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KAVSI SAJl, ■■tonwl OrmBdhtbar of tha Carter,

E SIBH K A tkJ k, Cartor, or B«*«r*ign of Kjwr*.

t. I I, • «

JOURNEY fro:ki: vMadr;^

THROUGH THE- COT5NXRIE3 -of: -;:'•.' :

• ■ • • •

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR,

PEEFOBMED UKDEB TEE OBDERS OF

THE MOST NOBLE THE MAEQUIS WELLESLEY,

GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INPIA, FOR THB EXFBSS8 FI7BF08E 07 INYBSTIGATINa THE STATE OT

AGRICULTDEB. ARTS, AND COMMERCE; THB RELIGION, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS ; THE HISTORY NATURAL AND CIVIL, AND ANTIQUITIBS,

IN THE DOMTNIOKS OT

THE EAJAH OF MYSORE,

AND THB COUNTRIES ACQUIRED BY

THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY,

IN THE LATE AND FORMER WARS, FROM TIPPOO SULTAN.

i

wAr

BY FRANCIS BUCHANAN, M. D., i / ' '

FttioMO of the Boyal Society ^ and of the Society of the Antiquariet of London ;

Fellow of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta ; and in the Medical Service

of the Honorable Company on the Bengal Esiabliehment.

Til HOHOIABLE TBI DIHECTOKS OF TBI EAST IHBIA COIPAHT.

Illustrated by a Map and numerous other Engravings,

SECOND EDITION, WITH A MEMOIR OP THE AUTHOR.

VOL. I.

MADRAS:

HIGGINBOTHAM AND 0 0.,

165, Mount Boad.

1870.

CARPENTIER

.•..•••,»a* •••••aaa **l

PAINTBO BT GAITTZ BROTUERS, AT THB ADBLPHI rBX»8, 175, MOUNT IIOAD.

DEDICATED WITH PERMISSION.

TO IHZ HONOKABLS

THE COURT OF DIRECTORS

FOR THE AFFAIRS

OF TBI

UNITED COMPAM OF MERCHANTS OF ENGLAND TRADING TO TBE EAST INDIES,

BY

THEIR MOST OBEDIENT,

AND MOST HUMBLE SERVANT,

THE AUTHOE.

638480

PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.

In re-issuing this work, which is exceedingly scarce, the Pub- lishers beg to call attention to a memoir of the author which is appended. Considering that there is no biography of the author extant in any English Biographical Dictionary, except ^^Chambers' Lives of Illustrious and Distinguished Scotsmen/' they trust that this sketch, the materials of which have been

derived from the Asiatic Journal^ will prove acceptable.

>

MEMOIR OP DR. FRANCIS BUCHANAN.

Buchanan, Fkancis, Dr., was bom at Branziet, in Stir- lingshire, on the 15th of February 1762. His father was a Doctor, and his mother, Elizabeth Hamilton, heiress of Bur- dowie, near Glasgow, As a younger son he took up a profession — that of his father's. After receiving his diploma he took his degree at Edinburgh in 1783. He was next appointed surgeon on board a man-of-war, but ill-health compelled him to retire ; on his recovery in 1794, he was appointed Surgeon in the E. I. Company's service, on the Bengal Establishment, His first service on arrival in India was a mission to the Court of Ava, by which he rendered valuable additions to our knowledge of the plants of the Andamans, Pegu, and Ava. He was stationed, on the return of the mission, at Luckipore, near the mouth of the river Bramaputra, where he wrote an admirable de- scription of the fishes of the river. At the recommendation of Dr. Roxburgh, then Superintendent of the Botanic Garden, he was employed by the Board of Trade at Calcutta to pro- ceed to Chittagong and its vicinity, part of the ancient king- dom of Tripura, which opened a wide field for his botanical and zoological enquiries. In 1800 he was appointed by the Governor General of India, the Marquis Wellesley, to travel throut^h and report upon " the dominions of the then reign- ing Rajah of Mysore, and the country acquired by the Com- pany in the late war from the Sultan, as well as to that part of Malabar which the Company annexed to their own terri- tories in the former war under Marquis Comwallis." On this journey Buchanan set out on the 23rd of April 1800, completing it on the 6th July 1801. He wrote his valuable report day by day, while travelling, in the form of a journal. The Directors of the E. I. Company on receiving it, were so pleased, as to order its publication. It accordingly made its appearance, in 3 quarto volumes, in 1807, styled " A Journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar, performed under the orders of the Most Noble the

Ul

Marquis Wellesley, for the express purpose of investigating the state of Agriculture, Arts, and Commerce ; the Eeligion, Manners, and Customs ; the History, Natural and Civil, and Antiquities in the dominions of the Bajah of Mysore, and the Countries acquired by the Honorable East India Company, in the late and former Wars, from Tippoo Sultan.'' The author, in his preface, apologises for the verbosity of the work in the following manner : — ''Soon afterwards, my duty having unexpectedly brought me to England, I was agreeably sur- prised to find that my journal had obtained a reception so favourable. It is true I wished to have abridged the work before publication, and altered its arrangement ; but as the printing had commenced before my arrival, and as my stay in England was likely to be very short, I could not undertake

such alterations, t

* # * « * «

I hope however that the Index will enable the reader to imderstand the greater part of the Indian terms, and at the same time will, in some measure, supply the want of method, in which I am sorry the work is so deficient.'^ The work is nevertheless a valuable one, and a call for a second edition, published in Madras, proves the appreciation in which it is held by the public.

But before proceeding to England in 1806 with Lord Wellesley, Buchanan was nominated to accompany the Em- bassy under Capt Knox to Nepaul in 1802. While thus engaged, he made large additions to the collection of rare plants, and accumulated materials for his History of Nepaul. On his return from this country he was appointed Surgeon to the Governor General. He had not been many mouths in England when he was again sent out to India to make a statistical survey of the Presidency of Bengal.

*^ His inquiries were directed to commence in the district of Rangpoor, ftnd to be continued thence westward through each district on the north side of the Ganges, to the western boundary of the Company's territories ; thence proceeding to the south, until all the cUstricts on that side of the great river were examined, and afterwards to Dacca^ and the other districts towards the eastern frontier, till the whole of the territories then immediately subject to the presidency were surveyed. The inquiries were also to be extended (without quitting the Company's territories) to the adjacent countries, and the petty states with which our Qovenament had no regular intercourse. The subjects of more particular inquiry were as follows: 1. A full topo-

IV

»

graphical account of each district ; its climate and meteorology ; its history and antiquities. 2. The number and condition of the inhabitants ; their foody habits, diseases, &c ; education and resources for the indigent. 3. Religion ; the different sects or tribes ; the emoluments and power of their priests and chiefs ; their feeling towards our Government. 4. Natural pro- ductions, animal, vegetable, and mineral ; fisheries, forests, mines, and quarries. 6. Agriculture, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, including the state of the landed property and tenures. 6. The progress made by the natives in the fine arts, the common arts, and manufactures. 7. Commerce.

This prodigious undertaking was continued with persevering industry for upwards of seven years, at a cost of about £30^000, and closed when only a portion of the territories bad been surveyed, namely, the districts uf Behar and Patna, Shahabad, Bhagulpoor, Dinagepoor, Paraniya, Rungpoor and Assam, containing upwards of sixty thousand square miles, and fifteen millions of people. The materials collected at this great outlay of labour and money were forwarded by the Supreme Government of Bengal to the Home Authorities in 1816, and were deposited in the East-India House, where they were suffered to remain for twenty-two years without being permitted to see the light — either, we presume^ because they were deemed of no value, or because they contained matter which it would be dangerous to publish.''

On the retirement of Dr. Roxburgh in 1814, Buchanan succeeded him as Superintendent of the Botanic Garden. But the state of his health compelled him in the following year to return to his native country. On his arrival in England, he presented his large and fine collection of plants, animals, coins, MSS-, &c., to the Court of Directors.

On the death of his elder brother, whom he had relieved from pecuniary difficulties by discharging debts to the amount of £15,000, he succeeded to the entire estate, and adopted his mother's name. He then fixed his residence at Leney, contributing largely to various literary and scientific societies, and was elected F. R, S., L & E., F. S. A., L. & E., and M. R. A* S. In 1819 he published his History of Nepaul, and his Genealogy of the Hindoo Gods, and in 1822, his account of the Fishes of the Ganges. He was appointed Deputy-Lieutenant for Perthshire in 1826, married late in life, and died on the 15th June 1829, in the 67th year of his age.

INTRODUCTION.

A COPY of the following Work, which was transmitted to the Directors of the East India Company, having been placed in their Library, Mr, Wilkins, who has charge of that valuable Institution, thought that its publication might be useful, and recommended that measure to the patronage of the Court ; which, with great liberality, consented to his request, and encouraged the undertaking by a large subscrip- tion. Accordingly, in the end of the year 1805 an agree- ment was made with some respectable booksellers. Soon afterwards, my duty having unexpectedly brought me to England, I was agreeably surprised to find that my Journal had obtained a reception so favourable. It is true, I wished to have abridged the Work before publication, and altered its arrangement ; but as the printing had commenced before my arrival, and as my stay in England was likely to be very short, I could not undertake such alterations. I have, therefore, contented myself with revising the manuscript ; and the superintendency of the press has been entrusted to Mr. Stephen Jones. I hope, however, that the Index will enable the reader to imderstand the greater part of the Indian terms, and at the same time will in some measure supply the want of method, in which I am sorry that the Work is 80 deficient*

The following Instructions, which I received from the Governor General, before I commenced my Journey, will su£Bciently explain the views which that distinguished Noble- man had in employing me.

Copy of the Governor General's Instructions, dated Fort William, 24th February 1800.

*' Your enquiries are to extend throughout the domini- ons of the present Rdjd of MysarCy and the country acquired by the Company, in the late war, from the Sultan, as well as to that part of Malabar which the Company annexed to their own territories in the former ^ax under Marquis ComwalUs/'

VI

^'The first great and essential object of your attention should be, the . Agriculture of the Country; under which head, your enquiries should include and tend to ascertain the following points with as much accuracy as local circum- stances will admit."

Esculent Vegetables,

^' The diflferent kinds cultivated by the farmers and natives in general, for sale or common use ; the modes of cultivation adopted for each kind, and the implements of husbandry used in them ; the seasons when they are sown and gathered ; the manures used for the soil ; and the means adopted for watering their grounds ; and as the effecting this last point, in a cheap and easy manner, is an essential object to the common farmers in this country (Bengal), it would be eligible to have either models or drawings made of any description of machinery which may not have been seen by you in these parts of India, and which may appear to you to be likely to effect so beneficial an end. It would also be advisable for you to observe whether the poorer natives make use of any vegetables for food, which you may have seen in this country, but which may not here be in use for human food.''

Cattle.

*' The different breeds, and the manner in which they are bred and kept ; the species used in agriculture ; and whether the produce of the country be sufficient, without importation, to answer its demands. And as the improve- ment of the breed of horses in this country has become an object of particular attention to government, it would be proper for you to ascertain how far the breed made use of, in the parts you may visit, might be eligible to promote this desirable end."

Farms.

^^ The general extent of them ; the nature of the tenures by which they are held ; the usual price of labour, and the manner of payment, whether in kind or specie. You wiU compare the general state of agriculture in Mysore^ &o..

Vll

with that of such parts of Bengal as you may be acquainted with ; and state your opinion, how far the cultivation of either country may be improved, or extended, by the intro- duction of the vegetables, cattle, or rural economy of the other/'

"The next immediate object of your attention should be, those natural productions of the country, which are made use of in arts, manufactures, or medicine, and particularly those which are objects of external commerce."

Cotton^ Pepper^ Sandal-wood, and Cardamoms.

" Of the cultivation and preparation of these valuable articles you should endeavour to gain the fullest and most accurate accounts, as well as of the nature and extent of the trade carried on in them ; the usages which may have obtained concerning them ; the causes, if any there may be, which may seem to obstruct improvement in quality, or extension in produce, of either of them ; and the means to your judgment most likely to remove these causes."

MineSf Quarries^ Minerals^ and Mineral Springs.

" The mines and quarries, as objects of particular con- cern, you should make a subject of more minute investiga- tion, in so far as relates to their produce ; the mode of working them ; the state of the people employed in them, as well in respect to the condition of their service as to their treatment, or the price of their labour. In regard to the Minerals and Mineral Springs, they should be examined with attention, and such of them analyzed as may be esteemed medicinal by the people themselves, or you may judge to be so,"

Manufactures and Manufacturers.

'* The state of the manufactures is a farther object of consequence, especially of those which are exported ; you should therefore procure as exact an account' of the different kinds, as may be practicable, and of the ability of the country itself to furnish the materials used in them ; and you should ascertain what proportion, if any, is necessary to be imported from other countries ; from what countries, and under what

Vlll

advantages or disadvantages, such importation now is or might be made. You should also make it an object of par- ticular attention to ascertain how far the introduction of any of the manufactures of My sore into any other of the Com- pany's possessions, might be productive of advantage, and res- pectively whether Mysore might derive advantage from the importation of the growth, produce, or manufacture of Bengal, or any other parts of the Company's possessions. The situa- tion of the manufacturers should likewise be examined ; the mode of providing t^eir goods ; the usual rate of their labour ; any particular advantages which they may enjoy ; their comparative affluence, with those of this country ; their domestic usages ; the general nature of their sales ; and any regulations respecting (ieir markets.''

Climate and Seasons of Mysore.

" Of these you should endeavour to obtain an accurate account, as well as of the prevailing winds, and the effects of the air, in its various states of heat and moisture, on the human body ; and it will be farther desirable, that you should form from your own observation, and the reports of such other persons as you may judge worthy of attention, an estimate of the salubrity of the country compared with that of the Company's other principal possessions in India."

" Although it may not be in your power, exactly to ascertain the extent of the forests, yet you will make this an object of your enquiry, as well as the kinds of trees of which they may chiefly consist, and report those kinds which you may judge useful for timber or other purposes ; you will also state your opinion, with respect to the kinds either of timber or fruit trees which you may conceive it useful to introduce into this country."

Inhabitants.

" The condition of the inhabitants in general, in regard to their food, clothing, and habitations, will engage your particular attention : you will also enquire how far their situation, in these respects, may have been affected by the different changes in the government.''

" The different sects and tribes, of which the body of the people is composed, will merit your observance ; you

IX

will likewise note whatever may appear to you worthy of remark in their laws^ customs, &c, ; and state^ with as much accuracy as may be in your power, the nature of their com - mon usages in matters of personal traffic at their markets, their weights and measures, the exchange of money, and the currency among the lower orders of people : and such matters in respect to their police, as may seem to you to have an im- mediate or particular tendency towards the protection, secu- rity, and comfort of the lower orders of the people.^*

** You will take every opportunity of forwarding to the Company's Botanical Garden at this Presidency, whatever useful, or rare, and curious plants and seeds you may be enabled to acquire, in the progress of your researches, with such observations on their nature and culture as may be necessary."

^^You will collect and forward specimens by every proper opportunity to the Bight Honourable the Governor General in Council, of whatever you may deem curious^ or interesting, amongst the natural productions of the country, or in the arts and manufactures of the inhabitants; and though the general report of your mission cannot, probably, be completed imtil after your return to this Presidency, you will from time to time submit to his Lordship any observa- tion, which may occur to you^ of which the immediate com- munication may appear to be of public utility/'

In consequence of the two last paragraphs of these in- structions, I transmitted a considerable number of seeds to Dn Boxburgh^ and made a collection of descriptions and drawings of the more imknown plants. These last it was my intention to have published with this Work ; but the book- sellers declining to incur the necessary expense, I have given them to my friend Dr. James Edward Smith, who^ I hope, will publish some part in his Exotic Botany. I also collected for the Governor General specimens of the minerals men- tioned in this Work, which his Lordship directed me to present to the Company's Library in Leadenhall-street, in which they have been deposited.

Major C. Crawford has had the goodness to prepare the accompanying Map ; which will enable the reader to trace my route^ and to judge of the opportunities that I had of viewing the country. On a Map of Major Bennell, he laid

dowii a sketch of my route, which I made on the Journey. The very imperfect nature of the materials rendered many errors unavoidable. Some of the mgst considerable of these I have since corrected from a Map which Lieutenant Colonel Mackensie has had the goodness to communicate. I regret exceedingly, that I did not receive it in time to aUow me to avail myself of the numerous geographical improvements that it contains.

I am indebted to the Marquis Wellesley for the beauti- ful Drawings from which the engravings of the Jfcfy^or^ Princes have been taken ; and I cannot conclude without thankfully mentioning the very liberal and effectual manner in which I was encouraged by every person in the Madras Government, and especially by the nobleman then at its head, now Earl of Powis.

CONTENTS

VOLUME I.

CHAPTER I.

From Madras to Gonjeveram, Arcot, Vellore, Paligonda, Satgu^am, Pedda Naikena Durga> Venca taghery, BaydamankulucDi Walurn, Catcolli, Tayculum, Bangalore, aud Seriugapatam

CHAPTER n. Seringapatam, and its Vicinity

Page,

From Soringapatam to Bangalore

Bangalore

From Bangalore to Doda Bala- para

From Duda Biila-pura to Sira

From Sira to Scriogapatam

CHAPTER III.

CHAPTER IV.

CHAPTER V.

CHAPTER VI.

CHAPTER VII.

41

CHAPTER VIII Journey tb rough Mie Part of Karnata south from the Cavery

... 95

... 134

... 185

... 240

... 295

... 353

LIST OF PLATES. VOL, I.

Page. KRISHNA BAJA, GUETUB, OR SOVEREIGN 07 UYSORE. \

NANDI RAJA, MATERNAL GRANDFATHER OP THE CURTDR. { "^^*^® P^°^'

I. — TRANSVEB8B SECTION OF THE BANK OP A RESERVOIR AT THE CODY. TRANSVERSE SECTION OP THE BANK AND SLUICE OF AN ERAY OR RESERVOIR. VIEW OP THE O-JDY OF A RESERVOIR... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3

II.— PIG. 1, VERTICAL SECTION OF THE MYSORE STILL. FIG. 2, CUDAGU OR REAPING-HOOK. PIG. 8, COL KUDALI OF SERINGAPATAH. PIG. 4| YELLA KUDALI. FIG. 5, UJARI OF SERINGAPATAM. FIG. 7, FIELD OF SUGAR-CANE. FIG. 8. ... ... ... 65

III.— FIG. 6, A BRAHMAN WITH HIS WIFE AND SON, BY A FAINTER OF SERINGAPATAH ... 50

ly. — FIG. 9, HALIVAY OF KA&NATA, AND HALI6AY OF HAIQA, A HARROW OR BAKE DRAWN

BT TWO OXEN. FIG. 10, CUNTAY, OR HOE DRAWN By TWO OXBN ... ... 69

V.--FIG. 10, THE LONG-LEGGED GOAT CALLED MAYKAY IN KARNATA. FIG. 11, CART OF

MYSORE ... ... .. ... ... ... ... o3

■

YI. — FIO. 12, FRONT VIEW OF THREE GLASS FURNACES. FIG. 13, TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A GLASS FURNACE. FIG. 14, VERTICAL SECTION OF A GLASS- BLOWER'b FIRE-PLACE. FIG. 15, GROUND PLAN OF A SUGAR HOUSE. FIG. 16, VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FURNACE AND BOILER ... ... •.• .•. ••• ... ... 102

YII. — FIG. 17) SUGAR MILL OF CHINAPATAM ... ... ... .. ... 110

VIII.— FIG. 18, LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE SMELTING APPARATUS, PIG. 19, FRONT VIEW OF THE SMELTING FURNACE. FIG. 20, GROUND FLAN OP THE FORGING HOUSE. FIG. 21, LONGITUDINAL SjECTION OF THE FORGING HOUSE. FIG. 22, FRONT VIEW OF THE FORGING FURNACE. FIO. 23, LONGITUDINAL SECTION OP THE FORGING FURNACE ... 118

IX.— FIG. 24, OIL MILL OF BANGALORE ... ... ... ... ... 159

X.-rFIG. 25, SINGLE YATAM OF BANGALORE ... ... ... ... ^ ... 183

XI. — FIG. 26, DRILL OF COLAR. FIG. 27, TOP OF THE CURIGY. FIG. 28, BOTTOM OP THE

CURIGV. FIG. 29, VERTICAL SECTION OF THE CURIGY. riG. 80, WURAVARY ... 261

XII, •FIG. 8J, FIRST FORM. FIG. 32, SECOND FORM. FIG. 33, PLAN OF A SUGAR-CANE FIELD

AT COLAR. FIG. 84, SUGAR MILL AT CHICA BALLAPITIA. FIG. 35 ... .. 237

XIII, XIV, XV.— FIG. 34, MADRAS OX. FIG. 35, MADHU-GIBI OX. FJG. 36, MADHU-OIRI BULL. PIG. 37, MADHU-GIRI COW. FIO. 38, SERINGAPATAM BULL. FIG. 39, SERINGA- PATAM OX. ... ... ... ., ... ... ... 300

XVI.— FIG. 40, BKCTION OF A STEEL FURNACE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE ASH-PIT. FIG. 41,

SECTION OF A STISEL FURNACE AT RIGQT ANGLES TO THE ASH-PIT ... ... 307

• '

A

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I

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4

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33B

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JOUENEY FEOM MADRAS,

THROUGH THE COUNTRIES OF

MYSORE, MALABAR AND CANARA.

CHAPTER L

FROM MADRAS TO CONJEVERAM, ARGOT, VELLORE, PALIGONDA, SATGU- DAM, PEDDA NAIKENA DURGA, VENCATAGHERY, BAYDAMUNGULUM, WALURU, CATCOLLI, TAYCULUM, BANGALORE, AND SERINGAPATAM.

My inquiries could not commence, with proper effect, till after my vicinity of arrival at Seringapatam, nor until I had there procured sufficient ^^^^' authority from the Raja's Deivan ; I trust, however, that my obser- vations on the appearance of the country, as I passed along, will not be considered as entirely useless.

In the afternoon of the 23rd April 1800, 1 set gut from Madras, irf the very hot dry weather, which usually prevails at this season. After leaving the plain occupied by the houses of Europeans, I entered a country then scorched up by a powerful sun, yet contain- ing little waste land ; for the soil, being fine, produces a very good crop of rice, provided, in the wet season, the usual quantity of rain falls. In some places, the industry of the natives causes a verdure that is highly refreshing, by watering a few fields, that are near tanks, or reservoirs of water. These fields are now covered with rice, approaching to maturity ; and in the rainy season they will yield another crop. The appearance of the country, however, at this time of the year, is dreary. It is almost as level as Bengal : and in general forms a naked, brown, dusty plain, with few villages, or any thing to relieve the eye, except a ridge of abrupt detached hills toward the south. The roads are good ; and many of the huts being built of mud, and neatly covered with tiles, have a better appearance than those in Bengal : but the roofs of such as are thatched look ra^ed; as the thatch is not composed of smooth straw, but of paJjnira leaves, which never can be put on with neatness.

Near the road, charitable persons have built many resting-places Acrommoda- for porters, who here carry all their burdens on the head. These "l"* ^"'^ "^*'^'^

> A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 1.

« •

resting-places consist .of a.-Valf about four feet high, on which the porters can- deposit their bufitons, and from which, after having rested theipe^ely^jfcHi^jf ^ancagain^- without assistance, take up their loads. The-iiiiis; of ChdvJ, fries,' which are common on the road, evince an attention to travellers not to be found in Bengal. At these places, the poorest, without expense, have shelter from the in- clemencies of the weather ; and the richer traveller, can purchase both for himself and for his cattle, at least the necessaries oi life.

Improvement*. This part of the country, although at present naked, seems capable of raising trees and hedges ; and shows evident appearances of its being in a state of improvement, there being in view many new plantations, especially of fruit-trees, and coco-nut palms. Irrigation. Leaving on the right the road to Poonamaleey I went to Conda-

turUy near which the country assumes a very different, and a very pleasing aspect. Numerous small canals, from the Saynih^inhacurti tank, convey a constant supply of water to most of the neighbouring fields, and fertilize them without the trouble of machinery. They consequently yield every year two crops of rice. The one at present on the ground will be reaped in June, and has a very promising appearance. Manner of »e- Instead of preventing the crops from being cut down, till the

curing the rent. ^^^^ jg p^^^j^^ ^^ jg usual in Bengal, the custom here is, to collect the

grain in stacks, or heaps, after it has been thrashed out on the field. In order to guard against embezzlement, several pieces of clay, stamped with a seal, are then put on the surface of the heap ; and, to prevent injury from the weather, it is thatched. The grain continues in these heaps, till the cultivator is able to satisfy the renter, either by^ advancing money, or by dividing the produce. In every village a particular ofiicer, called Talliari, keeps watch at night, and is answerable for all that may be stolen.

Cattle. The cattle in the neighbourhood of Madras, are of the species

which is common to theDecan ; but much smaller than those, which are brought from the northern parts of that country. They seem, however, to be larger than the cattle produced in the southern parts o{ Bengal. They are mostly light-bi;own, or white, and, notwith- standing the apparent want of pasture, are in better condition than the labouring cattle of Bengal, owing probably to the superior care that is taken of the rice straw by the inhabitants of Madras. Milch cows are fed entirely on grass ; grain, or pulse, is rarely given to such cattle as are not employed in hard labour.

nuflaioei. Near Madras, Buffaloes are in general use, and are often yoked

in the same cart with bullocks, although the paces of the two animals are very different. The buffaloes here are much smaller than in Bengal.

ReeefToiis for 24th ApvU. — I sct out early, and soon arrived at SayTnirum-

SSSIS2. ^^ bacum tank, which is of great extent. It has not been formed

by di^ng, like those in Bengal; but by shutting up, with an

artificial bank, an opening between two natural ridges of gfround.

Place.

•*» hedges.

;>earanre of mntry.

'Ci

'""Mi

._M^:i^^^

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 3

The sheet of water is said to be seven or eight miles in length, and three in width ; and in the dry season is let out in small streams, as wanted for cultivation. In the rainy season it receives a supply of water from the river Chtr-nadi, and from several small streams that are collected by a canal. As at times the water overflows, and would break down the bank by falling over it, and sapping its foundations, the natives in different places construct what they call CodieSy or sluices of stone. These are twenty or thirty feet wide, and are lower by some feet than the other parts of the bank. On the 8urfe.ce, they are strongly fortified by large stones placed in a sloping direction ; so that the water rushes over without undermining the bank, and is conveyed away from the fields by a canal. This is a matter of the utmost importance ; for there are instances where, the banks of these large tanKS having given way, whole villages have been destroyed by the torrent. In order, however, that when there is plenty of rain, the tank may be completely filled, a row of stone pillars is placed on the top of the sluice ; and, on the water rising to a level with their base, a temporary wall is formed of mud, sticks, and straw, placed between the pillars, so as to confine the water till it rises as high as the top of the bank. People watch this night and day, in order to break down the temporary bank, should any addi- tional rain endanger the whole. The water is let out, to supply the fields, by a sluice lined with cut stone, or bricks, and placed under the bank, on a level with the country. I'he inner end of this sluice is covered by a flat stone, in which is cut a circular opening, that can be shut or opened by a plug fixed to a bamboo, and secured in its place by two pillars of stone, which rise above the level of the water. The accompanying sketches (Plate I.) will assist the reader to imderstaiid the foregoing description. The proper name for a tank of this kind, in the TamtU language, is Eray. Saymbruwbacum tank is said to be sufficient to supply with water the lands of thii-ty- two villages (should the rains fail) for eighteen months. In these villages, it is said, there are five thousand persons employed in agriculture. In a country liable to famine from want of rain, a reservoir, such as this, is of inestimable value.

The late collector, Mr. Place, although he augmented the revenue Mr. pi»ce. considerably, by the repairs made on tms tank during his adminis- tration, gave great satisfaction to the inhabitants. Another of Mr. Place's measures seems to have been very well judged. He caused each village to be surrounded by a hedge of Bamboos, with Bamboo hedges. two small towers at each gate. By this measure, in case of any in- vasion, small parties of plundering cavalry may be kept off, and a great quantity of that most valuable plant the bamboo will in time be raised. At present it is brought from the neighbourhood of Tri- petty y and sells three-fold dearer than at Calcutta : for from ten to sixteen Barriboos cost here a Pagoda, or 7». 4!\d.

The remaining part of my journey to Sri Permatui'u tank was Appearanre of along the high grounds that bound it, and the Saymbrumbacum ^*** ^^^^^^y'

4 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

reservoir on the south. The land is no where so steep as to pre- vent the use of the plough ; but in most places the soil is very in- different. The rocks, or large detached masses of granite, project in many fields ; and almost every where the country is overrun with low prickly bushes, such as the Rhavinus circumscissus oi Linnceus, Jthatrinua acandens of Roxburgh, Paulinta Asiatica, and Monetia Barlerioides, Except in a few fields, which in the rainy season axe sown with Ragy (Cynoaurus cm^ocanua)^ and other dry grains, there is here no cultivation ; and I am assured by the natives, that in most places the crop would not be worth the seed. It appears too dry for any useful purpose, except giving a scanty pasture. Perhaps some forest trees might be planted on it with advantage, such as the Gurgums of Bengal, and the Lageratromia reginxB, The Palmira thrives on it without trouble ; but the produce is so cheap and abun- dant^ from those which spring forth almost spontaneously, that, I am assured, the planting them on a large scale would not be profit- able. The wild date {Elate aylveatria) is in a similar predicament. Bcrasnu >ia- Thc TdH, OT fermented juice, and the Jagory, or inspissated juice e >ijoriiMs. ^^ ^j^^ Palmira tree {Boraaaua fiabelliformia), are in this country more esteemed, than those of the wild date, which is contrary to the opiEiion of the Bengalese. The people of the Camatic allege, that the produce of the latter is very heating. They pretend to be very moderate in the use of the Tdri, but consume much of the Jagory. It sells in the country for 30 Veea, a Pagoda^ or about 98. 5(2. a hundred-weight. Could it be converted into either a palatable spirituous liquor, or sugar, the barren plains of the Camatic might be rendered productive. The former appears not to be improbable, and seems td be an object worth trying. If it should answer, the whole of the grain distilled in Europe might be saved for food. Weights. The proper native weights used in the Company's Jaghire are

as follows :

10 Varahun {Pagodaa) 1 Polam, 40 Polavia 1 Visay.

8 Visay (Vees) 1 Manungu.

20 Manungua {Maiinda) 1 Baruay, 20 Baruaya (Candiea) 1 Guraay, called by the English

Garse. The Vara hun, or star Pagoda, weighs 52 J grains; therefore the Visay is nearly three pounds avoirdupois ; and the Garae nearly 1205 lbs. Land MeasuTM. The land measure of the Jaghire is as follows : 24 Adiea square = 1 Culy ; 100 CuLiea wm 1 Canay. Out of what is called charity, however, tiie Culy is in fact a Bamboo twenty-six Adiea, or twenty- two feet eight inches in length ; the Ady, or Malabar foot, is there- fore lO-j^ inches nearly ; and the customary Canay contains 51,375 square feet, or ly^ acres nearly ; while the proper Canay would ^ ^ . only contain 43,778 square feet.

rcnZfuru. '^ The tank at Sn Perviaturu is much inferior to the Saymbrum-

CHAP. I.)

MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR.

bacibTn reservoir, and serves only to water the ground of one village ; but that has very extensive possessions. It is said to contain 1812 Canays, or 2137 acres of rice lands ; 370 Canays, or 436 acres of ground fit for the cultivation of dry grains ; and a large extent of pasture, which may be compared to the moors of Scotland, but is in general still more barren.

A native of Bengal, who accompanies me as a painter, is de- lighted with the plenty of milk and JDhui in this part of the country. The Lhuiy or sour curds, is made of buffalo's milk ; and is much

Abundtnce of milk.

superior, he says, to that of Calcutta^ and considerably cheaper. On account of the comparatively high value of provisions, he has hitherto been rather depressed in spirits.

Throughout the Camatic the ass is a very common animal. The breed is as small as in Bengal ; but there is a singular variety among them in their colour ; some are of the usual ash colour, whilst others are almost black, in which case the cross on their shoulders dis- appears. Milk-white asses are also to be found, but they are rare. These are not varieties as to species ; for black individuals have sometimes ash-coloured colts, and, on the contraiy, black colts are sometimes produced by ash-coloured dams. They are kept by five classes of people, who are all of low cast, for the higher ranks disdain the use of an animal so impure. The ass is kept, 1st. by washermen, called Venar ; 2d. by a people called Caravar, that carry salt from the sea-coast to the interior parts of the country ; 3d. by tinkers, called Cuiinar, who go up and down selling brass utensils ; 4th. by people called Vaylacarar, who sell the glass rings worn on the wrists by the women of this country; lastly, by a wretched kind of people called Chemu Carir.

1 have as yet obtained but an imperfect account of this tribe. They are said to have neither house nor cultivation ; but catch birds and game, part of which they sell for rice. One common article of their food is the white ant, or Termes, They travel about from place to place, conveying their baggage and children on asses. Every man has also a cow, instructed like a stalking horse, by means of which he approaches his game, and shoots it with arrows.

The Chensti Carir ^ who preserve their native manners, and never come among the villages, are said to speak an unintelligible jargon, and have no clothing but the leaves of trees. Those, who occasionally wander about in the cultivated country, understand many Telinga words, and wear a small slip of cloth to cover their nakedness.

April 25tk. — Early in the morning I went from Sri Permaturu to an inn, or Choultry, erected by Vira Permal Pillay, who was Du- bash to Sir Charles Oakley. The country is high and barren, like that eastward of Sri Permaturu, but it has more Palmira trees, and in the neighbourhood of several tanks have been planted tamarind, Pipal (Ficue religiosa). Banyan {Ficus indica), and mast trees ( Uvaria altisaima), all of which thrive well, if they are watered for two or three years after being planted. The only trees

Asses.

Chemu Carir:

Appearance of the country.

6 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

that grow spontaneously are, the Mdia azadirachta and the Robinia miU'a ; the last of which flourishes both on the arid hills of the Camatic, and on the muddy banks of the Ganges. Very little of this soil, at the usual rent, will repay the expence of cultivation ; and in the present state of population it perhaps would not be proper to let it low, as by that means useful labourers might be taken away from more valuable lands. The same reason prevents the fields near the inn from being cultivated. They are level, but too poor to produce rice. The inhabitants would willingly bring them into cultivation for dry grains, were they allowed the two first years free of rent : but then part of the rice fields must remain uncultivated. Water. The Only good water in this neighbourhood is the rain

preserved in Tanks. That, which is found in wells, is by the natives called salt, although the quantity of muriate of soda contained in it is very small Oils Qied in The oil chicfly used here, both for food and unguent, is that of DxBja^tre. Scsamum, by the English called Oingeli, or sweet oil ; a few indi- viduals use ^e oil of the cocoa-nut. At Madras this last is much employed for the lamp ; but in the country the natives make other oils serve for this purpose.

The oils usedm the Company's t/ogf Aire, or district immediately surrounding Madras^ are the following :

Taynga any, oil of the cocoa-nut.

Nulla any, oil of the sesamum.

Vekic, or amanucky any, oil of the Ricinus Palma Christi. It is the common lamp oil which the natives use.

Cai amanucky any, oil of the Jatroplia ourcas ; used for the lamp only.

Mulu any, oil of argemone seed, also for the lamp.

Illepen any, oil of the Bassia Umgifolia; used for frying cakes made of rice flour and Jagory.

Badaga any, oil of black and white mustard ; brought from the interior parts of the country.

Vaypa any, oil of the seeds of the Melia azadirachta. About an ounce of this is given to every woman, immediately after she is delivered of a child. It is used also for the lamp.

Veleri very any, oil of cucumber seed; used both in cookery and for the lamp.

Tomute very any, oil of the seed of the Cucumis colocynihis, L. Lamp oil.

Penny coty any^ oil of the Calophyllum In^hyllum ; used also for the lamp.

Cossumba any, oil of the seeds of the Carthamus tinctorius. Botanical In the TaTfiul lanfiniage there are many good botanical terms,

terms in the i» • x ^ ® '^ ^

Tamui Ian- — tor instauce : 8^"**®* Maram, a tree, Arbor.

Chery, a shrub, Frwtex.

CHAP. 1.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 7

Cody J a climber, Planta volubUis.

Shudy, an herb, Planta he^^bacea.

Very, small seed, many of which are contained in a common fruit.

Coty, a seed, of which one only is contained in each fruit.

The people, who make Jagory from, palm trees, follow no other ^/^J^ *'••» profession. An individual of tiiis profession in the Tamul language is called Shanan ; but collectively the cast is called Shanar, The Shcman mounts the Palmira tree morning and evening, in order to collect the exuded juice, which through me day he and his family boil down into Jagory, The tree produces at all seasons. One man can take care of 200 trees : from which, accoilling to their account, he can extract annually 20 Mamugu, or about 482 pounds of Jagory, worth at this place, 6 Pa^godaa ; which, at the usual exchange, is £2 Ha. or rather more than eleven shillings the cwt. Besides, the Shanan daily sells one or two Fanams' worth of Tdri. According to this ac- count, the produce of two hundred Palmit a trees would be

Jagory Pagodas 6 0

rari at li ^ariam daily 15 7J

21 7i Deduct rent at 2 ^atiam^ a tree 11 4

Profit Pagodas 10 3i

I suspect, that by this account the produce is under-rated. If it were true, I can hardly see, how the Shanan could maintain a family in a country where provisions are by no means cheap.

The inn, Choultiy, or Chaturarti, of Vira Permal Pillay consists ^P^^'^v •' of two square courts enclosed by low buildings, which are covered *^* *^" ' with a tiled roof, and divided into small apartments for the accom- modation of travellers. The buildings on the outside are surrounded by a colonnade, and are constructed of well cut, whitish, granite, brought from the distance of twenty miles. Although said to have cost 15,000 Pagodas, or £5,515 Ss, Id, they are very mean structures.

AprU 26&. — In the morning I wentfix)m Vira PermaVs Choul- Appeamace try, to the greater Conjeveram, called by the natives, Kunji, The ** ^^"'""''y- country is in general level, but the soil is wretched. It consists chiefly of a coarse sand, seemingly deriving its origin from decom- posed cranite, and at this season of the year is almost destitute of vegetable covering ; nor is it perhaps capable of being ever converted to use. Some spots possess a tolerable soil, and in these have been formed rice fields, that in the rainy season produce a crop, but at present they look quite deseri Near Uonjeveram many of the fields, receiving a supply of water from a large reservoir on the north side of the town, were covered with a thriving crop of rice, which displayed a verdure highly refi'eshing to the eye.

In one of the most desert places of the country, a very fine tank Fine tuk. has been dug by a Deivan of the late Mahomed Aly, It is square.

8

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I

Ion.

Mandapam.

Eray.

and lined all round with stones of cut granite, which descend to the bottom in steps. The- water is said to be very deep. At two of tlie sides of this tank are Choultries, built also of cut granite. Eaoh consists of a room divided by two rows of pillars, that support a flat roof consisting of long stones. This apartment, which is shut up on three sides by a wall, and entirely open in front, is surrounded by a colonnade, or veranda, which in front is double. The pillars are very nide and inelegant, but are covered with figures, in basso relievo, of the Hindu deities, of fishes, and of serpents. Different kinds It must bc obscrvcd, that there are two distinct kinds of buildings f c/unutrtss. ^onfounded by Europeans under the common name Choulti^y, choHram, or The first is that called by the natives Chaturam, and built for the accommodation of travellers. These, like that of Vira Permal PiU lay, have in general pent roofs, and commonly are built in form of a square enclosing a court in the centre.

The other kind, like those here, are pr(q)er]y built for the recep- tion of images, when these are carried in procession ; although, when not occupied by the idols, travellers of all descriptions may take up their quarters in them. These have flat roofs, and consist of one apartment only, and by the natives are called MandAipam. otiKn^^} "°^ ^^^ inhabitants here distinguish also two kinds of tanks.

The first is the Eray, which is formed by throwing a mound, or bank, across a valley, or hollow ground ; so that the rain water collects in the upper part of the valley, and is let out on the lower part by sluices, for the purposes of cultivation.

The other kind of tank is the Culam, which is fohned by dig- ging out the earth ; and is destined for supplying the inhabitant witii water for domestic purposes. In this country the Cidama are very frequently lined on all the four sides, with cut stone, and are the most elegant works of the natives. By making tanks and chovMries, the wealthy Hindus endeavour to procure a lasting good name ; and they certainly deserve it, as the sums they expend m this way are very considerable, and the utility of the works is very great.

In passing through the Company's Jaghire I have found very little inclination among the natives to oblige a European traveller. It^ppears to me, that their condition is better than that of the people in Bengal ; but this is entirely contrary to the opinion of my painter. He has no doubt better opportunities than I can have of knowing the truth, the houses of the natives in both countries being inaccessible to a European. I suspect, however, that he is not exempt from prejudice in favour of his native land.

The town of Gonjeveram is of considerable size, and very regu- larly built ; but it appears to be bv no means populous, as many of the lots for building are unoccupied, and none of the houses kre more than one story high. The streets are tolerably wide and dean, and cross one another at right angles. On each side is a row of coco-nut trees, enclosed by a small mud wall, painted vertically with red and white stripes.

Natires.

Conjfveram or KunjL

i:HAP, L] MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR. 9

The houses have mud walls, and are roofed with tiles. Each is built in the form of a square with a small court in the centre. They certainly appear to be much more comfortable than the houses in the countiy towns in Bengal, Most of them are inhabited by the Brdhmana belonging to two large temples, that aie dedicated to Iswara, and to his wife Camchauma, Of these Brdhmans there are one hundred families ; a hundred dancing girls are kept for the honour of the deities, and the amusement of their votaries ; and any familiarity between these girls and an infidel would occasion scandal. About three miles off, at the lesser Conjeveram, is another grand temple dedicated to Vishnu, who has here a Mandapam, for his re- ception at the two visits, which he makes in. the year to Isivara. Siva returns the visit once a year only. At these visits the worship- pers of the two gods, who are of different sects, are very apt to fall into disputes, occasioning abuvsive language, and followed by vio- lence ; so that the collectors have sometimes been obliged to have recourse to the fear of the bayonet, to prevent the controversy from producing bad effects.

I have no occasion to describe the Covila, or Pagodas, that having Temple. already been done with sufficient accuracy. I shall only remark, that they are great stone buildings, very clumsily executed both in their joinings, and carvings, and totally devoid of elegance or gran-* deur, although tliey are wonderfully crowded with what are meant as ornaments. The Ra(hs, Tcer, or chariots, on which the images of the gods are carried in procession, are much siipeiior to those I have seen in Bengal There are here three Tcer, one for lawara, a second for his wife, and a third for his son Gan^srcu in Bengal, tibe images ^ of Vishnu only, and of his family, are conveyed in Rat'hs ; MahddAva or Iswara, never carried in procession.

At Kunji there is a small mosque of very neat workmanship. Mosque. Hindoos say, that it was originally a Couil, or Pagoda ; but if it has been such, great alterations have been made on it for the better.

The divisions of the Brdhinans here, are different from those secu of ^n**-

«• J • D r man* In tiie

found m Bengal, south.

The most numerous class here, and which comprehends about «flwiia«. one half of all the Brdlimans in the Lower Cai'natic, is called the Smartal sect, and its members are followers of ScmJcara A chary a. They are commonly said to be of the sect Siva ; but they consider Brahma, Vishnu, and Iswara, to be the same god, assuming different persons as the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe. They consider their souls as being portions of the divinity, and do not believe in transmigration as a punishment for sin. They are readily distinguished by three horizontal stripes on the forehead, made with the a^es of cow-dung.

The next most numerous sect of Brdhmans here, are the fol- sn vatsknavum, lowers of Rdma Anuja Achdrya, who form about three-tenths of the whole. They are called Sri Vaishyiavutn Rjid A'ayngar, aiid may readily be Known by three vertical marks on the forehead, con-

2

10 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. \.

nected by a common line above the nose, and formed of a white clay. They abhor Istvara, calling him the chief of the Rdkahasa, or devik, and worship only ViahriAi, and the gods of his family. They form two sects ; the Wadagalay who believe in transmigration, and the Tangalay who do not. MaduaK The Moduol form the remaining two-tenths of the Brdhfiians.

These use the vertical marks on the forehead, which are appropriate to the followers of Vishnu ; but they worship Siva also ; they believe in the generation of the gods in a literal sense, thinking Vishnu to be the father of Brahma, and Brahma, to be the father of Siva,

AH these sects admit the authority of the same Purana ; but each sect explains some obscure passages so as to confirm its own doctrines.

Each sect xyt Brah'nianshB& here a number of followers, in propor- tion nearly to its own comparative strength. This, I am tol<t is not the case in Bengal, where the sect of Iswara or Mahadava prevails among the BrdhTnans, while that of Vishnu is the most common among the vulgar. Various nAmen 27th ApHL — lu the momiuff I went to Oulur Sdt-ghadam,

for forts. which is a Choultry, or inn, with hardly any houses in its neighbour- Jiood ; but it is remarkable for having formerly had seven hill-forts in its vicinity ; and from this circumstance it derives its appellation, Sdt-ghadam. In the Decany dialect of the Musulman language, Oha- dam signifies a fortress situated on a hill, while KHah is applied to one built on a plain. In the Sansci^ language, Patanam or Patana is analogous with Kilah, and Durga, or fhirgam, is analogous with • Ohadam. In the TamuJ language a fort of eitiier kind is called

Cotay. Another kind of Bcsidcs the Chaluram, and Mandapam, there is another kind of Tan"y Hit^L buUdiug, wMch by Europeans is called Choultry ; in the TamiU lan- guage it is called Tuny Pundal, olr water shed These are small buildings, where weary travellers may enjoy a temporary repose in the shade, and obtain a draught of water or milk. In some of the inns or Chaturams, provisions are sold ; in others, they are distribut- ed gratis, at least to Brdhmans or other religious mendicants, as is the case in the Choubaries of Bengal, Tiuoi derired Whcu a man erects a building of any of these kinds, the natives

worker '^ add its name to his, as a title of honotu* ; thus any person speaking of Vira Permal, would call him Vira PerTncd Chaturam, Others derive a similar title from having dug a Culam, or constructed an JSray. AppMurance Soou after leaving Conjeveram, I found the country again a

in the /a^Air? dcscrt, and it continues so till near Damerlu, the last village in the Ja/^hire, From my having passed over such a great proportion of bad land, on my way from Madras, it must not be concluded, that the whole country is similar. Dry, hard, and elevated ground, where little expense is bestowed on keeping the roads in repair, being most favourable for highways, the traveller of course meets with u

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. H

greater proportion of that description than of any other. Between Damerln, and Oulur, a canal coming from the Pfliar^ waters much valuable rice land. At Oulur the soil is good, but where I encamp- ed is fit only for dry grains ; and at present its surface is wjiolly a brown dust, enlivened alone by the bushes and trees which, from the slovenliness of the cultivators, are scattered about in the best fields.

In one place I saw people employed in watering a rice field with imgauon hj the Tatam, or Facota, as it is called by the EngKsh. When ihefZmX'^'' water of a tank is expended before the rice of the fields watered '''*<^"<«- by it ripens, the inhabitants must either allow their crop to perish, or use the Yatam, One Canay of ground (1,7^ acre) requires the constant labour of four men to supply it with water for the cultiva- tion of rice. The same number of men are able to water three Canays of garden ground, which requires a comparatively small supply;, a deduction of rent is generally allowed, when uie cultivator is re- duced to the necessity of watering by machinery.

28th ApriL — In the morning I made a long journey to Arcot AppoArance of From Ovluv to Kdvary-pdk, the barren ridge on whieh the road leads '***" *^**'*«*'>'- is very narrow; and the country, being abundantly supplied with water from the Kdvary-pdk tank, has a fertile delightful appear- ance ; and with its distant hills, verdant fields, and running streams, would afibrd a most beautiful prospect, were it somewhat better wooded. The great Eray, or tank, is about eight miles long and three broad, and fertilizes a considerable extent of country. I never viewed a public work with more satisfaction, a work that supplies a great body of people with every comfort which their moral situation wiU permit them to enjoy. Kdvary-pak, is a large but dirty village, with a stone mosque in its centre* The fort by which it was pro- tected, is also built of stone, but is now ruinous.

After passing Kdvary-pak^ I found the barren ridge more ex- tensive, reaching almost from the Polar to the northern hills, and in most places consisting of immense beds of granite, or of that rock decomposed* into harsh coarse sand. The whole country is almost destitute of verdure, but a little withered grass afiPords sustenance to a few wretched sheep. Other parts have somewhat of a better soil, and in the rainy season may produce some of the dry grains ; several reservoirs have beeu formed in the waste, the water of wbioh produces crops in a few narrow strips of land chieiBy near the river. The bed of the river Polar at Arcot^ where we crossed it, is above half a mile wide, but at present is quite a dry loose sand, except in two narrow channels, containing a stream not sufficient to turn a mill.

Arcot, or Arrucate, is the nominal capital of the Camaticpay- ^^^ot. in ghcU, (Gamatic below the Passes^ as the Mussulmans and English call the dominions of the Nabobs He maintains a garrison of his own troops in the fort, which is pretty large, but not in good repair. The music of his Nabut, or state band, is much superior to any thing I have ever heard amcmg the natives, and is not much

12 A JOURNKY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 1-

harsher than our clarionet. His brother-in-law, who manages this part of the countiy, resides near the fort, in a good house bel(mging to the Nabob,

The town surrounds the glacis on all sides, and is extensive. The houses are as good as in the towns of the Jaghire. The in- habitants speak the Decany dialect of the Mussulman language, which we call Moors or Hindustany. They took advantage of us as str^hgers, and for every supply we procured, demanded three times the usual price. At this place coarse cotton cloth is made. It seems to be cheaper than in the Jaghire, but dearer than in Bengal,

Eoadi, and From Madras to Kdre7*y-pdk, the road is tolerably good. From

"emSg'*^'*" Kdvery-pdk to Arcot, a wheel carriage could not easily pass. Many of the rich natives travel in bullock coaches, like those in Calcutta, called Chaycra, Near Arcot, I met the Mussulman women riding on bullocks, and entirely wrapt up in white veils, so as to conceal both features and shape.

nnis of granite. The heat on the glacis of the fort, where I encamped, was in- tense. The hills in this vicinity are the most barren 1 have ever seen, those even of St. Jago in the Qa'pe de Verd islands not ex- cepted. They appear to be composed of the same granite, that abounds in the elevated barren grounds, on which the road from Madras is conducted. They seem to be undergoing a rapid decay, and will probably continue to do so, till they are reduced to nearly a level with the circumjacent plain, when the decomposed parts, no longer rolling off, will cover them with a bed of sand, and prevent them from farther decay, as is now the ease in the waste lands al- ready mentioned. In many parts of the vallies, formed by these hills, is found Chunam, or limestone nodules, which in Bengal is called Congcar.

Face of the 29th April, — The country between Arcot and the western hills.

toun ly. contains some good ground, some that serves for gardens and dry

grains, and some that is barren, consisting of granite covered with beds of sand. •

The road leading to Vellm^e is conducted along the foot of the hills, which bound the Palar valley on the south, and is formed on the rocky basis of these hills, and on the sand and fragments, that have fallen from them. A greater verdure however prevails here, than any I have seen in the Carnatic, owing probably to a subter- raneous supply of water ; for on the whole way there is not a spring visible. This ground at the foot of the hills is in some places pasture, and in others is overgrown with trees and bushes, especially with the wild date, or Elate Sylvestris, which thrives very well, but here is considered as useless. There are also many Palmira trees, from which Tdri is extracted. The lower part of the valley, near the river, is very good land, and looks well, the greater part of it being verdant with the second crop of rice. The houses and vil- lages by the way are very miserable.

CHAP. 1.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 13

SQth April. — I remained at Vellore in order to give my people veiuyre. rest. The present fort is large and beautiful; and having been chosen for the residence of the family of the late Sultdn of Mysore, is strongly garrisoned by English forces. The town, which belongs to the Nabob, is pretty large, and well built after the Hindu fashion. Above it are three small forts, which occupy the summits of a hill that overlooks the town, but one of them only has a supply of water. The fortifications are said to have been erected by the Canarese monarchs.

The greater part of the Brdhmana in the lower Carnatic follow Brdhmans. secular professions. They almost entirely fill the different offices in the collection of the revenue, and administration of justice ; and they are exclusively employed as Hircanis, that is, guides or messen- gers, and as the keepers of inns or Choultries. Much of the land is rented by them ; but, like the Jews, they seldom put their hand to actual labour, and on no account will they hold the plough. Their farms they chiefly cultivate by slaves of the inferiour casts, called Sudra, and Panchum Butrdum,

The Panchum Bundum, are by far the most hardy and laborious impure tribes people of the country, but the greater part of them are slaves. So ?>a*i*tt«i ^un- sensible of their value was Hyder, that in his incursions it was these ***"*• chiefly, whom he endeavoured to carry away. He settled them in many districts as farmera, and would not suffer them to be called by their proper name, which is considered opprobrious ; but ordered, that they should be called cultivators. The Panchum Bundum consist of four tribes ; the Pamar, the BaLuan, the Sliecliar and the Tdti. The Shecliars dress hides ; and from among the Toti is chosen a particu- lar class of village officers.

There are a few Musselman farmers, who possess slaves ; but the coitivators. most numerous class is composed of the different tribes of the Siidra cast. Some of these possess slaves, but many of them cultivate their farms with their own hands.

In this Carnatic payin ghdt, or Carnoitic below the mountains. Markets, there are no fairs like the Hauts of Bengal ; but the shopkeepers pur- (;hase the articles in demand from the farmers and manufacturers^ and retail them daily in the Bazars or towns. Milk and its prepara- tions are commonly sold by women, who sit by the road side.

1st May. — I went from Vellore to Paligonda. The valley is in Face of the general very fine, much of it having water for two crops of rice ; ^^^ ^' some part hoiwever is covered with rocks of granite. The villages are very poor ; and the two towns, Verimchepurum, and Paligoridu are full of ruins ; at each of them is a considerable temple ; that of Pali- gonda is within the remains of a fort. The name of tiie place is de- rived from a Tamul word, which signifies sleeping. It arises from the image in the temple, which represents RanganMh, one of the forms of Visknu, in a sleeping posture.

A procession, that took place to-day at Paligonda, gave me an casts. opportunity of learning, that only the three pure casts of Brdhmans,

of Brdhmant.

H A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. f.

Vaishyas, and Sudra, are allowed to attend on such occasions. Tlie fourth pure cast (the second in rank), the Kshatriyas, are considered by all the Brahnvins, here, as having been for many centuries quite extinct. The Far mar, and other impure tribes, composing what are here called the Panchum Bundum, would be beaten, were they to attempt joining in a procession of any of the gods of the Brdhnians, or entering any of their temples. The Brdhmans indeed despise those poor people so much, that they will give them no religious ad- vice ; nor perform for them any religious ceremony ; and, what is still more extraordinary, will not even receive money from them a-s charity. The Parriars have among themselves a kind of priest, named Velluan who possess books in the Tamul language. They have also small temples, in which the only image is said to represent the head of the mother of Paraaa Rayaa Avatar. This, according to the legend, was taken up by the Parriara, when it had been cut off by her son. nifferent kinds I havc already mentioned the three grand sects prevailing among

the Brdhmans of this countiy, and which are said to prevail also over all the five nsiiionsot Brdhmans, called collectively PansA Dror- vddcc, who occupy the southern parts of India. There are, however, many other divisions amcmg these Brahmans, arising from their vari- ous occupations.

The proper duty of a Brahman is meditation on things divine, and the proper manner of his procuring subsistence is by begging (Bhikahd). This mode of living is considered as very agreeable to the gods; and all industry is deemed derogatory to the rank of a man, and more especially to that of a Brdhman, The lower dasses of society, however, in this degenerate age, not being sufficiently chari- table, nor quite so willing to part with their money, as the noble cast of Brdhmans could widi, many of that sacred order have been oblig- ed to betake themselves to what they consider as unworthy employ- ments, such as being governors and judges of cities, collectors of revenue, and accomptants ; nay some even condescend to cultivate the earth by means of slaves. Hence arises the distinction of Brdh- mans into VaidUca and Ldkika, or Lovadiea ; the former of whom follow the proper duties of the cast, while the Ldkika debase them- selves by dedicating their labours to worldly afiairs. The diversity of employment, however, does not create an absolute distinction of cast ; the daughter of a Vaidika Brdhman may marry a L6kika, and the son of a Ldkika may betake himself to the occupations of a ^ Vaidika Brahman ; but instances of either circumstance are not com- mon. It is however not so unusual for a poor Vaidika, to be tempt- ed to give his daughter to a wealthy Ldkihi Brdhman ; as for the son of a Ldkika Brdhman to acquire the character of a pure Vaidika. He is always considered as a new man ; and several generations, devoted to study and mortification, would be required to wash away the stain of ignoble birth, before the merits or learning of a Ldki- ka family could enable them to procure a comfortable subsistence by charity.

CHAP. I] MYSORE, CANADA, AND MALABAR. IJ

The Brdhmans are considered as the priests of the Hindus ; yet there are none, even of the lowest among the LSkika, who would intermarry with the families of the Brahmans that officiate in the temples of Vishnu and Siva : and in this country no Brdhman of- ficiates in any of the temples of the inferiour gods, whose altars are stained with blood.

The highest among the Brdhmana are certain Vaidika, who by more than usual mortification attain a large proportion of divine favour. They cut off their hair ; dress in a yellow or red cloth ; eat but once a day ; abstain entirely from women ; and, relinquish- ing all the domestic enjoyments of society, live in Pagodas, or Mat- ams, that is to say convents, where they dedicate their time entirely to devotion, and the instruction of those who are less pious, and who follow them as discipleriL A Brdh/nuin of this kind is called a Sanni- asi, and must be a man of learning, that is to say, must be able to read SanAicnt, and be acquainted with the dogmas of his particular sect. The number of Brdhman Sannyasis is very small, and is chiefly con- fined to those, who are OuruSy Swamalus, or bishops of the different sects, and who, in every thing relating to religion and cast, have a jurisdiction over all their inferiours. They also perfoim certain ceremonies, such as Upadesa, and Chicranticum, which may be con- sidered as analogous to the Confirmation granted by our prelates. They are supported entirely by the contribution of their 'disciples ; but these are so burthensome, that Ouru seldom continues long in one place; for the contributions even of Madras are not equal to supply the wants of a Sv)amalv, for more than one or two months. A nundred Pagodas a day, £36. 15, 5. is as little, as can be decently offered to such a personage. The Raja of Ta/njore is said to give his Guru 250 Pagodas a day (£91. 18. 6 J.), when that personage honours him Mdth a visit. The Gurus travel in great state, with elephants, horses, Palankeens, and an immense train of disciples, the least of whom considers himself as highly elevated above mankind by his sanctity. They generally travel at night, in order to avoid their Mussulman or European conquerors, who would not show them that veneration, or rather adoration, to which they consider themselves entitled ; and they have therefore been seldom seen by travellers. On the approach of a Gura to any place, every inhabi- tant of pure birth mast go to meet him ; the lower classes are not admitted to his presence. The Guru, on being conducted to the principal temple, bestows Upadesa or Chicranticum, on such as have j not received these ceremonies, and distributes holy water. He ^ then inquires iato matters of contention, or transgressions against the rules of cast ; and having settled, or pimished these, hears his disciples and other learned men dispute on theological subjects. This is the grand field for acquiring reputation among the Brdh- mans. These disputations are said to be ve^ similar to those, which were common among the doctoi^ of the Komish church seven or eight hundred years ago ; and in fact a strong resemblance will be

10

A JOUKNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I

Trrigation from «ttie Ikdar.

Appearance of the couBtry.

Gardens.

found between the present state of Hindu knowledge, and tliat which then prevailed in Europe.

The contributions for the support of the Guru are made chiefly by the rich Brdhmans, especially by the Ldhika. Small donations offered by a Sudra would be rejected with scorn, as being proper only for the Brahman who performs ceremonies for him ; but should a Sadra offer a thousand or two thousand Pagodas it would be re- ceived. As the Guru is supposed to be entirely weaned from the pleasures of the world, the whole of these cbntributions ought to be expended in charity, that is to say, in the support of buildings and men dedicated to the honor or service of gods.

At Paligonda, the river Palar is considerably diminished in size, from what it is at Arcot ; but at this season its channel is occu- pied entirely by dry sand. The people, however, procure water from it, by digging canals in the sand six or seven feet deep. These canals transverse the channel diagonally, and collect a gentle stream of pure water about a foot deep, and six feet wide ; this by other canals is conveyed through the country to water the fields, and renders the valley of Vellore one of the finest tracts in the Carnatic,

2d May. — In the morning I went fifteen miles to Sdtghadam. I first crossed the Palar, and proceeded up its northern bank till I came to the Camundala, Following the course of this river, I came to Gurietum, a pretty large town, about five miles N. N. W. from Paligonda. Part of it is on either side of the river, and that on the eastern side is guarded by a mud fort. Soon after, I turned towards the left from the Camuridala, and entered a narrow valley leading west. So far was a fine valley, like that near Vellore, and weu watered by canals, cut from the Palar and Gamundala. This last river has water in many parts of its channel ; but at this season, it does not afford in any place a quantity sufficient to form a stream on the surface. The narrow valley, by which I proceeded, is water- ed in its lower part by a reservoir. The head of the valley rises considerably, and consists chiefly of dry fields ; towards the upper end some is barren land full of granite. The hills approaching here, a stone waD, with a gateway, marks the boundary of Sdtgliadam, On the north this gate is commanded by a naked rocky hill, irregu- larly fortified by various walls and castles, after the country fashion. These are called Sdtghadam, the Decany pronunciation of Sdtghur, or the seven castles. The Malabar, or Tamul name of the place is Elamulla Durgam, The village under the hill, or the Petta, is sur- rounded by a wall, and is pretty considerable in point of space, but it is ruinous. The district belonging to it is extensive, and fertile. It is surrounded on all sides by granite rocks ; and in the rainy sea- son, the water of three torrents falls from it into the Polar near Arnhoor, The principal cultivation in it, however, is that of dry grains, with some finit gardens, for which it is celebrated.

The Nabob has here an extensive garden, which he lets to some Armenians at Madras, The fruit* especially the oranges, are reck-

CHAP. 1.] liiYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. * 17

uned the best in the Carnatic, and the choicest are sent to the Nabob and to other persons of distinction. This garden is a large piece of ground, thickly planted with a variety of fruit trees ; and to the roots of each water is conveyed by separate canals ; but the whole is kept in a very slovenly condition. More extensive gardens might be formed here, but the expence of watering them would be considerable.

Since leaving Madras^ I have found the weather very hot and weather. dry. The thermometer at noon in my tents, which are constructed for keeping out the heat, has been from 95° to 98°. In a house it would probably have been two or three degrees lower. The wind has generally been strong ; but so arid, and hot, as not to mitigate the effects of the sun, or cool the burning atmosphere.

I am gravely informed by my intei7)reter, a Brdhman, that he cunom decep- ha.s relations, who live by performing a variety of wonderful feats. Among others, they can make a Afango stone, in the course of four hours, shoot out a small tree a foot high. He maintains, that this is not a deception, but a real art, the manner of doing which is as follows : Take of the kernels of a shrub which is a species of Van- tanea, a convenient quantity, and grind them between two stones for seven days and seven nights, without ceasing. Then place a sword upright, with its point in a cup. Rub the pulp of the kernel on the blade of the sword, exposed to the sun, and an oil will run clown into the cup. Put the oil in a bottle to be preserved for use. In order to perform the experiment, take a ripe Mango stone, nib it over with the oil, and place it in a pot of earth properly watered. The young shoot will be immediately formed ; but dies soon, that is, whenever it has exhausted the nourishment contained in the kernel. I have seen the experim^it performed at Calcutta ; and know that it ii?a mere deception.

3d May. — I went to Ndyahtty Eray^ by the Pedda Ndyahana A«ccnt of the Durga Pass. After crossing the first hill by a very bad road, I descended into a narrow valley, running north and south, and con- taining two channels, in one of which was'a small quantity of clear running water. These two currents uniting, and having joined the streams from Sdighadarriy fall into the Palar near Amboor. In this valley was encamped an officer, with many pioneers, employed in making a road up the Ghats, from Ainboor to Fedda Ndyakana Durga, The new road is very well formed ; but for about half a mile is exceedingly steep, so as to render a noble work of compara- tively little value. The mountains of the OJiatis have not quite so A barren an aspect as those to the east ; and contain many trees, some of which are fit for timber.

Specimens of the following were brought to me, as being the Fore«u on the most usefrd trees on the Ohxits of this place. The names are Teliiiga. ^"*^*'

1. Nara Vaypa, described by Dr. Roxburgh as a species of Copaifera. A black, hard timber, taking a good polish.

2. Yegu, which in my manuscripts I call Pterocarpxis I Vaynga. Gives small planks for doors, &c.

S

18 'A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

3. Naro, Preiinna tomentosa WiUd.

Used for beams and posts in the huts of the natives.

4. Nervddy.

Serves for both planks and beams.

5. Mubddi.

The wheels of the immense chariots of the gods are made from this tree.

6. Topwsi, UlwAis integrifolia, Roxb. Serves for door-frames, and similar uses.

7. Tayca, Tectona RohvMa,

In this neighbourhood about a hundred full grown trees might be procured.

8. Chigry, a Mimoaay which I call Tuggvla, Said to be a black, heavy, strong timber.

9. Telia Maliki, which I caU Balitaliuvi Farhwsuvi, A white wood used for posts in huts.

10. Wudaga.

Used by Tippoo for stocking firelocks.

11. Palawaraynu, Neriumtinctorium,'Roxh. MSB.

The timber is sawed into planks ; and ploughs, and other im- plements of agriculture, are made of it. The natives are acquainted with the process for extracting indigo from its leaves.

12. Devadarum, ErythroxyLon Sideroxyloides, L. M.

A sweet-scented black wood, used by the poor instead of sandal wood.

13. Bilii, Sweitenia GhloroxyloUf Roxb.

The timber is reckoned of little value by the natives, although it is said to be our satin wood. •

14. Ray nil, Bhamnixs xylopyrua Koen. A strong timber used for posts and beams,

15. Aree, Bauhinia. A strong black timber.

16. Fedualingee. • A black wood.

17. Mimosa Lebec, L. M. A white heavy timber.

18. Tanaca,

Used for planks and beams.

19. Vaypachittu, Melia Azadirachta, Lin. Used for beams and posts.

20. Nayla Balasu Haydarany of the Canarese.

A black wood, that kindles readily, and bums clearly, and therefore is used for torches. Birau of the In asccuding the Ghats, I had an excellent opportunity of

observing the strata, where the rock has been cut away to form the road. The grand component part of these mountains is a granite, consisting of white felspar and quartz, with dark green mica, in a small proportion to the other two ingredients, The particles are

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 19

angular, and of moderate size. It seems to come near to the Gla- nitello of the Italians (Waller. Min. II, p. 423), and is an excellent material for building ; as it is readily cleft by wedges, and is at the same time strong and durable. Intermixed with this is another stone, in a state of decay, consisting of anguli^r masses of various sizes, divided by fissures, so as to be separable with little difficulty. The sides of the fissures are tarnished, and covered by extraneous matter. This is a stone commonly called granite in decay, the mica being supposed to have been entirely decomposed, and the felspar to be in the act of decomposition, and to have assumed an arid powdery appearance, while the glassy quartz retains its natural consistence. That the strata in question are in a state of decay, firom the numerous fissures in them, I have no doubt ; but there are other strata of similar component parts common all over the lower Camaiic, especially at Mahabalipura (the seven Pagodas) which are in the most perfect state of preservation, without the small- est mark of decay, and fit for forming the most durable buildings. Mr. Fichtel, who has been so kind as to look over my specimens, and to assist me with his opinion concerning their nature, thinks, that the stone of Mahabalipura consists of a mixture of arid and of fat quartz; and, although he calls the stone of the Ghats granite, I have no doubt of its component parts being the same with those of the MaAabalipura stone.

Both these rocks appear to be stratified ; but the strata are wonderfully broken, and confused. In some places they are almost horizontal, in others they are vertical, with all intermediate degrees of inclination. Sometimes the decaying stratum lies above the per- fect, and at other times Is covered by it. I saw many strata not above three feet wide ; while in other masses, of eight or ten feet high, and many long, I could perceive no division.

Immersed in both kinds, I observed many nodules, as large as the head, which were composed of a decaying substance containing much green mica. In other places there are large veins, and beds, containing small rhomboidal masses, of what Mr. Fichtel takes to be a composition of a small proportion of quartz with much iron.

The countrj^ about Ndyakan Eray rises into swells, like the App»raDceo£ land in many parts of England, and is overlooked by the high barren »bove°th?3!ia<i. peaks of the GiiatSy which close the view to the eastward. Among these peaks, the most remarkable is that occupied by Fedda Ndya- PeddaA'dyakana kana Durga, or the Great Chiefs castle, which, till the overthrow of ^'^'"'* ' the late Sultan, was a frontier garrison of the Mysore kingdom. It formerly belonged to a Polygar, called th6 Pedda Ndyaka, who was restored by Lord ComwaUis ; but obliged again to leave his dominions, after his Lordship granted peace to Tippoo, During the remainder of the Stdtan's reign, he continued to harass the country in nocturnal predatory excursions ; but is now quietly wait- ing for the decision of the British government concerning his fate. The country formerly belonging to his family has, by the partition

20

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I.

luhabiUnis.

Appearftcee of the coantrr.

Iron forges.

Arable lands.

Veticatagkery,

treaty of 1799, been annexed to the British possessions, and is under the authority of Captain Graham, the collector of Khisinaghery.

At Ndyakan Eray, or the chiefs reservoir, the only remains of a village are a ruinous Choultry, and a few wretched shops, called a Bazar, The houses of .the cultivators are scattered about in groups of four or five families. The common language spoken here, as well as in the neighbouring parts of the Nabob's dominions, is the Tdinga, or Beder as it is commonly called. The people are infinitely more obliging than those below the GhatSy and my servants find here no difficulty in procuring supplies,

4th May. — In the morning I went from Ndyakan Eray, to Ven- cataghery, about nine miles. Bo far as I can judge by the view, one half of the country has been ploughed ; of the half that has never been cultivated, a small part, perhaps about a tenth of the whole, rises into hills too steep for the plough ; the remainder is gently swelling ground, like the rest of the country ; but the soil is very

¥&or, and covered with copse, having a few large trees intermixed, he whole of the copse land serves for pasture, such as it is ; and the bushes supply the natives with fuel for their domestic purposes, for burning hmestone, and for smelting iron. The bushes seem also to preserve a moisture in the soil, which it is aUedged would improve it, should it ever be determined to extend cultivation ; so that I do not think the pasture would be improved by clearing the country ; and the loss of fuel, and timber for country uses, that would be sustain- ed by the operation, would be of serious inconvenience.

About two miles from Ndyakan Eray, a torrent, in the rainy season, brings down from the hills a quantity of iron ore in the form of black sand, which in the dry season is smelted. The operation is performed by MaLa/wanlu, the Telinga name for the cast called Parriar by the natives of Madras, Each forge pays a certain quantity of iron for permission to carry on the work.

The watered lands receive a good supply from reservoirs, con- structed like those below the Ohats. The rice now on the fields looks well, but cannot occupy more than a twentieth part of the arable lands. At present the dry fields look very ill, being quite parched up ; for the want of water seems to be the predominant fea- ture of the eastern part of the upper Carrvatic. Were it not that the slovenly cultivation, in use here, leaves a few straggling bushes in the midst of their fields, the whole would be entirely bare, and devoid of vegetation. These lands appear, however, to be perfectly fitted for the EngUsh manner of cultivation ; and in order to preserve some moisture in the ground, they ought to be enclosed with hedges, and planted with hedge-rows. The Euphorbium Timcalli, common in the country, makes a beautiful fence ; and I think it probable, that the mahogany and chesnut would be found to answer in hedge-rows, as they are both natives of hilly countries, and warm climates.

Vencata^fhery was formerly the usual residence of the Pedda Naieka Polygar, and the ruins of his fort are still conspicuous. It

CHAF. I.] MYSORE, CANAEA» AND MALABAR. 21

is built on a rising ground, and consists of various enclosures, sur- rounded by walls of mud and stone, flanked by towers and bastions, that rise higher and higher as you advance inwards, till you come to the central enclosure, which contained the Baja's dwelling. There have been in this place three small temples, two of which are pre- served. The remains of this palace do not indicate that it ever pos- sessed any grandeur, few of the rooms being more than seven or eight feet square. The outer enclosures contain much ground formerly occupied by the town, which is now reduced to one street of shops. The houses are much inferiour to those in the Tamul villages. They are built of mud, with thatched roofs ; but do not surround a square court ; nor have they any Verandah to keep off the sun or rain. The inhabitants are almost all Telingas, or Gentoos as the English of Madras call this nation.

Near Vencataghery also iron is smelted from black sand ; and Mineno*. mixed with the soil of different fields, limestone, in form of nodules, is common* The strata resemble those in the Ohats. The white granite is the most prevalent ; but the masses of quartz impregnat- ed with iron are mueh larger, and more perfect. I saw no other rocks : it would however appear from the stones in the wall of the fort, that the country produces red granite. Near Vencataghery I observed the water tinged with an iridescent oily matter, flating on its surface, as is usual in coal countries.

5th May. — In the momingi went to BaydamunguluTn ; leaving on my right a hill crowned wiui a fortress, and a temple dedicated to Seitadeva, By the way I visited a place to the north of my route, where the natives obtain limestone. I found it to be two small fields, containing what in Bengal is called Congcar. These fields are dis* tant from each other about three hundred yards, and are situated on a low piece of ground, surrounded by naked rocks of white granite. This low groimd is intersected by the channel of a torrent, wich at this season is quite dry ; and the water of the only spring that I have yet seen in this arid country, passes by the sides of the two calcareous fields. In some parts of these fields the small concretions of which Congcar consists, are found on the surface, mixed with the soil ; in others, a foot of soil must be removed, before they are found in any quantity. The natives have never dug deep to ascertain the thickness of the bed. This kind of stone seems to be the calcareus CBqwabilis incamatlis of WaUenns. II. p. 124. Similar beds are said to be scattered all over the country. A few families of Malawanlu gain a subsistence by collecting the limestone, by burning it in kilns, and selling the Chunam, or quick-lime, for chewing with betel.

Common salt (Muriate of Soda) seems to be also very generally cnUnaryBait. diffiisedover this part of the country. It is found in low wet grotmds, contained in a black poor soil, and in Tippoo's reign was extracted in considerable quantities. The trade wiUi the Nabob's dominions being then entirely contraband, such a bulky article could not be smuggled in quantities sufiicient for the consumption, and the

22 A JOURNEY FKOM MADBAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

inhabitants were obliged to have recourse to this their native salt ; against which, however, they are strongly prejudiced, considering it as inferior to the salt made from sea-water.

Iron ore, I am informed, that in every part of the country the black sand

ore of iron is brought down by the torrents ; but that it is smelted in such places only as abound with woods. It is called NaUa iaaea, in the Teliiuga language ; Cariusu in the Karnatdca, and Garupu Manul in the dialect of the Tamida,

suteof cuitira- The land that has not been cultivated, is much less in propor- tion than in my yesterday's route : I do not think, that it occupies above three-tenths of the country. .It consists entirely of rocks, or stones, without copse wood : but affords some miserable pasture in the interstices between the lumps of granite. In a few places are small hills. The wet gi'ound cannot be more than one-fortieth part of the arable land.

fort^^^ "^ The country is exceedingly bare, and the population scanty.

All the houses are collected in villages ; and the smallest village, of five or six houses, is fortified. The defence of such a village con- sists of a round stone wall, perhaps forty feeti in diameter, and six feet high. On the top of this is a parapet of mud, with a door in it, to which the only access is by a ladder. In case of a plundering party coming near the village, the people ascend intot his tower, with their families, and most valuable effects, and having drawn up ♦he ladder defend themselves with stones, which even the women throw with great force and dexterity. Larger villages have square forts, with round towers at the angles. In those still larger, or in towns, the defences are more numerous, and the fort serves as a cita- del ; while the village, or Pettah, is surrounded by a weaker defence of mud. The inhabitants consider fortifications as necessary for their existence, and are at the whole expence of building, and the risk of defending them. The country, indeed, has for a long series of years been in a constant state of warfare ; and the poor inhabi- tants have suffered too much from all parties, to trust in any.

Mud buildings. The mud here is excellent for making walls. It is a reddish ferruginous clay intermixed with small fragments of quartz, and other materials of decayed granite; and a wall constructed of it will, with tolerable care, resist the rains for many years. So good is it, that in many towns and villages, the houses have flat roo& ter- raced with this mud, which is laid on in the dty season, and turns the rain very well. The houses and huts have their walls imiver- sally built of this mud ; and have a tolerable appearance, the mud being smoothed, and painted on the outside, with alternate vertical broad stripes of white and red. The white is lime, and the red colour is given by a ferruginous clay, which is called Caym-munnu in theifaryuitaca language, Shy-Tnanuin theTeliTiga, B.nd Err a-Tnanu in the Tamtd. The huts are built in the form of a parallelogram, without veranda or windows, or any other vent for the smoke than the doors. Rich men, instead of enlarging the house, generally build

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. ^3

a number of similar huts in the form of a square, sufficient to jiccommodate their families, which are always numerous.

It is said by the people here, that for two months from this weather. time, they expect to have occasional rains, with strong westerly winds. In the two succeeding months much wind, and almost con- stant rain usually prevail. In September and October the winds abate, and there are only occasional showers. After this comes cold weather with heavy dews. In the hot weather preceding the rainy season, there is very little dew.

Baydamungulurawss formerly the residence of a Poly gar, and Baydamungn- a considerable place. In the dispute for the, dominion, between its ^'*™' ancient lord and Hyder, the town suffered exceedingly, and is now reduced to sixty or seventy miserable houses fortified by a mud wall, and some towers in a ruinous state. At the south side are the remains of a large fort, now totally useless ; but at the north side is another fort, not so far decayed. One end of this the inhabitants have lately repaired as a last resource, and say that they will defend it to the utmost extremity. It contains an old temple, the roof of which, as an additional defence, has been surrounded by a parapet of mud.

The town stands about three hundred yards west from the Velar, Paiw ritor. which, here, is not above forty feet wide, and at this season contains two or three feet depth of water nearly stagnant. In the rainy sea- son, it fills several fine reservoirs, or tanks, for the use of culti vatioiL

The people here are a mixture of Tamuls, Telingas, and Kar- People. Tiataca, or Canarese, with a good many Mussulmans. They complain, that the Araildars of the Mysore government take more money from them, than they did in the reign oiTippoo ; but acknowledge, that they are exempted from the licentiousness of that prince's army, and from the arbitrary exactions usual in his government.

6th May. — ^I went sixteen miles to Tayculum. The country in Appearance of most points resembles that through which I passed yesterday ; but ^^ «>^*n^* I think the proportion of land that has never been cultivated \& greater ; I should estimate it to be four-tenths of the whole. Of this also a greater part consists of high rocky hills. Those towards Colar are very extensive ; ai^d the last two miles of our road lay between two immense piles of bare granite, gradually crumbling into fragments that roU down into the plain. These hiHs occupy three-fourths of the land that has never been ploughed ; the remain- der is covered with copse wood, chiefly of the Mimosa which I call Tvggula, and seems to be capable of cultivation. The proportion of watered land to that of the dry arable fields, seems to be verv small, and the supply of water appears not to be plentiful A considerable quantity of it was occupied by betel leaf gardens ; and I observed one field under sugar-cane. The nakedness of the country does not proceed from any incapacity in the soil to produce trees ; for to-day I observed many that were really fine. The Tamarind, Mango, Fipal, and JRobinia mi<i«, thrive well.

24

Villages.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CUAP. I.

Salt.

Hedgei of the TtnuaUi,

Aloes.

The villages appear miserable ; the houses being entirely hidden by the walls of the fortifications, which present nothing to the view but a brown dusty mud. The farther we advance into the Mysore Raja! 8 dominions, they appear to be kept in better repair.

Part of the country indicated that it had last night been water- ed by a very heavy rain ; for the surface continued to be wet. This had allayed the dust and heat, removed the desert appearance of the land, and showed much of the soil to be of a good quality.

On this day's journey I had an opportunity of observing one of the places where salt is made. It was low and moist, with a black mould, consisting of a mixture of sand and clay, that from its ap- • pearance I should have reckoned a good soil ; but the impregnation of salt renders it greatly inferior, for cultivation, to soils of apparent- ly a worse quality, which are free from salt. The natives allege, that, if they walk much on this saline earth, their bare feet become blistered. In the diy season, the surface of the earth is scraped off, and collected in heaps. In jfront of these heaps the native salt-makers construct a semicircle of small round cisterns, each about three feet in diameter, and a foot deep. The sides and floors of these cisterns are made of dry mud ; and each, at its bottom, on the side toward the heaps of saline earth, has a smaD aperture, with a wooden spout, to convey the brine into an earthen pot that is placed in a cavity under it. The bottoms of the cisterns are covered with straw, and then the saline earth is put in, till it rises nearly to the level of the tops of the walls. Water is now poured on the surface of the saline earth, and, in filtering through into the pots, carries with it all the salt. The inert earth is then thrown out behind the cisterns, and new earth is put in, for impregnating more water. In the mean time the brine is emptied into a cavity cut in a rock, and the evapo- ration is performed entirely by the sun. This salt is sold at the rate of twenty 8eer8 for a Sultany Fanam, while the same sum procuijes eicrht Seers only of Madras salt. The natives say that it is sufficient- ly wholesome ; but my Madras servants pretend, that it is capable of producing all manner of diseases ; the prejudices, of all nations, however, concerning the wholesomeness and insalubrity of different aliments, are so weu known, as to deserve no attention. The grain of the salt is large, and consists of well-formed cubes ; but it is mixed with much earthy impurity. At each of these salt works is an image of Qanestvara, who receives sacrifices to prevent him from disturbing the operation. The image is placed in a temple little better than one of the cisterns.

The EuphorHuTTi Tiruailli, with very little trouble, makes ex- cellent fences. In the beginning of the rainy season, cuttings are planted in a trench, which is dug where the fence is intended to grow, and they take root without any farther trouble. No cattle will eat this plant ; so that it is easily preserved, and in one year becomes a tolerable fence. The natives here plant also many aloes (agave vivipara) in their hedges, and use the leaves for making

J

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 2o

cordage. It fonns a strong defence against both man and beast, and thrives better in the arid soil of Mysore^ than in any other place that I have seen : its Canarese, or Karnataca name is Ravana Meahid.

Tayculum is strongly situated at the end of a small hill of granite, and has a triple wall, each line strengthened with various defences. The houses, about a hundred in number, are very poor, and hardly fill up the space between the outer and second line of defence, about sixty of these houses are occupied by Mussulmans, among whom is the Amildar, There are eight families of BrdJi- Tnans, who are in possession of all the other offices under government. On the outside of the fort is a temple of Siva, and within it one of V'ishnVf ; both of which are ruinous. On visiting the latter, I asked when and by whom it was built. A Mussulman, who was my con- ductor, replied, that owing to the great antiquity of the building, nobody knew. On hearing this, a nrdhman, sitting at the porch, asked with a sneer, if every body did not know that it had built itself. The Mussulman, attempting to be witty, asked the Brahman if he had seen this. " How should I," replied the other, " when it happened so long ago ?" The prevalent language at Tayculum is the Karnataca, called by us Canarese. I could not purchase a bullock here for less than double the price that I had paid at Ma- dras, I found the people very unwilling to give me information ; and I am clearly convinced, from what I have already seen, that without authority to demand it, very little useful information on statistical subjects could be procured by a mere traveller.

7th. May. — In the morning I went to Walui'U, On the whole Face of tii« day's route I saw no hills, except those mentioned yesterday ; but at ^^^^y- least six-tenths of the whole country seem never to have been culti- vated, and of this the greater part is covered with brush or copse wood. There is no large timber ; but in some places the trees grow to a size sufficient for building the natives' houses, and other country purposes. The greater part of the brush, however, is no higher than broorii or furze, and consists chiefly of the Cassia awriculata, and Ptelea viscosa, which are the most common bushes throughout this part of the country. The soil is very unfavourable to vegetation ; spaces of forty feet square, in many parts, are without a bush or stalk of grass ; and whole acres of it may be seen, on which there is no- thing but a few scattered bushes, surrounded, at their roots, by small heaps of dust, which the passing wind deposits near the stems. This soil, by the TamuZs called Callaru, consists of clay, sand, and small fi^agments of stone ; all of which, when allowed to remain undisturb- ed, concrete, and acquire an almost stony hardness ; but the united mass is very capable of being reduced to powder by the plough, and then of producing tolerable crops of grain. The proportion of wet land to the whole of the arable, on this day's route, is very small, and the crop of rice has been lately reaped. The cultivators are just beginning to plough their dry fields. The villages still appear to be

4

20 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 1.

fortified ; and the lower or impure casts not being permitted to buiJd within the walls, their houses are surrounded by strong hedges of the Ccesalpinia Lacerans Roxb. MSS.

Waiuru. Waluru is a town containing about five hundred houses, and by

far the richest, and best built, that I have yet seen above the Ghats. Most of the houses are white-washed within, and painted red and white without ; many of them are terraced with mud, and several are roofed with tiles ; but these, as usual in Mysore, are very clumsi- ly put on. The houses are in general clean, and, had they any windows, would be comfortable. The town consists of a castle, of a fort or city, and of a Petta or suburb. The castle is occupied by a Rajput and fifteen of his family. The ancestors of this man were formerly Jaghirdars of the place, and of villages in the neighbour- hood, to the annual value of eleven thousand Pagodds, (3,432/. 9s. lid.) They were expelled by Hyd^r ; but, during the war carried on by Lord Cornwallis, thqy were again put in possession of their territory by Colonel Read. After the peace they were a second time expelled by TijppoOy and then the place suflfered considerably, as may be known by the ruins of many houses that were burnt on the occasion. The present Mysore government has granted the heir of the family an annual pension of four hundred Pagodas, (124Z. 168. 3Jd.), and allows him to live in the castle.

F,hirnx ox Mimosa The outer Wall is surrouudcd by a strong hedge of the Miviosa

supcnariu. sapouaria ; the fruit of which, called Shicai, is used as soap for washing the hair. The leaves, which are acid, serve the poor instead of tamarinds, which are much used in the cookery of the southern HindMS, The hedge is rented at 20 Pagodas (QL 4«. 7<i.) a year ; for the fruit is an article of trade, that is carried even as far as Madras, where three pods are said to cost 1 dub, or small pice. In

Sandal-wood, thc samc hcdgc about twenty years ago were planted some Sandal- wood trees, which, although surrounded by the Mimosa, a strong scandent shrub, seem to be very healthy ; but, as none of them have yet been cut down, it is impossible to ascertain how far they will be valuable.

Water. The towu IS badly supplied with water. The reservoir is dry,

and the few weUs are attended by a great concourse of people. So far as I have yet observed above the Ghats, tanks are very rare ; and at this season of the year, at least, the water is in general very bad and dirty.

j)5,<iiied In the evening I went to the house of a distiller of country rum,

spirits. iji order to examine his process. The bark of the Mimosa leucophlea

Roxb. is considered as a necessary ingredient. This tree grows commonly in the country, and is called Cari Jaly in the Canarese^ Nella tumica in the Telinga, and Cam velun in the TamuL The bark is dried, and cut into chips, of which about four pounds are added to one maund (24 J lb.) of sugar-cane Jagory, with a quantity of water equal to about twice the bulk of this sweet substance. The mixture is made in an earthen jar, which is kept in the shade, and

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 27

the fermentation commences in about twenty-four hours. It ist?om- pleted on the twelfth day ; when the liquor is distilled by the follow- ing apparatus (see Plate II. Fig. 1.) The body of the still (a a a) is a strong earthen jar, capable of containing three times the bulk of the materials. On this is luted, with cow dung, a copper head (b b b), having on the inside a gutter (c c) for collecting the vapour that has been condensed into spirit by a constant small stream of water, which falls on the head at (f ). This water is conveyed away by the pipe (g), while the spirit is conducted into a jar by the pipe (d). The mode of condensing the spirit is very rude ; and the liquor, which is never rectified by a second distillation, is execrable. The natives allege that the bark, which is very insipid to the taste, is useful, by dimin- ishing the too great sweetness of the Jagory. To me, however, it appears to be rather of use by regulating the feimentation ; which, in such a warm climate, would be apt to run suddenly into the acetous.

8th May. — I was obliged to halt this day at Waluru, in order to Fairs. give rest both to my people and cattle. At this place there is a weekly fair ; and to-day one was kept, to which people flocked in gi-eat numbers from all the neighbouring country. It is in the larger towns only of the Mysore dominions, that weekly fairs are held ; there are here none of those small markets calls Hants, which are so much frequented in Bengal, and are such a waste of time to its inhabitants. A small duty is levied on all persons frequenting this fair, bearing a certain proportion to the value that each brings for sale. It does not seem to be considered as burthensome. The articles exposed for sale to-day were provisions of all kinds, coarse cotton cloths, blankets or currdies, iron work for country uses, and the like.

The chief manufacture of Waluru is cotton cloth ; and the Manufactures. weavers work both for country use, and for exportation. The coarse cloths for the former purpose, they sell at the weekly fairs. The tiner kinds they either weave on their own account, selling them to tradei-s at the same places ; or they receive advances from merchants to enable them to purchase thread. On exportation from hence, each bullock load of cloth pays a duty of one Stiltaoiy fanaTn, or a little more than eight pence. Their cloth must be cheap, as during the Sultan's reign much of it was smuggled out of the country ; for he strictly prohibited all trade with the lower Carnatic. The merchants of Wcdlajah petta sent up some European goods, spiceries, and other commodities ; and, in return, took back cloths, which they sold at Madras. At present, of course, the trade is free, and European goods are sold openly in the market.

The cotton raised in the country is not suiBcient for its manu- cotton. factures ; the people here get it from Hossocotay, and pay a small duty on every bullock load that enters. At Hossocotay it is said to pay heavier duties, and is brought there from the northward.

In tlie neighbouring villages many coarse blankets, or ciimlici<, Q^'J^/^Jj^g^ '''"''

28

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. 1.

Hardens.

SoiL

Face of the countrf.

Cultivation.

are woven from the wool which the country produces. When offered for sale, they are ahnost as hard a,s pasteboard ; but this quality is given to them by a decoction of the kernels of the tamarind, and is intirely removed by the first washing. They seem to be an article of dress in almost univei*sal use above the Ohata or passes, and the families of the weavers may be readily distinguished by their wear- ing no linen. U'he sheep are shorn twice a year, once in the cold, and once in the rainy season ; and twelve sheep give as much wool as makes a blanket six cubits long and three wide.

In this neighbourhood are many kitchen gardens, which are very well cultivated. A gardener is here a separate profession from a farmer, and is considered as inferior in rank. The gardens are on sloping ground, watered from wells by the Yatam, or, as the English say, by the Pacota. This is reckoned hard labour ; and a man who works constantly at the Yatamy receives daily a quarter of a rupee, or about 6| pence. These gardeners cultivate a little sugar-cane, but merely to supply the market with cane for eating. All that, of which Jagory is made, is raised on irrigated lands by the farmers. The gardeners frequently cultivate the betel leafy (Piper Betle L.) and for that purpose hire from the farmers a portion of their watered lands.

The soil of the gardens here is very deep ; as, where wells have been dug, it exceeds twenty feet in thickness.

9th May^ — I went to Catcolli through a country containing much

less granite than any that I have yet seen above the Ghats. The

arable land may amount to seven-tenths of the whole, and perhaps

a twentieth part of it is watered. The rice lands are mostly situated

near the baiiks of the southern Pennar, or Dakshana Pinakani, as

it is called in the Sanscrit language. This river passes southward

by the east side of CaicollL At present it contains a good deal of

stagnant water ; but in the rainy season its current is rapid, and it

is frequently notfordable. The waste land contains much low brush

wood, in some places intermixed with stunted Mimosas, The

hedges surrounding the villages, in this part of the country, rise

very high and thick, so as almost entirely to conceal the mud wall,

which enlivens the prospect considerably, especially as at the villages

there are a good many mango trees. The planting of these, or other

fruit trees, is here attended with a considerable expense ; as every

young tree is surrounded by a mud wall, three or four feet high, and

perhaps twenty in diameter ; and in the dry season the plant requires

to be watered, every second or third day, for three years.

There having now been several showers, the soil has been soft- ened, and the farmers are busy ploughing their dry-fields. Their plough, and manner of working, resemble those of BengaL Both oxen and buffaloes are used, and frequently an animal of each kind is yoked in the same plough. This strongly marks a deficiency of stock ; the two animals, from their different paces, being very ill suited to work together. Before the field is ploughed, it is manured

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 2!)

with a compost of cow dung, ashes, and mud. The manure ls earned out by the women, in baskets placed on their heads, and is distributed very scantily, the baskets being emptied at the distance of about thirty feet from each other.

All the way between Arcot and this place I have frequently -s^^nfa. observed strata of gneiss, consisting of the same materials with the common grey granite of the country, and disposed in vertical strata, IJnder the great tank here is a remarkable bed of it, con- sisting of rough grains, and divisible into laminae from one quarter to one inch thick ; and these are united into strata from one to two feet wide. These strata run by the compass north and south ; and are intermixed with othera of hornblende-slate, interspersed with small grains of white quartz, which thus compose a granitelL These strata, as are also those of the grey granite throughout the country, are intersected nearly at right angles by veins of quartz, often a foot and a half wide. These veins cross the various strata of granite, gneiss, and hornblende, to gi*eat lengths, without altering their direc- tion; they frequently also contain felspar, or felspar and quartz in- termixed, as is the case at Catcolli, where the veins are filled with a mixture of reddish felspar and quartz ; which, if not venigenous, would form a granitelL It ha,s commonly been alleged, that large veins of these materials detiote a country to be productive of gems ; but the contrary is the case here, no precious stones hav- ing been ever found in Mysore. It must be observed, that among the natives the gneiss <and grey granite are called white-stone ; and the hornblende's! ate with quartz, and the quartz impregnated with iron, which I have before mentioned, are called the black-stone ; in fact these are found to approach to each other by such gradual shades, that it seems difficult to distinguish them, at least as genera ; yet in many cases the two extremes of each kind are so different, that they have very little resemblance to each other.

In the soil of this country are found two varieties of congcar, or caicatious no^ calcarious nodules. The nodules are often as large as a man's head, ^^^^^' are very irregular in shape, and frequently perforated with holes, apparently from having been formed round the roots of plants. Out- wardly they have an earthy resemblance, although in some parts there is an appearance of irregular crystallization. They are very hard with a splintery fracture. Both dissolve readily, and with a strong effervescence, in the muriatic acid ; but deposite a fine sand, that is insoluble. The solution contains iron, and their specific gra- vity is very considerable. The one is externally of a greyish white ; but its fracture has a dull purplish brown tinge, intemiixed with shining particles, arising from its texture, which is a mixture of compact and sparry. Its fracture is splintery ; and it is opake. The scratch is of a colour similar to that of the stone, which is hardish. Its lustre is common. The sand which it contains seems to be quartz, stained of a rust colour by iron. The other variety has, both externally and internally, a dg^rker colour, and it has more

80

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I

Quicklime.

Appearance of the couutry.

iiangalore.

numerous and larger sparry concretions. On breaking it, are dis- covered many in*egular cavities lined with small, white, iiTegular crystallizations. It contains many black dots, probably fragments of shorl.

There can be little doubt, that these nodules have been formed by a deposition from water, and are therefore a tophus, or calcarious tuffa. I have already stated, that they appear to be the CaLcareus cequabilis incarnatus of WalleriuSy or Mm^mor margaceum of Lin- noius. Mr. Kirwan would probably call them silicious marlites. The small pieces of quartz have evidently been involved by the cal- carious matter, while that was in the act of deposition.

The burning of these calcarious nodules into quicklime, which they produce of a beautiful white colour, is at CatcoUi the occupa- tion of about ten families. The stones are brought from a distance of five miles ; some on oxen, but the greater part on men's heads. The lime is burned in kUns about six feet high ; at the bottom about four feet, and at the top about two feet in diameter. The structure is of mud wall ; and, in order to give admission to the air, it is perforated in many places through its whole height. The fewel used is charcoal, the making of which is the duty of the men, and the bringing it home that of the women.

10th May. — In the morning I travelled from CatcoUi to Bangalore through a very naked country, of which about six-tenths appear to be arable. The remainder is covered with low bushes, and much of it seems capable of being brought into cultivation. Not above a twentieth part of the arable ground is watered. The pasture is rather better than any that I have seen above the Ghats, and the cattle are in rather better condition than those in Bengal are at this season, when they are reduced to the lowest state of wretched- ness compatible with existence. *--; .

The morning being cool and pleasant, I walked through the ruins of the Fort of Bangalore, whicn was constructed by Hyder after the best fashion of Mussulman military architecture; and which was destroyed by his sou, after he found how little it was fitted to resist British valour. The entrance toward the Petta, or town, is a very handsome building of cut granite, and was probably considered by the defenders as the strongest part of the works. It certainly would have been a very difficult matter to have forced a way through all the various gateways in this entrance ; as the troops, after having forced one gate, would have been exposed to a fire from all quarters before they could have reached another. But there are no ditches between the different gates, nor even without the outer one ; and, if the enemy obtained possession of the works above the first gate- way, they had a ready communication with all the others • as ouj troops found when they stormed the place, which they did at this part of the works. In the buildings of this entrance is a dungeon, amply provided with all the horrors that usually attend such places.

CilAP. 1.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. tM

The garrison contained well constructed magazines, and many Paiace. huts for the accommodation of the troops ; but no good building, except the mahal or palace. Although this is composed of mud, it is not without some degree of magnificence. On the upper story, it contains four halls, each comprising two balconies of state for the prince, and each balcony faces a diiferent Gutchery, or court for giving audience. No persons, except a few trusty guards, were admitted into the hall with the Sultan : but at each end of the court was erected a balcony for the officers of the highest rank. The inferior officers occupied a hall under the balcony of the prince, open in front, and supported by columns as high as the roof of the upper story. The populace were admitted into the open court, in which there were fountains for cooling the air. At each end of the lialls are private apartments, smaU, mean, and inconvenient. The public rooms are neatly painted, and ornamented with false gilding. The offices ai^ mean ; and the bath consists of a small room, in which a person may sit, and have water poured over him. The same bath seems to have served both the prince and his women, as it communicates with their apartments by a small court, which con- tains the huts that served for kitchens, and for lodging the female slaves. There were two apartments for the ladies. One, for the principal wife, contains a cutchery^ where, like the Sultan she gave audience to the concubines, and to the ladies of the Mussulman chiefs. The other apartment belonged to the concubines. It is a square court, having at two of the sides a corridor, under which the women sat at their meals and amusements. Behind the corridor are their sleeping rooms, which are mean, and dark, being about twelve feet square-, and without any air or Hght, but what is admit- ted by the door, or in some by a hole about a foot wide. Lowness of roof is a fault prevailing over the whole structure. Before the palace is a large square court fronted by the N6bat Khdna, or sta- tions for the band of music, and surrounded by a fine corridor. The palace lately served the officers of a European regiment for quarters, while the privates were lodged in the corridor.

In the centre of the fort are still visible the ruins of the mud wall, oid Bangalore. that surrounded the small village, which occupied the place before Hyder founded the city.

11th May, — I visited the gardens made by the late Mussulman Gardens, princes, Hyder and Tippoo, They are extensive, and divided into square plots separated by walks, the sides of which are ornamented with fine cypress trees. The plots are filled with fruit trees, and pot-herbs. The Mussulman fashion is to have a separate piece of ground allotted for each kind of plant. Thus one plot is entirely filled with rose trees, another with pomegranates, and so forth. The walks are not gravelled, and the cultivation of the whole is rather slovenly ; but the people say, that formerly the gardens were well kept. Want of water is the principal defect of these gardens ; for Ux this arid country every thing, during the dry season, must be

32

A JOURNEY FllOM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I

Fruits.

Mussulmans.

J^rdhmans.

Leprosy, called Jjurda,

artificially watered. The garden of Tippoo is supplied from three wells, the water of which is raised by the Capily, or leather-bag, fastened to a cord passing over a pulley, and wrought by a pair of bullocks, which descend an inclined plane. This, the workmen say, is a much more effectual machine than the Yfitam. Ryder's gar^ den is watered from a reservoir, without the assistance of ma- chinery. The taste of Hyder accorded more with the English, than that of his son. His walks are wider, his cypress trees are not so much crowded ; and in the means for watering the plots there is not so much masonry, or bricklayer's work, employed. There is, indeed, so much of these in the parts of Tippoo' 8 garden which he probably considered the finest, as almost to cover the ground, and to leave nothing but holes, as it were, through which the trees grow.

In this cKmate the cypress and vine gi'ow luxuriantly, and the apple and peach both produce fruit ; the former much better, and the latter much worse than at Calcutta. Some pine and oak plants, lately introduce^ from the Cape of Good Hope, seem to be thriv- ing. I think there can be little doubt, but that in this coimtry all the valuable plants of the Levant would succeed. The people at the gardens could form no estimate of the quantity of grapes produced by any number of vines.

At Bangalore there* are many Mussulmans ; and, owing to the change of government, they are in great distress. Accustomed to a military life, they do not readily enter into civil occupations, nor are they willing to attach themselves to the military service of the enemies of their late Saltan. Many of the more wealthy among them, however, are now betaking themselves to trade, and the poorer sort are gaining a livelihood by agriculture.

I was much surprised to hear, that the greatest complainers agtidnst the change of government are certain Brdhmana ; although, by the fall of Tippoo, this cast has been freed from persecution, and is now in the almost exclusive possession of public offices. But it is alleged, that under the government of Tippoo, the pei'secutions fell chiefly on the Brdhmans attached to temples, who are considered as low men ; while the Ldkiha, being the only men of business in the country, were in fuU possession of the revenue department. During the reign of the Sultan, the number of petty officers in this department was immense, and every one was perndtted to share in the spoil of the country. The present system is, to reduce the number of officers, and to give to those who are employed allowances that ought to put them above temptation ; while a strict watch at the head of affairs renders it very dangerous either to injure the revenue, or the subject. By this system many Brdhmans^ formerly employed, are now destitute, and are said to be very clamorous.

I saw here a man labouring under the Dv/rda, Elephantiasis, or Lepra Arabum; and am told, that in almost every village one or two persons will be found afflicted with this terrible malady. It is

rilAP. I.l MYSORE, CANAllA, AND MALABAR. 33

very much confined to the poorer class of inhabitants, who here, however, enjoy a dry air, and use very little fish in their food. The frequency of the disease in the lower parts of Bengal, and about Cochin on the coast of Malabar, had led to an opinion, that it was produced by a moist climate, and a diet consisting of the fish which frequent muddy places : but the prevalence of the disease among the dry hills of Myswe strongly invalidates this opinion, especially as fish are little used by the inhabitants of that country.

Above the Ghats the Kushfha, or leprosy, in which the skin of Lepro«iy, caUed the natives becomes white, is also very common. The persons *^" '^ troubled with it enjoy, in every respect, good health, and their chil- dren are like those of other people.

12th May, — I went to Kingava, or Tingara, which seems to Kingara, have formerly been much more flourishing than it is at present. The hedges, and other defences of the town, are of much greater extent than would be necessary for the present population ; and the space within them contains the ruins of many houses. It is said to have been destroyed by Tippoo in order to prevent it from being of use to Lord Comwallis, and never to have recovered the loss which it then sustained. The inhabitants were very inhospitable ; a Brahman encouraging them to refuse us any assistance, by pretending that my people would not pay for what they might obtain. The fort is in good condition.

The arable land on this day's route does not appear ever to Appearance of have exceeded four-tenths of the country ; and the small proportion of irrigated land which has formerly been cultivated, appears to be now waste, owing to the decay of the resei'voirs. The uncultivated land is more hilly than any between tlie Gluits and Bangalore, It is very rocky and bare, and does not contain even copse wood. Some part of our route led by the banks of a small river, which contained a little running water.

It is here alleged, that Tippoo^s regulations, prohibiting trade smuggUng. to the dominions of the Nabob of Arcot, were veiy ill observed, and that passports were privately given to traders by the principal officers of government. The Sultan's table was served with coun- try salt, and his nobles attended the court in their native manu- factures ; but, among the rich at home, sea-salt, and the cloths of Europe, Bengal, and Madras, were in constant use.

13th May. — ^Went to Wiridy, or Biridy, a place which derives Appearance of its name from the tree so called in the Karnataca language, and which *^^ ^^"^^^^ is either the same, or very nearly resembles, the Pterocaipus Sissoo of Dr. Roxburgh. The country through which I passed is one con- tinued copse ; but, as at Wiridy, there is a valley about a mile wide, and as there are some small villages scattered in the woods, I cal- culate the arable part of the country at about a sixth part. I observed no watered land.

There are, indeed, some small reservoii's : but the water contained Reservoirs, in these, is destined merely to supply the aittle with drink. A small

o

34

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. I.

Wood.

Infftlnbritj of the diffltitc*

Wiridy

VillAgei.

StraU.

Forests.'

reservoir of this kind in the Kamataca language is called Cuttay, as the large ones for watering the lands are called Carays. They are both formed exactly in the same manner, by building a mound or dam, of earth and stone, across a hollow ground. Large reservoirs, or Carays, might no doubt be formed every where in a hilly country ; but, where there is not a sufficient extent of level land with a good soil for the cultivation of rice, the expense of such works would far exceed the profits.

The uncultivated land is very hilly, and in many places rocky ; yet some of it seems capable of being rendered arable. Except for fewel, the wood is of very little use, as it is in general too small for planks, or beams. Tigers are very numerous among the copse ; a circumstance, however, which does not prevent the inhabitants from sending their cattle iuto it. A beast is occatdonally lost ; but this loss is compensated by the abundance of grass. The woods here are not impenetrable, like those of Chittagong, where a luxuri- ant growth of rattans, and climbers of numerous kinds, prevents all ingress. Here every thing is stunted, and the trees serve to render the grass better, by sheltering it from the sun.

From tne hilly nature of the surroimding country, both Kvngara and Wiridy are considered as very unhealthy. Fevers, want of ap- petite, and pains in the bowels, are very common, even among the natives.

The coimtry about Wiridy is beautiful. A small river runs north and south through the valley, which is about a mile wide, and extends far in the direction of the river. It consists of fields, swell- ing like the grounds in Kent, and contains many scattered trees^ "nianffoes (mangifera), banyans (Ficus bengalensis), and the like. It is on all sides surrounded by hills, most of them covered with wood, but some rising into bare rocky peaks. If the rivulet were adequate to the other parts of the view, this would be complete ; but at present it contains only small pools of dirty stagnant water.

The villages are small and poor, and are not fortified like the others in the country ; the woods, by which they are surrounded, having probably been sufficient to keep off the irregular troops that attend all Indian armies, and which generally are cavalry. In case of invasion, the inhabitants have also be^ accustomed to take refuse in the neighbouring hill-foit called Bximagiri,

The straJta through these hills, as well as in the country be- tween them and the eastern Ohais, are disposed about north and south, by the compass, and are all nearly vertical. A veiy common etraium here is white quartz running parallel to the gneiss, and dis- posed between two strata of that rock. I have observed these stra^ta of quartz three feet thick.

In my evening walk the following plants were shewn to me in the woods as being useful The names are Karruxiaoa.

1. Mara halay, Nerium tinctori/u/m, Box. Grows sometimes to a large tree, and is used for planks.

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 85

I

2. Mara Harulu, latropha Curcas, Lin-

From the seed of this shrub, oil for the lamp is extracted, by the following process. Parch the seed in an earthen pot, then bruise it, and put the powder in boiling water for three hours. The oil then rises to the surface, and is removed by skimming. This oil being much used by the poor, the plant is frequently raised in the hedges near villages ; but it is also found wild in almost every ' copse^ especially near the banks of torrents.

3. Alaygara, Terminalia myrobalana dtrina olKoenig, The fruit is used in medicine, and as a pickle.

4. Divaddrum Ei*ythroxylon sideroxyloidea of Lamarck,

It grows to a considerable size, and its timber is black and odorous,

serving the inhabitants who are poor in place of sandal wood. It l^

seems to be a tree that deserves particular notice.

5. Sri Ounda Chica, Santalum aibv,m, Lin.

Grows in the woods towards Chinapatam. It is never planted, but springs up spontaneously. No person is allowed to cut it, without permission from the Amildar, or officer, who sells it on account of the Circar, or government.

6. Wbtu, LoraTithns falcatiiSy Lin.

The bark of this beautiful parasitical slirub is used by the poorer natives in place of the betel-nut With quicklime it tinges the saliva and mouth of a fine red, brighter even than that communicated by the Areca, The bark of the Sandal-wood tree serves the same purpose.

7. Easy, Premva tomentoaa, Willd.

Makes beams and planks, with posts of a bad quality.

8. Ha-Shi-caiy Mimosa pennata.

Is a favourite food of the long-legged goat of this country.

9. Cacay, Cassia fistula, Lin.

This is the greatest ornament of the woods of KamdLa. The foliage ^

is a fine shining green ; and the pendulous strings of flowers surpass those of the Lahurnum, not only in beauty, but in length and num- ber. In the cool of the morning they diflnse a most agreeable per- fruQie. The plant is sacred to Oaveswara, the god that is addressed by all those who are about to commence any undertaking ; as he is considered to be the Power that hinders or stops all human efforts, in the same manner as his father Iswara is the Power that deprives all beings of lifa The people here, instead of addressing themselves immediatelv to the god, worship him under the form of nis favourite tree. At this season, the cultivators of every village place a stake of the Gacay in the ground, level a circular space rouna it, and purify this area with cow-dung. On this spot they assemble before the commencement of seed-time, bum some incense before the stake, make offierings of rice, milk, and the like, and pray that it will not prevent the success of their crops. The ceremony concludes with a rural feast.

In both the upper and lower Carnatics, taking snuff* is much toUcco.

30

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

Foretts.

more common than in Bengal : indeed, I have never been in a country where the custom was more prevalent. Smoking, on the contrar>% is in great disrepute. The Hooka is totally unknown, except among llussalmans. The lower classes smoke Cheimts, or tobacco rolled np in a leaf ; but a Brdhman would lose cast by such a practice, and it is not considered as becoming, even among the richer part of the

^S'lkira tribe.

14th May. — I went to Chinapntam or Chenapataiia, through a very beautiful country, consisting of swelling giounds, in some places cultivated, and in many more covered with trees, which are inter- mixed with steep fantasticrocks and hills. The trees here are by farthe finest that 1 have seen in either Carnatic, although they fall very short of the stately forests of Gkittagong. In these woods the baviboo is common. It is now in flower, and produces a great quantity of grain, which is gathered for food by the poor inhabitants of the

Faccofthecoun-'^^The c'StWation is said to extend but a short distance from the ^^^' road there being on either hand extensive woods. 1 theretore

reckon the arable land, on this day's route, at one-tenth of the country. It consists entirely of dry-Jidda. , ^ ,

At a small temple, dedicated to Hanumanta, I observed, for the ^ ^'*"'^'" first time, the rock of red gi-anite. It is a handsome variety, con- sisting of bright red felspar, a small quantity of glassy quartz, and a very minute proportion of black mica. I had before seen many detached masses of it in buildings ; so that it is probably common in the country. It is a most elegant stone. ^

chinapaiam. CklnapataTn, or Clienapatana, is an open town, containing about

a thousand houses. At some distance from it stands a handsome stone fort ; this was formerly the residence of a Folygar family of distinction, which derives ite name from Jacad^va Raia. mhos iubiedis The Guiwal or superinteiident of the market at Chiiiapatam, is lisiSJIi of the Mussulman and is extremely attentive to strangers. This, how- nattro officers. ^^^^ ^^^^^ not proceed from any principle of hospitaHty, a virtue which seems little known in India. He expects a present in return, and chai-ges three times the usual price for every thmg that he furnishes Between this and Madras I have met with two other native officers that were civil. One of these was a eunuch, the Cuhval at Satghur in the dominions of the Nabob of Arcot ; but he seemed to be actuated by the same motives with the Cutwal of Chinapatam The other was a Brdhman, the Amildar at Wa.luru, who was veiT polite, and did not seem to have any sinister design. Among all the other officers of goverament, I found that any atten- tion to a traveller was considered as degrading to their rank, and eould only be extorted by authority. . ^ ^ ./^

capaia dnrga. In sight of Ghinupatam, but at a considerable distance, ib Capala duraa one of the places to which Tippoo sent those unfortunate wretches who incuired his dkpleasure. It is a fort situated on a high steep rock. Death soon terminated the sufferings of those

CHAP. I.] MYSORE, CAN^RA, AN-D MALABAR. 37

confined in it; for the air and water were extremely bad; and the wells were frequently rendered more loathsome and pernicious, by having purposely thrown into them the branches oi Euphorhium and dead snakes, or other reptiles, in order to increase the putre- faction. It is said, that no native prisoner ever returned to detail the horrors of this dungeon.

15th May, — I went to Miiduru. All the country seems to have Faceofthecoun- been arable, except on some high land that separates the two dis- ^' tricts of Chinapatam and Muduru. This high land is not in general too steep for the plough, and some pai-ts of it have been cultivatpd ; but much of it remains entirely in a state of nature, and is covered with brushwood. There are a few small conical hills, and large masses of naked granite. The arable land, on this day's journey, I estimate at three-quarters of the whole country. The plantations of palm and fruit trees are pretty extensive, and the watered grounds perhaps amount to a tenth part of the arable lands. Many of the fields are suiTOunded by hedges, and these are not kept in such repair as to be fences against cattle. Perhaps they are meant merely to distinguish the fields of different proprietors, or tenants, and to contain the Agave vivipara, and latropha curcas, that are wanted for the use ©f the country, and of which they chiefly consist.

Among the waste lands there are many parts that seem capable wud date. of being rendered arable. In several places the Phcenix farinifera, Roxb. abounds ; and intermixed with it, the Elate aylvestris, or wild date. From this the inhabitants extract I'dH or Toddy in the same manner as is practised in Bengal. Here the Tdri is used for drinking only ; but in some places, where it is more plenty, it is boiled down into a hard substance called Jagory, which by the poor is substituted in place of the Jagory extracted from the sugjar-cane.

There have been this season two considerable falls of rain, which iragation. have enabled the inhabitants to plough a great deal, and the country to assume some degree of verdure. A river passes this place, which in the rainy season is considerable, and now contains a smaU quan- tity of clear running water. Here is also a large reservoir, which some years ago waa broken down, and has not yet been repaired : but 2000 Cautery Pagodas (CanterWaia Varaha) {67lL lis. 2d.) have now been granted for the purpose ; and it is supposed, that, when completed, it will supply the rice grounds in the bottom of the valley for seven miles in length.

The oppressions of Tippoo and the miseries of war are said to Depopulation. have driven away four-tenths of the cultivators. That tyrant receiv- ed the country in a very flourishing state from his father, of whom every native that I have conversed with on the subject speaks in terms of the highest respect.

As we approach the capital I think the style of building be- vuiages. comes somewhat better. The houses although in other respects equally mean, have in general small Verandas, or open galleries in

3S A JOURNEY FROM HADRAS THBOUGH [CHAP. I.

front, to shelter from the son their shops and their customers. The villages are not fortified, the vicinity of the capital having been a sufficient security against marauders.

Mudwu. Near Mvduru are the ruins of a stone fort, containing a temple

of Viaknu, and the houses of several Brdhmana, This fort was built by the grandfather of the present Rdjd of Mysore, and destroy- ed by the late Sultan with great propriety ; for it cotdd make no resistance against a European army, but might serve as a protection to their convoys ; at the same time, it was burthensome, by being much stronger thaji was necessary for protecting the town against plundering parties of native cavalry.

Towns. It must be observed, that throughout both Camatica, except at

Madras, and some other large towns under the government of infi- dels, the BrdhvuiTis appropriate to themselves a particular quarter of every town, and that generally the best fortified. A Sildra is not permitted to dwell in the same street with a Brdhman ; while he again exacts the same difference from the WhoUliaru or Parriars, and other low casts. These people in general live in wretched huts about the suburbs. A Brdhman is considered as polluted by merely walking through such a place.

Fiowar gudent. Although the NerivbTfi odorum is very common by the sides of rivers in most parts of the Mysore dominions, I found a garden here, of about an acre in extent, which was planted with nothing else. The flowers are dedicated to the temple, and a garland-maker is paid by a merchant to gather them for the use of uie god. This is one of the deeds called charity by the Hindvus, This plant has usually been taken for the oiearideT, which, 1 believe, is not a native of India.

Appe«»nee of 16th May. — I wcut to Mundiwoiy through a country free from

the country. j^jjjg^ |j^ of which not more than one half is arable. Much of it>

• however, might be rendered so without difficulty. The soil is in

general poor. The waste land is occupied by brushwood, and many

places are covered with the PhoRuix farmifera, Roxb. among which

are some trees of the wild date.

Wild date. It is reported, that this tree was formerly very common ; but

Tippoo, observing that his subjects frequently intoxicated themselves with the Tdri ordered the whole to be cut down ; and in places near the capital the order was enforced.

Aasteritr affect- Tnis prlncc is said to have attem{)ted to introduce a great strict-

ed by Tifpoo, ^^^ ^f manners ; absolutely prohibiting the use of aU spiritous liquors, and ordering that no loose women should be tolerated. He was himself, however, unreasonably addicted to women; and. the Brdhmans here allege, that he sometimes forced awav the most beautifril of their daughters. After some detention in the Zencma if he did not like them, he sent the ^Is back to their fistthers, who, in general, refused to admit them mto their &milies. But Tippoo was not to be treated in this manner with impunity. . On such occasions, he sent for the &ther, took frt}m him all his pro-

CHAP. I] MYSORE, CAN^RA, AND MALABAR. 39

perty, and flogged him severely. He then ordered the girl to point out any Brdkman for a husband, and the unfortunate man was flogged until he gave his consent. A loss of cast, of course, ensued ; but the husband commonly fled out of Tippoo'e dominions, leaving his wife behind, to want, or prostitution. On going to another place, and turning away his unclean wife, he could get an absolu- tion from hi^ Ouru, wiui permission to marry again.

The hedges here, like those which I saw yesterday, are very FeDew. bad fences, and are made of the Euphorbium antiqrwrum. When the ground is sown, the farmers fill up the gaps with thorns cut from the Mimosa indica of Lamarck, This tree is allowed to grow pro- miscuously through the fields, and its branches are lopped on for fewel, and for repairing the fences. Its shade does not injure the crops, and its timber is valuable for making ploughs, and other in- struments of agriculture.

Mundium is a poor village fortified by a mud wall that has uwndium. been rebuilt since the restoration of the Rdjala government. It was formerly an Agrarum, or village bestowed in Siarity on the BrdA" mans. They were deprived of it by Tippoo, when he annexed to the Circar or public, all the property of that kind.

