjardins, whose lectures on Ancient History and Geography were varied with vivid reminiscences of eminent archaeologists, such as Mariette and Borghesi. Rome and Paestum and Selious were among the land-marks of Ihe memorable journey of 1869 that led Rayet to the School of Athens. At Athens he began the fruitful studies which resulted in his papers on the Cerameicus. There too he obtained for the Louvre, and for his own collection, some of (he linest of the early examples of the Tanagra figurines, a branch of ancient art in which he soon became a rect^nised expert. He regarded these graceful figures as having no mylholc^cal or symbolic significance; they were placed in the tombs (he held) simply as substitutes for the victims sacrificed in primitive times as companions to the spirits of the dead'. In 1871-3 he was engaged in exca- v^ing the theatre of Miletus and the temple of Didyma, and in the discoveiy of important sculptures and inscriptions on both sites*. Early in 1974, on his return to Paris, he began his lectures on Greek inscriptions and terra- collas, and on the topography of Athens; these were followed by further lectures on (he history of ancient art ; and ten years after his return he succeeded F. Lenormant as professor of archaeology at the Bibliethique NaiioncUe. In February 1S87 he died at the age of less than forty, after two years of ill health due lo a malady probably contracted during the exploration of Miletus. The only work which he lived to complete was his series of Msnummts de fart antique (1884). His importaot Histeire di la Ciramique grtique was completed by Collignon {l888), and the same year saw the publication of an interesting collection of his more popular papers'.

For the ten years that preceded his last illness he held a unique position

' Cp. S. Reinach, in Biogr.JaAr. 1897, 1—8.

' He also wrote on Cisar dans Us Gaules (l86o) ; cp. Revui Celtiqu^, 18S0; Froehner, 1881 ; Schlumberger, 1881 {with bibliography).

* &tudts d'archiologu: et d'art, 1888, 3iof.

* 1*. ggf. The work was resumed by Haussonllier in 1895-6 {£tudes sur I'histBiride MiUt, 1901).

» &titdes d'arckhlogie it d'art, with portrait, and biographical notice by Salomon Reinach.

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270 FRANCE. [cent. XIX.

among the archaeoli^sts of France, as a man whose tasle and judgement were respected by experts and artists, and also by collectors of works of ancient art. He did not pretend to any profound learning in (he domain of mythologj, but he had a fine sense of style. On his return from Olympia he wrote two admirable articles on ihe newly discovered pediments of the temple of Zeus and on the German excavations in general'. With an eager patriotism he elsewhere ui^ed that Paris should not be allowed to fall behind Berlin or London in the oi^nisation of its Museums of Ancient Art. It may be added that his articles on this theme were written at the instance of Gambetta, for whom he had an unbounded admiration ; and, after his hero's death, it was not without emotion that he reproduced and described in his /Honumtnti di I'art antique the exquisite figurine presented to that eminent politician by (he grratitude of (he Greeks of Epinis'.

During the nineteenth century in France classical learning had no darker days than those of the First Empire. Bon-Joseph Dacier regretfully reports to Napoleon I : — ' La Philologie, qui est la base de toute bonne litt^rature et sur laquelle repose la certitude de I'histoire, ne trouve presque plus personne pour la cultiver". The first Napoleon studied Caesar for his own pur- poses*, and the third followed his example'. Under the Restora- tion, Latin was recognised anew in 1821 as the proper medium of instruction in philosophy, but this recc^nition was withdrawn afler the Revolution of July, 1830'. A literary reaction, however, ensued, a reaction connected with the notable names of Abel Francois Villemain and Victor Cousin. The latter, who had studied philosophy and educational organisation in Germany, and had written inter alia on Aristotle's Metaphysics, was Minister of Public Instruction in 184a'. Villemain (1790 — 1870), the Minister of 1839, had been appointed professor of French Eloquence at the Sorbonne, had translated Cicero's Letters and De RepuMica, had published a romance on

' Reprinted in &tudes, 4^—85.

' S. Reinach, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1887, jj — 41, and esp. in his ed. r>\ £ludes (i88«), pp. 1-m.

' RafpoTt sur Us ptogris de rhistotre et de la litlh-ature ancietme, 1789 — 1808 {Paris, 1810),

• Prkis des guerra de Char, ed. Marchand, 360 pp. (1830).

• Hist, de/ales CAnr {1865-6).

• Giiard, ^ducatum et Instrvclion {Enseigtiement Secondaiie), ii C. ix, x. ' p. 151 JH/ra.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXXVI.] VILLEMAIN. WALLON. DURUV. 271

the Greeks of the fifteenth century', and a popular treatise on Roman Polytheism", He is a representative of the rhetorical side of classical scholarship. Like Guizot and Cousin (both of whom had been Ministers of Public Instruction as well as professors), Villemain gave brilliant courses of lectures, which, although delivered from the professorial chair, were addressed to the general public, there being hardly any regular students or duly organised schools of learning'.

A more solid type of erudition was represented by the Minister of 1875, Henri Alexandre Wallon (1812—1905)*, for many years 'perpetual secretary' of the Aca- demy of Inscriptions, who, besides not a few important contribu- tions to historical or theolc^ical literature, had in the early part of his career produced a learned history of ancient slavery'. His able contemporary, Jean Victor Duruy (i8ir — 1894), the author of a Historical Geography of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire (1838) and of well- known Histories of Rome' and Greece', crowned his many services as Minister by the establishment of the icoU pratique des hautes itudes in 1866. The date has been recognised as marking a renaissance of classical studies in France'. It is also the date of the foundation of the Revue Critique, which, as the organ of a sound and sober type of scholarship, dealt a final death-blow to the 'pale imitators of Villemain'. The characteristic of this renaissance has been described by the author of the Manuel de Philologie as an alliance between the French qualities of clearness and method, and the solid learning of other nations*.

' Lascaris, 1815. ' Nouvtaax Milanget, 1817.

' L. LLard, Les Universith Franfoisii (Report of 1897).

' Portrait in Coinfles rendus of Acad, of Inscr. 1906.

' 184; ; ed. 1, 1879 (Perrot in Rrv. Arch. 1879, j6o f).

" Six vols. (1876-79); ill. ed. in eight vols. (1878-86); E. T. ed. Mahaffy, 1883 f.

' 1861; two vols. [8B3; ill. ed. three vols. 1887-9; E- T. ed. Mahaffy, .892.

' S. Reinach, Manuel de Phihlogii, i 13. In 1877 the Rtvuede PhilelogU was founded, and Cobet writes to Tournier in that year, eipressing his delight, rmaia esse el lam laeta fiorere in Gallia severa literarum veterum stadia {Sev. de Philol. ii 189).

" S. Reinach, /. c.

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272 FRANCE. [CENT. XIX.

Among German scholars who settled in France may be mentioned Karl Benedict Hase (1780 — 1864), who, after studying at Jena and Helmatedt, left in iSoi for Paris, where he held an appoint- ment in the Library, besides being a professor of Modern Greek and of F^lae<^raphy (1816), and of Comparative Grammar (1851). He wrote the Frot^omena to the edilU princeps of Lydns. de magislralibus Hemanh, and edited Lydns de ostenlis, etc., as well as Julius Obsequens, Valerius Maximus, and Suetonius. He contributed many papers to the Notices el Exlraiis of the MS5 of the Paris Library. In the study of palaeography his most famous pupil was Charles Gmux'. Hase took part in the first volume only of the new edition of the Greek Thesaurus projected by Didol=.

One of Didot's most active supporters in the series of the Classics that

bears his name was Johann Friedrich Diibner (1801 — 1867),

who had studied at Giittingen, and vias invited to Paris in

■833 to take part in the new edition of the Thesaurus. He was the editor of

many volumes in Didot's series, being sole editor of Menander and Philemon,

Polybius, Plutarch's Moraiia, and the Characters of Theophrastus, with Marcus

Aurelius, Epictetus, Airian etc., Himerius, Porphyry, and the scholia to

Aristophanes, and jomt editor of Strabo. the Tragic Fragments, the minor

Epic Poets, and the scholia to Theocritus, Nicander and Oppian'. He

completed in two volumes the edition of the Greek Antholc^ for which

preparations had been made by Boissonade, and a third volume, containing

the Epigrams quoted by ancient authors or preserved in inscriptions, was

edited (1850} by Ed. Cougny (1818—1889), who was led by

ousny Egger to the study of ancient rhetoric and edited in 18^3 four

Pmgymnasmata from a Ms discovered by himself at Bourges. He also

printed Brunck's correspondence with interesting details on his A?iaiecla, and

a sketch of his career*. During the last fifteen years of his life he was engaged

on the edition of the Greek Epigrams above-mentioned, and also on a

collection of the Greek writers on the geography and history of Gaul, a work

that owed much to the encoar^ement of E^er'.

Dubner was naturally the medium of communication between the publisher and Dilbner's countrymen. Thus it was through Dubner that Kochly made bis proposal to edit Manetho, and was informed that the usual honorarium was 1100 francs for a volume of 40 sheets ; but half this sum was usually paid in books of nominally equivalent value published by Didot°. Apart from the ordinary Greek Classics, the series included Strabo, edited by DUbner and Carl Mliller, the editor of the Geographi Graeci Minores and the fragiOents of

' p. SS9 supra.

' Guigniaut, Notice, 1867.

' Bursian, ii 868 f.

* Annuaire Assoc. £tudes grtcs, k 106, viii 447, k 141.

' S. Reinach, in Biogr.Jahrb. 1889, 149 — 152.

' Bockel's Hermann Kochly, 131.

A.oogic

CHAP. XXXVI.] COUGNY. DIUOT. HENRY. B^TANT 273

the Gieelt historians. The fragments of the philosophers were edited by MuUach'.

The Didot series derived its name from Ambroise Finnin Didot {1790 — 1876), (he celebraled printer and publisher, whose ancestors were associated with the book-trade from 1713. Didot was himsetfa translator ofThucydides (ed. i, 1875), and the author of an essay on Anacreon, and of works on Muslims and Aldus ManutJus (1875). and on Henri Estienne (1814), the author of the Greek Thtsaurus. With the aid of the brothers Dindorf, this great work was published anew by the ' modem Estienne' (1831-65)'.

Colmar in Alsace was the birthplace of Victor Henry (1850 — 1907), a pupil of Abel Bergaigne, and a lecturer aC Douai and Lille, and at the Sorbonne, where he was professor of Comparative Philology for the last twelve years of his life. His treatise on Analogy in Greek (1883) was followed by \m Esquiises Morphologiques (1882-9); and his Comparative Grammars of Greek and Latin', and of English and German, were translated into English. His other works deal with the psychology of language, and with Sanskrit literature. He was a man of wide and varied culture, and his interest in language extended from the dialect of his Alsatian birthplace to that of the Aleutian islands that link the North of Asia to the North of America*.

Our survey of classical scholarship in France may here be followed by the briefest mention of a representative of French Switzerland, a professor at Geneva,— E. A. Betant (1803— 1871). His French translation of Thucy- dides was published in Paris {1863). He had already produced a lexicon to Thucydides in French (1836) and in Latin {1843-7), and editions of the Nubes and Flulus. He closed his career in 1871 by giving to the world of scholars the editio princeps of Boethius De Consolatione, as rendered into Greek by the Byain- tine monk, Maximus Planudes^

' Cp., in general, Egger's Helllniunt ett France, ii 459 — 463.

' Nine folio vols. ; cp. Egger, /. c, ii 451 ; on Didot, cp. Assoc. Atudes gr.

6, MS-

' 1887, 1893'; E.T. 1890.

' Cp. Gnbernatis, Did. Inl, 1905, and Alhetiaeum, 16 Feb. 1907.

° Cherbulioz'Bourrit, Notice nicrologiqw. Gen. 1873.

s. III. ,..,■, 11. VftOOglc

Reproduced from a copy of tbe presentaCioD portrait drawn by J. H. Hofiineistec and litht^rapbed by Spamei; p. 2S1 mfra.

,i^.ooglc

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE NETHERLANDS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

We have seen in a previous chapter that Wyttenbach was professor for twenty-eight years (1771 — 1799) at Amsterdam, and for seventeen (1799— 1816) at wyweobBch Leyden'. Among his pupils at Amsterdam was Mahne ; he was followed to Leyden by van Lennep ; while his later pupils, at Leyden alone, included Bake and van Heusde.

The earliest of these favourite pupils, Willem Leonardus Mahne (1772 — ^1852), had a special admiration for his master. To Wyttenbach he dedicated the first-fruits of his learning, his dissertation on the peripatetic philosopher, Aristoxenus (1793)- After holding appointments at several of the Latin schools of Holland, he became a professor at Ghent in 181 6, publishing in that year a dialogue on the study of classical literature. Like many of his countrymen, he lost his appointment owing to the Belgian revolution, but he found a home at Leyden as a pro- fessor in 1831. In his inaugural discourse he pleaded for a wider study of the History of Greek and Latin literature, which had hitherto been confined to the learning of a few names and dates in connexion with the general History of Greece and Rome*; but he was prevented by ill health from carrying his reform into practice. Nevertheless he did useful work in connexion with the History of Scholarship. His Life of Wyttenbach (1823-35) was indeed unequal to Ruhnken's eult^ of Hemsterhuys, but he did good service by publishing selections from Wytten-

1 ii 4<Si supra. ^ p. u (L. Mailer, 13 n.).

h, 1. if8r-.fK")^ic

2/6 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

bach's letters (1826-30), as well as the correspondence of Ruhnken with Valckenaer and Wyttenbach (1832) and with other scholars (1834)'.

Wyttenbach's pupil at Leyden, as welt as Amsterdam, David Jacobus van Lennep (1774 — 1853), was professor

Leiineo °^ Eloquence at Amsterdam from 1 799 to his death.

He produced two editions of Ovid's Heroides; he also edited Terentianus Maurus and Hesiod'.

The third of Wyttenbach's pupils, Philipp Witlem van Heusde p. w. van {^Tl^ — 1839), who was born and bred at Rotterdam,

Heuade g^^j Studied at Amsterdam and at Ijcyden, became

professor at Utrecht in 1804, and died during a Swiss tour in 1839.

He was an exceplion to the rule that Wyttenbach's pupils were repro- ductions of Wyttenbach on a smaller scale, and confined themselves to the study of Greek Philosophy and Cicero. A wide ran^e of interest was displayed in his Specimen Crilicum in Plalonem (1803). But the expectations of further work in the field of pure scholarship, raised by that treatise', were not fulfilled by his Initia philosophim Pl,<tenicai^. Here, and in a Dutch work on Socrates published during the same period, he insisted on ihe educa- tional importance of the Socratic dialectic, and on the permanent value of (he Platonic philosophy. He was in fact more interested in philosophy than in scholarship, and his lectures lacked the foundation of a sound grammatical- knowledge''. Among his pupils, Karsten showed a more decided interest in scholarship, while his two sons, and De Geer and Hulleman, were mainly concerned with writing monographs, either on Greek Philosophy or on the History of Roman Literature'.

His younger contemporary, Petrus Hoftnan-Peerlkamp (1786 — 1865), belonged to a family of French refugees named Perlechamp. He studied at his birth-place, Groningen, and also at Leyden. After holding scholastic appoint- ments at Haarlem and elsewhere, he returned to I.eyden as

' AXsa Sufpi. ad Ef. R.el W.,ilimque aiia...aiuciUta (1847).

' Life by his son, ed, 4, Amst, 18G1.

' Wyttenbach, on p. xxxiii of the epislala, prefixed to ihe Specimen, heralded his pupil as the future sospilalar Plalonii. Cp. Bake, Schotua Hypomntmata, iii 10—16.

* 1817-36; ed. 1, [841.

' This is emphasised by his pupil and successor, Karsten. Cp. Francken's Life of Karsten (L. Miiller, 104).

' L. Miiller, 103-5 i N. C. Kist (Leyden, 1839] ; Rovers (Utrecht, 1841).

D„:,|.,"lh;COOglC

CHAP. XXXVlI.] PEERLKAMP. 2;7

professor from 1822 to 1848, when he retired, and was succeeded by Cobet.

At Groningen, Peerlkamp had been a pupil of Ruardi (174C — 1S15), who had inherited Schrader's lasle for Latin versification. Under the influence of Ruardi, Peetlkainp imitated Cornelius Nepos, and Cicero, respectively, in his 'Lives' and 'Letters' of distinguished Dutchmen (1806-8); and, forty years later, he found his model for a biographical composition in the Agriiola of Tacitus, Itui Ruardi had also learned Greek under Valckenaer and Rnhnken ; Peerlkamp was thus led (o produce in 1806 a critical paper on Xenophon Ephesins, followed by an edition in i8r8. This edition gave no indication of the editor's future line as a critic. In the same year the Brussels Academy offered a prize for the best account of the lives and works of the Latin poets of the Netherlands', and thus prompted the ultimate production of Peeilkamp's work de vita, doclritta el farultate NedfrlandorHm qui carmina latina composutrunt (1838*). Meanwhile he had begun to give proof of a keen interest in Horace. In his preface to Osterdyk's Dutch translation of the Odts and Epodes (1819), he states that he had himself collected materials for an edition, adding that all the difficulties could be removed by a careful in- teipretation of the text. Thus far, there was no indication of the bold line that he was to take in his edition of 1834. At Leyden, his critical spirit had been awakened by scholars such as Bake and Geel, and (he orientalist, Hamaker. The iirst result of this influence is to he seen in his edition of (he AgritoJa of Tacitus (1837-63), which includes a few happy emendations, and gives (he earliest proof of the editor's wide reading in Latin. This was followed by his celebrated edition of the Odes of Horace (1834), which gave rise to a considerable controversy.

It even formed a school, represented in Sweden by Ljungborg, and in Germany by Lehrs and Gruppe, while it was regarded with sympathy by Hermann and Meineke. On the other hand, Orelli' said of its editor; ' Horatium ex Horatio ipso expulit ' ; Madvig denounced his ' pravitas et libido', and described him as ' inaniter et prolerve ludens''; while Munro characterised him 'as a man of real learning in his way and of much reading in the later Latin poets ', but ' hardly less wild (than Gruppe) in his mode of dealing with the odes of Horace and the Aiiitid'. ■ Some ol his comments ' (he adds) 'such as those on Carm. iii 19, 5 — 11, are enough to make anyone blush who feels that a philolc^r should be something more than a pedant at his desk ignorant of men and things. Near the beginning o[ the Aeneid he rejects a passage closely imitated by Ovid '*.

' Meaning from i8[!i I0 1830 the Royaumt dts Pays-Bos, and including Belgium as well as Holland.

» Cp. ed. 1, p. 19; L. Muller xaJaArh.f. PKUol. \9&i, 176-184.

* Ado. Cril. ii jo : cp. Boissier, Sei/. de Philol. 1878, and L. Mailer, "3-S-

* King and Munro's Horaee, xviii.

,i^.ooglc

278 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

Peerlkamp's edition of the Odis was followed nine years later by that of Virgil's Aeneid. These two works are regarded as his claim lo an abiding reputation as a Latin scholar. On the other hand, his reconstruction of the Ats Poelica is infelicitous', and hardly one of his conjectures on the Sattrts* can be accepted, though his wide reading in the Latin poets has enabled him to contribute much towards the interpretation of the text. The posthumous publication of his edition of the 'Queen of Elegies'' did not add to his reputation. In Peerlkamp a hypercritical spirit was combined with undoubted learning and acumen, and his editions of Horace had at least the merit of adding a new stimulus 10 the study of that poet*.

Peerlkamp's work on the Latin poets of the 'Netherlands', first published „ _^ in 1811, was preceded in 1819 by the work to which a silver

medal had been awarded in the same competition :— The Pamasus Laltna- Bctgicus" of Jacob Henrik Hoeulft (1756—1843). The Latin poets of the ' Netherlands ' are there comnieroorated in terse epigrams followed by precise biographical and biblit^^phical details. The author had already collected the Latin poems of Van Santen, and had published bis own Pericula PelHca and Fericula CtilUa. His name is still remembered in con- nexion with modern Latin verse. By bequeathing to the Royal Institute of Amsterdam a sum of money, now held by the Royal Academy of that city, he founded prizes for original Latin poems on any subject, which are open lo scholars of any nationality'.

Janus Bake (1787 — 1864) studied under Wyttenbach at Leyden ( 1 804-10), where he was successively ' extraordinary ' and ' ordinary ' professor of Greek and Roman literature. In 1810 he edited the fragments of Poseidonius, in 1815 delivered an inaugural discourse on the merits of Euripides and the other tragic poets, and in 181 7 showed a higher degree of originality in his second inaugural

' 1845; Bemhardy, RSm. Lilt. 6o6». ' 1863.

' Prop. iv. 11.

' L. MuUer, 110—1(7; presentation portrait lithographed in 1841.

' Amsterdam and Breda, 1819 (cp. L. Mliller, 176 n*. and Van der Aa,

< The prize is a large gold medal of the value of 400 florins ; it was won in 1899 by the Pater ad Filium of J. J, Hartman, professor of Latin at Leyden; silver medals were awarded to four Italian compelitois who were highly coraroended ; and all the five successfiil poems were published in one volume by J. Muller of Amsterdam {CI. Rev. xiii 461). The prize was won more than once by Giovanni Pascoli, professor of Latin at Messina. The poems are sent before the first of January to the Registrar of the PkUolegUtk-Hktarische Afdetling of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam ; the ether conditions are correctly given in CI. Rev. xiv 141.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] BAKE. 279

discourse, in which he declared his adhesion to the critical school of Ruhnken and Valckenaer'.

This new depiituie was due to his deeper sludy of the characteristics of Ihe two critics just mentioned, and also to liis intercourse with two English adherents of the school of Porson, namely, Dobtee and Gaisford, both of whom visited Leyden in xSii-6^. He was specially interested in the Attic Oratois as authorities on Athenian antiquities, and in Cicero, as a master of style. His own ideal of the orator's style was so high that he held that the Catilinarian Orations', and the speeches /ro ArMa' and/r<i Mairiile, were unworthy of Cicero*. He also held that the secret of Cicero's style was lost after his death, and that the writers of the silver age were of no value for the higher criticism of his works'. Lastly, in one of his discourses, he insisted that there were actually certain defects in Cicero's style, and that he was not the best model for the orators of modem times'. In the higher criticism of Cicero he was less happy than in the textual emendations of that author included in his Ssholica Hypomnemata, and in his edition of the De Legiius (iSfl), which is superior in this respect to his latest work, his edition of the De Oralon {1863}. In hb commentaries on Cicero, his models were mainly Muretus and Emesti. He rt^arded with suspicion the method pursued by critics like Madvig in distingnishing between interpolated and uninterpolated and intermediate mss ; in reconstructing the archetype ; and in setting aside the conjectures due to the age of the humanists. Except in showing more regard for ancient MSS and in reducing the mass of various readings, he differs little from the Dutch scholars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In his study of the Attic Orators, he did good service in elucidating points of Attic law. He also set his ^e against the indiscriminate admiration of the Athenian democracy which had prevailed since the time of Niebuhr'. He edited for the Clarendon Press the Rkitaric of Apsines and Longinus (1849}, his only edition of a Greek work'.

Bake's pupil, Rinkes^', following in his master's footsteps, maintained in 1856 the spariousness of the first (as well as the other three) of the Catilinarian orations. This had been maintained before their lime, but the audacit}' of the declaration that the oft-qaoted

' Dl cuslBdia vtlais doclrinae et elegantiiu, praecipug grammatid offido. ' Bake, SchcUca Hypomnemata, vol. ii, pp. iii — viii. ' ib. V I — 115 (mainly against Madvig).

* I'nu/. dt tmead. Oratore, ij. ' Bakhuizen, 11.

' Cp. Bake's Dt Or. (1863) i— xiv.

' Dt tempiranda admiralioru tloquentiae Tullianai, in Schol. ffyp. i T — 33. ' L. Muller, 96, to£— 109.

' Cobet, Alhculio ad Jok. Batium muncre Acadcmico dKcdentem (1857) i Bakhui2en van den Brink, Rtdt {1865). " 1823— 1865.

A.OO'

ic^lC

28o HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

Quimsque tandem was written, not by Cicero, but by some unknown orator of the first century, aroused a perfect storm in HollanJ. An early dealh unhappily prevented Rinkcs' undoubted acumen from reaching fiill malurily'. Of Bake 's other pupils, Suringar (1805 — '895) produced a useful Historia critica Scholiaslarum lalinerum (1829-35), and gave proof of his inherited interest in Cicero in the two volumes of his 'Life nnil Annals of Cicero' {1854). Another pupil, Groen van Prinslerer, was the author of the Prosofegraphia Piatonica.

Jacob Geel (1789 — i86z), who was bom and bred at Amster- dam, was Librarian and honorary Professor at Leyden for the last twenty-nine years of his life. Before his appointment as Head-Librarian, he edited Theocritus (1820) and wrote the Historia Crilica Sophutarum {1823), the earliest detailed work on that subject in modem times. After 1833, he produced an excellent edition of the Phoenissae of Euri- pides (1846), in which he defended the opinions of Valckenaer, and gave proof of his acumen and learning, and also of his affinity with the English adherents of Porson'.

The critical school of Greek scholars that gathered round Bake and Geel at Leyden included Hamaker {:789— 1835)', Hecker (1810—1865), W. A. Hirschig (b. 1814), editor of the Scriptares Erotki Graeci (1856), and his brother, R. B. Hirschig (b. rSij), editor of Plato's Gorgias (1873).

A short life fell to the lot of Geel's archaeological contemporaiy Caspar Jacob Christian Reuvens (1793 — 1835), who, after studying at Leyden and Paris, and professing Greek and Latin for three years at Harderwyk, was appointed extraordinary professor of classical archaeology at Leyden, where he was full professor for the last nine yeais of his life. At that time classical archaeolc^y was not a popular subject in Holland, and his lectures were scantily attended, but his papers in classical periodicals made him well known abroad. He supported the opinions of Quatremdie de Quincy as to the true orientation of the Parthenon, and contributed to Thotbecke's Commmtaiio (i8]l) an appendix on the monu- ments of art (hat adorned the Library founded by Asinius PoUio. He died in the summer vacation of 1835, shortly after visiting the monuments of Greek Art in the British Museum. In his Collectanea Utteraria he pubUshed conjectures on Attius, Diomedes, Lucihus, and Lydus, with a brief paper on Greek pronunciation. Some of his conjectures are good, but the work as a whole gives proof of a decline in the study of old Latin in Holland since the

' Cp. L. MuUer, 97. Cobet's letters to Geel (1840-5) in Brieven van Cebet aan Geel (Leiden, 1891).

^ Bake, Schol. Hyp. i 37—48.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] GEEL. REUVENS. KARSTEN. 281

days of Fr. Dousa and of G. J. Vossius'. In archaeology Reuvens had a most able successor in Ihe perjoii or llic excellent archae- ologist and epigraphisl, L. J. F. Janssen (1806— iS6g), the J«n»Kn unwearied explorer of many a primaeval grave-mound, the discoverer of Roman as welt as Germanic remains in the Netherlands, who published illustrated descriptions of the principal monuments of art in the Museum at Leyden, and repeatedly urged the excavnlion of Katwyk, between Leyden and the sea'.

The History of Greek Civilisation, a work in eight volumes, written in French (1833-42), was the main achieve- ment of Pieter van Limbourg-Brouwer ( 1 7 96 — 1847 ), ^Bra^we?" Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine, and professor at Groningen. His early writings on philosophical subjects were followed by papers on the poetry of Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. During the publication of his principal work, he incidentally attacked Forchhamnier's opinion as to the cause of the condemnation of Socrates', He closed his career with a memoir on the allegorical interpretation of Greek mythology.

Van Heusde's lack of sound scholarship, as we have already seen*, was noted with regret in the inaugural address of his pupil and successor Simon Karsten (rSoz — 1864), who was professor at Utrecht for the last twenty-four years of his life. He had previously collected the fragments of Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Empedocles (1825-38), and had prepared a Dutch treatise on 'Palingenesis', which was not published until 1846. In the same year he wrote on Sophoclean trilogies. His principal contribution to scholarship was an edition of the Agamemnon (1855), Including many original conjectures. The 'wise and weighty words' in which he expresses his general principles are quoted with approval in Kennedy's second edition", where the English editor adopts as his motto the phrase of the Dutch critic ;— ' principium et fundamentum critices est iusta interpretation. Karsten's work on Horace (1861) was translated

' Latin life by Leemans in Pref. to Catalogue of Reuvens' Library ; Bake's S(hnl. Hyp. i 33—36 ; L. MuUer, 130.

> Du Rieu in the Dutch Sfectator, 1869, 366 f. 376 f ; Stark, 39s ; Report of recent excavations in Medidielingm of Leyden Museum, 1907, 13 f.

" p. 117 mpra. * p. 176 sufira, n. j.

" Ed. J

t, pp. XXIV— xxvi, ' p. x:

,i^.ooglc

282 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

into German. His abiding interest in Greek philosophy was shown in the posthumous edition of the Commentary of Simplicius on the fourth book of Aristotle De Caelo. Among his pupils were his bic^apher, Francken, and his son H. T. Karsten, the author of a dissertation on Plato's Letters (1864)'.

Cornelius Marinus Francken (1810 — 1900), a pupil of K»rsten, and pro-

fessot at Gioningen and Ulrecht, was the author of the Com-

mtntatUmts Lysiacae (l86j]. His productions as a professor

of Latin included a Dutch edition of the Aulularia (1S77). In 1891 he

resigned his professorship, and nine years afterwards, at the age of 80,

published his Varroitiana in liie pages of Mmmosynt^.

Johannes Cornelius Gerardus Boot (1811 — 1901)1 who was bom and bred ^^ at Amheim. and studied at Leyden, was Rector at Leenwatden

(1839-51) and professor at Amsterdam (1851— 1881). He delivered an inaugural discourse De ptrpetua fhilelsgiae dignitalt, and dis- tinguished hiimelf mainly by his admirable commentaxy on Cicero's Letters to Atiicui^. An excellent monograph on Atticus was produced in 1838 by Jan Gerard HuUeman (iBij— 1862)*.

The greatest of the modern Greek scholars of the Netherlands, Carolus Gabriel Cobet (1813 — 1889), was born in Paris. He was the son of a Dutchman in the French public service, who had married a Frenchwoman, Marie Bertranet. One of his Dutch biographers protests against the frequent remark that it was from his French mother that Cobet derived his brilliant wit and his keen acumen'. When he was only six weeks of age, he was taken to Holland. He was educated at the Hague, under an admirable head-master, Kappeyne van de Coppello, whom he always remembered with gratitude. On entering the university of Leyden, he was already familiar with the whole range of the ancient classics, but bis father was then proposing that he should follow a theological career, and his distinction as a scholar remained unrecognised until the publica- tion of his Prosopographia Xmophontea (1836). This was a prize- dissertation, produced when its author was only twenty-three, but its high promise aroused among the foremost scholars of

' Cp. L. MUller, 104.

» xxviii (1900) )8i— J(»7, 395, 411—435. Lift by J. van der Vliet (Amsterdam Acad., 10 March, 1909).

* r865-6 ; ed. a. ' Cobet, in mtmirriam If., t86».

• J. J. Hartnan in Biogr. fahrb. 1889, 53.

h. i.. ii,l^.OOQIC

CHAP. XXXVir.] COBET. 283

Holland the expectation that its author would rival the fame of a Ruhnken or a Valckenaer. Four years later, he produced his critical observations on the fragments of the Comic Poet, Plato', Shortly afterwards, on the proposal of Geel, he received an honorary degree at Leyden', and was sent by the Royal Institute of Amsterdam on a mission to the Italian libraries. The ostensible object was the examination of the mss of Simplicius, but the real aim was to give this remarkably promising scholar the opportunity of gaining a wide acquaintance with Greek mss in general. His term of absence was extended to five years in all', and by the end of that time he had become an experienced and accomplished palaeographer. He had also incidentally won the friendship of a congenial English scholar, Badham.

On his return, he was appointed to an 'extraordinary' pro- fessorship at Leyden, and delivered an inaugural address which is one of the landmarks of his career (1846)'. As has been well said, we here have 'Cobet himself — strong, masculine writing, a style clear and bracing. ...Every sentence has its work to do, and there is a moral force behind it all, an intense enthusiasm for truth, a quality that marks the whole of Cobet's critical work". He succeeded Peerlkamp as full professor in 1848. In 1850-r he presented to the Royal Institute three important Commmtationes PhilologUae, which are less widely known than many of his papers'. These were followed by his best-known works, the Variae LecHones (1854)' and the Novae Lediones (1858), and,

' Amst. 1840.

* The ordinary degree involved a knowledge of Roman law, which Cobet declined to study.

' Cp. Britven van Cobet aan Gal uit Parijs en Italic, Nov. 1840— Juli, 1845 (Leiden, 1B91).

' Oratio lie arte ittterpntandi grammatUes tt critices fundamcntis innixa, 36 pp. + 113 pp. of notes. 1847. In 1846 he had conitibuted Scholia Attliqua to Geel'a ed. of Eur. Pkoenissae.

0 W. G. Rutherford, in CI. R&v. m 473.

' (1) De tmmdaniiae ralione grammaticae Graecae discemendo oratiomm itrtifieialim ab araliime poputari ; (1) De simerilale GraeH lermonis fast Aristatelem...defraData; (3) De auctorilate et um grammaticorum velerum in explicandis striptorihus Grattis. Printed at Amst. 1853.

' 399 PP-; *d- ^' + SHpplementum {399 — 400) + Epimetrum (401 — 68i), '873-

284 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

twenty years later, by others of the same general type, the Miscel- lanea Critka (1876) mainly on Homer and Demosthenes, the Collectanea Critica {1878), and the critical and palaeographical observations on the ' Roman Antiquities ' of Dionysius of Hali- camassus {1877). An inaugural lecture on the study of Roman antiquities, including some of his own reminiscences of Rome, was published in 1853, and he also printed six professorial discourses in 1852 — 1860', He reluctantly edited Diogenes Laertius for Didot, without any prolegomena (1850). He also published critical remarks on the newly recovered work, of Philostratus, irepl yu^vacmit^s (1859), as Well as a text of two speeches of Hypeteides (1858-77), and school-editions of Xeno- phon's Anabasis and Hdlenica (1859-62) and of Lysias (1863)'. He was long the mainstay of the classical periodical Mnemosyne*, which derived a new life from his vigorous contributions, while, in conjunction with his friend and pupil, K. S. Kontos of Athens, he edited three volumes of the Xoyu« "Ep^^?, written entirely in Greek, and including Cobet's corrections of Clemens Aiexandrinus

(.866-7).

While Cobet shared with his fellow-countrymen their aptitude for conjectural criticism, he rose superior to them in the strict severity of his scientific method. With Cobet, the ars grammatica (or the intimate knowledge of the language, and its historical developement, attained in the course of constant reading) was combined with an intelligent use of the best mss, as the pre- liminary condition for the ars critica, i.e. the detection and the correction of corruptions of the text. On these principles he proposed in the pages of Mnemosyne, and of his Variae and l^iwae Lectiones, a large number of emendations on Greek authors.

' Aihtuliii ad commilitQxes (iSjl, '53, '56); Praefatio Icctionum de Histtria VeUrt (1853-4); Frotreptkus [,\%%ii) ajid AMoiiatiu {tS6o) ad Studia Httma- nilalis. Also Or. recloraHs de moiiumenlii lilerarum veterum mo pretio attti- tnatidis (i8€4).

' He look part in preparing an Altic Greek Reader {1856), and a text of the Greek Testament (i860). The only Lalin author he edited wa£ Cornelius Nepos (1893").

' Founded in 1851; the editorsof i8ji-6] were E. J. Kiehl (1837 — 1873), professor in Deventer, Groningen and Middelburg, E. Mehler (b. 1836), Naber, Bake and Cobet. The new series was slatted in 1871.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] COBET. 285

The merits and the defects of his method are there made manifest. His marvellous familiarity with Greek, his wide reading, the skill derived from the study of many mss durii^ his Italian Wander-

jahre, enabled him to detect the source of a corruption, and to divine the appropriate remedy. On the other hand, his excessive confidence in the rules founded on observations made in the course of his reading, is open to criticism. No sooner has he ascertained what he regards as a fixed rule of Greek usage, than he remorselessly emends all the exceptions. But it cannot be questioned that he supplies the student of textual criticism with golden rules for his instruction, and the advanced scholar with rich stores of interesting and stimulating information'. With Cobet the study of institutions is subordinate to the study of language, and the study of Latin less prominent than that of Greek. But his Latin style is admirable, and his singular mastery of fluent and lucid Latinity could not have been attained without long and laborious study of the language'. He was one of the very few scholars who were capable of making an extemporaneous speech in really good Latin. At the celebration of the tercentenary of Leyden in 1875, when Cobet and Madvig confronted each other, the delegates of all the universities of Europe looked on in awe at the prospect of the two thunder -clouds closing in conflict. But they soon found themselves admiring the prompt dexterity of the great Greek scholar, as he caught up the phrases used by several of the previous speakers; the generous and spirited language in which he addressed Madvig: — pugnabimus tecum, eontendemus tecum, eoque vehementius coftlendemus, quo le vehementim admiramur ; and, lastly, the calm exordium of the great Latinist's reply; — post Cobetum Latine loqui vereor". In 1884, at the age of 70, Cobet became emeritus, and placed on the screens of his university the notice, which was read by at least one passing traveller: — Care/aj Gabriel Cobet, propter aetatem immunis, commilitonum studia quantum poterit adjuvabit. On the death of Cobet it fell to the

■ UrlichB, ni'; cp. L. MUUer, 78, 117— r«.

* His Lalinitj is criticised in a letter purporting lo come from Kuhnken [Ex Oreo, Datvm SaturnaUbus), which Cobet publishes in Mnemosyne, 1877, irj — ij8, with hia own reply.

o Professor Mayor, cp. CI, Hev. \ 114.

,1^.00'

SIC

286 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

lot of the present writer to send to Leyden an unofficial letter of condolence signed by more than 70 of the scholars of Cambridge', and to receive on their behalf a kindly reply which formed a new link in the long tradition of scholarly sympathy between the Netherlands and England.

Cobet was sometimes charged with n^lecting or ignoring the work of his predecessors'. He was attacked by Gomperz in 1878', In the next number of Mnemosyne* he replied with a paper on Philodemus, praising the edition produced by Gomperz, adding his own elucidations of points that had been left obscure, and ending with the apt quotation from Menander : — ^Siov otSiv wu8e lunxTuuaTtftov Jitt' ^ StfltMrSai \oihopovii,tvov ipfptiv. In the same year he was attacked by the Greek editor of Plutarch's Moralia, Gregorius Bernardakis, who accused him of appropriating proposals already made by Koraes. In his defence he showed himself less concerned for his personal fame than for the credit of his accuser". His discussion of Stein's estimate of the MSS of Herodotus is a delightful example of kindly and genial criticism, in the course of which he vividly treats the mss under examination as though each was endued with a living personality*. Reiske was more highly appreciated by Cobet than by the Germans of his own day. He had a high regard for the Dindorft, for Bergk, Meineke and Lehrs, and for the best points in the work of Nauck. He was ever eager in confessing his debt to 'the three great Richards ', Bentley, Dawes, and Person, and the later representatives of the Porsonian school, Elmsley and Dobree. The influence of the English school was at work among his teachers, and he had freed himself from that of the German school by the time of his return from Italy. It was through Cobet that the traditional English method, which was in danger of being forgotten in England itself, became dominant in Holland

' Reprinted in CI. Rev. iii 474. ' Cp.L.MuUer, li7f.

' Die Bruehstiickt lier griechtschen Tragiktr and Cohfts neuesle Mamer,

* vi (1878) 373— 381 elc.

" Mnimosyne, 1878, 49— 54.

' ih. 1883, 400—413, with Stein's reply in "Batsaxx'ijahrtsb. 1

.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] PLUVGERS. NABER. HALBERTSMA. 28/

and attained a still wider range. It would be difficult to compare Cobet with any other scholar than Scaliger or Bentley. He himself regards Scaliger as an 'almost perfect critic", while he resembles Bentley in his ' high-handed, hard-hitting criticism ', and in his 'consciousness of power'".

In conitast to the genial and expansiye Cobet, a calmer and more reserved type of character is represented by his colleague, William Georg PluyEers {1811-1880), who, in 1861, succeeded HuUeman as professor of Latin. In his inaugural oration he refers in fitting terms to his predecessor, and also to Bake and Cobet. In middle life he had been interested in the Alexandrian editors of Homer (1847), and he subse- quently contributed to the textual criticism of Cicero and Tacitus. He was much appreciated at Leyden as a learned and original lecturer on Horace and Lucretius *.

Samuel Adrianus Naber (bom 181B), who studied at Leyden and was professor of Greek at Amsterdam until 1898, is best known as the editor of the lexicon of Pholius (1864-5}. Naber was ""*'

present at Cobel's celebrated inaugural lecture of 1B46, and he has lived to publish in the pages of Mnemosyni, sixty years later, an almost complete bibliography of his master's writings.

Among the other pupils of Cobet, we may here mention Tjalling Hallwrlsma (18)9—1894), who studied under Bake, Geel, and Cobet at I-eyden, and, after examining mss in France, Spain, and Italy, was appointed Rector at Haarlem in 1864, and professor of Greek at Groningen in 1877. He was far from being a prolific writer, but he contributed papers on Greek and Latin criticism to the pages of Mtuniosyne, and published Ltctionts Lysiacae (1868). After his death his Adversaria Critica were edited by Herwerden'.

His contemporary, Willem Nicolaas du Rieu (1819 — '896), was also a pupil of Bake and Cobet, and worked at Mss in France and Italy. His long services to the Library at Leyden were crowned by his appointment as principal Librarian in i83i. He was the originator of the scheme for the complete photographic reproduction of important Greek and Latin MSS, which has been carried out under the auspices of his successor, E. S. G- de Vries '.

Du Riei

' Dt arit inttrpretandi, JS-

' W. G. Rutherford, in CI. Rev. iii 470-4. Cp., in general, J. J. Haitman in Bu>gr. Jakrb. 1889, 53—66; J. J. Comelissen, ad Cobili memariam, 1889; H. C. MuUer, in memarian (in English), Amst. 'EXXdt, II i 49—54; bibliography by S. A. Naber in Mnemosyne, xxxiv {1906) 430—443, xxxv 440.

' On this last point cp. K. Kuiper in Bwgr. Jahrb. 1903, p. 98.

* Biegr. fahrb. 1897, 8) — 87; portrait in Adv. Crit.

' i!#. 1899, 31 — 53 ; Naber in Mnetiiesynt, xxvi 177 — 18&

D„:,iP<.-iM,G00glc

288 HOLLAND. [CENT. XIX.

Cobel was the only masler who won the allegiance of J. J. Comelissen (lSj9-i8gi), profe&sOT of Gieek and Latin at Deventei, rector at Arnheim, and, for the last twelve years of his life, successor af Pluygers in the Latin Chair at Leyden. The influence of Cobet is manifest in the severe review of Alexandrian literature, which is (he theme of his inaugural discourse at Deventer {iS6j), but ihe rest of his work is mainly that of a specialist in Latin. It includes a paper attacking the credibility of Caesar's Cammtnta'-U di Bella Civili (1864), dissertations on the life of Juvenal (1B68) and the text of Velleius Faterculus (1887), a volume of CollfClanea Critics comprising some 150 conjectures on Cicero and Caesar {1870), and, lastly, editions of the Agritgla of Tacilus and ihe Oclavius of Minucius Felix (i88t~i). In a Dutch manifeslo of his educational principles, published after four years' experience at Devenler, he urges that Ihe growing indiflerence towards classical learning in Holland should be counleracted (as in Germany) by encouraging the study of history, geography, mythology, archaeology, aitd the history of literature, subjects which (as he held) had been unduly neglected in comparison with grammar and textual criticism'. In his inaugural leclure. delivered ten years later at Leyden, he describes in admirable Latin the characteristic merits of thai par twbilt amkorum, J. F. Gronovius and N. Heinsius, and draws a contrast between the way in which Latin wa.s learnt by the contemporaries of those great scholars, during the first glow of classical enthusiasm in Holland, and the position which it holds in modern times, when i( is no longer the common property of aU educated persons. 'But' (he continues), 'if our study of Latin has lost in breadth, it has gained in depth. The evidence of mss is weighed with a more judicious care ; in the light of comparative philology, grammar receives a more scientific Ireatmenl ; our knowledge has been enriched by the recovery of innumerable inscriptions ; an indiscriminating admiration for all the contents of the Classics has been corrected by the aid of historical and literary criticism. The various branches of classical learning are now more minutely studied, but there is a danger lest, in our excessive punctiliousness on minute matters of detail, we should lose the vital force and vigour of our great ancestors. Latin has now left Ihe light of public life and has become a cloistral language; Latin, that once lived and breathed, is regarded by the modem man as inert and well nigh dead. If any one of those great ancestors were restored to life, there is grave reason to fear that he would admonish and rebuke us in the language applied by Gronovius to Graevius : — "nae lu, qui varia et mulliplici doctrina eruditum te iactas, Grammatici, non Latme, scis"".

From a Latin professor of Leyden we finally turn to a Latin professor of Utrecht. The versatile scholar, J. van der Vliet (1847 — 1901), studied Latin literature under Pluygers at Leyden, and Greek

' Di tludU der clasiiki oiidheid (in Tijdspiigel, 1B69).

' Barmanni Oralio i» milium Graevii, p. 91 (Cornelissen, Oralie Inauguralis, 34) ; the passages above quoted from the Oralio are only a brief summary of the original; cp. Van Leeuwen, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1891, 51—63. „.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXVII.] CORNELISSEN. VAN DER VLIET. 289

pa1ae<^aphy under Cobet ; and the influence of the latter is clearly marked in his Sludia Critica on Dionyslus of HaJicatnassus (1874). Asa schoolmaster at HaarleiD, he had sufficient leisure to become familiar with the [ang;uage of Java, and with Sanskrit. Ulliroatdy he succeeded Francken at Utrecht (1891), having meanwhile concentrated himself on Latin, especially on that of the Silver Age. In the course of his Latin studies he passed from Seneca and Tacitus 10 Apuleius, and from Apuleius to Tertullian and Sulpicius Severus. In his interest in Latin there was in fact no lower limit of time. He was ^miliar with the prose and the verse of the Italian humanists'; he discoursed on the results of the Renaissance as exemplified in the Latin poems of the Dutch statesman, Konstantyn Huygens {1596—1687)'; he composed an ode of the mediaeval type for the opening uf (he new university buildings b 1S91, and he even imitated the style of Persius in an annotated satire entitled Vanitas Vanilalum. In all the minuteness of his statistical statements on points of Latin usage, he never lost his line sense of (he importance of literary form. In a revieu' of a German pamphlet, bristling with references and citations, he remarks: — 'I am well aware that (as a reviewer) the ideal scholar ought to have the digestion of an ostrich, which is capable of assimilating the driest and hardest substances in the shortest space of time, but it must not be forgotten that even the reviewer is a human being and that a writer will do no detriment lo the cause of learning, if, foi the reader's sake, he lends his work some little charm of style". As a professor of Latin van der Vliet produced critical editions of the Hisioriti of Tacitus*, and of (i) the Melamerf hoses, and (1) the Apologia, Florida and Dt Dm Sotratis, of Apuleius^. For Tacitus he depended mainly on the collations of Meiser ; for Apuleius, he niinutelj examined the MSS during his two visits to Italy, but, however careful he was in recording the results of that examination, he remained, for the most part, true lo the precept he had learned from Cobet : — Cedicibus manascripiis plane nihil fidenduni est*.

Our survey of the nineteenth century has thus far been limited

to the Northern Netherlands. It began with the pupils of Wyttenbach, and it has ended with the pupils of Cobet. During the whole of the century, the staff of classical professors in each university continued to be small ; and those professors, besides being responsible for elementary and advanced courses on Latin

' Trifdiuiit Laimum (Beyers, Utrecht, 1893), esp. Petrarcae Sludia

" Verkand. v. h. UlrecAtsch Genoolsckaf, 1894. ' Review of Slangl's TuUiana, in the Miiieam for 1900. * Groningen, rgoo. " Leipzig (Teubner), 1897 and 1900. ' K. Kniper in Biogr. [akrh. rgoj, 97— rij. S. III.

ih,.Qooglc

290 HOLLAND. [cent. XIX.

and Greek, were compelled to give more or less popular instruction on Greek and Roman History and Antiquities. An interest in ancient Art was hardly represented in the universities except by Reuvens and Janssen, and by Du Rieu, who studied classical archaeology (as well as palaeography) during his repeated visits to Rome. In the published works of the professors, as contrasted with their oral teaching, the dominant note was textual criticism. As a Latin scholar and as the editor of Terence and Horace, Bentley had had little influence on Dutch scholarship. Editions of the Latin Classics, modelled on those of Burman, with a confused mass of prolix variorum notes, remained long in vi^ue. The acquisitive instinct of Holland seemed to delight in constantly adding to the accumulating pile of erudite annotation. Happily, however, in the latest Dutch edition of Cicero's Letters to Atiicus^, the notes are never over-loaded with unnecessary detail, but are always brief and terse and clear ; and the same is true of a still more recent edition of Aristophanes'. The influence of Bentley, as a Greek scholar, had been eflectively transmitted through Hemsterhuys to Valckenaer and Ruhnken, and ultimately through Ruhnken to Wyttenbach. But the attention of those scholars had not been concentrated on the Greek authors of the golden age. Lucian, even more than Aristophanes, had been studied by Hemsterhuys, who bestowed on Xenophon of Ephesus the time that he might well have reserved fof Xenophon of Athens; the Alexandrian and Hellenistic writers, no less than Herodotus, had been explored by Valckenaer; the researches of Ruhnken ranged over a wide field of literature extending from the Homeric Hymns to Longinus, and from the early Greek Orators to the late Greek Lexicographers*; while Wyttenbach, who edited only one dialogue of Plato, devoted the largest part of his life to Plutarch. The time that Hemsterhuys and his followers thus lavished on the 'Graeculi', on late writers like Lucian and other artificial imitators of the genuine Attic authors, was repeatedly lamented by Cobet*, who

' Ed. Boot, Amsi, i865f. ' Ed. van Leeuwen, Leyden, i896f.

' (Ruhnkenius) ecquem sprevit ac fastidivit eorum qui diu post enstinclam Graeciam balbutire Graece rectius quam dicere ac scribere dicantur' (Cobet, Commintaliones Philological, :8;3, ii 6).

* t.g. Commenlalione!, U,

X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XXXVII.] DUTCH UNIVERSITIES. 29I

found his main occupation in studying the great originals them- selves, and in ascertaining and enforcing a fixed standard of Attic usage. The love of reducing classical texts to the dead level of a smooth uniformity had already been exemplified by Latin scholars, such as N. Heihsius and Broukhusius', who had attempted to assimilate the vigorous and varied style of a Catullus or a Pro- pertius to the monotonous uniformity of an Ovid. The same love of uniformity was exemplified (as we have seen), in the case of Attic Greek, by Cobet and his immediate followers. Such a ten- dency may even perhaps be regarded as a national characteristic of the clear-headed and methodical scholars, who dwell in a land of straight canals rather than winding rivers, a land of level plains varied only by a fringe of sand-dunes, a land saved from devasta- tion by dikes that restrain the free waters of the sea. But, as we look back over the three-hundred and thirty-three years which have elapsed since the foundation of the first of the universities of the Northern Netherlands, we remember that it was the breaking of those dikes by the orders of William the Silent that brought deliverance to the beleaguered city of Leyden, and that the heroism of its inhabitants was then fitly commemorated by the founding of its far-^med university'.

Leyden became, in general, the model for the later universities of the Northern Netherlands. Franeker was thus founded in Friesland, in 1585; Groningen, in the verelties""' northern province of that name, in 1614 ; Utrecht in 1636; and Harderwyk, on the south-east shore of the Zuider Zee, in 1648. The seventeenth century also saw the foundation of an Athenaeum at Deventer and at Amsterdam. In 1811 Franeker and Harderwyk were suppressed by Napoleon I, who was happily foiled in his attempt to suppress Utrecht. The Athenaeum of Amsterdam was transformed into a university in 1877. At the present time the number of students exceeds 1300 at Leyden, 1100 at Utrecht, and 1000 at Amsterdam, while it is less than 500 at Groningen. Leyden and Utrecht have long been the principal seats of classical learning.

' " in- 330. "'P'-"- ' " 300 su/ra.

292 BELGIUM. [CENT. XIX.

(ii) Belgium.

Meanwhile, in the Southern Netherlands, the university of Louvain had been founded in 1426 at a place venial" ""'' praised by its founder for the salubrity and the beauty of its situation amid the meadows and vine- yards of Brabant'. Within twenty years of its foundation it began to resemble the universities of England by its institution of com- petitive examinations and by its adoption of the collegiate system'. The most famous of its Colleges was that for the study of Latin, Greek and Hebrew, the Collegium Trilingue, founded in 1517 by Busleiden, and fostered during its first decade by Erasmus'. This College was one of the first-fruits of the Revival of Learning in the Netherlands, while the University, which was opposed to the principles of the Reformation, was the chief stronghold of the Catholic cause in and after the sixteenth century.

Some of the leading representatives of learning at Louvain in the sixteenth century have already been briefly noticed*. Lipsius belongs to Leyden" as well as to I.x>uvain, the university of his youth and his old age, which he proudly describes as the 'Belgian Athens". During his life-time, the Northern Netherlands re- volted against the power of Spain, and a struggle that began in 1 568 did not end until the independence of the 'United Provinces' was formally and finally recognised by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The Southern Provinces remained subject to Spain until 1 7 14, when they passed under the power of Austria. Eighty years later, after a single year of independence (1790), they fell for twenty years under the power of France (1794 — 1814). The university of Louvain, which was closed for a time under the Austrian emperor Joseph II, was suppressed by the French in 1797. When the united kingdom of the Southern and Northern Netherlands had been brought into existence in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, king William I founded in i8i6-r7 the two new universities of Ghent and Li^ge, and, in the same year, placed

• Baron de Reiffenbeig's Mimeires, 18J9, p. 1911. ' Hamilton's Z>it™j«iwii, 406 f, 645—650; KashdaJI, 11 i 559—363. » ii jtl supra. * ii i\l{ supra. ' ii 301 supra.

' Lovamum, Lib. iii, cap. 1, Salvete AChenae nostrae, Atbenae Belgicae.

CHAP. XXXVII.] BELGIAN UNIVERSITIES. DE WITTE. 293

at Louvain a ColUge phUosophique, making attendance at that College compulsory on all future inmates of the episcopal Semi- naries. The resentment thus aroused among the clergy contributed towards the revolution of 1830, which dissolved the union between the North and the South and led to the foundation of the separate kingdom of Belgium. The universities did not emerge from the crisis without serious mutilation. Late in 1830 Li^ge lost its Faculty of Philosophy ; Ghent retained only those of Law and Medicine ; the Faculties of Science and Law disappeared at Louvain, but that of I^w was partially restored soon afterwards. The general aim of all this was the institution of a single central university, which, it is assumed, would have been located at Louvain. The proposal for a central university was lost in 1834 by five votes; thereupon the universities of Ghent and Liege were retained and reorganised, and that of Louvain suppressed. In November, 1834, a 'free' university was founded in Brussels- In the same month the Belgian bishops founded at Malines a catholic university which was transferred to Louvain in the following year'.

Brussels is the seat of an Academy of Science and Letters, founded during the Austrian rule, under the auspices of the empress Maria Theresa, in 1772. This Academy was suppressed during the French occupation in 1794, was re-estabhshed in 1816, and began a fresh lease of life in 1833. In the sequel we shall notice a few of the more prominent representatives of classical learning in the nineteenth century, confining ourselves almost exclusively to members of the Brussels Academy. With the exception of Baron de Witte, all of those whom we propose to mention were professors at one or other of the Belgian universities.

While textual criticism is a prominent characteristic of Dutch

scholarship, the study of classical archaeology and

■ ■ , • ■ • ■ , , . , . O* Witte

of constitutional antiquities has been admirably re- presented among natives of Belgium. The cosmopolitan archaeo- logist, Jean Baron de Witte (1808— 1889), was bom in Antwerp. At the age of thirteen he was taken to Paris, where he soon gave promise of his life-long interest in art and archaeology. He travelled extensively in Europe and the East (1838-42). During

' Cp. in general, the Intrgduclipn to Prof. A. Le Roy's UUnivirsUi tit Liige (1867), xxxi, xliii — xlvii.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

294 BELGIUM. [cent. XIX.

his travels he became a full Member of the International Archaeo- logical Institute in Rome; after his return to Paris, where he resided for the rest of his life, he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Inscriptions, a Foreign Member of that body in 1864, and in 1887 an honorary Foreign Member of the Antiquarian Society of France (1887). Meanwhile, ever since 1851, he had been a full Member of the Royal Academy of his native land. As an archaeologist, he was profoundly influenced by Fanofka, whom he aided in editing the Paris volumes of the Annali of the Archaeological Institute (1832-4). He published catalogues of several archaeological collections, and was a constant contributor to the leading archaeological periodicals. For many years he was one of the editors of the Gazette archiologique and of the Revue Numismatiqve. His colleague in the former was Francois Lenormant, whose father, Charles Lenormant, had been one of his companions during his visit to Greece, Smyrna, and Con- stantinople, and was associated with him in the most important of his works. This was the well-known &lile des monuments 'ceramo- graphiques, in four quarto volumes with four further volumes of no less than 455 plates {1844—61), being only part of the materials for a complete representation of the social and religious life of the ancient world. De Witte also published elaborately illustrated researches on the Roman Emperors who had held sway in Gaul during the third century (1868)'.

For nearly forty years De Witte counted among his correspon- dents the able representative of classical archaeolc^ r™im '" Belgium, J. E. G, Roulez (1806— 1878). Bom in Brabant, he studied under Creuzer's pupil, G. J. Bekker, at Louvain, and, after winning the prize at Ghent for his essay on Carneades, and at Louvain for that on Heracleides Ponticus, continued his studies at Heidelberg under Creuzer, in Berlin under Boeckh, and at Gettingen under Dissen and K. O. Miiller. His interest in mythology was due to Creuzer; and, a year after his return to his native land, he dedicated to Creuzer the textual criticisms on Themistius, which he presented

^ Biagr.Jahrb. iBg), ti8f; A. Michaelis, Gesch. dtr deutschen arch. Inst. 44, S7f. 63; Stark, 396, 36;; BibliographU Atadlmique, tj pp. (Bruxelles, 1 884

h. 1. iiA.OO^IC

CHAP. XXXVII.] ROULEZ. GANTRELLE. 295

for his Doctor's degree at Louvain. In 1832 he became a pro- fessor of Greek History and Ancient Geography at the Athenaeum of Ghent, and in 1834 he published at Leipzig the Novcu Historiae of Ptolemaeus Hephaestion. While the university of Ghent was partly in abeyance, he was an active member of the Ftuulti libre de philosopMe ei Ultres. When the university was fully restored in 1835, he was appointed to a professorship, and con- tinued to lecture until 1863 on Greek and Roman literature, on Art and Archaeology, and on ancient and modern Law. He had repeatedly dischai^ed the duties of rector with conspicuous success, and, for the next ten years of his life, he was the official supervisor' of the university, which ultimately acquired his valuable library. In the controversies as to the primitive inhabitants of Belgium he played a good-tempered and a dignified part ; he also explored the Roman roads and the other antiquities of the country. The principal papers which he presented to the Brussels Academy were collected in the seven books of his Melanges (1838-54). His masterpiece was a fine volume on select vases from the Leyden Museum, published in Ghent with twenty coloured plates (1854). His archaeological studies had been fruitfully pursued during his single visit to Italy in r839; he repeatedly published vase-paintings from the Piazati collection then in Florence, but since dispersed ; he was a frequent contributor to the Annali of the Archaeological Institute in Rome, and to the Gazette arMologique of France. As an archaeologist, he was even better known abroad than in his native land. At Rome, in 1877, when M, Gevaert, the eminent Be^an authority on ancient music, asked Fiorelli to explain the musical instruments in a bas-reUef of an Archigallus in the Capi- toline Museum', Fiorelli replied with all his Neapolitan vivacity: — ' When you return to Belgium, ask Roulez, he knows more about that class of monuments than any man in Europe".

Among the contemporaries of Roulez at Ghent was Joseph Gantrelle {1809 — 1893), a native of Echtemach, who was educated at the Athenaeum of Luxem-

* Adminislratettr-inspecleur. ' Miltin, Galer. myth. Ixxxii ij*.

' See esp. De Witte in Annulare of Bnissels Acad. 1879, 167 — 103, wilh portrait and bibliography; also A. Wagener, in Rev. di tinslruHiim pubtiqui, Gand, xxi (187S) i^ofi and Biogr.Jahri. 1878, ff j Staik, 396.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

296 BELGIUM. [cent. XIX.

burg. He studied at Ghent under Mahne (the biographer of Wyttenbach), who left for Leyden soon after Belgium had seceded from Holland. After holding scholastic appointments in Brussels and at Hasselt, Gantrellewas appointed in 1837 to a professorship at Ghent, where he became professor of Latin rhetoric in 1851-4, inspector of intermediate education 1854-64, and professor once more from 1864 to the end of his career in 1892. He had been naturalised as a Belgian in 1839, and in the same year had pub- lished a valuable memoir on the early historical relations between the Southern Netherlands and England', and a Latin Grammar, which marked a new departure in the schools of Be^um*, and was highly esteemed by Eckstein in Germany and by Benoist and Thurot in France. His classical pubUcations were mainly con- nected with Tacitus. He published m Paris a Study of that historian's 'Grammar and Style", as well as contributions to the criticism and interpretation of his works*, with highly appreciated editions of the Agricoia (1874), Germattta {1877) and Histories {1881). He characterised the Agricoia as an iloge historiqm^,xaA the same was the general character of his own 'panegyrical bio- graphy' of Ratherius, bishop of Verona and Li^ge'. To the publications of the Brussels Academy he contributed three papers, on the following subjects: — (i) the order of words in a Latin sentence: (2) the Suevi on the banks of the Scheldt; and (3) the rules and method of criticism, in connexion with the controversy raised by the previous paper'. He steadily resisted the attacks directed against a classical education; in conjunction with Wagener he started in 1874 a 'society for the promotion of philological and historical studies ', and, late in life, he anonymously assigned to the Brussels Academy the sum of 45,000 francs for the foundation of a biennial prize for the encouragement of ' classical philology '. In his immediate circle, though he was loyal and devoted to his personal friends, he was not universally popular; he was recognised

' Nouvella Archive! historiques, 1839. * Repeatedly revised and improved; ed. ti, 18S9. ' 1874, 1S81'. * 1875; partly translated into German.

' Kevue lU P InstmcHim puhUque, 1878; anA Hme Jakri. 1881. ' Nouveltes Archive! histariguci, 1837, written in accideDtal ignorance of the great work of the brothers Balierini (Verona, 1765). ' Bulletin!, Sii. 3, vi 611, xi 190, xUi 344.

„.,,„, ^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] GANTRELLE. WAGENER. 297

as a man of undoubted learning, but of uncertain temper ; his leading characteristic was a passionate and indomitable energy ; labm- improbus was in fact the law of his life'.

The Revut de ritutrucHon publique en Bdgique gave scope to a large part of the editorial energy of Gantrelle and his colleague, Wagener. Auguste Wagener {1829 — 1896) was born and bred at Roeremonde in Limburg, east of the present boundaries of Belgium. He studied for two years at Bonn under Lassen, Welcker and Ritschl, and for one year at Li^ge; he also spent six months in Paris, where he became acquainted with Littr^, E^er, Daremberg and Renan, before beginning his lectures on Moral Philosophy at Ghent {185 1). The bishop soon detected and publicly denounced 'five dangerous errors' in his teaching; the lecturer replied with ■moderation and dignity, but shortly afterwards he was happily sent on an archaeo- Ic^cal mission to Greece and Asia Minor, and, on his return, was appointed to lecture on the safe subjects of the Latin language and ancient literature{i854). He becameafull professor in 1862, and, after the resignation of Roulez in 1864, lectured on Roman Antiquities, and, subsequently, on constitutional history. For thirteen years he was superintendent of public instruction at Ghent, and in 1878, when the liberal party came into power, became general supervisor of the university, thus attaining the distinction of being afterwards described by the rector, in the familiar English phrase, as 'the right man in the right place'. In r882-6 he was Member of Parliament for Ghent, and had charge of the budget for public instruction. After resuming his duties as professor, he lectured on Greek Epigraphy and on Roman Constitutional History, resigned office in 1895 and died in the following year.

Wagener and Gantrelle, though differing widely in character, were united in their devotion to classical studies. They were associated as editors of Tacitus, and also as editors of the Belgian Kevut. But, while Gantrelle was interested in the grammatical side of Classics, Wagener had a distinct taste for archaeology and history. As a scholar Wagener ranged himself under the bannei of Boeckh and K. O. MuUer. He did not read the Classics with a

' A. Wagener, in Atmuairt of Brussels Acad. 1896, 45 — 114, with portrait and bibliography.

298 BELGIUM. [CENT. XIX.

view lo constantly delecting the errors of the copyist, and the few ci thai he proposed were founded on solid proof of Iheir absolute necessity. In his public career, he proved himself a bom oiator and an admirable lecturer; he assimilated all (hat was best in the French and German types of scholarship, while he remained true to the best traditions of his own country. Shortly before his death, when his friends and former pupils assembled to do honour to his past services, he unconsciously portrayed his own character in his mtvissima virba. He said that 'he had found the law of his life in the precept ypwdi staxrlai ; he was conscious of his own limitations ', he had played an unobtrusive part, had made some small discoveries but had not thrown a new light on whole provinces of ancient learning; in the world of public and social life, he had not opened out any new paths, and he would not be remembered as a parliamentary orator; the kind sympathy expressed by his friends and pupils on that day was perhaps inspired by the fact (hat he had always walked conoalently in Ihe same palh, the path of duty'. The classical authors that he mainly studied were Anliphon' and Plutarch', Cicero' and Tacitus. He wrote a remarkable article on the textual criticism of the Dialogus de oratorihus*; produced an excellent edition of the first book of the Annals (Paris, 1878), and easily refuted Hochart's paradoxical ascription of the Annals and Hislories to the authorship of Poggio". The influence of RitschI is apparent in his Bonn dissertation on the Origines of Calo (1849), that of Lassen in his memoir on the apologues of India and of Greece*. His visit lo Asia Minor led to his discovery and elucidation of a metrological monu- ment in N.W. Phrygia^, and to his publication of fifteen other inscriptions", followed by one connected with the corporations of artisans, which he had himself copied ac Hierapolis'. His merits were not overlooked by the Academy of Brussels, but he was elected a correspondent of the Archaeolc^ical Institute

After his election as a full member, he gave a lecture on the political opinions of Plutarch and Tacitus'", and on liberty of conscience at Athens". He was

' Revue de PlnstrueHon Publique, xii 149^157, xiii 88 — 113.

' De EI in Delphi!, ib. xi 161 f, xjxii 1 ;i f.

' Esp. in his repeated revisions of his father's Pre Milone, with the commentary of Asconius, where, in c. 19, luco (for lects) Libitinae is due to Wagener.

■* Revue, XX 157— 484.

''.a.xxxiiii4rf,xxxviiii49f-

' Brussels Acad. Minioires des savants Grangers, 4°, xxv (1853).

' (At Ouchak i.e. Ushak) Mhn. xKvii, 1855.

" ib. XXX, :859.

* Revu4, xi (1869) I— 1+.

■* BulleHm, Ser. I, 1876, ill 1109.

" i6. Sir. 3, 1884, vii 574.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXVIt.] WAGENER. ROERSCH. 299

also an expert in Music. The question whether 'harmony' was known in ancient Music had been repeatedly asked since the days of the Renaissance ; it had recentlj' been answered in the negative by Fr. Fetis, and in the afGrmalive by J. H. Vincent. Wagener took the affirmative side in a memoir' that inspired Francois Augusle Gevaert with a desire to extend his knowledge of the subject. When Gevaert embarked on his memorable work on the 'History and Theory of Ancienl Music'', he obl^ned the collaboration of Wagener on points connected with the revision and the interpretation of the ancient texts. Wiener was associated with Gevaert and Vollgraff in an edition of the Musical ProUims of Aristotle, two parts of which were published by Wagener's survivors in 190a and in igor. Gevaert, who was born in rSiS, and owed his early training to Ghent, is a practical musician and composer of a very high order, and is also known as the accomplished and versatile historian of ancient Music. Since 1871 he has been director of the Royal Csnservaioiri of Music in Brussels'.

Gantrelle and Wagener had been preceded as editors of the Revue by Louis Chretien Roersch {1831— 1891). Bom at Maestricht, the capital of the Dutch district Roef»Vh of Limbufg, he was educated at the local Athenaeum before beginning his studies at Louvain. Owing to the large number of new appointments created by a law of 1850, he soon obtained a place on the staff of the Athenaeum of Bruges. He was then only twenty, and so youthful was his appearance that, on the prize-day, when he was seen descending the steps of the Ii6tel de Ville empty-handed, the boys in the street called out: — ' Look at that idle dog ! he has not carried off a single prize ! '. At Bruges he remained for fifteen years. Meanwhile, in 1855, he had contributed to the Renue Pedagogique an elaborate notice of J. L. Bumoufs Greek Grammar. This periodical had been started in 1852 at Mons ; it was transferred in 1858 to Bruges, where under the new title of Revue de rinsiruction publique it was edited by Roersch and his colleague Feys, whose sister he married. When Gantrelie and Wagener became editors, it was transferred to Ghent, hut the name of Roersch was retained even after he had been compelled in 1868 to resign the immediate direction owing

' Sur la symphonie dis anciens, \a Mlm. des lav. Strang. XXM, 1861.

' Henzel, Paris, 1875—1881; cp. Bursian's /a^fwi. xliv 15 — 19; also La Mmpie Antique (1895), ib. Ixxxiv 185, 514.

' On Gevaert, cp. Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. 1906 ; on Wagener, Annuaire of Brussels Acad. 189S, IS5— *«4'

X'OO'

SIC

300 BELGIUM. [cent. XIX.

to the pressure of his new duties at Li^ge. In 1865 he had been appointed at the Acok Nonnale to an important lectureship, which, in 1872, was combined with a classical professorship in the uni- versity. He was convinced that the study of the old classical world was an indispensable means towards the progress of modern civilisation'; but he gave a wide interpretation to that study. At Louvain, he had combined with it the study of Sanskrit, while, at Li^ge, he gave proof of his interest in Germanic {and especially in Flemish) and even in Semitic philology. He delighted in studying the Old Testament in the original Hebrew and in passing his evenings in reading the Coran with the aid of the professor of Arabic, and Homer, Virgil or Dante in the company of the professor of Criminal Law. Late in life he was rector of the university and for three years discharged the duties of that office with complete success during a transitional time of extraordinary difficulty. On resigning in October, 1891, he delivered a discourse on the early constitution of Athens, in connexion with the recently recovered treatise of Aristotle ; twelve days later, he was listening to the classical cantata of Andromeda, and, only three days after- wards, he died.

As a classical scholar, he had devoted special attention to the Latinity of Cornelius Nepos". For the text, he had collated four MSS, and in particular the Louvain ms from the adjacent abbey of Pare. In 1861 he produced an excellent school-edition (ed. 2, 1884), followed by similar editions of Caesar, De Bello GalHco (1864), and Cicero, /ro Archia et pro rege Deiotaro (1867). In 1885 he published, in conjunction with Paul Thomas of Ghent, an excellent Greek Grammar, which was warmly welcomed by the learned Societies of Belgium. For the national encyclopaedia entitled Van Bemmel's Patria Belgica^ he condensed into the brief compass of 26 p^es a 'History of Philolc^y in Belgium', which is described by his biographer as 'a difficult task involving long and laborious research', and as 'undoubtedly the most

' Discow! Rtctoral of 1889. and Van Bemmel's Patria Btlgica, iii 431 (cp. P. Wniems, NolUt, 516 f). " Rome, 1858, 1861 f, • iii(i8;s)407— 431.

D„:,i.,-ih,C00glc

CHAP. XXXVII,] ROERSCH. FUSS. 3OI

important of his works". To the Biographk Nationak he con- tributed, during the last ten years of his life, more than twenty notices of modern Latin poets or scholars who were natives of the Southern Netherlands, the most prominent of these being Gruter, D. Heinsius and Lipsius. In 1888, he accompanied his future biographer, Pierre Willems, on a pilgrimage to the house in which Lipsius was bom, only to discover that the great scholar's books and furniture, after remaining safe for three centuries, had un- fortunately been sold by auction at a recent date. Thirty years previously, he had published two letters from Kuster to Bentley and Hemsterhuys, which he had discovered in the National Library of France". His studies and his published articles ranged over a wide field, while his administrative duties left him little leisure for any work on an extensive scale. But he was fully capable of producing works of far larger compass, any one of which might have ensured him a permanent place in the history of the scholarship of his country*.

We may here add a brief notice of one or two of the early German professors in the Belgian universilies. In 1S17 the govern- ment of the united kingdoms of Holland and Belgium found it necessary to invite scholars of German nationality to fill certain of the professorships in the newly constituted universities of Louv^n, Ghent and Liege. Among these was J. D. Fuss (1781 — 186a), who had been educated by (he Jesuits in his native town of Diiren in Rhenish Prussia. He had afler- wardb studied at Wiirzburg under Schelling and at Halle under F. A. Wolf; he had also made the acquaintance of W. von Schlegel and Madame de Staet, by whose advice he had studied for some years in Paris. He had there translated into La.lin the treatise of loannes Lydus on Ihe Roman magistrates, as his own share of Hase's edilio prituepi (1811). In 1815 he was appointed by the Prussian Government to a classieal mastership in the gymnasium of Cologne; and, two years later, was called to the professorship of ancient literature and Roman antiquities at Li£ge> Among his best works was a Latin manual of Roman Antiquities (i8jo), the third edition of which was translated into English at Oxford in iS^o. His Jesuit training had made him

' P. Willems in Anntiaire of Brussels Acad. 1893, with summary on pp. S31-6-

a RevM, 1858, 318 f, 368 (incl. a letter to Bignon).

' P. Willems, b Annuaire, r893, 515 — 545, with portrait, and conspectus of passages in Greek and Latin authors discussed, £43 f> also complete bibliography by A. Roersch, ib. 545 — 565.

,l^.OO'

"&^^

302 BELGIUM. [CENT. XIX.

a skilful composer of Latin verse. In (he course of an excellent Latin ode on ihe foundation of the University of Lifge, he thus refers to Louvain, as well as Liege and Ghent ; — ■

' Priscum en refulgeC Lovanii decus, Binaeque Belgis, astra velut nova, Surgunt sorores ; en Camoenae Auspidis redieie laetis ' *. He was also an adept in writing accentual rhj^miug Latin verse of the mediaeval type. A good example of this is the rendering of Schiller's LUi VCH dtr Glockt^, included in his original and translated Carmina Lalina'. In 1830, when the Dutch professors were expelled from the Belgian uni- versities, Fuss, who was threatened with expulsion, protested that he was not a Dutchman but a German ; the plea was allowed, but he soon found the whole of the Faculty to which he belonged suppressed by the govemmenl. Nothing daunled, he continued to leach as a member of a Faculty Hire, and, five years later, was reinstated, as professor of Roman aniiquilies only. He had a better command of Latin than of any other language, and he consoled himself for the fact that be was no longer a professor of Latin literature by writing volumes of Latin verse and by enlarging the range of his private readir^. He was rector of the university in iS44.-5, ^'"^' <>" laying down hisofhce, delivered a discourse on the permanent importance of modern Lalin. Later in life he became a diligent student of Dante, though he took no interest in the mediaeval scholasticism of the Divitia Cenimedia*.

The counterpart of Fuss at Li^ge was G. J. Bekker (1791 — 1837) at Louvain. As a pupil of Creuzer at Heidelberg, he prepared a dissertation on Philoslratus' Life of Apollonius, which was published in 1S18. In the previous year he had been called to Louvain aa professor of ancient literature. Within a year he acquired a perfect knowledge of Flemish as well as of French ; and, as the envoy of Louvain at the com- memoration of (he fifth jubilee of Leyden, he gave proof of his perfect com- mand of Dutch. He had a genuine admiration for the great Dutch scholars, especially for Wyltenbach. On the suppression of the university of Louvain in 1834, he left for Liege, where he was rector of the universily for the next academical year, and died not long after. At Louvain he bad produced liltle besides an edition of the Odyssey and of Isocrates ad Dcmotdcum \ but he was a man of no small merit, and he derives a reflecled fame from his pupils, Baguet and Roulez'.

' Reprinted in Le Roy's LUgt, $6 f.

» Extract, I*. 333. ' iSji; ed. 1, 1845-6-

* Life and bibli<^aphy in Le Roy's LUgt, 31+ — 331-

' Baron de Reiffenberg, in Annuairt, 1838; Le Roy's Liige, 70—77; portrait in IcenograpkU da UnvoersUis. His biographer, (he singularly versatile Baron de Reiffenbeig (1795 — 1850), published excerpts from Ihe elder Pliny (iSio), a paper on Lipstns in the M^. courvaues of the Brussels

O. J. Bekker

lOO'

SIC

CHAP. XXXVII.] G. J. BEKKER. BAGUET. NfeVE. 303

The foimer of ihese, Francois Baguet (1801 — 1867}, belonged to i thoroughly catholic family in Ihe south of Bra.banl. leaving school at (he age of 16, he found (he u Ghen( and Liege just coming into being and that of Louvain in course of reconstruction. He was accordingly compelled (o wait foi a year before entering Louvain, where he studied Greek and Latin under G. J. Bekker. He published in 1811 in a quarto volume of nearly 400 pages an elaborate prize-essay on Chrysippus, and ob(ained his Doctor's d^ree on the strength of an edition of the eighth book of Dion Cbrysostom (1813). When he was offered a lectureship in Greek and Latin in the newly constituted CoUige Pkilosofhiqilt of Louvain, he declined the offer, buc, as soon as a catholic university was established at Malines, he was appointed classical professor and secretaiy of (hat body and retained these posts on its transfer to Louvain. Though he was familiar with Flemish and Dutch (as well as wi(h French) lie never took the trouble to learn German, and consequently found himself at a constant disadvantage as a classical scholar. His papers on intermediate education (1843-63) were published in the Rivuc Catholui%u and in the Bulletins of the Brussels Academy, which included in its MJtaoim of 1849 bis only exten^ve production, a notice of the life and works ol the Jesuit scholar, Andrf Schott, the correspondent of Casaubon. In Baguet, the man was worth even more than the scholar. He was remarkable for his thorough- ness, his devotion to duty, and his resolute self-effacement. The motlo of his life was ama naciri'. We next lutn to a name of fat greater note.

F^lix N^ve {1816 — 1893), a native of Ath in Hainaut, was educated beyond the borders of his native land at Lille, where he gave early proof of being a skilful versifier in Latin as well as in French. Like Nam^che, the future historian of Belgium, he was one of the first to enter Louvain on its reconstitution as a catholic university in 1835. In addition to his ordinary classical studies, he there attended Arendt's lectures on oriental literature, and, after learning a little Sanskrit, continued that study under Lassen at Bonn, Windischmann in Munich, and Eugene Bumouf in Paris, where he also studied Hebrew, Syriac, and Persian, He was appointed professor of ancient literature and oriental languages at Louvain in 1841, and became a full professor twelve years later. For ten successive years he lectured on ancient philosophy, and, for thirty-six in all, on Greek and

Acad., iii {183 1), Archivei phihli>gi</uet (1835-6), and (ne Minuiires (1814-34) on the early history of the university of Louvain. Cp. Annuairi, (853, and Le Boy's LUge, 170—198.

' RoulesE, b Annuairi of Brussels Acad. 1B70, 103 — 133, with biblio- graphy.

A.oogic

304 BELGIUM. [cent. XIX.

Latin literature, though all the while his main interests lay in the direction of oriental studies. From time to time he lectured on Sanskrit ; and among those who attended these lectures were men of no less mark than Roersch and Willems. Of his published works by far the greatest part related to oriental languages, especially Sanskrit, Armenian and Syriac. But, in 1846-55, his interest in these languages incidentally led to his writing a series of notices of the Belgian orientalists; and these in their turn formed the prelude to his important memoir on the Collegium Trilingue at Louvain'. In the course of this history of the College from 1517 to 1797, he surveyed the study of the learned languages at Louvain during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The merit of the work was recognised by the award of the gold medal of the Brussels Academy. Thirty- four years later, in the evening of a long life, the author returned to the same theme in a work of wider scope and more highly finished form'.

In this work he collected and revised and supplemented all his scattered notices of the minor humanisls of the Southern Netherlands. But this was not all. After a suggestive Introduction, in the course of which he urges that the Renaissance had only accidental points of contact with the Reformation, he devotes nearly a hundred admirable pages to Erasmus, with special reference to his life at Louvain. He next dilates on Jerome Busleiden and Sir Thomas More, and on the theologian, Martin Dorpius tH^S^'E'S), the defender of humanistic studies, who lectured on Plautus and wrote amusing prologues for performances of the Aulularia and the Milts Gloriasus \ on Adrien Barlandus (1487—15^9), a commentator on Terence (1530); on Jacques Ceratinus de Horn (d. 1530!, the compiler of a Greek and Latin dictionary dedicated to Erasmus ; on the Greek scholar and magistrate, Francois de Craneveldt (d. 1564), the friend of Erasmus and More, and the translator of the work of Procopius on the buildings of Justinian ; and lastly on Guy Morillon (d. 1548), the diligent student of Livy and Suetonius, and the secretary of Charles V. Nothing is here said of such well-known scholars of the sixteenth century as Viv^ and Lipsius, but we have a comprehensive monc^raph on Clenaidus^. The seventeenth century is represented by Jean

■ 1856; Cp. ii siin. ], supra.

' La Jitnaissanet el reiser de tlrudilion cauienne en Belgiqut, 439 pp., Louvain, 1890.

* pp. aJ4 — 174. Cp. Chauvin and Roersch in Mimtires ceuroanh of the Brussels Acad. LX (1900O' i^o. 5> ^3 pp.,andii ti^ supra.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XXXVIl] THONISSEN. 3OS

Bapliste Grammaye (iS79~-'fi3s)> 'he author of a work on the alphabets of the sixteen besl-known languages'; by Petms Caslellanus (158; — 1631). professor of Greek at Louvain, and author of lives of famous physicians, also of a treatise on the festivals of Greece, and another on the viands of the ancient world, aflerwaids incorporated in Ihe Titsaurus' of Gronovius. The last two chapters deal with Andteos Catullus (i j86— r667), the author of a Latin play on the origin of the sciences, under the (iile o{ Pronuthcus (1613), and Valerius Andreas, the compiler of a gec^^phical and biographical dictionary of Belgium (16^3), and of the earliest history of the university of Louvain (1635)'-

While F^lix Nfeve was an orientalist who became incidentally interested in the scholarship of the Southern Netherlands, we have in the person of Jean Joseph Thonissen (1816— iSgi) an eminent jurist and politician who included in the long series of his historical and legal writings a luminous work on Criminal Law in primitive Greece and at Athens. Bom at Hasselt, the capital of Limbourg, and educated at his native place and at Rolduc, he studied at Liege and {for two years) in Paris, For 36 years professor of Criminal Law at Louvain and for 27 Member for Hasselt, he was presented with his bust in marble by his constituents in 1873 and by his friends and pupils seven years later. In 1884-7 he was Home Secretary and Minister of Public Iristruction, The rumour of his death in 1 888 led to the pre mature publication of generous tributes to his great services as a liberal catholic, as a statesman, and as the author of a highly appreciated commentary on the constitution of Belgium. His study of modern socialism was preceded by an examination of the I^ws of Crete, Sparta and Rome, as well as the institutions of Pythagoras and the Republic of Plato'. His papers on the criminal law of India, Egypt, and Judaea", and his two large volumesonthesamesubject(i869), were succeeded by his work on the Criminal Law of Legendary Greece and on that of Athens under the democracy, the evidence as to the former being directly

' Speiiram lilUrarunt it liuguarum, Alh (i6it).

* 'X 35'— 404-

» On the life of Nive, cp. T. J. Lamy in Annuaire of the Brussels Acad. 1S94, 90 pp., with portrait and bibliography.

* Esp. in Le sodalismc depuit F antiquili jusqu'h... \it,i, 1 vols. (Louvain, .855).

" Collected in his Melanges, 1873. s. III. I,. I ., II, l^3fi"K"V^IC

306 BELGIUM. [CENT. XIX.

derived from Homer and Hesiod. For Athenian I-.aw he relies on the Attic orators and other ancient texts.

He begins with & brief review of Ihe sources of oat information. In ihe second book, he deals with the different kinds of penalties ; in the thitd, he classilies the offences against the stale, against the person etc ; in the fourth, after some general considerations, he examines Plato's and Aristotle's opinions on punishments. He closes with reflexions on the general character of the Athenian system of penalties, its merits and its defects^.

Even before the publication of the second of his four volumes on the History of Belgium under Leopold I (1855-8), his merits were recognised by the Royal Academy of Brussels, and one of his most permanent services to that body was his comprehensive survey and methodical analysis of several hundreds of papers presented to the Section of Letters (under the head of epigraphy, linguistics, ancient and mediaeval literature etc.) during the first century of its existence^

While the Criminal Law of Athens was one of the many subjects that attracted the attention of Thonissen, the Political Institutions of Rome were the principal theme of the life-long labours of Pierre Willems (1840 — 1898). Bom and bred at Maestricht, and educated at Louvain, he received the distinction of a government grant, which enabled him to study for two years in foreign universities (1862-3). In Paris he worked at oriental languages under Oppert, Greek under E^er, and Latin literature under Patin'. He continued to study oriental languages in Berlin, and completed his Wamierjahre by visiting the university of Utrecht, and by working at Greek under Cobet at Leyden. During his absence abroad he paid hardly any attention to the Institutions of Rome, nor did he ever attend any lectures on that subject at Louvain. On his return he was appointed to a professorship which he held for the remaining 33 years of his life. For the last 25 of those years he was also secretary of the university.

' Lt Droit pfaal de la Ripubliqui athhiienne, prkidl d'une itudi lUr le droit criminel de la Grid Ugatdaire, 490 pp., 1875.

* Rapport Sfeulaire sur Us Iravaux de la Classt dis Uttres, 1773—1873, 304 pp. Cp- T. J. Lamy in the Atmuaire for 1891, 106 pp., with portrait and bibliography.

' Rrvue Btlge, xv (1863) +91.

.OO^^IC

CHAP. XXXVII.] P. WILLEMS. 3O7

He is best known as the author of standard works on the Political Institutions of ancient Rome. In 1870 he published his comprehensive treatise on 'Roman Antiquities", which in all subsequent editions bore the title of Le droit public remain'. The author aims at combining the didactic method of W. A. Becker and the historic method of L. Lange, and at avoiding the draw- backs of both. He displays an intimate knowledge of the original authorities and the best modem treatises on the subject ; and he constantly insists on drawing a sharp distinction between facts and hypotheses. His treatment of a somewhat dry subject is characterised by a remarkable clearness of style. It is the first complete work of the kind that has been written in French. It passed through six editions, and was ultimately translated into Russian by command of the Russian Minister of Public In- struction.

An even higher degree of success attended the publication of his great work on the Senate under the Roman Republic*. His fundamental principle is that the Senate remained an exclusively patrician body until about 400 b.c. It is on this basis that he grounds his description of the composition (and the attributes) of the Senate down to the pltbiscitum Ovimum {c. 338 — 312 e.g.), which required the censors to choose the persons best qualified for the Senate without distinction between patricians and plebeians. Finally, he brings his subject down to the end of the Roman Republic. The work was carefully discussed*, and elaborately reviewed' in Germany and elsewhere. As many as twenty-seven reviews are enumerated in the preface to the second edition (1885) of the first volume ; and Mommsen, who is not lavish of citations from the works of other investigators, makes an exception in the case of Willems*. The author's single aim was the atuinment of

• Lii aniiquiih mmaints mvisagies au point dt vut des initHuUons poUtiques, 331 pp. (Louvain, 1870).

' Jusqu'h Constatitin in ed. 1871, '74; juiqu'h Juitinien in ed. 1880, '8j, '8S [nearly 700 pp.).

' Le Sinai de la ripublique romaine; i (La comfiesitiim), ii (Les attribu- tiem du S4nat),\\\[Registres), 1878—1885; 638 (7»4') + 784+ "S PP-

* L. Lange, De pltbhcilis Ovinia el Atinio disputalio. Lips. 1878, ;i pp.

* e.g. by Hermann Schiller in Bursian's /a^r«i. xix (1879] 411 — 417.

• Pief. to Romischcs Staatsmhl, ni ii {1888) p. vi. It has been noticed

30? BELGIUM. [CENT. XIX.

historic truth. He made a point of studying all the original authorities, and of never consulting any modern writers until he had formed his own opinion. One of the most striking features of the work is the elaborate biographical roister of the members of the Senate in 179 and in 55 b.c. The author afterwards began a work on the equestrian and senatorial orders under the Empire, and his register of the Senate of 65 a.d. has been published by his son'. His work was highly esteemed in other lands, in France, England and Italy, no less than in Germany, but he never visited Rome, nor indeed any part of Italy. Among his minor works the most widely interesting is the public lecture in which he gives a detailed and vivid description of the municipal elecrions at Pompeii'. Such slighter, efforts were, however, quite exceptional; he generally preferred concentrating himself on an opus magnum, such as his work on the Senate and on the Droit public remain*, and even his minor publications had usually some connexion with his larger undertakings. At Louvain, in 1874, he founded among the inembers of bis class a Sociefas Philolaga, the first of its kind in Belgium ; and one of its earliest members was Charles Michel, now a professor at Li^e and editor of the compact and compre- hensive Recueil £ Inscriptions Gricques (igoo). Willems was also the founder and first oi^aniser of the Classical Quarterly called the Mush Beige (1897}. In his own works he showed in general a greater affinity with the German and Dutch than with the French type of classical learning*. He was more interested in the pursuit of positive facts than in the elegant literary analysis of the Classics. His courses of lectures dealt with a considerable variety of classical authors, together with I^atin inscriptions. They also included a general outline of the whole province of 'classical philology', which

that, in the third edition of vol. I, Mommsen is apt to emphasise points of difference, while he appears to have modified some of his opinions in the light oTthose of Willems.

' \\o pp., Louvain, 1901 (extract from Music Beigi, vols, iv — -vi).

' Lis ileetions munvipales i Pomfii, with tables and notes, (41 pp. ([886), extract from the Bullttins of the Brussels Acad., S^r. 3, xii (1886) 51 f.

' ' He also collected a lai^ mass of materials for a comprehensive work on Flenrish dialects.

* In medie virtus is his own motto in Eevue Beige, xv (l8(>3) 508 f.

.oogic

CHAP. XXXVII.] P. WILLEMS. 309

- he defined as 'the science of the civilisation of Greece and Rome". He was profoundly impressed with the importance of maintaining classical studies in intermediate and in higher education. He was also interested in the earlier fortunes and the later progress of those studies, he regretted the absence of a complete history of the humanists of Louvain, and he was devoted to the memory of men like N^ve and Roersch, who had made important contribu- tions towards such a history. In all the breadth and soUdity and accuracy of his own attainments he gave proof of his possession of that genius which consists in an infinite capacity for taking pains', thus adding a new glory to the Chair that had been filled three centuries before by a man of more brilliant hterary talent, but of less stability of character, the greatest Latin scholar of the Southern Netherlands, Justus Lipsius',

' Letira chtitiennes, Paris (1881) 453.

' "La g^nie n'esl qu'une grand e aptitude ik la patience' (Buffon); Cailyle'a FrecUriei, i 415, cd. 1870.

' On the life and works of Pierre Willems, cp. esp. Victor Brants in the Annuaire of the Brussels Acad. 1899, 60 pp., with poitrait and biblic^raphy ; also Lamy in BtdUtim o( Brussels Acad. (1898) 397, and Walking in Jlfus/e Belp, 1898.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

Prom a photograph reproduced in the Opuscula Academica [ed. 1S87) and in the Nordisk Tidskrift, Ser. 11, vol. viii; p. 319 it^ra.

D„:,i.,-ii>,C00glc

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

SCANDINAVIA.

Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the three constituent portions of the ancient Scandinavia, formed a single kingdom Denmark : from 1397 to 1523, that is, from the accession of university of queen Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, to the proclamation of Gustavus Vasa as king of Sweden. Copenhagen," the capital of Denmark in and after 1443, became the seat of a university founded in 1479 by Christian I under the sanction of Sixlus IV (1475). The statutes which it received from the archbishop of Lund were modelled on those of Cologne. Sweden {as already implied) became a separate kingdom in 1523; from 1523 to 1560 Gustavus Vasa was king of Sweden, and Frederic I and Christian III successively kings of Denmark and Norway, and in 1527-36 protestantism was established in all three countries. In 1539 the university of Copenhagen, which had collapsed during a time of civil and religious commotion, was refounded by Christian III on the model of the protestant university of Witten- berg. It was destroyed in the great fire of 1728, and rebuilt and reorganised in 1732 under Christian VI, who was also the patron of the 'Society of Sciences" founded in 1742. The university was finally reorganised in 1788°. Nearly three centuries before the foundation of that university, the Latin secretary of the archbishop of Lund, and the earliest authority for the tragic story of Hamlet, was known by the name of Saxo Grammaticus', and we shall see in the sequel that the preparation of text-books of Latin Grammar

' Del Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Cp. p. 314 infra.

* Cp. Malien's Retskistorie (1879) '< Rashdall, ii lyi f ; and Mintrm, n.

* His eleganlly wrilten Datiorum Rigum Hereumqtu Historia (f. ijoo) was first published by ihe Danish man of letters, C. Fed«rsen (Paris, isi4)-

„.,,n,^.OOglC

312 DENMARK. [CENT. XVII.

was a prominent part of the work of scholars in Denmark from the days of Jersin and Bang, Ancherson and Baden, down to those of Madvig.

Our list of scholars begins with Thomas Bang (1600 — i66i), whOj after spending three years abroad in the study of Latin, Hebrew and Theology at Franeker and Wittenberg, became professor of Hebrew, librarian, and professor of Theology in the university of Copenhagen. An orientalist by profession, he was a layman in Latin, but he was convinced of the supreme importance of maintaining that languE^e in the schools of Denmark. As a Latin scholar, he is best known for having revised at the royal command the Latin Grammar (1623) of J. D. Jersin, rector of the school at Soro and ultimately bishop of Ribe. Bang's praecepta minora and majora of 1636-40 were followed in the latter year by his principal grammatical work, the Observatioms Fkilologuae, in two volumes of more than 700 pages each. He also published a Latin primer under the attractive title of Aurora LatinitatU (1638). Oriental languages are the main theme of two of his other works: — the Caelum orientis et prisci mundi (1657), and the Exerdtationes litterariae aniiquitatis (1638-48)'. In the latter he starts from Pliny's phrase, aetemus liilerarum usus', and discourses at large on the 'book of Enoch' and the language of the angels. In accordance with the general belief of his time, he holds that all languages (as well as all alphabets) have their source in Hebrew'.

Bang's contemporary, Johan Laurembei^ {(. 1588 — 1658), professor of Latin Poetry at Rostock, left Germany for Denmark in 1623, and was mathematical master at Sor<> for the remaining 22 years of his life. His edition of the Sphaera of Proclus (1611), his Latin Aitiiquarius, or vocabu- lary of archaic and antiquarian words and phrases (1624), and his collection of maps of ancient Greece*, are now of little note in

' Replinted MCticovitExercitatianei.. -de i)rtuttfragratu/itUrarum,l6^i.

' vii 193.

' Professor M. ,C. Geriz, in Bricka's Datisi Biograjisk Lexikon (18S7 — 1904). Prof. Gerix has al^o written on most of (he scholars mentitwed below ; all these articles have been carefully consulted.

' Ed. Pufendorf, i6fo.

h. !■, II, l^.OOQIC

CHAP. XXXVin.] BANG. LAUREMBERG. OLUF BORCH. 3(3

comparison with the literary interest of his Danish and Latin Satires^.

In the same century Oluf Borch, or Olaus Borrichius (i6zg — 1690), after studying medicine at Copenhagen, travelled in Holland, England, France and Italy, and, on his return in 1666, became professor in the university, and physician to the king. He was one of the most versatile of men. He lectured on philology, as well as on medicine, botany and chemistry, besides filling (late in life) the office of librarian. In philology his earhest work was a compendious guide to Latin versification, quaintly named Parnassus in nuce (1654). His dissertatio de lexicis Latinis et Gratcis {1660) was followed by his principal work in this line of study : — the Cogitationes de variis linguae Latinae adatibus {1675). This was supplemented by his Analecta, and by his dissertation De studio furae Latinitatis. The historical side of scholarship is represented by his notable Conspectus of the principal Latin authors, and by his ' Academic dissertations' on the Greek and Latin poets, and on the topography of Rome and the oracles of the ancients'. The science of language is exemplified in his Dissertalto de causis diversltatis Hnguarum

(1675).

Language, in his view, was originally given to man by God, and there was the closest correspondence between the original words, as images of thugs, and the things themselves. Man had also received the gift of an aptitude for inventing new words, on which common custom impressed certain meanings; hence the further developement of languages. After the building of the tower of Babel, there was a confusion of tongues. The primitive lan- guage was preserved completely among the Hebrews, and only patlially among other nations. Hence in all languages there were some words which were related to Hebrew, but these languages had diveiged in difFecent directions. This wa.^ due to a variety of causes, such as diversities of climate and of modes of livbg, which alfecled the oigans of speech. In the conception of language which is here presented, anamatapoeia plays an important part.

■ Ed. Lappenberg, Stuttgart, 1S61 (Bursian, i 310); cp. L. Daae, Om Humanislen og Satirikeren, Johati Lauremherg, Chr. 1884. His Satires were not without influence on thai versatile man of genius, Holbei^ (1684 — 1754), the Moli^re of Denmark, who, in his Comedies, owed much to Planlus. One of those Comedies, Niels Klims' stibUrranean jgurmy, «"as actually written in Latin (1741).

" 1676-87 ; ed. I, 1714-5-

„.,,„, ^.oogic

314 DENMARK. [CENT. XVIII.

In the rest of Borch's vien'S there is much thit is obscure, aJid, as a whole, they are out of date ; but Ihey are not devoid of interest, while they have the advantage of being dothed in an attractive form '.

In the first half of the next century Hans Gram (1685 — 1748) was appointed professor of Greek (1714), as well as historiographer, librarian and archivist of Copen- hagen (i73of). We still possess the rectorial oration in which he dilated on the literary history of Denmark and Norway down to the foundation of the university'. It was in his time that the university was rebuilt and reopened, and it was owing to his influence that the ' Society of Sciences ' was founded in 1742. He was specially interested in Greek science and in Greek history. He wrote on the ' Egyptian origin of geometry ', and published observations on Archytas and Aratus. He carefully studied the works of Xenophon and the scholia on Thucydides, and edited the Characters of Theophrastus. He also published a brief history of Greek literature, and he is the reputed author of a Latin-Danish and Danish- Latin Dictionary, called the Nucleus Latinitatis, which remained in use until it was superseded by the work of Jacob Baden. Gram never left his native land, but he counted Fabricius, Havercamp and Duker among his correspondents abroad. It was once the fashion to describe him as 'the greatest man in Denmark ', but he never produced any magnum opus. He buried his extensive learning in a twnsiderable number of minor lucubrations, and he was only too apt to lose himself in mazes of minute detail. Nevertheless he did good service to his country by the organisa- tion of learning and by the critical examination of its ancient history'.

Gram's contemporary Christian Falster (1690 — 1752) was in- terested in Greek and Roman literature and criti- cism. He produced at Flensborg his supplement to Latin lexicons {1717) and a comprehensive introduction to the study of Latin literature entitled Quaestiones Romanae (1718), At Ribe he prepared his notes on Gellius'. When the com- ' Geriz, in Bricka.

' 17451 Aliauttd Nrues aus Damumari,\(\^fl'S\ \yi — 518. ' Cp. Harless, Vitat Philol., iii 146—156; NottvetU Biografihu GiniraU, s.v.\ and esp. Gerlz, in Bricka.

* Vigilui prima ntitium Ripensiam (yfix).

„.,,„, ^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVIII.] GRAM. FALSTER. 3IS

mentary was completed, it was calculated that it would fill three folio volumes. It was impossible to find a publisher, and the author accordingly bequeathed his ms, with all his other books, to the library of the university of Copenhagen. Meanwhile, his friend, Hans Gram, 'on hearing that the Nodes Hipensa had been doomed to eternal darkness", prevailed on the author to allow some small portions of these Noctes to see the light of day'. His Memoriae Obscurae, largely derived from Gellius, and published at Hamburg in 1722, is practically a supplement to the Bibliolheca Latino of the great Hamburg scholar, Fabricius. In his Cogitationes Variae Philologicae (1715) he regards classical literature as a handmaid to theology and protests against the opinion that the ' pagan ' Classics should be avoided by the Christian student. Among the classical desiderata of his time, he here mentions a history of Greek literature and adds an outline of a fiature work on the subject. He also discusses the essential points in an ideal edition and incidentally denounces the Dutch fashion of accumulating a mass of ' various readings".

He recurs to the same theme in a work originally described by himself as Sermones, to which his Dutch publisher adroitly gave the more attractive title of Amoenitates Philologicae*. It is written in a style that is eminently readable without being perfectly pure. One of the chapters describes the author's conversation with a youth of high promise who found his chief delight in reading the lives of great scholars and was inspired with the ambition of following in their steps". Another conversation, on the scholar's religion, ends with the author's description of himself as a ' Christian philosopher ' : — ' studeo, non tam ut doctior quam ut melior evadam". This is the most celebrated of his works, but, notwithstanding its title, the largest part of it has no connexion with ' philology '. Its writer is also known as a Danish satirist, as

Ameenitalis Philologiiae, ill ix^. Primed ib. at end of vols, ii and iii.
P. \\,C0git.Xi\, V. iii 7, Amst. 1719-31, 3 vols., with vignette. >l. i Hans Gmm is apostrophised as amfilissim.	In Ihe dedicatory prefa r and nebilinimi Gram.

,i^.ooglc

3l6 DENMARK. [CENT. XVIII f

a commentator on the fourteenth satire of Juvenal, and as the author of a Danish rendering of Ovid's Tristia^.

Later in the same century Jacob Baden (1735 — i8p4), who began his studies at Copenhagen and continued them at Gdttingen and Leipzig, held scholastic appointments at Altona and at Helsingor (Elsinore), and was professor of 'eloquence' at Copenhagen for the last 24 years of his life. His portrait was engraved by Lahde^ and his bust modelled by Thorwaldsen. A compendious Latin Grammar produced in 1751 by the Danish schoolmaster, Soren Ancherson (1698— 1781), was the authorised text-book for use in all the schools of Denmark and Norway, and it held its ground until the author's death, thirty years later. In the very next year it was superseded by Baden's Grammar, just as Baden's was ultimately superseded in 1846 by that of Madvig. Baden was also the compiler of standard Latin-Danish and Danish-Latin Dictionaries (1786-8), the former of these being founded on Gesner. He produced creditable editions of Phaedrus, Virgil and Horace, and translations of Xenophon's Cyropaedeia, and of Horace, Suetonius, Tacitus and Quintilian (x, xi). He was far less successful as the author of a Greek Grammar and Chrestomathy.

His son, Torkil Baden (1765— 1849), studied at Gottingen and acquired an interest in art during his travels in Italy. He was a professor at Kiel in Holstein (then part of Denmark) and (in 1804-23) at Copenhagen. His published works (such as his dissertation on Philostratus) were partly inspired by his interest in ancient art. He 'had read nearly all the Greek and Latin Classics ', but the result of all this reading is inadequately represented in his edition of the Tragedies of Seneca'. His edition of his grandfather's Roma Danica brought him into feud with other scholars. He was more fortunate in his new and improved edition of bis father's Dictionaries {1815-31).

Intermediate in date between the two Badens is Rasmus

• Cp. Thaarup, in Christian Falsltrs Satirer (1840); Bursian, i 367-9; and Geitz, in Bricka.

' Lahde og Nyerup, Portraile, iii (1806). ' Leipzig, 1815-11.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXVIII.] J. BADEN. T. BADEN. NVERUP. 31/

Nyerup (1756 — iSag), the learned librarian of Copenhagen, who, besides producing numerous works connected with Scandinavian literature, was the first to pubhsh the contents of eight Glossaria antiqua Latino- Theottsca'. The fifth of these is ultimately derived from the important Latin and Anglo-Saxon glossary preserved in a Leyden ms of the eighth century, which formerly belonged to Isaac Vossius and was probably once at St Gallen'.

One of Nyerup's less productive contemporaries is Niels Iversen Schow (1754 — 1830), the professor of Copenhagen, who studied mss in Rome and Venice, edited the Homeric Allegories of Heracleides Ponticus {1782) and Joannes Lydus De Mensibui (1794), and began editions of Stobaeus and Photius, which unfortunately remained unfinished- In bygone years he had studied at Gottingen under Heyne; he had thus acquired an interest in archaeology, and be had produced a handbook of the subject; but his early promise remained un- fulfilled. He is far less distinguished than the able and versatile archaeologist and historian, Friedtich Miinter {1761 — 1830), who had also studied under Heyne and ultimately became bishop of Seeland. His youi^er contemporary Birgerus (B6rge) Thorlacius (1775 — 1829), professor at Copenhagen for the last twenty-six years of his life, edited Hesiod's Works and Days, the Speech of Lycurgus against I.eocrates, and Cornelius Nepos, besides discussing the Republic of Cicero, and producing a considerable series of Opus- cula (1806-22). His editions of Greek texts were mere reprints from those of foreign scholars. He was a man of wide but superficial learning ; ineffective as a Latin professor, he did good service as one of the revisers of the Danish translation of the Greek Testament. The briefest mention must sufiice for S. N. J. Bloch (1772—1862), rector of the school °'"* at Roeskilde, a compiler of elementary text-books and an editor of Select Speeches of Cicero, who advocated a reform in the

* (Nyerap), Symbolai ad literaturam Teuttinkam anltquiarem, Hauoiae, 1787, pp. 174— 4'o-

' The Laden Latin-AnglB-Saxon Glossary, ed. J. H. HesseU, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1906, pp. xiii — xvi.

h. i., ii,l^.OOglc

3l8 DENMARK. [CENT. XVIII,

pronunciation of Greek, and thus came into conflict with Matthlae in Germany, and with Henrichsen in Denmark (1826). It was

from a paper on the Latin Imperative (1825) by

Niels Bygom Krarup (1792 — 1842), a teacher at Christianshavn, that Zumpt derived the name of the 'future imperative'. Among natives of Iceland may be mentioned

Gudmundur Magndsson (1741 — 1798), an editor "AraeK'n" °f Terence {1780), and Paul Amesen {1776—

1851), who was educated at Helsingor, held a mastership at Christiania, and finally taught Greek and Latin at Copenhagen. His Greek and Danish dictionary was the first of its kind in Denmark (r83o), and was followed by his new Latin dictionary (1845-8).

Meanwhile archaeology was represented by Johann Georg Zoega (1755 —

1S09), who studied at Gottingen and repeatedly visited Italy

in and after 1780. He joined the Church of Rome in 1783 and died in Rome in 1S09. His earliest work, that on the impeiatortal coins of Egypt, was followed by his important folio ' on the origin and use of obelisks' (1797), by his 'Coptic mss of the Museum Boigianum', and his 'ancient Roman bas-reliefs''. He was commemorated by a medallion executed

by his friend Thorwaldsen. Another Danish archaeolt^ist, ™" " Pelet Oluf Brondsted (1780—1841), after studying at Copen-

hagen, worked at archaeology in Paris and in Italy, and in 1810-4 travelled in Greece with Mailer and Stackelberg, Cockerell and Foster. Brondsted's own share in this eventful lour is partly recorded in the two volumes of his travels (1810-30). Meanwhile, he had returned to Copenhagen in 1814, to leave it in 1810 for a tour among the Ionian Islands and in Italy'. He visited England in 1814 and 1831, and was professor of Philology and Archaeolc^ for the last ten years of his life. His paper on ' Panathenaic vases' was published by the Royal Society of Literature (1831), and his ' Bronzes of Siris ' by the F C Petersen ^''*"^"t' Society (1836). As professor he was succeeded in

1841 by F. C. Petersen (1786—1859), who held this position for the remaining 17 years of his life. His ' Introduction to Archaeoli^y' (1815), which includes a full account of Winckelmann, was translated into German'. He also published a handbook to Greek literature, besides com-

^ Aihandhingat {1817), Leben, etc., Welcker (1819); Stark, 145-9; Michaelis, Arch. Enid. 13 f.

' Stark, 160-1.

■ 1819, 3S3 pp. (n ' 61 on Winckelmann) ; (Stark, 51, s8).

CHAP. XXXVni.] ZOEGA. BRONDSTED. PETERSEN. '319

ments on Libanius and an excellent paper on the jurisdiction of the Ephelae (1854). During the student-days of Henrichsen, Elberling and Madvig, Petersen was the only thoroughly eHtdent lecluier on Che classical side of Ihe university. It was owing lo the inadequacy of the other lecturers that these three students (with two of their companions) formed a philological society of their own, which had an important influence on their early career'. The fourth of ihe Danish archaeologists, Olaus Kellermann (1805 — 1837), began to reside in Rome in 1831 and gave proof of high promise in Latin Epigraphy'. Lastly, the Danish expedition to the island of Rhodes, in 1901-4, led Co the discovery of inscriptions which determine the date and birthplace of the sculptor Boethus to be Chalcedon in the Hellenistic age, and prove Chat the group of Laocodn may be approxi- mately placed at Ihe beginning of the rule of Augustus'.

The foremost representative of scholarship in Denmark was Johan Nicolai Madvig (1804—1886), the son of a « j - subordinate legal official on the Danish island of Bomholm, off the Swedish coast, from which his great-grandfather had migrated to Danish territory. His name was derived from a fishing- village in the South of Sweden that once belonged to Denmark. At the early age of eleven, he began copying legal documents for his father, and he always retained a keen interest in law. After his father's death he was educated at Frederiks- borg in Nordseeland under Bendtsen, in whose memory he delivered a public eulogy in 1831, but he was mainly setf-taught. After studying at Copenhagen (1820-5), ^^ was appointed pro- fessor of Latin (1829) and held that position for more than half a century. In and after 1848 he was a member of the Danish Diet, Inspector of all the Schools of Denmark, and for three years Minister of Education, He was President of the Council from 1856 to 1863, and continued to take part in politics until he reached the age of seventy. At the fourth centenary of the university of Copenhagen (the commemoration of which was, for political reasons, confined to the Scandinavian nations), he discharged his duties as rector in the most admirable manner. Throughout the whole of his long life of more than 80 years, he

' Gerti on Petersen and Henrichsen, in Bricka.

' Vigilum Somanorum latircula (1835); O. Jabn, Sftc. Epigr., 184I, pp. v^xv; Jorgensen, in Bricka.

' Micbaelis, Arch. Entd. i68f ; p. 18 n. 1 mfra.

.oogic

320 DENMARK. [CENT. XIX.

was never seriously ill, and his mental powers remained unim- paired to the very end.

His best work was that devoted to the study of the Latin language and to the textual criticism of Cicero and Livy, In 1825, in conjunction with four young scholars of Copenhagen, he edited a volume of Garatoni's notes on the Speeches of Cicero. The dissertation for his degree consisted of emendations of Cicero, De Legiius and Academica (i8z6), followed by a treatise on Asconius (1827), an Epistola Critica on the last two of the Verrine Orations (1828), and criticisms on Select Speeches (1830), a.nA the Caio Maior unA Laelius {li^^). His duties as professor involved the preparation of the Latin programs of the uni- versity, afterwards published in his Opuscula Academka (1834- 42)'. In the first of these Opuscula, a paper originally published in 1829, he proved that certain alleged orthographical fragments of 'Apuleius', which had imposed on Mai and Osann, were forgeries of the fifteenth century'. He attained a European repu- tation by his masterly edition of Cicero, De Pinibus (1839)', one of those standard works which instruct and stimulate the student not only by the knowledge they impart but also by the way in which they impart it'. His Latin Grammar (1841), followed by a volume of 'Observations' (1844), was translated into all the languages of Europe. ' The great merits of the book are its clearness, and grasp of the subject, within the limits which the writer set himself; its power of analysis, and its command of classical usage". Meanwhile, he was pursuing those wider studies of the text of the Greek as well as the Latin Classics, which bore fruit in his Adversaria Critica. In 1846 he produced his Greek Syntax'^, and, in the same year, a tour in Germany gave him the opportunity of making the acquaintance of Schneide- win, and also of Boeckh, with whom he had a close affinity. He was on friendly terms with Halm, and the sixth volume of Baiter and Kayser's Cicero was dedicated by Baiter to Madvig, — Tullianorum criticorum principi.

' Ed. 1, 1887. » Nettleship, U 5—7. ' Ed. 3, 1876.

* Bursian, ii 946 ; cp. Nettleship, ii 7— ro.

' Neltteship, ii 10 f.

' Followed by Beinerkungen in Philoiogus, Suppl. 1848.

i.MM,Googlc

CHAP. XXXVETI.} MADVIG. 321

When he resumed his professorship in 1851, on ceasing Co be Minister-of Education, his study of Roman Constitutional History led to his devoting his main attention to Livy. He produced his well-known Emendationes Livianae in i860', and his edition of the text, in conjunction with Ussing, in i86i~6'. On the completion of his Livy, he made a lengthy tour in Switzerland, Italy and France, and, in 1869, saw still more of Italy. In 187 1-3 he published the two volumes of his Adversaria Critica, with an admirable introduction on the general principles of textual criticism, illustrated by examples. After producing a German edition of his minor philological writings (1875), he began to suffer from increasing weakness of sight, but. did not resign the duties of his professorship until five years later. Mean- while, he brought out new editions of his works, including several volumes of his Livy, a German translation of his Greek Syntax, a selection from Cicero's Speeches, and nearly completed a new edition of his Opuscula Academica (1887). He had also returned to the study of the text of Cicero, had produced in 1884 an Appendix to his Adversaria, and an important work in two volumes on the Constitution and Administration of the Roman Slate (1881-2)'. Finally, when the eyesight of the unwearied veteran began to grow dim, he dictated his Memoirs from the days of his childhood down to 1884.

From the outset of his career as a scholar, his special field had been verbal criticism. A rational method of estimating the value of Mss, and applying the results, had lately come into vogue ; MSS were no longer to be counted, but to be weighed in comparison with the original archetype. This method was ex- tended by Madvig, and was carried through with remarkable clearness and precision*. In the preface to the De Finibus there is a characteristic passage in which he compares the textual critic to a judge whose duty it is to elicit the truth from the conflict of evidence'.

• Enlarged ed. 1877.

' Cp. Nettleship, ii 11—14. ' Cp. Netcleship, ii 16 — 19.

* Cp. his preface lo the 11 Oialions of Cic, reprinled in his Oputc, ' Transl. in Neltleahip, ii 8.

s. III. I,. i„ iiAi-OOi^lc

322 DENMARK. [CENT. XIX.

He had a lemarkable aptitude for conjectural emendation. In Cicero, pro Caelio, no less than six of his corrections were subsequently confirmed by the ms formerly in the abbey of St Victor". But his conjectures were not all of equal value; he was certainly less successful with the text of Plato than with that of Cicero ; and he himself regretted that he was not more familiar with the style of the Greek Tragic Poets. Quam vellem poetas Graecos tt praesertim Atticos non ailigissel, was Cobet's saying of Madvig ; Munro would have extended the remark to the Roman poets'; and KitschI had occasion to attack him for the metrical mistake of changing mutasse into natasst in a passage of Ovidl

Verbal criticism he regarded, however, as a means to an end, and that end was the vivid realisation and the perfect presentation of the civilisation of Greece and Rome, whether in literature, or in public or private life. A lecture of 1881 gives proof of the breadth of his interest in the study of language^ but he cared little for the minor details of Comparative Philology. The subject- matter of the I-alin Classics was less largely represented in his published works than in his professorial lectures. In his paper on Asconius, he followed Niebuhr in maintaining the spuriousness of part of the commentary. The earliest of his papers on the Institutions of Rome were those on the Equites, the Colonies, and the tribuni aerarii^.

' His familiarity wilh ante- and post-classical I^lin was by no means on a par with his mastery of Ciceronian and Livian style. Nor does he display that nice sense of usage which makes the study of J. F. Utonovius, Ruhnken, Heindorf, Collet, so instructive. Robust common sense, revoking against impossibilities in thought and expression, a clear perception of what the context requires, a close adherence to the ductus litltrarum seem to me' {says Professor Mayor) 'his great merits as a critic'".

'Whatever ftultsmaybe found in his work,, ..it has always' (adds Professor Netlleship) 'the characteristic of a sound humanity. The whole man is there : it is not a fragment of a mind, or a half-grown mind, which we see active

' A. C. Clark, Anad. Oxoti. X, xxxi f.

^ Jeumal of PhiM. vi 78.

' Met. iv 46 ; OpHsc. Pkilol. iii (cp. Nettleship, ii 15).

* Was ill Sprachv/isstHschqft f

* All reprinted in Opusc. " CI. Rev. i 114.

ogle

CHAP. XXXVIII.] MADVIG. 323

bernr« us '■ He has ' a certain simpticily and wholesome iiidepen<)ence '. and he was ' uninfluenced bj any definite philological tradition '', 'Clear, sound, and independent judgement, formed always on first-hand study, is one of Madvijj's greatest characteristics ''. ' He'never lost sight of the real position and value of classical philoli^y.,.. It is not in the literary enjoyment afforded by the Greek and Latin writers, nor in the gymnastic training given to the mind by mastering their grammar, that he places their educational value 1 hut in the fact that they offer the necessary and the only means of obtaining a first-hand view of the Giaeco- Roman world, and therefore of the fore-iime of European civilization''. ' He was always impressing on the students that the ultimate and highest aim of their studies was to gain a sure insight into history, 3 clear and living idea of the life of the Greek and Roman world ''■

All the classical scholars of modern Denmark were trained by Madvig during the half century of his tenure of the Latin Professorship. His general character was marked by a hatred of empty talk and exaggerated phrases, a strong sense of justice and an unswerving integrity- He had a singular grace and ease of manner". In carryii^ out, however, the principle of his favourite motto, 'speaking the truth in love', he often appeared to emphasise the first part of that motto even more than the second. One of his pupils has aptly applied to his master the language once applied by the latter lo the Father of History : —

'quern ob argumenli amplitudinem ingeniique candorem et suavilatem veneramur el diligimus".

The jubilee volume of Opuscula presented to Madvig in 1876 by some of his former pupils included papers by R. Christensen {1843 — 1876), the student of Greek history and archaeolc^y', criticisms on Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetic by Ussing', emenda- tions of Plautus by Sophus Bugge of Christiania', and of other Latin authors by Whitte, the translator of Terence'", translations from Hesiod by C. P. Christensen Schmidt'", and, lastly, emenda-

' Nettleahip's Essays, ii 4 f. ' ib. 19.

» Kleiru SchrifUn, 385 f (Nettleship, 20).

* Gerti, ib. Ji f. " CI. Rn,. i 114.

■ J. L. Heibei^, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, 201— aji ; cp. M. C. Getti in Btrlin. PkU. Woch. 5 and 11 Feb. 1887, and esp. iit Brick a's Dansk Bto- grafisk Lexicon ; John Mayor in CI. Rcv-'aiii; Nettleahip's i'jjafj, ii 1—53.

' Life in Tidskrift, Ser. It iii 279.

' P- m infra. ° )>■ 331 'V"-

•''p.3i8W>-«-

324 DENMARK. [CENT. XIX.

tions of Quintilian by M. CI. Gertz, and remarks on early medi- aeval Latin by V. Thomsen, both of whom are still professors at Copenhagen.

Among Danish editions of Cicero, which had the advantage of contributions from Madvig, were Rudolf Henrichsen's De Oratore (1830), P. H. Tregder's Tusculan Disputations (1841), and G. F. W. Lund's De Officiis (1848). The first of these, Henrichsen (1800— 1871), was one of the students associated with Madvig and Elberling in their joint edition of Garatoni'. He was afterwards a schoolmaster at Soro and Odense, and was specially interested in the Anthologia Patatina, and in Byzantine and modem Greek ; but his principal work was the above-mentioned Dt Oratore, in which he was further aided by Elberling. Carl Wilhelm Elberling (1800 — 1870), the rector of a school in Copenhagen, produced a useful edition of Plato's Apology and Crito ; he also studied the Greek lexicographers, and contributed to the London edition of the Greek Thesaurus tyl H. Stephanus. E. F. C. Bojesen (1803 — 1864), whose Copenhagen dissertations on Greek Music and on Aristotle's Problems ac- quired some celebrity in Germany, was ultimately rector of Soro. He edited Sallust; his Handbook of Roman Antiquities (1839), mainly founded on Madvig's lectures, and his similar work on Greek Antiquities', were translated into German and other lan- guages. His later papers on Aristotle's Polities', and his trans- lation of Ethics viii and ix', attained a considerable popularity. A. S. Wesenberg (1804—1876), who was a pupil and afterwards a master at Viborg, owes his repu- tation to his critical edition of Cicero's Letters', which was pre- ceded and succeeded by the publication of ' Emendations ' on the text. He also published Emendatiunculae Livianae in modest imitation of Madvig's Emendationes. The editor of the Tusculan Disputations, P. H. Tregder (1815—1887), rector of Aalborg, wrote a Danish history of Greek art, a handbook of Greek and I^tin literature (twice translated into

' p. 110 supra. ' E. T. 1848.

' Soro prc^r. 1844 f, 1851 f. * 1838.

' Teubnertext, Lcipiig, 187J-3.

..oogic

CHAP. XXXVni.] BOJESEK. WESENBERG. USSING. 325

German), a handbook of Greek Mythology, and a distinctly meritorious Greek Grammar (1844). Lastly, G. F. W. Lund (rSzo — 1891), who began his scho- lastic career at Christianshavn and Copenhagen and ended it at Aalborg and Aarhus, was 'adjunct' to the cathedral-school of Nykjobing during the intermediate time when he was editing the Cato Major and Laelius as well as the De Offidis of Cicero, and the Fhiiippics and De Corona of Demosthenes.

The scholar associated with Madvig in his edition of the text of Livy was Johan Louis Ussing {1820—1905). As a student at Copenhagen, Ussing was not attracted by Brondsted to the study of classical archaeology, for Brondsted was then lecturing on classical philology. He was fer more distinctively a pupil of Madvig, who inspired him with a keenly critical temper, without succeeding in interesting him either in Roman Institutions or in Latin Syntax. Madvig, in fact, recommended Ussing to devote himself to archaeology, and introduced him to the art-critic Hoyen, who prompted him to study Greek vases, and thus led to his writing the dissertation de nominibus vasorum Graecorum (1844),

After travelling for two years in Italy and Greece', he lectured on the topography and monuments of Athens, and was appointed Reader in Philology and Archaeol<^y in 1847, the date of his publication of certain Greek inscriptions. Madvig's absence on public service led to Ussing's taking a larger share in the philo- logical lectures, and he became a full professor three years later. While he was associated with Madvig in his edition of I-.ivy, his own masterpiece was his annotated edition of Plautus (1875-87). In that work his sobriety as a textual critic is suggestive of the influence of Madvig. He published critical observations on Aristotle's Rhetoric and PoetW; and a commentary on the Cha- racters of Theophrastus, and on Philodemus De Vitiis (1868). His

1 Cp. ReJMhitltdtr fra Sydtn, 1847; the 'Thessalian tout' and the paper on the Parthenon are included in Gr. Rtisen und Sludicu, 1857. His later reminiscences are entided Fra en Kijse (1873), Fra Hellas eg lAUeasien (1883), and Nfdre-Mgypten {r889).

' Opuscula ad Madoig'mm mislay \i\ i.

,l^.OO'

SIC

326 DENMARK. [CENT. XIX.

brief sketch of Greek and Roman Education', and his manual of Metrik* (1893), were translated into German. One of his papers (1896), in which he proposed a new date for Vitruvius, was translated into English'. He was the founder of the Museum of Classical Archaeolc^y at Copenhagen, and bequeathed to the Museum his collection of archaeological books. Even in extreme old age he was one of the keenest and most eager of workers, and we are assured by the author of a tribute to his memory that the expression of weariness prominent in his portrait at Copen- hagen is untrue to his real character'.

One of the ablest and most promising of the pupils of Madvig, H. F. F. Nutzhom (1834—1866), began his brief career by publishing valuable papers on Greek mythology, and on the history of Greek literature, and the lost Epics of the Trojan Cycle'. As a candidate for the degree of Doctor, he discussed the origin of the Homeric poems, and his treatise on that subject was published in Danish in 1863. He soon began to lecture with remarkable success on Aristophanes; and, with a view to his further studies, he paid two visits to Italy, late in 1863 and in 1865. On the second of these visits he collated the Venice Mss of Aristophanes, and was looking forward to visiting Greece for the purpose of studying its modem lan- guage and literature, when, at the early £^e of thirty-one, he died of typhoid fever in February, 1866'. A German translation of his treatise on the Homeric poems, which had been con- templated while he was still living, was successfully completed

' rSfij-s; Germ, trans. 1874, 1885'.

» New cd. 1895.

' Refuted by Krohn, Birl. Pkilol. Week. 1897, 773 i cp. Schaiu % 355. p. 350; and M. H. Morgan, in Harvard Studies, xvii (1906) 9; also Degeriiig, in Rhein. Mas. 1901, and Bert. Phil. Woch. 1907, nos. 43—49- In 1894 Ussing deall with the 'developement of the Greek column', and in 1897 wilh the 'history and monuments of Pecgamos' (Germ, trans. 1899).

* J. L. Heiberg, Danike Videmiaderaes Selsiab (Copenhagen), 3 Nov., •9051 7' — 75 '• <^P' ^- Trojel in Nordisk Tidsskrift. Set. Ill, xiii 91 — 96, with porlrail and bibliography; and Sam Wide in Bert. Phil. Wxh. 1898, 87Sr; also bii^raphical sketch and liibliograph]' by Drachmann in Biegr. Jakrb. 1907, 115— 15 r, partly founded on Ussing's autobiography (1906).

' Tidiirifi, Ser. 1, ii-vii.

• Cp. Gerli, in Bricka.

h. !■, ii,l^.OOglc

CHAP. XXXVIII.] NUTZHORN. 327

three years after his death, when it was published with a preface by Madvig'. Woirs views had been criticised by Madvig in his lectures on Greek literature, and it was these lectures that had impelled his pupil to take up the question. Madvig, while admitting the importance of Wolfs famous Prolegomena as a stimulating work, which had justified its existence by destroying a 'far too naive tradition,' himself describes it as lacking in perspicuity, as illogical and inconclusive, and as having turned the criticism of Homer on to a wrong track'.

Nutzhom compares the consequent condition of Hometic criticism to "a pathless wililemess in whicii the 'guiding star' might possibly prove a mere will o' the wisp"'. Dividing his own work intolwoparts, 'historical evidence', and 'internal criteria', he deals with the Toimer under four heads;— {■) the evidence on the text; {■x) the story about Peisistratus ; (3) the Homeridae ; and (4) the contrast between the earlier ojiiioi and the later pa<i»fial. He shows (1) that the known variations of reading do not point to more than one ancient redaction ; (i) that the evidence as to Peisislratus is late, con- flicting, and, in general, unsatisfactory, while'Wolfs inference, that the Jliad and Odyssty did not exist in a complete form before the time of Peisistralus, is disproved by 'Homeric reminiscences' in poeis as early as Hesiod, Archi- lochus, Alcman and Hipponax, and by scenes from the Iliad on the chest of Cypsclus. (3) Modem criticism is not justified (he urges) in regarding the Chian clan of the Homeridae as rhapsodes; this chapter is less satisfaclaiy than the rest of the work. (4) Tlie contrast betureen the leisurely bards of the olden age, who sang successive portions of lengthy epic poems at the courts of chieflains, and the rhapsodes of a later time, who huniedly rehearsed selected passages amid the excitement of a popular festival, suggests that the former is the mode of recitation for which epic poeliy was originally intended, and shows that, in form as well as substance, the Homeric poems are the creation of a pre-historic age. The rhapsodes were 'an uncongenial and even destructive element ', but the mischief done by them was counteracted by statesmen like Solon*, and by the more eilended use of writing in Greece.

In the second part Nulzhorn criticises the various attempts that had been made to resolve the Iliad into short lays, and contends that the small discrepancies, which had been noticed by modern 'critics with the printed

' Dit EnlslthungSToeist der HonterischtH Gcdiehtt; [/n/trsucAungen iilier dii Btrtchtigung der aufioimden Homtrkrilik (Teubner, Leipzig, 1869, ^68 pp.).

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328 DENMARK. [CENT. XIX.

pige before Ihem, would have passed unobserved by the original audience, and did not suffice to prove a difleience of authorship. He also discusses Grole's Ackilltid, pointinj; out that the lengthy porlioos of the Iliad, which do not beloi^ to the AchilUid, nmy be regarded as episodes characteristic of the earliest epic poetry, and as serving to help the original audience to realise the long absence of Achilles from the field of battle.

The author is perhaps unduly violent in his inveclive against the views then prevalent in Northern Germany, and political diHerences between Denmark and Prussia appear to give a keener edge lo his controversial temper. But the permanent value of his work is hardly impaired by the patriotic spirit which makes il (for out present purpose) a characteristic product of the scholarship of Denmark'.

From the classical scholars we may now turn to four of the Danish translators of the Classics : — (i) the learned lady, Birgitte Thott (1610— 1662), who translated Seneca (1658), and Epictetus

and Cebes (1661); (2) the Danish poet, C. F. E.

Wilster(i797 — 1840), whose renderings of Homer and of eight plays of Euripides are among the classics of his country; (3) the scholar and schoolmaster, H, K. Whitte {1810 — 1894), who translated Terence into Danish verse; and (4) C. P. C. Schmidt (1832—1895), who continued Wilster's translation of Euripides, and also published excellent renderings of Hesiod', Heliodorus and ApoUonius Rhodius', Meanwhile, in Iceland, Sveinbjorn Egiisson (1791 — '852) had produced, in verse as well as prose, a magnificent translation of the whole of Homer, revealing in his vigorous poetic rendering of the Odyssey in particular* a perfect consciousness of the kinship between the spirited style of the old Greek Epic and that of the Northern Sagas. His marvellous command of the poetic resources of the old Norse language is also fully proved by his important Lexicon poetkum antiquae linguae Sepientrionalis (1860)°.

In conclusion we must briefly mention two Comparative Phi-

' See esp. D. B. Monro's discriminating notice in the Aeadimy, i 16 f, ' Opmcuia ad...Madvigium...mlisa (:876), 179—393. ' Life in Tidsskrifl, Ser. in, iv 94; papers on Greek Syntax, ib. Ser. 11 ('874-9S).

* Ed. 1S54; Iliad in prose, Reykjavik, iSjj ; LjSdmaiU, ib. 1856 (Latin poems on pp. 147—193 ; Greek, 193).

• Late in the previous century an edition of Terence (1780) had been pro- duced in Iceland by Gudmundur Magnusson (1741 — '798) ; p. 318 lupra.

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CHAP. XXXVIII.] RASK. VERNER.

lologists, Rasmus Kristian Rask (1787 — 1833) and Karl Adolf Verner (1846 — 1896). Rask studied Icelandic in comiJ»T«tiv« Copenhagen in 1807 and subsequently visited Ice- Phiioioeim ; land. His ' Investigations on the origin of the old Northern or Icelandic language' were completed in 1814, but the work was not published until four years later. Meanwhile he was enabled to extend his knowledge of European and Asiatic languages by going abroad for six years (1816-22). The first third of this lime was spent in Stockholm, the next in Finland, Russia and Persia, and the third in India. It was during this memorable tour that he wa^ the first of European scholars to acquire a grammatical knowledge of ' Zend '. In 1825 he became professor of the history of Asiatic literature at Copenhagen, and, late in life, attained the goal of his ambition in a professorship of oriental langu^es. But he was already in failing health, and died soon after at the early age of 45 '.

The point of interest in Rask is his partial anticipation of a law laid down by Jakob Grimm. Rask, in his work on Icelandic and other languages, gave proof of his having already partially discovered the law underlying the relations between the mute consonants (more especially the dentals) in Gothic, Scandinavian, and German. The work (published in 1818) did not come to the knowledge of Grimm until the eve of the publication of the first edition of his Deutsche Grammatik (1819)'; he immediately recognised its importance, and this recognition left its traces on bis second edition (1822)', It was here that he fully and scien- tifically enunciated the law as to the consonantal relations between (i) Sanskrit, Greek and Latin; (z) High German and (3) Low German (including English), which in England has always been known as 'Grimm's law". But the law has its exceptions. The discovery that these exceptions were due to the original accentua- tion of the Indo-Germanic languages was made by Verner. The

■ Life by N. M. Petersen in Rask's and in Tetersen's Afhandlingtr ; and by V. Thomsen, in Bricka; cp. Max Mliller's Leclurrs.x 185, ijr'.

' Pref. p. xviii (quoted by R. von Raumer, 508).

' R. von Rauraer's Gtsch. der Girm. Pkilot. (1870) 470 — 486, 507 — 515 ; H. Paul's Gruttdriis (ed. 1901) 80 — 83; cp. Giles' Manual, § 39.

* Giles, g 99.

330 DENMARK. NORWAY. [CENT. XIX.

son of a Saxon father and a Danish mother, he was born and bred in Denmark, was absent, for six years only, as a librarian at Halle, and on his return in 18S3 became, for the last sixteen years of his life, lecturer and ultimately ' extraordinary ' professor of Slavonic languages at his own university of Copenhagen'. He was not a classical scholar ; he never wrote on anything but comparative philology, phonetics, and Russian literature, and, except at his matriculation, never passed a clas- sical examination. Even in his special province of Comparative Philology he only published three papers, but the name of the author of ' Verner's law ' will probably be perpetually remembered in the history of the science of language'. The discovery of 'Grimm's law' had been partially anticipated by a Dane; and it was another native of Denmark who happily explained its apparent exceptions.

So long as Norway was united to Denmark, Copenhagen was J, . the university frequented by students from both

university of Countries, except so far as they resorted to seats of learning in foreign lands'. The desire of the Norwegians for a university of their own, first openly expressed in r66i, remained unsatisfied until 1811, when the university of Christiania was founded by Frederick VI*. Three years later, Norway was separated from Denmark and was united with Sweden,— a union recognised by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and peacefully dissolved in 1905, when the throne of Norway was accepted by a prince of Denmark.

In 1814 the separation of Norway from Denmark gave a new impulse to an independent Norwegian literature; but the literature

' Life by M. Vib*k (wilh Ihree porlrails) in Verner's Afhandlingir og Breve (Cop. 1893). Cp- V. Thomsen, in Bricka.

' The law was first propounded in Kuhn's Zcilsckrift, xxiii {li^!^) 97 — :30, Eint Atisnahinf der ersUn Lauivcrsehitbung (reprinted in the Afhandlingtr, wilh Iwo other papers, and with reviews and lettera, and phonometric investi- gations). Cp. H. Paul's Grundriss (1901) 116 f, 569, 386—506 ; King and Cookson's lutroditclion (1890) 83 f ; and Giles, §S ^i, 104.

^ e.g. Cologne, Prague and Rostock {ep. L. Daae, Nordiski Sludtrende, Chr. 1875, 1885).

' Minei-Ka, 11.

„.,.,, .A.tXYSic

CHAP. XXXVIII.] VERNER. BUGGE. 331

of Norway has proved to be more independent than its scholar- ship. As we shall see in the immediate sequel, the foremost representative of classical and comparative philology in Christiania owed much to his training in Copenhagen and Berlin. But, in more than one point, his work is marked by a distinct in- dependence.

'Vemer's law', propounded (as we have seen) by a native of Denmark', was further investigated by a native of Norway. The investigator was Soph us Bugge ('833 — 1907). At the age of seventeen, while he was still a student in Christiania, he produced a paper on consonantal changes in the Norwegian dialects'; and he was barely twenty when he began to contribute to Kuhn's Zeitschrift". His high promise in the science of language was recognised by his receiving a royal grant which enabled him to spend two years at the universities of Copenhagen and Berlin (1858-60). In Copen- hagen he studied I^tin under Madvig, and Sanskrit under. Westergaard ; in Berlin, Sanskrit under Weber and Bopp, and Germanic philology under Haupt. In 1864 the offer of a professorship of Old Norse at the Swedish university of Lund expedited his appointment to a professorship of Comparative Philology in Christiania, a position which he held for the more than forty remaining years of his life. His numerous distinctions included honorary degrees at the fourth centenary of Upsala (1877), and at the third of Edinbui^h (1884). His reputation mainly rests on his researches into (he languages and literatures and mythology of Scandinavia, on his works relating to the ancient Italic dialects, and on his acute (though perhaps unduly bold) emendations of the text of Plautus'. In 1873 he edited the Mastei/arta\ and, two years later, the play was performed in

' p. no supra.

" Gubemalis, Diet. Int. 1888 j.i/.

" ii 38J-; (on Oscan).

* Tu/skrifl for Filelogt, I vi (1865-fi) i-io, vil 1—58; Phiklogus, XXX 636, xxxi 147-61; Ncue/ahrb.cVa (1873) 401-19; Ofun. ad Madvigiuia, '53—19'-

'• Reviewed by Loienz in Philol. Anzeiger vii sis-g (on Lofenz. cp. MfSm^i Suam mique m Tidskrifl, I viii (1868 f) 104—111).

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332 NORWAY. SWEDEN. [CENT. XV f

honour of the jubilee of one of the professors of Christiania', The papers which he published in German included etymological contributions to Curtius' Studien', and studies on ' Verner's law", and on the old Italic dialects' ; he also aided Whitley Stokes in his ' Old Breton Glosses '. In his ' Studies on the origin of the old Northern legends of gods and heroes ' he aroused considerable controversy by maintaining that the Scandinavian mytholc^y was partly derived from Greek and Latin, and Jewish and Christian, sources, and by further su^esting that this element was imported in the age of the Vikings by Northmen who had visited the British Islands *. From Scandinavian mythology he suddenly turned to the study of runic inscriptions, and to the investigation of the Etruscan language*, the origin of which he endeavoured to elucidate by means of two inscriptions of Lemnos'. By all these vigorous incursions into several important provinces of learning he gave signal proof of being a most versatile representative of Scandinavian scholarship'.

During the Revival of Learning it was the school of Law at

Perugia which supplied the link between certain

^RMg" scholars of Sweden and the Italian humanists.

Conrad Ro^e, a Swede of Westphaltan origin, who

had graduated at Leipzig in 1449, resumed his studies by spending

live years (1455-60) at Perugia*. He there transcribed for himself

' L. C. M. Aubert (born in 1807), f rofessor of Lalin ; a writer on Terence,

and on Lalin Verbal jlixion (1875).

" iv (i87i)30if.3»S— 354-

' Paul and Braune's Beitrase K^&We), xii (1887) S99— 4J0; xiii (1888) 167— 186, 3"— 332.

* ChrUliania, i8;8; and Kuhn's ZtUickrifl, xxLi 385—466.

' Chr. 1881; Germ. Trans., Munich, 1881-1; criticised by G. Stephens (London, 1S83), and olhers; cp. A. J. P. iii 80, and further literature in Halvorsen's Nonk FarfalUr- Lexikon {:885— 1901), i 513 f.

' Deecke's i'/r. Forschuttsin,\y (i9&^\ Bezzenberger's Stilragr xi (1886); Elr. utid Armenitch, Chr. 1890.

' Chr. tS86 (Bursian's/<iV»j. Ixxxvii 111).

' Bibliography in Halvorsen's Ltxiton, and in Upsala Juttlfest^ 1877, P- 3.'3-

* Similarly Bi^erus Magni, the future bishop of Vester&, had graduated at Leifizig (1438) and Perugia (1448); Annersledl, Upsala Univtrsilels Hisleria, iti877)ii.

CHAP. XXXVin.] ROGGE. THE BROTHERS MAGNI. 333

a speech of Demosthenes and several of the works of Cicero, besides two of the recent orations of the Italian humanist, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini. During his stay in Italy he purchased a fine MS of Lactantius, 'the Christian Cicero', and, on the blank pages at the end, preserved a copy of the brief and unimportant Latin speech delivered by himself in 1460, with a view to his receiving the Doctor's degree. As the first of the long series of Latin orations written by natives of Sweden, it has a peculiar interest ; it is clearly founded on classical models, it is rich in rhetorical phrases, but it has hardly any other merit*. Before returning to Sweden, Rogge visited Florence, and stayed for two months at Siena, where Aeneas Sylvius was then residing. From 1479 to his death in 1501 he was bishop of Strengnas, where his hs of Lactantius is still preserved'. He deserves to be remembered as the earliest of the humanists of Sweden'.

The spirit of the Revival was still more strongly represented by the brothers Johannes and Olaus Magni. The elder of these, Johannes Magni (1488 — 1544X had '^'"m)!^*'" studied at the Catholic universities of Louvain and Cologne ; and his character was doubtless fully formed when, at the age of 32, he was sent to Rome as the envoy of Sweden, and received a degree in Theolc^y at Perugia*. The influence of Italian humanism is nevertheless clearly visible in the correctness of his Latinity and in his inordinate passion for fame. In 1523 he was sent as Legate to Sweden by Adrian VI (his former preceptor at Louvain). He was soon elected archbishop of Upsala, but in 1536 was compelled to go into exile, living first at Danzig and finally in Rome. As the last of the Catholic archbishops of Sweden, he wrote a Latin history of all his predecessors, and also a history of 'all the kings of the Goths and Swedes ', The latter, with its infinite series of fabulous princes, is

1 Printed in Beiuelius, Monum. acUs. (1709) 106; cp. Henrik SchUck, in SchUck a.nd. ViMhaT^s Illustrerad Svm.<i LiStrraturAislBria, i (1896) nS7-

' Aminson, Bibl. Timpli Calh. Slrengensis, Praef. iv, and Suppl.

• Svtnskt Biegrafiskt Ltxikan (Upsala, 1835 0- N. F. (1883) i.!/. For lives of all (he natives of Sweden mentioned in this chapter, cp. the above Ltxikon, 33 vols-, and Linder's Nerdiii Familjebsk, 18 vols., Stockholm, 1876-94.

' Life by Olaus Magnus in Script. Rer. Suec. iii (1), 1876, p. 7+, 'accepto in theologia magisteiio ' during his residence at the ' gymnasium Peiusinum '.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

334 SWEDEN. [cent. XV f

a still more uncritical performance than the elaborately written and curiously illustrated ' history of the northern nations ', which was published in Rome in 1555 by his younger brother, 'Olaus Magnus' (1490— 1557)'.

Meanwhile, not long before the birth of the brothers Magni,

the university of Upsala had come into being. In

"t^'u " accordance with a solemn decree of the Swedish

clergy, the university was formally founded by arch-

. bishop Ulfsson in 1477- In that year, Sixtus IV sanctioned the

-institution of a studium generale in Sweden, on the model of

Bologna; the actual pattern adopted was probably that of Cologne

or Rostock, while the archbishop and the regent of the realm

conceded to the new seat of learning'the royal privileges of Paris'.

Hitherto the Swedes had studied mainly in Paris, Prague, Erfurt,

Leipzig, Rostock or Greifswald^. Even after 1477, they resorted

to the last three universities*, and, early in the next century, to

the Protestant university of Wittenberg or the Catholic university

of Cologne'. The university of Upsala, founded during the

regency of Sten Sture (1470 — 1503). ""^^ splendidly endowed by

Gustavus Adolphus (1611-31), who, in 1630, followed up his

conquest of Livonia by founding the university of

and Abo Dorpat. Ten years later, during the minority of

his daughter, Christina, a university was founded

for Finland at Abo, there to remain until the town was destroyed

by fire in 1827 and the university transferred to Helsingfors-

The first Swede who certainly studied Greek was the turbulent

archbishop, Gustaf Trolle {c. 1485—1535), who, as

Sweden: a Student at Cologne in 1512, was instructed in the

Trolle Erotemata of Chrysoloras. His own copy of that

catechism of Greek Grammar, dated 1507, passed with the books

of the younger Benzelius into the library at Linkoping. On the

blank leaf next to the preface, Trolle wrote a short Latin life of

Chrysoloras, preceded by the items given below : — firstly, his own

' Sehilck, 167-9. ' Anneraledt, i 13 f; Rashdall, ii igof.

' Annersledi, i S^l^. .

* Slieriihielm (p. 338 ify9-a) graduated at Greifswald, which subsequently belonged to Sweden from 1648101815. ' ' Annerstedt, i IJ, 44.

h, i.MiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXXVIII.] STUDY OF GREEK. 335

name written in the capital letters of the newly acquired language, and next, the name of his instructor, and the date on which he began his study of Greek.

TPOAAB

Pfcuiiarii if la Greet Liltrrature inftilalio a Jokanne Ci/ario Juliaccn/i* in Cotonimfi AckacUmia pridie Kalend. Majas Anni duodtHmi fupra <.diclii-3- fcculs profftro Herculi ftliciler aufpicata^.

In the same age l^urentius Andreae, or Lars Andersson (1482 — 1552), archdeacon of Upsala and chancellor of Gustavus Vasa, gives proof of an independent Andrea" knowledge of the Greek text in his Swedish version of the New Testament founded on Luther's translation and published at Stockholm in 1526'. The same holds good of the Swedish Bible produced in 1541, and partly revised oibu« »nd in 1543-9. by the brothers Glaus and Laurentius Laurentiu* Petri, or Olof and Lars Petersson, both of whom had studied Greek under Melanchthon at Wittenberg*. Laurentius Petri {1499 — 1573) was archbishop of Upsala from 1531 to his death in 1573- His son-in-law, Laurentius Petri Gothus {1529—1579), who similarly studied Greek ^^^"ciothus at Wittenberg, prefixed to his I^tin elegiac poem of •559 * Greek epigram of his own composition*. In 1566 he was appointed by Erik XIV to leach Greek at the university (which had meanwhile passed through a period of decline), and in 1573-9 he was the successor of his father-in-law as archbishop of Upsala.

In 1580, under the catholic king, Johan III, the university was closed, and the professors imprisoned ; but the king was not uninterested in Greek, for he instructed Erik, bishop of Abo, to translate the Swedish liturgy into Greek and to present it to the patriarch of Constantinople'. In 15S4 the first item in a collec- tion of Carmina congratulating Christian Barthold of Viborg on

' Of Juliets or Jlilich, near Cologne {1460—155:). Cp. Jocller, t.v. ' E. M. Fanl, Nisleriola LUttralurae Graecat in Suicia (id ann. 1700), in 14 parts forming two vols, with Suppl., Upsala, 1775 — 1786, i i|. ' Fant, i 13; Colophon in Schilck, 177. * Fant, i isf- ' I'i. i 19.

i.MM,Googlc

336 SWEDEN. [CENT. XV f

■ Martini

receiving a degree from Johann Possel (1528 — 1591), the Greek professor at Rostock, was a set of 24 Gret^k hexame- ters contributed by Olaus Martini, archbishop of

Upsala,— one of the first Greek poems produced in Sweden'. In the same year, Jacob Erik, Greek professor at

Jacob Brik .

Upsala, published an edition of Isocrates ad Demo- nicum'.

In 1604-13 professorships in Mathematics and Hebrew were held by Johan Rudbeck {1581— 1646), the future bishop of Vester^s, who studied Greek at Witten- berg, and required his pupils always to speak either Latin or Greek'. In a synod which he held at Reval in 1627, the less learned clei^ listened in amazement while his secretaries dis- puted in Greek with Gabriel Holsten of Vesteras (1598^1649), who, like Rudbeck, had learnt his Greek at Wittenberg*. In [621 a professorship of Greek was instituted at Upsala by Gus- tavus Adolphus, the Chair being filled in 1622 by Laurentius Matthiae, and in 1624^40' by Johannes Stalenus, who held disputations in Greek and produced fifteen sets of verses in that language*.

The 'Constitutions' of 1616 required the professor to teach the Gram mai of Clenardus or Gvalperius', and to Illustrate it in a ' Si>cralic ' manner from the Greek Testament and the Fathers, and from Homer, Euripides, Hndar, Theocritus, Sophocles and Gregory Naiianien, at 7 o'clock in the mornbg. At 3 P.M. the professor of Poetry was 10 give instruction in the att of writing verses in accordance with the precepts of Aristotle, or any other approved author, with examples from the Greek poets and from Virgil, Horace, Buchanan, Ovid etc." In the Cotligium Ripum, founded at Stockholm in 161s by the celebrated statesman Johan SkyUe, the study of Latin and Greek

* Quoted by Fant, i it— iSi wt*" '" 'he note adds a list of jo sets of Greek verses by other Swedes, not mentioned elsewhere in his work, with 50 more on pp. ii7f.

> Fant. i 15 f.

■ Fant, 141; Annersledt, i ii6f, iiif; portrait in SchUck, 193.

* Fant, i 53. * Annerstedt, i 194, ijfi. ' Fant, i 64, ii 107.

' 'Otho Gualtperius' of Witlenbei^ ('54*' — i6i4).

* Lundstedt, Bvfrag till kiinmdemen om Grtkiika SprHi/ls S/mHum vidiit Svtiuka Larovtrken fraH dtdsta till ndrvarande rfif {Stockholm, 1875, 84 pp.), 18, with many other details as to the leaching of Greek in schools.

lOO'

SIC

CHAP. XXXVIII.] LATIN VERSE. 337

is enjoined, quia at Lalina line Gratra reclt nen intelligftar, sic ni Graeia siut Latins fxplicari guidmi il Iradi fvial^. Greek is to be studied, not merely in the Grammar, but also in some libdlus sued plmta. Tlie authors specialty named are Demosthenes, Isocrates, and Homer*.

The Study of Greek rose to a higher level under a pupH of

Stalenus named Henricus Ausius (1603 — i6s9). a

"^ '" Auaiua

man of such high reputation in his day that no foreigner (we are informed) visited Upsala without calling upon him. He was professor of Greek in 1641-6, and his inaugural oration de ntcessitate Graecarum liiterarum led to his being recog- nised as the stator, or true founder, of the study of Greek in Sweden. He published tive disputations and fifteerveptgrams in that language'. He was a many-sided man, being also proficient in Law and Natural Science.

In Sweden Che Reformation of 1527 was followed by a pale reflexion of the Italian Renaissance. Even the distant North awoke to a new admiration for the unapproachable perfection of the ancient Latin poets, and en- deavoured to realise the literary associations of the Augustan age. Every princeling was eager to play the part of an Augustus or a Maecenas, and looked for a new Virgil to sing his praises. The demand soon created the supply. By the orders of 1571 and 1611, the boys in the highest class of the public schools were required to write a set of Latin verses once a week. The model for these verses was Vii^il, just as Cicero was naturally the model for prose ; and, even in the case of versifiers of maturer years, the poem which was a perfect cento of Virgilian phraseolc^y was invariably deemed the best. This type of artificial composition was introduced by a German humanist, Henricus Mollenis, Hessus <^. 1557-9), who was summoned to Sweden by Gustavus Vasa to celebrate her ancient kings'. The first Swede to win repute as a Latin poet was Laurentius Petri Gothus, who was followed by Ericus Jacobi, ^p"Jri"Qo*h by the prolific versifier Sylvester J ohannis Phrygius,

' Lundstedt, 17 f. * ib. 18.

' Fanl, i 78—81. ii 108, Annerstedt, i 4o8f.

' Ke was one of the tutors of the youngirr sous uf Gustavtu Vasa ; cp. Gvatt'va, De Statu Rd Litl. in Sutda, i (ijSj) 9 (ap. Font, ii 1); and Sditick,

i,V.ooglc

538 SWEDEN. [CENT. XVII.

and byLaurentius Fornelius (1606 — 1673), the compiler of an art of poetry, the Poitica Tripartita (1643), whose own verses (we are assured) could not be distinguished from those of Vii^il, for the simple reason that they were exclu- sively vinlttn phrasibus Virgilianis'. The only importance of this kind of ' poetry ' lies in the fact that it taught the Swedes to appreciate for the first time the significance of form, not only m Latin, but also in their own language'. A few hexameters were written in Swedish by the royal librarian, Buraeus (1568 — 1652)', the tutor of Gustavus Adolphus. Buraeus was also stinnhie'm'' ^^^ tutor of Stiemhielm, the 'father of Swedish poetry' (1598 — 1672), who, by his greatest poem, the didactic allegory on the Choice of Hercules, made the classical hexameter one of the national metres of Sweden*. Stiemhielm was at once poet and geometer, philosopher and philolc^st. As a philologist he held the patriotic view that almost all languages were descended from Old Norse',

A sounder and more scientific study of the Classics was represented by his contemporary, Johannes Loc- cenius (1598 — 1677), a native of Holstein, one of the three foreigners who were offered professorial Chairs at Upsala in the reign of Gustavus Adolphus. The Chair accepted by Loccenius in 1625 was that of History; he was afterwards extraordinary professor of Political Philosophy, and (in the reign of queen Christina) professor of Law, librarian, and historio- grapher. He was the first librarian of Upsala who constructed and printed a catalogue, the first foreign scholar who made his permanent abode in Sweden. His Curtius went through twenty editions, only one of which, however, was printed in the North*. His other works were connected with the history and geography, the law and antiquities, of his adopted country'.

> L. O. Willius to Job. Strlle. 1631 (Fanl. i 66 note v).

' Schilck, 1 19 f. ■ ib. 14S f (portrait facing 156).

* a. 148, 158 f, 311—330 {portrait facing 313).

' Origints VBcabulfmm in Unguis patnt omnibus ex lingua Svtiica vetiri, Upsala, s.a.

• Stockholm, 1637; Nepos, ib. 1638.

' Schilck, 361 r (with portrait); and Annersledl, i logf. ,^]6; further details ill the Swedish biogri|>liica1 dictionariea.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXVIII.] LOCCENIUS. CHRISTINA. 339

Queen Christina (1616—1689), 'he daughter and successor of Gastavus Adolphus, is connected with Ihe history of scholarship by het wide and varied attainments and also by her patronage of Timpn^/ learning durii^ the ten years of her reign (1644-54) and the of leomins thirty-five years of her exile (16S4-S9). At the age of ten she wrote a Latin letter to her tutor with the solemn promise poslhat velli loqtii Latim cum tteliro PraaiflariK In Latin her favourite author was Tacitus. At fourteen she knew all the languages and all the sciences and accomplish- ments her instructors could teach her^ At eighteen she could read Thucydides and Polybius in Greek ; in 1649 she reminded Descartes how much he owed to Plato'; in 1653 Naudi wrote to Gassendi :— ^//^ a teul vH, eili a loul 16. clle sail l»uC*. Educated far in advance of her subjects, she made a spirited attempt to ' engraft foreign learning on the Scandinavian stock''. In pursuit of this aim she turned to the Netherlands and France, to Northern Germany and to the free imperial city of Strassburg, which, owing to its neutral position, remained unmolested as a seat of learning, while Germany at large was suffer- it^ from the Thirty Years' War {(618-48). The Peace of Westphalia, largely due to her own efforts, left her at liberty to carry out her plan. Grotius, her envoy in France, had already visited her court , y^T"' on the occasion of his recall, but he had soon withdrawn, to N. Heiniins die on his homeward journey (1645)' Isaac Vossios. who obeyed her summons in 1649, besides acquiring on her behalf the library of Alexander Petavius of Paris^, sold her his own father's library, reserving to him- self its superintendence, and subsequently appropriating part oF its contents'. Nicholas Heinsius, a man of tai nobler character, who arrived in the same year, was sent to Italy in i6{[ to purchase books and Mss on her behalf, and, after her abdication, returned twice as \m country's envoy. Of two distin- guished natives of France, who had recently resided in the Netherlands, Descartes 'found an honourable asylum and a ^^"'^' premature death' at her court'", while Salmasius left Leyden late in life to spend a single year under the patronage of Christina, who, in rect^- nition of his pedantry, as well as his learning, once described him as omnium faiuemm doclissimutH^^, and, by her supposed preference for Milton, in his great controversy with Salmasius, won from the author of the 'Second Defence of the English People ' the splendid encomium beginning with the words ; — Ti

' J. Arckcnholtz, Hist. Merkmurdigkiilcn, iv 164.

* J. Arckenholtz, Mimoira ; French ed., iii jj. ' Arck. Mim. i 344 f ; cp. Fant, i S9 f.

* Arck. ii Appind. 39. ' Pattison, i 147.

* Cp. Arck. i 77—81 ; ii jr7 supra. ' Arck. i 368, 170.

' Heinsius and Vossius, in Eurman's Syllagt, iii 333, 6S3 ; Arck. i 171. ' lb. i 178 — 188, and Heinsius to Christina, in Burman's SjUogi, v 734 — 774- The MSS included Dioscorides and PoUum.

" Hallam, ii 461*; Atck. i 113— 131. " Arck. i 136.

r,,.,'SX'.008lc

c™en'i« pension >

340 SWEDEN. [cent. XVIL

%iiro magnammam, Augusta, le ttilam undique divina plane virluie ac

sapientia munilam^. Marcus Meibom {[630^ — 'T'o)! the NaudT author of a treatise on ancient music, cnme from Uenmark,

and Gabriel Nauiid (1600—1653). a Frenchman, wbo had lived long in Rome, waa now her librarian in the North. He had written on Ihe art of dancing, and when, to amuse the queen, her French physician com- pelled Naudj to dance to the singing of Meibom, the scene which ensaed led to the student of ancient music being banished from the court'. Samuel

Bochart, the geographer and orientalist, arrived from Caen, .nd^"Jilt bringing with him the youthful Hnet, who spent his time in

Iranscrihing a MS of Origen in the royal libiai^, and soon returned to Normandy*. Hermann Conring, who had vigorously refuted the

Papal Bull condemning the Peace of Westphalia, received a I Councillor of Sweden, and went back to his

learned labours at Helmiititdt, uhere he eloquently maintained the cause of Sweden against Poland*, and gained a high reputarion as the earliest historian of jurisprudence in Germany'. Comenius, whohad published his/an«a linguarum reserata in 1631, was invited to reform the schools of Sweden in i6j8, but declined on the ground that he bad already been invited to reform the schools of England, and his subsequent visit in 1641 had no permanent result'. Strassburg sent no less than three of the representatives

of her flourishing school of Roman history. The hrst of these, Fre n« eim Frejnsheira, the editor of Florus and Curtius, whose Latin panegyric on Gustavus Adolphus (1631) led to bis invitation to Sweden ten years later, remained for nine years as librarian and historiographer, delivered at least twenty-lhree Latin orations', lauded Christina in prose, apostrophised her in verse as l\te unicum leflim columtn liioaum^, and ultimately returned to a more genial clime to complete his restoration of Ihe lost decades of Ijvy*.

Freinsheim's fellow.pupil, Boekler, was made professor of

Eloquence at Upsala in 1649 and historiographer in the following year', but the favours granted him made him unpopular nith the Swedish professors, nor was he more successful with the students. Once, in 1650, during a lecture on Tacitus, he unfortunately observed that 'he would say more, if the plumbta capita of the Swedes could comprehend it,' where- upon be was soundly beaten by the students outside the lecture-room, and found himself compelled to return to his native land, but not without goldeii consolations on the part of Christina, as well as the perpetual title of historio-

' Milton's iVi>« IVarki.iv 181 Mitford,

• Aiek, i 141-

» Huel, Cirmment. Jt rebus suis, 107 ; Arck. i 151 J"; cp. ii

• Arck. i 197, 37S-

' O. Stobbe, Berlin, i8;o; cp. ii i6& supra.

• Arck. ii9i f. ' Ell. rfisj-

» Arck- i 19a * ii 3^7 supra.

D„:,iP<.-jM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXVIIL] SCHEFFER. 341

grapher of Sweden, which he fully justified by writing the history of the war with Denmark*. Boekler had been accompanied by his papil, Scheffer (1611 — 1679), who, while the rest were only birds of passage, mule Sweden his permajient abode. During the remaining jr years of his life be was at first professor of Eloquence and Political Philo- sophy, and afterwards librarian and professor of Inlernalional Law at Upaala. He publislied treatises on Latin style and on Roman antiquities, together with editions of Fhaedrus and Aphthonius, and of writers on tactics (Arrian and Manricius], which gave proof of an aptitude for textual criticL^im, though the library of Upsala afforded him few opportunities for the study of ancient MSS. His own Greek Mss were ultimately purchased for the Library'. In a far higher sense than l.occenius of Holstein (whose daughter he married), or than his own countryman, Freinsheiro, he was the true founder of classical philology in Sweden. His work in Sweden was in fact the principal permanent result of Christina's patronage of learning in the North".

Having long resolved on leaving the Lutheran communion, Christina found herself constrained to resign the (hrnne in 1654. The daughter of the great champion of the protestant cause in Europe joined the Church of Rome at Innspnick, rode into Rome in the garb of an Amazon, received the rile of confirmation from Alexander VII, and, in compliment to the Pope and in avowal of her favourite hero, assumed the name of Christina Alexandra. The rest of her life was mainly spent in Rome, varied with visits to Paris where she attended a meeting of [be Academy, and where Manage once bored her by presenting to the impatient Amazon an inordinate number of ' men of merit''. In Rome she took up her abode at ihe Famese palace, though this was not her only place of residence. As in the North, she surrounded herself with savanls. She enlai^ed her choice collections of manuscripts and of works of art'. She permitted Spanheim to reproduce her .

. coins and medals in his work on Numismatics, and to dedicate that work to herself in gratitude for her aid and her inspiration*. Manyof the coins were also published by Havercamp' and Ihe gems engraved by Bartoli". Early in 1656, she formed an Academy whose members met once a week at her palace'. The first rule of literary style laid donTi for her Academy shortly belore i58o was the avoidance of false ornament, and Ihe

' Arck. i 395 f. " O. Celsius, BIN. Ups. Mist. (174}) 49.

^ Cp- Arck. i 194 ; Fant, i iij — i jj| ; SchUck 161 I (with portrait, 164); and ii 368 supra.

* JUtaagiana, iv 34'; Arck. i 555.

' Catteau-Calleville, ii 191 f ^ Grauert, ii 31] f.

' 'ConsCriplus hie liber non solum luo nutu sed gazae tuae opihus instnic- tus.'

'' Namophylaaum Christinae (1741) ; Arck. ii S3, 314 f. » Musaita Odmalcum, Rome, r747-ii.

• Arck. i 501 f, Jan, 1656.

n,:i.,-iM,G00glc

342 SWEDEN. [cent. XVII.

imitadon of Ihe models followed in the ages of Augustas and of Leo X'. Sbe

was also recognised as ihe virtual founder of the quaint Academ]' of the Arcadians'. In 1668 she had some passing hopes of receiving (he crown of Poland, but the self-exiled queen of Sweden was never really happier than when she whs breathing the atmosphere of Rome. Thirty-five years after her abdication she died and was buried in the Basilica of St Peter's. In 1690 her Mss, which had been caiali^ed by Montfaucoo', were purchased for the Vatican by Alexander Vlll, who caused a medal to be struck in commemora- tion of the event*. Her collection of gems, medals, statues and pictures was bought by Don Livio Odescalchi, the nephew of Innocent XI. Many of the works of sculpture were removed to Spain, and one of theK is well known as 'the group of San Ildefonso'*. The Vienna Cameo of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arslnoe, and Correggio's picture of ' Mercury teaching Cupid to read in the presence of Venus,' now in the National Gallery of England, once belonged to the vii^n queen Christina, while the Royal Library of Stockholm still possesses seventeen of her marblebusis of famous men of old, including Homer, Demosthenes and Zeno*.