In the evening a flight of locusts passed over the town. It ex- Locust, tended in length probably about three miles ; its width was about a hundred yards, and its height fifty feet. The insects passed from west to eaat in the direction of the wind, at the rate of six or seven miles an hour. The whole ground, and every tree and bush, was covered iritii them; but each individual halted for a veiy short time on any one spot. They went in a very close body, and left behind them very few stragglers. In an hour after the flock had passed, few were to be discovered in the neighbourhood of the town. The skagglers from the grand body did not extend above a }iundred yards on each side of it, and were perhaps not more than one to th^ - cubic foot. In the middle of the flock four times that number must be allowed to the same space. I could not perceive, that in their passage they did the smallest damage to any vegetable ; but I was informed, that last year a flock passed, when the crop of Tola (Holcus Sorghum) was young, and had entirely devoured it The noise of this immense number of insects somewhat resembled the sound of a cataract At a distance they appeared like a long, narow, red cloud near the horizon, which was continually varying its shape. The locusts were as large as a man's finger, and of a reddish colour. Some of them I put into a box, intending next day to examine them ; but in the course of the night they were devoured by the ants.

17th May. — In the evening I went from Mundium to the banks FMeofthecoun- of the Cdvery (Kavari), opposite to Servngapatam. For one half of *^" the way the country is almost entirely free from rocks, or waste lands. Here I observed a space of about fifty yards in diameter, consisting entirely of a denuaed rock of veiy white glassy quartz.

40 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. I.

There was no rock near it. The quartz separates into fragments of a rhomboidal form, from the size of an orange, to that of a man's head ; but those are all divided in strata, every six or eight inches of rock separating, with a clean straight surface, from the similar parts on either hand. These strata are vertical ; but, con- trary to all the others that I have seen in the country, run nearly east and west.

About half way to Seringapatam I arrived at a hilly country that reaches very near to the Cdvery. On the south side of these hills Lord Comwallis encamped, before.the final engagement which gave him possession of the island. His marches from Bangalore may every where be traced by the bones of cattle, thousands of which perished through fatigue and hunger. The road among these hills is no where steep, as it leads over a part of the ridge that is not high ; but towards the west are numerous small mountains. Many parts of these hills are cultivated ; but much more is incapable of ever becoming arable. The whole is stony, and the barest country that I have ever seen. From ascending the ridge, until reaching the Cdvery, one can hardly find a bush sufficiently large to make a broom. Of the country in this day's route perhaps seven-tenths are arable, and of these a fifth at least produces wet crops. Many of the tanks however are ruinous, and tneir beds are now cultivated with lola, or Holcus Sorghum, Btrate. The strata on these hills are various. I saw red granitic poi^-

phyry, and took specimens of a fine-grained gneiss consisting of pale red felspar, white qwirtz, and black TYiwa, The most common rock, however, is the hornblende slate with quartz, which I have before mentioned. When exposed to the air in large high masses, so aa to prevent the water jnrom lodging on it, the pieces decay into frag- ments of a rhomboidal form ; but, when exposed to the air on a level with the ground, so as to be penetrated by the rain water, it divides into thin laminae, like common echistus.

CHAPTER II.

SERINOAPATAM, AND ITS VICINITY.

■

18th May, — I was employed at Seringapatam in deliveriDg my 1800 credentials.

19th May. — I had an interview with Purnea, the Deivan of the May loth. Mysore Raja, and, during that prince's minority, the chief adminis- trator of his government. By means of Colonel Close, I have re- ceived assurances of every assistance in forwarding the objects of my mission ; and a Brahman has been appointed to accompany me, with orders to call upon every person that I shall desire for infor- mation.

Purnea is a Brah/man of the Madual sect, and descended from a family of the Coimbetore country. His native language is, of course, Tamul ; but he speaks the Karnataca, Mussulman, Marattah, and I believe the Persian. He is said, by good'judges, to be a person ex- tremely well versed in the affairs of the country, and is much more active tftm Brdhvians in general are. By the inhabitants he is now called Sri Mantra, the same title that is given to the Peshiva at Poonah, It is said to signify a person who has been fortunate from the time of his having been in the womb. Next to Meer Saduc, he seems to have enjoyed a greater power, under the late Sultan, than any other person ; but his authority was greatly inferior to that of the above-mentioned favourite ; and he is said to have been in no small danger from the bigotry of his master. The Sultan is reported to have once proposed to Purnea to become a convert to the faith of Mahomet : as all proposals from a Sultan are tantamount to orders that must be obeyed, the Brahman replied, " I am your slave," and immediately retired. Those who knew the man, and especially the Sultan's mother, a very respectable lady, represented to that prince, how dangerous such a proceeding was, and that, if persisted in, it would throw every thing into confusion ; for the apparent acqui- escence of Purnea was merely words of course, and his influence among the people was considerable, Tippoo very properly allowed the aflair to rest, and nothing more was said on the subject.

From the 20th of May, to the 5th of June, I was employed in visiting every thing remarkable in Seringapatam, and its neighbour- hood, and in taking an account of the state of agriculture, arts, and commerce at that place.

Seringapatam, as is well known, is situated at the upper end of

6

42 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 an island surroimded by the Cdvery, which is here a large and rapid

ciSoa^' river, with a very extensive channel, filled with rocks, and fragments ' ' of granite. At this season it is in many places fordable with facility ; but during the rains it rises very high, to the great inconvenience of Bridges. the inhabitants. On the south branch of the nver a bridge has been

erected, which serves also as an aqueduct, to convey from the upper part of the river a large canal of water into the town and island. The rudeness of this bridge will show the small progress that the arts have made in Myso^. Squace piUars of gnulite are cut from the rock, of a sufficient height to rise above the water at the highest floods. These are placed upright in rows, as long as the intended width of the bridge, and distant about ten feet from each other. They are secured at the bottom by being let into the solid rock, and their tops being cut to a level, a long stone is laid upon each row. Above these longitudinal stones others are placed contiguous to each other, and stretching from row to row, in the direction of the length of the bridga The whole breadth of this may be twenty feet. One half is occupied by the aqueduct, which is secured at the bottom and on both sides by brick and phuster. The road is laid with gravel, and secured by a parapet wall on one side, and by the aqueduct on the other. But, however rude such a bridge may be, it is of most essen- tial convenience to the town, and to the inhabitants of the southern bank of the river, though the construction is attended with great expense. The inconveniencies felt from the want of a bridge on the northern branch are so great, that both Pumea and the {Resident are very anxious to have one erected; but on an estimate being formed, it is found, that even without an aqueduct, a rude bridge of this kind would cost 16,000 Ganter'raia Pagodas, or 5,372i. 9s, 4td. It is very fairly proposed, that the Company should defray one half of this, as lor<& of the island ; whUe the Bdja should defray the other half, on account of the advantages to be derived by his subjects on the north side of the river. Name of Serin- SevingapcUam is commonly called Patanay or PcUan, that is to ^ *'**' say, the city ; but the name used in our maps is a corruption from Sri Ranga Patana, the city of S^^ Ranga, from its containing a temple dedicated to Vishnu under that name. The temple is of great celebrity, and of much higher antiquity than the city, which did not rise to be of importance until the time of the princes of the Mysore dynasty. city and iBiMd. The island is about three miles in length, and one in breadth,

and has a most drearj'', ugly appearance ; for naked rock, and dirty mud wails are its predominant features. The fort or city of Sri Ranga, occupies its upper end, and is an immense, unfinished, un- sightly, and injudicious mass of building. Tippoo seems to have had too high an opinion of his own skill to have consulted the French who were about him ; and adhered to the old Indian style or fortification, labouring to make the place strong by heaping walls and cavaliers one aWc the other. He was also very diligent

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR. 43

in cutting ditches through the granite ; but, as he had always on isoo hand more projects than his fii^ces were adequate to defray, heM^yaoth. never finished any work. He retained the Icmg straight walls and square bastions of the Hinid/ws ; and his glacis was in many parts so high and steep, as to shelter an assailant from the fire of tne ram- parta In the island also, in order to water a garden, he had dug a deep canal parallel to the works of the fort, and not above eight hundred yards distant from them* He was so unskilled, as to look upon this as an additional security to tlikc {^ce ; but had it been deeded necessary to besiege the town regularly from the island, the assailant would have found it of the utmost use. Had Tippoo's troops been capable of defending the place properly, this mode of attack would have been necessary ; but the confidence which our officers justly reposed in the superiority of their men, and the extreme difficulty of bringing up the immense stores necessary to batter down many heavy works, made them prefer an attack across the river, where the works were not so strong, and where they ventured on storming a breach, that nothing, but a very great •

difference between the intrepidity of the assailants and defendants, could have enabled them to carry. The depth of the river was of little importance; but the assailants, in passing over its rocky channel, were exposed to a heavy fire of artillery, and suffered con- siderable loss.

On ascending the breach, our men found an inner rampart lined capture, with tro<||>s, separated from them by a wide and deep ditch, and defended at its angle by a high cavalier. By this they were for a little while discouraged ; as, from the information of spies, they had expected to have been able to mount the cavalier from the breach, and to form a lodgement there, till means could be taken to gain the inner works, and expel the garrison, which consisted of about eight thousand men, nearly the same number with that employed on the storming party.

After, however, the first surprise occasioned by this disappoint- ment, the troops soon recovered their spirits, and pushed on, along the outer rampart, towards both the right and left of the breach. Those who went to the left found great opposition. At every twenty or thirty yards distance, the rampart was crossed by tra- verses, and these were defended by the Sultan in person. The loss of men here was considerable ; bub the English troops gradually advanced, and the Sultan retired slowly, defending his ground with obstinacy.

The enfilading fire from the Bombay army, on the north side of the river, had been so strong, that the defendants had been en- tirely driven from the ramparts on the right of the breach, and had been prevented from raising any traverses. Our people who went in that direction did not meet with the smallest opposition ; and the flank companies of the 12th regiment, having found a pas- sage across the inner ditch, passed through the town to attack

44 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 11.

1800 the rear of the enemy, who were still opposing the Europeans on the

May 2oiiu j^f^ ^jj^ Sultan had now been driven back to the eastward of the iJeath of palace, and is said to have had his horse shot under him. He might

'^^'''' certainly have gone out at a gate leading to the north branch of

the river, and nothing could have prevented him from crossing that, and joining his cavalry, which, under the command of his son Futty Uyder, and ofPurnea, were hovering round the Bombay army. Fortunately, he decided upon going into the inner fort, by a nar- row sally-port ; and, as he was attempting to do so, he was met by the crowd flying from the flank companies of the 12th regiment ; while the troops, coming up behind, cut off all means of retreat. Both parties seem to have fired into the gateway, and some of the Europeans must have passed through with the bayonet ; as a wound, evidently inflicted by that weapon, was discovered in the arm of the Sultan. His object in going into this gateway, is disputed. The Hindus universally think, that, finding the place taken, he was going to the palace to put all his family to death, and then to seek for his own destruction in the midst of his enemies. But, although such is considered by the Hindus as the proper conduct for a prince in his situation, we have no reason to think that a Mussulman would conduct himself in this manner ; nor was Tippoo ever accused of want of affection for his family. I think it more probable, that he was ignorant of the British troops having got into the inner fort, and was retiring tliither in hopes of being still able to repel the attack. 0

Dentruction of No individual claimed the honour of having slain the Sultan,

ihe gamaon. ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^£ either party know that he had faUen in the gateway.

The assailants were, indeed, at that time too much enraged to think of any thing but the destruction of their enemy. Each division pushed on towards the eastern end of the town ; and, as they ad- vanced, the carnage increased. The garrison threw themselves from the works, attempting to escape into the island, and from thence to their cavalry. The greater part, however, were either killed by the fall, or broke their limbs in a most shocking manner. Meer Saduc, the favourite of the Sultan, fell in attempting to get through the gates. He is supposed to have been killed by the hands of Tippoo's soldiery, and his corpse lay for some time exposed to the insults of the populace, none of whom passed without spitting on it, or loading it with a slipper ; for to him they attributed most of their sufferings in the tyrannical reign of the Sultan.

The two divisions of the storming army now met at an open place surrounding a very fine mosque, into which the remains of the garrison withdrew, and with theii* destruction the fighting nearly ceased. The number of burials amounted to somewhat above seven thousand ; several of these were towns-people of both sexes, and all ages ; but this was accidental, for our soldiers killed none inten- tionally but fighting men. Those who are disposed to declaim on the horrors of a town taken by assault, may always find room to

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 45

dwell on the women, infants, and aged persons killed, and on the 1800 little protection given by places, however sacred ; for such terrible ^*y 2®*^- things must always happen, when an enraged soldiery with fire-arms are pursuing an enemy through a populous place.

When our two parties had met, and no longer saw before their PiuDder. eyes the enemy, by whom they, or their countrymen, had been often most barbarously used, they soon cooled, and were disposed, by their officers, in the manner most proper to secure their new conquest ; many, however, left their ranks ; and the followers of the camp, under pretext of taking refreshment to their masters, poured into the town, and an entire night was employed in plunder. In this, I believe, very little murder was committed ; although there can be no doubt that many persons were beaten, and threatened with death, in order to make them discover their property. The women on this occasion went out into the streets,vand stood there all night in large groups ; I suppose, with a view of preventing any insult, by their exposed situation ; few men being capable of committing brutality in public. This precaution was probably little necessary. The soldiers had mostly been in the trenches two days; they had been engaged in a hard day's work ; and their hopes and their rage having then ceased, they were left in a state of languor, by which they were more inclined to seek repose, or cordial refreshments, than to indulge in sensual gratification.

Next day the wounded and bruised of the enemy were collected from thq works, and neighbourhood, to which some of them had crept ; and the mosque, which had been the great scene of bloodshed, became now a place of refuge, in which these poor creatures had every attention paid to them by the British surgeons.

The town of Seringapatam is very poor. The streets arefluUding*. narrower, and more confused, than in any place that I have seen since leaving Bengal, The generality of the houses are very mean, although many of the chiefs were well lodged after their fashion ; but for European inhabitants their houses are hot and inconvenient. Within the fort, Tippoo allowed no person to possess property in houses. He disposed of the dwellings as he thought fit,* and on the slightest caprice changed the tenants. A great many of the chiefs fell at SiddhiswaTa, and at the storming of Seringapatam ; and those who survived, and the families of those who fell (all of whom have been pensioned by the Company), have mostly retired to the do- minions of the Nabob of Arcot, which they consider as more secure and pleasant than ilfj/sor^ ; many of the families having originally come from the lower CavTiatic, and settled here on the establishment of a Mussulman government. Numbers of the houses which had been thus deserted^ are now occupied by the officers of the garrison.

The old palace of the Mysore Rdja^ at Sermgapatara is in a ruin- Bdja of Mysore. ous condition. At the time of the siege, the family was reduced to the lowest ebb. The old RAja CriBhna, who was first confined by

40 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. U.

1800 HydeTf died without issue ; but left his wife in charge of a relation.

May 20ib. whom he had adopted as his son. This young man soon died, not without suspicion of unfair means. His infant son, the present RAja was imder the charge of the old lady, and oiNuTidi Raja his mother's father, a respectable old relative, who now superintends his educa- tion. Shortly before the siege, the whole family had been stripped, by the merciless Meer Saduc, of even the poorest ornaments ; and the child, from bad treatment, was so sickly, that his death was ex- pected to happen very soon. This was a thing probably wished for by the Sultan, the family having fallen into such contempt that the shadow of a Raja would no longer have been necessary. The ' family of the Rdja having been closely shut up in the old palace, knew very little, during uie siege, of what was going forward ; and in the confusion of the assault, having been left by their guards, they took refuge in the temple of 8H Banga, either with a view of being protected by the god, or of being defended by the surround- ing walls from the attack of plunderers. On the restoration of the prmce to the throne of his ancestors, a place for his residence was very much wanted ; the necessity of keeping the island of Seri/nga- pataniy for a militaiy station, having rendered the palaces there very unfit for the purpose. Tippoo, with his usual policy of destroying every monument of the former government, had razed Mysore, and removed the stones of the palace and temples to a neighbouring height, where he was building a fort ; which, from its being situated on a place commanding an extensive view, was called Nazarhar. This fortress could have been of no possible use in defending the country, and was probably planned merely with the view of ob- scuring the fame of Mysore, the former capital. At a great expense, and to the great distress of the peasants working at ^ the Sultan had made considerable progress in the works c£ this {dace, when he began to consider that it afforded no water. He th^i dug an ii|- mense pit, cutting down through the solid black rock to a great depth and width, but without success,; and when the siqge of his capital was formed, the whole work was lying in a mass of confusion with a few \irretched huts in it for the accommodation of the work- men. Into the best of these, in July last, the young Rdja was conducted, andplaced on the throne. At thesame time the rebuildin^^ of the old palace of Mysore was commenced. It is now so far a£ vanced, as to be a comfortable dwelling ; and I found the youn^r prince seated in it, on a handsome throne, which had been presented to him by the Company. He has very much recovered his health, and, though he is only between six and seven years of age, speaks and behaves with great propriety and decorum. From Indian etiqaette, he endeavours in public to preserve a' dignified gravity of countenance ; but the attentions of Colonel Close, the Resident, to whom he is greatly indebted for that officer's distinguished efforts inhis deUve^, make him sometimes relax ; and thin his fiu^e is very lively and interesting.

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. 47

The sovereign Rdja of Mysore is called the Curtwr ; in order to I800 distinguish him from the head of another branch of the family, ^^y *<'*^- called also Bdja, but distinguished by the title of DcUawcd, or Putaraub. The two families generally intermarried ; and the power of the Curtur was frequently as much controlled by the Dalavmi, as it was afterwardsjjby Hyder. The Dalawai family still exists, hav- ing been spared by the magnanimity of Hyder, although they had attempted to procure his destruction ; and they had sunk too low in the estimation of the people, to be objects of Tippoo's jealousy. By the Mussulmans, they were in derision called the Pettahutty Rajas ; but the head of this branch, a handsome young man, being now pensioned by the Rdja, and treated by the Resident with res- pect, the subjects pretend to be ignorant of the appellation Petta- nutty, and he is spoken of by his proper titles, although he has no ' authority. Numerous other branches of the Mysore family, in the male line, are scattered over the country, and are called Arsw Mocalu, or Raj*bundy. They are little respected ; and few of them are possessed of wealth sufficient to support the appearance of rank.

The palace of the Sultan at SeringapcUam is a very large build- Paiac« in serin- ing, surrounded by a massy and lofty wall of stone and mud, and ^^****"*- outwardly is of a very mean appearance. There were in it, however, some handsome apartments, which have been converted into bar- racks ; but the troops are very ill lodged, from the want of venti- lation common in aU native buildings. The private apartments of Tippoo formed a square, in one side of which were the rooms that he himself used. The other three sides of the square were occupied by warehouses, in which he had deposited a vast variety of goods ; for he acted not only as a prince, but also as a merchant.

These goods were occasionally distributed among the Amildars, The suitaa'a or governors of provinces, with orders to sell them, on the Sultan's **™"*®^' account, at a price far above their real value ; which was done by forcing a share of them upon every man in proportion to his sup- posed wealth. This was one of the grand sources of oppression, peculation, and defalcation of revenue. The friends, or wealthy corruptors of the Amildars, were excused ftx>m taking a large share of the goods ; while the remainder was forced upon poor wretches whose whole means, when torn from them, were inadequate to the estimated value of the goods ; and the outstanding balances on this account were always large.

The three sides ofthe square formerly used as warehouses, are now Tippocrs sons. occupied by the five younger sons of Tippoo, who have not yet been removed to Vellore, They are well looking boys, and are permitted to ride, and exercise themselves in the square, when they are desirous so to do : they are also allowed to view the parade, and to hear the bands of music belonging to the troops in garrison.

The apartment most commonly used by Tippoo was a large lofty Government of hall, open in front after the Mussulman fashion, and on the other ® ^"* three sides, entirely shut up from ventilation. In this he was wont

48 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 to sit, and write much ; for he was a wonderful projector, and was

May 20th. constantly forming new systeiiis for the management of his do- minions, which, however, he wanted perseverance to carry into exe- cution. That he conceived himself to be acting for the good of his subjects, I have no doubt ; and he certainly believed himself endowed with great qualities for the management of civil affairs ; as he was at the pains of writing a book on the subject, for the in- struction of all succeeding princes ; his talents in this line, however, were certainly very deficient. He paid no attention to the religi- ous prejudices of the greater part of his subjects; but every where wantonly destroyed their temples, and gloried in having forced many thousands of them to adopt the Mussulman faith. • He never continued long on the same plan ; so that his government was a constant succession of new arrangements. Although his aversion to Europeans did not prevent him from imitating many of their arts ; yet this does not appear to have proceeded from his being sensible of their value, or from a desire to improve his country ; it seems merely to have been done with a view of showing his sub- jects, that, if he chose, he was capabFe of doing whatever Euro- peans could perform : for although he made broad-cloth, paper formed on wires like the European kind, watches, and cutler}% yet the processes for making the whole were kept secret. A French aitist had prepared an engine, driven by water, for boring cannon ; but so little sensible was the Sultan of its value, that he ordered the water wheel to be removed, and employed bullocks to work the machinery. One of his favorite maxims of policy was, to over- throw every thing that had been done in the Rdja's government ; and in carrying this into practice, he frequently destroyed works of great public utility, such as reservoirs, and canals for watering the ground. Although an ative prince, he in a great measure se- cluded himself from his subjects (one of the greatest evils JJiat can happen in an absolute monarchy) ; and his chief confident, Meer Saduc, was a monster of avarice and cruelty. The people univer- sally accuse Tippoo of bigotry, and vain-glory ; but they attribute most of their miseries to ttie influence of his minister. The Brdh- Tnans, who managed the whole of the revenue department, were sc« avaricious, so corrupt, and had shown such ingratitude to Hyder that Tippoo would have entirely displaced them, if he could have done without their services ; but that was impossible ; for no other persons in the country had any knowledge of business. Instead of checking them by a constant inspection into their conduct, by ex- emplary punishment when detected in peculation, and by allowing them handsome salaries to raise them above temptation, he ap- pointed Mussulman Aaoplis, or Lord Lieutenants, to superintend large divisions of the country ; and this greatly increased the evil ; for these men, entirely sunk in indolence, voluptuousness, and ignor- ance, confident of favour from the bigotry of their sovereign, and destitute of principle, universally took bribes to supply their

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CAN ARA, AND MALABAR. 49

wants ; and the delinquencias of the Brdhviana were doubled, to ]800 make good the new demands of the Asophs, over and above their ^^^ ^®^'** former profits. Owing to this system, although the Sultan had laid on many new taxes, the actual receipts of the treasury never equalled those in the time of his father. The Amildars, under various pretexts of unavoidable emergency, reported prodigious outstandmg balances ; while they received, as bribes from the cul- tivators, a part of the deductions so made. Although the taxes actually paid by the people to government were thus much lighter than they had been in tfie administration of Hyder; the industrious cultivator was by no means in so good a condition as formerly. The most frivolous pretexts were received, as sufficient cause for commencing a criminal prosecution against any person supposed to be rich ; and nothing but a bribe could prevent an accused indivi- dual from ruin. Tippoo certainly had considerable talents of war; but his fondness for it, and his engaging with an enemy so much his superior in the art, brought on his destruction ; while his early habits, of contending with the Marattak plunderers, had given him a ferocity and barbarity, that must prevent eveiy considerate person from pitying his overthrow. The policy in which he suc- ceeded best, was in attaching to him the lower Mussulmans. He possessed in the highest degree all the cant, bigotry, and zeal, so well fitted for the purpose, and which some few men of abilities have succeeded in assuming ; but with him, I believe, they were natural None of his Mussulmans have entered into our service, although many of them are in great want ; and they all retain a high respect for his memory, considering him as a martyr, who died in the defence of their religion.

Though Tippoo had thus secured the affections of many of his PoanforWsper- subjeots, and though he was perhaps conscious of good intentions, "o^^i^^Bty. ai^ fondly imagined that his government was fit to be a pattern to all others ; yet whoever sees his private apartments, will be sensible, that the mind of the despotic monarch was torn with apprehension. Such is, perhaps, the universal state of men of this description ; and although a knowledge of the circumstance may. not be sufficient to prevent the ambitious from grasping at this power, nor to induce the person who has once possessed it to return to the calm of private life ; yet it may be some consolation to the persons ex- posed to its banefiil influence, to know, that their ruler enjoys less sectirity and tranquillity of mind than themselves.

From the principal front of the palace, which served as a revenue private apart- office, and as a place from whence the Sultan occasionally showed ™*"*"* himself to the populace, the chief entry into the private square was through a strong narrow passage, wherein were chained four tigers ; which, although somewhat tame, would in case of any disturbance become unruly. Within these was the hall in which Tippoo wrote, and into which very few persons, except Meer Saduc, were ever admitted. Immediately behind this; was the bed-chamber, which

7

50 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 communicated with the hall by a door and two windows, and

Msy 20th. ^2is shut up ou cvcry other side. The door was strongly secured on the inside, and a close iron grating defended the windows. The Sultan, lest any person should fire upon him while in bed, slept in a hammock, which was suspended from the roof by chains, in such a situation as to be invisible through the windows. In the ham- mock were found a sword and a pair of loaded pistols.

ztnana. The Only other passage from the private square was into the

ZenaTia, or women's apartments. This has remained perfectly invi- olate under the usual guard of eunuchs, and contains about six hundred women, belonging to the Sultan, and to his late father. A great part of these are slaves, or attendants on the ladies ; but they are kept in equally strict confinement with their mistresses. The ladies of the Sultan ai-e about eighty in number. Many of them are from Hindustan Proper, and many are the daughters of Brdh- TnanSy and Hindu princes, taken by force from their parents. They have been all shut up in the Zenana when very yoimg ; and have been carefully brought up to a zealous belief in the religion of Ma- homet. I have sufficient reason to think that none of them are desirous of leaving their confinement : being wholly ignorant of any other manner of living, and having no acquaintance whatever be- yond the walls of their prison.

suiun'igardans. Without the walls of Seringapatam are two gardens and palaces, which formerly belonged to the Sultan, but are now occupied by the Commandant of the forces, and by the Resident at the court of Mysore, The gardens have been laid out at a considerable expense ; and canals from the river afibrd them a copious supply of water.

LaviBavg. The palacc at the LavZ Baug, which occupies the lower end of the island, though built of mud, possesses a considerable degree of elegance, and is the handsomest native building that I have ever seen. Near to it stands the Mausoleum of Hyder, where his son also reposes in state. The tombs of both are covered with rich cloths at the Company's expense ; and the establishment of Moulahs to offer up prayers, and of musicians to perform the Nohat, is kept up as formerly. The buildings 'are handsome of the kind, and are ornamented with mishapen columns of a fine black hxynihlende, which takes a most splendid polish. The other palace and garden,

Lurria adauiui Called the Durrta adaulut Baug, was Tippoo's favourite retreat from

pfctures business. Its walls are covered with paintings, which represent the

manner in which the two Mussulman princes, Hyder and Tippoo, appeared in public processions ; the defeat of Colonel Bailie ; and the costume of various casts, or professions, that are common in Mysore, In these paintings the figures are much in the style of caricatures, although they retain a strong likeness of native coun- tenance and manner. The annexed Drawing (Figure 6) of a BrcJmian, his wife, and child, done by one of the best artists at fieringapaiam, and fully equal to the paintings on the walls of this palace, will convey to the reader a more exact idea of the pro-

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. .5X

gress made there in the art of painting, than words could possibly 1800 express. »y •

The principal workman employed by Colonel Close in repairing Finishing used the palace in the Laul Bang, gave me the following account of ^ ^^ p*iace. the processes used for finishing the inside of the palaces at Serhigapatam^

At first sight, one would imagine that much gilding is used in Faiie gUding. the ornaments ; but in truth not a grain of gold is employed. The workmen use a paper covered with false gilding. This they cut into the shape of flowers, and paste these on the walls or columns. The interstices are filled up with oil colours, which are all of European preparation.

The manner of making this false gilded paper is as follows :

Take any quantity of lead, and beat it with a hammer into leaves, as thin as possible. To twenty-four parts of these leaves add three parts of English glue, dissolved in water, and beat them together with a hammer, till they be thoroughly united ; which requires the labour of two persons for a whole day. The mass is then cut into small cakes, and dried in the shade. These cakes can at any time be dissolved in water, and spread thin with a hair brush on common writing paper. The paper must then be put on a smooth plank, and rubbed with a polished stone, till it acquire a complete metallic lustre. The edges of the paper are then pasted down on the board, and the metallic surface is rubbed with the palm of the hand, which is smeared with an oil called O^arna, and then exposed to the sun. On the two following days the same operation is repeated ; when the paper acquires a metallic yellow colour, whichy however, more resem- bles the hue of brass, than that of gold. The Gurna oil is prepared as follows : Take three quarters of a Maund (about 18 lb.) of Agaahay any (Linseed oil), half a Maund (lb. 12) of the size called Chunderasu, and a quarter of a Maund (6 lb.) of Musambra, or aloes prepared in the country. Boil the oil for two hours in a brass pot. Bruise the Musambra ; and, having put it into the oil, boil them for four hours more. Another pot having been made red hot, the Chunderaav, is to be put into it, and will immediately melt. Take a third pot, and, having tied a cloth over its mouth, strain into it the oil and Musambra : these must be kept in a gentle heat, and the Chundera^i added to them gradually. The oil must be strained again ; and it is then fit for use. *

The Chunderasu is prepared from the milky juice of any of the following trees : (Ficus glomerata Roxb.), Ooni (a tree which I call Ficus gonia) Bayla, Bayvina, Oobali, &;c. It is therefore an elastic gum.

The oil used for painting^ consists of two parts of linseed, and one part of Ghundera^su.

In white washing their walls, over the chunam or lime plaster, whiu washing. the workmen of Seringapatam &r:si give a thin coat oiSuday, or fine clay ; which is mixed with size, and put on with a hair brush. They

52 A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THKOUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 next give a coat of whitening made of powdered Balapum, or pot-

^*^*^ ^Ume, and then finish with a coat composed of eight parts of Abra^ cum, or mica, one part of powdered Bala.pwm, soid one of size. The AbrcLCum is prepared from white mica, by repeated grindings, the finer particles being removed for use by washing them firom the grosser parts. The wall, when finished in this manner^ shines like the scales of a fish ; and when the room is lighted, has a splendid appearance : but in the day time, the wall white washed with the powdered potstone alone, in my opinion, looks better than when washed with either quick lime or mica. shahar oanjam. In the space between the city and the two gardens, the greater part of the island of Servngapatam is covered with the ruinous mud walls of the suburb, called Shahar Gawjam; and nothing can have a look more dismal and desolate. Tippoo, before the siege, had entirely removed the roofs ; for he expected that the British army would have takeai possession of the island, as they had done under Lord Comwallis. It must not be supposed, however, that the huts, of which we now see the ruins, have been at any one time all inhabited. They were, in fact, cantonments for the troops, who were removed fi:om one side of the island to another as caprice dictated. In Shahar Ganja/m a new town is fiist rising up, in which the streets are laid dowxi broad and regular. In the old canton- ments, the huts had been iniserably huddled together. Population. According to the register of houses which I received from the

Cutvxd, the fort, or city, contains 4,163 houses, and 5,499 fiLmi- lies; and the ShaJiar Ganjcsni contains 2,216 houses, and 3,335 &- milies. At five inhabitants io each house, we may estimate the population of the city to be 31>\815, and of the suburbs 11,080 ; in all, 31,895 persons. This, hor5\^ever, is independent of a strong garrison and its numerous followers. The principal merchant in the place says, that in the reig*K of Tippoo the island contained 500,000 inhabitants; and he preteitids to found his estimate on the quantity of grain consumed. In this calculation, I think he exaggerates grossly ; as I s^ na place where such a number of persons could have lived. I know also, that the man, in other respects, is not to be trusted Perhaps we may safely admit the former population of the island to have amounted to 150,000 per- sons ; who were entirely supported by the court and ajmy, scarcely any manufactures having been established. By the removal of the court, and the diminished number of the troops, the inhabitants have been reduced to the necessity of leaving the -island ; which is still a very inconvenient place for Europeans ; all tiie^^T servants, and the most common artificers, being people from Mo/l'Xas, who charge the most extravagant wages. Excellent meat and gN^od vegetables are to be had in abundance ; but, bread being dear, tb^^ private sdldi^irs are in general under the necessity of eating rice. Kddixgai and In this country, the division of the people into^ iv'hat are called

^'Xit^'ridSl! the left and right hand sides, or Eddagai and BaUagai- is productive

CHAP. II.] MYSOEE, CANARA, AND:MALABAR. 63

of more considerable effects than at any that I have seen in India, 1800 although among the Hindus it is generally known. May2oui.

The tribes, or oasts, comprehended in the Eddagai, or left hand side, are nin.e.

1. Panchala comprehending,

1. The Cubbinadava, or blacksmiths.

2. Badiga, carpenters.

8. CuTvmigarUy coppersmiths.

4. CuVbadiga, masons.

5. -Aoxiia, gold and silversmiths.

2. Eheri chitty, merchants, who pretend to be of the Vaisya cast.

3. DevaTiga, a class of weavers.

4. HeganigarUy oilmakers, who use two oxen in their mills.

5. OolLur, or Oolawanlu, who transport money.

6. PdLi/wanlu ) two tribes of cultivators, who are not oiKar*

7. Palawanlu j nataca origin.

8. Baydaru, hunters.

9. Madigaru, tanners or shoemakers. The Panchala com- mand the whole party ; and the Madigaru, in all disputes, form the most active combatants ; on which account, as their own name is reproachful, they are commonly called the Eddagai cast, as if they were the only persons belonging to it.

The casts forming the Ballagai, or right hand side, are eighteen in number.

1. Banijigaru, who are of many trades, as well as many reli- gions. The two most conspicuous divisions are,

1. Panchivm Banijigaru, who are traders, and wear the

Lingo.

2. Tdiga Banijigaru who worship Vishnu.

2. Wodigaru, cultivators of the Sudra cast, and oiKamataca extraction.

3. Jotiphana, oilmakers, who use one bullock in the mill 4* Rwngaru, calico printers and,taylors.

5. Ladaru, kind of Mussulman traders, who are followed by all the artificers of the same religion.

6. Oujerati, merchants of Ghizerat.

7. Camatigaru, persons who are really of the Vaisya cast.

8. Jainaru, worshippers of Jai/a.

9. Curubaru, shepherds, blanket-weavers, and cultivators.

10. Gumbaru, potters.

11. Agasaru, washermen.

12. Bessta, PaZan^e^n-bearers.

13. Padma Shalayvaru, a kind of weavers.

14. Naindaru, barbers.

15. Uparu, persons who dig tanks, and build rough walls.

16. Chitragaru, painters.

17. OoaUaru, keepers of cows and buffaloes.

54 • A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 11.

WOO 18. WTialliaru, The people called Pan'iara at Madras, who

*^ ' form the active part of the right hdndside, and. are commonly called BaUagai, their own name being disgracefid. The Panchum Baniji- garu are the leaders of this division.

It must be observed, that in these lists I have used the Rama- taca or Canarese language ; and almost all the names are in the plural, as speaking of classes of men. The singular number may in general be obtained by rejecting the final rit. I must also observe, that these lists differ, in some respects, from a valuable account of the right and left hand sides, which Colonel Close was so obliging as to communicate. The difference, I suppose, arises partly from his having received the accounts through the medium of the Mussul- man language, and partly from his having taken them at Bangalore. Mine I received at Seringapatam, by means of an interpreter from the Kaimdtaca language ; and I have found, that in different places though at no great distance, there are considerable variations in the customs of the same tribes : a circumstance to which I request the reader's attention. My descriptions of sects are only to be consider- ed as strictly applicable to tnose -of the places where they have been taken. I avoid the Mussulman names ; as I find that these people had, in general, very imperfect notions concerning their Hindu subjects, and frequently used distinctions to which there was nothing analogous among the aboriginal natives.

The origin of the division of Hindus into the right and left hand sides, is involved in fable. It is said to have taken place at Kunji, or Oonjevcram, by order of the goddess Kali ; and the rules to be observed by each side were at the same time engraved on a copper plate, which is said to be preserved at the temple of that place. The existence of such a plate, however, is very doubtful ; both parties founding on its authority their pretensions, which are diametrically opposite. The different casts, of which each division is composed, are not united by any common tie of religion, occupa- tion, or kindred : it seems, therefore, to be merely a struggle for certain honorary distinctions.t The right hand side pretena, that they have the exclusive privilege of using twelve pillars in the pundal, or shed, under which their marriage ceremonies are per- formed ; and that their adversaries, in their processions, have no right to ride on horseback, nor to cany a flag painted with the figure of Hanumanta. The left hand side pretend, that all these privileges are confirmed to them by the grant of Kali on the copper plate ; and that tiiey are of the highest rank, having been placed by that goddess on her left hand, which in India is the place of honour. Frequent disputes arise concerning these important matters ; and on such occasions, not only mutual abuse is common, but also the heads of the divisions occasionally stir up the lowest and most ignorant of their followers to have recourse to violence, and encourage them by holding out the houses and shops of their adversaries as proper objects for plunder. A very serious dispute took place at Seringa-

CHAP. 11.] MYSORE, CANAllA, AND MALABAR. 55

jmtam since it fell into the hands of the English. Thirty families 1800 of the weavers, belonging to the left hand side, joined themselves to *^*^ ^^^^' the Telega Banijigaru, and were encouraged by them to use all the honorary distinctions claimed by the right hand side. This gave great offence to the Panchum Banijigaru, and the Wlialliaru were let loose to plunder : nor could they be repressed without an exer- tion of military force, by which several people were killed. In order to preserve the peace of the garrison, and to endeavour to bring the • two parties to an agreement, it has ever since been thought expedient to prohibit any marriages from being celebrated within the fort.

Pride is tiie occasion of another violent dispute for precedency other dissen- betweentwo casts, the Panchum Banijigai'U, and the (farrmtigaru,niitivel!^^^^^^^ although they are both of the same side. The former allege, that they are the hereditary chiefs of the division ; and the Camatigariju declare, that they are of a higher cast, as being Vaisya^ while the others are only Sudraa, The dispute at present runs very high, and has occasioned some trouble to government.

In every part of India with which I am acquainted, wherever Hewdiury chief there is a considerable number of any one cast or tribe, it is usual °' ^***"* to have a head man, whose office is generally hereditary. His powers are various in different sects and places ; but he is com- monly intrusted with the authority of punishing all transgressions against the rules of the cast. His power is not arbitrary ; as he is always assisted by a council of the most respectable members of his tribe. The punishments that he can inflict are fines and stripes, and above all excommunication, or loss of cast ; which to a Hindu is the most terrible of aU punishments. These hereditary chiefs also, assisted by their council, frequently decide civil causes, or disputes among their tribe ; and when the business is too intricate or difficult, it is generally referred to the hereditary chief of the ruling tribe of the side or division to which the parties belong. In this case, he assembles the most respectable men of the division, and settles the dispute ; and the advice of these persons is commonly sufficient to make both parties acquiesce in the decision ; for every one would shun a man who could be so unreasonable as to refuse compliance. These courts have no legal jurisdiction; but their influence is great, and many of the ablest Amildars support their decisions by the authority of government.

The dominions of thq Rdja of Mysore are now divided into three Dominions of great districts, or Subayenas, called the Patana, Nagara, and Cha- ^^^^ ®'^^" trakal Suhayenas or Bayadas ; from the three places where the chief Form of GoTem- offices or Cutcheries are situated. The Patana district is by far the ^^^ largest, and is under the immediate inspection of the Dewa/n, Purnea, and of his deputy, Bucherow. The Cutchery is in Seringapatam ; and dependent on it are ninety-one Talucs, or sub-divisions, of which six formerly belonged to Nagara, This present district is a much greater extent of territory than ever before was subject to the Mysore family ; for although they had conquered Coimbatore, and

oihtaOram,

5(5 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS. THROUGH [CHAP* II.

1800 though some districts fonnerly belonging to them, and bordering

^ ' on the Bara Mahal, have been ceded to the Company, yet, besides these six Taiucs taken from Nagara, they never possessed Sira Ban- galuru, nor Color, which were conquered from Mussulman families by Hyder, In addition to this, they have acquired the Chatrakal Subayena, containing thirteen Talucs ; and the Nagara, containing nineteen. Each of these districts is under the inspection of a Subadar, Each Taluc is managed by an Amildar, who is an officer of justice, police, and revenue ; but his authority is very limited; the power of severe punishment, and of revising all civil causes, being reserved to the JDewan, The Arriildo,r8 have under them a sufficient number of Sheriatadars,^ or accomptants, who in the Karndtaca language are called Parputtiea ; and the villages under them are managed by Oaudas, and Shaiiabogas, called by the Mussulmans PotaUs, and Cumums, These two offices are properly hereditary. The Gauda is the representative of the Amildar, and the Shanaboga is the vil- lage accomptant. The Amildars, Parputties, and Shanabogas, axe almost universally Brdhmans, The Oaudaa are all Sudras. Taiue of Patana The Tahic or district on the north bank of the Cdvery, at Seringa- patam, is called the Patana asMa Oram; while that on the south side of the river is called the Mahdsura advta Gram,, These Tahics derive their names from each of them having formerly contained eight Grams, Gramams, or villages, granted to Brdhmans in Enaum, or charity. The country rises gradually on both sides of the river, is naturally fertile, and for some distance from the town is finely watered by noble canals ; which, having been taken from the river, follow the windings of the hills, and as they advance horizontally to the eastward, send off branches to water the intermediate space. The water is forced into the sources of these canals by Ana^ctda, or dams, which have been thrown across the river, and formed of large blocks of granite of a prodigious strength, and at a great expense. Desolation, however, is to be seen every where near Seringapatam, and has been occasioned partly by invading annies, partly by the precautions of the defenders, and partly by the wan- ton caprice of Tippoo ; but still more by the natural effects of his bad system of government. The temples, villages, and dams have been broken down, the canals choked, and every plantation of trees totally ruined, while a great extent has heea laid waste for hunting ground. But now every thing wears an aspect of beginning restoration. The villages are rebuilding, the canals are clearing; and in place of antelopes and forest guards, we have the peaceful bullock returning to his useful labour, sute of Agri- Having assembled some of the most sensible Gander of the Ashta

""""'" gram ToLuos, in the presence of ihe Sherietadara and Shanabogaa, or

lower officers of revenue, who were recommended to ihe as the men best acquainted with country concerns, I examined them, both at my tents and on the field, concerning their practices in agriculture ; and the following is the result of my inquiries.

culture.

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 57

The grounds are of three kind.s ; wet kind, or that watered arti- woo ficially, and producing what are called wet crops, or grains ; dry Th*re«kin'da of Jield, or that which receives no artificial supply of water, and which srounds. produces dry crops, or grains ; and gardens, or Bagait.

The soil of tiieastda griam is considered asof four different kinds, soiis. the fertility of which is great according to the order in which they are enumerated. First, a very black soil containing a large pro- portion of clay, and called Eray, Grishna, or Mucutu. Secondly, a very red soil, containing also a large proportion of clay, and bailed Cabbay or Kempu buniL These two sometimes contain a few small })ebbles, or loose rounded stones, without injuring the quality of the land. Thirdly, Marulu is a light brown coloured soil, with a large proportion of sand. This also may contain loose nodules of stone without injury to its quality. Fourthly, Daray, which consists of much sand, and Angular nodules of stone so compacted that the plough penetrates it with difficulty : to avoid circumlocu- tion, I shall frequently use these native terms.

The articles which the ashta gram farmers cultivate in vjet v»t«wd tn^. grounds are rice, sugar-cane^ Udu, Hessaru, WulV EUu, and Tada- guny. Of these, rice is the one of by far the greatest importance.

The farmers of the ashta gram have annually two crops on their ^^^'"'p*- wet grounds ; one crop grows during the rainy season, and is called Hainu, and also the male crop, being supposed to be the stronger ; the other crop is called Caru, and female, and grows in the dry seasons. The grounds are of course foimed into terraces, quite level, and surrounded by little banks for the purpose of irrigation. The plots of watered ground, owing to the considerable declivity of the country, are very ^contracted, and irregular in shape : but by means of small channels leading from the grand canals, or from reservoirs, they can, at the pleasure of the cultivator, be either filled witn water, or allowed to be dry.

The tanks or reservoirs not being numerous in the ashta graniy imgaUon. and the canals being completely filled from the river in the rainy sea43on only, the Hainw crop of rice is by far the most copious. The small supply of water in the diy season is reserved chiefly for sugar-cane. Jf attention were paid to construct reservoirs for the preservation of the water that is lost from the canals in the rainy season, much of the ground would annually give- two crops of rice.

Throughout India there are three modes of sowing the seed of nifferont man- rice, from whence arise three kinds of cultivation. In the first mode, i^ <*°^^^ the seed is sown dry on the fields that are to rear it to maturity : this 1 call the dry seed cultivation ; at Serlngapatam it is called the Bara butta, or Puneji, In the second mode, the seed is made to vegetate before it is sown ; and the field, when fitted to receive it, is reduced to a puddle : this I call the sprouted culiivatian ; at Seringapatam it is called theMoLa hutta. In the third kind of cultivation, the seed is sown very thick in a small plot of ground ; and, when it has shot

8

58

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. n.

1800

IMay 20Lh.

Pifferent kinds uf nco.

up to about a foot high, the young rice is transplanted into the fields, where it is to ripen : this I call the cultivation by transplanting ; the farmers of the ashta gram call it NatL

The kinds of rice cultivated here are as follow :

ITfxinu crop of rice.

Scl('CtiOD of

rnudes ol Cttltl- > ation.

Names.

Months	Season
required	for
to ripen.	sowing.

Modes of Cultivation.

1 Doda Butta

2 Hotay Caimbuti...

3 Arsina CaimbutL 4i SucacUi88

5 Murargilli

6 Yalic Raja

7 Conawaly

8 Bily Sana butta...

9 Puttu butta

10 CaracuUu

Both

Hainu ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto Both Caru

Puiuji, Mola,ho\h. kinds of Natl.

ditto ditto ditto.

ditto and Bat^'a'agy Nati.

ditto and Mola. Mola. Puneji.

ditto and Mola.

ditto ditto. Mola and Nir'agy Nati.

ditto ditto.

Vxj seed.

I attempted to ascertain, whether the different kinds of culti- vated rice ought to be considered as different species, or merely as va- rieties; but I soon found, that for a traveller this was impractica- ble. Among the natives, even with such as speak the same lan- guage, the greatest confiision prevails ; igr the same name, in dif- ferent parts of the country, is applied to distinct kinds of rice; while m one village even the same kind of rice acquires two or more names, from a dissimilar season, or mode of cultivation. Thus in the Askta grams, the same kind of rice, when raised in the Caru crop, is called Doda casery ; which, when raised, in t*he Hainu crop, is called Doda butta. Although I by no means presume to be certain, yet, from the dissimilitude of appearance, and from the difference of soil, cultivation, and time of coming to maturity, i^e- quired by the various kinds of rice, 1 am inclined to think, tliat the Oryza sativa of Linnaeus actually comprehends several species, as distinct as the different kinds of barley, or Hordeum, that are cul- tivated in Europe.

The Hainu cultivation of rice, being here the principal crop, shall engage the chief part of our attention.

The high fields are cultivated after the di^ seed manner of sowing; the lower grounds are reserved for the sprouted and trans- planted cultivations. By far the most common seed used is the Doda butta, a coarse grain, like that which, in Bengal, is by the English called cargo rice.

In the Hainu crop the following is the management of the dry

rilAP. n.] MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR. 59

seed cultivation. During the months Plialguna, Chaitra, and jgQQ VaisaJdia, that is, from the 14th of February till the 23d of May, way ioth. plough twice a month ; having, three days previous to the* first ploughing in PhalgunUy softened the soil by giving the field water. After the fourth ploughing, the field must be Inanured with dung, procured either from the city or cow-house. After the fifth plbugh- ing, the field must be watered, either by rain, or from the canal; and three days afterwards the seed must be sown broad-cast, and then covered by the sixth ploughing. Any rain, that happens to fall for the first thirty days after sowing the seed, must be allowed to run off by a breach in the bank which surrounds the field ; and should much rain fall at this season, the crop is considerably injured. Should there have been no rain for the first thirty days, the field must be kept constantly inundated, till the crop be ripe ; but if there have been occasional showers, the inundation should not commence till the 45th day. Weeding, and loosening the soil about the roots of the young plants with the hand, and placing them at proper distances, where sown too close, or too far apart, must be performed three times ; 1st, on the 45th or 50th day ; 2ndly, 20 days after- wards; and 3dly, 15 days after the second weeding. These periods refer to the crops that require seven months to ripen. In rice which ripens in 5 J months, the field must be inundated on the 20th day ; and the weedings are on the 20th, 30th, and 40th days.

In the Haimi crop the foUowjng is the manner of conducting the sprouted seed. sproutcd-seed cultivation. The ploughing season occupies the month of Ashadha^ or from the 23rd of June till the 22d of July. During the whole of this time the field is inundated, and is ploughed four times ; while, at each ploughing, it is turned over twice in two different directions, which cross each other at right angles. This I shall call a double ploughing. About the.lst otSdravana (22d July), the field is manured, immediately gets a fifth ploughing, and the mud is smoothed by the labourers' feet. All the water, except one inch in depth, must then be let off, and the prepared seed must be sown broad-cast. As it sinks in the mud, it requires no labour to cover it. For the first twenty-four days, the field must once every other day have some water, and must afterwards, until ripe, be kept constantly inundated. The weedings are on the 25th, 35th, and 50th days. In order to prepare the seed, it must be put into a pot, and kept for three days covered with water. It is then mixed with an equal quantity of rotten cow-dung, and laid on a heap, in some part of the house, entirely sheltered from the wind. The heap is well covered with straw and mats ; and at the end of three days, the seed, having shot out sprouts about an inch in length, is found fit for sowing. This manner of cultivation is much more troublesome than that called dry-seed : and the produce from the same extent of ground is in both nearly equal ; but the sprouted-- seed cultivation gives time for a preceding crop of pulse on the same field, and saves a quarter of the seed.

60

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. II.

1800

May 30th.

Transpliuated

ric«.

Dry leedlings.

Two distinctions are made in the manner of cultivating trans- planted rice : the one calle<i Barraagy, or dry-plants ; and the other called Nir*agy^ or wet-plants. For both kinds low land is required.

The manner of raising the Barra'^agyy or dry-seedlings^ for the Sainu crop, is as follows : Labour the ground at the same season, and in the same mar ner, as for the dry-seed crop. On the first of lyniahtliay or 24th of May, give the manure, sow the seed very- thick, and cover it with tlie plough. If no rain fall before the 8th day, then water the field, and again on the 22d ; but if there are any showers, these waterings are unnecessary. From the 45th till the 60th day, the plants continue fit to be removed. In order to he able to raise them for transplanting, the field must be inundated for five days, before they are plucked.

The ground on which the dry-seedlings are to be ripened, la ploughed four times in the course of eight weeks, commencing about the 15th of lyaishiha, or 7th of June; but must, all the while, be inundated. The manure is given before the 4th plough- ing. After this, the mud having been smoothed by the feet, the seedlings are transplanted into it, and from three to five plants are stuck together, into the mud, at about a span distance from the other little branches. The water is then let off for a day : after- wards, the field, till the grain is ripe, is kept constantly inundated. The weedings are performed on the 20th, 35th, and 45th days after transplanting.

The manner of raising the Nir^agy^ or wet-seedlingSy for the trans^ planted crop in the Hainu season, is as follows : In the month Phalguv^ (14th February to 14th March) plough the ground three times while it is dry. On the 1st of lyaishiha^ or 24th of May, in- undate the field ; and in the course of fifteen days plough it four times. After the 4th ploughing smooth the mud with the feet, sow the seed very thick, and sprinkle dung over it : then let off the water. On the 3d, tJth, and 9th days, water again ; but the water must be let ofi*, and not allowed to stagnate on the Held. After the 12th day, inundate until the seedlings be fit for trans- plantation, which will be on the 30th day from sowing.

The cultivation of the field into which the seedlings are trans- planted, is exactly the same as that for the dry -seedlings.

The plot on which the seedlings are raised produces no crop of pulse ; but various kinds of these grains are sown on the fields that are to ripen the transplanted crop, and are out down immediately before the ploughing for the rice commences. The produce of the transplantm crop is nearly equal to that of the dry seed cultivation ; and on a good soil, properly cultivated, twenty times the seed seven is an average crop. cnru crop thwft The Caru crops, according to the time of sowing, are divided seasons. j^^ three kinds. When the farm is properly stocked, the seed is

sown at the most favorable season, and the crop is then called the

Waierid seed- lingt.

CHAP. II.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. (Jl

Cumba Cam ; but if there be a want of hands, or cattle, part of the igoo seed is sown earlier, and part later than the proper season ; and then ^*^ *®***' it produces from 30 to 50 per cent, less than the full crop. When sown too early, the crop is called Tula Caru ; when too late, it is called Maysha Cant. The produce of the Hainu and Cumba Caru crops is nearly the same. •

No Tula Caru dry seed is ever sown. The ploughing season for Dry seed, the Cumba Caru dry seed being in Bhddrapada, or 21st August, and the seed is sown about the end of Mdrgasirsha, or 16th December. In the Maysha Caru dry seed, the ploughing commences on the 1st of Chaitra, or 26th March, and the seed is sown at the feast of Chaitra Purnama, or 9th of April.

The Tula Caru grouted seed is sown on the 1st Kdrtika, 19th sprouted seed. October, the ploughing having commenced with the feast Navardtri, 19th September. The Currwa Caru sprouted seed is sown about the 16th of Pushyay or first of January. The ploughing season oc- cupies a month. The ploughing for the Maysha Caru, sprouted seed commences about the 15th of Vhaitra. Thfe seed is sown about the 16th of Vais6Miaf or 9th of May.

The CumJba Gam transplanted rice is cultivated only as watered Transplanted. seedii/ivgs. The ground for the seedlings begins to be ploughed in the end of Kdrtika, (16th November), and the seed is sown on the 15th Pushy a t or 30th December. The fields, on which this crop is ripened, are begun to be ploughed in the middle of Mdrga^irsha, (Ist December). The transplanting takes place about the 15th of Magha, or 29th of January. The Tula Caru transplanted ince also is sown Niragy about the 30th of Asuja, or 18th of October, and in a month afterwards is transplanted. The Maysha Caru transplanted rice is also sown as watered seedlings, about the 15 th of Vaisdkha, or 8th of May, and about a month afterwards is transplanted.

The regular Caru crop of the transplanted cultivation, does not AdT»ntaj:es of interfere with a preceding crop of pulse ; but this is lost, when creiw!*^"*"^ from want of stock sufficient to cultivate it at the proper time, the early or late seasons are adopted. The various modes of cultivating the rice gives a great advantage to the farmer ; as by dividing the labour over a great part of the year, fewer hands and less stock are reouired to cultivate the same extent of ground, than if there was only one seed time, and one harvest.

The manner of reaping and preserving all th^ kinds of rice is sice harrest. nearly the same. About a week before the com is fit for reaping, the water is let ofi^, that the ground may dry. The corn is cut down about four inches from the ground with a reaping-hook, ceiled Cudugolu; or Cudagu, (Plate II Fig. 2.) Without being bound up in sheaves, it is put into small stacks, about twelve feet high ; in which the stalks are placed outwards, and the ears inwards. Here the com remains a week, or, if it rain, fourteen days. It is then spread out on a thrashing-floor, made smooth with clay, cowdung, and water ; and is trodden out by driving bullocks over it. liF there

6i A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II

•

1800 has been rain, the com, after having been thrashed, must be dried in

May 2oui. ^^^ ^^^ . |^^^ '^^ ^y Weather this trouble is unnecessary. It is then

put up in heaps called Rashy, which contains about 60 CandaccLS, or 334 bushels. The heaps, as 1 have before mentioned, is marked with clay, and is carefully covered with straw. A trench is then du^ round it, to keep off the water. For twenty or thirty days, till the division of the crop between the government and the cultivator takes place, the corn is allowed to remain in the heap. Manner of pro- The grain is always preserved in the husk, or, as the English in

Bcrving ce. jjj^jja, gay, in Paddy; the term rice being appropriated to the grain separated from the husks, a distinction which I shall always observe. There are in use here various ways for keeping Faddy. Some pre- serve it in large earthen jars that ai e kept in the ho^ise. Some keep it in pits called Hagay. In a hard stony soil, they dig a narrow shaft, fifteen or sixteen cubits deep. The sides of this are then dug away, so as to form a cave, with a roof, about two cubits thick. The floor, sides, and roof, are lined with straw ; and the cave is then filled with Paddy. These pits contain from fifteen to thirty Candacas, or from 83J to 167 Winchester bushels. When the Paddy is wanted to be beaten out into rice, the whole pit must at once be emptied. Other people again build Canajas, or store-houses, which are strongly floored with plank, to keep out the Bandicoots, or rats. In these store houses there is no opening for air ; but they have a row of doors one above another, for taking out the grain, as it is wanted. Another nianner of preserving grain is in small cylin- drical stores, which the potters make of clay^ and which are called Woday. The mouth is covered by an inverted pot ; and the Paddy, as wanted, is drawn out from a small hole at the bottom. Finally^ others preserve their Paddy in a kind of bags made of straw, and called Mudy. Of these different means the Canaga and Woday are reckoned the best. Paddy will keep two years without alteration, and font years without being unfit for use. Longer than this does nob answer, as the grain becomes both unwholesome and unpalatable. No person here attempts to preserve rice any length of time ; for it is known by experience to be very perishable. All the kinds of Paddy are found to preserve equally well. That intended for seed must be beaten of! from the straw as soon as cut down, and dried for three days in the sun after which it is usually kept in Btraw-bag0. Manner of pre- There are two manners of making Paddy into rice ; one by boil-

aM'^sMOusg. ing it previously to beating; and the other by beating alone. The boiling is also done in two ways. By the first is prepared the rice intended for the use oiRajas^ and other luxurious persons. A pot is filled with equal parts of water and Paddy ^ which is allowed to soak all night, and in the morning is boiled for half an hour. . The Paddy is then spread out in the shade for fifteen days, and afterwards dried in the sun for two hours. It is then beaten, to remove the husks. Each grain is broken by this operation into four or five pieces, from whence it is called Aydvt, nugu aky, or five-piece rice. When dress-

CHAP. II.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 63

«

ed, this kind of rice swells very mucli. It is always prepared in igoo the families of the Itdjae, and is never made for sale. The operation ^^7^^^^' is veiy liable to fail ; and in that case the rice is totally lost.

Rice prepared by boiling in the common manner is called Cu- ByboiUng. dapal ah/y and is destined for the nse of the Sudraa, or such low persons as are able to procure it. Five parts of Faddy are put into a pot with one part of water, and boiled for about two hours, till it is ob- served that one or two of the grains have burst. It is then spread out in the sun for two hours ; and this drying is repeated on the next day ; after which the Faddy is immediately beaten. T6n parts of Faddy ^ by this operation, give five parts of rice, of which one part goes to the pereon who prepares it, for his trouble. Ten Seers of Faddy are there- fore equal in value to only four Seers of rice.

The rice used by the Brdhvians, and called Hashy aky, is never without bomng. boiled. On the day before it is to be beaten, the Faddy must be ex- posed two hours to the sun. If it were beaten immediately after being dried, the grain would break, and there would be a considerable loss. Even with this precaution many of the grains break ; and, when these are separated from the entire rice to render it saleable, the Hashy aky sells dearer than the Cudapal aky, in the proportion of nine to eight.

The beating is performed chiefly by women. They sometimes. Manner of beat- forthis purpose, use the Yata^ which is the same with the Lanky of"** Bengal ; or a block of timber fastened to a wooden lever, which is supported on its centre. The woman raises the block by pressing with her foot on the far end of the lever, and by removing her foot allows the block to fall down on the grain. The more common way, liowever, of beating Faddy y is by means of a wooden pestle, which is generally about four feet in length, and three inches in diameter, which is made of heavy timber^ and shod with iron. The grain is put into a hole formed in a rock 6r stone. The pestle is first raised *

with the one hand, and then with the other ; which is very hard labour for the Hindu women, who in general are rather delicately formed. ,

So far as I have observedin Mysore, ground, once brought into Different cropi cultivation for rice, is universally considered as arriveu at the highest *° ^°^ ^®*'' possible degree of improvement ; and all attempts to render it more productive by a succession of crops, or by fallow, would be looked upon as proofs of insanity. Where there is a supply of water, the farmers in general think, that the best plan of cultivation is to sow one crop of rice, immediately after another has been reaped ; and in many parts, favoured with a supply of water, three crops of rice are every year regularly produced. In the Ashta grams, however, there is no such land ; and though some parts each year give two crops of rice, by far the greater part of the irrigated land^ have too small a supply of water to ripen two crops of rice ; and the farmer must content himself with one crop of that valuable article, and another of some kind of pulse, or other dry grain. Even this crop is frequently prevented by some of the operations attending the cultivation of rice,

g4 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 as I have had several times oocasion to mention ; but still it is of

Mty mh. considerable importance. The articles of which it consists are Udu, HessarUy WulV Elluy and Tadaguny.

The Udu is of two kinds ; Ohic'vdu, aniDod'udu ; or little, and larger Udus.

The Chic'udu seems to be a variety, with black seeds, of the Phaseolua minimoo of Dr. Roxburgh. From the season in which it ripens, it is also called Car'uda. It is the Minamolu of the TdingdSj the Sir ulandu of the Tamulsy the Mash of the Decany Mussulmans, the Wudied of Karikdna, and the Ticory Galai of the Bengalese, It is cultivated as follows : The ploughing commences ten days after the feast Slvaratriy which this year happened on the 12th of February, and lasts for fifteen days, or until the 9th March. Previous to the first ploughing, if there has not recently been any raio, the field must have a little water, and then it is three times ploughed. I'he seed is sown immediately before the third ploughing, by which it is covered. This crop obtains neither water, manure, nor weed- ing. The straw, when ripe, is pulled up by the roots, stacked for three days, dried two days in the sun, and then trodden out by bul- locks. The flour, made into cakes, and fded in oil, is here a common article of diet. It is also mixed with rice flour, and made into white cakes called Dosky, which are also fried in oil, and are a favourite food. The straw is reckoned pernicious to cattle. It is thrown on the dunghill, and serves to increase the quantity of manure. The grain is always preserved in the Mudy, or straw bag. DoiTudu. Dod\idu, or great Uduy is called HaMudu, I had no opportu*

nity of examining it in a state proper for ascertaining its place in the botanical system ; but I have no doubt of its being the Phaseolua minimoo of Dr. Roxburgh. It is cultivated and ma- naged exactly like the other kind ; but the fi^ist ploughing is on the 8th day after the Swama Gauri vi'ata, which this year happened on the 23rd of August. The sowing season is 15 days afterwards ; that is, about the loth of September. The straw is equally pernicious to cattle, but the grain is reckoned better than that on the Chic^udu. Pha$eoiu8Munff9, The Hessaru is the Phaseolus Mungo of the botanists, a bar- barous name derived from the Mung of the Mussulmans, and of Kan- kdna. In the Tdinga language it is called Pachy Pessai*u ; and in the dialect of the Tamvis, Pacha Pyru, It is of one kind only, but is cultivated both as a Hainu and as a Garu crop : in both of which the manner of cultivation is exactly the same as that of the Udus, The straw, being equally unfit for cattle, is reserved for manure. The grain is dressed as Curry, po^ieho$ cais' The Todoguny is the Dolichos Gatsjang of linnseus, who has here

''*'^* introduced a most barbarous appellation. In the Tdinga language

it is called Alsunda, It is the Bohr a and Ghoni of the Mussulmans, the Garamuny of the Tamuls of Madras^ the TataPyimot Goimbetore, the Bily Hessaru of ^aigra, and the Gauli of Kankan, Of this grain, there is but one kind, and it is cultivated only as a Cam crop,

.1 "

1800.

5f ay 20th.

Sesamvm,

?u gar-can 0 iinds. "^

Jultlvation.

■> ' t » ■ " • -

f*

niAP. 11.) MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. ^];;

* •

which is performed- exactly in the same manner with that of the 1800. Carhidu. The ffreen pods, and ripe grain, are both made into Cur- ^^*y 2®^^- ties, as is usual here, by frying them in oil with tamarinds, turme- ric, onions, capsicum, and salt. Horses eat the grain ; but the straw is only useful as manure.,

JFull* Elln is the Sesamiim orientah ; and one kind only is oulti- s<iam%im, vated here. The Indicum, however, is to be met with in some places not far distant^ and is called the P/tulagana Ellu. It is raised ex- actly like the Car^uduy out down when ripe, and stacked for seven days. It is then exposed to the sun for three days, but at night is ooUected again into a heap ; and, between every two days drying in the sun, it is kept a day in the heap. By this process the capsules burst of themselves^ and the seed falls down on the ground. The cultivators sell the greater part of the seed to the oil-makers. This oil is here in common use with the natives^ both for the table and for unction. The seed is also made into flour, which is mixed with Jagoryy and formed into a variety of sweet cakes. The straw is used for fewel and for manure.

A considerable quantity of sugar-cane is cultivated by the far- ^H'^""^^ mers of the Ashta gram. It is of two kinds, Restali, and Puttaputti, Both yield Bella^ or Jagory ; but the natives can extract sugar from the Puttaputti alone. The Jagory of the latter is also reckoned the best. The Restali can only be planted in Chaitra ; the Puttaputti may also be planted in Srdvana, or Mdgha, The crop of Restali is over in a year ; that of Puttaputti requires fourteen months, but may be followed by a second crop, or, as is said- in the West Indies, by a crop of Ratoons, which require twelve months only to ripen. The Restali will not survive for a second crop. This is the original sugar- cane of the country : the Puttaputti was introduced from Arcot by Mustaph'Aly Klian, who in the reign of Hyder was Tosha Khany, or Paymaster General. The cultivation of Restali has ever since been gradually declining.

When the ground is to be cultivated for sugar-cane, it is watered cultivation. three days, and then for the same length of time it is allowed to dry. During the next eight days it must be ploughed five times, :ind the clods must be beaten small with a kind of pick-ax, called Col Kudali (see Plate II Fig. 3). The field must then be manured, and ploughed a sixth time. The ground now rests fifteen days ; nfter which, in the course of one or two days, it must be ploughed twice, and then be allowed eight days more rest. It is afterwards ploughed a ninth time. These operations occupy forty-four days ; six mgre are employed in planting the cane, which is done by tlie instrument called Yella Kuddli (see Plate II Fig. 4.) With this tlie field is divided into beds of about six cubits wide, see (a) Fig. 7. Tbese beds are separated by small trenches (b), which are about fourteen inches wide, and eight deep. In every alternate trench are dug small wells (c) about two feet deep. Tho water from the canal flows through all the trenches, and, a quantity of it lodging

9

^

0(J A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800. in these wells, is taken out with pots for watering the plants by the May 20th. hand. Across every bed, at the distance of a cubit, are dug five holes (d) about six inches in diameter, and three in depth. In each of these are placed horizontally two cuttings of the cane^ each containing three joints. These are covered slightly with earthy over which is laid some dung. When the cane is planted in Chaitra, the trenches must be filled with water from the tank, and every * hole must be watered by pots. At the other seasons the trenches are full, it being the rainy weather/; but even then, for one month, the holes containing the canes must daily be watered by the hand. The earth in the holes is then Istirred up with a stick, and a little dung is added. I^ext month the daily watering must be continued, and at the end of it the whole field must be dug up with the Telia Kuddli ; and round every cluster of young canes there must be formed by the hand a small cavity, into which a little dimg is to be put. In the third month the canes must be watered every other day. At the end of the third month, if the canes have grown with luxuriance, the field must be dug over again with the Ydla Kuddli ; but, if they are rather stunted, the watering must be continued all the fourth month, before they get the third weeding. At this time, the earth, at the roots of the cane, is heaped up into ridges crossing the beds at right angles to the trenches. Afterwards, no water is given immediately to the plants, but for three days the trenches must be kept full. It is then let out for a week. If there be rain, there is no occasion for more watering ; but, if it be dry weather, the trenches, for a month, must be filled with water one day in the week. Then the weeding with the Yella Kuddli must be repeated, and the earth must be smoothed with the hand, and placed care- fully round the canes. The young shoots from each hole will be now ten or twelve in number ; those which are sickly must be cut off; and the healthy, which are about a cubit long, must be tied up with a leaf of the plant into bundles of two or three, in order to prevent them from spreading too much. Should there be no rain, the trenches must, once in fifteen days, be filled with water, till the canes, having grown higher, again require to be tied toge- ther. In a month after the first tj'^ing, they ought to be two cubits high. When the plants are eight months old, they will have grown another cubit, and will require another tying. The farmer now begins to repair his apparatus for making Jagrory : the Al<xy munny, or boiling-house ; the Gana, or mill ; the Oopy^ga, or boiler ; the Utsu, or mould ; the Cunu, or cooler ; the Goarmuny, or ladle ; and the Ghehalu, or skimmer. In the eleventh month he begins io cut the Restali, and the crop must be finished within the year. The Puttaputti is ripe in twelve months, and two months may be allowed for cutting it. Ratoon crop. If it be intended to keep the field of Puttaputti for a second

year's crop, the dry leaves which are cut off at crop season must be burned on the spot, and the whole field must be dug with the Yella

CHAP. H.]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

G7

KiuldlL The trenches must then be filled with water, and for six 1800. months the watering must be continued once in eight or ten days, ***y ^otb. unless there be rain. The weedings, during this time, ought to be three; at each of which dung ought to be given. At the end of six months, the canes having grown one cubit high, the weakly plants must be removed, and the strongest tied up, as in the first crop. The manner of conducting the two crops after this is quite similar. The canes of the second crop must be all cut within the • year.

Mucuiu, or black clay, is the best soil for both kinds of sugar- soii at for sugar canes ; but it is reserved for the Puttaputti. The Cabbay, or red ®*^'' earth, answers for the Restali, which does not require such a strong soil. The two inferior soils do not by any means answer for this production. The crop of rice immediately succeeding sugar-cane is very bad ; the second returns to its usual quantity ; but the sugar- cane is never again repeated on the same ground, till three crops of rice have intervened. The roots and tops of the cane are burned for boiling the Jagory. The ashes are reckoned injurious to any soil on which they may be laid ; but this is certainly a prejudice. Sugar- cane is never cultivated without manuring.

Having neglected, at my first visit to Seringapatanij to obtain Produce of wa- an account of the produce of the various crops of watered land, on **'®^ ^"'*' my second visit I called together some respectable Oaudas, in pre- sence of the Amildar, and of a well informed Sheriatadar. I then measured a field, said by them to contain a Canddca of land, or as much as ought to sow 280 Seers of rice, and found it to be 6^ acres ; on which, joined to their report concerning the quantity of seed required, and the return produced by a Candaca of land, I found the following calculations :

Names.	Seed per Acre.
Bushels. Gallons. Decimals.
Rice Mola cultivation - Udu Hessaru Wutr Ellu - - - -	1 4.57 0 4.0 0 4.0 0 0.898

Produce pr. Acre.	Increase, on one seed.
Bushels. Gallons. Decimals.
31 3.40 7 6.86 7 6.86 3 7.43	20 15 15 35

Of sugar-cane one acre plants 2420 holes, and produces 10,890 ripe canes, which yield 16| cwt. of Jagory.

The produce of rice by every mode of cultivation is nearly the

same.

()S

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. II.

1800. In the Ashta gravis the articles cultivated on dry field are as

M(^ 2(Hb. jx II Produce Of Jry lollOW :

field.

Names.

Ragy - - -

Avar ay - - -

Tovary - - -

Harica - - -

Navonay - -

Shamay - -

Chica Cambu -

Jola - - -

Huruli - -

Carlay - - -

Harulu - -

Huts' EllU' '

WulV Ellu -

Seed per Acre.

OP S.

3.568 0.892 0.892 3.568 3.568 3.568

Produce pr. Acre.

CD o ir WP S.

Increase

on one

seed.

0.892 3.568

0.892 1.784

23.35 0.889 0.889 15.56 15.56 15.56

15.56 15.56

1.12 1.334

52i

8

8 30 30 30

120 30

10 12

The estimate of seed, and produce of an acre, I obtained by- taking three sensible farmers to a small field, and asking them how much seed it would require, and how much it would produce. No revenue ofiicer was present, nor did the field belong to any of the farmers. I then measured the field, and reduced the measures to the English statute acre and the Winchester bushel. Not having been entirely satisfied with this manner of ascertaining the produce, on my return to Seringapatam I questioned the same persons on this subject, that I had interrogated respecting the wet crops. I made them show me what they considered as a Wocula of dry field ; that is to say, the land on which a WocvXa or Colaga of Ra^ay should be sown. On measuring it, I found that it was -^^ acre ; and they said that thfe produce ought to be two CandacaSy besides the Avaray and Tovary, This makes the seed required for an acre to be 3^^^ gallons, the produce of 19 J bushels, and the increase on the seed forty fold. All these numbers are less than those stated in the table, and may be taken as the average produce ; the other calcu- lation implying a favorable season and soil, with good manage- ment nagy or the Ty- The Rogy, by Linnasus, is named CyTiosurus Corocanus. The jj^«wrtu coroca- D^cauy Mussulmans call it Ragy, In the TamuL language, it is called Kevir. The farmers reckon three kinds of it, which, however, are

• •

c • -

« • "^ •

LllAP. II.] MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAK. (jl)

only varieties ; the Cari, Kempu, and Huluparia : all are equally 1800. productive ; but the third, when nearly ripe, is very apt to shake "*^' -°"*' the seed. In the vicinity of Seringapatam, it is not customary to keep the kinds separate ; in the same field all the three are sown intermixed ; but in some places, at no great distance, more attention is paid to the quality of the grain.

The plougliing commences whenever the first occasional showers cuitiTaiion. in spring have softened the soil sufficiently to receive the plough. From that period till the 13th of lyaishtka, or 5th June, the field is ploughed from four to six times, according as it may be found clean or foul. The dung is then given, and ploughed into the soil. When the rains begin to be heavy, the seed is sown broad- cast, and covered by the plough. The field is then smoothed with the Halivayy which is a harrow, or rather a large rake drawn by two bullocks, (see Fig. 9.) Then, if sheep are to be had, a flock of them is repeatedly driven over the field, which is supposed to enable it to retain the moisture ; and for this purpose bullocks are used, when sheep cannot be procured. Next day, single furrows are drawn throughout the field, at the relative distance of six feet. In these is dropt the seed of either Avaray or Tovary, which are never cultivated by themselves ; nor is Ragy ever cultivated, without being mixed with drills of these leguminous plants. The seed of the Avaray or Tovary is covered by the foot of the person who drops it into the furrow. Fifteen days afterwards, the Cuntay, or bullock-hoe, (see Fig. 10) is drawn aU over the field ; which de- stroys every young plant that it touches, and brings the remaindei* into regular rows. On the 35th day the Cuntay is drawn again, at right angles to its former direction. On the 45 bh day it is some times drawn again ; but, when the two former ones have sufficiently thinned the young com, this third hoeing is not necessary. At the end of the second month, the weeds should be removed by a small iron instrument called tijary (see Plate II Fig. 5.) Accord- ing to the quantity of luin, the Magy ripens in from three to four months. The Avaray and Tovary do not ripen till the seventh month. The reason of sowing these plants along with the Ragy seem to be, that the rains frequently fail, and then tlie Ragy dies altogether, or at least the crop is very scanty ; but in that case the leguminous plants resist the di*ought, and are ripened by the dews, which are strong in autumn. When the Ragy succeeds, the legumin- ous plants are oppressed by it, and produce only the small return which is mentioned in the above list ; but when the Ragy fails, they spread wonderfully, alid give a very considerable return.

The crop of Ragy is by far the most important of any raised on nse of Ragy in dryJUld, and supplies all the lower ranks of society with their***®*' common food. Among them, it is reckoned the most wholesome and invigorating food for labouring people ; and in every country, most fortunately, a similar prejudice appearis to prevail, the most common grain being always reckoned the nourishment most fit for

70 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IT.

1800 the labourer. Habit seems to be able to render every kind of grain

May 20th. sufficiently wholesome ; but the stomach is not able, without incon- venience, to bear a change. Hence the labourer, accustomed to live on the cheapest grain of the country, finds it agree with his stomach ; but he becomes disordered when first compelled or induced to try another food. He therefore very naturally concludes, that his usual fare is the most wholesome; while, for similar reasons, a labourer firom another country will justly reprobate it. My Bengal and Madras servants, who have been accustomed to live upon rice, look upon the Ragy as execrable food, and, in fact, would ex- perience great inconvenience were they compelled to live on it. Ragy harvest. The Ragy is reaped by the sickle, and the straw is cut within

four inches of the ground. For three days the handfuls are left on the field ; and then, without being bound up in sheaves, are stacked, and the whole is well thatched. At any convenient time within three months, it is opened, dried two days in the sun, and then trodden out by oxen. The seed, having been thoroughly dried in the sun, is preserved in straw Mudiea. The remainder is put into pits, or Sagays ; where, if care has been taken to dig the pit in a dry soil, it wiU keep in perfect preservation for ten years. Manner of pw- Ragy is always ground into flour, as wanted, by means of a

paring Ragy for ha^n^jjjiij^ Called Visocallu. In this operation it loses nothing by measure ; so that a Gandaca oiRagy is reckoned to contain as much nourishment as two Candacaa of Paddy. The flour is dressed in various ways. The most common are, a kind of pudding called SanguUy, and two kinds of cakes, called Ruty and Doshy, both of which are fried in oiL straw of Ragy. For all kinds of cattle, the Ragy straw is here reckoned superior

to that of rice. My Madras bullock-drivers dispute the point ; but I am inclined to think that they are wrong ; for the people heretave much experience of both kinds of straw, while the Madras people are only accustomed to that of rice, or at least have never seen the Ragy straw used except in our camps, where many causes contribut- ed to render the mortality among the cattle very great. AtarayoT Doii' The Avaray is probably what Linnaeus, from an indecent ^ ^ ■ ^ Chinese word, calls by the barbarous appellation of Dolickos Lablab. This, however, is doubtful. Dr. Roxburgh calls it Dolichos spicatus. By the Decany Mussulmans it is called Bulbar. It is the Putcary of the Bengalese, and Anamalu of the Telingas, When ripe, the legumes are nearly dry. The plant, having been cut, and for one day exposed to the sun, is beaten with a stick to separate the seed. That which is designed for seed is preseived in Muaies ; while that for consumption is kept in pots, and is used in Gunnies. The straw is eaten by aU kinds of cattle except horses. Toraryox Cyti- The Tovavy is the Gytisus Gajdn of Linnaeus, the Orhur of the 9u$ cajan, Beugalese, the Bhal of Hindustan, and the Tower of the Decany Mussulmans. Many of the Karnatas also call it Togari. It is cut when almost dry, then put up in heaps \ and on the day after, it is

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 71

opened to dry in the sun. The grain is beaten out with a stick ; 1800. and that intended for sowing must be preserved in a straw Mudy. ^^^ ^^^' It is used in Garry. After the seed has been thrashed, cattle eat the husks of the legume. The straw is used for fewel.

The best soil for the cultivation of these three articlas is the Ragv^oix, black soil, or Eray huvni ; which yields a crop of Ragy every year, and even without manure will give a considerable return ; but, when it can be procured, dung is always given. After a crop of Jola, Ray y does not thrive ; but Jola succeeds after a crop otRagy, The next best soil for Ragy, and the one most commonly used, is the Gab- bay, or red soil. In this also it is frequently cultivated without dung ; but it requires to be manured at least once in two or three years. In Maruhi and Daray soils, it every year requires dung. If these soils have been cultivated with horse-gram, the Ragy will not grow in them without a large quantity of manure. Two or three years rest are said by some to improve the ground for one crop of Magy ; after which it returns to its usual state. But the advantages of this fallow are two inconsiderable to induce the farmers to prac- tise it commonly, and most of them are altogether insensible of the benefit to be derived from this part of agriculture.

Jola is the next most considerable dry crop. It is the Holcus -J^Jj"' °^ "'« Sorghum of Linnaeus, the Jewarry of the Mussulmans, the Sholum of^um. of the TamuLs, and the Jonalu of the Telingas, It is often sown for fodder ; for when the crop is not imcommonly good, the grain is no object. It is cut, and given to the cattle at a time when Ragy straw is not to be procured. Previously to being given to cattle, however, it must be dried, as the green straw is found to be very pernicious. There are two kinds of «/oZa ; the white, and red. When they are intended to be cut for the grain, these are sown separately ; as the red kind ripens in three months, while four are required to ripen the white Jola. In those parts of the Askta gram Talucs which are remote from the city, the grain is generally preserved ; but near Seringapatam, where the demand for fodder is greater, and where the Jola is commonly cultivated with a view to furnishing that article, the two kinds are often sown promiscuously. A red Rar^y soil is preferred for it, and crops of Ragy and Jola are generally taken alternately, the crop of R(fgy having an extraordinary allow- ance of dung. The Jola requires less rain than the Jiagy, and admits of a second crop of Huruli being taken after it ; and thus, in the course of two years, there are on the same ground three crops. In Phalgrma and Ghaitra, from the 14th of February to the 22d of April, they plough from five to seven times. If a crop of Ragy has preceded, there is no occasion for manure to the Jola ; but, when two crops of this succeed each other, the last must get some dung, which is put on before the last ploughing. After a heavy rain in Vaiaahha, from the 23d April to the 23d May, the seed is sown broad-cast, and covered with the plough. When the young plants have appeared above ground, the field must be cleared with the

72 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHaP. II.

1800. Cu)Uay, or bullock hoe ; and this operation must be repeated on the 3ittj 20th, thirtieth and forty-fifth days. If it be intended merely for fodder, these hoeings are unnecessary, and the seed is sown very thin, aj* mentioned in the list ; bu t then, should it by chance succeed, and be allowed to ripen, the produce wiU be very great. Where it is in- tended from the first to be allowed to ripen, the quantity of seed sown is one half more, or l^^ftftj^ gallon for an acre ; in which case 80 folds being the average return, the produce of an acre is the same as mentioned in the Ust, or 15| bushels. If it be intended for fodder, the Jola is sown about the middle of Chaitra, or the 9th of April, and cut down in Ashddha, or from the 23rd of June tiU the 23rd of July. The straw is not so good as that of Ragy, but is here reckoned bettfer than that of Paddy, chiea camiAL, X^c Cklca Cawbu is the Holcus spioa^t^ of Linnaeus, the Bajera

^t^!^ "'*' ^f ^^® Mussulmans, the Ohentalu of the Telivtfm, and the Sujagury of the Marattahs, In the Tanfiul language also it is called Carahu. There is another variety of the plant, called Doda, or Great Carriba ; but none of this is cultivated near Seringapatam. During the spring, plough six times ; about the 13th of Jyaisktha, or 5th June, put on the dung, and plough again ; when the heavy rains commence, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In drills with the Gamba some people put Avaray ; others do not. On the tenth day hoe with the Cuntay, once lengthways, and once across the field. It must be carefully protected from the birds, when approaching toward ripe- ness, which happens in three months and a half. The ears are first removed, and then the straw is cut down close to the ground. It makes excellent thatch, and is also eaten by cattle, but is not much esteemed as fodder. The ears are kept in a heap for three days, then trodden out by the oxen and cleaned by a fan, or Moranv. The seed intended for sowing, after being well dried in the sun, is preserved in Aiudiea. That intended for consumption, is kept in Caiiajas, or store-houses, but cannot be preserved long. It is made into flour for cakes, and for Sanguttyy or pudding. If sown on the two good soils, it requires no dung; but on the two bad soils manure is absolutely necessary. Kepeated crops of this grain do not exhaust the ground, and Rigy thrives after it. *vinmay,prPa' Sluimay is the Panicum miliare of Lamarck, the Sama SLnd

***^*"" ""'**^** SawmuTi of the Mussulmans, the Chama of the Telinga, and the Shamay of the Tamul language. It is never sown on the Eray or black clay, and rarely on the Gahhay, or red soil; the two worst qualities of land being considered as sufiiciently good for such a crop. in the spring the field is ploughed five times. At the commencement of the heavy rains it is sown broad-cast, and the seed is covered by a ploughing. Even in the worst soil, there is no absolute necessity for dung ; but when any can be spared, the crop will doubtless be benefited by manure. It ripens without further care in three months, is cut close to the ground, and gathered into stacks. Five or six days afterwards it is spread on a thrashing-floor, and the

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 73

grain is trampled out by oxen. That intended for sowing Ls dried in 1800. tlie sun, and tied up in straw MvAiies. The remainder is preserved ^^ ^^^^ in Canajas, It is sometimes boiled whole, like rice ; at others, ground into floor for cakes. All kinds of cattle eat the straw, which is also esteemed the best for stuffing pack-saddles.

The Uarica is the Pobpalum frumentacum of Dr. Roxburgh, ^^l^\°^j^^ the Varagu of the Tamul, the Harioa of the Telinga, and the Codoraf^um, '^^'^ of the Decany Mussuhnan language. As it is found to injure the succeeding crop of Robgyy it is never cultivated on the best soil, and rarely on that of the second quality. It is commonly followed by a crop of horse gram, and is seldom allowed any manure. In the spring plough five times. The dung, if any be given, must be put on before the last ploughing. When the heavy rains com- mence, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed : next day form diills of Tovary in the same manner as with Ragy, When the sprouts are a span high, hoe with the Cuntay, once longitudinally and once across the field. Next week weed with the Ujai^y. It ripens in six months ; and having been cut down near the root, is stacked for six days. It is then trodden out by cattle. The seed reserved for sowing must be well dried in the sun. The remainder is preserved in the Caiiaja, but does not keep long. It is bolh boil- ed like rice, and made into floor for dressing as Sangutty, or pud- ding. The straw is eaten by every kind of cattle ; but, of all the fodders used here, this is reckoned the worst.

Navonay is the Panicum Italicum of Linnaeus, the Bagera of the Nawmay, or Pa- Bengalese, Cangony of the Decany Mussulmans, Carolu of the **^* ^''*"'** Telingas, and Tenay of the Tamul language. There are two varie- ties of it cultivated ; the one called Ghidu^ or short ; and the other Jotu, or long, and Doda, or great. Unless a quantity of dung can be spared, it is never sown on the two worst soils. On the two best soils it requires no manure, and does not injure the succeeding crop of Ragy, In the spring, plough six times. When the heavy rains commence, sow, and plough in the seed. It requires neither weeding nor hoeing, and ripens in three months. Cut it close to the ground, and stack it for eight days ; then spread it to the sun for a day, and on the next tread out the grain with oxen. The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and preserved in a Mudy. The remainder is kept in the Canaja. It is made into floor for Sangutty, or pud- ding, and is also frequently boiled whole, like rice ; for which, accord- ing to my taste, it is the best succedaneum that the country affords. The straw is used for fodder, but is notgood. The Jotu Navonay is sometimes put in drilb with Ragy, in place of the Avaray or Tovary,

Huruli is much cultivated. It is the Dolichos hifloru8 of Lin- ^«"««. o' ^o'»" njeus, the Horse gram, otiiie Madras English, the Cultie ot the Decany ^^ **^*^'^' Mussulmans, and the Colu of the Tamul language. There are two varieties ; the red, and the black ; but here the two are always sjown intermixed. In the last h^U of Sravana, from the 5th to the

10

^4 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800. 20tli August, plough three times. Sow broad-cast, with the first

May 20th. Ta,m o( UMdropada, which commences on the 21st of August. It requires no manure, and the seed is covered by a fourth ploughing. In three months it ripens without farther trouble, and is then pulled up by the roots, and stacked for eight days : after which it is spread in the sun to diy, and next day is trodden out by oxen. The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and preserved in Mudies ; the remainder is kept in pots, or in the Canaja, It is used for human food, either dressed as Curry , or parched ; but the chief con- sumption ^f it is for cattle, both horses and bullocks. The straw is an excellent fodder, and is preferred even to that of Ragy, It is ge- nerally sown on the two worst soils, in fields that are never used for any thing else ; but it also follows as a second crop after Jola ; or, when from want of rain the crop of Bagy has failed, the field is ploughed up, and sown with Hofae-gram. In this case, the next crop of Ragy will be very poor, unless it be allowed a great quantity of manure. In places where the red and black Hoi^se-grams are kept separate, the black kind is sown from twelve to twenty days later tlianthe other. cariay, or cicer CaHay is the OceT Arietinum of LinnsBus, the Cadaly of the

ArMinutn. Tamuls] the SJtenigalu of the Tdvnga language, the Herhary of the Becany Mussulmans, the Putny Chela of the Bengalese, and the Futny Shut of Hindustan. On the banks of the Ganges^ this grain is the common food given to horses, and is very well fitted to make them fat and sleek, but it does not seem to invigorate. In the peninsula it is too dear to be given as food for horses, and indeed, even for men, is considered as a delicacy. There is only one kind of it that is commonly sown as a second crop, after Jola ; but it requires the richest black soil. When sown alternately with Ragy, it seems neither to injure nor improve the ground. It has no ma- nure. From the loth of Srdvana till the 10th of Bhddrapada, that is, from the 5th till the 29th of August, plough five times. The seed is then placed in rows, eveiy way distant from each other a span. Each row is then covered by a furrow drawn with the plough. In three months it ripens without farther trouble ; it is then pulled up by the roots, and stacked for a week. It is afterwards opened to the sun for five or six days, and then trodden out by bullocks. The grain intended for seed must be dried in the sun, and pre- served in a Mudy. The common way of preparing Carlay for food is by parching it The straw is used for camels only, and is their favorite food. Haruiu,wR\c\r Harvlu is the Ridniis Palma Christi of Linneeus. In the Ashiha ThJm^'' gram two varieties of it are common ; ihe Chyca, or little Haruht, cultivated in gardens ; and the Doda, or great Harulu, that is cul- tivated in the fields, and the plant of which I am now to give an account. In the spring, plough five times before the 15th of Vai- sdhha, or the 8th of May. With the first good rain that happens afterwards, draw furrows all over the field at a cubit's distance •

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AM) MALADAR. 7,1

and, having put the seeds into these at a similar distance, cover 1800. them by drawing furrows close to the fonner. When the plants ^^^^ ^°^^- are eight inches high, hoe the intervals by drawing the Guniay first longitudinally, and then transversely. When the plants are a cubit and a half high, give the intervals a double ploughing. The plant requires no manure, and in eight months begins to produce ripe fruit. A bunch is known to be ripe by one or two of the capsules bursting; and then all those which are ripe are collected by break- ing them oft' with the hand. They are afterwards put into a heap or large basket ; and the bunches, as they ripen, are collected once a week, till the commencement of the next rainy season, when the ^ plant dies. Once in three weeks or a month, when the heap col- lected is sufficiently large, the capsules are for three or four days spread out to the sun, and then beaten with a stick to make them burst. The seed is then picked out from the husks, and either made by the family into oil for domestic use, or sold to the oil-makers.

The following is the process for making castor-oil, which is used eastor-on, by the farmers : the seed is parched in pots containing about a Seer, which is somewhat more than a quart. It is then beaten in a mor- tar, by which process balls of it are formed. Of these from four to sixteen Seers are put into an earthen pot, with an equal quantity of boiling water, and boiled for five hours ; during which, care must be taken, by frequent stirring, to prevent the decoction from burning. The oil now floats on the surface, and is decanted off in another pot, in which it is boiled by itself for a quarter of an hour. It is then fit for use, and by the last boiling is prevented from becoming rancid. After the oil has been poured from the seed, the pot is filled up with water, which is again boiled, and next day the decoction is given to the Buffaloes, by which their milk is said to be remarkably increased. The boiled seed is mixed with cow-dung, and formed into cukes for fewel. The dry stems of the plant are also used for the fire. The oil is that which we call Castor-oil, and at Seringapatam is commonly used for the lamp. It is taken internally as a purgative ; and the Sudras, and lower casts, frequently anoint their heads with it, when they labour under any complaint which they attribute to heat in the system. It is culti- vated on the two best qualities of land, and on the better kinds of Marvin, When the same piece of ground is reserved always for the cultivation of this plant, the succeeding crops are better than the first ; when cultivated alternately with Ragy, it seems neither to improve nor injure the soil for that grain.

Huts' Ellu, or the foolish^il'plant, is a species hitherto unde- buw f.uv, or scribed by botanists. It is Ram Tila of the Mussulmans. Near ^^"' '*'"• Seringapatam it is most commonly sown after Jola, as a second crop. When that has been reaped, plough four times in the course of eight days. Toward the end of ordvana, or about the middle of August, after a good rain, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. It requires neither manure nor weeding, and ripens in three montlis.

76

A JOURNKY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. H.

• 1800. »ft7 80th.

Gardtas.

Tarkarif or kitchen stuff.

%

It is cut near the root, and stacked for eight days. Then, having been for two or three days exposed to the sun, the seed is beaten out with a stick, and separated from fragments of the plant by a fan. The seed is kept in pots. Part of it is parched, and made into sweet-meats with Jagory; but the greater part is sold to the oil- maker for expression. This oil is used in cookery, but is reckoned inferior to that of Sesamum, The stems are a favourite food of the camel ; but are disliked by the bullock, though want often forces this animal to eat them. When not used as a second crop after Jola, it is always sown on the two poorer soils.

The WiiW EllUy or Seaamum, is sometimes sown on dry-field, but grows very indifferently.

In the Aakta grama there are four kinds of Tota, or gardens, cul- tivated. I. Tarkari Tota, or kitchen-gardens : II. Tayngana Tola, or orchards, literally Coco-nut gardens ; but many other kinds of fruit- trees are planted in them : III. Yellay Tota, or Betel-leaf gardens : IV. Huvina Tota, or flower-gardens.

Near SeriTigapatam the first two kinds of gardens are always cultivated by the farmers ; the Yellay Tota by a distinct class of men ; and the flower-gardens by Satany, or those who make garlands.

The plants cultivated as Tarkari are :

Canareae Names.

-5

Badana

Hiray

Somaty

Cumbala

Budu Curribala

Swary

Padaivala

Hogala

Ohica Hogala

Botanical Names.

%••

g < Benday

2

Solanum Melongena

Cucumia

Gucumia aativua. Cucurbita Pepo.

Gucurbita Lagenaria Tridwaanthea lohata. Momordica.

. ,}Hihiacua eacnlentua.

Pundichira Cnmhala Hihiacua cannabinua

Qor%

Chapaprada avaray.

Ndla Cotalay

Meneahena ... Muaucu Jola

TrigoneUa tetrape- tala, Box. MSS.

DolichoaLaMab, a va- riety.

Arachia hypogcea ...

Capaicum. Zea Maya,

Synonyma.

Junga. Bengalese.

Mitalau. Bengaleae.

A red variety from Pondidiery^ intro- duced by Tippoo.

Vdaty Hung, i. e, European bean. Muaaulmana.

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.
	1			1800
	Canarese Names.	Botanical Na^mes.	Synonyma.	May 'iOth.
Dovana	Artemisia abrota-
		num ?
	Kiray	Amaranthus Man- gostanus.	i
	Duntu	Amaranthus olera- ceus.
	Mentea	Trigonella Fcenum Grcecum, Lin.
«	ColuTnairi	Coriandrum Fcdu	Danya Bengalese,
		dum, Buch. MSS/
1	Sopsica	Anethum sovxi, Ro;t.	Sulpo. Bengalese,
A		MSS.	Sowa Mussulmans.
'^<	Holichicay	Rumex truncafay	Chucay Mussulmans.
a		Buch. MSS.
S	Chicotra	Rumex	Chuca Palam. Ben-
1			galese.
Doda Oorai ...	Portulaca oleracea.
	Mnlingay	Rapkanibs sativus.	Radish.
	Truly	Allium	Onions of the Engl :
	Bduly	Allium	Qtirlic.
	A.r8ifM	Ourcu/ma tonga	Turmeric.
	Sunty ... ^ ...	Amomum Zinziber, . .	Ginger.
	Ohenasu	Convolvulus 1 Batatas J	1 Sweet Potatoes. 1	t
	Kissudentu	Arum pellatum . . . Shamay. Mussulman.
		B. Lamarck.	Sada Cutchu. Benga- lese,
	Bassalay	Basellarulra,
	Suranu

i i

All the kitchen gardens in this neighbourhood are irrigated from the canals, by smaU channels that conduct the water into wells, whence it is distributed by pots. The gardens are laboured by digging with the Col KudMi, and are then smoothed with the Yella KuddM. The weeds and roots must be carefully removed, and the gardens must be manured from the dunghilL Many farmers have small Tarkari gardens for their family use, and for supplying the city with vegetables ; but there are no considerable gardens of this kind. The same piece of ground is generally preserved for the garden, and is not changed into rice fields. The soil must be of the two first qualities ; and the rent is paid in money. The expense of cultivating a Tarkari garden is much greater than that which is ncurred in the same extent of ground prepared for rice.

4^

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. II.

' 1800.

May 20th. Orchard •.

\

B«UMeaf gar- dens.

In the Tayngana Tola, or orchaixis, are cultivated the foUowin articles :

o

Caiiarese Names.

Tayngana Adicai ...

Balay ... Nimbay . . . Kictalay... Hayralay Jambu . . . Dalimbay Huluau ... Mau Nei^lu ,,.

Ndli Euniahay Amuttay HuTrdica ...

Botanical Names.

Cocoa Nucifera Areca Catechu

Synonyma.

■ ••

Miisa Citrus Citrus Citrus Psidium ...

Coco-nut

Betel-nut, Supari of the

Mussulma'ns. Plantain tree. Lime.

Sweet orange. Bitter orange. Ouava,

Punica Gh*anatum ...i Pomegranate. Artocarpus integrifolixiJack.

MaTigifera Calyptranihes

GariophyUifolia W. Phyllanthus Emblica . Tamarindv^

Spondiaa ...

Mango.

Tamarind.

In the Ashta gram Talucs, no fruit gardens of any consequence are remaining ; these having all perished during the late wars. The soil favourable for them is low ground in narrow vallej^, where water can easily be procured by digging a few feet. If this ground cannot be had, rice lands may be converted into orchards. In the neighbourhood of Seringapaiam, however, there is much ground fit for gardens, where, by digging from one to four cubits, water can always be obtained. The soil must be Eray, or rich black clay. In making these gardens, it has been customary for the government to advance money to the fiaxmer. The young trees are planted in rows ; and between these are set plantain trees, with the produce of which, at the end of the year, the farmer pays back the advance. The Coco and Betel-nut pamis are called Vara, and pay to govern- ment one half of the produce. The plantain pays three Sidtany Fanams (2«. 0, 177 d) for the hundred trees. The fruits of the mango, orange, &c. belong entirely to the farmer ; but it is said, that the Amildars expect to be supplied for their own use, although they do not bring any thiqg to accompt for these trees.

Near Seringapatam the Betel-leaf gBxdeuB (Piper-Betk) are not numerous. They are invariably formed on rice ground ; and a Cab- bay soil, or a nuxture of Cahbay with Marulu, best answers the purpose. The Betel-leaf-vine is sometimes planted against the Betel- nut-palm, in which case it pays no rent ; but when it is planted by

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 79

itself, a rent is fixed by an agreement between the oiKcers of revenue I8OO. and the cultivator. In this case, the garden is surrounded by a ^*y ^*' hedge of the Euphorbium Tirucalli ; and a well is dug, from whence the garden is watered by pots. In Chaitra, from the 26th of March till the 23d of April, the garden throughout is dug one cubit deep, and the grass and roots are carefully removed. Having allowed it to rest for a month, and having obtained a shower of rain, hoe it with the Yella Kudali, a,nd make it smooth. Holes, one cubit and a half in diameter, and three inches deep, are then formed throughout the field, at the distance of five cubits. In each of these is laid down a bundle of five cuttings of the Betel-leaf'VUie, a cubit and a half in length, and tied slightly together at the middle* A thin covering of earth is then put on the middle of each bundle, both ends of the cuttings being left bare. After this, for one month, the holes must be shaded from the 8un, by covering them with leaves and branches, and each hole must daily receive two pots of water. Near each row of holes, a drill must be made with the Yella Kudali ; and in this must be planted, at every half cubit's distance, the seeds of the Agashaif (jEschynomene grandiflora), Hai'waiia (Erythrina Indica, La- marck), Bura, and Nugay (QuilavdiTia Moringa), which must be slightly covered. This whole process must be finished in Vaiadkha^ which this year ends with the 23rd of May. Each of the holes must every day receive half a pot of water, except when it rains ; and on the 15th day must have as much cow-dung and ashes mixed as the cultivator can lift between his two hands joined. After this manur- ing, when there is no rain, the garden must once every other day be watered. The manuring must be repeated once a month till the shoots are six months old ; at the same time the ^[arden must be W weeded, and the earth in the holes loosened with a sharp stick. In each hole, at the end of six months from planting, must be put two sticks, three cubits high, on which the young vines may climb. At the end of the year these sticks are pulled out ; the vines are then put upon the young trees ; and every month., as they grow, must be tied up to the stems. Once a year, two cubits of the part of the vine that is nearest the ground must be laid down, and buried in the earth. The plant begins to produce ripe leaves in the twenty-fifth month, and continues productive at all seasons, and for many years. One of the men present, who is about fifty years of age, possessed a garden that had been planted by his father when a young man.

The Huvina, or flower gardens, are cultivated near towns and Piower garden*, populous places which afford a market for their produce. In other situations, small spots are planted with flowers for the use of the temples. It is only where the flowers are sold, that any rent is exacted for the soil. High grounds, that can be watered with pots from a well, are chosen for flower gardens, and the red soil is reckoned the most favorable.

80

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. II.

Cattle.

Oxen.

ISOO. In the dry sandy channel of the river, at this season, the natives

ijlv'^ch^nrf of P^* f^^^ kinds of cucurbitaceous fruits; viz., the Corbuja, or water

theriTtrcuiu- melon ; iheTarbuja; the Calungudy ; smd ihe Minicai. InKdrtika

'**^- (19th October tiU 16th November) they dig down trenches tiU the

sand appears moist. Then they plant the seed, and put over it a

little dung and Marulu soil In fifteen days it must have more

dung, and a slight covering of sand ; and at the end of the month

another manuring. In a fortnight more the fiowers appear, and,

next fortnight, young fruit is cut for sale. In the whole of the

third month, the plants produce mature fruits. If any rain comes,

the whole labor is lost.

The cattle chiefly bred in the vicinity of Seringapatam are cows, bufialoes, sheep, the long-legged goa^ and asses. Horses, swine, and the common goat, are in too small number to be of any importance ; and camels are all brought from a distance.

In this part of the country, the oxen that are bred are by no means numerous enough for the use of the cultivators ; and none are reared that are fit for carriage. The supply comes chiefly from Alumbady, Tnpaturu, Cavadu hully^ Cancana hully, Bmnaghery, and Mageri, The fanners in general keep no more stock than the oxen required to cultivate their lands, with a few cows, or more commonly buffaloes, to give milk for their families. I shall, there- fore, defer till another opportunity giving any further account of tliis kind of cattle.

The peraons who sell milk are commonly called Gaulies, and (7a- bad/les; but, in fact, they are of four distinct tribes. I. Oaulies, a tribe that wear the Linga, II. GhioJaru of the Siidra cast. IH. Eiru, who are Mussulmans. IV. Hinduetany Eiruy who are Rajputs, Their mode of managing cattle is the same. Near Seringapatam they keep onfy bufialoes ; as these animals continue in milk longer, and give it in greater quantities, than the cows do*; and the grand object of the Qauly is to supply cities and camps with the produce of his dairy. Three men, one woman, and two oxen, are required to ma- nage twelve female bufialoes. One man, with the assistance of the two oxen, brings the grass for their nightly consumption ; one man collects the various articles of dry food given to them in the house ; and the third conducts them to pasture and drink, and milks them. The woman prepares the milk, and carries it to market. Near a camp, in order to prevent the woman from mixing too much with the soldiery, the last two persons exchange oflSices.

Early in the morning the bufialoe receives the inner husks of rice, or the farinacious cakes remaining, after the expression of oil, from the seeds of the Sesamum or Huts' Ellu : these are mixed with water, and given as the morning drink. The keepers have also a pot in which they collect the water wherein their rice or other grain has been boiled, and into which is thrown the remains of all their farinaceous food. They add to this by collecting, through the villages, similar materials from all those who can spare them.

Bufialo milk.

CHAP. II.J MYSORE, CANAIIA, ANB MALABAR. SI

maklDg in return occasi(mal presents of butter-milk. The acidulous i*oo. contents of this pot are also given to the buffaloes as part of their *^ morning drink. They are then milked, and at about seven o'clock in the morning are sent out to pasture in the waste lands. During the Sultan's government there was great difficulty in procuring pas- ture, as the whole was reserved for his horses and deer. At present, it is in plenty, and the buffalo-keepers pay nothing for it. The buffalo requires diink again at noon, and in the evening. About noon, in hot weather, she throws herself into the water or mud of a tank, if there be one accessible at a convenient distance ; and, leaving nothing above water but her nose, continues there for five or six hours, or until the heat abates : she is then carefully washed by the keeper, and driven home. In cold weather, before she retires in the evening, nhe must be forced to the tank or well, in order to be washed. When tied up, she receives another feed of rice husks, oil-cake, or, if they can be procured, of Jola, Gavibu^ Udit, Hea&iru, or cotton seed. The Cambu and Hessaru are reckoned the most productive of milk, and the cotton seed of butter. At each meal, afiill allowance of these dry articles of provision is two Seers, or rather more than half a gallon. The buffalo is then milked a second time, and receives her share of the grass that ha# been col- lected through the day. According to the heat of the weather, she drinks daily from 60 to 90 Seers, or from about 16 to 24 gallons.

The female buffalo is fit for breeding at three years of age ; and, after going with young nine months, brings forth her calf in the cold season. The best males are kept for breeding. The others are either sacrificed when young, or brought up tor labour ; and at four years of age, in the rainy season, these last are emasculated. Two ploughs wrought by bullocks will perform as much labour as three wrought by buffaloes, that work from six in the morning tilJ noon, and from ihree in the afternoon till sim-set.

The buffalo of India is the same with that of Europe, or the Bos Bubalis of LinnsBUs ; of which I do not observe any good de- scription, or figure, in our books of natural history. It is totally distinct from the buffalo of the Cape ; and the Arnee is merely the animal in its wild state, an exaggerated account of which has been given to Mr. Ker, and published in his translation of the Sysiema Naturce. The figure and description of the naked buffalo, in Ben- nant's History of Quadrupeds, bears no resemblance whatever to any variety of this animal that I have met with. Three varieties of buffalo are reared near Seringapatam : I. the Hullu ; II. the Gaujri, or Cfuzurat ; III. the ChocaU, which comes from the country border- ing on the river Krishna.

The Hullu is by far the most common, and is the native breed of the coimtry. The female has a calf every year, and gives milk for seven months. Besides what the calf draws from her, she gives twice a-day about a Seer, or quart, of milk. (The Seer of milk, it must be observed, is less than that of grain ; for the last is always heaped.

11

82 A JOURNEY PROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800. The Seer of milk is very nearly equal to the English ale quart). She

May 20th > generally bears from ten to twelve calves, and is very unruly when the keeper attempts to milk her without the calf being present. A female of this breed, when three or four years old, costs from three to six CanterWaia Pagodas, or from ll. Os. 2|d. to 21. Os. 5 Jd. A male fit for labour sells for from one to three Pagodas, or from 01. 68. S^d. to IZ. Os. 2J(i. They will convey a greater weight, either in a cart or on their back, than a common ox ; but walk very slowly, do not endure heat, and cannot easily travel more than seven miles a-day. The two stranger breeds are greatly superior in size to the Hullu ; but in this country they very soon degenerate. The females breed once in two or three years only, and produce in all about six calves. For two years after each parturition, they continue to give a large quantity of milk ; but in the third year their milk begins to diminish ; and it entirely ceases about two months before the time of calving. In this country, besides what the calf is allowed, they give daily from six to eight quarts of milk, and re- quire no more food than the common breed, neither do they reftise their milk, should the calf be removed or die : a young female of these breeds sells for ten to twelve Pagodas {Zl. 7s. 2d. to 4Z. Os. 7d.) The male* are entirely reserved for breeding, or for canying cloth ; one of them will carry as much as six oxen, and wiQ walk faster. They sell for about fifteen Pagodas, or 51. Qs. 8|d. Sheep. The shepherds are of a tribe called Hdl, or Widlay Curubaru ;

who in this neighbourhood have generally fixed abodes, and rear large flocks of sheep, and long-legged goats.

I shall take another opportunity to describe the Curi, or sheep of Mysore. There are three varieties as to colour, red, black, and white ; but these do not constitute different breeds. The red are scarce, and do not thrive, being chiefly brought from the Coirnbe- tore country ; and it has been found by experience, that no sheep thrive here, except those yeaned in the immediate vicinity.

One man and a dog will take care of a flock of ten rams and a hundred ewes. The males that are not wanted for breeding are partly offered up, when lambs, as sacrifices by the shepherds them- selves, and of course are eaten by them ; or, while in their third year, they are emasculated, and a year afterwards sold to the butcher. The ewes breed at two years of age, without observing any particular season ; and, after having given about four lambs, are sold to the butcher. For three months the lamb is suffered to draw the whole milk. Once a day afterwards, for from two to four weeks, a moderate portion is taken by the shepherd. The milk is mixed with that of cows and buffaloes ; and thirty ewes do not give daily to the shepherd more than a quart. The sheep are shorn twice a year, and fifty fleeces produce about a Maund (or 241b. 6 ounces), or nearly half a pound each. The wool here is all coarse, and is usually manufactured into a kind of blanket. A good wether sells for 1^ Rupee {2s. 8Jd.), an old ewe for one Rupee (2s. 2d.), the

• *

• _

I^ >Bf 1<rM fM( aDri Mvkiv liKumaU

Edfht It tki ihnUK S AM E laau. Ik bB tk* vm I* tt* iHt Dt tfe> tan i IM U IbAn.

CHAP. ILJ MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 83

fleeces of seven sheep sell for one Fanam (Sd), The sheep are fed 1800. entirely on the grass that is found in waste lands ; for which no- ^^^ ^^^^' thing is paid to government, only the shepherd is occasionally re- quired to furnish a sacrifice for the village gods. In general, they are confined at night in a pen contiguous to the shepherd's hut ; ' but in the ploughing season, they are lent out to the farmers, to be folded on their fields. For this, so long as he is employed, the shepherd receives his food. The sheep must have water twice a day, at noon, and two hours afterwards.

The long-legged goat, called Maycay in the Ganarese language, Maycay, or is a very different breed from the common goat ; but the two goU]^^^^^ kinds can propagate together. It seems to approach nearly to the SyHan goat, as may be seen by the accompanying figure of a male, Fig. 10. By the Mussulmans here, it is most absurdly classed with the sheep : while the short-legged goat has an appropriate name. In every flock of sheep there is commonly a proportion of Maycaya which may be from ten to twenty out of every hundred. This does not interfere with the pasture of the sheep ; as the Maycay lives entirely on the leaves of bushes and trees, while the sheep eat only the grass. They require the same quantity of water. One male is kept for twenty females. Of those not wanted for breeding, the shepherd sacrifices some for his own use while they are young ; the remainder he castrates and sells to the butcher. The female breeds at two years of age, without observing any regular season ; and once a-year produces sometimes one kid, some twins. They breed about four times ; after which they are generally killed by the shepherds for their own use. For three months the kid is allowed the whole milk ; afterwards the mother is milked once a day for two months ; and eight goats will give a quart of milk. A castrated Maycay sells for a Rupee and a half, or 3a 3d!. Some, that are very large, are ornamented with silver chains and bells, and serve for the children of the rich to ride on.

Swine were once very common ; but Tippoo succeeded in swmo. banishing them from the immediate neighbourhood of his capital. Very few have as yet been brought back ; but they will soon be numerous, as their flesh is sought after by many of the farmers. The lard is extracted, and used for strengthening carriage bullocks. A Seer given to an ox, when he is two years old, and repeated yearly, is said to make him grow very fat and strong. It is given mixed with the porridge of Ragy ; but is so nauseous to the animal, that it requires to be crammed down his throat. It appears to me very improbable that any good should arise from such a practice ; but among the natives it is in frequent use.

The native breed of horses here, as in most parts of India, is a Hones, small, ill-shaped, vicious poney ; though considerable pains were taken by Hyder and Tippoo to introduce a better kind. They had however very little success, and their cavalry was extremely ill mounted. The studs of brood mares kept by the Sultan have been

^1 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 dispersed, and most of them have fallen into the hands of the AmU-

May iovh. ^^^ . ^^j^ ^f ^^^^ Yias one or two mares for his own riding, and

breeds from them whenever he can procure a stallion. As many good horses have been introduced by the English officers, I have no doubt, that, in the hands of the ATnildars, the breed will improve, and become very hardy and serviceable. The mothers have now the former quality in an eminent degree ; and they only want an occasional supply of foreign horses to give them size and figure. Manures. A good deal of attention is hero paid to manuring the soil. Eveiy

farmer has a dunghill ; which is prepared by digging a pit of suffi- cient extent ; in this is collected the whole of tilie dung and litter of the cattle from the houses where they are kept, together with all the ashes and soil of the family. The straw, and various leaves intended to be used as manure, are never mixed with the dung. The farmers who are within two miles of the city, send bullocks wi& sacks, and procure from the Salal, or sweepers, Uie ashes, ordure^ and other soil of the town. This also is kept separate from the dunghilL The straws of various crops, as before-mentioned, are reserved for manure ; and to these are added various leaves of wild plants ; the CogaySopUfOT Oalega purpuria ; the HaiTigay 8opu,Robinia mitia ; the Tumbay Sopu, or Phlomia esculeMa of Dr. Roxburgh's MSS.; the Ugany Sopu, a Convolvulus ; the AitySopu, or Ficus glomerata ; the Umutty Sopu, or Datura metel ; and the leccada Sopu, or Asclepiaa gigantea. These leaves, and the straw, are the manure given to rice ground in the sprouted-aeed and tranaplanied cultivations. When the field has been reduced to mud, a sufficient quantity of the manure is trampled into the puddle, and, with the moisture and heat of this climate, soon rots. The dung in every part of Mysore is most com- monly carried out on carts (see Fig. 11), which are applied to scarce- ly any other purpose. The city sofl is reckoned best for sugar-cane, but is also given to various grains. The use of lime as a manure is totally unknown to the natives ; who, indeed, consider all ground, naturally impregnated with that substance, as very unfit for most kinds of cultivation. This accords well enough with the theory of Lord Dundonald, who supposes that lime is useful by promoting the putrefaction of inert vegetable matter. The heat of the climate is here sufficient for the purpose ; and the lime, which in a cold climate may be necessary, would be here destnictive, by exhausting the vegetable matter too quickly. suoof an.s, Nefix SerLngapatam the farms, in general, extend to two or

three ploughs of land. One plough is a poor stock ; the possessor of four or five is a great farmer ; and six or seven are reckoned prodigious wealth : the total want of a land-measure, and the scattered disposition of the plots of which each farm consists, render it very difficult to ascertain the extent of a plough of land ; especially as a difiPerence arises from the proportion of watered land and dry field which it contains. We may readily affirm, however, that the extent of a plough of land is very inconsiderable ; for the ploughiogs

and :>lo( k

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 85

given to the same field are very nomerous, although dispersed over igoo. a considerable portion of the year ; and I was assured, that a plough ***^ *®***' wrought by bullocks did not labour more,' daily, than one-seventh of an acre.

This account of the tenures and extent of farms not being satis- faotory, on my return to SeringapataTn I assembled the Amtidar of the Pattanu Askta gram, with the most intelligent of his Sheris^ tadars, and several respectable Gavdaa, to consult them on the sub- ject. They say, that a farmer having five ploughs, if he lives near the town, must keep ten servants, owing to the scarcity of forage. At some distance, five men servants ai'e sufficient. In harvest and seed time, he must hire additional labourers, who are chiefly women, and must have fourteen oxen«

Instead of dividing the crops, as usual in most parts of the Rent of water- oountry, the farmer here cultivates his watered larvd as he pleases, *^ ^"*' and pays for each Candaca of ground ten Candacaa of Paddy y which are equal in value to 1120 Seers of lice. The average price of this is about 20 Seers for a Rupee, For this ground, therefore, he pays to the government 66 Rupees, which is at the rate of ll. Ss. an acre. He must also give an allowance to the gods, and to the Paiichangay Talliari, and other village officers, in lieu of the share which they were formerly wont to receive on a division of crops. The rent of d/ry field is paid in money, according to an old valuation foimed on an estimate of its produce. With five ploughs, a man cultivates about 12^ acres of watered land, and 25 acres of dry field. The drear, or government, is bound to keep the canals and tanks in repair.

The Ryuts, or farmers, have no property in the ground ; but it Tenures. is not usual to turn any man away, so long as he pajs the custom- ary rent. Even in the reign of Tippoo, such an act would have been looked upon as an astonishing grievance. The Oaudas are n6t caudas, here hereditary, but ai-e appointed by the Amildar, with the con- sent of the farmers ; for the Amildar never attempts to put in any person contrary to the wishes of the people. These Gaudas receive a fixed pay of 20 FanamSy or 13^. b^d. a month, and perform the sacrifices, which in other places are usually ofiered by the hereditary chiefs of villages.

The account of these persons, concerning the quantity of ground that can be laboured by one plough, is probably under-rated. Ac- cording to an account of the ground that is now actually cultivated by the plough in the Pattana Ashta gram, which was procured from Purnea, and given me by Colonel Close, the watered lands amount to 1369 Gandacas, or 8487 acres, and the dry field to 964 Candacas, or 22,172 acres. This divided by 3078, which, according to public documents, is the number of ploughs in the same district, will give for a farm of five ploughs 13 ^^ acres of watered land, and 86 acres of di^ field.

The hire of farmers' labourers at Seringapatam, and generally servants wages.

g(5 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800. within two miles from the city, when employed throughout the

May 20th. jQBX, IB 10 Sultauy Fauams, or 6«. SJd. a month. The servant lives in bis own house; and it is customary for the master, on extra- ordinary occasions, such as marriages^ to advance the servant money. This is not deducted from his wages by gradual instalments ; but is considered as a debt, that must be repaid before the servant can leave his place. In case of the servant's death, his sons are bound to pay the debt, or to continue to work with their father's master ;- and, if there be no sons, the master can give the daughters away in marriage, and receive the presents that are usually given on such occasions, unless these should exceed the amount of the debt. In harvest, the daily hire of a man is six Seers of Paddy, A woman transplanting rice gets daily J of a Sultany Fanam, or about two- pence. The only servant that does work in the house of a farmer lb a woman, who comes once a day to sweep the house, and for her trouble receives a piece of cloth once a year. The women of the family cook, fetch water, and perform all other family labour. The servants are both Sddras and Whalliaru ; but seven-tenths of the whole are of the former cast.