The minority of Charles XI, the son of Christina's martial

successor, Charles X, was marked by two events "tv^^ connected with the history of learning. The first

of these was the foundation of the university of Lund (1668) in the district of Scania in South Sweden, which

had ceased to belong to Denmark in 1658'. The An" quitatum second was the institution of the Collegium Anliqui-

tatum for the study of the languages, legends, laws, ecclesiastical history, and antiquities of Sweden (1667). Its

' Arck. iv 18 (p. 41 of Germ, ed.), § 18. ' Arck, ii 137 f.

' itii MSS in Bihliolheia Bibl. 14 — 97; about 1900 was the number which passed into Ihe Vatican; cp. Dudtkii Iter Romanitm (Vienna, 1855), Codua mil. Graid Reginai Sut!iat...eA. H. Stevenson sen., including Plutarch's Moraliii and Strabo and a few other clas^cal MSS (188S), and Mantheyet in Melanges (tarckJalogieet ^hisloiri, ivii — xix, also Narducci's flilW. AUxandrina ('877)-

* Copied in Arck. ii jji.

' HUbner, Anl. Bild. in Madrid, :i f, 73-g; Friederichs-Wolters, Anl. Bild. no. i66s.

■ Fant, i 96. Cp., in general, J. Arckenholli, Mfmoira cotKernant Chris- tim..., 4 vols. 4" (Amsl. and Leipzig, 1751-70), the French ed. of the same author's Hist. MtrkwHrdigiiitm (1751-60); Catteau-Calleville's Hisloire, I vols. (Paris, 1815): Ranke's/'n/w^/jVoiB*. Book viii §g;Grauert's Christifia and ihr Hof (Bonn, 1837-41) ; Pattison's Essays, i 146—355 ; F. W, Bain's Christina (1890), and the authorities quoted in most of these works.

^ WeibuU and Tegnir. Lunda Universilets Niitaria, 1868.

■ !■ i.iiA.OOgIC

CHAP. XXXVIir.] VERELIUS. FIGRELIUS. J. COLUMBUS. 343

founder was Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie ; Stierahielm was its first president, while its earliest members included classical scholars, such as Loccenius and Scheffer, whom we have already noticed, and Veretius and Normann, to whom we shall shortly return. In the autograph list of their undertakings {1670)', Stiem- hielm proposes to write on the origin and affinities of languages', while Loccenius announces that he is already engaged on a Latin translation of the laws of Sweden. In 1684 the Collegium was transferred to Stockholm, and, in 169a, merged into a department of the State.

At the time when Christina was gathering scholars around her in the North, an excellent Latinist of Dorpat and - Upsala, Olof Verelius (1618 — 1682), was travelling abroad and delivering I^in orations in Paris on the Coronation of Christina, and at Leyden on the Peace of Westphalia. He was afterwards professor of History, and of Swedish Antiquities. His Latin Opuscula were deemed worthy of publication in 1730'. The tutors of Charles XI included (ort^hWm) Edmund Figrelius (1632 — 1675), professor of His- tory, and subsequently librarian and chancellor to his royal pupil. Figrelius was a capable composer of Latin verse, and was the author of eighteen learned dissertations in Latin prose, while his treatise De statuis illustritim Romanorum (1666) makes him an exception to the rule that the Swedish successors of the Gennan scholars patronised by Christina mainly confined them- selves to attempting the composition of Ciceronian prose or Virgilian verse*. Among these typical Swedish humanists was Johan Columbus (1640 — 1684), who married a daupjhter of Scheffer. Columbus was professor of Latin poetry at Upsala. He corresponded with N. Heinsius'^ on the text of Valerius Flaccus, and was one of the best of the Latin poets of Sweden'. He gave proof of an interest in Greek by translating

' Facsimile in Schilck, facing p. 184. • p. 338, n. 5 supra.

1 Portrait in SchUck, 165.

* Schuck, 306 ; ennobled under Ihe name of Gnpenhlelm.

' Barman's Sylloge, v 163 — 187.

' 'Onimuin,,.suavissimu5', says Ihre in his /}m«r/. De Po'elU, ■^. Y}. His contemporacf, A. Nordeohielm {1633 — 1694), professor of Eloquence at Up- sala (1671), was a master al Latin style.

h. i.MiA.OOt^lC

344 SWEDEN. [CENT. XVII.

and annotating 'an uncertain Greek writer's' Homeric allegories on the wanderings of Ulysses {1678)'. Lastly, he wrote Swedish verse and had a wide knowledge of modem languages'. An interest in Latin and Swedish literature was also combined in the person of Petrus L^ertof (1648 — r699), who, at the age of 30, distinguished himself as a Latin poet and orator, and alter travelling on the continent and in England, was professor successively of Logic, Poetry, and Eloquence at Upsala, and finally historiographer of Sweden. In his T^tin ' Introduction to Swedish poetry ' he opposed Stiemhielm's adop- tion of the Latin hexameter as the metre of vernacular versed His Latin 'orations, programs and poems' were published in 1780, nearly a century after his death. The Latin iLars rof a

dignified type of Academic Latinity, whose gravest and most solemn orations were not unfrequently enlivened with flashes of wit*, was ennobled under the name of Rosenadler, and ended his days as an honorary Secretary of State. Norrman (1651 — 1703) was professor of Oriental languages and Greek at Lund (1682) and of Greek at Upsala (1686), and was ultimately archbishop of Upsala, and bishop of Goteborg. During the third of his tours abroad he examined all the mss of Vossius and Scaliger at Leyden, collected a large number of books, and, on his return, was appointed librarian at Upsala. From a ms of c. r35o, brought from Constantinople in 1658 by the diplomatist, K. B. Rfllamb, he published two orations of Aristides' (1687-8) and the edi/io princeps of the encomium of Thomas Magister on Gregory Nazianzen, with four other speeches and eight letters (r693). The same ms contained 154 Let/ert of

' Reprinled L. B. 17+5, as Porpliyrius, De crroribus Ulizis, but really writlen by Nicephorus Gregoras (Creuzet, D/iitsche Stkr., V ii r6j). It had already been prinled by Conrad Gesner, 1541-

> Cp. Fant. ii 13—16. » Cp. SchUck, 334 f.

* Lunitvalt, in Lioder, s.v.

' Or. JO, Dt inepiiis Sopiistarum (i68ji; Or. 51, Ad AchilUm, with the Aldine Art Rhttorica (1-687). Norrman was not at first aware, that Or. %i had already been edited by Camerarius (1535) and translated, wilh Iheresl olthe orations, l^ Canter (r566).

CHAP. XXXVIII.] LAGERLOF. UPMARK. NORRMAN. 345

Libanius', originally collected by Lacapenus, and afterwards edited, mainly from other mss, by J. C. Wolf. Norrman wrote Greek as well as Latin verses, and produced no less than 72 academic dissertations. Olaus Rudbeck the elder (1630— 1702), the celebrated anatomist, botanist, and antiquarian, the ' zealous patriot', who r^arded Sweden as the veritable land of the Hyperboreans and the true prototype of Plato's Atlantis', had so high an admiration of Norrman 's Latin prose that, if the occasion were to arise, he was prepared to say of him : Ciceronem vidimus, audivimus, amisimus, but' it so happened that Norrman survived his earlier contemporary by a single year. Many of Norrman's books were purchased for the Upsala Library'. His Oratiotus pamgyricae, parentalts, et programmaia were collected in 1738, and his Addenda to the Greek Thesaurus of Stephanus published by J. H. Schroder in 1830. His services to scholarship have been recounted at considerable length by Fant, who describes him as multiplici erudilione celtbrem and as Graecae litteratiirae in Sueda ferHissimum'.

Norrman was doubtless a scholar of wide attainments, but, with his contemporaries even more than with himself, the main interest lay in the imitation of ancient models of style. Like the early Italian humanists, they regarded the old classical world less as a vast empire of learning, every part of which was to be systematically subjected to historical research, than as a realm of beauty, rich with varied treasures which were to be enjoyed, and replete with perfect patterns of art and literature which were to be faithfully reproduced'.

In editing classical authors the scholars of Sweden were hampered by the absence of mss. Gustavus Adolphus had enriched the Library of Upsala with the spoils of Wiirzbui^, and, after his death, Christina had added those of Olmutz and of Prague. Among these last was the Codex Argenteus,. Ulphilas'

' Cp. R. Fiirster, Di Liianii libris MSS Upsalieusibus it Lincffpienslbus, Roslock, 1877.

' Amst. 1738 (preface); cp. O. Celsius, Bibl. Ups. Hist. (\ui) nj— "32. and Anonymi (sc. A. Norrelii) Slriclurae (1746}. 48 — 60.

' Attanliea {,i6-ii^\ Gibbon, 1117 Bury ; Schilck, 368—181 (with portnui).

* Celsius, 48. ° fiisleriola, ii 53 — 76.

■ Cp. SchUclt, 306 t

h, i.MiA.OOt^iC

34* SWEDEN. [CENT. XVII f

Gothic translation of the Greek Gospels, formerly in the Abbey of Werden near Cologne, a MS which was sent by Konigsmark to Christina, and, after passing into the hands of Isaac Vossius, was purchased by Count Magnus de la Gardie and presented to the Upsala Library'. Of the 66 niss which the Count gave to that library in 1669*, it is the only one of supreme impiort- ance. By the removal of Christina's collection scholars in the North were deprived of the best opportunity of consulting or editing classical mss in their own country'. The ancient classics were entirely unrepresented in the few Greek or Latin hss included among the hundred given to Upsala in 1705 by the great traveller and diplomatist, Johan Gabriel Sparwenfeldt' (1655 — 1727), who spent five years in visiting all the great libraries of Europe (including that of the Vatican), and in diligently noting down his observations and in transcribing mss. As a diplomatist, he afterwards studied Slavonic and other languages for three years in Russia and the adjoining parts of Asia; and, finally, he was sent abroad for a second period of five years to search in Southern Europe and in Northern Africa for ever>' vestige of the ' Goths and Vandals ', who, even down to the present day, are named among the subjects of the king of Sweden'. Late in life, Sparwenfeldt, a descendant of an ancient Danish king, and a man of majestic presence', was Master of Ceremonies at the Court of Sweden. He spoke and wrote fourteen languages, and in the evening of his days, when he had retired to his ancestral estates, he kept up an extensive correspond- ence with the foremost scholars of Europe- But, from the begin- ning to the end of his brilliant career, his main interest, lay far

' Arckeoholti, i 307 t. ' Celsius, Bibl. Ups. 76—115.

. ■ On UpsaJa mss, cp. P. F. Aurivillius, ^n/rVia Co^iVun (Lalin), 1806-13; (Greel), 1806; Graux, Notices, ed, A. Martin. Paris, 1S89; MS of Wvj, J. H. Schrbder, Ups. 1831-1, and A. T. Broniann, ib. 1855; of Tibulius, J. Bei^man, ib. iS89;.and of Libanius. Forslet, Ri>stock. 1877. See also Annecsteitt, in Upsala Ftslskrift, 1894, ii 41 — 66 passim, and in Bibtiographe moderru, 1898, 407 — 436.

* (E. Benzelius), Catalogtis Centuriae Librorum (Ups. 1706); Cp. Celsius, Bibl. Ups. SO— 57.

' A confusion due lo the Tad thai medieval writers applied (he name of the Teutonic Vandals lo [he Slavonic Wends (Bury on Gibbon, iv 196).

' Portrait in Schiick, 193.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXVIIl] SPARWENFELDT. BENZELIUS. 347

less in classical than in oriental and Slavonic literature. However, in 1721 he prepared for the press a Swedish translation of Epic- tetus, and, among the rarer works which he presented to the Upsala Library in the following year, was his own Russian trans- lation of Epictetus and Cebes'.

AH the scholars above mentioned, beginning with Stiemhielm and ending with Sparwenfeldt, belong to the seventeenth century, in which Sweden was one of the greatest powers in Europe. In the next age learning was well represented by Erik Benzelius the younger (r67s — 1743). who, like Sparwenfeldt (his senior by twenty years), spent three years abroad, collecting mss and making the acquaintance of men of mark (1697 — 1700). He returned to Upsala with a goodly store of Greek and Latin mss, and was promptly appointed librarian. In and after 1716 he was bishop of Gdteborg and of Linkoping; he was archbishop of Upsala for the last year of his life'.

In r7o8 he produced an edition of the Characters of Theo- phrastus, the only original element being the emendations pro- posed here and there in the index'. In one of the Selden mss in the Bodleian he detected the fourth book of the ' Special I.aws ' of Philo; he afterwards collected considerable materials for an edition of that author, and handed all of them over to Thomas Mangey, canon of Durham, whose edition appeared in two large folio volumes in 1742, with a very inadequate acknowledge- ment of the generous aid he had obtained from Benzelius*. In contrast with this conduct, we find J. C- Wolf, the editor of the Letters of Libanius (1738), warmly thanking Benzelius for the loan of two of his own mss, which were among the fifteen subse- quently purchased from his former library by the gymnasium of linkoping'.

In 1 7 10, in a year remarkable for the ravages of fire and

. sword and pestilence, he founded the first of the learned societies

of Scandinavia. It was known as the Collegium Curiosorum. In

' Fanl. Suppl. I4. ' Schllck and Warburg, ii (189;) II, wilh portrait.

• Cp. J. F. Fiicher, ed. 1763, Praef. (Fani, ii 96 i).

' Praef, p. xvii. The discovery made by Benzelius is ignored in vol. ii

OgIC

348 SWEDEN. [CENT, xvni f

1716 it produced its first publication, iinder the fanciful title of Daedalus kyperborevs; in 1719 it was transformed into the Soaetas literaria Sueciae; in 1728 (after its founder had become a bishop) it was definitely placed under royal patronage, with archaeoli^y and linguistics as part of its province, and finally (in the year of its founder's promotion to the archbishopric of Upsala) received the fiermanent designation of the Socieias Regia Scientiarum Upsa- liensis^. Benzelius was one of the first members of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, founded by Linnaeus and others at Stockholm in 1739-

A brief survey of the early history of the study of Greek in Sweden was published at Wittenberg in 1736 under the title of Hellas sub Arcio*. Its author, Olaus Plan tin, then residing in Germany, was born in 1701 on the little island of Hernosand, where he afterwards superintended the local school. He -is the last of the long series of Greek scholars of Sweden enumerated in a more elaborate work on the same subject, the Historiola completed in 1786 by the erudite Swedish historian and archaeologist, E. M. Fant (1754 — 1817)^ Not a few of these scholars were in the habit of writing original Greek compositions, either in prose or in elegiac or hexameter verse, but they very rarely produced any edition's of Greek authors, and such authors as they happened to edit were seldom of sfiecial importance. Only the most prominent scholars have been selected for the briefest mention in the previous pages, but all of them deserve credit for continuing to tend and cul- tivate in that northern clime the exotic plant of Greek learning, which had flourished for a while in the Adonis-garden of queen Christina.

Fant does not profess to trace the fortunes of Greek beyond the year 1700. In contrast with his detailed notice of the thirteen professors of Greek before that date, he only records the names of the six who were subsequently called to that Chair, beginning with

* Sett Vindimiola Lilltraria, qua merita Svecorum in Utiguam Grateam . . . ixponuniiir, 84 pp.

° p. 335 n. 1 supra. The author is best known as editor of Ihe ScrifUms renim Suecicarum Medii Arm, posthumously published in 1818 f.'

n, I', 11,1^.001^10

CHAP. XXXVUI.] FANT. TEGNfeR. 349

Olaus Celsius (1703) and ending with Johannes Floderus (1763), under whose auspices he began the work. We must here be con- tent with noting that Olaus Celsiusthe elder {1670 — 1756)1 the polykistor who filled the Greek Chair for some twelve years only, is less well known as a professor of Greek than as the author of the HieroboiartUon and the earliest patron of Linnaeus, and that Hoderus {r72i — 1789) was also an able Latin

, , . , , Plodirus

orator, who took a prominent part in no less than

108 Latin disputations, and left behind him a large number of

Opusaila oratoria et poelUa, posthumously published in 1791.

The above professors belong to Upsala. At Lund, the Chair of Greek and of Oriental Languages was filled in 1780 by the Syriac and I^tin scholar, M. Norberg ^"^I'^j (1747 — 1826), and that of Latin in 1789 by J. Lund- Undfon blad (1753 — i8zo), an able writer of Latin verse. The same chair was held in 1826 by his pupil, A, O. Lindfors {1781 — 1S41), the author of a successful Handbook of Roman Antiquities and a Swedish-Latin Dictionary.

Lund was also the university of a versatile professor of Greek, who is far better known in the history of Swedish literature than in that of classical scholarship. Esaias Tegner {1782 — 1846), the son of a pastor whose parents were peasants, graduated at Lund in r832, was lecturer in Greek in iSio, and professor from 1812 to 1824, and finally bishop of Wexio for the remaining twenty-two years of his life. He is famous as the most popular of Swedish poets,— the author, not only of the modern version of the Frithiofsaga, but also of the dithyrambic war-song which made him in 1808 the Tyrtaeus of Sweden. Many of his early poems were written in the little room at Lund which was then the study of the professor of Greek, and is still a place of pilgrimage for the votaries of Swedish literature'. It may be added that, in two of his letters, he expresses his strong approval of Latin verse composition as an indispensable part of a classical education ^

- SchUck and Warburg, ii 674 — 719, with several portraits, etc

" Eflerlemiiaiie Sirifler, i {Bref) 361, 376, Letters 10 ihe accompMshed diplomatist. Von Brinkinan (17(1+— 1847), on his admirable Eli^ia ad 'J'ra- Hemm. Tegner considers Ttanir superior to Lundblad in poetic fancy but inferior in his command of llie Latin language.

h. i., ii,l^'.00'^lC

350 SWEDEN. [cent. XIX.

Greek scholarship is more distinctively represented by Karl Vilhelm binder {1825 — 1882), professor at Lund (1859-69), who produced a critical edition of Hyperides, pro Euxmippo (1856), and a treatise on the arrange- ment of the topics in Antiphon and Andocides (1859). He published a commentary of Psellus on Plato's opinions as to the origin of the souF, and an extract from an Upsala ms on Plato's theory of ideas'. In conjunction with K. A. Walberg, he pro- duced a Swedish-Greek lexicon (t86z). He also published papers on the Greek Theatre and on Greek Synonyms, and on the longest of the elegiac poems of Solon'. Finally, he was the author of a collection of original Latin poems. The latest of these was a Carmen Saecttlare in elegiac metre, written in commemoration of the second centenary of the university of Lund (1868)'. For the rest of his life he devoted himself to theological studies as dean of the cathedral churches of Vesteris and Linkoping. As professor he was succeeded by Walberg, his fellow- labourer Cavauin '" lexicography'. Walberg was, in turn, succeeded in 1875 by Christian Cavallin {1831 — 1890), who edited the PhilocUtes and the Iphigeneia in Tauris, and produced a Greek Syntax, as well as a Latin-Swedish and Swedish-Latin Dictionary (i87r-6).

Meanwhile, at Upsala, Greek was represented by J. Spongberg

(1800 — 1888), the Greek professor of 1853-74, and

^^^ifii'n'* author of a Swedish translation of the Ajax, and by

Lefttedt Lars Axel Aulin (1820-^1869), ^ lecturer on Greek

at Upsala and a schoolmaster in Stockholm, who

not only published a translation of Kriiger's Greek Grammar and

various text-books on Homer, Herodotus and Xenophon, but also

wrote on the style of Callimachus (1856), Einar Ldfstedt (1831

— 1S89), who had studied in Germany in 1869, succeeded Spong-

bei^ as professor in 1874, and worked at archaeology in Italy,

Greece, and Asia Minor in 1876-7. His published works

included a highly successful Greek Grammar', and an outline of

> Ups. 1SJ4; published by Vincent in Not. et Exir. xvi (1S47), 1, 316 f. » Philologus, 1H60, 513 f.

* Phihhgus, 185S. He had ahead)' iranslaled it inlo Latin verse.

* Lnmli-.-Seailarf est, 16 — 30; bibliography in Upsala /uiel/ist [li'ii) -^oi.

> iBa; -1374. Cavallin, in Tidsk.ifi, Ser. 11 ii 73. » iS63; 1885'.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XXXVIH.] LUND AND UPSALA. 351

lectures on Greek 'philological criticism' (1871). Admirableas a teacher, he is gratefully remembered by his former pupils, four of whom are now professors in the university'. His younger contemporary, O. V. Knbs (183S — 1907), appointed Greek lecturer in 1873 and 1S80, is best known for his papers on the digamma (1872-8).

In the early part of the same century, at Upsala, Olof Ktrf- modin the younger (1766— 1838), who, as professor of political philosophy, included the Roman histo- rians in his province, published translations of lai^e portions of Liry and Tacitus'. Towards the end of Kolmodin's life, the Chair of Latin was held by Adolf Torneros (1794— 1839), a Ciceronian scholar, who began his career by supplementing the current lexicons of Greek and ended it by leaving behind him materials for completing a Swedish-Latin lexicon, edited by Ljungberg in 1843. Among the subsequent professors of Latin, we may mention P. J. Petersson (1816 — 1874), the orator and poet, who translated Hitefiitrfm Stagnelius' 'Vladimir the Great' into Latin hexa- meters {1840-2), and TibuUus into Swedish verse (i860). He held the professorship in 1859-74. His successor from 1875 to 1879 was F. W. Haggstrom (1827 — 1893), who had studied in Germany, France and Italy, and had produced a successful edi- tion of Caesar's Gallic War. His contemporary, Anders Frigell (180a — 1898), 'extraordinary' pro- fessor of Latin, besides editing Caesar and the Odfs of Horace, paid special attention to the textual criticism of Livy', insisting on the importance of taking note of the readings of other mss besides the Medicean, He also translated and expounded the Tadula of Cebes (1878). Not many years later, J. P. Lagergren (bom in 1842), rector of the school s'SIu^m at Jonkoping in 1889, produced a comprehensive treatise on the life and style of the younger Pliny (1872), while C. E. Sandstrom (1845 — 1888), lecturer on Latin (1872), pub-

' O. A, Danielsson, P, Persson, K, J. Johansson, S. Wide.

• His contemporary, J. V. Traner (1770—1835), titular professor of Latin in i8i,(, gave proof of high abilil; as a Latin poet nnd also as a (ran<:lalor from Ovid, and from Homer, Sapgiho and Anacreon.

' CuIlaliB CodLam, lib. i— iii (l8;8) ; EfHigomtita ad lib. i 11 j-ji' (1881) ; miigomtna ad lib. xxU—xxiii (1883-5). Viaxata. Jahrttb. So, !<9r~,W(M;iC

352 SWEDEN. [cent. XIX.

lished a dissertation on Seneca's Tragedies, followed by emenda- tions of Propertius, Lucan and Valerius Flaccus, and critical studies on Statius (1878)'.

The prosperity of the university of Upsala under the rule of the late king Oscat II has been fully set forth in the comprehen- sive Festskrifl of 1897, commemorating the completion of the first 25 years of his beneficent reign, and including an import- ant monograph on the history of the university, with a detailed description of all its departments, an account of the classical Seminar, and a complete list of publications.

The above survey of the careers of scholars in Scandinavia has incidentally shown that not a few of the foremost of their number have derived considerable benefit from studying in foreign universities, and from travelling (or residing) in Italy and Greece. It is the lands last mentioned that have naturally supplied the best training to her archaeologists, from the time of Zoega down to the present day. Again, an intimate knowledge of the Scandinavian languages has been the starting-point from which men like Rask and Verner and Sophua Bugge have attained a notable position among the Comparative Philologists of Europe; and, lastly, in the province of the language and institutions of ancient Rome, any country might well be proud of a Latin scholar like Madvig.

Norway is no longer politically united with either Denmark or Sweden ; but, although the ancient Scandinavia has been parted into three separate kingdoms, friendly relations have been main- tained in the domain of scholarship by means of a classical periodical common to all three countries', by philological con- gresses held in a regular order of rotation', and also by a common interest in the Greek and Latin languages and in classical archaeology. Among the scholars of the three countries,' all these three elements of union have combined in forming a ' three- fold cord ' that ' is not quickly broken'.

' For lome of the above details as 10 recent scholars 1 am indebted to

- Prof. Sam Wide j for others to the Swedish bit^raphical dictionaries, and to

Aksel Andersson's ' Bio-bibliografi ' in the Upsala Ftstskrift of 1897, vol, ill.

' Tidskrifl for Filologi, begun in i86j, and continued ever since, with

slight changes of lille.

' Nordiska filologmoiin, Copenhagen, i8;6, '91; Cliristiania, 1881, '98; Slockholm, 1886, and Upsala, 1902. , ~ 1

^ ^ D„:,i..ii,L.OOglc

CHAPTER XXXIX.

GREECE AND RUSSIA.

However deep may be the debt that Europe owes to Italy for the part she played in the Revival of Learning, the debt of Italy to Greece is deeper still. To a large extent the very learning that was then revived in Italy had its ultimate or immediate origin in Greece. In the age of the Revival Italy became the heir of the renewed interest in the Greek Classics represented in Constantinople about 1150 by Eustathius and about 1300 by PlanddSs and MoschiSpQius ; and, even before the Eastern Empire fell beneath the tyranny of the Turk, the old Greek learning had gained a new lease of life by its transfer to a land that was ready and even e^er to receive it.

We have already noted the names and recorded the services of the most prominent of the Greek scholars who fled to Italy, whether before or after the fall of Constantinople'. Little is known of those who remained in the East ; much more, of those who left it. Not a few of these came from the lands that were free from the Turkish yoke, and, in particular, from Crete and the Ionian Islands. Crete, which for four and a half centuries belonged to Venice (1204 — 1650), became one of the strongholds of Hellenism', and Venice was naturally the immediate destination of the scholars who left this island for the West. Among the earlier Cretan immigrants was Geoi^us Trapezuntius'; among those of later date were Marcus Mdsurus, 2^charias Calliei^es' and Nicolaos Blastds. The Mty- mologitvm Magnum of 1499, the first book produced in Venice

' ij 59—80 sujra.

' Thereianos, A'fl™«(i890), i 18: Bikelas, -O/o/ejiir (1893), I04f. ' ii tisufira. ' ii 79f.

s. III. ,..,■, II, l^^-)Oglc

3S4 GREECE. [CENT. XVI f

by Caljierges under the supervision of Musurus, was printed at the expense of the patriotic Blast6s, who is described by Musurus as 'full of the Hellenic spirit'. The Greek press of Calliei^es was in fact a Cretan workshop ; Cretans cast the types, Cretans printed and corrected the proofs, and Cretans were the publishers'. Even when the press was removed to Rome in 1515-7, it con- tinued, under the promptings of Lascaris, to do good service to Greek scholarship by printing the icholia to Pindar and Theo- critus, and the eclogae of Thomas Magister and Phrynichus'. It was a Cretan, Demetrius Dukas, who aided Aldus in editing the Rhttores Graeci, and the Moralia of Plutarch; a Cretan, Arsenios, who published the scholia to Euripides*; while the same island supplied the West with its most noted calligraphers*. Crete, again, was the native land of Franciscus Portus (1511—1581), professor of Greek in Venice and elsewhere, and an industrious commentator on the Greek Classics". A century later another Cretan, Franciscus Scuphus, a teacher in Venice, published his Rhetoric in Vienna (1681)*. Crete can also claim Cyril Lucar', who studied in Italy and the Netherlands and England, and was the patriarch of Alexandria and Constantinople. He it was who in 1627 received the first printing-press brought to the latter dty from London by Nicodemus Melaxas of Cephalonia', and in the following year presented to Charles I the codex AUxandrinus of the Greek Scriptures. Of the 350 scholars enumerated by Sathas', under the years 1500 to 1700, as many as two-fifths were natives of Crete or of the Ionian Islands.

' Musurus in Etym. Magtt. ; cp. Didol, Aide Mantici, ;jo.

» Didol, 544— S78- » 1544! ^- 443-

' «■*■ 579-586.

» Nicolai, Geschkhtc der neugritcAischm LUeralur (i8;6), 41 f ; Legrand, Bibliogr. Hellln. xv, xvi i., ii pp. vii— kx. In the next generation the Cretan Emmanuel Margunius (f. 1549 — 1601), after sludying at Padua, was for five yeais an inmate of a Cretan monastery, and in 1584 was consecrated bishop in Constantinople. At Padua he produced a merilorious edition of Aristotle Dt Colorilnts {'57j)i his Hymni Anaereonlici were published at Augsburg (iGoi), and, al the time of his death in Venice, he was proposing to lake part in Sir Henry Savile's Chrysesiom (viii \nf). Cp. L^rand, ii pp. xxiii — Imvii.

• Thereianos, i 18. ' 1575 — 1638.

■ Nicolai, 49 f. * NiimXX. ^tkoKrfia (1453— rSii), 1868.

A.OO'

IC5IC

CHAP. XXXIX.] CRETE. IONIAN ISLANDS. 355

The Ionian Islands belonged to Venice for four centuries (1386 — 1797). In the fifteenth century Corfu gave birth to Nic61aos Sophian6s, a pupil of the Greek school in Rome, where he edited the ancient scholia on the Iliad and on Sophocles (1517-8). He was the first to produce a Grammar of modem Greek {1534)', and to translate Plutarch's treatise on education into the ordinary Greek of the day, which, in a purified form, .was regarded by him as the best medium for literature and for instruction in modern Greece', Modem scholia on Pindar were written by Al^xandros Phdrtios of Corfu', while Leondrdos PhiSrtios wrote a rhyming poem on the soldier's life (Venice, 1531)- In 1537 another native of Corfu, Antdnios Eparchos, fled to Venice, where he supported himself by teaching Greek. Though he was compelled by poverty to sell most of his MSS, he generously presented as many as thirty to Francis I. A devoted adherent of Greek learning, he pleaded the cause of the Greek Church at the diet of Ratisbon, and also composed a celebrated elegiac poem on the unhappy fate of Hellas*. The Corfiote, Nikandros Nukios, visited England in the time of Henry VIII, and described his travels in the style of Aiiian'. Lastly, Fhlangines devoted the whole of his fortune to establish- ing a Greek school in Venice", while Venice herself in the seven- teenth century made Italian the official language of the Ionian Islands. But the clei^y and the people happily remained true to their native tongue'. In the previous century Zante had given birth to'Nicolaos Lucanos', whose paraphrase of the Iliad was the first work printed in modem Greek', and to Demetrios Z^nos, who translated the Battle of the Frogs and Mice into a popular form of rhyming verse". We shall see in the sequel that the Ionian

I Reprinted by L^;ran<], 1874.

• Nicolai, 40, 49 ; Thereianos, i it f. " Sakkelion, in Pandora, nv 354.

• Venice, 1544 (Legrand, Bibliogr. Hellht. mi, xtii 1., i 159); Nicolai, 86; Thereianos, i 13 — 17.

• Book ii, ed. J. A. Cramer (Camden Soc), 1841. ■ 1664. ' Bikelas, 106.

' Also called Lucanis, cp. Legrand, I.e., \ 188 f. " Venice, iji6.

"• f. 1539, adia rtpnntcA {'Lvs^ni, Bibliogr. HilUn. XV, rvi s., i ilgi; Constantinides, //ta-ff./Uw>a {1S91) i;6— r83).

.'S-ii.ooi^lc

3S6 GREECE. [CENT. XVII.

Islands (as well as Crete) became the home of the popular type of Greek literature'.

Chios was subject to Genoa for two centuries {1346 — 1566), It was not until twenty years after its conquest by the Turks that its most prominent scholar, Leo Allatius, was bom (1586^1669). He was educated in Calabria and in Rome, whither he returned to study medicine after living for some time in obscurity in Chios, In 1622 he was the papal agent for the transfer of the Heidelberg mss to the Vatican Library, over which he presided for the last eight years of his life. Alienated from Greece by his adhesion to the Latin Church, it was solely for the benefit of the Catholic inhabitants that he founded a school in his native island. He is best known for his valuable services to Byzantine literature and for his patriotic paper, De patria Homeri (1640), He holds, in fact, the highest place among the Greek scholars of the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury'. As a writer of panegyrical poetry he was followed by other Chiotes of less distinction, AntOnios Koraes, who travelled in Italy and dedicated a Pindaric ode to a chancellor of France, and C6n- stantinos Rhodokandkes, who studied in Oxford and attracted at- tention bya Greek encomium on Charles II'. In the same century England was visited by two other representatives of Greece, the Peloponnesian Christ(Sphoros Angelos, who resided in Cambridge and Oxford in 1608-17, *"d published at the former university a popularaccount of the condition of Greece (1619)*, and Leonardos Philar^ of Athens, to whom Milton addressed two Latin letters in 1652-4. The first of these contains the sentence which has suggested 'the inspiring motto of the Philhellenic movement*': — 'Quid enim vel rorlissimi olim viri vel eloquenlissimi gloriosius aut se dignius esse duxenint quam vel suadendo vel forliler faciendo iktuSlpvn Koi airatiiiovt rottiaBut nvj'SWtpiajV *

' P- 375 "Vra-

* Legrand, Bitliogr. HelUn. xvii s., iji 435 — 471 ! Nkolai, 64 f,

* Oxon. 1660, Legrand, I.e., ii ii6f; Nicalai, 93.

* A. Gennadlos, in Pandora (1S51). 81 j ; Legrand, /.c. i iii f.

° Drakoules, NfahilUnU Langiiagt and Liitrature (Oxford, 189;), 4

* Cp, [Dfm.) 7 S 30; Milloiti Epp. 1674, J4f, jpf; Legraiid -416.

./Coot^ic

CHAP. XXXIX.] CHIOS. STATE OF LEARNING. 35/

The first step towards the recovery of Greek independence was a literary revival of the Greek language. It is difficult to ascertain how far a knowledge of classical onek little Greek was preserved among the common people in ™™

the i6th, 17th, and i8th centuries. We learn, however, that in Constantinople, in 1575, the clergy preferred to preach in the 'old Greek language' {i.e. in Byzantine Greek), although this language was intelligible to only two or three in their congregations'. At Athens, in 1672, very few besides the three public teachers of theoli^, philosophy and language understood the old Greek literature'. After visiting Crete in 1700, a French traveller (per- haps prematurely) writes that 'in the whole Turkish dominions there are hardly twelve persons thoroughly skilled in the know- lei^ of the ancient Greek tongue**. At Patmos, in 1801, E. D. Clarke declares that neither the superior of the monastery nor the bursar (who acted as librarian) was able to read*. Even in an important centre of Greek learning, the Byzantine authors were sometimes preferred to those of the golden a^ge of Greek literature. In 1813, Cyril VII, patriarch of Constantinople, could not com- prehend the preference given to Thucydides and Demosthenes over 'polished writers' such as Synesius and Gregory Nazianzen, and considered the iambic lines of PtOchoprddromos more musical than those of Euripides'. It is maintained, however, by Finlay' that, during the centuries preceding the Revolution, the parish priests had kept up a competent knowledge of the old Greek language and that any Greek who could read and write had some knowledge of the old Greek literature. A high degree of learning was certainly represented among the laity, and nume- rous works were published by Greeks in the classical and the popular forms of the language. These works were printed in many parts of Europe'. Venice in particular long remained an important centre for the printing of modern Greek literature*.

■ Martin Cnisius. 197. " Pere Bahin, Relation (1674), S4f.

» Toumefort, Voyage, i 10+ (E. T. 1741).

* Travels, vi 41, ed. )8i8. " Thereianos, 141. • v 183,

' See the biblic^raphical works of Bretos {1854-7), Sathas (1B68), and Legrand, Biblisgr. HilUn. xv, jt'i{i885— 1906), .itiV J. (1894—190,1).

' Citali^e f'Sii) of Ihe long established house of Glykys, in Carl Iken's Liukothea (1815). " '39 '■

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

3S8 GREECE. [cent. XVII f

In 1791 a Greek press was founded in Vienna by GeOrgios Ben- ddt^ of Zante, the compiler of a valuable Greek, Italian and Romaic lexicon, and the translator of Barthelemy's Anacharsis. After his death in 1795 the press continued to flourish, and it was here that the important periodical called the Logios Hermes began its course in 181 r', The Greek colony at Vienna was connected with the Philbmusoi Hetairia, a literary club founded at Athens in 1812 which enabled some of the future leaders of the Revolu- tion to acquire a European education".

The traditions of Byzantine rather than classical culture were

maintained in the patriarchal school of Constanti- ^»u^t'nopi°" nople- The patriarch Gennadios (1400— 1468),

who held that office for the five years immediately succeeding the Turkish conquest, was an eager student of law, theolt^ and philosophy, a translator of some of the works of the Aristotelian churchman, Thomas Aquinas, and a persecutor of the paganism and an opponent of the Platonism of Gemtstos Plethon'. By the side of the ancient patriarchal school restored by the in- fluence of Gennadios, rose the famous Phanariote school of 1661 and that of Kuru-Tschesme founded on the Bosporus in 1803*. In 1581, ZygomaUs, the chief secretary of the patriarch, described Greece in general as destitute of schools, though the inhabitants had a natural genius for profiting by education; 'but the clouds of an ever-during calamity suffer not the sun of such blessings to shine forth, or learning to flourish". During the interval of little more than 30 years, while the Morea was subject to Venice (1684 — 1 718), education was fostered by the Catholic clergy at the

college of Tripolitza'. In the early part of that

brief period the Parthenon was destroyed during the Venetian siege of 1687, but, towards its close, the recovery of Corinth by the Turks in 1715 was soon followed by the founding

' Nicolai, 99. ' Finlay, vi 98-

» «or4 ^liy nX**iwot iiropiaf ir' ' AptaTorfkii, ed. MenSs (Paris, 1858) i il 61 supra. Cp. Gibbon, vii 175 f Bury ; Finlay, iii 501, v 137 ; Krumbacher, Bys. Liu. iigf ; Nicolai, jjf. Gentile Bellini's ' Gennadios and Mahomet II', in frontispiece to Legrand, Biiliogr. HdUn. xv, xvi s. iii (1903).

* Nicolai, 14, 109.

• Martin Cmsiiis, Turcograecia (1584), 9+.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXIX.] SCHOOLa 359

of a Greek School at Athens. About the same time schools established in the previous century began to flourish in Mace- donia and Thessaly. In 1723 the third of the three great schools of loannina came into being in the metropolis of Epirus*. Evidence as to the fairly flourishing condition of the Greek schools is supplied in 1714 by Alexander Helladius, who had visited London and 0)d'ord and had spent some years in Germany'. The year 1758 marks the dissolution of a once important Athoi

academy on Mount AEhos, and the foundation of Meioionshl another at Mesolonghi'. In 1764 the ancient school in the small Arcadian town of Dimitzina was restored by the learned Agipios'. During the same century, and especially under the rule of Daniel Kerameus', there was a successful school on the island of Patmos, which supplied teachers to Chios and Smyrna'. In the second half of the Bmyrol

century the 'Evangelical School of Smyrna' had some famous pupils (including Koraes, the future r^enerator of the Greek language), and, at the 'philological gymnasium' in the same city, the Greek Classics were effectually studied in 1809-18'. There were Greek schools at sinop*

Trebizond and Sinope ; while, in the Danubian Principalities, the Hellenic school of Bucharest had assumed the status of ati academy in 1698, and the central school of lassi was already well known in 1755" The study of the old Greek language and literature in the above schools, and especially in those of the Danubian Princi- palities, was among the causes that led to the Revolution of 1821.

' Further endowed by Ihe brothers Maruizi in 1741- Cp. Niculai, 54 f> and A. R. Kangal)^, Lill. Nio-Hemnique (iSjj), i 54.

' Sla/ui praiitns e(cl. oritrUalis, dedicated to Peter Ihe Great (Norimb. 1714) 60, ' iti gymnasiis quae iam E>ei gratia in omnibus Gtaeciae civilatibus mediocriter llorenl ' ; Nicolai, 55 f.

* Nicolai, I rof.

* Cp. Kast6rches, rtpl t^i ir iri/tTiTiiars iix<>\J)S (Alh. 1847).

' Thereianos, i 80. ' Nicolai, 110, n. H5. ' Nicolai, 114.

' Nicolai, 117 f. On Greek education from 1453 lo iBji, see pp. 1—31 of C. P. Oikonomos, Die fddagegitchtn Antchauungm dts AJamarUias Kerais, 1 16 pp. (Leipzig, 1908), and the earlier literature there quoted.

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36o GREECE. [CENT. XVII.

In Greece itself, early in the century, 'classic history was studied; classic names were revived ; Athenian liberty became a theme of conversation among men ; Spartan virtue was spoken of by women; literature was cultivated with enthusiasm as a step to revolution".

Greek education owed not a little to the influence of the Phanariots resident in the Phatiar or Greek quarter of Constan- tinople, and in particular to those who attained high positions in the service of the Turks. The interests of the Greeks were advanced by Panagiotakes NiciSsios, who in 1630 attained the diplomatic d^nity of chief interpreter to the Sublime Porte'.

The same position was ultimately attained by Al^x- ^*Viam' andros Mavrocordatos (1637^1709), the son of a

silk -merchant of Chios and the founder of a highly influential family. He studied medicine in Italy, produced at Bologna a Latin treatise on the circulation of the blood (1664), became physician to the Sultan, and, from 1665 to 1672, presided over the patriarchal school of Constantinople. He looked down with contempt on the popular language of his fellow-countrymen, and formed his own style on the old Greek Classics — without succeeding in assimilating their merits. His text-book of Greek Syntax was deficient in method and in clearness, and failed to supersede the current manuals of Gaza and of Lascaris'. After his appointment as principal interpreter to the Porte he obtained permission to found schools in Constantinople and loannina and on the island of Patmos, and presented these schools with texts of the Classics printed in Europe*. His example was followed by his son, Nicolas, who was the first Greek subject of Turkey to rise to the position of governor of Wallachia and thus 'to forge a sceptre from his chains". These officials gave a certain impulse to education among those who aspired to public appointments, but, 'fortunately for the Greeks, other contemporary causes tended to disseminate education from a purer source'*. During ' Finlay, vi 17. ' Kangabe, i 4J— 48.

* Rizo (lakOb^kes Rizos Nerulos, prime minister uf Wallachia and Mol- davia), Court de Utldraturt Gr«que MeHtnie (Cenevs,, 18171,18; Nicolai, 74; Finlay, v 141.

* Rangabe, i Ji. • Finlay, v 145.

h. |., iiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXXIX.] MAVROCORDATOS. BULGARIS. 361

this time modern Greek literature acquired a higher degree of polish under the influence of the pulpit, the synod, and the various select societies of Constantinople*.

The second half of the iSth century was marked by a further multiplication of schools and by the translation of European works of science, history, fiction and philosophy. These trans- lations played an important part in the developement of a literary language approximating to the old Greek type.

Among the scholars who applied their knowledge of ancient Greek to giving a literary character to the language of the modern Greeks, the earliest name of note is BtiiBari» "' that of Eug^nios Biilgaris of Corfu {1716— 1806), who was educated at loannina. He studied modern languages and Latin in Italy and elsewhere, and was the first reformer of the traditional ecclesiastical type of Greek education, as director of schools at lodnnina. Mount Athos and Constantinople. He subsequently spent ten years in Leipzig, writing works in ancient as well as modern Greek (1765-75), and was placed at the head of a school for young Russian noblemen in St Petersburg, where he died after holding for a time the bishopric of Sclavonia and Kherson. His masterpiece in ancient Greek was his rendering of the Georgia and Aeneid in Homeric verse; ancient Greek was also the language of all his strictly philosophical writings, while modern Greek was the medium used in his more popular works*.

Modem Greek was still more effectively moulded into a literary form by the far-reaching influence of Ada- niantiosKoraes(i748 — 1833), A native of Smyrna, where he was aided in his early studies by the chaplain to the Dutch consulate, he spent six years as his father's mercantile agent at Amsterdam (1772-8), returned to Smyrna for four years,

• James Clyde, Metnaic and Modirrt Grak compartd loi/k mte another and lailh aiKUnt Greek (Edin. 1855), 45—49; Finlay, Nislery of Greece, v 184 Toier; Iken, ii 7, losT; Rizo, 34 — 371 Nicolai, 113; Guudas, Blot IlapctX- X^Xm, ii (1874) I — 40, with port rail 1 RaugaW, i 63; and esp. Thereianos, Adamanlios Korals (18890 i 63 — 76. His industrious and contentious con- lempomry, Nedpliytos Kausoltalybites, produced at Bucharest in 1761 a com- mentary of 1400 pages on the fourth liook of Theodoras Gaza (ib. 79 f).

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362 GREECE. [cent. XVIII f

and was allowed by his father to abandon a business career and to enter the medical school of Montpellier, where he distinguished himself as a student of medicine (1782-8). He removed to Paris in 1788, and there devoted himself to literary labours for the remaining forty-five years of his life.

Palriotism and a passion for learning were (he two guiding principles of his whole career. One of his earliest works (his ' Emendations on Hippocrates ') was printed at Oxford in i;9i'. His excellent edition of Hippocrates, di atre, aguis, loHs (1800), was immediately preceded hy the Characters of Theo- phrastus, and succeeded by Longus and Heliodoms. The most important of his literary undettaltings, the ' Library of Greek literature ', was inspired by a distinctly patriotic motive. Long before ihe outbrealt of the Greek revolaljon, four brothers of the wealjby house of Zosimades consulted Koraes as to the best means for accelerating the regeneration thai had already begun in Greece. Koraes advised the publication of the old Greek Clasiiics with notes in ancient and introductions in modem Greek. Such was the origin of the celebrated ' Greek Library ', a series of seventeen volumes edited by Koraes in 1805-16. T^t prodromos (containing Aelian's Varia Hh/eria, Heracleides Ponlicus, and Nicolaus Damascenus) was followed by two volumes of Isocrates, six volumes of Plutarch's Lives, four of Stiabo, the Patiiics and Ethics of Aristotle, the Mtmerabilia of Xenophon with the Corgias of Plato, and lastly the Ltecratet of the Attic orator Lycurgus. All these were printed by Didot in an exquisitely neat type specially designed for the series, the whole cost of publication was met by the munificence of the brothers Zosimades, and many copies were gratuitously distributed among deserving Greek students in Hellenic lands. Meanwhile, Koraes was producing a series of 'paretga' in nine volumes, comprising Pulyaenus, Aesop, Xenocrates^ and Galen Di AltHunto tx AqiuUilibus, the Medifations of Marcus Aurelius, the Tactics of 'Onesander'*, five political treatises of Plutarch, Cebes and Cleanlhes with the Enc/uiridiim of Epictetus, and the two volumes of Arrian's version of his discourses {tZog-if). Homer had already lieen specially edited for the modem Greeks', but Koraes produced an edition of Iliad i — iv (1811-30). He also edited Hierocles. He translated Herodotus into modern Greek ; his notes on Herodotus were printed by Larcher, those on Thucydides by Levesque, and those on Athenaeus by Schweighauser : while those on Hesychius were post- humously published (1889). His notes in general, especially those in his 'Greek Library', have met with appreciative teci^nition on the part of

• Musci OxonieHsis...spicimina.

' Already published by him in Naples (1794).

• 'Qriaiaiipat (Christ, § 66j). Ap[iended was a poem of Tyrtaeus, trans- lated into modem Greek by Koraes, and into French by Didot.

• By Spyridon Blantes (1765 — '1830), Ven., with the scholia of Didynius (Thtretoo,, il 8.).

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CHAP. XXXIX.] KORAfiS. 363

subsequent editors'. The live volumes of his Alaila (1818-35) were largely concerned with Greek lexicography. In his writings in general he umed at assimilating the language of literature with the living language of modem Greece, and, even in his most scholarly works, he showed his interest in the idiom of the people, while others, such as Kndrikas and Dnkas, abandoned this intetmediale position and went lo the extreme of ignoring the living language and uiging the adoption of an artificial style founded on the grammar and the literature of ancient Greece*. His autobicgraphy (1S19) was trans- lated into Latin and into French. The latter version is prefixed to his Corre- spondence, which includes many emendations of the Greek Anthoit^*.

tie was on Friendly terms with scholars in Holland'. In 1805 Wyttenbach wrote lo Larcher describing Koraes as 'not only a Grecian but a veritable Greek', and in 1S07 his Isocrates won him the title of the ' patriarch of Greek philology'*. His correspondents in England included Thomas Burgess, afterwards bishop of Salisbury, and Holmes, the editor of the Septuagint. He was an ardent admirer of the United States of America*. In the land of his adoption, he was associated with Gosselin and La Porte-du-Theil (and after- wards with Lelronne) in a French translation of Strabo (iSoj-ig) begun under the generous patronage of Napoleon. Among his principal friends in Paris were ^lienne Clavier, the elder Thurot, and Chardon de la Rochette ; he was less intimate with Villoison^, while, as a scholar, he was highly esteemed by Boissonade*. His devotion to his country's cause was a ruling passion 10 the end of his life. With his latest breath he spoke of the land of his fathers, and on his death-bed, while his failing eyesight rested on a portrait of Demosthenes, he exclaimed : — ' Thai was a man'*. His epitaph, written by himself, told of his love for the land of his adoption as well as for the land of his birth", and his character is thus summed up by the English historian of Modem Greece : —

' Koraiis...was the great popular reformer of the Greek system of instruction, the l^slator of the modem Greek language, aniT the most distinguished apostle of religious toleration and national freedom. ..He was indifferent to wealth, honest and independent, a sincere patriot, and a profound scholar... He passed his life in independent poverty, in order that he might a

' Thereianos, paisim.

' Krumbacher's Feilrfdt, Das Preblem dtr neugritchUcktn Schri/lsfrache (19OJ), 44f, and Koraes' Gk Grammitr (posthumously published at Athens, i888); Saihas (iSjoJ, and Beaudouin (1883), quoted by Kiumbacher, U. 195 ; also the criticisms of Halzidakis, La Question de la Laiigui Scritt Net- Grecque (1907), 106.

' Letlres inidites, 1874-7 (Bursian's Jahrtsb. li 87 f).

• Thereianos, { 103, 105. Cp. J. Gennadios, iplaui tai <siri<ltit, 54-71- ' Clyde. 50.

• Thereianos, iii 61 , t«» 'Ayt^'^I^'PI'"*'''''' iiirvpm Sou^MiirTjJt. ' ii.i i;9f. ' 1*. i +05 f-

• 'En?i>at TTO irBpuwot, ib. iii 151 f. '* ib. iii 155.

A.oogic

364 GREECE. [CENT. XVIII f

his whole time, and the undivided strength of his mind, to improve the moral and political feelings of the Greeks. His eflbrts have not been fruitless. He methodized the literary language of his countrymen, while he infused into their minds principles of true libeity and pure morality''.

The inlermediate position assumed by Koraes in moulding a litemry Kniirikt language for modern Greece found its keenest and most

implacable opponent in Panl^Clikes Kodrik&s (1750—1817), an Athenian of distinguished descent, extraordinary gifts, wide learning and high social standing. He was an adherent of the ultra-classical Greek style that had come down from the Byzantine age arvd was still retained in the documents issued by the patriarch of Constantinople and other official per- sonages. Before 1801 he was chancellor to the governor of Wallachia ; and after that date he was a professor of Greek in Paris, and interpreter to the Ministry of Foreign Aflairs. His controversy wilh Koraes began with a letter to the editors of the LS^es Htrnils (1S16) urging them to resist the reforms proposed by Koraes. As this advice was not followed, he publi^edan anony- mous 'Apology for the Greeks in Pisa' (1817), which was promptly repudiated by the Creeks concerned. His iinal contribution to the controversy was the Mdll'e, dedicated in 1818 to Alexander I, emperor of Russia*. In all this bitter controversy the only benefit that incidentally accrued to the cause of learning was an admirable treatise published by Koraes under the pseudonym of Stephanos Pantaif s'.

The opinions of Korai^s were, in general, supported by the versatile and

^ accomplished scholar, Konstanttnos Kumas {17J7 — 1836), a

native of Laiissa, who studied in Vienna, was head of the

' Finlay, Hislary ef Grace, v iSf Toier; cp. Gervinns, ap. Thereianos, iii 155. BfM (Paris, iSjg) ; Fr. T. 1833; Lat. T. 1834-49; Germ., Sinner-Olt (Zurich, 1837); Boissonade in Michaud's Biagr. Univ.; I. Bywater in y. If. S. i 305-7 ; Nicolai, 103 f ; Rangab*, i 81—90; Constantinides, 331 — 361 ! and esp. D. Thereianos, Adamanlios Koraes, 3 vols. (Trieste, 1889-90). In France he adopted the name of Cotay; Villoison considered that Cora!(s) would have been more correct (i^. i 179). Portrait in Goudas, ii 73—108. Posthumous works in 7 vols. (Ath. i88t-9), including materials for a French and Greek lexicon (1881), Grammar of modem Greek (1888), notes and emen- dations on Hesychius (1889), and 3 vols, of Letlcrs (1885-7). On his Letters, cp. J. Gennailios, K^tn xai (m^^Ed (Trieste, 1903), and on bis services (o Greek education, C. P. Oikonomos, Die pddagogischen Attschauuagm da Adamantios Korais (Leipzig, 1908).

* The presentation copy now belongs to Mr J. Gennadios.

' On the ancient dt^ma rifuf icaXov, tiiuf ccuov (Leipzig, 1819), Thereianos, ii 348f and reprint in iii (Appendix v). On Kodrikis, in general, ib. ii 183 — 3;j; Nicolai, 130; Rangabe, i 90f; Haliidakis, 7of. His opponent, Daniel Philippfdes, regarded the popular type of Greek as ihe true medium of litera-

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CHAP. XXXIX.] KODRIKAS. KUMAS. PHOTIADES. 365

school of Kuni-TGchesme in 1S13, joined Stephanos Oekoa6Qios in foandii^ the 'philoloEical gymnasium ' at Smyrna in 1810, and spent the last 15 years of his life at Trieste. A Greek style resembling that of Koraiis was the characteristic of his numerous translations from literary and scienlilic French and German works. His publications amounted to 45 volnmes. He produced a Greek and German lexicon, founded on Riemer (iSi6), and a Greek Grammar (TS33), but his greatest achievement was a universal history, the litb volume of which included his own autobiography, tie is held in high repute for his teaming and hia patriotism, and also for his remarkable success in the organisation of schools'.

While Eugenios BiJlgaris had done good service as a repre- sentative of the old scholastic type of teaching, a new era was opened by one who combined intellectual eminence with all the intensity of moral force and patriotic enthusiasm. This was hone other than Ldmpros Photiades (1750 — 1805), a native of loinnina, who presided over the Greek school at Bucharest for the last 13 years of his life. He was interested in imitating Anacreon, Sappho and Pindar, but he fore- saw that a reform was needed in the scholastic education of his day, and that Greece had a greater need of progressive patriots than of imitative grammarians. Instead of spending his time on the exclusive explanation of words and phrases, he inspired his pupils with admiration for the lofty thoughts of the old Greek writers. He is credited with having prepared translations from Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plutarch and Lucian', but he published nothing in person. His two books on the theory of metre' and his notes on the text of Synesius and of the Attic orators' were printed by his pupils". In his old age he welcomed the reforms proposed by Koraes, and, while he is less prominent than that great scholar, he did signal service to his nation. He is remem- bered mainly as the able instructor of the leading scholars of the

ture (cp. Rangab^, i 91 f), and the same is true of Athanisios Psalldas, head of the patriarchal school at loinnina in 1797 — iSio (Nlcolsi, 141 n.).

' Iken, i 300 f; Goudas, ii »63— a88 (with portrait); Nicolai, iij ; cp. Halzidikis, 73, 106 f.

* .Liguit Htrmls, i8tl.

' Ed. Zenobios Pop (Vienna, 1803). * Ed. Dukas (i*. 1811).

' Cp. in general Nicolai, 117; Rangab^, i 78! ; Thereianos, i Si ; Con- stantinides, 330 f ; and Gnudas, ii in~-A% (with portrait ; the original belongs lo Mr J. Gennadiot).

>,Cooglc

3(56 GREECE. [CENT. XIX.

Greek Revolution. Among these, the most conspicuous were Neo- phytos Dukas and Georgios Gennadios, who were united in their devotion to a common master, but in their published works stood in the strongest contrast to each other.

Shortly after the death of Photiades, a war between Turkey and Russia made it necessary to close the school of Bucharest , from 1806 to 1810. NeiSphytos Dukas (1760—

1845), a native of Epirus and a devoted pupil of Photiades, had already left for Vienna. In Vienna he pre- pared his Greek Grammar, which he dedicated to his former master {1804); he also edited (in 1803-15) a. lai^e number of Greek authors including Thucydides, Arrian, Dion Chrysostom, Maximus Tyrius, the Bibliotheca of Apollodorus, Synesius, as well as the Attic orators, Herodian, and Aeschines Socraticus. Most of these editions included translations. In 1815 he became the head of the school at Bucharest. After the war, he established a printing-press at Aegina, and continued to spend all his resources in producing his editions of the Classics. In 1834-45 he devoted himself mainly to editing the poets :— Homer, Euripides and Sophocles (1834-5), Aeschylus and Theocritus (1839), Pindar and Aristophanes (1842-5). In the controversy as to the best literary language for modern Greece, he preferred the old classical style to the via media advocated by Koraes', who was far superior to him as a scholar and as an editor of Greek texts. Dukas, how- ever, deserves credit for the industry which he displayed in adding more than 70 volumes of Greek authors to the scholastic libraries of his day. His edition of Thucydides in ten volumes alone gives proof of any critical faculty, but there is good reason for stating that the credit for this is undoubtedly due to his teacher Pho- tiades. He continued to teach in Athens to the end of his life, and, when he died, he was lamented as a 'benefactor to the nation".

Constantine Bardalichos (1775 — 1830), a coadjutor of Pho- ' tiades, and afterwards director of the schools at ■ Bucharest, Chios and Odessa, is best known as the author of a Greek Grammar founded on the works of Lennep,

' Theteianos, ii 171 — iSj. ' Cp- Nieolai, 131 f ; Rtuigali^, i i6j.

.^.oogic

CHAP. XXXIX.] DUKAS. BARDALACHOS. G. GENNADIOS. 367

Koraes and Buttmann (1832)'. His memory is enshrined in the introduction to the edition of the Cyropaedeia published by his colleague at Odessa, Georgios Gennadios.

Ge^i^ios Gennadios (1786^1854), who belonged to the same family as the patriarch of that name', was born at Selymbria and was the favourite pupil of Photiades. In 1809 he began to study medicine at Leipzig, and, in 1814, returned to Bucharest and was soon assisting Dukas in the management of the school. In 1817 he became the head of the Greek School then founded at Odessa (where he began a series of school-books). Three years later he . returned to Bucharest as head of his former school- Then, as ever, he gave proof of being a bom teacher ; and, in that eventful time, he was also an ardent patriot The study of Demosthenes and Plutarch had inspired him with the love of liberty, and, under his enthusiastic teaching, his pupils at Bucharest were thoroughly imbued with the spirit of patriotism.

One oF those pupils, the brilliant scholar, poet, archaeologist, politician and diplomatist, Al^xandros Rizos Rangabes, has told us how, on a day when his master was expounding some ancient classic, the Panegyric of Isociates or the Peridcs of Plutarch, being deeply moved by the recital of the ancient glories of Athens, he bade his pupils bar the door and forthwith delivered a glowing discourse on the golden age when Greece was still a teacher of the nations, thus arousing in hb audience the keenest enthusiasm for the cause of liberty*. Not a few of (hose pupils were among the five hundred of the Sacred Band, most of whom fell in the first conflict with the foe on the 19th day of June, \%i\*. Genoadios withdrew for a time to Odessa and was soon afterwards studying theology at Leipzig and Gbttingen. The next great event of his life was his patriotic speech beneath the plane-tree in Nauplia, which led to his being called the 'saviour of his country''- He distinguished himself at the battle of Karystos, and at the close of the war in iftiS he declined the rank of general. Early in 1830 he opened the school at Aegina by giving an impressive lesson on the Clloice of Hercules, in the presence of Capodistria, who 'madeagreat show of promoting education', but afterwards forbade the reading of the Gorgias of Plato*. The first modem library worthy of the name

> Nicolai, 101- » p. 3s8 ™/™.

■ Mfotoins etc., quoted by Xenophon Anastasiades, Giorgios Gennadies, 18.

* Kinlay. viii4, 133.

» 1816 ; ib. 387 ; Anastasiades, 33, 37, 56; J. Gennadios, G. Getina-lias if Sa^Xfv (190S-6)-

' Anastasiades, 4$ f {cp. Finlay, vii ^Sf, 61).

h. i., 11,1^.001^10

368 GREECE. [CENT. XIX.

in the East was founded by Gennadios al A^[na; on its removal to Athem, it reni.iined under his care until 184S; and, when (he 'central school' wastiwis- ferred to Athens, he presided over it until the day of his death, declining to be nominated one of tlie first professors when the university was established in 1837,— the year in which he took part in founding the Archaeological Society. He was inspired by the same spirit as his great contemporary, Koraes. While Koraes remained abroad, editing the Greek Classics in a patriotic spirit and arousing the martial atdour of his countrymen by a new edition of his iri\Tiff/ui voXc/iurr^/Mor, Gennadios actually fought in the war. While Koraes was a great writer, Gennadios was a great teacher, and in this respect was the true heir of Ihe traditions of Photiades. It is from his Greek Grammar of 1831 that the modem Greeks have learnt their own ancient language for the last three generations. As an honorary doctor of Leipiig, he was described as vir di lillais in Crateia inslaurandii bent mtritus. His tomb in Athens has been adorned with elegiac verses in ancient and in modem Greek, but he can hardly have a terser tribute to his memory than a single line from the Elegy of Zaia- costas' that is thus translated in the Greek Lays and Idylls: —

'Here the apostle of light and the father of learning is sleeping''. ' Father of learning ' is a free translation for ' father of teachers '. Of his many pupils the most distinguished was A. R. Rangab6s. Some of Ihem, such as Phyntiades and Kustrattides, look an active part in the work of Ihe Archaeological Society; among the rest were Papasliotes (i8ao — 1877) and Mavrophr^es (1818 — i8fi6), both of whom were thorough scholars and exemplary preceptors. The latter wrote on elegiac poetry and on Lucian, besides publishing mediaeval texts, and preparing a history of Ihe Greek language (1871)'.

The university of Athens had been preceded by the university of Corfu. Owing to the influence of the French itiandcthc Revolution a literary and political Htttutia had """cMfu*^ "^ been founded in that island in 1802; this was fol- lowed by the 'Ionic Academy' of i8o8; and, finally, in 1824, the famous philhellene, Frederick North, fifth Earl of

* Anastasiades, 107. Cp. Goudas, ii 311 — 338; Xenophon Anastasiades, Georgiat Geanadies (with portrait), ill pp., London, 1901; J. Gennadios, Gforgias Gennadios it NouxMy, 1905-6; Constantinides, 450 — 431; and L. Sergeant, Gretee in Itie xixlk «fl/Hrf ( 1 897), 335, 370, Of his sons the eldest (Athanasios) is a Greek scholar still living m Athens, whose emendations on the 'XBifa'.iot iroXtrtfa have been mentioned in the preface to my edition of that work, while the second was Creek Minister in London in 1886-91 ('^P- I/ellmic Aanual 1880, 143—153).

' Rangabi, Lilt, i i6m, r;,;.

CHAP. XXXIX.] ASOPIOS. MUSTOXYDES. 369

Guilford (1766 — 1827), who had joined the Greek Church in 179 1 and was Governor of the Ionian Islands, founded the 'Ionian Academy', as the first university of modem Greece, a university which lasted to the end of the English occupation in 1864.

The first professor of Greek at Corfu was Kdnstantinos Asipios (a 1790 — 1872), who had been educated under Psalidas at lodnnina, and (with the aid of Lord Guilford) had continued his studies in Gottingen, Berlin, Paris and London. He had taught at Trieste since 1817 and was professor at Corfu in 1824-43, when he accepted a call to Athens. His most important production was an unfinished History of Greek Literature, prefaced by a history of Greek philolt^y (1850). His 'Introduction to Greek Syntax' is a diffuse work of 1000 pages (1841)'.

The first professor of Latin was another proteg^ of Lord Guilford, Christ6phoros Pbiletiis', the author of a Latin Grammar (1827), while tbe first professor of pfkioit' philosophy was N. S. PIkkolos (1792 — 1865), who afterwards taught in Paris and Bucharest, and prepared a supple- ment to the Greek Antholt^y (Paris, 1853), and editions of Aristotle's Jfistoty of Animals {i/i. 1863)' and of Longus (1866)'.

An account of the successive 'Academies' of Corfu and of the scholars contemporary with them' was written by Andreas Mflstoxydfis (1785 — 1860), a native of the island, who was nearly 40 years of age at the foundation of the university. He published his Italian history of Corfu in 1804 and was historiographer of the Ionian Islands until 1819, besides receiving academic distinctions in France, Germany and Italy. In 1820, a diplomatic position (that of secretary to the Russian envoy at Turin) was assigned him by the Foreign Minister of Russia, Capodistria, who, as President of Greece nine years later, made him Director of Education. After his patron's assassination in i83r, he spent the rest of his life in his native island, where he founded

' Goudas, ii iij — 141 (with portrait); Nicolai, i^if; Rangabj, i 171; Thereianos, *i\o\o7M«i tFOTVirisiHii (1885), 116 — 115.

* Thereianos, 158 f. * Nicolai, 141.

* Tliernanos, Kbraes, i 378 f, iii 7.

' Pandora, %' , 188—198, _^

!. 111. ,..,.ih,.^OOQlc

370 GREECE. [cent. XIX.

a philological and historical journal, the HtlUnomnemdn^. He was restored to the position of historic^rapher, and, at the time of bis death, was at the head of the education department Early in his career (in 1S12) he dedicated to Koraes the 80 new pages of Isocrates, De Permulatione, which he had discovered in the MSS of the Ambrosian and Laurentian libraries. In 1816-7, in con- junction with Demfitrios SchinAs of Constantinople, he published five small volumes of Ambrosian Anecdota, including 'arguments' to seven of the orations of Isocrates, and the scholia of Olympio- donis on Plata Lastiyi he contributed to a collection of Italian translations of Greek historians an excellent translation of Hero- dotus {1822) and some notes on Polyaenus.

One of the most scholarly members of the ' Ionian Academy' was a favourite pupil of As^pios named J, N. Oeco- nomfdSs (1812^1884). He was a member of a wealthy family in Cyprus, which fled from the Turkish dominions to Trieste in i8ai,andtwo years later to Corfu, where he completed his education. He taught Greek and Latin in the local gymna- sium, and, when Sir George Bowen was anxious to introduce into the curriculum a translation of an English text-book, Oeconomides pointed out the mistakes in the original and won the goodwill of the governor. Late in 1857 he became secretary for education, early in the following year professor in the Ionian Academy, and, in i860, minister of education as the successor of Mustoxjfdfis. Towards the end of his life he returned to Trieste, where he died in obscurity and destitution, 64 years after his first arrival in that city as a fugitive from Cyprus.

His works have been the theme of a full and inleresting monograph b7 one of his ablest pupiU, who gives a complete analysis of his master's dissertation on Cleatithes', and of his scholarly interpretations of passages in Thucydides and other Greek Classics, besides dealing full]' with his studies on Syntax and on Synonyms and on Comparative Philology. Oeconomfdes contributed to Mustox^des' History of Corfu a lengthy monograph on the local inscriptions, including that on a silver lamp belonging to the treasurer of the Ionian Islands*. He elaborately elucidated two Locrian inscriptions in the same

' Athens, 18+3-53.

^ I. 1845 ; Theieianos, #iXoXiry»iu i-rorvwuistii, 131 — 171.

' James Woodhouse ; i^, i^^l; Curt Wachsmulh in RMn. Mm. xviii

(lasj) 537—583-

CHAP. XXXIX.] OECONOMIDES. THEREIANO.S. 371

collection, (1) a covenant between Oeanlhia and Chaleion on the Corinthian gulf, and (1) a law of the Opunlian Locrians regulating their lelations with Iheir colonists a( Naupactus'. He also wrote a comprehensive monograph on the fonn fri^iKSaBav in an Athenian inscription on the settlement of Chalcis*.

A special aptitude for surveying the history of classical learn- ing and analysing the published works of classical scholars was displayed by Dionysios Thereiands (c. 1833 — 1897) a native of Zante, who was educated at Corfu under Oeconomldes. His excellent account of the life and writings of that scholar fills the last 269 pages of the ^iXoXoyuial firortnrtMrcis published in 1885 at Trieste, where the author was for many years editor of the Kldo*. The work includes a short essay on the political and literary developement of the ancient Greeks, and an ample literary and historical dissertation on 'Hellenism'. An admirable retrospect of the modern history of Greek learning from Chrysolords to Photiades fills the first chapter of the three volumes in which he fully sets forth the varied aspects of the life of Koraes. Some of his hero's minor writings are reprinted in the appendix". It is a work in which the highest degree of learn- ing is expressed in the most pellucid form of modem Greek prose. The eloquence and the accuracy of the author have been justly commended by Constantintdes'.

Leaving the shores of the Adriatic, we turn once more to Athens. When the university was opened in 1837, the Acharnians of Aristophanes was the theme of the first lecture, which was given by the professor of Greek, Ludwig Ross'. The first professor of Latin was H. N, Ulrich, who had already taught that language in the 'central school' at Aegina and Athens, and had produced a Greek Grammar and Reader. His Latin and Greek lexicon was

' Aojt/nicij «riTjJQ0^, Corfii, iSjo ; Hicks, no. 31 ; Thereianos, 173-7. ' 'EroiKia Aocpur ypiiiimTa ; Hicks, no. 63 ; Thereianos, 17 7 — 187.

* Hicks, no. 18 ; Thereianos, 187 — 196.

* ' A treasury of literary and political informalion, written in as admirable a style as any modem Greek has yet attained ' (L. Sergeant, Greece in tie xixlk Cen/ury, 375).

' Demetrio E^onomo, Trieste, 1889. He aDerwards published a iiAypaima ZrwiK^ ^xXnro^ai, |8()2. ' NeB-HellenUa, 337. ' ErinnervngiH (Berlin, 1863) ix and x.

D„:ji4**^00<^lc

372 GREECE. [cent. XIX.

published in 1843, the year of revolution that 'put an end to the government of aUen rulers", and even removed foreigners from the public service. For obvious reasons the study of Latin has been much neglected in Greece', but Latin scholarship has been well represented by Kast6rches, Kumantfdes, and Bas€s. In the more congenial department of Greek literature, a comprehensive Homeric dictionary was produced by I. Pantazfdes. The Homeric question has been elaborately discussed by G. Mistri6tes (sub- sequently a professor of Greek at Athens), who maintains the unity of the Iliad and Odjssey and regards Homer as the author of both', and a French treatise on the topography and the strategy of the Iliad was published in Paris in the same year by the Cretan scholar, M. G. Nicolafd^s, while private life in Homer has been ably treated by K. R. RangabSs (1883)'. The criticism of the Greek dramatists is well represented by the Antigone'' of Semftelos (1828 — 1898), who subsequently pub- lished numerous emendations on the text of Euripides'. The Jerusalem palimpsest of that poet has been carefully described by A. PapaddpQlos-Kerameus (1891), who has also catalogued a large part of the numerous mss in the patriarchal library of Jerusa- lem, as well as all the mss and works of art in the ' Evangelical School' of Smyrna (1877). An excellent edition of the scholia in the Laurentian ms of Sophocles is the principal work of P. N. Papagefii^ios of Thessalonica (1888). Treatises on the discourses of Isocrates and on the Hellenica of Xenophon were produced by A. Kyprian6s of Paros (1830 — i86g). A critical text of the G N Betnar- Moralla of Plutarch' was published by G. N. Ber- d4kCB nardakes (1834 — 1907), a native of Lesbos, who

studied in Germany and, after holding a professorship at Athens, spent the evening of his life in the island of bis birth.

1 Finlay, vji (;8. ' Birlin. Phil. Wad. 1884, i)6r f.

' Leipzig, 1867. The same subject has been discussed by Theieianos, N. Balettas, and A. Blachos.

* N. Balettas, be^des writing on the life and works of Homer, has been associated with Kypriands in the translaiion of MUller and Donaldson's Grtfi Lileraturi.

' Athens, 1887 ; cp. Bcrl. PAH. iViKh. 1888, p. I077f.

' Buisian, Ixxi 139.

' Teubner, 1888-96, 7 vols, with Efilcgus; a\io Dt V.lin DelJ>Mi, 1894.

„.,,„,I..OOglC

CHAP. XXXXIX.] SEMITELOS. BERNARDAKES. 373

He bad Trequenl controversies with scholars in Holland, Germany, and his own country. His review of an edition of the Ciw^W by MislriStes (1871) led to a war of words between the editor and ibe reviewer'. His attack on Cobet for 'appropriating' the emendations of KoraSs met with a good-tempered and dignified reply'. His own rejoinder? to the criticisms of Wilamowitz' may be found in the prefaces to the second and fourth volumes of his Plutarch, and in his Epilogui. Lastly, his controversies with Kdnslanttnos Kontos, profiissor of Greek at Athens', have left (heir mark on many passages of a work pub- lished by a pupil of Kontos, named Charitonides'.

The Cretan, Dem^trios Bernardakes, fortnerly professor of History at Athens, followed the example of Kuma- n(ides° in combining the cult of literature with that ^'^^" of scholarship. He was a dramatist and satirist, as well as the author of an excellent Greek Grammar'. Another professor of History at Athens, Constantlnos Papar- rigdpulos of Constantinople, produced an important 'JIoim

work in five large volumes on the History of Greece in classical, Byzantine, and modern times. A French abridge- ment of this work has been published in a single volume. Its general aim is to set forth the continuous life of Greek civilisation from the earliest ages to the present day*. Among recent books of reference one of the most important is a Lexicon of ancient and modem fireek, the concluding voltime of which was published in 1907 by An^ste ConstantinidSs.

Many of the Greek Classics have been translated into modern Greek, but these translations are less and less needed in proportion as the literary langu^e approaches a more classical standard*. Among them may be mentioned the version of Plutarch's Lives by A. R. Rangabes, who also made the experiment of rendering the first book of the Odyssey into accentual hexameters'". The versification of ancient

' BuTsian, xvii I43 f. ' p. 1S6 supra.

' Gottingen pr(^. 1889; dermis, xxv (iSgj) '99f; ^^"- GrUkrI. Am. (1896) .04-

* Author of fft/i/iiicii tpiriti, in B.C.N, i— iii, elc. ' *«El\a ^iXoXiryKii, 907 pp. (Ath. 1904).

* p. 383 infra. ' Kangab^, i 164, ii 1 1%.

* Ranga1>£, i 184 f; medallion portrait in L. Set^eanl's Greect, facing p. 375. ' Nicolai, 201 f ; RangaM, i 164 f.

'" Rangabi, ii 73 ; Constanlinides, (13.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

374 GREECE. [CENT. XIX.

Greece was skilfully imitated by A. G. Levkfas of Philippopolis, who wrote 2200 hexameters on the coronation of king Olho', Philippos I&dtinu of Thessaly, professor of philosophy at Athens, translated into classical Greek the Germania of Tacitus, with three of Virgil's Eclogues, two of the longer poems of Catullus (Ixiv and Ixvi), and the first five books of Ovid's Metamorphoses, besides composing original poems in the old (Jreek style". The same volume includes his well-known rendering of a Klephtic poem into Homeric hexameters : —

SoiAiSiir S6raiJju- rirpvrai ftw ulap trior'.

His letter to Bret6s on the controversy as to the best literary language for the modern Greeks is an excellent introduction to the study of that subject*.

For moie than nineleen centuries the Greek nationality had survived subjection to the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Turks; and, for all those centuries, the Greek language had maintained an unbroken ''^ QteA^' ''**' *•"' '" '"'^ divergent forms. The tirst of these was the literature language of the higher literature ; the second the language of ordinary life and of the popular literature founded on the popular language. At the end of the classical period (about 300 B.C.), the Attic dialect survived all others as the normal type for prose and as (he foundation of a universal literary languBge^ Its earliest important representa- tive is Polybius. Since his lime the natural developement of the common literary language has been avtilicially checked at three successive stages : —

(l) in the first four centuries of our era, when Attic Greek was specially cultivated by DIonysius of Hallcamassus and his followers ; (i) in the last four centuries of the Byzantine empire, when there was a marked revival of interest in classical Greek ; and (3) in the nineteenth century, when the purists gained a predominant position In the prose literature of modem Greece*.

The spoken language of ordinary life is represented in the Alexandrian age

by the non-literary papyri, and even to some extent in the

'^'onhM*'* Egypto-Aleiandrian dialect used in the cramped translational

life style of the Septuagint'. It is also represented in the lai^er

part of the Greek Testament'; and it has left its mark on the

' Rangab^, ii 198— 106. ' *iXoXo7n4 xdptp7ii ( 1 865), i*. 107 f,

* Constant inides, 390. * i860; Constantinides, 1—16.

" Cp. Thumb, Die gr. Sptatht im Zeilaiter des Hellmismus {tgoi). ' Krumbacher's Fislrttlc, Das Problem dcr neugriechisckm Stkri/tsfrtKhe (1903)18-11.

' Delssmann'sSii/(.S'/ii^i(E. T. 1901), 66 f. and Giessen Vortrag, 1898- ° J. H. Moulton's Winer, 1906, Deissmann in TAeol. RimdicluM (1901)

CHAP. XXXIX.] THE LANGUAGE CONTROVERSV. 375

Chronicles of John Mnlalas (cent vi) and on that of Theophanes (ik), and on the writings of Constantine Porphyrogenilua (x)'. The first important repre- senlalive of the distinclively popular lileialure is (he great national epic of Digenis Akrilas (the earliest elements in which are ascribed to the itCh cenlury)'. This popular literature flourished in Crete in the i6lh and ijlh centuries, its most prominent products being Ihe Erolokritt! of Vincenio Cornaro and (he Eropkile of Georgios Chortalzes'. I( also found represen- tatives in the Ionian Islands in the i6th and in the early iijth century. In the latter the most conspicuous name is that of Sot6m6s of Zante, who has been succeeded by Bataoriles (Valaoritis) of Leukas, and, later still, by I. Polylas {d. 1896), and G. Kalo^uros (d. 1901), the translators ot the //iarfand the Proniethem respectively*.

The conlioTcrsy turns mainly on the question whether the literary language should be founded on the language of the people' or on the language of Ihe purisls. Of (he purists a majority have fallowed in the general lines al the compromise between colloquial and classical Greek ad¥oca(ed by Koraes', while some have ui^ed a return lo a more stricdy classical standard'. This apparently interminable controversy is preeminently one (hat must be settled by tbe Greeks themselves. They are apt to warn foreign scholars that a stranger must not intermeddle in the fray, but it has its points of interest to every student of the history of classical scholarship, to whatever nation he may belong. Some of these points are indicated in (he calm and dbpassionate language of an eminent representative of modern Greece, who has a special right to be heard on this subject; —

58 f; Thumb, ib. 8s fj and Milligan on Thns. (1907) iJif; also Deissmann's Ltclura on Biblical Crak (1908).

' Krumbacher, 16 f, 33 f. ' ib. 35. ' ib. 39.

* ib. 53 f, and Byi. Lilt. 787 — 801 f. For specimens of the popular language of Ihe earlier part of centuries v to xvi, see E. A. Sophocles, Ck Lex. 51 — 56, and, for that of the whole period, M. Constantinides, NeehtUenica (1895)60-80, 14-2 f, r73f.

' J. Polylas, 1; 0iXiAa7u)i )Mt ^Xwtfdo (Ath. 1S91) ; Psycharis, ^ia, tal fi^Xa (Alh. 1901), and Krumbacher's Futrede (Munich, 1903) with Ihe litera- ture there quoted.

• G. H. Hatiidakis, La QueUign de la langui kritt nle-grecqui (Ath. 190;), and earlier works. Many examples of (his intermediate style, beginning with the Greek Testament and ending with 1759, are quoted ib. 133— IS9-

' S. D. Byiantios (the lexicographer, (835), P. SQtsos (poet, and author of the vln tx<i\ii) and G. Chrysob^i^fs, who have been opposed by the moderate purists AsfSpios, D. Bemardikes, KontiSs, and Hatzidikis {La QtuUion, 75 f). For a conspectus of the existing forms of modem Greek, cp. Jannaris, Modem Grak Dictionary (1895), p. xiii. This scholar has also produced an ' Ancient Greek Lexicon for Modern Greeks', and a ' Historical Greek Grammar' (1897).