Six or seven miles from town, the monthly hire of a servant is 8 FananiSy or about 6«. Ad. Farther from the city, the hire is one Fanam, and 80 Seers (or a little more than eleven pecks) of grain ; of which one half must be Ragy^ and the remainder of such kind as it may be most agreeable to the farmer to spare. Weekly mar- -A-t difiercut Convenient places in every Taluc there are weekly

kets. markets, which in good parts of the country may be about two or

three miles from each other. To these the farmers carry their pro- duce, and sell it, partly to consumers by retail, and partly by whole- sale to traders. In the early part of the day they endeavour to sell their goods by retail, and do not deal with the traders unless they be distressed for money. It is not customary for traders to advance money on the crops, and to receive the produce when they ripen. At all these markets business is carried on by sale ; no barter is cus- tomary, except among a few poor people, who exchange grain for the produce of the kitchen garden. Imperfect stole On Considering the state of agriculture near Seringapotcim, many

of agriculture, capital dcfccts will bc porccived. Ameliorating succession of crops is utterly unknown ; scarcely any attention is paid to the improvement of the breed of labouring cattle, and still less to providing them with sufficient nourishment The religion of the natives, indeed, is a powerful obstaple in the way of agriculture. The higher ranks of society being excluded from animal food, no attention will, of course, be paid to fattening cattle ; and without that, what would our agriculture in England be worth P We could have no green crops to restore our lands to fertility, and but a scanty manure to invigor- ate our crops of grain. I am afraid, however, that the reader, in perusing the foregoing accounts, will have formed an opinion of the native agriculture still more favourable than it deserves. I have

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 87

been obliged to use the English words plou^hings, weedings, and isoo. hoeings^ to express operations somewhat similar, that are performed *^*^ by the natives ; and the frequent repetitions of these, mentioned in the accounts taken from the cultivators, might induce the reader to imagine that the ground was well wrought, and kept remarkably clean. Quite the reverse, however, is the truth. Owing to the extreme imperfection of their implements, and want of strength in their cattle, a field, after six or eight ploughings, has numerous small bushes remaining as upright in it as before the labour commenced ; while the plough has not penetrated above three inches deep, and has turned over no part of the soil. The view of the plough and other • implements in the annexed plates, will sufficiently account for this circumstance. The plough, it must be observed, has neither coulter nor mould-board, to divide, and to turn over the soil ; and the handle gives the ploughman very little power to command its direc- tion. The other instruments are equally imperfect, and aro more rudely formed than it was possible for my draughtsman to repre- sent

The manufactures of SeHngapatam and its vicinity were never Manufacture*. considerable. They were chiefly military stores and camp equip- age ; and of course, have been gre&tly reduced by the arsenal having become a mere dependency on that of Madras. Weavers are now assembling in considerable numbers in Shahar Oanjam, and in a short time will probably become numerous. The trade of the place was almost entirely confined to the importation of provisions^ clothing, and luxuries for the court and army ; and the returns were almost wholly made in cash.

In the following table, the coins current here are detailed. coin*.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. II.

1800. Maj 20tb.

-4Vj^ o^ Saipjoa.>v

■iU9A0f> o% Saipioooy

*firFpoS«^

9S«q puB J9AIIS JO odavqo -xa o^ 8aipjooo« ©nj^^

•^ntlliqs « q)iM pojvdozoo enps^

tsoaroo

o o

O lO

o

CO

o o

o a»

t>» CO

r-i 09

CO OO rf CO OO CO CO Ci ^ •-* Od ^ CI 09

CO <N

CD CO

04 CO

r* CO

64

00

00 "^ CO rl

a 00

U «>

*«

I I

* I

• i

o

00

CO

eo o

oT w

O 00 rH O

S •^

^

00 "^ OCr-T

olco

• •

•JOAlIg

JO p]O0 ojnd 8ui8J{)

*)q9iaM Bara.T0

.9 o

a

o

C8

a

Of

a

OS

J§

9>

a 5

QOO

1>-

00

r^ o o o

Tj« CO

eo «

aO 09 O CO

CO CO

s

o

C OS

J

-t

b

o

CI

u

o

09 CO eo i-< o *o 09 — <

CM CO

»• to

— eo

8 C3

52^

«

■4»

o o o ^ «^2

.|.|.|r|l1

a

S . 8§

!^* §*5 »>»« 2»b

TSSh S 8 S ^

* * I 1 I I I #•

s J

t

t:

>

03

8£J3 '*<^R,

§ § 8 « «^^Q "^

!2 ■•* «* 5 •4* •?> JS Q

• i i i r~ "i

§ s s^

ai 8 o R S S

o Q

SI

g

s-s

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to a o

'*» o

to

a

o

f.

o

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 89

Accoimis are commonly kept in Canter' raia Palaiiis, and in an I890 imaginary money containing ten of these ; by the Mussulmans ^^ "" called Chu(yruin8, and by the English Cautery Pagodas, a corrup- tion of Canter'raia Pagoda. It must be observed, that, in the table, the value of the silver coins is estimated from that of the gold, according to the rate of exchange. That of gold coins is fixed by comparing the pure gold that each contains, with that of a guinea : but the Canter raia Palam, being much adulterated, passes for more than its real value. This would occasion much confusion. I shall therefore, in all calculations, consider it as worth one twelfth part of the Sultany Pagoda, The coins were assayed at the Calcutta mint by Mr. Davidson.

The value of the difierent coins was frequently chanered by the Reg:iiiations late Sultan in a very arbitrary and oppressive manner. When he was money. about to pay his troops, the nominal value of each coin was raised very high, and kept at that standard for about ten days ; during which time the soldiery were allowed to pay off their debts at the high valuation. After this, the standard was reduced to the proper value. Ever since the place has been in the hands of the English, the value has been fixed by the commanding officer. The value put upon the copper, by this regulation, is higher than the market price of that article ; owing, probably, to a difficulty in getting copper money to pay the troops the fractional parts of their allowances. The Batta, or price exacted by the money-changers for converting coin of one kind into another, is moderate ; but the dealers are accused of imposing on those who are unacquainted with business ; and, as scarcely any of the coins are aliquot parts of another, they have great opportunities for this kind of fraud. I have, in the table, stated the quantity of copper given, by the Shrofs, for gold and silver ; when they give gold or silver for copper, they charge 240 Dubs for a Sultany Pagoda, which is a difference of 2 J per cent.

According to the regulations of the late Sultan, the Seer is the weights standard weight and measure, and is of two kinds ; called in the Mussulman language CucJia Seer, and Pucka Seer. Each is divided into halves, quarter, eighths, and sixteenths.

The Cucha Seer is the basis of the weights, and is equal to 24 Sultany Rupees, or to the 0.6067 part of a pound avoirdupois. On this is founded the following set ot weights :

lb.

1 Seer - - - - - = 0.6067

5 Seers make 1 Paiuh Seer - - - = 3.0335

8 Pansh Seers = 1 Managu, or Maund - = 24.2680 20 Managus = 1 Barua, or Candy - - •» 485.3600

By the Cucha weight are sold Jagory, sugar, tamarinds, turmeric, ginger, mustard, capsicum, betel-nut, asafoetida, garlic, spices, pepper, cardamoms, sandal-wood, wool, silk, cotton, thread, ropes, honey, wax, lac, oil, Oliee, &c. &c. Oil and Gliee are frequently sold by measure. A Seer weight of oil is taken, and put into a cylindrical

12

90

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. 11.

1800.

May 20th.

Measures.

brass vessel, which is reduced to a size adequate to contain the exact quantity, and serves afterwards as a standard.

The Pucka Seer is formed by mixing equal quantities of rice, Udu, Heasaru, Huruli, Tovary, Avaray, Carly, Ellu, and wheat ; and then by taking of the mixture 84 Rupees weight, which is put into a vessel that will exactly contain it when heaped. This serves for Dry Mea^arc. a standard, and measures 74.y%(i/^ cubical inches. From this stand- ard the Sultan established the following dry-measure, which he ordered to be used throughout his dominions.

		Cubical inches. and Decimals.	Winchester Measure.
Sultany Measure.	w 00 11	1 1 Ph 00 2	Gallons. Decimals.
16 Seers - 20 Colagas	1 Seer - - - - 1 ColagaoT Wocula 1 Canddca - -	74.8125 1197 23940	0.3592 0.454 0.108

Notwithstanding the arbitrary power of the Sultan, he was by no means able, in this matter, to introduce any uniformity ; tho weight therefore diflFers in almost every village, and even in the same for different purposes. The Candaca indeed every where contains 20 Colagas ; but the Colaga varies from 5 Seers, to the Sultany standard. In the Ashta gram the usual measure is :

Customary Measure in the Ashta

gram

14 Seers. . . . 20 Colagas.

1 Candaca.

1 Colaga 1047.375

CO rrt

6

Winchester Measure.

20947.5

PP

Ph

1 2

QC

OQ o	03 a
1=3	•8
08	<D
O	ft

1.897 1.94

By this measure are sold all kinds of grain. Long Measure. The measure of length introduced by Tippoo was founded on

the Oujah, equal to 38| inches.

CHAP. II.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, Qi

MUes. Furlongs. I800. 6000 Gujahs = 1 Hardary, commonly called ***^ *^'^-

by Europeans a Sultany Coss - - - - = 3 ^.-^Pir 4 Hardaries = 1 Gdvada, or day's journey - = 14 4.^^^^ But the Hardary in common use is one-fourth

less, and is fiierefore equal to - - - - 2 5,87

The ffavada, or day^s journey ----- = 10 7.48 This measurement is called GanterWaia, or Cautery, as the English pronounce it.

None of the roads, however, are measured ; but all the distances are formed by computation, and may therefore, in general, bo estimated as much longer than they are commonly called.

Cloth and timber are usually measured by the purchaser's cubit ; which may be considered, in aU nations, as on an average eighteen inches.

The natives here are either not well acquainted with the QuaiTic?. quarries of their country, or else pretend great ignorance concerning them. Although the coimtry abounds in a variety of ornamental stones, I observe only two about Seringapatam, that have received a marble polish. The one is the black stone used in Hyder's monument, the quarry for which I shall hereafter have an oppor- tunity of examining. The other is a most beautiful green stone, of which some bases for pillars were found in the palace ; but no person can tell from whence they were brought. It has the appearance of quartz stained by copper ; but is vitrifiable, per se, in a moderate heat, and gives out no copper to the vitriolic acid.

The two finest stones near Seringapatam are found at Kvagalu Copalu, and Cavary Cadu, both near the northern branch of the river. The former is a compact granite, consisting of dark red felspar, red and yellowish quartz, and black mica. Some of the yel- low particles appear to be felspar. The prevailing colour is owing to the dark red minute particles of felspar ; but it also contains large concretions of the same stone, which have a bright red colour.

I had a specimen resembling this brought me (I do not know from what place), in which the red felspar predominated over the quartz, and the mica was in a very small proportion. The grains are small ; it is also a very ornamental stone.

The stone from Cavary Cadu may be called either a homstone |)orphyry, or a granatine. Its basis is a dark brown homstone, in which are imbedded grey, yellow, and red felspars, and black shorl. Like the former, it is very compact.

The granite, of which the walls of Mysore and Nuzerhof have Ixjcn formed, is loose-grained, and consists of glassy quartz, green and black mica, and reddish felspar. The mica is in large quantity, and the felspar in a smaller proportion than usual.

Specimens of a fine-grained granite were also brought me from some qiiarry in the neighbourhood, consisting of black mica, grey felspar, and yellowish brown quartz, which gives the predominating

02 A JO0RNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. II.

1800 colour. It is, probably, rather a gneiss than a granite, as a stratified

iMay -joth. appearancc may be seen in one of the specimens ; but, except in the rock, it is generally diflScult to distinguish gneiss from granite.

At Kingalu Copalu is also found a very pretty, fine-grained granitell, consisting of grey felspar and black mica. It is evidently of a slaty texture, and would be a gneiss, if it contained quartz. It is of the kind of stone called by Saussure Roche feuUlett6i, which seems to be a useful distinction.

Near the Durria Adaulvi Baugy on the island of Seringapatam, are found nodules of a stone called Madi Cullu, which is sometimes used for making gun flints ; these, however, are of a bad quality. Better ones, called Chek^ muky, are said to be found near a village, called Beil Cullu, about twenty miles north and west firom Seringa- patam. The Madi CuUu is evidently a homstone.

All these stones are very hard ; yet the natives cut them into pillars, or flags, with tolerable facility. The same persons cut the stones of the quarry, and afterwards work them up in the various fantastical shapes that are given to them in Hindu build- ings. Good workers in stone get from 40 to 50 Fanains a month (from about 11. 68. \Q\d. to 11. 138. 7d.) The drudgery is performed by common labourers. The granite may be cut by wedges in any direction, and to any length; but there is always one direction, in which it is found to split easiest ; a number of small square holes, about an inch and a half in diameter, and four inches deep, are cut in the line by which the stone is meant to be split. The r\ work is performed by a small steel punch of this shape, which I J is driven in by a heavy iron mallet. When the rock or stone is V very long, or deep, these holes must be almost contiguous ; but when the surface to be split is small, they may be at considerable dis- tances. Blunt wedges of steel are then put in the holes, and each is struck upon in its turn, until the stone splits, which it does in a straight line to the very bottom of the mass or stratum. The sur£Bice • is cut smooth with steel chisels, and, except in the very finest works, receives no higher polish. When a marble polish is to be given, it is done by rubbing the stone with cakes made of the adamantine spar, reduced to powder, and united with melted lac. The adaman- tine spar is here called Curungada Cullu, and is said to be found in lumps, which are immersed in rocks of a black stone, near Naga- mangula. It must be observed, however, that at Nagamungula the people denied their having any such stone.

Near Seringapatam the Congcar, or limestone nodules, called there Sunna CuLlu, are very common, and are found of four different qualities, which, however, are generally intermixed in the same iield. ITiese four varieties, therefore, although they produce Ume of different degrees of whiteness, and are distinguishable by the work- men, have the same origin. They have, no doubt, been deposited by water ; and I have been told, by good authority in Bengal, that a field, after having been perfectly freed of these nodules, will in a

CHAP. II.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 93

few years be again filled with them. Whence then is this calcari- isoo ous matter derived P There are here no rocks of limestone, or mar- ^**^ "^'^^'* ble, from which ;t could have been washed. The whole calcarious matter to be found in Mysore is a Tufa, The quicklime is prepared by a class .of people called JJparu, who are in general poor, and must receive advances to enable them to hire labourers. A labour- ing man at this work earns daily | of a Fanam, almost a sixpence ; aiid women, who perform much of the labour, get one-third of that sum. They are allowed to collect the nodules, which are generally found by the sides of rivulets, and in waste ground, without pay- ing any thing to the public ; but in the late government they were frequently compelled to supply the Sultan at a low rate. The lime is always burned with charcoal. The dark-coloured quicklime, for building, costs, at Seringapatam, six Fanama a Candaca, or nearly five pence a bushel ; finer lime, for white- washing, costs ten Fanams, or a little more than eight pence a bushel ; and the finest, that is used for chewing with betfl, costs twenty Fanama a CancUicd, or one shilling and four pence half-penny a bushel.

Firewood at Seriiigapatam is a dear article, and the fewel most commonly used is cow-dung made up into cakes. This, indeed, is much used in every part of India, especially by men of rank ; as, from the veneration paid to the cow, it is considered as by far the most pure substance that can be employed. Every herd of cattle, when at pasture, is attended by women, and these often of high cast, who with their hai^ds gather up the dung, and carry it home in baskets. They then form it into cakes, about half an inch thick, and nine inches in diameter, and stick them on the walls to dry. So difierent, indeed, are Hindu notions of cleanliness from ours, that the walls of their best hoiLses are frequently bedaubed with these cakes ; and every morning numerous females, from all parts of the neighbourhood, bring for sale into Seringapatam baskets of this fewel.

Many females who carry large baskets of cow-dung on their wx»mcn of A'«r- heads are well-dressed, and elegantly formed girls. The dress of "* "^^' the Karndtaca wom^n is indeed very becoming ; and I have never seen finer forms than even the labouring women of that country frequently possess. Their necks and arms are in particular remark- ably well shaped. Their nastiness, however, is disgusting ; very few of the inhabitants above the Ghats being free from the itch ; and their linen, being almost always dyed, is seldom washed.

Timber, for building and fumitui*e, may be had at Seringapatam Timber. of excellent quality ; but it is dear ; as it is brought from a great distance by land carriage. The principal supply comes from the neighbourhood of the western Ghats.

The plan which I have concerted with Colonel Close, for my Pi»n f«>r future future investigations, is, to proceed to the chief places of the Raja's ^'^^^^^^sntions. (lominions ; and there to make myself master, so far as I shall be able, of the state of the country. I am then to draw up a set of

04 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH, &o. [CHAP. II.

1800- queries applicable to the state of affairs, which Purnea will circulate

' "^^ ^^^ ' among the Amildars, and procure their answers for my information. I shall follow a similar plan in the dominions immediately subject to* the Company. The country toward the north-west being now in a very unsettled state, owing to the insurrection of Dundia, I shall defer my visit to that quarter to the last ; with a view of giving the collectors of Canara time to answer such queries as I may pro- pose to them, after having visited that province, which is the last part of the Company's territory that I intend to survey.

CHAPTER III.

FROM SEBINOAPATAM TO BANGALORE.

•

Having finished my business at Seriingapatam, on the 6th of June 1800, 1 left it early in the morning, and assembled my people June ctii. at a small village, named Gaynangur, which is situated among the Appearance o« hills noiih from the river Cdvery. The fields that are at present oc- * ^^^^ ^' cupied having now been all ploughed, I observe that a large propor- tion of the arable land is left waste.

At Gaynangur there is much mica ; but the laminae are not large Minerals. enough to serve for glass, tt occupies the rents and small veins in an extensive chain of quartz, which is in a state of decomposition, and of which some parts are red, and some white. By digging deep, it is probable that larger pieces of the mica might be found. The inhabi- tants are wonderfully ignorant of the mineral productions of their country ; for they did not know the limestone nodules, so common in this place, when shown to them in their own fields. All their lime comes from the city.

7th JuTU, — I went to Mundiv/rru Not above one-third of the Jww 7th. arable land appears to be now occupied. **" *"^'

The flight of locusts that I saw when I was here last (p. 39), i^cuats. settled at a village to the eastward, and ate up all the young Jola.

The rice land here is watered entirely from tanks or reservoirs ; watered land. and the cultivation is never commenced tiU there be a sufficiency of water in the tank to ensure the crop. When the rains set in early, and fill the tank timely, the farmers have yearly two crops ; but . when the early part of the season is dry, they take a Hainv, crop of WfiirEUu, Udu, Heamru, or Carlay ; and afterwards, when the tank is filled, plough for a crop of Caru rice.

The kinds of rice cidtivated here are as follows :

Namea. Ripening.

Conawaly 5 months. Muln Butta 3 months.

Names. Ripening.

Doda Butta 5 montl^.

PntuBvMa 5 months.

Hotay Cai/nibuti 5 months. Every kind may be cultivated, either as Hainu or Caru. The MuLu Bidta is never sown, except when there is a deficiency of water. The only cultivation here is the Mola Butta, or sprouted- seed ; the manner of preparing which is as follows : Steep the seed in water all night ; next morning mix it with cow-dung, and fresh plants of the Turnbay 8opu, or Fhlomis esculenia, Boxb. MSS., and put it in a Mudy, On uie Mudy place a heavy stone, and on the

Rice.

9()

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. iir.

1800.

June 7th.

ifuditra, 'Weather.

Depopulation.

ReseiToir.

Irrigation.

Bic«.

two following days sprinkle it with water. On the third day it is fit for sowing.

For the Hainn crop, the ploughings, from about the 1st of June till the 11th of July, are nine in number. Dung and leaves are then put on the field, and trampled into the mud. The water is now let oft', until no more than a depth of one inch remains ; afterwards, the seed is sown, and a slight sprinkling of dung is laid over it. A watering once in three days is then given ; and after the third time, the field is inundated till the grain ripens. The weeds are removed on the 20th, 40th, and 60th days. The Cam cultivaion is exactly the same, only the ploughings are between the 21st of November and the 20th of December.

In both kinds of cultivation ,and in every species of rice, an equal quantity of seed is sown on the same extent of ground, and the pro- duce is nearly equaL By measuring a plot of ground, and reducing to the English standards the farmer's estimate of its seed and pro- duce in a middling good crop, I find the seed to be for an acre, 1 bushel 1,624 gallon, and the produce to be 2f6 bushels 0,720 gallon, or thirty fold. The quantity of seed here is smaller,^ and the pro- duce greater, than in the land watered by the river Cdvery.

8th June. — I went to Mvdura. Since the 4th instant, when we had a heavy storm of wind, rain, and thunder, the weather has been remarkably pleasant. The sun is in general clouded, and the tem- perature of the air like moderate summer weather in England.

The proportion of ground in actual cultivation does not appear to exceed one-tenth part of the country. At Mudura there is a very fine reservoir, which indeed waters more groimd than the inhabitants can cultivate ; for they are much reduced in number. In Hyder's time they amounted to 250 houses ; and they rose to 400 in the early part of the Sultan's government. By the expeditions of Lord ComwaUis the houses sunk to 250, and Tippoo's late oppressions have reduced them to 100. The people, however, seem to be much satisfied with the protection they enjoy imder the British forces, and are betaking themselves with industry to the re-establishment of their count^.

The reservoir, and an old pagoda in the fort, are said to be the work of Vishnu Verdana Baya, a prince who, about 700 years ago, had very extensive dominions in this country. The reservoir is a very valuable work, and ought to render this prince's name venerable to the latest posterity. It receives a supply from the river by means of a dam and canal ; and with the repairs which it is now about to receive, is expected to be able to supply with water, through the whole year, all the fields imder the level of its bank. The extent of this land is very considerable ; but the supply of water having been for some years deficient, the farmers have been obliged, on many fields, to content themselves with a Hainu crop of Carlay, and a Cam crop of Jola.

Two crops of rice are never taken from the same field in one

CHAP. III.J

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

97

year ; but in order to divide the labour, part of the rice ground is 1800. cultivated in the Hainu, and part in the Cam season. '^"''^ ^'^^

The foUowinor are the kinds of rice cultivated here :

NAMES.

Hoiay Caimbulii

Doda or Bily Butta..

Araina Caimbuti

Puln BttUa

Yalic Raja

Muvargilli

Conawaly^'*'

Sucadass •••-

a

Si ♦^

£ a

5£

Seed required for one Acre

S

5 5

H

44 6

5

44

3

€S

d o Cd 4^

Produce of

one Acre.

iBt Quality of

Soil.

1*

ao

en O

iS

g.i

(

1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 3 3 8 3 3

1.4^759 1.467 56 0.62747 0.627 47 0.627 47 0.627 47 0.627 47

3 0.627 47

I i

1 1 1 1 I 1

0.47

0.47

16

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

a o

a o

<8 0) u o

a

Produce of one Acre. 2d Quality of Soil.

OD

OS

a.

CD <C

s o «a 4> ^ M Oh OP

if

O

CO

a

o

a

o

C9 <0

Produce of one Acre. 3rd Quality of 8oU. .TS

100 100 114 114 114 114 114 114

41 41 35 36 35 35 36 35

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

0.25

0.25

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0-7

0.7

a; a. o

CO V M M O cfi

2 ^ J3 ^-9 1

u 5? o == « S

2 3 O ** ^ n

70 70 84

23 23 17

8417 8417 84 17 84!l7 84'l7

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1.8

1.8

40 40

1.52 42 1.52'42 1.5242 1.52 42 1.62 42 1.52 42

This estimate was formed by taking a farmer to his own field, asking him how much seed it required, and measuring it. The mea- sures were then changed into English ; and the otlier farmers were interrogated concerning the quantity that each kind of rice should produce on an equal extent of the different kinds of soil. The pro- duce of the same kind of rice, in the same soil, whether cultivated as Hainu or (7a?t*, or as Mola or Nat% should be nearly the same.

All the kinds of rice, may be raised either as Hainu or Carw crops, or the Mola or Nati modes of cultivation. No Puneji is ever attempted. The Mola cultivation is exactly the same as at Mudium. The seedlings for transplantation, in the Nati cultivation, are always raised as Niragy.

The cultivation of sugar-cane being somewhat different from that used at Seringapatam, I shall enter into the particulars. The only cane cultivated here is the Restali. The preparation of the ground occupies about three months previous to the end of Phalguna, which happened this year on the 14th of March. The steps taken in this place for preparation are as follow. Water the field. Allow it ' three days to dry, then plough it six times, and break the clods with the Col Kuddli, Manure with leaves, and plough again ; manure with dung, and plough three times. The field, having been tJius prepared, is divided into beds, as at Seringapatavi (p. 65). Four holes, about a cubit's distance from each other, are formed in the breadth of each bed. Two cuttings of three joints each, are put in each hole, and covered first with an inch of earth, and then with five inches of dung. Water is given to each hole, and every morning

13

08 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. III.

1800. for fifteen days this is repeated. The holes are then dug up with a

June Bill. sharp stick, and more dung is given. For fifteen days more the watering must be again repeated. The whole field must then be hoed with the Telia Kuddli, and in each bed a winding channel must be formed, passing through between the rows of holes, as in the explanatory sketch (Fig. 7). When there is no rain, these channels must once a week be filled with water. At the end of a month the ground must be again hoed, and the channels formed afresh. Between the 24th of May and the 22d of June, the canes become a cubit high. The plants of each hole must then be tied together with a binding of leaves. A third hoeing is now given, and the earth heaped up round the roots of the cane. The water- ings once a week must be continued. When the plants have grown another cubit, which will be about the beginning of September, they must be tied a second time ; and again a third time about the beginning of November, the watering once a week having been regularly continued. About the end of December, the works are repaired ; in the tenth month from planting the crop commences, and must be finished in the elevenwi. The cane is succeeded by Sesarrmm, that by rice, and that again by sugar. The Sesamum and rice occupy one year, and the sugar-cane another, alternately. The best fields for this cultivation are composed of a sandy red soil. The low black clays are reserved entirely for rice, saiioe earth. In this part of the country much of the soil is impregnated with

saline matter, and called Soalu, Tnunnu. Of this there are two kinds ; one chiefly impregnated with carbonate of soda, the other with the muriates of soda and magnesia. The latter would produce nothing : the former is cultivated, although it produces poor crops. The manure used for it is formed of the branches of the Euphor- bium Tiruccdli, which in this part of the country are never used on any other kind of rice-ground. In the country near Madras they are, for all soils, the most esteemed manure. i<rri vaisknarnm Having procurcd a Sri Vawhnavam Brdh^man, esteemed a man Brdhmans. ^£ great leamiug, I examined him concerning the peculiarities of his sect ; but with very little satisfaction. However well these men may be instructed in certain dogmas, and the art of disputation, they are not qualified to give any satisfactory information concern- ing the origin of their order, or the means by which it came to pre- vail over others ; for, of the sectaries which differ from themselves, ' such as those of Buddlia, Jaina, or Siva, they profess an almost total ignorance, and sovereign contempt.

This man allows, that in the existing V^das no mention is made of any division of the Brakmatis into sects ; but he contends, that from the very beginning of the universe all the three sects of Smarted, Aayngar, and MaduaXy existed ; and he says, that they are mentioned in the eighteen Puranas, which, next to the VSdaSy are by the Brdhmans esteemed as most holy. Although the Brdhma/ns have existed from the beginning of time, yet in the ninth century

CHAP. III. J ' MYSORE, CAXARA, AND MALABAR. f*!^

of the era of Sdlivdiiana, or tenth century of Christianity, twenty- ^^^^O- one heretical sects had arisen in Bharata-khanday and had turned from the true worship almost the whole of its inhabitants. Each of these sects had a Bhasha, or book explaining their doctrine, founded partly on dogmas derived from the VMas, and explained in the last six of the eighteen Puranas, and partly on tenets contrary to the books esteemed sacred by the Brdhmans, The most re- markable of these sects were the Budhista, the Jainas, and the Sarvakas.

About this time arose a celebrated doctor of the Brdhmaiis, named Sankara Achdrya, who belonged to the sect of Siva. The eighteen Purdnas are divided into three distinct doctrines, called Sativika, Rdjasa, and Tdmasa ; the principles of which, from their tendency, are compared to God, to a king, and to the devil ; the first and last resembling God and the Evil Spirit, while the Itdjasa is of a princely nature, partly good and partly bad. Sanhava Achdrya, as a Smartal, acknowledged the two first parts to be the proper guide for the conduct of Brdhmans ; and wrote a Bhdsha, or commentary, called after his own name ; in which he explained the doctrine of the first twelve of the eighteen Purdnas, so as to reconcile it with the tenets of six of the prevailing sects, of whom the most remarkable were the Savaram, Ganapatyam, Saivam, and Vaish7iavum. By this method he gained a strong party ; and having, among others, brought over the prince of Sringa-giri, where he lived, he commenced a violent persecution against the heretical doctrines.

In the year of Salivdhana 922 (A. D. 1009), at Sri Pevmatm-u, or Srivaram P'huthur, near Madras, was born Rdma Anuja Achdiya of the Sri Vaishiavam sect of Brdhmans, and who, of course, follow- ed the authority of the first six only of the eighteen Puranas, These six are called Vaiahnavam, Ndradyam, Bdgawatam, Oarudam, Pad- ToaTn, and Vardkam, The second division of the eighteen Piivdnas is read by this sect of Brdhmans, although they do not found on it any of their doctrines. They look with horror on the third division. On arriving at the age of discretion, Rdma Anuja became a Sannydsi, and wrote a commentary, in which he confuted the works of Sankara Achdrya, and demonstrated, that of the twenty-one sects, the only one that ought to be tolerated was that called Vaishnavam. The coinmentary of Rdma Anuja is now the chief guide of the Sri Vaishnavam, Brdh/mans. They worship Vishnu y and the gods of his family only, and aU over the Decan are almost exclusively the officiating priests in the temples of these deities. They allege Brahvid to be a son of Vishnu, and Siva the son of Brdhma, and consider them as the creative and destructive powers in the universe ; but they abhor the worship of these gods. Vishnu they consider as the same with Para Brahma, or the Supreme Being : yet they worship him in nine only of his ten incarnations. Budka, although the tenth incarnation of Vishnu, is never worshipped by them, nor, I believe, by any Brahman, The reason assigned for this is as follows :

JQO A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. III.

1800 one of the Asurds, or demons, named Tripura, possessed a city, the

June 8th inhabitants of which were very troublesome to the inhabitants of

Brdhvia Ldka, heaven of Brdhma, who attempted in vain to take the place ; it being destined not to fall, so long as the women who resided in it should preserve their chastity, which hitherto had been inviolate. The angels at length offered up their prayers to Vishnu J who took upon himself the form of a most beautiful young man, and became Budha Avatdra, Entering then into the city, he danced naked before the women, and inspired them with loose desires; so that the fortress, being no longer defended by the shield of purity, soon fell a prey to the angels. As the BrdhmaTis cannot defend this action of the god, they never invoke him by the name or in the form of Budha AvatAra.

Rama Anuja A chary a having had great success both against the Smartal, and the heretical sects, especially the Jainas, formed a hierarchy for his followers. He divided the whole into eighty-four portions ; and ordered, that each portion, and their descendants, should be subject to a Ouru or Swdmalu of his appointment, and to the successors of this Quru. The number of Ourus belonging to this sect are therefore eighty-four ; of whom five are Sannaydai, and seventy-nine are married hereditary chiefs.

The Matarris, or places where the five Sannyd^si Ourue chiefly reside, are Ahobaliim,Totadri near Itdme8wara,Tripathi, SriRangam and Kunj. When one of these Sannydsis observes the approach of death, he appoints some Vid/wansa, or man of learning and piety, to be his successor. K the person chosen give his consent, he must forsake his wife, children, and goods, part of which goes to his chil* dren, and part is given in charity ; that iatosay, to the BrdJimans. The new Sannyaai shaves his head, and throws aside the thread by which Brahinans are distinguished. The virtues and powers belonging to his high rank he receives along with an Upadiaa, which is delivered to him by his predecessor, upad^a is a mysterious sentence, which the Hindus receive from their Qurus, and constant- ly mutter when at their devotions. That of the Brdhmans is entire- ly different from what is bestowed on the lower casts ; and is again very inferior to that given to the Sannyasi Ourus, which, according to them, has most wonderful powers. In case of sudden death, the followers of the Maia meet, and choose from among them- selves B^ Sannyasi, who gets an Upad&a from one of the others. These Gurus frequently give an Upaddsa, and some images, to a favourite disciple, and appoint him a kind of deputy to manage their afiairs at a distance. Thus the Ahobalara Swamalu has sent a de- puty to Mailcotay, who resides at that great place of Hindu wor- ship, and there watches over the interests of his superior. These deputies observe the rules oi Sannydsi, but have no power to appoint a successor. When one of them dies, the followers send back the images to their Ouru, and request that he would depute another re- presentative.

•"

• ••

• •

iilAV. Ill] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MAIAbXi}-, • I :;•;''. :*'; .'•. T •' .". 101

•• . •• i •; ;,"•',

Among the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans the office of an heredi- 1800. tary Gxunh descends in the male line according to primogeniture ; but, ^^^^ ^^^' whim one of Uiem has no children, he must adopt his nearest male relation, who succeeds him as his son. Kindred by the female line is considered as not forming a tie of blood. These hereditary chiefs, once in two or three years, make a circuit round the places where their followers live. They also send agents to transact their busi- ness. An infant may succeed, and during his minority the business is carried on by the nearest male relation, or by some other Vaidika JJrdhman whom the family appoints.

The Sannydsis and hereditary Gurus seem to be totally inde- pendent of each other, and to possess nearly the same authority and powers over their followers. When a Gitru of any sect comes near a place, the whole inhabitants of a pure descent, whether they be his followers or not, must go out to receive him with the utmost respect. What is meant by the followers of a Gum, are ceitain families at- tiiched to him, to whom he performs certain ceremonies, and over whom, in all matters connected with religion, he possesses a juris- diction. In general, every man follows the Guru of his father : but this seems to be a voluntary submission ; and it is commonly allowed, that a man, whenever he pleases, may change his Guru. The cere- monies bestowed by the Sri Vaiahnavain Gurus on their followers are chiefly Upad&a and ChakrdntiJcam. The Upad^sa I have al- ready explained. It is delivered orally to the follower ; and to write it down, or reveal it, are crimes of such an enormous magnitude as to be quite unknown. The Chakrantikara is performed with the spear of the god Vishnu, which is made hot, and applied by the Guru to the shoulder of the disciple, so as to burn the skin. Dur- ing life this is frequently repeated ; the Upadesa is only delivered once.

Neither of these ceremonies are ever bestowed on a person of an impure birth ; so that the Wludliaru and Madigaru must con- tent themselves with praying to God for his blessing to avert evil, or bestow good. This however not being satisfactory, these poor peo- ple frequently attack the Brah/nians for an UpadUsa. In order to be quit of theii" importunity, the Brdhmans sometimes tell them the name of any god, the constant muttering of which pleases the man much better, tlian the offering up his requests to the deity in the pure language of the heart. So powerful is the influence of cere- mony over that of reason.

In their judicial capacity the Gurus possess great authority. They take cognizance of all omissions of ceremonies, and actions that are contrary to the rules of cast. Small delinquencies they punish by pouring cow-dung and water on the head of the guilty person, by line, and by whipping. For great offences they excommunicate the culprit ; which is done by shaving his head. This excludes a man from all -society, even from that of his nearest connections ; for his vety wife would incur a similar punishment by giving him any

102

"•A-VOUfiNKY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

• ■

[CHAP. III.

1800.

June 8th.

June 9th.

Ctunapattana

Rajas.

assistance. The excommunication may be removed by the Guru ; in which case he purifies the repentant sinner by a copious draught of cow's urine. Though the deputies have no proper authority to punish delinquents, yet they frequently make people voluntarily submit to their correction. They threaten any person tp send a complaint to his Guru of some crime laid to his charge, and an order to proceed to the residence of the Guru to answer the com- plaint. Most persons, however, choose to submit to whatever the deputy dictates, rather than undertake the trouble of. a long jour- ney ; at the end of which they might be more severely punished by the Gani, than they would have been at home by the deput}'.

When a Guru is accused of any misdemeanor, he is called before a Trimatuataru, or assembly of the most eminent Vaidiht. Brdhmans of all the three sects, who have the power of inflicting six diflFerent punishments, all of which are very severe.

9th June, — I went to Chinapatam, or ChenapattuTia, which was formerly the residence of a Polygar family called Jacad6va Rayaa. They were Teliga Banijigaru, and seem to have risen into power about five centuries ago. They continued till veiy lately possessed of considerable territories; and were reduced by the Mysore Rajas, no long time before these, in their turn, became sub- ject to the Mussulmans. The direct heir of the family, in the male Une, now resides here in great poverty ; and, being a petty trader, is called Jiva Raja Ckitty. MAimfacturcs of Glass-ware is one of the manufactures of this place. It is **•"• made by two operations. In tlie first, from the raw materials, are

formed masses of glass ; in the second, these masses are wrought up into small bottles, and ornamental rings for the arms of women.

The rude sketches in the Figures 12 and 13, will assist the reader to understand the followingaccount of the furnaces by which the first operation is performed. Two or three of them are in gene- ral constructed in the same building (a a a a), which is erected in form of a terrace against one of the walls of a yard; and which, where there are three furnaces, may be six feet high, twelve broad, and twenty-six long. The furnace (b) is arched, and in the summit has a round opening (c) about two feet in diameter. This is covered by a flat stone (d), ii^ which there is an aperture (e). Near the sur- face of the ground is a platform (f f) which has an aperture in its centre (1). This divides the furnace into two cavities, the lower, of which (g) serves for the fewel, which is introduced by an opening (h) at the bottom of a niche (i i i) that is formed in the front of the ter- race. The crucibles containing the materials (k k) are introduced by the opening (c) in the submit of the furnace, and placed in a circle on the platform (f f). The opening (c) is then covered with the flat stone (d), and the air is excluded by covering the stone with moist clay. The small hole (e), however, is left open. The fire- place (g) is then filled with wood, and the fire is managed according to the nature of the materials which the crucibles contain. •

«i-^^m;^ E

tJirvuJid plan, of^

103

1800.

me 9th.

"

102

1800.

June 8th.

June 9Ui.

Ckenapattana

Rajas,

M*niif*ctuTCB

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 103

For making green glass, take of the following articles according 1800. to apothecary's weight. "^^^ "*'•

lb. oz. dr. scr. gr.

Broken glass ... "... ... ... 14 9 0 0 0

5ana;i GViZiTt, powdered white quartz ... 14 9 0 0 0 Loha (an old button like briss was given to

me as a specimen) ... ... ... 0 3 2 1 13

Copper... ... ... ... ... 02 9 1 16

CaricuUu, iron ore with manganese ... 02 1 2 2

Soulu, or impure soda ... ... ... 29 6 00 0

lb. 58 11 5 2 11

This is the charge for one crucible.

In making red glass the Loha is left out. Forty-four crucibles Ktand in one furnace. A small quantity of the materials is assayed in the furnace used for blowing the glass ; and, if the soda prevails too much, an addition is made to the quartz.

In order to vitrify these materials, bum on the first day ten bundles of firewood. Next day put out the fire by stopping the air. Next day put in fresh wood, and keep up the fire for eight days ; but no supply of fewel is given at night. The fire of course goes out towards morning. Afterwards the fire must be kept up night and day, till the glass be melted ; which is known by putting an iron rod into the crucible through the small hole (e) in the flat stone. This requires from four to six days more. The fire at first is put out with a view of preventing, by this means, the glass firom being injured by the smoke : but it is not easy to conceive any chemical operation more injudiciously conducted than this is. The alkali is never saturated, and effloresces from the glass, when that is kept any length of time. Each crucible ought to produce 41 IK 3 oz. 4 dr. 2 scr. 8 gr. of glass, worth seven Sultany Fanams, 4s.8 Jd.

The contents of one crucible for black glass, are

^^URr JT \jZ ••• ••• ••■ ••• •■

|i^\^vlcv ••• ••• ■•■ ■•» ••

Broken glass...

lb. 66 4 4 In eight or nine days this is vitrified by a fire burning con- .stantly, and produces about 4441b worth 4 J FamamSy or a little more than three shillings.

The ornamental rings are made as follows (see Fig. 14) : A circular cavity (a), about two feet and a half in diameter, is dug in the floor of the work-shop (bb), and is covered by a flat dome of baked clay (c c) . In this are four perforations, one of which cannot be seen in the sketch, as it is a section. By one of these the fewel, which i^ charcoal, is introduced by an inclined plane (d). The thfee other openings (f f) are for the workmen to take out the glass,

lb.	oz.	dr.
14	9	0
29	6	0
22	1	4

tnen.

X044 A JOURNEY FRJ)M MADRAS THROUGU [CHAP. 111.

1800. which is put in a flat earthen crucible (e e) like a soup-plate. When

June 9th. |.]^q ghiss is melted, two workmen sit down at each of the three openings, six men in all to each furnace, with an assistant to keep up the fire. One man of each pair introduces the point of an iron rod, and turns it round among the melted glass, till a sufficient quantity adheres. He then takes out* the rod, and with one hand gives it a quick rotatory motion on a stone, that is placed before him. With the other hand he applies a knife, and forms the glass into a ring round the point of the rod. He then pushes the ring into the furnace, and there gives it a quick rotatory motion, so that the liquid glass by the centrifugal force assumes an elliptic form. The rod is then withdrawn, and the ring is dilated by inserting the point of the knife between it and the rod. It is then pushed on the point of a cone managed by the other workman, who also gives his cone a rotatory motion, and pushes up the ring, till it become.s of a proper size. He then polishes it, while it is cooling, by apply- ing his knife to the surface, all the while continuing the rotatory ml)tion. The work is carried on with considerable dexterity, and the two men make about ten rings in a minute. iiinga oa the These riugs are universally worn by the women of the Decan,

SSS^te by ^ ^^ ornament on the wrists ; and their applying closely to the ann the If tiMiM wo- is considered as a mark of delicacy and beauty ; for they must of course, be passed over the hand. In doing this, a girl seldom escapes without drawing blood, and rubbing part of the skin from her hand : and as every well dressed girl has a number of rings on each arm, and as these are frequently breaking, the poor creatures suffer much from their love of admiration : but in the female breast, this is a more powerful motive than the dread of any common pain . Soda, or foBsiie The soda, or fossile alkali, is foimd in the soil near Madura, and

at Gutalu, a town east from Mundium. In the hot season the glass- makers go to these places, and prepare as much as they want They collect the SoiUu Munnu, or saline earth, into heaps ; and near these dig three pits, which I shall call A, B, and 0. The pit A in the centre is a square of four cubits in extent, and one foot in depth. The pit B is circular, three and a half cubits in diameter, and two and a half in depth. The pit C is a small circular cavity capable of containitig four or five pots of water, and communicates with the pit A by means of a small channel, which can be occasionally shut up with clay. When all things are ready, the pit B is filled nearly with Soulu Munnu, and then is added a little water, which is mix- ed well with the saline earth, so as to form thin mud. This is then put into the pit A for two hours ; when the earth subsides, and lea^ves a clear water impregnated with alkali, which is allowed t<> run off into the pit C. Some of this water is then put into a fourth pit, and mixed with cow-dung. The mixture is allowed to purify for three days, and is then spread thin on forty mats by means of the twig of a tree, which retains its leaves. When dry, this forms a veiy thin crust on the mats, which are then laid on the grourtd.

Alkali.

CUAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AIH) MALABAR. 105

and exposed to the sun. Every day afterwards these mats igOO. are sprinkled with fifty pots of the clear brine from the pitJ«n«9th. C, procured as before mentioned. This is continued for twenty days ; when a cake of soda, about half an inch in thickness, is formed all over the mats. It is very impure, and sells for two Pais- 808 the Cucha Seer, or 13s.»9Jd. the hundred weight. It is used for washing, and for making glass. Large quantities of it are said to be brought from Ellanduru, a town about forty mil^ east from Mysore,

Another manufacture, for which Chinapatam is celebrated, is steei wire for that of steel wire for strings of musical instruments, which are in musi^^tastJu- great esteem, and are sent to remote parts of India. A very dis- '"*°^"- tinct account of this manufacture was given me by Colonel Close, who procured it from Mr. Ingledew, surgeon to the Resident in Mysore. I shall preserve his words, only reducing the weights and prices to the English standard.

" The mode of preparing country steel, before it is drawn into wire, is by taking any quantity, and heating it in a charcoal fire until it be red hot ; when it is taken out, beaten into a long thin plate upwards of an inch in breadth, and rolled up into an oval or round form, leaving a small space between each of the folds. It is then put into the fire again, well heated, and hammered out as before. This process is repeated eight times, by which the weight of the steel is reduced to one fifth of the original quantity.

" When this is done, it is ready for being formed into wire, and is again heated and beat into small square rods. It is heated again, and drawn through a smaU hole, in a plate of common steel, into wire by means of pincers. In this plate there are several holes, of . various dimensions, for the purpose of gradually reducing the wire to the size required.

" After it has been once drawn, it is necessary to heat it again, before it can be drawn a second time, which is done through a hole somewhat smaller than the former one. It afterwards requires no farther heat ; but is drawn eight or ten times more until it be suf- ficiently fine ; and this is partly ascertained by the sound it gives, when struck by the finger on being stretched out.

" At the time of drawing it through the plates, a small quantity of oil is applied to it, to make it pass easily.

" The length of time taken up in maJdng four pieces of wire, nearly of the same weight, and as fine as the larger of the speci- mens" (its weight 169 grains, its fineness 2 grains a foot,) " from the time of commencing the preparation of the steel, will occupy one man four days. One Bupee weight (177 grains) of this wire sells for one Sultany Fanam (8d) The price of the smaller one is double the other, being much finer.

" The steel of the Bazar, or market, is sold at the rate of one Seer for one small silver Fanam (or near SJd a pound.) When re- fined, and ready for being made into wire^ one Seer might be pur«

14

2()(] A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. III.

1800. chased for eight Sultany Fananis (or 2s. ] Jd. a pound) ; but there

being no demand for it, it has no sale." June loth. 10th Juue, — I passcd this day in examining the forests of this

neighbourhood ; but shall defer giving an account of the particulars, till I have visited some other parts of the same chain of woody hills, and shall be thus enabled to give at once a view of the whole. Owing to the badness of the soil in the hills near Chinapatam, few of the trees come to great perfection. Juno nth. ■* 11th Jiune, — I remained at Chinapatam, taking an account of

Palm gardens, the palm gardcus in the vicinity. A tract of land runs near this from Madura towards Ma^gadi, which is about eighteen miles in length, and varies from one mile to a quarter of a mile in width. The whole of this, except a few barren spots intersecting it, is planted with coco-nut and betel-nut palms. All this ground might be cul- tivated for rice, and has a supply of water from reservoiis ; but the plantations are much more valuable. Areca, or betel- The bctcl-nut palm, or Areca, called by the Mussulmans Supari, nut palm. requires a rich black soil, and is planted in such places only as pro- duce water on digging a well two cubits deep. There are here two varieties of the Areca, the one bearing large, and the other small nuts. The produce of both kinds is nearly equal in value and quan- tity. The nut of this country is said by the people here to be as good as any brought to market at Mad/raa, that from Coimbetore excepted ; but I afterwards found that they were misinformed. Manner of form- The following accouut was given me, by the proprietors, of the gafaen.**^**^ "^"^nianner in which they make a new betel-nut garden.

A plot of ground, having been selected for a nursery, is dug to the depth of one cubit. When the seed is ripe, which happens between the loth of January and the 13th of February, trenches must be formed in the nursery a span broad, and a cubit deep. The trenches are half filled up with sand, on the surface of which is placed a row of the ripe betel-nuts. These are again covered with five inches of sand, and two inches of rich black mould, and watered once in three days for four months, at which time they are fit for being trans- planted into the garden.

The garden having been fenced with a hedge of Euphorbivm Tiruchtlli, or Jatropha Curcas, is dug to the depth of a cubit at the same time with the nursery, and planted with rows of plantain-trees at the distance of three cubits. When the young palms are fit for bein^ transplanted, the garden must be dug again to the former depi£, and two yoxmgArecas must be set in one hole between every two plantain-trees, when there is no rain, they must have water every third day. When the rainy season commences, a trench must be dug between every third row of trees ; that is to say, so as be- tween every trench to form beds, each of which contains two rows of the Areca. These trenches serve to carry off superfluous water, and to bring a supply from the reservoir, when wanted. The garden must be dug twice a year, to keep it clear of weeds. At the end of

CHAP. III.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 1()7

three years the original plantain-trees are removed, and a row is set igOO. in the middle of each bed, and kept up ever afterwards, in order to ^^"** *'^^* preserve a coolness at the roots of the Areca, When the betel-nut trees are about five feet high, wliich requires about five years, they receive no more water than what is given to the plantain-trees, which in dry weather must be watered twice a month. The tree, when five years old, begins to produce fruit, and lives from thirty to forty years.

Each tree pushes out three or four spadices, which from about the 21st of August until the 16th of November, become fit for cut- ting, at diflerent intervals of twenty or thirty days, one after the other. When the nuts have been cut, the skin is removed with an iron knife, and a quantity is put into a pot with some water, in which it must be boiled till the eyes be separated. The nut is then cut into three or four pieces, and for three or four days dried on mats exposed to the sun, when it becomes fit for sale. Each tree is reckoned to produce yearly the value of one SuLtany Fanam, or 8 pence, which is the usual price of two Cucha Seers, or nearly l^lb. Squirrels are very troublesome, and destroy a great deal of the fruit ; but it is considered as sinful to kill them.

These plantations are interspersed with coco-nut, mango, lime, , jack, and Humteca (Spondias) trees ; which add to the shade, and to the freshness of the soil. Under the trees are cultivated ginger, and all kinds of fruits and roots that are called Tarlcari ; but no greens, or Sopn, The whole, however, is kept in a very slovenly manner ; only the fences are good.

The betel-nut that is raised here, is sold to the merchants and shop-keepers for ready money ; the farmers never receive any advance.

At Chinapatam there are four varieties of the coco-nut; 1st, red ; coco nut paim. 2d, red, mixed with green ; 3d, light green ; and 4th, dark green. These varieties are permanent; but, although the red is reckoned somewhat better than the others, they are commonly sold promis- cuously. Their produce is nearly the same.

The soil does not answer, unless water can be had on digging into it to the depth of three or four cubits ; and in such situations a light sandy soil is the best. The black clay called Eray is the next best soil. The worst is the red clay called Gabbay ; but with proper cultivation all the three soils answer tolerably well.

The manner of forming a new coco-nut garden is as follows : sranncr of form-

The nuts intended for seed must be allowed to ripen until they gafde*n. ^'^^^ ""^ fall from the tree ; and must then be dried in the open air for a month without having the husk removed. A plot for a nursery is then dug to the depth of two feet, and the soil is allowed to dry three days. On the Ugadi feast (26th March) remove one foot of earth from the nursery, and cover the surface of the plot with eight inches of sand. On this, place the nuts close to each other, with the end containing the eyo^uppermost. Cover them with three inches

108 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. HI,

1800. of sand, and two of earth. If the supply of water be from a weU,

June nth. ^Yie plot must once a day be watered ; but, if a more copious supply can be had from a reservoir, one watering in the three days is suf- ficient. In three months the seedlings are fit for being transplanted. By this time the garden must have been enclosed, and hoed to the depth of two feet. Holes are then dug, for the reception of the seedlings, at twenty feet distance from each other in all directions ; for when planted nearer, they do not thrive. The holes are two feet deep, and a cubit wide. At the bottom is put sand seven inches deep, and on this is placed the nut with the yoimg tree adhering to it. Sand is now put in until it rises two inches above the nut, and then the hole is filled with earth and a little dung. Every day for three years, except when it rains, the young trees must have water. While the trees are young, the garden is cultivated for all kinds of Tarkari stuffs, which serves for weeding. When they have grown up, the ground is ploughed, and cultivated for sugar-cane, betel- leaf, Cara BuUa rice, Sesamum, Huts' EUu, Tadaguny Carlay, Hes- saru, Udu, Huruli, Shamay, Navonay or Ragy, according as the soil is fitted for either of these crops. Mango and jack trees are also planted in these gardens, but greatly to their prejudice ; for no cul- tivation can be carried on under these trees.

The coco-nut palm begins to produce when seven or eight years old, and lives so long that its period of duration cannot readily be ascertained. I was shown some that were said to have been planted by Jacadeva Raya, and the people believe that they will live for a thousand years. Young trees, however, produce most fruit, which comes forward at all seasons of the year. A good tree gives an- nually a hundred nuts. A few are cut green on account of the juice, which is used as drink ; but by far the greater part are allowed to arrive at some degree of maturity, although not to full ripeness ; for then the kernel would become useless. The cultivator in gene- ral removes both husk and shell, and sells nothing but the kernel to the merchants, as they transport them even so far as to Madras. The kernel of the coco-nut enters much into the food of the richer natives, both in its raw state, and dressed after various fashions ; and it yields by far the finest oil of India, provided the nut is fresh, and the oil used soon after expression. The husks of the green coco-nuts are sold to the Whalliafu for making ropes, at the rate of two thousand the Sultany Fanam (about Sd.) ;*but the husk of the ripe nut is not fit for this purpose. At Chinapatam, Tari, or palm wine, is never extracted from the coco-nut tree, as the practice injures its growth. Two old leaves in general fall an- Mats for thatch- nuaUy from every tree, and each of these forms two of the mats ing huts. which are used in thatching huts. These mats sell at sixty for the

BuMany Fanam, and are put on as the first coat, which is after- wards covered with grass or straw: but in this neighbourhood thatched roofs are not much esteemed.

Merchants from Sermgapatam, Ban^c/fore, Colar, BaUapura,

CHAP. UI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. JQJ

Hosaocotay, and Devuiid-hully, come here to purchase the produce of 1800. these gardens. ^^^ ^^*^

Although the soil is considered as the property of the govern- Tenures of paim ment, yet when a man plants a palm garden, the trees are considered 8*^®*^- as his property, and he may at pleasure sell them. He pays one half 01 the produce to the government, as ground-rent; but pays nothing for the fruit-trees that are intermixed, nor for the vege- tables or grains that are cultivated under them. On this account the proprietors seem to be very careless in planting new trees, in room of those that have died, or that are in a state of decay ; for the older and thinner the palm trees are, the less they injure the crops under them. The Amildars, it is alleged, expect presents of the fruit, Jagory, and other articles that are cultivated in these gardens, and that do not pay r^t.

In this vicinity the Palmira tree thrives remarkably well, and Paimira, or bo- is planted in barren dry spots, where the other pahns will not suc-J^i^i/'**^*'''' ceed. It is only used for TaH^ or wine, and that is never distilled, and seldom made into Jagory. Its stem is considered as much bet- ter for building than that of the coco-nut.

At Chinapatam a family of Linga Banijigam have the art of sugar. making very fine white sugar. The process has always been kept a profound secret by the head of the house, who instructs his succes- sor a short time only before his death. The sugar is made for the sole use of the court, who allow the maker 27 Fanams a Maund or 41, Ss. 7d. a hundred weight, and furnish him wiih the juice of the cane, which he boils down, at the furnace of the cultivator, to f ths of the original bulk, and then carries it home to complete the opera- tion. This family is also allowed a viQage rent-free, as being sugar- makers to the court. Such a miserable monopoly of good things is a fevourite practice in the arbitrary governments of Hindustan, Instead of wishing to procure articles of the best quality by giving a high price for what they want, the princes of India are contented with preventing their subjects, by a monopoly, from getting such good things as they can ; not reflecting that a prince, by his superi- our wealth, can always in the fair market procure better things than his subjects, I examined the head of this family of sugar- boilers ; but what he said concerning the manner of conducting the operation was evideiltly false ; and I did not think it fair to press him too closely, as a discovery of the art might injure his property.

Both Putta Putti and Restali canes are cultivated, and of both sugar-cane. the white sugar can be made ; but cane that is raised on a rich soil will not answer for this purpose, as its juice can never be made to granulate.

Taking with me some sensible cultivators, and a Parputty, 1 shewed them a small plot of cane, and asked how much Jagory it would produce : they said, 400 balls at If iSeer each. By measur- ing the field, and reducing the measures and weights to the English standard, I found this to give 13J hundred weights an acre.

1 1 0 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. HI.

1800. ^^ ^^^ black soil called Eray the crop season commences at

June nth. Sivrdtri feast, or on the 12th of February. In the sandy soil called Marulu it begins in a few days earlier. By this time all the imple- ments are brought to the works, and the iron boiler is hired from the government at the rate of one Fcmam (about 8d.), and one ball of Jagory, a day. Boiling-house. The boiling-house is a thatched hut, about forty feet long and

twenty broad, with a door in front, but without windows. The walls are mud, and sttod all the year ; but a new roof of very slight ma- terials is put on annually, when the crop is ripe ; at one end is a square pit for holding the cuttings of the sugar- cane, (see Fig. 15 and 16, a)^ and at the other is the boiler (b). The furnace (c) is part- ly raised, and partly sunk ; it is in the form of a trunoated oone, and the fewel is supplied from without^by an opening in the wall (d). The small hole (e) for letting out the smoke is most injudiciously placed before the boiler, and has no chimney. The iron boiler, (b b b) is flat, and completely shuts the mouth of the furnace. Be- fore the boiler is a cavity (f) for containing the large cooling jar. At one of its sides is a seat of mud (g) for the workman who superintends the boiling ; and at one end of this is kept a small ark (h) dedicated to the gods. Here is daily put a proportion of Jagory, and a bit of money, which are given to any Brahman that may come to bless the operation by his presence ; but, if none come, the money is sent to the Brdhmana of the town, and the workmen eat the Jagory, after having presented it to the gods, and uttered their names. Sugar mm. The sugar mill (see Fig. 17) consists of a mortar, beam, lever,

pestle, and regulator.

The mortar (a a) is a tree, about ten feet in lengthy and four- teen inches in diameter. It is sunk perpendicularly into the earth, leaving one end two feet above the surface. The hollow (b b) is conical, truncated downwards, and then becomes cylindrical (c), with a hemispherical projection (d) in its bottom, in order to allow the juice to run freely to the small opening (e), that conveys it to a spout (f), from which it falls into an earthen pot. Bound the upper mouth of the cone is a circular cavity (g g), which collects any of the juice that may run over from the upper ends of the pieces of cane ; and from thence a canal (hh) conveys this juice down the outside of the mortar to the spout (f).

The beam (i i i) is about sixteen feet in length, and six inches in thickness, and is cut out from a large tree that is divided by a fork into two arms. In the fork an excavation is made for the mortar, round which the beam turns horizontally. The surface of this exca- vation is secured by a semicircle of strong wood. The end towards the forks is quite open, for changing the beam without trouble. On the undivided end of the beam sits the bullock-driver (k), whose cattle are yoked by a rope (1), which comes from the end of the beam ; and they are prevented from dragging out of the circle by another rope (m), which passes from the yoke to the forked end of

» • • • .. • •

«■ • • • .

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. HI

the beam* On the arms a basket (n) is placed to hold the cuttings of igoo. cane ; and between this and the mortar sits the man (o) who feeds -^"^^ ^^*'^- the mill. Just as the pestle comes round, he places the pieces of cane sloping down the cavity of the mortar ; and, after the pestle has passed, he removes those which have been squeezed.

The lever (p p) is a piece of timber nearly of the same length with the beam. Its thicker and lower end is connected with the undivided end of the beam by the regulator. Some way above its junction with the regulator, a piece of SujcdUy which is a very hard wood, is dovetailed into the lower side of the lever ; and in this piece (q) is made a smooth conical hollow, which rests on the head of the pestle. The upper end of the lever is fastened to the two arms of the beam by two ropes (r r).

The pestle (s) is a strong cylindrical piece of timber, about four feet in length. At each end it is out to a point, so as at the upper end to form a cone, and at the lower a pyramid of from twelve to fif- teen sides, surmounted by a short cylinder. The cavity in the lever being towards one end, makes the position of the pestle always oblique ; so that as it passes round it rubs strongly against the sides of the mortar. Its cylindrical point rubs on the top of the hemis- pherical projection (d) that is in the bottom of the cylindrical cavity of the mortar.

The regulator (t) is a strong square piece of timber, which passes through the xmdivided end of tiie beam, and is secured below by part of its circumference being left for cheeks. It is perforated by eight holes, in the lowest of which is placed a pin to prevent the regulator from falling when the strain is removed. A pin in one of the upper holes of the regulator, and another in one of the holes in the thick end of the lever, serve to secure in their place the ropes that bind dosely together these two parts of the machine. According as these pins are placed higher or lower, the relative direction of all the moveable p£Lrts of the machine is altered, and the balance of the beam is so regulated, that it goes round without any friction, but yet with its fork closely applied to the mortar. The only frictions in this machine, it must be observed, are at the two extremities of the pestle ; and that which is at the lower end is entirely employed in bruising the cane, which is the object in view ; still, however, it is a machine badly contrived for the purpose to which it is applied.

When the works and machinery have been prepared for making uikingjaffory, Jagory, all the proprietors of sugar-cane in the viU^e assemble, and work together a day at each man's field, in rotation, until the whole is finished. A sufficient number of people bring the canes to a man who cuts them into pieces about six inches long, and puts them in the square cavity (a) in the boiling-house. From thence one man supplies the basket of the person who feeds the mill, and who is the thii^d man employed at uie works. The fourth man drives the ^

bullockfi ; a fifth carries the juice to the boiler ; a sixth attends the fire ; and a seventh manages the boiler. The mill goes night and

112 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. HI.

1800. day, and gives 56 pots of juioe, containing in all about 218 ale

June nth. gallons.* The bullocks are changed^ after having expressed three pots^ and do no more work that day, having been obliged to go very fast. Two of them are in the yoke at a time.

The cane raised on black mould gives about a fiff;h part more

i'uioe than that produced on sandy soil : but then nine pots of the atter give a hundred balls of Jagoryy while it requires twelve, or even fourteen, pots of the former to produce the same quantity. The workmen always put into the boiler as much juice as will yield a hundred balls of Jagory. It is strained into the boiler through a cotton cloth, and there is added to it a proper quantity of lime-water. In a boiler full of rich juice, from cane raised on sandy soil, there is put half a Seer of lime-water, or about 34 cubical inches ; and poorer juice from the same kind of soil requires double that quantity. The boiler full of juice from black mould requires five or six Seers, which is added by degrees. The boiler performs his operations three times in the twenty-four hours. When the juice has been evaporated to a proper consistence, it is put into a large pot, and allowed to cool for three hours. It is then poured into the mould, which consists of a long thick plank, in whi<m a hundred holes are formed, each in the shape of a quadrilateral inverted pyramid. The Jagory, or inspissated juice, is allowed to dry in the mould for four hours ; when the plank being turned over, the balls, or rather pyramids of Jagory, fall down. They are dried by placing them on leaves for a day, and are then fit for sale. These balls weigh If Seer^ or 1,0617 lb ; and if made from oane raised on black mould, sell for about seven balls for the Saltany Fanam^ or 8a. O^d, the hundred weight. If made from cane raised on sandy soil, six balls cost a Fanam^ which is at the rate of 11«. 9|(Z. a hundred weight. The Jagory, it would thus appear, contains both the sugar and molasses, and is similar to what in Jamaica comes out of the cooler before it is taken to the curing-house. It is, however, somewhat more inspissated ; for which an allowance must be made, if we wish to compare the strength of the sugar-cane juice in the two countries. By the fore- going account it requires about 37 gallons of the best juice to make a hundred weight of Jagory.

By the account of a man, who came into my tents from another village, twelve pots of juice from a black mould give 165 Seers of Jagory ; which agrees very well with what was told me in the presence of the Carputty.

The government and the fanners share the produce of Jagory , equally. An acre produces 13^ hundred weight, at a medium of 105. ; the average rent of sugar land is therefore 3/. Gs. 6d, an acre. The farmers allege, that the Amddars^ in order to favour the court sugar-maker, who generally supplies them also, take all the juice that is produced on sandy soil, and estimating the quantity oi Jagory which would fall to the farmer's share, repay him with Jagory made of oane raised on the black mould ; but this seems too paltry a kind

CUAP. 111.] MYSORE, CANAUA, AND MALABAU. Hg

of imposition to be practised, and shows that they have little real cause isoo. otcoraplaiut when they mention one so trivial.

rith June.—l went to Rdma-girL A part of the way I had Jane 12th. travelled before ; out, on coming to the Arkavjati river, I turned to the north, and passed through a valley naturally beautiful^ but which DesoiatioDs. appeared dismal on account of its having been in great measure deserted. Near its head I found a few small villages surrounded by little caltivfition.

Since the accession of Tippoo, Rdma-giri has been strangely Rama-giru agitated. The town, which was then considerable, he removed from the west side of the river, and placed close under the hill upon which the fort is built. It was then surrounded by a wall, and some other defences of no great importance. The army of Lord Comwallis sum- moned the fort ; and the garrison, intimidated by the taking of many strong places which they had seen fall, surrendered without any re- sistance, and for some time our troops kept possession. After the peace Tippoo dismantled the fort, and now the Amildar haa again removed the town to the west side of the river, and placed it lower down than its original situation. During the incursions of Lord Comwallis the inhabitants were deprived of the means of subsistence, and a largo proportion of them perished of hun-* ger. * I give this, and other similar accounts of the state of popula- tion, from the information of the natives, which I believe Ib just and rather partial to the British side, partly from flattery, and partly from their being sensible that tbey never before were under the protection of a people so humane, just, and powerful* The place is dreadfully infested by tigers, especially the fort> which occupies a Tigem, large rocky hill, capable of a very tedious defence, even without any assistance from art Several Brdhmans reside near the summit, for the place is reputed holy ; but it is kept in a very slovenly state. It is plentifully supplied with water from several large cavities, or chasms in the rock, which receife the rain, and by their coolness }»revent its sudden evaporation* Such cavities are called by the natives Donays, and in all the rocky hills of this great chain oioonays mountains are very common. In the hottest season they never be- ""^^ ^ come dry ; but they have no springs to give a supply of fresh water, and of course afford but unwholesome dnnk.

The granite, of which the rock of Rama-giri consists, is very Granite, beautiful, and is composed of small grains of black mica, or perhaps miearelle, and of white glassy quartz, in which are immersed large masses of red felspar. It seems to agree exactly with Mr. Kirwan's definition of granitic porphyry. It is a very elegant stone, and might be procured in very large masses.

Cattle seem to be the principal object of the people of Sdma-giri. caiue. On account of the great quantity of prickly bushes, and a number of what they call wild dogs, no sheep can be kept ; but there are c<jft* siderable numbers of goats and cows. The inhabitants seem to oe 'incommonly cleanly ; as they gave me 6ome butter that was free

15

114, A JOUENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. III.

1800. from any.bad smell or taste^ a circumstance that I never before met

June lath. ^tjj Jq India, except where the butter was purposely made for the

use of an European. OMfi. Very few wethered goats are kept here, most of the males

being sacrificed when young. Three males are reckoned sufficient for a hundred females. The females begin to breed when a year old, and twice annually haye a kid. They give milk eight moiiths in the year ; that is to say, four months after each kid, and yield daily naif a Seer, or about an ale pint. They are killed when eight years old. A young goat, male or female, sdls for five or six FaTtams^ or for 3^. 4|<2., or 49. 0|cZ. The tigers are very destructive to this kind of cattle. oxkiBd. The £a.rmers who are in easy circumstances keep from ten to

thirty breeding cows ; but the number of cattle has been exceed- ingly reduced by a most fatal disorder that prevailed among them last year. It is attributed by the natives to a contagion introduced by the Brinjaries, who foUowed the British army ; and no doubt it raged with the utmost violence in the camps before SeringapcUam ; but a similar disease frequently occurs at the same season, although it was never before known to prove so fatal I am therefore inclin- ed to believe, that it is rather endemic than contagious. It com- menced in April, and lasted three months. The cattle seized by this disease pass bloody, or at least very red urine, and are reduced by a purging ; but, although vejy few recover, the disease does not kill suddeidy ; they live under it from two to three months. It is alleged, that last year nine-tenths of the whole cattle in this district periiwed from this cause.

The cows are always kept in a house at night, and by some are littered with straw ; but by others this is neglected. At night they always get straw to eat. In the morning, about an hour a^r sun- rise, all, except the working oxen, are turned out to the woods under the charge of a man, who takes cai% of fifty head. They are much exposed to tigers, and are not guarded bv dogs. At noon they have water, and again in the evening, when they are brought home. The milch cows on this occasion have for their drink the water in which the grain of the family has been boiled.

The cow begins to breed at about three years of age, but at no particular season of the year. She goes nine months with calf, and does not breed oftener than once in two or three years. She conti- nues to give milk, until within three months of calving. For the first month the calf haa all the milk ; afterwards it continues to have a little every day, till the mother becomes dry. A middling good cow gives, twice a day, three-quarters of a Seer of milk, or about a pint and a half, besides what the calf draws. A cow lives until she is twenty years of age, but does not breed after sixteen. The idea of putting a cow to labour shocks the natives here exceedingly. They cannot hear it mentioned with patience ; and relate, with marks of great satisfaction, that for this offence their last Mc^a put

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, 115

to death several Bfinjaries ; for it is customary with that people to ISOO. make cows cany their baggage. * ''"*• ^^^

The working oxen begin to plough at sun-rise, and continue until sun-set, with an intermission of three hours at noon ; at which time they have a feed of straw, as they have also at night. They have water at noon, at three o'clock, and at sim-set. The cattle bred here are not fit for the road. The richest mkn of the village keeps a bull or two, as there may be occasion, and these serve all the cows without hire. The best calves are kept for this purpose ; and occa- sionally a good bull is purchased from some distance to improve the breed. The bull begins to propagate at three years of age, and continues till ten. Those intended for labour are emasculated at three years of age, by bruising the parts between two sticks. They very seldom die in consequence of this operation ; but for about fifteen days are in pain from the swelling, and for a month do not begin to work. In the Decan, castration is not practised on any quadruped. The young bulls are frequently wrought, and iJbe ox continues to labour until he is ten or twelve years of age ; when, worn out by hunger, fatigue, and bad usage, he dies a premature death, and his carrion is devoured by the Whalliaru. The late emasculation of the cattle intended for labour is done with a view of giving the ox spirit ; but I am inclined to think that it produces a mreat degeneracy in the breed ; for the cows, in consequence, are frequently impregnated by the poorest creatures of the herd:

In aU diseases of the ox kind, the gfand remedy is the actual cautery, applied very fancifully in different places, and to a different extent, according to the supposed nature of the disease. The animal is thrown down, his mouth and legs are tied, and long lines are burned with a hot iron, so as to bring off both hair and skin. Three lines are often thus drawn on each side, the whole length of the animal's body. Although the killing an animal of this kind is by all Hindus considered as a kind of murder, I know no creature, whose Bufferings equal those of the labouring cattle cf Hindustan.

Before the fatal disease of last year, the usual price of a mid- dling ox five years old, was from 25 to 30 Fanama^ or from 16^. Q^d. to U. 08. l|(j. ; and of a cow, from 20 to 25 Panama ^ or from 13^. bd, to 168. 9\d, The price of an ox is now 40 FanamSj or 11, 68. iOcf. ; and of a cow, 80 Fananis^ or 1 L 08. \\d.

In this hilly tract, there is a race of men called by the other na- ^5r%!nt; tives Cad' Eriligaru; but who called themselves Oaf Chensu. Here ^ they live in little huts near the villages, and have a small piece of blanket, or cotton cloth, to cover their nakedness. They are recon- ciled to the other natives, and pay a trifling capitation tax to govern- ment. Where the woods are more extensive, they are terrified at the sight of any civilized being, and live absolutely without any clothing, but cover their nakedness with a few leaves. In these forests they dwell in caves, or under bushes, which they make a better shelter from the weather^ by adding small branches from other trees.

IIQ A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. lU.

1800. When the civilized part of this tribe go into the woods to yisit their

juii« 12th. relations, or to trade with them, they must throw oj0f their rags, lest they should be mistaken for a villager, in which case none of the CItensu would approach.

The language of the Gkensu is a dialect of the Tamul, with oc- casionally a few Karnata or Telinga words intermixed ; but their accent is so different from that of Madras, that my servants did not at first understand what they said. Their original country, they say, is the Aniitnalay forest below the Ghats, which is confirmed by their dialect. Those who live in the villages have taken the Pancham Banijigaru as their chiefs ; they trade chiefly with them, and call them their Swamis^ or lords ; but, although they have learned to invoke the name of Siva^ they do not wear the Lingam, Those in the woods have either no religion, or some simple one with which those here are unacquainted. The people of this country attribute to the Chensn the power of bewitching tigers ; and my Brahman gravely informed me, that the CheTisu women, when they went out to procure food, left their infants in charge of one of these ferocious beasts. The Chensu of course deny their possessing any such power ; but allege, that the art is known to another rude tribe named Soli- garuy who inhabit the southern Ohats which separate this country irom Coimbetore.

The Cliensu here live upon game, wild roots, herbs, and fruits ; and a little grain, » which they purchase from the farmers. They are enabled to do this by collecting some drugs, honey, and wax. It is on account of their having the exclusive privilege of collecting these two last articles, that they pay a poll-tax, which is annually fifteen FanamSy or lOa. 0|d. for each family. Bees. The bees are of two kinds : one, smaller than our bee, builds its

nest on the twigs of trees, and is easily procured ; the other is a large bee, which builds in the clefts of rocks, and its honey is obtain- ed with groat difficulty. The wax sells at 2J Seers for the Fanam, or 1/. 8s. 4d, a hundred weight. The honey sells at 2 Seers for the Fanam. i^fugs. The drugs collected by the Cheiisu are as follows : Agvlusutvtiy

and Segguntigay, two roots used in medicine. Popliy a bark used as a red dye. The plant that produces it is a scandent shrub, the flower or fruit of which I could never find ; nor did Dr. Roxburgh know it by the dry specimen of the branches in leaf. It seems, however, to be nearly related to the Veiitilago, . The Muddi^ or bark of the root of at least two kinds of Mw^ivdaj is also used as a dye ; as is likewise the Capily Fodi, It is the red dust shaken from the fruit of the Rotleria tinctoria. The merchants of Banga-' luru and OoLar buy up these articles, paying to the Clienstl a Fanam, for 32 Seer of Popliy and Muddiy or 38. 10 Jd a hundred weight, and a Fanam for one Seer of Capily Podi, or Is. l^d. a pound.

When ordered, the CJierisu collect gum from various trees ; but they never do it without a special commission, and the quantity

CUAP. III.]

MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR.

117

that they could procure is inoonsiderable. The trees which produco^ 1800.

'A .lima Jytl

it ore,

June lictb.

Dinduga,

BewUy

Muruculu,

Mavena,

Avuricay,

Nugay,

Bayla,

Jaiay

ChadacalUy

Betta Tovaryy . . .

Andersonia Panahmoum, Rox* MSS. Alelia azadirachta, Chirongia glabra, Buch. MSS. Atangifera Indica. Cassia auricuLata,

. . . jEgle marmeloa, ... Sluyrea Jala^ Buch. MSS. ... Cldoroxylon Ihipada, Buch. MSS. . . . Bombax goasypinuvi, Lin. The principal articles of vegetable food collected by the Chensu^ are, the seed of the Bamboo, and several kinds ot Dioscorea, or Yams that grow wild in the neighbouring woods.

The kinds of game which they kill are as follow : Wudamu or Jevaji, ... Lepus Hurgosa, Buch. MSS.

Bandicoote Cad^ Hundi ... HvJay

Saraga or Manu Cadaba

Condagurovi ... CaduCauli ... Navelu Paruala Lavagay* Chipula Hold. Gad' Uaki.

Mu8 Malabaricus, Shaw.

Su8 Scfi^ofajerm.

AntUope Gazella,

Cervus aa»s.

Cervus Cadaba, Buch. MSS.

Cervus Muntjac.

Phasianua Gailus.

Pavo.

Columba.

8waray Haki,

Haki signifies a bird. My time would not permit me to enter into a particular investigation of these species. The beasts are killed with a match-lock, which the farmers give to the CheusUy with powder and ball, on condition of receiving a part of the game. The birds are killed with the pellet-bow, or caught by hair springs. The Chensu possess no domestic animals.

Lac is produced in several of the neighbouring hills, upon the lac, tree called Jala, which seems to be of the same genus with the Shorea of Gsertner^ and this is probably not different from the Vatica of linnseus. The tree is never planted, but grows naturally ; and the persons who rent the La<> carry the insect from one tree to another. The tree grows to. a large size; and there are a great many, on which no insects have been put. The Ghensw and Woddar are the persons who oommonly rent it ; but they allege, that they axe dis- couraged from the employment, by the want of leases for a number of years. Stick-bic sells here at three Fanams for the MauTid of 40 8eera, or 9^. 4^(2. a hundred weight.

isth June. — I went to Magadi^ which ia our maps is called ifa- june utb.

118

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. III.

1800.

June 18th. Face of the country.

Iron mines.

Iron imclting ffamaoe.

ghery. This stage was very fatiguing for my cattle ; and the road

Eassed through a wild but romantio countrj, which consists of low ills, inteimixed with little cultiyated Tallies, The soil of these is tolerably good ; and, like the Rama-^iri valley, they are cultivated with dry grains only. The higher parts are covered with trees, which, owing to the poverty of the soil, are in most places very small ; but near Savarui'durga^ and in a few other parts, the timber and Bamboos grow to a good size. The summits of all the ridges of hills are bare rocks of the granitic porphyry, and often rise into high sharp peaks, or immense masses of naked stone. By far the most remarkable of these is occupied by Savana-durgaj which the army of Lord Comwallis took by assault ; ever since which time it has been deserted.

On my way I examined some iron forges, of which there are many in this hUly tract of country ; and from a man, who employs twelve labourers, I procured the following account of the opera- tions performed on the ore. The iron is made partly from the black sand which is found in the rainy season in the channels of all the torrents in the country ; and partly from an ore which is found at Ohettipura, two cosses &om Magadu During the four months of heavy rains, four men are able to collect as much sand as a furnace can smelt in the remainder of the year. In order to separate the earth and sand, which are always mixed with it in the channel of the torrent, it requires to be washed. These men get ten Fana/msj or 68. 8|c7. a month, and the nature of their service is similar to that of the farmers' servants, being bound by occasional advances of money to continue in the employment of the master. During the remaining eight months of the year they work at the forge.

The smelting furnace is made in the front of a square mound of clay, sloping up gradually from behind forwards. In order to assist the imagination, I give rude sketches (Fig. 18 and 19) of the longitudinal and transverse sections. In the front, the mound (1) is twenty-two inches high, and three feet broad. In this, from top to bottom, is made a semicylindrical cavity (2), about a foot in diameter. On the ground, in the firont of the cavity, is laid a stone (3) six inches high, a foot long, and a foot broad. Contigu- ous to this is placed another stone (4) a foot square, and two inches thick. On the top of this is fixed a small piece of timber (8), behind which rises another mound of clay (5), slopinff^ upwards gradually, and widening as it recedes from the furnace. On this rest the bel- lows, of which there are two. Each consists of a whole buffalo's hide, removed without cutting it lengthwise. WherQ it has been out at the neck, it is sown up, so as to leave a small opening for a wooden muzzle (7), which is made fast to the piece of timber (8) before- mentioned. The hinder part of the skm is slit vertically, and the one side is made to lie over the other. In the middle of this outer side is fastened a ring of leather (9), through which the workman passes his arm, and sizes the upper angle of the skin (10), which

F«-M/.u--- ./(A, ..<...

LJ

118

1800.

June 13th. Face of the country.

Iron mines.

Iron imelUiig ffomaoe.

• >

CHAP, in.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 119

servefl as a handle. When he draws back bis arm, the opening in 1800. the hinder part of the skin is dilated and admits the air ; when he ^^^ ^'^* forces his arm forward, the opening is closed np, and the air is forced through the muzzle. I'he lower part of the bellows is re* tained in its place by a rope fastened to the lower angle (11), and supported b J an elastio piece of timber (13), which is fastened to one of the posts of the hut, like a turner's lathe. The muzzles of both the bellows are inserted in one common tube (14), which is made of baked clay, and is placed in a sloping direction, so as to pass through a mass of moist clay (15), that occupies the front of the furnace above the first mentioned stone (3). Above this is placed a large tile (16) ; and the empty spaces between this and the mound (1) are filled up with moist clay (17). The furnace is now oylindrical, and open at top, on which is placed a chimney (18) made of baked clay, in the form of two truncated cones joined to- gether by the apices. Of these the upper cone is by far the shortest. From this it must be observed, that the whole lower front of the furnace is moveable ; and when it has been newly built up^ a little charcoal is burned in it for an hour, to dry the moist clay by which the various parts are connected. The rents formed during this ope- ration must be carefully closed with more clay, and the furnace is then ready for immediate use.

For smelting the black sand, the following is the process. A quantity of the sand is measured out, and divided into three parts, each of which I found to weigh a little more than 25 pounds 11 ounces avoirdupois. Three baskets of charcoal are then set aside, of which each contains about a bushel. Two of the baskets of char- coal are then put in by the top of the chimney, and above these one-third part of the sand. The fire is then kindled, and urged with the bellows. When the fire subsides one half of the remaining charcoal, and another third of the sand, are put in ; and, when those have again subsided, the remainder of the sand and charcoal is added, and the fire is urged six hours and a half from the com- mencement. The front of the furnace is then broken, and on re- moving the walls a mass of iron is found at the bottom, which is taken out with forceps and cut into two blocks, weighing each half a Maundy or a little more than twelve pounds two ounces. By this it would appear, that the ore produces no more than about 31^ per cent. ; and the iron so produced, although malleable at first, is ex- tremely impure. Tippoo took it from the workmen at 3 FaTiama a Maund, or 9«. 3J(i a hundred weight. He gave them, however, CTeat employment ; as he made his shot of this iron, by hammering ; lor the fusion is never so complete as to allow it to be cast into moulds.

In order to render this iron more pure, and fit it for being iron forg«. wrought up into the implements of husbandry, it is taken to an- other house, and repeatedly forged. Fig. 20, 21, 22, and 23, are rude sketches of the apparatus necessary for this purpose. There

120 ^ lOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH ' [CliAP. llh

1800. are h6r6 also two bellows (1 ), but they are smaller that! those in the

iun« i3th. smelting-house ; and the moimd (2) on which they are supported being low, a pit (3) is formed behind it, in which the labourers stand to reduce them to the proper level. The muzzles of the bel- lows (4) are inserted into an earthen tube {o), which conveys the air into tiie furnace through one of its side- walls (6). These walls are two masses of clay, one cubit long, ten inches high, and four inches thick ; and are placed on the floor, parallel to each other, at the distance of a foot. On them is laid a flat cover (7) made of baked clay, and about an inch and a half in thickness. In its hinder part is an oblong opening (8), sufficient to admit one of the blocks of iron. The fore part of the furnace is secured on the top by a moulding (23) of clay, which is somewhat ornamented. Before it is placed a stone (21) a cubit long) twelve inches broad, and three high. Except what is shut up by this stone, all the fore part of the furnace is open. The hinder part (10) is entirely shut up with clay, except a small opening (11), by which the ashes and vitrified scorit© fall into the ash-pit (12)*

A block of iron from the smelting-house having been put into the centre of the furnace, it is filled with Bamboo charcoal, and strongly heated ; while another block is put into the upper opening (8), to receive some heat as a preparation. When the first block is properly heated, it is placed on an anvil (13), and receives a few strokes of a large hammer from three workmen, who stand in three cavities (19) formed round the anvil, to reduce them to a proper level, and who thus knock off some ill smelted portions, and much of the adhering scoriae. With a kind of hatchet the block is then cut into three wedges ; and in this operation the workmen show dexterity. The second piece is then put into the centre of the furnace, and a third piece is placed in the upper opening of the furnace (8) ; while these are neating, the three wedges are again made red hot, «nd well beaten on the anvil (13) by the three work-^ men with large hammers. In this state the six wedges produced from one smelting weigh 24 Seers, or a little more than 14$ pounds avoirdupois ; and are sold to the blacksmiths ; who are, however, obliged to heat and beat the iron three or four times, before it is lit for making the implements of husbandry. The weight of the six wedges is then reduced to fiilecn Seers, or a little more than nine pounds ; and they «ell at from tWo to three 'Fanams, or from about Is. 4>d. to 2s. : that is, from about 16s. 6d. to 24s. 9d. a hundred weight. From this it appears, that the good malleable iron, pro- duced by this^means, is not quite 12 per cent, of the weight of the ore. ^teei . The same persons also make steel. Good clay is mixed with

an equal quantity of the charcoal that is made from Paddy husks ; and, having been well moistened with water, is thoroughly mixed, by being trodden under the feet of oxen. It is then picked i clean, and made into cuppcls, which are dried one day in the shade,

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 121

and next day in the sun. A fire place is then made, in farm of I8OO., a mraUelogium, bjr pla<;ing two stones one cubit long, and two'^"*"*^' inches and a half high, parallel to each other. At the (Stance of a foot above the stones is placed a wall of clay eight inches high. One end is shut up, in the same manner, by stone and clay ; the other is built up with clay alone to the height of two cubits. Through this is inserted a tube for two bellows. Each of the cuppels is now loaded with a small piece of iron, from one to one and a half Seer (9-j^z. to 14 oz.) in weight, together with five small pieces of the Tangayree wood (Gasda auriculata). Three rows of the loaded cuppels are placed one above the other, so as to occupy the whole area of the ramace; the room of one cuppel only being left empty, opposite to the muzzle of the bellows, in order to give access to the wind- They are covered with two bushels of charcoal^ and burned for six hours ; a third bushel of charcoal having been added, as the former two were consumed. The pieces are then taken out, and hammered into small square bars, having been heated with charcoal of the SvJaXu {Mimosa Tuggula, Buch. MSS.)

The expence that attends the working of one of these iron SspeBee and

foiges is as follows : ^to^.

Fanams.

To 4 men for collecting iron sand, at 10 Fanams each for 4

months ... ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 160

To 6 men to make charcoal, 4 for the smelting-house, and 2 for the forge, during 8 months, at 8 Fanams monthly for e&cn ... ••• ... •*• •*• ••• •*• 0v>^

To 4 labourers at the smelting-house, for 8 months, at 10

Fanams esxih 320

To 6 labourers in the forging-house, of whom 1 has 12 Fa- nams, the others 6 Fanarns a month, for 8 months . . . 336

To the government paid yearly ; for making charcoal 60 Fa- nams, for ground rent for furnace 20 Fanams, for ditto for servants' houses 20 .Fanams 100

FamuTns 1300

The smelting-house bums thrice a day, for about eight months

of 32 days each, without any allowance for holidays, and at each

time produces as much iron as, when forged, sells for from two to

three FaTiams.

FcLnoLtnSm At two Fanams the returns are 1536

v/US1/ ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• ••. Xt/Uv

Netprofit 236

Fanafnt. At three Jbnams gross produce 2304

vajB V ••• •.• ••• ••• ••• •.. •«. i.&\F\9

Netprofit ... ... 1004

16

meDt.

122 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP, 111.

1800. The operation for smelting the ore is exactly the same as that

Manipulation of used for the black sand, except in the cleaning of it. The ore is first the ore. rcduccd to powder with an iron bar, and then the earthy particles

are washed away in a wooden trough ; when it becomes exactly like the black sand, and is called by the same name, Adurw. The collect- ing of it is attended with less trouble than that employed to collect the black sand; but the carriage to any considerable distance prevents it from being used in general ; as the workmen must live where the farmers will give them employment in their vacant time. Another »ute- Two othcr men, one from Ghettipum, and one from Cutlu on the

way to Bangahiru, confirm the above account. Each smelting, ac- cording to them, takes nearly 68 pounds of black sand. The difier- ence here, from the other account, probably arises from my having weighed the former when very moist, and this when dry : for the workmen always put the sand into the furnace, after having thoroughly soaked it with water. According to this account, how- ever, the ore gives rather more than 37 per cent, of the impure iron> and a little less than 20 per cent, of iron fit for the use of the black- smith. For this purpose, after it has been split into wedges, it requires to be four times heated and hammered.

According to the account of these people, the following are the

expences of a smelting-house and forge :

Fanams^ To 3 men to collect and prepare ore for 9 months, at 10

FcLTidins ... ... ... ... ... ••• ... 270

To 5 persons to make charcoal, at ditto ... ... ... 450

To the head workman at the smelting furnace, at 15 Fanania

a mouvn ... ..■ ... ... ... ... ••• x%>o

To 3 under workmen at ditto, at 13 Fanama each a month ... 351

To the head workman at the forge, 20 Panama a month ... 180

To 3 hammer-men at ditto, at 9 Fanams each ... 24^

To 2 bellows-men at ditto, at 8 Fanams each 144

Paid to the Government :

For liberty to make charcoal ... 200

For ground-rent of fiimace ... 10

Ditto for workmen's huts ... ... ... ... ... 54

Total of expences 2037

Produce of three smeltings daily for 9 months, of 32 days :

Fanams, Gross produce, at 2 Fanams each smelting 1728

JjOSS ••«■ ••• ... ... ••* ... ••• ••. Ov«7

Gross produce, at 3 FanafW5 each smelting 2592

Total expence ... 2037

Profit 565

In this account the expences greatly exceed those stated by the first man, and seem to me to be much exaggerated. The persona

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 123

Avho gave it allege, that the Gliettipicra ore has not been lately 1800. wi-ought.

14th June. — I remained at Magadi to procure specimens of the Juneutb. timber contained in the forests, which was attended with more diffi- culty than could have been supposed. About forty men, employed all day, brought only ten specimens ; and of these several were use- less, from being spoiled at the heart.

15th June. — Having had little success yesterday in sending the junc i5th. woodmen to bring me specimens of timber, I went to-day into the •^^«««-«*w''j?«- woods on the east side of Savana-durga, which name has been cor- rupted by us into Severtidroog. It is an immense bare rock, which has many fortifications on its summit. A lower rock, but yet one of great strength, is foi-tified, and is situated at the base of the larger, towards the small river, which runs in a very deep ravine ; and a large space between the ravine and rock is also enclosed by a stone wall, and surrounded by thick forests. This place formerly contain- ed several temples, and some large gardens belonging to Magadi Kempa Oauda ; and served as a place of refage for the inhabitants of aU the neighbouring countiy, who in case of invasion retired hither with their grain and cattle. A few families of Brdhmans re- main near the ruinous temples ; and the site of the gardens is evident from a number of fruit and flowering trees. Every other part of the enclosure is overgrown with forest trees and Bamboos.

Magadi Kempa Gauda, or the red head-man of Magadi, was a mrfodi Kmpa wealthy farmer, who, having gathered together a number of fol- ''*"^** lowers, built at his native- village two large temples, and the fortress of Savana-durga, and became a Polygar of great distinction ; as he possessed also Rdma-giri, and a great extent of the neighbouring hilly tract. About five ycara ago, Tippoo, with his usual policy of removing every monument of Hindu government, destroyed Magadi, and forced the inhabitants to settle in a new town, which he erect- ed in the woods, and called Ali-nagdr. The people are now desert- ing this place, and returning to their old abode in Magadi.

In the hollow ground near the river are some of the best forests Forcsu. in the country, the trees growing to a considerable size. The cattle of the inhabitants never go into them ; nor can any one cut the tim- ber without an order from government. Much of the lower land in this forest might be cleared and cultivated.

Throughout these hills, which extend northward from Capaia- Baydam. durga, are many cultivated spots, in which, during Tippoo's govern- ment, were settled many Baydaru, or hunters, who received twelve Pagodas {4il. 5s.) a yeai*, and served as irregular troops whenever required. Being accustoiiied to pursue tigers and deer in the woods, they were excellent marksmen with their match-locks, and indefa- tigable in following their prey ; which, in the time of war, was the life and property of every helpless creature that came in their way. During the wars of JEyder and his son, these men were chief instru- ments in the terrible depredations committed in the lower Carnatic.

124 A JOURNET FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. 111.

1800. They were also frequently employed with success a^iainst the

June 16 Polygars, whose followers were men. of a similar description. At

present, as they receive no pay, they are obliged to apply more closely to agriculture ; for in tnat way they always employed their leisure ; and there is a prospect of their becoming a quiet and in- dustrious people, although they still retain their arms^ and an anxious desire for plunder. jnnei6<h. 16th JuHB, — I remained at Magadi, endeavouring to complete

cSitt^?.** Bay collection of the various timber trees. I sent also to Ghettipura to inquire after the iron mines : but was informed by the officers of government, that, nobody having wrought them for some years, their situation was not now known. After a long search, however, they had found a few stones, which they sent, beneving that they might be iron-ore. I then sent for the man who had given me the ioior- mation ; and on the following day, Juno nth. 17th June, — I took him along with me to Ghettipura, where I

not only found the ore in several places, but also tiie pits, from which the people were then actually taking it to supply their furnaces. I am at some loss to account for tms desire of conceal- ment relative to minerals, which also extends to every kind of quarry throughout the country, and which equally pervades the officers of government and the other inhabitants. Men, who have given me apparently correct information relative to their farms, have eagerly denied a knowledge of the fossile kingdom, which they no doubt possessed, and for which denial I can assign no plausible motive. The late Sultan, indeed, is said to have harassed his subjects exceedingly, by making them work at quarries, and also to have been very severe on the smelters of iron ; and the people may have suspected, that my inquiries might lead to similar oppression ; but according to the iron- smelters' own account, the Sultan gave them a high price for their iron, and by his great demand afforded them constant employment. It is probable, however, that he compelled them to work much harder than they were inclined to do, and that they were defirauded by those who were entrusted with the payment.

Much steel was formerly made at Ghettipura, from whence it derives its name, which signifies literally hardtovm. It is a small village situated by the compass W. S. W. from Sava/na-durga, and is distant from Magadi about seven miles. Near it are many cultivated fields intermixed with low rocky hills. The ore is found both in the fields and hills.

The iron ore of the fields consists of small irregular masses sepa* rated by thin layers of earthy matter, and is found in beds that are from five to ten feet deep, which have only been wrought in a few places, where they come so near the surface that they have been discovered by the plough. It is probable, that by digging deep they might be found to be of great extent. The small masses are easily beaten into powder, and then the black sand is readily separated, by washing, from the clay and sand that are the other ingredients in

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 125

their composition. This ore is of two kinds ; one efflorescing into W^/^^ red ochre, the other into yellow. Intermixed with both these kinds ""* of ore, which are called female stones, are many lumps of what the natives call male stone. It appears to me to be composed of the same materials with the female stone, but is so hard, that the imper- fect manipulations of the natives cannot reduce it to a powder, and of course they cannot separate the earthy matter. It is, therefore, looked upon as useless, fluxes being totally unknown to the miners of Mysore. The female stone appears to me to be the male in a state of decay.

The iron ore of the hills is also male and female ; the latter being the only one used ; and this is also, in my opinion, the male in a state of dissolution. The male stone in the hills bears a much larger proportion to the female, than it does in the fields. This ore also is found on digging a very little depth into the soil^ and seems to be the source from whence most of the black sand of the country is washed by the rain. It appears to me to difler from the quartz impregnated with iron, which I mentioned in the account of the Fedda Nayakcma durga Ghats, only by containing a larger quantity of metal. The female stone is very easily reduced to a powder ; and the iron sand is readily separated, by washing, from the quartzose sand, which is the other ingredient in the ore. It is not so rich in metal as the ore found in the fields. These two ores are called Adur%tj Cullu, or stones containing iron sand.

On the surface of the hills is found another iron ore called Ipa- nada, which is scattered among the gravel in small lumps, from the size of an egg downwards. They are a pure ore, and are put in the furnace without any preparation, except breaking the larger pieces into bits about the size of a filbert. The quantity of Ipanada re- quired for one furnace is exactly the same, by measure, as that of Aduru; but the weight of Ipanada is of course less, there being more space occupied by interstices, from the greater size of the piecea The produce of iron from both is the same. The surface of the lumps of Ipanada is often covered with a kind of black enamel.

18th June. — I passed this day in the woods near Savana-durga, jmie isth. investigating their productions. The woodmen are a poor ignorant SeoenSiwood race, most of them of the lowest cast called Whalliaru; but they o'^^'**"'*«*«- always pretend to know every plant of which the name is asked. They have also a number of specific appellations, such as Bily, white ; Kempu, red ; Cari, black ; Jboda, large ; Chica, small ; Betta, moun- tain; Wullay, cultivated; Cadu, wild; Tvniboo, eatable; and the like ; many of which they often apply to the same species, and some* times the same name to different species, with sp little accuracy, that any person, who depends on their accounts, will find himself thrown into great confusion.

19ihJune. — Iwajs obliged to remain at Magadi still another jnneisth. day, to complete my collection of forest trees, and to procure speci- ^"*™**' mens of the stones from the best quarries.

12Q A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. III.

1800. The stones that are employed in building the temples at Magadi

Jane 19tb.

are,

1st. The granitic porphyry, or the granite which contains large masses of red felspar in a small grained mixture of grey quartz and black mica, and which I described at Rdma-giri, Near Savana- durga there is an excellent quarry of this stone.

2d. A granite consisting chiefly of black mica and red felspar. This may be procured of a very large size.

3d. The common grey granite of the country. I toet also with the two following stones :

1st. A granite with large grains black and white. This may be procured of great size.

2d. A most ornamental aggregated rock. The basis is green, of what nature I am uncertain ; perhaps it may be a hornstone. It contains veins of white quaitz, and concretions of red felspar. The whole takes an elegant polish, and may, in Mr. Kirwan's accepta- tion of the word, be considered as a porphjoy. Near the surface the rock is full of rents; but by digging deep, it is said, large masses may be procured. It seems to differ from the fine green stone which was found in the palace at Semngapatam, only by con- taining felspar, Foieits. The trees that compose the forests among these hills are chiefly

the following :

Henna Gorivi, Ixora arhorea, Roxb. MSS. A smaU tree used for beams and posts in the houses of the poorer natives. People travelling at night use pieces of it for torches, as it burns readily and clearly.

Ghendu Gorivi, or Haydarany. Serves for the same purposes as the preceding, and is probably a species of the same genus.

Cari Hulitoay ? Clutia forte stipularis ? I believe the natives misapplied this name. They had often mentioned it to me, and had brought a specimen of the timber ; but in the woods they some- times called one tree by this name, and sometimes another. At last they fixed positively on this, which is said to produce good timber.

Heb, or Bily Hulivay, Chuncoa Huliva, Buch. MSS. A large tree, and good timber.

Tor MuUi, Chuncoa Muttea, Buch. MSS. At Chinapatam this tree is called Cari Hulivay, To the north- ward it is commonly called Muddi, which is a Telinga name. It is a very large tree, and its timber is very useful.

Tari, Myrohalanus Taria, Buch. MSS. Is a large tree much used by the natives. Its timber becomes toler- ably durable, if, after being cut, it be kept some months under water. The kernel of the fruit is esculent.

Ariilay, Myrohalanus Arula, Buch, MSS. The timber of this tree, Uke that of the former, requires to be

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 127

watered in order to render it durable. The fruit is the common 1800. tanning and dying myrobaZam of this countiy . ^^^^ *^'^*

Amutty or Gowda ? It grows to be a large tree, and its timber is used for planks, beams, and posts.

Jugalagunti, Diospyrus montana, Roxb. The timber of this tree is said to be hard, and durable ; but from some prejudice, it is never used by the natives. Its name signifies the scolding wife,

Tupru, Diospyros Tupru, Buch. MSS. Used for small beams and posts. The timber is said to be very hard and strong.

Vana Rdja or A ska, Bauhinia. It is called the prince of the forest, on account of the superior excellence of its timber ; but it does not grow to a large size.

Hassur Gunny, Dalbergia ? Grows to a middling size, and its timber is good ; it nearly resem- bles the following tree ; but may be readily distinguished by the bottom of its leaflets being acute; while in the other they are rounded.

Pachery, Dalbergia paniculata, Rox. Grows to a large size, but its timber is very useless ; for the layers of which it LS composed readily separate.

Biridy, Pterocarpus Sissoo, Roxb. MSS. A middling sized tree of an excellent quality for furniture. By the Mussulmans it is called Sissoo ; but it does not seem to be exactly the same with the tree of that name which grows in the north of India.

WTionay, Pterocarpus santaltnus, L. F. A large good timber tre^, fit for furniture. Its bark contains a blood- coloured juice.

Homgay, Pobmia mitis, Lin. It grows to be a large tree, and its timber becomes tolerably durable ; if, after it has been cut, it be kept some months in water.

Hurugtdu, Chloroxylon quod Sweitenixi^ cidoroxylon, Roxb, This never grows to be a large tree, but its timber is beautiful. It is said to be the satin wood of the English cabinet-makers.

Chadacalu, Cidoroxylon Dupada, Buch. MSS. An elegant tree, producing a resin that is frequently used in the temples, as incense.

Swamy, Sweitenia febrifiiga, Roxb. MSS. A strong, but small timber tree, produces a fine clear gum.

Gowda, Sweitenia trUocularis, Roxb. MSS. A large tree ; but its timber is very bad. Another tree, as before mentioned, was by the woodmen called Gowda ; but that probably is a mistake.

Jani, Grewia, There are three species called by this name, the Asiatica, the Orien-

128 A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. UK

1800. talis, and that which I have named Jania. The timber of none of

Jime 19th. ^^^^ ig ^^f^

Bili Tali, Bilitalium farinoaum, Buch. MSS. In the Tdinga language this tree is called TeUa/maUki, It grows to a large size, and its timber was said to be good ; but I found it to be white, soft, and very perishable.

Betta Tali, or Betta Tavary, Bombax gossjfppinum. A large tree. Its timber becomes somewhat durable, if kept in water for some time after being cut ; but without this precaution it is little worth.

Nai, or Cag Nerulu. This cannot be of the same genus with the following Nervlu, as ii has alternate serrated leaves. A large tree, the timber of which is much used.

Eudraahu Nerulu, Calyptranthes Jambulana, Willd. Also much used. This is the tree from whence the Brdhmana derive the name of this earth.

Betta Fadri, Bignonia chdonoides. A small tree ; but its timber makes strong posts and beams*

Wullay PadH, Bignonia spathacea. Timber little used.

Navalady, Mail ehii, Hort. Mai. V. t. 1. A large tree, and durable timber, which takes a polish, and is used for furniture, planks, beams, and posts.

ShivulL A small but good timber tree.

TopaUif Mimosa leuoopUea, Boxb. The bark, when newly cut, has a strong disagreeable smell, like that of the Mi/mosa Indica, E. M. It grows to be a large tree, and produces strong timber for posts and beams. The bark is used by the natives in distilling spirit from Jagory.

Cagali, Mimosa catechu, Roxb. PI. Cor. N. 174. In some places, as near ChvaapaJtam, this grows to be a large crooked tree. The quality of the timber is good. It is not the tree which produces the Catechu.

Mugli, Mimosa Covalwm, Buch. MSS. A large tree. Timber black, very strong, and fit for posts and beams ; but, like that of the foregoing, I was told, does not take a polish. This last report of the natives seems to be ill founded.

WuUay Sujalu, Mimosa Tuggtda, Buch. MSS. A large tree, but its timber is said to be not durable. To judge from appearance, however, this seems to be an error.

Betta Sujalu, Mim4>sa odoraOssima, L. This is a large tree, which, according to the report of the woodmen, produces excellent durable timber.

Shalay, Ficus. Used for beams, and pillars of a small size.

Atty, Ficus glomerata, Rox,

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 129

A large, useful tree. Its wood is remarkably light. 1800.

Cull Atty, FiciiB rupestris, Buch. MSS. ^"^^ '^'

In a good soil grows to a large size, but soon divides into branches. It is used for beams, posts, and planks.

• Birsi, Ficus. A large useless tree.

Devaddrum, Erythroxylon aider oxylloides, E. M. Never grows to a large size ; but its wood is odorous, durable, and capable of a polish. It is used by the poor instead o{ sandal-vjood.

Sri Ounda, Santalum album, Sandai-wood of the English merchants.

All the trees that were fit for sale have been lately cut by a Brdh- man, who was sent on purpose from Seringapatam. He procured about three thousand trees ; but in less than ten years no more will be fit for cutting. The common size of the tree at the root, when it is cut, is about nine inches in diameter ; but it has been known to arrive at a circimiference of three cubits. In either case, not above a third of the diameter of the tree is of value ; the remainder is white wood, tdtally devoid of smell. The wood is of the best quality in trees that have grown on a steep rocky soil ; that which grows in low rich situations produces wood of little value. The trees were cut partly by the servants of the Brdhman, and partly by woodmen hired on the spot The branches and white wood were removed in the woods, and the billets were brought hither, and dried in the shade. Although the bottom of the stem, under the ground and immediately above the division into roots, is the most valuable part of the tree, no pains were taken to procure this, and the trees were cut above the surface of the soiL This want of economy is said to have proceeded from the stony nature of the soil ; but this I doubt. Every thing relative to the price, market, or customs upon sandal'Wood are here unknown ; and the person who cut it was not under the authority of the Amildar. At two places in this hilly country the tree comes to great perfection ; namely, at Jalaman- gala, between Magadi and Chinapatam ; and at MiUati Hahigay, near Capalordurga,

Jala, Shorea Jala^ Buch. MSS. Here it grows only to a small size ; but at Rdma^girif and many other places, it becomes large. It is said to take a polish, to be durable, and to be used for furniture. In Mysore it is on this tree only that the Lac insects breed. Formerly there were many trees Lac inwcu. near Bdma-giri that contained Lac, and paid a considerable rent ; but duringthe war carried on by Lord Comwallis they were destroy- ed by the armies. Although there are now great numbers of the trees, none of the insects are reared. This is attributed to the want of leases. The Amildar was wont to let the trees for no longer than one year : it can therefore be no object for an individual to supply the trees with insects, as he would not be certain of enjoying the fruits of his labour. Some settled bargain for a number of years

17

130 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IIL

1800. ought to be entered into with those who are willing to introduce

^^ ^^ ' such a valuable article of cultivation.

JDindugfiy Andersonia Panchmoum, Roxb. MSS. A large valuable timber tree, that is used for planks, beanis, pillars, and furniture. It abounds in gum, and is nearly allied to the Cono- ' carpus of botanists.

Doda Tayca, Tectona robusta, A few trees of tliis valuable timber are found in most places of this hilly tract ; but in general they do not grow to be of a size suf- ficient for use. Some good timber may, it is said, be procured at Mutati Habif/ay, a place near Capala-durga.

Ursina Tayca, Niiolea cordiJoUa, Roxb. . Grows to be a large tree ; and its timber is said to be equally valua- ble with that of the Tectona or common Teak,

Cadaga, Gadaha, or Cadava, Nauclea purpurea, Roxb, A large tree, timber of which is much used.

Chaninr/y LagerstroTnia parvifiora, Roxb. In favourable situations it also grows to a large size ; but its timber is of very little value. It may be improved, however, by soaking it in water for some months after it has been cut.

Iladaga. A small tree ; but its timber is used for furniture, door frames, and other purposes which require strong materials.

Aiitly, Trophsw aspera, KoenigiL A small tree ; but its timber is much esteemed on account of its being hard, and taking a good, polish.]

Easy, Fremna toraentoaa. Reported to be bad timber ; but apparently without foundation. It is put as a frame work in the middle of mud walls in order to give them strength.

BeivUy Melih azadira^hta. A large timber tree, that is much used here, and from which a gum exudes,

Mara halay, Nerium tinciorium, Roxb. MSS. The natives are acquainted with its dying quality. Its timber is said to be hard, and white like ivory, and is used for small furniture, such as beds and chairs.

Tapissa, Ulmas integrifolia, Roxb. Is a small tree, but makes beams, planks, and posts.

Elichi, Rhatnnus jujuba, L. Grows crooked ; but its timber is hard, and is used for small fur- niture.

Heb Hessary, JJvaria tomerUoaa, Roxb. A small tree that is also used for furniture.

Chica Hessary, Uvaria cerasoides, Roxb, Useless.

Timbu Bayla, JEgle marmelos, Roxb. A large tree, producing strong timber.

CHAP. Ill] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 181

Nai Bavla, Liwonia, crenulata^ Boxb. I800.

Useless.

Bideru, Bambuaa. The Bamboo her© is divided into two kinds : one solid, or nearly so, and called by the natives Chittu ; the other hollow, and called Doda. They are not considered as distinct species, the solidity of the former being attributed to its slow growth in dry stony places. Not having had an opportunity of examining the fructification, I cannot determine how far this opinion is well founded. It is the only kind found among these hiUs ; and, although not of great size, is very strong and heavy. For common purposes I do not think it so useful as the hollow kind : but it is admirably adapted for the shafts of spears, and by Tippoo was applied to that use for his cavalry.

Muruculu, Chirongia glabra, Buch. MSS. In many pajrts, and especially near Ghinapatam, this is the most common tree. Its wood is not much valued ; but it produces largo quantities of a dark-coloured gum. The fruit is esculent.

HiUu Muraculu, Antidesma alexiteria, 0{ no use.

Cadu Nimhay, or Cadimbay, A small tree, that produces very hard timber fit for bolts, and smaU beams.

Narvmlly, Cor^Ha monoica, Roxb. Ropes are made of its bark. The fruit is esculent, but tasteless,

Cambi, Oardeniou

Hay Cambi, Gardenia laiifoUa, Roxb. These two trees are useless.

Mara HarulUy Jatropha curcaa. Its seed is collected for lamp oil. The dried stems answer excel- lently for match, as they burn slowly, and without flame.

Qheru, Anacardium semecarpus. The fruit used in medicine, and for making Mn^a. The timber is useless.

Mudaliy Ochna squarrosa, A beautiful but useless tree.

iVcWt, Phyllanthus emblica. The timber is bad, yet the poor use it for beams and rafters. The fruit is pickled.

Cacay, Cassia fistula. Used in religious ceremonies.

ChiUu, Strychnos potatorum, Eoenigii. The timber useless. The use of the fruit, in cleaning water^ is known to the natives.

It must be observed, that the account I have given of the qua- lities of the timber trees is derived from the natives. I have nad no (^portunity yet of ascertaining their nature by experiments : but I nave procured specimens of most of them; and from these

132

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. III.

1800.

Juae 19tbt

Jnse SOth* Appearance of th« country.

Tvo wild uil- malnof the dog kind.

June 31tt. Face of the conntrf.

Irrifatlon.

Alelrit ner- vonu.

Bngar-cane.

specimens their real qualities may be hereafter determined. For wis purpose, they have been transmitted to the Honourable Court of Directors, in whose Museum they have been deposited.

20th June. — ^In the morning I went to Taveri-caray, by a road passing the whole way through woods. I saw only one small village^ which was occupied by iron smelters, and surrounded by a little cultivated land. The country round Taveri^aray is well cleared, and seems to have suffered little from the wars.

It is said, that in the great forests round Savana-durga, there ia a small animal called the Shin-Nat, or red dog, which fia^tens itself by surprise on the neck of the tiger, and kills him. On this ac- count the tiger is not so common in these large forests, as in the smaller woods. The Skin-Nai is quite distinct from the wild dog, which is said to be very common here, to grow to a large size, and to be very destructive to sheep. By this wild dog the natives pro- bably mean the wolf I have seen native drawings of the Shinr-Nai, which appear to represent an animal not yet described.

21st June, — I went from Taveri-caray to Bangalore. Much of the country is covered with bushes, and consists of a very poor soU. The greater part of the arable lands near Bangalore are cultivated : but at some distance from it many fields are waste, owing to a want of people.

Tne reservoirs are numerous, but small ; many of them are de- signed for supplpng cattle with drink, and not for cultivation, and are of the kind caUed CvMay. The tank formed, like those in Bengal, by digging a square cavity into the ground, is here called Qv/iUa. Above the Ohkts, however, this manner of procuring water is not very common ; but the most usual manner of commg at a spring is by digging a large square pit with sides almost perpendicu- lar^ and ccJled Boudy, The workmen dig till they fina the water, which is often twenty or thirty feet from the surface. Afterwards a narrow passage, with a gentle slope, is cut in one of the sides, and a stair is fprmed in it, by which the women descend to bring up the water in earthen pots. It is from these weUs, chiefly, that water is drawn by the Capily, or leather bag wrought by two bul- locks descending on an inclined plane. "When applied to this use, ishe Boudy is (Slled Capily Bamy. If the water rise so near the surface that it can be thrown out, to irrigate the land, by two men swinging a basket fixed to ropes, the Boudy is then called Chiday Ba/my, Narrow wells, such as are commonly dug in Europe, are seldom used in Mysore^ except for the Yata/m, and rarely supply the inhabitants with drink.

The leaves of the AUtrU nervosus, Boxb., are used here for making cordage. Before they are beaten to separate the fibres, they are steeped in water fifteen days, in order to rot the useless pajrts.

On tnis day's journey I observed the cultivation of a kind of sugar- cane called Maracabo, or stick cane. This kind never grows thicker than the finger, and is very hard, and unproductive of juice; but it

CHAP. III.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. I33

requires less water than the Restali, It seems to have been the igoo. original sugar-cane of the Colar district, of which all the country '"**^"'' on this side of the central chain of hills forms a part. The farmers have lately introduced the Putaputti from the lower CarnatiCy and are extending its cultivation as fast as they can procure cuttings.

1800.

JuuSfodto

Jnlytad.

Bangalort.

Montr.

CHAPTER IV.

BANGALORE.

From the 22nd of June until the 2d of July I remained at Ban^ galore, or Bangclurv, ; a city which was founded by Hyder, and which, during tiiie judicious government of that prince, became a place of importance. Its trade was then great, and its manufactures numerous. Tippoo began its misfortunes by prohibiting the trade with the dominions of ilroo^ and Hyderabad, because he detested the powers governing both countries. He then sent large quanti- ties of goods, which he forced the merchants to take at a high rate. These oppressions had greatly injured the place ; but it was still populous, and many individuals were rich, when Lord Comwallis arrived before it, with his army in great distress from want of pro- visions. This reduced him to the necessity of giving the assault immediately, and the town was of course plundered. The rich inha- bitants had previously removed their most valuable effects into the fort ; but these too fell a prey to the invaders, when that citadel also was taken by storm. After the English left the place, Tippoo en- couraged the inhabitants to come back, and by promises allured them to coUect togethef* the wrecks of their fortunes, from the dif- ferent places to which these had been conveyed. No sooner had he effected this, iJian, under pretence of their having been friendly to the English, he suiTounded the place with troops, and fleeced the in- habitants, till even the women were obliged to part with their most trifling ornaments. He then kept them shut up within a hedge, which surrounded the town at the distance of a Cose, till the advance of the army under General Harris made the guard withdraw. The inhabitants, not knowing whom to trust, immediately dispersed, and for some months the place continued deserted. The people, how- ever, are now flocking to it from all quarters ; and although there are few rich individuals, trade and manufactures increase apace ; and the imports and exports are estimated already to amount to one- fourth of what they were in its most flourishing state. The manu- facturers and petty traders are still very distrustful and timid ; but the merchants, many of whom have been at Madras, and are ac- quainted with British policy, seem to have the utmost confidence in the protection of our government.

At Bangalore almost every coin oi India is current ; but all ac- compts are kept in Cater'raia Pagodas, Fanams, and Dubs, The first is an imaginary money ; the second, at present, exchanges for

CHAP. IV.]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

135

18 Dubs. When any English officer resides in the fort, he once a j woa ^^ month fixes the rate of exchange ; and it may be supposed, that care has been taken, in doing so, to attend to justice, as the Niruc or regu- lation made by the officers, has been always followed by the whole neighbourhood, although not at all imder their jurisdiction.

The Ciicha Seer of this place weighs 25 J Rupees ; so that the wdghtf. Maund of Bangalore is equal to 42^ Seers of the Seringapatam stand- ard, or to a very little less than 26 pounds avoirdupois. Every weighable article, except such as are brought from Senngapatam, is sold by wholesale according to this weight ; but in retail the Ser- ijigapatam standard is used. The bullock load is reckoned 8 Maunds, or nearly 206 lb.

The PiLcka Seer measure is the same with that of Seringapatam, Meatima for The Candaca contains only 160 Seers, or is equal to 5-,^*^Winches- ''*^" ter bushels. In order to avoid confusion, grain is seldom sold by the Candaca^ but by the hundred Seers.

Grishnxi Rdyalu of Vijaya-nagara, once the sovereign of all thcLuuimearare. peninsula, established a valuation of the greater part of his do- minions ; and, perhaps with a view of carrying on this operation of finance with more exactness and facility, than he could otherwise have done, he at the same time granted one-tenth of the whole to the Brdhman^. In some places the Brdhmans received their share by an estimate of the quantity of seed sown, but in other places the land was measured. The standard for this measure was the Acsaya Jduttadub colu, a rod equal in length to the height of the king, who was a tall man. The rod is. not equal to the double Oujah of Tippoo, but may be taken at six feet. The whole land of each vil- lage was measured out into small plots, ten rods or sixty feet square ; by which we may judge of the state, in the art of geometry, to which the subjects of the greatest Hindu monarch had, about three centuries ago, arrived.

Having assembled the most respectable traders here, they gave Priee of good* me the accompan3dng price current, as the average rate of sale of** ^'^"^^^ the principal articles of commerce. In order to make the valuation uniform, the value of the Fanam is taken at the exchange of Seringa- patam.

Average price current at Bangalore, Goods sold by the Maund of 42J Seers,

Kind of GoocLk

BtUl-nut,.., Sandal'ioood,

Qualily.

Dtihavara

Nagara, Ist sort. . . , 2Dd sort...

, 3rd lort...

W(Uagram,\Bi sort

, 2d Bort. .

, 8d Bort.

SuUany Ftmvmi

Maund.

20A

12

10

8

8

6

Cwt.

English money. Cwt. £ s. d

90} 52 i

84}

84}

26i>5

8 0 8}

1 15 I

19 2

13 4

13 4

0 17 6}

21A' 0 14 7

136

A JOURNEY FROM MADRA6 THROUGH

[CHAP. IV.

1800.

Kind of Goods.

Arulay, or Myi-obalans. CardAmomB

Cut or Terra japoniea.

AaafoBtida.

Cos8umha.

Dates

Saffj'OD.

Tvtida flowers.

Katmegs. Cloves....

Mace

Raw silk .

Camphor , Benjamin.

Sugar candy

Sugar

Jagonf sugar cans. Date ,

Tin

Lead

Ziao

Copper

Quicksilver Indigo

^Aicat fruit

Popli chica dye. Lodu chiea do..,

Honey <

Bee'rt wax

Stkhlac

Alum

Muddi chiea dye. Dinduga gum

SuUanif FanamM.

Quality.

Ohetiadfi

Tripaihi ....

White

Red

Black

MuUany

Codeal

Bad

Prepared, 1st sort

, ad sort

Flowers, 1st sort

J 2d sort

Green, of 1st quality.. . . . Common, or 2nd quality.

Cashemere

European

Nagara

Denkina ootay

u

100

50

16

14

12

200

160

120

134

10

20

16

10

7

2400

1200

10

17

200

240

1720

600

460

360

120

160

]20

60

40

80

3'»

16

20

14

44

34 2

35

10

20

50

160

loo

60

4^

20

1

6

25

6

30

14

6

16

6

lat aort 8

2dBort ' 6

BUy-chinOf or white china-.

Casturi do., or yellow do

Hajanagarij white and yellow Ydcatava or Mugaduty ....

Unrefined, 1st sort

, 2d sort

Ganday aemorany

,2d quality

>,8d quality .........

China Namagundla.

Madras

Namagnndla

Best

Second

Carada, 1st sort

,2d sort

Bapcdy, Istsort

, 2d sort

Yellow

Cleaned

Including the sticks.

Matmd.

Cwt.

434 917 69 4

60A 52 4

868 695 62n 58} 48^ 86A 69 4

48A 80A

10425 5212 A 48flj 73ft 868 1042 4 4714 2172 1998 1650 4 521 i 695 5214 260 f 178}

I8OA 130ft

69

86

flOft

16ft 81

1524 43ft 86ft 217 695 434 260 1 173 f 86ft

20A 108 4 26ft 130ft 60ft 26ft 69 4 26ft 34 I 26A|

English money.

Cwt £ s.tf.

0 14

7

2

2

1

29

23

17

1

1

2

2

1

1

350

175

I

2

29

35

250

73

67

56

17

23

17

8

5

4

4

2

2

2

0

0

0

5

1

2

7

23

14

8

5

2

0

0

3

0,

4

2 0 2 0 1 0

4 44 II 8

5 1

6 8 0 10

15 1

11 4

6 8

10 30

10 54

9 2

18 4

6 8

9 2

0 I 0 9 9 11 1

5

2 7 2

7

4 S

8 7J 2 0

8 7 10 10

6 8 10 10

15 6

16 8

7 84 7 84 6 8

18 4

0 10

13 li

10 2?

5 10! 2 1*

9 2 18 4

6 10

6 8

11 8

15 6

16 8 18 4

2 111

17 6}

12 II 17 64

7 84 0 10

17 64

6 8

17 64

3 4 17 64

CHAP. IV.]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

137

Kind of Goods.	QuaUty.	Sultany Fnnams.	EngliBh money. Cwt. £ «. d.
Maund.	Cwt
Borax, or BUigara Opium , &>i»Zj«, or soda ^»;a cara, or soda CapilUpodi, a dye Tamarinda •	Ist quality 2d quality 3d quality ••• ••• «•• »«, «•« ••■ ••• ••• ••• ••« ••• •• Rdma-giti Nagara ••• ff«* •■•	50 40 30 320 14 16 70 40 14	217 173 J I3(h^ 1390 65 i 304A- 173} 64	7 5 10 5 16 8 4 7 8i 46 18 4 0 4 44 2 3 lOi 10 4 44 5 16 8 0 4 41

1800.

June2ted, &G.

Goods sold by the Maund of 40 Seers,

Okie

£eld-nut Black pepper

Walagram ...

18	83i
16	73}
16	73}

2 15 2 9 2 9

94

n

Goods sold by the Maund of 44 Seers,

Cottonwool

Cleaned, white

Uncleaned. ...

• • • • • ■

13i	564
12	50i
U	464

1 18 OJ 1 13 11} 1 10 11}

Goods sold by the Candaca Measure of 200 See7'8,

Kind of Qoods.	Quality.	Sultany F<mams.	Ii;Dgli8h money. Bushel.
Candaca.	Bushels.
kSalt ... ... ••• ■••wyjf ••• ••» ••■ «.. ... ^••^" ... ... •• ... ••. TV nea« ... ,,, ••■ ... ...	MctdrM .. ... .•« ••• J3e8 w ••« •■• ••• *■■ Coarse .*■ •■• 1*.	264 12 66 J 284 57	3A li^ H 4 H	0 2 6^ 0 12 0 6 5 0 2 9 0 5 6

Coco-nuts, per hundred 10 Panama, or 6s. Bid.

A £at sheep, 4 of Star-Pagoda, or 2«. 54d

Milk, 3 Seers for the Panam, or 2}<i. an ale quart.

There is only one place below the western Ghaia, with which at commerce with present the people of BamgaUyre carry on any trade. It is called ^mI®*^™ *®*' here Codeal, or Cowda^, and in our maps is named Mangalore. To that place are from hence sent cotton cloths, both white and colour- ed, and manufactured in this neighbourhood. The returns are raw

18

138 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. silk and silk cloths. The trade to Cdlicxd was formerly very con-

jime aand, &c. gj j^j-ai^^e ; but at present, owing to the unsettled state of the province

of Malabar, it is at a stand. The imports were all kinds of foreign

goods brought in by sea. The exports were coloured cotton cloths.

Some persons are now about to venture a renewal of this commerce.

Tmde with the The trade with the country ceded to the Nizam, and Marattahs,

thrpeniMuiI^' south from the Krishna river, is carried on chiefly by the merchants

of Balahari (Bellary,) Advany {Adoni), Aggady, Darwara, Hubuli^

NaraguTida, Navalagiinda, sad Gutii, Agents from each of these

places reside here, receive goods from their principals, and sell them

to the merchants of Bangalore, Sometimes, but rarely, the

merchants of Bangalore go for a cargo of goods ; but at these places

they have no agents. In the countries of the Nizam^ and Marattahs,

merchants meet with no disturbance; but the duties are rather

heavy. The chief import from thence is cotton wool, with some

coarse cotton thread, both white and red ; coarse white, red, and blue

cotton cloths ; muslins ; Dotras, or cotton cloths with silk borders ;

blankets worth from two to three Pagodas each ; wheat; asafoetida ;

terra japonica ; CarthaTnus flowers, or Gossuraba ; Seringi root, a red

dye ased at Saliem ; dates ; and Dratchi, a kind of bad raLsin. The

returns from Bangalore are made chiefly in money; but some

coloured cotton and silk cloths are also sent.

Trade with Somc Gossai mcrchauts from PoonaJt bring shawls, saflron, and

poonah. musk from Cashemire, and Persian pearls from Surat^ The returns

are made in money, and Manar pearls. vrnhBurrafiun- From Burrohunpour Pattan merchants formerly brought ^^^'*- Chitties, or chintz, and gold lace, cloth, and thread. The exports were

money, and pearls. This trade has always been protected by the Marattahs ; but, owing to the oppressions of the Sultan's government, has for some years been at a stand. Some merchants are now preparing investments for its renewal. Trade with iho From Hyderdbdd, Narain-petta, Gouldometcullu, and other

/ir^im'5 terri- pjaces in the old territories of the Nizam, Pattan and Gujerati mer- chants brought red cotton cloth, flowered with gold and silver, for the dress of the children of the Mussulman chiefs, and other rich persons ; turbans ; and fine manufactures of cotton. The returns are in money and pearls. In the reign of the Sultan, this trade was contraband, and now suffers interruption from the robbers that are numerous in the Nizam* s dominions. Trade with the The tmdc between the dominions of the Nabob of Arcot and col^t!^ *** Bangalore is carried on at WaUajor-pettu, chiefly by the merchants of this place, who constantly keep agents there ; at times, however, they send cargoes to other places below the Ghais, The imports from the lower Carnatic are salt ; sulphur ; tin ; lead ; zinc ; copper ; European steel, paints and glue ; indigo ; nutmeg ; cloves ; camphor ; benjamin ; Modi, a hot root used in medicine {Tripathi cardamoms (grana paradises ? ) ; china root ; raw silk of the kinds called Bily china, Casturi china, Rajanagan, Cumercani, (Comercally in Ben--

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. I39

gal f ), Seidabad and Caia, of whiteh the first is by far the best ; Ben- I800. gal, China, Walinda, and Burrahunpour silk cloths ; Conjeveram/^^^^^^^'^^' and Arnee cotton cloth ; English woollen cloth, canvas, and blankets; Goni cloth ; packthread ; English and native paper from Lala-petta, Wallaja-pettay and Tripaturu ; English hardware, glassware, and looking-glasses ; China sugar-candy ; Bengal sugar ; dates ; and al- monds. The returns from Bangalore are chiefly betel-nut, sandal- vjood, black pepper, true cardamoms, Shicai, and tamarinds. Cloths, I suspect, are also sent ; but the merchants here deny it. Pearls and red coral were formerly brought up from the low country ; but ever since the war this trade has been at a stand. The balance of money is in general due by the low country merchant.

The duties levied by the Nabob on cloths amount to four Canter*raia Pagodas, or 8s, Sid, on the buUock-load. This, on coarse goods, amounts to about four per cent, of their value ; but on fine

foods is a mere trifle. Small articles of various kinds pay only 2 J ^agodas, or about 20 pence, on the bullock-load. No estimate can be formed of the per centage, to which this amounts ; as some bul- lock-loads cost five Pagodas, and some 500. On all goods goin^ from this country the duties are 1 J CanterWaia Pagodas, or one shil- ling on the bullock-load. Salt pays nothing. The whole of the duties are no great burthen, and the merchant do not complain of any trouble or delay in the collection. They consider the duties as a pledge for the protection of the government of the country through which they pass ; and the custom-houses are bound to make good all losses by robbers.

No direct trade has been yet carried on between Bangalore and the Company's Jaghire ; but some Oujerati merchants, now here, are making the necessary arrangements for opening a trade directly with Madras,

Tanjore merchants bring hither pearls, and take away money.

The merchants of the Bara-mahal, and Saliem districts, annex- ed by Lord Comwallis to the Company's dominions, send cotton cloths, and take back the same articles that are carried to Wallaja- petta. Agents from Kriskna-giri and Vanambady constantly reside here ; and merchants occasionally come from Saliem and Darapuram. The merchants here have no agents at those places, but occasionally send goods thither.

In the dominions of the Raja of Mysore a considerable trade is carried on with several places in the Nagara district, namely Bid- deruru, Bogunji, Sringa-giri, Copa Kigganymfira, Calasa, Munday- cara, and Muiuru. From these places are imported great quantities of Betel-nut, black pepper, Sandal-tcood, and cardamoms, partly by the merchants of Bangalore, and partly by those of the Nagara dis- trict The returns ftt)m hence are grain ; tobacco ; tamarinds ; blan- kets ; muslins, turbans, coloured cotton stuffs, and silks the manu- facture of this place ; and the paper of the lower Carnatic, Both parties prefer selling their goods by wholesale, and laying in their

140 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

IBOO. , returning investment by the same«means ; but they are seldom able June 22ni, &c. ^ j^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ more commonly reduced to the necessity of leaving

part of their goods in the hands of an agent, and of purchasing their new investments at the different weekly markets in the country. Three quarters of the returns from Bangalore to Nagara are made in cash.

From Seringapata'in the imports to Bangalore are black pepper, sandal-wood, and cardamoms : the return is made in every kina of cloth manufactured here, with all the kinds of goods brought from the lower CamatiCy to a far gi-eater value than that of the goods imported from Seringapatam.

From Gubi and its neighbourhood, in the centre of the Raja's dominions, are imported pepper, betel-nut, and coco-nuts. The mer- chants of Bangalore make the purchases at the weekly markets, and carry with them chiefly money ; but also turmeric, the produce of this place ; and oxen from Hosso-cotay, and Colar.

To Chatrakal (GhitUedroog) the merchants of Bangalore send the manufactures of the place, and in return receive country blan- kets. The dealers carry their own goods from one place to the other, and generally return with the produce in cash.

From Doda Balla-pura occasional traders bring fine red cotton cloth manufactured there, and take back the produce in money.

From Namagundla, beyond Nandi-durga, are brought Jagory, raw sugar, and sugar-candy, which are also sold for cash.

The places east from Bangalore, such as Colar, and Nursapura, send money, and procure betel-nut and black pepper.

Betel-nut is the principal article of trade at Bangalore, and is of two kinds ; the best, called Deshavara, comes from tiie Nagara dis- trict ; the inferior quality is called Wallagram, and comes from (hihi^ and all the places south from Sira, and north from Madura. This last is chiefly reserved for country use ; but the Deshavara is dis- persed through the country to the eastward, as far as Madras, It is all what is called boiled nut.

In this countiy black pepper is, next to betel-nut, the most common article of commerce. Of this also there are two kinds, the Codali, and Baygadi ; the difference in value is inconsiderable, but the Codali is reckoned rather the best. Much of it is sent down to the Baramahal, and to the dominions of the Nabob of Arcot. This was one of the articles in which the Sultan traded.

Sandal-ivood is also a considerable article of commerce at Bangalore. The bes^ comes from the Nagara district, and from the country bordering on the western Qhats, An inferior kind comes from Madura, Denkina-cotay, Deva-rdyaTia-cotay, and other places in the ridge of hills which run north from Capala-durga, Each kind is divided into three sorts : the first is that which is be- tween the root and first branches ; the second is that of the large branches ; and the third is that of the small branches, so far as these contain red wood. The sandal tree, according to tiie idea of the

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 14X

natives, is of two kinds ; male and female : the former of which is 1800. dark, the latter pale-coloured ; both are of the same value. The ^^^ ^^^^* *^ sandal of the ola tree is said to. be more valuable than that from a young one ; but the merchants, in forming an estimate of its value, go entirely by the strength of its smell. During Tippoo's govern- ment, none of the aandal-wood came to this market : he either did not allow it to be cut, or else stored up in his forts whatever was felled.

Black blankets, or Cumlies, are here a considerable article of commerce; and some merchants, of the Cariibara cast, trade in nothing else. They are brought chiefly from Gori Bideruru in the Madhu-giri taluc, and also from Sira, Cliatrakal, and Balahari. These la^t are by much the best ; next to them are those from Cha- trakal. They vary in price from 4 FanamSy or 28, 9ld, to 15 Pagodas, or 3i. 3«. 6|d. By far the greater part are under the value of one Fagoda, or 6s. S^d. They are chiefly retailed here for country use.

The importation of cotton wool to Bangalore is very great, and cotton wool. is carried on entirely by the Panxham Banijigaru. There are two kinds of cotton wool ; one called red, and another white ; which distinction does not arise from any difierence in the plants, but from the quality of the soil in which they are raised. The white is the best ; and both are imported clean, and fit for use. It comes mostly from the dominions of the Marattaha, and the Nizam ; and is brought hither by the merchants from Naragunda, Navalagunda, and Savonuru in the Duab ; from Jalalu, the district in which (?a- j^ndragur is situated ; and from Subuli, in which stands Dai^wara, all of which belong to the former: and from Balahari and Advany, which belong to the latter power. All the merchants are natives of these places, and in the Marattah country are very well protected. They sell by wholesale to the traders of Bangalore, who retail it out in the town and neighbourhood. A bullock-load of cotton, coming from the Marattah country to Bangalore^ and worth from 14 to 20 Ikeri Pagodas, or from 51. 10s. Sd. to SI. Is. Sd., pays in all, of transit duties, nearly two CanterWaia Pagodas, or 13s. dd. In tiiis neigh- bourhood it has been in vain attempted to cultivate cotton. For family use it has been raised ; but the produce has been very smaU.

A kind of drug merchants at Bangalore, called GandkaH, trade Drugs, to a considerable extent. Some of them are Benijigaru, and others are Ladaru, a kind of Mussulmans. They procure the medicinal plants of the country by means of a set of people called Pacanxit Jogalu, who have huts in the woods, and, for leave to collect the drugs,

Gy a small rent to the Gaudas of the villages. They bring the drugs ^er in small caravans of ten or twelve oxen, and sell tiiem to the Qandhaki, who retail them. None of them are exported. Small traders from the neighbouring towns bring Popli and Muddi barks ; honey, and wax; Agalasunti, and Eayguntigay, two medicinal roots ; MyrohdLans ; and Dinduga gum ; all which they procure from the Eriligaru* The whole wax of the country used formerly to be

142 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IT.

1800. brought hither ; but now a great part of it is carried directly to the

**°^ ° * ^' lower Camatic. The quantity annually procured does not exceed a hundred MaundSy or about 2,425 pounds. The Dhiduga gum might be had to the extent of two or three hundred Maunds, or from 4,850 lb. to 7,275 lbs. a year, if money were advanced for it at the rate of from 8 to 12 Fanams a Maund, or from IL 3s. 4d!. to \l, 15s. Id. the hundred weight. At present a small quantity only is collect- ed for the use of the silk- weavers. The cotton-merchants from the Duah of the Knahna supply the Oandhaki with Cut, or terra japo- nica ; with asafoetida ; Mailtwta and Maifiil, two substances used by the natives in cleaning their teeth ; Costa, a medicine ; Lodwihica, a dye ; sulphur ; alum ; borax ; and opium. From the OandhaJd these merchants pui'chase Muddi and Popli dyes ; lac ; and wax. The lac is partly brought from the Woddar, who collect it in the neighbour- hood ; and partly from traders, that bring it from Madhu-giri, Ooda- giri, Banirgutta, and Denkina-cotay, The spices, the TcJcaahay seed and indigo, are procured by the Gandhaki from the lower Camatic. Fossile alkali, or soda, is partly brought from Kriakna-giri in the Bdra-mdhal ; and partly from Chin' -ray a^pattana, Outaht and Holy Narasinga^pura. Tonda flowers, for dyeing, are brought from Naga- ra, and from DenHna-cotay ; those produced in the latter place are the best. Most of the Gapili-podi dye, or flower produced on the fruit of the Rotleria tinctoria of Dr. Roxburgh, comes from ChiyC- rdya-pattana ; but a little is procured from Rdma-giri. The Cosaumba or Carthamus tinctorius, that grows in the country, is not nearly sufiicient for its demand ; and much of this article is imported by the cotton-merchants from the Duah,

The trade in salt from the lower CamaJtic is very considerable, as none but the poorest people eat that made in the country. It is carried on by two classes of pewple : the Woddaru, or tank-diggers ; and the Coramaru, who, in the intervals between their commercial expeditions, make iDaskets. The salt is brought up from t^e lower Carnatic by people of the same casts ; and by those, who reside here, is distributed throughout the country as far as Magadi, and China- patam. The people who bring the salt take back, in return, tama- rinds, seeds for making oil, and all kinds of grain that happen to be cheaper here than in the low country. Carriage of Goods of aU kinds are transported by cattle in back loads. The

goods. "best cattle are used in the cotton trade, and belong to Pancham

Banijigaru, natives of the country where the cotton grows. These people speak the Kamata as their native language, but do not inter- marry with the Pancham Banijigaru of BangoUore, The bullocks employed in this trade are very fine animals ; and each brings from 12 to 15 Maunds of cotton, or from 327ilb. to 409f . They travel daily at the rate of 3 computed Cosaes, which may be about twelve British miles ; and in three hours they perform this journey. Be- sides straw, they are fed on oil-cake, and the seed and leaves of the cotton-plant. They cost from 15 to 25 Pagodas, or from 51. Os. 8J<I.

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. I43

to SL 78. lOfd. In the same manner are fed the oxen which are I800.

employed in transporting betd-nut, pepper, and most other kinds of ^™** ^^^^* ^'

goods ; but these cost only 4 or 5 Pagodas, or from \l. 6«. lOJd. to

ll. 1 38. Id, They also travel three Cosses a day ; but their average

load is only eight Maunds or 206 J lb. Many Banijigaru follow

the profession of carriers, and keep oxen for the purpose. The rate

of hire is always fixed on the average load of eight Maunds, and

never according to time, but always by distance. The carriage of a

bullock-load of pepper, betel-nut, or other articles that stow well, and

may be equally divided, costs 15 Fanams from Bangalore to WaU

laja-petta, distant about 145 British miles ; on articles that cannot

be so well divided, the price is about 1 8 Fanams. The first gives

IfVyjr P^Miy ^ niil© for the hundred weight ; the second gives

^iVe^ penny. The carriers are not answerable for any accident that

may happen to the goods ; the merchant therefore must send

with them some trusty person, who is generally a younger branch

of the family. The bullock employed in carriage is always shod

with slight iron shoes.

Buffaloes of the northern breed are sometimes employed, especially by cloth-merchants ; their great size enabling them with convenience to support a bulky article. They are very fine animals, and their common load is 15 Maunds, or about 410 lb., with which they travel at the rate of 12 or 15 miles a day ; but they require higher feeding that the bullock does.

The people who transport salt and grain generally use asses, or a very poor kind of bullock. The ass carries from 40 to 50 Seers measure, or from It^^ bushel to lyVir bushel. They can travel about six miles a day, and are all males purchased from the washermen who breed them. Two men take charge of twelve loaded asses. These creatures get nothing to eat but whatithey can pick up by the sides of the road. Their cost is from 1 J to 2 Pagodas, or from 108. Ofrf. to 138 6Jd.

The bullocks employed by these people are treated much in the same manner as the asses ; but each carries from 60 to 80 Seera of grain, or from 2,%^ bushels to 2^^7jV?r bushels. Merchants, who deal in betel-nut, pepper, &c., have sometimes had recourse to this poor kind of conveyance ; but it is very rarely done, the slowness with which these cattle travel rendering the dealer liable to suffer great loss from fluctuations in the markets.

This is the information collected from all the most respectable Account of the merchants of the place. According to the custom-house accompts th^custom- "" the imports are salt ; sugar ; sugar-candy ; coco-nuts ; betel-nut ; ^^^* ©fficert. pepper ; cut, or terra japonica ; ginger ; capili, patunga root, and muddi dyes ; wax ; la^ ; steel ; false gilded paper ; indigo ; sandal- wood ; salt-petre ; sulphur ; yellow arsenic ; cinnabar ; brass and copper, wrought and unwrought ; lead ; zinc ; paper; dates ; casturi, a kind of turmeric ; benjamin ; sompa, one of the carminative seeds ; asafoetida ; camphor ; cardamoms ; cloves ; nutmegs ; mace; gopichan-

144 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. dana, a clay used by the Brdhmans for making their marks ; rudraJr

«n« 22n , ^^^.^ ^ £^^ ^g^^ l^y ^j^^ Brdhmans for their b^^ ; aknonds ; opium ;

golai, a kind of opium ; a^TicallUy the stone used for powdering sandal ; balapum, or pot-stone ; allum ; five medicinal salts fixim Madras; bang; oil of sesamuTn; ghee; honey; oil of the MeUa Azadarichta ; coco-nut oil ; Carnatic tobacco ; Madras cloths; cot- ton, silk, and woollen ; raw silk ; red and white cotton thread ; carpets ; Thibet cow tails ; cossumba flowers ; Burrahunpour cloths ; Balahari cloths ; Cashemire goods brought by Oossais, who travel with horses and camels ; the goods are, musk, saffi*on, carpets, and shawls ; rriutabi, or gold cloth of Hyderabad ; cv/nUi^s, or country blankets from Chai^rakaX ajxd £a/aAart; English blankets, or huimi cumlies; paints; goats, and sheep from Penu-conda; hardware; palmira, and date Ja^orie^ ; molasses; m/yrobalans; wheat from Balahari and Penu-corida ; besides the produce of the neighbouring country.

The trade of the country not having been yet opened a year

since the inhabitants had deserted the place, no proper estimate can

be formed of the quantity of exports and imports ; but it is on the

increase every month, and is now about one-fourtii of the quantity

that was exported and imported in the most flourishing time of

Hyder^s government. The son of the person who had then charge

of the custom-house, states the following particulars of the trade at

that period. In one year there were imported 1500 bullock loads of

cotton wool ; 50 bullock loads of cotton thread ; 230 bullocks loads

of raw silk ; 7000 bullock loads of salt ; foreign goods from Madras

300 bullock loads. At the same time were exported of heteL-nut

4000 bullock loads, and of pepper 400 bullock loads.

Extent of the From the quantity of the raw materials some estimate may be

manuHMstuwB. formed of the extent of the •manufactures : 1,500 bullock loads of

cotton wool, and 50 of cotton thread, make rather more than 5,100

hundred weight, worth about 8,160i. ; and 230 bullock loads of raw

silk make 47,437ilb. worth about 27,000/.

Origin of the The cloths here being entirely for country usq, and never hav-

dfiTereSt^kices ^^g h^QH cxported to Europc, are made of different sizes, to adapt

?n tho*dw«^of ^ them to the dress of the natives ; and the Hindus seldom use tailors,

the n*ttve«. but Wrap rouud their bodies the cloth, as it comes from the weaver.

shiray, 1. The cloth which the women wrap round their haunches,

and then throw over their heads and shoulders like a veil, is from

14 to 17 cubits long, and from 2 to 2^ cubits wide. It is called

Shiray,

Kirigay. . 2. If thcsc cloths are for the use of girls, they are called Kiri-

gay ; and are from 9 to 12 cubits long, and from IJ to IJ cubit

broad*

cupiua, 3. The little jacket which the women at this place wear, is

made up in pieces containing 12 jackets, and called Ctipissa tan.

These are 14| cubits long, and two cubits, or two cubits and a nail

broad.

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 145

4. Men wrap round them a cloth called Dotra, which is from 1800- 10 to 12 cubite long, and from 2^ to 2^ cubits broad. nTaf^"'^' *''•

5. The wrappers of boys, called Buclia Khana, are 6 or 7 Buchaxhana. cubits long, and 1^ or If cubit broad.

6. Cloth for wrapping round the head and shoulders of men, shainama. like shawls, is named Shiilnania ; and is G cubits long, and 2^ broad. Smaller ones are made for children.

7. Paggoo, or turban pieces, are from 30 to 60 cubits long, Paggco. and f of a cubit broad. •

Having assembled the different kinds of weavers, I took from them the following account of their various manufactures.

The PuttuegarSy or silk- weavers, make cloth of a very rich, Se'^ji,,,"*^*;.^*^ strong fabric. The patterns for the first five kinds of dresses are similar to each other ; but are very much varied by the different colours employed, and the different figures woven in the cloth ; for they rarely consist of plain work. Each pattern has an appropriate name, and, for the common sale, is wrought of three different degrees of fineness. If any person chooses to commission them, whatever parts of the pattern he likes may be wrought in gold thread ; but, as this greatly enhances the value, such clotiis are never wrought, except when commissioned. The fabric of the sixth kind of dre>s is also strong, and rich ; but the figures resemble those on the shawls of Cashernire.

The turbans are made of a thin fabric of cotton and silk.

The Puttuegars make also, in a variety of figured j)atterns, the first three kinds of dresses of silk and cotton.

They also make Soda Putaynshina, or thin white muslins with silk borders. These are either plain, or dotted in tlic loom with silk or cotton thread; and are fre(|uently ornamented with gold and silver. This is an elegant manufactufe, and is fitted for the iir^t iive kinds of dresses.

Plain green muslin with silk borders for the first three kinds of dresses, is also made by the Puttiwg/irs ; but not of so fine a (piality as that made by the Devangas, as will bo afterwards mentioned.

The same may be sai»* of the coloured striped muslin with silk borders, called Dutari IJvvina, which is used also entirely for female dresses, and is wrought of various patterns.

The Puttueqars dye much of their own silk ; and they ^ave me ^rtof <iy.ins the following account of their processes. ri'Uu,-jai;>.

The silk is thus prepared for dyein<:^, tlic operation beincj perfoimed sometimes on the raw material, and sometimes on the thread. Take 5 Seers (3,2f?fM^i.) of silk, 3 Seers (1-^^'^i^lb.) of Soidii,, or impure soda, and li (0^"^{\/jylb.) of quick-lime ; mix the soda and lime with 4 or 5 Seers, or about 308 cubical inche.s of water ; and boil them for half an hour. One half of the boiling l^^y is poured if"!) a wide- mouthed pot, and one half of the silk is immediately put into it suspended on a stick. If it bo not sufliciontly wet, it wil] not t^ke the colour: and, if it bo allowed to romoin anv lonirth ot

19

14G ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. time, the silk is destroyed. The rest of the silk is now dipt into June 22iid, &c, ^j^^ remaining ley ; then washed in cold water, and dried in the sun.

Ka white silk be wanted, take three Seers (ly^oVir^^) of prepar- ed silk, 3 Seers of Soulu, or impure soda, 1 Dudu weight (By^^^ drams avoirdupois) of indigo, and 18 Seers (about 1235 cubical inches) of water ; boil them for about two hours. Then wash the boiled silk in some hotwater, and dry it. In this operation much • care is necessary ; as by too much of the soda the silk is apt to be spoiled, and, if it be boiled too short a time, it wiU not be sufficiently white. The workmen judge of the time, by taking up a few threads on a stick, and putting on them a drop of cold water : whenever they appear of a proper colour, the silk must be immediately washed in clean water.

To give the red dye with Lac take 1^ Maund (38,%lb.) of Lac, cleared from the sticks, 1| Seers (OiYoVl^.) of Lodu bark, IJ Seei* of Suja Cava, or soda, and two Dtidm weight (12^^^"^,^ drams) of tur- meric. Put them into a narrow-mouthed pot, capable of holding 80 Seers (5492 cubical inches) with 40 Seers (2746 cubical inches) of water, and boil them four hours ; then decant the liquor, which is impregnated with the dye ; and, having to the same materials added 20 Seers (1373 cubical inches) more of water, boil them again for three hours, decant this liquor into the former, and then, for three hours, boil the materials a third time, with 10 Seers (686J cubical inches) of water. Decant this also into the two foi-mer, and preserve, in a covered pot, the whole liquor for eight days. At the end of this

feriod the workman judges how much silk his materials will dye. f the Lac has been good, it will dye 5 Seers (3 i^^^^^lb.) ; but if it be poor, it will not dye more than 3 J Seers dy^d^x^h). For 5 Seers of silk take 20 Seers d^oVb.) of tamarinds, and for two days infuse them in 18 Seers (1235 cubical inches) of water. Then strain the infiision through a thick cloth, till about 5 Seers (343 cubical inches) of clear infusion are procured. Put this into a large open pot with the silk, and warm them, until they be rather too hot for the hand. Take out the silk, and pour into the warm infiision of tamarinds three quarters of the decoction of Lax), strained through a cloth. Then return the silk, and boil it for three hours. After this, examine the silk. If it have received a proper colour, nothing more is added ; but if the colour be not deep enough, the remaining decoction is strained, and added by degrees, till the colour is completed. The pot must then be taken from the fire, and from time to time this silk must be examined with a stick. If ihe colour be blackish, some tamarind infusion must be added. If too light, it must be again boiled with some more of the decoction of Lac : when cool, jihe silk must be washed in cold tank water, and dried in the shade. This is the finest red dye in use here : in some places cochineal is used ; but it is much more expensive. The Lac dye is not discharged by washing.

CHAP IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 147

The Puttuegars dye their silk of a pale orange colour, with tlie 1800. Capili podi, or dust collected from the fruit of the Rotleria tindoria, ^^^^^ ^'°"^' '^'^' For 5 Seers of silk (S-j^j^Volb.) prepared for dyeing, take three Seers (lyVAlb-) o^ Capili reduced to a fine powder, and sifted through a cloth ; 4 Dudus (1 ^^J^^^oz.) weight ofSemmuvi oil ; IJ Seer (12/^y^oz.) of powdered Soulu, or soda; 1 Se^r (10yVo*(r ^z.) of Suja Vara, another kind of soda, and three Dudus weight ( ^^^^^j^^oz.) of alum ; and put them in a pot. Then take 2 J Seers (-^-Hi^ lb.) of Souiu, and boil it in about 3 J Seers (24?0 cubical inches) of water, till it be dis- solved. With tliis solution moisten the powders that are in the pot, and form them into a paste, , which is to be divided in three equal parts. Put one of these portions in the remaining solution ofSoulu^ and heat it, but not so as to boil. Then put in tne silk, prepared as before, and wet it thoroughly. Take it out, and add a little water, and a second poiiion of the paste. This being dissolved, soak in it the sUk as before. Then put in the remainder of the paste with 18 Seers (1235 cubical inches) of water ; and replacing the silk, boil it for two hours. Then cool it, and having washed it in the tank, dry it either in the shade or sun indifferently. This is a pretty colour, fixes well, and is cheaper than that of the Lac.

To dye their silk yellow, the Puttuegars use turmeric. For 3 Seers (1 ^^\^^Q\h) of silk take 4 Seers (2/^^'^ lb.) of turmeric, powder- ed and sifted ; make it into paste with water, adding 4 Dudus weight (1t*oV(7 ^^0 ^^ Sesavium oil. Divide the paste into three portions, one of which is to be put into a pot with 8 Seers (549 cubical inches) of warm water. In this immerse the silk prepared as before, and continue the operation exactly in the same manner as with the Capili paste. It must, however, be dried in the shade, and the colour then stands very well ; which would not do, were it dried in the sun.

The Puttuegars give their yellow silk to the Niligaru, who dye it with indigo. It is then washed by the Puttuegars in the infusion of tamarinds, and afterwards is of a fine green colour which, if it be dried in the shade, is tolerably well fixed.

The Niligarus dye all the other colours; such as light and dark blue, sky blue, and puri)le. The silk is never dyed in the piece.

The red and orange-coloured silks are mostly in demand.

Some weavers called Cuttery, who pretend to be of the Ksha- ^^®" ^""^'^ triya cast, manufacture exactly the same kinds of goods as the Put- *^' tuegars.

The whole of the demand for these goods, according to the ac- Saie for the count of the manufacturers, is in the country formerly belonging fte^pJu^gaZ to Tippoo : Seringapatara, Gubi, Nagara, GhatraJcal, and Chin'raya- ^^ ^^"'^^'■y- pattana, are the principal marts. When the goods are in much de- mand, it is customaiy for the merchants to advance one half, or even the whole, of the price of the goods which he commissions ; but when the demand is smaU, the manufacturers borrow money from the bankers at two per cent, a month, and make goods, which they seU to the merchants of the place. They never carry them to

J ^3 -'^ JOUUNLV JrROM MADRAS TIIKOUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. ^1*^' public market. Tlie silk is all imported, iii the raw state, by Jiiue 22nd, dc. ^j^^. mercliaiits of this place.

wuges of these Tile master weavers keep from two to five servants, who are

silk weaver*, ^^^^jj y^^ ^j^^ piece. Workmen that are employed on cotton cloth

with silk borders make daily about a Fanam, or nearly 8(i. Those w^ho work in cloth consisting of silk entirely make rather less, or from \% (Gf pence) to ^ (G pence) of a Fanwrn, according to the fine- ness of the work. It is not usual for weavers of any kind in this country, except those of the, WhalUaru cast, to employ part of their time in agidculture ; but many persons of cast that ought to be weavei*s, are in fact farmers. The Cattery are more affluent than the PnttiiegarSy and these again are more wealthy than any other kind of weavers. Manufacture of Another kind of manufacture is coloured cott«m cloths of a thin wuirsiik boidcrs texture, and with silk borders. It resembles one of the manufac- tures of the Piittitegars, called Dutari Huvina, but is coarser. It is entirely fitted for the different kinds of female dress ; and is made of various lengths, from eight to sixteen cubits, according to the age and size of the wearers. In this way three different kinds of weavers are employed ; the Sltaynagavu, the Canara Devtingas, ixiid the Teliga Devangas. These people buy the thread at the public markets. The red thread comes mostly from Advany, Balahari, and other places near the Krishna river : the various shades of blue are dyed by the Niligaru. Art of dyeing red The wcavei*s themselves dye part of tlie red threa<l with the vi.h nu I. Muddi root, which is that of two species of Morindci ; the Citnfolia of Linnajus, and the Teniifolia described in my manuscripts. The colour is dark, but stands w^ashing in cold w^ater. In boiling, it fades: The following is the process used. The thread must be di- vided into parcels each weighing one Seer (10, ^^^j*^ oz.) For each parcel take J Seer (2-yV5i) oz.) of powdered Soulu, and dissolve it in 4 Seers ^274 ,^^y cubical inches) of water. Put into the solution J Seer of sheep's dung, and h Seer (5^^^^oz.) of Se^^arauni oil, and with the hand mix the whole well. Wet the parcel of thread in this mixture thoroughly, and let it hang up in the house all night to dry. Next day expose it on a rock to the sun ; and during the four or five following days it nmst be dipped nine times in a solution of J Seer (lifrS^oz.) oi Sowlu, in one Seer (a little more than G8 cubical inches) of water. Between each immersion it must be dried in the sun. After this, the thread remains in the house ten days ; it is then taken to a tank, and well washed by beating it on a stone, as is the usual practice of this country. When it has been dried, soak each parcel in a solution of two Pagodas weight (liV^r'u drai») of alum in one Seer of water, and then dry it again. Infuse one Seer measure (74 ^% cubical inches) of powdered bark of Muddi root, in 4 Seers of cold water, and in this soak one parcel of thread ; then throw into a large pot, the whole of the parcels that have been treated in a similar manner. Next day take them to a tank, beat them as usual,

CHAP. IV.] xMYSORE, CANARA, AND MALALAR. Ill)

vS(t as to WfUsh them clean, and then dye tlieni again in fiesh infu- 1800. .sions ofMudiU powder. This must be daily re})Ciited, till the colour '''"'*' ^^"J>^«- is sutUciently strong ; which, if the bark be from the roots of an old tree, will require six infusions ; but nine infusions of bark from a young plant will he requisite.

These weavers dye cotton-thread green in the following manner, (^roen aye for They send it to the NlUyavUy who dye it Mavi, or a kind of sky '^*^"^°- blue. The weavers then wash it, and put it into two Seers, (137 J cubical inches) of water, contiiining ^ Seer (^^\^'^oz.) of powdered turmeric, live Myrobalans powdered, and the juice of ten limes. Here the thread is kept four houi^s, and the operation is finished. The colour is a fine green, but very perishable. It is said that the Niligchru have the power of fixing it ; but they keep their art a pro- found secret. \

The Devanijos dye cotton cloth of a fine red colour resembling Art of ^.lyeing that of the pomegranate fiower, and called Gulenari. This is done or cartkumus. ' with the Cossnmba, or flowers of the Carthamits tiiictorius. The same gives another red colour, called simply Cossumha. Neither of the colours are well fixed. The demand for the Cossumha dye being much greater than the country can supply, much of it is imported. This is always done in the form of powder, which powder is adul- terated with the flowers of the YecaciUy or Asclepias gigmitea ; on which account it is cheaper than the flowers produced in the neigh- bourhood. The powder is made by drying the flowers in the sun, and beating them in a mortar, and will not keep longer than one year ; the flowei*s, if carefully packed in sacks, and well pressed, may be preserved for five years.

The Cossumha colour is given in the following manner. Take 15 Sultany Seers (9j^u^ lb.) of pure Cossit77i&a powder, and put it on a cloth strainer. Clean it by pouring on water, and rubbing it with the hand, till the water runs through clear. The Cossumha is then to be spread on a blanket, and mixed with 15 Dudua weight (C^^'yjjoz.) o{ Suja cara, and an equal weight of Soulu, both pow- dered. They are gathered together in the centre of the blanket, and trodden for an hour by a workman's feet. They are then put upon a cloth strainer, supported as usual by sticks at the comers ; and water is poui'ed on them, until it passes through the strainer with- out colour. This water is divided into three portions : that which came first, that which came in the middle of the operation, and that which came last ; the first being of the strongest quality. Then take 60 good limes, or 100 bad ones, cut each into two pieces, beat them in a mortar, and strain their juice, through a cloth, into the pot containing the dye of the first quality. Then put a little water to the skins, beat them again, and strain oflf the water into the pot containing the second quality of the dye. Then add more water to the lime-skins, and having beat them, strain it into the dye of the worst quality. The cloth to be dyed, having been well washed, is put into this last pot, and boiled for an hour and a half. It is then

150 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. dried in the sun, and dipped into the second quality of dye, but not Jane 22nd, i«. ^QUed, It is then dried again, and afterwards kept half an hour in the dye of the first quality. At the end of this time, should the colour not be sufficiently strong, the cloth must be boiled in the dye. It is then dried and the operation is finished. The cloth commonly dyed is for turbans ; and a turban 60 cubits long requires 15 Seers of Cossumba.

The only difference, in the process for dyeing the Giileiiari, is, that to the pot of the first quality, as prepared for dyeing Cossiirnba^ is added half a Seer (34 J cubical inches) of a decoction of TuTidti flowers (Cedrella toona, Roxb. MSS.) prepared as follows. Take 24 i)tf<iu« weight (9, VoV ^2.) of dried Tundu flowers, beat them in a mortar, and boil them for half an hour in 2 Seers (137i cubical inches) of water. Then strain the decoction through a cloth for use. BUck dye. The DevaTujas frequently make a very dark blue, which they

call black, by means of the bark of the Swamy, or Sweitenia febi*i- fuga, Roxb. MSS. This colour is cheap ; but its intensity leaves it on the first washing ; whereas the very deep blue imparted by re- peated immersion in indigo, and approaching near to black, is very high priced, and durable. It is tlie colour most esteemed by the natives, who call it black. The Devangas take cotton thread or cloth that has been dyed blue by the Niligam with indigo, and sprinkle it with a decoction of Siuamy bark. This is made by powdering the dry bark, and boiling it for an hour and a half. While the cloth .or thread is sprinkled, it must be moved with the hand, so as to im- bibe the colour equally in every part. Sale of dyed cot- Thcsc wcavcrs say, that they obtain advances from the mer- c^ndition*of*he chauts, and borrow money from the bankers, exactly on the same weavers. tcrms as the Puttuegaru. They sell their goods to merchants, or

private customers, and never carry them to the public markets. None of them follow any other business, than that oi weaving, and many are in good circumstances. The Shanagaru are the richest The servants are paid by the piece, and make about 20 Fanams (139. 5 Id.) a month. White iniMiiM. A kind of weavers called Bily Tfiugga by the Mussulmans, but

in fact consisting of the casts called Shaynagaru, Padmashalay, and Samay shalay, weave many kinds of white muslins.

I. Dutery, striped and chequered muslins, called in Bengal Du- rias. They are from 28 to 32 cubits long, and from 2 to If broad ; and, if commissioned, flowers of cotton, or gold thread, are fre- quently woven in them.

II. Soda shilla^ or plain muslin, like the Miblmuls of Bengal. These are from 26 to 32 cubits in length, and 1^ to 2 cubits in breadth.

III. Asto eumbi, a cloth like the Coasahs oiBejigaL They have sometimes striped or silver borders, and are always ornamented with silver at the ends. They are used by men to wrap round their shoulders.

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, 151

IV. Turbans from 30 to 100 cubits in length, and from | to 1 1800. cubit in width, and ornamented with silver and gold thread at the J^^e 22xid, &c. ends.

Each kind of cloth has several patterns, and each pattern is of three degrees of fineness, which, in the technical language of Euro- pean merchants in India, are marked by the letters A. B. and C.

These people say, that they receive advances from the merchants, saie of whit« and borrow money from the bankers, in the same manner as the ^ndition ©f^uie Puttuegara do. Where the cloth is made on the weaver's own ac- weavers, count, it is sold partly to merchants, and partly in the weekly mar- kets. When a weaver receives advances, he cannot sell any cloth till his contract be fulfilled. Among the Padma-shalay there are few servants employed ; but all the males of a family live together, and work in the same house, very seldom engaging themselves to work out for hire. The Samay shalay keep more servants. The people of these two classes live better than those employed in agriculture. A man at fine work can gain a Fanam (rather more than Sd.) a day. At coarse work a man cannot make above 3d. a day. The servants live in their own houses ; but, although paid by the piece, they are generally in debt to their masters, and are consequently bound in the same manner as the servants of the farmers. This circumstance is applicable to journeymen weavers of every kind.

The Togotaru are a class of weavers that make a coarse, thick, Togotaru, cotton white cotton cloth with red borders, which among the poorer class vgr?' ^* ^®*' of inhabitants is used as the common waist-cloths of all ages and * sexes. This kind of cloth goes by the name of the manufacturers who weave it, and is also of three degrees of fineness.

The same people make RomaLs, or handkerchiefs with red borders, from three to five cubits square, that are commonly used by the poor as a head dress. The pieces are about twenty cubits long and are divided into a greater or smaller number of handkerchiefs, according to their width. They are also of three degrees of fineness.

The weavers of this class are poor, and say that they cannot afford to make the cloth on theii* own account. They in general receive the thread from the women in the neighbourhood, and work it up into cloth for hire. For weaving a piece that is worth S'FanaTns, or 08. 4Jd., they get 2J Fanams, or Is. Sd. This occupies a workman four or five days ; so that his daily gains are from four to five pence. They never cultivate the ground.

The Wkalliaru make a coarse, white, strong cloth called whaUiaruvrBi- Parcalla. It serves the poorer male inhabitants, throughout the clJJa cfoth. country, as a covering for the upper parts of their bodies. The pieces are from 24 to 28 cubits long, and from 1 J to If broad, and as usual of three different degrees of fineness. Weavers of this kind live scattered in the villages, and frequently hire themselves out as day-labourers to farmers, or other persons who will give them emplojrment.

At the weekly markets the cotton wool is bought up, in small spinning.

152 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. quantities, by the poor women of all casts, except the Brdhfrtdfis ; June 22nd, &c. f^j. ^hese ncver spin, nor do their husbands ever plough the soil. The women of all other casts spin, and at the weekly markets sell to the weiivers the thread that is not wanted for family use. The thread that is brought from Balaliart, and other places toward the Krishna, is much coarser than that which the women here spin. Account of the Such is the account given me by the various weavers ; but the tho° a^ouTmer^ cloth agents, who are all of a cast called Nagarit, say that it is nob chants. customary to make advances for goods of an ordinary kind, unless

the demand from a distance be very great When this is the case, or when goods of an uncommonly high price are wanted, in order to enable the manufacturer to purchase the raw materials, one half of the value is advanced. The credit is for three months, and for this time there is no interest paid ; but, if the goods are not then delivered, monthly interest is demanded at the rate of J per cent, imtil the "contract is fulfilled. The commission here on the pur- chase of goods is only two per cent., and the agent is answerable for all the sums advanced to the weavers. On confronting some of the richer Shaynagaru with the Nagarit, they acknowledged that this statement was true. Manufactures, • The placGs from whcncc agents are at present employed to pur- wheresoid. chasc cloths are Nagara, Chatrakal, Seringapata'm, Chin^-rdya-pat- tayna, Sira, Madhugiri, and Devand-hully , A small quantity of cot- ton and silk cloth for women's jackets goes to the lower Catmatic, • This is the account of the Nagarit ; but I have good reason to think, that a very large quantity of goods, especially of the silk manufac- ture called Combaivutties, are sent to that country, and are much in request among the women of the rich Brdhmans, The Nagarit say, that the merchants, who import cotton, take away silk cloths for the dress of the Brdhnians of both sexes, and also blue and red cotton stuffs ; but not in a quantity sufficient to repay the whole cotton. During the former government of the Rajas family much cloth went from this neighbourhood to Tanjore, IS^egapatain^ and other parts of the southern Carnatic : but since that period, this commerce has been entirely at a stop.

The Man galore merchants send hither for every kind of cloth. The dress of that country requires cloth only eight cubits lon^. The pieces intended for that market, have therefore a blank left in their middle. In Hyders time there was a gi^eat expoiiiation of cloth to Calicut : but the troubles in Malabar have put an entire stop to this branch of commerce. Pricp of different The accomjmnying price current of tlie different kinds of cloth

5a"ffc[/^^'^°''**™''^^^ ^^ -^^^^.7^'^''^ ^^ only applicable to those made for common sale. Persons who wish for particularly fine goods may. by com- missioning them, have them made at four times the highest price stated here, or at any intenncdiate value.

CHAP. IV.J

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

153

Average price current of the cloths manufactured for common

sale at Bangalore.

Cloths made by the PuUuegars of silk entirely.

Puttay Shiray

Ditto JTtr^ay

Ditto Cupuisa

Ditto Dotra

Ditto Bucka Khana ,

Ditto Shalnama, large ... .

Ditto PaggoOt fuU length

Cloths made by the PuUuegars of cotton and silk mixed, and with figured patterns.

Shiray

Kirigay

Cupisia

•••

Plain white ootton cloths with silk borders, made by the PuUutgan,

Shiray Kirigay JDotra Bueha Khana

Green ootton cloth with silk borders, made by the Puiluegars,

HoMeru Shiray

'DiiXo Kirigay ...

Ditto CupuM ,

Coloured cotton cloth with silk borders, made by the Devangaa,

Ontmy . . . ••• •.. ... ... ... ...

Sirigay Cupina

• i* ai

.a. •.. ..• .•• ■•• •••

Cubits.

Length.

.«3

so «

17 12

144 12

7

6

60

17

12

144

17

12

12

7

17 12 Hi

17 12

Hi

.*3

to

'3

a

Width.

a

02

u	2i
9	11
• • •	n
10	H
6	i|
• • •	24
• • •	i
u	9i
9|	a
• ■ •	2i
14	n
9	H
10	24
6	li
14	24
9	ij
■ ••	84
14	2}
0	2*
•..	2i

2i

2

n 2

2 u

24

2 14

2

2

n 2

Highest Price,

I

oak,

150 50

120

110 40

100 60

60 40 60

50 20 50 30

50 20 30

English Money.

9

s, d.

0 9 1 13 7 4 0 7 8 13 104

1 6 lOi 3 7 2

2 0 3}

Lowest Price.

2 0 34 1 6 104 1 18 7

1 13 7

0 13 5

1 18 7 10 1}

20 0 18 5

10 0 6 84

30 11 0 IJ

1 18 7

0 13 5

1 0 If

40 20 35 30 10 50 50

15 12 15

8 3 8 5

15 8 8

8 3

English Honey.

1 6 10|

0 13 5 13 6

1 0 IJ

0 6 84

1 1^ 7 1 18 7

0 10 1 0 8 0} 0 10 1

0 5 44

0 2 0

0 5 H

0 3 44

0 10 1 0 2 0 0 5 44

0 5 44 0 2 0

20

1800.

Jane 22n€l.

irA

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IV,

1800.

Cutton cloth made by the Shalay and Shaynagaru.

Dutary SadaShilla... Asto-cunibi ... Bily-Paggoo

m • • • • •

• • • • «

••• •••

• • • * * * I

■ ■ • « * ■

Cotton cloth with red borders, made by the Togotaru.

Doird ... Skiray ... Jtomal ...

• • • « • •

••B •••

Coarse cloth wrought by the WfialliavUf and called

Pdvcdlld ...

	Cubits.
Length.	Width.
■»»	*5	^	4i
00	CB	«	ao
^	1— 1	^	9
2	"3		a
o	CO	O	03
32	28	2	U
32	26	2	li
• • • 60	• ■ • • • •	■ • *	• • • • • •
12	10	2i	2}
17	U	2i	2
5	3	5	S
28	24	If	ij

Highest Price. Lowest Price,

«©

20 20 20 30

12 13 10

English Money.

£ 8. d. 0 13 5 0 13 5

0 13 5

1 0 1^

GO ft,

English Money.

10 10 10 10

15

0 8 0^ 0 8 SI 0 6 8j

£ 8, d. 0 6 8.^ 0 6 S4 0 6 8A 0 6 84

0 10 1

7 6 4

0 4 8^ 0 4 0 0 2 8

0 3 4]

Encouragement The weavers of Bangalore seem to me to be a very ingenious ^Sivere ©rian- cl^s of men, and, with encouragement, to be capable of making very latore. ilch, fine, olcgant doths of any kind that may oe in demand; but,

having been chiefly accustomed to work goods for the use of the court at Seringapatam, they must now labour under great disadvan- tages : for it never can be expected, that the court of Mysore should equal that of SeHngapatam, nor will the English officers ever de- mand the native goods, so much as the Mussulman Sirdars did. The manufactures of this place can never, therefore, be expected to equal what they were in Hyder's reign, unless some foreign market can be found for the goods. Pumea, very desirous of the re-establishment of this city, has forwarded by me the musters of cotton and silk cloth that accompany this account, with a request that they may be presented in his name to the Marquis Wellesley : and I beg leave to recommend, that the attention of the board of trade may be directed to them, with a view of forming some commercial arrangements that may assist in restoring a country which has suffered so much. Silk manufac- ^^® ^^ manufacture seems especially favourably for a country

lure. so far from the sea, and from navigable rivers: as long carriage, on

such a valuable article^ is of little importance. At present all the

CHAP. IV.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 155

raw material is imported : but I see no reason why it might not be 1800 raised in Mysore to great advantage. Tippoo had commenced a "^""^ 2^"^' trial, but his arbitrary measures were little calculated to ensure success. Some of the mulberry trees, however, that remain in his gardens, show how well the plant agrees with this climate. It is true, that the experiments hitherto tned below the Ghats have not been favourable ; but much resolution and patience are always re- quired to introduce any new article of cultivation ; and 1 suspect tnat the climate here, owing to its being more temperate, will be found more favourable than that of the lower Camatic.

There is a small duty levied here on every loom ; and it is ju- ^^^'^^^ on wca- diciously diminished to those who keep many, in order to encourage ^^"^ * men of wealth to employ their capital in that way, A man, wjbo has one loom, pays annually 3f Fanams (2«. 6 Jrf.) ; two looms pay 5 Fanams (85. 41d.) ; and a man who keeps more than two looms, pa3^8 only for each two FanaviSy or Is. 4:d. All shop-keepers pay similar trifling duties.

There is here a set of people called Rungarit, who act as tailors. Praters of cot- cloth-printers, and dyers. Their printed cloths are very coarse, and ^^ c^®^^«- the art among them is in a very imperfect state. The only two colours that they can give in printing, are red, and black. Their- process is as follows :

The cloth that is to be printed is kept all night in a mixture of Process. Rheep's dung and water. Next morning it is washed, and then bleached the whole day in the sun, having water occasionally. At night it is again put into a mixture of sheep's dung and water, to which is added a little quicklime. Next morning it is washed again, and then put into a cold infusion of Arvlay Myrobalans {Terminalia Arula, Buch. MSS,) mixed with some gum of the Dinduga tree, {Andersonia Panchmoum, Eoxb. MSS.) The quantity of i/j^rofeaZans for 12 cubits of cloth is 6 Dudus weight (2j^o ounces), and of gum two Dudus weight (12x^oVo drams). The cloth, crfter being thoroughly wet in this, is taken out and dried in the sun. It is then folded, placed on a smooth plank, and well beaten with a stick, which serves instead of mangling.

The Mordant for the red dye is made as follows : Dissolve in one Se6?'(68 cubical inches) of hotwater 6 Dudus weight (2 J g^^ ounces) of alum, and 12 i)Md^t« weight* (4 ,®o''^fo ounces) of I)i7hd%iga gum. This Mordant is poured into a cavity that is made in a block of timber, and covered with four folds of country blanket well moisten- ed with the Dinduga mucilage. The wooden blocks for printing are moistened with the Mordant, by applying their surfaces to the blankets. The cloth to be printed is laid on a table covered with four folds of old cloth, and the blocks are appKed, and pressed down by the hand. It is then kept for eight or ton days.

If the printer wishes to add black to the pattern, the cloth must be again printed with the following Mordant Take 5 Seers (3 j^J'^^^ylb.) of iron dross, and 5 Seers of old iron, put them into a pot contain-

15(5 A JOUUNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. ing rather more than two ale quarts (2^ Seers) of hot Kanji, or de<- Jane 2ind. coction of rioe ; then add half a Seer (4 -f^S^ ounces) of Sugar^Jagory^ and keep it six or seven days. . Next add half a Seer of Di/nduga gum rubbed up with a little Ghae (boiled butter), and allow it all night to dissolve ; the Mordant is then fit for use, and is applied in the same mannjer as the other. After this the cloth requires only four days to dry.

After the Mordants have been dried on it, the oloth must be taken to the tank, washed very well, by beating it on a stone for an hour, and then dried. In order to give it the colour, put a piece that has received the Mordants into a pot, with 20 Seers (about five gallons) of water of the kind called here salt, one half Seer of Popli bark, and one DvAtx, weight (6tVq^ drams) of castor oil ; then boil it for two hours, all the while carefully stirring the whole. The cloth is then taken out, and dried in the sun. At night it is soaked in a mixture of sheep's dung and water, next morning washed, and then bleached all day. At night it is again put into the mixture of sheep's dung and water, and next day is a^ain bleached. The oper- ation is then finished by starching it with Kanji. The black is a fixed colour, but the red is perishable. paiunga dye. . With thc PotuTiga wood thosc Rangaru dye cotton oloth of red colour, which is bright, but does not stand washing. It is said, that the people of Madras have the art of fixing it The process used by the Rangaru is as follows : Prepare the cloth by soaldng each piece in a Seer of water, containing six Dudus weight of powdered Myro- halans. Then dip it into two or three Seers (about two quarts) of a decoction of Patunga wood, in which have been dissolved two Dudus weight of alum. Then dry the cloth in the sun. The operation must be repeated four or five times, until the colour be deep enough. The decoction of Patunga is made as follows : Beat two Seers iyfHis lb.) oi Patunga wood, put it into a pot with 20 Seers (about 5 gallons) of water, and boil for six hours. Indigo dyers. The NiLiqaru are another class of dyers, of the same cast with the

potmakers, and derive their name from their dyeing with the Nila or . indigo. The whole of this dye that is used here comes from the lower CamatiOj or northern Circars, In order to make a vat, the Ni- ligaru take ten Seers (6i%Vt>11^') of indigo, ground with a little water to a fine powder ; put it into a pot capable of containing 50 Seers measure (or a little more than 12 ale gallons) ; and add a decoction of Tagashay Bija^ or seed of the Cassia Tora, which is made as fol- lows. Take 4 Seers measure dVi^ Winchester gallon) of the seed, and boil it for 6 hours in four or five Seers of water (about an ale gallon). The boiled seed, as well as the decoction, must be put into the vat; and then there must be added 10 Seers (fii^^lb.) of powdered Soulu, or impure soda, 12 Seers (7,^ lb.) of quickUme, and two Seers of the ley of pot-ash (137 cubical inches). The whole is then stirred with a stick, and the mouth of the pot is covered up. Every evening and morning, for four days, three See7^s (206 oubi*

CHAP. IV] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. J 57

oal inoIieB) more of the ley must be added ; and in the last portion isoo. must be put about the size of an apple of quicklime : the vat now ^^« *^°*' rests for three days ; when four or five ^eera of boiling water must be added to it, and the vat is then ready for dyeing. The ley of pot-ash is prepared as follows : Bum to ashes the branches of the CcdLiy {EuphoTbiu7nTirucaEi)y or of the Utrayena {Achyranthea mit- ricata) : of these ashes put 2 Seera (1 ,V(rV 1^0 ^^^ ^ P^t, in the bot- tom of which there is a small hole. Ibe hole is covered with a small inverted cup, and that by some rice husks or chaff. Above these are put the ashes, and on them are poured by degrees 25 Seera, or about 6 ale gallons of water, which filters througn the hole in tiie bottom of the pot, and forms the ley. It must be observed, that the water used by the Niligarvu is always either that caUed here salt, or that which is found in places abounding with calcarious Tiiffa.

The indigo vat having been prepared, an estimate is formed of the number of Seera weight of cotton that it will dye. For every Seer weight of cotton thread pass a Seer measure of water through the pot containing the ashes, and in this weak ley dip the Seer of cot- ton ; wash it well> and then wring out the water. The solution of indigo is then divided into five equal parts. The thread is dipped, by Seera weight at a time, into these pots, till the colour in each is exhausted ; and what does not obtain a proper colour in the first, after being dried, receives repeated dips, until the colour arrives at the re- quired intensity. The solution of indigo is kept for a month, and every night a little lime water is added ; this enables it to give some more colour, which next day is again exhausted by dyeing some more cotton. The colour given by one dip is called Mavi^ and is a sky blue ; that which is given by five dips in a strong pot, is of an in- tense oolour nearly approaching to black, and is in fact called black by the natives, among whom it is in great esteem.

From the weavers, the Niligani receive cotton, and silk thread dyed yellow with turmeric, and return it to them of a green oolour, which it obtains by a dip in a weak pot.

At Bangalore, as well as in all the neighbouring ooimtry, (?on.t Indian hemp, is a considerable article of manufacture. It is a coarse, but very laHajZ^af" strong sack-clotb, from 18 to 22 cubits in length, and from ^ to f of a cubit broad; and is made from the Janupa or CrotaZaria juncea. It is divided into three kin4s, which differ in value accord- ing to their strength, and to the closeness of the fabric. The same people, who are a particular cast of men, cultivate the plant, and carry on the manufacture, until the 6oni be fit for sale ; the price of the hemp cannot therefore be ascertained, as it is not sold in that state. The Goni'Tnaker hires from some farmer as much high ground as he thinks will raise a quantity of Janupa sufficient to employ his family to manufacture in one year. The soil ought to be red or black, like the best kind used for cultivation of Ragy. It is allowed no manure ; and the seed is sown broad-cast on the ground, without any previous cultivation, at the season when the rains become what

]-8 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. ^^^ natives call male, that is to say, when they become heavy.

June 22nd. After being sown, the field is ploughed twice, once lengthwise, and once across ; but receives no farther cultivation. At other times the Janupa is cultivated on rice ground in the dry season ; but it must then be watered firom a canal, or reservoir. It requires four months to ripen, which is known by the seeds having come to full maturi- ty. After being cut down, it is spread out to the sun, and dried. The seed is then beaten out by striking the pods with a stick. After this, the stems are tied up in large bundles, about two fathoms in circumference, and are preserved in stacks, or under shedis. The bundles are taken out as wanted, and put in the water, at which time their bands are cut, and the stems being opened out, are kept down to the bottom by stones or mud. According to circumstances, they require to be kept in the water from six to eight days. They are known to be ready, when the bark separates easily from the pith. It is then taken out of the water, and a man, taking it up by handfuls, beats them on the ground, occasionally washes them until they be clean ; and at the same time picks out with his hand the remainder of the pith, until nothing except the bark be left. This is then diied, and being taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to separate and clean the fibres. The hemp is then completely ready, and is spun into thread on a spindle, both by the men and women. The men alone weave it, and perform this labour in the open air with a very rude loom.

i^aUici. " Leather is tanned here by a class of people esteemed of very

low cast, and called Madigaru.

Gnat and siicop To drcss the raw hides of sheep or goats, the Madigaru in the

skins tanning, g^^ place wash them clean, and then rub each with the fourth part of a kind of soft paste, made of 6 Dudus weight of the milky juice of the Yecada(A8clepia8 gigantea), vihowt Q Dudus weight (2,\j^o oimces) of salt (muriate of soda), and twelve Dudus weight of Ragy Sanguty, or pudding of the Cyiwsurus coracanus, with a suflicient quantity of water. This paste is rubbed on the hairy side, and the skins are then exposed for three days to the sun ; after which they are washed with water, beating them well on a stone, as is iLsual in this country. This takes off the hair. Then powder 2 Seers (1 ,2^J 3 11) ) of A rulay Myrobalans, and put them and one skin into a pot with 3 or 4 Seers measure of hotwater, where it is to remain for three days. , The skin is then to be washed and dried.

iiiack skins. This tauucd skin is dyed bla<;k as follows : take of old iron,

and of the dross of iron forges, each a handful ; of plantain and lime- skins, each five or six ; put them into a pot with some Ragy kanji, or decoction of Ragy, and let them stand for eight days. Tlien rub the liquor on the skins, which immediately become black.

Rcj <^kin8. These skins may be dyed red by the following process : Take of

ungarbled Lac 2 Dudus weight, (about 13 drams), of Snja cava, or fine soda, 1 Dodu weight, and of LodAi bark 2 Dudus weight. Hav- ing taken the sticks from the Lac, and powdered the soda and bark.

r •

11

CHAP. IV.J MYSORE, CANAllA, AND MALABAR. I59

boil them all together in a Seer of water (68f cubical inches) for 1| 1800. hour. Rub the skin, after it has been freed from the hair as before "'""*' 2'^'''*- mentioned, with this decoction ; and then put it into the pot with the MyrobcUans and water for three days. This is a good colour, and for many purposes the skins are weU dressed.

The hides of oxen and buffaloes are dressed as follows : For each Neat hides. skin take 2 Seers d^ooo ^^0 ^^ quicklime, and 5 or 6 Seers measure (about 1 J ale gallon) of water ; and in this mixture keep the skins for eight days, and rub off the hair. Then for each skin take ten Seers, by weight (about 6 lb.), of the unpeeled sticks of the Tayngadu {Cassia auriculata), and 10 Seed's measure of water (about 2J ale gallons), and in this infusion keep the skins for four days. For an equal length of time, add the same quantity oiTayngadu and water. Then wash, and dry the skins in the sun, stretching them out with pegs. This leather is very bad.

The oil makers at fian^faZore are a very considerable class of on makers. people, and aie of the kind that use two bullocks in their mill, of which a plan is given (Figure 24). The mortar is a block of granite. This class of people are called Jotyphanada, or Jotynagarada Ganagaru, They express the following kinds of oil: WulP-Ellu, Huts' -Ellu, HarulUf Cobri, Ipay, and Hoingay.

The WuW'Ellu oil is expressed from two varieties, or species of on of sesamum. Sesamum seed, caUed here Surugana and Cari Ellus. They are the same with the WuUay and Phulagana Ellus of Seringapatam. The first gives the least oil ; but for the table it is esteemed the best of any in the country ; the price, however, of the two kinds is the same. The miU receives at one time about seventy Seers measure (^10 0 Winchester bushels) of Sesamitm seed ; and, in the course of grinaing, ten Cucha Seers measure of water {2^^% ale quarts) are gradually added. The grinding continues for six hours, when the farinaceous parts of the seed, and the water, form a cake ; and this having been removed, the oil is found clean and pure in the bottom of the mortar, from whence it is taken by a cup. Seventy Pucka Seers (2/^% Winchester bushels) of Surugana, or 65 Seers of Cari- ' EUu seed {2^^^ Winchester bushels), gives 2 Cucha Maunds (rather more than 5 J ale gallons) of oil. The mill requires the labor of two men and four oxen, and grinds twice a day. The oxen are fed entirely on straw, and are allowed none of the cake ; which is some- times dressed wiiJi greens and fruits into Curry, and at others given to milch cattle.

The EuW'Ellu is managed exactly in the same manner as the buu^-euu on. Sesamum. The seventy Seers measure require a little more water than the other Ellu, and gives 65 Seers of oil (or a little more than 44 gallons). This also is used for the table. The cake is never used for Curry, but is commonly given to milch cattle.

The HarvXu, or castor oil, is made indifferently from either the castor oa. large or small varieties of the Ridnus. It is the common lamp oil of the country, and is also used in medicine. What is made by boil-

160

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IV.

1800.

June 22nd.

Cobrit or coco- nut oil.

/pay, or Btutia oil.

Boingay oil.

Calendar,

ing, as described at Seringapatam (p. 75) is only for family use ; all that is made for sale^ is expressed in the mill. To form the cake, seventy Seera of the seed require only five Seers, cacha measure (liVo *^® quarts) of water, and give 60 Seers i^^Jo ale gallons) of oil ; which after being taken out of the miU, must be boiled for half an hour, and then strained through a cloth. The cake is used as fewel.

Cobri oil is that made from the dried kernel of the coco-nut, which is 'Called Cobri. This oil is chiefly used for anointing the hair and skin. Cakes are also fried in it, and it is sometimes used for the lamp. The mill receives 6 Maunds weight of the Cobri (almost 93 lb.), and 11 Cucha Seers measure of water (a little more than 3 ale quarts). This produces three Maunds (about 7^q ale gallons) of oil. The natives eat the cake dressed ih various ways.

The Ipay oil, made from the fruit of the Bassia longifolia, is used for the lamps burned before the gods, being esteemed of a better quality than that of the Ricinus. The mill takes 70 Seers measure, and the seed requires to be moistened with 12 Cucha Seers (3| ale quarts) of tamarind water, in which 2 Seers of tamarinds have been infused. The produce is 70 Seers (4^^^^*^ ale gallons) of oil. The cake is used as soap to wash oil out oi the hair of those who anoint themselves.

The Hoingay oil, produced from the seed of the Bobinia mitis, is used for the lamp ; but it consumes very quickly. It is also used externally in many diseases. Take 70 Seers, Pucka measure, of the seed freed from the pods, add 4 Cucha Seers measure of water (l^Vo ale quart), and beat them in a mortar into a paste. Then tread the paste with the feet ; and, having kept it for two or three days, dry it in the sun. It is then put into the mill with one Cucha Sea^ (19 A cubical inches) of water. It produces 40 Seers (2f ale gallons) of oil. For fewel, the cake is mixed with cow-dung.

TheEngUsh weight, to which all the native weights are reduced, is the pound avoirdupois.

The only year in use above the Ohats is the Chandra-^maTUxm, or lunar year ; it is that by which, among the Brdhmans, all religious ceremonies ajre performed. The current year, as extracted from the almanack here, is as follows. At Ba/ngalore this is reckoned to be the year 4893 of the Kaii yugam, and 1722d of the era of Sdlivdhanam, which is in universal use in the peninsula. It must be observed, that in all my accounts of seasons, I use the European days, as they correspond with the Kamataca days in this year ; but the year of Kamata being lunar, this correspondence does not commonly take place ; and there is in some years a difference of eleven days between what is stated here, and the days that actually correspond with each other in the two almanacs.

CHAP IV.]	M	ySORE, CANAI	lA, AND ^	lALABAR. •
						1800.
European Months.	Kai-nata Months.	Holidays.	European Months.	Kamaia Months.	Holidays.	June 22nd
1800. 1722.		1800.	1722.
March ^6ChHira ... 1	Agadi.	May 22	29
27 2		23 30 Amatasya.
28 3		'^^JyaUlita... li
29	4		26	2
30	5		26	3'i
31	6		27	4
April 1	7		28; 5,
2	8		29	6
3	9		30	7
4	10		31	8
5	11		June 1	9|
6	12		2	10
7	13		3	n'
8	14		4	12!
9	iS^Chaitra Paurni-	5	13
10	16 Sankranti. [ma-	6	14
11	17		7	15
12	18		8	16	1
J3	19		9	1 i\
H	20		10	1 18.
15	21		11	20;
16	22		12	2]!.8ankranii.
17	24		13	22
18	25		14	23t
19	26		16	24l
20	27		16	25
21	29	A	17	26
22	30	Amavasya.	18	27'	•
231 FawaAa - ^		19	27|
24	1		20	28
25	2		21	99
26 27	3 4	A chatadiga [Oouri.	f^Ashadha...'^^^	Amavasija,
28	5		24	2		,
29	6		25	3
80	7		26	1 *1
May 1	8		27	5
2	9		28	6
3	10		29	•1
4 11		30	8!- i
5 12		July 1 9!
6 •* 1 8 9 10	13 14 13 16 17 "9 n	1 VyaaaPaurnima Sanhranii. ' '	2	10 1	Sq/na ekaJasi. ( Chalurmas- yam. Oapadma- aritam. 1
11 12 13 14 15	18 19 20 21 22		3 1	11^ Luhshya-vra- ta-dipiam. , Praiharna
! ii	(^ ekadasi.
16	23
17	24		4	13
18	26		5	14' ▼•^ ■_
l»	26		0	15 ^yasa v^ija.
20 27		7	16.
21	28		S	17	1

IGl

21

162

2		A JOURNEY FBOM MADBAS THROUGH •	[CHAP. IV.	>
1800.
June 22nd.	European Months.	Kamaia MontliB.	' Holidays.	European Months.	Ktimata Months.	Holidays.
	1800.	1722.		1800.	1722.
	July 9	18		Sep. 3		Uma Mdkuwrtk-
	10	19				[vratam.
	11	20		4	16	Beginning of ge-
	12	21	1			[oeral fast
	13	22	Sankranii, sun	5	17	Bhagavari
	14	23	[returns south.	6	18	[walam.
	15	24		7	19
	16	25		8	20
	17	26		9	21
	18	27	1	10	'22	•
	19	28	1 1	11	28
	20	29	1	12	24		<
	21	30	Dipattamhha' '	13	25
	22	Sravana ... ]	[vrata.	14	26	Sankranti,
	23	2	•	15	27
	24	3		16	28
	25	4		17	29	■
	26	5	N'agacheirwfH.	18	30	General fast in
	27	6	Oaruda puncha-			honour of de-
	28	7	[mV			ceased parents
	29	8		19	Atwayuja or	ends.
	30	9			A9u>aja ... 1	Navarairi.	(
	31	0		20	2
	August 1	11	Varamaka	21	3	MaJuuura Gauri
	2	12	[LoJeskmivrata.	22	4	[vratam.
	8	13		23	5	KanaJca Lakahi-
	4	14	SravanaPaumi-			[mi vrata.
	6	16	[ma.	24	6	Quhya Oauri
	6	17				[vrata.
	7	18		25	7	Saraavaii pufa.
	8	19		26	8	Dvrffa astami.
	9	20		27	9	\ MafM Nova-
	10	21		28	9	S [wi.
	11	22		29	10	Viiya DasmioT
	12	23	Qokul cuJUami, %			Danapuja vrata
	13	24		80	12
	14	24		October 1	13
	15	25	Sankranti.	2	14
	16	26		3	15'Eammudi trcUa
	17	27			an eclipse.	1
	18	28		4	4«wayttia...l6
	19	29		5	17
	20	30	Antavatya.	6	18
	21	Bkadrapada 1		7	19
	23	2		8	20
	23	3	8%oarana Oauri [vratd.	9 10	21 22
	24	4 Qanua wraia, 1	11	23
	25	5	Riahi panehami.	12	24	Naraka chatur-
	26	2		13	25	dasL
	27	7		14	26	SankrdntL
	28	9 0aja Lakshimi	16	27
	29	10	[vrtUa.	16	28
	30	11		17	29
	Sep. 31	12		18	30	IHpdvali Anid'
	1	13		19	Rariika ... 1	vdiva.
	2	14	Ananta chatur-	20	2	•r
			[dati.

CHAP. IVA MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.
				I	1800.
Europeaa Monthfl.	Kamata Months.	Holidays.	European Months.	Kamata Months.	Holidays.	June 32nd.
1800.	1722.		1800.	1722.
October 2]	I S.Dadhi Oauri	Deo. 1£	29
		and Qirtmi	16	SO	Amavasya.
	1	Oauri.	l7\Pau»hya ... 1
22	! 5 Apanga Lilita	18	2
23	6 Oauri.	19	4
2A	7		20	t	>
25	8		21	C	i TSdaxa srhhti.
26	9		22	7	f
27	10		23	\ ti	\
28	11		24	S	>
29	12	Uttana dwaddai	26	10	\
30	13	aad Sirabdi	26	11
81	14	vratam.	27	12
Nov. 1	15	Dhatri pujd.	28	la
2	16	29	14
3	17;	30	15
4	18|	31	16
5	19		/
C	20	1801.	1
7	21	January 1	16
8	22!	2	17
9	22		8	18
10	23		4	19
11	24	1	5	20
12	25		6	21
13	26		7	Pauahya ... 22
14	28	SankrantL	8	23
15	29		9	2i
16	30	A mdvdtya.	10	25	8an&ranti.
17	Mdrgaiirsha 1		11	26
18	2	Tanlrini Oauri.	12	28	Savilra Oauri.
19	BRambha Gauru	13	29	Amavaaya.
20	4	14	30
' 21	Sfargasirsha 5'Bhadri Oauri.	15	Magha ... 1
22	6 Sampada ariahii.	16	2
23	7		17 3
24	8		18	4
25	9		19	5
26	10		20	6
27	11		21	7	Rairi aaptami.
28	12		22	8
29	13		23	9
80	14		24	10
Dec ... 1	15		25	11
2	16		26	12
3	17		27	18
4	18		28	14
5	19		29	15 <	dunti Oauri
6	20		30	16	vraUi.
7	21		81	17
8	22		Feb. 1	18
9	23		2	19
10	24		8, 20
11	25		4	21
12	26		5	• 22
*13	27		6	23
14	28.	Sanhranti.

163

104.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IV

1800.

June 22ml.

Patichdngas.

Astrology.

European i i Mouths.

1801.

'cb.

Karnala

Mouths.

Holidays.

1722.

10 11 V2 13 14 15 16

it; is;

19 2

21 22 23 24

Mafjlia

Pahhjuna

25! 268ankraniL

27i 2SJ

29Sivaratri,

30 A mavasya.

.. 1.

3

4

5

G

I

i

8

9

10

n

	7
	8
1	9
ft	10
1	11
	12
	13
!	14

23| 24 26 27 28 29 30

AmavoxiffL

Although, in common reckoning, the day begins at sun-rise, yet this is by no means the case in the CfhandrATfiana/m, almanac. Some days last only a few hours, and others continue for almost double the natural length ; so that no one, without consulting the Panchdnga or almanac-keeper, knows when he is to perform the ceremonies of religion. What increases the difficulty is, that some days are doubled, and some days altogether omitted, in order to bring some feasts, celebrated on certain days of the month, to happen at a proper time of the moon, and also in order to cut off six superfluoas days, which twelve months of thirty days would give more than a year of twelve lunations. Every thirtieth month one intercalary moon is added, in order to remove the difference between the lunar and solar years. As the former is the only one in use, and is varying continually, none of the farmers, without consulting the PanchaTiga, know the season for performing the operations of agriculture.

These Panchdngas are poor ignorant Brdkmans, who get al- manacs from some one skilled in astronomy. This person marks the days, which correspond with the times in the soJar .year, that usually produce changes in the weather, and states them to be under the influence of such and such conjunctions of stars, male, female, and neuter ; and every one knows the tendency of these conjunctions to produce certain changes in the weather. The poor Panchdngas are as much in the dark as their neighbours, and actually believe that the year consists of 360 days, six of which are lost, nobody can tell how. As for the skill in astrology by which the learned are sup- posed to be able to foretel the seasons, I have never met with even a Vaidika Brcih/many that doubted its existence. It is, however, looked upon as a common science, as not having any thing miracu- lous in it, nor being communicated to its professors by divine favour.

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. IGo

The office of Panduinga in every part of this country is here- igQC. ditary, and is alwavs held by a Brahman, who acts as Purdhita, J"n«^^2ud. or lamily pnest, to all the persons oi pure descent m the town or vil- Furohitus. lage. In Bengal, Bvdhmans who have lost cast act as Purdhitas for the low or impure casts ; but both here, and in the lower Carnatic, such an office would be considered as too degrading for even the most reprobate of the sacred order. The office of PurShita consists in reading at certain ceremonies, such as marriages, bii-ths, funei-als, the building of a new house, or the like, what are called Mantrams, and Sdstravis, Mantrams are certain fixed forms of prayer, or in- vocations of the deity ; and the high dignity of the Brdhmans arises from the power which certain MantramSj pronounced by them, are believed to possess. For instance, by a proper Mantram, the deity may be removed from any inspired image into a pot of holy water ; and the image having been ornamented by profane hands, the deity may be again transferred back from the pot of water. Sdstrama are portions of the writings esteemed sacred ; and of which certain parts are appointed to be read on particular occasions, such as I have above mentioned.

I assembled at different times the chief persons of some of the customs of van- most conspicuous casts at Bangalore, and procured from them the ^^ ^*^**' following account of their customs.

The BanijigaSy or BanijigarUy are in this country a very numer- Banijigam, ous class, and are of three kinds, the Pdncham, the Jaina, and the Telivga Banijigm^.

The Pancham Banijigaru are by the Mussulmans called Lingait, pancham as being the chief persons of the sect, who wear, round their necks, ^««v'>«"*- a silver box coni^ining an image of Siva in shape of the Linga^ under which form only he is ever worshipped. From this circum- stance they are also called Sivabliactaru, and Lingabuntaru ; but in this country there are many other lower casts who wear the same badge of religion. The Pancham Banijigaru are also the heads of the right hand side. They admit of no distinction of cast among themselves, except that arising from a dedication to the service of god ; but they do not admit of any proselytes from other Hindu races; nor do they intermarry with any of the lower casts that wear the Linga. The Bi dhmans allege, that they are Sudraa ; but this, in general, they earnestly deny. The manner in which the Brdhmana reason with them is this : You are, say they, neither Brdh- Tiian, Kshdtri, nor Vaisya. If therefore you are not Sudras, you must belong to one of the low, or impure casts. Many of the Lingait, rather than endure such a terrible degradation, are induced to acknowledge themselves of the Siidra cast- It must however be observed, uiat Vdnija, from which their name is probably derived, is said to be a Sanscrit word, signifying any person of the Vaisya cast who follows trade.

The Pancliam Banijigaru are divided into a number of tribes, which seem to derive their names bom certain places where they

IQQ A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. were formerly settled. Two persons of different tribes never inter- june a2nd. many ; but all persons of the cast can eat together, and the whole are under the jurisdiction of the head-man (Pedda Ghitty), of what- ever tribe he may be. This office is, as usual, hereditary ; and the person who enjoys it is exempted by government from house-rent, and from one half of the customs on his goods. He finds merchants coming from a distance in lodging and warehouses, settles disputes among his clan, and punishes them for misdemeanours. In general, he is supported by the officers of government, who punish such of his followers as do not give him the customary obedience. His judicial authority, however, is not arbitrary. All his proceedings are open ; and he cannot act contrary to the advice of his council, which consists of all the old and respectable men of the cast.

Besides this division into tribes, which arises from the names of places, there seem to be other distinctions among the Linga Banir- jigas ; some are called Aray, that is, Marattahs, and some Teliga, that is, Telingaa ; and neither of these ever intermarry with each other, or with those who are of the Karnata nation. Some persons allege, that Pancham, the title commonly given to the whole, is only the name of a division ; and that there are also Linga Banijigas called Budugulu, Lalgunderu, and Turcanaru.

The Pancham Banijigaru are chiefly traders. They may how- ever follow any profession, except such as belong to me most dis- graced casts; and this exception seems rather to arise from a wish to keep themselves respectable, than from any positive law. Like all other worshippers of Siva, they bury the dead, and never offer sacrifices. They do not purchase their wives, of whom they may marry as many as they please. The women are not confined, but cannot marry a second husband ; and after the signs of puberty appear, a girl is no longer marriageable. Adultery is very rare ; that is to say, among the women ; for among the people of this country the term is never applied to the infidelity of married men. The Pancham Banijigas never eat animal food, nor take any intoxi- cating substance. They cannot eat^ except when the sun shines ; of course, on cloudy days, they are under the necessity of fasting.

like most other Hindu casts, the Pancham Banijigas consist of a portion that' foUow worldly affairs, and another that dedicate themselves entirely to what they call the service of the gods ; that is to say, idleness, meditation, prayer, abstinence, and the mortifi- cation of the passions. Among this cast, these consecrated persons are called Jangamas, Einaru, or Wodearu. Any Pancham Banijiga, who is qualified by his education and manners, may become a Jan- gama ; but the descendants of a Janga/ma never betake themselves to honest industry. They always subsist upon charity ; and most of them wander about with a great number of small bells tied to their legs and arms, in order to give the inhabitants of the villages notice of their presence ; so that they may come out to invite the holy men to their houses, or to bestow charity. Many others live

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. Igy

about the Matas, or colleges of the Qurus of the cast, and act as igoo. their servants. J^^e 22nd.

The Guru8 or Swamahu of the Pancham Banijigaru are San- nyasia ; that is, men who hAYG forsaken all ; and tiiey possess an absolute authority in all religious matters, among which is included the chastity of the women. Of these Ourus or Sannyaaia, there are four, that are called thronea, and whose Matama are called Bcdy- huUy ; Hujini, near Nagara ; Sri-akela^ near NundyaL ; and Co- neUy^ near Bangaluru. These tikronea seem to be independent of each other ; and their occupants, for the time being, are supposed to be actual incarnations of Siva, When a Ouru leaves this world, and is reunited to Siva in heaven, he is in general succeeded by a person of his own nomination, l^he Ouru generally educates four or five child- ren of his own family, with a view of choosing the fittest of them for his suooessor. These pupils are taken into the Maiama at five or six years of age, and, until they attain their thirteenth year, are called Mari ; after which they are not by name distinguished from the com- mon Janganfuia ; but if they choose to marry, they must relinquish all hopes of becoming a Ouru, The pupil is made a Ouru (sage), or an incarnation of God, by receiving from his master a particular Upadeaa ; and in case of a Ouru'a dyinff without having disclosed this awful secret, the other Ourus assemble, appoint the most pro- mising pupil to succeed, and at the same time deliver to him the Upadeaa of his rank. The Ouru, when he pleases^ may marry ; but he is thereby degraded from being a portion of the divinity, and from his power ; and no one has yet been found so desirous of mar- riage, as to relinquish these pre-eminences.

There are many inferior MataTns which are occupied by Sanya- sisy called Mahantina. These originally received an Upaaesa from some of the four chief Ourus^ and were sent to distant parts to manage the concerns of their superiors ; but, though they all ac- knowledge the superiority of the four Ourus^ yet they educate pupils in the same manner ; and from among these appoint their successor, by teaching him their Upadesa. These pupils, till they arrive at the age of puberty, are called Putta Devaru. The Mahantina having sent deputies to difierent places, even these have now assumed a separate jurisdiction, and educate their own successors.

The Mahantina attend at marriages and funeral^, and punish all persons of the oast, for every kind of offence against religion, by ordering every good man to avoid communication with the delin- quent. This excommunication is not removed, till, by the intercession of Mends, and .the most humiliating requests of the offender, he obtains pardon by paying a fine under the name of charity. On this occasion, the Mahantina bestow some consecrated water and victuals, which wipe away the offence. The Ourus occasionally visit the different Mahantina throughout the country ; but it is the Guru only of the Matam from whence the Mahantina orignally came, that possesses any jurisdiction over the inferior.

lOS A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

jJe^i^^d '^^ Pancham Banijigam worehip'only Siva, his wife, and his

sons : but they allege, that Brmaah and Vishnu are the same wittx Siva, They suppose, that their sect has existed from the beginning of the world ; but that the time i of Bejala Raja, who reigned about 720 years ago at Kalyana Pattana, the kings and most of the people were Jainas. At this time Bamvanay the supposed son of a Brdhman, became prime minister of the Raja, and restored the worship of Siva^ Many of the Jainaa were converted^ and their descendants now form jnina Banijiga- the Jaina Banijigavu, who although they have the same religion with the Pa7icAam,are1 never admitted to ^ the priesthood, nor to inter- marry with the original sect. Bejala Raja having been put to death by Jagadiva and BomaTia, two servants of Baswana, tiiat minister reigned in his stead ; and then promulgated the|law which this sect now follows ; and this, with an account of all the actions otBaswatuJiy are contained in a book called Baswana Purana ; which was written by a Brahman called BhiTnakavij at the desire of Baswana. The sect are in possession of another book of great authority. It consists of six Satrams written by a Jangama named Nijaguna^ who^ in the conversation which he had with an image of Srva at a temple on a hill near Ellanduru, received the necessary instruction. After he had finished the book, this Jangama did not die ; but the image, opening, received him into its substance. It continues ever since to be held in great estimation. These books are open to the vulgar ; but it is said, that the Jangarnas have some books which are kept secret

The Teliga Banijigaru derive their name from having origi- Tcul^BMil^^- ^^y oome from the Telinga country, which, in the dialect of KarntUa, ^f^iga ^^*^- ^^lo^ !feLiga, They all retain the Teiin^ra language, and allege that all Banijigas are descended from a person called Prithivi MaSi^ chitty. By his firstwife, who wasof the Vislinib sect, he had the ancestors of their cast ; and by his second wife, who worshipped Iswara, or Siva, he had the ancestors of the Lingahantary,^ They are evidently an inferior people, and more ignorant than the other Banijigas, owing probably to their being under the BrdhmanSy who exclude tibeir followers from a share of their learning. In the Teliga language they are called Balija ; whence, probably, is derived the name BvUge^ war, which is bestowed by the Mussulmans on all Banijigas.

The true TelingaBanijigas are merchants and traders of all kinds, farmers, and farmers' servants, and porters for the transportation of goods or baggage ; but never artists, nor mechanics. They are divided into a number of tribes, all of which can eat together ; but one tribe never marries with another. The chiefs of the Linga^ bantas have a civil jurisdiction over the Teliga Banijigaru ; but in order to settle matters relating to their own cast, they choose the man whom they judge to be most capable ; and in the absence of their Ourus, this man calls an assembly of the elders, and settles the affair.

Their 6r^rt^*are all^hereditary 'chiefs '''of the Sri Vaishnavam Brahmins, and never punish any delinquent without the advice of a

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 169

oonncil of elders. In their visits, these Gurus live in the temples, 1600. and assemble the people in order to collect their contributions, and '*^®*^" to bestow U'pad^sa and Cluikrdntikam on such as choose to receive them. The Pundidnga acts as their Purdhita, attending at births, marriages, and funerals, and on each occasion receives charity.

Among the Teliga Banijigaru the custom of Dds&ri prevails. A Dds^ri is a man dedicated to the service of the Tnpathi Vishnu ; that is to say, who subsists by begging in the name of that idol. When a sick man is in great danger, he frequently vows, if he re- covers, to take Ddsiri, or to make one of his sons assume that profes- sion ; and ever afterwards the eldest son of the family must follow that business, but the younger sons follow some industrious employ- ment. The Ddsiri may marry, and may be a rich man ; as the younger branches of his family live in his house, and cultivate the ground, or carry on trade ; but he himself wanders about, and collects grain, and small money, from those who are charitable. They get by rote a prayer in Tdinga poetry, which they constantly bawl out in the streets, and endeavour farther to attract notice by blowing on a conch. It seems to be only the Sudras of the Vish^iu&eot that follow this idle life, and a few of them are able either to read or write.

The Telinga Baiiijigai^ are acknowledged to be true SAdras, and they allow this to be the case. A few of them learn to read and write aooompts, but they never attempt any higher kind of learning. They eat sheep, goats, hogs, fowls, and fish, and may use Bang ; but they ought not to drink spirituous liquors. They bury the dead, and the women formerly used to bury themselves alive with their de- ceased husbands ; but this custom has fallen into disuse. They pray to Vishnu, and all the gods of his family ; and also to Dharina Baja, an inferior god of a beneficent nature ; but with the Brdhinans he is not an object of worship. In case of danger, they offer bloody sacrifices to several destructive spirits ; such as Marivia, Puta-^ limay Mutialima, and Gungoma, wliich is a lump of mud made into a sort of temporary image. The Brahman^ of this country abhor this kind of worship, and call all these gods of the vulgar evil spirits, Saktis, or ministei's of Siva, They never offer sacrifices at the temples of these deities, and much less ever act as their Pujdris. Influenced, how- ever, by superstition, although they condemn the practice, they in sickness occasionally send a small offering of fruit or money to these deities ; but, being ashamed to do it publicly, the pre- sent is generallv conveyed by some child, who may be supposed to have made tne offering by mistake. The small temples of these deities are very numerous, and the Pujdris are in general of the impure oastk, I am inclined indeed to believe, that they are the original gods of the country ; and that these impure casts are the remains of the rude tribes that occupied the country before the origin of the Brdhmans, or other sects, that introduced forms of worship more complicated, and more favourable to the priesthood.

22

170 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH fCHAP. IV.

laoo- Many of the people who bum lime are a kind of low Tdiga

^®*** • Bdnijigarw, as they can eat in the houses of that class ; but their native language is the Kamaiaka, or Canarese ; and the two tribes do not intermarry. They are divided into several families, and no man maiTies out of his own ; but they can all eat together. They have hereditary chiefs, who settle disputes relating to cast ; but in civil affairs they are subject to the chiefs of the Pan3umiBanijiga/rw. They do not wear the Liriga, yet they consider as their Gitttt the Nida/mavudySwdmalu, who is SbMahdntiiiaEiriarUf and lives in the Bala-pwra district. They never eat with the sect of Siva ; and use animal-food, and BaTig ; but are not allowed to drink spirituouB liquors. They bury the dead. They are allowed a plurality of wives, who are not confined, and are so industrious that they are looked upon as a support to their husbands. They are never divorced, except for adultery ; and if their infidelity has not been witii a man of a very low cast, the parties are frequently reconciled by the SwamalUy who makes them eat together some consecrated vid^uals, which, with some holy water, puts an end to all differences. None of them can either read or write. They never become Da^ri. The god of their cast is Vencaty Ramana, or the TripatM Vishnu ; but they pray also to Dharma Raja, and offer sacrifices to if arinia, and other destructive spirits.

Another inferior kind of Teliga Banijigas are the Gkmi makers. They will willingly eat in th© houses of that cast ; but these will not return the compUment. They will also eat the meat prepared by a Panchani Banijiga. They have their own hereditary chiefis, who are as ignorant as their followers, none of them being able either to read or write. Some of thSm are farmers, and some are small traders, which does not effect any difference in cast. They do not wear the Linga, and their Oui*u is one of the hereditary chiefs of the Sri VaiakTiavam Brd^manSy whose family title is Tata Ach&rya. The present Chiru, named Bdma Achdrlu, lives here. Those who are natives of this country bury their dead, and the Ooni makers of the lower Camatic bum theirs ; but this does not prevent the two from intermarrying. They are allowed a plurality of wives. With- out danger of losing cast they can eat hogs^ fowls, mutton, and fish, and can drink spirituous liquors, cuttoms of the The DMbngoa are a set of weavers, consisting of two nations,

Divangat. Kamata, and Telinga.

Kamata Deoan- The Kamata QT CaTiara Devdngas in this country all wear the 9^- Linga, but are a distinct cast from the Pancha/m Banijigas, with

whom they neither eat nor intermarry. 1'he same is the case be- tween them and the Teliga Devdngas, Their Ouru is Cart Baswa- uppa, who, from the place of his residence, is commonly called the Jsidamavii Swamalu. The Devangas pretend that he is totally in- dependent of the Ghiru of the Linga Banijigaru ; but I have reason to think that this is a vain piece of pride, and tiiat he is one of ihe Mahantina before mentioned* The Ourv, sends Jangamas to all the

CHAF. IV.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. l7l

villages where Devangaa reside, and receives contributions under I800. the name of charity. Owing to a dispute about the burning of the body of the Raja's mother, this priest incurred the heavy displea- sure of Tippoo, and was under the necessity of flying to the do- minions of iiie Nabob of Arcot, and still remains there at Tritwmaly. The learning is chiefly confined to the Swamaho and his pupils. Most of the Ja/ngamas are acknowledged, even by their followers, to be very ignorant. The sect have a book called Devanga Purana, which every one may read. It was written by Devanga Muni^ the common ancestor of the race. The Jangamas read the Baawana Pvr- rana, and possess many books that the Devangaa are not permitted to see. Out of these they repeat portions to the laity at the annual ceremony performed in memoiy qf their deceased parents, at births, and at funerals. These portions are committed to memory by the Jangama», it not being lawful for the laity even to look at the books ; but as these are written in the vulgar language, and of course are understood by every one, the Devangaa are laughed at by their neigh- bours for considering them as of any value. The Panchanga at- tends at marriages, and reads a Mantram in Sanskrit ; which, being unintelligible, is very highly valued. The knowledge of the laity is confined to the keepmg of accompts and writing letters. The Owrus and Jangamaa possess the same authority over the Devojngaa, as they do over the Pancham Banijigaa.

The proper god of the cast is Iswara or Siva, and his wife and family ; especially his servant the Baawa, and his son Ganeaa, who has particular authority over the loom, and, when his worship is neg- lected, is apt to make it go wrong.

The hereditary chiefs of the Canara Devangaa are called Ijya- mana. With the assistance of a council of the elders, these chiefs take cognizance of all offences against the ceremonies of cast. They re{»rimand for small offences ; for those of a higher nature, excom- mimicate ; and, in cases of great importance, send the accused person to the Svumudw for his decision. The chiefs and councils endeavour to settle aU civil disputes between members of the cast, first by ad* monition ; then by excommunication of those who are unreasonable ; and finally, by applying to the officers of government, who generally enforce the decrees of the Ijgamanaa.

The whole of the Canara Devangaa can intermarry. They are allowed a plurality of wives, which they purchase from their parents, papng firom 4 to 16 Pagodas (li. 6a. 2ld, — 5i. 7a. 5Jci.) for each, according to their circumstances. The wives are not shut up, nor are they ever divorced, except for adultery. They eat no animal food, nor use any intoxicating substance, except as a medicine. They bury the dead, and believe that after death good men are united to God ; bad men suffer transmigration. The Ifidamavudy Swaviudu is looked upon as the same with lawara, and even a common Jangama is considered as a portion of the deity.

The Tdiga Devangaa retain their native Telinga language, but reiiga Devangas.

1*72 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. are divided into two sects ; of whom one worships Vishnu, and the

juQ6a2nd. other Iswara ; but both sects intermarry, the wife always adopting the religion of the husband.

The Telinga Devangas of the sect of Siva do not wear the Linga, although they consider CaH Baavxi-wppa as their Guru, This priest admonishes them to wash their heads, and to pray regularly to Iswara ; and, as usual, reqiaires from them contributions. He has a small due on every marriage. The Panchanga reads Man- trams at births, marriages, and funerals ; at the Amavaaya, or last day of the lunar month, and at the Titfii, or day on which their parents died ; on both of which days a fast, in commemoration of their de- ceased parents, is observed by .the greater part of the Hindu race. On these occasions the Jangamas attend, but merely to receive charity. Concerning a future life, they have similar opinions with those who wear the Ling a. They offer bloody sacrifices to the Saktia, They bury the dead ; and the custom of the widow bury- ing herself afive with her huslband's body was once prevalent among them, but has now become obsolete. Girls, after the age of puberty, continue to be marriageable. A man is allowed to take many wives, but is not permitted to shut them up, nor to divorce them for any cause except adultery. The men confine their learning to the being able to read and write accompts. They eat fowls, fish, hogs, sheep, and goats, but account it unlawful to drink spirituous liquors.

The Teliga Devangas of the Vishnu sect are followers of the Sri Vaiahnavam Brdhmans, and are acknowledged by them to be Sudraa,

The hereditary chiefs, or Ijyamanas, of all the Devangas sxe the

same ; each man in the place submitting to the authority of the

chief of the sect that is most numerous.

cnstomsof the The Shaynogas, or Shaynagaru, form a very numerous and

shaynogaru. ^vi^ealthy class of weavers. They are divided into two nations, Tdtnga^

and Canard; but of the former, there are none in this neighbourhood.

Although by far the greater part of the Camera Shaynagaa are settled below the Ohats, in countries where the Tamul language is [q)oken ; aUd though all these who are settled now in this neigh- bourhood came up from the lower Canmatic about eighty or a hun- dred years ago ; yet the whole cast retain the language of Kaimata as their native tongue. This confirms the truth of a tradition pre- valent among them, of their having all originally gone down vrom this country ; but they can assign no date, nor any reason for such an emigration. They are divided into two classes ; one dedicated to religion, and called Einaru, JaTigamas, or Wodearu ; the other follow lay professions. All the weavers can intermarry ; but they are never honoured by an intermarriage with the Einaru, nor are they ever admitted into that sacred order. They wear the Lingam, and consider their priests as portions of the deity. They bury the dead. They can eat in the house of a Pancham Bamjiga ; but the two caats never intemany.

The hereditary chiefe of the Canara Shaynagas axe called Ijya-

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 173

TmiTUi, and, with a council of eJders, possess the sole cognizance of 1800. transgressions against the rules of cast, as well as of civil disputes ; "*•'*** for the power of the Jangamas is confined to admonition. They do not shut up their women ; and are not allowed to take a second wife, unless the first dies, or has no children. When a man marries bis first wife, he must give her father 101 Fanams, or SL 7s. lOd. ; for a second he must give 131 Fana^ms, or U, 7s. llf d. No divorce can take place, except for adultery on the side of the woman ; the wife in India having no remedy for her husband's infidelity except her tongue ; and in case of her being too free in the use of that weapon, the men very frequently repress it by a beating.

The weavers learn to read and write accompts, and letters on business ; but in this country these are reckoned very mean accom- plishments. A plain composition in prose, and consisting merely of common sense, is looked upon as a kind of reading beneath the dignity of a man of learning, who ought always to compose in poetry ; and the more obscure he renders his meaning by allegories, the better. The books containing the doctrines of the sect are confined entirely to the Einaru, whose duty it is to explain them to the layman. The chief book in use among them is called the Markandiya Purdna ; and they do not receive as canonical the Baswana Purdna.

Among the Einaru of the Shaynagas are several high priests eaUed PuUa Devarua or Swdmalus. These are all Sannyaeis, and seem to be independent of each other. Those which are known to the people here, are, Sankara Devaru, who lives at Changamau, near Trinomaly ; Bhuaagara Swami, at Naradnghapura, near Amee ; Gangadhara Swami, at Kunji; Senavera Devaru, SLiChinamangala near Trinomaly ; and Guruaiddha Devaru, at Trinomaly ; all which places are in the lower Carnatic. These Putta Devaru have their MaUama at the places above mentioned; but travel occasionally through the country occupied by the weavers, collecting the contri- butions of the charitable, bestowing advice on the adults, and the Linga on the children, who receive it with some particular ceremo- nies. Each of the PuUa Devarua educates a boy, who is of the sacred class bv birth, who is intended to be the successor of his master, and who is called Mori. The Putta Devaru, if he chooses, may deliver over his office to the Jlari, and take a wife ; in which cose he is degraded to the rank of a common Einaru, This is fre-

Suently done, as my informants were obliged to confess ; though bey did so with great reluctance ; for they were unwilling to dis- grace their Swamalua}yefove their neighbours, who consider celibacy as a much more honourable state than marriage. The married Einaru have their houses near the difierent Matania, Some of them live with the Sannyaaia^ and are their menial servants ; but the greater part of them, that are able to undergo the fatigue, wander about to collect charity for their support. In the lower CarruUic they are said to sell glass rings, and other trinkets.

CcramaB.

174 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. The people of this cast, with whom I conversed, were either, so

June 22nd. ignorant, or so unwilling to speak on the sulnect of their religion, that I cannot depend much on what they said. The Jangamas of the Pancham Banijigaru allege, that the Swamobius of the ShayncLgas are of their sect ; and the Mahdntina, no doubt, attend at the fune- rals and 9ther public ceremonies of the Sha/ynagaa ; but those allege that this is merely for the purpose of begging, and that they per- form no part of the ceremony. The Pand^Tiga reads Mantrama at marriages and births, and receives the usual fees, cnstotns of the The CoramaSy or Coramaru, are a set of people considered by the Brdhmans as of an impure or mixed breed. They make badcets, and trade in grain and salt to a considerable extent ; but none o£ them can read or write. They live, in general, in small camps of moveable huts, which are sometimes stationary near large towns ; but they are often in. a state of daily motion, while the people are following the mercantile concerns. The Coramas consist of four families, Maydraguta, Cavadiru,Maynapat'i'Uf and Satipatrti. 'J'hese are analogous to the Gdtrama of \^q Brdlvina/ris ; for a man and wo- man of the same family never intermarry, being considered as too nearly allied by kindred. The men are allowed a plurality of wives, and purchase them from their parents. The agreement is made for a certain number of FanamSy which are to be paid by instalments, as they can be procured by the young woman's industry ; for the women of this cast are very diligent in spinning, and carrying on petty traffic. When the bargain has been made, the bridegroom provides four sheep, and some country rum, and gives a feast to the cast : concluding tne ceremony by wrapping a piece of new doth round his bride. Should a man's wife prove unfaithful, be generally contents himself with giving her a beating, as she is too valuable to be parted with on shght grounds ; but, u he chooses, she may be divorced. In this case, he must assemble the cast to a feast, where he publicly declares his resolution; and the woman is iJien at liberty to marry any person that she chooses, who is willing to take her.

The Coramas do not follow nor employ the Brdhmans ; nor have they any priests, or sacred order. When in distress, they chiefly invoke Vencaty Mdmana, the Trvpathi Vishnu, and vow small offerings of money to his temple, should they escape. They frequent* ly go into the woods, and sacrifice fowls, pigs, goats, and sheep, to mv/ni, who is a male deity, and is said by the Brdhmans to be a servRni ot lawara ; but of this circumstance the Coramas profesa ignorance. They, as usual, eat the sacrifices. They have no images, nor do they worship any. Once in two or three years the Cora/mas of a villa^ make a collection among themselves, and purchase a brass pot, m which they put five branches of the Melia azadirachJUi, and a coco-nut. This is covered with flowers, and sprinkled with sandal- wood water. It is kept in a small temporary shed for three days, du^ng which time the people feast and drink, sacrificing

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 175

lambs and fowls to MaHma, the daughter of Siva. At the end of the , J^^^^;^^ three days they throw the pot into the water. ^^

The Panchdlas, or PanchAlaru, a name corrupted by the Mus- customs of the subooans into Panshcal, are a cast that follow five difierent trades, ""* goldsmiths, carpenters, blacksmiths, masons, and coppersmiths. These occupations do not occasion any difference of cast ; die son of a man of any one of the trades may, if he pleases, follow any other, and all of them can eat together and intermarry. Each trade, it is true, has a head-man ; but the whole are subject to one hereditary chief, who is here a goldsmith. He is the leader of the left hand side ; and at present uie dispute between him and the chief of the Banijigaa runs so hijj^h, that government have been obliged to part the town into two divisions. In the one of these the right hand side is not allowed to perform any ceremonies, nor to go in proces- sion ; and the other division is kept equally sacred from the intru- sions of their adversaries. The head-man of the goldsmiths has a similar jurisdiction with other chiefs of casts ; and, with the assist- ance of his council, can levy fines, which are given to the goddess Kali ; that is to say, to her priest.

The Panchalaru are divided into two sects ; one worshipping Siva the other adoring Vishnu ; but this does not produce any schism ; the two parties eating together, an(} intermarrying ; and when this happens, the wife adopts the religion of her husband. Kali is con- sidered as the proper deity of the cast ; but receives no bloody sacri- fices from her votaries. Both sects are prohibited from animal food, from spirituous liquors, from divorce (except in case of adultery), and from marrying a girl that has arrived at the age of puberty. The BrdhToaixare^ Mantrama at the births, marriages, and funerals of both sects ; and no distinction is made by either^ whether the Brdhman be a worshipper of Siva, or of Vishnu.

The most numerous and richest of the Panchcdaa belong to the sect of Siva, and wear the Linga ; but they have nothing in common with the Pancham Banijigas, and in fact are their most bitter ene- mies. This sect bury the dead.

The PanchaXas who worship Vishmi are called Bogota, and have among them a family dedicated to religion. The eldest son of this famuy always succeeds to the dignity of Ouru on the death of his father ; the other male branches of the family are supported by the contributions of the sect, and pass their time in devotion and study. The women of the family intermarry with the working men of the cast. The Ouru is named Vipur Vencaty Acharya ; Vi- pur being his name, and Vencaty Acharya his title. He lives at Wadiga-paUa, which is twelve Cosses from Bangalore, and in the Doda Bala^ura district. He travels about among his Followers^ receiving their contributions, and bestowing Upadesa. and Chakran- tikam, or Mvdivdarana, as it is called in the Sanskrit language.

The Madigas, or Madigaru, are looked upon as a very law cast, costomi oi iho They dress hides, make shoes, and some of them cultivate the ground, ^^*^'

176 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800. acting as servants to the fanners. They are divided into small

June 22nd. tribes of ten or twelve houses, and intermarry with the daughters of these houses only, in order to be certain of the purity of their race ; of which they seem to be as fond, as those casts that are esteemed infinitely superior in rank. Some of the richer among them take two or tnore wives ; but this is not common, as a girl's father requires from 30 to 80 Fanams {IL Os. Ifd.— 2Z. 138. Sfd.) They never divorce their wives for any crime, except adultery. They eat carrioD, and all manner of animal food and avowedly drink spirituous liquors. Their religious worship seems to be exactly the same with that of the Goramaru ; but they have a priestly tribe, who never in- termarry with the laity, who live entirely on their contributions, and are called Jarribu. There is a McUam of Jamhu at Cviddapa ; and the office of high priest there is hereditary. This person takes frequent rounds through the country, collecting money, and admon- ishm^ his followers. I have never seen any of thei Jam6w ; and, if they nave any learning among them, they keep it entirely to them- selves, as none of the laity caa either read or write.

The Madigaru, who by the English of Madras are called SiclarSy have no hereditary chiefs ; but, in case of any fault being committed by a person of the cast, the elders assemble, and pumsh him according to custom. Customs of the The Ruugavu are a tribe admitted to be of the Sudra cast.

nungaru. They are taylors, and printers of calico cloth. They have hereditary chiefs, with the usual jurisdiction, and follow the rules of their cast. Their Oui^ is an hereditary chief of the Sri Vaishnavam, who re- sides at Seringapatam, He punishes obstinate offenders, and be- stows Upad^a ', and in return takes their contributions. He does not favour this cast by giving them Ghakinintikam. cuBtomB of the The JotypJumacui, or Jotynagarada Oanagaru, are a kind of oil-

Joiyphawida. makors, who deal largely in that commodity, and have two oxen in their mills. They pretend to be of the Bheri, or Nagarada sect of the Vaioya cast ; but this is not admitted by either the Bheri or Brahmana, They are a real Karnaiaca tribe. Two families here wear the LiTiga, and are not admitted either to eat or intermarry with the others, who are all followers of one of the hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans, who lives here, and is called Nvl- lary Chakravarti, He bestows on them Upad^, and sometimes Chukrdntikam, but that rarely. When they marry, he gives them a string or thread, to be worn over the shoulder. This should be given to the real Vaiaya only ; but a relaxation is made in their mvour, as they pay for the badge ; and the preservation of the pri- vileges of the lower casts is looked upon as a matter of very little importance. The Guru comes sometimes in person, and at others sends his agents, to levy the dues which are paid at marriages, and to receive tne casual charity that is given according to the ability and disposition of his followers.

These oil-makers offer sacrifices to the Saktis^ or destructive

CHAP. tV.J MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. J'77

powers ; making vows to do so, when they are in sickness or distress, iqoq. Some of them take Daseri ; and their descendants ever afterwards J'^* ^n*- follow the same manner of living, and refuse to intermarry with the industrious part of the cast, whom they consider as their inferiors. Some of the oil-makers bum, and some bury the dead. There have been instances, in the memory of man, of some of their widows hav- ing burned themselves along with the bodies of their husbands ; but it is a very rare occurrence. Their wives can be divorced for adul- tery only, and are not shut up, although the men are allowed a plu- rahty of women. They eat no animal food, nor is it lawful for them to drink spirituous liquors. They possess no learning, farther than being able to read and vrrite accompts ; and a few poems in the Andray, or poetical language of Telingana, which the DaaeiH commit to memory.

The people who, in the language of Karnata^ are called Chitra^ castomi of the haru, are commonly better known by the Mussulman appeUation^****"***^"* Jinigar^ or Jiiigar. They make chests, trunks, scrutoires, beds, and palankeens, paint houses, draw pictures of the gods and of women, gild, act as tailors, make gold thread, and sword scabbards, turn wood, and bind books. They never cultivate the ground, nor act as merchants. They pretend to be of the Kahatriya cast, and their Guru, in consequence, indulges them with a thread like that of the Brdhmane, but their pretensions to high rank are entirely disavowed by aU other casts. They have among them some rudiments of looming. In the Brahmanda Purana, which is the book that they consider as appropriated to their cast, it is related, they say, that tl|^ ancestors, on account of some injury done to the Bralimans, were condemned to follow their present mechanical occupations. They are divided into two sects ; one worshipping Siva, and the other Vishnu : but this division produces no difference of cast, as they can all eat and marry together, the wife, as usual, adopting the religion of her husband. The worshippers of Siva do not wear the lAnga, but are followers of the SmaHal Brdhmana. A Vaidika Brdh- man residing here bestows the thread and Upadeaa, and attends at births, marriages, and funerals, which are performed on the pile, and are sometimes accompanied by the sacrifice of a wife. Those who worship Vishnu are followers of the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans. Neither division of these people eat animal food, nor drink spiritu- ous liquors. They are allowed plurality of women, but do not con- fine them. lake all the other tribes of this country, however, they do not willingly admit any person of a different race into the inner apartments of tiieir houses ; especially if he be of a cast that they consider as inferior to their own ; persons of their own tribe, and those whom they consider as of bigner rank, can go into every part of their house, except the kitchen. The circumstonces which seem chiefly to add digmty to a cast are, its being restricted from the pleasures of the world, . especially those of the table ; the following no useful employment ; and th^ b^g dedicated to what . they caU

23

178

A JOURNKY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IV.

1800.

JuneSSndi

as

Customs of the Shalay.

Samay Shalay.

J*adma Shalay.

piety and learning. Almost every man endeavours, as much possible, to assume at least the external appearance of these qualifi- cations ; and in the people of this country a hypocritical cant is a remarkable feature. Even young men of active professions, when talking on business, will frequently turn up their eyes to heaven, and make pious ejaculations, attended with neavy sighs.

The Shalay are a cast of weavers, divided into two distinct tribes, that nev^r intermarry, and have separate hereditary chie&. They are of Telinga origin, and in their families retain that language. According to tradition, they have been in this country for six gene- rations.

The Samay Shalay wear the Lwga, and of course are worahip- pers of Iswara, and the gods of his family. They reject the worship of the Saktis, or destructive powers. Their Gurus are the Ehiaru of the Pancham Bcmijigas, witn which cast the Sainay Shalay can eat, but they cannot intermarry. When their Guru visits the town, each Shalay of this sect must present him with two Fcmams {Is. 4<i.) ; and when a Samay Shalay waits on the Guru at the ilatam, he must make an oflTenng of ten Fanams, (6s. 8Jd.) The Guru does not give Upad^a ; but, in place of it, bestows the Linga. In case of the Guru's absence, this may de done by any Einaru, The Einaru attends at births, marriages, funemls, and on the occasion of building a n^w house. The Panchanga attends at marriages to i^ead the Man- traTTts, or service proper for the ceremony, and receives the usual fees. On these occasions, the Einaru washes the bridegroom's feet, and gives him some consecrated victuals. They bury the dead, jind the widow is sometimes buried alive at the same time, but not in the same grave with the deceased husband. Widows cannot marry a second time, as is the case throughout India with females of any cast above those that are reckoned impure. The men are allowed a plurality of wives ; but except for adultery, can neither confine nor divorce them. They cannot legally eat animal food, nor drink spirituous liquors. The laymen are permitted to read several Puraruas ; such as the Baswa Pura/na, which gives an account of the laws of their religion : and the Shasayswara Purana^ which is extracted from a book called the Brahmanda Purana, and contains the rules of their particular sect, as the original work contains the rules of every sect whatever.

The worshippers of Vishnu, among this class of weavers, are called Padma Shalay, and give the following account of their origin. The whole Shalay formerly wore the lA/iiga ; but a house having been possessed by a devil, and this sect having been called upon to cast him out, all their prayers were of no avail. At length ten per- sons, having thrown aside theXtn^dr, and ofiered up their supplications to Vishnu, they succeeded in expelling the enemy ; and ever after- wards followed the worship of this g(S, in which they have been imitated by many of their brethren. The descendants of these men, who are called Sadana Asholu, or tfee celebrated heroes, never work ;

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANAEA, AND MALABAE. 179

and having dedicated themselves to the service of god, live upon 1800. the charity of the indostrious part of the caat, with whom they dis- ^^^^ *'"**• dain to intermarry.

The Guru of the Padnia Shalay is Tata Acharya^ one of the liereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam BrdhTnans, He lives at Doda Bata-pura, and bestows Upadeaa and Ohakrantikam, He has a deputy, a Vaidika Brahman, who attends at births, mairiages, and burials. Widows are never buried alive. The Padma Shalay are -allowed a plurality of wives ; but cannot confine their women, nor divorce them, except for adultery. They cannot legally eat animal food, nor drink spirituous liquors ; but are permitted to use Oanja, or hemp, which the English in India usually call Bang, Some among them are able to read poetry, and have a book called Mar- kandiya Purana, which is also followed by several sects that wear the Linga^ and is said to have been written by a Rishi named Mar- ktJLndob.

The Coniatigas say, that they are the only true Vaiahya, which ^^^f *^* is the third in rank of the pure casts ; and they pretend, that now*^" they are next in rank to the Brdtimans, as the second pure cast has become extinct. In both these pretensions they are supported by all the BrdhmanSi who are not desirous of flattering some Bxija that pretends to be a Kakatvi. They are found thinly scattered in every part of India, and are not prevented Ax>m eating in common, or from intermarriage, by any difference of nation or sect. A Comatiga coming from Ka^i or Benares, on being examined, and found to be acquainted with certain customs peculiar to the cast, and which are kept secret, is received here into all families, and may marry any of their women. They deal in cloth, and all kinds of merchandize, especially money and jewels ; but are not allowed to sell spirituous liquors, nor any intoxicating substance ; nor do they ever cultivate the ground, or follow any mechanical profession. They have here- ditary chie&, called Pedad ChiUies ; and the chief of each town or district is totally independent of the others. When a town is very large, the chief, for the parts that are remote from his house, ap- points inferior officers, who settle trivial disputes. These chiefs pos- sess the usual jurisdiction, and enjoy more than common immuni- ties, for they pay nothing to government. They can in no case act without the assistance of all the elders in the place. The Comatigas are not allowed to take animal food, nor any thing that will intoxi- cate. Polygamy is allowed to the men, and the women are not di- vorced for any cause except adultery. In this country, they are not confined ; but in the northern parts of Hindustan the Coniaiigaa fol- low the example of their neighbours, and shut up their wives. Many of this cast read books composed in poetry ; that which is con- sidered as peculiarly belonging to it, is called Vaieya Parana, and is imagined to have been composed by the goddess Kanyakd Para- m4siuari, which is one of the names of the wife of I&wara. They all burn the dead, and sometime.s the widow accompanies on the pile

Buddi,

ISO A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV.

1800: of her departed husband. The women are no longer marriageable

June t2iid. after the signs of puberty have appeared ; and widows are condemn- ed to perpetual celibacy. Some families of this cast worship Vishnu, and their Gvru is Bhadra Achdrya, one of the hereditary chiefs of the Si'i Vaishnavavi Brdhmans, who resides Sit SH Rangara near Trichinopoly, Younger branches of the family reside at different places, and act as deputies f<n* the chief. The one who acts in this neighbom-hood resides at Doda-BaUi-pura, and is called Ckicana Botalu. The other families of this cast worship Siva, and have for their Guru a Sannydsi Brdhniav of the Smartal sect, who lives at Sivoffanga, and acknowledges the Sringa-giH Swwmalu as his supe- rior. cuatoiM of the The Ruddi are one of the tribes of Siidra cast, which being

much employed in agriculture are called Woculigai^ in the language ot Karnata, and Cnnabi in that of the Decany Mussulmans. Besides cultivating the land, both as farmers and as their servants^ they act also as porters, and sometimes carry on*a small trade in grain. Like all the other SAdraa employed in agriculture, they have formed a part of the native foot militia, that seems to have been estab- lished throughout India, and in which probably every man of this description was enrolled. The considering the KsfuUriya as the militajy cast seems an error. At present, the Ruddi frequently serve as Candashara, or the armed men, that without disciphne col- lected the revenue, and composed the most considerable body in the armies of all native princes. They appear to form a numerous race of men ; many of them live below the Ohais, and some are of Telinga, while others are of Kamata extraction. They can all eat together, but they never intermarry, except with particular families, the purity of whose descent they consiaer as well known. They acknowledge an inferiority to another class of SUdras who cultivate the land, and are called Siidra ; for they will eat in the house of a Sudra, but he will not return the compliment by eating in theirs ; which, among the Hindus, is a sure criterion of rank. They have Ijyawanas, or hereditary chiefs, possessing the usual jurisdiction and immunities. Some of them can read and write ac- compts ; but none proceed farther in learning. They eat hogs, sheep, goats, venison, and fowls, and can take Bang (or the leaves of the Cannabis saliva) ; but lose cast by drinking spirituous liquors. The men are allowed polygamy ; but do not shut up their women, who are very industrious, and perform much of the country labour. They are divided into two sects by a difference of religion ; one party worshipping Vishnu, and the other Siva ; but this does not prevent intermarriages. Those who worship Vishnu are followers of the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans ; but do not receive either UpadAa or Ohak" rantikam, contenting themselves with a little holy-water, which th^ obtain in return for their charity. Those who worship Siva are followers of a kind of Jangamas, but do not wear the Lmga, The people with whom I conversed seemed to consider these as the same

N

CHAP. IV.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 181

with the Jangamas of the PanchamBanijigcts'; but this cast informed • igoo. me that they were distiQCt, and that the Oums of the Ruddi were Jnn«*tod. the same with those of the Curaburay whose chief resides at Can- gundy in the Bara-mahal. In their visits, the Gurus of both kinds receive from one to ten Fanams (from 8d to 6s. 8 Jd) from each Rv^i, according to his circumstances. The Panchanga attends at births, marriages, frmerals, and other ce^monies ; and on each oc- casion receives a FuTiam. At the new and fiill moons, he also gets some trifling present of grain. Besides the worship of the great gods, they offer sacrifices to the destructive powers ; among whom a female spirit, named Chandeaiuari, has in this neighbourhood many temples. The Pujari, in at least one of them, is an oil-maker of the cast formerly described, and his office is hereditary. The Ruddi is one of the lowest casts of the employed in agriculture, and allowed to be of pure descent ; but many of ite members are rich, and are the Oaudaa, or hereditary chiefs of villages.