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

376 GREECE. [cent. XIX.

'The Greek people were guided in ihe progressive developmeni of iheir tangnage by practical and urgeni needs. The movement which has made, wilhin (he last century, such rapid and giant strides, nas not the result of scholastic pedantry or of political fanaticism ; it was not imposed or foiced ; it was not mechanical. It was Ihe result of the spread of education and of the grradual re -civilization of the country. I( is a remarkable fact that it preceded political emancipation. The culture of tbe Greek languagje and the study of Greek literature have undoubtedly had, at all limes and places, and still have, as an immediate result, the awakening of a sense of individual dignity and of national freedom. But that is one of the primary reasons why the study of Greek is advocated the world over as an indispensable adjunct to a liberal

Another important controversy, that on the pronunciation of Greek, must here be very briefly noticed. The earlier stages of this con- *'"'!' P.™' troversy have been duly set forth by Blass'. Tbe 'Erasmian' method, dating from 1518, prevails in various forms through- out Europe, and has even been accepted in Russia'. This method has been criticised by Theodoros Dcmelrakopulos' and others*. The modern Greeks in general hold that their own pronunciation has descended to them by an un- broken tradition from the Greeks of the classical age. This view has, how- ever, been refuted by their foremost living scholar, G. N. Hatzidakis. who has shown that neither the 'Erasmian' nor the modern Greek pronuncia- tion can be identical with any single ancient pronunciation of the language, although he admits that, in many points, and especially with regard to the vowels, the 'Erasmian' method comes theoretically nearer to the truths

The East has retained a comparatively scanty store of its ancient classical manuscripts. During the Revival Conatanti- of Learning, and in particular between 1408 and "*^"' 14271 scholars such as Guarino, Aurispa and Filelfo

transferred not a few important mss from Constantinople to places of greater security in the West*. On the fall of Constantinople, large numbers of Greek MSS are said to have been sold by tbe Turks'; but there is no reason for believing that any were delibe- rately destroyed, though they may easily have been damaged or lost for want of proper care. In 1574 Martin Crusius wrote to

' J. Gennadios, Preface to Kolokotrones, ed. Mrs Edmonds, 1891, p. vii. ' ProHuniialion of AncUnt Greek (E. T. 1890), 1 — 6. ' pimwc! Tiir wipi T^i 'EXXi|)'i]t5i rpo^pa! ipaa/iitulr dioieifeaip. * Cp. J. Gennadios in Nineteenlh Century, Oct. 1895 and Jan. 1896, and in Conteniporttry Reman, March, 1897 i and Constantinides, 304 f. ° 'Aruiji/ieird dm^niir/iaro (1904), 184 f (Knimbacher, 91). ' ii 36 f iupra. ^ i 437 f ^/™-

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XXXIX] GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 377

Stephan Gerlach, chaplain of the German legation, inquiring after Mss of Aristotle's Constitutiora, Theophrastus etc., and was informed in reply that even the more learned Greeks confined their reading to the Fathers, to the neglect of the old poets and philosophers, and that any mss of the Classics which still survived had doubtless been bought up by the agents of Italy or France'. When the library of Michael Cantacuzenus (who had fallen into disfavour with the Sultan) was sold, a few Greek mss were bought by Gerlach' and ultimately sent to Germany'. In 1543 Soliman the Magnificent presented a smalt collection to Diego de Men- do^ the envoy of Charles V. After 1561, under the same Sultan, another envoy, Busbecq (1522 — 1592), sent to Vienna some 240 MSS, including the famous illustrated Dioscorides (v), which he had bought from a Jew, the son of the physician to the Sultan*. In 1565-75 catalogues of private libraries in Constanti- nople and Rhaedestos* included mss of Ephorus and Theopompus, Philemon and Menander, but the authority of these ascriptions is very doubtful'. The collection of mss in the old Seraglio, the ancient palace of the Sultans, which presumably includes part of tlie former library of the Palaeologi, has long been veiled in a certain degree of mystery. During the revolution of 1687 the Paris Library acquired from the Sultan's collection fifteen Greek MSS of centuries xi— xv, including a Herodotus (xi) and a Plutarch (xiii)*. On the same occasion, 203 other Greek mss were dis- persed, and the representative of France informed the librarian in Paris that there were 'no Greek mss left. It was almost exclu- sively Latin mss from the library of Matthias Corvinus that were restored to Budapest in 1869 and 1877'. During the 19th cen- tury several scholars had access to the mss, including J. D. Carlyle (i8oo), Weissenborn (i857)'», and E. Miller (1864)". To the last

' Turca-Gratcia, 419, 48;. ' ib. 509.

' Krumbacher, Byi. IMI. jofi'. ' Graux, L'Escurial, iji— 183.

> Ep. iv (1561) ad Jin.; Life and Lttters {ed. Forster and Diniell, 1881), i 417.

• R. Foersler (Rostock, 1877). ' Krumbacher, 509*.

' Delisle, Cabitut dcs MSS, i (iSfiS) 396 f; list iu Nicolai, 58 1 » Blass in ffimies, xxiii (1888) 128. " Ntuejakrb. Ixxvi (1857) joi f. " Melangis, p. iv.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

378 GREECE. [CENT. XIX.

of these we owe the list of Greek Mss reproduced by Blass in the account of his visit in 1887*. This list includes paper mss of the Hiad (xiii) and Polybius i— v (xv). Among the six other Greek MSS independently noticed by Blass is a volume on Tactics (xv). One or two of the ecclesiastical mss may have belonged to the library of the Palaeologi. A I^ivy mentioned by Miller was not found by Blass. It was in a private collection that the ms of Joannes Lydus (x) was identified by Choiseul-Gouffier in 1785. and It was in the ancient library of the Jerusalem monastery, in the Greek quarter, that the unique ms of the 'Teaching of the Apostles' was discovered in 1873 by Bryennios (ed. 1883)*.

An important ms of the Constantinian excerpts from Polybius

and other historians was discovered in Cyprus in

1631 by the agents of Nicolas Peiresc'.

In 1650 the library of the patriarch of Jerusalem contained

'more mss than could be read in a life-time'*,

but it now has little of classical interest except a

palimpsest of parts of Euripides', fragments from the comic poets,

and from the Bibliotheca of 'Apollodorus'*, and some of the

letters of the emperor Julian.

The MSS belonging to the monastery of St John, founded in 1088 on the island of Patmos, have been recorded in three early catalogues dated 1201', 1355' and 1382. At the earliest of these dates the number was already 330. When Villoison visited the island in 1785, the monks assured him that, twenty years previously, they had burnt from two to three thousand!' The library was 'in a most neglected state' in i8or, when E. D. Clarke identified and purchased the important us now known as the Bodleian Plato'". Next year, after the monks had become better aware of the value of some of their possessions,

' Hirmes, xxiii i\^\, 6ij f.

' The library of ihe Syllngoi has been caialogued by A. Papadopulos Kerameus (1891)1 who has also catalogued ihe mss in Jerusalem, Smyrna, Lesbos etc. (Knimbacher, Sio^O-

' i 4O5 iupra. * Nicolai, 61.

' p. 371 supra. ° Rhtin. Mas. xlvi (1891) i6[ f.

'■ Diehl in E. Z. \ 488 f. * Mai, Nova palrum bib!, vi (i) 537 f.

» E. D. Clarke, Travels, vi 44 n.

"' ib- 47; and cp. Sakkelion in AfXrfoi', ii 417.

„.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XXXIX.] MANUSCRIPTS. 379

an inscription in unmetrical hexameters to the following effect was placed over the door of the library : —

In ihis place are lying whatever hss there are of note ; more estimable are Ihey to a wise roan than gold ; guard Iheiu, therefore, watchfully, more than your life; for on Iheir account is this monastery now become conspicuous'.

The library is now 'a spacious and airy room, and the books are arranged in cases along its walls'^. Its 735 hss, including a not very important Diodorus (xi), have been catalogued by I. SakkeHon', who discovered certain scholia on Thucydides^ Demosthenes and Aeschines'; and some scholia on Pindar in two copies of the edttio princtps. These last were published by Semi- telos ; those on the Pythian odes (which correspond to the scholia in the Breslau Mss) have been ascribed to Triclinius*.

On the monastic library of Megaipelaion, near Corinth, we have only to note that some of the many mss saved from the fire of 1600 were acquired m 1840 for the library of the Sorbonne'. The mss found in different parts of the kingdom of Greece are now preserved in Athens, but only 14 of the 1856 MSS are connected with classical Greek".

The libraries of Mount Athos were successfully explored by Janus Lascaris on behalf of Lorenzo de' Medici*, and by Nict5laos Sophian6s on behalf of Mendoza, the envoy of Charles V'°. mss of Homer, Hesiod and the Greek dramatists and orators are mentioned by travellers in the i8ch century, and in the first third of the 19th". In and after i8zo many were destroyed. The codex Athous of Ptolemy's Geography, formerly part of the same volume as the Strabo (xii), has been

' Walpole, ib. 44 n. * Tozer, Iilaadi of Ike Aegean, 190.

' Ath. 1890; cp. Krumbacher, 510'.

* Revue de PhUoIogie, i 181 f.

' B.C.Xi 1-16, 13,- isj (BunUn. i. ijj). ' Bursian,_/ii^nM^. V 10;.

^ Th. Zographos, HeflaUphos (Ath. 1861) 143 f. ' Nos. 1055-68 in Sakkelion's Catalogue, 1891.

* ii 37 sufim. ■" p. 377 supra.

" J. D. Carlyle in Watpoie's Turkey, 196, and Hunt, H. 101, 109; E. D. Clarke, viii 19 (ed. (gi8) ; and R. Curzon's Monasteries of the Levant, 309, 3i8{ed.5)-

38o GREECE. [cent. XIX.

published mfacsimik^. In 1880 Spyridon P. Lampros spent four months in cataloguing the mss, and his woik, in its fmkX form, wa^ published by the Cambridge University Press'. Among the very few classical mss there recorded are single plays of Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, and separate speeches of Demos- thenes, with parts of Plato and Aristotle. There are also several MSS of portions of the fables of Aesop and of Babrius.

Babrius is the author special]]' associated with Minofdes MenSs or 'Mynas' (1790 — 1860), formerly professor of philosophy and rhetoric

MinSf* ^' Serrae in Macedonia, who fled to France on ihe outbreak of the Greek Revolntion of 1811. Id 1840 he was commis- sioned by Viltemain to search for MSS in the East. In Ihe library of Si Laura on Mount Athos he discovered a us confining lU fables of Babrius, of which he made a fairly accurate transcript. This transcript was promptly edited by Boissonade (1844) and more accurately by Lachmann and his friends*. On a subsequent visit he acquired ihe original, a parchment ms (x or xi], which was purchased by Ihe British Museum in 1857. In this MS, fable 113 was repre- sented by a single line, bul Menas in his transcript added six bart>arous lines of his own'. The success of this little venture led him 10 produce 95 more fables, his copy of which was purchased by the Museum in the same year, and edited in 1859 by G. C. Lewis, who was fully conscious of the imperfections of the text but accepted it as Equine". The spuriousness of ihis second collection was, however, soon detected and exposed by Dilbner* and Cobet'. It was from a genuine Ms found by Menas that Boissonade produced in 1S4S a new edition of Ihe Faceliat of Hietocles and Philagrius. Menas also brought hack from Mount Athos a MS of century x including a new cotleclion of Poliorcetica and part of Ihe work of a previously unknown but unimportant historian, Arislodemus, once believed to be a foi^ery' bul now accepted as genuine'. Laslly, he discovered an important ms ideniified by E. Miller as

' Paris, 1867, with introd. and biblic^. by V. Langlois. ' Two large quarto vols. 1895, 1900. He has since written on the medi. aeval and modern Greek copyists and collectors of MSS (Ath. 1901-3). ' p. 119 SMfira.

* Rutherford's ed., p. Ixvii f 1 cp., in general, Freli^nuna to ed. by O. Crusius (1896).

' This continued to be ihe view of Bei^k and Benihardy. ' Seviit di Pittslruclian fuHique en Belgique (i860) 84. ' MHtm. ix (i860) 378 f (cp. viii (1859) jjgf). See also Ficus in Ross- bach, .Mfw.' 808 f.

' C. Wachsmuth, in Rhtin. Mus. xxiii 303 f.

* Cp. Schwaiti in Pauly-Wissowa.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XXXIX.] MENAS AND SIMONIDES. 38I

the lost books iv—x of the 'Refulalion of all Heresies', sometimes called (frotn the title of liook i) the Philesofhttaitna of Hippolytus'.

It vas also on Mount Athos that, in or tiefore 1851, the lost ' Sktpkerd of Hermas' was discovered by Constaotine Simonides ([814— 1B67). The discoverer made a copy of sin leaves, carried off . g1"^JUe°* three others, and submitted the whole to certdn scholars at Leipzig, where the author was at once identified by Gersdorf and the work published by Dindorf (1856)'. The discoverer described himself as a native of Hydra, who had been educated at Aegina and on his mother's native island of Syme, N.W. of Rhodes. It is beyond the scope of these pages to dwell on his extensive travels and his extraordinary adventures'. SufBce it to say that he paid three visits to Mount Alhos, in 1839 f, 1S48 and [S51 f. On the lirst of these visits he professed to have discovered a secret store of mss, including an Anacreon, a Hesiod and a Homer of unprecedented antiquity. In iS^S these MSS were examiaed at Athens without any unanimous result, and they were afterwards bought in England by Sir Thomas PhilHpps*. Simonides pretended to have found (among many other Hss) the lost work of Demetrius Magnes 'On authors bearing the same names', and, being unaware that the writer in question lived in the first century n,C.', repeatedly quoted it as his authority for mailers of later date, such as the life of Nunnus in the fifth, or of Uranius in the fourth century A.D., the 'Egyptian History' of the latter being one of his most flagrant forgeries. In 1861 he even claimed to have written on Mount Athos in 1840, the most ancient MS of the Greek Bible, the Codtx SinaiUcut discovered by Tifchendorf on Mount Sinai in 1844-59, a MS which (curiously enough) ends with the opening chapters of the 'Shepherd of Hermas''. Many years had then passed since the Greeks themselves had discovered that Simonides was an impostor. Kumaniides had pronounced against him in 1S48; Rangahes had denounced all his MSS as foigeries in

' p. 1J4 sHpra. Minoides Menaa wrote 00 Greek pronunciation (1814), edited the ' Dialectic' of Galen (1844), and translated into French .Aristotle's Rhttark (183;) and Philostralus, De Gymnatlica (1853). He was the first to print in 1858 the treatise of the patriarch Gennadios against the Platonism of Plethon. He has sometimes been unjustly confounded with Constantine Simonides (as in Chrbt's Gr. Litt. pp. 655, 9«').

' On these six leaves see Lampros in Catalogue, no. 643 and in Dr Aimilage Robinson's pamphlet on Hermas (Cambridge, 188S); also Prof. Lake's prekce to t.\\e facsimile (Oxford, 1907).

' Cp. C. Stewart's Memoir, 78 pp., 1859; and J. A. Farrer's Literary Forgeries (1907), 39—66.

* Athenaeum, 4 Feb. 1857. * i 161 supra.

' On this claim, cp. Prothero's Life ef Henry Bradshain, 9* — 99; also Journal of Saered LiUralure, Oct. 1861 (148—253) and Jul. 1863 (478—498), and (on Uranius) Apr. i8j6 (134-9).

382 GREECE. [cent. XIX.

1851 *, while in 1849 Mustoxydes, on receiving from him a presentation copy of the 'Symais of Meletios', acknowledged the gift in a Tetter of exemplary courtesy, making it perfectly plain that he had detected the fraud'. The fact that he was a notorious impostor is almost ail that is now generally associated with his name. It is only fair, however, to remember that some of his MSS were genuine and some of his statements were true. The true and the &lse uere, in fact, so strangely intermingled that he might with perfect truth have said of himself in the words of the poet whose 'most ancient' MS he falsely claimed to have discovered : —

While the old Greek Classics (as edited by Koraes and others) have naturally been studied with enthusiasm in modem Greece, a prottiinent place has also been taken by the study of archaeology. Kyriak6s Pittakes (^. 1806^1863), who in 1836 succeeded Ludwig Ross as Conser- vator of Antiquities at Athens, had published in 1835 a meri- torious work entitled VAncUnne Atfutnes. He spent most of his energies on editing inscriptions*. The interest in archaeol<^y, exhibited in 1837 by the foundation of the Greek Archaeological Society and the c^jj/«pU apx^f^oyi'"?. was revived by the energy of Al^xandros Risos Rangabes (1810 — 1892), who was born at Constantinople, was educated at Odessa, and studied in Munich. At Athens he successively became Minister of Education (1832), professor of Archaeology (1845-56), and Foreign Minister (1856-9). He was afterwards Greek Minister in Washington, Paris and Berlin, As professor, he published his Antiquities HelUniques (1842-55) and his Hel- /eniai{i&55). He excavated part of the Heraeumof Argos(i855)', translated Plutarch's Lives into modern Greek (1864-6), wrote a history of modern Greek literature (1877), and published no less than fourteen volumes oJ philological 'AroitTa (1874-6)'.

' Pandata, 185 if, and Lilt. NtohiUhi. i 188— rpi.

* /liBfltra, 1(1851) 163; Constan tin ides, 376—380. ' Hesiod, Tkeog. 17.

* Cp. Michaelis, Arch. Enid. 49; RangaM, i 179; Edmond About and S. Reinach quoted by Th. Reinach in L'NtlUnismc, 1 July 1907.

' Michaelis, 111.

* Cp. Litt. Nh-HtlUn. ii 48 — 104 ; portrait in Hellenk Aanual {Lond. 1880) 140.

h, i.MiA.OOt^lC

CHAP. XXXIX.J RANGABES. KUMANUDES. 383

The Archaeolt^cal Society founded amid the ruins of the Parthenon in April, 1837, was, for the first thirty years of its existence, mainly concerned with inscriptions^. A valuable col- lection of Greek epitaphs was published in 1871 by Stephanos

KumaniidSs* (1818 — iSgg). It comprised more

„ , . , , , , . , Kum»nMe»

than 2800 Items, it represented the work of sis and

twenty years, and was printed at the author's own expense. The

author, a native of Philoppopolts, was an ideal scholar and an

ideal teacher. He had bfeen appointed professor of Latin in

1845, had made his mark as a poet {1851), and, owing to his

high character and his many-sided learning, had been appointed

instructor to the young king of the Hellenes on his first arrival in

Greece. Meanwhile the Society had resumed the excavation of

the Dionysiac theatre, vigorously taken in hand by Strack in

1862". The success of Konstantinos Karapanos at Dodona

(18750 pfonipted the Society to explore the precinct of Askle-

pios, S. of the Acropolis (1876), the shrine of Amphiaraiis at

Orfipus (18S4-7), the sacred sites of Eleusis (1882-91) and Epi-

daurus (1881-3)', ^^^ '^^e Heraeum of Samos (igoz)*. The

excavation of the platform of the Acropolis, begun by Stama-

takes in 1884, was completed by his successor Kabbadias', the

explorer of Epidaurus.

A Hellenic Philolt^ical Society was founded in Constanti- nople, and was supported by Germans such as Mordtmann, Frenchmen such as Dethier, and Englishmen such as Alexander van Millingen'. Smyrna, which has for centuries been a place of resort for collectors of antiquities, ending with the numis- matist, Borreli, is well known as a centre of Greek culture".

A series of mediaeval Greek texts has been edited by Konstantinos Sathas'. The History of the study of Byzantine

' Kastorches, 'loropii:?! fnffivit (1837-79), Ath. 1879 ; Kabbadias, 'laropla T^ 'Apx^o^T"^ ' Eroi/K (hi. 1900; and Th. Reinach, Za Gri^e retmuvie par la Grus, in VHiUiaistne for i July— i August, 1907.

' P- 373 '«f<^'

* Michaelis, 104. The excavation extended over twenty years (1858-78).

* ib. 106. ^ oiiXXoyoi, i86of.

* Cp., ingenera.1, Slark, 345.

» MwoiBWiirii jSi^Xioe^mj, i— vi (Veo. 1871 ; Paris, 1874-7) i M«w«!ii, i ii

h, i.MiA.OOgIc

384 RUSSIA. [CENT. XIX.

and Modem Greek lies beyond the limits of the present work. An interesting outline of the scope of such a History, with a summary of the extant literature of the subject, has been given by Krumbacher, the scholar who is most competent to fill the lacuna*.

In Russia, the systematic study of the classical langu^es goes back to the seventeenth century. In the ecclesiastical ' Academy'of Kiev, founded in 1620, I-atin was thoroughly studied from 1 63 1 to the end of the century ; in fact, it was almost the only medium of instruction, and the use of even a single word of the vernacular language was severely punished'. One of the students produced a translation of Thu- cydides, and of Pliny's Panegyric.

From Kiev the study of the Classics was transmitted to Moscow. The Latin Grammar in use was that of Alvarez'. The printing-school, founded at Moscow in 1679, was the first insti- tution involving the study of Greek, that was subsidised by the government. Throughout the eighteenth century, the Slavo- Greco-Latin Academy (founded in 1685) was the principal source of classical learning. The first teachers of note were two brothers of Greek origin, named Likhftdes, who were natives of Cepha- lonia. They had taken their doctor's degree at Padua ; and, under their tuition, the students acquired a remarkable facility in Latin*. The Academy was highly favoured during the reign of Peter the Great (1689— 1725).

During the eighteenth century, and the early part of the nineteenth, classical publications were limited to translations. The principal Greek and Latin authors were translated in twenty- six volumes by Martynov (1771 — 1883). The first quarter of the nineteenth saw the publication of the earliest works on the archaeolc^y of the Northern shore of the Black Sea*.

(Paris, iSSo-l) ; Digtnis Airitas (ed. Sathas and E. S. Legrand. 1875); His- tory of Psellus (London, 1899). Cp-, in general, BuT^an, ii IJ44-8.

' Ff stride, 186 f.

' Boulgakov, Hist, de rAeadhnie dt Kiev (Kiev, 1873) 13, 175 f.

' ii. 163 su/<ra.

' Srsmenski, Les Icelts tccllsiasliqats en Russit avani la riforme de 1808 {Kazan. 1881), 740.

• Moutaviev-Apostol, Li voyage en Tauride en i8so (St P^teisbourg,

r,,,„n,^.OOglC

CHAP, xxxrx.] MOSCOW. 38s

At the university of Moscow (founded in 1755) R. T. Tim- kovski (1785 — 1820), who had listened with admi- ration to Heyne's lectures at Gottingen, produced Timvovsiii an edition of Phaednis, and a Latin thesis on the Kriukov Dithyramb (1806), in which he gave proof of his' ivanov command of a clear Latin style. D. L. Kriukov eonuev

(1809 — 1845), who attended the lectures of Morgenstern, Francke, and Neue at Dorpat, and of Boeckh in Berlin, published papers on the age of Quintus Curtius, and on the tragic element in Tacitus, with an edition of the Agricola, and a work on the original differences in religion between the Roman Patricians and the Plebeians'. K. K. Goerz {1820 — 1883), one of the earliest professors of archaeology in Russia, wrote on the Peninsula of Taman, also on Italy and Sicily, and on the discoveries of Schliemann. The admirable Latin scholar, G. A. Ivanov (1816 — 1901), besides producing excellent renderings of the niasteq>ieces of Latin literature, wrote on Cicero and his contemporaries (1878), and translated Plutarch, De facie in orbe lunae, and the ' Harmonic Introduction ' ascribed to Euclid. Leontiev, who lectured on Roman Antiquities and Greek Mythology, and published a work on the worship of Zeus in ancient Greece, founded in 1850 a periodical called the Propylaea, including papers on classical subjects by Katkov (on Greek philosophy), Kudriavtsev (on Greek literature and on Tacitus), and Kriukov (on Roman litera- ture and antiquities).

The university of Vilna, founded in 1803, was superseded in 1833 by that of Kiev, which was not placed on the same level as the other universities until 1863-84.

At the university of St Petersburg (founded in 1819), N. M. Blagoviestschenski (1821 — 1891), who attended the lectures

1813 i German Iransl. 1815-6 ; Italian transl. 1833). J. Stemporalii, Retkirches sur la sUaalion des anriennts lehnies grxi/ues ilu Pmil-Eaxin, St P^t., 1816). Both of these schokts published many other works in Russian and in French. — For the principal works in Greek and Latin scholar- ship published in Russia, cp. Paul Prozorov, Index SystSnialiqut, xvi + 374 pp., St Pet., 1898; and Naghouievski's Bibliographie de rkistoire de la littiralurc lalineen Russie 1709—1889, +8 pp. (Kaian, 1889).

' Posthumously published under the pseudonym of Dr Pellegrino (Leipiig, .849).

^- "'■ h, i.,ii,i?5oo^ic

386 RUSSIA. [cent. XIX.

of Hermann, W. A. Becker, and Haupt at Leipzig, and of Creuzer and Schlosser at Heidelberg, was the earliest notable * ,*"", "'^ professor of Russian birth. His masterpiece was a schensjci worlc OH Horace and his age^. He also produced

lerniKcdt ^" annotated translation of Persius, and wrote papers on Vii^il's Cofia, on Niebuhr's views as to the relation of the lays of ancient Rome to the early histories of the city, and on the coincidence between the story of the Matrona Epkesia of Petronius and a popular narrative of the district of Perm. Karl Joachim Lugebil (1830 — 1888), who was of German parentage, studied at St Petersburg, where he dedicated to the memory of Graefe an able dissertation De Venere Coliade Genetyllide (1859). Accompanied by his wife, he travelled in Germany, Italy and Greece. His best-known works were connected with Athens: — (i) On Ostracism and (z) On the history of the Athenian Constitution'. His Cornelius Nepos passed through several editions. Among his contributions to classical periodicals may be mentioned his papers on the untrust worthiness of the Alexandrian system of accentuation'. He was a man of fine character, and an admirable teacher*. V. K. lemstedt {1854 — 1902), one of the best of Russian Hel- lenists, produced an excellent edition of Antiphon {1880)', which had been preceded by studies on the minor Attic Orators- He also published the 'Fragments of Attic comedy acquired by bishop Porphyrius' (1891), adding largely to the portions of these fragments that had been deciphered by Tischendorf', and contributing many important criticisms on points of palaeography and exegesis. The Historico- Philological Institute was founded at St Petersburg in 1867 with a view to training school-masters in history, literature, and the classical languages.

At the university of Kazan (founded in 1804), the earliest writings of D. T. Bieliaev (1846 — 1901) were mainly concerned with ' Hiatus in the Odyssey ', and with the political and religious opinions of

1 1864; ed. 2, 1878.

' Jahrb.f. d. PhU. Suppl. iv— v (1861-71).

' Rkein. Mus. 1888. * Biogr. yakrb. 1888, 16—35.

" Cobet, in Aftum. v i6gi. • Ed. Cobet, 1876.

>,Cooglc

CHAP. XXXIX.] ST PETERSBURG. KAZAN. ODESSA. 387

Euripides (1876). He is best known in connexion with his Byzantina, a work including a detailed commentary on the court of Constantine Porphyrogenitus'.

At the university of Odessa (founded in 1865), L. F. Voe- vodski (1846 — 1901) studied Homer, and the primitive Greek mythology. In his earhest work, 'on cannibalism in Greek Mythology', he regarded the myths as inspired, not by a creative imagination, but by the observation of the daily phenomena of nature (1874). His 'in- troduction to the mythology of the Odyssey' (i88rl was mainly on 'Solar Monotheism'.

Lastly, at the university of Kharkov (founded 1804), 1. 1. Kro- neberg {1788 — 1838) was one of the foremost representatives of classical scholarship in Russia during the early part of the rgth century. He ' " 's

was of German origin, but acquired a perfect mastery of the Russian language. His Latin -Russian Dictionary passed through six editions (1819-60). He also published a compendium of Roman Antiquities, and editions of Horace's Epistola ad Au- gustum, Cicero pro lege Manilia, and Sallust, and a paper of literary criticism on Persius. His numerous articles on the Classics, as well as on general literature and art, appeared in the periodicals entitled, Amalthie, Brochures, and Minerve, which filled the same place at Kharkov as the Profylaea founded by Leontiev at Moscow. He was celebrated for his aphorisms, e.g.

' Tout livre doit etre cosmopolite; mais il y en a qui ne reflitent que la nielle, ou lis sont nes'i 'Tel bomme lessemble i un livre, et (el livre ressemble i un homme. La. vraie lecture est une lutte. On ne commence souvenl k aimer un homme qu'aprcs s'etre bien querelle Bvec lul ; il en est de m?me pour leslivres''.

The above survey is mainly limited to scholars of Russian birth, among whom Lugebil and Kroneberg alone were of German parentage. The university of Dorpat, founded in Livonia by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, was

» Cp. Byx. Zeilschr. 1 .i+s, iii 184.

' Almost (he whole of the above account of native Russian Scholarship is abridged from a survey of the subject, which Prof. A. Maleyn of St Petersbui^ has kindly written in French on my behalf, at the request of Prof. Zielinski.

25—3

h. i., ii^l^.OO^IC

388 RUSSIA. [CENT. XIX.

reconstituted by Alexander I in 1802. Four years previously, all Russian subjects had been recalled from the universities of Germany, but Dorpat remained a centre of German influence from 1S02 to 189s'; thenceforward the Russian language alone was allowed to be used in the lecture-rooms.

The university of Finland, founded by Sweden at Abo in 1640, was transferred to Helsingfors by Russia in 1827. The professor of Latin in that uni- versity, F. W. Gustafsson (b. 1825), has published criticisms on the text of Cicero De Finibus, and on that of Apollinaris Sidonius. At Borgo, E. of Helsingfors, a professorship of Classics was as- signed in 1837 to the Swedish poet, Runeberg (1804— 1877), who was thoroughly familiar with the Greek and Latin poets. The earliest of the German scholars, who resided in Russia for a large part of their lives, was Christian Russia: Friedrich Matthaei (1744 — 1811), He had been

a pupil of Ernesti at Dresden, and had also studied at Leipzig; he was rector and professor in Moscow (1772-85), and, after spending four years as head of the school at Meissen, and sixteen as professor of Greek at Wittenberg, returned to Moscow for the last six years of his life. He is best known for having discovered at Moscow in 1780 a MS of the Homeric Hymns, including the Hymn to Detneier (first published by Ruhnken') and twelve lines of a Hymn to Dionysus'. Almost all his own work was connected with Byzantine literature.

One of Hermann's pupils. Christian Friedrich Graefe (1780 —

1851), who became professor, librarian, and keeper

"* * of Antiquities at St Petersbuig, studied Meleager

and the Bucolic poets, and edited Nonnus (1819-20). He gave

' The lung lisl of Germans appointed to teach classical or cognate subjects at Dorpat b^ns with K. Moi^enslein (i8ci), C. L, Struve (1805), J. V. Francke (r8ii), W. F. Clossius (1814). F. K. H. Kruse (i8^8). C. F. Neue (1831), L. Preller (1838), and E. Osenbruggcn (1843). Among ihe latest was L. Mendelssohn ([876).

' Bursian, ii 551 f- Matthaei mutilated certain Greek Mss in Moscow and carried his plunder off to Cermany. He was charged with this theft as early as 1789, and the charge has since been conRimed (Oscar von Gebhardt, in Cenlialbl. fiir Btbl., i8()8).

,1^.00'

SIC

CHAP. XXXIX.] HELSINGFORS. GERMANS IN RUSSIA. 389

instruction in Greek to his friend Count Uvarov (1785 — 1855), the Russian Minister of Education, who wrote in French on the Mysteries of Eleusis and in German on the Poetry of Nonnus and on the Prae-Homeric Age- He uses German in his work on Nonnus because 'the revival of classical learning belongs to, the Germans". He exemplifies the influence of the New Humanism beyond the borders of Germany'.

Friedrich Vater, son of J. S. Vater, studied at Berlin, where he died {1810— 1866). Of his earlier works, the best known is his edition of the R/iesus (1837). His papers on Andocides, begun in Berlin, were continued at Kazan, and he also published at Moscow an edition of the Iphigenia in Aulis {1845). During the forties, classical studies in Russia were much influenced by German scholarship, as represented by Boeckh and K. O- Miiller on the one hand, and by Ritschl on the other. The last 33 years of the life of Nauck (1822-92), and the greater part of the last 28 years L^Miiiier of that of Lucian Miiller (1836-98), were devoted to the teaching of Greek and Latin respectively at St Petersbui^'.

Jacob Theodor Struve (1816 — 1886), who studied at Dorpat and Konigsberg, taught for twenty years at the university of Kazan, was Greek professor at Odessa (1865-70), and Anally, for eight years, director of the gymnasium at St Petersburg, He is best known for his criticisms on Quintus Smymaeus'', having been led to study that poet by his uncle, Carl Ludwig Struve, whose Opusmla SeUcta he edited.

' Reprinted in his Eludes. Cp. Geoiu Schmid, Ziir rmHschen Gelehrttn- ^eschiihte, 99. Count Uvarov's German Essa.y was dedicaled in 1S17 to Goethe, who calls him eitten Jdhigen, talentvoUin, gdsireick gcaiandlm Mann (in Ftrams iiber deutscke Lilleratur, xxvii 150 Cotta, quoted by Schmid l.i: , mSuss, Rtvue, xxv 77 — 108, ij6 — i6j).

'' For ten years (1S56-46) Graefe counted among his colleagues the pro- fessor of Latin, T. F. Freflag (1800—1858). Most of the brief memoranda on classical scholars in Russia, prinled by Creuzer, Zur Gtsch. do- cl. Pkitol. (1854), 166—171, were supplied in 1846 by Fieytag, who, besides the more obvious name;, mentions Groddeck (1762 — 1814), professor at Vilna, and Karl Hofmann in Moscow, editor of Thucydides, 1S40-J.

* See pp. i49fand i8gfj/i/ra.

* Petrop., 1843; Casani, i860.

h. i.MiA.OOgIc

H. Kilhler

390 HUNGARY. [CENT. XIX.

At Odessa, he worked at the local Greek inscriptions, publishing the results of his researches in his Pontiscke Brie/e^iZTiY-

The study of classical archaeology in Russia dale^ from the reign of Feler the Great (A. 1715). The Academy of Sciences, founded in Arch>col<^>» jj^^^ included the name of Theophil Siegfried Bayet (1694— 1738) of Konigsberg, who applied an accurate knowledge, oi numismatics to his works on Greek Chronolc^, the Achaean League, and the Greek rule in Asia, besides writing a monograph on the ' Venus of Cnidos ', in connexion with a statue (lurchased in Rome by Peter the Great in 1 ; 18.

The conquest of Ihe Crimea in 1783, and of the Northern coast of the Black Sea in 1791, led lo those former sites of Greek civilisation being explored by Russia under an organisation whose centre was in St Petersburg. Under Alexander 1 (iSoi-is) Classical Philoli^y and Archaeology were delinitely recognised in the Academy of Sciences, and the President of Che Academy, Count Uvarov, took the keenest interest in the atchaeotf^cal exploration of the southern parts of Rus^a. The discoveries in that region were the Iheme of the letters addressed to the Academy by a pupil of Heyne, Heinrich K. E. Kohler (tjfis — 1838), who devoted most of his time to the study of ancient gems. His collected papers on archaeolt^ical topics were edited for the Academy in six volumes by Ludolf Slephani (1850-3). Von Stackelberg (1787—183+), who studied al Gotlingen, and spent many years in Dresden and in Greece and Italy in the study of archaeology', did not return to Russia until the last year of his life. In the meantime, his German contemporary, Hermann's pupil, Graefe', who was elected a member of the Russian Academy in 18)0, was working at the Greek inscriptions of the South coast, while Moi^enstem of Halle (1770—1851) was awakening an interest in Greek ait at Dorpat. The archaeological work begun by Kohler was ably continued by Stephani (1816—1887), "ho studied at Leipzig, was professor at Dorpat (1846-50), and keeper of the Antiquities of the Hermitage at St Peterslmrg for the last 37 years of his life. He was the author of many important monographs on the archaeological discoveiies in South Russia'.

Hungary was among the homes of humanism in the reign of Matthias Corvinus (d, 1490), whose library was scattered on the occasion of the capture of the capita] by the Turks In 1526'.

' BUgr. yahrb, 1886, 11—13.

" p. 2 18 SHjn-a. ' p. 388 sufra.

* P- 123 "'/»'•'■

s ii 175 and iii 377 sufra.

i-MM,Googlc

CHAP. XXXIX.] TfiLFY. ABEL. 391

Latin long remained in use as a living language in Hungary'; the debates of the Diet were conducted in Latin until 1825'; but there was little interest in classical literature until the middle of the nineteenth century, when there was a revival of learning attested by numerous translations of the Classics, as well as the publication of classical text-books. Among those who aimed at producing works of more permanent value was Ivan Telfy (1816— 1898), Greek Professor at Buda- "

pest, whose Studies on Greek pronunciation (1853) were followed by his Corpus Juris A Uia {1&68), and by his edition of Aeschylus (1876). On his retirement in 1886, he was succeeded by Eugen Abel (1858 — 1889), who owed his knowledge of English and German to his mother (a native of England), and who added to the French that he had learnt at school the Italian that he acquired at the university. At Buda- pest he attracted the attention of the restorer of classical learning in Hungary, Emil Thewrewk de Ponor'. In 1877 he laid the foundation of his knowledge of palaeography, and of the history of humanism in Hungary, in the study of certain mss from the library of king Corvinus, which were then restored by the Turks. He was thus led to explore the libraries of Europe in quest of MSS of the Epic poets of Greece and the humanists of Hungary. On his return he succeeded T^lfy as professor of- Greek, but held that position for three years only, dying at Constantinople on the eve of his examination of the ancient mss of that city.

In Ihe department of Greek Epic poetry, he produced critical editions of KoUuthos (18S0), ihe Orphic Lithska and tlie Orphica (18S1-5), the Homeric Hymns and Epigram!, and the Battle of the Frogs and Mice (18B6). He introduced the digamma into his ediliAi of the Homeric Hymns; his Hungarian commentary on the Odyssey was preceded by a Homeric Giaminar published in 18S1, a year before that of Monro. He also edited two volumes

' On the language of Latin literature in Hungary, cp. Bairlal, Glossarium mediae et infimai Laltnilalis rtgni Hungariae (Leipzig, 1901).

> In Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania, 'Latin conversation was last heard in 1848, and then only from Croat lips' (67. Rev. xxi 117). Possibly here (as in Italy) colloquial Latin was killed by the revival of learning.

' Born 18385 founder of the Budapest Philolc^ical Society, and joint- editor of its literary organ, since 1871.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

392 HUNGARY. [CENT. XIX.

o( scholia on Pindai{iS84-Qi), and published tlie Ancient and Mediaeval Lives of Terence (1887). Among his publications connected with the history of humanism in Hungary were his Anaiecia on [he Hungarian humanists and ihe 'learned society of the Danube ' (1880), his article on Hungarian unlveisilies in the Middle Ages 088i)> and his edition of the remains of Isofta Nogarola of Verona (iS86). His work in this department is of special importance for the period between the accession of king Corvinus (1464) and the battle of Mohacs (1516)'.

The publications of the Hungarian Academy are in the Magyar language, which is also used in the principal philological journal", but a medium of communication with the scholars of Europe is provided by the Likrarische Berichte aus Ungarn and by the Ungarische Revue*.

' Biogr.Jahrtsb. i8go, 47—51; cp, Bursian's/a^riwA. xv (1878) ijof. ' Egyetimis phiUlogiai kdztony, 1871 f. ^ Bursian, ii 1143,

iM,Googlc

CHAPTER XL.

ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Dr Parr, who died in 1825, writes thus in his Diary: — ' In the reign of Plulemy Greece boasted of her Pleiad ; England, in my day, may boast ol a Decad of literary luminaries, Dr Samuel Butler, Dr Edward Makby, bishop Blomfield, dean Monk, Mr E. H. Barker, Mr Kidd, Mr Surges, professor Dobree, professor Gaisford, and Di Elmsley. They are professed critics : but in learning and tasle Dr Routh of Oxford is

The last of these, Martin Joseph Routh (1755 — 1854), died in the hundredth year of his age, after having been President of Magdalen for three and sixty years. He edited the Euthydemus and Gorgias of Plato in 1784, lived to produce the fifth volume of his Relliquiae Sacrae in 1848, and, at the age of 92, summed up his long experience in the precept : — 'I think, sir, ...you will find it a very good practice always to verify your references'". Edward Maltby {17 70 — 1859), of Winchester and of Pembroke, Cambridge, successively bishop of Chichester and of Durham, was the author of a useful Kidd'"'' Lexicon Graecoprosodiacum (1815)'. Thomas Kidd (1770 — 1850), of Trinity, Cambridge, head-master of Lynn, Wymondham and Norwich, edited the philological and critical works of Ruhnken, the 'Tracts' of Porson, and the 'Miscellanea Critica* of Dawes. ' It was amusing', says Maltby, ' to see Kidd in Person's company; he bowed down before Porson with the veneration due to some being of a superior nature'*.

' Memoirs, \ 751 n.

' Billion's Twelve Good Men, i 73.

' Founded on Morell's Thesaurus (1761). In supplementing that work Maltby, the pupil of Parr and the friend of Porson, received valuable assist- ance from both.

* Ri^rs, Table Talk, Persmiana, 325.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

394 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

The Porsonian tradition passed for a time from Cambridge to Oxford in the person of Peter Elmsley (1773 — 1825) of Winchester and Christ Church. After spending several years in Edinburgh, he lived in Kent from 1807 to 1816, when he paid his first visit to Italy. For the rest of his life his headquarters were at Oxford. He spent the winter of 1818 in Florence, studying the Laurentian ms of Sophocles. He collated the ms in 1820, and the earliest recognition of its superiority is to be found in the preface to his edition of the Oedipus Coloneus^. In 1819 he aided Sir Humphry Davy in examining the Herculanean papyri in the Museum of Naples. For the last two years of his life he was principal of St Alban Hall and Camden professor of Ancient History at Oxford.

At Edinbui^h he edited the text of Tliucydides with a Latin translation (1804), and contributed to the Edinbur^ Review scholarly articles on Heyne's Uiad, Schweighauser's Alhenaeus, Blom field's Prometheus Vinttus, and Porson's Hectiba^. His most important works were his editions of Greek plays, all of them published at Oxford, namely the Acharnians of Arislo- phanes, the Oedipus Tyrannus and Oedipus Coloneus of Sophocles, and Ihe Heraclidae, Medea, and Bacchae of Euripides. His editions of the Media and Heraclidae were teptinled by Button, with additions from Elmsley'i papers. The latter were also the source of the readings of the Laurentian us printed in the Oxford Sophocles of 1816.

As a scholar whose editorial labours were almost entirely confined (o the Greek drama, Elmsley had a close affinity with Porson, who held him in high esteem until he found him appropriating his own emendations without men- tioning his name. Porson's property was thus annexed by Elmsley in his review of Schweighauser's Athenaeus^, and in his edition of the Achamiaits'. Elmsley attempted to suppress the latter, but found to his dismay thai it had already been reprinted at Leipzig". In his Media be observed that an editor's duly consisted in two things : — correcting the author's texl, and explaining his meaning ; Ihe foimei duty had been dischai^ed by Porsun, while Ihe latter had been neglected. In all his edilions of Greek plays, Elmsley devoted

' 1813 ; Jebb, in Pref. to Facs. 10, n. 5, and in Inlro,i. to Text (1897) xliii f.

' Nos, 4, 5, 3;, 37 respectively. He reviewed Markland's three plays in Ihe Quarterly; Hermann's SufipUces and Hercules Furms in the Cl./aumal; and published his own notes on the ^/«jr in ihe Museum Cn/Kwm,! 351 f, 4691.

' Edin. Rev. no. 5, Oct. 1803; cp. Quarterly Rev. v 107.

' Church cf England Quarterly Rev. v 413 f.

' Walson-sZyia//b™»,3.of.

|.MM,G00glc

CHAP. XL.] ELMSLEY. GAISFORD. 39S

him&etr mainty lo Che illustration of the purport of the text, and to the elucidation of the laws of Atlic usage'. He had a wide knowledge of modem history. He was 'an accurate critic, and a profound and el^ant scholar', remarkable for ' the charm of his conversation ', and for ' the gentleness and goodness of his heart''... He was also a man of caltn temper and impartial ju^ment, while his fondness for light reading was one of the points in which he resemhled Person'. In his illustralive notes he showed himself fully alive to the value of ihe worli done by his predecessors, such as Brodaeus and Barnes, Heath and Musgrave*. Elsewhere he says of Casaubon's Athenaeus, ' we know of no work, except perhaps Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris, in which the reader-is presented with such a mass of pertinent infoimation''. His merits as a scholar were highly esteemed by Hermann', whose edition of the Bacchae was published solely as a supplement to that of Elmsley, cuius viri el dettrinam admiror it anitni ingcnuitattni maximi facio.

Among the merits of Elmsley was a high appreciation of the value of the Laurentian ms of Sophocles. His a \ t rA careful edition of the scholia in that ms was brought out by Thomas Gaisford (1779 — 1855), who was bom only six years later than Elmsley and survived him by thirty. A native of Ilford in Wiltshire, he was appointed Regius professor of Greek at Oxford in 1812, and was dean of Christ Church for the last twenty-four years of his life. The Gaisford prizes for Greek verse and prose were founded in his memory.

, Early in his career he produced school-editions of the W/«j/i'j, £'/<rc/r3, and Andromache, and saw through the press Musgrave's Hecuba, Orestes, and Pkotnisioe, and Markland's Suppliies and the two IphigettHas. In 1S09 he published the paraphrase of the Nicomachean Ethics by Andronicus of Rhodes, and in the following year first made his mark by the edition of Hephaeslion, which led Hermann lo describe its editor as dignus qui multa cum iaude commeniorarelur'' . When Ihe professorship of Greek fell vacant in

' His notes on the Heraclidae, Medea and Bacchai, linguam usumque quantum attinet' were reprinted in Gretton's Elmsleiana Criliea, 1833.'

' Brilish Crilic, April. 1817, 181.

' Gentleman's Mag., April, 1815, 374-6 (ascribed by Luard to Edward Copleston. then Provost of Oriel). Luard's bound volume of Elmsleiana has been lent to me by Professor Mayor.

' Preface lo Heraclidae. ^ Edin. Rev. Oct. 1803, 185.

• Opasc. vi 95,

'Ed. (with Proclus, Chrest.) 1810 (Leipzig, 1821); and (with Ter. Mautus) i8j6.

A.oogic

Thomas Gaisford.

Reproduced (by permission of Messrs Ryman) from the loezzolint by T. L. Atkinson (18+8) of Ihe porltail hy H. W. Pickei^lt, R,A., in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford.

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XL.] GAISFORD. 397

1811, acting on the judicious advice of Cyril Jackson, Ihen dean of Christ Charchi he sent a handsomely bound copy of his Hepkaeslion (with a tetter, dictated by the dean) lo Lord GrenviJle, the ministei in whose hands the appointment lay ; and, shortly aflerwards, he was duly appointed to the posi- tion which he adorned for the remaining forty-lhree years of his life'.

In igii he published catalogues of the Greek Hss of D'Orville and of E. D. Clarke, followed by readings from Ihe Bodleian Plalo in his Lecliones Ptatoniceu fiSio). In the latter year he produced a variorum edition of Aristotle's Rhetoric, and completed the critical notes and scholia to a new edition of Winterton's Pailae Minsres Graeii. He also edited the Fleriltgium and the Eclogae of Stobaeus, as well as Herodotus, Sophocles, Sutdas ( 1834-7), the Elymelogic-uBi Magnum {1S4S), and Pearson's Adiietsaria Hesyekiana, besides editions of the Greek Proverbs, and the Latin writers on metre, with Choeroboscus, several of the works of Eusebius and Theodoret, and the Septuagint. It was in allusion to his Suldas and his Elymolegicum Magnum that the future lexicographer, Robert Scott, in his Homeric verses, described Gaisford as Sou ivyj.xb'Tt'.a riXkua' \ Xtfiua Sva^araicTa*.

With a view to his editions of the Greek poels, and of Stobaeus and Sutdas, he spent four months at Leyden studying (he MSS in Ihe Library, ti^ethei with the Adversaria of Valckenaer. His visit was agreeably remembered by his constant companion, Bake*. During this visit one of the professors made some metrical mislSike, whereupon Gaisford poured forth in Latin a flood of learning from Ilephaestion and other authors, till the Dutch professor held up his hands, and exclaimed : — O vir mtignat profecto sapiailiat, si lam in rtbiis qaam in verbis imalidsses*. The learning and industry that be bestowed on the Greek Poels were eulogised by Hennann', wbo, on being visited by an English scholar, after enpressing in vigorous language a certain contempt for Scholefield, reverently added: — 'But Gaisford I adore'*. George Gaisford used to relate how, when he went with his father to call on Dindorf at Leipzig, 'the door was opened by a shabby man, whom they took to be the famulus, but who, on the announcement of Gaisford's name, rushed into his arms and kissed him''.

' H. L. Thompson's Life 0/ If. G. Liddell, 139; cp. Jourtial of CI. and Sacred Philology, ii 343 f, iii (13; W. Tuckwell's RtminiSMtues of Oxford, 119-134.

» W. Tuckwell, 566. ' Schol. Hyp. vol. n v— vii.

* H. L. Thompson's Zjft of H. C. Liddell, 15.

s 1831, <3/wc. vigS.

' The English scholar was George Butler, Head Master of Harrow. I owe this anecdote to his son, the Master of Trinity. In Opusc. vi 97 Hermann notices the lack of originality in Schotetield's Aeschylus (i8i8). while he describes the editor of the Potlae Minores as ' der fleissige und gelehrie Gaisford ' {ib. 98).

' W. Tuckwell, 131.

,l^.OO'

IC5IC

398 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

A certain deflexion from the critical Porsonian tradition is ex- emplified bySamuel Butler (1774 — 1839), the editor of Aeschylus. He was educated at Rugby, and was on the point of being entered at Christ Church under Cyril Jackson, when, by the advice of Dr Parr, who had been struck by a copy of his Latin verses, he became a member of St John's College, Cambridge. At Cambridge he won the gold medal for the Greek and the Latin Ode, and was also Craven Scholar and Chancellor's Medallist. A year before his M.A. degree, his College elected him head-master of Shrewsbury, a position which he held to the great advantage of the College as well as the School from 1798 to 1836, when he became bishop of Lichfield for the last three years of his life.

The Syndics of the Cambridge Press had invited Porson to edit Aeschylus, with Stanley's text, llie offer, which had been declined by Porson, was accepted by Butter, whose edition filled four quarto volumes (1809-11;), including Ihe Gieek scholia, and all the notes of Stanley and his predecessors, with selections from those of subsequent editors, and a synopsis of the 'various readings '.

It was ably reviewed by C. J. Blomfield', who protested against Ihe ' literal reprint of Ihe corrupt text of Stanley's edition ', againsl ' the extreme deficiency of illustration from Aeschyliis himself and his brother Imgedians', and ' the implicit deference ' paid lo ' the authority ' of Hesycbius, Suldas, and the Etymologicum Magnum. He also r^retted that the lucubrations of Tumebus, Muretus, and Beroaldus. and 'their unworthy imitator, Schiltz', tilled up ' a space which would have 1>een more advantageously occupied ' by the 'more useful and concise' notes of the critics of the Dutch school, Hemsterhuys, Valckenaei, Pierson, Koen and Ruhnken; it was 'an indiscrimi- nate coacervation ' of all thai had been 'expressly written on Aeschylus'. Butler, in the course of his reply, remarks Ihat ' probably no man ever undertook a work of this nature with so little assistance. ' Of the many thonsand passages' from ancient authors ' not one has been pointed out to me by any learned friend '. He honestly confesses to certain mistakes, but ' continually betrays ibe jealousy which Pan's circle entertained towards the Porsonians''. Many yeara afterwards bishop Blomfield said of Butler, 'he was a really learned as well as amiable man, but his forte did nol lie in verbal criticism''. His

> Edin. Reu., Oct. 1809, and Jan. 1810; Feb. iSii (full extracts in J. E. B. Mayor's ed. of Baker's Hitt. of St yohnh Coll. ii 908—911); cp. Life and Ltlters of Dr S. BulUr (tig6), i 11 f, 53—6*.

= Lcller to the Rev. C. J. Blomfield, 1810 (J. E. B. Mayor, 911—915).

> ib. 9.7.

A.OO'

1C5IC

CHAP. XL.] S. BUTLER. DOBREE. 399

' Praxis on the Latin prepoMtions ' (1813) held its ground for about twenly-five years, when it was superseded by books of less interest. The only other work that need here be mentioned is his ' Sketch of Modem and Ancient Ge<^aphy' (1813), which passed through ten editions, ic^ether with 'An Alias of Ancienl Geography ' (1811, elc.)'. In his 'Ancienl Geography' he 'endeavoured to make a dry catalogue of names interesting and useful, by Ihe application of history, chronology and poetry', and especially by quoting select passages from the best classical poets*. His interest in classic travel is well exemplified in one of his letters to Parr : —

' My journey, though very laborious, and not free from peril, completely succeeded. I visited every spot connected with the most interesting parts of the Roman hbtory — including Mons Sacer, Tibur, Tuscutum, and Alba, and, of course, pari of the old Appian way. From Cicero's Tusculan Villa I looked down upon that of his neighbour Cato.... I visited the Alban Villa of

Domitian,.,.and the emissary of the Alban Lake, made by Camillus At

the grotto of Egeria I trod upon a fragment of marble and drank from the stream running once more through its native tophus..,'^.

The Porsonian type of scholarship, represented at Oxford by Elinsley, was maintained at Cambridge by Dobree, Monk, and C. J. Blomfield. The first of these, Peter Paul Dobree (1782 — 1825), was born in Guernsey, and was indebted to the place of his birth for the mastery of French that made him so acceptable during his visit to Leyden in 1815*. Meanwhile, he had been elected a Fellow of Trinity and had joined in founding Valpy's Classical Journal in 1810, while he was a frequent contributor to Bumey's Monthly Review. He edited (with many additions of his own and in particular with his own commentary on the Plutus) Porson's Aristophanica (1820)°, which was followed by Porson's transcript of the lexicon of Photius (1822). When Monk vacated the Regius Professorship of Greek, Dobree was elected in his place and held that position for the two remaining years of his life. His Adversaria on the Greek Poets, Historians, and Orators, were posthumously pub- lished in four volumes (1831-3) by his successor, Scholefield'. His transcript of the Lexicon rhetoricum Cantabrigiense was printed

' Republished by Dent, without date, 1907.

" Mayor, l.c. 936. • Parr's Werh, vii 371 (i8it).

* Bake's Schol. Hyp. 11, ii— v.

* Cp. Hermann, Ofust. vi 96.

' Ed. Wagner b l vols. 1874, with the Oiservatiaiies Aristopkaneae of 1810,

400 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

in 1834, and his 'Miscellaneous Notes on Inscriptions' in the following year.

While Dobree was a follower of Porson in the textual criticism of Aristophanes, he broke new ground as a critic of the Attic Orators, and of Demosthenes and Lysias in particular. In the Praelection that he delivered as candidate for the professorship once held by Porson, he dilated on Person's merits, and, after expressing the general regret that Porson had mainly confined his attention to the poets, himself discoursed on the Funeral Oration ascribed to Lysias, giving conclusive reasons for supporting Valckenaer's opinion that it was a spurious production. In the person of Dobree, the old alliance between the scholarship of England and the Netherlands received a new ratification that re- called the age of Bentley and of Hemsterhuys,

James Henry Monk (1784 — 1856), who was educated at ■ Charterhouse and was Fellow of Trinity, held the professorship of Greek from 1809 to 1823, having in 1822 been appointed dean of Peterborough. He was conse- crated bishop of Gloucester in 1830, and held the bishopric of Gloucester and Bristol from 1836 to his death twenty years later. Following in the footsteps of Porson and Elmsley', he edited four plays of Euripides, the Hippolytus and the Alctstis, while he was still professor, and the two Iphigeneias, when he was already a bishop. All four plays were republished in 1858. In conjunction with E. V, Blomfield he edited the two volumes of the Museum Critiattn (1814, 1826), which was continued under the name of the Philological Museum (1832-3). The year of his consecration as bishop was that of the publication of his admirable Life of Bmlley.

Monk's fellow-editor of Person's Adversaria in 1812 was Charles James Blomfield (1786—1857), who was educated at Bury St Edmunds, and was a Fellow of Trinity. He edited with notes and glossaries the Prometheus^ Seplem, Persae, Agamemnon and Choiphoroe (1810-24), and it may safely be assumed that he would have edited the Eumenides, had he not been appointed bishop of Chester in 1824. Four years later he was transferred to the see of London, which he

' Cp. Hermann, Opusi. vi ^.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

C. J. Blomfield

CHAP. XL.] MONK. THE BLOMFIELDS. 401

held for the remaining nineteen years of his life. Besides the Aeschylean plays above mentioned, he edited Callimachus {1815), and contributed to the Museum Criticum (1814-26) editions of the fragments of Sappho', Alcaeus, Stesichorus and Sophron. The best characteristic of his edition of Aeschylus was the glossary'. He was an active and vigorous contributor to the Classical periodicals of the day'.

His younger brother, Edward Valentine Blomfield (1788— 1816), Scholar of Caiu5 and Fellow of Emmanuel, was an admitable writer of Greek verse, who translated Matlhiae's Greek Grammar, ^- ^fi^fa'"""" and began to prepare a new Greek Lexicon. The former was published after his death by his elder brother*.

E. V. Blomfield's contemporary, Edmund Henry Barker (1788— 1839), of Trinity, Cambridge, was ihe author of controversial works on C. J. Blomfield (1811), followed by Arisiarehus Anti-Blom- ' ^"^"

fieUlianus (iSio)'. In the latter jiear he produced from a Paris MS the tditio pritKtps of Arcadius ■•epi tlivaif. Besides writing reminiscences of Person and Farr, and editing text-books, he took an important part in A. J. Valpy's edition (1816-15) of the Greek Thesaurus of Stephanus.

A very successful edition of the Greek Testament, and an excellenl anno- lated translation of Thucydides (1819), were the principal works of Dr S. T. Bloomfield, of Sidney Sussex College, *" '^j^''"""" Cambridge.

Richard Valpy {1754 — '836), of Pembroke, Oxford, the successful head- master of Reading (1781 — 1830), produced many classical school-books in 1809-16, including the well-known Greek Delectus (1816, etc.). His younger brother, Edward (1764 — 1831}, of Trinity, Cambridge, head-master of Norwich, edited (he Greek Testament ; while, of his sons, Abraham John (1787—1854), Fellow of Pembroke, Oxford, was publisher of a classical journal and pari -editor of numerous classical texts in 1807-37, including a reprint of the Delpbin Classics, 1819-30; and Francis Edward Jackson (1797 — 1882), of Trinity, Cambridge, produced a 'second' and ' third ' Greek Delectus and an Etymological Latin Dictionary.

' Cp. Hermann, Opusc. vi 100. Blomfield's recension of Sappho, Alcaeus and Stesichorus was included in vol. iii of the Leipzig edition of Gaisford's Poetae Minores Graeci (1853).

' Hermann, l.c. 96.

' Memoir by Luard in Journal of CI. and SacreJ PhUal. iv (1858) 96 — 100; and by A. Blomfield, 18G4, chaps, i, ii.

* Memoir in Musmm Criiiium, ii 510-8.

> A reply to C. J. Blomfield's brilliant article on Ste|diens' Greek Thetau- rus in the Quarlerly Rev. Jan. 1810 ; cp. Memeir of C. J. Blomlield, le f,

s. III. ,M,,,,;^oogic

402 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

C. J. Blomfield was attacked in Valpy's Cla$skal Journal^ by George Bui^s (1786? — 1864}, formerfy of Charterhouse, Fellow of Trinily, who was for many years a private tutor in Caiobridge. Blomfield was charged with plagiarising certain emendations from Person's unpublished papers, and eflTecClvely repelled the chaise in the Museum CritUum^. Burges edited several Greek plays' and some of Ihe minor dialogues of Plato. His rashness as a textual critic is the theme of several pages in Foppo's Thucydides', but a kindlier judgement is passed on him by the Dutch scholar, Bake, who saw much ofhim at Leyden^

In 1815 a contemporary of Blomfield aud Surges, James Scholelield, Fellow of Trinily (1789—1853), was elected over the heads of Julius Charles Hare and Hugh James Rose to the Greek pro- fessorship vacated by Monk's successor, Dobree. He did good service to the memory of his predecessors in the Chair by seeing through the press three editions of Porson's Euripides (1826, '29, 'jo), and two volumes of Dobree's Admrsaria (1831-3), which were followed by the Lixiion RhetoricHm Canta- brigiense and the NoUs on Imiriptions. His life-long mterest in Ihe Greek Testament is partly embodied )n his 'Hints for an improved Translation' (18.^1). In 1818 he had repriuted Bishop Middleton's 'Treatise on the Greek Article'; in the same year he produced his edition of Aeschylus, the earliest English attempt to embrace in a single volume the results of modem criticism on that poet. A second edition (1830) was reviewed in the FhUologkal Museum of 1831 by John Wordsworth, who describes the text as mainly a reproduc- tion of the ultra- conservative text of Wellauer. Scholefield was not endued with the acumen of a Benlley or a Porson, but he fully appreciated their skill and readily accepted Ihe results of their able contributions to the criticism of the text. In a separate edition of the Eumenides {1843) he commends K. O. Miiller for 'rising beyond the school of mere verbal criticism '°, and he is not held in high esteem by Miiller's opponent, Hermann'. Dr T. W. Peile, who gratefully acknowledged that he owed to Scholefield 'his first effectual intro- duction to the gigantic mind of Aeschylus'", described his scholarship as ' more exact, perhaps, than elegant, but always sound and solid and practically useful''; while Dr Kennedy was 'accustomed to regard him as a strong,

' xxii (e8io) 104—118; cp. xxiv (1811) 403 — 424.

' No. vii, Nov. 1811, vol. ii 496 — 509; cp. Memoir of C. J. Blomfield, 30.

> Eur. Tre. Phoen., Aesch. Suppl. Eum. P.V., Soph. Phil. Cp. Hermann, Opusc. vi 97. On his additions to the Bacehai, see Appendix to the present writer's ed. (ed. 1885, etc.).

* Pars 111, vol. iv (1838) pp. iv— vii. ' Schol. Hyp. II pp. viii— xii.

* W. Selwyn's 'Notice of prof. Scholefield's Lectures and Editions' on pp. 3^3—339 of Memoir by his Widow (185s), 337-

' Scholejieldium nihil moror was one of his phrases ; see also p. 397 supra. " il>- 3'8. * ib. 339.

,1^.00'

SIC

CHAP. XL.] SCHOLEFIELD. B. H. KENNEDY.

sound, Greek scholar, with fair critical a brilliant imagination, and exquisite taste, h

Among the ablest of Samuel Butler's pupils at Shrewsbury was Benjamin Hall Kennedy (1804 — 1889), who entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1823, was thiice awarded the Porson Prize for Greek Iambic Verse, and ended a brilliant undergraduate career as the 'Senior Classic' of 1827. After spending two years as a Lecturer at Cambridge, and six as a Master at Harrow, he was in 1836 appointed by his College to succeed Butler as head-master of Shrewsbury, a position which he filled with the highest distinction and success for thirty years. For the last twenty-two years of his life, he was Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge (1867-89). He was elected to an honorary fellowship at St John's, where his portrait by Ouless may be seen in the College Hall, while a marble bust of the great school-master has a place of honour in the College Library. It bears the following inscription from the pen of Professor Jebb : —

KoGpoJ itiuf, Kdfiov r&p Sorajitaat nXiot- tlt S' a»J/iot TeX^DiTii a appoot fHf So^Sp/nj

wSXXdp iUI ao^at dr^ea SpfTTdpervf. ■yijpoWiw Sf rd>Liy SpHreipa a ii4ia.T0 rpatni,

OT^fif/a KaXbv toXiAv ffflira joj Ap^l ic6fxas.

His best-known works are his 'Latin Primer" and his 'Public School Latin Grammar'^ He also published, with translations and notes, the Agamemnen of Aeschylus, the Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and the Birds of Aristophanes, as well as the Theaeielus of Plato. His school-edition of Virgil' was followed by an edition of the text. His name is associated with a large number of admirable renderings in Greek and Latin Verse, as the principal contributor to the Sabrinae Corolla, and as the sole author of Between Whiles'. His extraordinary facility as a Latin poet may be exemplified by the fact that he was even able to

' Mimeir, 358.

■ 1S66 (rounded on his worli of iSfj); revised, 1888. Cp. his Crilicat Bxam. e/Dr Donaldsoti'i Latin Grammar (1855).

» 1871, * 1876; ed.3, 1881. ' 187;; cd. », 1881.

404 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

compose a Latin epigram of twelve lines during the hours of sleep'. The secret of his 'unri^'alled success' as a head-master is thus revealed by one of his former pupils ; —

' The main cause of his success was lo be found in the man himself. To him (he literature of anliquity was not a dead letter, but a. living voice ; it animated and stirred and quickened every pulse of his energetic nature ; his enthusiasm, like all genuine enthusiasm, was contagious, and the fire of his own zeal communicated itself to everything inflammable that came within its range. It was not the amount he taught that was wonderful, but the manner in which he taught it. He seemed to breathe into every subject he dealt with the breath of life. There was nothing dead, nothing inert, nothing stereO' typed about his method ; it was the reflection of his own vivacious temperament — eager, brilliant, impulsive, indomitable ; bis pupils left him possessed of the true key of knowledge, a genuine and vigoroits love of knowledge for its own

Another of his pupils vividly describes his vigorous and dramatic renderings of Demosthenes: —

' He is not merely translating Demosthenes, he is Demosthenes speaking extempore in English. The voice is modulated in a most expressive manner — description, question, dilemma, invective, sarcasm, all are rendered in their most appropriate tones'*.

As professor of Greek, he retained much of the head-master's manner, and he was keenly tenacious of the views he had long held as to the exact interpretation of certain passages of Sophocles. The two parts of his Studta Sophocka (1874-84) were devoted to a criticism of the opinions held on these points by Professor Lewis Campbell, and Professor Jebb. In connexion with these controversies it was happily remarked by the former that, in the region of Attic tr^edy, 'the shrine of the Muses... is hard by that of Achelous, so that you may chance to be swept away by the torrent, if you approach too near. And the Hereon of Dr Bentley is not far off". Professor Jebb's graceful tribute to his predecessor has been quoted on a previous page".

' BeltBeiH Whiles, 161.

' {T. E. Page), in Tlu Times, g April, 1889.

' W. E. Heilland, in I'he Eagle, Jtv 455. See also J. E. B. Mayor in CI. Rev. iii 1*6-7, 178—281.

* yeurti. of Philol. v 1.

' Kennedy's genuine appreciation of Jebb is recorded in Betairen Whiles, PP- viii, 337-

„.,,„, ^.oogic

CHAP. XL.] WORDSWORTH. BLAKESLEY. LUSHINGTON. 405

Dr Kennedy's younger brother, Charles Rann Kennedy (1808 — 1867), Senior Classic in 1831, was called

^ .."'., , . , . C.R. Kennedy

to the bar, and is best known as the translator of Demosthenes. Intermediate in age between the two Kennedys was Thomas Williamson Peile (1806— i88a), head- t w p ii master of Repton, a pupil of Samuel Butler, whom he gratefully remembers in his elaborate editions of the Agamemnon and Choephoroe ( 1 839) '. Christopher Wordsworth „, ^ (1807 — 1885), nephew of the poet, son of the Master of Trinity, and Senior Classic in 18 jz, travelled in Greece and discovered the site of Dodona'; he was afterwards head-master of Harrow, archdeacon of Westminster and bishop of Lincoln. As a classical scholar he is well represented by his Athens and Allica (1836), by his 'pictorial, descriptive, and historical' work on Greece (1839 etc.), and by his edition of Theocritus'. Among the contemporaries of the younger Kennedy was Joseph William Blakesley (1808— 1885), Fellow ^^ ^ ^^ and Tutor of Trinity, Vicar of Ware, and Dean of Lincoln. Breadth of geographic and historic interest, rather than minute scholarship, was the main characteristic of his able edition of Herodotus (1852-4). He is the 'clear-headed friend' of one of the earliest poems of Tennyson', who said of him in prose : — ' He ought to be Lord Chancellor, for he is a subtle and powerful reasoner, and an honest man ".

In the Cambridge Classical Tripos of 1832 the first place was assigned to Edmund Law Lushington (1811— l hi « 1893), of Charterhouse and Trinity. Long after- wards one of the examiners, Dr Kennedy, described his 'papers in every subject' as 'more finished and faultless' than any he

' Porlrait in Ihe Library of Replon School.

= Gretie, p. 147, ed. 1839.

' [S44and 1S7;. In the fiist of these two editions he proposed at least two memorable emendations. In Theocritus, xiv 16, he corrected piih.pb^ m tayyXax into fio\p^, «T(it, Kox^las ('bulb, scallop, and cockle'), and in St Clement's EpislU, c. 6, he skilfully altered Ttvaixct Aavof^! icol Afjuai into TwcuJift, i'eo»£3et, waiJlir™!. Cp. his Conjectural Emendations, etc (1883), II, 19, with his Address on Dodona, ib. 33 — 41.

' Mrs BrookfieM's Cambridge '■Apostles^, 1906, with porltait of Blakesley facing p. 84. • Memoir i (1907) 38.

n,i.iiA.OOt5IC

406 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

had ever seen'. He had the highest reputation as professor of Greek for many years at Glasgow', and one of his ablest pupils has recalled his 'certainty of touch' and 'unfailing strength of presentation". In the epilogue to In Memoriam, Tennyson told of his 'wearing all that weight of learning lightly like a flower'; and, late in life, described his Greek rendering of Crossing the Bar as one of the finest translations he had ever read*.

The second place in the same Tripos was awarded to Richard Shilleto (1809— 1876), of Repton, Shrewsbury, and Trinity. He soon became famous as a private tutor in Classics. For more than forty years a large majority of those who attained the highest honours in the Classical Tripos were among his pupils. He was a great master of Greek idiom, and his skill, in Latin as well as Greek, is attested by the numerous compositions which have appeared in the Sabrinae Corolla, the Arundines Cami, and in a special volume of his collected versions (igoi). His genius as a writer of original verse was exemplified in fugitive fly-sheets in the style of Aristophanes or Theocritus. His edition of Demosthenes De Falsa Legationt, a masterpiece of its kind, was written, printed, and published in the marvellously short interval of five months (1844). His long-expected edition of Thucydides might well have been brought to a successful completion, had it been begun while he was still in the prime of life. As it was, only two books were ever published (1872-80). The beauty of his Greek handwriting was a characteristic that he shared with Richard Person. On his death-bed his thanks for some grapes from Dr Kennedy's garden were expressed in three Greek lines 'written in his usual hand, clear and fine, though somewhat tremulous from long illness': — -

' yournal d/ Philal. vii 164.

" '838-75; inaugural discourse On the Sludy ef Greii {\Si^).

' Lewis Campbell, in Ct. Hev. vii 476, and tb. +25-8. Among his other pupils were W. Y. Sellar {cp. CI. Rev. iv 419, and Mrs Sellar's EecollatuMs, 49) and D. B. Monro, whom he inspired with a life-long interest in Homer. In scholarship, his chief admiration was for Hermann and Boeckh {CI. ftev. vii 417).

* Quoted in Mtmoir, ii 367 n. » yourual of PhUcl. ta 163-8.

h, i.ii.X.OOglc

CHAP. XL.] SHILLETO. THOMPSON. BADHAM. 407

Shilleto's distinguished contemporary, William Hep worth Thompson (1810— 1886), was Regius Professor of Greek from 1853 to 1867, and, for the last twenty years of his life, Master of Trinity. Singularly effective as a professorial lecturer on Euripides', Plato*, and Aristotle, he un- happily published little besides his excellent edition of Archer Butler's Lectures on the History of Greek Philosophy (1855), and his admirable commentaries on the Phaedrus and Gorgias of Plato (1868-71). Of his minor works the most important is a paper 'On the genuineness of the Sophist of Plato and on some of its philosophical hearings'', in which he indicates the influence of the Eleatic Logic on the developement of Greek Philosophy. Euripides, Aristophanes, and Plato are the main subjects of bis other papers*. By his published writings and by his personal influence he did much towards widening the range of classical studies in Cambridge, and preventing their being unduly limited to verbal scholarship. 'His dry humour is exemplified in many memorable sayings, but his sensitiveness and kindliness of feeling were certainly far greater tlian the world in general was aware.... The serene dignity of his noble presence still survives in the portrait by Hcrkomer in the hall of his College".

Thompson had a high appreciation of that strikingly original and independent scholar, Charles Badham {1813 — 1884), whose father, a translator of Juvenal, was a professor of Medicine at Glasgow, and a collector of gems in Rome, while his mother was a cousin of the poet, Thomas Campbell. In early life a pupil of Pestalozzi, he was subsequently educated at Eton, and, after taking bis degree at Wadham College,

' His introductory leclure (1857) is printed in Journ. of Phil, xi 143 f.

' Cp. Intrcxiuctory Remarks on Ihe Phikbiis (1855), it. li 1 f.

> Trans, of Camhr. Philos. Sec. \ (1858} I46f, reprinted in Jeiirn. of Philel. viii (1879), aijof.

• PleUmica-Itccraltaiafaurn.afCI. and Sacred Phitol. iv; Arhlophanica and Ptalonica \ajeum. of PAilol. iv ; On the Fhilebus aiul Euripidea, ii. xi ; Aristophanes, Nabes, and Baitiana, tb. xii.

s J. E. Sandys, in Social England, vi 304 ; cp. C. Merivale in fourn. of Philol. XV 306-8 ; il, Jackson, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1886, 111-3 : J' W. Clark, Old Friends at Cambridge, 301—313 {Sat. Rev., 9 Oct., 1886); Life af H. Sidgaiick, 458.

,l^.OO'

SIC

408 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

Oxford, and travelling for seven years in Germany, France and Italy, proved his affinity with the Cambridge school of scholarship by becoming a member of Peterhouse- He was ordained, and proceeded to the degree of D.D., and successively became head- master of Southampton, Louth and Edgbaston, but his restless temperament was little suited for such duties. In 1863 he was classical examiner in the University of London, and, from 1867 to 1884, he won the highest regard by his services to Australian education as professor of Classics and Logic at the University of Sydney.

He edited the /phigetiia in Tauris. Ihe Heleua, and the Ion of Euripides, the Phatdrits and PhUtbus, the Eulhydeima and Laches, and the Symposium of Plato. He also wrote on Plato's Episltes, and ctmtrihuted papers lo ihe Rheinisihes Museum, and lo Mnniwsyiu. Lastly, he published his innuguial discourse al Sydney under the title of Adhorlatie ad discipules aradtmiai Sydaeiensis.

In i-choiarsbip he was especially attracted In the school of Porson, and of Cobet. He received an honorary degree at Leyden in i860, and then met Cobct Tor the first time ; in 1865 he dedicated to Cobet his edition of the Etttkydimus and Laches (with a prefatory epislle lo the senate of the university of Leyden) ; and It was on his deathbed that be dictated his latest letter to the great Dutch scholar. His corrections of the text of Aristophanes won the high appreciation of Thompson, whom he visited at Ely in 1857, and 10 whom he addressed the prefatory letter prefixed to the Sympoiiiim (i866). Among his other friends were F. D. Maurice, and Sir Theodore Martin'.

One of the foremost candidates for the Greek Professorship vacated by Thompson in 1 867 was Edward Meredith Cope (1818— 1869), who was educated under Kennedy at Shrewsbury, and is best known as the author of an elaborate Introduction to the Rhetoric of Aristotle (1867), the precursor of a comprehensive edition, which was posthumously published (1877). His translation of the Gorgias was printed in 1864; that of the Fhaedo,aitef his death. He criticised the views of Grote on the Sophists in a series of papers in the Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology, but it was to Grote that he dedicated his Introduction to the Rhetoric*.

' Lewis Campbell, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1884, 91— yS.

° Biographical Notice by Munro prefixed (o Cope's Rhiloric (ed. Sandys).

„.,,„,I..OOglC

CHAP, XL.] COPE. DONALDSON. PALEV. 409

Among Thompson's ablest contemporaries was John William Donaldson (rSii— 1861), Fellow of Trinity, and oonMaca head-master of the School at Bury St Edmund's (1841-55). In his N^ew Cratylus^ he gave a considerable impulse to the study of Comparative Philology in England ; in his Varronianus' he advanced a theory of the Gothic affinities of the Etruscans. He was the principal author of a work on the Theatre of the Greeks; he edited Pindar (1841), the Antigone of Sophocles (1848) and a text of Thucydides {1859); he also completed K. O. MUller's History of Greek Literature (1858), and wrote an interesting and suggestive work entitled Classical Scholarship and Classical Learning (1856). His Complete Latin Grammar" was enlarged in i860; his Greek Grammar attained a third edition in 1862. A volume in which he contended in 1854 that the lost book of Jasher constituted 'the religious marrowof the Scriptures' produced much excitement in theological circles, and ultimately led to his resigning his position at Bury, and devoting himself to classical work in Cambridge.

A wide variety of interests was represented by Donaldson's younger contemporary [''rederick Apthorp Paley (1816— 1888), of Shrewsbury and St John's. An e^er botanist, and an enthusiastic student of ecclesiastical architecture, he was an active member of the Camden Society at Cambridge; he joined the Church of Rome in 1846, returned to Cambridge as a private tutor from i860 to 1874. was professor at a Catholic College in Kensington (1874-7), and spent the last eleven years of his life at Bournemouth.

He first made Jiis mark by an edition of Ae!K^]1}'lu3 with Latin notes (1844-51), followed by an English edilion (i8ss. etc,), which il widely reCf^ised as bis liesi work. He also edited Euiipiiles, Hesiod, Theocritus, and the Iliad, as well as several plays of Sophocles, with Ovid's Fasti, and Propeniiis. He was associated with ihe present writer in an edition of 'Select Private Orations of Demosthenes' (1874). His numerous English translations were not marked by any such distinction of style as that which he attained in Latin prose. An incidental remark of Donaldson's on certain resemblances lielween Quinlus Smyrnaeus and the Iliad led him to produce a series of papers, maintaining that Ihe Homeric poems in their present fi^rm

' 1839; ed. 3, 1859. = 18+4; ed.3, 1;

' Criticised by B. H. Kennedy (1851).

i.MM,Googlc

410 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

weie not earlier than the age of Alexander, and that it was mainly through oral tradition Ihat they reached the age of Thucydides'. He was unbmiliai with German, and his wide and varied learning was the result of his own reading. Some of his best work is lo be found in his prefaces. In the preface to his ' Euripides ' he protests against Ihe purely textual noles that were the characteristic of the Porsonian school. The notes lo his own edition were composed ' with the hope of inducing students to pay no less attention to the mind and feelings than to the language and idioms of their author ''.

Shrewsbury and St John's were also represented by Paley's

contemporary, Thomas Saunders Evans (1816 —

1889), for many years master at Rugby. His

remarkable skill in classical composition was attested by the

volume of Latin and Greek Verse published in 1893 'as a

memorial of an original and highly gifted man, considered by

many to have few rivals in his special departipent of Scholarship'.

The same school sent to Cambridge an accomplished scholar

in the person of William Georee Clark {1821 —

W. O. Clark o \

1878), who ably filled the office of Public Orator from 1857 to 1869. He visited Spain, Italy and Greece, and, besides other works of travel, published in his Peloponnesus the results of his Greek tour in the company of Thompson. A critical edition of Shakespeare designed in i860 was successfully completed by Clark and Aldis Wright in 1866. He also designed an edition of Aristophanes.

The lext of that author had been already illustrated at Cambridge by tbe

varied learning of Thomas Mitchell (1783—1845), Fellow of

Sidney, in his translations of 1 810-1, and his editions of several

plays in 1835-9; "'"' ^ *'''* rendering of five of Ihe plays had

been produced at Malta between 1830 and 1840 by John Hookham Frere

(1769—1846), Fellow of Gonville and Caius College'.

' ' On the lale dale and the composite character of our Ilias and Odyssey ' (] 868) ; ' Pseudo-archaic words and inflexions in the Homeric vocabulary, and their relation lo the antiquity of Ihe Homeric poems' {Journal of Philol. vi ii4f, 1876); ' Qn. Smyrnaeus and the Homer of the Tragic poets' {1876) ;

' Homerus Periclis aelate quinam habitus sil cjuaeritur (1877)' ;	' Homeri quae
	. siut'(.878)-,
'The truth about Homer' (rSSj).
> Vol. i, pp. liv— Iviii, ed. \%ii.—The Timts, to Dec., 188	8; S.S. I..ewis
in Biogr.Jahrb. 1889, 15— '7-
^ Life and Works, ^. 1, 1874.

OgIC

CHAP. XL.] W. G. CLARK. H. A. HOLDEN. 411

Clark devoted part of 1867 to examining the mss at Ravenna and Venice, and began a commentary on the Achamians', which his failing health compelled him to leave unfinished. Munro, his friend for nearly forty years, thought that 'his was the most accomplished and versatile mind he had ever encountered'; his work was marked by a 'surprising tact and readiness', a 'consummate ease and mastery'*. A Fellow of Trinity for the last 34 years of his life, he left his estates to the Collie, where his name has been commemorated by the establishment of the 'Clark Lectureship in the Literature of England'.

Clark's contemporary, Churchill Babington (1821 — 1889), Fellow of St John's, and Disney professor of Archaeology from 1865 to 1880, produced in B«XlJi"n 1851-8 the editio princeps of four of the speeches of Hypereides, beginning with the 'Speech against Demosthenes' and ending with the 'Funeral Oration". Born a year later than Clark and Babington, Hubert Ashton Holden „ . „ ,j (1822 — 1896), Fellow of Trinity, and head-master of Ipswich School from 1858 to 1883, edited a text of Aristo- phanes with an onomastUon, and produced elaborate commentaries on the Seventh Book of Thucydides, the Cyropaedeia, Hieron, and Oeconomicus of Xenophon, eight of Plutarch's Lives, and the Pro Piando, Pro Seslio, and -De Officiis of Cicero. In his Foliorum Silvula he published a collection of passages from English poetry for translation into Greek and Latin, followed by versions of the same by various scholars in the Folia Silvulae.

Among the most brilliant of the classical scholars who con- tributed to the Folia was Arthur Holmes (1837 — 1875), of Shrewsbury and St John's, who edited the Midias and the De Corona of Demosthenes, and also published a Prelection on 'the Nemeian Odes of Pindar" {1867).

' Notes on ^fA. i— •,^9,\a Journal rf PkUotogy, viii I77f, ix i f, 13 f,

' ib. viii 17J-5. His ' silvery talk ' is noted in the Lift of H. Sidgwitk, 171.

■ J. E. Sandys in CI. Jtev, iii 135, AaA Biegr. yahrb. 1889, 26 f; and C- C. Bahinglon, in Tkt Eagle, xv 361-6.

* E. W. Bowling in Tie Eaglt, ix 3J9f; his giaceful rendeiing of Tibutlus, iv 1 (Sulfiicia), there quoted on p. 334, is reprinted in Postgate's SiUctiotts from Tibutlus, p. xl.

Richard Claverhouse Jei

.opgic

CHAP. XL.] JEBB. 413

Richard Claverhouse Jebb (1841 — 1905), of Charterhouse, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, after winning the Person Prize, and the Person and Craven Scholarships, took his d^ree as Senior Classic in 1862. He was elected Public Orator of Cambridge in i86g, was Professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875 to r889, and at Cambridge from 1889 to his death. For the last fourteen years of his life he was M.P. for his University, he received honorary degrees from niany seats of learning, was knighted in 1900, and in the summer of 1905 attained the crowning distinction of the Order of Merit. In the autumn of that year, his address' as president of the educational section was the most impressive incident of the meeting of the British Association in South Africa; and, before the end of the year, he died.