The Bheri are a kind of merchants,* who call themselves also cutomi oc tha Nagaraira, corrupted by the Mussulmans into Nagarit They pre- ^**^ tend to be of the Vaisya cast ; but this is denied both by^the Brdh-- Tnana and by the Gomatigas. They deal in drugs, grain, cloth, and money, and travel about in caravans. Some of them are farmers ; but they never cultivate the ground with their own hands; nor do they ever follow any mechanical profession. They are divided by reli- gion into two sects, that do not eat together, nor intermarry ; and each has its own hereditary chief, who acts independently as to mat- ters of ceremony ; but in matters of a civil nature, the chief of the sect that is most numerous in the place assumes the sole authority. These chiefs are called Ijyamana^ and possess the usual jurisdiction ; but are not indulged with any immunities from taxes. Wben a man wants to marry, he goes to his hereditary chief, as is indeed usual with all the higher casts, presents him with betel, and discloses his intention. The chief sends for the father of the girl ,and endea- vours to bring the matter to a favourable conclusion. As for the girl, she is not at all consulted, and is indeed too young to have form- ed any attachments, as she must be married before any signs of puberty appear ; for afterwards she is considered as being deflowered, and incapable of marriage. Owing to the custom of polygamy, however, very few of the women in this country live in a state of celibacy, except young widows of the higher casts, who never can marry again, and who are very numerous ; for matches between old men and mere children are common. The comfort of having chil- dren, however, is, in general all the pleasure that married women of rank in India enjoy. Where polygamy prevails, love is little known; or if it does possess a man, he i^ generally captivated by some artful dancing girl, and not by any of his wives ; all of whom were married before they could either excite or feel that passion.

The Nagaratra^ who worship Viehmt, are here the most numer- ous sect. They burn their dead, and the rules of cast require the

J'aliiwanlu.

]^g2 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IV-

1800- widow to burn herself with her husband's body ; but this custom Juno 22nd. has fallen into disuse. They do not intermarry with such of their sect as, being originally of the lower GamatiCy speak the Tamul lan- guage as their native tongue. Their Gurit is Trimuio-toia -4 cfeariu, an hereditary chief of the 5rj Vaishnavam Brdhvians ; but, as forming part of the left hand side, they are, in all matters belonging to that division, under the authority of Dharma Siva Acharlu, a Smartal Sanyaai, and who, they say, bestows Upad^a and C/takrantikam on them, in the same manner as their own Ouru. My interpreter, however, suspecte that in this there is some mistake ; as the latter ceremony is performed with the point of Vishnu's spear, which a Smartal Brdhman, so far as he knows, never uses. Their own Guru comes once a year, receives contributions, bestows UpadAaa and Chakrantikam, and, as usual, exercises spiritual jurisdiction. The Punchanga acts as their Furohita ; and it is of no consequence, whether or not he be of the same sect with them. Some of this cast are able to read poetry, and peruse a book called Vaisya Pu- rana, which they consider as belonging to their cast. ouBtonM of the The PalHwajdu are the only persons in the Colar province (of

" '" which this is a part) who cultivate kitchen gardens. They also cul- tivate the ground, both as farmers, and as their servants. They are all of Tamul extraction ; and, although they have been in this country for many generations, still speak the Tafmd language in their own houses, and intermarry with the Palli ofArcot and Veilore. They are properly called Vana Palli, and must be distinguished from the Mina Palli, who are fishermen. This is one of the most numer- ous of the tribes of the Tamul nation, but is considered as rather low. They have hereditary chiefs called Oaunda, who possess the usual jurisdiction. None of them can read. They are allowed to eat animal food, and to drink spirituous liquors. Their women con- tinue to be marrigeable after the age of puberty, and are very la- borious. They cannot be divorced for any cause, except adultery ; but the men are permitted to have a plurality of wives. They bury their dead.

The Palliwanlu have no Oarti' ; but the Panchanga acts as their Purohita at births and marriages, at the ATnavasya, and at the an- nual commemoration of their deceased parents. They wear the mark of Vishnu^s sect, and sometimes pray to Veiicaty Ramana ; but the proper god of the cast is Dharma Raja. His images exact- ly resemble those of Oodama, who is frequently called by that name ; but by the people here their god is said to be the eldest brother of the five sons of Pandu, who lived at the commencement of this Yugam. He is a beneficent deity, like Oodama, abhorring blood ; and is worshipped by offerings of fruit, flowers, and the like. The Palliwanlu have temples of tnis god attended by Pujaria of their own cast. Like all the other inhabitants of this country, they are much addicted to the worship of the Saktia, or destructive powers ; and endeavour to avert their wrath by bloody sacrifices. These arc

183

1800.

ane 2Snd.

laline wells.

*ff*nner of raig.

182 1800-

June 22od.

I

Customn of tho J'eUliwanlu.

fJATK X.

G

• «•

• • •«

• • • 1, : - • • *•

- "•• • •

M^

- -ct

-:/

CHAP. IV.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. I33

performed by cutting oif the animal's head before the door of the 1800. temple, and invoking the deity to partake of the sacrifice. There ^^^ ^snd. is no altar, nor is the blood sprinkled on the image ; and the body serves the votaries for a feast. The Palliwanlu have temples dedi- cated to a female spirit of this kind named MiUiaiiam, and served by Pujaris of their own cast. These priests can neither read nor write, but their office is hereditary. Their families can intermarry with those of the laity, who cultivate the priest's garden, and give him annually a suit of clothes. The PaUiwarUu also offer sacrifices to Marima, whose Pujaris here are Curubaru ; and to Prdalima, whose Pujaris are Lingait They sometimes take the vow of Daseri.

In many parts of this country, the wells contain what the na- saline weUa. tives call salt water ; and at Bangalore there are many of this kind. Some of these are situated very near wells that are perfectly fresh ; which is easily accounted for, from the vertical situation of the strata. This salt water is preferred, by the dyers, to that which is fresh. It has a maukish disagreeable taste, no smell, and is quite limpid. It is never used medicinally. A white precipitate is form- ed in it by nitrate of silver. It thereforeprobably contains some mu- riate of soda. No sensible action is produced on it by the sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acids, nor by lime-water. The carbonates of soda and potash throw down a white precipitate, which is readily dis- solvea in the sulphuric acid ; and tne solution is soluble in water. It therefore contains magnesia. When evaporated, this water de- pasits a dirty pulpy semi-deliquescent matter, which is only partially soluble in water. It effervesces strongly with the sulphuric acid ; but part of it falls down again in an insoluble state. The water, therefore, contains lime also. While the sulphuric is acting on the precipitate formed by boiling, it emits a very offensive smell. ITie lime and magnesia are evidently suspended in the water by l)eing dissolved in some volatile acid : and, if it had not been for the offensive smell above mentioned, I should have supposed the solvent to be the carbonic acid. Circumstances did not allow me to ascertain this point ; nor to d^nalyse the water with any precision.

In this country the water for supplying gardens is generally Manner of rais- i-aised by a machine, called Yatam in both the Tamul and Karnata ^a^'^^^^ languages. Of this a sketch is given in (Fig.25). In the lower Car- natic tiie machine is wrought by a man, who walks along the ba- lance ; coming before ihefulcru/m, when he wants to sink the bucket ; and going back again, when he wants to bring up the water. An- other man fh this case attends to empty the bucket. But in this country one man, standing at the moutih of the well, performs the whole labour. I have made no actual experiments to ascertain by which of the two methods the same number of men would raise the greatest quantity of water ; but it appears to me that the plan in use here is the most perfect. At Madras, the man who walks along the lever, or balance, is in considerable danger of falling ; and the man who empties the bucket is in danger of being hurt,

234j' a journey from madras through [CHAP. IT.

1800. ^^^ ^^ must come up between his legs, as he stands fronting the end jnxw rind. of the lever ; and although the bucket there is much larger than the one in use here, I have observed that the workman was never able to empty more than two-thirds of its contents, owinc; to the awkward position in which he^stood. The machine, from which the drawing was taken, consisted of a lever or balance (AB) 14 feet 9 inches in length. This rested on a fulcrum (AG) 11 feet 6 inches high. The fulcrum is commonly a tree planted near the welL A rod or Bamboo (BD) 24 feet in length, by which the workman raises and lowers the bucket (D), containing 789 cubical inches. Depth ^ of the well, from the surface of the earth (CE) to the surface of the

water (F) 14 feet 9 inches. Height of the end of the canal for con- veying away the water (Q), 3 feet. Total height to which the water is raised, 17 feet 9 inches. The far end of uie lever is loaded with mud (H Q), so as exactly to counterbalance the pot when full of water. The average time which the workman took to raise a pot of water was 15 seconds. By this means, therefore, a man can in an hour raise about 671 ale gallons to the height of 17 feet 9 inches. If the depth of the well be less, as is usually the case, the quantity raised by the same labour will be much greater ; but in what pro- portion I did not ascertain.

' CHAPTER V.

FROM BANGALORE TO DODA BALA-PURA.

Having finished my inquiries at Bangalore on July 3d, 1800, 1800. I went to Agava, a fortified village two cosses distant, which is in- ipje^nlnce of habited by fanners, and where a great many niangoes are raised for ***• country, the Bangalore market. The intermediate country is good, but does not contain a number of inhabitants nearly sufficient to tsultivate the whole. The people say, that they are in great want of rain, which is a month later than usual.

Having assembled the village officers and principal farmers, Money advanced they informed me, that the merchants of Bangalore frequently ad- ^° * ^^*' vance them money to pay their rents, and are afterwards contented to take one half of the crop for the advance, and for interest. These advances are sometimes made six months before the crop is reaped.

The manner of dividing the crops, between the government and JfSf^^J^^ *JJ; , the cultivator at this village,* may be taken as an example. Thisbetwlenthc'cui- estimate is made on the supposition, that the heap of grain contains giTeSSmont!^* at least five Candacas, If it should contain forty CandacaSj it pays no more ; but if less than five Candacas, there is a deduction made from the allowances that are given to different persons. Twenty Candacas may be considered as the average size of the heaps. There is first set aside from the heap.

Seers, For the gods ; that is, for the priests at their temples. . . ... 5

For charity ; that is, for the BnihmanSy Jangamas, and other

mendicants ... -•• ... ... ... ... ... 5

For the astrologer, or Panchdnga ; who, if no mendicant be

present, takes also the 6 Seers ... ... ... 1

For the poor Brahman of the village, whose office is hereditary i

For the iVaitwia, or barber 2

For the Cumbhara, or potmaker ... ... ... 2

For the Vasaradava, who is both a caq^enter and blacksmith. . . 2

For the -4 8&igrrt, or washerman ... 2

For the A litigara^ or measurer 4

For the Taragara, or Adiica, a kind of beadle 7

F^r the Gauda^ or chief of the village ; who out of this is

/obliged to furnish the village sacrifices ... ... 8

F®r the Shanaboga, or accomptant ... ... ... ... 10

j The heap is then measured ; and for every Candaca that it contains, they are given the following perquisites :

24

Igg A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

9

1800. iSeers,

Jul/ ird. To the Toti and Tallidriy or watchmen^ between them, J Seer ;

which, on a heap of 20 (7a7u2acad, is ]0

To the accomptant, 2J iSeer« ... ... 45

To the chief of the village, 2 J Seer 8 45

The Nirgu7ity, or conductor of water, then takes the bottom of

the heap, which is about an inch thick ; but this is mixed

with the cow-dung that, by way of purifying it, had been

spread on the ground ; in a heap of 20 Canddcas, this will be 20

• 169

The accomptant also, for every Candaca of seed sown, and which ought to produce one heap of this size, gets two men's loads of straw with the grain in it.

This, on a heap of 20 Candacas of 1 60 Seers, amounts to about 5 J per cent, of the gross produce. Of the remainder the government takes first ten per cent, and then a half ; so that it receives 55 per cent, of the neat produce, and the farmer receives 45 per cent. The reason of this difierence is that formerly the country was ma- naged by oiSicers who, by the natives, were called Daishmuca, and by the Mussulmans Zemindars, and who were paid by receiving ten per cent, from the heap before division. When these officers were abolished by Hyder, he took the ten per cent, and paid the salaries of the new officers appointed in their places.

In dividing Jagory, a kind of scramble takes place among the same persons who shared in the heap of rice ; and in this the farmer partakes. During this scramble about a fourth part of the Jagory IS taken away in handfuls, and the remainder is divided equally ben tween the government and the farmer.

All the dry-field ought to be let for a money rent ; but besides this, the farmer must pay the following dues :

To the barber, 30 Seers for every heap of grain.

To the potmaker, for pots, from 20 to 30 Seers,

To the iron smith, 20 Seers for every plough. The farmer &ids the materials ; but the smith must make all the implements of \hus- bandry, and assist in building and repairing the farmer's house.

iV the washerman, for any family consisting of two men and two wives, or under that number, 50 Seers ; for a family of four inen and four wives, 100 Seers ; and for a larger family 150 Seers,

Then for every heap of Bogy, which upon an average conta&is 10 Candacas, he gives

To the gods

To the mendicant Brdhmans, &c.

To the hereditary poor Brdhman of the village

To the astrologer

To the accomptant, per plough ... To the watchman

• • ■ t«a •••

• •

Seitrt,

10 10

CHAP, v.]

MTSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

187

Other grains pay one half of these deductions. I3OO.

It not unfrequently happens, that farmers cannot be induced to '^^^ ^*^* take the dry-field for a money rent ; the officers of government are then necessitated to let it on a division of crops. In this case, every heap of grain of about ten Candacas pays

To the gods and J5rdAmans 10

Washerman

Fotmaker

Blacksmith

Barber

Accomptant

Watchman

Beadle

•••

#•

2

2 2 2 100 2 10

130

which is about 8^ per cent.

The Oauda, called corruptly GauVy and in the Mussulman Ian- vm««e officers^ goage the Potail, is the chief Myut, or farmer, in the village, and re- ^^•**^*»*^^"°*' ceives the whole dues of government. The rent of each field of dry- land is fixed by an old valuation, which it is supposed was made in thetime of Krishna Rdyalu; and for any field more cannot be legally demanded ; but the equal division of the crops is always wished for by the farmers. This, they allege, arises from the flourishing state in whidi the country was when the valuation was made, compared with its present poverty ; but, considering the great diminution of the value of gold and silver since that period, I am more inclined to believe, that the preference given to a division of crops arises from the facility which that plan offers for defrauding the government.

The office of Oavda was originally hereditary ; but now these per- sons are appointed by the Amildar^ and continue in place so long as they keep up the collections to their supposed value, or until some other man undertakes, by bringing a greater number of farmers, to make the revenue more productive. The Gauda settles aU dis- putes, in the same manner as hereditary chiefs of casts do. His councU always consists of four elders. In case of any delin- quency in the village, ihe Gaiida and his council instruct the Stanaboga, or accomptant, to write out a statement of the case, and to transmit it to the Amildar for his information and decision. He frequently advances money for the other farmers, to enable them to pay their rents, and has the whole of their crops as his security. The whole remuneration for his trouble, so far as is avowed, is the share which he receives in the division of the wet crops.

The Shanahoga, called Shombogue by corruption, and Cumum shomOtotiK by the Mussulmans, is the accomptant of the village. He is always a Brdhman, and his office is hereditary. He is under the orders of the chief of the village, who is almost always a Sudra ; but the

188

A JOUENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

ToH and Tal liari.

A'irffunty,

Tarugara, or Aduca,

1800. allowances of the accomptant are greater, as he must give up the

July 3ra. whole of his tune to business. He keeps all the accompts, and writes all the letters as dictated to him by the chief of the village. These two officers ought to be a mutual check on the conduct of each other. Village servantf. The scrvants undcr the chief and accomptant of the village are the Toti, Talliari, Nirgunty^ Tariigaraj and Alitigara.

The office of the Toti and TaLliari is the same ; but the first is of the Whalliaru cast, and the second is either a Madiga or a Bayda, These persons hold their places by hereditary right, and are the watchmen of the village. They are sent on all messages, and as guides for persons travelling on public business. They watch the crops in the day-time, and assist the farmers to do so at night. Their most peculiar duty, however, is to ascertain the boundaries of each field, and of each farmer's possession.

The Nirgunty is generally a Whallia ; but sometimes a S'ddra holds the office, which is here(fitary. His duty is, to divide the water of the tank or canal, and to convey the proper share to each man's field He, of course, has the charge of the sluice, and of the small canals and drains for watering the fields. He also assists in watch- ing the crops.

TarugarUy or Aduca, collects the farmers, and prevents them from following any other occupation than that of cultivating the land. The lower classes of people in India are like children ; and, except in the more considerable places, where they meet with un- common encouragement to industry from Europeans, are generally in such a state of apathy, that, without the orders of government, they will hardly do any thing. The duty of the Aduca is to bustle among the farmers, and to call them out to work. He may there- fore be called the beadle of the village.

To eight or ten villages there is only one Alitigai*a, or public measurer. The office is not hereditary, and is often vacant ; any one appointed for the time performing the duty, and taking the per- quisites. The persons employed are commonly ^^ haUiaru,

Each Taluc, or district, is divided into small subdivisions called HohlieSy which pay from four to nine thousand Pagodas (l,343t. 3«. b\d. — 3,022t. 1«. Sd) These are managed by a set of officers who are interposed between the AmUdara and Oaudas. The head person of a Homy is by the natives called a Parputty, and by the Mussul- mans a Sheikdar, He visits every village to see the state of culti- vation and of the tanks, and settles disputes that are above tiie reach of the Gauda's understanding. In this he is always aasisted by the advice of four old men. He ought not to inflict any corporal punishment, without the orders of the Amildar; I have, indeed, seen them dispense with this regulation, but the punishments were not severe. The Parputty receives the rents from the Oaudas, and transmits them to the Amildar. Most of these officers are Brdhmans ; very few are S'(idras,

Alitigara.

Biyision of tbe Tatves into Hi^

F<trpuUy.

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 1S9

In each Eobly, or subdivision, there are two accomptants, by the 1800. nativas called Guddy Shanabogas, and by the Mussuhnans named ^c^^^shayia^ Sheristadars, Until Tippoo's time these officers were hereditary, and 'xva. they have always been Brdhmans. In each Hobly, for every thou- sand Pagodas (335/. Us. lOJd.) rent that it pays, there is also a Munigar, or a Tahdldar, as he is called by the Mussuhnans. These Munigar. are the deputies of the Parputty to execute his orders, and are in fact a respectable kind of Hircaras, or messengers. They also are all Brdhmans. The whole of the Hobly establishment is paid by monthly wages.

The farmers have no leases; but, it is not customary to change Right of propor- any man's possession so long as he pays the fixed rent. As cul- ^ "' *" tivators are at present scarce, they require to be managed with great indulgence. A man, indeed, cannot lawfully leave his farm without permission from the Amildar, or chief of the district ; but, when a man complains that from poverty he is not able to cultivate his land, the Amildar must either abate his rent, allow him to go away, or make him advances to purchase stock. This is called giving Tacavy,

In this place the pasture land has a rent fixed on it, and the ^^^^ i«ndi>* diiFerent inhabitants pay a proportion, according to the number of cattle that each keeps : cows and buffaloes pay at the same rate ; sheep and goats pay nothing. Four-fifths of the whole stock here died last year of the dieeaae ; and the people in the neighbourhood are alarmed, by its having now again made its appearance.

4th July, — I went three cosses to Sirja-pv/raj one of the manu-* Jjfc **^- fisMrf^uring towns dependent on Bam^galore. The weavers of Sirjiir iu mv^Sic-^ pur a are of the casts called Devangas, Shalay, and Togotaru. The *^*^' cloths were formerly made of a very fibae quality, but at present the only demand is for coarse goods. The merchants here act merely as Iwrokers, and the weavers frequently carry their own goods for sale to Bangalore. Purchases are made here by traders from Seringa- patam, Sii^a, Chatrakal, Godeal, Savanurii, Qubi, BangaJ^uru, Colar, Malavagulf Cangundy, Hoseo-cotay, Bala-pura, Ttumcuru, Magadi, and Krishn/^t-gi/ri. The merchants of this place bring their cotton from Bangaluru, Hoeso-cotay, and Colar.

Owinff to a want of hands, much of the country through which Appearance of

" passed ^^'- • ^ '^ ' - " -- - - theconntnr.

lages. The country is remarkably bare. The crops of dry grains ought now to cover the ground ; owing, however^ to the want of rain, they have not yet begun to spring.

5th July. — ^I went four cosses to WtUur, and by the way passed Jj^^^^i through a manufacturing town named Lacor. It is not quite so large nuuniiZ^aras. as Walur ; but is a well built mud fdrt, strengthened by a fine hed^. llie weavers of Walur are of the casts called Devangas, PadtnOf Mannfactans of ahalaya, Shaynagas, Togotas, and CoiculrUy who are a TiguJL tribe, as ^^^^' the people here say ; for in Karnata proper, aU the tribes that speak the Tamul language are called Tigut'tni. The cloths made by the

190

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

1800.

Jolj 5th.

Appaannee of theconnirj.

Vanitj of the naiiye offlooi.

CiutoBM of the Bettatf or palui' qiiinbe«z«n.

Coiculru have red borders, like those made by the Togotaru ; but they are of a thinner fabric.

Shirays cost from IJ Rupee to IJ.

Cloth used like a shawl | ditto to |.

Cloth 16 cubits long ... 1^ ditto to 1^.

For sale, the weavers carry pMt of their goods to the neighbour- ing towns at their weekly markets, and partly sell them to mer- chants who come from Hoaso-cotay, Colar, Maasty, Lacor, Sirjiv-pwra, Bangaluru, and Krishna-giH. They procure aU their cotton from the merchants of Hosso-coUiy.

The country between Shjd-pura and TToZur, though naked, is very fine. Almost the whole has formerly been under cultivation ; but, from a want of inhabitants, a large proportion of it is at present waste.

I found the BrdJiman who had been attentive on my former visit, and who had called himself Amildary or chief of a district. This I now learned was a falsehood. He was only a ParpvMy, or chief of subdivision ; and his civility seems to have arisen from a desire of being considered as a great man, and of receiving attentions to which he was by no means entitled. Having been now detected, he did everything, so far as he could venture, to cross my wishes. This assumption of titles to which they have no right, is a very common piece of vanity among the natives of India, though it oflea leads to very severe mortification : all the ATnildars here wish to be called Subadars, or chiefs of principalities, and from all their dependents receive this title ; but in the JRdja's dominions two per- sons only have a just claim to this appellation.

Every where in Kamata the palanquin-bearers are of Telinga descent, and in their own families speak the language of their ori- ^nal country. In the language of Kamata they are called Teliga Bestas, but in their own dialect they are called Bwi, Having as- sembled those who live here, they gave me the following account of their cast. Their proper occupations, beside that of carrying the palanquin, are fishing, and distillation of rum. Wealthy men among them become farmers ; but none of the cast hire themselves out as farm-servants. They are acknowledged to be of the &&dra cast, but rather of a low rank. Their hereditary chie& are called Pedda Bui, which among the Europeans of Madras is bestowed on the head-man of every gentleman's set. They are allowed a plura- lity of wives, who are not confined. Though they all can eat toge- ther, they never intermarry, but with certain families, which are well known to each other, so as to avoid all danger of an impure race. They are allowed to eat sheep, goats^ and fish, but ou^t to lose cast by drinking spirituous liquors. I well know, however, that this law is veir mucn neglected. They bury the dead, and are all worshippers of Vishnu, They make offerings of fruit and flowers to the Saktis, but never offer bloody saorifices to these destructive powers. Their Churns are hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANAEA, AND MALABAR. 191

Brdhmans, who receive their contributions and bestow on them igoo. holy water, and consecrated victuals ; but do not give them Upad^a ^^^ *^« nor Chakrdntikam, At births, marriages, and Minerals, the Fan- chdnga, or astrologer, attends as Purdhita, or priest. Some of them are taught to read and write accompts ; but they never acquire any farther learning.

The potmakers and dyers form one cast, and are all properly ciwtomi of the called Cumbharu ; but those who dye are, on account of their trade, "*'

called Nilgaru. The two trades are followed indifferently by per- sons of the same family ; but the cast is divided into two nations, the Teliffa and Kamata, that do not intermarry. Those here are of the former nation, and give the following account of themselves.

They retain the Telinga language, being a tribe of that nation. They can eat in the house of a Karnataca potter, but he will not return the compliment ; as they are allowed to eat animal food, which he abhors. Even among those of the Telinga nation, all ^ood men abstain entirely from this indulgence. It is not lawful for uiem to drink spirituous liquors. They are allowed polygamy ; but do not confine their women, nor divorce them for any cause except adul- tery. Girls continue to be marriageable after the age of puberty, and are very laborious in making pots. Widows cannot marry again ; but it is never expected that they should bum themselves with the dead bodies of their husbands.

They follow no other trades than those of potters and dyers. The hereditary chiefs of this cast are called Gotugaru, or renters, and live at the Kasha, or chief town of the district. They possess the usual jurisdiction, and are exempted from all duties on condi- tion of collecting the rent that is paid to government by the pot- maker of every village. This office is hereditary, and we have seen that, on condition ot furnishing the cultivators with pots, he re- ceives considerable dues on all the produce of the land. In many parts of India, the potmaker is bound to supply all travellers with pots for dressing their victuals ; but here this is done to such tra- vellers only as are going on public business, and in consideration of this the potter pays nothing for his day. They use a wheel, but are very unskilful in their art ; for they are entirely ignorant of any glazing or enamel.

Ine potters of the Telinga nation say, that they are of the Sdli- vdhanam cast ; as that mighty king w;as the son of one of their women. The BrdJiman^ allege, that she was impregnated by one of the sacred order. These potters wear a thread like the Brdhmans, and allege, that they are possessed of Mantrams, or forms of prayer, whioh they can read, and which are endowed with considerable power. This is altogether denied by the Brdhmans, who laugh at the prayers of the potters, as being low trash in the vulgar language. The potters certainly tmderstand the Andray^ or poetical language of their nation, and are possessed of a translation of the Bhdgavata Pwitna in that language.

192 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. A few of these potters worship Siva, and are followera of the

July bth. Smartal Brdhmans ; but by far the greater part are of Vi^nus side, and follow the hereditary chiefs of the A^ayngar, On their followers of this tribe these Ourus bestow Upadisa, Chakrdntikarri, and holy water. The renter settles all disputes, and punishes delinquents ; the power of the Ouru being confined to the bestowing of spiritual gifts, and the receiving of oontributionsy both as dues on marriages, and as annual tribute, besides what he gets as charity at casual visits. The Panchdnga, or astrologer, acts as their PurdhUa, or family priesti, and reads MarUrams, or set forms of prayer, in the Sanskrit language, at births, marriages, funerals, new moons, and at the annual commemo- ration of their father's death, which is only called TUhi when the parties are Brajimana, Some of the potters understand the Sanskrit, so far at least as to be able to repeat the prayer after the astrologer, which is supposed to add considerably to its ei&caoy. At these ceremonies there attend for charity all the Brdhmans of the neighbourhood, who are Vaidikas, and who think that they can get any thing worth their while. These worshippers of Vishnu among the potters never take the vow of Daseri; but when they are sick they sometimes make a vow to live by begging, for a certain number of days after they recover. This is looked upon as very agreeable to the gods, and a sure way of obtaining their favour. They offer bloody sacrifices to the SaktiSy or destructive spirits ; but never act as priests in their tdmples. They never pray to Dharma B4ja. July 6th. 6th JiUy. — I went three cosses to the place which in our maps is

uSfcoi^S.^' named VackdUer; but which the natives, to my ear, pronounce Waouleray. The half of the way next Walur passes through a very barren country, on which, even at this season, there is scarcely a leaf ^ of grass to be seen. It is thinly covered mih bushes and stunted trees. Beyond this there is some cultivation ; and towards some rocky hills, at the foot of which Waculeray stands, the soil be- wacuustap. comcB good, and is well cultivated and wooded. WacVfleray contains about a hundred houses, and is fortified by a wall and citadel, both of mud. It has no hedge. .The reason assigned by the farmers for living thus together, and for shutting themselves and their cattle withm the walls of a fort, is, the frequency of robbers, who live in the hills and woods, and who in the night plunder every thing that is not well secured. Brakmatit The fanucrs in this town are seventeen houses ; and there are

numeroua. tweuty-two houscs of Brdhmans, who live better, and are better lodged, thaai the Sudras^ although, except two or three officers of government, they all subsist upon charity. July 7th. ^^ 7th JvJ,y. — ^I went three cosses to Colar. The first part of the

thSww^^ road passed through a narrow valley, confined between two ridges of low, rocky, naked hills. The valley in many places has formerly been cultivated ; but now the whole is waste, and covered with bushes, among which the Oleander {Nerium odoruTn) is common.

CHAP, v.] MYSOltli:, CANAllA, AND MALABAR. li)^

Farther on, the hills to tlio riglit disappearing, the country in lliat 1800 direction is level to a great exient, seems to be very fertile, and has"^^^^"'*^' probably once been almost all cultivated. It contains many re- eervoirs, but from the want of trees looks very naked. The spots which at present are cultivated do not seem to be more than a tenth part of the country.

8th — 11th Jidy. — I passed these days ai CWar, examining the Jul vstu. state of agriculture in its nei;,'-libourh(»ocl. • This is the most level cl/'Ja;V^ "*^*^ country that I have seen above tlie Ghaf.^; but it contains many bare rocky hills, which are situated at considerable distances, with level ground between them. Kice forms a very large proportion of the crop, and equals in quantity the Ragy. The country is very poorly watered, and often suilers from a want of rain; for an old revenue officer of the place remembers fom* famines that arose from this cause.

Colar has a large mud fort, which is now repairing. The town ^^'*i'- contains seven hundred houses, many of which are inhabited bv weavers. It was tlie birth-place of Ilydev Aly, whose father lived and died in the town. A handsome mausoleum was erected for him by his son ; and near it a mosque, and a college of Moullaks, or Mussulman priests, with a proper establishment of musicians, were endowed to pray for the repose of his soul. The whole is kept up It the expense of the Company.

On the hill north from the town was fonnerly a Durga, ov hill- fort, in which for some time resided CoHsim Khan, the general of Auriingzebe^ W'ho, towards the end of the 17th century, made the first regular establishment of Mussulman authority to the south of the Krishna river. Colar was the capital of one of the seven Per- gunncJis, or districts, into which that general divided his conquests, which had been formerly invaded by the Mussulman king of Vijaya- pura {Bejapoor), and afterwards had become subject to the Marat- taks. The other Pergunnahs were Sij^a, BndiJicdu, Basiua-pattunxz, Pemu-conday Hosso-cotay, and Burr a Bala-pura, These formed what the Mussulmans called the Subah of Sira, or the Carnatic Bejapoory Baloghaut, which are recent distinctions not at all known to the natives, and of which the memory is likely soon to be entire- ly obliterated.

The hill-fort above Colar has not been rebuilt since it was de- ?If„^^®"''^"'V"^. stroyed in an invasion of the MaraitafiSy who in the course of the ^^i^- 18th century made many attempts to recover this country. On the top of the hiU are four small villages, which have their fields, gardens, and tanks, raised high above the level of the countiy, in the same manner as it is above the parts near the sea. Their little territories are surrounded by high rocks, and separated by woody ridges, like a perfect epitome of Karnata proper, or Balaghat, as it has been called by the Mussulmans. The soil is fertile, and the water in many places being near the surface renders it fit for gar- dena Although hill-forts are generally reckoned unhealthy, this

25

194

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

1800.

July 8th.

Bobbers.

Reserrotn.

seems to be by no means the case on this mountain. The inhabitants rather look upon the air as mote healthy than common, and last year their cattle suffered much less than those of their neighbours. The hill seems to attract more moisture than the level country, and to be more favoured with rain ; for a certain field on it annually pro- duces a crop of rice, without any artificial watering, which in this arid climate is looked upon as a kind of miracle. There is a spring of water, which flows from the side of this hill in a small stream ; and, such a thing being here very uncommon, the Brdhmans have conducted it along a gutter foniied in the rock ; and where it falls from thence, have, under a building, placed some stones, which the obliging imagination of the natives conceives to resemble a cow's mouth. The place, as being holy, is much frequented ; and a ruin- ous temple at some distance attracts to its annual feast about ten thousand pilgrims.

Even in such a remote place, to which every access is steep and difficult, I found that the inhabitants were not protected by their extreme poverty, but each village wtis provided with fortifications. The people said, tliat, whenever any neighbouiing Poly gar was troublesome, the Baydaru, or hunters, were accustomed in the night time, under pretence of being the Poly gar' 8 men, to go and plunder their neighbours. This they always did by surprise, as their love for plunder is at least equalled by their cowardice. Whenever these ruffians are prowling about, one or two men keep watch in a tower ; on the first alarm, all the inhabitants fly to their arms, and, retiring to the tower, from thence fire upon the robbers who in general attempt to cany away the cattle.

In the country round Colar, the irrigated land is watered en- tirely by means of reservoirs. When any rich man builds one of these, in order to acquire a name and reputation, it is customary to give him and his heirs, free of rent, one-tenth part of the land which the reservoir waters, and also for every Candaca of watered land thus formed, he obtains, free of rent, six Seers sowing of JRagy-land, which amounts to about 146 acres of diy field for every 1000 acres of that which is irrigated. So long as he enjoys these, he is bound to keep the tank in repair. If the reservoir be very large and ex- pensive, the man who builds it, and his heirs, have one-fourth of the land which it waters ; but then they get no dry-field. When the family of the original builder becomes extinct, the government re-avssumes the free lands, and keeps the tank in repair. Very great tanks, however, have seldom been formed by private persons ; and those which cost 20,000 Pagodas (6,746i. 15s. lOf d. ), or upwards, have almost all been made at the immediate expense of the government. The farmers contribute nothing toward the building or repairing of tanks ; but when, from a great and sudden influx of water, one is in danger of bursting, they all assemble, and work to clear the sluice {Cody), and other passages for letting off the superfluous water. They form the channels for conveying the water to their fields :

CHAP, v.]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

195

and from their share of the crop are paid the Nirgunties, by whom 1800. it is distributed. Six of these are sufficient to manage loO Candacos ^"^^ ®**^- of land, which is about one hundred acres for each man.

The crops raised at Colar on watered land are rice, sugar-cane, Betel-leaf, Carlay, Hessaru, Udu, Jola, WulV Ellu, and kitchen stuffs, called here Tarkari.

The quantity of rice sown here is nearly equal to that of Ragy. The kinds are :

NAMES.

1 Doda Byra, the Doda Butta of Mysore.

2 Doda Cair/ibutti

S Arsina Caimbutti

4 Sana Cairfibutti

5 Giiti BctiiiKi

6 Bdy Saund

7 Murarjilla

O O ILCkXCLCI o... ••• .•• ••• •«• ■•■ ...

9 Punoe Raja

10 YaliCy or Haric Raja

11 Gariida nellu

x.At J. u/LLU ouzza ••• •*. ••• *•»' *•• •• x»j J. oca ii/eLLit/ ••■ ••• ... «•• ••• ••

14i Cari toca ncllw

xo \jraii/y saLvX ... ••• .•• •■ ••• *.

16 Call Yuga, or Caliga Byra

17 GydjiByra

IS Carl BolcaH

Season when they are reaped.

Both Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Kdrtika Vaisakd Both Ditto Vaisaka Ditto Ditto Ditto Both Kartika Both Ditto

Months re- quired to ripen.

5 4 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 6

O

3

The seasons for cultivating rice here are two ; and the two Two cropt of crops, from the months in which they ripen, are named the Kartika '*^- and Vaisaka ; Kartika this year reaches from the 19th of October to the IGth of November ; Vaisaka occupied from the 23d of April to the 23d of May. In this neighbourhood no rice is transplanted. ^.^^ j^^^ When the seed is sown dry, the cultivation is called Puledi ; when cultivations, it is prepared, by being sprouted, it is, as at SeHngapatam, called Mola,

The only kind of rice cultivated as Puledi, or dry seed, is the puiedi, or dry- Doda Byra ; and it is only sown in this manner for the Kdrtika ■**^ cultivation crop. In the course of Vaisaka and Jyaishtlia plough the ground witibout water four times. About the end of the latter monui (22d June), after a day's rain, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough. Then harrow the field with the implement caUed Halivay (Figure 9). The crop has no manure, and the field is not inundated

J (jCj A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. till the end of the second month ; when it must be harrowed again,

July 6th. ajjj ^}^g weeds removed by th^hand. A good crop of this is reckon-

ed fifteen seeds, a middling one ten seeds. j^>''r, or sprout- The Jfo/fl for the Kartika crop is cultivated as follows: In Itr A-S^/ifca'' Asliadha, and the first half of Srdvana (23d June— 4th August), crup. plough from seven to nine times, the field being alwaj'^s inundated.

Then manure it, either with leaves or dung ; both are rarely given : but, could they be procured, this would greatly increase the produce. Then let out all the water, except two inches in depth, and sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day the field is dried, and sprink- led with some dung. At the end of three days it is covered with water for four hours. On the seventh water the field for a whoie day. After the tenth day, it must be kept constantly inundated to the depth of two inches. At the end of the month harrow it once lengthwise ; on the third day han-ow it across ; and on the fifth day harrow again lengthwise. Four days afterwards weed with the hand, and repeat this after an interval of two weeks. All kinds of rice are cultivated in the same manner. The rice for seed, after being trodden out, must be dried three or four days in the sun ; and may be kept either in a straw Mudy, or in a stone called Canaja. When it is to be prepared, it must be dried one day in the sun ; then soaked a night in water ; and next morning it must be mixed "with Bm^lu {Rioinus) leaves and dung, and tied up in straw. This is dipped in water, and placed under a large stone. In two days it must again be dipped, and is then fit for sowing. To sow an acre, the Itirgo grained rices require about 1^\ Winchester bushel ; 1,^^^ bushel of the small grained rices is sufficient. The produce of the JJodu Bi/va, which is the common coarse grain of the country, is 4 the great' i.st. A good crop of this is said to be 15 seeds, or nearly

20 \ bushels an acre ; and a middling crop about 10 seeds, or IS/^ bushels. The other kinds, on the same extent of ground, produce eight or ten Seers less. vaisaka crop of Tho MoUl cultivatiou for the Vaisaka crop is as follows. Having

rp?out°ed^4ed inundated the field, plough it five or six days during the course of cultivation. the twenty days preceding the feast Dipavtdi, which happens tMs year on the 18th of October. In the course of the next month plough four times. Then let out all the water, except two inches in depth ; manure with leaves ; and, having trodden these well into the mud, sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day dry the field, and iQanure it with dung. Three days after, water for two hours. Then every second day, for three times, water for four or five hours. Afterwards keep the field inundated. At the end of the month har- row, with the Hativayt three times in three directions, with a day's rest between each harrowing. A week afterwards weed with the hand, and in two weeks repeat this operation. This is the most pro- ductive crop, and gives fiom one to two seeds more than that which is reaped in Kartika, pioughiay."^*^ It must bo observed, that one or two ploughings less, or more.

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. I97

make a great difference in the produce. What I have stated here is 18OO. the full cultivation ; but some farmers are so necessitous, that for a "^^y '*^*»- crop that is sown sprouted-seed, they can only afford four or five ploughings.

The mode of cultivation, or the season of sowing, makes no dif- Preservation of ference here in the quality of the grain, nor in the length of time "*^^" that it will keep good. The grain is always preserved in the husk ; and until wanted for immediate consumption, is never beaten. In store-houses, or CanajaSy if well dried in the sun previous to its having been put up, it preserves well for two years. Paddy is some- times kept in pits, or in the straw packages called Mudys ; but these are inferior to the store-house.

The Vaiaaka crop, though entirely raised during the dry season, Manner of man- LS by far the greatest; as at its commencement the tanks are quite *^8"*8th©watei. full of water, and the farmers know exactly the quantity of seed that the water which they have will bring to maturity. Frequently, indeed, at the commencement of the season for cultivating the Kartika crop, they have some water remaining ; and, if the rains set in early, might have a double crop of rice on all their wet lands ; but should the rains be late, all the seed and labour would be lost. Except, therefore, when the quantity of water in the reservoir is uncommonly great, the farmers, in place of a Kartika crop of rice, take one of some of the other grains which I have before men- tioned.

Of these crops Jola (Holcus shorghum) is the greatest. There Ma. are two kinds of it, the white and the red, which are sometimes kept separate, and sometimes sown mixed. The red is the most common. Immediately after cutting the Vaiaaka crop of rice, plough four '

times in the course of twenty days. Wait till the finst rainy day, and then, making furrows with the plough, drop in the seeds at five *

or six inches distance, by means of the instrument named Sudiky (Figure 2G), which is tied to the handle of the plough. Then smooth the field by drawing over it a bunch of thorns. The seed having, been sown too thick, when the plants have grown a month they must be thinned by a ploughing. In three months the Jola ripens, and requires no manure. In rich soils and favourable seasons it some- times produces sixty fold ; but thirty are reckoned a good crop, and twenty-five a middling one. In rich soils the Jola is sometimes followed by Car Lay, in place of a Vaiaaka crop of rice. The Jolxi is both made into flour for puddings and cakes, and is boiled whole to eat with Cutty, like rice. It is a good grain ; but, at the utmost, does not keep above two years. For cattle the straw is very inferior to that of Bagy, and when given in a green state is highly prejudicial to them. When there is a deficiency of water, Jola is also sometimes sown in place of the Vaiaaka crop of rice. It is then sown toward the end of Aswaja, or 18th of October ; but grows very poorly, and does not give more than one-half of what it produces in the rainy season.

198 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH fCHAP. V.

1800. In the following manner are cultivated the pulses called Udu

mu, ^%saTu, and Hessaru, &ndWull'Ellib (Sesaimim). Immediately aftercutting the wuiti£Uu. Vaisaka crop of rice, plough the ground four times, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough. They require neither manure, nor weeding. The pulses require about ^VVtf Winchester bushel of seed an acre, and in a good crop produce about 3 J bushels. The Sesamum requires only half as much seed, and in a good crop produces 2 J bushels. Sugar-cane. rpj^^ kiuds of sugar-caue cultivated here are four, wliich are

esteemed in the following order, 1st Restali, 2d Puttaputti, 3d Maracabo, 4th Guttaycaho. The two last are very smaU, seldom exceeding the thickness of the little finger ; yet the Cuitaycabo is the one most commonly cultivated. This is owing to its requiring little water ; for by means of the machine called Yatam it may have a supply sufficient to bring it to maturity. From the end of Phalguna to the end of Ckaitra (14th March — 23d April) plough eight or ten times. Manure the field with dung, and plough it again. Then spread leaves on it, an4 cover them with the plough. By the small channels that are to convey the water, the field is then divided into beds eight cubits broad. Furrows are then drawn across the beds at the distance of nine inches from each other. The cuttings of cane, each containing four or five eyes, are then placed lengthwise in the furrows, the end of the one touching that of the other. They are covered with a very little earth, over which is laid some dung. They are then watered, the water flowing through every channel, and entering every fuiTow. For one month the watering is repeated once in three days; the earth round the canes must theji be loosened with the point of a sharp stick. For fifteen days more tlie watering must be continued; when the whole field should be hoed, and levelled with the Col Kudali (Plate II fig. 3.) Four days afterwards, between every second row of sugar-cane, a trench is dug, and into this the water flows from the channels. Thus in the procuress of its cultivation each bed assumes two forms, as exem- plified in the annexed sketches (Figs. 3 1 , 32). When there is no rain, the field requires to be watered once in the fifteen days. When four or five months old, the canes are tied up in bundles ; and, when they are a cubit and a half high, this is repeated. In eleven months they are ripe, and a month and a half are allowed for the crop season. The soil here used for sugar-cane is the rich black soil called Eray ; and after sugar it requires one or two years rest before it gives a good crop of rice. The sugar-cane is all made into J agm^; 74 Seers measure, or nearly 18 ale gallons of juice, are said to produce 50 Cucha Seers weight (about 26 i lb. avoirdupois) of the Jagory. Things cuitivat- P'f^gV, HuruU, Harica, Shamay, Huts' -Ellu, HanUw, Cambu, cd on diy-fieid. ffessaru, ildu, WulV Ellu,Baruga, Navanay, Soshivay, tobacco, and Goni are the articles cultivated on dry field ; those of which much is cultivated being placed first, and those of which little is cultivated being placed last in proportion.

[CHAP. V. A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH 1()9

The farmers do not separate the Ragy with crooked spikes, from 1800. that which has straight ones; and they consider the blackness in- ^"'^ **^^^^(>^.„„„. cident to some kinds of this gi'ain as owing to its getting wet when rMiorocanus. it is thrashing. In other places, black Ragy is considered as a dis- tinct variety. The gi^ound is prepared here in the same manner as at Seringapaiam ; but the seed is sown by means of a kind of rude drill-plough, called Gurigy (Figures 26, 27, 28, 29), and made en- tirely of wood and bamboos. Behind the CuHgy is tied the imple- ment called Sudiky, into which is put the seed of the Avaray or Tovary ; without one of which pulses Ragy is never cultivated. By this method, for every twelve drills of Ragy there is one drill of pulse. After the field has been sown, it is haiTOwed with the bul- lock-rake called Halivay, and then smoothed with a bunch of thorns, which is drawn by a bullock, and pressed down by a large stone. Here sheep are only used to trample the Ragy fields when there is a scarcity of rain. The bullock-hoe called Cunty is used on the loth and 18th days after sowing. On the 26th day the harrow- ing is repeated. On the 3 2d the field is cleared from weeds with the implement called Wuravary (Figure 30). In four months the Ragy ripens, and in five the pulses. The farmers would always prefer thrashing it out immediately after it is reaped ; but the offi- cers of revenue prevent them from taking it out of the stack until the balances of rent are paid, which sometimes takes up two or three months. On a good soil, Ragy will grow with a dunging given once in two years ; but, if possible, it ought to have dung every year. After most other crops Ragy thrives ill, and the ground re- quires much dung to bring it again into heart. Rest, or want of cultivation, is also reckoned prejudicial to a Ragy field. Forty-five fold of Ragyy and forty fold of the accompanying pulses, is reckoned a great crop ; and thirty-five of Ragy, with twenty of the pulses is a middling one. This sounds great ; but the seed required for an acre being only IjViftr P^^k oi Ragy, and -^"^-^ parts of a peck of the pulses, a great crop is only 15 bushek 3f^ pecks of Ragy, and 4 bushels -j^^^ peck of the pulses; while a middling crop is 12 bushels 1 -^^ peck of the former, and 2 bushels -j^ peck of the latter. This estimate is formed on the measurement of only one field.

Hundi, or Horse-gram, is of two kinds, black and white; both BnruH,orDoii- are here sown intermixed. The worst qualities of soil are those com- ^*^***^<^"*- monly used for this grain ; and on the same fields Shamay, Harica, and Huts'EllUy are cultivated, without one crop injuring the other, or without a rotation being considered as of the smallest benefit. For Horse-gram plough twice, in the course of a few days, any time in Kdrtika (19th October — 16th November). Then after a shower sow broad-cast ; or, if none happen, steep the seed for three hours in water. Plough in the seed. It has no manure, and in three months ripens without farther trouble. Cut it down early in the morning, stack it for one day, and then dry it five days in the sun. Tread

0()fj A JOVfiXEY FROM MADE AS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. it out, and clean it with the fan- It preserves best in a store-house,

July -sth. jj^|. j,-^^3 jj^^ keep longer than one year. The forage is here reckon-

ed inferior to Ragy straw. The seed for an acre is 1 /u^^ peck. The produce in a good crop is fifteen fold, or 4 bushels and ^ peck an acre ; and in a middling one ten fold, or 2 bushels and 3 pecks. n^trira, or /»^f- For thc grain called Harica, at the commencement of the rains,

r'n^JiT'^""'*^*'^ plough three times in the course of a few days. As soon as the Roxb. Mss. heavy rains begin, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it by a third ploughing- It requires no manure, and here the pulse called Tovary, is never sown with Harica. At the end of a month weed it with the implement called Wuravary, It requires six months to ripen, and is cut near the root, stacked on the field for five or six days, and then dried in the sun, and trodden out. This grain is commonly preserv- ed in pits, and does not keep longer than one year. It is never made into flour. The straw is bad forage, and is used chiefly for ma- nure. The seed required for an acre is l,y^ peck. The produce in a good crop, is' twenty fold, or 5 bushels 2 J pecks an acre ; in a mid- dling crop, fifteen fold, or 4 bushels \ peck. .vxnrAny, or Pa- There are three kinds of the Panicwrri, called ShaTnay, cultivat- mrnm miiiare, ^j . ff^^^ (j^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^Uy. Thcy are never intermixed, and

the cultivation of the first kind differs from that of the other two. For HaH Sliamay plough three times in the same manner as for Ragy. If there be any to spare, give the field dung, sow broad-cast, and harrow with the buUock-rake. In three months the grain ripens without farther trouble ; when it is cut down, stacked on the field for six days, and then trodden out It keeps best in the store- house, and is never made into flour. Cattle eat the straw without injury, but it is inferior to the straw of either Ragy or Rice. For the other two kinds, plough three times in the course of Ashadha (23d June — 2l8t July) ; then, after the first good rain, sow broad- oast, plough in the seed, and harrow. They do not necessarily re- quire dung ; but if any can be spared, they will grow the better for it. When ripe, which happens also in three months, they are ma- naged as the other kind is. The seed and produce of all are nearly the same. Seed y\,"^ peck an acre. Produce in a good crop, 15 fold, or 3 bushels | peek an acre ; in a middling crop, 10 fold, or 2 bushels i peck.

luts' miu. The corymb) ferous oil-bearing plant, oalled Euta^-ELlu, is never

sown here as a second crop. After the male, or heavy rains are over, plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. It gets no manure, and in three months ripens without farther trouble. It is then cut down near the root, stacked for six days, dried in the sun for three, and trodden out. The seed is preserved in store- houses ; the straw is used only as manure. For seed, an acre requires i^jf parts of a peck, and in a good crop produces rather more than one bushel, while in a middling one it does not produce quite 3^ pecks.

iinnuu, T-^ the fields here, both the great and small kinds of Harulu, or

CIIAF. v.] MYSORE, CANAIIA, AND MALAB^Ul. 201

Ricimts, are cultivated; but, although the mode of cultivation is the 1800. same for both, they are always kept separate. In the beginning of ''^^y^^**- the female or slight rains plough twice. When the rains become heavy, plough again ; and then, at the distance of f of a cubit from each other in all directions, place the Seeds in the furrows. When the plants are a span high, weed with the plough, throwing the earth up in ridges at the roots of the plants. At the end of the first and second months from the former weeding, repeat this operation. In four months it begins to give ripe fruit ; and once in the four days the bunches that are ripe are collected in a pit until a sufficient quantity is procured. It is then exposed to the sun^ and the husks are beaten oflP with a stick. In the May following, the plant diies up, and is out for fewel. It is only cultivated in the good Ragy soils, which it rather improves for that grain, although it gets no dung. The small kind is reckoned the best, and most productive.

The Cambu {Holcus apicatus) used here is of the -kind named cambu. Sana, or Chicay both of which words signify small. In the course of (light or ten days in Vaisdka (2Sd April — 23d May) plough twice, then sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. No manure is requir- ed. The field is then harrowed, and smoothed with a bunch of thorns. Some people, along with this grain, put drills of the pulses called Tovary and Horse-gram, At the end of the first month su- ]>erfluous plants are destroyed by drawing furrows throughout the field, at the distance of four inches. Much care is necessary in' guarding this crop, and that of Jola, from the paroquets, which are very destructive. It ripens very unequally. At the end of the third month, the first set of ears are cut off ; in tendays more, a second set ; and at a similar interval, the last set is reaped. The whole is kept in a heap, until two days after the last cutting ; when it is dried in the sun five or six days, and then trodden out. It is commonly preserved in pits, where it does not keep longer than five or six months. The grain is sometimes given to horses ; but is also used for the food of man, both boiled entire, and made into flour. Cattle eat the straw, but it is chiefly used for thatch. It is sown on good Ragy soil, but rather exhausts it, the following crop requiring an increased quantity of manure. ^A good crop is reckoned twenty seeds, a middling one fifteen fold.

The pulse called Hessami is here commonly raised on dry-field. Hcssaru, It requires a black clay ; and, although it have no manure, it docs not injure the following crop of Ragy, In the course of a few days in Vaisdka plough twice, sow broad-cast, plough the seed, and har- row. In three months it ripens without farther trouble. It is then cut by the ground, stacked for six days, dried in the sun for four, and trodden out by oxen as usual. The grain, for use, is preserved in stone-houses, and does not keep good more than two months, even although it be occasionally dried. The straw is totally useless, and will not even answer for manure. A good crop is reckoned ten seeds, a middling one six.

2G

202

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

1800.

July 8th. Udu.

Wuir Elht.

Baruffu.

Ji'aronay.

Mustard.

Tobacco.

Goni.

Dctel-lraf.

The management of the pulse called Udu is exactly the same with that of Hessaru, but its produce is rather smaller. For seed, the gi-ain of both is preserved by mixing them with the ashes of cow-dung, which keep away insects.

The Sesamum, or WuLP Ellu, is only of one kind, and is here more commonly called Aisa Ellu. In Vaisdica plough twice, with- out manure, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In three months it ripens without farther trouble, is cut down by the ground, and is afterwards managed exactly like the Udu, The seed is preserved in the same manner. The produce in a good crop is 20 seeds, and in a middling one twelve. The straw is used for fewel.

BaragUy or the Panicum niiliaceum of Linnaeus, is called Codra by the Mussulmans of the south, and Pant Varagu by the inhabitants of Coimbetore, There is only one kind. After the heavy rains have ceased, plough twice, and without manure sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. Without any farther trouble it ripens in two months and a half, is cut down close by the ground, stacked for one or two days, and then trodden out. The grain is kept in store- houses, and preserves well for two years. It is boiled entire, like rice. The straw is only used for fewel. A good crop produces twelve seeds, a middling one eight. It requires a rich black clay.

The people here know of no distinction in the kinds of Navonay, or Panicwin Itcdicumi The ground for it is prepared as for Ragy ; and when ready, the end of a Ragy field is sown broad-cast with Navonay ; the seed is ploughed in, and the ground, which requires no dung, is harrowed. It has no weeding, and ripens a little before the Ragy. The ears are cut oflF, kept in a heap for two days, dried in the sim, and then trodden out. In store-housas the grain will preserve for two or three years. It does not injure the ground for Ragy, In a good crop it produces only twelve fold, in a middling one eight. The straw is used only for fewel, which is here a very scarce article.

The Sasliivay is a mustard, which is always sown mixed with Ragy, It ripens sooner than that grain ; and, when dry, the branches are broken with the hand, exposed two days to the sun, and then beaten out with a stick. In this country, oil is never made from the seed, as is usual in Bengal ; it is employed tis a seasoning in currks and pickles.

Tobacco is planted in very small quantities ; and that which is raised here is reckoned greatly inferior to what is brought from the low country. The consumption is not great.

Tlie Janupa, Ooni-plant, or Crctolaria juncea, is liere always raised by the manufacturers, exactly in the manner that I have described at Bangalore (see page 157).

In this district, the cultivation of the Betel-leaf, or Piper Beth, although it is commonly, is not always, a separate profession. It thrives best in low ground, where it can have a supply of water from a reservoir. If that cannot be had, a place is selected, whej"c

CUAP. V.J MYSORE, CAXAilA, AND xMALABAR. 20-]

water can be procured by digging to a small depth. A black soil 180Q. is required; and as it pays no rent for the first three years, land*^"^^^^* that has been waste is generally granted for the pui-pose. After the Betel-garden fails, the land is given to the farmer; who in the first year generally takes a crop of sugar-cane, which thrives remarkably well ; for the kinds called UestcUi and Puttaputty gi'ow to the length of eight cubits. The Betel-leaf garden pays 5 Fanams (about Ss. 4fZ.) for every 100 holes; but this is less rent than the government derives from sugar-cane. In these gardens ginger is commonly planted. A JSe^cZ-Tca/ garden is thus managed. In (Jliaitra, or Vaisdka, (26th March — 23d May) trench over the whole ground one cubit deep, and surround it with a mud wall ; immediately within which plant a hedge of the Eicphorhmm Tirucalli, &nd o{ the Arundo tibialis (Roxb. MSS.). When there is not plenty of rain, this must for six months be regularly watered. Then dig the garden, and form it into proper beds, leaving a space of about twenty feet between them and the hedge. The sketch (Figure 33) will assist the imagination in undei-standing the descrip- tion of the beds. From the main channel for conducting the water to the garden (1), di-aw others (2) at right angles, and distant 22 cubits. Between every two of these, to drain off the superfluous water, draw others (3.3) about a cubit wide, and deeper than the former. The garden is thus divided into rows ten cubits in width, having on one side an elevated channel (2) for supplying it with water, and on the other side a deep canal (3), to carry off what is superfluous. These rows (4) are divided into beds, six cubits wide (5), by cuts made from the deep canals, and ending in cul de sacs (G), which caiTy off the water into their principals. Each of these beds is divided into two parts (7), by a narrow channel coming from those which bring the supply of water. Each division of a bed, therefore, has on one side a channel (8) to supply it with water, and on the other a canal (6), to cany off what Ls superfluous; and it Is surrounded by a narrow bank, about six inches high (9), which ex- cludes the water that flows through the channels : within these little banks the divisions of the beds are carefully levelled. In the centre of each division is then formed a row of small holes, distant from each other one cubit; and in* Paushya (1 7th December — 14th January) in every hole are put two cuttings of the Betel-leaf vine, each two cubits long. The middle of each cutting is pushed down, and slightly covered with earth ; while the four ends project, and form an equal number of young plants, which for the first eighteen months are allowed to climb upon dry sticks, that are put in for the purpose. For the first week afler being planted, the shoots must be watered twice a day with pots ; for another week once a tlay, and until the end of the second month once in three days. A small drill is then made across each division of the beds, and between every two holes in each ; and in these drills are planted rows of the seeds of the Agasliayy AschynoriKnie grandijlora; Nugay, or

204 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. Guilandina Moringa ; and Varjepn, or ErythHna iridica, E. M.

July 8th. •pjjQ young Betel plants must then have some dung, and for four months more must be watered with the pot once in three days. After- wards, so long as the garden lasts, all the channels must once in four days be filled with water. This keeps the ground sufficiently moist, and water applied immediately to the plants is injurious. The garden ought to be kept clean from weeds by the hand, and once a year, in December, must have dung. When the plants are a year and a half old, they are removed from the sticks ; two cubits of each, next the root, is buried in the earth ; and the remainder, con- ducted close to the root of one of the young trees, is allowed to support itself on the stem. At the end of two years two cubits more of each plant are buried in the ground ; and ever afterwards, this is once a year repeated. At the beginning of the fourth year the cultivator begins to gather the leaves for sale, and for six or seven years continues to obtain a constant supply. Afterwards the plants die, and a new garden must be formed in some other place. In order to give additional coolness to the garden, at its first for- mation a plantain tree is put at each comer of every bed, and by means of suckers soon foims a cluster. So long as the garden lasts these clusters are preserved. At all times the gardens are very cool and pleasant ; but they are not neatly kept ; and in the space be- tween the hedge and the beds, a great variety of bushes and weeds are allowed to grow.

In this part of the country there are no palm gardens of any consequence.

Kitchen gardens. In what formed the Pergunnah of Colar, and which includes

Bangalore, probably from having been longer under a Mussulman government, the Tarkari, or kitchen gardens, seem to be more ex- tensive, and better cultivated, than those near Seringapatarru They are chiefly cultivated by the cast called VaTia Pcdli, as I have lately mentioned, a people who originally came from the lower Car- natic. At CoUir the gardens are in very bad order : but at some neighbouring places I have seen them very neat. The soil, to be fit for these gardens, ought to be black rich mould, where water may be had by digging wells to no great depth ; for they are all watered by the machine called Yatavi. •

ratam, % ma- In this immediate neighbourhood the Yatama that are wrought

ing"water.'*^"" by men walking backwards and forwards on the lever are preferred. There are here two kinds ; one in which two men walk on the ba- lance, which has a bucket containing 40 Seera, or 9^^^ ale gallons, and which can raise this five men's height, or 26 feet 3 inches. In the other kind, one man only walks on the lever, and can raise 32 Seers, or 7 -f-^ ale gallons, from the depth of three men's stature, or 15| feet ; for, the men here being in general small, 3^ cubits or 5i feet, are reckoned the ordinaiy human stature. The people of this place reckon, that the same number of men will raise more water by the larger Yatam, than by the smaller one ; and much

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 205

more- by their small one, than by the Yatam which is wrought en- 1800. tirely from below : of this, however, I »m doubtful. The machine ^^^^ ^^' here is equally rude with that described at Bangalore. I examined one while it was at work, and which was wrought by two men on the lever. It raised the water only eight feet, and at each time thirty-five Seera only could be emptied from the bucket. It drew water six times in the minute, and consequently raised 3066 ale gallons in the hour, or 1022 gallons for each man ; but at Bangalore each man can raise 671 gallons to more than double the height. I have seen the single Yaiaw, di'awing water from about eight feet deep at the rate of seven times a minute, by which means a man will raise 1175 gallons an hour.

Garden ground, in order to have a sale for its produce, must be Gardens. hear a town. It pays a fixed money rent, in proportion to what it would pay if cultivated for dry grains, but much higher. Beside the garden stufis cultivated at Seringapatam, the gardeners of this country raise,

Oaysugussa, or Papaver somniferum,

Cossumba, or Carthamvs tinctorius.

Oodi Juvi, or the wheat called Tritidum monococcum.

Toor, or Nawt Ragy, a variety oiCynoaurus Corocanus. I shall give some examples of their mode of cultiyation ; in which, at the same time, several articles are in general raised on the same ground ; and almost always the same ground gives annually two crops.

The poppy, Papaver somniferum, is plentifully cultivated both ^trng^'the^^pip- for making opium, and on account of the seed ; which is much used vy^idCouumba. in the sweet cakes that are eaten by the higher ranks of the natives. In Aawaja (19th September — 18th October) dig the gi'ound one cubit deep with the Col Kuddli (Plate II fig. 3). In the following month smooth the ground, and divide it into small plots of three cubits square, separated from each other by small banks, like those of rice fields, but neater and lower ; and at the same time from channels winding through the plots, so that every one may have a channel running past one of its sides. By this method any quantity of water which the plant requires is very readily conveyed to the whole. When the channels and squares are formed, the garden is dunged, and the poppy seed is sown. Over this is sprinkled a little more dung. At every span's length two seeds of the Cossumba are then planted on the small mounds which separate the squares ; or in place of Cossumba, radishes are sometimes raised. Water is iben given to every square, and once in four days this is repeated. After the plants have acquired strength, no preference is given to any particular time of the day for watering ; but, while they are very young, the morning is preferred. In six or seven days the poppies wiU be two inches high ; and then the gardener with a shell removes those that are superfluous, so as to leave them about four inches apart. In twenty days they are about six inches high ; the

20G

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

1800.

July 8th,

"Wheat.

Garden Bogy.

weeds must then be removed with a small hoe, and a veiy little dung must be given. In two months and a half the poppy is ready for making opium, and in three months the seed is ripe. It is not injured by extracting the opium ; which operation is performed by the gardeners, who sell the produce to the drug-merchant. In six weeks the radishes are fit for pulling, and in three months the Cossumba begins to flower. As the Sowers begin to decay, the flowerets (Jloscnli) are pulled out by the hand from the common cup {Ferian- tliuin covimune), exposed to the sun till dry, and then preserved in pots ; whe^ they are fit for being sold to the dyers. This operation does not prevent the seeds from ripening ; and in the cookery of the natives a decoction of them is much used.

After the Cossumba has been collected, the same ground may be cultivated either with wheat or with Garden Ragy,

The wheat {Tritictim nionococcurn) in this climate is very liable to be blighted ; and even when it succeeds, its produce is not more than one half of that of Faddy : but as one half of this last is husk, the consumable produce of wheat and rice is not very different. Tip- poo was at great pains to increase this kind of cultivation ; and as an encouragement, sent seed to be distributed in diflerent places. Here the quantity might yet be greatly increased ; as much of the higher lands, now cultivated for rice, are fit for wheat. The ground is sometimes ploughed five times ; and sometimes dug with the hoe called Col Kuddli to the depth of one cubit, which is reckoned pre- ferable. In Jyaishtha (24th May — 22d June) the seed is sown broad- cast, and covered with the hoe. The channels and squares are then formed, as for the poppies ; and the ground is smoothed with the hand, and dunged ; while such of the seed, as may happen to be above the ground, is pushed down the finger. In forty-five days the field must be watered nine times. It is then weeded with the instrument called Wuravary (Fig. JiO) ; after which one watering in six days suffices. It ripens in three months, is cut, tied up in small sheaves, and stacked for four days. It is then dried one day in the sun, and thrashed out by beating the sheaves against a log of timber. To separate the awns, the grain is then beaten wim a stick. In the fields of wheat, radishes are planted on the mounds which divide the squares. ,

* The Toor, Tota, or Nat' Ragy, is not the same with that culti- vated on dry grounds, although in the sense adopted by botanists it is not specifically different ; but the seed which is raised on dry- field will not thrive in gardens ; nor will that which is raised in gardens thrive without irrigation. Garden Ragy is always transplanted, and henoe it is called Nati. For the seedling bed, dig the ground in Paushya (17th December — 14th January), and give it a little dung. Divide it into squares, and let it have some more manure. Then sow the seed very thick ; cover it with dung, and give it water, which must be repeated once in three days. The ground into which it is to be transplanted, is in Paushya ploughed five times ; and

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 207

must be dunged and divided into squares with proper channels, like 1800. a poppy garden. About the beginning of Mdghay or end of January, ^^^^ ®*^* water the seedlings well, and pull them up by the roots : tie them in bundles, and put them in water. Then reduce to mud the ground into which they are to be transplanted, and place the young Ragy in it, with four inches distance between each plant Next day water, and every third day for a month this must be repeated. Then weed with a small hoe, and water once in four days. It ripens in three months from the time when the seed was sown ; and in a middling crop produces twenty fold. It is only sown on the ground at times when no other crop could be procured, as the expense of cultivation nearly equals the value of the crop.

The leaves or shoots used by the farmers here as manure are the Manure. Handur; the Ganaga, or liobinia raitia ; the Yecada, or Asclepias gigantea; the Calliy or EiiphorbiuTn Tintcalli ; the Devadartitiiy or Erythroxylon sideroxyloideSy E. M. ; the Cadangody, or Convolvulus cuneiformiSy Buch. MSS. ; the Gandaiy ; the Utrany, or Achyran- thee TtmHcata ; the Dotury, or Argemone ; the Wumuttyy or Datura Jkfetel ; the Tumbayy or Fhlomia esculenta, Boxb : MSS. ; and the Hungara or Dodonea viscosa.

The farmers form their dung-hills of the dung and litter of their cattle, and of the ashes and soil of their houses, all intermixed. They do not employ the soil of towns.

The number of oxen raised in the country is not sufficient for cawic. the demand of the farmei-s, who purchase them at Krishna-giri and Cangundyy two places in the Bara Mahal. It is not the custom here to pay any rent for such pasture lands as have never been cultivated ; but, where a part of the ground that has been cultivated becomes waste, the cultivators give a small consideration for liberty to feed their cattle on it The proportion of this rent does not exceed 8 per cent, of that which is given for the ground when in cultivation : in- deed the pasture is so wretched, that more could not be afforded. Last year about one half of the cattle here died.

The servants of the farmers, or the BatigarUy get here annually serranu wages. 4 Caudacaa (29^%'\j- bushels) of grain, and twenty Fanams in money (about 13j9. 5d.) ; but out of this, he must pay to government, for thoi ground on which his house stands, .three FanamSy or about 25. They are of all casts, except Brdhmans and Mussulmans. *

Men hired by the day to labor in the field get J of a Fanam (^iWtt d.) a day, and women i of a Fanam, or nearly 2d.

When a farmer runs away for arrears of rent, or oppression, and fient. goes into the district of another Amildar, it is not customary in any native government to give him up. This is a considerable check to arbitrary oppression, as a very unreasonable Amildar would be soon deserted. The Oauda^heTe rent the villages, and every year make a new settlement with the Amildar ; while they receive authority to take from the cultivators as much as they legally can. Some Gaudas rent two or three Gramas^ or villages ; but to each there is an hereditary

208 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. Gauda, who reoeives the title, Is at all public meetings treated with

July tttb. certain marks of deference, and at the village feasts performs certain

religious ceremonies. Should he not be the person who rents the village, his civil authority ceases ; but, without inviting the here- ditary chief to attend, the renter cannot call an assembly of the elders, to settle the disputes cognizable by such jurisdictions. Manner of divid- In almost cvcry viUagc (ffrdma) thc customs of the farmers, ing the crops. ^Specially in dividing the crops, are different. Shanaboga, or vil- lage accomptant, keeps a written account of these customs ; which is referred to as being the law, or custom of the manor : for of the word Grama manor would perhaps be a better ti^anslation than vil- lage, which is usually given. The custom of Colcir in dividing the crop of rice is as follows.

The com, when cut down, is made up into burthens, as large as a man can carry on his head. From each of these is taken a bunch, equal in all to about |§ parts of the seed sown. These parts are

divided thus :

Seers.

To the Nirgunty, or distributer of water 16

To the To^i, or watchman ... ... ... ... ... 16

To the Aduca, or beadle, called here Cauliga IG

To the iron smith ... «.. ... ... 8

56 Then from the heap is taken, By the Toti, or washerman, whatever sticks to the seals of mud, that he puts on to prevent embezzlement, which may De aoou ua«a ... ■•• ... ... •*. .1. ... V

By the Pujaries, or priests of the village gods 4

By vagrants of all religions and kinds, who under pretence of dedicating themselves to God, live by begging ... ... 4

By the Gauda who rents the village, as his perquisite 8

By the government, as its perquisite, called Sadi ... ... 16

By the hereditary Gavda, or chief of the village, in order to defray the expence of the feast which is given to Gan^sa, under the form of a stake of the Cassia Fistula ... ... 16

Seers ••• 51 The heap is then measured, and divided equally between the go- vernment, or renter, and the farmer ; but a certain portion is left, which is divided as follows :

From this portion twelve Seers for every Candaca in the heap are measured, of which the accomptant takes one third, and the re- mainder goes to the renter. This formerly belonged to the Daish- mucs, or Zemeendars ; but these having been abolished by Hyder, and oflScers paid by regular salaries having been established in their stead, it was but fair uiat government should receive this perqui- site. Indeed, most of Hyder's operations in finance seem to have

CHAP. V.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 209

been highly judicious and reasonable ; and on account of his justice, UOO. wisdom, and moderation, his memory is greatiy respected by the ^^^ ^^' natives of all descriptions.

From what remains there is taken.

Sects.

By the PcwicAanjfa, or astrologer 1

By the Comibv/ru, or potmaker

By the Asaaga, or washerman

By the Vasarthdava, or blacksmith and carpenter

By the measurer of the sweepings, about

•••

• • • •

• ■ • • • X

•• ■«• X

• • • • • X

• • • • • o

Seers 12

It is evident, from the very unequal size of the heaps, and vari- ous rates of produce in different soils and seasons, that no exact cal- culation can be formed of the amount of these perquisites on the whole crop. If the heap contains 20 Gcmdacas, and the produce be ten seeds, then they will amount to about ] 7 per cent. ; of which the government gets 5^ per cent. ; or altogether 47 per cent, of the ^ crop ; from whi<m is to be deducted the expense of the tanks.

In order to encourage the industry of the fietrmers, when there 38 not a su£Scient quantity of water to cultivate rice, the government advances the seed of the grains that are raised on such occasions, and receives one half of the produce.

All accompts are here kept in Canter^raia Pagodas and Fanams. momj. The latter passes at present for 17 DuduSy and 13^ are only equal to 1 Ikery Pagoda ; but, in order to preserve uniformity, I make all my calculations hy the exchange at SeriTbgapata/niy where 12 Fanams are equal to the Pagoda. In fact, according to the assay made at the CalovMa mint, tiie Ikery or Suktany Pagoda is worth very nearly li^lZ Fanams \ so that at Seringapatam the Fanam passes for more than its intrinsic value, and here it passes for less. The Niruc, or rate of exchange, by which all different coins can be offered as a legal tender of payment, is fixed once or twice a month by the ^mUdar, who on such occasions assembles all the principal mer- chants, and acts by their advice.

The common Cucha seer here weighs only 21 Dubs ; and the weights. Maund contains 48 Sem^s^ or is equal to 25^V 1^- 1 ^^^ J(*ffO^, or coarse sugar, tamarinds, and Ohee, or boiled butter, are sold by a Maund of 52 Seers, or of 27^ lb.

The Candaea measure contains 160 Seers of the same standard Meainres. with that at Seringapaitaffrb. The 8vMa/n failed entirely in his endeav- ours to introduce an uniformity of weights and measures. Grain is always sold by the hundred Seer,

The trade and manufactures of Colar had been entirely ruined by s*»*« •' ^^- Ttppoo ; as it was in the immediate neighbourhood of his enemies, dominions, with whom he would allow of no communication. Both are now rapidly on the increase, and exceed even what they were in the reign of Hyder. No army came this way in the last war ; but

27

merce.

210

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

1800.

J1U7 8U1.

Manofactuies.

Nature of com- merce.

Customs of the Muduxveru,

they suffered a little in the invasion by General Smith, and consi- derably by that of Lord Cornwallis. The merchants suffered much by Tippoo'a forcing goods on them at a high rate ; and still more by his capriciously forcing them to change the places of their abode. He frequently founded new Bazars, or market towns, and compelled merchants to remove thither; although the place might be quite out of the way by which their trade was usually conducted. From the officers of the Nabob of Arcoty merchants meet with no annoy- ance. Some of them, being constant traders, take from the custom- houses what they call Cowl, or protection ; and on that account pay only one half of the duties that are exacted from occasional visitors. A merchant who has this kind of protection, for every 800 Maunds of Betel-nut worth about 550/., pays to the NaboVa custom-houses, on the way between this and WaUaja-petta, 33 Star Pagodas, or a little more than 122.

In the country villages much coarse cloth is made by the Whalliaru weavers. Those in the town are Divdngaa and Shay- nigaru, who make the white cotton cloth with silk borders called Putaynshina. They make also the muslins called Soda ShUla^ and ^ Dutary, and white turbans.

Merchants from BalahaH, Advany, Naragunda, Navalagunda, Maynashigy, JaliaXiy and Anagira, places near the Krishna river, bring cotton wool, cotton thread, dark blue cotton cloth. Terra Japonica, asafoetida, dates, almonds, and Mailtuta, which is used as a dentifrice. The merchants of Balahari take back in cash f of the returns, and the remainder in castor-oil, Popli dye, and Jagory^ The other merchants take back the whole in cash. The merchants of Hyder-Nagar bring betel-nut, black-pepper, and sandal-wood. They take back cash, and a little white muslin. Here the merchants of Seringapatam purchase doth with cash. The merchants of Ov^bi bring beteUnut, and black-pepper ; and take back cloth, and some money. From Sira the same articles are brought ; the returns are entirely in cloth. From Bala-pura are brought sugar, and some cloth fitted for the dress of women. From the lower Camatic tlje merchants bring salt, and the goods that are imported by sea from Europe, China, Malacca, &c., with a considerable balance of money due for the betel-nut, black-pepper, garlic, tamarinds, Shicai (fruit of the Mimosa saponaria), and grain, that are sent from hence. The silk is all brought from Bangalore, and no cotton grows in the coimtry.

In this place are settled a kind of shoe-makers called Muchaveru ; they are Rajputs, and in their families retain the Hindustdny lan- guage^ as having originally come from the country which the Mus- sulmans call Agimera, Like all the persons of an unmixed breed from that country, they pretend to be of the Kshatfiya caste ; but this rank is denied by the Brdhmans, to even the highest of the Rajputs, those whose profession is agriculture and arms, and who, the Brdhmans say, are merely the highest class of the &6dTas, like

CHAP. V-l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 211

the Nairs of Malabar, or Kayustaa of Bengal. These shoemakera isoo. are not allowed to eat nor to intermarry with the C/dtrakaru, nor ^"^^ ^^^* with the weavers, who come from the same country ; and much less with the Rajputs properly so called, who are by cast the cultivators ' and defenders of the soil. They came into this country with Cos- sim Khan, the general of Aurungzebe, and settled chiefly here and at Sira. They follow no other profession than that of making shoes. The proper G^irua of the cast are the Vairdgis, who read to them, and receive their charity. The Panchdnga, or astrologer, attends their marriages, and gives them a kind of Upadesa. None of them can read. 'J 'hey are worshippers of Vishnu, and do not pray nor offer sacrifices to the Saktis, nor to Dharma Raja ; but contribute their share of the expense at the sacrifices, and festivals, which the village as a public body performs in honour of these gods. They are allowed to eat mutton and fish, but not to drink spirituous liquors. They are allowed to marry several wives, and confine them after the custom of their own country. They have chiefs, who determine matters relating to cast; but their office is not here- ditary ; they are elected in an assembly of the people.

The Telega Uparu are a tribe of Telinga origin, as their name oastoms of the expresses ; and retain in their families the language of their original '^ ^^^' country. They can give no account of the time when they came to Colar, Their proper occupation is the building of mud walls, especially those of forts ; but some of them are farmers, and some farmers' servants, or Batigaru ; they act also as porters. They have hereditary chiefs called Ijyamdna, who possess the usual jurisdiction. None of them can read or write. They are allowed to eat venison, mutton, fowls, swine, and fish ; but cannot avowedly drink spirituous liquors. They are allowed a plurality of wives, who are very labori- ous, and each costs five Pagodas (1/. 16*. Tgrf.), which are presented to her parents. The girls continue to be marriageable after the age • of puberty ; but a widow cannot take a second husband. They bury the dead. They never tiike the vow of Daseri, or of dedicating themselves to the service of the gods. The god of the cast is Vish- WTA ; but they pray to Dliarma Raja, and offer sacrifices to the Sak- tis. They have no knowledge of a future life, and pray only for temporal blessings. Their Gurus are the hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans, who on the richer part of the cast bestow Upad/sa and Ohahrantikam. The Panchdnga, or astrolo- ger, attends only at marriages.

A Swartal Brdhman, reckoned a man of learning, but who smartai Brih^ seems to be very unwilling to open such stores as he possesses, denies all knowledge of the worshippers of Jain, Budlia, or the Linga, far- ther than that he has heard them mentioned. The doctrines of all other sects, but his own, he considers as contemptible, and not worthy of notice.

He believes in a supreme god called Ndrayana, or Para Brah- ^xd, from whence proceeded Siva, Vishnu, and Brahma ] which

man.

212 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. still, however, are all the same god. His sect pray to Siva and

juiysih. Vishnu, with many of their wives, children, and attendants,

among whom are the Salctis, or destructive powers. Siva, how- ever, is the principal object of their worship ; for they consider him as the most powerful mediator with NdvayanoLy who is rather too much elevated to attend to their personal requests. They abhor bloody sacrifices; but do not reprehend their foUowers, of the S^ra cast, for using that manner of worship. They say, that it is the custom of the Sudraa ; and that what these low people do is of little or no consequence. When a good Brdhman dies, his spirit is united to God ; but a bad one is first punished in a purgatory, and then by passing through various other lives, as an animal, or as a person of some of i£e low casts, till at last he becomes a Brdhman, and has another opportunity by his good works of gaining heaven.

Sringa-giri, south from Hyder Nagar, is by this person con- sidered as the chief throne of the Br&hmana. There God assumed the form of a Brdhman named Sankara Achdrya, and, having be- come a Sannydsi, established his Mata, or college, at the place at * which there has ever since been a succession of Sannyatsia, who are the Ourus of the order, and are called SwaTnalus, In different places of India these have established agents, or deputies, who are also Sannyasia, and assume the title of Swamalu. Originally these agents were all sent from the college at Sringd-giri ; but now, al- though they acknowledge the superiority of the representative of Sanioara Adiarya, they ail educate young men in their own Matas, or colleges, and from among them appoint their successors. In the chief college at Sringa-giri there are many disciples, who are all of Vaidika families, who never marry, and who are carefrdly educated in such learning as the Brdhmans possess. They are called Brahma Charis ; and fit>m among them the Ouru, when he is about to die, selects the one that appears to him most deserving, and reveals to him the Upad/sa peculiar to his rank, by which uie &vourite be- comes his successor. The inferior Swamalua (properly Swdvayalv) educate in a similar manner their successors. Should the Sringa- giri Swamalu die without appointing a successor, the deputies or agents assemble, and select fix>m among the Brah/ma Chdria the most deserving peraon, and, revealing to him the Upad4aa, consti- tute him their cnief. Till he is on the point of death, a Suxvmalu is very unwilling to deliver the Upad^sa to a successor ; as, immedi- ately on getting possession of it, his power becomes equal to his own ; and if he should recover, the new Swamalu might remove to another college, and act independent of his authority.

Besides the Vedaa, and eighteen Purdm^as supposed to have been written by Vydaa, which are common to all BrdhmaTie, the Smartal sect follow, as peculiar to themselves, four SddraTM, or books, called Mimosa, Tarka, Vydkaranam, and V^ddrUa, which are said to contain a system of logic, metaphysics, and grammar, that is

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 213

necessary to explain the doctrine of the Vedaa ; and the Sankara 1800. Bhasha, a commentary which explains the doctrine of the Sutras, ' ^

The Ourus of the Smartal sect seem to act chiefly in an epis- copal capacity ; that is, as superintendents of the manners of their followers. They would not appear to perform any ceremony for the sect, which, as being followers of Siva, does not admit of Chahun- tikam ; and among tne Smartal, it is the Purdhita who gives Upad^a. When a Smartal commits any fault, if the Ouru or his deputy be near, he assembles ten learned men of the sect, and with their ad- vice punishes the delinquent. If, however, the fault be of such a nature as to deserve excommunication, which is the highest pu- nishment, the Oui*u must for the purpose assemble a Trimataateru, or council composed of the most learned men of the three sects, Smartal, A'ayngar, and MaduaL These councils may be held, and may punish delinquents, without the presence of either Cruru, or deputy. The faults that occasion a loss of cast, and for which no pardon can be given, are, I. Sexual intercourse within the prohi- bited degree of consanguinity* II. Sexual intercourse with any prohibited cast. III. Eating forbidden food, or drinking intoxi- cating liquors. IV. Stealing. V. Slaying of any animal of the cow kind, of the human species ; but a Brdkman is permitted to kill his enemy in batUe. VI. Eating in company with persons of another cast, or of food dressed by their impure hands. VII. Eatmg on board a ship food that has been dressed there. VIII. Omitting to perform the ceremonies due to their deceased parents. For smaller offences, the Ouru or his deputies punish in various ways ; by com- manding pilgrimages, or fasts ; by fines ; by holding burning straw to the body of the delinquent, which is sometimes done with such severity as to occasion death ; by shaving the head, so as to occa- sion a temporary separation from the cast ; and by giving large draughts of coVs urine, which is supposed to have the power of washing away sin. Ordeals are also in use ; and a most barbarous one is applied to those who, having had sexual intercourse with a person of another cast, allege that it was bv mistake. If the crimi- nal be a woman, melted lead is poured into ner private parts ; if it be a man, a red hot iron is thrust up. Should they be innocent, it is supposed that they will not be injured. A male Brdhmaoiy however, even if married, may with impunity have connection with a dancing- girl, all of whom in this country are dedicated to the service of some temple.

The low casts, that are followers of the Smartal Brdhmana, seem to engage very little of the Ghii^ attention. They occasionally give them holy water, and the ashes of cow-dung to make the mark of Siva on their foreheads, and receive their contributions ; but they leave the puninshment of all their transgressions against the rules of cast to their own hereditary chiefs ; at whose desire, however, they reprimand and impose fines on obstinate offenders. They seem to have no wish to constrain other casts to any particular dogmas, or

214 A JOURNEY FROM M^U)RAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. mode of worship : the only thing, they think, in which a Siidra

July sth. ought to be instructed to believe, is, that the Brdhmaiis are in-

finitely his superiors ; and that the only means of gaining the favour of the gods is by giving them charity. With regard to all sects that refuse to acknowledge these grand doctrines, and even among themselves concerning points of faith, no men can be more intolerant, nor violent.

If the fines imposed by a Ouru appear to his council to be im- moderate, they have the power to reduce the amount. If any one offers charity, that, considering the man's circumstances, the Guru thinks too small, he has no power to extort more ; but he may repri- mand the person for his want of the great virtue of charity. Great division of This man says, that the Brdhmans are separated into two great toto^n^OTthera divisions ; one of which occupies the countries toward the south, and and iouthem. the Other the countries toward the north. He holds in great con- tempt those from Kd»i or Banarea, as being men from the north ; and would not even admit them to the honour of eating in his house. These Brdhmans, he says, eat fish, offer bloody sacrifices, and com- mit other similar abominations. The northern Brdhmans are, how- ever, at least as proud as those from the south, and allege several reasons for holding them in contempt ; among which the most urgent is, that the women of the southern BrahmaTis are allowed to appear in public. General customs Nouc of the southcm Brdhmans can, without losing cast, taste SivSio5i°Sf^*h? animal food, or drink spirituous liquors ; and they look upon the BrdhmanM. smokiug of tobacco as disgraceful. All those who have been mar- ried are burned after their death, and their wives ought to accom- pany them on the pile ; but this custom has fallen very much into disuse, and instances of it are extremely rare ; whereas in Bengal it still continues to be common. A woman can on no account take a second husband ; and, unless she is married before the signs of puber- ty appear, she is ever afterwards considered as impiu*e. They are not at all confined, and can be divorced for no other cause than adul- tery. When a BrdJiman divorces his wife, he performs the same ceremonies for her, as if she had died. suhdiTisioninto Although all the southern Brdhmans can eat together, yet they nations. ^^.^ divided into nations, that never intermany ; and, although they

have long been living intermixed, they generally retain in their families the language of the country from whence they originally came, w^ingtioffi^s. Each nation has its Vaidika, who subsist by charity, and dedi- cate theii' lives to study and devotion ; its Lokika, who follow world- ly pursuits ; and its Nambi, or priests, who officiate in temples, and debase themselves by receiving monthly wages, and by performing menial duties to the idols. The Lokika and Vaidika may intermar- ry ; but, in accepting of his daughter for a wife, a poor Vaidika. does honour to the greatest officer of government ; and still more in giving him a daughter in maiTLage. The Lokika arc never admitted

CHAP. y.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 215

to become Sannyasis; this, however, is not considered as arising laoo. from any invincible rule of cast, but only from their wani of the ^^^^ ***^' proper qualifications.

Each nation again is divided into the sects of Smartal, A'ayngar, subdivision into or Sri Vaishnavavi, and Madual ; but in one nation one sect is more *^^^- prevalent than in another. A difference of sect does not properly constitute a difference of cast '; as the son of a Smartal may become a worshipper of Vishnu ] and, on the contrary, an A'ayngar may l>ecome a follower of the Sringa-giri college ; but such changes are not common. The Smartal and Madual eat together, and inter- marry, although the one worships Siva and the other Vishnu ; and on such occasions the woman always adopts the religion of her hus- band, which seems to be a proof of a great degradation of the sex, who are not considered as worthy to form an opinion of their own on a point of this importance. The Sri Vaishnavam or A'ayngar will not marry, nor eat with a Madual, although they both worship Vishnu ; and still less will they have any communication with a Smartal ; which arises, however, not from any difference in cast, but from a hatred to the doctrines entertained by these sects.

The Brahman^ of every nation are divided into certain families, Di>'ision of called Gdtrdma ; and a man and woman of the same family never fy^miUenlt^^ marry together. The connection of Gdtrdm is entirely in the male Gdtr&ma. line ; and the Brdhmans who speak English translate it Jby our word cousin, and sometimes by brother, or, what is analogous to it, by the Mussuhnan word Bhai, The son of their mother's sister they consider as a more distant relation tiian any person of the same Gdtram.

12th Jtdy. — In the morning I went four cosses to Calura, said Jniy nth. to be the residence of an Amildar ; but in the list of Talucs, or dis- ^*'"'"*' tricts, which I procured from the revenue officer at Serin^apatam, I see no such place mentioned. In all probability, therefore, it is only a sub-division called a Eobly, and its chief, in order to augment his im- portance, calls himself to me an Amildar. He has retained his station for thirty years, and has acquired a name by digging a Colam, or tank. It is about half a mile from the town, is surrounded by a fine Mango grove ; and the road from it to the town has on each side a raised walk, with an avenue of Ma/ngo and tamarind trees reaching the whole way.

For more than one half the way from Cola/r the country is at Appearance of present entirely depopulated. Formerly there has been much culti- *^* ^"**'^- vation ; and the broken fragments of the hedges by which the dry fields were inclosed remain, to show its once flouncing state. The remainder of the country is in a better condition ; but at least one half of what has been formerly cultivated is now waste. I here passed two large villages well fortified with mud walls, and sur- rounded by strong hedges. The country contains many detached, naked, rocky hills ; and many places seem to be fit for palm gardens, of which however I saw none. The mist frequently rests on the tops of the hills, while the country below is clear.

216 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAV. V.

1800. The Woddas, or Woddaru, are a tribe of Telinga origin, and in

c^tomsof the their fa^iilies retain that language, although they are scattered all Woddaru. ^yQj, ^y^^ countries where Tamul and Karnataca tongues are preva- lent. They dig canals, wells, and tanks ; build dams and reservoirs ; make roads ; and trade in salt, and grain. Some of them are farmers, but they never hire themselves out as Batigaru, or servants employed in agriculture. Some of them build mud-houses ; but this is not a proper occupation for persons of their cast. The old and infirm live in huts near villages^ and dig and repair tanks, or wells, or perform other such labour ; while the vigorous youth of both sexes tiuvel about in caravans with oxen and asses, in pursuit of trade. In these caravans they carry with them all their infants, and their huts^ which latter consist of a few sticks and mats. They follow armies to supply them with grain, and in the time of peace take to the lower Camatic grain, Jagory, and tamarinds, and bring up salt. In Hyder*8

fovemment they were very numerous ; but, having been forced by ^ippoo to work at his forts without adequate pay, a great number of them retired to other oountries. As they are a very useful set of people, they are now encouraged, and are fast returning. There are no distinctions among them that prevent intermarriages, or eating in common. They eat fowls, sheep, goats, swine, rats^ and fish ; but reject carrion. They are allowed to take all manner of things that intoxicate, and are in fact much addicted to spirituous Uquors. They marry as many wives as they can get, and the women seem to be more numerous than the men, as no person is without one wife, and the generalty have two ; several go so far as eiffht. A man is in general more restricted from taking many wives oy the expense of the ceremony, than by any difficulty in supporting the family ; as the women are so industrious, that the more wives he can get, the more he lives at his ease. Alazy woman is immediately divorced by her husband ; but, if she can find a man willing to take her» she is at liberty to marry again. The girls continue marriageable from seven years of a^e, until their death ; and a widow is not prevented from taking another husband. Formerly, when the oast was richer, a man gave a hundred Fanams {SL 78. Id.) to the parents of the girl whom he wanted to marry ; but this is now reduced to two Fanama (l8. 4(2.; to the father, a piece of cloth to the mother, and a hundred ooco-nuts as emblematical of the original price. The marriages are made in an assembly of the tribe, and the ceremony consists in the bridegroom and bride walking thrice round a stake, which is erected for the purpose. Next morning they give another feast, and present the company with betel. The Pancmnga, or as- trologer, does not attend, nor are there any prayers (MarUrams) rea4 on the occasion. Incase of adultery, the custom of the oast is to put the woman to deatii ; but this severity is not always used. Txl case of a man's treating his wife very harshly, she may retire to heir mother's house, and live there ; but, without his consenting to di^ vorce her, she oannot marry again. The oustom of the cast is to^

CHAP, v.] . MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 217

bury the dead ; and, although the women are very harshly used igoo. by their husbands while drunk, and although widows are not pre- "^^ *^*^^' vented from marrying again, yet it is said, that perhaps one widow in a hundred throws herself into a pit filled with fire, and bums her- self near the grave of her husband. The Brdhmans do not oflSciate at funerals ; but on those occasions money is distributed among them and other mendicants.

The Guru of the caste is Tata Achdrya, one of the hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans, who lives at Penu-conda. They go either to him, or to some of his relations, who live in dif- ferent parts of the country, and receive Chakra.ntika7n, and advice to wear the marks of the god Vishnu ; and, according to their abi- lities, give, in return, from one to three Fanams, They are allowed to attend at the festivals of the great gods, although their claim to be of SAdra, or pure descent, is rather doubtful. Many of them can read and write accompts ; but they attempt no higher kind of learning. Although the fVoddani pray to Vuhnu, and offer sacri- fices to Marima, Gungoma, Virapacshima, Durgaraa^ Putalima, and Mutiaiima, yet the proper object of worship belonging to the caste is a goddess called lellama, one of the destroying spirits. The image is carried constantly with their baggage ; and in her honour there is an annual feast, which lasts three days. On this occasion they build a shed, under which they place the image, and one of the tribe officiates as priest, or Piijdri. For these three days offer- ings of brandy, Palm-wine, rice, and flowers are made to the idol, and bloody sacrifices are performed before the 'shed. The Wbddas abstain from eating the bodies of the animals sacrificed to their own deity ; but eat those which they sacrifice to the other Saktis. This caste frequently vow Daseri, or dedicate themselves to the ser- vice of God ; which does not prevent from trading those who are rich or industrious ; those who are idle live entirely by begging. The duty of a Dasiri requires that he should daily wash his head, and take care, when he eats in company with the profane, that their victuals do not intei-mix with his. On Saturday night, after having washed his head, and prayed for some hours, he must cook his victuals in a clean pot. He learns by rote a set form of prayer in the poetical language, or Andray ; and while he repeats it, he rings a bell, and at intervals blows on a conch. The hereditary chiefs of this caste possess the usual jurisdiction. The fines imposed by them never exceed three Fanama (two shillings) and three coco-nuts; and are always expended on drink.

The Wfiallias, or Whalliaru, by the Mussulmans called also cusioma of the DcedJi, and Ballagai jot, as forming the most active combatants on ^'^*'^»"*- the right-hand side, ai'e nearly the same with the Parriwr of the people who speak the Tamul language, and with the Maliioanlu of those who use the Telinga dialect. Like the Brdhmans, the What- lias of all nations can eat together ; but two persons of different countries never intermarry. Although this caste be looked upon as

28

2X8 ^ JOUKNEY FBOM MADRAS THROUGH fCHAP. V.

1800. the very lowest of all others, they are desirous of keeping up the

July i2th. purity of the breed ; and never marry but with the daaighters of families, with whose descent from long vicinity, they are well acquainted* Like the Sudrds, they are divided into several ranks that do not intermarry. The highest are here called Morasii Mi/hjcd- liarUy and are cultivators of the ground, weavers, and smelters of iron ore. Inferior to these are Maligara Whalliaru, or musicians ; Naindoi^ Wliallmrii, or barbers ; and Asaga Whalliaru, or washer- men. These again are quite distinct from the musicians, barbers, and washermen of the pure tribes, who, though lower than the cultivators, are all o{ Sudra caste. All the diiSTerent ranks of Whalliaru, though they do not intermarry, eat together, and join in their public cere- monies. The Whalliaru are not permitted to build their huts within the walls of towns or villages ; but, if there be any hedge, they generally inhabit between it and the ditch. In very large places their huts form streets, and into these a Brdliman will not deign to put his foot ; nor in a place so impure will a Sudra build his house ; in like manner as a BrdJtman is very unwilling to occupy a house in a street which the Sudraa inhabit. A Brahman, if he be touched by a Wluiliia, must wash his head, and get a new thread ; and a Sudra, who has been similarly defiled, is obliged to wash his head. A Brahman of this country will not give any thing out of his hand to persons of lower bu-th, of whom he is not afraid ; but throws it down on the ground for them to take up. He will receive any thing from the hand of a person of a pure descent ; but when a Whallia delivers any .thing to the Brdhnuxn, he must lay it on the ground, and retire to a proper distance, before the Brdhfnan wiU deign to approach. Europeans, from their eating beef, are looked upon by the natives here as a kind of Whalliaru ; and nothing but the fear of correction prevents them from being treated with the same insolence.

MoraMi whai- The proper business of the division of Whalliaru, called Marasv ,

is the cultivation of the ground, in which both men and women are very industrious ; but they do not appear to have ever formed a part of the native militia, like the Sudra cultivators, nor to have been entrusted with arms, until they began to enter into the Com- pany's service. From among them several families hold, by here- ditary right, the low village offices of Toti and Nirgunty, or of watchman and conductors of water. Some few of the cultivators are farmers ; but by far the greater part are yearly servants or Batigaru. Some of them weave coarse cloth, and some smelt iron ore. They have chiefs called Gotugaru, who, with a council as usual, settle all disputes and matters of caste.

The Guru of the WluiUiaa is called KempaKullari Ei7Uiru,aud lives at Tripat/d, He is married, and wears the mark of Vidiinu, They do not know of what caste he is ; but he does not intermarry' with the Wlialliaru ; and my interpreter says, that the Gurus of this low tribe are all of the people called here SiUanana. The Guru

lias.

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 219

occasionally comes round, lives in the huts of his followers, and 1800- receives their contributions. He puts the mark of Vishnu on their ^^^^ '**^* foreheads, and exhorts them to pray to that god, and to those of his family. They have no priest that attends at births, marriages, burials, nor at the ceremonies performed in honour of their deceased parents ; nor do they ever receive Upad^sa or Chakrantikam. They pray to Dliai'ma Raja, and offer sacrifices to Marivia, Caragadum- via, and GungoTna. The Flijari, or priest, who officiates in the tem- ple of this last destructive spirit, is a Whallia ; and her's are the only temples into which any of this tribe are ever admitted. They eat the sacrifices offered even to this deity, peculiar to their caste. Their Guru never joins in any of these sacrifices ; none of them can read or write. They are allowed to drink spirituous liquors, and to eat beef, pork, mutton, fowls, and fish ; nor have they any objec- tion to eat an animal that has died a natural death. Their marriage ceremony consists in a feast, at which* the bridegroom ties the bridal ornaments round the neck of his mistress. Except for adul- tery, a man cannot divorce his wife ; and if she has children, he • cannot during her life take another ; but if a man, in a reasonable time after marriage, have no children by his first wife, he may take a second. Widows are not permitted to marry again ; but it is not expected that they should bum themselves, nor preserve celibacy with great exactitude. Many of this caste take the vow of Daseri.

The Togotas, or Togatarv, are a class of weavers of Telinga on- customs of tuo gin, and in their familias retain that language. They follow no other ^^ "*' tiude than weaving, and have hereditary chiefs called Ijyamana, who possess the usual authority. Many of them can read and write accompts ; but none attempt any higher kind of learning. Idle, stupid fellows, that cannot get a living by their industry, take the vow of Daseri, and go about praying with a bell and conch. They have no tradition concerning the time when they came into this country. ITiey all eat together, but intermarry only with such families as by long acquaintance know the purity of each other^s descent. They cannot lawfully drink spirituous liquors, but can eat fish, fowls, and mutton. It must be observed, that, throughout the southern parts of India, fowls are a common article of diet with the lower castes ; whereas in Bengal, their use is confined entirely to Mussulmans. In Bengal again, ducks and geese are commonly used by the Hindus ; but in the southern* parts of India, these birds are not at all domesticated, except by Europeans. It is not usual for the weavers of this caste to take more than one wife, unless the first prove barren ; but there is no law to prevent them from taking as many as they please. Parents that are poor, take money for their daughters, when they give them in marriage ; those that are in easy circumstances do not. Widows cannot marry again, but are not expected to kill themselves. A woman can only be divorced for adultery. The Chorus of these weavers are hereditary chiefs of the A^ayngar, who, in return for the contributions of their

220

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. V.

Appearance of Uie country.

1800. followers, bestow Upadesa and CJiakraiitiJcafn; of coiu^se ihey are

Jul/ itih. worshippers of Vishnu. The Pancltangn, or village astrologer, whether he be a follower of that god, or of Siva, attends at births, marriages, funerals, at the ceremonies performed in honour of their deceased parents, and at the building of a new house ; and on each occasion gets a fee of one Fanwm^ or eight-f»ence. On other occasions, w^hen a weaver wants to pray, like other Sudras, he calk in a Sata,- TuiTia, who reads something in an unknown language, and gives the votary some lioly water, which he consecrates by pouring it on the head of a small image that he canies about for the purpose. A simi- lar ceremony when performed by a Brdlnnan, from the charity that accompanies it, is called DJvana, and is supposed to be much more efficacious in procuring the favour of the gods.

13th July. — In the morning I went three cosses from Calura to SUagutta. The rains having become heavy, the people are now basy sowing their Bagy. •The showers are frequent, and the winds from the westward are strong. A great part of the country is over- grown with stunted bushes, even where the soil appears to be tolerably good, and has never been in a state of cultivation. Perhaps one half is rated in Krishna iiaj/alu's accompts, and of that two- thirds may be in actual cultivation ; for the countiy is in a better state than that through which I passed yesterday. It does not contain so many small rocky hills ; but I have in front, Nandi-durga ; on my right, Rymahad, or Rymangur ; on my left Chintamony ; and on my rear, Arribaji^durga. By the way I passed three large villages, all strongly fortified with mud walls and hedges.

BUaguUa is a town containing about five hundred houses, seve- ral of which are occupied by weavers. It formerly belonged to a family of Polygars, named Narayana, who possessed Devand-htUly (corrupted into DeaneUy), Nandi-durgay and the two Bala-puras. The country around is the prettiest of any that I have seen above the Ohats. It has two fine tanks, like small lakes; and their banks are covered with gardens. At a distance it is surrounded by hills occupied by durgas, or hiU-forts, of which five are in sight.

I assembled here some intelligent Panchdngas, or astrologers, the peninauLu' and farmers, and procured from them the following account of the pre- vailing seasons ; which may be considered as applicable to the north- eastern, and middle parts of the dominions of the Mysore Rdja.

The almanacs divide the year into three equal portions, called Candaia ; and each of these again is divided into two Ritugalu, or seasons, of which each contains two months. The names of these seasons having been taken from the climate of a country not entire- ly similar to this, are not always applicable to the seasons of this place. They are, I. Vasanta Jtitu, or spring season ; which con- tains Chaitra and Vaisdka, or this year from the 26th of March to the 23d of May. In this the trees flower, the weather is hot and clear, with very gentle winds from the westward. There are occa- sioaal showers of rain, or hail, but they are not accompanied by

SilagiUta,

Seanona of the central parts of

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 221

squalls of wind. II. Orishraa JRitu,, or the scorching seOvSon, includas 1800. lyaishtha and Aslbdda, or in this year from the 24th of May to the ^^ '^***' 21st of July. The air is rendered cool by clouds, and strong west- erly winds. The rains are heavier than in Vasanta^ but are not at their height. Thunder is common, but not very severe. III. Var- slid Ritu, or the rainy season, comprehends Srdvana, and Bharapada, or fi'om the 22d of July to the 18th of September. At tliis season the rains ought to be very heavy, and the air to be cool, with fre- quent and violent thunder and lightning. The winds are westerly, and from the middle of Aslidda to the middle of Srdvana, or about onr month of July, are very violent; afterwards they abate. IV. Aawaja and Kartiha form Sarat Ritu, which this year extends from the 19th of September to the 16th of November. At this season there are long faUs of rain ; but it is not very heavy, and there are considerable intervals of fair weather. The winds are light, and come from the northward. During the rain, to the feelings of the natives, the air is very cold ; in the intervals it is temperate. The thunder is moderate. V. Hemanta Ritw, or the season of dew, com- #

prehends Mdrgasirsha and Paushya, or from the 16th of November to the 14th of January. At this season there is no rain, but there are heavy dews ; and thick fogs obscure the sun, and render the air very cola. The winds are moderate, and come from the northward. VI. Sayahu Ritu, or the season of moonshine, comprehends Mdga and Fhdlguna, or from about the middle of January to the middle of March. There are sometimes slight showers, but the weather is in general dry and clear, with very little dew. The winds are light, and come from the eastward. The warm season commences ; but the heat, according to the sensation of the natives, continues mode- rate. This is the season of the principal rice harvest. The air is most unhealthy, and occasions most fevers, during the first and last seasons, or in the hot and dry weather. By the natives this coun- try is esteemed very healthy ; they acknowledge, however, that the air of the durgas is very bad.

The Morasu are on original tribe of Karnata, who are admitted cmtoms of the by all parties to be Siidra, and who, as being cultivators of the ^^JilkS^*'' land, are called Woculigai'u ; which by the Mussulmans has been shortened into Wdcul, In the two Rala-pura districts they are very numerous, and formed a part of the native foot militia, called in this language Candaahara, They are cultivators of the ground, both ^s masters and servants, and occasionally hire themselves as porters. They form three tribes ; Moraau, properly so called, Jfcfo- raau Moacu, and Teliga Moraau^ which last would appear from the name to be a tribe of the Telingana nation. These tribes eat together, but do not intermarry; and even in each tribe persons confine their marriages to a few fEunilies, whose descent is known to be pure. My informants are of the Moram, properly so called, and must be distinguished from the impure tribe called Moraaxx, Wfialliaa, who are not Sudra,

oo.> A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. The men of this tribe, but not the women, can eat with those of

July i3th, another tribe of cultivators called Sadru. A principal object of worship with this caste is an image caMed Kala-Bhairava, which signifies the black dog. The temple is at Sitibutta, near Calanore, about three cosses east from hence. The place being very dark, and the votaries being admitted no farther than the door, they are not sure of the form of the image ; but believe, that it represents a man on horseback. The god is supposed to be one of the de- stroying powers, and his wrath is appeased by bloody sacrifices. The throats of goats and sheep are cut before the door of the temple as sacrifices, and the fiesh is boiled for a feast to the votaries. In this iiie priest, or Pujari, never partakes. He is a Satanana, and worships the god by offerings of flowers and fruit. He, as usual, consecrates water by pouring it over the head* of the image, and afterwards sells it to the votaries. At this temple a very singular offering is made. When a woman is from 15 to 20 yeai's of age, and has borne some children, terrified lest the angry • deity should deprive her of her infants, she goes to the temple,

and, as an offering to appease hia wrath, cuts off one or two of her fingers of the right hand. To the destructive female spirits called Gungoma, YeUaniayMarimayBiiid Putalima, the Morasu oSer sacri- fices. They do not pray to either Vishnu, or Siva. None of them here have ever seen a Oiiru belonging to their caste ; but they have heard, that about the time of their birth (about 50 years ago), a Sri Vashnavam Brahman came to the place, and was called their Guru. The Panchanga acts as their Purdhita at marriages, and at the ceremonies performed, both annually, and at the new moons, in commemoration of their deceased parents. The Brdhmana, when they subjugated the different rude tribes in the south of India, seem to have made very little difficulty about religious opinions and customs. Every tribe seems to have retained their own; and the Brdhmatia were contented with an acknowledgment of their authority, and with contributions given for the performance <rf certain ceremonies, much connected with astrolc^ and magic ; by pretensions to which their power was probably extended. They themselves have perhaps been influenced by the superstitions of their converts, whose gods, being malignant spirits, they adopted as servants of Iswara, the power of desttuction. The Brdlimans, when in sickness and distress, invoke with fear and trembling the power of BhairavU, and of the female Saktis ; who were formerly, perhaps, considered by the natives as the malignant spirits of the woods, mountains, and rivers ; and worshipped by sacrifices, like the gods of the rude tribes which now mhabit the hilly region east from Bengal, and whose poverty has hitherto prevented the incursions of th6 sacred orders of their more learned western neigh- bours.

None of the Morasu can read or write ; and they never take the vow of Daseri, They believe in transmigration as a state of

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 223

reward and punishment, and of course believe in the immortality 1800. of the soul ; which, so far as I can learn, is not in this country an ^^^ *^*^- universal belief among the lower castes, nor among the rude tribes who inhabit the hills. They have hereditary chiefs, called Gauda, The present possessor of that rank here is a boy. He is brought into the assembly, and sits there, while the heads of families settle all disputes, and punish all transgressions against the rules of caste. It is lawful for a Morasu to eat every kind of animal food, except beef and carrion. They are prohibited from drinking spirituous liquors. The men are allowed polygamy, but, except for adultery, cannot divorce their wives. The women spin, work in the fields, and are very industrious. Widows cannot marry again, but are not expected to bury themselves alive with their husbands* bodies.

I have formerly mentioned, that the tribe called BheH, or Naga^ cnHoms of the ratray is divided into two sects ; of which one worships Vishnu, JoSiw the'i/ri/!^ and the other Siva^ The doctrines of the former have been already wans. explained. Those who worship Siva are subdivided again into two parties ; of which the one wears the Linga, and the other does not. These last I have now assembled : they say, that they are of the Vaisyay or third pure caste ; but this is denied by the Comaiiea and Brdhmana, They despise the oil-makers, who call themselves Nagaratra, as being greatly their inferiors. They neither eat, in- termarry, nor have common hereditary chiefs with the Vishnu Nagaratra, They are a tribe of Kamata descent ; and are dealers in bullion, cloth, cotton, drugs, and grain. Some of them act as porters ; but they never formed any part of the militia, nor culti- vated the ground, nor followed any handicraft trade. They cannot lawfully eat any kind of animal food, nor drink spirituous liquors. They have a knowledge of accompts, but attempt no higher kind of learning. They are allowed many wives, but do not shut them up ; nor can they divorce them for any cause except adultery. In order to preserve the purity of the caste, they intermarry with such families only as their forefathers have been accustomed to do. They bum the dead ; but the widows are not expected to bum them- selves. They do not wear the Linga; but pray to Siva, alleging Vishnu to be the same. They never offer bloody sacrifices to Marima, nor to any other of the Saktis. They never take the vow of Daseri ; but when in sickness or danger, make mental vows to Vencatg Bamana^ the idol at Tripathi, or to the Siva at Nunjinagodu ; and promise, in case of being saved, to feed a certain number of Biah- mans, or to send a sum of money to these temples.

The proper Guru of this caste is a Smartal Brdhman' called DAarwa Siva Acharya ; who resides at Kunji, and whose office is hereditary : but in ajffairs relating to the left-hand side they are subject to ilunaiswara Swami, who is the Guru of that division of this tribe, which wears the Linga. Dliarma Siva Acliarya bestows holy water on his followers, and receives their contributions under the name of charity. A certain sum is paid for each public cere-

224 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. BQony, and another is given for holy water. Once in four or five

July 1301. years this personage comes, and receives the sums that have been collected for him at the different villages. On these occasions he ptfnishes any of his followers who may have been guilty of a trans- gression of the rules of caste, and there i.^ no slighter punishment than excommunication ; but he cannot inflict this without the consent of the heads of the caste assembled in coimciL

The Panchdnga or village astrologer, acts as Purohita at marri- ages, funerals, births, on the buildingof a new house, and at the ceremo- nies performed monthly and annually in honour of deceased parents. On these occavsions the Purdhita reads prayers in the Sanskrit lan- guage. The Nagaratra endeavours to repeat after him ; but it being an unknown tongue, he seldom is able to proceed farther than a few of the first words, and then must hearken quietly to the remainder, as the Brahman does not choose to pronounce it leisurely, or at least distinctly. He is indeed seldom able to read fluently ; and all intervals are filled up by a repetition of the last word, accompanied by a most sonorous nasal twang, which is continued until he is able to make out the following word. This kind of unintelligible cant is, however, preferred greatly to all prayers that are pronounced in the vulgar tongue ; which, indeed, are considered as of little or no efficacy, especially if they are extemporary. GardeneTsofthe There is here a trfbc of Teiiga Bani ji gas, v/ho follow no other TtiigaBanyiytti, profcssioa that that of gardcucrs. They allow themselves to be inferior to those who are merchants, or farmers ; but pretend to be superior to the weavers of sackcloth. In their families they retain the Telinga language, and follow the usual ceremonies of the Siidras who have the Sri Vaishnavam Brdhmans as their Gurus. By these teacheis they are kept in a most beastly state of ignorance, nor could they give me a rational answer to any question that I proposed relative to their customs. They are, however, veiy active and skilful in tlieir business. cn5=tom« of the The pcoplc, who here are commonly called Satdnana, call them-

v'J^hn^^lm, selves Vaishnavam, as being the veiy chief of the worshippers of Vishnu, an honour to which no other caste seems to think them en- titled. The Brdhmxins allege that they are Siidra ; but this title is rejected with scorn by the Vaishnavam, although they have received the Brdhmans as their Ourus, The Vaishnavam seem to be the same tribe with those called BoistlJbm in Bengal ; but it must be confessed, that many of the rules of the two castes are very different ; yet per- haps not more so, than the rules observed by the Brdhmans of the two countries. The Brdhmans evidently entertain a jealousy of the Vaishnavam, and endeavour to render them as ridiculous as pos- sible ; for their profession approaches too near to that of the sacred order. I am inclined to suspect, that they are the remains of a very extensive priesthood, who formerly held the same station with respect to the Wlialliai^, that the Brdhmans do now to the Sndra, and who with their followei's formed the heretical sect called Va'^Ji-

CHAP. V.7 MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 99^

navam. This would be cleared up, perhaps, by a conversation with isoo. a sect called the Vdlmika Satdnaria, who are said to be the proper ^^^ ''^^• Gurtwof the Parriar below the Ohats: but I have not had an op- ppi-tunity of investigating this matter.

The Satanana are divided into two sects besides the Vdlmika. Both contend for a priority of rank ; and they neither intermarry, nor eat in common. If we were to judge by the circumstances that give rank to Brdhmans, the Tricoveluru Satdnana ought to be the highest; but the other class call themselves Pratama, or jBrst. They are also called Coil Satdnana, as being a kind of officiating priests in the temples.

The Tricoveluru Satdnana, in order to procure worldly enjoy- Triecveiunt sa- ment, act as schoolmasters to instruct the youth in the reading and *<»"*"<*• writing, both of Sanshnt and of the vulgar languages ; and also in music, both vocal and instrumental. Some also, who are rich, be- come farmers. The proper manner, however, in which they ought to subsist, is by begging ; and by this rejection of worldly enjoy- ment, like the Brdli7)ians, they expect in a future state to obtain a high reward. They intermarry, and eat among one another, with- out any distinction of family, learning, or profession ; and have no objection to a man of any nation, provided he can show that he is a Satdnana. The Brdhmans allege, that on such occasions they are not very scrupulous in their inquiries. They have hereditary chiefs, who with the assistance of a council settle disputes, and punish de- linquents. They are not allowed to take animal food, nor spirituous liquors. Here they bury, below the Ohats they bum, the dead. They are allowed two wives, who can only be divorced for adultery. Their native language is the Telinga ; yet the book peculiar to the caste in the poetical language of the Tamul nation. This they call the V4dam ; but the Brdhmans call it THv4da Prahandam. They allege, that they read the eighteen PurdTias ; but this the Brdh- mans deny. They worship Vishnu by set forms of prayer ; but ad- dress Siva only mentallj'-, or by extemporary petitions, when they consider themselves in danger from his destructive power. They never worship in any manner Dha'i^Ttia Rdja, Marima, Putalima, or any other of the Saktis. None of them take the vow of Dds^H ; but some assume a life of celibacy, and live entirely by begging. In this case, they never cut their hair, and are called Ekdngi, They cannot assume this order, without some ceremonies having been performed by their Ourus, who are both the Sannydsis and the hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaishnavam BralmiaTis. These confer Upad^sa and Chakrdntikam without reward, and at the same time give the Satd- nana a dinner ; which, as being a kind of charity, is rather an ac- knowledgment of the BrdJvrrvan^s inferiority ; the person who receives the charity being, in this country, considered as of a higher rank than the aonor. By charity here must always be understood some- thing given to a person asking for it in the name of God, as having dedicated himself to a religious life. Alms given to the necessi-

29

22G ^ JOURNEY FKOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. ious poor, and infirm, are received with great thankfulness, such

July i3Ui. persons being very niimerous above the Ghixta, Prauma Sata- In the To/mtd language, the Satdnana are called Satany. Those

"****• who serve in temples, and who are thence called Coil, on account

of their assumed superiority, take the name otPratama, They say, that their proper office is that of Pujari in the temples of Vishnu, and of the gods of his family. The Pujd consists in chaunting some prayers, and pouring some water over the head of the image, and thus making what they call holy water ; which is distributed among the people to drink, and to pour on their heads when they pray. As the image is always well rubbed with oil, the water imprecated with this forms no pleasant beverage ; but that renders the drmking of it more meritorious. The prayers used by the PrcUama Satany, on such occasions, are in the Tamul language, and although the holy water consecrated by them is good enough for the Sudra, it is of no use to a Brahman, who in his ceremonies can employ such only as has been consecrated by a Brdhman Pujdri, The SSatany adorns the image with flowers, cloths, and jewels, and anoints it with oiL They and the Brdhmans who are in the service of the temple are the only persons that may touch the image ; they there- fore perform all the menial offices about the shrine, and place the images on their chariots, or beasts of carriage, when they are going in procession. The S'ddra are only permitted to drag the ropes by which the carriage is drawn. A'few of this kind of faiahncivam are farmers, and some are employed to cultivate flower gardens, espe- cially those which are reserved for the use of temples. Many of them obtain permission from their Om*u, and by receiving a new Upad^a become Ekdngi, assume a red or yeUow dress, and, leading a life of celibacy, support themselves by begging. They never take the vow of Dds^H, Their native language is the Tdinga ; but their caste book is the Triv^da Prohandam, and they can also read Slolcams or verses in Sanskrit. They neither eat animal food nor drink spirituous liquors. They bum the dead, and their widows ought to bum themselves ; but this custom has become entirely obsolete. Widows, and girls above the age of ten, are not mar- riageable. The men are allowed many wives ; but do not shut them up, nor divorce them for any cause except adultery. Like thase of the Brdhmans, the women of the Satdnana never spin, nor follow any productive industry; but they bring water for domestic pur- poses, and cook the family provisions. The Pratama Vaishnavamsxe all equal, and can all intermarry and eat in common. The heredi- tary chief of all those in the neighbourhood resides at Mansuni- pulla, and, with a council as usual, possesses a jurisdiction both civil and criminal. Their Ourw is PvMara Achdrya, one of the heredi« tary chiefs of the A'ayngar Brdhmans. He bestows on them Dpa- d^sa and Chakrdntikam ; and on these occasions expects charity. They pray only to Vishnu and to the gods of his family, and abhor the worship of Siva^ or of his followers the Saktis.

CHAP. V.J MYSOBE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 227

14th Jvly. — For hetd nut and black pepper the merchants of I800. Silagutta go to Godeal and Nagara. They cany with them some of the commeroi or cloths that are manufactured in this country, and some toba^cco ^*'^**- which grows in the neighbourhood. Sometimes they are obliged to carry cash for a part of their cargo. They dispose of the greater portion of their pepper and hetd at WaUaja-petta, and of a httle at the intermediate towns. From the lower Camatic they again bring back raw silk, and other goods imported at Madras by sea. The silk they sell partly at Sangahre, and partly to the people from Balahari, Advany, and other places, who bring hither cotton- wool. These merchants take back raw silk, spices, and benjamin ; but never to more than one half, and generally not to more than one quarter, of the value of the cotton- wool, the thread, and the blan- kets that they bring. The merchants of Silagutta go to a town in the NizanCs dominions, which is called Bajawully, and is situated on this side of the Tungabhadra ; and from thence they bring silk and cotton cloths, which they sell either at home or in the neigh- bouring towns as far as Bangalore, This trade is carried on entirely with ready money.

The cotton cloths made at Silagutta are of the kind called Soda Mazmfaotnres. Shillay, and are of a coarse quality. They sometimes have red borders. The weavers are of the caste called Padma Shalay, and by no means numerous. The cloth exported is chiefly the very coarse kind that is made by the low caste called Whallianiy and is collected from the neighbouring villages. Its price is from 4 to 12 Fanams, or from 2«. S^d. to 8«. 0\d. a piece. Those which sell at the last mentioned price are 28 cubits long and If broad, and in fabric resemble the Baftaa of Bengal. They appear to me to be a good and a cheap manufacture. When any considerable quantity is wanted, advances are made by the merchants ; but more than the price of one piece at a time is never given in advance. There are no intermediate agents between the merchant and the weaver.

Silagrdta is celebrated for its Tarkariy or kitchen gardens, and Gardew. this kind of cultivation formerly employed 500 families ; which are now reduced to 50, the others having been carried to Seringapatam by Tippoo, who had no more compunction in removing the inhabi- tants of one place to another, than in ordering his army to change its ground. To-day I remained at Silagutta, in order more fully to examine the cultivation of gardens.

The cultivators of these gardens here are of various castes, Teliga Banijigaru, Ruddi, Palli, Ooalai'u, and Curubaru. Where the family contains two men, they cultivate about half an acre ; where it contains more, they take in proportion an additional quantity. Their women carry the produce to market in the neighbouring towns ; the family subsist entirely on this spot of ground, and pay a heavy rent, which is chiefly procured by the sale of turmeric, wheat, onions, garlic, capsicum, poppy seed, fenugreek, and coriander. They exchange their other articles for provisions. They keep a cow.

Maize.

228 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800. which feeds in the wastes, and gives them milk and manure.

July 14th. According as the water in the wells is far from, or near the sur£Eu», their ground rent is from one half more, to three times bh much as it would pay if it were cultivated for dry graiifis. Half an acre wrought by two brothers, and having the water at fourteen feet- from the surface, pays annually twenty Fanams, or 13«. bd.\ when cultivated for dry grains, this field paid 10 Faiiams a year, or 6a. 8 Jd. The extent of garden ground is estimated by the quantity of Hagy that it would sow ; and in fact, owing to a want of gardeners, the greater part of what was formerly garden ground is now culti- vated with that grain.

In these gardens considerable quantities of wheat and trans- planted Ragy are raised. The Ragy supports the family, and the straw feeds their cow. The crop of it is more productive, than that cultivated on the fields ; one-third of an acre producing two Con- dacas, which is at the rate of 33^ bushels an acre.

As a farther specimen of the manner in which the natives ma- nage their gardens, I shall give an account of the cultivation of tur- meric, the most valuable article raised by the people of this place.

Turmeric and About the bcguming of May the field is dug up, with the hoe

called Col Kudali, to the depth of nine inches, or, if the gardener be industrious, to double that depth. Dung is then spread on the garden, and hoed in. The plo^ is then formed into squares, as before described ; and in these, at the mutual distance of five or six inches, are planted small cuttings of the turmeric root. Be- tween every sUp of turmeric is planted a seed of maize. Once in three days, the squares are watered. At the end of the. first montii the weeds are removed with a very small hoe, and a little dung is

fiven. In three months, the maize is ripe ; but in this climate it oes not come to much perfection. Each stem, in common, gives only one head, and very rarely more than two. It can hardly be called an article of food ; as the natives have a prejudice against it, conceiving that it produces gripes. It is chiefly used by Qie chil- dren, who eat it aa those in Europe do parched pease. The gardeners generally exchange it with the farmers' wives, giving from 20 to 40 heads for a Seero{ Ragy, The straw is given to the gardener's cow, but is not reckoned wholesome food, which is probably a great error. It is pulled out by the roots, and at the same time the turmeric is cleaned, and obtains a little dung. The watering is continued. In ten months it is ripe : it is then dug up, and divided into two kinds, the large, and the small. The large roots are cut into two or three pieces, put into cold water, and boiled for an hour. They are then spread out to the sun for seven or eight days ; and finally, in order to break off small lumps or fibres, they are rubbed on iie ground with the hand. They are then fit for sale, and by being kept in the middle of a heap of Ragy, are preserved from worin-eating. Some persons with the turmeric mix the leguminous plant called Arackis fiypogo^, which requii-es a longer time to ripen than the maize does.

CHAP. V.J MYSOllE, CANARA, AND MALABAU. 229

■

The small Yatam is the only maohine for drawing water, that 1800. the people of Silaguita use. They say that it can raise water from rStim.^ ' a much greater depth, than a large one. Small Yatama can be used, where from the surface to the water there is 7 men's height, or 36 feet 9 inches. This differs entirely from the opinion of the people at Colar, The fact is, that both parties blindly follow custom, and never have made any comparative trial.

15th inly, — I went tiiree cosses to the place which in our maps (^^^^ ^'(^H^* is called Chinna Balabaram ; the nature of which name no one here rayanaswlmir understands. By the Mussulmans it is called Chuta Balapour, and the native appellation is Gkica Bala-pura. The country the whole way has been arable ; but at present a great part of it is uninhabited, and one of the finest rice grounds that 1 have ever seen above the OluiU is quite waste. About forty years ago ChicaBala-purah^ongQA. to Narayana Swdmi, a Polygar, who possessed also Doda BcUd-pura, Devundfhully, and SLlagutta, a country producing a yearly revenue of 100,000 Pagodas, or 33,579i. 0«. 4d. He resided chiefly at Chica Bata-pura, and Naiidi-durga was his principal strong-hold ; from the strength of which he had been able to resist the power of the Mussulmans of Sira. This place then contained a thousand houses of merchants or traders ; and, although not a fortress of much strength, it was a mart of great importance. Hyder, after reducing the neighbouring countries, laid siege to it ; and the Rdjdy unable to resist, agreed to pay 100,000 Pagodas ; but after some delay the Mussulman was persuaded to go away with only 60,000. These the Rdjd levied by a contribution from the merchants of this town, which was not given >rithout great reluctance, and is considered as the commencement of their misfortunes. Soon after, the B^tja of OxUti coming to the assistance of his friend Ndrdyaiia Swdmi, that Polygar became refractory, and again drew upon himself the anger of Hyder, who took all his forts, and expelled nim from the country. The place continued to enjoy considerable prosperity under Hyder, although, in consequence of the contribution exacted by the Baja, many of the mercantile housei^ had withdrawn ; for in India, as elsewhere, merchants cannot endure to be taxed. They were soon after entirely dispersed by the tyranny of Tippoo ; but he added much to the ornament and strength of the fort. On the arrival of Lord Comwallis the Raja was reinstated ; and, after the retreat of the British army, like the other Polygars who had been restored to their countries, he refused submission to Tippoo. Ishmael Khan, the father of one of the /SuZ^an*8 wives, was sent with an army to reduce them. In besieging one of the forts he met with considerable loss ; and it was only from its ammunition having been exhausted, that the place surrendered. It is said, that the garrison, consisting of seven hundred men, obtained terms of capitulation which were not observed; the chief officens were hanged, and every soldier had either a hand or a leg cut off with the large knife used by the Madigavit, who in this country are the dressers of leather : the only

f)30 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

18C0. favour shown to the garrison was the choice of the limb that was to

jaiy loth- Y^^ amputated A similar punishment was at the same time inflict- ed on 700 of the neighbouring farmers, who had occasionally stolen into the place, and assisted in its defence. As they had no means of stopping the hemorrhage, except by applying rags dipped in boiled oil ; and as many were too poor, and the greater part, on such an occasion, too friendless to procure assistance, a small proportion only of these wretches survived. Some of them are here now, and subsist by begging ; and the messenger ofParnea, who attends me, was pre- sent at the execution, as one of Tippoo's soldiers. This barbarous pumshment had, however, the desired efiect ; and eveiy Polygar instantly quitted the country. In the last war, the heir of the family returned, and for five months occupied the place. The people here seem to be attached to him ; but those oiSUagutta consider him as a ruffian, like mast other Polygars. The Mysore government offered him terms, which he despised. Rather than accept of any thing less than what his family formerly possessed, he preferred retiring to the countries ceded to the Xizam, where there is a kind of licence for all manner of disorder.

'J'he town is now beginning to revive ; and I am told, that both it and the country round are more populous, and better cultivated, than they were under Tippoo^s government ; the vicinity of the Nizam's dominions affording excellent means of obtaining a supply of inhabitants. The trade is entirely confined to the purchase and sale of ailicles produced in the neighbourhood, except that they get some cotton- wool from the Nizam's country, and send thither some sugar and Jagory, The manufactuie of sugar of a fine quality is in great perfection, but on a very confined scale, and is kept a pro- found secret by a family of Brdhnians. Weavers of white cotton cloth are beginning to assemble, and fifteen houses of them are now at work. The place contains 400 houses, of which no less than 100 are occupied by Brdhmans, Formerly they had a great extent of charity lands ; but, these having been all resumed, they are very poor. Most of them are Vaidiica, and therefore few choose to follow any useful profession. Thirty of the houses are of such high rank, that they live entirely upon charity.

July i6th. 16th July, — I remained .at Chica Bala-pura, where I find that

a large proportion of the inhabitants speak, as their native dialect, the Telinga language ; yet the Narayanu family were of Kamata extraction. At this place the regulations of Kridina Mayalu were never received, owing perhaps to its having been in possession of the Ndrdyana family before it became subject to the yoke of the Ana/jnndi kings, who were of Telinga descent.

iwi vnhhnavam The BrdJiTruin who is here reckoned the most learned of the Sri Vaishnavam sect, says, that Rama Anuja Achdrya made 700 Sannyasis, each of which had a Mata, or college, and 74? hereditary chiefs. The Sannyasis are now reduced to five that are called ihrones (Singhasanas) ; but the whole of the hereditary chiefs remain. About

Lrahmans,

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALAliAU. 231

500 years ago a schism arose in the sect concerning the intcq^reta- isoo. tion of certain of their books. Some of the Sannyasia and some of *^"^^ ^^^^' the hereditary chiefs followed one interpretation, and some ano- ther ; and ea<5h wjis followed by the whole of the disciples belong- ing to his college, or house. Hence the iS/'i Vaiehnavam are divided into Tangalay and Wadiigalay, who will neither eat together, nor intermarry. The Sri VaishTiavama of the country south from the Krishna river will not intermarry with either Smartal, or Madioal ; but those from GoLconda are not so scrupulous ; and many, who originally came from that country, are now settled in these parts. The differences between the two sects of A'ayngar consist in somo ceremonies : for instance, at prayers, the Wadagalay ring a bell, which the Tangalay hold in abhorrence. Besides, the Wadagalay think, that in order to obtain future bliss, it is very necessary to bo regular in their devotions, and liberal in their charity to pious Brdhvians, Their opponents attach less importance to those duties. This man denies that his sect ever bestow proper Upad^a on their Sudra followers, or ever read proper Mantrams to them. These ceremonies are reserved for the three higher castes only ; and of these the second is entirely extinct. Those who are pretenders to this rank are by iheBvdhmana treated merely as Sudras. On solemn occasions the Fa/nchdngaa, or village astrologers, read some prayers to the Sudras ; but they are not taken from the VMa^, and are con- sidered as of very little efficacy. These Br&hmans do not consider themselves as at all bound to instruct the Sudras, nor to prevent them from offering bloody sacrifices to evil spirits.

According to my informer, the A'ayngar always existed; but before the time of Rama Anuja^ from the want of charity, they had fallen into a low state ; for at that time the worshippers of Linga, Jain, and Buddha, three of the twenty-one heretical sects, were very numerous. The hereditary chiefs do not send fixed deputies to reside among their distant followers ; but they occasionally send agents to make circuits, bestow Chakrdntikam, and receive charity. My informer insists positively, that the Sannydsia, never bestow their Upad^sa on any person, but their intended successor ; lest the BrdJiTnan so dignified should establish a separate throne. Some- times the intended successor gets the ITpad^a early, and is sent to travel till his predecessor dies. The agents employed by the Sannyasis, to prevent them from aspiring to the dignity of their masters, are always married men.

The Numbi are an inferior order of Brdhmans, whose duty is ivumw Brah^ to act as Pujdria in the temples. They are aU Vaidika, and never '^'"* follow any worldly occupation ; but are despised, on account of their receiving fiLxed wages for performing their duty. The other Brdh- mans originally, perhaps, all lived by begging, which is the proper occupation of tibe caste, and the most dignified manner of living, as being most agreeable to God ; and in consequence acquired an here- ditary superiority over the Numhis, which is kept up even by the

232 A. JOURNEY FROM M.VDRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V.

1800- lA)kika, who have betaken themselves to worldly business, and who

July i6ih. ^^^ wages will serve even men. Whatever may be the cause, no Lokika, much less any Vaidika, will eat or intermarry with a Nwm,^ bi ; but these receive the same Upadisa with the others, and are per- mitted to read the same books. They all marry, and their offices are hereditary. They are divided into two sects, that do not intermarry. Those of the one act in the temples of Vishnu^ and follow as Gurus the heads of the A'ayngar sect. The others are Pujdria in the tem- ples of Isvjara, and follow as Gurvs the Smartal Sannyasis. The Madual have no Numhis ; and their Gu^-ua are the only persons of the sect who perform the office of Pujdri in any temple. Doctrines of the The A'ayngar say, that Para Brahvia, Narayana^ or Vislmu, is

vauh^awmf*^ the suprcmc god. He is represented by images having one head, and under that form is worshipped in all temples. He assumed four great forms, or Avatdrs, Anirudha, Pratimana, Vdsud^va, and Sa^nkar- dhaiia : the forms of these Avatdrs may be seen in temples, but they are only worshipped by the angels. The supreme deity then assumed eleven incarnations, or inferior Avatdrs. Ten of these are the common objects of worship with men ; the eleventh, or Budha, is held in abhorrence. Bvcm/ma, the son of the supreme deity, was bom with five heads; but lost one of them in an intrigue which he had with the wife of his son lawara. He is represented in temples with four heads ; but his images are placed there merely as orna- ments, and never occupy the sacred place where the object of wor- ship stands, lawara, the son of Brahma, has five heads, and is held in abhorrence by the A'ayngar, as bein^ the husband of Pai-vaii, who has taken the form of many destructive spirits, such as MariTna, Putalinna, and the like. Fear of immediate destruction sometimes tempts the A'ayngar to pray to the destroying powers ; but in general they pretend, that they are entirely occupied by thoughts of happiness in the next world, which can only be procured by the favour of the Avatars of Vishnu, or of their wives, all of whom are incarnations of Maya. The servants of the Avatars ^ such as Hanu- mania, are not proper objects of worship ; but some Nunibis, in order to procure bread, officiate as priests in their temples ; for the populace believe, that these beings have the power of bestowing temporal blessings. DoctriM of the The most learned Smartal here say, that Para Brahma is the

supreme god, and Maya, or Sakti Prakriti, is his wife. They deny the four forms of God worshipped in heaven ; but say, that from Mayd proceeded three great Avaiars, of a good, of a kingly, and of a destructive nature ; and named Vishnu, Brahma^ and Iswara, or Siva. Vishnu has assumed a great number of inferior Avatars, or incarnations, of which however ten are more distinguished than the others. The three Avatars, called Vishnu, BraJvma, and Iswara, are however to be considered as all the same with Para Brahma ; and Pai*vati, the wife of Siva, is the same with Maya. All the Saktis are a kind of Avatars of Parvati ; but Brahmans ought not to wor-

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 233

ship her under these forms. To obtain wisdom, the Smartal worship isoo. Siva, and his wife Parvati ; Ganesiuara^ their son, to prevent him ''"'^ *^^^* from obstructing their views ; and Vishnu^ to obtain heaven. They do not allow that there is any image of Para Brahma or Ndrayana ; and say, that the image so called by the A'ayiigar, is one of the forms of Vishnu. This sect evidently believe in a kind of Trinity, there being three forms, which are essentially the same, and yet different ; but their doctrine is very distinct from that taught by Christians ; as they have in their supreme god-head a male and a female power, from whence proceed three persons of ther male sex, accompanied also by three female persons, and the female is always called the Sakti, or power of the deity.

The Smartal say, that it was God who assumed the form of sankara Sankara Achdrya, and that he lived lon^ before the time of Rdma^^ ^'^^' Anvja, At that time all Brdhmams were Smartal ; but the kings and people were mostly followers of Buddlia, or of the other hereti- cal sects.

All these Brdhmans, when asked for dates, or authority, say, that they must consult their books, which may be readily done ; but when I send my interpreter, who is also a Brahman, to copy the dates, the Brdhmana here pretend that their books are lost.

The Pacanat Jogies belong to a tribe of Telinga origin, that is cwtoiM or the scattered all over the peninsula; and in their own language they ^"***'*^'''^'^** are called Jangalu. The proper business of their caste is the collect- ing, preparing, selling, and exhibiting of the plants used in medicine. As a guide in the practice of physic, they read the Vaidya Sastram, which is written in the Telinga language ; and they also study the Amaran, which is the most approved dictionary, or school-book, in that dialect. They are very poor, and go about the street, each crying out the names of certain diseases, for which he pretends to have a powerful specific. Their virtuous men, after death, are supposed to become a kind of gods, and frequently to inspire the living ; which makes them speak incoherently, and enables them to foretel the event of diseases. Medicine, in this country, has indeed fallen into the hands of charlatans equally impudent and ignorant. Such of the Jangalu as are too lazy and unskilled to practise physic, live entirely by begging. In whatever country they have settled, they can all, without distinction, intermany ; which by their neigh- bours is looked upon as a great indecency, and as subversive of the purity of caste. They keep as many wives as they can ; and never di- vorce them, adultery being either unknown, or not noticed. They do not marry their girls till after the age of puberty. A widow cannot take a second husband ; but she is not expected to bury herself with the body of her husband. They can lawftdly eat sheep, goats, hogs, fowls, and fish; and intoxicate themselves with spirituous liquors, opium, and hemp. They have moveable huts, which they pitch on tne outside of towns, and wander about the country selling and collecting their drugs. Asses are their beasts of burthen.

30

2g4 A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THROL'GH [CHAP. V.

1800. They have no hereditary chiefs, but follow the advice of old men^

July lotii. y^YiQ have, however, no power of excommunication. They consider Isxodra and Vishnu as the same god, and, when in distress, pray men- tally to these deities. They offer sacrifices to GangoTna, YellaTna, Gorippa^ &c. ; and in distress make vows of money to Dharma Raja, Their Guru is the SH Shela Bichawutta^ who sits on the Suryu Singhdsana^ or throne of the sun. He is a married man of hereditary rank, and wears the Idnga, of which the Jangaln are not considered worthy. When one of them goes to the G^hrUy he makes a profound reverence; and, according to his slender means, presents a snail sum. . The GurUy in return, gives them some consecrated ashes of cow-dung, with which they make the mark of Siva on tiieir foreheads ; and he takes their beads in his hand, by which the prayers repeated on them become more efficacious. At their marriages the Fancha/nga reads prayers {Mantratris). At the Amavasya, or new moon, they fast ; but they observe no ceremony in honour of their parents. Customs of the The Asogaru, Asagas, or washermen, in this count^, are of two waah^raen! kiuds, Siidva, and Whalliara, The former are of two nations, Telinga and Karnata, These last are by far the most numerous ; and, al- though they will not intermarry with the Telinga washerwomen^ yet they will eat in common. They have no hereditary chiefs ; but the collector of the district, who is appointed by the government, and receives a salary, carries all complaints to the Cut:cal of the Kasba, or police officer of the chief town of the district, who settles them according to custom. The washerman of every village, whose office is hereditary, washes all the farmers' clothes, and, according to the number of persons in each family, receives a regulated proportion of the crop. Out of this he must pay to government a certain sum, which in general is collected by the head washerman of the KafiM. They follow no profession but that of washing ; and in all public processions, are bound, without reward, to carry a torch before the Lages, and the chief officer of government Bbth men and women wash. Their proper beasts of burthen are asses, each house keep- ing for breeding and labour two or three she asses. The female colts are reserved to keep up the breed ; and the males are sold to the different petty traders that use this kind of cattle. The washermen confine their marriages to a few families that, they know to be of pure descent. They marry a number of wives if they can afibrd it ; but that is seldom the case. The girls, even afler the age of pu- berty, continue to be marriageable ; but cannot take a second hus- band. They can be divorced for no other cause than adultery. None of them can read : in fact, although admitted to be S'&dras, they are a caste most deplorably ignorant. They never take the vow of Dde^ri, They are allowed to drink spirituous liquors, and to eat fish, fowls, and hogs ; but will not touch carrion. They worship a god called BhCt/ma B^varu, who is represented by a shapeless stone. At Bangalore, and some other large towns, they have tuples dedi- cated to this god, and served by a PiUjari of tiieir own caste. To

CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 235

BhUma Divarii they oflFer fniit, and solicit him not to burn or de- 1800- Btroy their cloth. They sacrifice animals to Ubbay ; which, so far "^^'^ '^^• as I can understand, means steam. They conceive that it is God who makes their water boil, and occasionally bums their cloth ; and also that the steam, issuing from the water, is the more imme- diate residence of the divinity, whom therefore they call Ubbay ; but they believe Ubbay and Bhutmia to be the same. This seems to be the proper worship of the caste ; but they address themselves to any other object of superstition that comes in their way, praying to Vishnu and the other great gods, and sacrificing to Putalima and the Saktis. These prayers and sacrifices seem intended merely to procure temporal prosperity. I could not perceive that they had the smallest knowledge or belief of a state of future existence. Their Ourus are of the Satdnana caste; but where they live, or what they do, is to their followers totally unknown. They [come round occasionally, bestowing holy water, and getting food and money as charity. The Pdnchdnga attends at marriages, and tells them the times of the new moon ; at which period almost all Hindus observe a fast in memory of their deceased parents. They say, that, as they wash the clothes of the astrologer, or Panchdnga, he occasionally comes, and telLs them some lies, for that he is never at the trouble of predicting the truth ; except to those who are rich.

The Wully Tigulas, like the Va>na Pallxs, are a caste of Tamul, customi of the or Tigula origin ; and their only emplo3nnent is the cultivation of ^^^ TigiUas. kitchen gardens. ITiey have lost their original language; but when there is a scarcity of girls here, they go down to the lower Carnatic, and get wives from the parent stock. The men are allow- ed a plurality of wives, and never divorce them, but content them- selves with giving their females a good drubbing when they prove • unfaithful. The girls continue to be marriageable after the age of puberty, and are very industrious in gathering the produce of the garden, and in carrying it to market. They do not spin. This caste has hereditary chiefs called Oaunda, which is the Tamul name for the head man of a village. None of them can read. With the Van^ Pallis they eat, but cannot intermarry. They are allowed to eat animal food, but not to drink spirituous liquors. They bury the dead, and have some faint notions of a future state ; but rather as a thing of which they have heard, than as a thing of which they are firaily convinced, or in which they are much interested. They take the vow of Dds^ri, which literally means service ; the person who takes the vow, thereby dedicating himself to the service of (Jod. They are admitted into all temples, so that they are not con- sidered of an impure descent; but uiey have no Ouru. At the annual commemoration of their deceased parents, the Panchanga reads prayers (Mantrama), which they do not understand ; but at births, marriages, or funerals, no such ceremony is required. They do not observe the Amdvasyas. The caste god is Vencata Rdmana or the Vishnu of TripalhL When they go into a temple of this idol*

236

A JOURNEY FROM 2IADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. V

1800. ^®y pv® ^® priest some small money, and get in return holy water

July i6Ui. and consecrated flowers. They offer sacrifices to the Saktia, and in

fact worship every thing they meet which is called a deity. GMdem. Although tins place be only three cosses from SilaguMa, the

difference in the cultivation of gardens is astonishing ; and, although water is to be had at the depth of three men's stature, garden ground gives less rent than common dry-field. Very few sul^ist by gardening alone ; and they raise neither turmeric, wheat, nor poppy. With a proper colony of SilaguUa people, as there is plenty of water, much land might be here converted into gardens. It is now waste, having too hard a bottom for the cultivation of Bagy or sugar. Sugar. The sugar-candy made here is equal to the Chinese, and the

clayed sugar is very white and fine. The art was introduced by the SuUan at Seringapatarriy but was kept secret. Two Brdhmans, however, of this plaice obtained a knowledge of the art ; but they also are determined to keep it a secret. The price at which they sell it totally precludes it from an extensive sale ; as the Chinese sugar-candy is now sold at Seringapatam, cheaper than the fine sugai'-candy of this place is sold on the spot. In Tippoo's reign the prohibition of commerce with the lower Carnaiic made the manu- facture of importance. The actual price of the fine sugar-candy made here is 10 Company's Rupees a Maund of »24 lb. or 5L Is. Id. a hundred- weight ; and of the fine soft su^r, 20 SuLtany Fanams a Maund, or 3f. 28. 7Jci. a himdred-weight. The common brown sugar-candy, the original manufacture of the country, sells for 5 Rupees the Maund, or 2L 10s. 6 Jd. the hundred-weight ; and liie common brown soft sugar at 3 Rupees, or 11. 10s. 4d. ; the value of the Rupee being taken at the exchange of Seringapatam. From the farmers the sugar-makers purchase the juice of the cane, after it has been boiled down to a certain degree ; and pay 2 Rupees for the produce of 1,000 canes, which will make 2 Mauvids, or 80 Seers, o{ Jagory. This gives.

Of refined white sugar-candy 16 Seers

Of refined white soft sugar 35 Seers

Of brown sugar-candy 22 Seers

Of brown soft sugar 40 Seers

The cost of the materials is nearly Either the expenses or the profits of this manufacture, therefore, arc immense. The fine white soft sugar is made up into a kind of paste, which is put into moulds of a variety of forms, and thus hardens into solid masses, that are presented to guests at marriages, or on other great occasions ; which seems to be the reason of the enormous price of this manufacture. The art of making this paste is also a secret.

Having taken some of the cultivators to the cane-fields, tiiey showed me a plot which they said would produce a hundred Maunds of Jagory ; and they observed, that every hole, in which two cut- tings are planted, should produce from 6 to 10 ripe canes. By

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	0 6 6
	0 4 4

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CHAP, v.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 937

measuring this field, and allowing for the distance occupied by each 1800. hole, I found that it would plant 8000 double cuttings ; but, as some ^^^ **''^* holes fail entirely, I shall only take the average number of canes from each hole at between six and seven ; and then the produce of the field will agree perfectly with the two Maunds of Jago)*y^ stated by the sugar boilers to be what could be obtained from 1000 canes. 1 look upon this, therefore, as good data for a calculation ; and, ex- tending the measurement, I find that the acre should produce about 140 Maunds of Jagory, or 30 hundred- weight of this rude material ; which is capable of being made into 15 hundred- weight of raw sugar, worth 22/. 158, Of this, however, one-third must be deducted for the expense of manufacture, leaving 15i. Ss. 4d. an acre to be divided between the government and aultivator. Of this the, government nominally gets one half; but the deductions made on a division are very great. Some sugar-land here is watered by the machine called Yatam, an expense w^hich it can well bear. In this case, the farmer, for his additional trouble, gets one quarter of the government's share.

The sugar mills which the people here, as well as every where sugar-miui. in the Sira Subadary, use, are two cylinders wrought by a perpetual screw, and two bullocks (Figure 34) ; but seven times in the 24 hours the bullocks are changed. The mill goes night and day ; and, by the labor of 14 bullocks, expresses 7000 canes, which produce 14 Maunda of Jagory, or 7 Maunda of raw sugar, equal to IJ hundred- weight. To any one of our Went India planters, the wretched state of mechanics among the Hindus will, from this, be very evident ; yet miserable as this machine seems to be, it appears to me better adapted for the purpose to which it is applied, tnan the mill in use at Chenapatam. So far as a very slight knowledge of Jamaica will enable me to judge, the sugar planters of the West Indies have a decided advantage over those o{ Hindustan in climate, soil, carriage, and skill both in agriculture and mechanics ; but the enormous price of labour must always be a heavy drawback on them, while they continue the present system of keeping up the population by slaves imported from Africa.

17th July. — In the morning I went three cosses to Bhidi-caray, July nth. a small fortified village situated on the side oi Nundi-durga, which the^co«mt^.^' is opposite from Chica Bala-pura. I passed through among the hills by the side of Chin' -ray a-conda ; from whence, it is said, springs the Pennar, or, the Utara Pindhard, as it is called in the Sanskrit. This river runs toward the north ; and the Palar, which springs from Nandi, runs to the south. These hills may therefore be looked upon as the highest part of the country in the centre of the land south from the Krishna, The sources of the KdvM and Tunga- bhadra, towards the western side, are probably higher.

Among the hills of Nandi-durga is much fertile land, now covered with Bamboos, and useless trees ; but which, with a little encouragement, might be brought into cultivation : this, however,

2:j.S A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAr. V.

1800. would Ijc improper, until there be a number of people, and a quan-

juiy i7th. ^j^y Qf stock, sufficient to occupy all the lands that have formerly been cultivated, but are now waste. Such, at least, is the opinion of the Amildar, who is a sensible man. Hindu mumexB. I took an Opportunity, in company with this A mildar, of examin-

ing into the management of the Iaic insect ; and for this purpose we collected all the people who follow that employment. I have al- ways found, that the more of any class of people were assembled, the more likely I was to get just information : not that all of them spoke ; some one or two men generally answered my question ; but they did it without fear of reflections from those who might other- wise have been absent ; as every one, if he chose, had an opportuni- ty of speaking. The Hindus of all descriptions, so far as I have observed, are indeed very desirous of having every kind of business discussed in public assemblies. Lac insect The pcoplc who manage the Lac insect, in the hills near Nandi-

durga, are of the caste called Woddaru ; and for the exclusive use of the trees they pay a rent to government. The tree on which the insect feeds is the Jala, which is nearly related to the Said of Bengal, or the Shorea of Gkertner, and perhaps the Vatica Chinesis of Linnaeus. All the trees that I saw here were small, not exceeding eight or ten feet in height ; and their growth was kept down by the insect and its managers ; for this size answers best. The tree, left to itself, grows to a large size and is good timber. For feeding the insect, it thrives very well in a dry barren soil ; and is not planted, but al- lowed to spring up spontaneously as nature directs. It is often choked by other ti-ees, and destroyed by Barnhoos, which, by rub- bing one against another, in this arid region, frequently iaike fire, and lay waste the neighbouring woods. By removing all other trees from the places where the Jala naturally grows, and perhaps by planting a few trees on some other hills, and protecting them from being choked as they gradually propagate themselves, the Lac insect might be raised to any extent on lands now totally useless, and never capable of being rendered arable. In KaHika, or from about the middle of October to the middle of November, the Lac is ripe. At that time it surrounds almost every smaU branch of the ti-ee, and destroys almost every leaf. The branches intended for sale are then cut off^, spread out on mats, and dried in the shade. A tree or two that are fullest of the insects, are preserved to propagate the breed ; and of those a small branch is tied to every tree in the month Chaitra, or from about the middle of March to the middle of April ; at which time the trees again shoot out young branches and leaves. The Laxi dried on the sticks is sold to the merchants of BalaJvari, Oviti, Bangalore, &c. ; and according to the quantity raised, and to the demand, varies in price, from 5 to 20 Fanams a Mound, This is what is called stick-laxi. In my account ot Bangalore, I have given the process for dyeing with the substance ; which, after the dye has been extracted, is formed into seed and shell lac.

CHAP. V.J MYSOUE, CANARA, AND MALABAU. 239

I found the country beyond the hills more desolate than that , jqqq near Chica Bala-pura. One-third of what has formerly been culti- July irth. vated is not occupied ; mapy of the villages are entirely deserted, th^^cowit^.*^ and have continued so ever since the invasion of Lord Comwallis. The people say, that they were then afflicted with live great evils : a scarcity of rain, followed by that of corn ; and three invading, and one defending army, all of which plundered the country, and pre- vented grain from being carried from places where it might have been procured ; but, in destruction, the armies of the MarattahSy and oi the Sultan, were eminently active ; and the greater part of the people perished from want of food. In this last war they met with no disturbance from the armies ; but three-fourths of their cattle perished by disease. This was not owing to a want of forage, of which there was plenty ; but is by the natives attributed to an infection, which was propagated from the cattle of the armies be- sieging Seringapatam, Between Colar and Chica Bala-pura the disease has this year again made its appearance ; but it has not yet come to this side of the hills.

The whole land near Bhidi-caray has formerly been cultivated ; and the champaign country seems to extend far to the westward, where, at the distance of thirty-two miles, Siva-ganga rears its co- nical head. The Ragy is now coming up, and makes a wretched appearance ; for in eveiy field there is more grass than com. Not- withstanding the many ploughings, the fields are full of grass-roots, which are indeed of great lengiS, very tenacious of life, sprout at every joint, and are of course difficult to remove ; but a good harrow would efiect much. The farmers of this country are abundantly industrious ; but their want of skill is conspicuous in every opera- tion.

CHAPTER VI.

FROM DODA BALAPUEA TO SIRA.

1800. '^^^ ^^^^ «Atiy I went two cosses to Burra, Pedda, Doda, or

July 18th. Great Bala-pura, as it is called in the Mussulman, Tdinga, Karnata, and English languages. All the country through which I passed has formerly been under cultivation ; but now it is almost entirely unoccupied. vodaBaia-pura, On the dissolutiou of the Vijaya-nagara kingdom, Ndrdyana Swdmi, the Polygar of Bala-pura, assumed independency ; and in the fort, remains of his castle, surrounded as usual by temples, may still be £raced. On the invasion by the Mogul army under Cossvnx Khan, the Polygar was obliged to give up this open part of his country, and to retire to Chica Bala-pura, situated nearer his strong* hold$. Doda Bala-yxira formed then one of the seven districts of the Sir a government ; but it was soon wrested from the Mussulmans by WiQ Marattahs. On their decline again, after the battle ot Pan-- niput, it was seized by the Nizam, who gave it as a Jaghir, or feu, to Ahhaas Khuii Khdn, a native of the place. He enlaj^ed the fort to its present size, made very good gardens after the MusBulman fashion, and built a palace wi^ all conveniencies suitable to his rank. On the growth of Ryder's power, however, he was under the necessity of giving up the place without resistance ; but not choosing to enter into that adventurer's service, whom he considered as his inferior in rank, he returned with his children into the lower Camatw, and entered into the service of the Nabob of Arcot One of his wives and her grandson refused to follow him; and these live now in the fort upon a small pension that was granted them by Hyder, and which has been continued by the Company. The fort, considering that it is built entirely of mud, is very large, and very strong. All within, as usual, is a sad heap of rubbish and confusion. 'J'he Assur Khanna of Ahhaaa Khuli Khdn is however a handsome building. In this kind of temple the Mussulmans of the Decan, infected by the superstition of their neighbours, worship Allah under the form of a human hand, painted on a board between two figures that represent the sun and moon.

One side of the fort is surroimded bjr gardens ; and the other three sides by the town of Bala-pura, which contains 2,000 houses, and is fortified with a mud wall and hedge. In this town was bom Meer Saduc, the detestable minister of the late SuUam,. He adorn- ed his native place by a garden, which, together with that of Ahhass Khuli Khdn, is kept up by the B<ija.

CHAP. VI. J MYSORE, CAN ABA, AND MALABAR. 241

19th and 20th July. — I remained at Doda Bala-purcL, making 1800.

• • *' r ' *=* Julyi»th&20th.

some mquiries. -utyi^wi

The GollarUy or, as they are called in their own language, the customs o« the OollawmliVy are a tribe of Teliiu/ana descent, and must be distin- ^^''**'^* guished from the Cadit, or Carrichj Goataru, who keep cattle ; with whom they neither eat in common, nor intermany. They are one of the tribes of^udra, whose duty it is to cultivate the ground, and to act as the village militia. This caste has, besides, a particular duty, the tiunsporting of money, both belonging to the public and to individuals. It is said, that they may be safely intrusted with any sum ; for, each man canying a certain value, they tmvel in lx>dies numerous in proportion to the sum put under their charge ; and they consider themselves bound in honour to die in defence of their trust ; of course, they defend themselves vigorously, and are all aimed ; so that robbers never venture to attack them. They have hereditary chiefs called Gotugaru, who with the usual council settle all disputes, and punisli all transgressions againt the rules of caste. The most flagrant is the embezzlement of money entrusted to their care. On this crime being proved against any of the caste, the Gotnguru applies to the AmilAar, or civil magistrate, and, having obtained his leave, immediately causes the delinquent to be shot. Smaller offences are atoned for by the guilty person giving an en- tertainment. In cases of adultery, the chief collects four ciders, who admonish the woman to a more decent conduct. If she be repentant, the husband takes her back ; but if she be impudent, he divorces her. After the age of puberty the girls continue to be marriageable, and a riian may marry as many of them as he can maintain, or procure ; for the former is not difficult, the women being very industrious, both in the field and in spinning. They are divided into several families, MutsarlWy Behiday, MoLu, Sadala- ntuidu, Perihdalu, and Toralay. These are like the Gdtrams of the Brdhmana ; the intermarriage of two persons of the same family being considered as incestuous. They call the proper god of the caste Krishna Swavii, who is one of the incarnations of Vishnu ; and they allege, that ho was born of their caste both by father's and mother s side. The Brdltmans allege, that the mother of this gieat waiTior was of the Goala, or cow-keeper caste ; in which, perhaps, they are well foimded ; and they pretend, that a Brdhman con- descended to impregnate her, which is not improbable. The Got- laivaidu offer sacridces to the Saktis. They pray to Kdla Bliuirava (ten-ific time) ; but the women do not appease his wrath by sacri- ficing their fingers, like the female Mora»iu above described. They think, that after death good men become a kind of gods ; and they ofier sacrifices to these spirits : bad men become devUs. They know nothing of transmigration. They bury the dead, and sometimes take the vow of Baseri, They are allowed to eat animal food, and to drink spirituous liquore. Although their Gui^u wears the Linga, they do not. He is a Jangavia, named Malaisivara Swdmi,

31

242 A JOURNEY FKOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. who Kves at Mapdkdli Conda, about 14 miles north from hence.

7i9fcii 20 .Qj^ jjjg followers he bestows holy water; and for every marriage accepts of a Fanam, although he does not attend the ceremony. This tribe seems not to be much attached to any sect ; as its members also take holy water from the Gurus of the A'ayngar Brdhmans, and bestow on those persons charity in money and grain. At their marriages, at the new moons, at births, and at tlie Todanu, as the annual commemoration of the death of their parents is called in the Telhiga language, the Fanchdnga, or village astrologer, reads prayers (Mantrams), which are by them reckoned of great efficacy, as they are in a language which they do not understand. Customs of the The CuTisa WocuUgavu are a tribe of Siidra of Kai'nata de-

"'*^" scent, who are properly cultivators, ajid who formed a part of the

Candashura, or native militia. Their hereditary chiefs are called Oaudda, whether they are head-men of villages or not. The Gauda by excommunication, or by the mulct of an entertainment, settles disputes, and punishes transgressions against the rules of caste. In cases of adultery, the head-man, assisted by his council, inquires into the matter. If the man has been of the same caste, the adul- ^ress is only reprimanded, the husband of course retaining the power of giving her corporal punishment, although he rarely pro- ceeds to such extremities ; but if the man has been of a strange caste, the adulteress is excommunicated. They can ^all intermari-y, and the men are allowed to take several wives. The women are very industrious spinners, and labourers in. the field, and continue to be marriageable after the age of puberty. Widows ought to be buried alive with their husband's bodies ; and some of the more strict people regret that the custom has become entirely obsolete. They are aUowed to eat animal food, but not to drink spirituous liquors. Some of them can read, and write accompts. They all worship the Saktis, by sacrificing animals, which they afterwards eat. They believe, that after death the spirits of good men become a kind of gods, and, by sending dreams, warn men of what is to happen. Bad men, after death, become devils, but have no power over the living. To the sainted spirits tliey ofter sacrifices. Some of them take the vow of Ddairi, and some pray to Mvurma Rdja. The Fancftdnga, or village astrologer, reads Mantrams to them at marriages and births, and in some places attends at the annual commemoration of their parents* death ; but in other places those who have taken the vow of Ddsiri attend this ceremony. They are di^dded into two religions. One sect worships Siva : these do not wear the Linga ; but their Gw-u is a Lingabanta Einuru, called Nanjaya, who lives near Colar : he comes occasionally, distributing holy water, and accepting charity. The other sect worships Visknu and follows the hereditary chiefs of the A'ayngar, who on their occasional visits distribute holy water, and accept of charity.

Customs of the The Lali-Gundavu deny their being Siidras, and say that they

laii'OuHdaru. ^^Q LxTiga Banijigos ; but that race will neither eat in their houses,

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 243

nor give them their girls in marriage. They are a tribe of Kama- 18OO. taka descent. They are farmers, bullock-hirers, gardeners, builders ^'^'******^* of mud walk, and traders in straw and other small merchandize : but they never take service as Batiganiy or hinds. They have here- ditary chiefs called IjyaTadnaa ; who, as usual, with the assistance of a coimcil, settle disputes, and pimish transgressions against the rules of caste, by mulcting the offender in an entertainment, or by a temporary excommunication. In cases of adultery, the chief and his council first investigate the business. If they find it proved, that a woman has been guilty of a connexion with a man of a strange caste, the priest ( Wodear) is called, and in his presence she is ex- communicated ; but if she has only bestowed her favc>rs on a man* of the caste, her husband turns her away, and she may live with any unmarried person of the caste as a concubine. The men are allow- ed to have a number of wives ; and even after the age of puberty the women continue to be marriageable. The sex are very mdustrious^ both at spinning, and working in the fields. This caste buiy the dead ; and, although they offer sacrifices to the Saktis, are not allowed either to drink spirituous liquors, or to eat animal food. They pray to the spirits of good men, thinking that they are the occasion of dreams which foretel future events ; but they know not what be- comes of the spirits of bad men after death. Some of them are worshippers of Vishnu, and some of Iswara. The Guru of the former is a Sri Vaishnavam Brdhman residing at Ahabalum. The Ouru of the Siva side lives at JUeilar, and is called Linguppa, He wears the Linga, as do also his followers ; and he is a Sannyaai, but o£ what kind the people here do not know. In his excursions, which do not happen above once in ten years, he distributes holy water, and re- ceives contributions under the name of charity. It is at their mar- riages only that the Panchdnga reads Mantrams,

I have already mentioned the customs of the Nagaratras, or customs of the Bherif who worship Vishnu, and of those who worship Siva without u^Zjh^ ^**' wearing the Linga. I had here an opportunity of examining those who wear that indecent badge of their religion. They will neither eat nor intermarry with either of the other two sects ; but the whole submit to the authority of the same hereditary chie&, what- ever their religious opinions may be. They say, that all Bheri were formerly of the Vishnu side, and that about five hundred years ago they separated from it. Tet they contend, that even before tms secession, they and all other Nagarataru were under the authority otDharma Siva Ach&rya, a Smartal Sannydsi residing in the lower Gamatic. For this extraordinary cireumstance they caa assign no reason. This Brdhman at their marriages bestows on them a thread like that which is worn by the three higher castes, for they pretend to be Vaisyas. For each thread, which ever after marriage they continue to wear, they pay one Fanam. Under the name of Sharma (duty), they also give contributions to this Brdhman whenever he comes to the place. On such occasions he punishes by whip and

244 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800- fine all those who have transgressed against the rules of caste. They

July 1 9th & 20th. ^^^ ^j^^ subject to MuTiiswara SvMvii, a person of their caste, who

lives at Basiuana-pura, near Cangundyy in the Bara Mahal. He be- stows on them the Linga, and an Upadesa ; but his power in punish- ing for delinquencies extends only to fines. The first Muniawara Siudmi is believed to have sprung from the earth at Kalydna Pat- tana ; and his successors acknowledge no superiors, but are con- sidered as Iswara in a human form. The office is hereditary, and of course the Swami marries. The eldest son, on the death of his father, becomes an iBcamation ofSiva ; while the younger brothers are con- sidered merely as holy men, but follow begging as their profession ; •for in this country that is esteemed the most honorable employment. They reside in the Matam, or coUege, with their brother, and accom- pany him in his travels among the disciples. The daughters of this sacred family never marry persons of lower birth ; but when there is a scarcity of women for the use of the men, they condescend to take the daughters of the Emulnaru, who among this sect are a kind of nobility. These do not intermarry with the populace ; but they follow lay professions, and are not in exclusive possession of the office of hereditary chief. In the two other sects of this caste, there are no Emulnaru. The Brdhman Ouru, and Munisivara Swdrai, are con- sidered as of equal rank. The Lingahanta Jangamas are not by this caste considered as their Ourus ; but they receive charity, by which a kind of authority is implied. They give nothing to the D^vanga Jangamas. They do not know that Muniswara Swdmi is possess- ed of any books : when he bestows the Linga, he prays extempora- rily in the vulgar tongue. At marriages, and the ceremonies which are performed for their deceased parents, the Panch&nga and men- dicant Brdhmana attend, and read JUantrams. On these occasions the Janganrias also attend, and besides receive the whole profit of births and funerals. They bury the dead^ and their widows ought to accompany them in the grave ; but this custom has become obso- lete. Widows cannot marry again : such an action, indeed, being considered as intolerably infamous, my informers lost all patience when I asked the question. The men are allowed a plurality of wives, but cannot divorce them for any cause except adultery. They are not allowed to eat animal food, nor to drink spirituous liquors. Fa^ar account I here find, that besides the tradesmen, there are three divisions of the Fr%a//^V among the Whalliaru ; and that the customs of each difiTer consi- derably in different villages, as might be naturally expected among a people who have no written rule. There are two tribes of Whal- liaa that speak the language of Karnata ; one called simply Kamaia, and the other Morasu Wlvalliaru. These last deny that they have any Ouru; but say, that- they give presents to the priest at the temple oiKala Bhairava. They offer sacrifices to the Sakii8f to whom they are never Pujdria ; and in this place they never take the vow of Dds^ri. The Ka/mata Whalliaru say, that they have a god jiamed Cadri Singuppa, which is one of the names of Vishnu, The

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANAllA, AND MALABAR. 243

Piijari at this idoFs temple is a Vai>^hnavartij and acts as their Guru, igoo. He sends annually a deputy to bestow holy water, and receive ^"^^^^'^*^°^^' charity. They also sacrifice to the Saktis, The TeUga Whalllaru call themselves Maliwanlu, and retain the Teiinga language. Their religion here is the same with that last mentioned. They have no idea of a future state. They never marry two wives ; but, to keep up the family, if the wife has no children, they may take one con- cubine. Some men do not marry, and these may keep as many con- cubines as they please. The Gohcgaru, or chief of the caste, here, is not an hereditary office, but a person appointed by the Amiildar to collect the house-rent. He is a Farriar from the lower Carnatic ; for, as I have before obsei-ved, the Part iar of the Tamuls, is the, same caste with the WhaUiaru of Kar^iiata, and the Malkuaniu of Telingana. He settles all disputes ; and on all delinquents imposes a mulct of an entertainment.

The Tdiga Devangaa of the Siva sect intermarry with those customs of the who worship Vishnu; and the wife always adopts the religion of yi'^pJ^Ji^Lr^* her husband. Even after the age of puberty the women may marry ; and, except for adultery, cannot be divorced. Polygamy is allowed to the men, but they do not confine their women. Widows were formerly expected to bury themselves alive with their husbands' bodies, but uie custom has become obsolete. The people of this caste are allowed to eat animal food ; but not to drink spirituous liquors. They offer sacrifices to the Saktis, and have the same opinion con- cerning a future life, that the Ganara Devangaa entertain. They can read and write accompts. Although they do not wear the Linga, they reject the Brdhmans as Gurus, and follow Cari-Baswa Uppa, who adinonishes them to wash their heads, and pray to Iswara. He as usual receives Dharma, or charity, and on every marriage has a small fee. At births, marriages, funerals, new moons, and the an- nual celebration of their parents' decejise, the Panchdnga reads Mantrama; but the Jangamas share in the profits, as on all these occasions they receive charity.

I found here three Smartal BrdJiviaiis, who were reckoned men smanai srah- of learning. They said, that the sacred caste is divided into at least S:''SIe^aml[y^^** two thousand tribes, which, from hatred to one another, never in- JJ Go?ra». *^"' tennarry ; for they might do so without infringing the rules of ctiste. It is considered as incestuous for two persons of the same Gdtram to intermarry. The origin of the Gdtra7]i8 is thus explained. The first Brdhmans that sprung from the head* of Brahvid when he created mankind are still alive, and are called Rishia, They are rwus. endowed with wonderful powers, being able to induce the gods to perform whatever they please. This power they obtained by long fasting and prayer ; and they continue ^to pass their time in these exercises, living in very retired places, and having been very seldom seen, especially in these degenerate days. Each of these Rishia had children, and each became thus the founder of a Gdtram ; all his descendants in the male line constituting one family. Every Gdtram

24f] A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. possesses Vaklika, Lokika, and Numbi, or Sivd-BrahTnana, as this

July i9th& 20th. jg^g^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^jl^^ l3y ^j^g SmartaL

Commerce Qf Merchants from Tadepati^j, on the Pennar river, come to Dorfa

DodaBaia-pura. ^cLlo-pura, and bring chintzes, muslins, turbans, and handkerchiefs: they take away Jagory and cash. The merchants of Saliem bring muslins, cotton cloths with red borders, blue cotton cloths, and tur- bans : they take away money, with which they repair to Bangalore ^ and purchase betel-nut. FroniJfaragnnAa, in the Duaby merchants bring blue cotton cloth, cotton thread. Terra japonioa, SLud dates: they take away Jagory and cash ; with which, on the road back they purchase coco-nuts. From Chintamony, north from Golar, merchants bring coloured cotton cloths with silk borders, muslins, turbans, and coarse cloths made by the Togotas&nd Whalliaru; and they take back cash. The manufacturers of the place carry their cloths to Serinqa'patara. All the cotton wool is imported by mer- chants from Balahari and Naragunda^ who take back Jftgory and cash. The commerce of the place is inconsiderable; the traders seem to want enterprise ; and never venture from home ; but they complain ^6f the want of capital. The Sultan, after having as usual distressed them, by forcing upon them a quantity of goods at an extravagant rate, removed them to a new town which he was building at Nundi-durga ; and they had thrown most of their valu- able effects into that fortress when it was stormed by the army of Lord Comwallis. By these misfortunes they are reduced to great poverty. Five years ago, the Sultan having then given up the caprice of a new town, they were allowed to return home. Gardens. There are here many kitchen gardens, which pay a higher rent

than the ground employed for the cultivation of grain. This soil is rather poor, but the water is near the surface. They do not cul- tivate Ragy, wheat, nor turmeric ; and the most valuable produc- tions that they have are onions, garlic, and capsicum. The maize thrives better than at SUagutta, growing seven or eight feet high, and producing four or five heads. The gardeners, however, r«nove all except one ; and allege, that the plant is not able to bring more to perfection. The same prejudice against the grain prevails here, as ekewhere in this country. When I asked if they ever made it into flour, my question was considered as a joke, or perhaps as an absurdity, at which the people could not help laughing. As a se- cond crop, radishes follow maize. Sugar. The ATTtUdar is endeavouring to introduce the manufitcture of

sugar. He has made advances to the BrdJimana who understand the art ; and, to begin the experiment, has planted 50,000 holes. He thinks to be able to undersell the sugar-candy of CSiina at Seringa'paJtam, He says, that the manner of refining the raw sugar is by boiling it with milk ; which, by its coagulation, would no doubt answer the purpose, but the process must be expensive. pueXsaUvorGipi- In somo places of this vicinity, the ground for sugar-cane is wa- iauiSnwS.'*^' tered by the machine which the Mussulmans call PwohdUy, and the

CHAP. VI.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 247

natives CapUy, It consists of two bags of skin raised by a cord isoo. passing over a pulley, and drawn by two oxen, or buffaloes, de-'^^^'^^^^^^^^' scending on an inclined plane. The great imperfection of this contrivance seems to be, that the cattle are forced to re-ascend the inclined plane backwards ; but it appears to be a manner of raising water very capable of being improved, so as to become highly va- luable. One man manages both the cattle ; but these work only one half of the day; so that the Puckally requires the labour of one man and four beasts. The cultivators here reckon, that one Puckally will raise as much water as nine men working with the largest Ycdam, on which two men work the lever ; or as seven men each working a single YataTii, This seems to confirm my opinion of the superiority of this last mentioned machine. The cost of the cattle is not reckoned to be more than that of one man, as they get no other provision than the straw of the farm, which they convert into manure, and which would otherwise be lost. Those who raise sugar-cane have two fields, on which they altfernately raise that plant and Ragy. If they use the Capily for watering their cane, they pay a money-rent, which is reduced in proportion to their trouble ; but if they obtain a supply of water from a reservoir, the govern- ment takes one half of the crop.

Above the Ghafa asses are a kind of cattle much used. Every Breed of mscs. washerman keeps three or four females, and a male. The super- fluous males, as I have had occasion to mention, are sold to various kinds of petty traders. The breed is very small, no pains being taken to improve it ; nor indeed to keep it fi*om growing worse, unless it may be considered as having already arrived at the ulti- mate degree of imperfection. For the purpose of breeding mules, the late Sidtan introduced some fine asses from Arabia ; but the prejudices of his subjects were so strong, that nothing could be done. The animal is indeed considered so impure, as to be beneath the notice of every person who has any kind of claim to rank ; and my questions on this subject were rather disagreeable. Black asses are not uncommon, and white ones are sometimes to be seen ; but neither constitute a different breed. The asses get nothing to eat, except what in the intervals of labour they can pick up about the vil- lage. When the crop is on the ground, they are tied up at night ; but at other seasons they are allowed to roam about, and, in order to prevent them from wandering too far, their fore feet are tied toge- ther. The males are never castrated, and the best are always sold off by the washermen, which are principal causes of the degeneracy of the breed. At three years of age the females begin to breed, and some have every year a colt, while others breed once only in three years. The colt sucks, till its mother is again big. The idea of the milk being ever used by men is reckoned too absurd to be credible. A common mark of disgrace for ciiminals is the being forced to ride on an ass ; and even the washermen are unwilling to acknowledge that they ever defile themselves so far as to ride on this animal. A

248 • A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Vt.

1800. good male, three or four years old, sells for 10 Fanams (6*. S^d.) ; a

Juijr 2 1st. female of the same age sells for the same price. An a.ss's burthen is reckoned thirty-six Seers of Ragyy or about 76 lb, ; with whieh they will daily travel two cosses, or nearly seven miles. -Appearance of 2lst July. — I Went five cosscs to Toitday Bava, neax Mdhd-kali-

the country, cliivga, passing chiefly through a barren hilly country, totally uncul- tivated and covered with bushes or coppice-wood. It is part of a hilly chain that comes toward the west from the north of Golar, and meets at right angles the chain that extends north from Capa- la-durga. This chain running east and west is called a Ghat^ and the country to the north of it is said to be below the Ohats, Tlio whole of it is watered by branches of the Utara Pindlcani, or Pen- nar. The nature of the crops here is very different from that in the southern parts of the country. Customs of the The JBa t/dartt are of t WO kindn, Karnata and Telinga, The

Borydaru. former wear the Linga, and are said to be numerous near Raya-diir- ga. Those in the north-eastern parts of the Mysoi^e Rdjas dominions are of Telinga descent, and retain that language. They seem to be the true Sudra cultivators, and militaiy of Telingdna, and to have been introduced in great numbers into the southern countries of the peninsula, when these became subject to Andray or Tdingdna princes. The Telinga Bay das neither intermarry, nor eat in common with those of Kat^nata extraction. Among themselves t^ey can all eat together ; but in order to keep up the purity of the I'ace, they never marry, except in families whose pedigi'ee is well known. Like the Brdhmana, they are divided into a number of families, of which a male and female can never inteimarry. They have also among them a race of nobles called Chimalas. Among these are the hereditary chiefs, who punish transgressions against the rules of caste, and who are called Gotiigavu, From this class of the nobles were also appointed the ftiedal lords, vugarly called Polygars] but who assumed to themselves the Sanskrit title of Saiisthanilc/f, Civil differences in this tribe are made up in assemblies of the heads of fa- milies, the hereditary chiefs having become almost extinct. No hea- vier punishment was ever inflicted by these than the mulct of an en- tertainment. The Baydarii ought by birth to be soldiers, and hun- ters of tigers, boars, deer, and other noble game, and ought to support themselves by cultivating the ground. They are both farmers and hinds, and sometimes act as Tailiari, a low village officer. They are permitted to eat fowls, sheep, goats, hogs, deer, and fish, and to drink spirituous liquors. The men are allowed to take many wives, but can only divorce them for adultery. The women are very in- dustrious, both at home and in the field ; and even after the age of puberty continue to marriageable. Widows are not expected to sacrifice themselves to tl\e manes of their huslmnds ; but they cannot marry a second time. In some families of the Baydan^^ however, they may be received as concubines. They bury the dead. They believe, that after death wicked men become devils, and tliat

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. • 249

good men are bom again in human form. The spirits of men who 1800. die without having married, become Virika ; and to their memory ^^^ *^^*'- have small temples and images erected, where offerings of cloth, rice, and the like, are made to their manes. If this be neglected, they appear in dreams, and threaten those who are forgetful of their duty. These temples consist of a heap, or cairn of stones, in which the roof of a small cavity is supported by two or three flags ; and the image is a rude shapeless stone, which is occasionally oiled, as in this country all other images are. Female chastity is not at all ' honoured in t^is way. This superstition seems rather local, than as belonging to this caste ; for it is followed by all the Siidras of this part of the country, and I have not observed it any where else. The Baydaru, in consequence of vows made in sickness, take Dda^ri, that is, dedicate themselves to the service of God, both perpetual and temporary.- The proper god of the caste is THmula Devaru, to whom a celebrated temple is here dedicated. It is an immense mass of granite on the summit of a low hill. Under one side of it is a natural cavity, which is painted red and white with streaks of reddle and lime. In this cavity is placed a rude stone, as the em- blem of the god ; and it is attended by a priest or Pujdri of the caste called Satdnana. To this place all the Baydaru of the neigh- bourhood once a year resort. The Fujdri then dresses some victuals ; and having consecrated them, by placing them befoVe the idol, he divides them among the people. Trimula, it must be observed, is the name of the hill at Tripathi, on which the celebrated temple of Vishnu, under the name of Vencaty Rdmana, is built. The Baydaru never pray to any of the Saktis, except Marima, who inflicts the small-pox on those who oflFend her. To this terrible power they offer sacrifices, and eat the flesh. Their Guru is Trimwla Tata Achdr^ ya, an hereditary chief of the Sri Vaiahnavam Brdhmana, who gives them Chakrdntikam, Upad^a, and holy water, and, when he visits the place, receives from each person one Fanam. At marriages, and at the annual commemoration of deceased parents, the Fan- chdnga acts as Furdhita.

22d July. — I went three cosses to Asauaru, a village inhabited Juiy22nd. by cultivators, and said to contain five hundred houses, but which the wHmSy. ^ looks wretchedly poor. On the way, we passed a place which, although not so large, was better built. It is called Bomma Samvdra, The country in general is level, but contains several ridges of barren hiUs. It is intersected by the channels of several mountain tor- rents, which are wide, and full of sand ; but even now they contain no water. I am informed, that sometimes, for a little while after very heavy rains, they are full. The soil in many places is a rich black clay ; and, there being no made roads in any part of this country, the travelling in the rainy season is very bad. The culti- vation is wretched, and slovenly ; a great deal, that has formerly been cultivated, is now wa«te ; and much that appears to possess a very good soil has never been reclaimed. I observed several of the

32

250 • A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800 reservoirs out of repair. People attribute this state of the

juiyuund. countrj'-, partly to the oppression of the former government, and partly to an uncommon scarcity of rain that has prevailed for ten years. The width and dryness of the channels made by the tor- rents of former seasons seem to confirm the last mentioned cause. They say, that the coimtry does not want people ; but that, by long sufferings, they are disheartened from working. Last year they had no sickness among their cattle, but this fatal disorder Ims now begun to make its appearance.

July 23rJ. 23d July. — I went three cosses to Doda Bailea, a fortified vil-

lage inhabited by farmers, which contains about fifty houses. By the way I passed two other such places, near which there was some cul- tivation; but the whole of the other parts of the country was covered with bushes or coppice-wood. The ground was no where too steep for cultivation ; and, except in a few stony places, the soil seemed tolerably good. I saw no appearance of its ever having been cultivated. There is here a small river, from the bed of which, as from the channel of the Palar at Vellore, trenches may be drawn, Ro as at all seasons to give the fields water. At present it contains no water above ground. Many of the torrents between this and the Pennar, in the newly acquired dominions of the Nizam, afford a similar supply of water. In others, the streams are shut up by dams or AncfcutSy and forced into large reservoirs. The people in the Kizanos share of the Sultan's dominions have already experienced tlie imbecility and rapacity of that government ; and have begun to retire into the dominions of the Mysore Rdja, where there is plenty of room. For a century past this place has been subject to Mysore, although it was separated from the capital by the Mussulman gov- ernment of Sira. In the mean time many of the neighbouring Durgas, or hill forts, with the territories belonging to them, con- tinued subject to their original Folygars, who were mostly robbers, till the whole were finally expelled by Tippoo, In the war of Lord Comwallis this place sufiered extremely, as Purseram Bhov/s army was encamped some days in the neighbourhood. This, joined to the fomine, and to Tippoo's government, both before and since, has re- duced the country and population to a very low state.

July 24th. 24th July, — I went two cosses to Madhu-giri, or Honey-hill, a

strong Durga, which is surrounded on all sides by hills. From Bailea, these hills appeared as a connected chain, and are a part of tliat ridge which runs north from Capala-durga ; but on entering among them, I found narrow vallies winding through in all direc- tions. The hills are rocky and bare ; but in many places the soil of the vallies is good. In some places there are coco-nut gardens ; but many of the cleared fields are now unoccupied, and a great deal of good ground seems never to have been reclaimed.

Mudjiwgiri. The vicw of Madliu-giri, on approaching it from the east, is

much finer than that of any hill-fort that I have seen. The works here make a very conspicuous appearance ; whereas in general they

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. • 251

are scarcely visible, being hidden by the immensity of the rocks on 1800. which they are situated. On the fall of the Vijaya-nagara monarchy, ''"^^ ^^'^* this place belonged to a Poly gar named CJdccuppa Gavda ; but more than a century ago it came into the possession of the Mysore family. Mul Raja built 3ie fortress of stone, which formerly had been only of mud. Here also he built a palace ; in the suburbs he rebuilt a large temple ; and near it he made fine gardens, and the hand- somest building for the reception of travellers that I have seen in India. Unfortunately, it is now ruinous. The fortifications were improved to their present form hyHyder; the place in his time was a considerable mart, and possessed some manufactures, having a himdred houses occupied by weavers. A Marattah chief, named Madi Row, held it for seven years of Syder's government, having seized it after the victory which his countrymen gained at Tonwm. When he was forced to retire, he plundered the town of every thing that he could carry away ; and with the exaggeration usual in Hin- dustan^ the place is said to have then been so rich, that he disdained to remove any thing less valuable than gold. The oppressions of Tippoo had nearly ruined the place, when the destruction was com- pleted by the Marattah chief Bulwunt Row, one of Purseram Bhovfs officers. Although he besieged the fort five months, he was unable to take it. HJs army was numerous, exaggerated by native ac- counts to 20,000 men ; but they were a mere rabble, a banditti assembled by the Poiygars, who formerly were dispossessed of the neighbouring strong-holds, and who then had ventured back under the protection of Lord Cornwallis. When that nobleman gave peace to the Sultan, these ruffians had entirely ruined every open place in the neighbourhood ; but they were immediately afterwards dispersed by the Sultan, who pursued with so much activity the 500 Marattah horse which had joined this rabble, that twenty only escaped with their chief. The place has ever since been in a very languishing condition, but it is beginning to revive. Purnea has appointed a brother-in-law of his own to be Amildar, and gives the inhabitants considerable encouragement.

From the 25th tul the 29th of July — I remained at Madhu-giri, juiy asth, &c. chiefly employed in taking an account of the cultivation of this SS clunuV*^ coxmtay; which, as 1 have observed before, differs considerably "^rth from the from that to the southward of Nandi-durga. It also differs from owgl!^ that on the west side of this ridge of hills towards Sira ; and its extent may be reckoned from thence east to near Chica Bala-pura, and from li'a/ndi-durga north to Penvrconda.

Previous to examining the state of agriculture here, it must be weighti and observed, that Madi Row introduced a new set of weights and mea- m*"****"" sures, which, notwithstanding all Tippoo'a efforts to the contrary, continue still to be used. They are explained in the accompanying table.

2152 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800, Table of Weights and Measures at Madhw^giri.

July 2dth. The Cucha Weight

lb. 0.025244= 1 Dudu,

22 Dudus= 1 Seer =lb. 0.555368. 48 Seers = 1 Maund=\h, 26.6576C4. The Pucka Measure. Cabical inches 74.81166 &c.=l Seer.

1^ Seer ^ 1 Pvdd^ == WincheeUr bobhel 0.054199

4 Puddies=.\ Bulla 0.208777

16 Bulla =1 Woaila, ox Cologa ...3.40436 20 WocvL^as^l Candaca 66.808333&C.

All accompts are kept in Canter'-raya Pagodas and Fanams. In all the districts near this, the rate of exchange, for different coins, is nominally regulated according to the Niruc ; that is, made by the officer commanding at Paugvda^ or Paugur, as we call it ; but the Skrofa (Saraf), or money-changers, vary a little from this ; not from a greater accuracy in the valuation of the coins, but for reasons that are prevalent all over India, and the nature of which is known to this class of men alone. The Batta^ or money paid to the Shrof for exchanging a Sultany Pagoda into Fanams, is 2 Dudus, or nearly 0.9 per cent ; and by those who have lived in Bengal must be [con- sidered as very moderate. Besides, the Sfero/ values the FaTiam at ^j part less than the Niruc does ; yet the value put on it by the officer is less than its intrinsic worth ; for the regulation which he has made fixes its value at -fj^ of a Bidtany Pagoda; and 12,913 Faname contain as much pure gold, as the Sultany Pagoda, In all calculations I shall use the Sertngapatam rate of exchange, and take the Fanam at ^^ of a Pagoda. The Company's Rupee passes here for 56 Dudus, and the SvXtany for 59 J ; whereas the real proportion is 56 to 56J. TrimuiaNaydka. The first day that I passed here was very disagreeable ; as I detected the people lying to me in the grossest manner ; and on account of the Amildar* a connections, the messenger who accom- panied me was afraid to speak. I at length met with an acting Oauda^ or renter of some villages, named TriwAila NayaJca, from whom I received the intelligence which I consider as the mq^ accu- rate that I procured during my whole journey. Trimula Nayaka is the family namQ of the Madura Rdjas, and in fact my new acquaint- ance was of that house. His ancestor was a brother of the then reigning prince, who, in a dispute, was savage enough to threaten the life of so near a relation. The younger brother in this necessity was forced to emigrate, and came to this country, where many other Polygars of Tdinga extraction then lived ; for it must be observed, that the last race of Madura Bdjaa were of Telvnga descent ; and were Polygars, who assumed independence on the overthrow of their sovereign, the king of Vijaya-nagara. DiTiiitm of The cultivate lands in this country, defined, as before, as ez-

undi. tending from Nandi to Penu-co^uia, and from Chxoa Bata-pura to

Madhu-giri, are as usual divided into two kinds : Ifirarumby, or watered-lands ; and Pyrarumda, or dry-field.

CHAP. VI.] , MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 253

The watered-land here includes all the grounds called Tot(i, or 1800. Bdgait, whether employed for palm plantations, or for kitchen- ivanfmVn, or gardens. It is watered partly by reservoirs, or Carays \ partly by watewd-ianda. CallivaySf which are channels but fipom rivers ; and partly by the machines called CapUy, and Yaixtrn. The quantity of watered- land is nearly equal to that of dry-field ; and, besides that reserved for palm trees and kitchen stuffs, and which is not considerable, is divided into two kinds. These two divisions are nearly equal in extent ; the one is cultivated chiefly for rice, transplanted Ragy, and jda ; the other with wheat, Cariay, Mentea, and Jirigay, The extent, however, of all the watered land is reckoned by the quan- tity of rice seed that would be required to sow it. By measuring two fields, and taking the medium, I estimate the Candaca of wa- tered-land to be 30 acres.

In the apnexed table will be seen the articles that are here Articiet raised commonly cultivated on the watered-grounds, with several parti- SS>J?dr"^" culars relating to each.

■l journey FBOM MADRAS THROCGH,

i 1	f ; i	Si	iiii,J«ii.
■»pioj	=.=rf5i!lS
J||	SgS||KSS|||
i 1	Jl	•3 sSIs KEsiiSlsSss^s |as;|KSSg335ssssssssas„
•.piol	as ss2H5S||3Es3s:ss ss
III	|li|-allllHllllls!^IS6lS
1	Jl	iiiiii--iiiiiaiiiiiii
*Ib	gSSSaSSaSS-^^^"'"" 5=5535
1	piiiiiiiiiinninin
	uoipwin	buiqiaoH	^*— ^^•s^^fsrr^T^-^^sT-*,*-™
! ■3 1	,6|11liiil|ll5S-:i.:-- iliiiif Willi:;:: 1 ■ P jIIi

CHAP. VI,] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. ' 255

I shall now detail the other circumstances which attend their culti- 1800. vation. • ^^'^'**^-

On the first division of the watered-lands, rice is the greatest crop ; and, when there is plenty of water, th^ same ground in the course of the year gives two crops, which, from the respective times of harvest, are called the Kdrtica and Vaisdkha crops. The former, provided two crops are taken, is the most productive ; but, if the Kdrtica be omitted, the Vaiaaka gives a greater return than the Kdrtica alone would have given ; not, however, equal to the produce of both crops. The quality of the grain in both crops is the same. For the reasons mentioned at Colar, the Vaisdldia crop, although raised in the dry season, is the one most regularly taken. For this crop all the kinds of rice may be sown ; for the Kdrtica crop the Bily Sandbutta, and Cari Chaningy, are never sown ; as with rain they are apt to lodge. The soil used for Tripetty'Sanabuttay Bily- Chaningy, Cari-Chiningy, and PuV-Rajah, is Mamlu, or sandy. The others require a clay, which in the low grounds is always black. The red soil is aways confined to the rising grounds, and is therefore never cultivated for rice, except when it can be watered by machines ; and if the water be more than 31^ feet from the surface, these are never used. Two men and four oxen can, by means of the machine called Capily, supply an acre and a half of ground with water suffi- cient to raise a crop of rice. One set works four or five hours in the morning ; and the other as much in the evening. In the day the men do little jobs ; but the cattle dono other work. When this ma- chine is used, the government does not divide the crop with the far- mer ; but, on account of its extraordinary labour, takes* a fixed rent of four seeds, or else contents itself with one quarter of the produce. Sixteen may, therefore, be considered as the average crop of this country ; but then the seed, it must be observed, is sown very thick. Little rice is, however, watered by machinery ; and the kinds- chosen are those which require the shortest time to come to maturity.

The only manner of cultivating rice, that is in use here, is the Manner of pro- ilola, or sprouted-seed ; the manner of preparing which is as follows. '*^°^ ^^^ *^^^' The ears must be cut off, the grain beaten out immediately, and then dried in the sun three or four days. It must be preserved in straw or in jars. When wanted for sowing, it must be exposed to the sun for a day, and soaked in water all the following night. It is then put upon a layer of the leaves of the Yecada, or Asclepias gi- gantea, or of the Harula, or Ricinus Palma Christi, mixed with sheep's dung, and is surrounded by stones, so as to keep it together. It is then covered with Bomdury lesives {Dodonea viscosa^ WiUd.), and pressed down with a stone. Next morning the upper leaves are removed, and a pot of water is thrown on the seed, which must be turned with the hand, and then covered again with the leaves and stone. Daily, for three or four times, this operation must be re- peated, and then the sprouts from the seed will be almost an inch long.

256

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

fCHAP. TI.

1800.

July 25th, Caltivation for the Kartica crop.

Caltivation for the Vaisaklia crop.

Mannre of leaves.

Trantplanted Ragy.

For the Kdrtica crop, plough seven times in the course of thirty- days, the ground all the while being inundated. In the next place manure the ground with leaves, and tread them into the mud. Then let off the water, and sow the seed broad-cast, covering it with a little dung. On the 4th day cover the ground with water, and im- mediately afterwards let it run off. Repeat this daily, till the eighth time, after which the field must be kept constantly inundated to the depth of one inch for ten days, and four inches for the remainder. The weedings are at the end of the 6th, 10th, and 12th weeks from sowing. The season for ploughing continues all the months otjyasli- tha and Ashddha, which this year was from the 24th of May to the 21st of July.

For 'the Vaisdkha crop the same process is followed ; but the ploughing season is from the 15th of Aswaja till the last of Mdrga- sirslui ; which, this year, will be from the 3d of October till the 16th of December. By this time the whole seed must be sown ; and the nearer it is done to it, the better.

The leaves used here as a manure for rice-land are those of the Coghi,OT Oalega purpurea ; of the Haingayy or Bobinia mitts ; of the Yecada, or Asclepias gigantea ; of the Devadarum, or Erythroxy- Ion aideroxyloideSy'E.M.; of the Ccdli, or Euphorbium TirucaUi; and of the HiUa' EUu, a plant not yet described.

From lice ground, in place of the Kartica crop, Sussi, or Nat* Ragy, is often taken. This is the same with the Tota Ragy, before mentioned, and is transplanted and watei*ed like rice. The follow- ing is the process for raising the seedlings. The season for sowing lasts Vaisakha, Jyaishtha, and AahdcUva ; which this year is from the 23d of April till tibe 21st of July ; but the process in any one field is finished in from 22 to 24 days. With a hoe dig a small spot of ground to the depth of four inches, and manure it with dung. Then divide it into small squares, about two cubits each way ; sow tlie seed very thick, cover it with dung, and water the squares with a pot. This must be repeated every other day until the plants are fit for removing, which Ls from 22 to 24 days. When the seed is sown the field into which it is to be transplanted must have five plough- ings. It is then dunged, and divided into plots about three or four cubits square, which are surrounded with small ridges to confine the water. These plots are filled with water, and the young Ragy is transplanted into them. In order to remove the plants, there is no occasion to water the plots in which they were raised, as the people of Colar recommended. To procure a full crop, the Ragy ought once in eight days to be watered ; but those who are indolent con- tent themselves with giving water once in eleven or twelve days. On the 15 th day after transplanting, it must be weeded with a smaU hoe called Malu potu (Figure 35). The Ragy raised on dry ground is reckoned of rather a superior quality ; but the produce of this is great. It thrives on any soil in which rice will grow. One machine of the kind called Capily wdll water 2J acres of Ragy.

CHAP. VI.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 257

In place of the VaiadJcha crop of rioe, Bily Jola is sometimes isoo. sown. This must be followed by a Kavtika crop of Eagy, as after 5?iy J?*i' it the produce of rice would be very small. The Jola also thrives best after a Kartika crop of Ragy, The following is the process of cultivation. Immediately after cutting the Kartwa crop, in KartUca Mdgaairaha, and Paushya (19th October to the 14th January), plough five times, and manure with equal parts of dung, and of mud from the bottoms of tanks, mixed with tne leaves of the Bobinia mitia. A man then draws furrows with a plough, and another places the seed in the furrows at the distance of four or five inches. By the next furrow it is covered. Previous to being planted, the seed must have been soaked in water. In place of using a rolling-stone, the field is then smoothed by drawing over it a pmnk, on one end of which a man stands, and by this means that forms a low ridge ; and thus throughout the field, at the distance of the length of the plank, which is six feet, parallel rows of ridges are produced. The intermediate spaces are divided into oblong plots by forming with the hand ridges,* which at every eight or twelve cubi^ distance cross the others at right angles. A^ the same time the areas of the plots are exactly levelled. Before sowing, there must have been rain enough to moisten the ground, otherwise water must be given. At the end of a month the field must have another watering ; and once in eight days, until the grain be ripe, this must be repeated.

In place of the VaiadJcha crop on rice ground, the Agara JolaA^araJoia. is sometimes sown. It is cultivated exactly as the BUy Jola, but ripens in four months. One Capily^ requiring the labour of three men and four bullocks, can water 2^,. acres of Jola land that are divided into eight portions, of which one is daily allowed water.

In place of the Kartika crot>, should there be no water in ih,e Mdbu Nawny. reservoir, a species of Navony, called Mobu, is sometimes taken firom rice ground, as the usual quantity of rain is sufficient to ripen it. In Gnaitra and Vaisdkha, or firom about the middle of March till the middle of May, plough twice, manure with dung, and then ploufih twice asain. After a shower of rain, sow, either broad-cast, or with the driU. If the day theu dry up, smooth the field with a bunch of thorns ; but if the day be damp, use the native harrow.

In place of the Vaiadhha crop, when there is a deficiency of ^'y^av«>ny. water, the kind of Navony called Bily is sometimes sown on rice- ground. For this, plough four times in Kartika (19th October — 16th November). Manure is not necessary, but may be given with advanta^. * The field must then be watered, and ploughed a fifth time ; then it must be sown broad-cast, and divided into plots like a field of Jola. Once in eight days water is given. The crop of rice following Navony is not so good as that after Bogy, but bet- ter than that after Jola.

Not having had an opportunity of comparing these two kinds of Jola and Navony when in flower, I cannot say whether or not, in a botanical sense, they are specifically difierent. It is probable, how-

33

25S A JOUKNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. ever, that they are mere varieties of the Hoicus sorghum, and

juy 35th. panicum Italicum.

Bar«7u.oT Pami' In place of the Kariika crop, a very little Barttgu is sometiines

cwn m laffttm ^^^^ ^^ rice-gTound ; but this is still worse for the sacceeding crop of rice than even Jola is. It is chiefly sown by very poor people, who are in want of an immediate subsistence ; for it ripens very qnickly .

stsamuwi. In place of the Vaisakha crop, Sesamum, of the kind called here

Gar^ Eliii, is also sown on rice-ground. For this, in Kartikay Mar- gasiraha, or Paushya (19th October — 14th January) plough four times. Then water, and plough again. Sow the seed broad-cast, and divide the field into plots like those used for Jola ; at the same time channels, for conducting the water, are of course formed. Once in the twelve days it receives water.

safarnraiie. The ouly othcr thing cultivated on this kind of watered-land is

sugar-cane. Those who raise this valuable article divide their field into two equal portions, which are cultivated alternately, one year with sugar-cane, and the other with grain ; the cane, however, thrives better, when the field, in place of being cultivated for grain, is al- lowed an intermediate fallow ; but then the loss is heavy, as after cane tiie grain thrives remarkably. The grains cultivated are rice, Ragy, and Jola ; the first injures tlie cane least, and the Jola injures it most. The kinds of cane cultivated are the RestaUi and Mara- eabo. In Kartika and MdrgaairMha (19th October — 16th Decem- ber) plough seven times, and manure with sheeps' dung and leaves. Then with the hoe called Yelia Kudali, form channels at a cubit's distance. In these also, at a cubit's distance, plant singly shoots of the cane, each about a cubit in length. If the soil be poor, they must be planted rather nearer. They are laid down in the channels, which are filled with water, and then people tread the shoots into the mud, by walking through each channel. A Colaga of land re- quires 18,000 shoots, on which data it ought to contain \^ acre, in place of 1 1'^ that were given me by the measurement of two fields. In all my calculations, however, I have considered it as of the latter extent. If the soil be of a moist nature, the cane has water onoe in eight days ; but, if it dry quickly, it must, until ripe, be watered once in six days, except when there is rain. At the end of the first month the field must be hoed with the Calx Kvdali (Figure 35), which is the very same instrument, that in the cultivation of Bogy is called Molu potu. The misapplication of these names is thought to be unlucky. Near each cane, as a manure, some leaves of the Mobinia wMia are then placed, and they are covered with a little mud ; so that the channels are now between the rows of cane, and the canes grow on the ridges. When these are 2} cubits high, they are tied up in bunches of three or four ; and as they grow higher, this is three or four times repeated. Twelve months after planting the crop season b^ins, and in six weeks it must be finished. 250 Maunds ciJagory is here reckoned a good crop from a Colaga of land, which is very nearly 15 hundred weight an acre ; 150 Mtmnds,

CHAP. VI.] MTSORB, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 2rj.9

which is about nine hundred weight, from the acre, is reckoned a I800 bad crop. Black clay gives the greatest quantity of Jagory, but it ^^^ ^*^^' is of a bad quality. A sandy soil produces least Jagory, but that of a high value. One machine called Capily can water an acre and a half of sugar-cane land.

A few fields of watered-land are entirely allotted for the cuiti- BU^Joia. vation of BUy Jola, or Holcua sorghum. The soil of these is a rich black mould, but does not require much water. It is often watered by the CapUy, in which case the farmer pays a fixed money-rent. If it receives a supply from a reservoir or canal, government takes one half of the produce. Only one crop a year is taken. The pro- duce is great ; not only as an immense increase on the seed sown, but as afibrding a great deal of food. The produce of some kinds of rice is apparency greater ; but it must be considered, that one half of that grain consists of husk, whereas the whole of Jola is eatable. Begin to plough in Vaisdkha (23d April — 23d May), and in the course of seven months plough eight or nine times. Then manure with dung, mud, and the leaves of the Eolnnia mitia ; and, if there be no rain> water the field, and sow the seed in the manner before described. The waterings, after the first month, must be given once in twelve or foutteen days. In some villages the farmers weed the Jola when it is six weeks old ; in others, they do not take this trouble. Some people around every field of Jola plant a row of Cosaumba (CarifuvmuB tindorius) seeds, and the pnckly nature of that plant keeps away cattle.

The cultivation of the other division of watered-land, in this wheatiand. district, is reckoned the most profitable to the farmer. The soil must be a black clay, in any situation where a little water can be procured.

In this ground, wheat of the kind called Juvi Oodi is the most common crop. It seems to be the Triiicum monococcum of Linn^Bus. It is but a poor grain, and five-twelfths of it consist of husks. Any time in Paushya (17Ui December — 14th January) plough once; next day, if there be no rain, water the field, and plough again across, dropping the seed in the same manner as in sowing Jola. The plots must be formed in the same manner. It gets no manure nor weed- ing, and requires only three waterings, on the 40th, 60th and 80th days. It is much subject to disease, and not above oiie crop in four is good. After reaping the wheat, the field, in order to expose the soil to the rain» must be immediately ploughed.

Another considerable crop, raised on this ground, is Carlay mix- cariay, or ocer ed with Co8»amba, or OartJiamvs tindorius. No attention is paid *''»«^«««- to the alternation of this crop with the wheat. Sometimes they are every year changed ; and again, for two or three successive years, the same crop is taken from the same ground. The Carlay is culti- vated exacUv in the same manner as uie wheat, only it requires no water, and me field is not divided into plots. Tlirouchout the field, at ti^e distance of three cubits^ the Cossumba seed is phnted in drills.

260

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI.

1800.

July 25th.

Mentea and Jirigay,

Wheat called Botay.

Dry-field ROiffjf, or CynOMttrug Coroccmus.

The dew resting on the leaves of the Carlay is said to be acid, and is esteemed a powerAil medicine, especially for restoring the appetite. It is collected by spreading over the iield at night a muslin cloth, from which in the monung the dew is wrung.

In some parts of this ground, which it is not necessary to choose very rich, are sown Mentea and Jirigay ; the former is the Trigo- nelLa FosnumgrcBCwm, and the latter is an umbelliferous plant, which I did not see.

The Mentea cultivated in gardens is always used green. Whea intended for seed or for the grain, it is always raised in this maimer : plough twice at the same season as for Carlay ; divide the field into plots like a kitchen garden ; sow the seed, cover it with the hand, and, according to the nature of the soil, water once in firom ten to fifteen days. The ripe seed of this plant sells very high, and is reckoned the most delicate kind of pulse. The young leaves are used as greens, and the unripe legumes are put into Gurries,

The Jirigay is cultivated exactly in the same manner. Some- times it is sown on the ground that is usually employed for trans- planted Ragy ; but there it does not thrive so well.

When reservoirs dry up before the end of Mdgha, or middle of February, which however is not often the case, their bottoms, which consist of very rich mould, are cultivated with a kind of wheat called Hotay Godi, which is the Triticum apeUa of botanists. This is a much superior grain to the Juvi, and contains very little husk. Plough the ground as it dries up, and drop the seed in the furrows of the plough. Then, in place of a rolling stone, smooth the field with a plank. It ripens without farther trouble.

In this kind of ground are sometimes put Carlay and Co88umba^ The crop in the 'bottom of reservoirs is divided into three shares; one of which goes to the person who furnishes the seed, one to gov- ernment, and one to the cultivator.

The most considerable crop cultivated on Pyrarumba, or dry- field, is Ragy. Besides what is cultivated on watered land, it forms two-thirds of the whole dry-crop. On the dry-fields are raised two kinds of it ; the Oyda, and the Doda. The former ripens in four months, and the latter in four and half; and the latter is esteemed both the best in quality, and the most productive ; but whfen the rains set in late,as it requires less time to ripen, the Oyda is preferable. The best soil for Ragy is red, next black, then ash-coloured, and the worst is MarulUy or that which contains much sand. The best soils are generally reserved for Ragy, which always requires more or less dung : and, if plenty of that could be procured, it might be raised on even the most sandy soils to great advantage. The first and second crops would be poor ; but, when the field came to be satura- ted with manure, the Ragy would be as productive as usual on the ^ood soils. Very few farmers here, however, have at any time a suf- ficient quantity of manure ; nor can it be ever expected that they should, as the custom of stall-feeding cattle for slaughter is by them

► • •_ • •

► , •• • •

. ••••••

• • • • •

'••••••••■•

Plate M

260

1800.

JiUy 25tb.

Menten and Jirigay.

The este€ It ia

from

very

whie

int>er

ploii|

plots

and,

fifboc

recto

used

Wheat called IJotay-

tim^ pl&ixl

Febt

consl calle is a I Plou ofth with

The one { emu

I>T7-fleld Saffjf,

or Cynotunu 4\tAA

CorocoMU. neiu,

two- kind mon* both rain$ The wors are | dunj on e secoi ted^ good Bci^ shou

• «

• •. •

■ • •

" • '

CHAP. Vl.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 201

considered abominable. During Chaitra, Vaisakha, and Jyaishtha, 1800. or from about the middle of* March till the middle of June, in the '''^***' course of thirty days plough five times. After the first ploughing, put on the manure. The seed is sown with a drill, like that used at Colar. For every Golaga of land, which here is of the same extent for wet and dry grains, put into the Curigay (Figure 26) 24 Seers of Bagy, and J Seer of Saahivay^ or mustard, and into the Sudikij (Figure 26 ) put 9 Seera of Avaray, or of Tovary, or of both inter- mixed. Having drilled in the seed, cover it with the harrow. On the 2Qth day hoe with the Cuntay ; on the 2dth day repeat this, drawing the Cuntay in a direction which crosses its former one at right angles. On the 36th and 42d days repeat this. The mustard, as it ripens, is pulled, partly before, and partly after the Ragy. The pulses require six months and a half to ripen. The JRagy is improv- ed by trampling, or by frequent repetitions of the hoe drawn by oxen. ' To answer the same purpose, a flock of sheep are sometimes driven over it. These processes destroy at least | of the pulses. Although in my account of the cultivation near Seringapaiam, I have hmted at an excuse, the farmers here can assign no reason, but custom, for sowing such an incongruous mixture. In a good crop, a Colaga of land will produce 13 Cclagaa^ or 52 seeds of Ragy ; 12 Seers, or 48 seeds of mustard ; and 2 Colagas, or 21| seeds of the

pulses.

Pecks. Bushels.

An acre sows o(Bagy.,. 2*221368 and produces ... 28*877333

Mustard 0023139 0416509

Pulse ...0-556332 • 44427

Total. . . 2-800839 33 736542

On dry-field, the next most considerable crop is Shamay ; of shama^, or Pa- which there are two varieties, the black and the white. As they re- ^^ ««<«»'•«» quire the same length of time to ripen, they are sometimes sow^ se- parately, and sometimes mixed. The best soil for Shamay is red or ash-coloured, containing a good deal of sand, and in this country is common on high places. Without much manure, this ground does not bear constant cropping. After resting a year, or more, it is first cultivated for JSuruli, and next season for Shamay, If manure can be procured, a crop of Ragy is taken, and then it has another fiillow. Dung being a scarce article, in place of the Ragy a second crop of Shamay is taken ; but it is a bad one. If the fSedlow has been long, and high bushes have grown up, after burning these, the crop of Hwruli will be great, and two or three good crops of Shamay will follow. When go^ Ragy soil has for a year or more been waste, and is to be brought again into cultivation, the first crop taken ought to be Shamjay ; for Ragy thrives very ill on land that is not constantly cultivated. In this case, the Shamxiy gives a great quantity of straw, but little grain. When the rains have failed, so tnat the Ragy has not been sown, or when, in consequence of

2(;2 A JOUBNBY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. TI.

1800 drought, it has died, should the end of the season be favourable, a

joij i>ik. ^^j^p ^f Shamay is taken from the fiel(& that are usually cultivated with Ragy. This crop also runs to straw, and the following <»x>p of Ragy requires more dung than usuaL In the course of thirty days, any time between the middle of April and middle of July, plough three or four times. Then after a good rain, or one which makes the water run on the surfiice of the ground, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, and sow the Shamay seed with the drill, put* ting in with the Sudiky (Fig. 26) rows of the pulses called Huruii or Tovary, In four months, without farther trouble, it ripens. The seed for a CoZo^o-land is 24 Seers of the Shamay and 6 Seers of the pulse. In a good crop, the Sham/iy will produce 10 Colagas of Sha- may, and two of Tovary, or one of HunUL This, reduced to English measures, will be nearly as follows :

PMks. Bodiels.

One acre sows of Shamay 2*221368 and produces 22*2 1 3684

Tovary 0699133 .5-552736

Total 2-920501 2776642

The Shamay straw is but bad fodder. //vriUi.utHorse- The uext most considerable crop is the pulse called HuruZi, the vram. ^^jy j^^^ ^£ which, cultivatcd here, is the white. Except after

Car' Ell% or upon new ground, it never succeeds. The longer the ground has been waste, especially if it has been overgrown with small bushes of the Tayngadu, or Bandury, (Cassia auriculata and Dodonea viscosa, Wild.) so much the better for Huruii, It grows best upon ash-coloured soil, and next to that prefers a red soil, in which there is much sand. In Brdvana^ or fix>m about the middle of July to the middle of August, bum the bushes \ and either then, or in the course of the next month/ plough once. After the next good rain sow the seed broad-cast, and plough the field across the former furrows. A ColagaAxsiA sows 12 Seers of Huruii, and in a good crop produces twenty seeds.

One acre sows 1*110684 peck, and produces 5*55684 bushels. The quantity of all the other crops is inconsiderable. Cotton. ^ & particular quality of soil, of which the quantity is small^

cotton and Mobu Navony are cultivated. It is a black clay, which contains small masses of lime-stone. On this ground Ragy will not grow ; but on Ragy soil cotton will grow, idthough not welL In the course of a month, any time in the &8t quarter of the year, which commences about the vernal equinox, plough five times. Then, after a good rain, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, and sow with the drill, the seed of the Navony being put in the Curigy, and that of the cotton in the Sudiky (see Figure 26) ; then harrow again. It gets neither weeding nor manure. In four months tiie Jyavony is reaped, and the space on which it grew is ploughed. The cotton, in 15 days afterwards, begins to give ripe captsules ; and till Vaisdkha, or about the middle of the fcdlowing Apnl, it continues

cpAP.VI.l MYSOR'E, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 2(hi

to produce a good quantity. If the fanner be able, he then ploughs isoo. up the whole field, and bows it as at first; but if he be poor, or'^'**^^^*** lazy, he weeds the field by ploughing between the rows of cotton, and cuts it down close by the ground. It shoots up fresh branches, and in the second year gives a poor crop. A ColagaAMid requires 4 Seers of cotton seed, and nine of that of Navony, and produces 9fi , fold of the Navony, The farmers can give no account of the quan- tity of cotton wool that any extent of land produces ;. for it is spun by their women as gathered. The produce of the Navony is equal to about 20 bushels on an acre. This land is sometimes let by a division of crops, and sometimes for a fixed rent. It is more valua- ble than the land used for Ragy,

Harioa (see the account of agriculture at Seringapatam) is sown BnHca. in low sofbplaces, whiere in the rainy season water is found near the surface. The soil is of different kinds. In Vaisdkhay Jyaiaktha, and Ashddha, or three months following the middle of April, plough three times in the course of thirty days. After the next rain that happens, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, sow broad-cast, and then repeat the harrowing. It ripens in six months without farther trouble. As fodder for cattle, the straw is reckoned equal to that of Hagy, or of Hundi, The seed for a Colaga-hsid is 24 Seera ; the produce in a good crop is 10 Colctgae, or 40 fold.

One acre sows 2*221368 pecks, and produces 22*213684 bushels.

Huta^'EUu is sown in places called Ja/wvugu, or sticking-land, nuu^-EUu. which are situated at the bottom of rocks ; from whence m the rainy season the water filtera, and renders the soil very moist. In such places noiiiing else will thrive. When the rain has set in so late as to prevent me cultivation of any thing else, the HuW-Ellu is sown also on any land, especially on Ragy fields. On such soils, however, the Huts^'Ellu does noir succeed. In Bhadrapada, or Amoa^ (from about the middle of August till about that of Octo«> ber), plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed, which ripens in four months. On a Colagariajid sow six Seers, which in a good crop will produce four Colagas.

An acre sows 0*565342 peck, and produces 8*8864 bushels.

Here are cultivated two kinds of SescmbUTn^ the Caru or WutV- sesamwn, EUu, and the Our*^EUu, which, on comparing tiie seeds, the people here say, is the Tfull^-EUu of Seringapatam. The last^ I have already observed, forms part of the watered crops ; the Ca/r^-EUu is cultivated on dry-field. The soil best fitted for it is Daray, or stony land, which answers also for Shamay, and Hurvli. The ground, on which Car^'-EUu, has been cultivated, will answer for the last- laentioned grain ; but not so well as that which has been unculti- vated. After it, even without dung, Shamay thrives well. The same ground will evefy year produce a good crop of this Ellu. If a crop of EIIm is taken one year, and a crop of Saamoy the next, and so on socoessivdy, the crops of EUtu will be poor, but those of Shamay will be good. After the first rain that happens in VaucMia, which

2G4

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI

1800.

July 26th.

ffarulu, or Aieiniu,

Barugu,

Calu Baragu.

begins about the middle of April, plough three times. With the next rain sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In between four and five months, it ripens without farther trouble. On a Woctda" land the seed is six Seers, and the produce in a good crop is 5 Colagae, or eighty-fold.

An acre sows 0555342 peck, and produces 11'106842 bushels.

Harulu is cultivated on a particular soil, which is reserved for the purpose, and consists of ash-coloured clay mixed with sand. There are here in common use three kinds of Sartdu ; the Phola, or field ; and the Doda, and Chittu, which are cultivated in gardens. A red kind is also to be seen in gardens, where it is raised as an ornament. The Chitf 'Harulu fToducea iiie best oil. Next to it is thePhola ^ that is cultivated in the fields. In the course of a few days, any ^ time in the three months following the vernal equinox, plough three times. With the next rain that happens, plough again, and at the same time drop the seeds in one furrow at the distance of one cubit and a half, and then cover them with the next furrow. A month afterwards hoe with the Cuntay, so as to kill the wee<ls, and to throw the earth in ridges toward the roots of the plant: It ripens without farther trouble. At the time the Harulu is planted, seeds of the pulses called Avaray and Tovary are commonly scat- tered through the field. In four months aifler this, the Ifa^'ulu begins to produce ripe fruit, and for three months continues in full crop. For two months more it produces small quantities. A Wocula-lBud sows 9 Seers of seed, and in a good crop produces 4 Colagas.

An acre sows ft'833 peck, and produces 8*8854 bushels.

The grain called Barugu is of two kinds ; Bamgu and Calu Barugu, The former is sown in both watered-land, aixd dry-field ; the latter is sown only in dry-field. The former is sown on any kind of soil, but injures the following crop of Bagy or of Shamay. It is sown either on hmd where something else has been sown, and owing to a want of rain, or other accident, has failed ; or on land that is fit for nothing else. In this case, plough three times in the month immediately following the vdlnal equinox. After the next rain, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, sow broad-cast, and harrow again. When the field has been previously sown with something that has failed, plough twice in Bnddrapada, the month preceding the autumnal equinox, and then sow in the same manner. In be- tween 2^ and three months it ripens. The seed on a Wocula-hud is 24 Seers, The produce is 5 Cotagas, or twenty-fold.

An acre sows 2*221368 pecks, and produces 11 106842 bushels.

The Calu Barugu is cultivated on rich Ragy land, which it does not materially injure. The process is the same as for the other kind, but it requires 5 months to ripen ; and in a ^od year, when there is much rain, produces 1 Candaca, or eighty-fold. It is a very cheap food for the poor, and the straw is better than that of Shamay.

An acre sows 22219 pecks and produces 44*42736 bushels.

CHAP. VI.] MYSOEE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 265

Navony is of three kinds ; Bilyj which is cultivated on watered- 1800. land; Kempa, which is cultivated in pahn gardens; and ifoiu, J°f^**5;^„^ which is cultivated in dry-field. When it is sown along with cotton, ^^ ^tii^m- I have already mentioned how it is managed ; but it is also culti- vated separately. It grows on both Ragy and Jola ground, and does not injure the succeeding crop of either. In the course of twenty or thirty days, any time in Jyaisht/ia, AshddJia, or Sravana, the 8d, 4th, and 5th months after the vernal equinox, plough four times. If dung can be obtained, it ought to be put on after the first ploughing. With the next rain, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, sow broad-cast, and harrow again. The straw is reckoned next in quality to that of Ragy ; but the grain, in the opinion of the natives, is inferior. A WocuLa-land sows 9 Seers, and in a good crop produces 10 Colagas,

An acre sows 0833 peck, and produces 22*213684 bushels.

Wullay Suja is the same as what at Seringapatam is called WviiaySiija, Chica Cambu, There is here another kind called Huiu Suja ; but not having seen it growing, I cannot say whether it is a different species, or merely a variety of the Holcus spicattcs. The Wullay Suja is cultivated on Ragy ground, and do^ not injure the ml ceeding crop of that grain. In the course of fifteen or twenty days, any tune in Vaisdkha^ or Jyaisktha, the 2d and 3d months after the vernal equinox, plough four times. Then after a good rain harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, and either sow broad-cast, or with the drill. In the last case, rows of Avarayy Tovary, or HuruH, are put in with the Sudiky, and the field is again harrowed. At the end of a month hoe with the Cuntay, and in the course of fifteen days repeat this twice. A Wocula of land sows 8 Seers of Suja, and 8 Seers of the pulses, and produces 10 Colaga^ of the former, and two of the latter.

Peck. BoahelB.

An acre sows of iSi^/a 0*7405 and produces ... 22*213684

of Pulse 07405 44427

Total 1-481 26-656384

' The Jola that is cultivated on dry-field is of three kinds ; Agara, Joia that ii Kempa, and Hessaru, I have had no opportunity of ascertaining S^^*"^" their botanical affinity or difference. They are all, probably, mere varieties of the Solcus sorghum. The best soil for them is a black clay ; and the next, the same mixed with sand. For Bagy these soils are of a poor quality ; but, on the same dry-field, Jola and Ragy may be alternately cultivated without injuring either. In Vaisdkha, or the 2d month after the vernal equinox, plough four times. After the next rain sow the seed. It is sown either broad- cast, or by dropping it in the furrow after the plough. Smooth the field by dntwing a plank over it. It requires nei^ier weeding nor manure. For fodder its straw is inferior to that oi Ragy, but superior to that of rice. The seed for a If ocu^o^land is 7^ Seers.

"34

266

A JOUENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI.

1800.

July 25th.

Udu.

Heisaru,

Kitchen gar- dens.

Palm-gardens.

Agara Jola ripens in 4 J months, and in a good crop produces 12 Colagaa ; Kempa Jola ripens in 4 months, and produces 10 Cola- gas; the Hessaru ripens in the same time, and produces 8 Colagas.

Peck. Bushels.

An acre sows... 0 69418 Agara J. produces ,.. 26

Kempa J. 22-213684

HesaaruJ. IX'TTOQOS

The pulse called TJdu here is the same with that at Seringa- patam. It grows best on a black soil, which it does not injure for the succeeding crop of Jola. Plough twice in Ashddha or Sravana, the 4th and 5th months after the vernal equinox. After the next rain sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In 3^ months it ripens without farther trouble. The straw is only useful as fodder for camels. A (7oiagra-land sows twelve Seers, and in a good crop pro- duces 24 fold.

An acre sows 1*11068 peck and produces 6*66133 bushels.

The pulse called Hessaru is cultivated exactly in the same manner as Udu, Cattle can eat the straw. The husks, or dry pods, of Hesaaru, Udu, and Avaray, are reckoned a fodder superior to even Ragy straw. In three months the Hessaru ripens. A fVocula- land in a good crop produces 4 Colagas,

An acre sows 1*11068 peck, and produces 8*8854 bushels.

In the Tarkari, or kitchen gardens, here, the principal articles are maize, transplanted Ragy, wheat, turmeric, capsicum, onions, garlic, and hemp, which is only used to intoxicate. Large gardens are watered with the Capity, and small ones with the single laiam. The water in the wells is about 21 feet below the surface. A garden of a ColagaAs^nd requires four men and four women to work it The men, however, occasionally perform other work, and the women spin.

The beteUnut or Areca gardens were here of some importance ; but during the terror occasioned by the last Maraitah invasion, many of them, from want of care, perished. Several are now re- planting. The situation that i^ reckoned most favourable for them is a black soil, which contains calcareous nodules. It differs from that in which cotton is raised, by having the lime-stone a cubit or two deep ; whereas the cotton requires it to be at the surface. For Areca gardens the people here do not approve of that ground which contains water near the surface ; for they say. that the produce of such soils is of little value. The gardens at this place are watered from reservoirs, from canals, and from wells by means of the Capily, The trees are remarkably fine.

To make a new garden, in Srdvana, the 5th month after the vernal equinox, plough four times. Then with the hoe, called Telia Kudaliy form the garden into beds six cubits wide. Between every two beds is a raised channel, for bringing a supply of water ; and in the centre of each bed is a deep channel, to carry off what is super- fluous. The beds are divided into plots ten or twelve cubits long.

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 267

Then plant the whole with shoots of the betel-leaf vine {Piper BeUe), igOO. and for its support sow the seeds of the Haliiana, Agashay, and^"^^^**^- Nugay. Then surround the whole with a thick hedge, and once a day for three months water with a pot. Whenever weeds grow, they must be removed ; and at each time the betel-vines must get some dung. Between every two rows of the vines, in the 4th month, is put a row of young plaintain trees {Musa), Once in four days afterwards the water is given from the reservoir or well. In six months the vines must be tied up to the young trees. At the same time, for every TToctt/a-land, 3,000 nuts of the Areca must be planted near the roots of the vines. When they are three years old, a thousand of them will be fit for use, and 800 are required to plant a Wocula-lsmd; or about an acre and a half. They are planted distant in every direction from each other 5 cubits. At the same time plant on fiie inside of the hedge some rows of coco-nut palms, and orange, lime. Mango, or Jack trees. The eight hundred Areca palms, at five cubits distance, would only occupy about an acre ; but a considerable space is taken up by a walk, and by the rows of fruit trees between them and the hedge. In nine years, from the first formation of the garden, the betel-vines, and most of the trees that supported them, are removed. A few of the Agashay, and all the jylantai/ns, are allowed to remain. In the twelfth year the Areca palms begin to produce fruit. The remaining Agashay (jEschyno- 'inone grandiflora) trees, and one half of the plantains, are then re- moved. After this, the garden requires water only once in the eight days, when there is no rain ; and the whole is dug over, and formed like rice-ground into proper squares, and channels for distributing the water. One year it is manured with dung ; in the second with the leaves of the Hoingay, and Coghi {Robinia onitis, and Oalega pur- purea), and in the third year with mud from the bottom of a reser- voir. So long as the garden lasts, this succession of manures should, if possible, be continued ; and when the palms attain their full growth, which is in the 14th year of the garden, the plan- tain trees are entirely removed. Fpr 30 years, from its arriving at maturity, the palm continues vigorous, and for 14 years moregr^u- ally declines ; during which time a new garden ought to be formed, and then the old trees should be cut, and the ground cultivated with grain, till the second formed garden again begins to decay. In place of those that die, some poor farmers plant new trees, and thus constantly keep up a garden on the same spot ; but here this is look- ed upon as a bad practice. The crop season lasts two months be- fore, and one after, the autumnal equinox. The nut, after being peel- ed, is cut into seven or eight pieces, and put up in a heap. Then take one Seer of the nut, one Seer of Gut Terra Japonica, and a hun- dred leaves of the Piper Betle, beat them together repeatedly with some water, and strain the juice thus obtained into a pot. Take 20 Seers of the bark of the Cari J all {Mimosa indica, E. M.), and boil it during a whole night in a largo pot, with forty Seers of water.

2G8

A JOUBNET FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI.

1800.

July 25th.

Yanu,

Nttvny.

EzpenM of a jwlm-garden.

With this decoction mix the juice expressed from the former materi- als, and boil again. While it is boiling, put in the Areca nut, after it has been cut^ until the pot be full. Immediately after, take it out with a ladle, and put in more, till the whole is boiled. In order to be dried, it must be three days exposed on mats to the sun, and is then fit for sale. It is brought up chiefly by the merchants of the place, and by those of OubL To enable the farmer to pay his rent, which is a certain fixed sum of money, it is customary for the mer- chant to make advances. Forty Maunds of dried nut is here reckoned the common produce of a Cokiga-hjid, which is about six hundred weight and one-third an acre, or for each tree about 1 J lb. At Chandra-giri, near this place, the produce is one half more, or 60 Maunds. The former custom was for government to give every per- son who undertook to make a plantation of palms an advance of 100 Fana7n8{SL 7«. Id.) and of 10 Colagas (about 33^ bushels) of grain, for ev^ry Colaga (1 J acre) of land that he engaged to plant. The first year's rent was 30 Faiiams ; the second year's rent 40 Fanams ; from the third until the twelfth year 60 Favuims ; the thirteenth year 1 00 Fanams ; the fourteenth and subsequent years 166 FaTiams. These rents, reduced to the acre at the Seriiigapatara exchange^ and small fractions being ommitted, will be :

1st year	£ 0 13 5
2d year	0 17 11
3d— 12th years...	1 6 10
13th year	2 4 7
Full rent	3 14 3

The full rent at Chandra-giri is 250 Fanams, or about 51, lOs. an acre. This high rent is however greatly less than one half of the produce.

Among the betel-leaf gardens in this neighbourhood a few Yarns (Dioscorea) are planted ; and this is the only place above the Ohats where I found that valuable root cultivated. In the hetel-nut gardens they would succeed, but it i& imagined that they would injure the crop.

The only other thing cultivated in these palm gardens is Kempa Navony, which may be sown every year in the fifth month after tiie autumnal equinox. The ground in the middle of the squares is dug up, and in a garden of s^Colaga of land 4ii Seers of the seed are sown. The ground is then smoothed with the hand and dunged. The pro- duce is only 96 Seers, and the principal intention of sowing it is to prevent the squirrek from hurting the nuts, by giving them a more favourite food. These littie animals, though beautiful, are a very destructive vermin, and would be destroyed by the inhabitants of this place, were it practicable. In many other places their destruc- tion would be considered as sinful.

In a garden here, watered by the CapUy, and said to be a Colaga' land, or about an acre and a half, the water in the wells bein^ about 20 feet below the surface, I found that there were constantly em-

CHAP. YI.j MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 269

ployed three men, two oxen, and a buffalo. This was said to be the 1800. rate of labour common in the coimtry. At crop season, and when ^^^ ^^ the whole garden was hoed, extraordinary labourers were hired

A Capily which I examined, the water being 19 feet 8 inches copi/y, a m». below the surface, emptied its bucket, on an average, once every ^^y/'*''^****"' 36 seconds ; and at each time brought up 32j^'^ ale gallons of water. One man and two oxen could work it for eight hours in the day, and thas draw up daily 26,280 gallons. Double the quantity may be had, from the same well, by a double set of cattle. Stops, how- ever, frequently intervene, that very considerably diminish the quantity actually raised.

The rent here upon dry-field is not fixed ; but, before ploughing Tenuwi. commences, a bargain is annually made between the acting Gauda, or renter, and the farmer. Dry soil fit for Ragy, which implies its being of a good quality, lets from 10 to 30 FaTiams for a Colaga sowing, or about 6 acres ; or for from 13cZ. to Ss, 4</. the acre. If the same soil admits of being watered, so as to raise transplanted Ragy, it pays from 20 to 25 Fanama for a Colaga-land, or from 9 t© 11 shillings an acre. The same soil, in situations answering for kit- chen gardens, pays from 40 to 70 Fanams a ColagiX, or nearly from ISa, to 3l8. for an acre and a half. None of the rents, however, are fixed, either to the person who rents the village from the govern- ment, or to the cultivators, except those on rice lands and betel-niit gardens. The cultivator is nevertheless considered as having a claim to certain lands ; and, even if he have been absent for a number of years, he may return, and reclaim the lands formerly occupied by his family ; and has a right to them, on paying the same rent which others offlBr. If a new man, however, has made any improvements, such as digging a well, or planting a garden, he must be paid for his trouble before the foioner occupant can resume his possession.

To each village there is an hereditary Gauda, who at any rate oavdaa and gets a share of the wet crops on their division, and performs the '"***"* village sacrifices, which are here made to the Cumba (pillar), the ima^e of the village god. The renter performs the other duties ; and ne a^ees to give so much to the govenmient, and makes as much as he can, consistently with the rules of the village. Eaoh year the Amiidar lets the ^age to the highest bidder. The renter finds security for his personal appearance when called upon, but not for the payment of his rent.

In dividing a heap of rice, between the cultivator and renter, Manner of divid- the following is the custom of this place. The heaps contain, up* ^p».^ ^^^ wards, from 20 Colagas, or 1920 Seera.

Seers 6 are first taken for the gods, and are divided among the Pujdria of the village temples, and the Pdmhanga, 5 are divided between two Jangamas, and one DMH, 1^ is given to the Pdnchanga.

Seera 12^

270 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. The heap is then measured, and divided by the following rale :

July ibxb. jf i]^Q ggi^j ]^^ been entirely watered by a reservoir, the cultivator gets one half. If he has used the Capily entirely, he gets two- thirds. If the water has come from a canal, he geta five-ninths. If the water in the tank lasts for 3 months, and afterwards the culti- vator must use the Capily, he gets three-fifths.

A portion is left at the bottom ; from which, for every Canddca that has been in the heap, are taken,

Seera 1 44 to be divided equally among the Gauda, or heredi- tary chief, Shanahoga, or aocomptant, iron-smith, Tal- liari, and Toty, or watchmen, washerman, barber, car- penter, and pot-maker. 26 for the NirgvMty, or conductor of water. 96 fer the Madiga, or tanner who makes the Capily. 1 2 for the Shanaboga, or accomptant. 12 for the Cauda, or hereditary chief. 66 a scramble now takes place, and each of the above men- tioned persons, the mendicants excepted, takes about 6 Seers. 12J given before.

366^ iSe^r^, if the heap contained 1920, are thus given away. The proportion on a larger heap will be some trifle less. If any remain, it is divided between the cultivator and renter, by the same ryle as before. The Madiga, or tanner, gets also the sweepings. Such a manner of division could only be continued from its offering great opportunities to defraud government. * workperfonned It is here estimated, that a plough will cultivate as much dry- au)cr ^^**"*^ ' ^®^^ ^ would sow 96 Seers of Ragy, or about 6 acres, or as much watered land as would sow three Golo/gas of Paddy ^ or about 4 J acres. If both be mixed, it would cultivate about 4^ acres of dry-field, and 3f of watered. A plough requires at least one man and two oxen ; but if the farm be properly stocked, there ought to be three for each plough. Many farmers in every part of the oountiy are so poor, that they cannot stock a farm of one plough ; and for this purpose two, or even three are sometimes obliged to imite their capitals. A man who keeps three or four ploughs is a wealthy person. Some first-rate farmers possess as far as ten ; yet the most favourable situation, of a proper mixture of watered land and dry-field, does not make his farm more than eighty-two acres and a hcJf. A farm of this kind, fully stocked, constantly requires ten ploughmen, two other men, and ten women servants, besides some additional hands, at seed-time and har- scrranto* wagei. vost. A mau's wagcs here are 6 Fanams, or about 4s. a month ; a woman's 5 FanartiSy or 3^. ^d. The labouring servants, or Batigaru, live in their own houses. The old women of their families live at home, cook, spin, take care of the children, and do all domestic labour ; the men, and their young wives, hire themselves out to tbe wealthy farmers on the sami conditions of service as at Seringor

CUAF. VI.] MYSORE, CANAJRA, AND MALABAR. 27X

patam. Pregnancy occasions scarcely any inteiTuption in the labour 1800. of the women, who are very hard}'-. ^^^ ^^^^

Although almost every year the scarcity of rain, and the partial Frequent scar- nature of that which comes, occasions in some part of the country ^*y- above the Ohats a greater or less scarcity of grain ; yet in the time of peace, famine seldom comes to such a height, that many die of absolute want. From those parts of the country that luive been most favoured with the rain, the superfluous corn is transported to the parts where the crop has failed ; and although it is high priced, the poor are able to get as much as prevents them from immediately ^yicg; although the scantiness of their aliment, no doubt, fre^ quently induces disordera that terminate in death. It is said, that one*fourth of the grain which, in times of plenty, the people usually consume, is sufficient to keep them alive, and enable them to work for their subsistence. It is when war is joined to scarcity, and in- terrupts the transportation of. grain, that famine produces all its horrors. These were never so severely felt here, as during the in- vasion of Lord Comwallis ; when, the country being attacked oa all sides, and penetrated in every direction by hostile armies, or by defending ones little less destructive, one half at least of the inhabitants perished of absolute want, and repaid dearly for the miseries which they had formerly inflicted on the wretched people of the lower Cai^natic. I do not mean, by this, to reflect on the noble leader of the British army : the people, every where that it came, seem sensible that he avoided, as much as was practicable, doing them any injury.

In eyerj TaluCy or district, where there are forests, there is fiOyddaCaTHa,ot Gydda Cavildy who annually pays to the government a certain sum, ^®«p«'®"°'"^*- and has the exclusive privilege of collecting honey, wax, and lac. On all such as cut timber for building their houses, he also levies a duty ; and all the trees, except sandal- wood, are in fact his pro- perty. The government ought to pay him for all the trees which it requires ; but this is generally omitted, an Indian government rarely paying for any thing which it can get by force. The keeper of the forest exacts also small duties on those who, without being ped, feed their goats and cattle in the woods ; on the women, lect the leaves, which are used as platters by all ranks in this country ; and on those who collect firewood, and grass for thatch.

In this district there are many sandal-wood trees ; but of so bad sandai-wood. a quality, that they are never cut.

From the hills in this vicinity, about a hundred Maunda of lac lac (almost 24 hundred weight), are annually procured; and there is more in several of the neighbouring districts.

The bees here are of four kinds : I. That from which most of the ^^* honey and wax is procured, is called Hegenu. This is a large bee, which builds under projections of the rocks, or in caverns. A large nest gives 8 SeerSy Seringapatam weight, of honey=4,^|^ lb., and 3 Seef*8 of wax 1 1%^ lb. A small hive gives about one-third of this

2J2 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. quantity. The honej is gathered twice a year, in Ashddha and

juiy^Hh. Mdgha, or in the month following the summer solstioe, and the second after that of winter. Some people of the Baydaru caste make the collecting of honey and wax a profession, and it is one attended with much danger. Having discovered a hive, some of them kindle a fire under the rook, and throw on it the leaves of the Cassia fis^ tula, and of the Puleseri, which emit a smoke so acrid, that nothing living can endure it. The bees are forced to retire; and some others of the BaydaSy so soon as the smoke subsides, lower down by a rope one of their companions, who with a pole knocks ofP the nest, and is immediately drawn up again ; for, if he made any delay, the bees would return^ and their stinging is so violent, that it endangers life. In order to fortify him against the sharp points of rocks, and against injury from the rope, which passes round his chest, the ad*' venturous Bayda is secured, before and behind, by several folds of leather. II. The bee, that produces .the next greatest quantity of honey is called the Cadi, or Chittu Jainu ; that is, stick, or small honey. This bee is very small, and builds, around the branch of a tree, a comb of an oblong shape, and sharpened at boths ends. It is found at all seasons, but is in the greatest perfection at the same time with the other. The honey is of the finest quality ; but the whole comb seldom weighs more than two Seers , or 1^ lb. This bee does not sting, and is readily driven away by a twig switched round the comb. III. The Tuduvay is a bee of which the honey is of an excellent quality, but rarely procured ; for it generally builds deep in the crevices of rocks, where it is totally inacoessible. Sometimes, however, it is found in hollow trees, and one hive will give &om 20 to 25 Seers of honey, or about 12 or 15 pounds ; but the quantity of wax is in proportion small. This is a large bee ; but it very sel- dom stings those who plunder its hive. IV. The Togriga is a very small bee, that seldom stings. It takes possession of the deserted nests of the white ants (Termes), which in this country are very numerous in the wastes of red soil, such as is usually cultivated for Bogy. Of this stifi' earth, the white ants raise hills resembling the stump of a tree, which are from four to six feet high, very hard, and able long to resist the heaviest rain. These, when deserted, most commonly become the lurking places of snakes ; but some- times give shelter to the Togriga bee. Its nest is therefore easily accessible ; but it is very small, and contains only about a Seer of honey, and a half Seer of wax. wiM.date,jttr^ From the seed dropped by birds, or by accident, great numbers

« .----r- ^^ ^^ palin called JEjalu (Elate sylvestris) grow here wild. It will thrive on any good soil that does not contain lime, and grows in- deed on the poorest lands ; but in these it affords hardly any juice. To rear it requires no trouble, as the prickly nature of its leaves sufficiently deters cattle. The English use only one name for the jtdces of all the different palm-trees in India, and call them all Toddy, which seems to be a corruption of Tdri, the Mussulman name f<»r the

BUUe tyhatrii.

CHAP. VI. J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 27S

juice of the Palmira, or Borassibs flahellifoTTtiia, The natives have I800. distinct names for each kind of juice ; and, in fact, there seem to be ^"^^ '****** considerable differences in their qualities. That of the Elate is by the Mussulmans called Sindy ; in the Kamata language Henda ; and in the Telinga and Tamul dialects Callu. The juice of the Bo* ras8U8, although the tree grows well enough, is here never extracted, and the natives deny their extracting Sindy. The SiTidy is never drunk by the natives till it has fermented, when it becomes ex- ceedingly intoxicating, and in many villages great quantities are consumed. In this place it is never distilled ; tnough, no doubt, it would afford a spirit that, by rectification and age, might be made palatable. Much of the Sindy, when fresh, is boiled down into Jo- gory, which sells for about J of the price of that made from sugar- cane, and is chiefly used for distillation. The process here is exactly the same as that described at Waluru.