He will long be remembered as the editor of Sophocles (r883— 96) and of Bacchylides (1905), and as the author of the ' Attic Orators". His other works included a translation of Theo- phrastus, an 'Introduction to Homer', with lectures on Modem Greece, on Greek poetry, and on Humanism in Education', mono- graphs on Erasmus and on Bentley, a brief life of Porson*, and an appreciation of Macaulay. He contributed articles on Greek literature to the Encyclopaedia Britannica and to the Cambridge Companion to Greek Studies, and papers on Delos and Pindar to the organ of the Hellenic Society, of which he was the honoured President for the last sixteen years of his life. In 1883 he took a leading part in founding the British School at Athens', A humanist in the highest sense of the word, he had ' not only mastered the form of classical literature', but had 'assimilated its spirit, and applied it to the understanding and criticism of modern life'. His 'Attic Orators' revealed to the literary world the fact that one who was ' among the first of living Greek

' University Education and National Lift in Essays and Advenes (\^l), 61 +—648.

' 1876; ed. 1, 1893.

' Reprinted in Essays and Addresses, 506 — 544.

' D. N. B.

■ The scheme was propounded by him first in Ihe Cattlemforaty Reiriem, Nov. 1878, and next in the Fortnightly Revirai, May, 1883. See also Lifehy Lady Jebb, 21 if, 144 f.

414 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

scholars' was himself ' an artist in English prose' '. In that work he ably dealt with the life, style, and speeches of the earlier Orators, closing with a chapter on the matured civil eloquence, as exemplified in Demosthenes. In his 'Sophocles' he gave further proof of his being a critical scholar, as well as a cultivated humanist and an accomplished master of English, who, without pretending to be a specialist either in comparative philology or in archaeology, was able to present the results of the current research in those departments in a perfect literary form. It has been justly characterised as 'one of the most finished, compre- hensive, and valuable works, in the sphere of literary exposition, which this age or any has produced". The same qualities were exhibited in his 'Bacchyl ides', where the defects of the MS left still further scope for restorations worthy of a genuine Greek poet. His powers as a composer of Greek lyric verse had already been proved by his three Pindaric odes, (i) his version of Browning's Abt Vogler^, welcomed as admirable by the author of the original'; (z) his rendering of Rann Kennedy's Rei^ of Youth, a rendering characterised as a ' beautiful work of extra- ordinary genius, learning, and taste"; and (3) his ode on the eighth centenary of the university of Bologna (1888)'. To the third of these odes allusion was made by Tennyson in dedicating to its author his classic poem oi Detneter: — 'Fait things are slow to fide away.

Bear witness you, Ihal yesterday From out the Ghost of Pindar in you

Roll'd an Olympian '. His volume of Translations includes not a few fine renderings in Latin as well as Greek verse, while his mastery of a highly felicitous form of Latin prose was exemplified in the speeches delivered by him during his tenure of the office of Public Orator'.

' Quarterly Reoiew, 1881. ' Verrall in Biogr.Jahrb. 1906, 77.

' Tramlations into Greek and Latin Verse, 1873; new ed. 1907. * Browning's AgamentHcn, pief. ■ Kennedy's Betwem Whiles, 339, 3.151— 377-

° All these three Pindaric odes are printed in the new ed. of (he Trans- lalions, 1907.

' e^, Canib. Univ. Reporter, 13 June, 1874, 481H5.

CHAP. XL.] JEBB. 415

The best English parallel to these was his admirable speech in honour of the members of foreign Academies in the Hall of Peterhouse in May, 1904. He has been aptly described as 'one of the most brilhant scholars and one of the most accomplished men of tetters of his time — a great humanist, who, in his com- bination of wide learning, consummate critical faculty, and exquisite taste, had few equals and perhaps no superiors, among his contemporaries''; and it has been well said that he was un- consciously pourtraying his own gifts when he translated, in his memorable monograph on Bentley, the passage in which that great scholar says that wide reading and erudite knowledge of all Greek and Latin antiquity are not enough for the modern critic of a classical author : —

'A man should have all that al his fingers' ends.... Bui besides this there is need of the keenesi judgment, of sagacity and quickness, of a certain divining tact and inspiration, as was said of Arislarchus — a faculty which can be acquired by no constancy of toil or length of life, but comes solely by Ihe gift of nature and by the happy star''.

In 1885 an improved edition of Sixteen Sfeichis of Lysias was dedicated to Professor Jebb by Evelyn Shirley Shuckburgh {1843 — 1906), Librarian and lale Fellow of Emmanuel, who pro- duced a large number of annotated editions of the Clashes, including a historical Commenlaiy on Suetonius' Augustus, followed by his own Life of that emperor. He was the author of two histories of Kome and (wo of Greece, and of a number of translations. Foremost among these were his widely appreciated Polybius, and his eminently readable rendering of Cicero's Lcl/ets. Of the latter he characteristically says in his preface ; — ' No critic can take away from me the days and nights spent in closer communion with Rome's greatest intellect '. He has justly been described as ' a true lover of liteiature ''• He dedicated his version of Cicero's Essays on Old Age and Friendship to two of his oldest friends : — sencsienlibus smtstens, amids

■ Thi Times, 11 Dec. 190s, p. 6.

' The Times, a.s.\ cp. S. H. Butcher in Class. Rni., Feb. 1906, yi f ; A. W. Verrall in Biogr. Jakrb. 1906, 76 — 79, and in Appendix (437 — 487) to Lady Jebb's Life and Letters of Sir Richard Claverhouse /ebb, with portrait, 1907. The collected Essays and Aiidresses {i^j) have among their subjects Sophocles and Pindar, the age of Pericles and the Speeches of Thucydides, ancient organs of public opinion, and the exploration of Delos, together with Caesar, Lucian, Erasmus and Samuel Johnson. ' Humanism in Education ' and other kindred topics.

* H. J. in Ca-iibr. Rev.. iS Oct. 1906, 8.

h, i.MiA.OOt^lC

4l6 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

amicus. Though it was not granted him lo ' atlain the happiness of old age ' he possessed in a marked degree the 'genius for friendship', and the gift of an apparently perennial youth'.

Among those whose lo^s was lamented by Sir Richard Jebb, in his speech as President of the Hellenic Society in June, 1901, were ' Professor George Charles Winter Warr (1846 — 190 i)t author of many valuable contributions to classical literature*, who at ihe time of his death was engaged on a work designed to render the masterpieces of the Attic drama more fully intelligible to English readers ; and Mr Robert Alexander Neil (185? — '90'), Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke College, Cambridge, University Reader in Sanskrit and a classical scholar of rare learning and acumen '. Elsewhere he said of Neil :— ' The ancient Classics were always lo him great works of literature, and a fine literary sense invariably guided his treatment of them ''. The sole memorial of his exact and varied scholarship is a posthumous edition of the Knighls of Aristophanes. The friends who wrote the preface to that work have rightly s^d of him:— 'He was familiar with the work accomplished by scholars, both in the present and the past, on every side of Classical life and thought and language '. ' While there is no part of Classical life or thought, which he did not explain and illuminate, he sought parallels, illustration and comment from the whole range of literature '*. Neil was bound by many ties to his devoted friend, James Adam (i860— tpo;), who, like himself, was a loyal son of Aberdeen and of Cambridge. Adam was born in the same region of Aberdeenshire as the Scottish humanist, Arthur Johnston, and Ihe author well remembers the patriotic pride wilh which Adam once told him of that poet's graceful lines on the home beside the river Ury, below the ridge of Bennachie; —

' Mille per ambages nitidis argenleus undts

Hie trepidat laetos Vrlus inter agros. Explicat hie seras ingens Bennachius umbras'*. At Aberdeen, Adam tame under the inspiring influence of Professor Geddes, the editor of Ihe Phaido, ' whose high enthusiasm and encouragemenl in early

' J. Adam, ii. 6 — J.

' The story of Orestes (i886) ; Echoes of Hellas (1888) ; The Greek Epic ([895); Teuffel's ^nwaH Lil. E. T. (1900). Cp. Athenaeum, 1 March, 1901. He was for 35 years professor of Clascal literature at King's College, London. His epitaph in St Saviour's, Liverpool, ends as follows : — ' An eager scholar, he was infinitely patient, and gladly gave up his best to the humblest student. His delight was in beauty ; he laboured to right wrongs. He had courage to live by the highest revealed to him, and, loving others better than himself, he won great love '.

■ Cami. Jieti. Oct. 1901, 33, 38-

* See also the admirable tribute 10 his memory by his friend. J. Adam, in Cam*, ^rt'- Oct. 1901, 31 f, 37 f- ' ai^qsupra.

J. Adan

,l^.OO'

IC5IC

CHAP. XL.] NEIL. J.ADAM. 417

da^s ' were afterwards described by his pupil as Ilie ultimate source of all his knowledge of Plato'. At Cambridge, as Scholar of Gonville and Caius, he took his degree with distinction in pure scholarship, in philosophy and in comparative philology, while, as Fellow of Emmanuel, he won a wide appre- cialion by his enthusiastic and slimolaling lectures on the Greek lyiic poets, on Ptato and Aristotle, and on the post- Aristotelian philosophers. Similarly at Aberdeen in 1904 he aroused Ihe keenest inlerest by his Giffbrd Lectures on The RiligioHS Teachers of Grtict, and the same may be said of his Cambridge lectures of [906 on the Hymn of Clcanlhrs. For the Cambridge Press he produced excellent editions of Plato's Apology, Crilo and Eulhyphro. In the Protagoras he was associated with his wife, a no less enthusiastic student of Plato. He also prepared a text (1S97), and. ultimately, an elaborately anno- tated edition, of the Rrpui/ic ( 190]). For this last work, which is his master- piece as a classical editor, he was compelled to read and digest ' an enormous mass of critical and exegetical liteialuie,' while he contributed to the elucida- tion of his author much that was distinctly original. It was in the course of the preliminary studies for this work that he wrote his treatise on The Nuptial Number of Plato (1891)', and an Assyrian scholar, professor HilprechI of Philadelphia, has since shown that Adam's interpretation agrees with the Babylonian 'perfect number', which HilprechI had himself discovered 10 be the fourth power of (3 x 4 x s). '■'- 1 1,960,000'. In his lectures on Plato he was apt to be a severe ciidc of scholars who proposed what he r^arded as unwarrantable alterations of the manuscript text. Among his more obvious characteristics in ordinary life were a love of irony and paradox, an alacrity of mind and an archness of manner, and a singular sprightlfness of temper, com- bined with a serious ioterest in the religious beliefs of the old classical world. In the praelection which be delivered in the Senate House in January, 1906, he made a fragmeot of Pindar the text of an eloquent and impressive discourse on the ancient doctrine of the immortality of the soul'. In the latter part of his too brief life he was attracted to the study of the points of contact between Stoicism and Christianity. Amid his new interests, he laid aside the transla- tion of the Republic and the introductory volume, to which he had once been looking forward when he inscribed on the opening page of his completed commentary the pathetic dedication : — ' To the memory of Robert Alexander Neil I gratefully and atTeclionately dedicate this book— s/i ckSiiiic rir (SJor, Jj-Bj. oBBis yer&iicinH Tott TOioifroiJ IrrSxi^tur Xifoii''. It was also to Neil that

1 Pklo, Sep. Pref. x.

' See also his Commentary on p. 545 (ii 101 f. 364- — 313).

' Sir W. R. Ramsay, in Aberdeen Free Press, 31 Aug. 190J.

* Cambridge Praelections, ^^ — 67 (on Pindar, frag. 131), reviewed by Wilamowitz in CI. Rev. xx 445-

' .ff//. 498 c. Cp. obituary notices in Times, 3 Sept.; Athenaeum, 7 Sept.; P. Giles in Camb. Rev. 17 Oct. 190J, and in Emm. Coll. Mag. 1908; also the Memoir hy Mrs Adam prefixed to Ibe Gifford Lectures, 190S.

s. III. ,.,,,,,,l,,OOSIC

4l8 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

John Strachan (1861 — 1907)1 who entered Aberdeen a year later ihan Adam, dedicated the two volumes of the Thesaurus Palatohibemicus (1901-3). At Camtiridge, where he was elected Fellow of Pembroke, his university dislinclions had been almosl exactly the same as those attained by Adam, but his main strength lay in Compatalive Philolc^. He studied Sanskrit at Gotlingen and Cambridge, and at Jena, where he also worked at Celtic. Elected professor of Greek at Manchester in 1S89, he edited the sixth book of Herodotus with an excellent summary of the Ionic dialect, and towards the end of his short life was making many discoveries in mediaeval Welsh and also preparing an extensive work on the Greek language' ■ Mr Gilbert Norwood's volume on ' the Riddle of the Bacchae ' is dedicated to the memory of (his ' single-hearted scholar'.

In the generation succeeding that of Elmsley and Gaisford,

Greek scholarship was well represented at Oxford by

and Henry George Liddell (181 1—1898) of Charter-

^""* house, Dean of Christ Church, and by Robert Scott

(1811 — 1887) of Shrewsbury, Master of Balliol and Dean of

Rochester, the joint authors of the standard Greek and English

Lexicon. Founded partly on that of Passow, the first edition

appeared in 1843 ; the eighth in 1897. It marked a vast advance

on the lexicons of Donnegan, Dunbar, and Giles; it led to an

immediate abandonment of Dindorfs plan for producing a similar

work ; and it still, deservedly, holds the field in England^.

As Master of Balliol, Scott was succeeded in 1870 by Benjamin Jowett {1817 — 1893), who in 1855 had succeeded Gaisford as professor of Greek. One of his able biographers' has placed in a clear light 'the admixture of error ' in the ' popular prejudice of the scholastic world ' that Jowett, though a professor of Greek, was not an exact scholar, in the technical sense of the term. He once said, with an ironic smile, ' I often think with pleasure that, unworthy as I am, I have to do with the greatest literature in the world '. We are told that, early in his professorial career, he 'read a book of Homer nightly, — studied Buttmann's Lexilogus at breakfast time, went several times through Pindar and the lyric poets, and carried Herodotus about with him on railway journeys. As for Aeschylus and Sophocles

' nmts, « Oct.; Alhenatum, 5 Oct.; P. Giles in Camb. Rezi. 17 Oct. 1907.

> H. L. Thompson's Lifi of H. G. Liddill (with portraits). 65-81. ' Lewis Campbell, in CI. Rev. vii 473-6.

1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XL.] LIDDELL AND SCOTT. JOWETT. 419

he had always loved them. ...At a later time he had always some author on hand,— Lucian and Plutarch for example,— outside his immediate studies'. In the domain of classical learning, the foremost of his plans was an Oxford edition of the principal dialt^ues of Plato. The Philebus was edited in i860 by Edward Poste (1821— 1902), the TheaeUtus (1861) and the SophisUs and Politicus (1867) by Professor Lewis Campbell; and the Apology by Riddell (1867)'. Jowett's own part in the scheme was a long- delayed edition of the Republic with text, notes, and essays, in which he was associated with Professor Campbell (1894). Mean- while, he had conceived the design of a complete translation of Plato, which was happily accomplished in 187 1. This was followed -by his translation of Thucydides { 1 881) and the /"oA'/w-j of Aristotle (1885), both of which were accompanied by a Commentary. AH these three great works are justly rect^nised as masterpieces of English, and his rendering of Plato in particular, with its admirably written Introductions, has done much towards popularising the study of Plato in England and elsewhere; it has, in fact, 'made Plato an English classic". When some minor mistake was pointed out to him, he would look up and say : — ' It is not that I do not know these elementary things; but the effort of making the English harmonious is so great, that one's mind is insensibly drawn away from the details of the Greek". He was sceptical about the value of epigraphy and archaeolt^y, and of conjectural emendation.

He wrote of (he latter :— 'the more we think of the follies inio which great seholais have been betrayed by the love of it, the nattower ate the limits which we are disposed to assign to it '*.

His doubts as to the importance of the study of epigraphy may almost be forgiven (or the sake of the graceful phrases m which those doubts are finally summed up ; — ' To be busy on Greek soil, under the light of the blue heaven, amid the scenes of ancient glory, in reading inscriptions, or putting together fragments of stone or martile, has a charm of another kind than that which is to be found in the language of ancient authors. Yet even to appreciate truly the value of such remains, it is to the higher study of the tnind of Hellas and of her gieal men tbal we must return, finding some little pleasure by the way

> p. 4»* >"fi-^-

* jebb's Essays and Addresses (1907), 534, 61 S- ' CI. Rev. vii 475.

* rlalo. Rep. vol. 11 p. xiii.

i..i.a7fC00glc

[cent. XIX.

Jo wett's contemporary, MarkPattison(i8i3 — 1884), Rector of Lincoln, was deeply read in the History of Scholar- ship, especially that of the Renaissance in France, as is proved in part by his Life of Casaubon* and his Essays on Scaliger*.

Intermediate in age between Pattison and Jowett was George Rawlinson(i8i5 — 1902), Fellow of Exeter, Camden professor of Ancient History, and Canon of Canter- bury, who produced in 1858 a standard translation of Herodotus, with notes and essays, partly contributed by the translator's brother, the Assyriologist, Sir Henry Rawlinson, and by the Egyptologist, Sir Gardner Wilkinson. George Rawlinson also published — in 1862-71 — the successive volumes of his 'Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World ', followed by volumes on the sixth and seventh Monarchies in 1873-6. His portrait in the hall of Trinity represents him transcribing letters for his memoir of his distinguished brother*.

Among the contemporaries of George Rawlinson was the learned physician, William Alexander Greenhill Qreenhiii (i8,4_,894), of Rugby and Trinity College, Ox- ford, who contributed to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography a series of important articles on the ancient writers on medicine.

Comparative Philology was ably represented at Oxford by Friedrich Max Miiller (1823 — 1900), who studied under Bopp and Schelling in Berlin and under Eugene Burnouf in Paris. He was welcomed in England by Bunsen, and was invited by the East India Company to edit the Rigveda (1849-73)- Defeated in i860 in his candidature for the Chair of Sanskrit at Oxford, he gave two admirable courses of Lectures on the Science of Language at the Royal Institution

• Tkiieydides, vol. 1 p. cii ed. 1900. Cp. Lift by Campbell nnd AbbotI (wilh portraits), 1897.

" iSjs; ed. 1, 189J.

■ Reprinted in his Essays, 1889. — Cp. Memoirs down to i860, dictated in 1883 ; Bhgr. lakrb. 1884, 47 f; and Life of H. SiiigaiicS, 404.

• Notice in Tie Times, 7 Oct. 1901.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XL.] MAX MOLLER. COWELL. GRANT. 421

(1861-4), which made the general results of the study of Compara- tive Philology familiar to Englishmen, and led to his appointment

to a professorship of that subject at Oxford in 1868. 'Though much in his works and methods may already be superseded, his writings exercised an extraordinarily stimulating influence in many fields". Comparative Philology was part of the wide province explored by Edward Byles Cowell (1826 — 1903), of Magdalen Hall, Oxford (1854), president of the Sanskrit Collt^e, Calcutta, and afterwards professor of Sanskrit at Cambridge for the last 36 years of his life. Host of his published work consisted of editions and translations of Sanskrit texts. He was also specially interested in botany, as well as in Welsh, Spanish and Italian literature. He was the first to introduce FitzGerald to Omar Khdyyam and to the Mosella of Ausonius'. One of his own English poems, written late in life, tells ' how " the slumbering student in his heart " had been awakened in his earliest teens, and he had become the blissful owner of a many- volumed Livy and the newly-published Corpus Poetarum''.

Henry William Chandler {1828— 1889), Fellow of Pembroke, Oxford, produced in 1862 a standard work on 'Greek Accents'. As professor of Moral Philosophy he lectured with great success on Aristotle ; he had a remarkable knowledge of the bibliography of the Ethics, and left behind him a large collection of Aristotelian literature which has found a permanent home in his former College.

An excellent edition of the Ethics with an English commentary and illustrative essays (1857, 1884') was the most important classical work published by Sir Alexander Grant, Scholar of Baliiol and Fellow of Oriel {1826— 1884). His eight years in India as holder of important educational positions in Madras and Bombay were followed by the sixteen years of his distinguished tenure of the principalship of the university of Edinburgh, 'where his intellectual powers, his knowledge of men,

' D. y. S.; cp. Biogr. Jahrb. 1901, 7 — 39. ' i ii^' supra.

' p. 110 of 'C. W. M."s delighlful sketch in xhe /oamai 0/ Philology, xsix iig — 135. Cp. Life by G. Cowell (with appendix including an outline of the history of Sanskrit studies in England, drawn up for the use of the present writer in his article on Enghsh Scholaiship in Social England, vi 316).

lOO'

SIC

422 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

and his dignity and urbanity, made him a striking figure". The year of the completion of hts ' Story of the University', and of the commemoration of its tercentenary, was also that of his death. The series of 'Ancient Classics for English Readers' was the richer for his admirable volumes on Xenophon and Aristotle.

An edition of the Ethics was produced in 1856 by William ■ Edward Jelf of Christ Church (1811—1875), who is

best known as the translator of Kiihner's Greek Grammar (1842-5, etc.).

In 1855 two annotated editions of the Politics were simul- taneously published at Oxford, that of J. R. T. ^on'ereve' Eaton, Fellow of Merton, and that of Richard Congreve {1818 — 1899), Fellow of Wadham, who in the same year founded the positivist community in London, and by the date of the unaltered second edition of his commen- tary (1874) had abandoned the study of the Classics for the practice of medicine. The Greek index of his edition is far fuller than that of Eaton's, ' several excellent English expressions ' are borrowed from Congreve's notes in Jowett's translation, while both editors are repeatedly mentioned in the comprehensive work of Mr W. L. Newman (1887—1902).

An edition of Plato's Euthydeinus was the latest work produced

in Oxford at the close of a long life by Edwin

Hamilton Gifford (1820 — 1905) of Shrewsbury

School and of St John's College, Cambridge, who is best known

as the learned editor of the Praeparatio Evan^lica of Eusebius

{1903). The Apology of Plato was excellently edited, together

with an admirable ' Digest of Platonic Idioms ', by

James Riddell (1823 — 1866) of Shrewsbury and

Balliol, who began an edition of the Odyssey, which was continued

by Dr Merry and completed by Monro.

Among Oxford scholars who devoted special study to the Greek

poets was WiUiam Linwood (1817 — 1878) of Christ Llnwoo<' „. , , . . , , .

Church, whose best-known works were a lexicon to

Aeschylus, and an edition of Sophocles with brief Latin notes

(1846). JobnConington(i82S— 1869), in the early

part of his career, edited the Agamemnon (1848)

' Mrs Sellat's A'nrn/ilcc/WHi, 119; 73,311.

■X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XL.] MONRO. 423

and Choephoroe {1857) of Aeschylus, and afterwards completed the Spenserian rendering of the Iliad by P. S. Worsley (1835 — 1866), the translator of the Odyssey {1861}. " ''

Among the most successful of Homeric translations was the rendering of the Iliad in blank verse, published in 1864 by the Earl of Derby (1799—1869). The ^'"^^^^y eloquent leader of the opposite party in politics, William Ewart Gladstone (1809 — 1898), has described the study of Homer as a ' palace of enchantment ', and has compared the spells of the enchanter to a 'remedial specific, which, freshening the understanding by contact with the truth and strength of nature, should both improve its vigilance against deceit and danger, and increase its vigour and resolution for the discharge of duly". The Homeric poems were the central theme of the life- long labours of David Binning Monro {1836 — 1905), who was educated at Glasgow', was a Scholar of Brasenose and Balliol, and Provost of Oriel for the last twenty- three years of his life. His earliest publication was a Latin prize- essay on the voyage of the Argonauts {1852), while the latest memorial of his learning wbs an edition of the second half of the Odyssey (1901). The Appendices to this valuable edition extend to more than 200 pages, dealing with the composition of the Odyssey, the relation of the Odyssey to the Iliad, Homer and the Cyclic poets, the History of the Homeric poems, the time and place of Homer, and the Homeric house. Nineteen years previously he had dedicated to the memory of James Riddell his Grammar ef the Homeric Dialed (1882), a monument of sound and solid learning. The Homeric Question was the theme of his able articles in the Quarterly Review {}%(>%) ^■nA'Cae^ Encyclopaedia Britannica {1880 etc.). An important contribution to the solution of a difficult problem was supplied by his Modes of Greek Music {1894). He has been well described as

' A man of singularly leliring disposition, shy, indeed, and never given to anything like display. In general company he spoke little, but always lo the

' Studit! in Homir

Mundi (1869) ; Hom^r

' p. 406, u. 3 supra.

OgIC

424 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

point. ..His sound judgment, his latent humour, and his sbrewd aphoristic speech endeared him as few men of his time were endeared to their con- temporaries. He was an accomplished scholar who had also the trainii^ of the exact sciences. ..He was an excellent linguist, and, during his term of oHice as Vice- Chan eel lor, he was able to address audiences of foreign scholars in French, Italian, German and modern Greek ''.

The accurate study of the Homeric poems has been materially promoted by the Concordance to the Iliad prepared by Guy Lushinglon ■nd"Du?^r I'rendergast (187s), and that to the Odyssey and Homtru Hymns (1880) by Dr Henry Dunbar, formerly of Gairloch Headfd. 1883), the author of a complete Concordance to Aristophanes (1883). All three works were published by the Oxford Press, while the name of Prendergast has been commemorated by (he foundation of a Greek Scholarship at Cambridge.

Amor^ the numerous text-books published by Henry Musgrave Wilkins, H. M. Wilkin, ^'"'^ °^ "^'■'™ (1833-1887), we may mention his transla. tion of the Speeches of Thucydides (iR;o) and his school edition of the Olynthiats of Demosthenes.

A joint edition of the ' Orations of Demosthenes and Aeachines On the

Crown' was produced in 1873 by two able brothers, George

'""" Augustus (1841— 1905) and William Henry Simcox (18+1-3—

i88g), both Fellows- of Queen's College, Oxford. The elder brother was

also the author of an interesting ' Histoiy of Latin Literature' (1883). A

translation of the Promdheus ha.s been described as perhaps ' his most effective

The Greek drama was the subject of the two published works of Arthur Elam Haigh (1855—1905), Fellow and Tutor of Corpus, whose .^//w Theatre (\%%i))'' nvA Tragic Drama of the Greeks (1896) have been recognised as marked by 'careful study, sound knowledge, and independent judgment'*.

Greek scholarship had a singularly able and vigorous repre- sentative in the person of William Gunion Ruther- ford (1853 — 1907), a son of the manse, who was educated at the High School, Glasgow, and was under Lewis Campbell at St Andrews, and under Jowett at Balliol. After taking a first class in Classical Moderations and a second in Natural Science, and hesitating for a while between the careers of a physician, an architect or a soldier, he found his true vocation decided for him by Jowett, who divined that he was ' one of the

' The Times, 13 Aug. 1905. Cp. esp. J. Cook Wilson in Biogr. Jahrb. 1906, 30 — 40; E. T. (with portrait) Oxford, 1907.

> The Times, 16 Sept. 1905. » Ed. 3, 1907.

• A. Sidgwick in Biogr.Jahrb. 1906, Bo; The Times, 13 Dec. rgoj.

Haieh

i."ii,Cooglc

CHAP. XL.] RUTHERFORD. 425

few men who could really think upon language'. This decision led to his becoming a master at St Paul's in 1877. His six years at that school, under the inspiring influence of Mr F. W. Walker, were followed by eighteen as headmaster of Westminster, while, for part of the remaining six years of his life, he was an examiner in Greek in the university of London.

His earliest work, an EletnerUaty Accidence of Attic Greek (1S7S), briefly embodying some of the resnits of his researches, has since been incorporaled in the admirably lucid Firsi Greek Grammar (Accidinct and Syntax) of 1891. He made his mark mainly by his New Phrynichus (i88i), which, under the guise of a commentary on the grammatical rules of an Atlicisl of the second century, was really 1 comprehensive treatise on the history and on the distinctive characteristics of Attic Greek'. I( was the work of a loyal, but independent, follower of Cobel. The Nca> Phrynicku! was soon succeeded by an elaborate edition of Babrius (1S83), with a dissertation on the history of the Greek fable, and on pointa of metre, and many other topics. His Fourth Book of Thucydides (1889) exemplified the theory that the text of that author had been corrupted by the addition of numerous 'adscripts'; but, when all these 'adscripts' had been eliminated, the rest was in general so easy that it became difficult to understand why Dionysius of Halicarnassus found the historian so hard. His recension of Herondas (1891) was a somewhat prema- ture production; his Lex Rex, a collection of cognate words in Greek and Latin and English (the title of which was borrowed from a Rutherford of the 17th century), gave proof of an interest in Comparative Philology; while his new rendering of the Bpislle to the Remans arrested the attention of those who had long acquiesced in the authorised version. The two volumes of the Scholia Arislophanica {1896), in which he 'arranged, emended, and translated' the scholia to the Ravenna MS, were followed by a third volume of commentary and criticism under the title of 'A chapter in the history of annotation' (icjoj). This last volume, his latest legacy to the literature of learning, teems with matters of interest to scholars, setting forth inter alia the genesis of the scholia in the class-room of the professional teacher ; their connexion with the dramatic recital of the leil, and with its use in illustration of certain tabulated lists of figures of speech ; the contrast between Ihe scholiast's neglect of textual criti- cism and the interest in that subject shown by Galen's remarks on (be current texts of the old Greek Classics ; and, lastly, the significance oi the ancient method of catechetical instioclii:«i. The author is justified in implying that his work ' has a bearing upon questions of some importance at the present time' ; it conl^ns materials for many essays on modem education, which might well have appealed to a wider audience in a work of more popular form'.

' Reprint of Reviews. 41 pp. (Macmillan, 1881).

= Cp. a. Ren. iv 110 f, sx 115 f, and obituary notice /*. xxi 190 f; Titiies, 10 July; axA Athenaeum, 17 July, 1907; portrait by Seymour Lucas.

h. 1. iiA.OOt^lC

426 SCOTLAND. [CENT. XIX.

In Scotland the study of Greek was combined with that of Medicine by Francis Adams (1796 — 1861), the A^mi""'' ' physician and classical scholar of Banchory on the Dee, who translated and edited the Greek medical writers Paulus A^ineta (1844-7), -Hippocrates (1849), and Aretaeus (1856), and, in recognition of the merits of these works, was made an honorary M.D. of Aberdeen in the year last mentioned. He contributed an appendix on the names of Greek plants and animals to the lexicon compiled in 1831 by George Dunbar (1774 — 1851), the professor of Greek in Edinburgh {1807-51), who edited Herodotus (1806-7), and incidentally attempted to derive Sanskrit from Greek (1827). As professor of Greek he was the successor of Andrew Dalzel (1750 — 1806), the editor of the Analeda Graeca Minora and Majora whom his pupil, Lord Cockburn', describes as 'an abso- lute enthusiast aI)out learning". Dunbar's younger contemporary, a son of the bishop of Edinburgh, was at this time professor of Greek at Glasgow : — Daniel Keyte Sandford (1798 — 1838), who, in 1830, was knighted for his elo- quent advocacy of the cause of Reform, and in the same ^ear published his translation of the Greek Grammar of Thiersch. To the end of his life he contributed to Blackwood' many articles on classical subjects, with translations from the Greek poets ^ his

' Henry Cockbum's Memorials {1856), 19 f.

* Among those who learnt (heir Greek from DaUel was Sir Waltei Scott's short-lived friend, John Leyilen (1775 — 181 1), who Iranslated the marljal poems of Tyrlaeus, with Ihe w»r-!ong of Hybrias the Cretan, and Arislotle's Ode to Virtue, He went to the East as a sut^eon with a view to investigating the langirages and the learning of India. He had a remarkable gift for the study of Arabic, Persian, Sanskrit, and other oriental languages. ' I may die in the attempt ' {he writes to a friend), 'but if I die without surpassii^ Sit William Jones a hundredfold in oriental learning, never let a tear foi me pro&ne the eye of a Borderer'. In his eagerness to examine an ill- ventilated library of Indian Mss, he caught a fever, of which he died in the island of Java. His brief career a; a student of eastern langui^cs has a close resemblance to that of Rask. He left many treatises in MS, as well as translations from Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic. His death was lamented in The Lord of Iht Isles {iv ij, and his life was admirably sketched by Scott in the Memoir which has since been prefixed to his friend's Poems and Ballads (ed. 1858).

3 See xi 6;8 for his Letter to Elmsiey (Oxford, 1812).

A.OO'

ic^lC

CHAP. XL.] SANDFORD. VEITCH. BLACKIE. 427

Stretch of the literature of Greece was iricluded in a new edition of Potter's Archaeologia Graeca ; and his ' Extracts from Greek Authors' found a new editor in William Veitch'.

William Veitch (1794 — 1885), who was educated at Jedburgh, the capital of his native county, and afterwards at- « ■ h

tended Dunbar's lectures in Edinburgh, devoted the whole of his life to the duties of a private tutor. His well-known precision led to his being invited to read the proofs of Dunbar's Lexicon, and to do the same service, at the age of eighty, for that of Liddell and Scott. A comprehensive work on the Gretk Verbs, produced in 1S41 by A. N. Carmichaei, one of the masters at the Edinburgh Academy', was superseded in 1848 by the fuller work of Veitch entitled Greek Verbs, Irregidar and Defedive, afterwards thrice reprinted by the Clarendon Press. It embraces 'all the tenses used by Greek writers, with reference to the passages in which they are found '. It is a matter of regret that, while new references were added in the later editions, the evidence of In- scriptions was never introduced. But it still remains the best book of its kind'.

A vivid contrast to the quiet and retiring scholar just mentioned is presented by the far more prominent personality of John Stuart Blackie (1809— 1895), who was educated at Aberdeen and Edinbuigh, and at Gottingen and Berlin, and was for eleven years professor of Latin at Aberdeen, and for thirty professor of Greek at Edinburgh (1852-82). He was mainly interested in the Greek poets. He translated the ' lyrical Dramas of Aeschylus ' into English verse, and produced more than one edition of his 'Lays and I^egends of Ancient Greece'. In 1866 he dedicated to Welcker, Finlay and W.G.Clark his principal classical work, consisting of two volumes of a vigorous and flowing translation of the Iliad in a ballad measure of fourteen syllables, followed by a volume of 'philological and archaeolc^cal'

' On Ihe backward stale of Greek in the time of Dunbar and Sandford (an<i A. Alexander of S( Andrews), cp. Westminstir Review, xvi (1831) 90 — no, Greek Literature in Scotland. On Sandford's distinguished successor, Lushington, see p. 405 supra.

' Greek Verbs, their leering formations, defects, and irregularities, ascer- tained and tUustraied by lopiaus and speeial referetues Is Ihe Classical Authors.

» W. G. Rutherford, in Biogr.fahrb. 188s. 136-9-

428 SCOTLAND. [CENT. XIX.

notes, and preceded by another of 'Dissertations'. In the course of these he arrives at the conclusion that there is 'a soul of truth in the Wolfian theory, but its operation is to be recognised among the rude materials which Homer used and fused, not among the shapely fragments of the finished work which Fisistratus collected and arranged ' '. These Dissertations are well worthy of an attentive perusal. In his teaching of Greek he insisted on recognising the rights of Greek accent', and, with a view to facilitating the acquisition of the language, published a small volume of Greek and English Dialogues (1871). He was little concerned with the details of a purely verbal scholarship, but he took a lai^e and humane view of the abiding value of the poetic literature of Greece'.

The Homeric question, ably discussed by Blackie, was more minutely studied by an admirable Greek scholar of northern Britain, William Duguid Geddes (1828 — 1900), professor of Greek at Aberdeen from 1856 to 1885, when he became Principal, while he attained the further distinction of knighthood in 1892. He was the editor of a collection of Greek and Latin verses by members of his university, and he also produced an interesting edition of the Phaedo (1863)*.

In his Problem of the Homeric Poims (1878) he accepted Grote's definition of the original Achilleid as consisting of Iliad i, viii, xi — xxii, and maintained that the rest was composed by a later poet, the author of the Odyssey, who 'engrafted on a more ancient poem, the Achilleid, splendid and vigorous saplings of his own, transforming and enlai^ing it into an Iliad, but an Iliad in which the engrafting is not absolutely complete, where the "sutures" are still visihle'. 'The kinship between the Odyssey a^A the 'non-Achillean' books of the Iliad is rect^ised especially (i) in the mode of presenting Odysseus, Hector, Helen, and some other persons ; fi) in the aspects of the gods and their worship ; (3) in ethical purpose ; (4) in local marks of origin,— the traces of an Ionian origin being common (o the Odyssey with the non- Achillean books of the Iliad, and with those alone '. The work ' will always rank as a veiy able and original contribution to the question'".

1 i ,jg.

' Discourse on Greek PronutKialioti, Accent, and Quantity (iSjj), and The Place and Power 0/ Accent in Languor (Royal Soc. of Edin. 1870).

» Times for 4 March, 1895 ; /.,/e (with portrait) by A. M. Stodart {new ed- 1906); esp. chap, iii (Gotlingen), and xiv (Homer).

* Cp. R. A. Neil, in Aurora Borealis Acadsmica, 32.

' Jebb's Hemer, 135 f

i.MM,G00glc

CHAP. XL.] GEDDES. W. RAMSAY. KEY. 429

Among Latin scholars in Scotland we have James Pillans (1778— 1864), Rector of the High School, Edin- burgh, and Professor of Humanity in the University caraon (1820-63), *" editor of selections from Tacitus, Curtius,andLivy; and A. R. Carson (1780 — 1850), who succeeded him as Rector, and produced editions of Tacitus and Phaedrus, Cicero, pro Cluenlw, and the Mostellaria of Plautus were well edited by William Ramsay (1806^1865), professor of Humanity at Glasgow for the last thirty-four years of his life, and author of an excellent ' Manual of Roman Antiquities' (1851) and of important articles in Dr William Smith's Dictionaries (1842-3)'.

Meanwhile, in England, James Tate (1771 — 1843) of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, Master of Richmond School from 1790 to 1833, gave proof of the enduring influence of Bentley in his Horatius Restitutus, a >vork in which the poems are arranged in chronological order in ac- cordance with Bentley's views.

Late in the life of Bentley, Virgil's Georgia had been edited in 1741 by John Martyn (1699 — 1768), professor of Botany at Cambridge for the last 36 years of his K^igSey life. His edition of the Georgia was followed in 1749 by that of the Bucolics, and both of them were repeatedly reprinted during the next generation. A special interest attaches to the illustrations representing the plants mentioned by the poet. About a century later, notes on the Bucolics and Georgia were published in 1846-8 by Thomas Keightley (1789— r872), the author of popular histories of Greece and Rome.

Thomas Hewitt Key (1799 — 1875), of St John's and Trinity, Cambridge, studied medicine in London and pro-, fessed pure mathematics in Virginia, but was far better known as professor of Latin (1828-42) and of Compara- tive Grammar (1842-75) at University College, London. His essays on Terentian Metres and other subjects were published in a collected form in 1844, his 'Philological Essays' in 1868, and his work on the 'origin and development' of language in 1874. His Latin Grammar bad already been completed in 1846, while ' e.g. on Agricullura, Cicero, Juvmalis, Ludlius, Lturelius.

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

430 ENGLAND. [cent. XIX.

his Latin Dictionary was posthumously printed at Cambridge from his unfinished ms in 1888. He was head-master of University College School in 1828-75. I" 1833-42 his colleague in that office was Henry Maiden {1800 — 1876), Fellow of Trinity, Cambridge, and professor of Greek at University College from 1831 to his death. He was an excellent teacher, but he published hardly anything except an 'Introductory Lecture' (1831), a small volume 'on the origin of universities and academical degrees' (1835), and a paper 'on the number of the chorus in the Eumemdes' (1872).

Their contemporary, George I-ong (1800 — 1879), Fellow of Trinity, Cambridge, who, as Craven Scholar, was declared equal to Macaulay and Maiden, preceded Maiden as professor of Greek in 1838-31 and succeeded Key as professor of Latin in 1842-6'. He published 'two dissertations on Roman Law ' in 1827, edited Cicero's Orations in the Biblio- theca Ciassica', and produced a school edition of Caesar's Gailk War, together with translations of thirteen of Plutarch's Lives connected with the Civil Wars of Rome (1844-6), and of the MedilalioHS of Marcus Auretius (1862) and the Manual of Epic- tetus (1877). His work as a historian is mentioned at a later point*. He contributed numerous articles on Roman Law and other subjects to the great series of Dictionaries organised by William Smith (1813 — 1893), who was educated at University College, and, after holding professor- ships in London, became classical examiner in the University (1853). Smith's Dictionaries of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1842 etc.)*. Biography and Mytholt^y (1843 etc.) and Geo- ' Like Key. he had begun his career is, a professor (of ancient languages) in Virginia {1814-8)-

' In organising and superintending this series in 1851-8 Long was asso- cialed with A. J. Macleane (who edited Horace, Juvenal and Persius). The series included Paley's editions of Aeschylus and Euripides and of Homer's Iliad and Hesiod; Blakesley's Herodotus, R. Whiston's Demosthenes, P. Frost's Annah of Tacitus, Thompson's Phaidrut and Gtrgias, Btaydes and Paley's Sophocles, and Coninglon's Virgil. " p. 439 '«/™-

' The third edition was revised and enlarged in 1890 under the editorship of W. Wayte (editor of Plalo's Protagoras and Demosthenes, Atidroiitm and Timoiratii), and G. E. Marindin, late Fellows of King's College, Cambridge.

.oogic

CHAP. XL.] LONG. W. SMITH. MUNRO. 431

graphy (1857), were followed by Dictionaries of the Bible and of Cliristian Antiquities and Christian Biography. The abridgements of the first two of these are well known to classical students*. The Latin and English Dictionary of 1855 etc., founded on Forcellini and Freund, has its counterpart in the English and Latin Dic- tionary of 1870, compiled with the aid of Theophilus D. Hall, Fellow of University College, Ixindon, and other scholars. Smith's series of Latin and Greek textbooks included an excellent School History of Greece (1854 etc.). The notes to his editions of parts of Tacitus and Plato were avowedly borrowed from German sources. Many articles in his Dictionaries were written by his brother, the Rev. Philip Smith (181 7 — 1885), whose most sub- stantial work was an Ancient History in three volumes (1868). William Smith, who was editor of the Quarterly Review for the last 26 years of his life and was knighted in 189a, deserves to be remembered as a great organiser of teamed literary labour. When he received his honorary degree at Oxford, he was justly described by Lord Salisbury as vir in Utterarum republica potentissimus.

A ' Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities, with nearly 2000 engravings illustrative of the industrial arts and social life of the Greeks and Romans', was the best-known work of Anthony Rich (1821 — -1891), honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College', who also published an illustrated edition of Horace's StUires {1870). His Dictionary attained a third edition in 1873, and had meanwhile been trans- lated into French, Italian, and German.

Editions of the Mmaechmi and Aulularia of Plautus, with Latin notes and glossaries, were published in 1836-9 by James Hildyard, Fellow of Christ's (1809^1887).

A revised text of Horace, with illustrations from ancient gems, selected by the learned archaeologist, C. W. King', was produced in 1869 by Hugh Andrew Johnstone

' The 'Classical Dictionary' has long superseded thai of Drjohn Lem- ptiere (1788 etc.), a native of Jersey, who was educated a( Winchester and at Pembroke College, Oxford, and was headmaster of Bollon, Abingdon and Exeter Schools (1765 ?— '824)-

" Cp. Venn's Biographical History, ii 183 (1898).

' 1818 — 1888, Fellow of Trinity, Cambtidge, and author of six works on gems in 1860-71.

,^.oogic

Hildyard

Hugh Andrew Joi From a photograph by Sir William Davidson Niren

i.MiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XL.] MUNRO. 433

Munro (1819 — 1885), educated at Shrewsbury, Fellow of Trinity, and first professor of Latin in the University of Cambridge. He held the professorship for three years only (1869-72), but, in those years, he gave the first impulse to a reform in the English pro- nunciation of Latin'.

The reform was independently supported by Mr H. J. Roby in his Lniin Grammar (1871), an<l by Mr A. J. Ellis in his PraitUal Hint! on the Quantilative Pronunciation of Latin ( 1874!, and was further promoted by llie Cambridge Philological Society in a pamphlet on (he Pronundalion of Latin in the Augustan Period (1886), and by Professors E. V. Arnold and R. S. Conway in the Restored Pronundation of Creek and Lalin^. The question of Latin in particular was taken up by the Classical Association of Scolland (1904), and by that of England and Wales (1905) ; a scheme of pronunciation was approved by the Philological Societies of Oxford and Cambridge, dis- cussed by the various Conferences of Head-Masters and Assistant-Masters; sanctioned by the Board of Education (1906), and unanimously recommended by the Special Board for Classics in Cambridge {1907)'.

In 1864 the fruit of many years of strenuous study appeared in Munro's inasterly edition of Lucretius, with critical notes and with a full explanatory cotnmentary, and a vigorous rendering in English prose. Of the editor it has been justly observed, that of I^chmann and Ritschl, ' though a sincere admirer, he was no slavish imitator; but rather an independent discovererin regions which their labours made accessible to other explorers'*. His other works include an edition of the Aetna of an unknown poet, 'Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus", and Emendations of the fragments of Lucilius". He was hardly less masterly as a Greek critic. In r855 he was the first to maintain the Eudemian origin of the fifth book of Aristotle's Ethics''; and late in life he paid special attention to the text of Euripides'. His Translations

' Pamphlet, 1871; Palmer and Munro's .Sy/Zaiaj, 1872.

" '8ijs; ed. 3, 1907.

■ Cp. Proceeding! of CI. Assoc, of England and iVales, Jan. 1905, 7 — 18 ; Oct. 1906, 44-611 and The Tinits, t Apr. 1907 {S. E. Winboll) ; 3 Apr. (J. E. Sandys) ; 6 Apr. (G- G. Ramsay); also Appendix B and C fp. 19) to J. P. Poslgate's pamphlet, Hotb la pronounce Latin, 1907.

* W. H. Thompson mfoum. af Philol. xiv to? f. " 1878; newed. 1906.

* Joum. of Philol. vii 391 f. viii 101 f.

' Journal of CI. and Sacred Philol. ii 58—8 1 . « Journ. of Philol. x 133 f ; xi 167 f.

434 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

inio Latin and Greik Verse^ are justly held in high repute. Though not, like Kennedy, ' an original Latin poet'", he displayed in his Latin verse 'a masculine vigour' that was all his own. He won the admiration of another master of the craft by his version of Gray's 'Elegy,' — qui slant quasi ntarmore versus \ et similes solido structis adamante columnis*. He was apparently in the enjoyment of vigorous health, when he died at Rome at the age of sixty-five*.

A standard edition of Cicero, Z>e Oratore, was prepared for the Clarendon Press in 1879-92 by Augustus Samuel Wilkins (1843— 1905), of St John's College, Cam- bridge, for thirty-four years professor of Latin at Owens College, Manchester, who also edited Cicero's Speeches against Catiline and Horace's Epistles, contributed to the ninth edition of the Encyclo- paedia Brilannica the long and important articles on the Greek and Latin languages, and, in conjunction with Mr E. B. England, translated G. Curtius' Principles of Greek Etymology, and also his work on the Greek Verb. His fine scholarship and his wide literary knowledge gave real value to his editions of classical texts, and he also did good service in introducing to English readers the results of German research. One of his earliest publications was a Prize Essay on National Education in Greece. Education was the subject of his contribution to the Cambridge Companion to Greek Studies (1905); and a sketch of Roman Education was his latest work (1905)',

The first professor of Latin at Oxford was John Conington

(1825 — 1869), who was educated at Rugby and

held the Latin Professorship for the last fifteen

years of his short life. He is widely known as the editor of

Virgil (1863-71) and of Persius {187a). Besides translating both

of these poets into English prose, he rendered into English verse

' Privaiely printed, 1884; published (with portrait), 1906.

' Thompson, fount, of Philol. xiv. 109.

' T. S. Evatis, Latin and Greek Verse, 25.

* W. H.Thompson, /««■». of Philol. siv 107—110; J. D. Ha^ia Biogr. fahrb. 1885, III — 117, and in preface to Munro's Translations, ed. 1906, and to reprint of bis Translation of Lucretius, 1908.

» J, E. Sandys, in The Eagle, xxvii 69—84, and in Biogr. Jakrb. 1906,

41 -+s-

.^.oogic

CHAP. XL.] WILKINS. CONINGTON. NETTLESHIP. 435

the whole of Horace, and the Aeneid. His rendering of Horace was regarded by Munro as 'on the whole perhaps the best and most successful translation of a Classic that exists in the English language ', while, in the judgement of the same scholar, his edition of Vii^il 'displays a minute diligence, as well as a fine taste, a delicate discrimination, and a mastery of language, which it requires long study properly to appreciate". His work as a Greek scholar has already been briefly noticed'. William Young Sellar (1825 — 1890), who was educated at the Edinbuigh Academy and at the University of Glasgow, and at Balliol, was a Fellow of Oriel, and held the Professorship of Humanity at Edinburgh for the last twenty-seven years of his life*. Immediately before his appointment (1863), he produced his ' Roman Poets of the Republic ', a masterpiece of literary criticism, which was happily followed in due time by similar works on Virgil (1877), and on 'Horace and the Elegiac Poets' {1892)*. The AnncUs o( Tacitus were ably edited at Oxford in 1884 by Henry Fumeaux (1829 — 1900), Fellow of Corpus.

Conington's work on Persius was edited by his successor in the Chair of Latin, Henry Nettleship (1839 — 1893) of Charterhouse and of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, He attended Haupt's lectures in Berlin and wrote a graphic account of that master's method'. After five years as a master at Harrow, and five more as a lecturer at Oxford, he was elected Latin professor in 1878. As Conington's successor, he completed the latter half of his predecessor's edition of the Aeneid.

' Journal of Philology, ii 334-6. Cp- Memoir by H- J. S. Smith, prefixed to his MisccUaneou! Writings (iSji).

' p. 4II iUpra.

' He had previously been assistant to Professor W. Ramsay in Gla^ow (1851-3) and assistant professor and professor of Greek at St Andrews (1853-63); he had also contributed to the Qj^ord Essays admirable papers on Lucretius (1855) and on Tht Characleristies of Tkucydides (1857).

* With Memoir by his nephew and pupil, Andrew Lang. Paper on The Birth-place of Proferlius in CI. Rev. iv (1890) 393 f, and Obituary Notice by Lewis Campbell, ib. 418 f. See also Mrs Sellar's Recollections and ImfirtS'

si0KS«907).

ioot^lc

436 IRELAND. [CENT. XIX.

In 1875 he planned a great Latin dictionary, but was only able to publish a tenth part of the proposed work, under the title of 'Contributions to Latin Lexicc^raphy ' (1889)'. He was familiar with the ancient Latin grammarians, and especially with the successive epitomes of Verrius Flaccus. One of his latest (asks was the revision of the edition of Nonius, which had been left unfinished by his former pupil J. H. Onions (1852— 1889)'. Many of his most valuable papers have been collected in the two volumes of his Essays {1885-95)'.

Several editions of prose authors were produced by scholars who are best known as historians. Thus Cicero's Speeches and Caesar's Gallic War were edited by Long*, Sallust by Merivale, and the first book of Livy by Seeley.

Among Latin scholars in Ireland we note the name of James

Henry (1796 — 1876), the gold medallist of Trinity

College, Dubhn, who practised as a physician till

1845, when he published a verse translation of Aeneid i and ii.

After travelling abroad, he produced in 1853 his 'Notes of a

Twelve Years' Voyage of Discovery in the First Six Books of the

Aeneis'. His personal knowledge of all the best mss and editions

of Virgil is embodied in the four volumes of his larger work, the

Aeneidea (1873-89), which includes many original and valuable

contributions to the interpretation of the text. Several of Cicero's

philosophical works were ably edited in Dublin in

1836-56 by Henry Ellis Allen (1808— 1S74) under

the Latinised name of Henrieus Alanus^. Textual criticism was

the forte of Arthur Palmer (1841 — 1897), a scholar

of Canadian birth, who was educated at Cheltenham

' The English edilion of Seyfferl's DicHomiry of Claisical Antiguitiis, begun by Nelllcship, was completed by the present writer, who superintended (he second half of the work and selected the illustrations fur the whole (1891).

' Biogr.Jahrb. 1889, 67 f.

> With Memoir (and portrait) in vol. li; cf. Haverfield in Biogr. Jahrb. i897- 79-81.

* p. 4.10 iufira, and p. 439 infra.

' Df Nat. Dtor., De Div., De Fato, De Off., Cato maior, Lael, De Fimhus; also notes on Livy, Sallust and Caesar. His originality is lauded in the Chiir::h of England Quarterly Review [i%i^), iv 101 f, v 420. His excellent MS of Propertius now belongs to his son.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XL] PALMER. THIRLWALL • 437

and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was successively elected Fellow (1867), Professor of Latin {1880) and Public Orator (1888). He was specially interested in the criticism of the Latin Elegiac poets and of Plautus. He edited the Amphiiruo of Plautus, the Satires of Horace, and the Heroides of Ovid. Many of his emendations were first published in Hermathena. His skill in emending Greek poets was best exemplified in Bacchylides and in Aristophanes, whose position in Greek literature was the theme of his article in the Quai-lerly Review for October, 1884. One who knew him well avers that his 'published works, though quite sufficient to be the basis of a high reputation as a scholar and a man of letters, gave but a pale reflexion of his intellect".

From editors of Greek and Latin Classics we pass to the historians. Connop Thirlwall (1797 — 1875) 'was taught Latin at three years of age, and at four read xhiHwaii'"" Greek with ease and fluency'^. At Charterhouse he was the school-fellow of George Grote, and of Julius Charles Hare. At Cambridge he won the Craven in his first year. After his election to a Fellowship at Trinity, he visited Rome, where he saw much of Bunsen, but apparently nothing of Niebuhr, whose ' History' was afterwards translated by Thirlwall and Hare. The two friends were the founders and editors of the Philological Museum {1831), which included Thirlwall's well-known essay on the Irony of Sophocles. As a lecturer at Trinity, he gave a greater breadth to the teaching of Classics, but his College career was cut short by his 'Letter on the Admission of Dissenters to Academical Degrees', which led to the Master, Dr Wordsworth, calling on him to resign his office (1834). On the nomination of Lord Melbourne, he became Rector of Kirby Underdale, in Yorkshire (1834-40), and Bishop of St David's (1840-74). Thirlwall produced the first volume of his History of Greece in 1S35 and the last in 1844. His work as a historian was characterised by soundness of scholarship and refinement of style, by a judicial temper and a fine sense of proportion. Over his grave are inscribed the words, cor sapiens et inldligens ad dis- cernendum judicium.

' Tyrrel] in Hermathena, x it; — 111-

* From his lather's preface to Primiliae (1809).

h. i."iM,Googlc

438 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

His school-fellow, George Grote {1794 — 187 1), had embarked on his history as early as 1823, but did not publish his first volume until 1846, or his last until ten years later'. Though Thirlwall and Grote not unfrequently met, the former knew so little of his school -fellow's plans, that he was heard to say, 'Grote is the man who ought to write the History of Greece'; and, when it appeared, he welcomed it with a generous enthusiasm'. He was afterwards buried beside Grote in West- minster Abbey. As a historian, Grote shows the keenest sympathy with the Athenian democracy, and even with the Athenian dema- gogue; but he is an intelligent interpreter of the ancient historians of Greece,and his opinions on the political and economic condition of Athens derive fresh weight from his experience as a banker and as a Member of Parliament. His 'great work, the work of a man of affairs, has done much more perhaps than any other one book of the century, to invest his subject with a vivid, an almost modern interest for a world wider than the academic'*.

His represenlalion of Athenian constitutional hislory was critically examined by Schomann*, and, in certain points, must now be revised with (he aid of Aristotle's Cons/itutian of Athem. A special importance attaches to his opinions on the ' Homeric Question '; he regards Homer as ' belonging to the second, not the first, stage in the development of epos, — as the composer of the la^e epic, not as Ihe primitive bard of ihe short lays'; but he holds thai Homer's original AihiltHd has been converted by a later poet or poels into our present Iliad^. One of the most original parts of the HUlory is Ihe celebrated chapter on the Sophists'.

His great work on Plato was a solid contribution to the in- telligent study of that philosopher'. Of his proposed sequel on Aristotle only two volumes were completed*. The wide range of his interests is admiringly acknowledged by his friend, John Stuart

' Ed. 6 in 10 vols. 1888.

• J. W. Clark, Old Friends at Cambridgt, 131. ' ^ehVs Eaays and Addresses, 533 f.

* 1854; E. T. by B. Bosanquet, 1878.

° Cp. Jebb's Homer, IJI-5, and Friedlander, Die HemerUche Krllik von Wolf bU Grote {\%ii),i%.

' c. 67 ; cp. Quarterly Rev. TiQ. 175, 3.nACo^'v\Joam. of CI- and Satred Philol. nos. 3, 6. 7. 9 ; also H. Jackson in Enc. Brit., s.v. Sophists.

' 3 vols. 1865.

A.oogic

George Grote.

duclion of the portrait by Stewartso in possession of Mr John Murray.

ITo Jm f. u% .f V,L in.

iM,Googlc

CHAP. XL.] GROTE. ARNOLD. MERIVALE. 439

Mill, who says of him: — 'Scholarship fills but a comer of his mind".

In the History of Greece, Grote, as compared with Curtius, stands at a certain disadvantage owing to the fact that he never visited the land whose history he describes. That land was not left unexplored by William Mure (1799 — 1860), who was educated at Edinburgh and Bonn, travelled in Greece in 1838, and was for nine years a Member of Parliament. His full and sympathetic treatment of Xenophon lends a special value to part of the five volumes of his ' Critical History of the Literature of Ancient Greece' (1850-7). Historians of Greece and Rome alike are indebted to the chronological researches of Henry Fynes Clinton {1781— 1852), of Westminster, and Christ Church, Oxford, Member for Aldborough (i8o6-z6), the learned author of the Fasti HelUnid (1824-32), a.ni the Fasti Katnani {i%^e,-^oY. Thomas Arnold ('795 — 1842), head-master of Rugby and professor of History at Oxford, did much for the historical and get^raphical elucidation of Thucydides( 1830-5), and left behind him a splendid fragment of a History of Rente (1838-43), ending with the close of the second Punic War'. Arnold's history was written under the influence of Niebuhr. Twelve years later an ' Inquiry into the Credibility of Early Roman History'* was published ^^

by Sir George Comewall Lewis (1806 — 1863), of Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, who translated Eoeckh's 'Public Economy of Athens', edited Babrius, and wrote on the 'Astronomy of the Ancients '. The ' History of the Decline of the Roman Republic' (1864-74), written with special reference to the evidence of ancient authorities, was the last work produced by George Long". The 'History of the Romans under the Empire ' was written in 1850-62, at the College living of Lawford, by Charles Merivale

' Gomperi, Essays etc., i86.^Cp. Life (with portrait) by Mrs Grote, and Minor iVm-is (with sketch of Lift by BainJ, 1873 ; Lehrs, Populiire AufsiUat, 1875; Gomperz, Essays und Erinnervngin, ipoj, 1S4 — 196.

^ Aulobiopaphy etc. in Literary Remains (1854).

» Ufi by A. P. Stanley.

* Rev. by Grote, Minor Warks, 207 — 336.

' p. 430 supra.

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

440 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

{1808 — 1894) of Harrow and St John's, Cambridge, who was dean of Ely for the last twenty-five years of his life- He also wrote a short 'History of the Roman Republic' and was the author of the Boyle Lectures ' On the Conversion of the Roman Empire '. His skill as a writer of Latin verse is exemplified in his fine rendering of Keats' Hyperion, which he published on the completion of his History. Seven years later he produced a translation of the Iliad in English ballad metre'.

The comparative study of ancient institutions was successfully pursued by Henry James Sumner Maine (1822 — 1888), of Pembroke College, Cambridge, for seven years professor of Civil Law at that university, for another seven years legal member of the supreme government of India, in 1869-78 professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford, and for the last elevenyearsof his hfe Master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge. In 1887 he was elected professor of International Law. His best-known works are 'Ancient Law' (1861), 'Village Communities* (1871), 'Lectures on the Early History of Institutions' (1875) and ' Dissertations on Early Law and Custom ' (1883). It has been well said that ' the impulse given by Maine * to the intelligent study of law 'in England and America can hardly be overrated... At one master-stroke he forged a new and lasting bond between law, history, and anthropology".

The ' Unity of History ' was the theme of the memorable Rede Lecture delivered at Cambridge in 1872 by Edward Augustus Freeman (1823 — 1892), Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford for the last e^ht years of his life. The lecture included a characteristic protest against the Revival of Learning on the ground that 'it led men to centre their whole powers on an exclusive attention to writings contained in two languages, and for the most part in certain arbitrarily chosen periods of those two languages', while it warmly welcomed 'the discovery of the Com- parative method in philology, in mythology ', and ' in politics and history ', as marking ' a stage in the progress of the human mind at

' Aulobiography and Litters (1898); J. E. Sandys, in The Eagle, xviii 183-196.

' Sir F. Pollock, Oxferd Lectures, 1890, 158.

,^.oogic

CHAP. XL.] MAINE. FREEMAN. PELHAM. 441

least as great and memorable as the revival of Greek and Latin learning'*.

Nine years had already passed since Polybius had been fruit- fully studied by Freeman in the preparation of the volume in which he had 'traced the action of the federal principle in the Achaian league' of b.c 281- — 146. A visit to Sicily in 1878, followed by three long sojourns in the island between 1886 and 1S90', bore fruit in the single volume on Sicily in the 'Story of the Nations ' (1892), and in the four volumes of the History of Sicily from the earliest times (1891-4) down to the death of AgaChocles in 289 B.C., — volumes founded on a thorough study of Pindar and Thucydides and other ancient authorities. The author's essays on ' Homer and the Homeric Age', on the 'Athenian democracy', on the 'Attic historians', on 'Ancient Greece and mediaeval Italy', and on 'Mommsen's History of Rome', have been reprinted in the second and third series of the Historical Essays (1873-9)'.

Three volumes of a ' History of Greece' ending with 403 b.c. were published in 1888 — 1900 by Evelyn Abbott (1843—1901), Fellow and Tutor of Balliol, writer of a popular work on Pericles (1891), editor of Nellenica {18S0), and joint-author of the Life of Joivetl*. The teaching of Roman history at Oxford was greatly advanced by the inspiring influence of Henry Pelham {1846 — 1907) of Harrow and of Trinity, Oxford, Fellow and Tutor of Exeter, who, in 1889, became professor of Ancient History and Fellow of Brase- nose, and, in 1897, President of the first of his three Colleges. His small volume of ' Outlines of Roman History' (1890) has been described as 'the most useful', and 'the most able, sketch of the subject that has yet been published'. A special value attaches to his printed articles and lectures on the same theme, though he did not live to publish his proposed ' History of the Roman Empire'. In his public teaching he rose far above 'pedagogic ends of the narrower sort'; ' follower and personal friend of the

' The Unity ef History {^%^^),^,g.

* W. R. W. Stephens, Life and LetUrs of E. A. Freeman (1895), ii n6.

178-185. <es, 6 Sepl. 1

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

442 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

great Mommsen, he conceived the study of antiquity in its larger and severer sense'. A loyal friend to the Hellenic Society and to the British School at Athens, he took a leading part in the foundation of the British School.at Rome (1901), and was one of the original Fellows of the British Academy (1902)'.

One of the foremost of the Greek topographers of the nineteenth century was William Martin Leake (1V77 — 1S60), who, after serving with his regiment in the West Indies, and training Turkish troops in Constantinople, travelled in Asia Minor in 1800, and surveyed Egypt (1801-2) as welt as European Turkey and Greece {1804-7), where he continued to reside from 1808 to iSio. On retiring from active military service in 1815, he devoted all his energies to the cause of classical learning. The commission, which he received from the Foreign Office in 1804, included an item of special importance in con- nexion with the topography of Greece. He was there instructed ' to acquire for the British government and nation a more accurate knowledge than has yet been attained of this important and interesting country '. His singular activity as a traveller, great powers of observation, and his vivid realisation of the close connexion between topography and history, ensured his carrying out this instruction with complete success. He thus became 'the founder of the scientific geography of Greece". His reputation as a learned and scientific topographer rests on his ' Researches in Greece' (1814), his 'Topography of Athens and the Demi' (i8zi), his 'Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor' (1824), his 'Travels in Northern Greece' (1835-41), his 'Morea' (1830), and his ' Peloponnesiaca ' (1846). His volume on the 'Topography of Athens' was translated into German by Baiter and Sauppe, and that on the ' Demi ' by Westermann. His work on Athens, which attained a second edition in 1841, was the earliest scientific reconstruction of the ancient city with the aid of all the evidence supplied by Greek literature, inscriptions, and works of art. It has been rightly recognised by Curtius as a work of permanent value ; it is, in fact, the foundation of all subsequent research on

» F, Haverfield and " M.", in Alhenaeum, 16 Feb. 1907, 197.

* Micbaelis, Arch. Enid. 10. 1

h. 1. iiA.OOgIC

CHAP. XL.] LEAKE. NEWTON. 443

the same subject. His collection of Greek marbles was presented by himself to the British Museum in 1 839, while his library and the great collection of coins described in his ' Numismata Hellenica' (1859) were purchased by the University of Cambridge, which has placed his bust in the vestibule of the Fitzwilliam Museum '.

In classical geography useful work of a less original character was done by John Antony Cramer (1793 — 1848), Principal of New Inn Hall, and Regius professor of Modern History, Oxford, in his 'Geographical and historical description ' of ancient Italy (1826) and Greece (1828) and Asia Minor (1832). Of the rest of his works, the Anecdola Graeca from MSS of Oxford {1834-7) and Paris (1839-41) are those that appeal most directly to scholars.

His anonymous dissertation on Hannibal's passage of the Alps {1810) was welcomed in the Edinburgh Review as ' a scholailjke work of first-rale ability '. It argues in favour of the Little St Bernard, ' •■ ™

a view also maintained by Niebuhr and Arnold, by W.J. Law (1787—1869), of Christ Church, Oxford (in 1855-66), and by Mommsen. The rival claims of the Litlle Mont Cenis were ably supported by Robert Ellis, FellowofSt John's, Cambridge (d. 1885)".

Lycia was traversed m 1838 and 1840 by Charles Fellows {1799 — 1860), the discoverer of the Xanlhian marbles", and in 1841 by T. A. B. Spiatt (1811 — 1888) and Edward Forbes (1815— *'* ™

1854). Crete was visited in 1851-3 by Sprait, who published his 'Travels and Researches' in 1S65. Cyrene was examined in iS6o~i by R. Murdoch Smith and E. A. Porcher ; the surroundings of Murdoch Cyrene explored by George Dennis, the author of the ' Cities Smith and and Cemeteries of Etruria '* ; and the necropolis of Cameiros Porcher

in Rhodes excavated by Sakmann and Biliolti in i8j8 1865. Lastly, Nineveh was explored in 1845 by that emi public servant. Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817 — 1894).

Layard's able contemporary, Charles Thomas Newton (1816 — 1894), was educated at Shrewsbury and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he impressed Ruskin as 'already notable in his intense and curious way of looking into

'J. H, Marsden's Memoir (1864); cp. E. Curtius, Alterthum und Gtgen-aiart, ii 30J — 31a.

• Treaiiit (1853); Jourtt. 0/ CI. and Sacred Pkilel. 1855-6; Ancient Xcules detweeii Ilidy and Gaul (1867).

' Michaelis, Arch. Enid. 77—81. ' 1848; ed. 3, 1883.

.oogic

444 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

things". His work in the British Museum b^an in 1840 and ended with the twenty-four years of his tenure of the office of Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1861-85).

In 1S46 his altenlion was arrested at the Museum b; some fragmenls of reliefs from ihe Castle of the Knights of St John at Budrum, the ancient Ilalicarnassus. He divined that these reliefs must have once tielonged to tlie great monument erected in memory of Mausolus. In iSji he was ap|ioinled Vice-Consul at Mytilene with a. roving commission to search for ancient remains in the neighlK)uring lands. From Le>;bos he visited Chios, Cos and Rhodes, where he was consul in 1853-4, ^""1 w^^ quietly superintending the excavations at Calymnos amid all the excitement of the Crimean war. In November, iSjs, he made some excavations in the hippodrome of Constanti' nople, and thus cleared away ihe ground concealing the base of the column of the three entwined serpents of bronze, which once supported at Delphi Ihe memorial of the victory of Plalaea*. In 1856 he explored the site of (he Mausoleum, and recovered a large part of the noble sculptures that adorned the tomb. From Didyma neat Miletus he sent home a number of the seated archaic figures that lined the approach to Ihe temple of Apollo at Branchidae. From Cnidos he brought away Ihe colossal lion, probably set up by Conon in memory of his victory over the Spartan fleet in 394 B.C., as well as a famous statue of the seated Demeter, and an exquisite staluette of Persephone. TTie record of all these acquisitions is enshrined in his official History ef Discoveries at Halicanutssus, Cnidus, and Bratuhidae (1861), and in his popular Travels and Discamrifs in Ihe Levant (1865).

Meanwhile, he had been appointed Consul at Rome, whence he was recalled two yeat^ later to fill the place of Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities at the British Museum, an appointment that marked the dawn of a true interest in classical archaeology in England. In 1864-74 he obtained special grants of more than ;£ioo,ooo for purchases in his department, thus acquiring some of the Farnese statues, and the treasures of the Castellani and Pourtales and Blacas collections. He also encouraged and supported the excavations in Rhodes and Cyprus, at Cyrene and Priene and Ephesus'. In 1877 he visited the excavations of Schliemann at Mycenae (and of Ernst Curtius at Olympia), and

» Praeterita, i S us ; cp. ii % 155 f, ed. 1899.

' The inscription was afterwards deciphered by Frich, Jahrb. CI. Phil. Suppl. iii (rSsg) 554; and by Dethier and Mordtmann, Vienna Acad. 1S64, 330.

' Cp. Staidey Lane Poole, in National Review, 1894, 6it I.

n,,„n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XL.] PENROSE. 445

satisfied himself of the fact that the finds of Mycenae really belonged to the prehistoric ^e. In 1880 he collected his papers of 1850-79 in a single volume entitled £ssays in Art and Archtuology, including his excellent Essay on Greek Inscriptions. Even when he had retired from the office of Keeper in 1885, he continued to edit the great collection of the Greek Inscriptions of Ike British Museum. He received the distinction of knight- hood, and of honorary degrees at Oxford and Cambridge. From 1880 to r888 he was the first holder of the Professorship of Archaeology at University College, London, his lectures, however, were too popular to be really instructive. Competent students, and even experts, learned much from his ordinary conversation. Er ist ein volltr Mann was the phrase applied to him by one of the ablest of German archaeologists. His keen and refined features were perhaps best represented in the portrait painted at Rome by Severn, a small reproduction of which he once gave to the present writer. His marble bust stands in the noble hall buitt under his direction for the sculptures he had discovered at the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. He was among the first to welcome the opening of the museums of classical archaeology at Cambridge and Oxford. At the inaugural ceremony at Cambridge in 1884 the cast of the little figure of Proserpine, which he had himself discovered at Cnidos, reminded him of ' her oroSoj from the darkness of Hades into the light of the upper world ', and he happily described the occasion as ' the avoSw of archaeology, so long buried in England ' '.

In the study of Greek Architecture an eminent position was attained by Francis Cranmer Penrose (1817—1903) of Winchester School and of Magdalene College, Cambridge, who in three successive years rowed in the university boat, and for the next three years was 'travelling bachelor of the university' (1812-5). As 'travelling bachelor' he studied archi- tecture at Rome and at Athens, where he was led by the theories of Pennethorne to determine the hyperbolic curve of the entasis of the columns of the Parthenon. He resumed his measurements

' Percy Gardner, in Biogr. Jakrb. i80, 131—141; and Emesl Gardner, in Annual of British School al Aliens, i 67— 77. See also Sir Richard Jebh, in/. B. S. xxiv, p. li.

OgIC

446 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

in the following season under the auspices of the Society of Dilettanti, and the results were published in The Principles of Atltenian Architecture^. He was the honorary architect and the first director of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, where his name is commemorated in the Penrose Memorial Library'. An expert in astronomy, he elaborately investigated the orientation of Greek Temples. He was for many years sur- veyor of the fabric of St Paul's Cathedral, and he was repeatedly consulted by the Greek Government in connexion with the temples of Athens. He was probably the only person who ever stood on the highest point of the pillars of the Otympteum, as well as on the summit of the dome of St Paul's. In 1898 he received honorary degrees at Oxford and Cambridge, and, towards the close of a long life, he read a paper on the evolution of the volute in Greek Architecture'.

Newton's successor at the British Museum, Alexander Stuart

Murray (i84i>— 1904), who studied in Glasgow and

in Berlin, is best known as the author of a 'History

of Greek Sculpture ' {1880—3), ^"^d a ' Handbook of Greek

Archaeology' (1892); also of Lectures on 'Greek Bronzes' (1898),

and on 'The Sculptures of the Parthenon' (1903)*.

In the field of Roman Archaeology, Robert Burn (1829 — 1904), of Shrewsbury and of Trinity College, Cambridge, produced a comprehensive work on Home and the Campagna (1871), which, at the time of its publication, was ' the best book on the subject in English ', and hears ample evidence of careful study of the classical authors and the modem topographical hterature'. He also published an epitome of this work under the title of Old Rome (1880), and a volume of essays on Roman Literature in relation to Roman Art (i888). He has

' 1851, enlarged ed. 1888.

^ Annual x iji — i^t. Sir Richard Jebb's inscription was printed with the list of Subscribers.

> Obituary nolice by F. G. P., also in the Alhenaeum, 1 Feb., the Builder, 11 Feb. and (by J. D. Grace) in ih.e Journal of the Royal Imtitute of British Archilerls, 9 May, 1903 (with reproduction of Ihe portrait by Sargent).

* See memoir and bibliography by A. H. Smith, in Biogr. Jahrb. 1907, 100-3.

' T. Ashby, quoted by Dr Postdate, Biogr. fahrb. 190J, 143. .

" ■' ' ' ■ ' cS

CHAP. XL-l CLASSICAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 447

been well described as *a man of lovable character— simple, generous, and sincere, with a high sense of diity, and a kindly heart". His work on Rome and the Campagna was succeeded by that of the Oxford bookseller, John Henry Parker (1806 — ^1884), whose Archaeology of Rome appeared in 1874-6. The works on 'Ancient Rome in 1885' and 'in 1888', produced by John Henry Middleton {r846— 1896) of Exeter College, Oxford, and Slade Professor and Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, were revised and greatly enlarged in the two volumes of his Remains of Ancient Rome (rSga).

The study of classical archaeology has been fostered in England by the foundation of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies {1879)', and by the institution aKh"oi!I^y of the British School of Archaeology at Athens (1883 f) and at Rome{i9oi). The Hellenic Society has taken part in promoting the exploration of Asia Minor, of Naucratis, of Samos and Thasos, Cyprus and Crete. Cyprus and Crete, as well as Melos and Megalopolis and Sparta, have been the scenes of excavations carried out by the School at Athens, while that at Rome, besides entering on researches in Rome itself, has minutely surveyed the classical topography of the Campagna. Early in the nineteenth century the pure scholarship of the Porsonian school was still in the ascendant. At the end of its first quarter, in the fancy of a writer who failed to forecast the future, the 'last rays' of English scholarship 'were seen to linger on the deathbed of Dohree". But, since that date, much has been done for the accurate study of Greek and Latin literature ; the ancient Classics have also been popularised by means of admirable modem renderings of the great master-pieces; the Greek drama has been revived ; new periodicals have been founded for promoring and for recording the advance of classical

' Dr Postgate, ii. Cp. Cambriiigt Review, xxv 174.

' An Outlitu of the History of Iht Hillenic Sociity 1879—1904, by the Hon. Secretary, G. A. Macmillan ; Journal of Hellenic Studies, hegaa in 1880-1. Archaeology has been included in the Clasiica I Review from the first (1887); papers connected with Greek, Latin, and Hebrew scholarship have been published in t^t Journal of Philology (begun in 1868).

' Church of England Quarterly Review, v (1839) 14J.

,1^.00'

SIC

448 ENGLAND. [CENT. XIX.

research. Late in 1903 we have seen the birth of the Classical Association, which aims at 'promoting the development and maintaining the well-being of classical studies', while a new interest in the Classics has also been aroused by the triumphant progress of classical archaeology.

Turning from archaeological exploration to literary discovery,

we may recall the fact that many of the charred rolls dUc'i^riei of Greek papyri discovered at Herculaneum in 1752,

including fragments of Epicurus and Philodemus, were published, not only at Naples in and after r793, but also at Oxford in 1824 and 1891'. Private and public enterprise has since recovered a large variety of papyri from the sands of Egypt. The first of the literary papyri to come to light was the last book of the Iliad, acquired by W. J. Bankes in iSar. Fragments of many other portions of the Homeric poems were afterwards found, and it is an interesting indication of the wide popularity of those poems that, in all these finds. Homer is r^arded as 'inevitable'. A far keener interest was awakened by the recovery of lost Classics. The two parts of a large roll containing three of the speeches of Hypereides were independently obtained by Arden and Harris in 1847, and the same orator's Funeral Oration, by Stobart, in r8s6. About 1890 the British Museum acquired a remarkable series of literary papyri, including part of the Philippides of Hypereides, the 'AftjKu'oic iroXiTcia of Aristotle, and the Mimes of Herodas, followed in 1896-7 by the Odes of Bacchylides '. Scholars began to realise something of the rapture which the quest and the recovery of lost Classics had excited in a Petrarch or a Salutati, or in a Pf^gio Bracciotini, in the days of the Revival of Learning. They awoke to find themselves living in a new age of editiones principrs. Many a 'Theban fragment', in the form of paeans of Pindar, has since been discovered during the fifth season of the fruitful excavations on the site of Oxyrhynchus'. Art rather than literature may hope

' Walter Scotl, FragmttHa Htrc, ed. Nicholson, 1891.

' Cp., in general, F. G. Kenyon's Palaeography of Greek Papyri, 1899, 3-7. j6— "I-

» Grenfell and Hunt, in Heforl of Egypt ExploralioH /»«rf (1905-6) 10 f, and in Oxyrkynchui Pafyri, v (1908) n— no.

X'OO'

SIC

CHAP. XL.] LITERARV DISCOVERIES. 449

to profit by the renewed exploration of Herculaneum, and it is to the banks of the Nile rather than to the bay of Naples that we may look for the further fulfilment of the poet's fancy ; —

' O ye, who patiently explore The wreck of Herculanean lore. What rapture I could ye seize Some Theban fragment, or unroll One precious, tender-hearted, scroll Of pure Simonides''.

' Wordsworth, Poems of SenlimenI and Rejlecliim \x\'\\ (Sept. 1819). The date is significant. It was in the first two months of that year that Sir Humphry Davy spent a considerable time in endeavouring to unroll the Herculanean papyri in the Naples Museum. He was fairly well receivei], but his endeavours were attended with very slight success ; and, in Feb. i8ig, 'when the Reverend Peter Elmsley, whose leal for the promotion of ancient literature brought him to Naples for the purpose of assisting in the under- taking began to examine the fragments unrolled, a jealousy, with regard to his assistance, was immediately manifested' (p. 304 of Sir Humphry Davy's Report to the Royal Society in PMl. Trans, 15 March, iSii, pp. 191—108).

n,g,t,7rjM,(?OOglc

CHAPTER XLI.

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

Less than half a century after the discovery of America, the

Italian poet, Marcantonio Flaminio, foretold that,

''wMid" ^^^" '" '^® ^^™ World, the Latin poets of Italy

would be studied by those Western nations, 'on

whom the light of dawn arises, when the sky of Italy is wrapped in

darkness', —

But, in Flaminio's lines as to this love of Latin in the Western hemisphere, we discern not so much a statement of fact, as an intelligent anticipation of future events. We have, indeed, to wait for three quarters of a century before finding any proof of the cultivation of Latin literature across the Atlantic.

It so happens that the first considerable work, written (though not published) in the New World, was connected with the study of the Latin Qassics. In the year 1623, while the Colony of Vii^inia was still in an unsettled state, the treasurer of the Vii^inia Company, George Sandys (1577 — 1643), the youngest son of the archbishop, was engaged on his poetic translation of the Metamorphoses of Ovid". In dedicating to Charles I the complete work, printed in London in 1626, the translator describes it as 'sprung from the stock of the ancient Romans, but bred in the New World, of the rudeness of which it

I 'Nam (mirabile dictu} in iis quoque oris | Nunc lingua.e studium viget Latinae' (CormiBfl, used. X743) ; written before 1550; ii ito sufira.

' Stilh's History of Virginia (1747), 303; Hooper's Inlrad. to Paeliail Warks of George Sandfs, xnvii — slii.

„.,,„,I..OOglC

CHAP. XLI.] INCUNABULA. 45 1

cannot but participate ; especially having wars and tumults to bring it to light, instead of the Muses'. But 'rudeness' cannot justly be predicated of a poem, which was admired by Pope, and was described by Dryden as the work of ' the best versifier of the former age".

A cenlur; elapsed berore the Rrsl Latin poem was printed in America. It is entitled ' Muscipula : the Mouse Trap, or the Battle ol the Cambrians and the Mice: a Poem bf Edward Iloldsworth, translated into English by R. Lewis, Annapolis, 171S '. The translator proudly calls it 'This First Essay [of Za/in /'oe/rj', in £nf/)j* Z-rajj, | which Maryland hath publi&h'd from the Press'. The alternative Greek title of the Latin text is Kaii^poiatviiaxia, and the purpose of the poem is la celebrate the high antiquity of the Cambrians and lo show that the Mouse-trap was invented by the Cambrians, and not by the Greeks. The 'first translation of a Greek or Latin Classic printed in America '* was a rendering of Epictetus : — 'Epictetus his Morals, done from the Original Greek, and the Words taken from his own Mouth by Anian. The Second Edition. Philadelphia, printed by S. Keimer, 1719'. The printer was Benjamin Franklin's master, and in the same year Franklin b^an business on his own account. Cato's Moral Distichs, Englished in couplets' (by Chief Justice James Logan"), printed and sold by B. Franklin, Philadelphia, 1735, may, if ' Cato ' be regarded as a classic, pass for the ' first translation of a Classic which was both made and printed in the British colonies''. A better claim may, however, be urged on behalf of a real Classic, • Cicero's Colo Major, or his Discourse of Old Age ; with explanatory notes ; printed and sold by B. Franklin, Philadelphia, 1744''. The translator and annotator was James Logan, and Franklin calls it the ' first Translation of a Classic in this Western World'. Forty years later we have 'The Lyric Works of Horace, translated into English Vetse,...by a Native of America', Philadelphia, E. Oswald, 1786. The translator was John Parke (1754 — 1789}, who became a lieutenant-colonel in the army of General Washington, lo whom the work is dedicated*. It is probably one of the earliest translations published by a native-born American^.

' Preface to Dryden's Fables.

" C. H. Hildeburn, The Issues sf Che Press in Pennsylvania 1685—1784; Brinley Catalogue, no. 3396 (Hartford, 1878-97).

' Cp. J. G. Wilson and J. Flske, Appleton's Cyclopaedia of Amerkan Biography (1886-9), s.v.

* Brinley Catalogue, no. 3179. ' ib. nos. 3181-4.

' Brinley Catalogue, no. 6910.

' In the aliove paragraph, the bibliographical material (which I have recast and arranged in chronolr^cal order) has been kindly supplied by Prof Wilfred P. Mustard, of Haveiford Coll., Pennsylvania, now of Johns Hopkins, Baltimore.

h. ia9rT^.OO'^lc

452 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XVIII.

The earliest centre of classical learning in the New World was Harvard College, founded in 1636, and deriving its * unitt^tiM*' name from John Harvard of Emmanuel (1607— 1638). He bequeathed half of his fortune and the whole of his library, — his Homer and his Plutarch, his Terence and his Horace, to the College which the little colony of Puritans had on November 15, 1637, resolved on founding at Newtown. . On May 2, 1638, four months before the death of John Harvard, Newtown assumed the name of Cambridge, in memory of the university with which many of the colonists were connected.

Next, in order of time, was the 'collegiate school of Con- necticut', founded at Saybrook in 1701, and transferred to New Haven in 1716, which in 1718 took the name of 'Yale Collie' from its benefactor Elihu Yale. Princeton, founded elsewhere in 1746, was transferred to its present home in 1 757. In Philadelphia, at the instance of Benjamin FrankUn, an Academy was founded in 1751, and, forty years later, was niei^ed into the 'University of Pennsylvania', In 17541 George II founded in New York an institution known as King's College until 1787, when its name was changed into Columbia College, reorganised as a university in 1890. These were the five earliest centres of learning in the United States. The fifth was soon followed by the Brown university at Providence, Rhode Island (1764).

Among the universities founded in the nineteenth century may be mentioned those of Virginia at Charlottesville (1S19), of Michigan at Ann Arbor (1837), of Wisconsin at Madison (1849), the Cornell university at Ithaca {1865), that of California at Berkeley {1868), the Johns Hopkins university in Baltimore {1876), the Leland Stanford at Palo Alto (1891), and, lastly, that of Chicago (1892)'. There are also between 400 and 500 universities or colleges of varying degrees of importance. Out of all these there is gradually emerging 'a limited number of true homes of learning and research', that 'satisfy the somewhat exacting defini- tion of "a place where teaching which puts a man abreast of the fullest and most exact knowledge of the time is given in a range of subjects covering all the great departments of intellectual

' Cp. Minerva, fiaiiim.

n,:i.,-iM,G00glc

CHAP. XLI.] COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES. 453

life"". The model for the old Collt^es was mainly derived from England, that for the modern Universities mainly from Germany. We may now mention a few of the more prominent classical scholars, with some notice of their published writings, so tar as they come within the scope of the present work.

At Boston in 1836 a 'Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament' was produced by an able scholar, Edward Robinson (1794 — 1863), a graduate of Hamilton and tutor in Greek and Mathematics, who in December, 1821, went to Andover to see through the press an edition of ' the first Books of the Iliad' with Latin notes selected chiefly from Heyne. His lexicon passed throi^h many editions, and his work on the Geography of Palestine, entitled 'Biblical Researches', was equally successful. In 1826-30 he studied at Halle and also in Berlin, and, for the last twenty-six years of his life, was a professor of Biblical Literature in New Vork*.

Early in the century, as we are assured by a highly cultivated native of Boston, Geoi^e Ticknor (1791— 1871), 'a copy of Euripides in the original could not be bought at any bookseller's shop in New England". In 1815 Ticknor was sent to Gottingen, and, in his admiration for his Greek tutor at that university, he exclaims, with reference to his own country- men:—'we do not yet know what a Greek scholar is". At Gottingen he remained until the end of 1816, and 'saw a good deal of Dissen, and also of Wolf, the coryphaeus of German philol(^sts', who was there on a visit'. In the course of his travels he subsequently met Schaefer at Leipzig, and Schiitz at Halle", Thiersch (as well as Goethe) at Weimar, Welcker at Cassel, Voss and Creuzer at Heidelbeig, F. Schlegel at Frankfurt, A. W. Schlegel and Humboldt in Paris, Byron in Venice, Sir William Gell in Naples, Bunsen and Niebuhr in Rome, Monk and Dobree at Cambridge^. After his four years of study in Germany, France,

' Bryce, AmtrUatt Comnumvieallh, chap, cv (ii 667. ed. 1895); Papillon, in Mostly Cemmission (1904), 254.

' Portrait in Appleton's Cyclopaedia of American Biography, 6 vols. (1887-9).

' Ticknor's Li/e 0/ Preicott, p. 13, ed. 1904.

' G. S. Hillard etc.. Life of Ticknor, i 73 n.

* ib. i 10J-7. ' ib, i 108, in. ' ib. patiim.

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4S4 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

Italy, and Spain, he delivered at Harvard, as professor of the French and Spanish Languages and Literatures, an inaugural oration described as the 'utterance of the ripest scholarship America could then boast'^.

Among Ticknor's fellow-students at Gotttngen was his life- long friend, Edward Everett {1794 — 1865). As a young man of high promise, he had been appointed Eliot professor of Greek at Harvard in 1815, on the understanding that he spent some time studying in Europe before entering on his professorial duties. He remained at Gdttingen for two years. Cousin, who met him in Germany, regarded him as one of the best Grecians he ever knew'. During his four years in Europe, he travelled in Greece, and, before the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, he made the acquaintance of Koraes, who held him in the highest esteem'. In 1819 he entered on his duties as a professor'; and, in that capacity, produced a translation of Buttmann's Greek Grammar (1822) and a new edition of Jacobs' Greek Reader. He resigned his professorship for a political career in 1826, represented the United States in London in 1841-5, and was Secretary of State in iSga, His reputation mainly rests on the stately eloquence of his orations. In the tenacity of his memory, and in his singular command of a lai^e variety of historic parallels, he resembled Macaulay. In 1819, after his four years in Europe, he expressed the opinion that, in regard to university methods, America had at that date 'nothing to learn from England, but every thing to learn from Germany '. English scholars have been known to accept the remark as being, 'a/ ike period indicated, absolutely true". But Everett lived to receive honorary d^rees in 1842-3 from Oxford, Cam- bridge, and Dublin; his speech at Cambridge ended with the respectful greeting Salve, magna parens*; and he 'practically recognised' a change in the conditions of 1819 when, forty years

' Hillard etc., i 310. Pottraii in Appleton, I.e. ° Hay ward, in Quarterly Review, Dec 1840. ' Thereianos, Adamantios Koraes, iii 33.

' 'He leclnted on Greek literature with the enthusiasm of another Abe-- lard' {Appleton, I.c.).

' T. W. Hi^inson, in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, Sept. 189J. ' Ev«tell's Orations, ii 431 (1841).

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CHAP. XLI.] EVERETT. BANCROFT. FELTON. 455

later, he sent his own son to Cambridge'. His son's lectures On the Cam have since given to many besides the Boston audience of 1864 a vivid picture of College-life in that University.

Gottingen was also the goal of another Harvard graduate, George Bancroft (1800 — i8gi), who studied under Heeren and translated his master's ' Reflections on the Politics of Ancient Greece' in 1824, after resigning a tutorship in Greek at Harvard. He afterwards represented his country in England and in Germany (1867-74); he is best known as the Historian of the United States (1840-74)'.

Among the Greek professors at Harvard, Cornelius Conway Felton (1807 — i86z) held that position from 1834 to i860, and was President of Harvard for the two remaining years of his life. He annotated Wolfs text of the Iliad, with Flaxman's illustrations (1S33 eta), and also edited the Clouds and Birds of Aristophanes, the Agamemnon of Aeschylus, and the Panegyriats of Isocrates. In conjunction with professors B. Sears and B. B. Edwards, he produced in 1849 a volume on 'Classical Studies', including selections from the correspondence of several Dutch scholars. During his first visit to Europe (1853-4), he spent five months in Greece, and in 1856 he punished his 'Selections from Modem Greek Writers'. His popular lectures on ' Greece, Ancient and Modem ', display his keen enthusiasm for the old Greek world. His interest in the comparative study of the Greek and the modern drama is vividly represented in his early review of Woolsey's edition of the Alcestis (1836). He was familiar with German literature and with the works of German scholars, but he refers more frequently to Heyne, Mitscheilich, and Wolf than to Hermann'. As professor of Greek

, ' T. W. Higginson, in Atlantic Monthly, vol. 93 (1904) 8 f. This later fact is (not unnatucally) suppressed in Professor Hoblfeld's Chicago Fistredt {fiir Minfiua dattseha- Univenitdtm auf Ameriia), 1904, p. 6, wh«re the eailier lemark of i8ig is duly emphasised. On Everett, cp. biographical dates in Qtdngutnnial Catalvgue 0/ Harvard Utai/iraty, 1636 — 1905, under 181 1 ; die Ene. Brit, etc; portrait in Appleton, i.c.

• D.C.L. Oxford, 1S49; Harvard (Quinquennial) C\atalBgus), under 1817; portrait in Appleton, /.c.

■ E. SiUer (Prof, at New York Univ.), KiatsiscAi Siudien und ilastiscitr UnterrichI in tUn VertinigUn Staattn, three articles in Nok /ahrbiichtr

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456 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

he was succeeded in i860 by W. W. Goodwin (b. 1831), the well- known author of the 'Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb", who held the professorship until 1901.

Felton's exact contemporary, Evangelinus Apostolides Sophocles (1807 — 1883), who was born at the foot of Mt Pelion, SophrKiM *"** spent his early youth near the home of Achilles and some of his maturer years at Cairo and on Mt Sinai, emigrated to the New World in 1828. He taught Greek at Yale (i837f) and for many years at Harvard (1840 — 1883), where he was appointed professor of Ancient, Byzantine, and Modem Greek in i860. Of his publications, the most successful was his Greek Grammar (1838 etc.), while the most important was his Greek Lexicon of Ike Roman and Byzanline Periods^. He be- queathed to Harvard his literary collections and the whole of his private fortune'.

The Latin professorship at Harvard was held from 1832 to 1851 by Carl Beck (1798—1866), who had lived in Germany for the first twenty-six years of his life. Like Lieber and Follen, he was one of the 'highly educated Germans,. ..who were driven from their country by political up- roar about 1825". In 1846, on the eve of a visit to Europe, that 'fine Petronian scholar" declared that 'he had never before had a pupil who could write Latin as well as Lane'. The pupil in question, George Martin Lane (1823— 1897), took the professor's place for a single term 'with entire success'. In 1847, like Ticknor and Everett and Bancroft, he left for Germany, where he spent four years, attending the lectures of Schneidewin and K. F. Hermann at Gottingen*, and those of

(1901) 508 f. OnFelton, cp. Harvard Q. C, under 1827; Amtr. Joum. of Bduc, March 1861, x 165-— 196; Mass. Hist. Sk. Proc. 1869, t. 351— 368. Portrait in Appleton, l.c.

' 1859 etc.; rewritten and enlarged, 1889. * 1870. and [887.

' Cp- Harvard Q.C., hon. degree, 184; ; Biogr. Jahrb. 1883, p. 98. He was long a valued correspondent of the Nation (xi 46). Cp. Allibone, i.v. ; and Seymour, in Bulletin, v (1901), S f ; portrait at Harvard.

* T. W. Hi^inson, u. s. ; Ph. D. Tuhingen, 1813 ; hon. LL.D. Harvard, 1865.

° 'The Mss of Pet ronius... described and collated', tSdj.

0 Ph.D. iSji.

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CHAP. XL!.] E. A. SOPHOCLES. BECK. LANE. 457

Ritschl at Bonn, as well as courses at Berlin and Heidelbeig. In the library of his son, Mr Gardiner Martin Lane of Boston, his notes of Ritschl's lectures and his sketch of the professor were seen by the present writer during a visit in 1905. His review of an edition of Flautus in 1853 has been described by his biographer as 'probably the first rect^ition' in America 'of the results of Ritschl's studies". He was Latin professor from 1851 to 1894. 'As a teacher', he 'had all that fine literary appreciation which characterizes the English school, combined, however, with the minute and exact knowledge of the Germans'. Among his marked characteristics were a never-failing good nature, great originality of thought, a prodigious memory, and a familiarity with the most varied types of literature'. 'His teaching was always clear and incisive"; his 'sparkling wit was ever ready to illuminate dark corners in even the abstrusest departments of learning, and he could make the driest subject interesting by his skilful and original way of presenting it'*. The chief work of his life was his excellent Latin Grammar, completed and published in 1898 by his former pupil, professor Morris H. Morgan; he generously co-operated in the production of Lewis and Short's ZaA'n Dictionary; and it was mainly owing to his pamphlet of 1871 that a reformed pronunciation of Latin was adopted in all the Colleges and Schools of the United States'.

Among line's older friends was John L. Lincoln (1817— 1891), who, like Lane, studied fat several years in Gennany ; he was Latin professor in Brown university (184+ f), and produced editions HMkneM of Horace and of Selections from Livy". Albeit Harkness (1811 — '907), Greek professor at Brown, whose Latin Grammar was published in 1864'. was a niember of the Managing Committee of the American

' Morris H. Morgan, in Harvard Studiti, U 9.

* ib. 7, • Eliot, (*. 8. * Goodwin, ib. 8.

' ib. 9. Some misgivings on this pronunciation have foand a voice in Bennett and Bristol's Teaching 0/ Latin and Creti (i9or) 66 — io.^Mtmoir {with portrait) by Morris H. Morgan, in Harvard Studies, ix 1^11; post- humous papers, it. 13 — 16 ; papers by ij of his pupils, ib. vii ; cp. Harvard Q. C. under 1846 ; -4. /. P. xviii 1+7, 371 f ; ATatian, kv, 8 July, 1897, 18.

' National Cyclopaedia of American Biography (N. Y. 1881- ), viii 30.

' A very widely popular work, revised in 1874, 18S1; Harkness also edited Caesar and Sallust etc. (1S70-8).

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458 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

School of Classical Studies at Athens from ils foundation to the end of his life'. . Another graduate of Brown, Henry Simmons Frieze (1817 —

1S89), is known as an editor of Virgil and of Quintilian x, xii. As professor of Latin in the university of Michigan for the last 35 years of his life, he gave to his leaching 'the flavour of a noble realism', being ' more desirous that his pupils should be Romam than that they should be

lime's younger contemporaries at Harvard included Joseph Heniy Thayer (:8i8— 1891), the able editor of a Grammar (1873! and a '''*' Lexicon (1886) of the Greek Testament, originally produced

by Winer and by Willie and Grimm respectively'.

Lane's colleague as professor of Latin was James Bradstreet Greenough (1833 — 1901), a student of Harvard, who, after following the profession of the Law for nine years in Michigan, was invited to return to Harvard as a tutor in Latin. This appointment led to his becoming assistant professor in 1873, and to his holding one of the two professorships of Latin for nearly twenty years (1883 — 1901).

Early in his career as a teacher, he eagerly devoted himself to the study of Comparative Philology, and soon made himself acquainted with Sanskrit. He was stimulated by Goodwin's Greek Meods and Tenses to attack the corresponding problems in Latin, and the first result was his privately printed Analysis of the l^liu Subjunetive (1870), in the course of which he main- tained that the only meaning which seemed to be common to all uses of the Subjunctive was that oi futurity. In this Analysis he anticipated the method adopted in the following year by Delbriick, in his Conjanctiv und Optaiiv, a work which became a grammatical classic. The results of the Analysis were incorporated in J. H. Allen and J. B. Greenoagh's Latin Grantmca- founded on Comparative Grammar (1871). DelbrUck's work was the subject of an appreciative but searchbg review by Greenough, in which the reviewer declined to accept loill and iiiish as the distinction between the Subjunctive and the Optative', and Delbriick subsequently admitted that the original idea of both might, after all, be that 0^ futurity rather thanwiT/.

Greenough was the first to lecture on Sanskrit and Comparative Philology at Harvard (1873-80), and his services in fostering those studies 'the historian of American learning will not fail to recognise'^. He embodied the main

* Brown Alumni Monthly, viii (1907) 31, with portrait outside n Rev. xxi 189.

» Cl.Rev.\-i 131 f.

' Harvard Q. C-, under 1850.

* North Amer. Rev., yiA. 113 (1871), 4rj-i7. ° Harvard Studies, xiv 10-

n,5,t,7rjM,G00glc

CHAP. XLI.] GREENOUGH. 4S9

resulis of his studies and discoveries in his contributions to the text-books known as (J. H.) 'Alien and Greenough's Latin Series '. Among these were his inde|>endent editions of Horace's Satires and Efistla, and Livy I, ll'.

He was keenly interested in Etymology, and contributed learned and ingenious notes on thai subject to several volumes of the Harvard Sitidies in Classical Philology. His originality in the analysis of linguistic forms is exemplified in his essay on Laiin Stem Formation in the tenth volume of those Studies, a series founded and in part edited by himself. He wrote English and Latin verse with a singular facility and grace, and he was rect^nised by his friends as distinctly a man of genius*.

Among those primarily associated with Greenough in the 'Latin Series' were the two sons of the Rev. Joseph ADen of Northborough (1790— 1873). The elder of {ir*V.^5i"n these, the Rev. Joseph Henry Allen, D.D. (1820— 1898), besides producing elementary works on Latin, was the joint author of 'Allen and Greenough's' above-mentioned Latin Grammar of 1872. He also published a Manual Latin Grammar (1868), and a Latin Reader, in conjunction with his younger brother, William Francis Allen (1830 — 1889), a graduate of Harvard, who in 1867 became professor of Ancient Languages and History at Madison, Wisconsin,

Early in his career, W. F. Allen studied at GiiUingeQ and Berlin, and aiso travelled in Italy and Greece. He was less interested in the linguistic than in the historical side of classical learning ; he was the contributor of ' the admirable historical and archaeological notes' in 'Allen and Greenough's Latin Series'; and he produced independent editions of the Cermania, Agriiola, and Annals of Tacitus. He was remarkable for an extraordinary capacity lor work, a singular breadth of sympathy, and a keen interest in the cause of freedom'.

The first professor of Classical Philology at Harvard was Frederic de Forest Allen (1844 — 1897), a graduate of Oberlin, who, after holding a professorship of Greek and Latin for two years at Knoxville, studied under Geoi^ Curtius at Leipzig in 1868—70, taking an active part in the

' In other editions he was associated with Mr J. H. Allen and with Professors F. D. Allen, Tracy Peck, and Kittredge.

' G, L. Kittredge, in Harvard Studies, liv (1903) 1 — 16, with biblit^raphy and portrait ; Harvard Q. C, under 1856.

' C. L. Smith, in CI. Rrs. iv 416-8; cp. National CycL. vi 160; Wiscontin Academy, viii 439; Essays and Monographs (with Memoir, i — »r, and Biiliograf&y, 351 — 381), Boston, 189a

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460 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

Grammatische Gesellschaft and obtaining his d^;ree by a thesis on the dialect of the Ijocrians'. The remarkable impression made at New Haven in 1871 by his paper on the 'Attic Second Declension" led to his appointment as a tutor at Harvard in 1873, He was professor of Ancient Languages at Cincinnati in 1874-9, ^'^'^1 ^^^ * '>"sy year at Yale, became professor at Harvard for the remaining seventeen years of his life. In 1885-6 he was in charge of the American School at Athens; in 1891-2 he studied the scholia of Plato at Oxford and Paris, with a view to an edition, which he did not live to complete.

One of his earliesl works was an excellent edition of the Mtdea (1876I; among his mote important papers were those on ihe origin of Homeric verse', on classical studies at the universit]' of Leyden*, on Greek and Latin Inscrip- tions from Palestine*, on Greek Versification in Inscriptions*, and on the Delphian Hymn to Apollo'. It was during his lime at Cincinnati that he prepared his compact and comprehensive hand'book of Rimaaitts of Early Latin (iSSo), Ihe value of which has been recognised in England and Gennany.

In his chosen department of study he was primarily 'an investigator'. ' He had no interest in the Classics as a mere accomplishment, a pleasing ornament of a man of letters. For him classical learning was a real science, a great branch of anthropology, giving insight, when rightly studied, into the mental operations and intellectual and moral growth of ancient peoples". He produced the music for the performance of the Phormio at Harvard in 1894, and it has been said of him by Professor Seymour that 'piobably no other American scholar understood ancient Greek music so well as he'. It has also been said by the same writer :— ' Never was mind more open than his to the receipt of light from any quarter.... His kindly patience, his accuracy, his absolute sanity, and his clearness of exposition made him a remarkable teacher as well as a great scholar ' '.

' Curtios, StuiSm, iii J05 — J79 {1870).

' Trans. Amer. Phil. Assoc, ii 18—34 {l8;t).

* Kuhn's Zeilsckrift. xiiv 556—591 (1879).

* Proc. Amir. Phil. Assoc. Xlll (1882) xviii f, 5 A.J.P.ti 190—116.

* BulUtin of the School at Athens, iv 37 — 104. ' Harvard Studies, ix 55 — 60.

« a. ix 30 f.

■ Seymour in A. J. P. xviii 375. Cp. Memoir by J. B. Greenough in Harvard Studies, ix 17 — 36, with bibliography and portrait, and with post- humous papers, it. 37 — 60. Cp. A. f. P. xviii 147, 371-5; Tlu Nation, Ixv, 19 Aug. 1897, 144.

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CHAP. XLI.] F. D. ALLEN. WARREN. 461

Latin scholarship at Harvard lost much by the death of Minton Warren (1850 — 1907), a graduate-student of Sanskrit and the Classics at Yale, who by holding scholastic wlimn appointments for three years in the United States, was enabled in 1876-g to pursue the advanced study of Com- parative Philology and other subjects at Leipzig, Bonn and Strass- bui^ where the bent of the rest of his life was determined by the influence of the school of Kitschl. From 1879 to 1S99 he presided over the advanced and graduate instruction in Latin at the Johns Hopkins university; in 1896-7 he was director of the American School in Rome; and in 1899 was appointed Latin professor at Harvard, — a position which he held with the highest distinction for the remaining eight years of his life. His first publication, ' On the enclitic Ne in early Latin", was followed by the editio pritueps of the ' Glossary of St Gallen", while his latest article dealt with the oldest of Latin inscriptions, — that on the ^ Slele in the Roman Forum '". From his College-days in Germany to his death he was mainly occupied in collecting materials for a critical edition of Terence, in which he was latterly associated with Prof. Hauler and Prof. Kauer of Vienna. Of his work as a teacher at Harvard, his colleague Prof. Wright has said : — ' No American Lacinist can point to a larger number.. .of able and productive scholars in his own field, who, if not members of his * school ', at least owed to him their inspiration and their method". 'Active, fond of out- of-door life, vigorous; sunny, serene, witty; appreciative, sympa- thetic;...he endeared himself to his friends as few men have done in his generation*".

Among the most promising scholars of a later generation was Herman Wadsworth Hayley {1867 — 1899), a graduate of Amherst, who completed his studies at Harvard, where he served as tutor before receiving an appoint- ment in the Wesleyan university at Middletown, Connecticut. He produced an edition of the Alcestts ( 1 898), and a pamphlet on

• Slrassbq^, 1879: A. J. P. 1881. = Cambridge, U.S.A., 1885. '^./.Z-. i907,nos. iii-i.

* Cp. A.J. P. Dec. 1907, 489 ; Haniard Mag., Jan. 1908 : Prof. Lindsay in CI. Rev. xxii aj f.

" Harvard Univ. Cm. 10 Jan. 1908.

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462 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

the Verse of Terence, besides contributing to Lane's 'Grammar' the chapter on versification. Five of his papers have been published in the Harvard Studies^.

Harvard has taken a leading part in the modem revival of the Attic drama. It was there that in May, 1881, after seven months of preparation, the Oedipus Tyrannus was admirably acted in the original Greek. Art and archaeology, as well as scholarship, united in making the presentation perfect in every detail*. Since then we have had the memorable performance of the Agamemnon by members of the university of Oxford, the impres- sive and stimulating series of Greek plays at Cambridge, and the singularly interesting representations amid the idyllic surroundings of Bradfield ; while, at Harvard itself, the Oedipus Tyrannus of 1881 has been succeeded by the Agamemnon of 1906.

At Yale the pioneer professors of Classics included James

Luce Kingsley {1778 — 1852), editor of Tacitus and

ThtSeV °^ Cicero, De Oralore, and a master of Latin style*.

He was professor of Latin from 1831 to 1851, when

he was succeeded by Thomas A. Thacher (1815 — 1886), editor

of Cicero, De Officiis*. Thacher's contemporary,

*"" William Seymour Tyler (1810—1897), a" editor of

select portions of Homer, Demosthenes, and Tacitus, was one of

the pioneers as professor of Latin and Greek at Amherst^

The 'Literary Convention' held at Yale in 1830 marks an epoch in the history of university education in the United States. The avowed aim was to form a genuine university. On this occasion liberal studies were effectively defended in a long and luminous letter from Geoi^e Bancroft, while among those who took part in the debates were Francis Lieber of Berlin and Boston, who had fought in Greece, and had lived with Niebuhr

' ' Social and domestic poution of women in Arjslophanes ' (vol. i) ; Quats- titmes Petronianae (ii) ; Kbrrapat ra-raetbt (v) ; Varia Critica (vii) ; Notes on lie Pkormio (xi).

' Heniy tioTiDarCi Harvard Grtek Play {\iiz); cp. Jebb's Introd. to D«/. T,r. p. 1 (.

^ Woolsey in AUiboiie, and Appleloo.

• Nalionat Cycl. xi 160 with portrait.

' ib. X 34; ; Appleton, vi 301 ; hon. S. T. D., Harvaid, 1857.

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Hadley

CHAP. XLI.] WOOLSEY. HADLEY. PACKARD. 463

in Rome, and Woolsey, who had recently returned from his triennium in Europe'.

The Greek Professorship at Yale was held from 1831 to 1846 by Theodore Dwight Woolsey (1801— 1889), a graduate of Yale', who had studied for three years in France, as well as in Germany, where he attended the lectures of Welcker, Hermann and Boeckh at Bonn, Leipzig and Beriin respectively. During his tenure of the professorship, he edited the Antigone and Ekctra of Sophocles, as well as the AUesits, the Promelhius, and the Gorgias. He had a remarkable influence over his pupils in Greek, and a still wider fame when, in middle life, he became President of Yale, and professor of International Law'. As professor of Greek, he had an able successor in James Hadley (1821 — i^T^), who had also a genius for mathematics, and lectured with success on Roman Law. His best-known work was his Greek Grammar'. His ' Essays Philological and Critical' (1873) were edited after his death by his distinguished colleague William Dwight Whitney, who generously described him as 'America's best and soundest philologist'".

Hadley was succeeded by Lewis Richard Packard (1836 — 1884), who studied in Berlin, and visited Greece (1857-8) and was a professor of Greek at Yale from 1863 to 1884, when he died of an illness contracted at Athens as director of the American School. In conjunction with Prof. J. W. White of Harvard, he projected the 'College Series of Greek authors', since edited by Professors White and Seymour. He translated the lecture of Bonttz ' On the Origin of the Homeric Poems', prepared an edition of the Odyssey, which remained un- published, and produced a considerable variety of essays and lectures, which were posthumously collected under the title of

' Sihler in Evening Pest, N.Y., 7 Sept. 1907.

» Hon. S.T, D.. Harvard, 1847.

» Sihler, jogf; Timothy Dwighl, Memorial Address, New Haven, 114 June, 1890.

• 1860, etc. ; revised and largely rewritten by F. D. Allen (1884).

' Sihler, 511; Noah Porter, Memoir, with biblii^raphy, New Haven, 1873. Sketch by Whitney in 'Yale College' (1879); National Academy of Sciences, Biogr. Memoirs, 1905, v 149 — 154, with portrait.

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464 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

' Studies in Greek Thought'. The address which he delivered in 1881 on the ' Morality and Religion of the Greeks' has been well described as ' the expression of the carefully formed opinions of a student of life as well as of books, upon a topic of wide human interest, indicating the true final object of the enlightened student of Philology to be the knowledge of man, and the acquisition of the means for the judgment of conduct and the understanding of history''.

W. D. Whitney (1827 — 1894), a member of a family 'remark- able for scholarly attainments and achievements', Whitney graduated at Williams College at the age of 18, and, in the early part of his career, took the keenest interest in Natural Science. His elder brother had gone to Germany to study mineralogy and geology, but had incidentally attended a course of lectures on Sanskrit at the University of Berlin ; and it was in his elder brother's library that W. D. Whitney found the books that enabled him to begin the study of Sanskrit. Late in 1849 he entered Yale, to continue the study of Sanskrit under Edward E. Salisbury, who had been appointed professor of Arabic and Sanskrit in 1841. Whitney and Hadley were Salisbury's first (and last) pupils in Sanskrit, and they were pupils of whom he might well be proud. In 1850 Whitney went to Germany, spending three winter semesters under Weber, Bopp and Lepsius in Berlin, and two summer semesters under Roth in Tiibingen. Salisbury's foresight and generosity led to Whitney's being appointed professor of Sanskrit {1854) and of Comparative Philology at Yale. In course of time a graduate school of philol<^y was organised, which, shortly after 1870, included some of the ablest of the future professors in the United States. Whitney revived the American Oriental Society, and presided over the first meeting of the Philological Association in 1869.

His first great work was the publication of the fitsl volume of the Alharva.Veda-Saiiihita (1855-6), the second volume of which was post- humously published under the editorial care of his former pupil, Professor Lanman. Two other Sanskrit texts were published it) 1861-71; and the value of his work was lecc^nisedby the award of the Bopp prize in 1S7Q, followed by

' J. W. White in Bullain of Amer. School, ii (i88j) 7-9 ; cp. Seymour in Bicgr. fahrb. 1884, 68—70-

,^.oogic

CHAP. XLI.] W. D. WHITNEY. SEYMOUR. 465

the crowning distinction of the Pmssian Order of Merit ; but it tins been said of him that he loved learnLng for its own sake and not for its rewaid of fame. Meanwhile, he had produced his important Sanskrit Grammar', and he was one of Ihe four principal collaborators in the St Petersburg dictionary. Among his besl-known works were his Lectures on ' Language and the Study of Language' t'^7}> ^*^ 'Oriental and Linguistic Studies' (1S71-4), and his volume on the ' Life and Growth of Language ' (1875), which was translated into five of the languages of Europe. He was among the very first 10 draw attention to analog as a force in ihe growth of language, and also to demur to the ordinary view that Asia was the original home of tbe Indo-European

Yale was the university of Martin Kellogg {1828 — 1903), who in 1859-93 was professor of Latin first at the College and afterwards at the newly founded uni- versity of California, of which he was president from 1893 to 1899, He is best known as the editor of an excellent edition of Cicero's Brutus*. He also published a pamphlet on Latin pronunciation (1864), while among his popular papers may be mentioned 'Gorgias in Cahfomia' and 'Fine Art in Ancient Literature'*.

The teaching of Greek at Yale was for a; years associated with the name of Thomas Day Seymour (1848 — 1907)1 who, after graduating at Western Reserve, spent two years at the universities of Leipzig and Berlin, besides travelling in Italy and Greece. On his return he taught Greek for 8 years at Western Reserve, and held a professorship of Greek at Yale from 1S80 to the end of his life. Apart from a useful volume of 'Selected Odes of Pindar' (1882), his published work was mainly concerned with Homer. He produced inter alia two editions of Iliad i — vi, and (a few months before his death) com- pleted his scholarly and comprehensive work on 'Life in the Homeric Age'.^the ripe result of 35 years of Homeric study. His comparatively early death was ascribed to overwork in

* Leiprig, 1879 ; ed. t, 1889 ; Suppl. 1885.

' Seymour, in A. /. P. xv 171 — 19S ; and Lanman in Inttod. to Alharva- Veda-Samhila ; The NalioH, 14 June, 1894; /eunud of Amer. Oriental See. xix (1897) I.

* 1889; J. E, Sandys in CI. Rev. iii 354 f.

* Overland Msmlhly, Dec. 1868, and June 1885. For a complete bibHo- graphy I am indebted lo the Secretary of the President of the University of

466 UNITED STATES OK AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

connexion with this volume, and with the preparations for an important meeting of the American Institute of Archaeology. He was of the highest service to that Institute, and he was also the historian of the first twenty-five years of the School at Athens'. Though he never allowed himself to become a mere specialist, he could keep abreast with specialists in many lines. ' One of the most genial and companionable of men", he was endued with a singular charm, and those who (like the present writer) have shared his hospitality at Yale, and have viewed the Homeric scholar's study and lecture-room with their lofty situation and their wide outlook ivS/i^ov airo wupyov, will ever retain a kindly regard for his memory. His teaching at Yale will always be associated with that lofty tower. Here let us leave him, — ' Leave him— still loftier than ihe world suspects, Living and dying'. At Columbia College, Cliarles Anthon (1797—1867), the son of an English

army- surgeon', hecame full professor of Languages in 1835.

He was the principal classical book-maker of his time; the number of volumes, which he prepared for Harper's firm, amounted to about fifty, including a latge edition of Horace (1836), founded mainly on Doring's, and a Classical Dictionary (1841), which resulted from several revisions of Lempriere. He also produced handbooks of Gec^raphy, Antiquities, Mythology and Literature, and many editions of the ordinary Greek and Latin authors. The lavish amount of help provided in some of these editions left the student little to do on his own account. For the last thirty years of his life, he is said to have produced one volume /er annaffi.

Anthon founded no school, but the best of his pupils was his . biographer*, Henry Drisler (1818 — 1897). Drisler

held professorial appointments in Columbia College for more than fifty years, and, in his literary work, devoted him- self almost exclusively to Greek lexicography, preparing American editions of Liddell and Scott (1851-2) and of Yonge's Englisb-

' BulUlin v (1901).

' Yale Alumni Weekly, 8 Jan. 1908, 36*. 364 f (with portrait of Prof. Seymour in his study) ; Prof. Goodwin in The Nation, and Prof. J. W. White's Address; cp. Classical Philology, iii (1908) no. 1.

'■' Originally a German physician, who served in the British Army until 1788, and then married a French wife and settled in New York. The son was at first headmaster of the Grammar School attached to Ihe Collie.

* Discourse, N. Y. 1868, 40 pp.

,1^.00'

gic

CHAP. XLI.] DRISLER. LEWIS. 467

Greek Lexicon (1858). The esteem in which he was held is attested by the volume of 'Classical Studies' dedicated to him by nearly twenty of his most prominent pupils^. The Greek Club founded by him in 1857 in conjunction with Howard Crosby {1826 — 1891), not for writing about the Classics, but for reading them, came to an end 40 years later. Drislet has been described by a former member of this club as 'placid and imperturbable, curiously non-perceptive of the aesthetical and historical side of classic letters'; and Crosby as 'charmer of souls, vivacious and earnest'. One of the fruits of this club was Mr Horace White's 'admirable version of Appian".

Tayler I^ewis (1802 — 1877), of Union College near Albany, was professor of Greek at the New York university (1838-49), and then returned to Union College and taught Hebrew as well as Classics for the remaining twenty- eight years of his life. In Classics, his principal work was an elaborate edition of the tenth book of Plato's Laws, in which special attention is paid to the philosophical and religious bearings of the subject-matter'.

Charlton Thomas Lewis (1834 — 1904), a graduate of Yale, who was for a few years a professor of Greek at Troy near Albany, produced in 1879 a new and revised edition of the Latin dictionary {1850) of Dr E. A Andrews (1787 — 1858), another graduate of Yale, who founded his work on Wilhelm Freund's abridgement (i834f) of Forcellini, The part including all the words beginning with the letter A (216 pp.) was the work of Charles Lancaster Short {i3zi-86), professor of Latin in Columbia College, New York (i868f)'. 'Lewis and Short" was recognised by Nettleship as 'a real advance on any previous Latin-English dictionary', without embodying 'much of

> Classiral Studies in hmour of Henry £>risL-r (UAcmiWax,, N. Y., 1894). Cp. AppUton's Cyd. ii J31.

" Sihler in EveftiHg Post, N. V, j Sept. 190J.

' 1845; Sihler, 51°; E. N. Potter, Discourse, Albany, 1878; porlrail in Appleton.

'Harvard Q. C, uoder 184$; MeiiioiT, i8gi, 39 pp.; NatiBnai Cytl. vii 7.

' ' Harper's Latin Dictionary ' (1879) ; also published by Clarendon Press, Oxford (1880).

h. i39r-t?.OOglc

468 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

the results of modem research". In extenuation of any errors and defects that have been noticed in this useful dictionary, it is fair to remember that it was mainly the work of a busy lawyer in New York, who was only able to devote his early mornings to the completion of his laborious task'.

The professorship of Greek Archaeology and Epigraphy in Columbia College was held in 1889-94 by Augustus Chapman Merriam (1843^1895), who was on the staff for nearly twenty-seven years. He edited, with notes and illustrations, 'the Phaeacian episode in the Odyssey' (1880), and was director of the American School at Athens in 1887-8. His chief enterprise as director was the successful exploration of the ancient deme of Icaria, the home of Thespis and of the earliest Attic drama. He was the first scholar in the United States to devote himself mainly to classical archaeology. It was during his 'sabbatical year' that he died at Athens, early in 1895'.

New York was the scene of the last six years of the scholarly life of Mortimer Lamson Earie (1864 — 1905), in- structor in Greek at Barnard College and Bryn Mawr, and professor of Classical Philology at Columbia in 1899 — 1905. He edited the Akesiis and Medea (1894, 1904) and the Oedipus Tyramius (1901), while his latest work was an elaborate study of the composition of the first Book of Thucydides*. He spent a year at the American School in Athens (1887-8), and died of a fever contracted in Sicily after a summer spent in Dalmatia, Greece and Crete".

Among the Classical Institutions of the United States may be

menrioned the 'American Philological Association',

ciauicai founded in New York in 1868, which publishes

Proceedings and Transactions. The American Journal

of Philology, founded at Baltimore in 1880, has been ably edited

ever since by Professor Gildersleeve (b. 1839), whose paper on

^ Acad, xvii 199; cp. Mayor, in Comb, Univ. Reporter, 18 Ocl. 1879; and Geoiges, in Buirsian's_/aAreji. xxiii 393-8. * Cp. National Cycl. xi 61, with portrait. ' Seymour, in Bulletin, v 39 ; also Report for 1893-4, p. 15 f. *A.J.P. 1905. 4<ff- ' E. D. Perry, in A. /. P. 1905, 454-S-

A.oogic

CHAP. XL!.] SCHOOLS AT ATHENS AND ROME. 469

Oscillations and Nutations of Philological Studies is an interesting chapter in the History of Scholarship'. The Harvard Studies in Classical Philology have been published annually since 1890, and similar volumes have been published from time to time in connexion with Cornell and Columbia and the university of Penn- sylvania. Two new periodicals, 77ie Classical Journal and Classical Philology, were started at Chicago in 1906,

The first American to study in Greece (1851 f) was Henry M. Baird, the author of Modern Greece (1856). The brief visits of Felton and others were followed in i860 by a longer stay on the part of J. C, van Benschoten of the Wesleyan university (d. 1902), the first American to lecture on Pausanias. The Archaeolc^cal Institute of America {1879)' has founded the American Schools of Classical Studies at Athens _ ...

The Schools

(1881) and at Rome (1895), and Papers are at Athens published by both'. The chief excavations of the ""' """" School at Athens have been those of the Argive Heraeum and Corinth ; the School has also excavated the ancient theatres at Thoricus, Sicyon, and Eretria ; has published the Inscriptions of Assos and Tialleis and of other parts of Asia Minor; and, finally, has investigated the Attic deme of Icaria and the grotto of Vari, the remains of the Pnyx and the Theatre of Dionysus, the Erechtheion and the Olympieion, the Metopes of the Parthenon and the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, and the historic scenes of the battles of Plataea and Salamis*. The first director of the School, Professor Goodwin, prepared in 1882-3 *" important paper on the Patlle of Salamis, published in the first volume of the Papers of the School^, and, after the lapse of nearly a quarter of a century, he has ' fought ' his battle ' o'er again ' in the latest volume of the Harvard Studies (1906).

' Jakns HopMns Untvcrsily Circulars, no. 150, March, ipor, 13 pp. Cp. ^././■.xxviii (1907) 113.

^ Index to publications 1879-89 by W. S. Merrill (1891). Since 1885 its principal organ has been the American JottmcU of Anhaeology.

* Conspectus in last three pages of ButUtin v.

' See Seymour's ' First Twenty Years ' of the School, in Bulletin v (1901) 7 — 49, with 'Head of Hera', and 'Theatre at Sicyon'; also letrospect of first twelve years, by J. W. White, in Bulletin iv.

» See also Refort in BuUetin i (1883).

,l^.OO'

gic

47° UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. [CENT. XIX.

An increasing sense of the importance of Latin as an essential element in secondary education has been noticed by those who are familiar with the recent history of the United States. The statistics of the last decade of the nineteenth century show that 'the study of Latin and Greek is advancing by leaps and bounds'. In 1898, half the scholars in the secondar)' schools were learning Latin, and the number then learning Latin was more than three times, that of those learning Greek nearly twice as many as in 1890'. In the American universities, the piosition of Greek as an ' elective ' or ' optional ' subject is regarded with approval by some eminent authorities', and with regret by others'. Mean- while, the School at Athens has had a most salutary effect on the stalT of all the American educational institutions that have con- tributed to its original existence and to its continued prosperity*. Moreover, it is owing in no small measure to the far-reaching influence of the School, that the voices of the old Hellenic art and archaeology, the old Hellenic history and literature, voices no longer 'mute' among the modern Greeks, have found an echo ' further west Than' Iheir 'sires' "Islands of the Blest'".

' Statistics quoted in G. G. Ramsay's Address on Efficieniy in Education, Gla^ow (1901, ed. i), 17 f. See Trans. Amer. Phil. Aaec. (1899) p. cxvii.

' Eliot and Goodwin, in Birkbeck Hill's Harvard College, 117 f, 144.

' e.g. Prof. Seymour, in the letter to L. Dyer, printed in Cambridge Review, 13 Feb. 1905, ii6r. Cp. H. B. Gray in Reports of Mostly Com- miuion, London, 1904, 170; also Sihler in Evening Post, N. Y. 7 Sept. 1907.

* J. W.White, in 5«/iWiniv8f; and Seymour, in Bulletin y ji f.

Medallion of the American School of Ci-AssrcAi, Sri AT Athens {i88r). Panathenaic Vase, with olive-wrealh and inscription, irop*^«u ^ Aesch. Eum. 1000.

OgIC

CHAP. XLI.] RETROSPECT, 594 B.C. TO 529 A.D. 471

The Panathenaic vase on the medallion of the American School at Athens marks the close of our survey of the two thousand five hundred years which began with the recitation of the Homeric poems at the Panathenaic festivals of the age of Solon. In the course of that survey we have briefly reviewed the history of the early study of epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry, the rise of rhetoric, and the beginnings of grammar and etymology, in the Athenian age. From Athens we have turned to Alexandria with its learned librarians, and its scholarly critics Aiexandnan of Homer and of other ancient poets. From Alex- andria we have passed to Pergamon, and have taken note of the grammar of the Stoics, and of the influence of Pergamon on the libraries and on the literary studies of Rome. In the Roman age we have traced, in Latin literature, the influence of the Greek Classics and the Greek critics and grammarians. In Greek literature, we have surveyed the literary criticism and the verbal scholarship of the first century of the Empire, the literary revival at the close of that century, the grammar and lexicography of the second century, the rhetoric of the second and third, and the rise of Neo-Platonism. At the end of the first quarter of the fourth century we have seen Con- stantinople come into being as a new centre of Greek learning, while, in the same century, Demosthenes was beii^ studied in the school of Antioch, and Homer imitated by a poet of Smyrna. We have witnessed the end of the Roman age in 529 a.d., — the memorable year in which the school of Athens was closed by Justinian in the East, and the monastery of Monte Cassino founded by St Benedict in the West.

We have since traversed the eight centuries of the Middle Ages. Beginning with the East, we have noticed in detail the important services rendered by Byzan- tine scholars in the careful preservation and the studious interpretation of the Greek Classics. Turning to the West, we have seen in the monks of Ireland the fosterers of the Greek language, and the founders of the monasteries of Bobbio and St Gallen. We have watched the revival of classical learning in the age of Charles the Great; in the middle of the ninth century,

,^.oogic

Middle Agea

472 THE MIDDLE AGES, 529 TO 1321 A.D.

we have marked the keen interest in the Latin Classics displayed by Servatus Lupus, the abbot of Ferri^res, and, near its close, we have hailed 'our first translator' in the person of king Alfred. In the tenth century we have seen learning flourishing anew in the ancient capital of Aachen, and have elsewhere found in Gerbert of Aurillac the foremost scholar of his generation. We have identified the tenth and the eleventh centuries as the golden age of St Gallen. We have marked the rise of the age-long conflict between Realism and Nominalism in the twelfth century, the century in which the school of Paris was represented hy Abelard and that of Chartres by the preceptors of John of Salisbury. The thirteenth century was (we may remember) made memorable by 'the new Aristotle', by the great schoolmen, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, by translators such as William of Moerbeke, by Roger Bacon and Duns Scotus and William of Ockhani, and finally by Dante, the date of whose great poem marks the close of the century, while the date of his death may well be r^arded as the end of the Middle Ages. Lastly, we have traced the survival of each of the Latin Classics in the age beginning with the close of the Roman i^e in 529 and ending with the death of Dante in 1321-

Our second volume has begun with the Revival of Learning.

In its opening pages we have found in Petrarch LesminK 'the first of modern men', and the discoverer of

Cicero's Letters to Atticus; in Boccaccio, the first '''^odof" student of Greek, and in Chrysoloras, the first classical public professor of that language in Western

Europe. We have watched the recovery of the Latin Classics by Poggio and his contemporaries, and that of the Greek Classics by Italian travellers in the East and by Greeks who fled for refuge to Italy, even before the fall of Constantinople. We have recorded the rise of the study of classical archaeology, the foundation of the Academies of Florence, Naples, Rome and Venice, and the publication of the editiones principes of the Greek and Latin Classics by Aldus Manutius, and by other scholarly printers in Italy, We have seen the 'golden s^e' of Leo X followed, under another Medicean Pope, by the sack of Rome in 1527, an event which marks the close of the Italian Revival of „.,,n,^.OOglC

CHAP. XL!.] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. 473

Learning. In the Italian ^e of scholarship the chief aim (as we have noticed) has been the imitation of classical models of style and of life.

An important link between the Revival of Learning in Italy and its diffusion in Europe has been found in the widely extended influence of the cosmopoHtan scholar, Erasmus. The sixteenth century in Italy century xvi, includes the names of Victorius and Robortelli, of Sigonius and Muretus; it is marked by a special '""'

interest in Aristotle's treatise On the Art of Pottry, and also by the eager study of classical archaeology. Italy has .^

points of contact with Spain in the persons of An- tonio of Lebrixa and Agostino of Saragossa, and **<"*"■ with Portugal in that of Achilles Statius. Greek Franc* learning, as we have seen, was transmitted from Italy to France by Gregorius Tifernas, by John The French Lascaris and by Jerome Aleander. The French *"

period of classical learning, with its many-sided erudition, begins with Budaeus, the inspirer of the foundation of the College de France. Budaeus is soon followed by the printer-scholars Robert and Henri Estienne, the authors of the great Thesauri of Latin and of Greek. The elder Scaliger, an immigrant from Italy, is succeeded by Lambinus, by the younger and greater Scaliger, and by Casaubon.

In the Netherlands the influence of Erasmus is best seen in his fostering of the Collegium Trilingue of Louvain. In the period between 1400 and the foundation of the university of Leyden in 1575, the interests of education are well represented by Vivfes, those of Greek scholarship by Canter who died in 1575, and those of Latin by Lipsius, who lived on to 1606. In England the fifteenth century is marked by the visits of Poggio and Aeneas Sylvius, and by the early renaissance which had its source in the Latin teaching of Guarino at Ferrara. In the same century the study of Greek was begun by the Benedictine monk, William of Selling, and was continued by his nephew, Linacre, and by Grocyn, and, in the sixteenth century, by Sir John Cheke and his contemporaries. In Scotland, during the same century, the foremost name in scholar-

„.,,„, ^.OOgK

474 THE XVIITH AND XVIIITH CENTURIES.

ship was that of Buchanan. The spread of learning in Germany is associated with the names of Agricola and Reuch- lin, followed by those of able and industrious pre- ceptors such as Melanchthon and Camerarius and Sturm, and by erudite editors such as Xylander and Sylburg.

The seventeenth century in Italy has proved to be mainly an

Century XVII ^^ ^^ archaeologists and of imitators of the Latin

Italy poets. In France its greatest names are Salmasius,

France Y)a Cangc, and Mabillon. In the Netherlands

Netherlands Lipsius was Succeeded in 1593 by Scaliger at

Leyden, which was also the principal scene of the labours of

Salmasius. In the period between T575 and 1700, the natives of

the Netherlands included Gerard Vossius and Meursius, the elder

and the younger Heinsius, with Gronovius, Graevius, and Peri-

zonius. In the seventeenth century in England we

have had Savile and Gataker and Selden, with the

Cambridge Platonists, and the scholarly poets, Milton and Cowley

and Dryden. Towards its close we have seen the stars of Dodwell

and of Barnes beginning to grow pale before the rising of the sun of

Bentley. In the same century in Germany we have a

link with England and the Netherlands in the name

of Gruter, while erudition was well represented by the Polykisior

of Morhof. " A school of Roman history flourished at Strassbui^.

Improved text-books are associated with the name of Cellarius,

and we have points of contact with several of the countries of

Europe in the cosmopolitan Spanheim,

The eighteenth century in Italy is marked, in Latin lexico-

Century Si^p'*)'' ^^ '^^ great name of Forcellini; in Greek

XVIII, chronology, by Corsini, and, in Italian history, by

Italy Muratori, France claims Montfaucon and a long

array of learned archaeologists, while a knowledge of

Prance ^^ ^j^ Greek world was popularised by Barth^lemy.

Alsace was the home of able scholars, such as Brunck and

Schweighauser. The century closes with Villoison, whose publi-

Eo land cation of the Venetian Scholia to the Iliad led to

the opening of a new era in Homeric controversy.

and Dutch In England, in the first half of the century, our

*"" greatest name is that of Bentley, and in the second

h. 1. iiA.OOgIc

CHAP. XLI.] THE XVIHTH AND XIXTH CENTURIES. 475

that of Porson. It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism.

In the Netherlands, the native land of the learned Latinists, Burman and Drakenborch, it was under the in- fluence of Bentley that Hemsterhuys attained his mastery of Greek. Hemsterhuys handed on the tradition to Valckenaer and to Ruhnken, who in his turn was succeeded by Wyttenbach. The friendly relations between the English and Dutch scholars of this age have led to the eighteenth century being r^arded as the English and Dutch period of scholarship.

Meanwhile, Germany is represented by the learned Fabricius, by the lexicographers Gesner, Scheller and J. G. Schneider, by the I^tin scholar Ernesti, and the self-taught Greek scholar Reiske. An intelligent interest in the history and criticism of ancient art is awakened by Winckelmann and Lessing ; Herder becomes one of the harbingers of the New Humanism ; and a new era in classical learning is opened by Heyne at Gottingen.

Late in the eighteenth century the Homeric controversy is raised anew by F. A. Wolf, and is carried on with varyii^ fortunes during the whole of the nineteenth century.

The whole of that century belongs to the German period, which is characterised by the systematic or encydofaedic type of classical learning embodied in the term Allerlhumswissenschafi.

The early part of the century is the age of Wolf's contempora- ries, Voss and Jacobs, Humboldt and the Schlegels ; cenwry xix of Heeren and Niebuhr, Schleiermacher and Hein- dorf, Buttmann and Bekker. After the death of Wolf <5e""«ny two rival schools of classical learning confront one The GennBn another in the grammatical and critical school of **" Hermann, and the historical and antiquarian school of Boeckh. The school and the traditions of Hermann are represented by Lobeck, Passow, Meineke, Lachmann, Lehrs, Spengel, RitschI, Halm, Sauppe, Nauck, Ribbeck, and Blass. The school of Boeckh, who had been preceded by Niebuhr and had Welcker for his great contemporary, is ably represented by his pupils K. O. Miiller and Bernhardy- Among independent scholars with a certain affinity with this school are the archaeologists, Jahn (a pupil of Hermann, as well as of Boeckh), and Brunn and Furtwanzler i

476 THE XIXTH CENTURY.

the historians, Curtius and Mommsen ; the geographers, Kiepert

and Butsian ; mythologists such as Preller ; students of ancient

music such as Westphal ; investigators of ancient religions such as

Usener and Rohde. In the Science of Language the principal

names include Bopp and Benfey, Corssen and G. Curtius,

Schleicher and Steinthal, and the 'New Grammarians' of the

present generation. In France the foremost names

have been those of Boissonade and Quicherat,

E^er and Thurot, Riemann and Graux, together with a long line

of geographers, historians and archaeologists, whose work has

been largely inspired by the French School of Athens. Classical

archaeology has in fact proved the main strength, and the very

Holland salvation of French scholarship. In Holland, the

Beidiun greatest name has been that of Cobet, while Senium

Scandinavia '^ ^^^ represented by Thonissen and Willems, the

Scandinavian nations by Madvig, Greece by Koraes,

Russia by a group of scholars beginning with

Graefe and ending with lemstedt, and Hungary

by Telfy and Abel. In England the beginning

"^'" and the end of the century have been marked at

Cambridge by the names of Porson and Jebb, at Oxford by

those of Elmsley and Monro, while the outer world claims the

great name of Grote. In the United States of

"or'Ameriia" America Latin was well represented by Lane and by

others at Harvard, and Greek at Yale by Seymour,

whose latest publicarion dealt with the earliest possible theme of

classical study, Ztfe in the Homeric Age. The present work began

with the study of Homer, and with the study of Homer it ends.

The great classical authors live for ever, but they are interpreted

anew by the scholars of each succeeding generation. In our own

times, the Homeric controversy has proved as immortal as the

Homeric poems, which, in the language of an English critic,

remain unsurpassed in the poetry of the world r —

Read Homer once, and you can read no more;

For all Books else appear so mean, so poor,

Verse will seem Prose; but still persist to read,

And Homtr will be all the Books you need'.

' John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham, An Esiay upon Poetry (1681), '«''"'•'"=■"'•■'"• „ ,,n,I..OOglC

ADDENDA.

MuUum nuper amisimus. Quint, x i 90.

The veteran historian of Greek philosophy, Eduard Zeller(i3i4 — 1908), a native of Wurtemberg, was educated at the seminary of Maulbronn and at the universities of Tiibingen and Berlin. After he had held professorships of Theol(^y at Bern and at Marburg, the hberality of his opinions led to his being transferred to the Faculty of Philosophy, and he filled a professorship in that Faculty for ten years at Heidelbei^ (1862-72) and for twenty-two in Berlin (1872-94). Even in his life-time he received the distinction of a statue outside the Bran- denburger Thor, the counterpart in Berlin of the Propylaea at Athens. The evening of his days he spent at Stuttgart, the capital of the land that gave him birth. He is remembered as the author of the standard work in three volumes on the 'Philo- sophy of the Greeks", tt^ether with an outline of that subject in a single volume'. His principal work was preceded by his Platonische Stttdien (1839), and followed by his annotated translation of Plato's Symposium, by his collected Vortragt and Abhandlungen', and by a volume on 'Religion and Philosophy among the Romans' (1866). One of his numerous subsequent publications on questions connected with the history of Greek philosophy* discusses Dr Henry Jackson's papers on Plato's earlier and later theory of ideas ; and the closing words of the paper, in which Dr Jackson, in opposition to Bonitz and Zeller,

> 1844-53; vol. i', 1903; ii*. 1889; iii*, 1901; E.T. in 6 vols. (1868- 97)- ' 1883; 1905'.

" jvolsi, 186s, '75'; u, ':;[ iii, '84.

' S. Bcr. Berlm Acad. 1887, 197—230 (Bursian Ixvii 43); Ibt in Index to Burslan's /<! jrri J. 1873-95.

h, i.MiA.OO^IC

4/8 ZELLER. KIRCHHOFF.

maintains that the Phikbus was later than the Republic, may serve as an appropriate conclusion to this brief notice of the historian of Greek philosophy: —

' As I have found myself thioughout in antagooism to two great scholais who are honoured wherever Plato is studied, it seems fitting that the last words of this paper should express the admiring (^lilude which 1 feel toward Eduard Zeller and Hermann Bonilz".

Berlin was the life-long home of the classical scholar and epigraphist, Adolf KirchhofF (1826 — 1908), who became a member of the Academy in i860 and a professor five years later. As a textual critic he is best known as an editor of Aeschylus" and Euripides' and Plotinus*, and of the PseudoXenophontic treatise on the constitution of Athens". The Odyssey he regarded as the work of three poets : — the authors of (i) the ' Return of Odysseus', and (z) the hero's adventures after his return to Ithaca, whose ' older redaction ' of the poem (before 800 B.C.) was completed (about 600) by a third poet, the author of the adventures of Telemachus". He discussed the origin of Hesiod's Works and Days in connexion with a critical text of that poem'. He also published papers on the date of the history of Herodotus', on the text of Thucydides' and the documents quoted by the historian'", and on the redaction of the De Corona of Demosthenes". As an eminent epigraphist, he was associated with Aufrecht in an important work on the Umbrian inscriptions (1849-5 '); ^^ ^'^° wrote on the tabula Bantina {1853), and edited part of the fourth volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (1859), and the whole of the first volume of the Corpus Inscrip- tionum Atticarum (1873). His 'Studies on the Greek Alphabet' (1863) attained a fourth edition in 1887".

^ Journal 0/ Philology, x 198 (18S1).

' 1881 i list of emendations in Bursian, xxvi 5.

= 1855; 1867-8. * i8s6. ' 1874; 1881.

* Die Homerische Odyssee etc., 1859, 1879 (Bursian, xxvi J70— 195) ; Die Comfosiliaa der Odyssee, 1869 ; Jehh's Homir, 119 — 131.

' Hesiodo!^ Mahnliedir an Ferses (1889). ' 1868 ; 1878.

" Hernits, xii {1877} 368—381. "* Berlin, r895.

" Berlin Abhandl. (1875) 59-99.

" On his work in connexion with llie Berlin Academy, see Wilamowilz' Nachruf(i.^\.

,^.oogic

DITTENBERGER. HARTEL. 479

Another eminent epigraphist, Wilhelm Dittenberger (1840 — 1906), who began his career at Gottingen with a dissertation De Ephebis AlUcis (1863), was professor at Halle for the last thirty-three years of his life. In the Corpus Inserip/ionum Altuarum, he edited the volume containing the inscriptions of the Roman age (1878 — 8z), and in the Corpus Inscriptionum Gratcarum part of those of Northern Greece (1892 -7), while his comprehensive Sylloge of select inscriptions (1883} attained a second edition in 1898^1901, which was soon followed by his selections from the Greek inscriptions of the East (1903-5). As a boy at Weimar and as a student at Gottingen, he had been under the immediate influence of Sauppe. In the course of his preparation of no less than eleven editions of Kraner's commen- tary, he incidentally became a specialist on Caesar, De Bella Gallko; but he is far better known as an editor of important collections of Greek inscriptions. He regarded their study, not as an end in itself, but as a means for the attainment of a more accurate knowledge of the history and the public life of ancient Greece. He was specially interested in the Politics, as well as the Metaphysics and De Anima of Aristotle, and in the minute study of the style and language of Aristotle and Plato. His paper on the linguistic criteria for determining the chronology of the Platonic dialogues' was followed by similar investigations on the part of M. Schanz, C. Ritter, and W. Lutoslawski. His exami- nation of the speeches ascribed to Antiphon led to his rejecting the Tetralogies on legal as well as stylistic grounds'.

Greek Epigraphy was one of the branches of learning ably represented in Austria by Wilhelm von Hartel {1839 — 1907)1 who was educated in Prag, and who studied in Vienna', where he was appointed to an extraordinary professorship in i86g. He elaborately examined the prosody of the Homeric poems, including the statistics of the observance and the neglect of the digamma*, discussed the text of Theognis

' Hermes, xvi (iSSi), 3JI— 3+5-

* Hermes, xitxif, xl (i896f, 1905), See esp. Wissowa in Biogr. /aArb. 1908, I— Si.

' Under Bonilz and Vahlen.

* S. Ber. Vienna Acad. vols. 68, 76, 78 (1871-4). In his earliest papers

ogic

48o furtwAngler.

and of Phaedms', and summed up his researches on the consti- tutional customs of Athens in an important series of Studien in 1887-8*. He published an important Greek papyrus in the collection acquired by the Archduke Rainer. He also produced editions of Eutropius and of Cyprian, and was the general editor of the Vienna series of the Latin Fathers, As Rector of his university in 1890, he delivered a comprehensive discourse on the problems and aims of the study of classical philolc^y*. In 1896 the completion of his 35th year of service as a professor was celebrated by the publication of the Serta HarUliana, with his portrait as the frontispiece. During the last five of those years he was also Director of the Hqfbibliglhek, and, in that capacity, published a facsimile of the Tabula Peutingeriana. He did much towards promoting the union, not only of the German Academies, but also of the Academies of Europe ; and, towards the close of his life, he was for five years the Austrian Minister of Education*.

Classical archaeolc^y suffered a severe loss by the early death of Adolf Furtwai^ler (1853 — 1907), who had studied at the universities of Freiburg and Leipzig, and (under Brunn) in Munich. It was Bninn who impressed him with the supreme importance of a first-hand knowledge of the works of ancient art, and thus enabled him to restore the traditions of Winckelmann. He also owed much to the influence of the Italian art-critic, Morelli. He took a prominent part in the excavations at Olympia, and, after a brief stay at Bonn, was attached in 1884 to the Museum in Berlin, where he held a professorship until he was called in 1891 to fill the Chair vacated by Brunn. As an enthusiastic and stimulating lecturer he attracted students from every quarter of the civiUsed world. He had the mastery of an expert in the departments of vases, gems

he had discussed the origin of the Odyssey {Ztitsckr. fur Oeslerr. Gymn., 1864-5).

' frw«»-i'/<(rf««, 1(1879), vii {1889).

' Studien iibtr altisckes SCaalsrec&t und Urknndemvam ; see also Demos- thenistht Antrd^ in Mommsen Comm, (i8;j), 518-36, and Dim. SludUn in S. Bcr. of Vienna Acad. 1877-8.

* Utbtr Ait/gabeH und Ziele der kl. Fhilalegie.

* See esp. Engelbrecht in Btegr. fahrb. 1908, 75 — 107, wilh bibliography.

X'OO'

SIC

BUCHELER. 481

and works of sculpture; he was an original discoverer in the domain of numismatics ; and a constructor of catalogues that bore the stamp of his own genius. He found in Roman copies the materials for recovering some of the lost master-pieces of Greek sculpture, and, finally, he was admirably successful as an excavator. It was at Munich that he first made his mark as the author of 'Eros in vase-paintings' (1874). In collaboration with Ldschcke, he produced two important works on Mycenaean vases. He also published masterly catalogues of the Berlin vases, the antiques in the Sabouroff and Somzee collections, as well as the bronzes of Olympia and the marbles of Munich, His ' Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture' {1893) was promptly translated into English'. The modem knowledge of ancient gems rests mainly on the three vast volumes of his great work on the subject (1900). In Greece he explored Aegina, Orchomenos and Amyclae. It was at Amyclae that he caught the germs of the malady which brought him to an early grave. At Aegina, as the result of excavations begun in J901, he discovered inscriptions which led him to identify the so-called temple of Zeus or Athena as the shrine of Aphaia, a local counterpart of Artemis. He also discovered fresh fragments of the famous pediments, and proposed a completely new arrange- ment of the figures which they contained'. His exploration of Aegina was the theme of his latest work, and it was soon after his last visit to that island that he met his end in Athens, falling on Greek soil as a martyr (like K, O. Muller and Charles Lenormant) to the cause of classical archaeology. He was an eager, and even passionate controversialist; his great discoveries and the results of his stimulating teaching remain, but his fighting days are

'The great, the fierce Achilles fighls no more''. Latin scholarship laments the loss of Franz Biicheler (1837— igo8), a student of Bonn, who, after holding pro- fessorships at Freiburg and Greifswald, was pro- 1 Ed. E. Sellers {1895).

" Atgina, das Heiligtum der Aphaia, 1906 ; cp. CI. Jfev. xx 337 f. ' The Times, ...Oc\. 1907; see esp. Solomon Reinach, in GaatU dis Beaux-Arls, SuppUment ig Oct., 309 f ; also BuUe, in Beilage to AUgtmdm Zeilung, Munich, ij Oct.; Percy Gardner, in CI. Rev. xxi 151 f; Studniczka, in Ntuijahrb, 1908 (i) 1 — 6, with portrait.

S. III. - n,i.ii,Jj.OOt^lC

SCHWABE.

fessor in his first university for the last 38 years of his life. His editions of Frontinus, On Aqueducts, and of the Pervigilium Veneris, were followed in 1862 by the first of his critical editions of Petronius, and by his recensions of the Homeric Hymn to Dtmeter and of the remains of Q. Cicero (1869). His brief monc^raph on the Latin Declensions and Conjugations (1862), expanded by Havet in French (1875), "^ thence re-edited by Windekinde In German {1879). In 1886 and 1893 he produced the second and third editions of Jahn's Persius, Juvenal and Sutpicia; in 1895 the Carmina Latina Epigrapkica. He was also a specialist in the dialects of ancient Italy. His scattered researches on the Iguvine inscriptions were collected and com- pleted in his Umbrica (1883), and Oscan and Pelignian inscrip- tions were repeatedly elucidated by his skill- While he was mainly a I-atin scholar, Greek was ably represented in the important work on the 'Laws of Gortyn'^, in which he was asso- ciated with Zitelmann (1885), and in his edition of Herondas (1892). He was the devoted friend of his distinguished colleague Usener, in whose memory he delivered a funeral oration in 1906. In the same year, the 'golden jubilee' of his doctorate was cele- brated at Bonn, when the scholars of Europe subscribed in his honour more than 8000 marks, about half of which was expended on a bronze bust, while the rest was devoted by Biicheler himself to forming a fund for encouraging scholars of Bonn to take part in the Latin Thesaurus and also in the proposed Thesaurus of Greek.

Ludwig von Schwabe (1835 — 1908), who studied at his

birthplace, Giessen, and also at Gbttingen, held a Schwabe ,,. , . -,n

professorship at the former university, and, after

representing classical archaeology for a time at Dorpat, returned

to fill the Chair of Classical Philology at Tubingen. He is best

known for his work on Catullus, — his Quaestiones of r862, and

his edition of 1886 which includes an excellent index. It was in

honour of the philological congress at Tiibingen that he published

' Franz Biichtier's Co'Jines Daktorjubildum, reprint from Bonner Zeilung, 19 Apr. 1906 ; photc^aph of bust presented to all subscribers (c. 570). See also Usener, in Bonner Zeitung, 15 Apr. 1895, and F. Mam, in Neat /ahrb. 1908 (i) 358—364, with portrait. Cp. A. /. F. jixix 147.

,1^.00'

gic

BOISSIER. 483

a paper on Musaeus, in which he conclusively proved that the author of Hero and Leander was, in metre, prosody, accentuation and phraseology, an imitator of Nonnus {1876). The poem, which the elder Scaliger regarded as the work of the ancient Athenian bard, was thus finally placed among the latest products of Greek literature.

Brilliancy of style, combined with a sympathetic insight into Latin literature and a genuine interest in Roman archaeology, was the leading characteristic of Gaston Boissier (1823 — 1908). Born amid the memorials of Roman civilisation at NJmes, he became a classical professor in 1847 at his native place, and ten years later in Paris, where he rose to the distinguished position of professor of Latin literature at the College de France (1865), and Member of the French Academy and the Academy of Inscriptions in 1876 and 1886 respectively. His early writings on Attius and Varro (1857-61) were surpassed in fame by those on Cicero's Letters, and in particular by that on 'Cicero and his friends' (1865, 1892'), with its accurate and life-like portraits of the orator and his great contemporaries. His subsequent works dealt with 'Roman religion from Augustus to the Antonines ' and ' the Opposition under the Caesars' (1874-5). His work on Tacitus, with an appendix on Martial (ed. 2, 1904), was exceeded in importance by his admirable volumes entitled La Fin du Paganisme (1891). As a felicitous restorer of the old Roman world, he attained the highest dt^ree of success in his Promenades archeoiogi^es on Rome and Pompeii {1880), followed by Horace and Virgil (1886), and L'A/ri^ue Romaine (1895)'. The present writer vividly remembers being part of the lai^e audience at the College de France, during one of Boissier's lectures on the Letters of St Augustine, and also being accompanied by the Nouvelles Promenades during a solitary ramble near the site of Horace's Sabine farm in the valley of the Digentia.

Greek literature was well represented by Amedde Hauvette (1856 — 1908), in his early days a skilful writer of original

' Cp. La Grande Encycl. £.v. ; Athenarum, 13 June, 1908 ; uid Salomon Reinach, in Revue arMolcgiqtte, Mai — Juin. The Milanges Boissier jwilh a porlrait) were published in his honour ia 1903.

|.,*n,V.^OOglc

484 HAUVETTE.

Latin verse, who entered the School of Athens in 1878, visited Ionia and Caria, I.«sbos and Cos, and took part in the archaeological exploration of Delos. He was the first to write a paper on the small copy of the Athena Parthenos discovered near the Varvakeion'. In 1885 he published his valuable constitutional treatises on the Athenian Stralegi* and on the King-Archon. The literature of Greece was, however, the main theme of his lectures in Paris. A second visit to Hellenic lands was followed by his attractive volume on 'Herodotus, as the historian of the Medic wars'. He also published learned and interesting monographs on Simonides, Archilochus, and Callima- chus, which can be studied with advantage by the side of the comprehensive volumes on Greek Literature by the brothers Croiset*.

We turn in conclusion to our latest loss in our own land. Walter Geoige Headlam, of Harrow and of King's i^^i™ College, Cambridge {1866—1908), gave early promise of his distinction as a composer of Greek verse. As Fellow and Lecturer of King's, he devoted not a few years of his brief life to emending and translating Aeschylus, and a brilliant passage from this translation was quoted in his memor- able praelection of January, 1906, He also collected a large mass of materials for the illustration of the Mimes of Herondas. On the death of Sir Richard Jebb, he was entrusted with the revision and completion of that scholar's edition of the Fragments of Sophocles. His aptitude for emendation was exercised from time to time on the text of Greek authors of all ages, whether writers of prose or of verse*. He had a special gift for the elucidation of Greek lyrical metres, while his volume of verse- translations from Greek into English, and from English into Greek, gave signal proof of his exquisite taste as a sympathetic interpreter and a felicitous imitator of the Greek poets'. Only ' S. C.H. V 54 — 63. ° Biil. del &coles fratifoisis. no. 41.

• S. Reinach in Rev. Arck. 1908, 181-4 ; cp. Rev. Int. de I'Emeignement, 170 f, and Rev. des £tudes grecques, i — u.

• Jffumai of Philology, xx 194 f, xxi 75 f, xxiii a6o f, xxvi 133, xxx 190 f ; Class. Rev. xiil 3 f, etc. ; Restorations of Menander {190S).

' A Book of Greek f<wj-f (1907); cp. Mileager {igoo) and contributions lo Cambridge Compositions (1899).

„.,,n,^.OOglC

HEADLAM. 485

nine days before his death, he had the pleasure of meeting Wilamowitz, who, in the course of his brief visit to Cambridge, said of some of Walter Readlam's Greek verses that, if they had been discovered in an Egyptian papyrus, they would imme- diately have been recognised by all scholars as true (ireek poetry^. Many of his happiest renderings were inspired by the poets of the Greek Anthology, In the words of one of those poets, we may say of him, as of few besides, that, so long as he survived the Cambridge composer of the Pindaric ode to Bologna', some echoes of the old Greek music could still be heard : —

' Some litlle spark of ancient song, Some fragment still Was left ns, lingering in thy soul And in thy sltili'".

' ne Time!, n June, 1908 ; cp. Alhenaeum, June 17. ' p. 414 ^«pra-

' A Book of Greek Verse, 147, from Leontiui in Atilk. Pal. vii {Epigra mala Sepukralid) 571,

iM,Googlc

AbboH, Evelyn, 441

Abeken, (l) Bernard Rudolf (1780-

1S66), 149, 171; (1) Wilhelm

(1813-43), »'9; (3) Heinrich

(rSog-?!), i"? Abet, Eugen, 391 Jbo, univ., 334, 388 About, Edmond, 167 Academy, Berlin, i f, 98, ^37, 478 ;

British, 441; Brussels, 293/, 195 f,

304, 306; French, 171; Italian, 344;

Mantua, 154; St Petersburg, 149 f;

union of Academies, 480 Accent, Greek, 41 1, 4*8 ; Latin,

I4ir; accentuation, 19 Achilles Tatius, Jacobs (i8ii), 64;

in Hirschig's Scr. Eret. (1856) Adam, James, 4i6f Adams, Francis, 436 Addison, on Mednh, 16 ; ii 410 Aegina, K. O. Mtlller on, 113;

FurtwSngler, 481 Aelian (Q. Aelianus) ; Hercher (1858,

'64), 186 ; De Animalium Nattira,

J. G. Schneider (1784), 11 \ Jacobs

(1831), 64; Var, Hist. Koraes

(1 80s). 36^ Aelianus Tacticus, in Kochly-RUstow s

^fr.r^-m//., Ili{i8sS) Aeneas Poliorceticus, Hercher(i87o),

186; Hug ('74), 160 Aeschines, Keiske in Or. Gr. (1771),

17; Bekiier, Dobson, Baiter- Sauppe,

Or. All.; Bremi (i8j3f), 164;

Fianke (1891, '73), 169; Schulti

('6s); Weidnet ('71) ; Blass ('96);

/n Cits. Simcox ('75), 4S4, Weidoet

(•78), Shuckbutgh JV) ; Germ. tr.

Benseler, 168: Scholia, 14s, 167,

IT) Aeschylus, Laur. MS, Merkel (1871), 194, facsimile (1896); ed. Schiitz (1800, i8o9-i2'), 45; S. Butler

(1809-15), 398 ; Wellauer ('33 f), 115; Scholefield('i8),40i; Paley (1844-51 etc.), 409; Hermann ('5»)- 91. 135; Weil (1858-67, '85, 1907), 158; Kirchhofr(i88o); Wecklein (1885)

Pnm., Stptem, Ptrsae, Agam., Chiieph. Blomiield (1810-14), 400; Agam., Che/pi., Etim. Wecklein (1888); Wilamowiti: (i88s-r90i); Verrall (1880- 1908)-, Agam., Choeph. Peile (1839), 405; Conington, 411 f, Agam. NSgelsbach, 106, Schnei- de win , 1 1 1 , Karsten. i8i,Kennedy, 403iCAiv>i.,£uin.MUlter(i833), 114; Schomaiin, 106; Persae, Oberdick, 154, Merkel, 194, Tenflel- Wecklein ; Promelhtut, Schomaon {r844), 166) Week- \e\-a\Scplem, Rilschl(i876'), 141, Verrall, Tucker; Su^. Ober- dick, 154, Tucker

Halm on, 196; M. Schmilz, 153; Rauchenstein on Agam., Bum. 165; Goethe and Bum. 69 f; Welcker, 117, and Martin, 357, on Aeschylean tril(»y ; Passow on Pcrsat, 115; Koechly aa Prom. 131; simile of 'struck eagle', 149

Engl. tr. PI umpire, Swanwick, Morshead,Campbell;/'r0m. 414; Webster; Sufpl. Paul; Fr. tr, 161 ; Germ. tr. 330, Agam, 68, 71; Srpl. 73! Oratcia, Wilamo- witzj mod. Gk, Pram. 375. La. AachyUttm, Wellauer ( 1 830) , I>indorf(l873), Msf Aesop, ed. Koraes (iS 10), j6i ; Halm

(1874). 196; new version, 354;

Latin Ir. 11 \ facsimile of illustrated

Ademar-MS (L. B.)

,1^.00'

gic

Aeslhetics, ii

Attna, ed. Jacob ( 1818), 117 ; Munro

(:867). 433; Haupl (1873), 136;

R. Ellis (1896) in Postgate's Corpus,

vol. ii (1905} Agathias, ed. Niebuhr, 81 Agalhon, Rilschl on, 139 Agrigentum, )J3

Ahlwardl, Christian Wilhelm, 97 n. 1 Ahrens, Ileinrich Ludolf, (lo; IJ7 Albani, Cardinal, ijf Alberti, Johann, ed. Hesychius, 15 Alcaeus, Herder on, 35 ; Blomtield,

4or; A. Malthiae (1817), 75;

Schneidewin (1839), no; Bergk

(■84s), 147 Alciphron, ed. Bei^ler (i7r5), 3;

Meineke (1853), 118; Seilet(iS56);

Hercher in Scr. Ep. (t873) 'Aldobrandini maiTiage', Meyer and

Bottieer on the, 70 Alexander, (i) theGreal, Droysen on,

130; (1) of Aphiodisias, In Arist.

Anal.fr. rl Tofica, ed. Wallies in

Cemm. Arts/, u ; di sensu, ed.

Tharot (1875), ij7, and Comm.

Aria. Ill \;Mtt. Bonitz (1847),

175, and Hayduck, Comm. Arist. t;

Scrifia Minora, Bruns in Suppl.

Arist. I] ; Prgbl Busaemaker in

Comm. Arist. IV (1857), Usener

(i8s9), 1845 (3) de Villa Dei, 157 ;

(4) [lope Alexander VIII, 341 Alexandre, Charles, 151 Alexandrian accentuation, 386 ; gram- marians, 106; libraries, Rilschl, 139;

literature, Susemihl, 181, Come-

lissen, 388 ; poels, Meineke, 118,

Couat, %i% Alladus, Leo, 3j6', ii 361 Allen, (i)H. E. 436J (i) J. H. 459;

4S8;(3)W.F.4S9; (4)F.D.4S9f Alschefski. K. F. S., mi AUerthums- Wissenschafi, 60

Alvarez. 384 ; ii 163 amentata, hasta, JJ4 America. United States of. 450-470;

chronological table, 49 Ammianus Marcellinus, Hertz on,

r99 ; ed. Valeaius-J. A. Wagner

(t8oS); Eyssenhardt (1871), 100;

Gardthausen (1S74-5) ; Gimazane,

A. M., sa Vie el son (Euvre

(Toulouse, 1889) Amsterdam, Roj^ Institute, 183;

univ. 591 Anacreon, J. F. Fischer (1754 etc.).

!X. 487

14 ; V. Rose (1868) ; Bei^k in Foel, Zjr. O. iii 296*; Hanssen (1884); Didot on, 173

Anaximenes, Rhet., ed. Spenget (1847I, Rhit. Gr. (1853); Hdm on, 196; Usener, Qiuust. Anax. (1856). 184; Wendland, Anax. von Lamfsakos (1904) ; Nitsche, Dim. und Anax. (ipw)

Ancyranum, Mon., 137

Andocides, in Reiske's Or. Gr.; Bekkei, Uobson, and Bailer- Sauppe, Or. All.; K. C. Schiller (1836), 164; Blass (1871, '80"); Lipsius (188S); Meier on, 168; IJnder, 350 ; Valer, 3S9 ; Marchant, De Myst., Di Red. (1889); Index, Forman (1897)

Andreas Lopadioles, Ijj; (1) Val. Andreas, 305 ; (3) Andreae Lauren' lius (Lars Andersson), 335

Andresen, G., %o\

Andrews, E. A., 467

Anecdota Graeca, Bekker, 87; Bois- sonade, 14^; Cramer, 443

Angelos, Christophoros, 356

Anthelegia Graeca, Antk. Pal. i — iii, Reiske (1714); '7; Bnmck'a Ana- /«:/j(i77]-6)ii39S;i<n((i.Cr.Jacobs {i794-'8M. '8'3-'7t, ■64; Pil" kolos, Jh/»>/. (1853), 369; DUbner (1864-71) and Cougny (1890), 171 ; .4»M.^a/. i— ix,Stadtmllller(i894- 1906); Delectus, Jacobs (1856), Meineke (1849}, iiS; Mackail (190;'); Lessing on, 39; Koraes, 363. Transl.Engl.R.G.Macgregor (1864); Gamtll (1871); Fr. (1863), 361; Germ. (1838-70) Weber-Thu- dichum ; Herder, Jacobs, and Regis ; Wellesley, Anthol.Pol}iglotla{iS^g)

Anlkolegia Lyrica (Graeca), ed. Hiller, 191

Anlkolegia Laiina, BUcheler-Riese (1893-1906)

Anihon, Charles, 460

Antiphon, in Reiske's Or. Gr., and Bekker. Dobson, and Bajtei' Sauppe's Or. Atl. ; Maeliner (1838), Blass (t88i'), lemsledt (1880), 386; Herwerden (1883); Lbder on, 350; Diltenberger, 479; Index, van Cleef, Cornell (189s)

Antiquities, Greek, 331 f, Roman, 67, 136 f; Diet., Darembere-Saglio,

OgIC

Antisthenes, ed. Winckelmann, i6i Aphthonius, ed. Scheffei (1670), 341 ;

in Walz and Spengel, Rhel. Gr.;

Petiholdl (1835) Apollinaris Sidonius, ed. Barret fPar.