All the Ejalu palms in this district are let to a person of the ManneT of let- Idiga caste, who paj'-s annually 120 Pagodas, or rather more than «>®p»in'3' 40/., and lets them out again to the Idigaa of the different villages. Each palm gives juice for three months in the year, and they will do this at any season ; so that every man divides his trees into four portions, and thus has throughout the year a regular supply and employment.

The juice of the Elate sylveatris is extracted by cutting a deep horizontal gash into the stem, at some distance below the leaves, and then cutting towards this from below in a sloping direction. The juice exudes from the pores of the sloping surface, and is col- lected in a notch formed at its lower extremity ; whence it is con- veyed into a pot by one of the divisions of the leaf, which serves as a gutter. According to his alertness, one man can collect the juice of from 30 to 50 palms. 60 good trees, or 100 very bad ones, give 70 Pucka Seers, or about 17 ale gallons ; and this may be boiled into 70 Cucha Beers of Jagory, or about 46Jlb. At sun-rise it is put in earthen pots, and boiled until noon. When the ebullition becomes so violent as to endanger the running over of the liquor, it is allayed by a small quantity of the emulsion of Ricinus seed. Small holes are then made in the ground, and in the bottom of each are placed two cuttings of any twining plant. Over these are laid some leaves, upon which the boiling Jagory is poured. When it has cooled, it is lifted out by means of the projecting ends of the twining plant. This palm is of very little other use. Mats are made of its leaves^ and its stem is used in building the wretched huts of the poorer class of inhabitants.

The Idigas, or Idigaru, are a caste of Telinga origin ; and, though cwtomg of the they have lost all tradition concerning the time when they settled iSKT.*'*^'^"'^** in this country, they still retain their original language. In this they are called Inravxinlu, They can all eat in common, but keep up the purity of the breed by marrying only in certain families whose descent is known. Like the Shanar of Madras, their proper

35

oy4i A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800- business is to extract the juice of palm trees, to make it into Ja-

July 25tb. ffory, and to distil it into spintuous liquors ; but some few of them have become farmers. They wish to be called S&dras ; but their claim to be of a pure descent is not acknowledged by the Brdhmans, and they appear never to have been permitted to carry arms. The Idigaa can read and write accompts. Although they eat animal food, they are prohibited from drinking even palm-wine. The men arc allowed a plurality of w^ives, but can divorce them for no cause except adulteiy. Adulteresses and widows cannot marry again; they may, however, become concubines, or Cutigas. All the de- scendants of these fonn an inferior kind of breed, called also Guti- gas, with whom those who are descended from chaste mothers will not intermarry. The women sell the produce of their husband's labour, and manage household affairs ; but never toil in the fields. Even after the age of puberty they continue to be marriageable, and are not permitted to bury themselves with their husband's bodies. They have no hereditary chiefs; but the renter, w;ith a council as usual, settles all disputes, and punishes by fine all trans- gressions against the rules of caste. At their marriages, and at the monthly and annual ceremonies performed in commemoration of their deceased parents, the Panchdnga, or astrologer, reads Man^ trams. Their Ottnt is of the caste called Satdnana, and is named Cadry Singaiau Near this place l^c has two houses, and his office being hereditary, he is a married man. lie reads to them the his- tory of the gods, written in the Telinga language ; gives them holy water, admonishes them to wear the mark of Vishnu on their fore- heads, and from each person he receives two Fanams as charity. His visits are about once in two years. With such a Gfuru^ the principal object of their worship is of course Vishnu ; but they also offer sacrifices to the Saktis, and to the Vivika, or men who, on account of chastity, have been sainted. All other good men are supposed to become powerful spirits, but are not objects of worship. Bad men are punished in hell. This caste do not take the vow of J)ds(fri. ( nstAms of tiie The Curuharii are an original caste of Karnata, and, wherever

c«/tt*a5, proper- (]^^y .^y^ settled, retain its language. They are divided into two ^^'^^ tribes, that have no communion, and which are called Handy Cura-

bantj and Curo.baru proper. These last again are divided into a number of families ; such as the Any, or elephant Curubwrw ; the Hal, or milk Curubaru ; the Golliy or fire C. ; the NMy G. ; the SA- mania C. ; the Coti C, ; the Asil C. ; and the Murhindina Curu- baru, These families are like the Gotrams of the Brdhmans ; it being considered as incestuous for two persons of the same family to inteiinarry. The proper Gurubas have hereditary chiefs, who are called Gaudas, whether they be head-men of villages or not, and

Eossess the usual jurisdiction. Some of them can read accompts, ut they have no book. The proper duty of the caste is that of shepherds, and of blanket weavers ; and in general they have no

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANAEA, AND MALABAR. 27.>

other dress than a blanket. A few of those who are rich have be- isoo taken themselves to the luxury of wearing cotton cloth next their '^^^^ ^^^^' skin ; for all castes and ranks in this country wear the blanket as an outer garment. The dress of the women resembles that of the females of the kingdom of. Ava. The blanket is put behind the back, and the two upper comers, being brought forward under the arms, are crossed over the bosom, and secured by the one being tucked under the other. As their blanket is larger than the cloth used by the women of Ava, the dress is more descent The Curxibarv, were, be- sides, Candachara, or militia ; cultivators, as farmers, as servants, and as gardeners ; Attavana, or the armed men who serve the Amil- dara ; Anchay, or post-messengers, and porters. They are allowed to eat animal food, but in most places are not permitted to drink spirituous liquors. In other places this strictness is not required ; and almost every- where they intoxicate themselves With palm-wine. The women are very industiious, and perform every kind of work except digging and ploughing. Even after the age of puberty they continue marriageable, and can only be divorced for adultery. In this caste the custom of Cuiiga, or concubinage, prevails ; that is, all adulteresses who are turned away by their husbands, and have not gone asti-ay with a strange man, and all girls and widows, to whom a life of celibacy is disagreeable, may live with any man of the caste who chooses to keep them. They are looked down upon by their more virtuous sisters ; but still are admitted into company, '

and are not out-casts. Among the Cinmbaru, the childi'en of concu- bines do not form a separate caste, but are allowed to marry with those of a pure breed. By a connection with any man, except a Citruba, a woman becomes an entire out-cast. The men take several wives ; and, if they be good workere, do not always divorce them for adultery ; but, as they thus incur some disgrace^ they must ajipcasc the anger of their kindred by giving them an entertainment, and the Guru generally interposes his authority to prevent a separa- tion. The CuiuboM believe, that those men who die without having been married become Virikas, to whose images, at a great annual feast, which is celebrated on purpose, offerings of red cloth, Jagoi^, rice, &c. are made. If this feast be omitted, the Virikaa become cni-aged, occasion sickness, kill the sheep, alarm the people by horrid dreiims, and, when they walk out at night, strike them on the back. They are only to be appeased by the celebration of the proper feast. The peculiar god of the caste is Blr-uppa, or father Biray, one of the names of Siva ; and the image is in shape of the Linga ; but no other person prays to Siva under this name, nor offers sacrifices to that god, which is the mode by which the Oarubaa worship Bir- nppa. The priests who officiate in the temples of this deity are Ciirubas, Their office is hereditary, and they do not intermarry with the daughters of laymen. In some districts, the Curiubaa wor- ship another god, peculiar, I believe, to themselves.' He is called Battay Dcvanu and is a destructive spirit They offer sacrifices to

27(5 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VI.

1800. him in woods, by the sides of rivulets, or ponds. The carcases of the

July 25ih. animals killed before the image are given to the barber and washer- man, who eat them. Beside these, the Curubaru offer sacrifices to the Saldis, and pray to every object of superstition (except DhuTTna Rdja) that comes in their way. They are considered as too impure to be allowed to wear the lAnga, as their Gum does. This person is called a Wodear, or Jafigama ; but he is married, and his office is hereditary. His title is Rdvana SidMswara, and he originally lived at Sarur, which is near Kalydna pattana. At his visits he bestows consecrated ashes, and receives charity. He has a fixed due on mjirriages, and sends his agents to collect it. At some of their cere- monies the Panchdnga attends, and acts as Purdhita, j„i 3oih. '^^^^ July. — I went four cesses to Badavana-hully, or the poor

jiadacana-huuy. riiou's vUloge ; which is fortified with a mud- wall and a strong hedge, and contains about twenty houses of cultivators^ In the former war it fell into the hands of Purseram Bhoics army ; and, although the inhabitants have lived ever since in perfect security, it has not yet recovered one half of its foimer population. The disease among the cattle last year did not extend towards this quarter farther than Chica Bala-pura ; but this year it has killed one half of the stock. A caranee of ^^® couutry through which I came to-day consists of vallies in-

the^country. tcrspcrscd with detached barren hUls. In these vallies there has been formerly a good deal of cultivation ; at present however they are not half peopled. A great part of the country is covered with the wild date palm, or ELate sylvestris, of which no care is taken. Even on bad soils it seems be so thriving, that I have no doubt but that even there it is sufliciently productive of juice. ^^^, 3,jj^ 31st July, — I went four cosses to Sira, The greater part of the

Appearance of country, through which I passed to-day, is covered with trees, the country, ^jjj^;}^ g^rc rather higher than is usual in the wastes of this country. Among them were many wild date palms. The Sultan, as I have already mentioned, with a view of enforcing the doctrine of his religion, which forbids the use of intoxicating liquors, gave orders that all these should be cut. Like most of his other regulations, this seems to have been very illK)beyed ; for in the central parts of his dominions no tree seems to be in such abundance. On the way, I passed two ruinous villages, and one still inhabited ; but by far the greater number of the fields were uncultivated, and by far the greater part of the country shows no traces of its ever having been reclaimed, although it seems in very few places to be too steep or too barren for the plough. Axitr. 1-6. From the Jst to the t)th of August, I remained at Sira, inves-

Ktnte of tb«^ tigating the state of that neighbourhood ; as being the principal ^^Irn. place in the central division of tl^ Raja's dominions north from the

Cavery.

Sira, for a short time, was the seat of a government which ruled a considerable extent of country, and seems to have been at its greatest prasperity under the government of Dildwur Khan, imme-

CUAP. VI.J MYSORE, CAN A R A, AND MALABAR. * 277

(liately before it was conquered by Hyder. It is said, that it then igoo. contained 50,000 houses, of which Mussulmans occupied a large pro- ^^' *~^ portion. By this change of masters Sira suffered greatly*; not owing to any oppression from Hyder, but from its being deprived of the expenditure attending the court of a Mogul Nabob, It was also much reduced by the Marattah invasions, which had nearly proved fatal to the rising power of its new master ; and its ruin was accom- plished by his son Tippoo, who removed twelve thousand families, to form near his capital the new town of Sha/iar Ganjam, About three hundred houses remained, when the Marattah army, under Furseram Bkow and Hurry Punty took up their head-quarters in the fort, which is well built of stone, and of a good size. These invaders did no harm to the town, but destroyed most of the villages in the neighbourhood, and many of these still continue in ruins. The town itself, although the seat x of an A soph, or Mussulman lord lieutenant, continued to languish till it came under the English protection. It is little more than a year since the army under General Harris en- cjiraped here on its route to Cltatrakal ; and since that time two thousand houses have been built ; many of its former inhabitants, whom the Sultan had forced to Seringapatam, have returned to their native abode ; and others are coming in daily from the country that has been ceded to the Nizam. The only building in the place worth notice is the monument of a Mussulman officer, who commanded here during the Mogul government ; but it is abundantly supplied with tombs of men who by the Muhammadatis are reputed saints, and near which the people of that faith are anxious to be buried, as they con- sider the ground holy. The only considerable temple was pulled down by Bahadur Khan, the last Asoph of the place ; who w«us building a monument for his wife with the materials, when the arri- val of the British army put a stop to such proceedings.

Near Sira the quantity of watered ground is greater than that of dry-field ; but unfortunately it is situated in a very dry climate ; so that, during the last fourteen years, the tanks have been filled only five times so as to give a full crop. In the other nine years, by means of the little rain that fell, and by the use of the machine called Capily, the inhabitants have been able to raise a quarter of the full crop ; and one-third of the whole grain consumed in the country has been brought from other places, especially from the banks of the Cavery, Scarcity is therefore a common evil ; and in the memory of young men, famine has several times spread all her terrors over this unfortunate place. Although in the immediate neighbourhood vouges strong- of a powerful garrison, all the villages are strongly fortified. On'^'**^*^*** asking the reason of such precautions from a very intelligent chief of a village, from whom I took most of mgr information, he told me that it was chiefly on account of robbers, who in the time of famine were very numerous. During this calamity the inhabitants of one vil- lage wish, by plundering their neighbours, to support life ; and of course, expecting the ^ame treatment, each is shut up, and

278

1800.

Aug. 1—6.

A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI.

Watered-land.

Cultivation of waterod-land.

guarded from the nocturnal attacks of its neighbours, as if these were its most inveterate enemies. I n war also the people have found these fortifications very useful In their defence Uiey employ few weapons except stones, which both men and women throw with great dexterity, and equal boldness. They do not attempt to defend themselves against any thing that wears the fiice of a regular body of men ; out they stone, with the greatest 'intrepi- dity, the irregular cavalry that attend all native armies, and who are seldom provided with fire-arms. On a visit which I made to the chief above mentioned, he boasted, that with ten men he bad beaten off 200 of the Marattah cavalry, of whom several men and horses were killed.

In favourable years the greatest part of the watered-land is cul- tivated with rice. In dry seasons a little only of this grain is raised, and the cultivation consists chiefly of transplanted Bagy, wheat, Jola, and Navony, which require less water. Sugar-cane is always cultivated. Gardens occupy the remainder of the watered-land. The kitchen gardens, in the whole district, amount to only four or five Colaga lands ; that is, to about six acres. The palm gardens now amount to ten CancUvca lands, about 300 acres ; and before PuTseram Bhov/s invasion extended to three times that siza In Sira, and the districts south from it, are many very valuable plan- tations of this kind, producing the hetd-nut of the kind called Wal- lagram ; but, until I get more into the heart of that part of the country, I shall defer giving an account of them.

In the accompanying table, as at Madhu-giH, I have given some of the particulars of the cultivation of watered-grounds, and shall afterwards proceed to detail the remainder.

CHAP. VI.]

MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR.

279

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A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROrOH.

[CHAP. TI.

TraBq>]uited •Ao0y» Cffnoiwnu CoracanuM, of kind called Ihdtu

Trantplanted Ragyt of the kind called

Jcia or ffolcut torghum.

Yaitakha crop.

The observations made at Madhu-giri on the cultivaiion of rice apply here in every respect, except that at Sira t!here are no Col- livays, or canals brought from rivers ; but the whole is watered from reservoirs, or by machinery. Two Capilies, wrought by two men and four oxen, water a Colaga of land (IJ acre) tnat is cultivated with rice.

The transplanted Ragy here is of two kinds : one is called Dodo, JRagy, and is that which at Madhu-giri is called Oydda, and which is there cultivated on dry-field. Here, on account of the different manner in which it is raised, it grows to a larger size. This is taken as a Kdrtika crop ; but for this there is not time, if the supply of water has been sufficient for a Vaiaokha crop of rice ; and the crop of rice that follows it is but indifferent. The differences between the cultivation of this crop here, and at Madhu-giri, are as follow : The seedlings are watered twice a day, till they are two finches high ; then only once a day. In 20 days they are fit for transplanting; and, before they are pulled, it is considered as necessary to loosen the soil by inundation. The field has five ploughings, and before the last is manured with dung. It is divided into plots by the same process as that which at Madhu-giri is used in the cultivation of JoLa, The planted Ragy has water for the first time on the eighth day, and afterwards once only in 15 days. It is never weeded, but by occasionally plucking up with the hand any grass that may have grown.

The other kind of Nai^ Rdgy is called Tripathi, and grows in place of the Vaisdkha crop ; but it is evident, from the time required to bring this to maturity, that in one year these two crops can never be taken from the same field. The mode of cultivation is the same as for Doda Ragy ; but the seed time is Aswtrja, and the harvest VaisdJcka, For a Wocula-land cultivated with Ragy, one CapUyy with one man and two oxen, can raise a sufficient quantity of water.

On rice land the farmers never willingly sow Jola ; as, even should they have water, it totally prevents them from having rice as the next crop ; but, in order to prevent the lands from oeii^ waste, the renters frequently compel them to cultivate it. This is one great evil of the tenure that has here been adopted, of letting the village to the annual renters who bid the highest price. These men must make up their rent in the best manner they can ; but they care not what injury they do to the land ; as, if it be spoiled, they will next year offer less rent. By this means, in the end, both the farmer and the revenue suffer.

The Jola is most commonly taken in place of the Vaiadlcha crop, and, if there has been a preceding crop of Doda Ragy, cannot be cultivated ; as the season is lost, before the Ra^ is cut. After the Jola, if there be water, a Kdrtika crop of Ragy, and then a Vaiaokha crop of rice, follow. In the course of the two months pre- ceding and the one following the autunmal equinox, plough four times. In the course of the next month, after a rain, or after having

'CilAr. Vl.] iii^SCJiB, CANxiHA, AlSD malabXk. ^2^

'watered ihe field, plough a fifth time, and drop the seed in the ISOO- furrows, either with the hand or with the Sudvcy (Figure 26) tied ^™«- *~*' to the plough. Then form the field into plots, as described at UadhU'giri. At the end of six weeks after being sown, the Jola •is allowed one watering, and another again in a month afterwards. A Capily, wrought by 'two men and two oxen, waters a Colaga of land, 0t about 1^ a^e; but in the intermediate time the men and ^cattle do much business. In the same manner are cultivated all the three kinds of JbZaN^iat Ate mentioned in the table.

A K^rtiha *^erop of Joia is sometimes taken, from what is here

•^called iifo^aj^^and ; this is that which, for want of rain or eultiva^

tors, has been lying fisdlo^< On the same year no Vaiaakha crop can

follow. TPbe next ^Kdrtika crop mustbei2a^, and tiiatmay be

followed by a ^FixisclA^^'crop of rice.

In .place of the Kdrtika crop, both Bily and Mcbv, Navonies ate jVAw^y.otA^- 'iakidn, and allow time for the VaisdJcha crop of rice ; but they injure *»***»'*««*»• At more than 'Bogy does. In the month preceding and that fol- lowing the summer solstice, plough four or five times, and after the tiiird manure irith dung. In uie following month, after a heavy rain, or after hivving wintered the field, sow with the drill, and bar- row with the i^e drawn by oxen. It is then divided into plots like a field of Jola ; &nd once a fortnight, when there is no rain, water is given-

In plaee of the VaUdklia crop, when there is a scarcity of wateir, ^'^*mu; wuu wheat, both Jnvi and Hotay, are sown on rice-lands. These grttins '^J^ tvim. may be followed by a Sidrtika crop of Ragy ; but by this process *"*• '**'*"• the ground is as much exhausted, as if it had been sown with Non vony. If the Kd/rtUca crop be altogether left out, the FafadMa crop of rice following wheat wdll be as good as if the ground had been resu- 'larly cultivated for rit^ alone ; and in India it is a commosdy recefv* ed opinion, that, where a supply of water admits of it> ground can ^ever be in such good heart as when r^ularly cultivated by a succes- sion of rice crops. Wheat requires a clay soil, and the mannet of cul- tivating both kmds is the same. In the two months preceding, and the *one fdlkwinff the autunuial equinox, plough five times. In the fol- lowing monui, after a rain, or after having watered the field, plough agaiuj and drop the seed into the farrows. Then divide it into squares, as for Jola, and water it once a month. The straw is only Used for fire. If given to eattle for fodder, it is supposed capable of producing the distem/per.

The ground for cultivating sugar-cane is divided into two equal 8tigar-ciui«. ))a]^, which are alternately cultivated ; one year with cane, and 'the other with rice. It is watered either from the reservoirs, or by I3ie machine called Capily. In the last case, a field of two Colagas, x>r three acres, one half of which is in sugar-cane, and the other in rice, requires the constant labour of four men and eight oxen. Day-labourers must also be hired to rebuild the boiling-house, to tie iqji the cane, and to weed. When the field is watered from a

i3«

gg2 ^ JOUEMEY FROM MADEAS THROUGH [CHAP. TL

1800* reservoir, one man only is regularly employed ; but to plough, to

Aug. i-Hs. plant, to weed, and to tie up we cane, both men and catUe miist be nired in addition. Three kinds of cane are here cultivated. The most valued is the BestaEi, which grows best on a bkck aoil, in which there is much sand or gravel ; a good crop of this, on a Cola' ga4a7idy produces 100 Maunas of Jagory ; which is about 29^ hun- dred weight on an acre. The next in quality is the Caricabo, or black-^iome. It requires a pure black mould, called Erayhumi ; and, in a good crop, produces nom a Colaga-land, 60 Maunds of Jagory, or from an acre nearly 17^ hundred weight. The poorest cane is the Maracabo, or itidc cane. It is cultivated on the same kind of soil with the Restalli \ but produces only half as much Jagory as the Caricabo, and that of a very bad quality, for it is quite black. The cultivation of the ReataUi, however, is comparatively much more troublesome. In the course of the eight months following the sum- mer soLstice, the field must be ploughed eleven times ; and once a month, during the whole of that time, 1000 sheep must be folded for one night on the field. It is then manured with mud firom the bottoms of the reservoirs, and plouged a^ain twice. The chan- nels are then formed, and in them the euttmgs are laid down, two and two being always placed parallel. A Colaga of land requires 50,000. The channels are then filled with water, and the cuttings are trodden into the mud with the feet. The second watering is on the 4th day, the third watering on the 12ih ; afterwards the field, if the soil be good, must be watered once a fortnight ; or once a week, if it part with its moisture quickly. On the 20th day the field is weeded with the small hoe called Molu Potu, which implies that the operation is done very superficiaUy. On the 35tb day the whole field is dug with the large hoe called YeUa Kuddli ; and, the earth being thrown up teward the canes in ridges, the channels for conveying the water run between the rows. About the 90th day the canes are tied up with a leaf of the plant in parcels of five or six, and once a month this is repeated. When the cane is ten months old, the crop begins, and in thirty days it must be finished. The £axmers here say, that a fallow between the two crops of sugar- cane would not answer, and that the crop of rice sdves streni?tn te theground. ^

caittTation of No Watered fields are here reserved for the cultivation of wheat,

awSjf. io&r* <>r of Jola ; but when there is no rain, the bottoms of reservoirs are bottonw of dry cultivated for thcsc grains, and for Carlay, This kind of ground not being divided in Colaga-lands, no estimate can be formed of the produce ; but both Jola and wheat thrive better on the rice-lands. The Carlay succeeds in the bottems of reservoirs. The kind of Jola sown here is the Agara. The operation for all the three grains i6 the same, and is very simple. In the second month after the winter solstice, the ground is ploughed, and the seed is dropped into the furrow after the plough. It is then smoothed by drawing a plank over the gi'ound, and no more trouble is required.

CBAP. VI.] MYSORE, CAKARA, AND MALABAR. 285

The soil in the bottom of the reservoirs is always a fine friable 1800. mud, ^being what is washed from the fields by the rains, and a^n Rnmoin liable deposited, when th^^ater stagnates in the reservoirs. In all old^ ^•<^bok«d. reservoirs a great "pan is filled up by this soil* and thus their capa- city is much diminished ; and, when a village has been deserted for s<Hne time, unless the mound breaks down, its tanks in general be* i

come entirely obliterated. Nothing therefore can be more advan« tageous than the cultivators carrying away this mud as a manure for their land ; and, as it is of an excellent quality, they would find their advantage in taking it, as fast as formed ; at least in such parts of the country as afford them a permanent interest in the soil. In most places however, either from indolence or want of encouraffe* ment, or from both, the farmers neglect to remove the mud, and tiie public is put to a considerable expense in keeping the reservoirs clear.

The leaves that are here used as manure for rice lands are, ^^'^ «»d »» the Hoingay, or Robinia mitia ; the Coghi, or Galega purpurea ; the ""^* !

Yeeada, or Aaclepias gigantea ; the Tumbay, or Fhlomis esculenta^ Roxb. MSS. ; the Umuttay, or Datura metel ; the Colli, or Euphor- bium Tirucalli ; and the Hughinnay.

At 8ira scarcely any Bagy is cultivated as a dry <arop. Those Dry crept, which are raised, are Suja, Harica, ffui'uli, Huts'-Ellu, Avaray, Towtry, Shamay, Navony, Hartdu, Hessaru, AlasuTidu, or Tada^ guny, Barugu, and cotton. By far the most common are Shamay, Suja, and Huruli.

The Shamay is of three kinds ; Bily, Cari, and Maliga or -^^2jJJ"JJK;^jf^*' jica. The cultivation for the three kinds is the same, but the seeds s. m. ^ are always kept separate. The soil that agrees with them is the Marulu and Daray, or poor sandy and stony lands. This soil, if it were dunged, would every year produce a crop of fi>Aamay; but, as that can seldom be spared, the Shamay is always succeeded by a crop of Huruli, which restores the ground ; and alternate crops of these grains may be continued, without any fallow, or without injury to the son. In the first four months of the year, commencing i

about the vernal equinox, at any convenient opportunity plough four times. Then, after a good rain, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, and sow with the dnll ; putting the seed of the Shamay into the Curigay ; and that of the pulses called Avaray, Tovary^ Hesaaru, Hurvli, or Alasunda, into the Sadiky. The first two are reckoned the best. Then harrow with the rake drawn by oxen. They have here no estimation for the extent of fields cultivated in this way ; but for every 48 Seera of Shamay they sow 12 Se&rs of some one of tiie pulses. The produce in a good crop will be twenty seeds of tiie Shamay. Of the others no account is kept ; for the legumes, as they ripen, are gathered for family use. BUy Shamay ripens in 3|, and Kari in 4 months ; the Maliga requires only 3 montns, and is therefore preferred when the rains begin late ; but it gives little straw, and tnerefore in favourable seasons the others are more eli*

2^^ A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS^ lllROUGH [CBAPi VI:

1800. gible. Elkamay straw is here reckoned better fodder than that of

Aug.i-.-4. j^^. and, when mixed with the husks of Hwuii or Tavary^is preferred even to that of Ragy. Except in case of necessity, Jala straw is never used. 8uja, or noUui The only Syj<^ or Cavrihvis sown, here is that called Hultu, It is tpicatuM. 8pwn on soils similar to what are used for Skamay^ and which, cm. the

dry-fields of Sira, are the most common . It is never sown two years successively on the same ground ; this however is not owing to its egchausting'tbe soil, but to its roots being troublesome to remove. Next year, the ground may be easily ploughed sufficiently well for Humli^' ai^d in the course of the second year the roots of the Suja rpt, so as to allow the ground to be fully cultivated withouttrouble. In th^ month following the vernal equinox^ plough four times ; and aifter the first rain that happens in the course of. the two following months, sow thj^ seed with the didll ; putting th^ seed lof the Suja in the Curigay ; and that of the pulses called HwnUiot Tcvary in the SudUcy. Then harrpw with the rake drawn by ox^n ; oc-if the field be clear of ^weeds, smooth it with the Mara, or plank. At the end of one month nse, three times, the OanUiy, or hoe drawa.by oxen. In four months it ripens without farther trouble. 20, Cola ga8, or 160 seeds, are reckoned a good crop from twelve Seera sow- ing. CatUe do not like the straw, but eat the smaller part of it when mixed with other fodder. The full grown stram^ which is as thick as a man's thumb, and about t^n .foet. bjgh,. is used for fewel. PiUMGaUedfl«- Q^e HurvZi, like that at Seringapatam^ i^ black aad white gr<i!:' ^^ mixed. It grows better on stony than on sandy soils ; and gives the greatest crops when cultivated on Innd that has been waste, and over-run with bushes; but it also thrives tolerably on.. land that is alternately cultivated with it and Shamay, or Suja. Iiji the month which precedes and that which follows the autumnal .equinox, sow the seed broad-cast, and then cover it with the plough. In four months it ripens without farther trouble, and ia a good season pro- duces ten seeds. Both straw and husks are reckoned good for la- bouring cattle ; but, owing probably to some idle prejudice, they ai?& said to be. bad for milch cows. ^S^JKdoSi- ^^^ Ikutst'ElhL is sown near villages, in places where rubbish cd unttt^'EUu. and.dirt ar^ ihfpym,^ First, at the same season with the Hurvli^ sow the seed, <and then plough the field twice. In three months it ripens wjtbptit fairthv t]:oul)le, and in a good year produces sixteen seeds. j^TSiSiilr*' ^^^ Navony cultivated on di^-field is that called Bily^ and is raised either on the two poorer soils, or on a black mould that has been prepared for it by a crop of the pulse called Heasaru, It is considered aa exhausting the ground ; but this is obviated by plough- • ing up the field imme(Uately after the^ Navony has been cut, thus exposmg the soil to the air. In the two months following the vernal equinox, plough four times. With the next good rain, harrow w;ith the rake drawn by oxen, and sow tbci seed vdth the drill ;

OKAP. VI.] MYSORE. CANAHA, AND MALABAK. 2S.5*

platting Navony ia the Ourigayt and the pulse called Avaray in the 18D0. Sudiky, In three months it ripens without farther trouble, and in ^"*f- *""*• a good crop produces 96 seeds. For cattle, the straw is better than that of rice.

HanUu, of the kind called Pkola, is here cultivated. For this a fi''jS*/«a****' sandy soil is reckoned best; and as it is thought to improve the soil, ckrUi. the little Bagy thati is sown on dry-field generally foUowd it. In the first '.month after the vernal equinox, plough twice ; then, with the first rain in .the next month, at every cubit's distance throughout the field, draw furrows intersecting each other at right angles. At every intersection xirop a seed, and cover them with another furrow. After two montim weed Hrith .the plough ; and with the Cuniay, or hoe drawn 'by oxen, throw the earth < in ridges toward the young plants. In six months it begins to give ripa fruit, which for 'three months is gathlsred once a week. .

The Hesaaru cultivated here is called CVin, o» black, and requires S2«r*?'** ^ a black soil> to -which it is said to add much strength. It^ is there- fore taken . alternately with Navony, or with HiM-Ellu, both of which are considered as exhausting crops. . It iis cultivated exactly iftthe same manner SB furu^i is, ripens in^three months,.and in a good year prodnces^sixteen seeda Except fop feeding camels, its straw or husks are of no use.

Barugw is of two kind^ ; .white and Hack. . A>sandy soil of any GrMBcaiUfld : kind agrees with this corn,, which is also valuable as requiring very '^^' little rain.. The straw is better fodder than that of rice. In the second month -.after iJie vernal eqxdnox; p![ough three times; After the next rain, in thd following month^either sow with the driU, and harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, or^sow broad-east, and plough in the seed. . In three months it ripens without farther trouble, and ia a favourable season pfodooes sixteen^ seeds.

Near Sira a very small quantity of cotton is raised ; and, like co*^»-- that of Madhu^iri, it ia of a qusdity inferior to what is brought from BulahaH, and bther places- nearer the Krishna river. The soil on which it is sown is a black clay containing nodules of lime- stone.'. In the two months following the vernal equinox, plough three times. At any convenient time, in the two next months, mix the seed with dung, and drop it in <the fUrrows after the plough, form- ing lines about nine inches apart; A month afterwards plough a^dn between the lines^ and an order to ^destroy the superfluous p^ts and weeds^ use the hoe driawn by oxen three times, crossing ttiese furrows at right angles. The second and third times that this hoe is used, it must foUow the same track as at first ; otherwise too many of the plants would be destroyed. Between each hoeing three or four days should intervene. In six months the cotton begins to produce ripe capsules, and continues in crop four more. The plants are then cut close to the ground ; and after the next rainy season > tiie field i9 pl9Ughed twice in contrary directions. A month after- - warda it is hoed once or twice with the same implement, and it pro-^

286 ^ JOURNEY FEOM MADEAS THBOUOH [CHAP. \l.

1800. (luces a crop twice as great as it did in the first year. In the third

Ang. i-^. yo^ ^ gj.Qp ^f Shamay or Kavony must be taken, and in the fourth

year cotton is ngain sown, as at first. iDcreAteoB the I have strong suspicions, that the chief of the village, or Oatida,

f^1adg£g1^ from whom I had most of the above ^information, aluough a very m^omuj^^ sensible man, diminished in his accounts the produce of the different graina There being no estimate of the extent of diy-^lands here, it will be very difficult to form any comparison between the success of the operations of husbandry here and m other places. The increase on the seed is scarcely any guide; as in different places and countries the quantity sown on the same extent of ground is extremely va- rious ; and the only rule, on which we ought to depend, in judging of the success of agriculture, is the quantity of grain produced on the same extent of ground afler deducting the seed. With the wretched climate and agriculture of the highlands of Scotland, four seeds of oats is reckoned a good crop ; and at Sira the fanner ex* pects 64 fold from his field of Jola ; but after deductiDg seed, the nighlander has 18 bushels from his acre, while the Hindu has only 17^ ; for on the acre the former sows nearly 24 times -as much seed as the latter does. Actaaiprodvce I measured a field said to require 12 Seers of Huridi or 2 Seei'8

dlf-tS^ ***• of Suja, or 1 2 Seer a of Shumay for seed, and found it to contain 2 f ^ acres. On these data the acre requires only about f^ parts of a peck for the seed of Shamay and Hundi ; of the former, according to the Gauda's rate of twenty seeds, it "would produce only about 3| bushels with a little pulse ; and of the Huruli it would produce less than 2 bushels. An acre would sow about 0*124 parts of a peck of Suja, and produce something less than 5 bushels with a little pulse.

I am farther confirmed in believing that the Gauda under-rated the produce, by haviog measured a "field which had been last year sown vdth Huruli. It took 24 Seers of seed, and in a bad year pro- duced 5 Colagas, or 20 seeds, which is double what he stated as the produce of a good year. The field contained 3 acres 9 chains. At this rate, the seed for an acre is about ^^ parts of a peck, and the produce about four bushels. This last agrees with the account obtained at Madhu-giri from Trimula Nayaka, which I ccmsideras a fair one ; and all the Gauda's statements will probably be found to require a similar amendment.

In the government of Dilavmr Khan a measurement was made of all the bdel-nut gardens in this district ; an area of six poles in length by five in breadth being called a Colaga, or Woctda-tand. About twenty years ago the Sultan extended tills measurement to the whole district, and found that the pole was in length 13| Sui- tony Oujas, each of which is equal to S7f English inches. This would make the Woculorland nearly l-ff^ acre; but during the Marattah invasion all the accompts of the measurem^it were lost, and the W(>oula4(md8 now in use are the old computed ones which

CHAP. VI.]

MYSORE, CAMABA, AND MALABAR.

297

eziated fonnerlj in the public registers. Of course; from favour 1800. shown to individuals, they are of veiy different sizes. I measured ^^' ^'^' two fields, and found that bj the one £he Wocula-land contained IjMiV '^^^^' ^^^ ^y ^^ other 1^. In my account of the production oi wa^red-Iand, I have taken the last as the standard^ as it a^ees with the result of my inquiries at Mad/ah-giru It is very proMtble, however, that Dilavmr Khan's estimate is more accurate ; for, by having long governed the country, he certainly had better opportu- nities of ascertaining the fact than I could possibly have. In this case the seed and produce stated for an acre in the table must be increased in the proportion of 150 to 116.

The measure of grain originally established here was 64MeMiir«i. Dudu8 == 1 Fuddy ; 2 Fuddiea = 1 Seer; 4 Seers = 1 Bulla ; 16 BuUaa ss 1 Wocula or Colaga ; and 20 Colagas -« 1 Candaca. Pv/rnea has given orders, jJiat the SuUany Seer should be used; and in fact it has been adopted, and 6 Seers are considered as equal to the Bulla ; so that the Candaca and Wocula here are, at present, exact- ly the same with those of Madhu-giri.

Except proprietors of gardens, none of the fanners here have Temurei . any fixed property in their lands. The officers of government, or in their stead the renter, may give the land to any person who will pay a higher rent than the former occupant. In some villages a new bar]min is made once a year ; in others, it is usual to mtuce a bargain for each crop. In general, the bargain is made for a cer- tain sum of money ; at other times the farmers will only agree to coltivate the lands according to the usual division of crops. In every village the custom in doing this differs. At the Kasha, or chief town of the district, the following is the manner in which it is done. The division is always made on the actual measurement. Upon every Cavdaca, or 1920 Seers^ are paid.

To the government for /oafo, explained below ... ... 192

To the Amildar's office, or Cutchery, for oil and stationery 24 To mendicant Brdkmans, Ja/iigamas, and Mussulman J^oA^irA 12

To the To^j^, or watchman 6

To the measurer ... ... ... ... ... ... 6

To the Ptgd/ris of the temjdes of the Saktis, &c. ... ... 24

To the SuMgaru, or village officers s

&auda, or chief

Shanabogas or accomptant . . .

TaUiari or TaUarvara, or beadle

Nirgu/nty, or distributor of water

jJarDer... ••« •••

Blacksmith ••• •••

To the government «

To the farmer, « .

•••

24 24 24 24 12 12 768 768

Seen... 1920

288

A JOURNEY PROM MADHAS THROUGH

[CHAF/VL

•tock

1800. 71^6 Icaia is •given in place of stoppages which were formerly

Aug. 1-6. >inade for officers, to whom the government now pays fixed salaries. The hereditary QauEa, or chief, receives his fee, whether he rents the village or not. Where the soil is bad| and machinery has been used to procure water, the government receives noJisoJa/and in place of one half has only one-tfaird shietre. In the KdrWea <3X>p the priests of the Sdktis get ndthing. Extent of land A plough WTought by ouo man and two oxen, if the reservoir

Jio'iiSh t »ii"* afford a,l^the water ihatris nece88ary,'can Ubour two -TFiwitto-lands "'""' ' of irrigfited ground ; but, if the Capily be used, this iteck^can only

cultivate one 'Foceiia«lan3. The richest fanner in the place, who is the Oauddy or chief of a village, whom I have before mentioned, has ten ploughs ; np^other person has above six. Aboitt a fourth of the cultivators hove one fUough, a half two, and the Temaining fourth from three to six. A fimaer who has four plougjbs, and who may be considered as a man jm easy circumstances, ought to have four men and four women servants with ei^ht oxen. In seed-time and harvest he will require eight additiomu labourers. Two -men and four oxen are required to work a OapUy from sun-rise to sun-set. Men servants hired as Satigaru, or by the year, get monthly 8 .Fananns, about 58. 4c2., and women get half as much. A man's daily wages is \ otA^anam, or about 2d.; a womb's ^ of a JPVmatii, or about 4'^ farthings.

The weights used here are, 22 Rupees = 3 Seer ; '56 Seal's = 1 Mound, or 31^^ lb. By this every thing sold here is weighed ; but goods sent to other countries, such as Goco-nuts, are weighed by a MoAind 6i 48 Seers, or 3.6^ lb.

Twice a month the Cutwdl, or dffieer of police lor the <!hief town of the district, assembles the merchants, and settles the exchaage of money. At present the Fanam exchanges for 16} elephant Dudus, and is equal to -^ of a Stiltany Pagoda. Small ^copper coins called Casu, and equal to ^ of the Dudu, are herew common euiren^ ; as are also the shells called Oowries, of which. 1 6 are equal to one Gasu. All accompts are kept in Cornier^ ^raya Pagodas and Fanamis.

The merchants of Svra possesA considerable entei^nse, aaatd cany goods to the countries oeded to the Nizam on the south of the ITrishna, to the country near Darwara ceded to the Marattahs, to ChdtraJccd, to the vioanity ofNagaray to Seringapatam, andte Ban^ galore ; and merchants from all these<^ountries resort to this mart. At present the trade with the i\ri8;am'8 -eountiy ds aot safe ; and

'Wttighti.

Bxcbangeof •tsoncj.

'Commeree.

CoaimcK* with

t^^iviMA'fdo- ^0 merchants, and other iidiabitants, are ramdk' enngrating into the R^ds dominions. The places, with whicn there was/oxmerly an intercourse here, were £dya-durga, Kedyarut^urga, Balahari, Outti,BffjawuUy'^Advany, Tadepatry,Pamudi, Dharmdwara, Nilomu^ dodi, Penihconda, Indu-pura, Modogusheria, Nedavena^huUy, Oun^ durupi, Batna^giri, Cumpuli, Sirialu, Cvddapa, and CondactindL The goods brought from thence are silk cloths, cotton clotiis, plain and with silk borders, chintzes, and coarse cotton cloths, all the

VTiW. VI.] MYSORE, CAXARA, AND MALABAR. ogjj

manufactures of these places. The colours being better fixed, they isoo. sell higher than the goods of Bangalore. The returns from Siva are ^^^' ^""** dried coco-nut kernels or Copra, Betel-mU, Jagory, Popli bark, Lac, and steel, the manufacture of this neighbourhood. These are the staple articles ; but occasionally oxen, bufialoes, boiled butter, or Gliee, oil, and tobacco have been sent. The merchants whom I here assembled at first asserted, that one half of the returns from hence were made in cash ; but this they afterwards retracted, and alleged that the coco-nut kernels sent from hence greatly exceeds in value all the goods imported.

The intercourse with the Marattah country is perfectly undis- commerce with turbed ; and the places with which it is carried on, are 2)arwara, countJy. JIubuli, Gudaffu, LeckmeHhura-Buicaray, Mulugunda, Catricdy, Humsagara, and Havery. The imports from thence are cotton wool, thread, white and red, coarse and fine red cotton cloth, wliite cotton cloth with silk borders, dark blue cotton cloth, chintz, sackcloth, or Goni, tent cloth, matrasses, blankets, dates, raisins, almonds, wal- nuts, CaHhamua flowers, or Cossiimhay asafoetida, sulphur, and red- lead. The exports from Siva are oxen, buffaloes, Popli bark, a root called Lavanaa, which, I believe, is that of the long pepper, Lac, and steel, with f of cash. Of this last, however, I am doubtfiil.

The imports from theNagara country to SiraoxeBeiel-nut, black- commerce with pepper, cardamoms, Lavanga patH, a leaf used in medicine, Cabob- ^'^^"' china (the buds of the Laurus Cassia), bastard cinnamon (bark of the Laurus Cassia), and sandal-wood. The exports from Sira to Nagara are blankets. Bangalore cloths, country steel, tobacco, oil, boiled butter, or Ghee, buffaloes, and cash to the amount of one half of the imports.

The imports from Ghatrakal consist of ready money for the pur- commerce wUh chase of sugar. chatnM.

The country near Seringapatam supplies Sira with a great deal commerce with of grain, and receives back ready money, boiled butter, oil, dry gin- ^*'*wprt««m. ger, limes, and coco-nuts.

ITie black-pepper and Betel-nut from Nagara, with some of the commerce with latter from this country, are sent to Bangalore for the manufactures '^""*^''*- of that place, and for the goods imported at Madras by sea.

Most of the Betel-nut is disposed of at Gubi, at which place there commerce with is annually sold about 15,000 Maunds, or about 3,575 hundred ^"**- weight. All this is not the produce of the district of Si/ra ; but is col- lected from several others in the neighbourhood. The G^bi merchants allege, that at their fairs more than double this quantity is sold.

The grand article of produce here for explanation is the Copra, copra, or dried kernel of the coco-nut. Many of the merchants make advances to the proprietors of gardens. At the time of advance the price is fixed, and the farmer has no right to sell his Copra to another, and to repay the merchant who made the advances. The average price is four Fanama a Maund, or lis, B^d, a.hundred weight.

37

I

290

1800.

Aug. 1—6. Carriage cattle.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI.

Mannf aotnres ; BUy-Muggai.

Divangai.

Cnttomi of the

The cattle employed in this trade are bnffaloes and oxen. Tlie buffaloes of the NizaTn'a country are tlie best, and daily carry 1 2 Mannd8 or 320 lb. three cosscs, or about nine miles. The oxen of this country-breed are the best, and daily carry 8 Mounds, or 2131b. four cosses or twelve miles. In order to be able to do this, these cattle must be fed on oil-cake, or on cotton-seed and straw. The NizarrCs country, abounding with cotton/ wonderfully improves the oxen that are bred in this neighbourhood. An ox bought here for four Paffodas, by keeping one year in the place, will be worth ten Pagod.a8, " The Mative oxen of that country do not improve so fast, probably from having been always used to a stronger diet than those of this place have wiien young.

The weavers in Sira are of two kinds ; the Bily Muggas, and D^vdngas. The former weave a coarse thin muslin called SliilUr. That made for the dress of women, called Skiray, is the coarsest, and is called Wuvtacuddy, It is in pieces ] 8 cubits long by 2 broad, and sells unbleached for 5^ FanaTna, or about 3*. 8a. The Entcudy ShiUa, intended for men*s dress, is finer ; and is from 28 to 26 cubits long, by 1^ cubit broad. It sells from 6J to 10 Fanaras a piece (from is, 4d. to Qs, 8ci.) These cloths are brought up by two sets of dyers ; the Niligaf^, who dye it blue ; and the Marattalts, who dye with Coasumba, or flowers of the Garihamus. 'I'hey advance money to the weavers for two or thr^e pieces at a time.

The D4ydngas here make two thick coarse cloths ; the one called Cadi is plain, and resembles what is made by the Wka/Unru near Bangalore ; and the other has red borders, like the cloth of the Togotarus. The whole of the cloth made here is used in the imme- diate neighbourhood.

The Bify-Mugga weavers consider this name as a tcrth oiT re- proach,and call themselves Oiirivina Banijigam. They are an origi- nal tribe of Karnata. Some of them are dealers in doth or grain, and a few are farmers. 'Jliey have no hereditaiy chiefs ; but infractions of the rules are caste are punished by their clergy or Jangamns\ who are, however, bound to act by the advice of the elders of the tribe, should the fault be of such magnitude as to require excommunica- tion. An assembly of the heads of families settles disputes. They pretend to be one of the tribes of pure Banijigns, and to be capd.ble of being appointed to the priesthood. They say, that there are six tribes ofproper Banijigas; the Bardagulu, the Pancha'in, the Stala- da, the Tarcana, the Jaiuff, and the Curivina. All these can eat together ; but cannot intermarry, unless they have been appointed Jangamaa ; and the descendants of these never marry with the laity, although among themselves they lose all former distinctions. Each of these six tribes are again divided into Gdtrams, and » man and woman of the same Odtram can never marry. The 06trams of the CuHrina are sixty-six in number. They may mai^y as many wives as they please ; but cannot divorce them, except for adultery ; and it is not unusual for a husband to keep his wife after she haa

CtiAJ^. tl.J MYSOE£, CANaEA, and MALABAfe. 291

been guilty of this crime. Women are marriageable even after the 1800. age or puberty ; and widows may live with a man in a kind of "** ~ ' left-hand marriage, and be called Gutiffos, or concubines ; but both the raan with whom they live, and their children, are considered as legitimate. If a woman leaves her husband, and cohabits with ano- .ther man of the same caste, she is called a Hadra ; but her children are not disgraced. Any woman, even an unmarried one, who has connexion With a man of a strange caste, is excommunicated. A widow ought to bury herself alive in her husband's grave, but the eustom has become entirely obsolete. The people of this caste eat no animal food, nor ^nk any intoxicating liquor. They never take the vow of Dds^ri. They are allowed to reaui all the books belong- ing ta the sect, amon^ which they do not reckon the V^daa. They wear the Linga^ ana their adorations are principally directed to that emblem of Siva, Their women offer fruit and flowers to Ma* Hma, and the other Saktis ; but this is not done by the men. They do not believe in the Virika, or spirits of chaste men. Their Ourua are the same with those of the PancJuim Banijigaru ; the five chief thronea being called Paraviitta at ffumpa, Verupacsky near the TvmgahhxJid/ra river, Hujiny, BalahuUy, and Nidamavudy, Their hjv followers of this caste these Gurus make what is called Detcha. The Betcha, having shaved and washed his head, is instructed in some Mantrams, or forms of p*ayer, which are in the vulgar tongue, but which, like the Upad/sa of the BrdhTnana, are kept a profound secret. The Ouru, then bestows on the Detcha some consecrated herbs and water, and the Detcha in return gives him some money. This ceremony is analogous to the Dhana of the Brdhmana. The Ourua on their circuits receive also from their followers Dharmaj or charity, or rather duty, but have no fixed dues. The Binaru attend at marriages, births, and funerals, at Mala-pakaha, as the Tithi of the Siidraa is called, and at all great feasts. On these occasions they perfonn Pujd to the Linga, reading some Mantrania, in the Vulgar tongue however, and pouring over it some water and flowers, which by this means are consecrated, and then are divided among the people whom the occasion has assembled. The Einaru then eats something that has been prepared for him, and at marriages receives a smau sum of money. The Panchdnga, or village astro- loger, attends on similar occasions, and reads Mantrams in the vulgar language. He is of course paid for his trouble.

Here, some D4vdngaa of the Karrifita nation do not wear the cuaiomi of tho Liiiga ; but still thev consider Gari Baswa Uppa as their Guru. ^ThoS^i They will eat in the nouse of a D^vdnga who wears the Linga, but ^***' ***« ^^•'»- he will not return the compliment. They •at in common, but do not intermarry with tho Tdtnga Divdngaa, who, like themselves, worship Siva, without wearing his indecent badge. They cat ani- mal food, an indulgence which has probably occasioned the sepa- lution. They ought not to drink spirituous liquors. Asa kind of excuse, or pretence for eating the flesh, they offer bloody sacrifices

292 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Vt.

^iBOp^ to the Saktia. They take the vow of Dds^ri, but donotpmy to ibe ^' Virika^ or spirits of men sainted for chastity. They acknowledge

transmigration, as a future state of reward and punishment.

^sa^uwStS^ The Sadru Woculigas are a caste of Karnata origin and Siidra

u oeu gat y^^y^ . ^j^^y ^^ divided into two tribes that seem to have no commu- nion ; the Cumblagaia/ru Sadru, and the Sadt^ simply so called. The Sadru proper are cultivators, both as masters and servants ; they act as Candackaru, or native militia, and sometimes trade in grain. Thev have no hereditary chiefs; but their disputes are settled by a council of four Sadru Oaudas, or chief farmers, who also punish ail transgressions against the rules of caste, excommunicating licentious women, and other heinous offenders, and reprimanding those who have been guilty of less enormous faults. By religion they are divided into three classes, those who worship Jaina, those who wor- ship Siva, and those who worship Vishnu under the form of Vencaty JRcimana ; but this does not prevent intermarriages, and the woman always adopts the religion of her husband. They are also divided into a number of families analogous to the Odtrams of the Brdhmans ; and a man never intermarries with a woman of the same family. They have among them a bastard race, descended from widows, who have become the kind of concubines called Cutigas \ but they are not numerous, and are held in great contempt by the others. The Oauda whom I have so often mentioned is the person that gives me the information concerning the caste. He is a worshipper of Ven- caty JRdmana, and denies any belief in a future state ; his worship of the gods being performed with a view of obtaining temporal bless- ings. This sect Sike the vow of Dds^riy and bury the dead. They can write accompts, but have no books nor science. They eat no animal food, and ought not to drink spirituous liquors. They are allowed as many wives as they can obtain; but do not divorce thelh for any cause except adultery. Girls continue to be marriageable even after the age of puberty ; and widows are not expected to bury themselves with their husbands' bodies ; but their becoming concubines of the kind called Cutigas is considered as very disgraceful to all their con- nections. Their Ouini is Tata Achdrya, an hereditary chief of the Sri Vaisknavam Brahmams. He bestows on hisfollowers holy water and consecrated victuals, and accepts their charity. The Panchdnga or village astrologer, is their Purdhita, and attends at marriages, births, the building of a new house, and si^iMala'pakdia, the ceremony which the S'Adraa annually perform in commemoration of their de- ceased parents. The Sadru who worship Siva are but few in number, and wear the Linga. The third sect of Sadru worship only the god Jaina, but do not intermarry with the true Jainarv. These bum the dead. The Gauaa says, tjhat formerly all the Sadru were Jainu ; but that his ancestors, disliking that religion, betook themselves to worship Vishnu. They have not adopted the worship of the Sak- tie, of Dharma R&ja, nor of the ViHka,

SliS-"*^' *^^ The Ladas, or Ladarit, have a language quite different fix)oi all

CHAP. VI.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 293

the others that are spoken south of the Knshrui river. This Ian- igoo. guage they call Chaurasi ; and say, that it is spoken at a city called ^^' ^ '^' Cara'iiza, which is near the river OSddvarL In fact, it is a dialect of that spoken near Benares, to which the others have much less resem- blance. The Ladaru say, that, in consequence of a famine in theii* own country, about five hundred years ago, they came to this neigh- bourhood. They serve as cavalry ; trade, especially in horses ; and farm lands, but never cultivate them with their own hands. They assume the title of KahxUryas of the family of the sun, and wear a string like the Brdhrtiana, They will not intermarry with the Raj^ puts, or other pretenders to a royal descent ; but they are treated by the Brdhmans merely as Siidtoa, and in fact seem to be the highest rank of S^ras in their native country, like the KayatMms of Bengal, or the Kerit Nairs of Malyala. They are of 1 4 different families, like the Gdtrams of the Brdhma^is ; and some are followers of the Siva Brdhmans, and some of the Sri Vaishnavam : but this does not produce a separation of caste ; for the woman always adopts the relirion of her husband. They have no hereditary chiefi ; but the affairs of the tribe are managed by an assembly of the heads of families. For small faults these assemblies reprimand ; for adultery, or for eating forbidden food, or with forbidden persons, they excommxmicate. Many of them read Sanskrit, and study every kind of book except the V(^das, which they never presume to inspect. My informers are worshippers of Vishnu ; yet their Guru is a Smar- toL Brdhman, who bestows consecrated victuals and holy water, and receives their Dharma, When they are 6 or 7 years of age, they receive fix)m the Panchdnga their first thread, and Upadesa, *

at a ceremony called UpanSna. At this the Panchdnga reads Mantrams, as also at births, marriages, full and new moons, at Sankrdntis or the first days of the solar months, at funerals, and at the Mala'^paksha lately mentioned These Ladas sacrifices to the Saktis, especially to the goddess Bhawdni. The Fujdris or priests in the temples of this idol are called Bcmibolas, who observe the rules of Sannydsi, especially celibacy, and yet go absolutely naked. They have disciples, who are also Sannyasis, but who are not con- sidered as sufficiently holy to be allowed to show their nudities. Part of the sacrifices are eaten by the votary, and part by the Bom- bola; but the animal is sometimes made a burnt-offering to the idol, which in this country is done by no other caste. This burnt- offering is by the Ladas called Hdmam, which is the same name that the Brahraans use for their bumt-K)fferings ; but these always consist of flour, or other vegetable matter. It is true, that the Brdhmans have a burnt sacrifice of animals, which they^call Yagam, ; but it must be preceded by such a severity of penance, and is attended with such enormous expense, that no one in these degenerate days is either willing or able to undertake such an offering. The proper Sokti Pijbjd, that ought to be performed to Bhawdni, has also fallen into disuse here among the Ladas ; but my interpreter says, that at

294 ^ JoUrNey from Madras through [cMAt*. tt.

•

1800. Madras it is very common. The votary takes an animal^ and offers

Aug, »-«. it as a sacrifice to the idol in presence of a beautiful young woman who is perfectly naked. It is supposed, that any person -Who, while in the performance of this sacrea ceremony, should even look with desire at the charms exposed to his view, would be instantly struck dead ; no one^ therefore, undertakes it who has not great confidence in the power which he has over bis passions. By the Brdhfoana this ceremony is much condemned^ and ought to deprive any one of his caste that attetn{)ted its performance ; yet some of them ai*e sfidd in » private mftnnelr to have recourse to this superstition, as it is supposed to have a wonderful efficacy in procuring temporal success and feli- city. Some of the Ladaru take the VoW of Dds^ri, and at the same time receive Chahrdntikam. I'bese beg only one day in the week, following on the other six their usual professions ; and they never travel about as vagabonds making a noise Ivith beHs and conehs. The Ladas burn their dead, who ought to be accompanied on the pile by their widows ; but this custom has become obsolete. Widows are not permitted to become concubines of the kind called Cutigaa, nor are the men allowed to keep those called Hadras, A girl, after ten years of age, is no longer marriageable* The men may take as many wives as they can procure, but can only divorce them for adultery. Persons of this caste drink no spirituous liquors ; and, as is usual in Bengal, eat no animal food, except that which has been offered as a sacrifice.

CHAPTER VII.

FROM SIRA TO SERINGAPATAM.

AuGQST 7tli, 1800. — Having been informed, that in the woods igoo. to the north and north-cast of Sira many cattle are bred, and that ^''^- ^^• in the hills to the eastward much steel is made, I determined to take a short jonmey in these directions, although it was in some measure retracing my steps. For the cattle, Pauguda and Niddygul are the principal places ; there being twelve large herds in the one dis- trict, and ten in the other. These places, however, being much out of my way, I determined to proceed to Madigheahy where, I was told, there were several herds. In the morning I went five cosses to (Jhandror-giri, or Moon-hill, which is a poor village at the foot of a high rock east from Badavcmcu-hully, Of t?ourse, I had before tra- velled the greater part of the road. In the neighbourhood of Chan- dra-ffiri* are some fine betel-nut gardens. Formerly these amounted to netei-magu- five Can-dacas of land, or 150 acres. In the time of a dreadful famine, ^«"»- which happened about tJiirty-six years ago, these gardens suffered much owing to the wells having become dry ; for they are all water- ed by the machine called Capily. They suffered still more owing to the desertion of their proprietors, on account of the assessment which was imposed by Tippoo, to enable him to pay the contribution which Lord Cornwallis exacted. They are now reduced to about 45 acres, or IJ CaThdacOn

The tank here ought to water 6 Candacas of land, or 180 acres ; sute of the but, from being out of repair, it at present supplies one-sixth part ^o^^'^y- only of that extent. The fanners here allege, tnat in the last twen- ty years they have had only one season in which there was as much rain as they wanted. In this district of Mddhugiri some of the vil- lages want 1, some I, and some f of the cultivators which would be necessary to labour their arable lands, and some have been totally deserted.

8th August. — ^I went three cosses to Madigheahy, Part of the Aug. sth. road lay in the countiy ceded to the Nizam, who in the neighbour- hood of Ratrui-^iH has got an insulated district, in the same manner as the RSja o{ Mysore has one round Pauguda, The whole country through which I passed was laid waste by the Marattah army under Puseram Bhow ; and as yet has recovered very little. In the XfizarrCs territory the villages were totally deserted. The greater part of the country is now covered with low trees, but much of it is fit for cul-

tZ!)G

A JOURNEY FROM M.VDRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII

3f,idiffhcshy

1800. tivation. On my arrival at Madigheshy. I was not a little disap-

"^' "'"• pointed on being told by the civil officera, that in the whole district

there was not a single cow kept for breeding ; and that the only

cattle in the place were a few cows to give the village people milk.

and the oxen necessary for agriculture.

MadifiJieshy is a fortress situated on a rock of very ditticult access, and garrisoned by a few Company's seapoys ; m order, I sup- pose, to prevent any of the ruffians in the iV%a»t'8 country from seiz- incr on it, and rendering it a strong-hold to protect them in their rob- benes. At the foot of the hUl is a weU-fortified town, which was •said to contain 100 houses ; but that account was evidently greatly under-rated. In it were 1 2 houses j)f farmers, and twenty ot Uralt- onam, who, except two officers of government, were aU supporte-J by the contributions of the industrious part of the commumtv ; tor Tippoo had entirely resumed the extensive charity lands which they fomerly possessed. Their houses were, however, by far the best in the town, and occupied, as usual, the most distinguished quarter. The place is now dependant on Madhu-gin ; but dunng the former govemment was the residence of an Aaoph, or lord-lieutenant. hLis fiouse, which is dignified with the title of a iMial. or palace, is a very mean place indeed. The Mussulman Sirdars under Tippoo were too uncertain of their property to lay out much on buildings ; and every thing that they acquired was in general immediately ex- pended on dress, equipage, and amusement.

The place originally belonged to a Polygar femily ; a la^y ot which, named Madigheshy, having burned herself with her husband s corp-se, her name was given to the town ; for, above the Gluits, this practice, so far as I can learn, h»is been always very rare, and con- sequently gave the individuals who suffered a greater reputation than where it is constantly used. Madiglieshy was afterwards go- verned by Ranis, or princesses, of the same family with the heroine from whom it derived its name. From them it was conquered by the family of Chicuppa Gmda, who retained it long after the Poly- gars of Mysore had deprived tJiem of their original poss^ons, Madhxi-giri and Chin'-ndrdyan'-durga. During the invasion ot Lord Comwallis, a descendant of Chicuppa Gauda came into this country : and, when he found that the place must return ^ the Sultan's dominion, he cruelly plundered it of the little that hart escaped Marattah rapacity. He did not leave the place, which li^ extremely strong, till Commur ud' Been Khan came mto the neigl \ bourhood with a considerable force. .

In the vicinity there is very little cultivation ; owmg, as tl natives say, to the want of rain. The late Sultay, three years aj expended 700 Pagodus (about 2300 in repairing a tenk, that oug to water 8 Candacas, or 240 acres of rice-land : but m no year sm has the rain filled it, so as to water more than what sows two Of- dacas. The wells here are too deep for the use of the machine ca Capily. f

Want of water.

/

rHAP. VIl.J MYSOKE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 297

9th August. — The native officer commanding the seapoys in the 1800. foiii having informed me that I was deceived concerning the herds p^;g^^?'tho of breeding cattle, and the village officer being called, he gave such natives. particular information where the herds were, that it became im- possible for them to be any longer concealed. The people, in ex- cuse for themselves, said they were afraid that I had come to take away their cattle for the use of Colonel Wellesley*s army, then in the field against the Dundia ; and, although they had no fear about the payment, yet they could not be accessory to the crime of giving up oxen to slaughter. In the morning I took the village officei-8 with me, and visited some of the herds ; but the whole people in the place were in such agittition, that I could little depend on the truth of the accounts which they gave ; and I do not copy what ^

they said, as I had an opportunity soon after of getting more satis- ia€tory information.

The country round Mddiglvesy is full of little hills, and is over- Appearance of grown with copse wood. The villages of the Goalas, or cow-keepers, *^® <»«»"t. are scattered about in the woods» and surrounded by a little culti- vation of dry-field. The want of water is every where severely felt, and the poor people live chiefly on Horse-gram, their Ragy having failed. In many places the soil seems capable of admitting the cul- tivation to be much extended.

Near the town is a fine quarry, of a stone which, like that ouairies. found at Rdwxx^giri, may be called a granitic porphyry.

Here also may be easily quarried fine masses of gray g^'anite.

10th August. — ^In the morning I went three cosses to Madhu- j^a- loth. giri. The road led through pretty vallies, surrounded by detached ufecoun"^.° rocky hills. These vallies showed marks of having once been in a great measure cultivated, and contained the ruinous villages of their former inhabitants. Ever since the devastation committed by Pur- seram Show, and the subsequent famine, they have been nearly waste ; and many of the -fields are overgrown with young trees. A few wretched inhabitants remain, and a few fields are cultivated ; and it is said, that this year greater progress would have been made toward the recovery of the country, nad not the season been re- markably dry and unfavourable.

On my arrival at ifadhu-giri, and questioning Trimula Ndyaka Breeding herds on the subject, I found that every town and village in this hiUy ®' wackcattic. country had herds of breeding cattle. One of the herds I had met on the road ; but they were so fierce, that, without protection from the keepers, it would have been unsafe to approach them. I deter- mined, therefore, to remain a day at Madhu'-giri and examine the particulars.

llih August. — I went with Trimula Ndyaka, and examined Aug. nth. tliree herds of breeding cows, one of them chiefly his own property. Prom him, and from some of the most sensible Goalas, I afterwards took the foUowiner account.

^3 ^% «

In this country the Cadu Ooalas, or Qoalaru, are.those who k^epSn"'^'*'

38

21^ A JOURJSEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Vll,

1800- breed cattle. Their families live in small villages near the skiiis of

Aug. ntb. Q^Q woods, where they cultivate a little ground, and keep some of their cattle, selling in the towns the produce of the dairy. Their families are very numerous, seven or eight young men in each being conunon. ^Two or three of these attend ihe flocks in the woods, while the remainder cultivate their fields, and supply the towns with firewood, and with straw for thatch. Some of them also hire them- selves to the farmers as servants. They are a very dirty people, much worse than even the generality of the people of Kariidta ; for they wear no clothing but a blanket, and generally sleep among the cattle ; which, joined to a warm climate, and rare ablutions, with vermin, itch, ring-worms, and other cutaneous disorders, render them very offensive.

In criminal mattera relating to caete, the Goalas are under the jurisdiction of n^ renter, who in the language of Kamata is called Beny Chavadi, or in the Mussulman dialect Musca Ghavadi, which signifies the head of the butter-office. He resides at the capital, and pays to government an annual revenue. He goes to every village where any regular families of Goalas are established, and from each levies the tax which they pay to government for liberty to pajsture their flocks on its property. In this neighbourhood, every family, whether it consists qf many persons or of few, or whether it be rich or poor, pays the same tax ; which is indeed a mere trifle, being only six FaTtains, or abour 48. a year. For this small sum they are ex- empted from any tax or rent for grass, and may feed their cattle in whatever woods they please. In some villages there is often only one family of privileged Goalas^ in others there are two. If a family change its place of abode, it must always pay its tax, and also cer- tain dues owing to the temples, at its original village. The «ame happens to the individuals of a family, which sometimes may occupy ten houses ; the whole of them, wherever settled, must send their share of the tax to the head of the family. The head man of the family is generally the eldest son of the last man who held the office ; but in case of his being incapable,^ from stupidity, of trans- acting business, the Beny Chavadi appoints an acting chief, or Ijya- mdna. There are some Goalas, who are not privileged, nor under the authority of the Beny Chavadi, who in proportion to the extent of their flocks pay a rent for the grass to the Gydda Cavila, or keeper of the forest. This also is very moderate ; 1 OQ cows i)aying annually five Fanams, or Ss. 4id.

The Ijyamdnas, or hereditary chiefs of Goala families, settle all disputes ; but the Beny Chavadi punishes all transgressions against the rules of caste. When the flocks of any family have perished, either by war or pestilence, the suflerers go and solicit a new stock from the other persons of the caste, each of whom will give a beast or two for that purpose. Should they be so unreasonable as to refuse this boimty, the Beny Chavadi will compel them to assist their dis- tressed neighbours.

CHAP. VII. ] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, 299

There are a great many different races of Ooalas, with whom the 1800. Cculu Goalas neither eat nor intermany. These last are a tribe of ^"*'"*^* Karndta ; and pei-sons, who consider themselves as of any rank, marry into such families only, with the purity of whose prigin they are well acquainted ; for in this tribe there is a very numerous race otCutigds, or bastards. Widows who prefer disgrace to celibacy, and women who commit adultery, connect themselves with the bastard race, who also keep Hadras, or concubines ; a practice that is not permitted to Goalas of a pure descent. These, however, may keep as many wives as they please. A woman who is incontinent with a man of any other caste, is inevitably excommunicated. If the adultery has been committed with a Goala, she will be received as a Cutlga ; and both the man who seduced her, and her husband, are fined in twelve Fanama, or about 8s. The Ooalas are not permitted to drink spirituous liquors, nor to eat fish, or hog« ; but they may eat sheep, goats, deer, and fowls. They bury the dead, and have no knowledge of a future life, except believing that those who die un- married will become Virgias, whom they worship in the usual man- ner. The gods peculiar to their caste are Jinjuppa and Bamuppa, The Brdhmans say, that the former is the same with Lechniana, the younger brother of Mama ; but of this the Goalas are ignorant. These poor people have a small temple, containing two shapeless stones; one of which they call Jinjuppa and the other Ramuppa. The Pujdri, or priest, is a Goala, whose office is hereditary; but who intermarries with the laity. Sacrifice's are not offered to th^se idols ; they are worshipped by oflerings of fruit, flowers, and the like. There is a forest called Gyddada Mutraya, to which the Goalas re- pair, and sacrifice animals to Mutraya, who is represented by the first stone which the votaries find in a convenient place. On this occcosion there is a great feast ; and any DdsM (religious mendicant) that attends obtains the head of the sacrifice, and some bread. They sacrifice also to the goddess Marima. Some of the Gadu Goalas take the vow of Ddsffri; but none of them can either read or write. Their Guru is a Sri Vaishnavam Brahman ; but they neither know his name nor where he lives. He comes once in two or three years, admonishes them to wear the mark of Vishnu, and gives them holy water. Each person presents him with a Fanam ; and, if he happen to be present at a marriage, he gets a measure of rice. Although these people ciill their Gut^ a Brdhwari, it is more probable that he is a Vaishnavam or Satdiwiia ; for the Panchdnga, or astrologer of the village, does not act as Purdhita at any of their ceremonies, and they are not a tribe that can claim to be of Siidra origin.

The race of oxen in this country may be readily distinguished oxenof the from the European species, by the same marks that distinguish all ^^^^ ^^'*' the cattle of India ; namely, by a hump on the back between the shouldera, by a deep undulated dewlap, and by the remarkable de- clivity of the OS sacrum. But the cattle of the south are easily dis- tinguished from those of Bengal by the position of the horns. In

300 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Vll.

1800. those of Bengal the horns project forward, and fonn a considerable

Aug. nth. angle with the forehead ; wherciis in those of the south the honis

are placed nearly in the same line with the os frontis. In this breed

also, the prepuce is remarkably large ; and vestiges of this organ

are often visible in females ; but this is not a constant mark.

Of this southern species there are several breeds of veiy different qualities. Plates XIII., XIV. and XV. contain sketches of some of them. Above the Oh/Lts, however, two breeds are most prevalent The one is a small, gentle, brown, or black animal : the females are kept in the villages lor giving milk, and the oxen are those chiefly em- ployed in the plough ; their short, thick make enabling them to labour easily in the small rice-plots, which are often but a few yards in length. This breed seems to owe its degenei'acy to a want of pro- per bulls. As each pei'son in the village keeps only two or three cows for supplying his own family with milk, it is not an object with any one to keep a proper bull ; and as the males are not emasculated until three years old, and are not kept separate from the cows, these are impregnated without any attention to improvement, or even to prevent degeneracy. Wealthy farmers, however, who are anxious to improve their stock, send some cows to be kept in the folds of the large kind, and to breed from good bulla The cows sprung from these always remain at the fold, and in the third gene- ration lose all marks of their parent s degeneracy. • The males are brought home for labour, especially in drawing water by the Capily; and abojit every village may be perceived all kinds of intermediate mongrels between the twcr breeds.

In the morning the village cows are milked, and are then col- lected in a body, on the outside of the wall, with all the buffaloes and oxen that are not employed in labour. About eight or nine in the morning the village herdsman, attended by some boys or girls, drives them to the pasture. If the flock exceeds 120, two herdsmen must be kept, and their herds go in different directions. The pastures are such waste lands as are not more than two miles distant from the viQage, and are in general poor ; the tufts of gi-ass are but thinly scattered, and the bare soil occupies th«5 greater space. Q^his gra«s, however, seems to be of a very nourisliing qua- lity, and the most common species is the Andropogon Martini of Dr. Roxburgh's manuscripts. At noon, and at four o'clock, they aae driven to water, to raise which the Capily is often employed. At sun-set they are brought home ; and in the rainy season the cow- house is smoked, to keep away the flies. In the back yard of every house stands a large earthen pot, in which the water used for boil- ing the grain consumed by the family is collected ; and to this arc added the remains of curdled milk, of puddings, and a little flour, oil-cake, or cotton seed. This water becomes very sour, and is given as a drink to the cows in the evening, when they are again milked. At night, in the rainy season, the cattle get cut gra^ss, which is collected in the woods, and about road sides : this last is

Madbas Ox.

Madhu-oibi Ox.

• <

.• «

• t r « "

Madhu-Giri Bull.

Madhu-giri Cow.

• • • •

PhiTBXV.

SERINCAPATAM BULL.

Seringapatam OX.

CHAP. Vll.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 301

the most nutritious, the very succulent rpois being cut up with the 1800.. leaves, and the situation preventing the harsh stems from growing. In ^^^- *'^- dry weather, the cattle at night have straw. Those who can afford it, chiefly Brdhraans, ^ve their milch-cows cotton seed and Avaray, The working cattle ought to have Horse-gram, After the milk for the family has been taken, the calves are allowed to suck ; and unless they be present, as is usual with all the Indian race of cattle, the cows will give no milk. The cows here go nine months with calf, begin to breed at three years of age, and continue until 15 years old. 1'hey breed once a year, but give milk for six months only. A good cow of the village kind gives twice a day from four to six Cuclui Seers, or from about 2J to 3J pints ale measure.

The cattle of the other breed are very fierce to strangers^ and nobody can approach the herd with safety, unless he be surrounded by GoalaSj to whom they are very tractable ; and the whole herd foUows, like dogs, the man who conducts it to pasture. The bulls and cows of this breed never enter a house ; but at night tire shut up in folds, which are strongly fortified with thorny bushes, to defend the cattle from tigers. At 5 years old the oxen are sold, and con- tinue to labour for twelve years. Being very long in the body, and capable of travelling far on little nourishment, the merchants pur- chase all the best for carriage. To break in one of them requires three months' labour, and many of them continue always very un- ruly. The bulls and cows were so restless, that, even with the assist- ance of the OoalaSy I could not get them measured ; but the dimen- sions of a middle sized ox were as follow : From the nose to the root of the horn, 21 inches. From the root of the horn to the highest part of the hump, 30 inches. From the height of the hump to the pro- jecting part of the ossa ischia, 45 inches. From the hump to the ground, 46 inches. From the top of the hip-bones to tho ground, 51 inches.

The cows of this breed are pure white ; but the bulls have gene- rally an admixture of black on the neck and hind quarters. These cattle are more subject to the disease than the cattle living in vil- lages ; and once in three years an epidemic generally prevails among them. It is reckoned severe when one-third of a man's stock pe- '

rishes, although sometimes the whole is lost ; but in general, as all the cows are reserved for breeding, the loss occasioned by one epide- mic is made up before another comea^

These cattle are entirely managed by Ooaias ; and some of these people have a considerable property of this kind : but the gi'eater part of these breeding flocks belong to the rich inhabitants of towns or villages, who hire the GoaJus to take cai-e of them ; and, for the advantage of better bulls, send to the fold all their spare cows of the village breed* In procuring bulls of a good kind, some expense is incurred : for the price given for them is from 10 to 20 Pagodas (3i. 7». Id. to 6Z. 148. 2(i.), while from 8 to 15 Pagodas is the price of an ox of this kind. Care is taken to emasculate all ♦ie young

304 ^ JOUR^'EY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII

1800. diately boiled for at least one hour ; but two or three hours are Aug. iiih. reckoned better. The earthen pots, in which this is done, are in general so nasty, that after this operation no part of the produce of the dairy is tolerable to an European ; and whatever they use, their own servants must prepare. The natives never use raw milk, alleging that it has no flavour. The boiled milk, that the family has not used, is allowed to cool in the same vessel ; and a little of the former daj'*s Tyre, or curdled milk, ia added to promote its co- agulation, and the acid fermentation. , Next morning it has become Tyre, or coagulated acid milk. From the top of each potful, five or six inches of the Tyre are taken, and put into, an earthen jar, where it is churned by turning round in it a split Baviboo, This is done very expertly by a rope, which, like that of a turner's lathe, is passed two or three times round the Bamboo, and a quick motion in contrary directions is given by pulling first one end of the rope, and then the other. After half ah hour's churning, some hot water is added, and the operation is repeated for about half an hour more ; when the butter forms. The natives never use butter ; but prefer what is called Ghee, not only as that keeps better, but also as it has more taste and smell. In order to collect a quantity sufficient for making Ohee, the butter is often kept two or three dayB ; and in that time a warm climate renders it highly rancid. When a suf- ficient quantity has been collected, it is melted in an earthen pot, and boiled untU all the water mixed with the butter has evaporated It is then taken from the fire; and, for what reason I could not learn, a little Tyre and salt, or Betel-leaf and reddle, are added. It is kept in pots, has a very strong smell, and is best preserved from spoiling by a little tamarind and salt, which at any rate enter into the dishes of all the natives that can afford to use Ohee. It is eaten when even a year old. Three Pucka Seers, or 262 Rupees weight of buffaloes' milk, give 100 Rupees weight of Ohee ; the same quantity of cow and buffalo milk mixed, as usual, give 80 Rupees weight ; cow milk alone gives 60 Rupees weight, and goat milk only 40 Rupees weight, iag. lath. 12th -4 1/^us^.— Having been informed, that ChirC-ndrAyaTi!-

to^'wunS?.*^ durga was distant three cosses, I ordered my tents to be pitched at that place ; but on coming up, I found that the distance was only one coss* In this country, it is indeed very difficult to get any accurate information concerning routes and distances. The road leads through a very narrow rugged valley, capable of very little cultivation. It is situated in the highest part of the country, the water from its north end running iiito the northern Pinakani, while the Cdv^ri receives the torrent flowing from its southern extremity. Chin^-ndrdyav! -durga, by its situation, is a strong place, and is garrisoned by the troops of the Mysore Rdja, It is gr^eatly infe- rior in appearance to Mjadhu-giri, although it is said to have been the favorite residence of Chicuppa Oauda. The town is the Kasha, or capital of a district, but is very poor. Nothing can be rougher

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 3()5

than the neiglibouring country, which at first sight appears a mass isoo. of rocks and bare hills thrown confusedly together ; but on a nearer ^"^* "^**" inspection, many fertile spots are observed.

In the neighbouring woods is found abundance of iiie Popli Popu baric. bark, which I have frequently mentioned as a dye, and as an article of export. It is the bark of the root of a large scandent plant, which climbs to the top of the highest trees. I saw neither flower nor fruit, so can say nothing of its botanical affinities ; and the specimens of the stem and leaves were not known to Dr. Roxburgh. It is col- lected by some Baydarus, who are in the service of the Oydda Cavila, or keeper of the forest.

13th August — I went three cosses to Tavina Caray, in com- Aug. nth. pany with the Amildar, who seems to be a very industrious man. uw^oSt^.^' He says, that last year he brought 200 ploughs into his district, and that 2§0 more would be required for its fuU cultivation. Near Chin'-Tuirdyan'-durga the country, for the most part, consists of a rugged valley surrounded by hills ; but the fields between the rocks were formerly cleared, and well cultivated, and are said to be veiy favourable for Ragy, the rock enabling the soil to retain moisture. Among these rugged spots we visited some iron and steel forges, which had indeed induced me to come this way. The information procured on this subject, is as follows :

Iron is smelted in various places of the following Talvxi8, or dis- iron mines, tricts ; Madhu-giri, Chin^-ndrdyan'-durga, HagaXawadi, and DSva- rayor-durga. In the first two districts the iron is chiefly made^from the black-sand which the small torrents formed in the rainy season bring down from the rocks. In the two latter districts, it is made from an ore called here Cany Callu, which is found on the hill Kiifi- dala Guda, near Muga-Nayakana-Cotay in the Hagalawadi district. A little of the same iron ore is also procured from a hill, called Kaj/muity^ near MtLsa-conda in the oistrict of Chzca-Ndyakana- Hully.

The manner of smelting the iron ore, and rendering it fit for the use of the blacksmith, is the same here as near Magadi. The people belonging to the smelting-house are four beUows-men, three men who make charcoal, and three women and one man who collect and wash the sand. They work only during the four months in which the sand is to be found ; and for the remainder of the year they cultivate the ground, or supply the inhabitants of towns with fire- wood. The four men relieve each other at the bellows ; but the most skilful person takes out the iron and builds up the furnace ; on which account his allowance is greater. In each furnace the workman puts first a basket (about half a bushel) of charcoal. He then takes up as much of the black sand as he can lift with both his hands joined, and puts in double that quantity. He next puts in another basket of charcoal, and the fire is urged with the bellows. When the first charcoal that has been ^ven bums down, he puts in the same quantity of sand^ and one basKet of charcoal ; and does this

39

306 A. JOURNEY FHOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII-

1800' again, so soon as the furnace -will receive a farUier supply. The

Aug. istik "vrtiole 'quantity of sand put in at one smelting measures 617 cubical inches, and weighs, when dry, about 42^ lb. avoirdupois. This gives a mass of iron, which, when forged, makes 11 wedges, each intended to make a ploughshare, and weighing fully 1 ^^Ib. The workmen here, therefore, procure from the ore about 47 per cent, of maUeable iron ; but, as usual in India, their iron is very impure.

In the forging-house are required 3 hammer men, one man to manage the forceps, 2 bellows-men, and 4 men to supply charcoal, which for this purpose is always made of the Bamboo. Every day three furnaces are smelted, and 33 wedges forged. The workmen are always paid by a division of the produce of their labour ; and every fourth day, or when 132 pieces have been prepared, the divi- sion is made as follows :

• Pieces, To the proprietor ... ... ... ... ... ... 35

To the JPanchdUif who is the foreman at the forge ... 10

To the foreman at the smelting-house ... 8

To one of the bellows-men, who removes the ashes and dross 5 To two of the women, who wash the sand, at 5 eadti ... 10 To the remaining 16 persons, at 4 each '64

132

The Panchdla, or black-smith, out of his wages, is bound to find

an the iron instruments, such as the anvil, the hammers, and the

forceps. The proprietor defrays all other expenses ; and these are

To the keeper of the forest, for permission to make charcoal 100

To the Oauda, or chief of the village, for leave to gather iron

sanu •.• ... .ea ■•• ••• •«. ••• 41/

15 30 42 24. 15 10

••• ••• ••%

To ditto for furnace rent

To the Sunca, or collector of customs ...

To a pair of bellows for the smelting-house

To ditto for the forffe

To sacrifices ... .:.

To charity for the Brdhmana

••• • ••

••• ••■ •••

Fanama 276 The buildings are so mean that they go for nothing ; and at the beginning of the season are put up by the workmen in the course of a day.

BeiaUre Taiae The stonc-ore is made into iron exactly in the same manner ;

©fthotwoowi. ^Q quantity put into the fiimace, and the produce, being nearly the same. The iron from the stone ore is reckoned better for all the purposes to which malleable iron is applied, but it sells lower than the iron made from the sand ; for this last is the only kind that can be made into steel. The stone-iron sells at 6 pieces f<H: the Fanom, ; and the people who work it are paid by daily wages. The wedges that it forms are larger than those of the sand iron, and

t «

• •

• « J

CHAP. YII.] MTSORB, CAKARA, AKD MALABAR. 307

weigh firom 3 to 4 Seers each ; so that this iron costs about 68. lOd. 1800. a hundred-weight. The iron made from the sand sells at four pieces ^^' ****** jbr the Fanam, or about 10a. id. a hundred-weight, the pieces weighing, according to estimate, only three Seers, I am inclined, however, to think, that on an average they weigh at least a tenth part more ; but it would be difficult to ascertain this, as the pieces differ considerably in size, and are never sold by weight.

It must be evident, that in this account the hea<tman, wishing Brror or the to conceal his profit, deceived us. For thirty dividends can onlyeouK^*^' take place in the course of four months ; and, each dividend giving him 36 wedges of iron, he will receive in all 1060 pieces, which, at the usual pnce, are worth only 262| Fimams ; so tnat in the course of the year, his expenses being 276 Fanams, he would lose 13| Fa- Tiama, while the lowest workman gets monthly 7^ Faname, or about 5s.y which is more than is earned by the common labourers of the country. The point in which I think he attempted to deceive was in the number of days that the people wrought. If they smelted every day in the year, his profits would be very great; but allowing for many interruptions, owing to the avocations of agriculture, and to occasional deficiencies of sand, we may safely suppose that the forge is employed 6 months in the year ; and then the profits of the proprietor will be about 100 FanaTns, which is nearly m the same proportion to his stock, as the grains of the breeder of cattle are to his property. At this rato, the quantity smelted in each set of works, taking mv estimate of the weight of each piece, will be about 106 hundred-weight; and the 19 forges, stated m the public accompts to be in this district, and that of Madhu-giri, will yearly produce about 100 tons of iron worth nearly 10002.

For making steel, there are in this vicinity five forges ; four in ^^^' this district, and one in D^va-Raya-Durga, To enable the work- «

men to give them a supply, the merchants frequently make advances ; for almost the whole is exported. It is used for making stone- cutter's chisels, sword-blades, and the strings of musical instruments. The frimace (see Plate XYI. Figs. 40, 41) is constructed in a hut (a) ; and consists of a horizontal ash-pit (b), and a vertical fire-place (c), both sunk below the level of the ground (d). The ash-pit is about f of a cubit in width and height, and conducts from the lower part of the fire-place to the outer side of the hut, where it ends in a square pit (e), in which a man can sit, and with a proper instrument draw out the ashes. The fire-place is a circular pit, a cubit in dia- meter, and descends from the surfistce of the ground to the bottom of the ash-pit, being in all two cubits deep. Ite mouth is a litUo dilated Parallel to the ash-pit, and at a little distance from the mouth of the fire-place, in order to keep the workman from the sparks and the glare of the fire, is erected a mud wall (f) about five feet high. Through the bottom of this passeis an earthen tube (g) which conducts into the fire-place the wind of two bellows (h). Ttio bellowB are as usual supported on a bank of earth (i), and consist

308 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. each of a bullock's hide ; they are wrought, as in other places of this

Aug. miL country, by the workman passing his arm through a leather ring.

The crucibles are made, in a conical form, of unbaked clay, and each would contain about a pint of water. In each is put one-third part of a wedge of iron, with three Rupees weight (631 grains) of the stem of the Tayngada or Cassia auricviata, and two green leaves of the Huginay, which is no doubt a Convolvulus, or an Lpomea with a large smooth leaf; but never having seen the flower, I could not in such a difficult class of plants attempt to ascertain the species. The mouth of the crucible is then covered with a cound cap of un- baked clay, and the junction is well luted. The crucibles, thus loaded, are well dried near the fire, and are then fit for the furnace. A row of them (k) is first laid round the sloping mouth of the fire- place ; then within these another row is placed (1) ; and the center of this kind of arch is occupied by a single crucible (m), which makes in all fifteen. That crucible in the outer row (k) which oc- cupies the place opposite to the muzzle of the bellows, is then taken out, and in its stead is placed horizontally an empty crucible (n). This the workman, who manages the fire, can draw out when he pleases, and throw fewel into the fire-place. The fuel used is charcoal prepared from any kind of tree that grows in the country, except Hi^Ficus Bengalensis, and the Chloroxylon Dnpada of my ma- nuscripts. The fire-place being filled with charcoal, and the arch of crucible being covered with the same fewel, the bellows are plied for four hours ; when the operation is completed. A new arch is then constructed, and the work goes on night and day ; five sets, of 14 crucibles each, being every day converted into steel. When the crucibles are opened, the steel is found melted into a button, with evident marks on its superior surface of a tendency to crystal- lization; which shows clearly, that it has undergone a complete frision. It is surrounded by some vitrified matter, proceeding from the impurities of the iron, and probably nearly equal to the quan- tity of carbon absorbed from the sticks and leaves shut up in the crucible ; for the steel in each crucible is by the workmen reckoned to weigh 1 J Seer, These buttons, however, are never sold by weight, and those that I tried weighed very little more than one Seer of 24 Rupees, In some crucibles the fusion is not complete ; in which case, the steel is of a very inferior quality, and differs but little from common iron.

The number of people employed at one of these works \is [thir- teen ; a head workman, who makes the crucibles, loads them, and builds up the arch ; and four reliefs of inferior workmen, each con- sisting of three persons, one to attend the fire, and two to work the bellows. Each set therefore, in the working season, labours only four hours in the day ; except every fourth day, when they must attend double that time. They are all cultivators; and in the leisure time which they have from the furnace, they manage tJieir fields. There is also a proprietor, who advances all the money re-

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. 309

quired, and who receives payment when the steel is sold. Fifteen isoo. Pagodas worth of iron is purchased ; two for the head workman, ^^' ^**^ and one for each labourer, and for the proprietor. This iron is then given to the head workman, who for three months is occupied in making the crucibles, loading them, and preparing the furnace. Dur- ing this time the twelve workmen bring him clay, repair the buildings, and make charcoal ; but these labours occupy oidy inter- vals, that could not be employed on their small fields oiRagy. In the fourth month, when all has been prepared, they convert the 15 Pagodas worth of ii^on into steel, as above described. Every man then takes the steel whichliis iron has produced; and the proprietor is repaid for his advances. Another quantity of iron is then purchased, and the same process is repeated ; so that by each fiimace 45 Pa- godas worth of iron is, in the course of the year, converted into steel. Besides the money advanced for iron, the proprietor, for the immedi- ate subsistence of the w^orkmen, is occasionally under the necessity of advancing them money ; and he must also pay the general ex- penses attending the forge. These are :

I*ana7ns.

To the keeper of the forest, for leave to make charcoal 110

To the Sunca, or collector of the customs 30

To the Oauda, or chief of the village, for house-rent ... 15

To sacrifices ... ... ... ... ■•• ... 30

To bellows -.. ... ... ... ... ... 42

To thQ BrdArnans ss chmiy 20

Fanams 247 Every man, however, repays his &&re of this, in proportion to his quantity of steel ; and the whole profit of the proprietor is the having three Pagodas worth of iron converted into steel, for which he wStin general be in advance about 40 Pagodas. He therefore requires a capital to that extent ; unless he can borrow it from some merchant, which indeed he generally does.

The 45 Pagodas procure 1800 wedges of iron, and on an average procure 4500 pieces of good steel ; which, at 2 J for the Fanam, are equal to ... ••• •*• *>• ... ... FanaTns 1800

900 pieces of bad steel, a,t 6 Fanams 150

1950 Deduct general charges ... ... Fanams 24^7

Price of iron ... ... ... 450

697

Neat gain 1253

The neat gain, 1253 Fanams, divided by 15, gives 83 J Fanams clear profit for each share. The workman's wages are equal to one share, and thus amount to about 7 Fanams a month ; with double that for the foreman, because he gives up his whole time to the

310 -^ JOUENET FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAF. YIL

1800. business. These wages are good ; but the allowanoe for ihe pro-

Aug. 13th. prietor is small, unless we consider, that he in general gets the money from the merchant, and that his only claim for reward is some trouble in settling the accompts, and the risk of some of the people nmning away with the advances made to them. Amon^ the natives themselves, however, veiy little danger arises fr<»n Uns cause, as they are perfectly acquainted with ^e characters of the individuals employed.

Taking the estimate of the natives, of 30 Rupees weight being the true average of the pieces of steel, the quantity of steel, fit for exportation, that is annually made in this vicinity^ will be about 152 hundred weight, and its value about 8002. or 22. a hundred weight. Tuik. Having examined the iron and steel works, the Amildar and I

visited a fine tank, which is said to have been constructed by Kriehrui Rd/yalu of Vijaya-nagar ; and it is the finest work of the kind that I have yet seen above the Ohats : unfortunately, it has long been out of repair, and lofty trees now cover all the fields which it watered. It is said, that it would require 10,000 Pctgodas (about 3354{. to remove all the mud collected in its bottom, and put it in complete order. A partial repair has just now been siven, and it will be able to water some part of its former fields : me remainder will be deared, and cultivated for Bogy, until other more urgent demands shall allow the repair to be completed. Appwnaott of As WO approach Tavina-Caray, the country becomes open ; and

tht coaattj. j observed that every field was cultivated. Tavma^Oaray is a small town ; but several additions to it are making. Some streets in the Fetta are well laid out ; and, as an ornament before each shop, a coco-nut palm has been planted. The fortress, or citadel, is as usual almost entirely occupied by Brdhmana. This might seem to be an improper place for men dedicated to study and religion ;* but in cases of invasion their whole property is here secure from marauders ; while the SUdras, who are admitted during the attack as defenders, must lose all their efiects, except such moveables as in the hurry they can remove. Aug. wtii. 14th August, — I went to Tumcuru, the chief place of a district,

called also Chaluru, Thecountry is the most level, aud the freest from ' rocks, of any that I have yet seen about the Ohata. I observed only

one place in which the granite showed itself above the surface. The soil m most places is good, and might be entirely cultivated. Near TavmoL-Oa/ray it is so ; but as I approached Tumcuru, I observed more and more waste land. I understand, that the late AmiW^xr did not give the people proper encouragement ; and about twenty days ago he was removed from his ofiBce. By the way I passed nine or ten villages, all fortified with mud walls and strong hedges. At some distance on my left were hills ; and the prospect would have been very beautifrd, had the country been better wooded ; but, ex- cept some palm gardens scattered at great distance, it has very fe^

CHAP. VII.1 MTSOBE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. 311

trees. Tumeuru is a town containing five or six hundred houses. ^^^^^^^ The fort is well built, and by the late Atnildar was put in excellent ^'' rei>a]r. The Petta stands at some distance. The great cultivation here is Ragy, but there are also many rice-fields. This year there iMdll be no KdrtUca crop, as at present the tanks contain only eight or ten days water.

Here, as in several other parts of the country, there are people ?3?^^,S«ni of a Karnita tribe of BestarUy who, although they do not intermarry '^ with the Tdi/nga Beatas, are so nearlv allied, that they will eat t<>- »ther. They never carry the PalaTuceen, their princip«J occupation dng the bumioff of Ume-stone. Some of them are small fSaxmers ; but they never hire themselves out as hinds, or Batigam. This tribe are called also Oubbaru, Thev have hereditary chiefs, called • IjyamAnas, who, with a council of the heads of families, settle dis- putes, and excommunicate those who, nol^withstanding admonition and reprimand, obstinately persist in biul practices. If a woman commit adultery with a strange man, she is excommunicated ; but if it be with a Oviba, both the adulterer and the husband are fined; the one as a corrupter, and the other for having been n^ligent. An assembly of at least ten of the tribe is called, and uie woman is asked before the people, whether or not she chooses to return to her husband. If she consents, and he agrees to receive her, as is usually the ease, he jzives the assembly a dinner, and no one afterwards men- tions the affiiir. If the parties cannot agree, the marriage is dis- solved. This caste does not admit the connection called Cutiga. The women are extremely industrious, and hence are very valuable to their husbands, and are independent of them for support ; which seems to be the reason of their possessing such a licence in their amours. After the a^e of puberty they continue to be mar- riageable. Except a few nch men, the Beatas of Karndta generally content themselves with one wife, unless the first has no children, or has had only daughters. In such cases, even the poor struggle to procure a second wife, to keep up the fiBuaiily. They are allowed to drink spirituous liquors and to eat animal food None of them can either read or write. They bury the dead, and seem to have no knowledge nor belief in a future state ; but they appeared very will- ing to assent to any thing that either I or my interpreter said on the subject. This, however, did not proceed £rom any conviction of its truth ; but merely firom civility, they being unwilling to con- tradict persons who were supposed to be better imbrmed than them- selves. They neither make the vow of D&siri nor believe in the spirits called Vvrika. The goddess of the caste is YdUvma^ one of the Saktis, in whose temples the Pujdma are persons of this tribe. They ofier sacrifices to her, and to all the other destructive spirits ; but say that they are of Vishnu's side. Hey have a Onrv, ; yet, althou^ he was here fifteen days ago, they know very little about him. He is a married man, is named Lmguppa, and was attended by servants of the Guruha castoi His disciples here were Cubbaru,

• 1

312 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP, VII.

^1800.^^ Curuhas, and some other cultivators. He slept in one of the tem- "^* ' pies of the Saktis. All these circumstances would point him out to be a worshipper of Siva, and one of the Curubaru Jangamas ; but he wore a thread, and marked his forehead with turmeric, like a worshipper of Jahm. He gave the Ctvbbas turmeric to mark their foreheads, and accepted of their Dharma, or charity. His Matam., or college, is at Meiiar, near Savanuru, The Panchdnga acts as Purdhita at marriages, Mala-paksha, and births. For his trouble, he receives rice, or other provisions, but is sometimes paid in lime ; money being rather scarce among this tribe. Additions lo the The Cuvubas here say, that, at a temple of Bhairawa at Ser- c^ur^iHTru! ^^^ vay Samudraj which is near Mercaaera, to the north of this place, and where one of their caste acts as Pujdri, the image represents a man sitting on horseback, with the Linga round his neck, and a drawn sword in his hand. They offer sacrifices to this image, and eat the flesh. The family of Havana have now spread all over the country ; but Sarur is still considered as the proper family seat. Their Guru has the power of restoring any outcast to the enjoy- ment of full communion. They have a book peculiar to the caste, called Jiraga Gha-pagodu. It is written in the language of Kar- nfhdta, and gives an account of the tribe. The Curubaru buy their wives; a girl of a good family costs from 30 to 40 Fanams ; a girl of the bastard or Cutiga breed costs 15 Fanams, or 10a. ciistoma of the The Panchama Cumbharu, or Gumbharu that wear the im^ra,

bharu^^^ ^'""' are an original tribe of Karndta. They say that they are of the Gunda Brimmia family, and claim no connection with ScUivd- hanam, as the other Ou/nibharu do. They follow no other profession than the making of earthen- ware. Their hereditary chiefs are called Ijyamdnas, and pay annually to government a certain sum for the clay used in their manufacture. The Ijyamdna divides this assessment upon the families that are under his authority, so that each pays its proportion. They must also furnish with pots all persons travelling on public business. Each house, besides, pays annually three Fa- nama, or 28. The Ijyamdnas assemble four persons as a council, and with their assistance settle disputes, and punish transgres- sions. No higher punishment is inflicted on men than a temporary excommunication. Women, who commit adultery, are entirely ex- communicated, and are never allowed to remain as concubines ; and the man who seduces another's wife is obliged to pay a fine to the public. They, and the Pancham Banijigas, although they do not intermarry, can eat together; of course, they neither can eat ani- mal food nor drink spirituous liquors. They can marry into any of the forty families descended from Ounda Brimmia ; but a man and woman of the same family cannot be married together. The men are allowed to take several wives, who are very industrious in bringing clay, and making cups. The girls continue to be mar- riageable after the age of puberty ; but a widow is not allowed U> take a second husband. None of them can read. Like all other

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 313

pci-soiis who wear tlie im^a, they bury the dead. The meuofthis 1800- caste have no knowledge of a future state, and neither believe in the ^"*^* ***^' Firika, nor take DduM, Their principal object of worsliip is Is- v\:ira, represented as usual by the Linfja ; in sickness they pray to the ISaktls, who are supposed to inflict disorders ; and they make vows of presenting their temples with money, fruit, and flowers, pro- vided these vengeful powers will relent, and allow them to recover; but they never appease the wrath of the Saktis by bloody sacrifices. Their Gurv is an hereditary Jangama, who resides at Gubi, and is culled Sank'-raya. He comes once a year, eats in their houses, ac- cepts of their charity, gives them consecrated ashe«, and advises them to follow the duties and laboui*s of their caste. If any of them are in distress, he bestows alms on them. The Panckdnga, or vil- lage astrologer, reads Mantvaraa at their mai'riages, and on the build- ing of a new house, and is thus supposed to render it lucky. The Jangamas attend to receive charity at the Alala-pakska, or annual commemomtion of their deceased parents, at births, and at funerals ; but do not either read or pray on these occasions.

There are many of the Wocidigas, or Sudra cultivators of Kar- Persnn^ wiio aro fidia extraction, who wear the Linga. In this neighbourhood these who^ioar'the'^"** are of the following tribes : Cunsa, Gangricara, Sadra, or SadiiySiTid ^«y«- ^^ona. But many of each of these tribes woi-ship Siva without wearing his badge ; and still more are woi-shippers of Vishnu. All those who wear the Lingu, can eat together, and with the Pa^icliam Banijigiis ; but they only marry in their own tribes.

The Nona Wocidigaru, who are here called Nonahur by thecmtomsofuio ilussulmans, consider themselves as Sudras, and their hereditary '^''"'* ^^'<^"^- chief is the male representative of a peraon called Honapa Oauda. 1'his chief always lives at Hosao-huliy ; but he sends agents to act for him in different parts of the countiy. He wears the Linga, but many of the tribe worship Vishnu. This, however, produces no separation in caste, the woman always following the religion of her husband. My informants are wearers of the Linga ; and say, that ])esides the worship of this emblem, they pray and offer fruit and J lowers to the Saktis, but never sacrifice animals. When any expla- nation of a future state of i*ewards and punishments is given by a more learned neighbour, they say that they believe it ; but this is done merely out of compliment to his superior endowments ; and their worship of the gods seems to be performed entirely with a view of procuring temporal blessings, or of avoiding present evil. They believe that the Virika, or spirits of men who have died chaste, can cure diseases. The married Jangainas are their Gurus, give them the Linga, and receive contributions in money or grain. At all ceremonies they attend for charity, but do not pray. It is at niarriages only that the Panchdnga reads his Mantrams. Like most other persons who wear the Linga, they never take Dds^ri, and the}' bury the dead. Some of them can read the Baswa Parana, and many of them understand accompts. They are not allowed to eat

40

314 A JOUENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII

1800. animal food, nor to drink spirituous liquors. Their chief, or his

Aug. i4th. deputies, with the assistance of a council, settle disputes, and expel from the caste all transgressors of its rules. These, as usual, are men who eat forbidden meat, and women who are forgetful of their duty to their husbands. This caste does not admit of concubines of the kind called Cutigas, nor are widows allowed to marry again. The girls, however, continue marriageable after the age of puberty, and all the women are industrious in the labours of the field. The men take as many wives as they can procure. Auiristh. 15th August — I went three cosses to Gubi ; which, although a

^'**'' small town, containing only 360 houses, is a mart of some importance

and has 154 shops. The houses in their external appearance are very mean, and the place is extremely dirty ; but many of the in- habitants are thriving, and the trade is considerable. It is said to have been founded about 400 years ago, by a family of Polygan who resided at Hoaso-hully, two miles from hence, and who traced their descent from Honapa Oauda, the hereditary chief of the Noiui WoculLgaru that I lately mentioned. Honapa Oauda lived about 700 years ago, and his family possessed a country which annually produced about 3000 Pagodas, They were first brought under sub^ jection by the Mysore Rajas, who imposed a tribute o{ 500 Pago- das. Hyder increased this to 2500, leaving them little better than i-enters. They were entirely dispossessed by his son, and have re- turned to their original profession of cultivators ; but in their own tribe they still retain their hereditary rank. Disturbances From the pride of two contending sects, the Comaiies, and the

uence.'^'^*^** Bauijigas, Gubi has lately been in a very disorderly state, and has even been in danger of destruction. The former having erected a temple to a sainted virgin of the tribe, who threw herself into the flames, rather than gratify the lust of a tyrannic Rdja, the Baniji- gas took ofience, pretending that such a temple was contrary to the customs of the town ; there never before having been in that place any such building. Both parties being obstinate, the one to retain the temple, and the other to destroy it, Purnea last year ordered the town to be divided by a wall ; on one side of which the Comaties and their adherents should live, and on the other their adversaries. The Comaties hitherto had on their side some show of reason, as they did not attempt to- force any one to honour their saint ; but now they became exorbitant in their pretensions ; they would not submit to the order of Purnea ; and said, that the custom of the town was for all parties to live together, the BvAkmans excepted, who occupied the fort ; and that it would be an infringement of the rules of caste for them to be forced into a separate quarter. The Banijigas, to show their moderation, now offered to leave the town altogether, and to buUd a suburb on the opposite side of the fort, where at present there are no houses. To this also the Coma- ties, on the same gi'ounds, refused their consent. The quan-el has lately been inflamed, by the chief of the Comaties having, during

CHAP. VII.J MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR. 315

a procession, entered the town on honseback with an umbrella car- 1800. ried over his bead ; which are assumptions of rank, that the Ba- ^"^' *^^^' iiijigfiH have beheld with the utmost indignation. Furnea, I sup- pose, thinks that they are least in the wrong, and has appointed one of this caste to be Amildar. He aixived here yesterday with posi- tive orders to assemble a council of wise men ; and, these having de- termined what the custom originally was, to enforce that with the utmost rigour. The Amildar seems to be a prudent man, and not at all heated with the dispute ; in which moderation he is not imitat- ed by any one of the inhabitants, except the Brdkmans, who look with perfect indifference upon all the disputes of the low castes. How far the plan proposed will be successful, however, it is difficult to say. Both sides are extremely violent and obstinate ; for in defence of its conduct neither party has any thing like reason to advance. If justice be done, both sides will complain of partiality, and murmurs are now current about the necessity of killing a jack-ass in the street. This may be considered as a slight matter ; but it is not so, for it would be attended by the immediate desolation of the place. There is not a Hindu in Karndta that would remain another niglit in it, unless by compulsion. Even the adversaries of the party who killed the ass would think themselves bound in honour to fly. This singular custom seems to be one of the resources, upon which the natives have fallen to resist arbitrary oppression ; and may be had recourae to, whenever the government infringes, or is considered to have infringed upon the customs of any caste. It is of no avail against any other kind of oppression.

At Gubi is one of the greatest weekly fairs in the country, and commerce' at the is frequented by merchants from great distances. The country, for '*^^ *' ^"** ten or twelve cosses round, produces for sale coarse cotton cloth both white and coloured, blankets, sackcloth, hetel-mit of the kind called ^vallagramt or neighbouring, coco-nuts, jagory, tamarinds, capsicum, wlieat, rice, ragy, and other grains, Idc, steel, and iron. Beside the sale of these articles and of those imported for the con- sumption of the neighbourhood, this is also an intermediate mart for the goods passing through the peninsula.

From MvdO'Biddery, and 8ubhramani, two places in the country which we call Canara ; from Codagu Bogundi, and some place in what we call Coorg ; and from a place in MalayaUi called CaUsa, are brought black pepper, cardamoms, rol, the gum, and dupa, the wood, of the Chloroxylon Dupad/t, Buch. MSS., ginger, betel-nut of Bengal, cinnamon, cabob^hina, or cassia buds ; eusturi-china, or wild turmeric ; capili flour, and a sweet smelling root called cachora. These people take away jiHgay^ one of the caiminative seeds, blan- kets, sack-cloth, cotton cloths of many kinds, but chieflycoarse ; sugar, sugar-candy, the pulse called tovai*y, tamarinds, and cash*

From Tellichery are brought dates, raisins, nutmegs, saffron, borax, pepper, and terra japonica. The returns are the same as those above mentioned.

316 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIT.

1800. The merchants of Oubi frequent a weekly fair, at a place called

Aug. i6tb. Birum, which is east from thence 24 cosses. This is a great resort of the merchants of Ntigara, and of Malayala, who sell to those of 6u&i black pepper, Deshavara betel-nut, terra japonica, dates, ginger, danyay an umbelliferous seed, garlic, fenugreek, wheat, the pulse called hessaru, and capsicum. They buy sugar and sugar-candy, lac, coarse cotton cloth, sackcloth, and bagy, or calamus aromaticus, and receive a large balance in money.

From Beringapatam is brought monej^ to purchase betd-nut, sugar-candy, sugar, jirigay-seed, Madras goods and blankets.

The merchants of Bangalore, Colar, and otlier adjacent places, bring cotton-cloths, and a few of silk, and take away beteUnut both Bemavara and Wallagrann^ black pepper, coco-nuts, cinnamon, gin- ger, terra japonica, capili flour, and caHhamus, or cossuniba. If the demand be sudden, they bring ready money ; but commonly they bring as much cloth, as, when sold, procures their investment^back- wards ; and sometimes even more.

From Namagundla, Gudibunda, and Pallia, which are places near Bala-piira, the merchants bring sugar, sugar-candy, and jagory. They take back betel-nut, coco-nuts, terra japonica, and ginger. The exchange is about equal.

From Pamudi near Qutii, and other places in the country ceded to the Nizam, merchants bring a variety of cotton cloths, and take away coco-nuts, and lac, with a balance in money.

From Uaverif in the Marattah country, merchants bring cos- sumba, terra japonica^ opium, tent-cloth, niailtuta, or blue vitriol for colouring the teeth, borax, sajira, the seed of an umbelliferous plant, and asafoetida. They take away coco-nuts, lac, and money.

Merchants from Gubi, and its neighbourhood, go to Wallaja PeMa, near Arcot, with Deshavara betel-nut, and black pepper; and bring back cloth, and all kinds of goods imported by sea at Madras.

Merchants from Saliem and Krishna-giri bring* cloths, and take away betel-nut, pepper, and money.

Trade is allowed to be flourishing at present. At every fair there are sold from 50 to 1 00 loads of betel-nut^ produced in the neigh- bouring districts of Sira, Hagalawadl, Chica-ifdyakana^HuLly,Budi' halu, Honawully, and Gubi : with about from 20 to 40 loads of Copra, or dried coco-nut, from the same districts. Much however, of these articles, the produce of these districts, is sold at other places. The load is 8 Maunds, each of 40 Sultany Seers, The average rate of this would give 31,000 Maunds, or 6,698 hundred weight of betel-nut ; BJid l2,4iS0 Maunds, OT 2,704 hundred weight of coco-nut, the pro- duce of these districts, sold annually at Gubi. MMufttctnres. The coarsc cloths made in the neighbourhood by the B4vdngas,

Togotas, and Whalliaru, sell from 2 to 6 Fanams for each piece called Shiray. About 100 pieces are sold at each fare, worth in the whole year about 20,000 Fanams or nearly 666/. In the neighbourhood, how- ever, there are many fairs, where these manufactures are also sold.

CHAP. VII.] MYSOKE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. on-

Although this is a very short distance from Slra, the Candaca of 1800 grain contains only 320 Seers, and the shells called Cowries are not J,"« ""'■ at all current. The jBu«a, or aUowance made for exchanging gold *«iX»?monej-. to copi)er, IS ^, or not quite | per cent, on the regulated pricTe

The country, between Twnicum and (?«6i, consists of gently A„pe«r»nce of swellmg lands, entirely resembling that through which I came *■" '""""^■■ y^terday. A very considerable proportion of it is not cultivated 1 he soil near Tumcuru is rather sandy. Near Gubi it is in general good with a large proportion of rice lands. This is now cultivatintr chiefly for the crop caUed Puneji. The tanks are too small to r^ tain a supply of water for the Vaisdkha crop. They answer only for cultivation in the rainy season ; as they merely preserve a quan- tity sufficient to supply the fields, when there maybe an interval of eight or ten days of dry weather. The rains seem to have been here more copious than towards the north and east: but still the people complain. In no place between this and Madhu-giri is water raised by the Vapdy, although no reason is assigned for this neglect except that it is not the custom. '

16th August.— 1 went three cosscs to Muga-Ndyakana-Cotav.ti '"v-y'-v- village in the Hagalawadi district. It is strongly fortified with mud *"""■'"""•'• walls and contains 190 houses. Before the last Marattak invasion it ha^, m the Fetta,.& handsome market, consisting of a wide street' which on each side had a row of coco-nut palms. While Furseram B/iow was at Sua, ho sent 500 horse and 2,000 irrecrular foot with one gun, to take the place, which was defended by 500 peasants rom the neighbourhood. They had two small guns, and 100 match- ocks ; the remainder were armed with sUngs and stones. The siege lasted two months, daring which the Mnvattaha fired their gun se- veral times, but they never succeeded in hitting the place On some occasions they had the boldness to venture within musket shot of the walls ; but two or three of their men having been killed they afterwards desisted from such deeds of hardihood, and finaUv retired without one of the defendants being hurt. The peasante destroyed the market, to prevent the MarattaJis from availing themselves of the houses in their approach. Nothing can equal the <-ontempt which the inhabitants of Kdrnata have for the prowess of -..Maruttah ai-my but the horror which they have at ite cruelty.

I iw^''?"T-^'''''^^^l *^!?, neighbourhood, his people carried ..ft aU the handsome girls that fell into their hands; and they swept tlie countiy so clean of provisions, that three-fourths of the people perished of hunger. ^ ^

.1 * ''^V w"*^ *^T§^ ''^i?^ ^1^^^ "^"^^ ^O-^'^y' JS ""Ch like App««„ec Of

that which I saw yesterday. For three years the crop of Kaqv has "»« country, almost entirely failed Last year the rain coming in plentj^^ after the crop of ^y had been burnt up, they had a good crop of nee. Ihe year before, there being m the reservoir only a small quantity of water, Uie people had no nee ; but applied the water to the cul- tivation of sugar. Hitherto this year the Ragy looks well • but

31S A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. there has been no rain for twenty days. There has been water enough, however, to enable them to sow one-fourth of the Kdrtilcx crop of rice. If in ten days any rain should come, the crop of Ragu will be good, and much of it would still endure a drought of three weeks. Notwithstanding this scarcity, the natives are not abso- lutely in want of provisions ; for they bring a supply *of grain from other places that have been more favoured.

Aug iTtii. 17th Auf/iist. — In the morning I went two and half cosses to

Conli. About three miles from my last night's quarters, the countiy is hilly ; but the hills are lower, and not near so rugged as those to the eastward among the Durgas, Owing probably to the vicinity of the ii'on mines, they are very bare of trees, and their surface is covered with small stones intermixed with bare rock ; but this, not being granite, never appear in those immense naked masses su conmion in the hills running north from Capala-durga, or near the eastern Ghats. The hills here, as well as the others above the Ghetto, do not form long uninterrupted ridges, but are almost every where surrounded by level ground; so that in travelling among them, there is little occasion to ascend any great heights. ITie vallies in some places are narrow, and torn up by the empty channels of tor- rents ; in other places they are wide, and well cultivated, I am informed, that this range of low hills extends all the way north to Chatrakal, and in its course comes near to Sira. It seems to extend about three miles south from Conli; and beyond that I can see quite a level country, extending to a low range of hiUsat Atiaaamu- dra. In the vallies here are many palm-gardens. The people com- plain much of the want of rain ; but their crops have not suffered. and I suspect that they exaggerate the dryness of the country. A Brahman here would not allow that he bad ever seen a season in which rain had fallen in tolerable plenty.

Iron mines ai On my Way I passcd over Doray Guda, the hill producing iton-

Doray Guda. ^^^ . -^^^^ ^^^ being Satisfied with the view which I then took, I deter- mined to stay another day to examine it more fully ; and in the mean- while I investigated the process that is used for smelting the ore.

Manner of At cach sct of works twcuty men are employed. In the smelt-

fimeltingthcore. •1,1. *■ *f

mg-house there are

1 man to put in the ore and charcoal, and to take out the iron.

3 men to blow the bellows.

6 men to supply the charcoal.

1 man to supply ore. In a forge that is about two miles from the mine, he must keep 5 asses.

In the forging-house there are

1 blacksmith to manage the fire and furnace.

2 bellows-men.

3 hammer-men.

3 charcoal-men. No Bamboos are to be procured ; the charcoal of trees, therefore, must be used ; but were the other obtainabK*. it would be preferred.

CHAP. Vn.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 3I9

The ore is smelted twice a day. At each time, about 1 G6 Gitcha igOO. Seera of cleaned ore are put into the furnace ; and the two smeltings, ^ug. itiu. on an average, should produce 60 Seers of wrought iron, which is about 20 per cent, of the ore. The two blocks of iron from the smelting-fumace are heated, and then cut into five wedges, each about three Seers ; and twenty-five, each about two Seera. These, having been heated in the forging-furnace (which is open above, and does not seem to give more heat than a good blacksmith's forge), are l>eaten once by three men, with hammei*s weighing about 12 or 14 pounds, and are then fit for sale. The iron from the first, therefore, is very malleable, and the fusion is never so complete as to form a button of the metal. The iron, according to the demand, sells at from three to five small pieces, or from 6 to 1 0 Seers, for the Fanam ; and is bought up by the merchants of Chin^-raya-pattaiia and Nara- sing/ia-pura, who carry most of it to Seringapatum, At the first price it brings 20«. Sd. a hundred weight ; at the second price, it brings rather more than 12s. 2cZ. It must be observed, that this account entirely contradicts that which was given in the Chin'-rd" yan'-durga district ; the quantity of iron produced from the ore here, being infinitely smaller and higher priced than that produced from the black-sand. The wedges are also smaller, and the workmen are paid by a division ; all of which are contrary to the assertions of the people of Chin'-rdya7t-diirga.

The manner of division is as follows ; the master gets the pro- duce of one day's labour, and the workmen get that of three, and divide each day's work thus :

Large Pieces.

To the man who furnishes ore, for himself and cattle... ... 2

To e^ich of the bellows-men at the smelting-fumace, 1 large

TllCCc ••• ••* ... ... ... ••• ••• ... O

Large pieces ... 5

Small Pieces.

To the head-man at the smelting-furaace .. ... • 3

To each of the 9 charcoal makers 1 small piece

To the blacksmith ... ••• ••. ... •

To each of the bellows-men at the forge 1 piece

To each of the hammer-men 2 pieces

9 5

2 6

Small pieces... 25 The labourers do no other work ; and, when the master can make the necessary advances, are employed the whole year. Allow- ing that they smelt in all 320 daj-s in the year, the lower workmen, at a medium price of 4 pieces of iron for the Fanam, mak^ only 5 Fa- il ams a month, out of which they must pay ground-rent for their huts. This is low wages. The blacksmitih has high wages ; but he iiiust find the hammers, anvils, forceps, &c.

oOQ A JOUKXEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. The annual expenses of the master are :

To tlie renter of mines and woods ... ... ... ... 130

To the gi'ound-rent for the forge ... ... H)

For bellows ... ... ... ... ... ... ... liSl)

For an annual sacrifice to Giulada Ununa, the mother of the

XllLl. ... ... ... ... ••• ■•• ... ... I \'

For two sacrifices to Hortihaln D^vdru, the god of furnaces oO To a feast given by the labourers at Gauri, in honour of tlie

anvil, 150 coco-nuts, and one i^upee's woHh of legumes ... 2{)

A new cloth to the blacksmith at iSit'a?'d^?'i ... ... ' ... in

Fanams.., 430 As, at the rate of working above stated, 80 days produce of the forge comes to his share, he gets 2600 pieces of iron, which at the average price are worth 450 Fanams, leaving only a profit of 20 Fanams, From the smallness of this profit, I doubt the accuracy f >f the accoiuit ; especially as, by way of a retainer, the master must advance from 50 to 70 Faiiavis to each man, say in all 1200 Fanarmt, and must make them occasional advances of 20 or 30 Fanams, to enable them to subsist till they can sell their iron. They are by this means bound to his service; and, without repaying the advance, which very few of them are ever able to do, they can follow no other emi)loyment. If he cannot employ them, they may for a sub- sistence work with the farmers. He is obliged to build their huts, which is done in the intervals of other labour. It is probable, in fact, that all the advances are made by the merchant, in which ca^c his profit is sutiicient. Ai^pr.iftth. 18th August. — In the morning I went all over Doray G-ud*u

Gw<ll*^ ^^^^^ which is about a mile in length, from five to six hundred yards in width, and is divided into three hummocks. The northernmost of these is the most considerable, and rises to the perpendicular height of four or five hundred feet. It is situated in the Hagalawadi district ; but! for what reason I know not, pays its rent to the Amildar of Chica Nayalcana Hidly, This is the only hill in this vicinity that produces the iron ore ; but as the same hill in difterent village-s is called by different names, I at one time imagined that the mines had been numerous. The people here were ignoi'ant of there hohvj^ any other mine in this range of hills ; but that I afterwards fouinl to be the case. At Conli this hill is called Doray Gud^i, which name I have adopted. On all sides it is surrounded by other low hills ; but these produce no iron.