1878), Mohr (1895); Gusfflfsson

Apollodorus, (1) chianologer, Juoliy, Apettodors Chronik (1901); (1) inyth<^rapher, Bihliotheca, Heyne

1 Mythegr. gr. i (1894) ; Fragm.

5'' . . ,

Apollonius Dyscolus, ed. Bekker, de

pTottomint (1813), de eonstructioni

(1817), di cmiiuncHonibus (t8i8),

86 f ; Schneider and Uhlig (1878 f) ;

L. Lange, Das Syitem der Syntax

des A. D. (i8ji)i Eraer, A. D.

(■8s4), iSS Apollonius Khodius, ed. Wellauei

(i!.«), us; MerW (,»5,). ,5;,

1 93, 103 ; Seaton ( 1 900) ; Danish

tr.,318; Germ. Osiander; Fr., H.

de la Ville Mirmont ; Scholia, 103 Appian, Schweighaaser ( 1 78;): Bekker

(i85t/).86;MendelssohD(i879-8i),

198 Apsines.in Walz and Spengel, Rhel.

Gr.; Bake (1849), 179 Apuleius, Hildebrand (1841); Scr.

Philoi. Goldachpf ('76) ; Met.

Eyssenhardt ('69), wo; Psychi et

Cupido, Jahn ('83'), ijo; Mel.,

Apel., piar., de Deo Socr., Van

der Vliet (1897-1900), 189; Mel.

Engl. tr. 0. Head (1851) ; Pseudo-

Apuleius, 310 AraluB, ed. Buhle (:793); Halma

(Par. '11); F. C. Mauhiae (1817),

75 n. 5 i Bekker ('18), 85 f ; Maass

('93) '. Germ. Ir., Voas, 63 Arcadians, Roman, Academy oF, 341 Archaeology, Classical, in Germany,

■10-14, 39. ^7, J4f, gSf, 3i3-jJ7i

Ilaly, 144-7; France, 163-170;

Holland, iSof; Belgiam, 193-5;

Denmark, 3i8f; Greece, 381 f ;

Russia, 390 ; England, 441-7 ;

Uniled States, 468? Archiiochus, Hauvette on, 484 Architecture, Classical, 113, 344,

445-J Archytas, Fragm. in Mullach, i )

moni^raphs by Egger, 151;, Harten-

stein (1833), Blass ('84)

Aretaeus, ed. Kuhn, 187 ; Ermerius

(1847); Adams ('j6), 416 Aigos, Heraeum of, 3S1, 469 Aiistaenelus, ed. Boissonade (1811),

and in Herchei's Scr. Episl. ('73)

Aristarchus, Lehrs on (1S81'), 107 ;

Ludwich, Aristarchs Horn. Text-

kritik ('85)

Aristeas, ad Philoeratem ep., ed.

Mendelssohn-Wendland (1901), 198

ArisCides, ReJslie on, 17; Welckei

[>n,3i7; ed. Dindoif (1819), 145;

Bruno Keil

Aristodemus, 380; in Miillei's/1 H.

G. V Aristophanes, facsimile of Cod. Venetus (London, 1901) and Ravennas (L.B. 1904) ; Brunck (i78[-3); Invemizi, Beck, Din- dorf (1794-1834), 144; Bothe (1818-30 etc.), 103 ; Bekker (1819), 86; Boissonade (1831), 149; Bergk (1851, '7i't. 147 J Meineke (1S60 etc.), 1 18 ; Holden (1868'), 411; Blaydes (18B6, 1880-93) i l-eeuwen £ecl. Eq. Plul. San. Theim. von Velsen, isj ; Av. Eq. Nub. Ran. Kodc, 155; Aik. Av. Eq. Nui. Ran. VesJ. Meny; Aek. Av. Eq. Nub. Pax, Vtsp. Green } Nub. Vap. Graves Ach. Elmsley, 394, A. MUlIer, W. Ribbeck, Clark, 41 1 ; Eq. W. Ribbeck, Neil, 416; Nub. WoU, Hermann, 91, Teutfel ; Pax, Jul. Richtet, Uerwerden; Sanae, Ftitische, 185, Tucker; Thetm. Fritische,l8j; r<tj^, Jul. Rich ter.

Scholia, ed. Dindorf (1838), DUbnei ('41), 171; Zacheron(i888),.Sir,ff>/. Ran., Martin (t88i), Rutherford ('96), 415. Onomaiticon, Holden ('71'); Concordance, Dunbar, 414

Reiske on, 17; Reisig, 109; Forch- hammer, Rotscher, 74; Muller- Strilbing, ii;6 ; O. Schneider, 157; Couat, ij8; Aves imitated by Goethe, 69; KSchly on Aves, 1 33 ; Stlvem on Aves and Nuhes, 73 ; TransL Engl. Ach. Av. Eq. Pax, Ran. Frere, 410 ; Ach. Eq. Nub. fiip. Mitdiell, 410; 8 plays, Rudd ; Av. Kennedy, 403 ; Nub. Vesp. Pax, Av. Eccl. Thesm.Plut. Rogers ; Fr. Zevoit,

A.oogic

Anaud, Poysrd; Germ. Voss, 61, Droysen, 130; Nui. Ran. Welcker, 117

Aristophanes of Byzantium, Fr^m., ed. Nauck (184S), 149; E. Milkr in Mitangt! (1S6S), 5S4

Arislolle, in MA, C. Waddineton on, 1611 ed. Bekkec (Berlin, 1831), 87 {Oxon. '37); DUbner, Bussemakei andHeiti;(rar.i848-7j); OrganoH, Waitz (1844), 174! Di CiUeg. Trendelenburg, 174; Soph. El. Poste; PAyi., De Colaribui, De Cath, Prantl, [81; Mtt. Rrandis (1813, Sckol. '37), 173; Schwt^ler (■47*). 174; Bonitz {'480, 176; Christ ('86), 153; Fr. tr. »6i ; Metear. Ideler, 187; De Anima, Toistrik, 181; Trendelenbuii;, 174; WaUace ('81), Hicks (1907)) De SemuB it Vigilia, W. A. Becker, 67; Hist. Anim. Schneider (1811), 11; Pikkolos ('63), 369; Aubert- WimmerrfiS); Prantl, 181; Rhel. Gaisford ('jo), 397 ; Spengel ('67!, 180; Cope \Inlrod. '67, Coram. '77), 408; Engl. lr.Welidon,Jebb; Reitz on Rhtt. Pol. Poet. 19; Thuiot on Rhet. Poet. Pel. Hist. An. , Miteor. Elk. via, 157; Ussing on Rhet. Poet. 313, 325 ; Poet, facsimile (Par. 1891); ed. Buhle (1794)1 Hermann Coi), 94I Grafenhan ('11); Kitter ('39). lO'i ^" ('8+9. '78"), 15s; Susemihl (1865, '74'), :8i ; Vahlen(i867, '74, '8s); Ueberweg (1869-75), 183; Chiisl (i8;8, '83), 153; Butcher (1895, 1907'); By- water (1897, Comm. I9t5) ; Tucker '"""*" Lessing on, 16, j8, 30;

HaHung('45), 146; Weil ('48), 177 n. s; Bemays(i8s7. '80'), 177 fi Stahr ti. ( 1 8s9 f) ; TeichmUUer ('67), 179 ; Schmidt tr. {'75), 158; Prickard ('91) ; Gompera Ir. ('95) ; Finsler

(1819-48); Jelf (1856), 4J1; Grant (1857 f, %% 4*1 ; Ramsauer ('78), 174; Susemihl {'87), i8j; i-iv, Moore (1890) ; v, H.Jackson (1879), V, Munroon, 433; viii, ix and Eth. Eudem., Frilzsche (1847-31), 157; Magn. Mor., EtA. Eudtm. Bonitz,

176; Lessing on Eth. Pol. Rhet. 16 ; Eng. tr. Chase (1877'), Williams (■6j), Weldon; Pol. ed. Gottling V%i\, 117; Schneider C^S). "7: Eaton, Congreve fss), 4]]; Suse- mihl(i872,';9,'8»), 181 f; Newman . {1887-1901); i, ii, iii, Bernays, 178; i-v, Susemihl and Hicks (1894); Bojesen, 314; Oncken, i8j ; order of, 161 ; Engl, tr. WeiUlon ; Act/. Ath. Kenyon, 448 (1891; Berlin 1003*) ; Kaibel-Wilamowiti, 155, Herwerden-Leeuwen (1S91); Blass, (189*), 171; Sandys (1893); Gil- bert on, 148; Wilaraowiti, Ar. und Alhen ; Kaibel, Styl und Text (1893), ijj; Betgk on the Berlin ftagm., 148 1 Oec. Schneider (1815), ii; Gottling (1830), 117; Ptebl. Mus. 199 ; Aristotelian Studies, Bonili, 176; Biese, 174; Teich- mUller, 179; Grole, 43S ; Ft. Ir. 961 ; Scholia, Brandis (1836), 173; Fragm-ileiUanH Rose, iSt ; /noSu:, Bonit!:(i87o), 176

Aristoxenus, Mahne on (1793), 275; Norm. Fragm. Marquard (1868); Westphal (1883-93), 158; Ruelle (1871); Macran (Oxon. 1903)

Arnesen, Paul, 318

Arnold, Thomas, 439

Arrian, Dubner-Milller (Par. 1846), 171; H etcher- Eberhard, 185; Anab. Krilger (i83s-48).Sintenis, Abicht; Ef4a. SchweighSuser (1799), H. Schenkl (1S94-8) ; Geegr.xa Mijller, G. G. M. i; Ptrifilui, Fabricios (1883) ; TV/. Kochly (1853)

Arsenios, 354

Art, ancient, Winckelmann on, 13 ;

Lessing, 36f; Herder, 35 ; Urlichs,

101: Furtwangler, 480; no, ill,

113-216; 263-370; 3i8f, 324;

Roman, 446 Artemidorus, OneirocriHca, Reiske

on, 17; ed. Hercher, 1S64 Ascoli, Graziadio, 242 Asconius, ed. A. Kiessling and R.

Scholl (1875), 185, 198;A. C.Clark

(Oxon. 1907); Madvig on (i8t81),

322 Asia Minor, Le Bas, Texier, 265;

Waddii^on, 168 ; Wagener, 298 ;

Leake, 442; Fellows, 443; Newton,

444 f Asianism, 186

A.OO'

1C5IC

Askew, Anthony, 8, 17

Asopios, Konstantinos, 369 Asi, Geoi^ Anton Friedrich,

Athenaeus, Jacobs

64;

(1817), 14s; Meineke (1858-67), iifl; Kttibel (iSSfi-go), ijS

Athenian Antiquities, Schiimann, 166 ; Constitution, Lugebil, 386 ; Public Economy, Boeckh, 98

Athens, Leake, 441; E. Curtios, Curt Wachsmuth, 110; Athens in (he Pelop. war, Gilbert on, 133; in MA, 139, 366; Acropolis, 166; A. Bolticher (1888); Areopagus, 117, i3];coinage, 166; Parthenon, ^80, 35B, 445 r, Michaelis (1871); Theatre of Dionysus. 123. 383, DorpTetd-Reisch (1896) ; Pana- ihenaic vases, 318, 470; Greek School, 3 59, Archaeolf^cal Society, 359; American School, ^6^!; 458, 463, 466, 468; British, 413, 447; French. idiSf, 484; German, m

Alhos, Mount, 154, 359, 379-381

Attic Comedy, Eibbeck on, 188 ; Fragm. Meineke, 117; Kock, 156; lemsledt, 386 ; Kail>el, 155

Atlic Law, Bake, 179 ; Petersen, 319; Philippi, 131; Meier and Schomann, 166; TiSIfy, 301; Lip- Sius, Das Attiscke Reckt \%^li)

Augsbui^ 1"""

AuBn, 1^

Aurelius, ft

Schultz (1801, '10), Koraes jl8i6), 36*; Diibner, iJ*;Tr.Engl. Long, 430, Kendall; Fr. 161

160; I'eiper (1886), 194; Mostlla, Bocking (1845), 1941 H. de la Villc de Mirmont (1889); Hosius ('894) Austria, 160. ai6, ^40, 479 Avellino, Francesco Maria, 145 Avianus, ed. Lachmann (1845), iiS;

Frochner ('6s) ; R. Ellis ('87) Azara, Don Jos£ Nicolas de, 147

Babington, Churchill, 4

(iS44),349; Lachmann and Meineke

(1845), 118, 119 f; Schneidewin

('S3t; Lewis, 439; Eberhard ('75);

Gillbauer ('8i); Rutherford ('83);

Crusius ('97)1 Bergk on, 147 Bacchylides, MS, 447 ; ed.pr. Kenyon

(r897), 448 ; Jurenka, Festa (1898) ;

Blass ('904"), 173; Jebb {1905),

4i3f Baden,(i}Jacob,3i6; 314; (i)Torkil,

316 Badham, Charles, 407 ; 1S3 Bahr, Christian Felix, 66 Biihrens. Emil. 191 Baguet, Francois, 303 Baird, Henry M., 4<^ Bailer, Johann Georg, rfii ; 196, jao,

445 Bake, Janus, 178; 167, 39J, 40J Ballista and catapulta, 134 Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Univ.,

4ii. 46', 468 Bamberger, Ferdinand, 110 Bancroft, George, 455, 4G3 Banduri, Ansel mo, 1 Bang, Thomas, jii Bardalachos, Constant ine, 366 Barker, Edmund Henry, 40T ; sjo Barlandus, Adrien, 304 Barnes, Joshua, 71; ii 357 f Bartoli, 341 ; ii 180

Basi, F. J.,' 101, 115; ii 397f

Batrachsmyomathia, see Homtr

Bauer, Karl Ludwig, 14

Baumgarten, A. G., ti

Bauinstark, A., 10 r

Baxter, William, 6, 35

Bayer, Theophil Siegfried, 390

Beaufort, Louis de, 79

Beck, (I) Carl, 456; (2) Christian Daniel, 14. '44

Becker, Wilhelm Adolf, 67, 133, 136

Bekker, (i) Immanuel, 85 f; 51, 81, ij(»; (3) Geo^ Joseph, 30a; 394

Belgium, 1830-igoo, 193-309; Chro- nological Table, 49; 'History of Philology", 300; Belgian univer-

Bellermann, Johann Joachim (1754-

i84»), 95 Benary, Albert Agathon, 111 Benedict, Rule of St, Traube on, 195

us, 3S0; td. fir. Boissonade

A.oogic

Benschoten, J. C. van, 4.69 Bentlej', on (he Homeric question,

55; Kuster.301; HerderonBentley,

35! Reiz.'it), 90; Wolf, 60; Her- mann, gi, 93; Lachmann, 130;

Meineke, iiN; Fleckeisen, 141;

Brix, 143; Bemays, 17S n. i;

Cobet, iH6f, and HolUnd, 190; Jebb, 413, 415; ii 401-410 Benzelhis, Erik, 347 Berard, Victor, 367 Betgk, Ttieodor, 146-8; 117, 113, I41 Berglei, Slephan, 3 Berlin; Academ;, if, Si, S4, »$(,

98,117. 130, 136, I78f; univ., 59,

68, 78f, »5, 97. 115 . Bemaidakeslia), (1) Gregorios N.,

37if; 186; (1) Demecrios, 373,

3JS n- 7 Bemays, Jacob, I76f Bemhardy, Gottfried, 131 f; 149 Bftant, E, A., t7J BeuU, Charles Ernest, t66f Biilielheca Classica, 430 Bieliaev, D. T., 386 Biese, Franz, 174 Blester, Johann Erich, 85 BiographiGratci, ed. Westermann, 163 Bion and Moschus, ed. Hermann

('849), 93. 'SS; Ziegl« ("868);

Bucheler,in_/ai*r*. 97, lo6f, ^An«.

Mm. 30, 33 f; Ahrens (1854),

Hiller; also, with Theocritus, in

Bucolici Gr., Gaisford, Meineke,

Ahrens, Wilamowilz Bin, Thcodor, :94 Blacas, I'ierre Louis Jean Casimir,

Due de, 166 Blackie, John Smart, 437 Blackweil, Thomas (1701-57), 61 n. 1 Blagoviestschenski, N. M., 385 f Blakesle;, Joseph William, 405 Blantes, Spyridon, 361 n. 4 Blass, Friedrich, I73f; 130, 376, 378 Blaslos, Nicolaos, 353 f Bloch, S. N. J., 317 BlomReld, (i) Charles James, 40of;

398 1 (i) Edward Valentine, 401 ;

400 BloomReld, S. T., 401 Blume, W. A., 164 Bobbio, 81, 141 f Bochart, Samuel, 340 Boeckh, Augnsl, 95-101 ; 55. Si, 94,

100, 330, 439; pupils, 100, m;

EX. 491

Bohnecke, Karl Georg, 171 Boekler, Johann Heinrich, 340; 11367 Boethius, Phil. Com., ed. Obbarius

(1844); Peiper (1871), 194; Usener

on, 10s; H. F. Slewarton (1891);

Gk tr., 173; i 158 n.; In Isagogm

Porplmii Commmla, ed. Brandt

{1006} Bo^thus of Chalcedon, 319 Boeiiicher, (i) Wilhelm (1798-1850),

300; (i| Karl (1806-89), ''3 Boettiger, Karl August, 74 f; 7of Bohn, Richard, 133 Boissier, Gaston, 483 Boissonade, Jean Franfois, 349r, 58,

99, 119, 380; portrait, 148 Bojesen, E. F. C., 314 Boughi, Ruggero, 343 Bonitz, Hermann, i74f; 463 Bonn, 81, iD9f, 141, 147, 170, 177 f,

184, 481 Bopp, Franz, 303; 84, 410; portrait

facing 305 Borch, Oluf (OUuR Borrichius), 313 Borell, 383

Borehesi, Bartolommeo, 344; 335 Bosio, Antonio, 147 Boston, 453, 4SS, 457 Bothe, Heinrich, 103

Brandis, Christian August, 173; 81,

Braun, August Erail, 319 BreiCenbach, Ludwig, 160 Bremi. Johann Heinrich, 164; 113 Brinkman, Karl GustaT von, 349 Biin. Julius, 143

BrBndsted, Peter Oluf, 318; 3i8, 335 Broukhusius. 191; ii 319 f Brown university, 453, 457 f Bmcker, Johann Jacob, j Brugmann, Karl, 309 f Brunck, 64, 91, 171; ii 395 f Brunn, Heinrich, 411 f, 337, 480 Brussels, Academy, 193 f, 395?, 304,

306; univ. 393 Btuzza, Luigi, 146 Bryennios, 378 Buchanan, 336 ; ii 343 f Bucharest, school of, 359, 366 f Buchholz, Edward, 149 Biicheler, Franz, 481 f Buenan. Count von. ji

Bocking,

. 194

OC5IC

492 INI

Buraeus, 3 38

Suratia, Carmina, [94

Burckhud, Jaknb, 4

Burges, George, +01

Burgess, Thomas, 363; ii \^\, 460

Eunnan, Pietcr, II, 3, 14; ii 455

Burn, Robert, 446

Bume;, Charley 399; it 419

Barnouf. (i) Jean Louis (1775-1844);

(1) Wne('8oi-'8sa), ^S". 4»o;

(3) Emile (18*1-1907), l66f Bursian, Coiuad, 115 f

I. 377;

30s

Busleiden, je

Butler, Samuel. 398^

Bultmann, Philipp Kail, 84 f; S9, 78f, 95. 98. '03. 117. 454

Byzantine Astronomy, 184; His- torians, Be, 87, iiS

Caesar, edd. 101; Cetlarius |t7o5, '55); Hunter (Cupri, 1809); Le- maire (1819-n); K. E. C. Schneider (1840-55), iit,; Nip- perdey (1847, '57'), ii7;Dubner (1867); Hoffinann (1856, '90'); Kraner (1861 etc.); Dinter (1864-76); Doberenz De 3. G., Kraner (1853 f, Dit- Cenbe^er, '67 f), 479; Kiigell i86i),3si; Roersch(i864),3oo; Held. Wiliher, Long (1868) etc.: Kochly-RUstow, £>>i/rt/«nf (>8s7). '33! Ri« Holmes (t899.

nelis! Di BtUo Afriio, Wblfflin-Mio-

donski (1889)

JjxUa; Merguel (1884}; Preuss

('84), Menge- Preuss ('85) ; Meusel

{'84) ; Holder's Index. Riistow's

Atlas ('68); Kampen, Dfscrip-

tienes ('78I ; Napoleon III ('65 f ),

161: Stoffel, Giu:rre Civili {■87);

Tissot on Caesar in Africa, 161

Caesar, Karl Jalias, 167

Callierges. Zacharias, 353 f

Callimachus, ed. Emesti (L. B.

1761), 13; Blomfield (181;), 401;

O. Schneider (1870 f), 157;

Hymni, MeJneke (1861), iia

Wilamowiti (1883, '9;') ; Nigra

(1893); Reiske on, 17; Aulin, 350

Callistratus, Heyne on, 41; ed.

Jacobs. We Icker (1835), 64, 317;

Kayser (1844 f, '70); Westeroiann (r849l, 163; C. Schenkel.Rdsch (1901)

Calpumius. ed. H. Schenkel (1885, and in Poslgate's Corpus, 190J); Haupt on, 136

Calvisius (Kallwiti), Sethus, i

Cambridge, FitzwiUiam Museum, 443; Museum of CI. Archaeoli^, 445 ; Greek plays, 461 ; scholars, 267. 393. 398-4'8, 4". 4*'»-434. 437. 439 f; Univ. Press, 380

Camerarius, Rilschl on, 141

Campbell, Lewis, 404

Canina, Luigi, 344

Capella. Martianus, Leibnitz, 1 ; ed. U. F. Kopp (1S36); Eyssenhardt (.866), 300

Capito, Sinnius, 199

Carey, William, 305

Carroichael, A. N., 437

Cameades,Gerlachon(i8i5); Roulez (1835), 194; Gouraud {1848)

Carson. A. R., 439

Cartelier; Isocr. Antid., 361

Canhae'i Graux on, 16a; Bosworth Smith (1B94)

Casaubon, 55, 153, 395; ii 304

Cassiodorus, in Migne, liixf (1847 f); Mommsen, Chren. ('61), Variat (1894), 197 i Traube, Frag. Or. ('94), 195 i Hodgkin, Lillers ('86)

Castetlanus Petrus. 305

Castor Rhodius, Heyne on. 41

Catiline. Merimie on. 161

Calo, De Agri Cultura, ed. Keil (1881), Comm. ('04), Index ('97), 103 ; also in Jiei jfuil. Scr., Emesti (1774), Schneider (1794); Cetera, quae exlanl, Jordan (18' '

CsS), H. Peter ('71); Poesii rtl. Fleckeisen, RitschI ('54), 141 Catullus, Facsimile of Codex Sanger- manensis (1890); ed. Doring, 95; Sillig. 75; Lacbinann (1S39), isS; Haupt (1853, '61, '68), 135 f; Rossbach (1854, '60), 158 j Schwabc (1866), 483: Ellis (1867, '78'. Comm. 1876)1 L. Muller (1870, '74), 189; Bahrens (1876-85), 190; Munro on, 433; Postgate (1NI9, '94) ; Fr. transl. Rostand, 159; A. L. Wheeler on Hieremias de Mon- tagnone and Catullus in A.J. P. xxix (1908) 186-100

,1^.00'

gic

Catullus, Andreas, 305 Cavallari, Saverio, 1+5; 131 Cavallin, Christian, 350 Cavedoni, Don CelestinOi 145 Caylus, Comle de, lo, 16, 15a Cebes, ed, Schweighauser (1806);

Koraes, 365 ; Jerram f ;8) ; Praech-

t" ('93); Danish tr., 318; German,

Krauss ('90*) ; Russian, 347 Celsius, Olaus, 349 Celsus, ed. Darembei^ (1B59); (i)

'JuJius Celsus', 115 Censorinus, Jahn (1845), 310: Hultsch

{1867} Ceratinus de Horn (TeLgn), Jacques,

304 Chalcidius, ed. Fabricius (1718), 3;

Mullach in Frag. FhU. Gr. (1868);

Wrobel (1876) Chandler, (i) Henry William, 411;

(1) Richard, 99 Chardon de la Rochetle, Simon, 149,

Charisins, in Keil, Gr. Lot. i Charitonides, 373 Chicago, 469 Chios, 3s6, 359 Choerilus,Naeke(i8i7), 109; Kinkel

b Pott. Ep. {187;) Choeroboscus, ed. Gaisford (1841),

397; Hilgard (1889^(4) Choricius, ed. Boissonade (1S46),

Graux {'77), a6o; Forsler ('83-'94) Chorus in Greek Tragedy, on the,

Schiller, 71; Heeren, 77 Christ, {1} Johann Friedrich, 10; 14,

38; (1) Wilhelm von, IJ3 f Chiistensen, R., 313 Christiania, univ., 330 Christina's patronage of learning,

339-34» Ckfintica Mtnora, ed. Mommsen, 107 Chronoli^y, Fynes Clinlon, 439 Chrysolorr- " .'.:..( Chrysostoi

and Onora. 'full.; Orelli, Bailer, Halm {1845-61), 161; Klotz (i8so-S7 etc.), 135; C. F. W. Muller; Bailer and Kayser (1860-9) Efp. Schlltz (1809-13), 46; Tyrrell and Purser (1879-94); Wesen- bei^ (1880), 314; ad All. Boot

(.8

Men

('893). '98; B. R. Abeken, Cit. in s. Briifea (1835; E. T. i8j4) ! Hulleman, AtUcui (1838), 181; Boissier, Cic. et sts Amis (1870'), 483; Engl, tr., Shuckburgh, 415; Fr. tr., 170; Germ., 10, 36

Oralimer, Klotz (1835-9); Clark and Pelersou (1907); Sel. Heu- mann, 4; Madvig (i8jo). Halm (1868). Heine (1870), Eberhard- Hirschfelder (1874), Nohl, MilMer ; Conim. Long, 430; Richter-Eberhard, Koch-Lan- graf, Halm-Laubmann; pro Archia, Halm, Roersch, 300, Reid, E. Thomas; Baiho, Reid; Caecina, Jordan; Caetio, Vollgraff; in Cat. Halm, Wil- kins, 434;/f» Ctuentia, Rarosay, 439, Fausset, Peterson ; Deio- taro, Roeisch, 300; flacco, de lege agr. A. W. Zumpt, Du Mesnil; pre Ugi Manilia, Halm, Wilkins; Marcelh, 58; Marallo, Ligario, Deiotaro, Faussel ; JUi- lone, Reid ; Murma, Zumpt, Halm, Heilland; Phil. King, PAH. «, Halm, Mayor, Pesketl ; pre Plancio, Wunder, log; Holden, 4lr; Rabirio, Heit- land ; post redilura. Wolf, 58; ^ Rose. Am. Landgraf ; Seslio, Holden, 411, SUpfle-Bockel, Herti on, 199; Sulla, Halm, Reid ; In Verrem, C. G. Zumpt, 125; i',Heilland-Cowie;n', Hall; I'li-ii, E. Thomas; J^ragni. Mai (1814, '17^), 141; Heinrich, no; Niebuhr (i8io), 80; Peyrou (1814). 141; Baier (1815)

Opera Rhetarica; Artis Rket. HM a, Weidner (1878); De Or., Bntlui, Orator, De Opt. Gen. Or., Part. Oral., Topica, A. S. Wilkins (1901); iJif Or., Brutus, Orator, Piderit (1859-65 etc.); De Or. Henrichsen (1830), 314; Ellendt (1840) ; Sorof, Wilkms, 434, Kingrfey, 461 ; Brutus,

(1889). 465 ; Stangi (1886). Mar tha (1891); Orator, Peter-Wel- ler, J33f Jahn ('85' etc.), 110; Heerdegen (1884), Stangi (1885),

ogic

Sandys (1885}; Dt Opt. Gen. Or. Tahn; Fart. Oral. Pideril; Caa- seret, &tudc {1886), 359 Optra Pkihsophica ; Dt Leg., Rep., N. D. , Div., Fate, Creuier and Moser, 66; Allen, 436; Acad. Reid (1885'); Dt Am.,Ladius, M. Seyffert {\%if>\ 143; Reid (1883); ^if. Christ on, 153; Fin. Madvig (1876^, 310, Gustafsson on. 388, E. T. bj Reid (1883); Ug. Bake(i843),a;9,FeldhUgel ('55), Vahlen {'83"), Du Mesnil; N. D. Heindorf, 84, Schomann, 166, Joseph Mayor (1885); Off. Heusinger, 4, Beier (1810-31), Unger, Gniber, C. F. Miiller, Heine, Lund, jJS.Holden (1869'), 411 ; Rep. Mai, 80, 341. Heinrich, 1 10, Fr. Ir. 170 ; Sen., Calo Motor, Lahmeyei - Meissner. SoinmeT - brodt, C. W. Nauck, Reid (1883); Tusc. Diip. Reiske, 17, Wolf, 55, KUhner (1874), no, "nschendorf, Heine, Meissner; i,ii, Dougan (190J) Lexica; Emesti, Clavis Cit. \y, Meiguet, Lex., Orafin/iei {iili~ 84), Op. Philos. (1887-94), HandUxikon (1905) Bake and Rinkes on, 179; Dni- mann, J33, Madvig, 310 f; Saringar, CU. de vita am, 380; Lives by Drumann (in GescA. Rums, ¥-vi), Forsyth (1863, '67*), Boissiei ('65); Zielinski, Cl. im IVandel der Jahrhun- derte (1897, 1908=); Cic. Fr. tr., 161 ; Deschamps, Eard biWogra- pAifue {1863) Cicero, Quintus, 481 Cincius, Lucius, 199 Clarac, Jean Baptiste, < Clark, William George, t Clarke, (i) Edward Daniel, 357, 378;

it) Samuel, 13, 41; ii 4"3 Classen, Johannes, 159 Classical authors recommended by Niebuhi, So; cl. influence in Ger- man poetry, 133; system of el. learning. Wolfs, 60. Bernhardy's, iti; Cl. Association, 448; cl. scholarship, Donaldson on, 409: Heeren's history of the study of (he Classics, 77; Bursian's, 126 Claudian, ed. Gesner, 6; Jeep, Birt, '9+

Cleanthes, Hymnus, Ch. Petersen

(181S-9) ; MulUch's Fr. Phil. Gr.

'! 3^5, 370 Clenardus, 304, 336; ii 158, 339 Clermont-Tonnerre, Due de, 155 Clinton, Henry Fynes, 439; no Cluvius Rufus, Mommsen on, 197 Cobet, Carolus Gabriel, 182-7; ^7'

n. 8, 380 n. I, 389 f, 313, 380,

40S; portrait, 174 Cockereil, Charles Robert, 318 Cohen, Henry, 169 Coinage, Roman, 335; Greek and

Roman, 164; ai ^a Minor, 368;

see also Numismalics CoUignon, M., 167, 169 Colonies, Greek, R. Rochette on, 164 Columbia College, New York, 451,

466-8 Coiambus, Joban, 343 f Colulhos, ed. Beliker (1816), 86;

Schaefer (i8i3' 'SSll Abel, 391 Comedy in MA, 194 Comenius, Johann Amos, 340 Comparelti, Domenico, 144 Congreve, Richard, 433 Conington, John, 431 f. 434 I Conjectural emendation, Jowelt on.

Conslantinus Porphyrogenitus, 16 f, 38;; Excerpta Histerica, ed, De Boor (1903 f) Come, Alexander, 336, 130 Cope, Edward Meredith, 408 Copenhagen, univ., 311-330; Mss,

Coppello, Kappeyne van de, 383

Corfu, univ., 368 f

Corinth, Megaspelaeon near, MSS,

J79 Cornelissen, Johann Jakob, 388 Corsini, Odoardo, 99 Corssen, Wilhelm, 143, iii Couat, A., *58 Cotwny, Ed., 373 Coulanges, Fusle! de, 363 ; 367 Courier, Paal Louis, 150 Cousin, Victor, 351; 170 Cowell, Edward Byles, 431 Grain, Moritz, r4i Cramer, (l) Andreas Wilhelm, no;

(1) John Antony, 443 Craneveldl, Franjois de, 304 Creech, Herder on, 35

,i^.ooglc

495

Crete, +43. 447; popular literatare of, 375; Cretans in Italy etc., 353 f

Cteuzer, Georg Friedrich, 65 1: 63, 104, 186, J18, 15J, 164, 194, 389

Crimea, aichaeolt^ of, 313. 164, 390 Criticism, textual, Lachmann on,

130 f Ciilobulas of Imbros, as4 Cron, Christian, 161 Crosby, Howard, 467 Crusius, Mflrtin, 376 Curtius Rufus, Q., edd., lol f ; Locce-

nius Ujti), 3j8; Miltzell (1841);

Zunipt(l846, ^64'}. tis; Hedicke

(1867); V™el {1870-5) Curtius, (i) Ernst, 11S f, 98; (l)

Georg, 107; 104, 119, 434, 459 Cyclic ThibaU, ed. Leutsch, iii Cyprian, bp of Carthage, 479 Cyprian, Heptateuch of, 194 Cyprus, 153, 265. 378 Cypselus, Heyne on Chest of, 4] Cyrene, 443

D, final, Beigk 01

Dalzel, Andrew, 416

Damm, Christian Tobias, 9 ; 11,65

Darbishire, H. D, (1863—1893), Rel-

liquiae PhiMogiiae (Cambridge,

■89s) Darembeig, Charles Victor, 15J Dareste, Kodolphe Cleo^, transl. of

Demosthenes, i6i; Isaeus (1S98) Daveluy, Amedfe, 151, 366 Dawes, 186, 5()3 ; ii 415 f Death in ancient art. Leasing, 19 ;

Herder, 35 Decharme, Paul, 167 Dederich, Andreas, 110 Deh^que, 161

DelbrUck, Bembard, no, 458 Detos, i(&, 413 Delphi. 1 14, a66; Itelphic hymn, 159;

tripod, lis Delphin Classics, 401 ; ii 191 Demetraliopulos, Theodoras, 376 Demetrius MagneE, 38 [ Demosthenes, Facsimile of MS 2 , ed.

{Pan

1891);

Retske (1770 f), 17, Dukas(i8ii). 366, Bekket (1811 f). 8;. G. S. Dobson ( 1 8)o) , Baiter-Sauppe (1841). 161,163; G.H. Schaefer (i8ia,'i4f),ioJi Dindorf(i8i5,

'46), 144 ; Voemel (1843), i68f ; Bekkei (1854), 87 ; Blass (1886), 171; 0./^Mi-iw,Voemel(l856f),

168 f; WeU (1873. ■81'), 158; F&U. 01. Sauppe, 164; Phil, Franke (1841), 169; Weslermann- Rosenberg (1891"), 163; Reh- danti-Blass (1893*), (69, 17J ; PAH. , 01., DiFaa, Chirs., Sandys (1897-1900); Z>«/'fl«,i4; Or.iio- xtH, Flagg (1880) ; Or. Ferenses PuH., Weil (1877. '83'; 1886), 358 ; Vi Cor. Dissen {1837), 114. Westeimann, Holmes, 411, Sim- cox, 414; Blass (1^0), 171; Goodwin (1901) ; Fall. Leg. Shilleto (1844, '74*). 4°*; i-'P- tines. Wolf (1789), 54f, Wester- mann <:898), Sandys (1890); Meidiai, Buttmann (1813), 81, Holmes, 411, Goodwin (1906); Androt., 01. Funkhanel {1831),

169 ; Androl., Timoer. Wayte (1881), 430 n.3; Arislocr.yfSet^-z (1845). 160 ; Or. Frivaiae Sel. Paley-Sandys (1896'), 409

Phil., De Cor. Germ, transl. Jacobs,

A. Scbaefer on, 169 ; Bohnecke,

171; Christ, 154; Cobet, 184;

Dobree, 400 ; Spengel, 180 ;

Index, Preuss (1895); Scholia,

*6j. 379 Denmark, Ifioo-IQOO, 311-330; 49 Dennis, George, 44 j Derby, Earl of, 413

Desjaidins, Ernest, 161 ; 169 Detle^n, Dettef, 101 Deuschle, Julius. 161 Devirius, ed. Klotz, 115

De-Vit, Vincenzo, 14J

Dialects, Greek, Ahrens on, 110, r57;

Ionic, H. W.Smyth; Strachan.418 Dicaearchns, Fragm. Fuhr (1S41),

C. Miiller. F. H. G., G. G. M. ;

' Dicaearchus,' Letronne (1840), 964 Dicuil, 164

Didot, Ambroisc Firmin, 173 f; 363 Didyma, 169, 444 Didymus, Ritter (1845), M, Schmidt

(i854).is3, 3.^4; Ludwich (1865-8);

On. Dem. ed. Diels-Schubart (1904).

Foucart, £tude (1907)

A.OO'

1C5IC

496

.M-«.

Dietsch, Hcinrich Rudolf, loo Dielz, Friedrich Reinhold, rS? Dillenbui^er, Wilhelm, 193 Dimitzana, 350

Dindorf, (1) Karl Wilhelm,

397; (1) Ludwi8,.i44f Diocletian, Edict of, 168 Diodorus, Reiske on, 17 ; Heyne, 41 ;

L.DL™iorf(i8j8-3i), 1+6; Bekkei

(.853 f),86;Vc^el (1888 f) Diogenes L.aertius,ed.Hubner-Jacobitz

(l833|,CobeC (1850-61). 184 'Dion Cassius' (Cassius Dio Coccei-

anus), ed. Fabricius and Reimat

(Hamb. :75o-j}, 3; Reiske on, 17;

ed. BekkerdSfQJ.SlSi L. Dindorf

(1B63-5). 146; Melber(i89of);Fr.

tran^. 161 ; IJoIssevain(Berl. 1895-

1901) Dion ChrysostoiD, ed. Reiske (1784),

ij{; Empenus(iS44), no; Bekkei

(1849). 86; L. Dindotf (1857).

I46; voaAmim(i8Q3-6), Leien uiid

Ifir&lrSgS) Dionyslus Halicarnassensis. ed, Reiske

(1774), 18; Arch. Rom. Kriiger,

iig ; Kiessling-Jacoby, 1S5, 341;

Cobeton, 184; VanderVliet, 189;

Rketorica, Usener-Radectnacber,

184; ZtetToiw/.K^rf.G.H.Schaefer.

101; ZV/mtf. Usener(l889). 184;

Gros, Exam. Crii. (i8j6) ; Blass

on, 17s; Bpp. ad Amm. el Fimip-,

Rhys Roberts (iQOf) ; Fragm.

Rosslei (1873) Dionysius, son of Calliphon, 1 18 Dionysius Periegetcs, ed. Betnhatdy

(1839), tii ; C. Mdlei in G. C. M. Dionysus, Creuiei on, 66 Diopnantus, ed. Tannery (1893), 457 ;

Germ. Ir., Wertheim (r89o) Dioscorides, MS, 377; fecsimile (1906);

DipTon

□ilitary, 161

- -. ."SS

Diltenberger, Wilhelm, 479 Dolieienz. Albert, 101 Dobree, Peter Paul. 399 ; 1J9, 186, 401 Dodona ; Wordsworth {1831), 405;

Carapanos (1875), 383 Doederlein, Lndwig, 1:3; 91 Doring, Frlediich Wilhelm, 65 Dorpteld, Wilhelm, 214 Dolce, Luigi, 36 Donaldson, John William, 4O9 ; [31,

Donatus, Aelius, Herder on, 31 ; Ars

Gramm. Keil in Gr. Lat. (1864) ;

Comm. in Ter. ed. Klotz (1838-40),

Wessner (1903- ) Donnegan, James, Gk-Engl. lex. 1816 Dorians, Muller on the, 114 Dorpat, univ., 387 f; 198, 33+, 481 Dorpius, Martin, 304 Drager, Anton August, io\ Dramatic Art and Literature, A. v.

SchWel on, 71 Drisler, Henry, 466 Droysen, (i) Johann Gustav, lio :

(2) Hans, 10, Drumann, Wilhelm, 133 Dublin, 436f Dubos, Abbe, 17 Duchesne, Mgr, 367 Dubner, Johann Friedrich, 371 ) 14J,

380 Dukas, (i) Demetrius, 354 ; (2) Neo-

phytos, 363 Dumont, Albert, 266 f Dunbar, (1), George, 436; 418; (j)

Henry, 414 Duncan, J. M., g n. 4 Duncker, Max, 130 Dutuy, Jean Victor, j;i Dutch editions, 315; universities, 191

Earle, Mortimer Lamson, 468

Eaton, J. R. T., 41*

Eckhel, Joseph, 44

Edinburgh, 411; 394

Education, Herder on, 33 f; Heyne,

41 f; W. von Humboldt, 68;

Thiersch, 1 1 1 ; Kochly, 134 ; Bonitz,

17s; Ussing, 316; Jebb, 413;

Wilkins, 4341 von Hartel. 4S0;

Gtasberger (1864-1881); Girard

(1889); K.J. Freeman's A-:4«?/( 9/

«i;%(i907) Egger, Emile, 155 ; 171 Egilsson, Sveinbjorn, 318 Egyptian writing, Spohn on, 106 Eichstadt, Heinrich Karl Abraham

{1772-1848), 165 Eichihal, Gustave d', 154 f Elberting, Carl Wilhelm, 314 Eleusis,'i65,383;EleusinianMysteries,

104, 1 86 Ellis,(.)A. J. 433; (J) Roberf, 443 Elmsley, Peter, 394fi S7> '44. i5°>

186, 449 n Empedocles,Sturz(i8o5); A. Peyron

Clo), )4l ; Gaisford in Poet. Min.

Gr. ('13) ; Karsten ('38) ; Bei^k b

X'OO'

SIC

Emperias, Adolph, no

England, iSoo-igoo, 393-449; Chm-

iu>lBgicaI TaUe, 49; Niebuhr in, 7S Ennius, H.Meyer (1B3S); J.A. GUes

('4*)! E^eet ('43); Vahlen (1903");

J. Woidsworlh in Fragm. {1874),

L. Mullet ('84, '93), 189. Ann.

Spangenbei^ (1815) ; A. Krause

('33) ; Ilbere, Hug ('51). Mtdta,

PUnck(i8o;l; OsHnn('i6); Bothe,

Frag. frag. ('34); Ribbeck ('71-3) Eobanus Hessus, Heilz on, 100 Eparchos, Anton ios, 355 Ephesus, 116, 444; Hogarib, British

Mvieum ExcavaHnni at Ephisut

(1908) Epic Cycle, Welcker on the, 117 Epicharmus,KnisemHn(i834); l>«igk

('+3 etc-) ; Mullach ('60) ; Lorenz

(■64); Welcker on, 117 Epictetus, Heyne(i756etc.). 38^.41;

Schwe^hauser (1798 ff) ; Koraes

(1816), 361 ; DUbner, i;i ; H.

SchenkI (1894); Danish tr., 318;

Engl., 430, 451; Fr, 157; Riass.

34; Epicurea, Usener's, 184 Epidaunis, 383 Epigram, Lessing on (he, 19 Epigraphy, Jowell on, 419; Larfeld's

Han^ueh der Gf. EMgraphik

{1898-1908)5 S. Keinaeh's rraiV/;

see Crtek and Laiin Inscr. Epimenides, Hnnrich (1801), no ;

C. Mullet, F. H. C. 1 Kinkei

(1877); Diels, Vnrsalir. {i^i) Epislelegraf/ii, Greek, i8j Erasmus, 91, 304, 4(3 1 Etasmian

pronunciation of Greek, 91, 376;

li ii7f; Bywaler (Oxford, locrfi) Etatosthenes, Beinhardy (iSti), iir;

Frag. Geogr. Be^er (1880) ; Carm.

Hiller (1871), 191; Maas, Eralos-

Ihenica (in Phil. Unl. vi) ; Calast.

Robert (187B) ; Olivieri (1897);

Mendelssohn on chronology, 19S Erfutdt, Karl Gottlob August, 93 ; 108 Erik, Jacob, 336 Emesti,{i) Johann August {1707-81),

ii-l4i 8, IS, ■>■, n- 39. 4'. s?;

portrait, 11 ; (j) August Wilhelm

(i733-i8o[),i4;{3)JohannChrislian

Gottlieb {1756-1801), 13 Erelici Graiti,Scripliirts, Mitscherlich

S. III.

EX. 497

{BipoDti, 17910 ; Passow (18)4-

33); Hiischieetc.{Par. 1856), a8o;

Hetcher{i868f) Escuiiat Mss, 160 Eton MSS, no; Catal. M. R. Jaraes

(■89s) Etruscan, 143, 331; Etruscans, 114;

Elturia, 443 Etymclogiiittn Fltrr. and El. parvum,

154 ; Et. Magnum, 397 Etymoli^y, J07, in, 459 Eocteides, Peyiard {Pat. 1S14-8) ;

August (Berl. 1816-9) ) Heiberg

iiipides, Jerusalem palimps., 373, 376; ed. Musgrave (1778) re- piin ted by Morus and Beck ( r 788), with Index by Beck (Cantab., i8i9>), 14 ; A. H. MaCthiae {1813-37), with Kimpmann's In- dices ; Variorum ed. with Index {Glasg. 1811), and W. TroUope's notes (i8j8); L. Dindorf (1815). 144; Fix (Paris, 1843)1 Hartung {1848-53), 146; Nauck (1854, '69-71'), 149; Kitchhoff (185s, '67'); Paley (1858-60, ■72-80'), 409 f; Prinz-Wecklein {1878- 1901). 155

II plays, ed. Hermann (iSio-41), 91, 108; II plays, edd, Pflugk, 109, and Klotz, 155 (1829-77),

Bernardakes (1888- ) ; 6 plays, Elmsley, 394 ; Ak., Hiff., Iph. A., iph. T. Monk, 400; EL, Iph. T., Tro. Seidler, Jo8 ; Hil., Ion, Iph. T. Badham, 408 ; AU. Hayley (Boston, 1898), 461 ; Ale, Mid. Earle, 468 ; Androm. Lent- ing (1819); Batikat, Elmsley, 1811 ; Tyrrell {1871", '97*), Wecklein ('79. ^98"), Sandys (1880, 1904''), Bruhn (1891I, Georges Dalmeyda (Paris, 1908); Cyclops, Hopfner, 1789 ; El. Caniper{L.B.'3i); Hd. Hetwer- den (1895); Heradidae, Beck; /fo-3f&j,Wilainowiti{i889',95'); Hipp. Wilamowiti (1891); Ion, Hetwerden(i875),Vertall {1890); Iph. A. Firrhaber (1841), Vater (1845). 389.Vitelli (1878), Eng- land(i89i); j^A. Tawr. Cavallin,

.l\

>ogic

35°; Bnihn(t894); Mid.Vet- raU (1881), Amim (1886') i Or., Phgen. Schuiz, 46, Geel, 180, Kinkel (1871); Sufpt. Surges (1807), Wilainowitz(i87s)i 'Ire. Tyirdl; Rhts. Vater (1837), 389 Sihelia, Arsenios, 354 ; E. tidiwaitz (1887-91); Pragm. in Nauck, TV. Gr. Fr. ; with Index (1891) Bake on, 178; Bieliaev, 3S6f; Boeckh,98; Cyiil VII.3S7; De- channe(i893); Q<x.i)\t\Pkaitkm), 69; Jacofc, 64; KSchly, 133; Munro, 433 ; Nesile (1901) ; Kauchenstein, 165 ; Reiske, 17 ; Fr. Schlegel, 71; Semitelos, 373 ; Thoraps<Mi, 407 ; Verrall (1895, '905); Wieland, 36; Wilamo. witz, Anal. £Hr. I1875), Danish tr., 338; Engl., Way (1894-8), Gilbert Murray (1901- );Gerni, Hit., Hipp., Suppl. Wilamowilz (1899) European scholars visiled by Ticknor,

75) Eustratiadea, 308 Eutroplus, Hartei {1871), 480; Hans

Droysen (1878), 101 i Wagener

(1884); Ruhl (1S87) Evans, Thomas Saunders, 410 Everett, Edward, 4J4 Eyssenhardt, Fraoz, 100

Faber's Thesaurus, 6, 51

Fable, Lessing on the, 16

Fabreiti, Ariodante, 145

Fabri, Emst WUheJm, 100

Fabricius, (i) Geoi^ Goldschmied (iSi6-;i),38i (i)Jcihann Andreas (1696-17691,51; (3) Johann Albert (1668-1736), af; 314! frontispiece

FaJster, Christian, juf; 3

Fant, E. M., 348; 345

Fasti Comulares, 345; HcUmid and Hemarti, 430

FaurieL, Claude, 57

Fea, Carlo, ]ig, 144

Fellows, Sir Charles, 443

Felton, Cornelias Conway, 455

Featus and Verrius F'laccus, ed. E^r (1838), 155; K. O. MUUer ('39, '80') i Thewrewk de Ponor (Budapest, 1889I ■■-—--■'--"■--'-- FarniiioHus {ie.

Feuds of 4th cent. B.C., 179

Feuerbach, Fiiedrich Aoselm, iii

Fick, August, 110

Figrelius (Gtipenhielm), Edmund, 343

Figulus, Nigidlus, 199

Kilelfo, C. Nisard on, 153

Fiorelli, Giuseppe, 146

Fischer, Johann Friedrich, 14

Flaminio, Marcanlonio, 450

Fleckeisen, Alfred, I41

Floderus, Johannes, 349

Florence; Stosch colleciion of gems,

13; Piiiati collection of vases, 195 Flotus, ed. Jahn (1851 etc.), tio;

Halm (1854), 196 Forbes, Edward, 443 Forbiger, Albert, 117 Forcellini, 10, 143; ii 374/ Forchhammer, Petet Wilhelm, 117;

381

Fomelius, Laurentius, 338 Foster, John, 318 Foucart, Paul, 16; ff Fouimonl, Abb^ Michel, 99; 86 F'rance, 1800-1900,148-273; Chrmv- logical Taile, ^g; Egger on Hellen-

Francken, Cornelius Marin us, iSi Franeket, univ., 191 Franklin, Benjamin, 451 f Ftani, Johannes (1804-1851), 98f Freeman, Edward Augustus, 440 ;

Freiburg im Breisgau, 148

Freinsheim, Johannes Caspar, 340; ii 367

Fieund, Wilhelm, rij; 467

Freylag, Gustav, 136

Friederichs, Karl, 115 f

Friedliinder, ed. Martial, 194

Frieze, Heniy Simmons, 458

Frigetl, Anders, 351

Frit2sche, (1) Franz Volkmar, 185; (1) Adolf Theodor Hermann, 157, '93

Frontinus, Opera (Biponti, 1788); Straltg. et De Aq. urdis Romae, Dedetich (Wesel, 1841; Leipzig, 185s), tto; i>f <4;., facs. of Monte C^ino MS, ed. Clemens Herschel (Boston, 1899); ed. Biicheler (1858), 481

Fronto, ed. pr. Mai (1815), 14I ; NieUihr(iHi6), 79; Naber(i86;); Mommsen on chronoli^, 198

Frotscher, Karl Heinrich, 100

Funck (Funccius), Johann NicoUns, 4

.oogic

Fumeaux, Heniy, 43s

Furlwiingler, Adolf, 48a Fuss, Johann Daniel, 301 f Fynes Clinlon, Henry, 439; no

Gail, Jean Baptisle, 148

Gaisford, Thomas, 39jf; 112, 179; portrait, 396

Gaius, e<l.Niebuhr,8o; Lachinann,il9

Galen, ed. Kuhn (1811 f), 187; Dt alinuntitxagualilibus, Koraes, 367 ; Scripta Minora in Bibl. Teubn.; Fr. transl., 15;

Gallen, St, 81, 317, 461

Gandino, Giovanni Batlista, 143

Gantrelte, Joseph, 195 f; 999

Garasse, Fr., 153

Garatoni, Gasparo, 310; ii 378

Garrucci, RafTaele, 945

Gaul, Roman, J6i n. j, 363; Geo- graphy, i5i, and History, 171

Gaza, Stark on, 115

Geddes, Sir William Duguid, 418;

Gedike, Friedrich, 85

Geel, Jacob, j8o; (83

Geer, De, J76

Gellius, ed. Hertz, 199; Falster on, 3'4f

Gemistos Plethon, 35S ; ii 60 f

Gems; King, 431 ; Furlwangler, 481

Gennadios, (1) "^^ patriarcb, 358; (3) Georgios, 367 f

GtegrapM Gr. Minorei, E. Miller, i£4 ; C. MilUer, '271 ; Bursian, lifi; modem gei^^phers, ii6 IT, 399, 443; Kiepert, 257, and W. Christ on ancient Geography, 154

Georges, Karl Ernsl, i03f; 199

Geppert, Karl Eduard, 14O, 143

Gerhard, Eduard, ii8f

Gerlach. F. D., loo

Germany, 1700-1800, 1-46; Chrimo- ii^i-fl/Tai/i!, facing p. 1; 1800-igoo, 47-140 ; Chnmelogical Table, p. 48 ; Bursian'a Hist, of CI. Philolt^y, 116; German scholars in Russia, 388-390; Halm's Lives of, 196

Getti, M. Clarentius, 314

Gesner, Johann Matthias, 5-9; 39f, 316

Gevaerl, Fran9ois Auguste, 199

Ghent, univ., leyif, 194 f

Gibbon and Heyne, 43; ii 437

GilTord, Edwin Hamilton, 412

Gilbert, Guslav, 133

Gildersleeve, BasU L., 468

Girard, (i) Jules, (j) Paul, 367

Gladstone, William Ewart,4i3; Va-si Transl. by Lyttelton and Gladstone (.860

Glasgow, Univ., 406, 413

Glossaries; 'Philoxenus' and 'Cyril', ed. H. Slephanus (1573), Vulcanius (1600), Labbaeus {1679) and in Appendix to London ed. of the Gk Thtiauna of n. Stephanus (|8'26); Loewe, Prodremta Cerporii Gloss. Latin. 1886; Goelz, Corfm Glesi. Latin. (1888-1901); Lalin-Anglo- Saxon. Hessels, C. C. C. Cambridge (1890), Leyden (1906), 317

Gods, Usener on names of the, 184

Gorres, Joseph, 66

Goerz, K. K., 385

Goethe, 69 f; 74; on Eur. Bacch. 71 ; Homer, 8, 69 j Goethe and Herder, 34, ]>ssing, 17, 19, 69, Voss, 69, Winckelmann, 69 f. Wolf, S4> 57 f> ^ ; Gk transl. of Goethe's Iph. by Kock, (56

Gotlingen, academy, 5: oniv., 5, 7f, 39f, 43. 5»f. >"

Gottling, Karl Withelm, ilj f

Gotz, Georg, 140

Gomperz, Theodor, 151, 386

Goodwin, W. W., 456, 469

Gortyn, Laws of, 344, 481

Gossrau, Gottfried Wilhetm, 193

Gotha, 64 f, 303, 333

Goths and Vandals, 346

Graefe, Christian Fri^iich, 388, 390

Gram, Hans, 314

Grammatical Studies, history of ; 107, 159, 167, 184; in the MA, 358; Grammatical and Critical School of Hermann, 89fi Comparative Grammar, Bopp, 305; L. Meyer, 307; G. Curtius, 3o8i Schleicher, 309; E^er, ijs ; V. Henry, 373; ■ Indo-Gennanic Grammars', 109; the New Grammarians, 309 f

Grammaye, Jean Baptiste, 305

Grant, Sir Alexander, 411

Gratius (or Gratlius), ed. Haupt, 135; also in Postgale's Corpus

GrauK, Charles, 359 f

Greece, Geography, 336-8; Bursian, 336; Le Bas, 365; BeaM, 166; Leake, 44] ; maps, Lauremberg, 313 ; S. Butler, 399; Kiepert, 338 i History; Thitlwall, 437, Grote, 438, E. Curtius, 338 ; Duncker, 330 ; Herzbei^, 331; Holm, 331 f.

i-?nTt?.OO^IC

500

Duraj, 1711 PapuKgopulos, 373;

Greece under the Romans, 13 1,163 ;

Civilisation, Limbouig- Btouwer,

1S1; Law, Meier and Schomann,

166; Thoiiissen, 30J; Public Anti-

qmtiis, i6a, 166, ijaf; warfere, 13J

Greece, Modem ; 1500-1900, 353-

394;mi,413; the Revolution, 359,

380; modern Greek, 363, 374--Oi

Grammar, 355 ; knowledge of

ancient Greek, 357 ; history of

learning, 371; verse composition,

37«

Greek Acetnt, 411, 418) Art, 11 f,

I io,ni,ir3-3i6; 163-170; 3i8f;

314; 4S01 Brunn on Gk arlisis,

til, and on the influence of art in

idyllic poetry, tii ; Benndorf on

the art-epigrams of the Aiiihslogy,

and on Gk and Sidlian vases,

116; Bottiger, 71;, and Jahn, 110,

on Gk vases; Aslnmaeiy, 184,

439; dint, 443; Diaiicis, no;

Drama, revival of, 447 ; £^-

erams, 1 54, 117; Grammar,

Hiibner's Outlines, 139 ; Rost,

65: Buttmann.84; Maithiae, 75;

Lobeck, 103; Thiersch, rir;

Dissen. 114; Kriiger, 119, 350;

Kuhner, Ahrens, no ; G. Curlius,

107 f, 119; Baumlein, Aken, 114;

G.Meyer, 109; Meisterhans, 114;

J. L. Bm-nonf, 150; Roersch and

Thomas, 300 ; Tregder, 315 ; Liif-

stedt, 350 ; Kumas, 365 ; Dukas,

366; Bardalachos, 366; Geona-

dios, 367; UIrich,37i; Sophocles,

456; Donaldson, 409; Rathei-

ford, 415; Syntax, Reiz, 19;

Hermann on, 91 ; Bemhardy,

rii; Madvig, 3iof; Asopioa, 369;

Oeconomides, 370 ; Goodwin,

456, 458 j Gildersleeve ; Rtaders,

Jacobs, 64; Halm, 196; Valpy's

Dekclus,ifl\; John Mayor ( 1 868) ;

Wilamowitz (1901)

tnseriflieHs, Boeckh, Cotfus Inscr.,

Stf; Franz, 99; Kohler, iii ; . Hirschfeld, 119 ; Kaibel, r54f ; Kirchhoff, 478 ; Dittenberger,von Hailel, 479; Oeconomides, 370; Kumanudes, 383 ; Hermann on, 94; Dobree, 400, 401; Riemann, iSg ; 364, 168, 308, 370, 44S ; Pa- laeography, Gardihausen (1879), E. M. Thompson (1893); Graux, 360; Watlenbach, Schrijltaftln

(1876), Scriptural Gr. Spedmina (1878), W. and von Velsen, Exempla (i8j8); Synenyms, H. Schmidt, ijS n. 3, Oeconomides, 370; Hederich, 4

Languagi, W. von Humboldt on, 68 ; its study essential, 43 ; Greek in Sweden, 334f; England, 393- 41a ; United States, 470

Law, 166, 168, 131 f, 3ojf

iitj:iViimi/*y, 313; J. G.Schneider, 1 1 ; Rost, 65 ; Passow, lis; Pape, Benseler, 168; SchenkI, 160; Vanicek, Zehetmayr, PrellwiK, in; new edd. of Stephanus, ijo; Aleiaiidre,Gk-Fr.,25i; Dunbar, 416; Liddell and Scott, 418, 417, 466; Greek-Danish, 318; ancient and modem Gk, 373, cp. Koraes, 363 ; Byiantine, SoiJiocles, 456 ; Gk-German, Kumas, 365; Swe- dish-Gk, 350; melri, iii, is7f, 184 ; rhythm in prose, 171 ; prenunaatian, 91 f, 171, 180, 318, 376 ; as|nrates, 157

Literatiirt ; Fabricius, i ; Bemhardy, riii Nicolai, 114; Miiller- Donaldson, 115, +09; Be^k, 147 f; Christ, 154; Croiset,+84} (EpicCycle)Welcker.ii7;Lehrs, 107; (Drama) W. Schl^, Silvern, 73 i Patin,i5i ; (Theatre) Bijttiger, 14 ; Wieseler, 113 ; Sommerbrodt. 185; 414; (Critic- ism) E^er, »35; (Dramatists) ed. Bothe, 103, and Dindorf, 145; Comic Fragm., Bothe, 103, Meineke, 117 f, Koch, rj6, Kaibel, 155; Tragic poets, Boeckh on, 97; Fragm., Nauck, 149?] 171; (Epic poets), 171J (Lyric poets) Blomfield, 401; Welcker, 1:7; Schneidewin, 110; Beigk, r47 f; Hiller, rgi; H. W, Smyth (1900) ; Wilamowiti, Texige- schickte (r90i); for Bucolic poets see r4eocn/«i ; Jebb on Gk Poetry, 4i3;(Orators),i62,i7],4r3;Suse- mihl (Alexandrian), 181 ; Rohde (Novelists), i85f; chronology of, 186. Revival of Greek in Italy, 181; Herder on the originality of the Greeks, 34 ; the Germans and the Greeks, 31 f; verse com- position, 94, 374, 403. 406, 410

MSS, 376-9; Medicine, i%^, 151, 1S7; M%isic, 158 f, 413, 460;

,1^.00'

gic

MylMagy atid ReHgien, 41, 184,

iwf, i39f;Weslermann'sJjyAff-

graphi, 163 ; Natural Sciaut, itfi

New TeilamtHl, 137, lapff, 171,

33s. 374>4<"ft4S8; Deissmann,

Lichtvon Oslm{iga»]

PhUosfpky, 173 f, 477 ; ReUgivn,

107, 184, i86f. 417

Greenhill, WJllkm Alexander, 430

Greenough, James Biadslreet, 4s8f

Gregorius Corin thins, ed. G. H.

Schaefer, 101 Gi^orovins, Ferdinand, 139 Grimm, Jacob, S5, 106, 319 Gremaiici Vetmt, I^chmann, 139 Groningen, univ., 391 Grote, 438, portrait; T66r, 40S Grotius, 339i ii 3isf Gruppe, Otlo (1804-76), i;; Guaitperius, Otho, 336 n. 7 Gualtani, 144 Guigniaul, Joseph Daniel, 364; 151,

Haase, Friedrich, 137; 108

tiadle}', James, 463

HagBslrom, F. W., 351

Ha^, Arthur Eliam, 414

Halbertama, l^alliiig, 187

HalicamassuE, 444 f

Hall, Theophilus D., 431

Halle, oniv., 7, 53-9, 83, 85,

Haller, 318

Halm, Karl I

Hamaker, Hendrik

Hand, Ferdinand Gotthelf, 117

Hannibal's passage of (he Alps, 443

Harderwyck, univ., 191

Hare, Julius Charles, 83, 401, 437

Harkness, Albert, 41; 7

Harpocration, ed. Bekker, 87;

Dindorf, 144 f Harris, James, 1; ; ii 416 Hartel, wilhelm von, 479 ; i6a, lot Hartung, Johlnn Adam, 146 Harvard College, 451, 454-463; 469 Hase, Karl Benedict, 171 ; 14s. 154,

301

Hatzidakis, G. H,, 375 n. 6, 376 Haapt, Moritz, 134-7; "8, 130. 13,

"93. '97. 435 Haussoullier, Bernard, 167 Hauvellc, A., 483 f; 367

layley, I

I" 447

Headlam, Walter George, 484 Hecker. Alfons, 180 H^elin, Francois (AbW d'Aubignac), Conjtitttrts oiadc'migues mi Diss.

■ Clliiu

1715.

Wolf, cp. Proh^. c . Hederich, Benjamin, 4 Hedicke, Edmund, loj Heeren, Arnold Hermano Ludwjg,77 Heidelberg, 65f, 95, 97, I3if; HSS,

3S<S

59. 78 f. e

Heinecke (Heineccius), Johann Gott- lieb, 4

Heinrich, Karl Friedrich, 109

Heinse, Wilhelm, 36

Heinsius, N., 193, 388, 391, 339, 343 ; ii 313 f

Heitz, Emil, 181

Helbig, Wolfgang, 111

Heliodorus, 5. Koraes (1804), 361; Bekker (i8s5). 86; 318

Helladius, Alexander, 339

Hellenic Studies, Society fax the Promotion of, 447; 413

Hellenism, Droysen, 333 ; Thereianos, 371 ; Hellenism in France, ^ger,

Heller, Ludwig, 93 Helmstadt MS, 17 Helsingfors, univ., 388 Hcmsterhuys, 5, 39, 59, 190, 398; ii

447 f Heniichsen, Rudolf, 314; 3i8f Henry, (i) James 4j6 ; (i) Victor,

Henien, Wilhelm, iig; 33s Hephaestion, ed. Gaisford (i8to. '33,

'SS), 395. 397 ! Westphal, 158; 91 Heracleides Ponticus, Dt rebas

puUicis, ed. toiler (1804); Koraes

(■80;), 363 ; Schneidewin (1847);

Roulez on, 104 Hecacleides (Ponticus), Alligoriae

Homiricar, ed. Schow (1783), 317 ;

Mehler (1851) Heraclitus, Bemays, I77f; Bywater Heraeus, Karl, 101 Hercher, Rudolph, 1S5 Herculaneum, 33, 344. 394, 449

Herder, Johann Gottfried, 31-35;

74; Ilerdei and Lessing, 17 f, 31;

Winckelmann, 31; Wolf, 60 Hermann, (i) Johann Gottfried

,l^.OO'

SIC

S02 IND

Jacob, 88-95 ; 18, 40, 63, 69, 97,

Philology, 105 ; Hernuinn and G. H. Schaefer, icn, Meineke. 117, Kitsch], 140. Hernmnnon Boeckb, 09; Crenzer, 67; Dissen, 114; Gaislbrd, 397 ; Goltling, 397 ; I.obeck,i03 1 ; Scholefield, 307 (see also Porson, ii 417 I). Jahn on Hennann, iii n. 3 ; his pupils, 95. 101, 108, i3if, 134, 136, 144. 146, 156; his portrait, 87 (i) KbH Friedrich, ifii; 175, 456

Hennas, SAephtrd of, 381 ; 145

Hirmts, 136

Hero(n)das, 448; 415, 4S1, 484

Herodian, the historian ; F. A. Wolf ('79»), ss; Innisch (tpSg-iSos); Dukas (Vienna, 1S13) ; Bekker (■816, '55), 86; Mendelssohn, 198; Beroler's Lat. transl., 3

lletodianus Technicus, Aelius, ed. Lentz(i867 f), 107 ; irejji sxripATiai, Villoiaon (1781), Dindorf (1813), 144, Wall ('3s), Spengel ('56), Tffi iiiu>.firni>iriMi \i\eat, Hermann (1801); if/j dixpdriar kt\, Cratnei {1836); xtpi itor-fifoM Xi^flilt, rtpl

ed. Lehrs, 107 ; Fragnttula, in

Lobeck's Phrynichus {1810), lo^

Herodotus, ed. Gaisford (1834, '49*),

Stein (1853-6) etc.); Blakedej (1854), 405 ; Macan, iv-v (1805}, vil-ix (1908); Bergleron,3; Reiske on, 171 Eng. transl. Rawlinson, 410; German. A. Scholl, 149; modern Ok, 369 ', Ital., 370 ; Dahlmann's Life, 159; Hauvelte, Hirodott (1894), 484

Heron Alexandrinus, Difinilienes Gto- metrical, ed. Hasenbalg ( 1 816) ; Geo- nietricorunt... reliquiae, ed. Hullsch (1864), 18s; Lelronne, JiecAirihes (1851), 964

Heron Ctesibii, in Kochly and

Hertz, Martin, T98I; 100, 193

Hertibeig, Gustav, 331

Hesiod, Gaisford in Poelat Min. Cr.

(1840); D.J. van Lennep(i843-S4), 176; Paley (1861), 409; Schomann (•69), i66 ; Kochly Cto). m i Flach (■74. '78)- Ofira et Dies, ed, Thorlac (1803), 317; Brunck in Peetae Giuiinid ('17) ; Spohn ('19), T06; Vo]lbehr('44) ; Lehrs on. 107; Thiersch, lit. Scutum Herculit, Heinrich (i8oi), no; C. F. Kanke ('40) ; K. O. Muller on, 115. T/u:ogoma, F. A. Wolf (1783), 54 i OrelU (1836I; Gerhard (1856); Welcker (1865), 117; Schomanu (tS68),l66; Flach(i873) ; Hennann on, 93. Danish transl., 313, 318; English, Mair (1908); German, Voss {(806); Flaxman's ill. (i8ij)

Hesychius,Schow(i79i); M.Sdiniidt (1858-68). 153 ; Korafis on, 361

Heumann, Chrisloph August, 4

Heusde, Philipp Willem van, 176

Heusinger, Johann Michael, 4

Heuiey, L,, 267

Heyne, Christian Gotllob, 36-44 ; 6, 14, ii, i8, 34, 39, J5, 58, 61 f, 65, 68, 71.77,110,113,317 ; portrait, 37

Hierocles and PhiUgiios, Pkilegelos, Korags (1813), 363; Boissonade (1848), 380; Cobet in Grieksth Ltesboek (Leyden, 1856, '65); Eber- hard (1869)

Hildyard, James, 431

Hiller, Eduard, 193

Hippocrates, ed Kiihn (\%ii-%i), 187; Littrf, with Fr. transl. (1839-61), 3S3 ; Ermerius {Utr. 1859-^5); Ilberg and KUhleveein, Teubner text ; Fr. transl. Daremberg (1843), 357 ; De aire, aquis, loeis, Koraes (i8i>o), 363 ; Chr. Petersen (■33), Ruder ('49)

Hippolylus, Philosolikumena, 381

Hirschfeid. Gustav, 339

Hitschig, W. A., and R. B., 380

Hirt. ^oys, 70

Historia Miscella, and Historiae Auguslae Scriptures, ed, Eyssen- hardt, 300 ; Historians, 77-83 ;

328-339; *7';373;+3'; 437-44*

History, Ancient, authorities for, Heeren on, 77 ; A. Schaefcr, 170; Chronological Tables. Fynes Clinton. 439; Zumpt. I15 ; Karl Peter, 333 ; A. Schaefer, 170 ; In- troduction to the study of. Curt Wachsmnth, 339

Hoeck, Karl, 333

l.rlh/COOt^lC

503

Hoeufit, Jacob Henrik, 178

Holden, Hubert Ashton, 411

Holder, Alfred, 191, 194, loi

Holdsworlh, Edward, 451

Holland,1800'lWM,l75-t9l; Chreno- logical Tttblt, 49

Holm, Adolf, 43: f

Holmes, Arthur, 4ri

Homer, Ilias, facsitniU of codex Venetus A (L. B. 1001) ; ill. MS, 14I ; Jlias el Odyssea, ed. Emesti (1759-64), 13; Humeri el Htmeridaruai Optra el Jfe- iiquiat, Ilias, ed. F. A. Wolf ( 1 794), S4 ; !!■ el Od. mm sckoliis Didymi (Oxon. 1780, 1816 f); /;. tt Od. {i». 1800); //. Heyne (i8o»-ii), 40-43; 57 J /;. el Od. ed. Wolf (1804-^7), 54 i Dindorf and Franke (i8i4f) ; //, Od. etc. Bothe(i83i-s), 103; Homeri Carmina el Cycli Epid reliquiae, Dindorf (Par. 1837 f, 's6)i n. el Od. Dindorf, with Sengebnsch, Dissert. (18550; Bekter ('58), 86; La Roche, Od. (1867), //. (-73); II. tt Od. Nauck (1874-7), '5' ! //. Spinner (1831-6), 105. Trol- lope ( 1 847'), Doederlein ( 1 863-4), it3, Paley (1867), 4OQ, Pierron, Mistriotes (1869), Uaf (1886-8, 1900-1'); //. el Od. Leeuwen and Da Costa (L. B. 1897*) ; Ludwig, Od. [889, //. 190J ; //. Rzach (1886), Caaer ; Od. Metty and Monro, 413 ; HaymBn ("66- 'Si). German school-editions, FaM-Francke, Ameis-Henlze, La Roche, DUntzer ; Abel on Od. 391: scAelia on II. 86, 146, 355; Od. 8s. 14' Fabricius on Homer, »; Gesner's lectures, 8; Herder, 31, 31, 34f. ,17; WolTs. lectures, 53; Lehrs on, t07; Cobel on, 284; Glad- stone, 413 ; Placers on the Alexandrian editors, 1S7 Homeric Grammar, Abel, 391 ; Monro, i88), '91'; Bieliaev on hiatus in Od. 386 ; Leeuwen and Da Costa, Encheiridien dictiotiis eficae (L. B. iSoi) ; Vogrini, Grammalii ( 1 889) ; Language,

' A 84;

0. BS'l Classen, Beebachiungea (i867);Hartel, 5;M/f>n(r87l-4); Menrad, Conlraelio el Synizesit (:886); Schullie, Quaesl. Ep. (1893); Solmsen, Zmff- und Vers- Uhre (1901); Lexicons; Damm, 6j; Buttmann, 84; Ind. Horn. Seber (Oxon. t78o), Gehring (Lips. 1891) ; Lex. Ebeling ('85), Pantazides, 373 ; Concordance, 434; C. E. Schmidt, Parallel- homer (G6tt. '%%). Kealien ; Friedreich ( 185 1 ), Buchholtz (1871-85), 149, Helbig (1887'), Reichel, H'o^b( (894). Seymour's Homeric A ^{\aoi),i,<>y, Homei and Art, i6f; Flaxman, 58; Archaeolagy', Overbeck, Bild- werke (1853), Wormann, Oifyi landsthaften (1876), Engelma Bilderallas (1889); Mythology, 387; Theology, 106, 186; Trans- lations, Danish, 31S; Engl, prose. Butcher, Lang, Leaf and Myers verse, Worsley and Coningtor ('6i~8), 413; II., Cowper, New- man; Blackie, 417, Lord Derby, 413, Merivale, 440; Fr. 161; German interest in, 8, 30; transl. Damm, 9; Voss. 61-63 ; Goethe, '- modem Gk, //., 355, 375

6d.\

373

The Homeric Question ; Wolf, 55 f (Volkmann, 184); Hermann, 93 ; Nitzsch, 105; NageUbach, Spohn 106; Lachmann, I3o;5chomann, 167 n. 3;K(ichly, I3if ;Nulihoni, 330 f; Mistriotes, Nicolaides, 371; Blass, 173; Grote, 438; Paley, 409 ; Blackie, Geddes, 438 ; Jebb's Introd. 413 ; Monro, 43J ; Wilamowitz, Phil. Urtl. % Gilbert Murray; Fiosler. Edd. Kochly, Iliadis Carmina xvi (1861), Kirchhoff, Od. (1879^), Christ, //. {1884), 154, Od. 11. Fick (1883-6)

Batrachomyomackia, Damm (1733- 5), 9f; Ilgen (1796), 63; Ban- meislei (1853) ; Abel (1886), 391 ; Ludwicb (1896) ; Brandt in Corp. ep. Cr. ; modem Gk, 355

Hymni Homerici; Ilgen (1J96), 63; A. Matthiae (1805), 75; Hermann (1806), qi ; Franke ([818} \ Baumeister(*6o); Gemoll (:86) ; Abel('86), 391 ; A. Goodwin

lOO'

SIC

('93); Allen and Hikes (1904I; Hyoai to Demtler, Voss (i8i6J, 61 ; BUcheler ('&»), Puntoni ('q6) : 388 ; Engl, transl. by J. Edgar (1801) and A. Lang (1899) ; Dttian Apelh, (ransl. by Goethe, b^; Index, Gehring (1^5)

HomoUe, Th^ophile, 166 If

Hopf, Carl, 131

Horace, FacsimiU of Cod. Birntnsis (L. B.); ed.Gesner {\^i,1, 'ji, '88 etc), 6; DiiriTig (1803-34 etc.), 65; Fea and Boihe (1S11-7) ; Meineke (1834 elc), 118, 193; Orelli (1837 f, etc.), 161 ; Dillen- bnrger(i 843 elc.) ; DUntzer { r 849, '68f);C.W. NauckandG.T.A. Krtlger (1851-7 etc.); Macleane (1853 etc.), 430 n- 3 ; Fi- Ritter (1856-7I, 101 ; L. Muller, j " -

with Index (1669); King and Munro(i869), 431 ;Haupt (1871); Wickham ([874-1896); Piessy- Lejay (1903); Vollmer (1907)

Tale, Horaliut ReslUutia (1833, 'J7)> 4»9 ; Odes, ed. Peerlkamp, 177; Lehrs on, 108; Lachmann, 119; ed. Page (1883); Carmen Sate, 146 ; Sat. Heindorf, 65, 84! W. E. Weber; A. J. H. Frilische (1875HS) ; Rich, 431; Palmer, 437; Sat. and Epp., Doederlein, 113 5 F.pp. F. E. T. Schmid {i8j8-30)i 1, Obbarius, ii, Riedei; Epp. and A. P., Ribbeck, 188; Wilkins, 434; Peerlkamp on ^. P. a.aASal., 178

Transl. Engl. Coninglon, 43J : spades, Sal. and Epp., Howes (1845); Germ. Sat. and Epp., Wieland, 36. Scholia, Porphyrio ed. W. Meyer {i8;4); Usener, 184; W.Christ on Horace. 154; Jacobs, 64 ; Kaislen, i%i ; Kiess- 3lng, 185; Herder, 3S, and Lessing, 15,30; M. Schmidt, 153 ; Seltar, 435

Aiialecta Horatiana. Herti, 193,

^; Manitius (1S93) : Paldanus, Imitatione Hor. (Greife. i85i);Benoist,//.cn France, 159; Stemplinger, Fortleben der Hor.

1 Horace and Vii^il,

Hosius, Carl, 194 Hottinger, Johann Jacob, 161, 165 Hudemann, E. E., 115 Huebner, Emil, 338 f; 100, 147 Huel, Pierce Daniel, 340; i : Hug, Arnold, 160 Hulleman, J. G., 37f; 187 Hultsch, Friedrich Olto, 185 Humanism, (he New, 7, 43 Humann, Karl, 130 Humboldt, W. von, 81, ii6

Huygens, KonslanCyn, 389

Hyginus, Astroitomica, Bunte (1875); lii. Hasper {1861); Fabutat, Bante (i85j);M. Schmidt {1B73), 153

Hypereides, F. G. Kiessling on, 171; /« Dem. (1850), pro Lye., pro Eux. (1853), Or. Fun. (1858 f), ed. pr, Babinglon, 4(1 i 171; Lj/c, Eux. Scbneidewin, 111; Eux. Linder, 350 ; Eux. el Or. Fun. Cobel, 384, Comparelti, 149; In Phi!ippidem,ed.pr. Kenyon (i8qi), 448 ; lit Athenag., ed. pr. Revillout (1889, '91); Oral. Sex, Blass {1894*); Kenyon

lambiichus. Vita Pythag. Kiessling (1816); Nauck ('84), 151; De Mysteriis, Parthey ('57)

Iceland, 318

Ideler, (i) Christian Ludwig {i;66 -1846), 99; (i) Julius Ludwig (1809-1843), 187

lemsledt, V. K., 386

Ihne, Wiihelm, 13;

ligen, Karl David, 63 f; 90, 93, no

India, Heeren on the Commerce of, 77; Fr. von Schlegel on the Lan- guage and Wisdom of the Indians, 73

Inscriptions, Locrian, 370: of Lycia and Cyprus, 153; see also Greek and Latin Imeripiiims

Inveiniii, Filippo (d, 1831), 86, 144

loannes Damascenus, 150

loannina, schools of, 359, 361

loannu, Philippos, 374

/oh, Schlegel's, 73, J4

Ionian Islands, 3^5 f, 368 f, 375

Iphicrates, Chabnas and Timotheus, Rehdanlz on, 169

Isaeus, in Reiske's Or. Graeti, and in Bekker's, and Bailer and Sauppe's Or. Attici; ed. Schomann, 105 f; Wyse (1904); Or. \\, De Meneclu

|.Mi,1^.00t^lc

; Or. i, De hertd. Cltonymi, Mai (iSij), 141; Engl. Ir., W. /ones (1779); Fr.. Dareste (1898)

Isidore, Elym., Faaitnilt of Cod. Tolelattus (L. B. 1908)

Isocrates, in Or. Graeci and Atlici; ed. Koraes (1807), 361 f: Benseter (1852 etc., ed. Blass, '78), t68; Drenip (1906 0; Panig. Moras, 14, Spohn, 106; Paneg. etc., Bremi, 164 f, O. Schneider, 15;, Rau- chenstein, t6j, Sandys; adDivan. G. F. Bekker, 301, Erik, 336; AnHdosis [De Ptrm.) ed. OreHi, 161, Mystoiydes, 370, Fr. uajisl. Cartelier, 161 ; Fr. iransl, of Opera, Ctermont-ToDDetre ; Kyprianos on, iTi: Index, T. Mitchell (Ox. 1818), Preuss 1 1 9O4) : scholia, 145

Italy, 1800-ltOO, 141-7; Chranolo- gical Table, 49; Goeihe in, Sgf; Mommsen's 'Dialects of Lower Italy', 135; Biicheler, 481

Ithaca, 124

Ivanov, G. A., 385

Jacob, Johann Friedrich, 117 Tacobi, Hcinrich, 118 Jacobilz. Karl Gottfried, 185 Jacobs, Christian Friedrich Wilhelm,

64 f; 114, »:7, 4S4 Jahn, Otto, no f; 141, 148, 166,

173, 19;, 481 Jan, (1) Ludwig von (1807-69), loi;

(I) Karl von (b. 1836), 139 Jannaris, A. N., 3JS i- 7 tanssen, L. J. F., j8i Jebb, Richard Claverhouse, 413-3;

403 f, 484; portrait, 411

Jeep, Ludwig, 194, loi eli; W. E., 4H Jersin, J. D., 3.1 Tenisilem, MSS, 372, 378 Johnston, Arthur, 416; ii 149 Jordan, Henri, ^oa Josephus, ed. Dindorf (1845-9); Bekker (1855-6), 86; Niese ('87- '95); Naber ('88-96) ; on primitive w'ing, s5 Jowetl, Benjamin, 418 f; 414, 441 /urh Romani Syntagma ,Heinecke's,4 Justin, C. H. Frotschet (1817-30);

Jeep (1859 etc.), 101 Juvenal, Acbaintre (1810); Kuperti (l8i9-5o');Heinrich(i839f), iioi

430; Weidner(i873); Friedlander (1895); Dulf; Housraan (190J); Falsler on Sat, xiv, 316; Conielis- sen oD the Life of Juvenal, 188; Scholia, i6j; Engl. tr. J. D, Lewis (l88i>)

Kaibel, Geor%, 154 f Kampmann, Karl Ferdinand, 73 Kant, Hermann and, 90 Karsten, (1) Simon, 981 f; 176; (1)

H. T., 181 Kastorches, E., 371 Katkov, 383 Kazan, 386

Keightley, Thomas, 419 Keil, Heinrich, iai; 113, 113 Keller, Otto, 191 Kellennann, oWs, 319; 1:9 Kelliw, Martin, 465 Kennedy, (i) Benjamin Hall, 403 f;

181, 401, 40s f, 408; 434; (t)

Charles Rann, 405 Kerameus, Daniel, 359 Key, Thomas Hewitt, 419 Kharkov, 387

Kidd, Thomas, 393; ii 4)9 f Kiepert, Heinrich, 117 f Kiessling, (1) Johann Gottlieb

('777 — '^49)1 ^- Theocritus

(1819), Tacitus ([819-40); (i)

Friedrich Gustav (1809-1884).

164, 171; (3) Adolph Gotllieb

(1837-1893), 185, 198 Kiev, 384 f King, C. W., 431 Kingsley, James Luce, 461 Kirchhoff, Adolf, 478; 98, 150 Kirchner, Karl, 193 Klausen, Rudolf Heinrich, 166 Klenie, Leo von, 213 Klopstock, 57, 61 Kloti, (1) Chrisiiao Adolf, 18 f; 14,

33; (i) Reinhold, 115 f; 109, 195,

Knight, Richard Payne, 99; Ii 434

Knos, O. v., 3Sr

Kock, Theodor, 155

Kodrikas, Panagiolakes, 364; 363

Kochly, Hermann, r3i-4; 171

Kohler, (1) Heinrich K. E., 390; (1)

Ulrich, 211 Konigsbet^, 103 f, 107 f

,1^.00'

gic

5o6 IND

Kohlmann, Philipp, 194

KoUuthos, ed. Abel, 391 ; see Cdulhos

Kolroodin, Olof, 351

Komos, K. S., 373, 375 n- 7 ; 184

Kopp, Joseph, 113

Koraes, (ij Antonios, 356; (i) Ada-

mantios, 361-4; 186, 359, 365-8,

370. 373- 375. 454 Korn, Otio, 193

Koitie jCortiua), Goitlieb, 4, loo Kranei, Friedrich, 101, 479 Kiarup, Niel3 Byg^m, 318 Krebs, Johann Tobias, 14 Kreyssig, Johann Gottlieb, lOi Kritz, Justus Friedtich, loo, loi Kriukov, D. L., 385 Kroneberg, I. I., 3S9 Krilger, (i) Geoi^ Theodor August,

103; (-i) Karl Wilhelm. 119; 108 Kudiiavtsev, 385 Kilhn, Kail Goltlob, 187 KUhnast, Ladwig, 101 Kiihner, Raphael, 110; 171 Kiisler, Ludolf, 3; ii 44s f Kuhn, Adalbert, 106, 14a Kumanudes, Stephanos, 3831 371 f,

Kumas, Konstantinos, 364

Laborde, lAin de, 166

Lachmann. Karl, [17-131; 118, 117 n. 6, 118, 134, joo, 380; portrait, 116

Lactantios, MS of, 333

Ladewig, Theodoi, 191

Lagerlof, Petrus, 344

Lagergren, ). P., 351

Lagomarsini, Gltolamo, 80

Lane, Geoige Martin, 456

Lange, Ludw^, 110, 136

Langen, Peter, 143

Language, Science of, 305-111; Borch, J13 f; Herder, 33; W. von Humboldt, 68

Laocoon, 16-19; 4^i 1°' date, 319

Lfdin Classics in MA, Traube on, 195; transl. by C, Nisard, 353 GraBimar ; Grammalici Lalini, ed. Keil, 103; DtTimark; Jer^n, Bang, 311, Ancherson, Baden, 316, Madvig, 310; England; Donaldson, 409; Key,4i9; Ken- nedy, 403; Roby; Franct; Bur- nout, Guerard, Dellour, Chas- sang; Germany; Hubner's Out- lines, 138, Kiihner. no, K. L. Schneider, 134, Schweizer-Sidler,

loi, K. G. Zatnpt, 114; Greict, Philetas, 369 ; Netherlands, Gan- trelle, 196; United Statis, PCAea and Greenough, 458 f, Harkness, 457, l^ne, 457, Gildersleeve and Lodge (1894), Hale and Buck ('903)

Accidence, Neue, 114; Alphabet, Ritschl, 141 ; Orthography, Oberdick, 1 54, Brambach ; Pani- cles, Ribbeck, 188; Pronuncia- tion. 141 f, 433, 457; Style. Nagelsbacb, 106, Kloli, 115; Synonyms, 113; Syntax, Drager, lot, Kiihnast, 101, KJemann, 159

Inscripism,!^, 135, *37, 143. ■^^6, 161, 164, 168, 319, 401 ; Cerpui Itucr. Lot., 119. 537 f, 145, 147

LangUB^, ages of the, 313; His- toria Critics Lalinae LiitgTiae, 4; early Latin, 140 f, 460; con- versational Latin, 7; cursory reading, S; Latin in England etc.. 419-437, France, isr, 158 f, Germany, 117-143, 188-104, Greece, 369, 371, Holland, 188, 390. Hungary. 391, Italy, 143 f, United States, 450. 470

Lexicography, 103 f, 15T, 313; Etymological Diet. ,111; Latin- Anglo-Saxon glossary, 317; Lat.- Danish, Danish-Lat. Diet., 314, 316; Lat.-EngL, Key, 430, Neltleship, 436, Riddle and Arnold, Andrews, 467, Lewis and Short. 457, 467, Smith. 43: ; Engl.-Lat., Smith, 437; Lat.- Fr., Fr.-Lat. Quicherat, 151, Diet, of Proper Names, Thesau~ rus Pcelicus, Addenda Lexicis Lalinis, id. igl ; Lat.-Germ., Hederich,4; Gesner,6, 9, Schel- ler, lof, Klotz, 115, Freund, 135, Geoi^s, 103; Lingucu Latinae Thesaurus, 199 f; Gerni.-Lal., Scheller, 10, Bauer. 14; Lat.- Greek, Ulrich, 371 ; Lat.- Russian, 387 ; Lat. -Swedish, Swedish-Lat., 349-51

Literature, Hlijiners outlines, 138; Fabricius, 1, Teuffei, 113, Bem- hardy, 111, G. A. Sitncox, 434; Mackail (ed. 3, 1896): Scbanz, (1800 f); Latin Poets, Patin, 151; D. Nisard, 151; Setlar, 435; Dra- matists, fragm. ed. Ribbeck, ig8i Herder on Latin influence

A.oogic

507

in modem German;, 31 (; Versi- fication, 313; Verse-Composilion, in EnglMid, 408, 410, 434. 440; France, 351; Germany, 94; Nettierlands, 177 f, Fuss, joi; Sweden, 337, 343 f, 349 f, 35. ; value of. igo, 349. See also Poetat Lalini, iM Falaeegre^hy Lanremberg, Johan, 311 Laurium, mines of, 98 Law, (1) Ancienl, 440; (1)' Greek, Thonissen on, 305; Hiriel, ThemU, Dike,undVenB<mdtes(\<;f:>i)-, Attic Law, 161, t66, 168, 33* f, 30s f.

?9i ; Beauchet, Hist, du droit privi 1S07); Dareste, Haussoultier, Th,

L.W, w. ;, «j

Layanl, Sir Austen Flenry. 443 Leake, William Martin, 441 ; r64,

Le Bas, Philippe, 164; i63 Lechevalier, Jean Baplisle, J55 LeClerc, Joseph Victor, 161 LtgesAnnaUs, Nipperdeyon the, 1 17,

Lehmann, Johann Gottlieb, 181; Lehrs, Karl, 107 (; 93, riS, 193 Leibnitz (Leibniz), Gotift led Wiihelm,

Leipzig, II (gems); 14, 89 f Lempriere, John, 431 n. 1; 466 Lennep, David Jacobus van, 176 Lenormant. Cliarles and Francois,

165 f, 194 Lentz, August, ro7 Leontiev, 38J Leskien, August, 909 Lessing, Gotlhold Ephraim, 34-30;

Lagoon, j6-i8; 11, S4i Lessing

atHi Kloti, 14, 38 f; Reiske, 17;

Herder on, jj ; Goethe on, 37, 39,

of

69

LevSque, Charles, a66

Levkias, A. G., 374

Lewis, (r) Charlton Thomas, 467 :

(3) Sir George Cornewall, 439; 5,

83, 380; (3) Tayler, 467 Lewis and Short's Latin Dictionary,

467

Ltxilogus, Butlmann's, 84 Leyden univ., foundation, 39J centenary, 185 ; mss, 118 344 ; Museum, 395 ; visi Dobree and Gaisford, 397; F. D. Allen on, 460 Leyden, John, 436 n. 1 Libanius, Oratiotus et Did., ed. Reiske (1791-97), 17 ; Forster (1903 f); iff. J. C. Wolf, 345. 347 Licinianus, Granius, 184 Liddell, Henij Geot^e, 41S Liddell and Scott's Greek lexicon,

418, 417, 466 Lieber, Francis, 83 n. 3, 456, 463 Li^ge, univ. 391 f, 399 f Likhudes, 384

Limbourg-Brouwer, Pieter van, 381 Lincoln, John L., 457 Lindemann, Friedrich, 81, 140 Linder, Karl Vilhelm, 350 Lindfors, A. O., 347 Linwood, William, 411 Lippert's Dactyliotheia, 31 Lipsius, 309; C. Nisard on, 153; ii

301 f .

Littr^, Maximilien Paul Emile, 151 Livius Andronicus, L. MUller, 190 Livy, Verona palimpsest, 197; fac- simUi of Vienna ms (L, B. 1 907) ; edd. 301; Gesner, g; Strolh and Diiring, 6; ; Bekker and Raschig, 87; Twiss (Oson. .840 f); A|. schefski, 101; Hertz, 199; Mad- vigand Ussing, 33a f, 315: Weis- senbom. 101; Zingerle (rSSs) i, Sceley (.871), 436; iii-i, xxi. xxii, xxix, xxx, Laterbachet (1891-4); V, Whibley; vi. Ste- phenson; xxi, Frigell, Dimsdale; xxi — xKx, Filgner, Wolfflin j ixi-xxv, Riemann and Benoist;

H. J. MUller; xxvi-xxx,' Rie-

mann and Homolle ; xxvii, Stevenson On text, Frigell, 3S1 ; Havant (t88o): MoDimsen, 197; Rie- roann, 159; Wesenbe^, 314; Livy studied by Guy Moril- lon, 304 i Taine's Essai (1856) ; Capes, InlroducUon (1889); Kiihnast, Syntax (1871); FUg- ner, Ux. A— B (1897); Eng. transl. xxi— xxi v, Church and Brodtibbj Swedish, 351 ; Freins-

A.OO'

IC^IC

508 INE

heim's conlinualion, 340; Peri-

137 B.C.). Oiyr. Pap. iv

Ljungberg, 3S'; Ljungboig, 177

Lobeck, Christian August, loj f; on Creiuer, 67; on Comp. Philo- logy, 105; his pupils, 105-8

Loccenias, Johannes, 338; 343

Looted t, Einar, 350

Lowe, Gustav, 140

Logan, James, 4J1

Logic, Frantl on the Kislory of, 181

London, British Museum, Greek inscriptions, 119, 44J ; sculpture, 444f, ^fi-^S; MSS. no, 354, 380, 448; Univeraty College, 419 ff

Long, George, 430, 436

'Lon^niis' irepl J^ouc, ed. Moms (1707)1 '4; Bodoni (Parma, 1793); B. Weiske (Leipz^, 1809); Kova- levski {Wilna, i8ij); Egger (1837), iSS; Jahn {i86j, ed. Vahlen, %;, to; Rhys Roberts, with

(iSi^o), Prickard (1906)

LongiDus, Cassins, Rhii., 179

Longolius, Paul Daniel, j

Longp^riec, Adrien de, 166

Longus, ed. G. H. Schaefer (1803); Courier (1810, '19), 150; Hirschig, Ser. Britici; Pikkolos (r866), 369

Lorenz, August, 143

Louvain, univ., 19a f, 301-9; CoUe- giian Trilingtu, 304 ; ms, 330

Lucan, ed. Ang. d'EUi (Vienna. i8ir); C. F. Weber (1811-31), Kortte (1818), 5; Lemaire (1830-1); Haskins (T8S7); Hosius (1891); Scheiia, Usener, t84, 194

Lncania, F. Lenormant on, 165

Lucanos, Nicolaos, 355

Lucat, Cyril, 354

Lucian, edd., 185; Dindoif (1840, '58); Bekker (1853), 86; Seltcla, V. A. Wolf (1786), 55; Di kUloria caiucriienda,(lieazet on, 6$; Lu- tius, Rohde, 186; Seiimium, ed. Klotz, 115; PhUepatrii, Gesner on (r7i5), 5 ; Latin iranst. Gesner, 5; German, Wieland, 36; Engl. Fowler; Asi'nus, transl. Courier, ajo; Lucian and the Cynics, Ber-

Lucilius, ed. Gerlach (1846); L. MUller (1871), 189; Lachmann

(1876), ,i8i Munio on (1877-9).

433; ed. Man (1904 f) Lucretius, Herder on, 31; FaciimiU

of Cod. Von. Obi. (L. B.); ed.

Forbiger (1818), 117 ; Lachmann

(t8sot. 1*8 f; Bemays (1851), 177;

Munro (1864), 433; Brieger (1894);

Giussani (1S96) ; C. Bailey (1900!;

Merril! (1907); iii, Heinze (1897);

Dutr (1903) ; V, Benoisl ( t884), 159;

Duff(i8to) LUbbert, Ediiard. 151 Lubker, Fiiedrich, iij Lilders, Otto, 111 Lugebil, Karl Joachim, 386 Lund, univ., 341; 331, 349 Lund, G. F. W., 31s

Luynes, Albert, Due d

Lycia, 133, 443

Lycophton, ed. Bachmann (1830);

Lysander (Liind, iBsg); HoUinger

i'Spi) l ^'- transl., Deheque, lOi ; laf., Ciaceri (1903) Lycuigus, in Oralarei Allici, 163 ; ed. Schuize (1789); Thorlac (1803), 3tj; A. G. Becker, Osann, Hem- rich ('11), no; Piniger ('14); Blume ('18); Baiter and Sauppe ('34), 163 f; Maetzner Cjfi), 164; Rehdanti ('76), [69; Halm on, igfi I Index, Foiman (1897); Fragrn. G. Kiessling, 164

301 ; Di Oste (1863)

Lysias, in Oratores Attki, 163; ed. Scheibe {1851, "74). 164; Westet- mann ('54), 163; Cobet ('63), 184; Dobree on, 400; Francken, tSi; Halbertsma, 187 ; Or. Stlectae, Rauchenstein, Frohbeiger, 165; Jebb (1880), Shuckhurgh (1885')

Lyitellon, George William, Baron, Milton's Conitis and Saimsn Ago- nislts, in Gk verse (1865-7); yfr" Transl. by Lyitellon and Gladstone (1861)

Macrobius, von Jan (1848-51); Eyssen-

hardt (1868). 100 Madrid and the Escurial, hss, 154,

i6of; ancient art, 138

OgIC

Madvig, JohanNicolu, jig-i [4 1 59i

577, 179. 185, 317; portrait, 310 Maelzner, Eduaid, 164 Magna Gtaecia, 265 Magni, Johannes and Olaus, 333 f Magnusson, Giidmundui, 318 Minne, Willem I^onardus, 175 f ;

163

Maiden, Heniy, 430

MalCby, Kdward, 393

Manetho, ed. Axtius and Rigler (1831); Kochly, .32 f

Mangey, Thomas, 347

Manilius, ed. Jacob (1846) 117; Hoasm^n {igo^); NixUs A/.,R. Ellis (1801); SilvaM., Poslgite (1897)

Mannhaidt, J. W. E., 140

Manulius, Aldus, 373; ii <)8f

Marathon, 314

Marcellus, Comle de, 361

MaiinuB, Vila Procli, ed. Fabricius,

Maitiat, ed. Schneidewin, 111, 194; W. Gilbert (1896*); Friedlinder

Et6}, 194; Lindsay (1903 etc.); sing on, 35, 30 Martin, Thomas Henci, 356 Martini, Olaus, 336 Martjn, John, 419 Majtynov, 384 Matthaei, Christian Friedrich (1744-

1811). 388; 1*460 Matthiae, (1) August Heinrich (1769-

'83s)i 75 ; (i) Friedrich Christian

(.7^3-iMM3)L»"r"'i''M'6").

336 Matthias Coivinus, 377, 390 fT; ii 375 MaCz, Friedrich, n6 Mavrocordalos, A. and N., 360 Mavrophrydes, 368 Mayhoff, C, 101 Maximus Tyrius, ed. Reiske, 18;

Dubner (1840) Meibom, Marcus, 340 Meier, Moriti Hermann Eduard, 168 ;

"3. 166 Meineke. August. 117-9; 104, 129,

147, 149, 177; portrait, 116 Meisterhans, Konrad, 114 Mela, Pomponius, ed. Parlhey (1867);

SchulUon. no

EX. 509

Memnon, statue of, i54

Manage, 341 ; ii 390

Menonder and Philemon, 117, 171;

Menander, Lefebvre (1907) ; Van

Leeuwen. Headlam (1908), 484 n. 4 Menander, on EtKomia, ed. Heeren,

77, and in WaU and Spengel,

Rhet. Gr. Menas (Minas or Mynas), Minoides,

380; 119. 1S4 Mendelssohn, (i) Felix, 98; (3)

Ludwig. 198; {3) Moses, 10, ij Mendoia, Diego de, 377, 379 Merimee, Prosper, 161 Merivale, Charles, 439 fi 436 Meikel, Rudolf, i93f; 157 Merobaudes, 81

Merriam, Augustus Chapman, 468 Metapontum, 165 Metaxas, Nicodemus, 354 Meteorology, Ideler on, 187 Mctrka, de re, Latin writers, ed.

Gaisford, 397; L. MUller, 189;

Mtlrik. Rossbach and WestpMl,

158; H. Schmidt, ijS : Christ on

metre, 154; Photiades, 365 Metrology, Hultsch on, 185; 198 Meyer, (i) Gustav, 109 ; (1) Heinrich,

70; (3) Leo, 107; (4) W., 194 Mezger, Friedrich, 151 Michaelis, Adolf, 301, 111 Michel, Charles. 308 Middle Ages, Haase on the, 139 Middleton, (1) John Henry, 447 ; it)

Thomas Fanshaw (1769-1811), 401 Milan hss, no, i39f, i4tf, 167 Miletus, 169

Miller. B^nigne Emmanuel Clement, ,154; 377 f. 380 Millin, Aubin Louis, 263 Milton. 339. 356; ii 344 f Mmervini, Giiilio, 145 Minucius Felix, ed. Lindner (1760

etc.) ; Murallo (1836) ; Holden

(i8s3); Halm {'67) ; Comelissen

('81), 188; Baehrens C86), :9i :

Wopkens Adv. ('35) Mionnet, Theodore Ednie. 169 Mislriotes, G., 372 f Mitchell, Thomas, 410 Mnernasyne, 184 Modena MS, 86 Moerbeke. William of, i8i Moeris, ed. Koch (1830); Bekker

(183J), 87 Mollerus (Hessus), Henricus, 337 Mororasen, (i) Theodor (1817-1903),

,1^.00'

gic

510 INI

'97^. »3S-8i 67, I3J, 307; por- trait, *34; (j) Tycho {1810-1900), ■ 'Ji; (3) Augast (b. 18^0, 136 Moncouit's tiansl. of SallusI, 161 Monk, James Henry, 400; 144 Monro, David Binning, 413 ( Montfaucon, 343 ; ii 3S5 f Moods and Tenses, Gk, Goodwin,

456, 458; Gk and Lat., Reii, 19 Atvraifa, Opuscula Graecenim, 101,

More, Sir Thomas, 309 ; ii 419 Morell, Thomas (1703-84), 393 n. 3 Morgenstem, Karl, 390 Mocillon, Guy, 304 Moms, Samuel Friedrich Nathaniel,

M, 18 Moschns, Bion and, ed. Hermann

(1849), 93 ; also, with Bion and

Theocritus, ed. Jacobs, Gaisford,

Meineke, Zi^ler, Ahiens, Hartung,

Fritzsche, Wilamowitz Moschus, Demetrius, 86 Moscow, 384 f Moser, Georg Heinrich, 66 Milllenhofft Tac. Gtrm., 901 MtUler,(l)Carl, 171; (i) KarlOtfried,

113-6; 63, 70. '". 149. ii5> 401;

portrait, 111; {3) Lucian, 189 f;

'93. 389; U) Fr. Max, 410; 17;;

(5) Otto, i»(4 MUller-Striibuig, Hennann, 156; 303 Munler, Friedrich, 317 Mullach, F. W. A., 173 Munich, Academy, 180; Univ., no,

III, 48of; Mss, :7, 151, 196 Monro, H. A. J., 431-4; ii7f, 131,

"77. 3»l. 435 i portrait, 431 Mure, William, 439 Murray, Alexander, 446 Musaeus, ed. J. B- Carpzov (1775) ;

Hcinrich(i793),iiOiDilthey(i874);

Schwabe on, 483 Musie Beige, 308 Mmici Griud Striptora, von Jan,

159; Greek Music, 199, 314, 413,

460 Mycenae, 114, 117 Myra, herom near, 136 Myron's Cow, Goethe on, 71 JUyrrhiaa vasa, J, F. Christ on,

Mystoxydes, Andreas, 369; 381 Mylhoii^, 339f; Creuzer on, 65;

Forchhammer, 137 ; Hederich, 4 ;

Heyne, 43; Lehts, 1071'; K. O.

Miillei,ii4; Pieiler, 174; Voevoski,

Kaber, Samuel Adrianus, 187 Nagelsbach, Karl Friedrich, 106; 113 Niike, August Ferdinand, 109 Naevius in Ribbeck, Trag. Rom. (1897'), 188; ed. L. Miiller

(18

■ 'S"„,

CI. Rutilius, ed. Damm {.7&.), 10; J. C. Kapp (1786); A. G. Zumpt (1840) ; L. MUIIer (18701,189; Ves5erau(i904); Keene (190;) Naples, MSS, 8t, 449; Museum, 365 Napoleon I, 370; HI, 161, 170; 133 Nauck, August, 149-151 ; 113,389

Nau

Naud^, Gabriel, 340

Naudet, Joseph, 350

Neil, Robert Alexander, 416; 417 f

Nemesianus, ed. Haupl, 135 f

Neo-Platonism, Creuzer, 65

Nepos, Cornelius, ed. Bremi (1796 elc.l, ito; Heinrich (1801), no; Nipperdey (18491,1 17,101 ;Roersch (1*1, '84), 300; Halm (1 8; 1, 's), 196; Cobel('8i); Andresen ('S+J; Weidner f84) ; Ortmann ('8ffl ; Lugehil, 386 ; illustrated ed. Erbe (1886, '91) ; Herder on, 31

Netherlands, 1800-1900, 175-309 ;

19a ; the Netherlands and England, 386; (3) Belgium, 191- 309 ; N^ve, 304, and Roersch, 301, on the humanists of the S. Nether- lands; Peerlkamp and HoeuITt on the Latin poets of the Netherlands, 177 f

Netlleship, Henry, 435 i i3i>i43'>-5< 101, 103 n, 4, 333, 467

Neue, Christian Friedrich, 134

Nive, FiWn, 303 f

Newman, W. L., 411

Newton, Sir Charles Thomas, 443-5

New York. 451, 466-8

Nicander, ed. J. G. Schneider, Alexi- pkannaca (1791). Thtriaca (i8i6), II ; Nicandraiy ed. O. Schneider (1856), 157, 103; Schoiia, ed. Dubner, 173

" goras, 344 I

IS, 30

O^^IC

S"i

Nicolaus Dnmascenua, ed. Kota^, 361 Nicosios, Panagiotakes, 360 Niebuhr, Barthold Geoi^, 77-81 ; 98,

101, 113, 136; portrait, 76 Nippetdey, Karl Ludwig, 117, 101 Nisard, Uteire and Charles, 351 f Nilzsch, (i) Gregor Withelm, 105 f;

93,l67;(i)KarTwithelmlhistorian),

136; 130 Nizolius, AiUibarbams, t; ii 146 Nobbe, Karl Friedrich August, 195 No«hden, Georg Heinrich, 1 to Nolhac, Pierre de, 367 Nonius, ed. Geilach and Roth ( 1841),

100; Quicherat (iS;i), iji ; L.

Muller (i888), 190; Onions, lib. i-iii

(■895), 436 Nonnus, DioHysiaca,eA.Gia.efe (1S19-

i6),388;K6chly(.8s8), 133; vin-

xiii, Moser (1809) ; ¥t, tiausl. , 161 Norberg, M., 349 NomnaD, Lars, 344f Norway, 330-1

Navellcu, ed. SchoU and Kroll, 178 Nukios, Nikandros, 35 s Numismatics, Spanheim on, 341 i

Fabricius, 1 ; Heyne, 41 ; Eckhel, ; Rascbe. 45 ; Mionnet, Cohen,

Origen, Philosophumena, 154, 381 Orfhica, Gesner, s ; Hermann, 93 ; Abel, 391 ; Miss J. E. Harrison, ProUg. lo...Gk Religion (1908^, c. ix-xii and Appendix Orsini (Ursinus), Fulvio, 167 Ortygia, Voss on, 63 Or\is and Orion, Ritschl on, 139 Orvilte, d', Chaiilon, 15 Osann, Ft., ed. Lycurgus, 164 Oscan, Mommsen, 135 ; Biicheler, 481 Oslerdyk's Dutch transl. of Horace's

Odes and Epoda, 111 Osthoff, Hermann, 109 Ostracism, Lugebil on, 386 Overbeck, Johannes, IJ5 Ovid, edd. 193 f; N. Heinsius' ed. 1661, ed. Ernesti and J, F. Fischer (Leipzig, 1773)1 Burman's ed. 1717 (Oxon. 1810, with Bentley's noles) ; Merkel {18S0-1). ed. Ebwald, i (t8S8); Riese(i87[-4); Sedlmayer, Zingerle, Guthling; in Postgate'i Corpus {:894); Amores, Gnippe

(i8

?)1

Waddinglon, 168;

Nutzhorn, H. F. F., 316 Nyerup, Rasmus, 317

Oberdick, Johannes, [54

Obsequens, Julius, ed. Jahn, no

Oceanus, Voss on, 63

Odescalchi, Don Liviu, 341

Oeconomides, 1. N., 370

Olympia, 113, nSf; 170

Omont, Henri, 167

Oncken, William, iSi

' Onesander', ed. Koraes. 361

Onions, j. H., 436

Oppian, ed. Schneider {1776), it; scholia, 171

Oralaris Graeci, Reiske, 17 ; Atlici, W. S. Dobson (1817) ; Bekker, 87, Baiter and Ssuppe, 163; Blass on, 171; Jebb on, 4J3f; Benseler on hialus in, 168

Oichomenos, 114, 114

Orelli, (1) Johann Conrad, i6l ; (s) Johann Caspar, 161 ; 131, 177

Oresme, Nicolas, iai

Oribasius, Fr, tran^,, 157

Ortenlalion of Greek temples, 446

Mtillei (1861); Epp. ex Fanto, O. Kom (1868) ; Pasli, Giecig (i8n), Merkel (1841, V-'ji),Paley(l8s4. '64), 409, H. Peter (C889); Hali- rutita, Haupt (1S38} ; Nereides Lennep ((8ii'), Terpstra (L. B. 18)9) ; Loeis (1819), Palmer {1874, '98), 437, Sedlmayer (iSft6), Shuck- burgh (1879) ; Herder on, 31, Lehrs, loS; Lachmann, ng ; Met. Gierig (i8ii-3»). Bach (1831-6*, Baumgatten-Cnisius (1834), Loers (1843), Haupt (1854 etc.), 136, Kom (i8tH>], Zingerle (1S84), Magnus (1891'); Greek iransl. by Planudes, 1411 Lngl. G.Sandys, 4 so; German, Voss, 61; Tristia, Merkel (1837), Loers (1839), Ehwald (1884), Owen (Oxon. 18B9 etc.) ; Danish transl., 316 ; /dis (with Tristia, Merkel (1837); Ellis (Oxon. r88i); Epi- cedion Druti, Haupt, ijs

Owen, John, 38 ; ii 150

Oxford, Bodleian MSS, iji, 347, 397; scholars, 393-7, 4'S-4iS. 434"*

Paciaudi, Paolo Maria, 153 Packard. Lewis Richard, 463 Palae<^:Taphy ; Thompson ; CI. Lai. ChSielain; Exx. SteRens; see Trauie, Vtlsen, Wailenbach, Zange-

,1^.00'

gic

Palaephatus, ed. J, F. Fischer (1735

Paley, Frederick Aplhorp, 409

Palingnusis, Karslen on, iBi

Palmer, Arlhur. 436f

Palmyra, Heeren on, 77

FaHegyrici Laiim, ed. Baehrens, 191

PanoTkfl, Theodor, ii8; 194

Panlaiides, I., J72

Papadopulos-Kerameus, A., 371

Papageorgios, P, N., 371

Paparrigopulos, Const., 373

Papasliotes, 368

Pape-Benseler, Gk proper names, 168

Pappus, ed. Hullsch, 185

Papyri, 44S ; 480

Paris, Academy of Inscriptions, 171 ; 483 ; Mss, 377, 379; Louvre, 164, 166, 169; Univ., ij8

Paris, Pierre, 36;

Parke, John, 451

Parker, John Henry, 447

Parmenides, ed. Fiillebom (1795); Peyron (iSio),24i ; Karsten (1835), 381; Mullach (i860), 173

ParBeBiiographi Craeei, 1 jo f

Parr's Dtead, 393 ; Parr, 398 ; ii 41 1 f

Pasor, Georg, 38

Passow, Franz, 114; 65, 141, 16S

Patin, Henri Joseph Guillaume, 151

PalmOS, 167, 357, 359, 378 f

Patlison, Mark, 410; 177

Paucker, Karl von, 104

Paul, Hermann, 109 f

PauliDi Silentiarius, Lessing on, 19

Pauly, August. 113

Pausanias, studied by Winckelmann, 13; ed. Bekker (1816), 86; Schu- bart and Walz (1838-9), 183! L. Dindorf (1845). 146 ; Schubart (1853-4); HitzigandBlUmner( 1896- 1908) ; Detcriplie areis AlAinanim, ed. Jahn, 110; English transl. etc. Frazer, i8g8 ; French, Clavier (1814(1, 'S'! German, Schubarl (1857-63); G. Hirschfeld on, 319

Pearson's Adv. Htsychuma, 397

Peerlkamp, Petnis Hofman-, i76f

Peile, Thomas Williamson, 405; 403

Peiper, Rudolf, 194

Peiresc, Nicolas, 378

Pelham, Henry, 44I

Pellerin, Josei*, 44

Peloponnesus, E.Curtius on (iSji-l). 338; Beul* (185s), 166; Leake {1830-46), 441

Penrose, Francis Cranmer. 4451

Feigamon, 333, 130 ; Pergamene Perizonius, 79; ii 331

Perrol, Georges, 167

Persius, ed. Passow ([808-9), "S ; Achaintre (1813); E. W. Weber (1816); Quicherat (1818); Jahn (1843, 'si. 68), 194, iiof; Heinrich (1844), no; Macleane (1861), 430 n. 1; Pretor (1868, 1907); Coning- ton (l%^%, '74), 434) Gildersleeve (1875); imitated, 389; scholia, 161

Perugia, 331 f

Peter, (1) Hermann, 193; (3) Karl, '33; "I, 336

Petersburg, St, 385 f

Petersen, Frederick Christian, 318

Pelersson, P. J., 351

Petrarch's Latin Studies, 1S9 n. 1 ; life of Caesar, 115 ; ii 3-11

Petri, Olaus and I^urenlius (Olaf and Laus Petersson), 335 ; Petri Gothus, Laurenlias, 335, 337

Petronius, mss, 456 n. 5 ; ed. BU- cheler, 18S3*, 4S1 ; German transl., Heinse, 36; Ctna Trimaichionis, Friedlander (1891) ; W. E. Waters (Boston, 1903)1 Lowe, Kyan (1905); E. T. by H. T. Peck, 1898 ; Lexi- con, Lommatzsch, 1898 ; Matrona Ephesia, 386

Pelrus Hispanas, 358

Peyron, Victor Amadeo, 80, 341

Peizi, Domenico, 341

Pflugk, August Julius Edmund, 109

Phaedrus, Perolti, tl ; J. Baden, 316; Orelli (1831, '3) ; Eyssenhardt, loo; L. Miiller, 189

Pheidias, K. a MUller on, 3ij ; MUllet-Slrllbing, 156

Philadelphia, 451 f

Philaras, Leonardos, 356

Philemon and Menander, in Fragtn. Com. Cr., ii8f; is6

Fhiletas, Chrislophoros, 369

Philippi, Adolf, 333

Phillipps MSS, 381

Philo, 347

Philodemus, Sauppe, 164 ; Ussiiig,335

Philolaus, Boeckh on, 98

Philology, Classical, delinition of, 308f! Wolf on, 54; Beck, 14; Creiuer, 67; Niebuhr, 80; Ritschl, 141; HUbner, 139; Comparative PAilolo/y, 33, aos-iii, "Hi. 3'9''. 370. 410, 440, 4S8, 464; ignored

h. i.. ii,l^.OOQIC

by Hermann, 91, Lobeck, 103, Krilger, 119; Pkilologia saecu/i Plol. , 141 pkiletogiat studiasus, Sifi PMtoh^s, iioi; fhilelogut, grammalicut, eriikus, 107

Philon of ByzantiniD, 36of

Philoponus, Dindorf, 144

Philosophers, M^^rUn School of,

Philosophy. Ueberweg's History of Ancient, 183; Zelier's Gk PhUo- sophy, 477

Philostralus, T. Badenon, 3[6; Vila Apollonii, G. J. Beklter on, joi ; Htrdca (1806}, Eff. (r84i), ed. Boiasonade, 149 ; Gymtt. ed. Kayser (1S40); Cobeton, 184; PhiloslTali. Heyne on, 41; Goethe, 71; ed. Jacobs, 64, J17; Kayser (1840 etc., tS7of);Westennann(i849); Benn- dorf and SchenkI, ifio; Fiiederichs on, 115; Matz and Brunn, ii6f

Phlangines, 355

Phocirin, Betnays on, 178

Phocytidea. Bemays on the, i;7

Phorlios, Alexandres, 355

Photiades, Lampros, 365; 36S

Photius, BibiiBtkeca, ed. Bekker (1824 f), 87; Ltxicea, Hermann (1808). PotsoD and Dobree (1811), 399, Naber (i864f), 187

Phrygius, Sylvester Johannis, 337

Phrynichus, 354; ed. Lobeck, loj ; Rutherford, 415

Phyntiades, 368 ■

Pkysici el Media Grarei Minores, 187

Ficcolomini, Aeneas Sylvius, 333

Pikkolos, N. S., 369

Pietron, Alexis, -At

Pillans, Jame!i, 4 19

Hndar, ed. Heyne, 40, 51; Thiersch, iii; Boeckh, 97; Dissen, 114; Bergk,i47; Donaldson, 409; Tycho Mommsen, 151; Me^er, 151; Fenne!! (1879-83); Christ, 153; Seymour, Select Odes, 465; Gilder- sleeve, 01., PylA. 1885; Bary, JVem., Islkm.; Paeans, 448; Hermann on,

S3; Welcker, 117J Lubbert, iji; [. Schmidt, 153; Rauchenstein, [fi; ; Nem. vii, Holmes, 41 1; Jebb, 413; Lexicon, Damm, 9, Rumpel (1883) 1 several odes transl. by W. V. Humboldt, 68, and Goeihe, 69; Engl, prose tr. E. Myers; SeheKa, 107, 354 f, 379, 39-1

S. III.

Pindaric odes, Jebb's, 414

Pindanis Thebanus, in Wemsdorf, Pern. Lot. Min. {1785); Lachnuum on, 119

Knmer, G., 164

Pittakes, Kyriakos, 381

Ptantin, Olaus, 348

Planer, Ernst, 81

Plato, Bodleian MS, jiS, 397, Fac- simile (i8gS) ; ed. Bekker, with ichelia {t8i6-l3), 87; Ast (1819- 31], III; Stallbaum (1811-5), 161; Baiter, Orellt, Winckelmann (t 839- 41). 161 ; K. E. C. Schneider (1830- 3, 1846-S1), ii4f; K. F. Hermann ("8ji-3,'73-4), i6i;Schanz (1875 -87); ^\XTDeK(igoi);£HaleziSeleeli, J. F. Fischer, 14; Heindorf, 83; Afel., CrilB,Lackes,ed.CToa, 161; Aficl., Crito, Elberling, 314 ; W. Wagner, 1876'; Afal., Crile,Eu- Ihypkro, AAa.tD, 417; Afol. Riddelt, 419,411; Cralylus,]. F. Fischer, 14; Deuschle on, 163; C. Lenor- mant, a6s ! ^/A. ". T. Karsten on, j8i; Eutkyd. Winckelmann, 161 ; Eutkyd., Gotg. Routh, 393; fn/Aj^. Gilford, 4^1; Badham,4oS; Cron on, 361; Eufkyphro, Adam, 417; Gorg. Korafis, 361; R. B. Hirschig, 180; W. H. Thompson, 407; 367; Cron on, 161; E. T. by Cope; Ion, G. W. Nitisch (1811), Lackes, Badham, 40S; Leges, Ast, T. Lewis, 467; C. Kilter, Comm. on Laws (1898); Minex. Graves; Menu, E. S. Thompson; Parm. Maguire (1881), Waddell (1894); Pkaede, Heindorf; Geddes, iSSj*; Wagner, 1870; Archer-Hind. 1894';

E. T. by Cope ; Pkaedrus. Badham, 408, W. H. Thompson, 407 ; Pki- libus, Poste, 419, Badham, 408; /Vi«af. Wayte, Sauppe, 164; A.M. Adam, 417; A'i/.Jowett and Camp- bell, 419, Adam, 417 ; Soph., Polit. L. Campbell, 419; Symp.

F. A. Wolf, 53, Jahn, aio, Bad- ham, Relttg, Hug, 160^ Tktaet., Dissen on, 114, Campbell, 419; E. T. by Kennedy, 403; Timaem, Martin on, 156, Archer.Hind; Epp. Badham, 408; Ast's Lexiccm, \ii% Sckoiia, 460; Fr. tr. 251; Germ. fSchleietmacher), 8t f ; English (Jowett), 419; Gorg., Phaedo, Cope,

,33

.OO^^IC

4.08 ; IlaJ. 143 ; PrmopBgr^hia Ptatotaca, igo; Grote's Plate, 4381 Olympiodacuson.j^o; Psellus, 350; Adam (on Nuplial Number), 417 ; Asl, 113; Bemays, 17S;

11 Heusde, 176; W. Hum- boldt, 68; Susemihl, iSi; Teich- millltt, 179 ; Thompson, 407 ; Tiendetenbui^, 174; Ueberweg, 183; Usener, 184; J. J. Winckd- mann, 33; ZeUer, chronolt^ of Dialt^cE, 83, 477, 479

Plato Comicus, Fiagm., Cobet on, .83

Flaulus, T. Maccius, 341 ; Ambcosian palimpsest, 1 39 f, 14* f ; Facsimile of Codex PaiatinHsC{'L.'S.); PUutus, Terence and Catullus in MA, 194;

ed. Rilschl, 7 plays, 139-141 Fleckeisen, 10 plays, 141 ; wilt Latin notes, Ussing (1875-87), 335 ;

G. GoU and F. Scholl (i^J-6), 140; Amph. Palmer, 437; Asin. Gray; Aul., Men., Mil. CI., Trin. Vallauri, 341; ^a/. Fianclten, 381; Aul., Caft. Wagner, AuL, Men. Hildj-ard, 431 ; Bacch., Tntz. Kennann, 94; Cafil., Mil. GL, Trin. Lindemann; Capt., Men., Mil. Gl., Trin. Brix, 143; Capt; Most., Rud. Sonnenschein ; Capi. Lindsay; Oil., Rud. Benoisl, ijS; Epid. Jacob, 137, Gray; Mil. Gl. Ribbeck, 188, Tyrrell; Mi/. Gl., Most., Pieud. Loreni, 143; Mssl. Bu^e, 331, Ramsay, 439; Rud. Keiz, 19; Vidularia, fragm. Mai, 341; Be^k on, 147; Bugge, 333, 331; Kiessling, tSs; O. Seyffert, 143 ; Aul., Mil. Gl. perrormed, 304; Lcssing on Capl., Trin., 55 Pliny the elder, Bamberg us, 303; edd., 103 i Sillig (1851-8), 75; Dellefsen; Jan {1854 f), Mayhoff (i9o6f) i Ft. tr. by Grandagne (1839-33), Lillri(i848-5o); Ckres- lumalhia, J. M. Gesner, j, Uriichs ('857), 303; Ancifnl Art, Heyne on, 43; Jabn, 330, Brunn, 331; ed. Sellers and Jex-Blake (1896)

£ft^,flrf7Va/-Haidy(i889); Paneg. Scnwarz, 3, tr. by Damm, 10; Mommsen on Pliny's life, 197; Lagergren on his style, 351 Plotinus, Creuzer, G;; Volkmann, 184 Plutarch, ed. Reiske, 18; Diihner and Diibner (Didot, 1846-55), 371; Fr. Iransl. Talbot; Vilae, Koraes, 361 ; Bekker, 86 ; Sintenisf 18 39-46); Vitae Selnlae, Blass, 173 ; Holden, 411; Agis, CUomeat!, Schomann, 166 ; Dent., Cic. Graux, 361 ; Selon, Westeimanji, 163; Eng. transl. Langhome (new ed. 1876) ; Uryden- Clough (1874); Stewart and Long I188.) ; SeketLivis, Long (1844-6),

J 30 ; Fr. transl. Pienon, 361 ; .icard and Dauban (1861, '73^ ; mod.Gklransl.,373,38j. Moralta, Bemardakes, 373; Reiske on, 117; HalmDn,i96; Op. Moralia Seltcta, Winckelmann (ZUr. 1836) ; political treatises, Koraes, 363; Dt EI in Z>«/s*i>,Bernardakes,37i; Pythian dialogues, Palon (1893); Be facie in erbe lunae, Russ. Iransl., 385 ; Zli-^uijVa, Volkmann (1857), 1S3; Westphal (1865), i.sS; Be Aud. Poetis, Aubert; De Educ. Bailly; Moralia, Eng. trans., Goodwin (1871), King and A. R. Shillelo (1888); Philemon Holland's ^KVton Queitiens, ed. Jevons (1891) ; Larsen, Sludia Critica (1889); Plutarch on Poetry and Painting, »6; Trench, Four Lectures, 1873J Volkmann, 183; O. Grfaid (1866)

Pluygers, W. G., 387

Postae Lat. Minores, Frag. Poil. Lai., ed. Baehrens, 191

Foilarum Latinorum Corpus, (1) W. S. Walker (1837, '48) ; (3) W. E. ' Weber (1833); (3) J. P. Postgate (1893-1905)

Poets, ancient, compared by Schiller,

Poggio, Hochart on, 398

Polemon Periegetes, ed. Preller, 174; Egger on, 355

Polilian, Bemays on, 178 n. i

Pollux, Julius, OnoBiaslicBH, ed. Lederlin and Hemsterhuys (1706), 3; Dindorf (1814), 144; Bekker, (1846), 87 ; Rohde, I>t PoUucis in apparutu tcaeiiiio enarraadg fan-

ogic

Polyoenus, ed. Mursinna (1756); KoTaes(iS09),36i; WolffiiD(i86i>); Mystoxydes on, 370

Polybius, ed. Casaubon and Emesti (1763^,13; Schweighauser (1789- Qf), i-<j-.ed.Oxon. (iSii); Dubner (1839. '65'). i7'>; Bekke. (.844), 86; L. Dindorf (1S66-S. ed. 1, Blittner-Wobst), 146; Hultsch4 1867- 71, '88"), 185; Enel. tr. Shuck, bu^h, 415

Polygnotus, Goethe on, 70

Pompeii, »3, iij, )4S*'i ^64, 483

Ponor, Emit Thewrewk de, 391; see Fcitus

Poppo, Emst Fiiedrich, ijg

Porcher, E. A., 443

Potfyrius, Publilius Optatianus, ed. L. MUUer (1877), 189

PorphyriuE, Optue. Sel., VUa Pyth^ de antro Nymph., de aiitin., ad Mare. Nauck (i886<), 151 ; ScheHa Homeriuf, Noehden, no; C. F.

studiii Homericis {1853), Wallen- berg, De Porpk. slueUt! philohgicis J|8S4), Schrader, Parph. Quaesl. Homer. (iSgo); i,^opiuiX rpbi ra ro^A in Creuzer's Plotinus (1855) ; Oil Ar. Categ. Busse (1887); De philos. tr oraculis Aaurienda, G. Wolff (1856) i Bemays on Porph. de ahlia. (18W}. 177; Pseudo- Porph. Deerrorilius Ulixis, 344 n. 1

Person. SI, 91, 150, 393, J98ff; ii 401, 414 f

Portugal, 147

Portus, Franciscus, 354

Poseidonius, Bake (1810), 178; C. Muller in F. H. C. iii O860)

Poit, August Fiiedrich, 68, 106

Potter, Arch. Gr., 437

Poltier, Edmond, 167

PrantI, C^arl, iSof; 158

Praxiteles, Friederichs on, iij

Preller, Ludwig, i39r; 174

Prellwiii, W., ill

Prendergast. Guy Luahiagton, 414

Fresle, Bninet de, 163

Princeton, 451

Prinsterer, Groen van, iSo

Prinz, Rndolf, 155

Priscian, ed. Hertz, 199

Frobus, M. Valerius, CaiMiea, in Keil's Gram. lot. iv; De nolis

sx. 51S

antiquis, Mommsen ( 1 853), Huschke

('74) ; Ih Virg. Bueal. et Georg. Cmirn. Keil {'48), »03 Proclus, In Plat. Alcib. i et Farm. ed. Cousin (1810-7), '5^! ■/« ■Z^"'' Farm. Slallbaom (i83of), Tim. Chr. Schneider ('47); DiehUi9o6); In Flat. Rep. Kroll in BM. Teubn. ; In Cratylum, BoUsonade ('10) ; De

eanscriiKndis ef p. Westenaana {'i6}, Hercher Epp. Gr. ; Sphaera, Lau- reinberg(i6ii),3ii; Marinus, Vila

Prtxli, .1 Proclus, Chreslemathia, in Gaisfoid's

Hephaestion, Westphal's Scr. Me-

triii Gr., and 'Oxford Homer' Procopius. Dindorf (Bonn. 1833-8))

De Belle Gothice, ed. Comparetti

(1895-8), 144; Haary in Bild.

Teubn. ; De Aedificiis, 304, Engl.

transl. A. Stewart (1888) Prodicus, Welcker on, 117 Prometkeus, Goethe's, 69 Propertius, Lachmann (1S16, 19*).

118; Jacob (1817), 1171 Heitzberc

(1843-i); Keil {1850, '67), loif;

Haupt (1853, '68»), 136; Paley

('i3)i 409; L. Miiller ('70), 189;

Baehrens ('80), 191 ; Postgate,

Selections (1881') and in C. P. L.

(1893)! Phillimore (igoi); iv 11,

ed. Peerlkamp, 178; Iransl. Engl.

Cranstoun, Gantillon, E. R. Moore;

Germ. Voss, f>% Psellus, Hist. ed. Salhas, 383 n. 9 ;

on Plato's Ideas. 350; Psellus and

Pelrus Hispanus, 158 Ptolemaeus, Claudius, Geogr., ms.

379 ; ed. Wilbeig and Grashof

(l838-,5)! Nobbe (1845-5) Ptolemaeus (Chennus) Hephaestion,

ed. Roulez (1834), 195 Ptolemy Philadelphus, cameo of,

341 ; coins of the Ptolemies, 165 Pyrrhonism, ifi*

Quatreroere de Quincy, Antoine

Chrysostome, 163 ; iEk> Quicherat, Louis Marjus, ijt Quintilian, Imt. Orat., ed. J. M. Gesner(i738), s; Spalding (1798- 1834). 8in.ji Zuropt(i83i), iisi Bonnell ('54 etc); Halm ('68f), 196; Meister ('86 f ) ; x, xii, Frieze, 45S 1 X, Peterson, etc. ; Geitz on.

33

., iiA.OOgIc

J14; Its/- Orat. and Dtcl. ed. Lemaire (1S11-5) Quintus Smjmaeus, ed.Kochly, ijif; Spiliner on, 105 ; Stnive, 389

Rilamb, K. B,, 344

Radet, Geo^, j&6f

Ramsauer, Gcaig, 174

Ramsay, William, 419

Ramus, 163

Rangabes, (i) A. R., 381; 367?,

373, 381 i (1) K. R., 37* Rasclie, Johann Chnstoph, 45 Raschig, Franz E/luard, S7 Rask, Rasmus Ktistian, jigf ; 426 n. 1 Ratherius, bp of Verona and Li^,

Rauchemlein, Rudolph, 165

Rawlinson, George, 410

Rayet, Olivier, 269 f

Rtalien, study of, founded, 40

Rehdantz, Carl, 160

Reimar, Hermann Samuel, 3

Rdnach, Salomon, 367 f

Rei^g, (Christian) Carl, 108 f; 91,

94. 111. '37. 139. '41 Reiske, (i) Johann Jakob, 14-18;

porlrait, 16 ; Cobet on, ]H6 ;

jjj Emesline Chrisiine (Muller),

Reitz, Johann FriedrJch, j Reiz, Friedrich Wolfgang, 18, 90 Religion, History of, Usenei on. 1S4 Renaissance, Philosophy of, C. Wad-

dinglon on, 161 Renier, Lten, i6i Reuvens, Caspar Jacob Christian,

Reviei

of

.89

Seime Critiquci-jw R.dt Pkilolagie,

171 n. 8 ; R. lU rinsttiKtion fiuh-

lique, 199 Rheinisehcs Museum, 81 Rketores Graect, Walz, 183; Spengel,

180; Lalini, Halm, 196 Rhetoric, Greek and Roman, Volk-

mann, 183; lexicon, J. C. G.

Emesli, 13 f Rhodes, Danish expedition to, 319;

Salzman and Biliolti, 443 Rhodokanakes, Constantinos, 356 Ribbecit, Otto, 188 f; 186, 193 Rich, Anthony, 431 Riddle and Arnold, Latin dictionary,

Riemann, Othon, 159; 267

Riese, Alexander, 193

Rieu, Wiliem Nicolaas du, 187

Rinkes, Simko Heerts, 179

Rilschl, Friedrich, 139-143; 94, 109, 171, ij6, 186, 190, 141, 311, 457, 461 ; pupils, 141 f; portrait, 138

Ritier, (i) Franz, »oi ; (1) Heinrich, '74

Robinson, Edward, 453

Roby. H. J., 4?3

Rochelte, Desire Raoul, 164

Roehl, Hermann, 98

Ronsch, Hermann, 104

Roersch, Louis Chretien, 199

Rohde, Erwin, 186

Rogge, Conrad, 53*

Roman Antiquities, Becker, Mar- quardlandMommsen,J36; Madvig, 311; Bojesen, 314; Lange, Ramsay, 419; Reiz, 19; Fuss. Willems, 307 ; Calendars, Chrcnslogy, Mommsen,i36,Usener, i8ji Coinage, Mommsen, 135; Empire^ 141 ; Postal organisalioH, Naudet, 150, Hirschfeld, Hude- mann ; Reads, Beigier (Bnixelles, 1736); Senate, Willems; Lilera- ttire, Fabricius, 3 ; Bemhardy, iii, TeuOel, 133; G. A. Simcox, 434; Mackail (1896)1 Schanz (i89of) ; Poetry and Tragedy, Ribbeck, 188

Remanorum, De statuis illustrium, Hi

Rome, German historians of, 333-9; Niebuhr, 78-83; Schwegler, Peter, Drumann, Hoeck, Ihne, 333 ; Mommsen, 135; Gregorovius, 339; French, Duruy, 371 ; Engliwi, Arnold, {G. C. Lewis), Long, Men- vale, 439; Pelham, 441; topo- graphy of, Jordan, 100; Burn, Parker,Middleton,446f; emporium on the Tiller, 346: Forum and Lacus Curtius, 346 ; Academy of France and French School of Rome, 366 f ; German Archaeolt^cal Institute, 3t8 f, 165 ; American School, 169 ; British School, 443, 447; Lateran Museum, 316; Sarco- phagi, 13 ; Vatican Museum, 33,

319; MSS, 80, 151, 341, 360, 356

Rose (1) Hugh James, 403; (3)

Valentin, 183, 303 Ross, Ludwig, 337; 305, 371, 381 Rossbach, August, 158 Rossi, Giovanni Battista de, 347

h. I ■. ii,l^.OOQIC

Rost, Valentin Chrislian Friedrich,

Roth' Kail Ludwig, (i) of Stutlgart and Tubingen (1790-1868), ed. Suetonius 1858. '75 ; (1) of Basel (i8ti-i86a), joint ed. of Nonius {18411, JOO

Rotscher, Heinrich Theodor, 74

Roulei, j. E. G., 194

Routh, Martin Joseph, 393

Rnardi, Johannes, 177

Rudbeck. (l) Johan, 336; {1) Olaus,

Ruddimon, 114; ii 411

Rutinusi Slilicho and Eutropius,

Thieny 00, j6j Ruhnken, 14, 39, 57, W. *76i »79.

190, 388, 393 i ii 456-460 Runebe^, 388 Ruuin, iS^-igo

Ruslow, Wilhelm (1811-1878), 133 J^usticae, Scriptures Rti, ed. J. M.

Gesner,5; Schneider, ii; Keil, 103 Rutherford. William Gunion, ^1^t■,

^83

Sainte-Croii, Baron de, 57 Saint-Hilaire, Barth^lemy, 161 f Sakkelion, I., 379 Sallust, edd., aoo ; Kortle, 4 ;

Merivale (1881'), 436; Ft. Iransl,

hj Moncouit, 161 Salmasius, 339; ii 185, 309 Salvianus, ed. Halm, ig6 Samothrace, 116

Sandford, Sir Daniel Keyte, 416 Sandstrom, C. E., 351 Sandys, Geoi^e, 450 Sanskrit, j) f, 389, 3031, 319, 331,

410 f, 464 Santen, van, 578 Sappho, ed. Btomlield, 401 ; in Bergk's

Foetat Lyrid; H. T, Whatlon

(1887'); Herder on, 35; Welcker

IS of the, 166

Satraps, coins of the, 165

Satumian verse, 141, 190

Saulcy, L, F. J. Caignart de, 169

Sauppe, Hermann, 103: 441

Savigfny, 66, 78

Saxo Grammaticus, 311

Scallger, 38; on Valerius Calo, 109; Bernays on, 177, 178 n. i; Coliel on, 187; C. Nisard on, 353; ii 199 f. 305

Scandinavia, 311-351 Scapula. Johann, 51 ; " i76> *S7 Schaefer, (1) Arnold, 169 f; (i) Gottfried Heinrich, 1

Schelling, F. W. J., 113 Schenkl, Karl, i6a ; 194

Schiller, (i) Friedrich, 71 ; 19, 57,

701 (l) 1^1 Christian, 164 Schinas. Demetrios, 370 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 113 Schlegel, (i) August Wilhelm, and

(1) Friedrich, von, 71 ff; 57 Schleicher, August, 109 : 106 Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst

Daniel, 81 f ; <)5 Schliemann, Heinrich, 114 Schmidt, (i) C. P. Christensen, 3*8;

313; _(i) Gustay, .61; (3) J. J.

Heinnch, 158; (4) Moriz, 151 Schneider, (1) Johann Goltlob, ii ;

iij; (1) Kari Ernest Christoph,

114; (3) Konrad Leopold, 114;

(4) Otto, 157, 103 Schnddewm, Friedrich Wilhelm,

iiof; 147, 171, 194. 3'°' *l^ SchoH, (1) Adolph, i48f; 115; (i)

Friedrich, 140, 143 ; (3) Rudolph,

,8s, 198 Schomann, Geoi^ Friedrich, 165 ; 438 Schoene, R., 236 Scholars, Falster on lives of, 311; Scholarship, History of. Bursian. i*6;

Egger, 155 ; Heeren, 77 ; L. MllUer, Faliison, 41a; Roeisch, 30a;

•nTei

37'

iSo; Gudeman's Grundrhs (ed.

1907, iitf); Gk Scholiasts (ii.

76f); Rutheribrd, 4141 Schow, Niels Iversen, 317 Schubart, Heinrich Christian, 183 Sdiuchaidt, Hugo, III Schtltz, Christian Gottfried, 45 f ; 73,

Schultz, ([} Chrisloph Ludwig Friedrich, no; (l) Ferdinand, 169 Schuke, J. H., ii Schwabe, Ludwig von, 481; 113 Schwarz, Christian Gottlieb, 3 Schwegier, Albert. 174; 133 Schweizer-Sidler, Heinrich, icM ; 101,

,i^.ooglc

518 INE

ScoK, Robert, 418

Scuphus, Franciscus, 35+

Scjrlax, 164

Scymnus, t88, 164

Seeley, Sir John, 436

Seidler, Johann Friedrich August, 108

Selinus, ii6

Sellar, William Young, 435

Semasiology, 108, 137 ; Br^al, Se-

moHlique (1897) Seniitelos, 371 Semper, Goltfried, 113 Seneca, (i) the elder, ed. Barsian,

ii6; Kiessling (i8;i); {1) ed.

Haase, 137 ; Dialogi and Dt

Bmtficiis, Gertz; Danish transl.,

318; tragedies, 15, 194 ; T. Baden,

316, Sandstrom, gji Septuagini, 374 S«rTadifa1co, Duca di, 145 Sextus, Empiiicus, 3 Seyffert, (1) Moritz. {2) Oskar, 143 Se;inoiii.ThomasE>ay,46jf; 460,463;

TO- Amtr. jBom. Arch. 1908, (l) Sbilleto, Richard, 406 Short, Charles Lancaster, 467 Shrewsbury school, 403, 411, 433, 443 Shuckburgh, Evelyn Shirley, 415 Sicily, Greeks in, 163 ; Holm's

History, 131 f; Freeman's, 441 Sieveis, Eduard, 109 Silius Italicus, ed. Bauer in Bibl.

Ttuin. ; Summers in Postgate's

C. P. L. (1905) ; H. Blass on, 194 Sillig, Karl Julius, 75 Simcox, G. A. and W. H.. 414 Simonides, ed. Schneidewin (1835--9);

in Bergk's Polla£ Lyrici; Hau?ette

on, 483; on Poetry and Painting, 16 Simonides, Constantine, 3S1 ; 14J Simplicius, iSi, 183 Sintenis, Karl H. F. (1806-1867),

ed. Plutarch's Lives, 1839, '84;

Arrian's Anai., 1849, '67 Sins, bronzes of, 318 Smith, (i) R. Murdoch, 443; (2)

Philip, 43'; (3) William, 430 f ;

4*0, 439 Smyrna, 359, 371, 383 Social War, Mi^rim^e on the, ifil Socrates, Forchhammer, 127; W.

V. Humboldt, 68 ; Riitscher, 74 ;

Limboui^-Brouwer, 181 ; Zeller, 74 Solinus, ed. Mommsen, 197 Sommerbrodt, Julius Wilhelm, 185 Sophianos, Nicolaos, 355, 379

Sophisu, Geel on the, 180; Grole, 43S : Cope, 408 ; the later Sophists, Rohde, 186

Sophocles, Laur. Ms collated by Elmsley, 394fi Prinz on, 155; Facsiniilt (London, 1885) ; Mus- grave's notes, ed. Gaisford (i8ao), 397; Bothe (1806); Erfurdt (1801- 35) ; Hermann (1809-25), 91 ; Wunder (i8is). 109; Dindorf (1831-49, etc.), 144 f ; Schneidewin (1849-54, etc.). hi; Be^ (1858, ■68). 147; Nauck (1867), 150 j Toumier (1S69), 258 ; Campbell, i (1871, 1881*). ii (1879); Linwood (1878), 411; Jebb 0883^6). 413. Ajax, ed. Lobeck, 103, Swedish trans. 350 ; Ant. Boeckh, 98, Donaldson, 409, SemJtelos, 371 ; Ei. Jahn, 210, Kaihel, rss \ O. T. Kennedy, 40 J, Earle, 468, at Harvard, 461, imitated by Schiller, 71, transl. by M. Schmidt, 153; O. C. Boeckh, 98, Reisig, 109, Doderlein, 113, Elmsley, 394, Siivera on, 73; FMlocl. Gedicke and Buttmann. 85. Cavallin, 350; Fragm. Bergk, 147, Nauck. 151 f; LixkoH, Ellendt (1834-5), Dindorf (1870-1), EUendt-Genthe (1870-2), 14s ; German trans], A. Schiill, 149. Engl. Plumptre, G. Voung, Lewis Campbell, Whilelaw ; Bonitz on, 176; Lessing, 26, 30; Reiske, 17; M. Schmitz on choral metres, 153; Karsten on trilc^es, 281; schoHa,

■ 355. 371

Sophocles, E. A., 456

SfKiin, inscriptions, 138, 147 ; sculp- tures, 147, 341 % revival of learning

Spanheim, 341; ii 3^7 Sparwenfeldt, Johan Gabriel, 346 Spence, Fulyiiietis, »6; ii 411 Spengel, Leonhaid, 180; 112 Spitzner, Franz Ernst Heinrich,

'39 ,

05;

-Spohn, Friedrich August Wilhelm, (06 Spongberg, J., 3J0 Spralt. T. A. E,. 443; 117 Sprengel, Kurt, 187 Stackelberg, Otto Magnus von, 218, 3" 8, 390

OgIC

Stalenns, Johannes, 336

Slallbaum, Gottfried, 161

Stark, Karl Bernard, 115

Stalius. edd. 194; Baehrens, igi ; Wilkins and Davies in Postgale's C. P. L. (1905); Sandslrom on,

Steinthal, H., loSf; 68 Stephani, Ludotf, 113, 390 Stepbanus Bysonlinus; Meineke, i iS ;

Dindorf, 144; 115 Stephanus (Eslienne), (t) Robertus, Latin Thesaurusai, 6 ; (j) Henricus, lis; Greek Thesaurus, 11; ^Mtiuia, 345; London ed., 334; Didot's Paris ed., 145, )7if; ii 173-5 Stichometry, i6o Sliernhielin, 338, 343 f Sti^venart, transl. of Dem., i6i Slobaeus, Edogat, ed. Heeren, 77; Florilfgium, ed. Gaisford (1812), 30;; Meineke (1855-7), "8; An- tkotogium, i, ii {Ecli^ai^, ed. Wachsmuth, 1884 ; lii, iv, Heinse, 1894; Jacobs on, 64; LtcHena Slobema, Halm, 196 Strabo, ed. Falconer (Oxon. 1807) ; Koraes (1815-0), 361; Kramer (1S44-51) ; C. Miiller and DUbner (18S3-7}, 57»; Meineke (1852-3). I [8; German (ransl., Groskurd (1831-4), Karcher (1819-36), For- bigcr (i8j6-6i)-, Fr. transl. (1805- '9), 303; Tardieu (1866-73) Strachan, John, 41S Strack, Johann Heinrich, M3 Strassburg, school of Roman history,

340 ; ii 367 f Slruve, Carl Ludwig, and Jacob

Theodor, 389 Studemund, Wilhelm, 141 ; 140 Subjunctive and Optative, 458 Subsirifilients, Jahn (1851), 110 ;

Haase (i860}, 139

Suetonius, studied by Guy Morillon,

304; ed. Emesti (1748, '75), 13;

Bremi (1800), 165; Wolf (1801),

59 ; Baun^arten-Crusius (: 8: 6-8

etc.): Haase (1818); Roth (1858

etc.);^»{wi/uj',ed.Shuckbu[^h,4i5

Siisern, Johann Wilhelm, 73

SuVdas, ed. Gaisford (. " '

Bemhardy (1834-53),

(■854). 87

Snipicia, Bahrens on, 191 ; ed. Jahn,

iSo

Susemihl. Franz, 181 Sweden, 331-35*; Gk mss in, 161

n. i; 344-6 Sydney, 408

Symmachus, ed. Mai, I41 Synesius, Volkmann on, 184 Syracuse, topt^raphy of, 131, 145

Tacitus, Facsimile of Codex Midictus, I, II (L. B.) ; FacsimUe of Codix Leittensis of Gtrm., Dial. (L. E.) ; edd. loii; Emesti (1751), 13; Bekker (18*5. ■31), 87; OrelU (1846-59, '59-'84), i6t ; Halm (1851, '74). i9«i Haase (1855 etc.). Agr. Germ. Ann. Allen, 450 ; Agr. Gertn. Hisl. Ganlrelle, 296; Agr. Cornelissen, t88, Kriukov, "

Peter, 133, Peerlkamp, 177, Wex (1851), Kril^ f74'). Drager (■84.), Gudeman ('99), Uriichs on ('68) \

Ann. and Germ. Doederlein, 113; Ann. Nipperdey, ir7, mji ; Fumeaui, 435 ; Ann. i, Wagener, 198 ; Diatogus, Naples MS, 81, mehrens, 191, Heumann, 4, Wagener, 398, Peter ('77), Peter- ^1 ('93)- Gudeman ('94, '98) ; Germania, Haupt, 1 35 f, Passow, 1 15, Ktitz-Hirachfelder ('78*); Nisi. van der Vliet, 189; Lex., 301; Silvern on Tacitus, 73; Delamarre, TacHi et la LittiratHre Franfobe (1907); French transl., iso, Swedish, 351; Boissier on, 483

Tactics, Greek writers on, 134,137,341

Tanagra figurines, 169

Tannery, Paul, 357

Tate, James, 419

Taylor, John, 17; ii 414

Tegner, Esaias, 349

TeichmilUer, Guslav, i79f

Perence, MS, 14I ; Facsimile of Codtx Amliroiianus {l.-'R.); ed. Barlandus (<530)' 304! Magnusson (1780),

S8; Klotz, 115; Fleckeisen, 142; mpfenhttch, [91 f ; cp. M. Warren, 461; W. Wagner, 143; Andria, Benoist, 158 ; Metres, 419 ; Danish transl , 313, 318; Gennan, ijj; Lives, ed. Abe], 391

OgIC

S20

Teubnet teuls, origin of, 115 Teuflel, Wilhelm Sigismund, ii3f Tcxier, Charles Filix Marie {1801-

1S60), 165 Thacher, Thomas A., 461 Thiyer, Joseph Henry, 458 Theatre. Greek and Roman, Wieseler, 113; Gr. Thau. Dorpfeid-Reisch (i8<^); 409. *H Theocritus, Bion, Mosehus, em. Jacobs, 64; ed, Meinefce (1S16, %i. •ill, "«i ZiiglM (Ttaocr. 1S44, '67, '7g ; Bion, Mosehus, 1868), 157; Ahrens {1855-9), 15?; Wilamowitz {1907), TexlgesthUite {1006); Theocriius, Reiske, i;, WUstemann, 6j, Doederiein, irj. Geel, 180, A. T. H. Fritzsche, 157; Spohn on, 106 ; Scholia, v}t, 354 Theodosianm, Codtx, 137 Theodosins of Alexandria, 141 Theognis, ed. Bekker (i8t5, '17). 86: Welcker (1816), 117; ZiegUr (1868, '80), 157; Sitelet (1880); Engl. tr. in Frere's CoU. Works; E. Harrison on Theognis (1903); T. H. Williams in /. H. S. xxiii ('903) ' f Theon of Smyrna, 156 Theophrastus, ed. J. G. Schneider (l8i8-ii), 11; Wtmmer (Leipzig, 1854-61, Par. 1866)5 Characters, ed. Benzeliiis (1708) ; J. F. Fischer (■763), 347; Gram, 1.4; Reiske n {'7S7)> '7? Kotaes {1799). .3°*

n (1830-50), 168; Dubner (1S40), 173; J. G. Sheppard (Lond. 1852)5 Hartung (185;) ; Foss (1858) ; E. Petersen (1859); Ussing {1868), 325; Jebb (1870, ipoS"). 413; (Philolagische Gtsethchafi, Leipiig, 1 897) ; Edmonds and Auslen ( 1 904) . Mtlaph. ed. Brandis (1813), 173; De Pielalc, Bemays on, 177 f; AnaUcla, Usener (1858), 184

Thereianos, Dionysios, 371

Thierry, Amidie, a6i

Thiersch, Friedrich Wilhelm, iiof;

Thirl wall, Connop, 437

Thomas Aquinas, 358

Thomas Magisler, 139, 344, 354

Thompson, William Hepworth, 407 f ;

Thomsen, Victor, 106 n. j, 314

Thonbsen, Jean Joseph, 305

Thorbecke, J. R., 180

Thorlacius, Birgerus (Biirge), 317

Thott, Birgitte, 3)8

Thucydides, ed. Goltlebet, Bauer and Beck (1790-1804], 14; Bekker vA\\i scholia (1811 etc.), 86; Poppo ([831-38, '43-76t. 159- 4°' ; Golfer (18)6 etc.); Haase (1841), r37 ; S- T. Bloorofield (1841), 401 ; Arnold (1848-57), 439; Donaldson (1859), 409; Classen (1861-78 etc.), 159; Hude (1898-1901) ; i, ii, ed. Shilleto, 406; vii, Holden, 411; Reiske on, 17; Bonitz on, 176; Miiller-Strtlbing on, 156 ; Oecono- mides on, 370; Transl. Engl., Jowetl, 419; Germ., 17; Fr., 161, 173; Kiiiger on Ihe Life of, no; scholia, 379

Thurot, Charles, 15; ; Francois, 15; n. 6

Tibullus, Hcyne, 38f,4o; ii4io; Dis- sen, ir4; Lachmann, 118; Haupt, i36;Rossbach, 158; L. Miiller,i89; Hillcr, 191; iransl. by Voss, 6if; iv 2, Ir. Holmes,4ii n. 4; Swedish Iransl. 351; Spohn on, 106; ¥asX- gate, Stltc/ions {1^3), Tijrf (1906);

?p, Cartault, A fropos du Corpus ibullianum (1906), pp. 73-551 Ticknor, George, 453 Timkovski, R. T., 385 Tischbein, 43, 75 Tissot, Charles, itii Tomeroa, Adolf, 351 Torstrik, Adolf, 181 Toumier, Edouard, 158 Tragic An, Schiller on Ihe, 71 Traner, J. V., 351 n. 1; 349 n. 1 Translations from theClassics, Danish,

328; English, 410, 413. 415 f.

410, 413. 417. 433''; French, 161;

German, 9, 61 f, 64, 69, 83, r66;

modem Greek, 373 Traube, Ludwig, 195 Trebiiond, school of, 359 Tr^er, P. H., 314 Trendelenburg. Adolf, 174. 179 Tripolilza, school of, 358 Trojan Cycle, 316 TroUe, Gustav, 334 Troy, 106, 1141 iij, 15s Tryphiodorus, ed. Kochly, 133 Tursellinus, 117; ii 369

,i^.ooglc

Ueberweg, FriaWch, 183 Ukert, Friedrich August, 63 Ulrich, Heinrich Nicolaus, 117,371 Umbrica, 481 Umpfenbach, Franz, iqi Unger, Georg Friedrich, ij6 Upmark (Rosen^lei), Johan, 344

Urlichs, Karl Ludwig von, loi ; 101 ITsener, Henninn, 184 f ; 194 Ussing, Johan Louis, 355 f ; 141, 313

Uvarov, CounI, 389 f

109 Valerius Flaeeua, ed. Thilo (1863),

194; Schenki (1871), 160. 194;

Baehrens (1875), 191, 194; Langen

(1B96 Oi '94! B"ry '1 Poslgate's

C. P. L. (1905), 343 Valerius Maximus, Halm, 196 Valla, UeoTgius, Bemays on, i;8n. 1 Vallauri, Toniinaso, 141

Varro, De L. £., Spenge] (1816, '85^, 180, K. O. Muller (1833I, EWer ('837). ny<^' ^- ^- Keil J1884- 91), 1031 Niebuhr, 78, and Ritschl, 141, on Varro; Fragmenls, 143; Francken's Varrfniana, iSi

Vases, Greek, Berlin, 119, 481 ; Qiris- rube, 67; Sit W. Hamilton's, 75; Munich, 110

Vater, Friedrich, 389

Veilch, William, 4*7

Velleius Faterculus, Haase, 137; Halm, 196; R. Ellis (1898} ; Coine-

Velsea, Adolf von (1832-1900), rjs;

Watlenbach and Velsen, Exenipla

codd. Gr. Hiteris minuscidis scrif-

tarum (Heidelb. 1878) Venice, Mss, 86, 185, 3^6; Greek

press, 3J3 f, 357 Vercelli, inscriptions of, 246 Verelius, Olof, 343 'Verify your references', 393

■EX. 521

Verner, Carl, 319 f; 331 Verona, palimpsest of Gaius, 80 Verrius Flaccus, 436 Ver^ Coraposilion, Hermann, 94; Arundinis Cami, 406 ; Betwan Whiles, 403; Folia Sihiulat, 41 r; Sabrinae Corolla, 403, 406 ; Lyl- leltonand Gladstone (1861); Dublin Translations (1881] ; T. S. Evans, 4I0; Jebb,4i4; Munn>,434; Head' lam, 484f; in Netherlands, 177/ Vico, Giovanni Battista, 55 Victor Vitensia, ed. Halm, 196 Vienna, 19, 44, 160, 116, 479 Viger, Hermann on, 91, loi Villemain, Fran9ois, 170 f; 157 Villoison, 41, 56 f, j8, 378; ii 397 f VindobBtunse, Lextcim, 147, 151 Virgil, in MA, 144 ; ed. Heyne (1767-7S), 40; P- Wagner {1830- 4O, igi; Forbiger (1836-9 etc.), 117; Ladewig ('850), 191; Rib- beck (i8s9-i868), r88, Benolst {1876), 359; Conington ([863-71)' 434; Kennedy (1876-B), 403. Bucolics and Georgics, Martyn (1741-9, i84if), 459; Voss, 6t (cp. Kloti.iit); Page; .^enrii/, Heinrich and Nbliden, 1 10 ; Peerlkamp (1843), 178; Gossrau {1846, 1875), 191; Henry on, 436; Viwil transl. 1^ Voss, 62; Georg. and ^i«. in Greek, 361 ; Engl. Conington, 435 ; Sellar on, 435 ; imitated in Sweden, 337t; Pseudo-Virgiliaaa, 136, Ellis Vitruvius, ed. Schneider, 11; Rose and Muller- Strtlbing, T56, 103 ; Schulli on, no; Ussing on, 316 Vittorino da Feltre, 161 j ii 53-sS Vliet, J. van der, 188 f Voemel, Johann Theodor, 168 Voevodski, L. F., 387 Vc^l, Theodor, 101 Volkoiann, Richard, 183 f Volscian, Coissen on. 143 Vossi Johann Heinrich, 6\-6y, 8, 57,

6.3, 67, 78, 97 n- » Vossius. (1) G. J., H4i 11 307 f;

(1) Isaac, 317, 339; ii 3« Vries, E. S. G. de, 187

Wachsmath, (1) Curt, 119; (i) Wil-

Waddtnglon, (1) Charles, iGi; (1)

William Henry, 167 f; 165 Wagener, Auguste, 597 f; 199

OgIC

522

Wagner, (i) Philipp, igj; (i) WU-

helm, ,43 Waiu, Theodor, 174 Walbeig, K. A., 350 Walch, Johann Geoi^, 4 Walckenaer, Charles Athanase,

Baron, iSt Wallon, Henri Alexandre, 171 Waller of ChiliUon, 194 Wallharius, 104 Waltz, Adolphe, 159 Wall, Ernst Christian, 181 Warr, G. C. W., 416; 133 Warren, Minton, 461

wilh Zangemeister (Heidelb. 1876- 9), Dn, Gr. lilieris luinusculis, a Velsen (ib. 1878)

Wayte, W. W., 430 Weber, (i) Carl Fi

Ernst Christian Wilhelm, 1

nedrich,

Winterfeld, P., 194

Winterton, Ralph (1600-1636), 397

Wille, Jean, Baron de, 193; 160

Wilhelm Ernst (1730-1850) fCor-

/ttf Poetarum Lattaorum (Frankf. '833-6J Weil, Henri, 258

Weise, Karl Hermann, ed. Plaulus, 1 40 Weissenbom, Wilhelm, loi ; 377 Welcket, Friedrich Goltheb, 116:

64, "o. 41T Wellauer, August, 115 Weller, (i) Jacob. G& Gr., 14, 38;

(1) Christian Gottlob, 133 Werler, Veil, 141 Wescher, Charles, ■t6^ Wesenbeig, Albert Sadolin, 314 Westermann, Anton, 163, t;i, 443 Westphal, Rudolf, 157 f; 153 Wex. F. K., 30I White, Horace. 467 Whitney, W. D., 464 Whitte, H. K., 328; 31^ Wieland. Christian Martin, 36; J7 Wieseler, Fiiedrich, 323 Wilkins, (i) Sir Charles, 205,- (2)

Augustas Samuel, 434; (3) Henry

Musgrave, 41 4 Willems, Pierre, 306-9; joi Wilmanns, G. H. C, 237 Wilster. C. F. K, 328 Winckelmann, (i) August Wilhelm,

t6i; (2) Johann Joachim, 21-14;

10, 20, 26 f, 38 f, 42, 219, 220 f,

147. 3t8

Wittenberg, univ., 334

Wolf, (i| Friedrich August, 51-60; 8, 19. 41 f, 52, 63,78 f, 83, Sjf, 93> 95. 97. 100. '05. 108, 114, III ff, 130, 165, 184, 501. 327;

11) Hieronymus, 115; li 168 f ; 3) Johann Christian, 345, 347; ii

Wood, Robert, 4c, 55 f, 61 n. j ;

■i 43» Woolsey, Theodore Dwight, 463 ; 455 Wordsworth, (1) William, 449 n.,

(2) Christopher, 405 ; (3) John,

Writing, on ancient, Josephus, 55 ;

Lessing, 29 ; Wolf, 56 Wiistemann. Ernst Friedrich, 65; 104 Wunder, Eduard, 109 Wyttenbach, SJ, 6;, 275 f. 290, 302,

363; ii 461-s

Xenocrates, 362

Xenophanes, 181

Xenophon, ed. W, and L. Dindorf, 144 ; Anab. and Libri Sucraiici, Schenkl, 160; Anai., Cyrop., Hil- len. Morus, {4; Ages., Anab., Cyrop., Hellen., Hieron, Mart. Breitenbach, i6a; Anab. Krtiger, 119, Rehdantz, 169, Hug, 160, Cobet, 284; Cyrep., Hitron, Oec. Holden, 411 ; Cyrop. Danish transL, 316; Hellen. Riemann, 259, 167; Cobet, 384; Kyprianos, 371; Hip- parckkus, De Re Eatiestri, transl. by Courier, 250; ed. M. H. Morgan (Boston, 1893) ; Mtm. Emesti, 13, Koraes, 362; Dissen on, 114; Oee. Graux, 261 ; Resp. Ath., 156; Reip. La£. Haase, 137; Symp. C. Orel- li, 161. Cieuzet on, 66; Mure, 439; Wieland, 36. Prosapggraphia Xenophontea, Cobet, 182 ; Ltxilo- gus, Gustav Sauppe

Xenophon Ephesius, Peerlkamp, 177

Yale College, 4J1, 460 f, 462-6

Zangemeister, Karl (1837-1902), £.1;- empla codd. Lai. litteris maiusailis scriplorum, with Wattenbach. Hei- delb., 1876-9

Zehetmayr, Sebastian, til

i."ih,Cooglc

Zell. Karl. ,74	Zampt, (1) Karl Gottlob, 114I 318;
Zeller, Eduard, 477 ; 173, 179	(1) August Wilhelm, 137
Zend, ISO n. 3, 319	Zygomalas, 358
Zenos, Demetrios, 355
Z^vorl. transl. of Thucydides, 261 Ziegler, Christoph, 156	7^».E in SuVdas, 186
iin^\li>r9uir, 1(71
Zoega, Johann Geot^, 318; 41	,deapa„, .J7
Zoilus, D. Nisaid on, jji	aif and m<to, Tycho Mommsen on.
Zosimus, 198	151
Zurich, 161, 163	(.To^oXrf, 93 n. 3

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