The whole strata of these hills are vertical, and, like aU othei^ that I have seen in the country, run nearly north and south. Where they have been exposed to the weather on a level nearly with the ground, which is generally the case, these strata divide into plates like schistus, and seem to moulder very quickly. In a few places they rise into rocks above the surface, and then they decs y

CHAP. VII.] MYSOKE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 321

into roundish or angular masses. All that I saw were in a state of isoo. great decay, so that it was difficult to ascertain their nature ; but, no ^^' **'^' doubt, they are either earthy quartz, or hornstone variously impreg- nated with iron, and perhaps sometimes with manganese. Within, the masses are whitish, with a fine grained earthy texture ; but outwardly they are covered with a metallic efflorescence, in some places black, in othei's inclined to blue.

A ledge of this rock passes through the longer diameter of Doray Guda, and seems to form the basis of that hill; but the whole super- sti^atum, both of the sides and summit, seems to be composed of a confused inass of ore and clay. The surface only is at present wrought ; so that very little knowledge can be obtained of the inte- rior structure of the hill. In its sides the miners make small exca- vations, like gravel-pits, but seldom go deeper than five or six feet. On the perpendicular surface of these the appearance is very various. Jn some places the ore is in considerable beds, disposed in thin brit- tle vertical plates, which are separated by a kind of harsh sand, yel- low, bluish, or green. In one place I observed this sand of a pur© white, and forming little cakes, readily crumbling between the fin- gci*s. In other places the ore is hard, forming irregular concretions, with various admixtures of earth, clay, and ochres. This kind has a tendency to assume regukr forms, botroidal, and reniform, which in- wardly are striated with rays diverging from a center. Sometimes plates are formed of this kind of ore, which consist internally of parallel ^tri<x. Another form of the ore is bluish, and very brittle. The whole is mixed with what the natives call CarUcul, or black- stone, which is brown haematites. This is also scattered all over the surface of the ground, and there especially assumes botroidal and reniform shapes. By the natives it is considered as totally useless. In some pits I could observe nothing like a regular disposition of the component parts ; in others, the various substances are evidently stratified, both in straight and waved dispositions. *

The manner of mining the ore is extremely rude and unthrifty. A man with the pick-axe digs on the side of the hill, until he gets a

Eerpendicular face five or six feet wide, and as much high, having efore it a level spot that is formed from what he has dug. Before him he has then a face containing ore, more or less intermixed with clay, sand, and haematites, and covered with two or three feet of the external soil. He then scoops out the ore, and matters with which it is mixed ; and having beaten them well with the pick-axe, and rubbed them with his hands, he picks out the small pieces of ore, and throws away the haematites, sand, clay, ochre and large pieces of ore ; assigning as a reason for so doing, that, as he can get plenty of small pieces, there is no occasion for him to be at the trouble of breaking the large ones. The crumbling ores are also much neglected, as they are transported with difficulty. When they have dug as far as they choose to venture, which is. indeed a very little way, the miners go to another spot, and form a new pit.

41

322 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. The ore, broken as I have now mentioned, is carried down on

^^^' * ' asses* backs, and farther cleaned from earth, and broken into very small pieces, before it is put into the furnace. If it is to be carried far, it is generally transported by buffaloes : but this unwieldy ani- mal is incapable of ascending the hill, which in many places is veiy steep, and the paths are formed on the mouldering materials that have been thrown away by the miners. There is no person who prepares the ore for those who come from a distance : they remain here for some time with their asses ; and, when they have collected a considerable quantity, a number of buffaloes are brought to carry it away. The renter has no occasion to come near the mine. He knows the men that get a supply of ore, and each pays yearly a certain sum, and takes as much ore as he pleases. The renter states the furnaces that are supplied from hence to be six in Tumcuru, ten in Hagalawadi, seven in Chica Nayakana IluUy, and three in Sira ; but I have access to know that he conceals part of them ; yet he is much more coiTcct than the revenue accompts that are kept in Puifiea's oflBce at SeringapataTn,

No tradition remains concerning the time when this mine began to be wrought, for the natives think that ore has been taken from it ever since the creation of the world ; or, as they express themselves, since the liill was bom ; and, as above 100 ass-loads are daily car- ried from it, I think it probable that the miners have repeatedly gone over the surface. At each time the natives remove only a very small proportion of the iron ; and after a certain number of years, new decompositions, and recompositions of the materials seem capable of rendering the surface again fit fqr their manner of working.

The miners have a tradition, that formerly there had been dug into the southern face of the largest hummock an immense cavern, from whence the whole neighbourhood was supplied with ore. The roof of this is said to have given way, and to have buried the mi- ners of seven villages, with all their cattle. The appearance of the hill confinns the truth of this tradition, there being evident proofs of a part of it having fallen in ; and in the perpendicular surface, left by this convulsion, may be seen the mouth of a cavern, pro- bably a part of the old mine. The time when this happened, is likely to have been very remote ; as, lower down than this con- vulsed surface, there is another mine, which the natives believe to be a natural cavern, and into which, not without some reason, they are afruid to enter. Indeed, none of them have attempted it: for they are persuaded that it extends a grc^at way into the earth, which made me curious to examine it.

The minei*s have evidently wrought into this part of the mine from the westward ; and until they came to the ledge of earthy quartz, or homstone, before mentioned, they have carried on a regular face of considerable width and depth. This ledge cutting oft' the mine, they had by the side of the barren rock made a hori-

CUAP. VII. J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 323

zontal cavity into the hill, and thus foimed a cavern about fifty feet 1800. long, twelve feet high, and nine wide. It is probable, that they had ^^^' '*^^* then met with some obstruction ; for under this they have formed another mine, which cuts ofl'the communication between the ground and the first mentioned cavern. As there were evident marks of the feet of a large beast of prey at the mouth of the cave, I took the precaution of making a Seapoy fire his musket into it; and, nothing but a large flock of bats having appeared, I went in, accompanied by two armed men. We soon came to a place where a bed had been formed in the sand by some of the tiger kind ; and having ad- vanced about 100 feet we reached the end of the cave, where another wild beast had formed its bed. This, therefore, wa« probably the usual haunt of a pair of leopards. We found also a porcupine's quill ; but were uncertain, whether the animal had fallen a prey to the leopards ; or whether, protected by its prickles, it. ventured to shelter itself in their company. The sides of the mine consist partly of the ore, and partly of the rock already mentioned, which is much intermixed with the Caricid, or brown haematites. The place i3 perfectly dry. It is probable that the work was deserted when the poor people in the higher mine suffered. Ever since, the minerd have contented themselves with working on the surface, and even there are in constant fear. An annual sacrifice is offered to prevent the spirit of the hill from overwhelming the miner. She is called Canicid L^vdvu, or the goddess of ironstone, and Oudada Umma, the mother of the bill ; and is represented by the first convenient stone that the workmen find when they come to offer the sacrifice. They also put themselves under the protection of a benevolent male spirit, named Mtiti RaycCy or the pearl king. He is worshipped by offerings of flowers and fruits only, and is represented by a shapeless stone, that is hid in the obscurity of a shrine, which is composed of stones and flags, and which in all its dimensions extends about six feet.

19th August, — In the morning I went two cosses to a viU^g® ^°tj??- named Madana Mada, having been detained on the way by exa- Betta. mining the minerals of a hill, which, from a temple situated near *****'»^- it, and dedicated to Siva, is named Malaiavxira Betta. Owing to the vicinity of this temple, a white Lithomarga that is found on the hill is considered as holy, and is used in place of the consecrated ashes which the followers of Siva employ to make the marks of their religion. The strata are nearly the same as near Doray Ouda, and consist of a schistose decaying rock disposed vertically. Parallel to this I observed strata of white fat quartz, from one inch to twenty feet in thickness. Near the temple I found the veins or strata of quartz running parallel to each other, and from six to twelve inches distant, and at similar distances sending off transverse bands which united the strata. The interstices of this kind of net- work were filled up with the common stone of the country, not much decayed. It seems to be a homstone, containing a good deal

324 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROrOH [CHAP. VIT.

1800. of iron, and some mica. The surface of this rock had a curious ap-

Aug. isthi pearance. The ferrugineous brown of the homstone being chec- quered with the gray quartz ; while this, resisting the weather the best, stood up considerably above the surface, and represented in miniature the whin-dykes of the island of Mull, as described in the Philosophical Transactions. In some places I saw the white quartz: decaying into sand, and forming masses that on the slightest touch crumbled between the fingers. As I ascended the hill, I met with a curious concretion of brown calcarious tufa. It resembled verv* exactly a decayed white ant's (termes) nest changed into lime ; and amongst its branches were impacted some pieces of decayed hom- stone, round which it had evidently been formed. In these hillr> such concretions, I was afterwards informed, arc very common ; and some of them are of a pure white, in which case they are burn- ed into lime. But this infcHmation I did not receive in time to ascertain the fact. I saw also severad detached liunps of brown • hsematites ; but on the hill there is no ore of iron, that is by the natives considered as workable.

The Lithoniarga is found in large masses heaped together, and inciunbent on the rocky strata, with various fragments of which it is intermixed ; and it appears to- me to have been formed from the homstone in a particular state of decay. Its surface is generally shining, polished, and conchoidal. The masses, so far as I observed, are not disposed in strata; but, internally, some of the pieces are composed of alternate thin plates of diflSerent colours. That used for superstitious purposes is of a pure white colour, an indurated substance ; some is red, being coloured by an oxyde of iron ; some, as I have observed before, is internally stratified, and consists of alternate layers of the Lithomarga and of a yellow ochre ; some is^ black, resembling very dark vegetable mould in an indurated^ state ; some again of the Litaornarga is of a pure white colour, and fiiable nature ; and nearly approaching to this is another clay, which is evidenUy decomposed white mica. Among the LUhomarga is found a black friable substance, in its appearance much resembling char- coal ; but it is undoubtedly of a fossile nature, and probably is an iron ore. It has a bluish tinge, which it probably derives from manganese.

The tempfe of MaUiiawarais a very poor building; but is much frequented at a festival in the month of Magha. Some of the figures on the chariot of the image are exceedingly indecent. The woods above the temple are rather taller than usual in these barren hills, and contain many trees of the J)up(kda, ChLoroxylon Dupada, Buch. MSS. The resin is used as incense ; and musical instruments, some- what resembling the guitar, are made of the wood. From tiie top of the hill the view is very fine; the country being composed of hiUs, cultivated fields, reservoirs Uke Eonall lakes, and palm gaxdens. all intermixed. In this hilly country are some considerable nocks of sheep, but no herds of breeding cows.

rHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 325

Madana Mada contains 40 or 50 houses, and is placed between I800. two reservoirs ; one belonging to itself, and the other to a neigh- M^ana Juada. bouring ^dllage. So partial are the rains in this country, that the one i-eqervoir is now half full, "while the other ha»s not above a quarter of its water ; the two hills, from whence they are supplied, being on opposite sides of a very narrow valley. Madana Mada has a veiy fine palm garden, for the use of which the water of its reser- voir is entirely reserved. When that fails, the proprietors have re- course to the machine called Capily, Three thousand Pagodas have been granted by Purnea for enlarging their reservoir ; by which raeans the machinery is expected to become unnecessary, and of course the revenue will be greatly augmented. The gardens here contain 48,000 palm trees.

At night I was awaked by a prodigious noise in the village, ^^^^^IP'J^ ^^ which was at some distance from my tents. On inquiry of the sentry, owing to a devii. I wa& told, that there was no one near except himself ; every other ^ person having gone into the village as soon as the uproar commen* red. I lay for some hours in great uneasiness, supposing that my j)eople had quarrelled with the natives ; but, it being a rainy night, I did not venture out, and was unwilling to part with the sentry. Soon after all was quiet, and the people returned. In the morning my interpreter told me with a gooa deal of exultation, that one of the cattle-drivers had been possessed by a Fysachi, or evil spirit, and had been for some time senseless, and foaming at the mouth. On this occasion the whole people, Mussulmans and Pagans, had assembled ; and, in hopes of frightening away the devil, had made all the noise 'that they could : but he had continued obstinately to keep posses- sion, till the arrival of the BrdJtman, who, having thrown some con- secrated ashes on the man, and offered up the prayers proper for the occasion, at length procured a release. The interpreter, I suspect, made the most 01 his story, in order to remove my infidelity ; as the day before I had refused my assent to believe, that certain Man- ti-aTna pronounced by a Brdhman could compel the gods to be present in whatever plaee he chose. It is almost unnecessary to observe, that the poor cattle-driver was subject to the epilepsy, the recurrence of which this night had, I believe, been occasioned by violent paroxysms of intoxication, in which the whole party had been so deeply engag- ed, that until morning I could not get a man to tie up the baggage.

20th August — In the morning I went to Cki(^ Naykana Hully ; auk. sotb. and by the way visited a hill caUed Oajina Outa, which produces ^^^SH^uta. much Cavi cullUj or reddle. This hill is reckoned 1^ coss from Chica Nayakana Hully, The part of it whieh I examined consists of Ga- ricul, or brown hsematites, and clay. In some places the hsematites forms a kind of rock ; in others, it is found only in small lumps immersed in the day. In this hill it has every where a strong ten- dency to decomposition, and then in most places forms red ochre, but in some parts it falls into a yellow oxyde. I observed nothing in it like stfuta. Those masses which consist of clay mixed with lumps

32t5 A iOt'RNEY FftOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Til

1800- of the haematites, in various stages of decomposition, bear a strong

Aug. 20ih. resemblance, except in hardness, to the hornstone porphyry found near Senngftpatavi ; for many of the lumps of haematites are angu- lar, and have a glassy longitudinal fracture, while their transverse fracture is earthy. Whoever sees these masses, I am persuaded, will be struck with the resemblance, and will believe that from the one kind of mineral the other derives its origin. In all this chain of hills, however, I confess I saw no porphyrj^ nor even gra- nite. The reddle is found in large veins, or irregular masses, run- ning through the rock of haematites, or masses of clay, in very ine- gular directions ; and seems to be nothing more tlian the homstonf of the country dissolved into clay, and then strongly inapregnat- ed with the red oxyde of iron, from a similar dissolution of ihp haematites. It always contains specks of yellow ochre. Peoj>le come to dig it from Hegodu Devana Cotay, ChM-Tdya-^athiHa ^ Narasinghapura, 6i(hi, and all the intermediate country toward the south and west, and they send it still farther toward the frontiers. For every ox-load of about 5 Gucha Mauvds, or about ISO lb. they pay to the renter 12 Dndus, or about Gd. He says that about 30 loads only are annually required. He keeps no

Ecrson on the spot, and is either attempting to deceive me, or is imself defrauded ; for the excavations made to collect it are ver}- considerable. It is used to paint walls, and to dye Goni, or sa<?k- cloth, and the cloth used by Sannydsis and Jangamas, The dye comes out with the least water, but the colour is easily restored.

In the same places are found LiilwmavgaH of several colour?, which seem to me to be portions of the clay less impregnated -with iron than the reddle ; and which perhaps derived their origin from hornstone, that contained magnesia, as some are known to do.

In one of the excavations that have been made by digging out the haematites, and which forms a cave, I found the nesta of a floi*k of wild pigeons, exactly resembling those of the caves of Europe This bird therefore, is perhaps one of the most universally diflus^^d kinds in the old world, at least of such as are in a wild state. The common sparrow is equally universal

Chica S'ayahLna Hnlly is a large square town strongly fortifie<l with mud walls, and having Bi'uches, or cavaliers, at the angles. In its center is a square citadel fortified in a similar manner. In the outer town a wide street runs all round, and on bott hands sends off short lanes to the outer and inner walls. The houses are at present very mean and ruinous, and do not nearly occupy the whole space within the waUs. They ate in number about 600, of which 8<) are occupied by Brdhmans, It contains a garden which belongs to the government, is in great disorder, and is rendered disgusting by two Banyan-trees (Ficus Bengalensiaif loaded with large bats, whom the people will not disturb. To the south of the town, there wa.^ formerly a large suburb ; but about forty years ago it was destroyed in an invasion of the MarattaJis. It was plundered by Purser am

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 327

Bhow, when he was going to join Lord Cornwallis at Seringapa- laoo- tarn ; but at that time he obtained very little, the inhabitants hav- ^''^' '^^^' lug hidden their most valuable effects, and withdrawn into the hilly country. When the Marattah army retired to Siva, they sent to the inhabitants assurances of protection, and began by making small daily distributions of charity to the Brdhnians. By this means they inveigled back a considerable number of the inhabitants ; and no sooner had they got the leading men into their power, than they put them to the torture, until the wretched men discovered where their effects were hid, and thus they procured 500,000 Rupees, Dur- ing the remainder of Ttppoo*8 reign the place continued languishing, the inlmbitants of 300 houses only having ventured back. It pos- sesses a small manufacture of coarse cotton cloth, both white and coloured, and made by D4vdnga8 and Togotaru. It has also a weekly fair, at which these goods, and the produce of the numerous palm- gardens in the neighbourhood, are sold. Many of its inhabitants act as carriers, transporting goods to different places for the mer- chants of Naggara and Bangaluru, Its name signifies the town of the little chief; which was the title assumed by the Polygnra of JIagaZawadi, its former masters, and who about 300 years ago first foHified it About a century afterwards they were overcome by the Polygars of Mysore ; and, in order to retain Hagalawadi free from tribute, gave up entirely this part of their dominions. Hyder made them tributaries even for Hagalawadi, and his son stripped them of every thing.

21st August — I remsimed n.t Chica Nayahana HiiUy, investi- Aug. nst. coating the management of the palm-gardens in its vicinity. These occupy by far the greater part of the watered land in the districts called Honavndly, Budifialu, Hagalawadi, and Chica Nayulmna HuUy, with a considerable portion in Sira and Gubi. In the dry season they require the assistance of the Gapily, the water in the reservoirs seldom lasting throughout the year.

Coco-nut palms are planted in rows round the Betel-nut gar- coco-nut. dens, and also separately in spots that would not not answer for the cultivation of this article. The situation for these gardens must be rather low ; but it is not necessary that it should be under a reservoir ; any place will answer, in which water can be had by digging to the depth of two men's stature. The soil which is here reckoned most favourable for the coco-nut, is a red clay mixed with sand. It must be free of lime and saline substances. Other soUs, howevOT, are employed; but black mould is reckoned very bad. The coco-nuts intended for seed are cut in the second month after the winter solstice. A square pit is then dug, which is suffi- ciently large to hold* them, and is about a cubit in depth. In this, fifteen days after being cut, ape placed the seed nuts, with the eyes uppermost, and contiguous to each other ; and then earth is thrown in so as just to cover them, upcai which is spread a little dung. In this bed, every second day for six months, the seed must be watered

828 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIL

1800. with a pot, and then the young palms are fit for being transplanted.

-^««-2fi. Whenever, during the two months following the vernal equinox, an occasional shower gives an opportunity by softening the soil, the garden must be ploughed five times. All the next month, it is allowed to rest. In the month following the summer solstice, the ground must again be ploughed twice; and next month, at thf distance of 48 cubits in every direction, there must be dug pits a cubit wide, and as much deep. In the bottom of each a little dun^^ is put ; and the young plants, having been previously well watered to loosen the soil, are taken up, and one is placed in each pit The shell still adheres to the young palm, and the pit must be filled with earth, so far as to cover the nut. Over this is put a little dung. For three months the young plants must be watered every other day ; afterwards every fourth day until they are four years old, except wheu there is rain. Afterwards they require no water. Every year the garden is cultivated for Ragy, Udu, Hessaru, or whatever other grain the soil is fitted for, and is well dunged ; and at the same time four ox-loads of red mud are laid on the garden, for every tree that it con- tains, while a little firesh earth is gathered up toward the roots of the palms. The crop of grain is but poor, and injures the palms ; it is al- ways taken, however ; as, in order to keep down the weeds, the ground must at any rate be ploughed ; as the manure must be given ; and as no rent is paid for the grain. On this kind of ground the coco-nut palm begins to bear in twelve or thirteen years, and con- tinues in perfection about sixty years. It dies altogether afi^^r bearing for about a hundred years. They are always allowed to die ; and when they begin to decay, a young one is planted near the old one, to supply its place. In this country, wine is never extracted from this palm, for that operation destroys the fruit ; and these, when ripe, are considered as the valuable part of the produce. A few green nuts are cut in the hot season, on account of the refre4sh- ing juice which they then contain, and to make coir rope : but this also is thought to injure the crop. The coir made from the rij.>o nuts is very bad, and their husks are commonly burned for fewel. A sufficient quantity of coir for country use is made by people oi the low caste called WhalliarUj who collect the green husks of the nuts, which have been cut for juice, or thrown down by the monkies. In order to rot the substance coiinecting the fibres, they steep the husks for six months in water ; and then having placed them on a stone, they beat them with a stick, and finally rub off with their hands all the adhering substance. The fibrous part, or coir, is then fit for being twisted into yams. The crop begins in the second month after the summer solstice, and continues four months. A bunch is known to be ripe when a nut falls down, and it is then cut. Each palm produces from thrcf to six bunches, which ripen successively. A middling palm produces from 60 to 70 nuts. A< the nuts are gathered, they are collected in small huts raise<i from the ground on posts. When a merchant offers, the rind Ls

CHAP, VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 329

removed, at his expense, by a man who fixes an iron rod in the igOO. ground, and forces its upper end, which is sharp, through the ^^- **•*• fibres ; by which means the whole husk is speedily removed. He then, by a single blow with a crooked knife, breaks the shell, without hurting the kernel, which is then fit for sale, and is called Copra, A man can daily clean 1300 nuts. From 20 to 30 per cent of them are found rotten. These kernels sell to the merchant at from 30 to 40 Fanama a thousand. The merchants frequently advance to the whole amount of the expected produce, and some- times are forced to wait for repayment till a second crop : but the price, they allow, is in general low ; and the proprietors of gardens, that are in easy circumstances, prefer taking their chance of the market.

The old branches and leaves, of which a certain number an- nually perish, are allowed to drop spontaneously ; and are here used chiefly for fewel. They are also used to thatch the huts in the garden ; but in this country are seldom, if ever, employed in the houses of the natives. The shells are made into charcoal, which is the only kind that the goldsmiths use.

To stock a garden of 200 trees, requires two men, three oxen, and a bu&lo. These do no other work, but are sufficient for the whole cultivation. It must be observed, that if the palms are planted at the distance stated by the cultivators, a garden con- taining 200 trees would occupy above 23 acres ; and i£e dry crop of grain may be considered as fully equal to the whole expense of cultivation. A garden of good soil pays-70 Fanama for the hundred trees ; and of a very bad soil, such as that containing lime, the hun- dred trees pay only 20 Fanams; and all intermediate rents are paid according to the value of the soil. At the first rate, the tree pays as rent aoout o^d. and the acre not quite 4tf. Take the average produce of a middling tree, as the neat produce of a tree on a good soil, and we have 65 nuts, the average price of which, at 35 Fanama a thousand, will be 18^ pence ; from which deducting the rent, each tree is worth about IStt. a year to the proprietor. To judge firom appearance, however, I am inclined to think that the trees are in general planted nearer to each other.

The coco-nuts that are planted around beteUnut gardens are not so productive, but pay a similar rent; which, however, is always low, in proportion as the soil is bad. They are planted in order to shelter me betel-ntU palms*

The Betd-niit palm, or Areca^ thrives best in the rich black bho^iuu, mould called by the natives Erayy or Krishna Bumi. The natives here look upon it as a matter of indifference, whether or not, on digging a httle depth, water may be found in the soiL All that is required, is to have a proper i^pply of water either fi*om the reser- voir, or by means of machinery.

In the second month after the winter solstice, the nut intended for seed is cut ; and, having been put in a heap, is for eight or ten

42

330 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. \U.

i

1800. d^ys tept in the house. A seed-bed is then dug to the depth of a

Aug.aut foot, and three inches of the mould is removed from the surface, which is then covered with a little dung. On this the nuts an? placed with their eyes uppermost, and close to each other. They are then covered with an inch of mould, and for three months are watered every other day. The seedlings are then tliree or four in- ches high, and must be transplanted into a fresh bed that is prepareil in the same manner ; but in this they are placed a cubit distant from each other. Here they grow for three years, receiving water once every other day ; and once a month they are cleaned from weeds, and have a little dung.

One year after planting the seed, the ground that is intended for the garden must be dug to the depth of a cubit, and the soil ex- posed for two months. Young plaintain trees (Musa) ai'e then placed in it at 16 cubits distance from each other, and it is sur- rounded by a screen of coco-nut palms, and o{ Jack (Ariocarpus tntegrifolia), lime, and orange trees, which are defended by a he^lgo of the Euphorbium Tirucalli, or milk-bush. At the same time seoils of the Agashay, ovjEschynomone grandifiora, are planted throughout the garden, at the distance of four cubits. When there is no rain the garden must once in fifteen days be watered by channels ma^le for the purpose. In the second month after the summer solstice of the third year, the young Arecas are fit for transplantation. Then throughout the garden, at the distance of 16 cubits, and in tlic middle between every two plaintain trees, are formed pits, a cubit, deep and a cubit wide. In each of these pits a young Areca is put. and it must be carefully raised from the seed-bed with much earth adhering to its roots ; and, after it is placed, the pit must be filkil with earth, and then receive a pot of water. The young Arecas arc- then between two and three feet high, and have four or five branches . If there be water in the reservoir, an irrigation once a month is suf- ficient ; but the Capily must be used once in ten days, as the wator- ings given by it are but scanty. For three years afterwards the wh< »le garden must be completely hoed twice annually. At the one hoeing, for every four Arecas, it must have a bullock-load of dung ; and at the other hoeing, every tree must be allowed an ox-load of red sc»il. The mud of reservoirs is here thought to be very bad for a betel-nv^ garden. Ever afterwards the garden is hoed completely once a year only, and is then manured with dung and re<l earth. At the inter- mediate period of six months, it is hoed near the trees, and ha*s a little dung. At the end of the first three years, the Agashay trw^ are cut. The plantains are always reserved; but, as the old stems ar* cut, which is always done in from 12 to 18 months, the young shufU- are conducted to a distance from wjiere the parent was originally placed ; and when the garden is twenty years old, in these spots art planted other yo\xiig Arecas, to supply the places of the old ones wluri they decay. This second set are again supplanted by a thiixl, growin j where the first set did, and thus a constant succession is preservcii

CHAP. VIl.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 33!

In a new garden, the Areca begins to bear fruit in nine years ; but igoo. fourteen or fifteen years are required to bring forward those which ^^* ^^ are planted among old trees. They continue to bear for sixty or seventy years ; but after having been twenty-five or thirty years in perfection, they begin to decay.

In a few gardens here, the mode of raising betel-nut that is in use at Madhu-giri has been adopted ; and it is said to be preferable, but is attended with much trouble. The plaintain tree, however, is always preserved, and is considered as useful to the old palms. Yams, or DioBcoreaa, are considered as prejudicial ; but I observed them in several gardens, the proprietors of which said that they allowed them only to climb on the old palms, and to these they did little harm.

There are annually two crops of beteUnut : one in the second month after the summer solstice ; the other in the two months which precede the shOTtest day. The last crop is superior both in quanti- ty and quality. The nut, on being cut, is skinned in the course of two days, and put into a large pot with as much water as will cover it two inches. It is then boiled for about three-quarters of an hour until a white scum rises. The largest are then cut into eight pieces, and the smallest into two, with the others in proportion to their size. During the four following days they are spread out in the sun to dry, and every night they are gathered in a heap. When the fruit has Vjeen allowed to approach too near to maturity, the nut loses its colour ; and a deceit is attempted, by adding a little reddle to the water in which it is boiled. This frequently deceives the consumer, but never the experienced dealer ; and seems to be done purposely to enable him to defraud the unwary.

A garden of 1000 trees, allowing eight cubits square for each tree, ought to contain rather more than 3^ acres ; but a young gar- den, containing trees at sixteen cubits, ^nll require 8^ acres. If it receive a sufficient supply of water from a reservoir, it requires the constant attendance of two men and two bufiaJoes ; but if it be watered entirely by the Capily, it requires an addition of two men and four oxen. The rent in the first case is 25 Fana/me for the hundred trees, and in the latter case only 12. The labour of two men and four oxen is therefore estimated at 130 Fanams a year, and we may allow 120 for two men and two bufialoes. The great digging of the garden requires additional labourers to the amount of 40 Fanatns, The nut is prepared by a man who receives two JDudiiB for 'every Maund, or about 6 Fanams for the garden. The bunches of nuts are cut by a person of the Bayda caste, who gets 3 Fanams for the thousand bunches, or about 10 Famxims for the garden. The whole annual expense therefore of a garden of 1000 trees is about 426 FanrnnB. Tne produce is reckoned from 40 to 60 Maunds ; the average is 60, which, for each tree, is exactly the same quantity that was said to be procured at Madhu-^ri. Nothing is paid to the Amildar for the plaintains or other fruit ;

332

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VII.

1800.

Aug. 2lst.l

MonkiM Ukd squirreli.

8tftt« of ih« planUtions.

but on this account the custom-house, according to the size of the garden, charges annually from three to five Fanams. Where the Capily is used, the rent for each tree is rather under a penny. When the reservoir supplies the water, it is rather above two-pence. Even in this case, when the trees are at 16 cubits distance, the rent of an acre does not exceed 208. ; which is less than rice would give, and not a third part of what is paid for the same quantity of ground at MadJiv^giri, On the same produce, the rent is rattier greater here ; so much superior at the former place is the skili of the cul- tivator. The Areca tree is never cut till its leaves have tamed brown. Its stem has then acquired great hardness, and in building cottages is very useful.

The monkies and squirrels are very destructive, but it is reckon- ed criminal to kill either of them. They are under the immediate protection of the DdsM^, who assemble round any person guilty of this offence, and allow him no rest, until he bestows on the animal a funeral, that will cost from 100 to 200 Fanams, according to the number of Ddsiris that have assembled. The proprietors of the gardens used formerly to hire a particular cIbjss of men, who took tiiese animals in nets, and then by stealth conveyed them into the gardens of some distant village ; but, as the people there had re- course to the same means, au parties have oecome tired of this practice. If any person fi-eed the poor people by killing these mis- chievous vermin, they would think themselves bound in decency to make a clamour ; but inwardly they would be very well pleased ; and the government might do it, by hiring men whose ccmsciences would not suffer by the action, and who might be repaid by a small tax on the proprietors.

The MaroMah invasion has ruined one half of the gardens ; the trees having been cut for the cabbage, which is composed of the young leaves collected, at the summit of the tree, in a large bud. New gardens are now planting without advances from govermneiit Many of the old proprietors, having been reduced to poverty, have sold their right of replanting to others, who were in better circum- stances; for all palm-gardens become private property, and may be sold or mort^iged, which, in the Itdja's dominions, is not the case with any land that is cultivated for grain. The proprietors complain, that for old trees they are obliged to pay the same rent as for young ones. An old garden thus becomes much more valua- ble to the government, as on the acre there will be more trees that pay rent. If allowed to live to the full age of 80 years, |^ will pay rent ; but, if cut at 45 years of age, when they begin to decay, % only would pay. The produce of the country however aaSexs by allowing the trees to live after they begin to decay ; and as the profits of the cultivator are at present sufficiently great, they might be allowed to cut the trees whenever they pleased, by fixing on the ground a rent equal to the present : the fixing the rent on the tree is indeed a bad custom for all parties.

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CAlf ARA, AND MALABAR. 333

In the country between Sira and Seringapatam, there are 18OO. scarcely any kitchen gardens. The £ajnners have a few spots, where KShen^enB. for &imly use they raise greens ; but I see no gardeners who make this business a profession, except in the island o{ Seringa/pcUam, and in the country to the eastward of the Durgas, as it is called, or that which lies to the eastward of the chain of hills which runs north from CapaUt-Durga, and on which there are so many fortified strong-holds.

22d August, — I went three cosses to Arulu Oupay, Except the jvag. ssnd. ridge of homstone hills on my left, and a abort detached ridge on ^*'''^ my right, the country was free from hills. The soil was, however, by no means so good as that in the level country which lies between the Durgas and the ridge of homstone ; for in many places the rock appeared above ground, and lumps of white quartz almost intirely covered many fields. The rock here was gray granite. I believe the homstone is confined to the rid^ in wfich Daray Betta is situated. In the small ridge to my ri^t, the rocks were gray granite ; the black-stone already described as accompanying this in the eastern Ghata ; and the same containing white spots, which pro- bably were quartz.

At a small village by the way, I was shown a well, from whence shUy iR««m«, what the natives calf £%i(2y munnu had been taken. It was in the ^ ^"^ back yard of a Brdhnfuim'a house. About two months ago he had dug 20 feet through the common soil of the country, which in many places is very deep. He then came to a stratum of this substance, which he continued to procure until prevented by water. It is a loose scaly earth, of a silvery white ccuour, aud is mixed with small fragments of quartz. It is so friable, that it cannot be handled with- out idling to pieces, and is no doubt Schistose Mica in a state of decay. Tke micaceous matter is washed off by water, and, in the houses of inferior persons, serves the same purposes that the pow-. dered mica, or ahracum, does in the palaces of the great. They are in fact the same, only the abra^mm is purer. Shidy rmmnu is said to be found in great quantity near Colar,

AruLu Qupay is a large village in the HagdUvwadi district It Jmin oupmy, is fortified with a mud w^ and ditch ; but its market, which is a |^t\^^tm street running the whole length of one side of the town, is auite de- ^^^^^ fenceless. It contains about a hundred houses, and a temple of cu- rious workmanship dedicated to Nara^ngha. It is not of great size, but the whole is built of what the natives call SUa CiUlu, or image-stone, which is indurated pot-stone. This has been cut and carved with great pains and industry, but is totally devoid of ele- gance or grandeur. The general design is clumsy, and the execu- tion of the figures miserable. It wants even strength, the usual concomitant of clumsiness among the buildings of rude nations ; and the walk, although not above fourteen feet hi^h, and built of large stones which have suffered no injuiy, are yielding to the pressure of the roof, and probably will soon fall. It is said to have oeen built by one of the Sholun Sdya^. •

334? A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. 23rd Axigust — In the moming I was detained by a very heavy

Appca?anie of ^^^^' which hos givcH the people high spirits. In the afternoon I the country- Went two cosses to Turiva-Caray, the residence of an ATiiildar. The country afforded a melancholy prospect. Like that near Bangalore, and the other places toward the eastern Ghats, it rises into gentle swells, and occasionally projects a mass of naked granite, or of quartz blackened by iron ; but it has once been completely cultivated ; and every spot, except those covered by rock, bears marks of the plough. Scattered clumps of trees denote the former situations of numerous villages : all now, however, are nearly deserted. I saw only two houses ; and a few fields ploughing for Horse-g^^am seemed to be the commencement of cultivation, from the time the country had been laid desolate by the merciless army of Purseram Bhow. TurivaCaray. Tuviva-Caray consists of an outer and an inner fort, stronp;ly

defended by a ditch and mud walL It has besides, at a little dis- tance, an open suburb, and contains 700 houses ; but is by no means? completely rebuilt. It has no merchants of any note ; but contains 20 houses of D^vdnga weavers, and 150 of farmers. It possesses two small temples, similar to that at Arulu Oupay ; and which, like it, are said to have been built by a Slwlun Raya, who was contemporary with Sankara Achdrya, the restorer of the doctrine of the Vedas. Heiigious build- Xhis priucc is vcry celebrated, by having built temples through- ^"^** out the country south from the Krishna river. All of them that I

have seen are small, and entirely built of stone. Their architecture is very different from the great temples, such as that at Kunji ; the upper parts of which are alM^ays formed of bricks, and whose most conspicuous part is the gateway. This last mentioned system of architecture seems to have been introduced by Krishna raya, of Vijaya-nagara ; at least, the 18 most celebrated temples in the lower {jarnatic are commonly said, by the Brdhinans, to have been rebuilt by that prince : for it must be observed, that scarcely any temple of celebrity is admitted to have been founded in this Yugam, or age of the world ; and many of them are supposed to be coeval with tlie universe. The small rude temples so common in the country, and which, from the simplicity of their form, are probably of great anti- quity, are all dedicated to SaJctis, or to spirits worshipped by the low castes, and never to any of the great gods. Many of them, no doubt, are of very late erection ; but they seem to me to preserve the sim- ple form of temples erected by rude tribes ; and the worship perform- ed in them appears to be that which prevailed throughout India before the introduction of the 21 sects which the Brdhmana reckon heretical 5 although some of them were probably antecedent, atleaiit in southern India, to the three sects of Brdhmana who follow the doctrine of the Vedas, Buildings by the Tlus placc formerly belonged to the Hagalawadi Poly gars, who mygan!^* although Called Chica Nayakas, or little chiefs, seem to have been a powerful family. One of them, who lived about 250 years ago, con- sttucted in this neighbourhood four temples, and four great reser-

CHAP. VII.] MYSOEE, CANAEA, AND MALABAJl, 335

voirs. According to the legend, Oan^aa supplied him with money I800. for carrying on these. This god appeared to the chief in a dream, ^"*- ^^^ informed him that a treasure was hidden under an image which stood in the suburbs, and directed him to take the money and construct these works. The treasure was accordingly found, and applied as directed The image, from under which the treasure had been taken, was shown to me ; and I was surprised at finding it lying at one of the gates quite neglected. On asking the reason, why the people allowed their benefactor to remain in such a plight, they informed rae, that, the finger of the image having been broken, the divinity had deserted it ; for no mutilated image is considered as habitable by a god. At one of the temples built with this money, I saw a very fine black stone, weU polished, and cut into a rude imitation of a bull It was about eight feet long, six high, and four broad \ and seemed to be of the same kind with the pillars in Hydei^'s monument at SeringapcUam. The quarry is six miles distant The reservoir here ia in very fine condition, and was constructed with Oan/sa's treasure. It formerly watered some excellent Areca gardens ; but, in consequence of Purseram Bhov/s iuvasion, most of the trees perished. For some days his head-quarters were at this place. The coco-nut palms, that formerly surrounded the betel-nut gardens, still remain, and mark their extent. The Amildar says, that he has only one half of the people that would be necessary to cultivate his district^ and that most of them are destitute of the necessary stock.

24th August, — I was detained all day at Turiva-Caray by the Aug. 24ih. violence of the rain. The strata here consist chiefly of gray gra- ®''*^ nite, or gneiss ; for the matters composing it are sometimes nearly stratified the dark green mica, or talc, being in some strata much more predominant than in other. This gives it a veined appearance ; but it is perfectly solid, and, except this appearance, has nothing of a slaty texture. Here may be observed beds parallel to the strata of gra- nite, and consisting entirely of this green matter in a state of decay. Its very greasy feel makes me suspect that it is rather talc than mica. Here also, as well as in many parts of the country, the gray granite is intersected in q11 directions by veins of reddish felspar, in- termixed with fragments of white quartz. These veins are fre- quently a foot wide ; and sometimes, in place of being disposed in veins, the felspar runs in beds, or strata, which are parallel to those of the granite, and are several feet in width.

25th August — In the morning I went two cosses to Cada-hully, Aug. 26th. a small village fortified with a mud wall. The country nearly re- 4?coun^.^^ sembles that between Arulu Oupay and Turiva-Caray ; but the soil is more inclined to be stony. It is, however, in a rather better state of cultivation, and perhaps a fourth part of the arable fields is now occupied. At this village there was a sheep-fold, strongly fortified by a hedge of dry thorns, and containing four huts, which the shep- herds usually occupied. These people, alarmed at my appearance, and suspecting that I came to take away their flocks for the use of tjie

33G A JOUENEY FEOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. army, did not approach the village all night ; but preferred expos-

Ang. 26th. ijjg ^qIj. cattle to the danger of tigers. These beasts of prey are said to be numerous here, and at night frequently prowl under the wall ; we therefore burned fires round the tents, «s was our usual practice in suspicious places. My motive for stopping at this poor place was, to examine the quarry from whence the fine black stone used in Hyders monument was taken. When I assigned this reason to the people, it appeared so absurd to them, that their fears were greatly increased. •

Quarry of bUck- This quarry is situated about half a mile east from the village, stone. and rises in a small ridge about half a mile long, a hundred ya^s

wide, and from twenty to fifty feet in perpendicular height. This ridge runs nearly north and south, in the common direction of the strata of the country, and is surrounded on aU sides by the common gray granite, which, as usual, is penetrated in all directions by veins of quartz and felspar ; but neither of these enter the quarry.

This stone is called Caricullu, or black-stone, by the natives, who give the same appellation to the quartz impregnated with iron, and to the brown haematites ; and in fact they all run very much into one another, and differ chiefly in the various proportions of the same component parts ; but have a certain general similitude easily defined, and are found in similar masses and strata. The black- stone of this place is an amorphous homblend, containing minute, but distinct rhomboidal lamellar concretions of basaltine. I imagine that it is the same stone with that which by the antients was called Basaltes, and which was by tbem sometimes formed into images, as it is now by the idolaters of India,

The surfigu^e of the ridge is covered with large irr^ular masses, which, where they have been long exposed to the air in the natural process of decay, lose their angles first. When these masses have thus become rounded, they decay in concentric lamellse ; but where the rock itself is exposed to the air, it separates into plates of various thicknesses, nearly vertical, uid running north and south. In the sound stone, there is not the smallest appearance of a slaty texture, and it splits with wedges in all directions. The north end of the ridge is the lowest, and has on its smrface the largest masses. It i.s there only that the natives have wrought it ; thev have always con- tented themselves with splitting detached blocks, and have never ventured on the solid rock, where much finer pieces might be procur- ed than has ever yet been obtained. The Baswa, or bull, at Turiva- Caray, is the finest piece that I have seen. ^p^p^f or Immediately north from the village is a quarry of BatlapHm,

or pot-stone, which is used by the natives for making small vessels ; and is so soft, that pencils are formed of it to write upon books, which aie made of cloth blackened, and stiffened with gum. Both the books, and the neatness of the writing, are very inferior to the similar ones of the people of Ava, who, in met, are much farther advanced in the arts than the Hindus of this country. This pot-stone separates into

pot-stone.

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 337

large amorphous masses, each covered with a crust in a decaying I800. " state ; and some of them are entirely penetrated with long slender '^"*^-*^ needles of shorlaceous actynolite.

In the same place I found the calcareous tufa in a solid mass, calcareous and procured a specimen distinctly marked with the impression of ^^*' a lea£

Immediately parallel, and contiguous to the pot-stone, is a stra- <i«art«. turn of quartz in a state of decay ; which separates into schistose plates, disposed vertically, and running north and south.

At Hadiina Betta, or Kite-hill, a coss east from JBeUtfrtf,^i'aCt(/ii<. masses of a harder pot-stone, called 8ila Oullu, may be procured ; and from thence probably Sholun Rdya conveyed it to build his temples at Arulu Oupay, and Turiva-Garay,

26th August — In the morning I went three cosses to Belluru. Appewance oc The greater part of the country consists of barren heights covered ^^ ^^^- with low busheSy and has never been cultivated. More than one half of the arable fields appear to be now waste ; but near BeWiirw there is a good deal of fine rice-groimd, and more of it is under the Kdrtica crop than I have seen in any other place. The tank of Bd-- luru is a fine work, and at present contains water to ripen 40 Can- dacas of seed, sowing at 200 Seers a Gandaea. Another heavy rain will secure them in 30 Candaoaa of the Vaisdkka crop. Here the sprouted-seed cultivation is preferred to all others. One half of the •cattle died last year of the epidemic distemper. There was plenty of forage. The people have not sufiered from famine since the inva- sion of 4^e country by Lord Comwallis ; but on that occasion their misery was terrible. On the approach of the British army, the /Stt2- lan laid waste the whole country between this and the capital, and forced the inhabitants of the open country to retire to the hills, where 4/hey built huts and procur^ provisions in the best manner that ihey could ; no steps naving been taken by their prince to obviate the famine likely to ensue. They were chiefly supported by the grain of the small villages that are hid among the hills and woods, and which it was not thought necessary to destroy. A large propor- tion, however, perished of hunger, or of the diseases followmg too scantv a diet ; and in the whole N&gamangala country, of which this forms a ps^ -one half of the inhabitants are now wanting, al- though they have had eight years to recover. This is the calculation of the officers of government To j udge from the desolation that I see around me, I should conclude the loss to have been greater.

In this part of the country a good many sheep are bred : in the shcep. morning I met with three large folds of them.

To the eastward oiBellunf, is a range of barren rocky hills. One nnis caUed of them rises to a considerable height, and is called Hnduna Cullu S^T* ^"" Betta, or Eite-rock hill, from its abounding with that kind of bird. So far as is known to the natives, these hills produce neither wood nor ore of any use.

Belluru is a large town, and both suburbs and citadel are strong* Mtiiuru,

43

338 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Til.

1800 ly fortified with a mud- wall, and ditch. The walls of the citadel have

Aug mh. ^Qii lately repaired ; but those of the Suburb are in the same ruin- ous state in which, on the approach of Purseram Bhow, they were left by Tippoo's troops, wonhip of the In all this part of the country it has been customary, when a new

the^'^flttcto. ^ ^ village was founded, for the person appoint-ed to be the hereditary Gauda, or chief, to place a large stone in or near the village. This stone is called the Curuvu Cullu, or calf-stone, and is considered as representing the Grama D^vai^, or god of the village. The here- ditary Gauda always officiates as Piijari, or priest ; and at the an- nual village feast, after having rubbed it with oil, offers a sacrifice, with which he feasts his relations and the chief men of the place. ^"Jj^^j Jj.^^! The Cummays, or as they are called by the Mussulmans, the

mtns. Cwm/mavar, are a kind of Brdhmana different from the others of tlie

country ; but I could not learn whence the difference arose. They eat in common with the others, but do not intermarry. They consist of four tribes, which never intermarrj'^, and are called Carutra, A rava- Tocala, Urichy, and Boburu Cummays. The three first tribes are of Karndta descent ; the last are of Tdinga extraction. They are of the same GotraTns, or families, with the other Brdhmaru, and like them are divided iuLo three sects, the Smartal, Sri-VaishnavaTn, and Madual ; but some of them are of a sect called Blidgavdtxi. Thase, although they follow Sankara A chary a, wear the mark of Vishnu ; and their name implies that they are worshippers of that god. They observe the Ekadasi fasts at the same time with the Tayngala Sri Vai^hnavam Brdhmans, which occasionally differ some hours from those observed by the Smartal. These fasts have given still farther room for differences among the Brahmans^ the Vad-a- galay Sri Vaishnavam,the Vaisi^dya Mata Maduals,and Utraya Mata Maduals, all differing from each other, and from those before men- tioned ; and, as might reasonably be expected on such a subject, they dispute about the proper time with great bitterness. Tlie length of time for which the fast should last has given rise to other disputes ; some thinking that they ought to abstain from eating 24 hours ; others, that the fast should be protracted to two days. In these fasts, all those who aim at being thought good men abstain totally from both food and drink. Lokika people, or those who prefer to their duty the gratification of their appetites, satisfy the cravings of their stomachs with fruit. The greater part of the Vai- dika Brdhmans here, although they employ much of their time in reading the Vedas, or eighteen Pnrdnas, do not pretend to under- stand either. They get a copy of some portion of either of these books, and every day employ a certain number of hours in reading it aloud, which they perform with a most disagreeable cant, and twang through the nose. This, however, they consider as suflBo^- ently meritorious to entitle them to the love of god, and the vener- ation of men ; and a large proportion of their countrymen are of the same opinion.

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 339

27th AiigvM. — I went three cosses to N&gamangala. The coun- ^^^^jg^^ try through which I came resembles what I saw yesterday ; but the ^' greater part of the heights, although barren, appear as if they had been formerly cultivated. At present very little of the country is under cultivation, and it looks very bare. Within sight were many ruinous villages.

Ndga/mangala is a large square mud foiii, and contains in its ^ofamanoaia. center a square citadel, which, like that of Chica Nayakana HuUy, leaves room in the outer town for one street with short lanes on each side. In the inner fort are two large temples, and some other reli- gious buildings, in good repair ; and a Mahal, or palace, a Cutchery, or public office, and several large granaries, in ruins. The town and ail these public buildings were erected by a prince named Jagadiva Rdya, who seems to have been of the same family with the Rajas of Mysore ; for the two houses had frequent intermarriages. Ac- cording to tradition, JagacMva Rdya, who founded this city, lived about 600 years ago. His dominions extended from Jagaji^a* Pattana on the east, to the frontiers of the Maiizur-dhdd Polygar and of the Ikeri Bdja on the west. They were bounded by Sagaior- vjodi on the north, and included the Belluru district. On the south they were bounded by the territories of the Bdja of Mysore, and of the Vir^-Rdya, who possesses the country that we call Cooiy, and who was then proprietor of Mahd-Rdyana-Dwrga. About three centuries ago, the successor of Jagad^va Rdya, dying without chil- dren, was succeeded by his kinsman, the Curtur of Mysore, This town was originally called Phani-pura, or the city of snakes ; but its name has been changed into Ndgamangala, which signifies the blessed with serpents. JBefore the invasion of PurseraTn Bhow it contained 1500 houses, which are now reduced to 200, that are scattered amid the ruins. At the same time the Maraitahs destroyed ] 50,000 palm trees. In the whole district there are only about one half of the necessary cultivators, and they come in slowly, the Nizam's country being at too great a distance. Forty houses only have been built since the place received Cowl, or protection from the English. It possesses three fine reservoirs ; but for the last four years so little rain has fallen, that very little of the rice-ground has been cultivated, and the proprietors have not been able to re- plant their palm gardens.

I observed tne people fishing in the small quantity of water that ^^^ is in the reservoirs ; and was told, that small fishes are to be found in all the tanks of the country, although they frequently dry up, and have Jio communication with streams from whence they might get a supply. The eggs, no doubt, remain diy in the mud, and are not hatcned until they have been moistened by the return of the water.

The greater part of the inhabitants oi Nagamangala arewhat are smigraftion- here called Tigutaru, or Taycularv, ; that is to say, are descended from persons who came from countries where the Tamul language

340

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VII.

1800.

Aug. 27tb.

Mannar of rent ing the lands.

8trst».

August S8tb. Appearance of the country.

Chinna^

Company's oatUe.

is spoken. According to tradition, they left Kunji about 700 years ago ; but they can give no account as to .the occasion of their an- cestors deserting their native country. Most of them have lost ibeir original language : but they never intermarry with the native Kar- natas. Some of them can read the books in the Tamul language that belong to their caste.

In this district the Gaudas, or chief farmers, partly rent the village, and partly collect, on the public account, wnatever can be had from the inhabitants. If a renter receives fixHn them a much greater sum than what he agreed to give to the Amdldar, pari is taken from him; but a small or reasonable profit is allowed. In every village a piece of ground is allotted for the Oauda. If he rents the village, he pays nothing for this land, and has it &ee on account of his trouble ; but if another person manages the village, the hereditary Gauda pays rent like any other fiurmer. If the crop be very deficient, the renter is not obliged to fulfil his agreement, as he can raise little or nothing from l£e farmers ; but if he can raise 80 or 90 per cent, of his expected collections, he must make up the balance. The farmers have a fixed property in the fields, which are let according to a valuation made by Jagad^va Bdya ; and so long as a man pays his rent according to that valuation, he cannot be turned out of his possession. The SuUan made a new valuation, but never realized it; for the outstanding balances always at least equalled the additional imposts. The rice ground always pays by a division, and the dry-field by a money-rent. Ground that has not been occupied tor some time pays no rent for the first year that it is brought into cultivation ; a fourth part of the valued rent is laid on every succeeding year, so that on the fourth year it pays a full rent. Almost every where in India some- what similar prevails ; and the custom arises from a conviction thai rest injures the soil. In some places it is necessary to cut trees ; but that is not the case here.

Immediately west from NagamaTigala is a hSl, which eonsista eUefly of a talcose argiUite, approaching very near to a slaty poi- BUme ; the natives indeed call it by the same name ; and they use it for peneils as they do the other. Its structure is slaty, and it is disposed in strata much inclined to the horizon, and running north and south. Some of it is reddish, . and some has a greeniw hue. Intermized with it are several large masses oi white quartz. The rock at the town is granite.

28th August— ^n the morning I went three cosses to Chinna. The eoimtry is more barren than any that I have seen for some time, and the heights rise into low rocky hills. Some parts of^t are eo- vered with low trees, especially with the Elate sylvestris, or wild-date. Chinna is a poor ruinous place. It was formerly of some note ; but about 30 years ago it was destroyed by the JUatattah army, ihen attacking Hyder, and it has never since recovered.

I found near this a herd o£ draught oxen belonging to the Com*

CHAP. VII.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 341

pany, and in excellent condition. This seems to be owing to the ^J|00.^ care which is bestowed, during the rainy season, on collecting hay. By taking the same trouble, the herds of the natives might be kept in a very different state from that in which they now are.

- Here are a set of people, among whom is the chief of the village, jaina Bauijigns. that are called Jaina Banijigas. They seem to be different from those called Jainu, as they do not wear the Linga. There are about forty families of them, scattered through the villages north and^east from Seringapatam. The Oauda relates, that Rajna Anuja A chary a, having obtained the victory in a great dispute with the priests oi Jaina at Tonuru, caused these, with as many of their followers as were obstinate, to be ground in oil-mills. The remainder, who had been converted by this powerful mode of argument, received Chak- rantUcan from the Brdhman, and their descendants are these Jaina Ba/nijigaa. They neither eat nor intermarry with Jainas who retain their former worship ; but adore Vishnu, and are disciples of one of the hereditary chiefe of the Sri VauhnavatA Brdhmana, who gives them Chakriiiitikam and holy water, and accepts of their Dharma, They are traders, farmers, and cultivators.

29th August— 1 went one coss to MaH-cotay, or the lofty for- j[JJ;J^i^ ^ tress. The country is steep, and nearly uninhabited. There are, how- the country. ever, many places on the ascent that have a good soil, and that have formerly been cultivated. The other lands are covered with copse wood,

Mail-cotay, in the Sanskrit language, is called by the un- uaii-coiuy. couth name of Daknhina Bhadarikdsramam, It is situated on a high rocky hill, and commands a noble view of the valley watered by the Cdv^H, and of the hills of Mysore to the south ; of those of the Ghats to the west; and toward the east, Savana-Durga said Siva-Oangd close the prospect. It is one of the most celebrated places of Hindu worship, both as having been honoured with the actual presence of an Avatira, or incarnation of Vishnu, who founded one of the tem^ pies ; and also as being one of the principal seats of the Sri Vaish- navam Brclimans, and having possessed very large revenues. About forty years ago, it contained aunost a thousand houses inhabited by Brahmans, 'who did not allow many of the SUdras to remain in the place. A few shop-keepers and Satdnanas composed the remainder of the inhabitants. Soon after this period the Marattahs gained a victory over Hyder, and encamped for some time on the south side of the hill. The Brahmans here were too cunning to be caught, and the place was entirely deserted ; but even the temples of their gods did not escape Marattah rapacity. For the sake of the iron-work^ and to get at it easily, they burned the immense wooden Raihs, or chariots on* which the idols are carried in procession ; and the fire spread to the reli^ous buildings, some of which were entirely con- sumed. A sufficient number, however, still remain. The three Srincipal are, a temple placed on the very summit of the rock, and edicated to Narasingha, one of the Avatdras of Vit/tnu ; the great temple of ChillapuUa Rdya ; and a noble tank.

2^2 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIl.

1800. The large temple is a square building of great dimensions, and

Ti^pi^f entirely surrounded by a colonnade ; but it is a mean pifece of archi- chitiapvua tecture, at least outwardly. The columns are very rude, and only about six feet high. Above the entablature, in place of a balustrade, is a clumsy mass of brick and plaster, much higher than the co- lumns, and excavated with numerous nichas ; in which are huddletl together many thousand images composed of the same materials, and most rudely formed. Unwilling to give offence, I did not see any of the interior parts of it, although no remonstrance would have been made against my entering the inner courts ; but I wished to get some information from the Brahmans ; and my not presuming to approach so holy a place evidently gave satisfaction. The pre- sent structure was built, or at least put into its present form, by lidrna Anaijd Achdrya ; but, as I have before mentioned, the temple itself is alleged to be of wonderful antiquity, and to have been not only built by a god, but to be dedicated to Krishna on the very spot where that Avatdra peiforified some of hisgreat works. Although the image represents Krishna, it is commonly called ChUlar-pwlla Bdya, or the darling prince ; for ChillapuUa is a term of endearment, which mothers give to their infants, somewhat like our word dar- ling. The reason of such an uncommon appellation being given to a mighty warrior is said to be as follows : on Rama Anuja's going to Mail-cotay, to perform his devotions at that celebrated shrine, he was informed that the place had been atacked by the Turc king of Dehli, who had carried away the idoL The Brahman immediately set out for that capital ; and on his arrival he found that the king had made a present of the image to his daughter ; for it is said to be very handsome, and she asked for it as a plaything. All day the princess played with the image ; at night the god assumed his own beautiful form, and enjoyed her bed ; for Krishna is addicted to such kinds of adventures. This had continued for some time when MdTna Anuja arrived, and called on the image, repeating at the same time some powerful Mantrams ; on which the idol immediately placed felt is on the Brdhman's knee. Having clasped it in his arms« he called it his Chillaprdla, and they were both instantaneously conveyed to Maih-cotay, The princess, quite disccmsolate for the loss erf her image, mounted a-horse, and followed as fast as she was able. She no sooner came near the idol than she disappeared, and is supposed to have been taken into its immediate substance ; which, in this country, is a common way of the gods disposing of their favorites. A monument was built for the princess ; but as she was a Tiwrc, it would have been improper to pls^e this building within the walls of the holy place ; it has therefore been erected at the foof of the hill, under the most abrupt part of the rock.

The tank is a very fine one, and is surrounded by many build- ings for the accommodation of religious persons, and for- the intended recreation of the idols when they are carried in procession. Were these kept in good order, they would have a grand appearance ; but the

Fine tank.

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 343

buildings ar§ filthy and ruinous. The natives believe, that every year, isoo. at tlie tune of the grand festival, the water of the Ganges is convey- ^^' ^^ ed by subterraneous passages, and fills this tank ; yet they candidly acknowledge, that not the smallest external mark of any change takes place. On this occasion it is customary to throw in bits of money. My attendant messenger, who is a BrdhToan, says, that he was present when all the water was taken out by orders from the Sultan, who expected by this means to find a great treasure. All that was found, however, was a potful of copper money.

The jewels belonging to the great temple are very valuable ; Jf^J^tJl^JJ*'. and even the SuUan was afiraid to seize them. They are never ex- pie.

Eosed to the risk of being carried away by any desperate ruffian, ut are always kept in the treasury at Seringapatam ; and during the time of the festival are sent to Mail-cotay, under a strong mili- tary guard. This property was respected by the British captors, and the jewels are sent to the place as formerly.

The town has never recovered itself since the first Marattah in- Re^en^ef . vasion. Hyder, indeed, allowed to the Br ah/mans the full enjoyment of their revenues ; but his son first reduced their lands to 6000 Pago- das a year; then to four ; then to two, and at length to one thousand ; finally, he entirely took away their land, and gave them an annual pension of 1000 Pagodas. After his fall, General Harris granted them lands to the amount of 6000 Pagodas ; but at present, from want of cultivators, they produce only 4000, or 1343{. 38. 5d These lands are managed by an Amildar, appointed by the government, and accountable to it for his conduct. The houses atpresent amoimt to 300, of which 200 are inhabited by Brahmans. The only people here who live by industry are twenty families of weavers, and a few shopkeepers. In the great temple four hundred Brdhmans form the higner class of the servants ; and from thence they receive a daily allowance. Inhere is also a class of servants of Siidra extraction, and consisting of musicians, dancing-girls, and Vaishnavam, or So- tdnanas. The houses here are better than any belonging to the Hindus that I have seen above the OhaU \ for the begging of the Brdhmans is a lucrative employment, and several Ourus make this their chief place of residence. The houses are roofed with tiles, and have an odd look, from being entirely covered with thorns. This is done to prevent the monkies from unroofing the houses ; for those mischievous animals are here very numerous, and to destroy them is reckoned a grievous sin. The very person who applauds his Guru for having ground the Javacbs in an oil-mill, will shudder with horror at the thought of a monkey's being killed.

I expected here to be able to get some account of the Mysore ^^ncip^s of family, who long had been generous benefactors to the Brahmans of Mail'cotay ; but in this I was entirely disappointed. I was told, that they gave themselves no concern about worldly afiairs ; and that to them the histoiy of the low castes was of no consequence. They seem not at all interested about their young Rdja ; and the family

344f A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. has been so long in obscurity, that it is no longer looked up to iiritb

"^ ^^ ' awe ; which among the natives in general is the only tiling that sup- plies the place of loyalty. Their military men are the only class that seem to have a strong attachment to their princes ; and they serve faithfully, so long as they are regularly paid, or gratified by a per- mission to plunder ; but provided these pay them better, iiey are equally willing to serve a Mussulman or Christian leader, as a Sin- du prince. Terror is therefore the leading principle of every Indian goveiTiment ; and among the people, in place of loyalty and patriot- ism, the chief principles are, an abject devotion to their spiritual masters, and an obstinate adherence to custom, chieHy in matters of ceremony and caste. Aiiirtstaoth. 30th August — I remained at MaiUCotay, endeavouring to get

Bt'oiin^^niT^^ a fullcr accouutof the Sri Vaishnavara Brdhmwiis, or A^ayngar ; but I had not so much success as 1 expected. I could not procure an in- • tei-view with any of the Our us; for each of them an excuse was made ;

some were sick, some were fasting, and most of them were absent on their duty of begging, as it is called. I, however, met with a Vai- dika Brdhinan, who was a very accurate man ; and it was not owing to either want of abilities or inclination in him, that I did not pro- cure the information which I wanted. He was of the Tayngala sect, and said that the Wadagalay separated from them in the time of VMdnta Achdrya, who was bom about 30 years after the death of Rama Anuja. Tayngala signifies southern language, while Wada^ /7aZay signifies that of the north. In the country where the Tartiul language prevails, the former are most numerous ; and the Wad/juga- lay are most numerous in TelingaTia ; but theie are Brdhmans of both sects in either country ; nor does the difference in opinion pre- vent them from intermarrying, if they be of the same nation. Ucrcticai sects. The books of the BrcJimana do not mention the time when the

heretical sects arose ; they only notice the persons by whom the false doctrines were first promulgated. These sects are, or were, eighteen in number ; and their authors, according to this Brahman, extracted their doctrine from the six books of the eighteen Furd- nas that are reckoned of a bad nature. These sects were very pre- valent, and the Br^maiis very low, till the time of Sankara Achcarya, whom even this Sri Vaishnaram acknowledges to have been laioara himself, who about 1520 years ago entered a woman of the sacred caste, and was bom at Sringa-giri, near the western Ghats. He had great success agauist the heretical sects, and entirely destroyed twelve of them ; but was contented to permit six of them to exist for some time longer. These six sects were, Pdshandi, Charvaca, Buddha, Jairm, Vamana, and Paahu or Ganapatyam. The Fcukandi include all the people who wear the Linga ; and the Pundarums, or all those that worship Siva, and pretend to be exempted from the authority of the Brdhmans. These are still very numerous, but consider this name as a reproach. The Charvaca worship a bnlL There are many Jaiiias about Chin'-rdyOrpaliaruc. A few Buddhns

CHAT. VII.1 MYSORB, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 345

remain in the Codagu country, which we call Coorg, The Vamanas jgoQ. are followers of a person of that name, and deny altogether the Aug, 30th. existence of a deity. The Ganapatyam believe in God ; but allege, that the V^daa and Sdstrams, with all the books esteemed sacred by the Hindus, are mere fables. These two last sects are very thinly sciattered, and are held in great abhorrence ; on which account they do not openly profess their doctrine, but call themselves by some other name. My informant does not know whether any of the other twelve sects now remain and profess their doctrine ; but he says, that at any rate by far the greater part were obliged to adopt some of the six doctrines permitted by Sankara Achdrya to remain, as being true. How this could happen, or how a Smartal Brahman could admit the truth of the doctrines of an atheist or deist, I do not profess to understand. The fact, I suppose, is, that these six j^ects had influence enough with the governing powers to prevent the intrigues of Sankara Achdrya from having effect. It is certain, that long after his time by far the greater part of the people were not followers of his college, or MatOu

About six hundred years after the time of Sankara AcMrya, the ^<»»«« ^^^'J^ snake Sesfia entered a woman of the sacred caste at Sri Permatm'u, and was bom as Rdma Anuja Achdrya. At that time the greater ] )art of the people who lived below the eastern Ghat8 were PdsJiandia ; and of those who lived above the Ohats the greater part were Jainas : but Rdma Anuja not only converted a great many Brdh- mana from the doctrine of SanJcara Acftdrya, but also persuaded many of the heretics to become followers of the Brdhmans. Among others was Vishnu Vardana Bdya, a Jaina prince, and king of the whole country, who resided at Yadava-puri ; that is to say, the city of the cow-keeper, a place that is now called Tonuru. By the as- sistance of this king, he converted the Jainaa, and ground their obstinate priests in an oil-mill. As a Brdhman, he could not put these people to death ; but having publicly convicted them of he- resy, it became the king's d«ty to punish their infidelity. This great leader of the Brdhmana made 700 Matas, or colleges, for San- nydm ; all of which, except four, have gone to ruin. He also ap- pointed 74 hereditary chiefs, of every one of which the represen- tiitive in the male line continues at present to enjoy his elevated dignity. The Sannydais are considered as of the highest rank ; but the hereditary chiefs will not receive from them either CJtakrdn- tika/nh or Upad^sa ; for this would be too humiliating an acknow- ledgment of superiority. Each Ouni, married or unmarried, has a certain number of families, both Brdhmana and Sudras, that arc hereditarily subjected to the authority of his college, or house. The Sanny&sia are addressed by the title of Swdmalu, or Swamyalu ; the hereditary chiefs by that of Achdrya. Every Brdhman in this country is called Swdmi, or lord.

The appearance of Rdma Anuja being one of the most impor- tant eras in the history of southern India, I was anxious to ascer-

44

346 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VII.

1800. ^^^ ^^^ exact time of that event. The BrdJiTnan who had hitherto

Au«. 30th given me infonnation was not in possession of the book that con- tained an account of the life and actions of the founder of his sect, and which, I found, was considered as too sacred for profane eyes to behold. Having sent for the owner of the book, and requestetl permission for my informant to copy the date, he replied that he would not venture to take such a step without the advice and con- sent of the leading men in the place. A council was accordingly assembled at my tent, and it was judged allowable to give me tJie information which I wanted. To avoid delay, and to encourage the man, I offered the owner a small sum of money to pay the writer for copying the date, and of this he readily accepted. At two o'clock the whole party weni to consult the book ; and at seven in the evening, no one of them having returned, I sent for my first infor- mant. He told me, that this having been a fast day, none of tlieni, when I saw them, had eaten any thing ; and that, immediately on leaving the tent, they had all dispersed, and could not be assembletl without an order from the Parputty, or civil ofiicer ; and that sin- gly no man would do any thing. Application having been made to the Parputty, he immediately called an assembly, and they agreed to copy for me a life or journal of the proceedings of Rama Anuja, leaving out only such Mantrams and passages as were tit only for the ear of a Brahman, Four or five hours, they sai J, would be sufficient ; and my interpreter was ordered, until the work was finished, to attend his brethren the Brdhmans at the temple. There is here a i/a^am, or convent of VairdgiSy who claimed l>e- ^ ing my countrymen, as I belonged to the Bengal establishment. They

said, that their Ciuste was descended from the children • of persons of all kinds, who, not having had anj'- heirs, have made a vow to the image of Edma at Ayddya (Oude) to consecrate to his service their eldest son, should the god interpose, and grant them a family. Many of these consecrated persons have married, and the whole of their descendants are Vairdgis. Their chief convents are at Ayoilya and Jaya-pura ; but smaller ones are scattered in every part of India. Their Gwrusare also Fairagfis, but are always descendcil frou^ the children of Bralimans. They say, that in Hindustan proper the only Pujaris in the temples of Vishnu are the BreJimans of their caste. In that country many of them are learned ; those her*- acknowledged their ignorance. They abstain from animal food, aud hold in abhon*ence the custom, which prevails here, of marrying their aunt's daughter. In every part of India a man's marrying his uncle's daughter is looked upon as incestuous. The Vairdgm of Sudra origin always assume the appearance of beggars ; but they frequent- ly trade from place to place in horses, arms, pearls, shawls, an<l other valuable articles ; and on such occasions, to secure their pro- perty, the}'' travel in large bodies weU armed ; not trusting entirely to thek professions of poverty. They never trade in shops. Th»'V arc at constant variance with the people of a tribe called here Goss{iin (properly Gdsvjdmi) ; and in the engagements that take place be-

CHAP. VIl.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 8^7

tweea these two sets of vagrants, lives are frequently lost. The iqqq; forms aasumed by the Vairagis in begging are various. Some of Aug. 30th. them constantly remain in some painful or difficult posture ; and, according to the postures which they assume, are called Urdabahu, or TicrawaXla. Some of them, called Pramalumsa, or Digambara, go quite naked, with their hair matted, and thickened with dirt ; these beg from door to door, frequently pretending to be idiots, and to live in wastes and woods on leaves and wild fruits. The remainder are called BamanandL There is in this country a set of scoundrels who call themselves Vairdgia ; but who are disowned by those who pre- tend to be really so, and are by them called Bersta. These fellows extort compassion by burning themselves with torches, and cutting themselves with swords. If possible, they surround a woman who is with child, and threaten to torment themselves before her, unless she gives them money. The woman in general complies, being com- monly tender-hearted, and also being afraid lest her child should be disfigured by her looking at their distortions and agonies.

The hiU on which Mail-cotay stands consists of many different strata. kinds of rock ; but to most of them, the French term Roche feuille^ tee seems applicable. They are aggregates, with their component parts disposed in a striated or fofiated manner. They are of very gi'cat tenacity, being extremely difficult to break, especially across the fibre ; they split somewhat more easily in its direction, but even in that strongly resist aU external violence. These rocks are dispos- ed in vertical strata running north and south, and the fibres or laminse are placed in the same direction. In small pieces this structure is often not easily discemable ; but it is always very conspi- cuous in large masses, or when the rock begins to decay. The strata are intercepted by fissures crossing them at right angles ; but never, so far as I observed, containing any extraneous fossil, such as quarts or felspar. In decay, this rock has a tendency to form long cylindrical masses, which from their fibrous nature have some- what the appearance of petrified logs of timber. The most common of these strata are various kinds of gneiss, which may be cut here into pillars of any size, and afford admirable materials for fine build- ings. Some of it is very small grained, and assumes the form which by some mineralogists is called regenerated granite. In some of the buildings here are columns of tnLs kind, which are of an excel- lent quality, and cut remarkably well. The people could not tell fix)m whence they had been brought. Many other strata consists of a granitel, composed of homblend-slate, quite black, and mixed with white quartz. When broken longitudinally, the quartz forms veins ; when transversely, it forms spots. It might peAaps be called a homblend porphyry. Here are also strata of schistose Mica ; one of which is decayed into a kind of earth called Nama, and is a source of some profit to the place. It is supposed to have been created by Garvda, or the mythological eagle on which Krishna rides ; and near this is used by all the Sri Vaislmavam

348 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Vll.

1800. Brahmans, and their followers, to mark their foreheads. Some of it Aug. 3uiii, jg^ f^^, |.|^jg pu|.poge^ sent even to Kd$i, or Benares. Some Vaishna-

vartis work it by digging the whole substance out of the beds in

which it lies, and throwing it into large vessels of water. It is

well stirred about ; and, while the mica swims, the fragment^; of

quartz remain at the bottom, and are taken out by the hand. The

fnica is then allowed to subside, and forms into a mass, which is

divided into small pieces, and afterwards made into balls by being

moistened in water. These are sold for use, and are perfectly white

AiiRUBt 3ist. 31st August — In the morning my interpreter informed me, that.

the^Bra/tmawlin ^^^ night, Until a kto hour, he had attended the council of Brdli-

communicating maus at the tcmplc. After a long deliberation, it was determine^l

information, ^j^^^ ^j^^y ^^^^j gjyg j^j^ g^ vcrsc, or SUHcom, containing the era that,

I wanted to know, enigmatically expressed, as is usual in these verses. They also explained the enigma to him in the vulgar language, an<l gave him a copy of this, which he might show ; but they enjoined him by no means to expose to profane eyes the Sldkam, a request that he treated with great contempt. It was also determined, that they would neither copy any part of the book, nor permit it to bo seen, under pretence of its having been -carried away by the Ma- rattaha. What could induce them to adopt such an excuse, I cannot tell. Before a hundred people at my tent, and these the chief in- habitants of the place, a mai^ venerated for his years, his learning, and his piety, declared himself possessed of the book, and received money to defray the expense of copying a part of it ; and now he was not ashamed to declare, that thirty years ago he had been robbed of it. To do him justice, he offered to refund the money ; but my interpreter refused it, having no orders to rescind the bar- gain. It had, indeed, been by his advice that I had made the ad- vance. He alleged, that in his caste no promises of reward aiv looked upon as good for any thing ; but that the immediate view of the money produces strong effects ; and, after receiving the money, the faithful performance of what a BrdJiman undertakes may veiy generally be expected. Appearance of I then wcut to jTonurw-Carai/ by the Mussulmaus Called Midi

* " - Taiau, or the pearl-tank, a name given to it by one of the Mogul officers who visited the place. From Mail-cotay it is distant thrcti cosses. The intermediate country is very rough, containing only a narrow fertile band on the sides of a water-course, which, afkr heavy rain, conveys some water from MaU-cotay into the reservoir of Tonum. This band is at present cultivated only in part, all the dry fields being entirely unoccupied. Although these are almost a continued bed of loose nodules of white quartz, they have for- merly been cultivated; and to make room for the plough, the stones have in many places been gathered up into ridges. At pre- sent, the country is quite bare ; but the remaining stumps show, that the whole way between tlie two places an avenue of trees for- merly sheltered the road.

the country.

CHAP. VII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, 349

At Tonuru I found some intelligent Brdhmans, who told me 1800. that the translation of the verses given me at MaiUcotay was a false HiltoJjIoV /jama one ; and that the real meaning of them is, that Rdma Anuja Ach- ^twya. di^a was bom in the year of the KaZi-yugam 4118, or tiie year 1025 of the Christian era. These Brdhmans repeated another SIS- kaffi, which makes the birth of Rdma Anuja to have happened in the year of SdlivdkaTiam 932, or A. D. 1010, a difference only of 15 years.

The account of Rdma A nuja, given here, is as follows. Yadavi Puri, now called Tonuru, was formerly a place of great note, and the residence of a powerful kmg named Belatla Bdya. Nine princes of the same name had preceded him, and his empire extended to a great distance. Like his ancestors, he was a worshipper of Jaina ; and it is said, that in his capital city seven hundred temples were dedicated to that god. At this time Rdma Anuja, having taught new opinions in the country below the Ghats, was persecuted by Shola Raja, or the king of Tanjore, who was a strenuous supporter of the SwMrtxU Brdh/mans, Rdma Anuja was obliged to retreat from this persecu- tion, and come to the court of BalaUa Rdya. The daughter of this prince was then possessed by BrimTna Racahaau, a female devil, who rendered the princess so foolish, that she was unable even to dress herself. The king had carried his daughter to all the temples of his idol ; and all his priests, who were generally admitted to be very skilful magicians, had attempted to free the princess from the mon- ster ; but all these efforts were vain. Rdma Anuja having obtained permission to try his power, he presented the princess with some consecrated ocymuvi (Tuhsi), and sprinkled her with holy water ; on which she '^as immediately restored to her understanding. The king then declared, that he would foUow R&m/i Anuja as his Ouru, and worship Vishnu ; whereupon the Brahman gave him the name of Vishnu Vardana Rdya, and bestowed on him Chakrdntikam and UpacUsa.

The priests of Jaina, as may be naturally supposed, were en- raged with the Brahman for having converted their king ; and a grand dispute took place before the whole court. After eighteen days of disputation, the Jainas were fully confuted : some of them took ChaWdntika/m, some made their escape, and the remainder were put to the terrible death which I formerly mentioned. The king then presented a large sum of money to his new Ouru, With this that Brahman pulled down all the temples of the Jainas, and with the materials built the great reservoir. He also repaired three tem- ,

Eles of Vishnu that had long been quite deserted, and in one of them e resided three years. He then had a dream, in which Narayana ordered him to go to Mail-cotay, and to repair the temple of Rama^ priya. This is the original name of the idol now callea ChUlapulla Rdya ; and I have already related the fable concerning the origin of that name ; which was told here also, with very little variation. On his return from Delhi with the image, Rd/ma Anuja repaired the temple, and promulgated the laws that are now observed by the

SoO A JOURXET FROM iLU)RAS THROUGH [CH-VP. VII.

1800. A'ayivjarZ Brdhvuins. He resided there fourteen years : when the

Aug. »..». Slujia Rdja that had persecuted him ha%-ing died, he went ia' Sri Manrjavi near TntcJtenopobj, and there also had very great success aipunst the infidels, converting them bj means similar to those which were used at Tonuru. 7>^-n. r«f«.. The only remains of the ancient city are some ruins of the waU< which are sufficient to shew that they were of great extent. ThJ three temples said to have been repaired by Itdvia Anuja are in crood preservation, and must either have been founded by him. or entfrclv rebuilt ; which last is the most probable opinion. Before that tini"- they were perhaps small buildings belonging to a persecuted o'r newly estabhshed sect. Their present size is very considerable Ihe i«tt<7» had converted one of them into a fort, and made it the residence of an AsoiA or lord lieutenant ; but it has been now puri- faed, and I found that an infidel could not be admitted within tho gate. At no place in the i^eninsula have I found that a European could get admission into the shrine, or chamber in which the idol is placed. In most cases, indeed, the door will be opened ; but as there IS no hght m any of these places, except that of a glimmerinc lamn I have never been able to discern the form of any of the idols that are worshipped by the Brdlimam: they are said, however, to be of the same form with the images without, thousands of which are placed about the temples as ornaments, and which any one mav see handle, or pmrchase. These are not at aU objects of adoration : the oUB%h^t^^''° ^ ''^ *^^™ ^^ ^® powerful Mantrams

Great unk. The rescrvoir, or Tadavi Nuddi, is a very great work Two

mountam torrents here had united their streams, and forced"a wnv through a gap between two rocky hills. Rdma Anuja stopped ul. J gap by a mound, said to be 78 cubits high, 150 cubitTlon- and at the base 250 cubite thick. The superfluous water i^ let off by a channel, which has been cut with great labour through one of the hills, at such a height, as to enable it to water a greTt deal of the subjaeent plam which is three or four miles in extent When the reservoir is fuU, it contains a suflScient quantity of water to supply the cultivators for two years ; but owi^ to failures of min the ^ater frequently continues lower than the opening of the out- et. Although the torrents bring down much s^d, it so happens that the reservoir is never aflfected by that circumstance; fo?^he two streams enter m such directions, as to force all the sand to- ward the extreme corners, without diminishing the main denth A few years ago ttie ^fitftan destroyed this favourite monnment of the great Ht^idu, doctor which had been built with the spoils of re- futed heretics, and was hence doubly valued by every true foUower of the PttrrfTUM Ttppoo cut a narrow trench through the mound and the water, having got vent, rushed forth with such violence as to sweep away two-thirds of the whole. Although the demoHtion of this work by Tippoo was but a just retaliation f^or the enSS

CHAP. VII.] MYSOEE, CAKAKA, AND MALABAR. 35I

by which it had been erected, nothing could be more absurd or 1800. impolitic, both as giving offence to his subjects, and as injuring ^"s- '^■'' the resources of the country. The motive that induced him to act so foolishly is doubtful. Some ast.y, that he expected by draining the reservoir to find a great treasure, and he thought he should be able to effect this without the demolition of the work, which, contrary to his wishes, was swept away by the violence of the tor- rent undermining the foundations. Otiiers attribute the action to a sudden ebullition of bigotry, which was his ruling passion. Near the place there is a monument dedicated to one of the fanatical followers of Mahmud Ghizni, who had penetrated this length, and had here suffered martyrdom. Very early a monument had been erected over his grave, and the SuUdn had buried one of the ladies of his fitmily by the side of the stair which leads up to the tomb of the • reputed saint. When he destroyed the reservoir, he had been on a visit to this sacred place ; and his zeal against the infidels had been inflamed into rage by the recollection of the martyrdom : the monu- ment of the Mussulman was enlarged, and endowed with ihe spoils which the Brdhmand had torn from the priests of JaincL The former establishment in the mausoleum of tnis fanatic is supported at the Company's expense ; and a robust intelligent saint (Peer) ' receives annually 200 Pagodas, and performs the proper ceremo- nies. From the Myaare government the temples annually receive 300 Pagodas.

The town is increasing fast, and will, no doubt, be soon a con- ^it^orqfMau* siderable place ; for orders were given by General Hiirris for the immediate rebuilding of the tank, and. the Amildar has already made great progress in the wort This Brdh/nian, whom Hyder, in one of his invasions of the dominions of Arcot, carried away from Kunji, has been appointed Amildar of the lands which were restor- ed to the Brdhmana of MaiUcotay. When informed of their con- duct, he was greatly enraged, and sent immediately for the leaders of the council. He did this, partly to inform them of the necessity there was for performing their engagements with me ; and partly, by the journey, to punish their lofly. He told them, that as the English gentlemen had always protected the Brdhmans, there could be no reason for concealii^ their books, of which no one would attempt to deprive them. He then told me, that under the former government these poor people had got into such habits of lying, as a kind of skreen from oppression, that they were now utterly inca- pable of speaking the truth. The Brdhman of Tmuru are very communicative, which the Amildar attributed to their poverty.

The etrata here are similar to those at Mail-cotay ; but are so strata. intersected by fissures, as to be of no use for building.

On the rising ground north from the reservoir a severe battle was fought between 3ie Maratiahs and Hyder. The latter was complete- ly defeated, and all his army destroyed, except one crop, with which he fled into Seringapatamy passbg by the western end of the hills.

352

1800.

Sept. 1st. Quanyof granite.

A JOURNEY FBOM MADEAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VII.

Appearance of the country.

Bept. 1—4. River Cavery.

1st September. — I went three cosses to the northern bank of the Cavery, at Seringdpatam. By the way, I examined the quarry of gray granite at Chica Mally Betta^ which is the best in the neigh- bourhood. It is about six miles north from Seringapatam, The workmen have never cut upon the solid rock, but have content- ed themselves with splitting the lower blocks that cover the surfece of the hill, and a stone 12 cubits long is reckoned a very large one. Longer ones, if wanted, might no doubt be obtained by cutting into the solid rock. This granite, in its appearance, has nothing either of a fibrous or foliated texture ; but in fact its parts are so disposed, that the stene splits much easier in one direction than in any other. The workmen cannot judge of this external appearance ; but they try the block by chipping it in various parts, until they find out the direction in which the wedge will have its most powerful effects. In decay, the plates of which the rock consists are abundantly conspi- cuous. This stene is easier wrought than that of Mail-cotay ; but, owing te the coarseness of ite grain, cannot be cut inte such fine figures. *

Chica Malta Betta and-thaErench rocks, as we call them, are two smaD rocky hills which raise up ^i!Hi^e middle of the country be- tween Tonuru and the Cavery. In no olh«f place, except the Kari- ghat hills, is the surface teo steep from the^-plough. All the low ground has formerly been cultivated, though in toany places the de- clivity of the fields is great. North from the ckpals a very small portion of the arable land is at present in cultivation ; and even under the canals there is waste land, although these nls^lc works arc now full of water, and send forth copious streams to\ll the fields between them and the river. Owing to the steepness oi\the ground, many of the rice plots are not above six feet square ; an» the inge- nuity and labour with which they have been formed alu^ost equal those of the Chinese terraces. \

1st — ^\hSeptemher 1800. — I remainedat Seringapatam ^pairing my equipage, and making ready for the journey. The Cavery'^ ^^^ full, and contains a large rapid stream ; but its water is by uo^^^^^ clear, and is reckoned unwholesome. The town is so low, that^t this season many of the houses are damp and unhealthy ; and thc\*^^ ^^ the eastern end of the island is still more prejudicial to the h**^*^^ constitution.

CHAPTER VIII.

JOXTRNEY THROUGH THE PART OFKARNATA SOUTH FROM THE CAVERY.

On the 5th September, I went one coss to Pal-huUy. Owing 1800. to some mistake, my baggage missed the way; and, after having*****'^''**' wandered the whole day, amved in the evening with the cattle so fatigued, that on the day following it was impossible to move.

6th September, — Fal-hully formerly contained a thousand Sept. 6th. houses ; but during the siege of Seringapatam, as it was in the im- ^^'^^^' mediate rear of the camp of General Harris, it was entirely destroyed. A hundred houses have been rebuilt, and tlie inhabitants are daily returning. It is situated on the bank of the lower of the two canals canaia for irri- that are forced by dams from the Cavery to water the district called ^*''**°' Mahasura Aahta-gram. This canal now contains a fine stream, like a small river. It never becomes entirely diy, and enables the farmer, even in the dry season, to have a crop of rice on part of his fields. Here were formerly many pabn-gardons ; but the army, in order suite of the iVa- to procure fire- wood, and materials for the trenches, destroyed the ^"cSfdutrkt? whole. They have now been planted again. In this district a good deal of sugar-cane is raised ; and some peraons have lately come here to make sugar. Formerly all tlie juice was made mto Jagory, The present stock is sufficient to cultivate the greater part of the watered-land, but more than half of the dry field is waste.

Although the river abounds with fish, very few are caught by piah. the natives ; for that kind of food is not a favourite one with the people of Mysore.

About the villages swine are now beginning to accumulate, as a swine. great proportion of the farmers eat pork. Under the Sultanas gov- ernment it was necessary to conceal these impure animals.

7th September. — I went three cosses to OunguraUChatiir, which sopi. 7th. is situated in the Malumira Nagaia Taluc, or district of the city of ^"'*''*' Mysore, and distant three cosses from that place. 'J'he country is uneven, but contains no hills. Its strata consist of gneiss, schistose hornblende, and schistose mica, and rup nearly north and south.

Much of the surface, especially toward the west, is broken, stony, state ©r tho .iis- and barren ; but a great proportion has been formerly cultivated, ^t^^yagara!"^"^' This, however, is by no means the case at present ; for I have seen no part of the country that has suffered more by the operations of war. It has never, indeed, recovered since it was ravaged by a Marattah, whose forces the terror of the natives has augmented a hundred thousand cavalry. This part of the country contains krcely any reservoirs or rice-ground, and is very l^are, having few or

45

f

354? ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. no trees. At all the villages in this neighbourhood there have been

palm-gardens, which were watered by the hand, for machinery has never been employed here. All the villages between Ouiigural- Chatur and Seringapdtam are open ; but the former, although it has always been a sorry place, is fortified. Sept. 8ih.^ ^ gth September, — I went three Swltany cosses to Muluro. At the nussvinpoor, distancc of one coss from Gungural-Gkatur I came to Sicany-pura, which by the Mussulmans was called Husseinpoor, It had been given in Jdghir to Steer Saduc^ the favourite minister of Tippoo Sul- tan ; and, although an open town, it has been a neat place with wide streets, which crossed each other at right angles. More than half of the houses are now in ruins. On the approach of one of our forag- ing parties, it was entiiely destroyed by Purnea and Cummur ud! Deen Khan, and a few only of the houses have been rebuilt.

At a short distance west from Sicany-pura is a fine little river river and iii^ callcd thc Lakshmmia tirta, which comes from the south-west, and canaia. TisQS amoug the hills of the country which we call Coorg. At all times

it contains a stream of water, and in the rainy season is not ford- able. It supplies six canals to water the country. The Anaa^ or dams, that force the water into these canals, are fine works, and pro- duce beautiful cascades. One of them is broken down, but the other five are in good repair ; and, in fact, one of them that I saw supplied more water than was wanted ; for a quantity sufficient to turn a mill was allowed to run back into the river through a sluice. Owing to a want of cultivators, a great deal of rice-ground is waste. It is said, that the whole land formerly watered by the canals of the Laksh- viana amounted to 7000 Ccmdacaa sowing ; but the Oandacaa are small, and contain only from 100 to 140 Seers each. If the seed be sown here as thick as at Seringapatam, the 7000 CaTidacas would amount to about 1 8,000 acres. coSntr"' of^cui- ^^^ country on this day's route is nowhere steep, and rises tivution.and into gcutlc accUvitics ; but near the road the soil is in general poor ' '^ and hard, and from thence very little cultivation is visible. This

part of the country is at present covered with low trees. The pas- ture is better than common, owing probably to a greater quantity of rain. On either hand, I am informed by the officers of government, the soil is much better, and about one half of the arable land is in cultivation. I am persuaded, however, that this is not the case, and that almost the whole of the country has been at one timo ploughed. The custom hero is to separate the fields either by hedges or by leaving between them 'uncultivated spaces from four to ten feet wide, which are covered with Mimosas, or other trees ; which adds greatly to the beauty of the country, and, by preserving the moisture, probably contributes to the fertility of the land. I uiink that I can everv wnere observe traces either of the hedges, or of these woody spaces, except in a few spots covered with uie Elat^ sylvestris or wild date, and of these the soil is said to be saline. Perhaps, however, the devastation may have been committed before

of stock.

CUAP. VlII] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. S55

the memory of the present generation, and before the formation of 1800. the present village accompts, and one half of the whole lands entered in *^^ ^^' them as arable may be cultivated. The greater part of the cultiva- tors perished during the invasion by Lord Comwallis, chiefly owing to the ravages committed by a party of Marattahs and to the conse- quent famine. None died last year owuig to the war, although many lost their effects ; and at present the inhabitants amount to about one half of the number that were living in the early part of Tippoo's reign. Last year, three-fourths of the cattle perished by the epidemic distemper.

The Mussulmans who were in Tippoo's service are daily com- condition of the ing to this part of the country. Those who have any means and tSliJVt-' carry on a small trade in grain ; those who are poor hire themselves J^^iaJe ^mL?.. to the farmers, either as sei'vants or day-labourers. Being unac- quainted with agriculture, they are only hired when others cannot be procured. Their wages are, of course, low, and their monthly allowance is thirty Seers of grain (worth three Fanams) and one Fanam in cash ; all together about 2s. 8c?. They, however, prefer this to enlisting in the service of the Company along with the in- fidels who killed the royal martyr.

Mulxiro is an open village which contains about forty houses, Arutc^its on the and is pleasantly situated about two cosses south from the Cavery. LaZ7mVlM. On this river there are here Anacuts, or dams, watering as much land as those of the districts called Aahta-grdms do. The dams on the Lakshmana are said to be of greater antiquity than those which Ohica Leva Rdya, the Cutur of Mysore, constiTicted on the Cavery ; but the memory of the person's name by whom they were erected has perished.

In this part of the country there are no hereditary Gaudas, or Tenures. chiefs of villages, whose duties are performed by renters. Some of these really rent their villages, and agree to pay annually a certain sum. Others receive wages, and account for what they collect. Neither can legally take from the cultivators more than the custom of the village permits. This custom was established by one of the Mysore Rdjas.

In Hyder'a government two Brdhmans, with the title of Hirca- mreams, or in- ras, resided in each district {Talric). Their duty was, to hear all J5*by°Hy!/?r uf' complaints, and to report these to the office of the revenue depart- prevent abuses. ment. They were also bound to report all waste lands. This was found to be a considerable check to oppression, and to defalcations on the revenue ; but, no doubt, was inferior to the visits of the Resident and DewaUy who in this part of their duty are indefatigable. Such visits were however impracticable to princes like Hyder or the SultaTL

Tippoo disused these Hircaraa ; and this measure of economy Defect in the contributed much to the oppression of the people, and to the diminu- m"'^** * ^'^'^""^ tion of the revenue. It is not supposed that, during the latter part of his government, more than a fourth part of the nominal revenue

sr>G

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS TUROUGH

[CHAP. viir.

1800.

Sept. Sth.

Sept. 0th. -AfPCJ^ra'^co of tho country.

entered the treasury ; the country having been depopulated by vari- ous means, and every rascal through whose hands any of the public money passed having taken a share ; for to such delinquents the Sultan was remarkably lenient, an error of government which flat- terers call liberality. Scarcity of water Water for drinking is here very scarce and very bad, yet the

people have never attempted to dig wells.

9th September, — I went to Emmaguma CotagcUa. The country is nearly of a similar appearance to that which I saw yesterday, and has been equally desolated. In one place there is a small rocky hill ; but every other part, near the road, seems capable of cultivation. As we approach the western Ghats, the vegetation becomes evidently stronger, and the fields have somewhat of a summer verdure. A large proportion of them have even the soil entirely hidden by grass. I am told, that this season the rains have been much less copious than usual, but yet the crops look well. The quantity of grain called Gar-ragy gradually increases as we advance to the west- ward : about Seringapatam, and in the country toward the eastern Ghats, no such crop is known. Here the capsicum ripens with the na- tural moisture of the climate ; there it requires to be watered. cutta Maiaia- About Hudway is Ciiitay MalaXawadi, a large mud fort, and

wndi toyrnhud the chicf town (ir«s6a) of a district (Taluc). About thirty years jiatiict. ^^ j^ ,^^^^^ fully inhabited, and had a large suburb (Petta) ; while

the cultivation all around was complete. At that period a Marattah army, commanded by Badji Row, laid every thing waste, and most of the inhabitants perished of hunger. So complete was the de- struction, that even the excellent government of Syder did not restore to the district more than one half of its former cultivation. The town never regained its inhabitants, and was occupied by forty or fifty houses of Brdhnians, who lived scattered amid the ruins. The suburb, however, was completely rebuilt. In the invasion of Lord Comwallis every thing was again ruined ; nor could any place recover under the subsequent government of Tippoo, At the com- mencement of the late war, the population amounted to about a fourth of the former inhabitants, and few or none have since pe- rished ; but they lost much of their property, the ioynx having been burned and the fort dismantled by the orders of Tippoo, as he re- tired after the unsuccessful attack which he made on the Bombay army at Seduseer {SiddJi^awara).

Cota^gaia, although it gives its name to a district, is an open vil- lage containing about twenty houses, and situated about a mile from another called Emmaguma ; whence the names of the two are commonly mentioned togeiier. Scarcity of water The wator for driuHng is here also very bad and scarce. The wells have not been dug to a greater depth than twelve feetw

10th September. — I went three cossesto Prxya-patta/rux,, which in ^p^pearanco of OUT maps is Called Periapatam, The country strongly resembles that ciuiwtSr*'^ *°* which I have seen on the two preceding days ; but is still less cul-

Cotagnla.

CHAP. VIII] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 3.37

tivated. Some paiis near Cotagala are rather hilly, and there are 18OO. no remains to show that these have ever been cultivated. The ^^'^* *^^^" trees there are high, and extend even to the summits of the hills ; which I have not observed to be the case any where to the eastward. Near Priya-patiana are many small pools, that contain water all the year, although they never overflow so as to give origin to rivers. They are surrounded by meadows ; but, on account of their diminu- tive size, cannot be called lakes. Near the villages on this day*s route there are many palm-gardens in a very neglected state. The tanks also are ruinous, although many in number ; for even here the rain is not sufficient to bring a crop of rice to maturity. I am told, that in the Coduga, or Coorg country, the rains are fully sufficient ^.^^^^^ ^^^^ for this purpose ; accordingly, great quantities of rice are raised there, very productivo' and much of it is exported, partly towards Chatrakal, and partly*'''"'^' towards Seringapatam. Every day, on an average, seventy oxen loaded with this grain pass Cotagala.

Priya-paitanay or the chosen city, formerly belonged to a Poly- '*^J}'^^^'°''''*'^'*" gar family named Nandi Rdj. These princes were related to the ^" "'*"" Vift^ Bajas, or Rajaa of Coduga, and both families wore the Linga- The territories of Nandi Rdj included the two districts* of Pnya- paitaTia and Bettada^pura, producing an annual revenue of 30,000 Pagodas {9S611. Ss, 8Jd!.), and extending about twenty-four miles east from the frontier of Coduga, and about thirty miles south from the Cavery, which bounded them on the north. At that time the fort was a small square, defended only by a mud wall. It contained the McJuU, or palace of the Raja ; and three temples, one of Siva, one of Jaina, and one of Veidiswara, who is one of the destructive spirits. This last was the largest. In the centre of the palace the Raja had built a hall, which is now unroofed ; but many orna- ments, of neatly carved teak-wood, still remain. As usual in Hindu houses, this Mahal was a square surrounded by a corridore ; but the central area was covered with a dome, which is not common. Under the dome was suspended a swing, for the amusement of the Bdja^ and of his women ; for the natives of India are very fond of this exercise, which is well fitted for vacant minds. Two years after having finished this building, and about 160 years ago, this Rdja was attacked by Chica Deva JRdyOy the Curtur of Myscyre ; and finding himself unable to resist so powerful an enemy, he killed his wives and children, and then died sword in hand in the midst of his enemies. With this, it would appear, the prosperity of the country ceased ; as it was ever afberwanls a subject of dispute be* tween the princes of Mysore and the Vir' Rdyaa, or Co(yi'g Rdj as. Chica Deva, however, enlarged the place, and surrounded the mud fort by one built of stone, and placed at some distance without the old works. In this outer fort he settled a colony of BrdhmanSy and built a temple dedicated to Viehnu.

On Tippoo's accession, in order, I suppose, to distress the inhabi- war between tants of Coorg, and thus to make their prince, the Vir' Rdya, submit vI^^Z^T ^^"^

3o8 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800- to his authority, he interdicted all communication with that coun-

86pt. loth. ^^^ . ^^^ ordered, that all such of its inhabitants as might be found in his dominions should be instantly put to death. This restraimt was severely felt by the people of Ooorg, who, being entirely sur- rounded by the dominions of the Sultan, had no means of selling their produce, nor of procuring foreign commodities. The Vir Raya sent an embassy to the Sultan, and repi-esented that it had always been customary for his merchants to trade with those of Mysore and Malay aUi, and that he was forced by necessity to require that this custom should not be abolished. He received no answer, but a contemptuous defiance ; and immediately commenced a pre- datory warfare, at which his subjects are very expert, and which they had been accustomed to carry on even to the gates of Mysore, before the dread of Hyder'a vigorous government had repressed their insolence. In one of these incursions, seventeen years ago, the Vir Ray a fell into the hands of Tippoo, by whom he was confined four years in Priya-pattana, with a yearly aUowance of 300 Pagodas for a subsistence. The walls of the hovel in which he was confined are still shown to strangers. One of his sisters was forced into the Zena- na of Tipptfo, and to Tier intercessions the Ray a probably owed his life. Conquest ana The Goovg couutry, deprived of its active gallant prince, fell

t?o siStM^ ^^ under the yoke of Tippoo, who built in it a fortress caUed Jaffer- dbdd and placed there a strong garrison. After the Vir' Rdya had been four years confined, he was set at liberty by twelve Oaudas, or chiefs of villages, who entered the town in a concealed manner, and carried their master into his own dominions, where he was instantly joined by aD ranks of people ; and Tippoo' a possessions in that country were soon after confined within the walls of Jaffer-dbad. The Raja's troops were quite unfit for besieging the place ; but he succeeded in cutting off all supplies, and was not only able to prevent any of Tippoo'a forces from entering his country, but was also able to plunder the dominions of Mysore ; to which in a great measure is owing the deplorable state of the neighbouring districts. After a long blockade, the Sultan, with much difficulty, conveyed an order to flie garrison permitting them to withdraw ; which they attempt- ed to do, but on the route they were cut to pieces. Previous to this the Raja had made repeated demands of assistance from the Bom- bay government, requesting a few regular troops to enable him to destroy the enemy's fortress ; and as General Abercrombys army ascended the Ohats about the time when Jaffer-dbdd was evacuat- ed, the Raja received them with every mark of kindness and at- tention. At the same time, he took an opportunity of plundering in the most cruel manner the enemy's country in their rear. p^^a^aSumf ^^ ^^® approach of General Abercromby's army to Priya-pattana

the fort contained 500 houses o{ Brdhmans, and the suburb or Petta^ which is at some distance, contained 1000 houses, mostly inhabited by merchants of the sects that wear the Linga. Tippoo ordered the houses in both fort and suburb to be destroyed, and sprung some

CHAP. VIIL] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 359

mines to render the fort useless to his enemy. The Brahmans were 1800. dispersed through the country ; but many of their beautiful girls ^®***' ^^^' became a prey to the lust of the Coorg soldiery, and were carried into captivity. The merchants voluntarily followed a prince of their own religion, who has built a large town for their reception, and for that of the people whom in his predatory excursions he had swept from Mysore. During the ten days that General Abercromby waited at Priya-pattana, the gunpowder of his army was kept in the tem- ple of Jaina* On his retreat it was left behind ; but Tippoo, instead of applying it to the purposes of war, caused the whole to be blown up, and thus had an opportunity of destroying an idolatrous temple, which was one of his favourite amusements. In the interval between the peace granted to Tippoo by Lord Comwallis, and the ad- vance of the Bombay army under General Stuart, a small proportion of the inhabitants had returned to the fort and suburb ; and in order to overawe the Vir^ Roya, a strong garrison was kept in the former ; but after the affair at Sidh^swara every thing was again destroyed by Tippoo, The Vir^ Ray a did not fail again to plunder the country ; and while he carried away a great number of the inhabi- tants, he got a large booty in sandal- wood. The neighbouring coun- try does not now contain more than one-fourth of the inhabitants that would be necessary to cultivate it ; and the people have not yet recovered sufficient confidence to venture large flocks of cattle on their fine pastures. Such a temptation, they think, could not be resisted by the people of Coorg ; and the territories of a notorious thief, the Cotay hutty Nair {Raja of CotioU), are at no great dis- tance.

The fortifications at Priyci-pattana are quite ruinous,' the late J^^^' ^^^ ^ SvMan having blown up the best works. In the inner fort there are '^'^ ^^ *""** no inhabitants, and tigers have taken entire possession of its ruins. A horse that sti'ayed in a few nights ago was destroyed ; and even at mid-day it is considered as dangerous for a solitary person to enter. It was deemed imprudent for me, who was followed by a multitude, to enter into any of the temples, which serve the tigers as shelter from the heat of the day, by which these animals are much oppressed. The outer fort contains a few houses of Brah- mans, who are forced to shut themselves up at sun-set ; but who prefer this restraint to living in the suburb among the vulgar. The Petta is recovering faster ; but ruins occupy by far the greater space ; and the scanty population is only able to form pathways through the rank vegetation that occupies the streets.

Ihe environs oi PHya-pattana^ although rich and beautiful, are Fnvironsof />t. not at this season pleasant to a person living in tents ; for the mois- i**-^*^»«' ture of the climate, the softness of the soil, and the rankness of the vegetation, render every thing damp and disagreeable. Toward the east, the uncultivated grounds are half covered with dry thin bushes, especially the Cassia awiculata, and Dodonia viscosa ; but here they are thickly clothed with herbage ; and near the vUlages, where

300

1800. Sept. lOth.

A JOURNEY FROM aMADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII

Oriontalcxaggc- lation.

Sept- llth. Alarraof the in- habitants at my enquiries.

Irrigation, and watered Innda.

Caltivation of rioo.

the ground is manured by the soil of the inhabitants, and of their cattle, the whole is covered with rank weeds, especially the Ocyniuia molle, Willd. ? the Datura metel, the Anuiraniliua spinosns, tlie Mivdbilis jalapj^a, and the Tagetes erecta ; which last, although originally a native of Peru, is now naturalized every where, from Hemada-giri to Mam^swara.

The officers of government here had the impudence to inform me, that, according to Chica Deva Rdya's valuation of the country which belonged to Nandi Bdj, it contained 32,000 villages, or Grdms, Of these the Priya*pattana district ought to contain one half; but 2532 have been utterly deserted, and their sites are now covered with woods. The remaining ones are valued at 14,000 Pagodae a year ; but now produce one half only of that sum. The country appears to be by nature excellently fitted for supporting a numerous population ; but the account given here seems to be one of those gross exaggerations common in India, and is entirely con- tradicted by the accounts which I received from the revenue office at Seringapdtam.

nth, 12th, and 13th September, — I remained tit Priya-pfiUaTia, investigating the state of the neighbouring country ; in which I had great difficulty from the fears of the people, which were greater there, than in any place in which I had then been. The whole of what I wrote on the first day I was obliged to destroy, and was forced again to go over the same subjects, the first account having been evidently incorrect.

Near Priya-pattaiiay the wet lands are entirely irrigated from reservoirs ; but in the southern parts of the district canals from the Lahxhmana tirta afford much water to the farmers. There are none on the Gavery so far to the westward. Two crops are never taken from the same ground in the course of the year, and the only crops raised on water-land are rice and sugar-cane. The rains in ge- neral set in early, and are copious ; but they do not continue long enough to. bring a crop of rice to maturity ; for all the kinds that are cultivated in the rainy season require six months to grow. Small reservoirs, sufficient to contain six or eight weeks water, are there- fore necessary ; and the common crop, called here the Hainu crop, grows in the rainy season. When the rains fail in the early part of the year, a Caru crop can be taken, if the reservoirs are good ; but, except those of Priya-patiana, few such are in the country.

In the annexed table will be seen many of the particulars relative to the cultivation of rice.

CHAP. VIII.]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

361

Table explaining the cultivation of rice at Priya-paitana. 1800*

: ^. Sept ii-w.

Frockice.

Kinds of Rice cultivated.

SB

o fS c

Jnaputti

Cninibuti

(onaicaly

iSrtiiobutia

A/Twa Caimhnti. C'ffu

6 6 6 6 6 5

Seed.

Id a good crop.

Seasou ^

eS ft

C • 'Co «=

Hainu

ditto

ditto

ditto

ditti>

Caru

HO 147

119 119

fur an Acre.

Decimals 1 -253(585 1-816386 1 -3:9062 106r)65 1-06565

o 0) o

a —

<3

Bushels fur an Acre.

In a poor crop.

c8 f^

o e

<;5

Bushelf on an Acre.

Decimals.

2240,20-06

Decimals. .^0 4200 37-61083316 23U |3500 31-342l42]I4^t 2100 18'804347 18|>* 28OO'25-073888;i3fr^l0O 18-804347 21-fiV.2520 22-56631.5 21riV2520'22-566315

•2Su(l

25'073888

I shall now enter into a fuller detail. The only cultivation of any consequence that is used here is the transplanted, or Nati; yet the natives allow, that if they used the Malay or sprouted-secd cul- tivation, the quantity of seed required would be much smaller, and the produce somewhat greater. In their defence, for not adopting a manner of cultivation so superior to that now in use, the farmers alleorc, that it requires more labour, and that there is at present a deficiency of stock.

By far the gresitest quantity of rice cultivated here is the Hainu crop of Anap^iiti ; on which accordingly Chica Deva Hay a formed his Sh4st, or valuation. I measured what was said to be a Candaca land, as rated in the accompts of the district, and found it to con- tain 3i%V ^^^^ ) ^^ which my calculations in the foregoing table are founded.

The following is the manner of cultivating the Hainu Nati, or /zaijiwcropof crop of transplanted rice growing in the rainy season. The ground, JiSJ^MidTto^. on which the seedlings are to be raised, gets seven or eight plough- ings between the middle of Vaimkha and the tenth of Jyais/iSia, which are the second and third months after the vernal equinox. In tlie intervals between the pToughings, the field is inundated; but at each time that operation is performed, the water Ls let off. After the last ploughing, manure with the leaves of the Chandra mcdigy {Miro^ilis), or Womuttay {Datura metel) ; but, if these i^^** ^^^ '^ cannot be had, with the leaves of the Chaudingy {Solanvm, not yet "*'''*'®' described, but which nearly resembles the Verbascifolium). Then tread the leaves into the mud, sow the seed very thick, and cover it with dung. The seed is in general prepared for sowing, by causing it to sprout ; and the reason assigned for so doing is, that it is thereby secured from the birds. This precaution is however sometimes neglected. If the seed has been prepared, or Afola, the

46

gg2 ^ JOXTENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. ^^^^ ^^^ water during the third, sixth, and ninth days, the water

S€p». u-ia. being allowed to remain on the field all • day, and being again let off at night. On the tenth day the field is filled with water an inch deep, and is kept so till the eighteenth, when that water is let oif. Immediately afterwards the field is filled to three inches deep, and is kept thus inundated until the seedlings be fit for transplantation. If the seed be sown dry, it receives water on the first, second, and third days. On the fourth it has the manure which is given to the Mola, when that is sown. It receives water again on the seventh, which is let off on the ninth. Water is again given on the thir- teenth, seventeenth, and twenty-first ; and the field is then inun* dated, until the seedlings are fit for transplantation. They must be transplanted between the thirtieth and forty-sixth days. Mftnagement of 'i^hc ploughiugs forthc fields iuto which the seedlings are to be

* "***" ^ ' transplanted are performed during the time in which these are growing ; and are done exactly in the same manner as for the field in which the seed has been sown. Stifl* ground requires eight ploughings ; in a light soil six are sufficient. The manure is given before the last ploughing. The seedlings are pulled in the evening", and kept in water all-night. Next morning the field has the la&t » ploughing, and the mud is smoothed by having a plank drawn over it. The seedlings are then planted, and get no water until the eighth day. On the eighth, twelfth, sixteenth, and twentieth days the water is kept on the field, and is let off' at night. The yellow coloui' occasioned by the transplantation is then changed into a deep green ; after which, until the crop ripens, the field is con- stantly inundated. In a bad soil, the weeds are removed on the thirtieth day ; in a good soil, on the forty-fifth. cnru crop of The Carts crop, or that raised in the dry season, being taken in

'*^®* bad years only, which do not often happen, the farmers are obliged

to procure seed from places where the Uaru rice is regularly cul- saiigrama. tlvatcd. They are supplied from Saligrdma, near the Cavery ; a place which is esteemed holy, as Rama Anuja threw into a tank there his Saligrdma and copper pot. The place is also celebrated on account of its fine rice-grounds, which are supplied with water from the river. The ploughing season for the ground in which the seed is to be sown is the second month after the autumnal equinox. The manner of cultivating the Cam crop differs only in the season from that which is used for the Hainu. Mumer of mak- The formers here make their sprouted-seed in the following man- •proutod-iMd. ner. The seed is soaked all night in water, and is then placed in a heap on a piece of sackcloth, or on some leaves of the plantain4r€e i^Musd), There it is mixed with some buffalo's dung, and the leaver of the BuTxoay (or Ocymum moUe, Wild.?), and covered with pack« saddles. In the evening it is sprinkled with warm water, and covered again. In the morning and evening of the second day it is sprinkled with cold water, and next day it is fit for sowing. Sugar-cane. Although the prod uce is groat, the farmers oiPriya-paUaivi never

CHAP. VIII. MYSORE, CANAKA, AND MALABA.R. 368

raise sugar-cane unless they receive advances. Jagory sells here at i^qq. 1 Rupee, or 3^ Fanams a Maund, or at about 9«. 4Jrf, a hundred- Sep*- »i-i?« weight. The cane is watered from reservoirs ; the natural moisture of tiae climate not being suflScient to raise it, and machinery being never employed. The kinds cultivated are Restalli and Ataracabo^ both of which grow nearly to the same length, which is in general about six feet. The BestalH ripens in twelve months ; while eighteen are required to bring forward the M^racaho ; so that, as a crop of rice must always intervene between two crops of sugar-cane, the rotation of the former occupies two years ; while in that of the Marticaho three are consumed. A little FuttapuUi has been lately introduced.

For the Maracabo plough twenty times either in Aswaja and 22wa^iu^*r- Kartika, the two months immediately following the autumnal equi- c»n«. nox ; or in Kartika and Margaaireha, which is of course X)ne month later. The canes are planted in the second or third months after the winter solstice. In order to plant the cane, longitudinal and transverse furrows are drawn throughout the field, distant from each other one cubit and a half; at every intersection a hole is made, nine inches wide, and of the same depth ; in each hole are laid horizontally two cuttings of cane, each containing three joints ; finally under them is put a little dung, above them an inch of iDould. Then water each hole with a pot, from a channel running at the upper end of the field. On the two following days this must be repeated. Until the end of the third month, water every other day. From the third to the sixth month, the field must, once in eight days, be ploughed between the rows of holes ; and at the same time, should there be any want of the usual rain, it must be watered. At the first ploughing a little dung must be given, and at the end of six months tne field must be copiously manured. At this time channels are formed winding tnrough among the canes ; so that every row is between two channels. When the rainy season is over, these chan- nels must be filled with water, once in eight days in hot weather, and once a month when it is cool. At the beginning of the eighth month the whole field is hoed, and at the end of two months more this is repeated. The cane here is never tied up. A Candaca-laTid is estimated to contain 7000 holes ; but in this there must be some mistake ; for allowing 1^ cubit for each hole, 7000 would not plant an acre; whereas the Gandaca of land that I measured contained 3,^^ acrea. The produce of a Ccmdaca of land is stated to be about 14,000 Seera, each of 24 Rupees weight ; which, aooording to my measurement, would be about 19^ hundred- weight of Jagai^y per acre : but, if 7000 holes at the distance from each other of 1^ cubit produoed this quantity, it would be at the rate of above 93 hundred- weight for the acre, which is much more than can be allowed.

The sugar-mill used here is the same with that which the farmers sugar-mUL of Chenapatam employ. In the course of twenty-four hours it gives as much juice as produces three boilings, each of about a hundred- weight of Jagory.

3Q4. J^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. TIH.

1800. "^ faimer, if he has four ploughs, and four constant labourers,

Sept. n— 13. can cultivate a Candaca-land alternately with sugar-cane and with ed^by'oM^°™ rice; but at weedings, and such other occasions, he must hire adJi- piougb. tional workmen. He will, however, cultivate thirty-live Seers sow-

ing of tiagy. pyr-axtruvkhaox The Pyr'aitTumha^ or dry -crops, at Prya-pattana are, B(T[fy witli

dry-crop«. j|^ coucomitants Avaray, Tovaru^ Navony^ Harulu, Tadagwny^ and mustard, Hui'V.li^ Udu, Car* Elliiy Mar* ELIvl, wheat, Car lay, and Sliaviay.

The only Ragy cultivated here is called Cant ; which does n^»t ulujy, or ti/rw- diffcr in species, botanicallv speaking, from the G}^(V Ragy cultivated surus *^^'«''«'- to the eastward ; but the seed of the Gyd' Ragy, cultivated as the Cam kind is, will not thrive. There are three kinds of Car* Ragy : the Balaga^ or strait-spiked Ragy, which is alwayc sown separately from the others ; the Bily Modgala, or white R/rgy with incurved spikes, and the Cari Modgala, or incurved black Ragy : the two latter are sometimes kept separate, and sometimes sown intermixed. The cul- tivation for all the three is quite the same, and the value of the differ- ent kinds is equal ;.but the produce of the Cari Modgala is rather the greatest. Soils fitted for ^ ™^ black soil is here esteemed the best for Ragy ; next to

oor' Rayy. tjjat the Tcd soil usually preferred to the eastward ; but it is sown also on sandy land, and grows there very well, if it have plenty of manure. eui*iTation and A few days after reaping the former crop, the field is plough- KSJv ** **' ^"'^ ed, and the ploughings are repeated once or twice a month, as oppor- tunity oflFers, till within fifteen days of the sowing season, which lasts all the two months following the vernal e ^uiuox. In the course of these fifteen days two ploughings are given ; and then the field is manured with dung, and ploughed again. After the first shower of rain that happens, sow the Ragy seed brond-cast, and plough it in ; at the same time put in rows of the accompanying seeds, at two cubits distance, by dropping them in the furrow after a plough. On the fifteenth, twenty-second, and twenty-ninth days, draw the hoe called Cuntay through the field, in order to destroy superfluous plants. On the forty-fifth day remove weeds with a kn^e. The Ragy is ripe in four months. The fields rated in the public accompts, as being of a size suflScient to sow a Candaca oiRagy, in fiEkot require somewhat more. I measured one, and found it to contain T/oV? acres ; and making allowance for the difference between the publio acoompts and the quantity said to be usually sown, we may estimate that 7 acres are sown with one Candaca of Ragy seed. One acre will therefore sow 2^^^ pecks ; and, thirty-two seeds being reckoned a good crop, will produce in favourable circumstances rather more than 22t bushels, beside what grows in the drills. A leeond crop ^ ^^^7 ^^^ ^^^^* nothing is nut in drills along with JRagy; but

alter £a^y. immediately after that grain has oeen cut, a seoond crop of Carlajj {Cicer arieiinum) k sown, which does not injure tiie ground. Some*

CHAP. Vni.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 3G5

times a second crop of Shamat/ (JPaiiicnm miliar e, E. M.), or of HiUa^ igoo. FMm (Verbesina sativa, Roxh. MS8.), is taken ; but these exhaust ®®»*- '^~"- the soil much. When rain does not come at the proper season, the Magy fields are sown with Huruli, CaHay, Huts* Ettu, or Cari-Slut' may. The two leguminous plants do not injure the soil ; but the JIuts* Ellu and Sfiamay render the succeeding crop of Magy very poor. Bagy straw is here esteemed the best fodder for cattle ; and except in times of scarcity, that of rice is never used.

The pulse called Huruli is, next to Ragy, the most considerable ^"Ji^^^fj^'^ dry-crop. It is of two kinds, white aud black; but they are never gmm. ' kept separate. It grows best on a light or stony soil, and the largest crops are had after a fallow of three years ; but when there is a suf- iicient number of farmers^ no ground is kept fallow ; the fields of a poor soil, not fit for Bagy, are cultivated alternately with Hiiruli, and with Mar^ EUu, or Ouri Shamay, The crop of Huruli that is sown on Bagy-land when the rain fails is very poor. For Huruli ])lough two or three times iu the course of ten days, during the montii immediately preceding the autumnal equinox. Then after the first rain sow the seed, and cover it with the plough. It ripens in three months. The husks are reckoned good fodder. The quan- tity of seed is half as much as that of Bagy, or about 1-^ peck an acre ; and twenty seeds being reckoned a good crop* an acre will produce rather less than 7 bushels.

Cari Shamay is the next most considerable dry-crop. How far cariSkamav. this difiiers from the Sal Shamay, which is the Panictim railiare, E. M., I had no opportunity of learning. However, it is probably a mere variety. It is commonly sown on the poorer soils alternately with Huruli ; but is also occasionally sown on jRa.^y-fieId8, when in th6 early part of the season there has been a failure of rain. In the last case, the crop of S/mmft?/ is great; but the succeeding crop of Ragy is very bad. The cultivation commences in the month pre- ceding the vernal equinox. Plough then three or four times, sow broad-oast, and haiTow with the rake drawn by oxeu. It ripens in three months without farther trouble. The straw is here never l^ven to cattle. For the same extent of ground the same quantity of Sluimay seed is required as of Bagy, Tho produce iu a good crop is twenty-fold^ or rather less than fourteen bushels an acre.

The next most considerable crops are the leguminous plants called Cat lay and Udu, of which about equal quantities are raised.

Carlay always requires a black mould ; and is cultivated partly ^r'^V'^^' ^**^ as a second crop after Bagy, and partly on fields tliat have given ^*^ *'***"^ no other crop in the year. In this case, the produce is much greater, and the manner of cultivation is as follows In the two months pre- ceding the autumnal equinox, the Ragy having been cut, the field is ploughed once a month for fourteen or fifteen months. Then in the coiuse of four or five days plough twice. After the last ploughing, drop the seed in the furrows at six inches distance from each other, and it ripens without farther trouble. The seed is sown as thick as

j^gQ A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VUL

1800 ^^^' ^^ ^^Oy* ^^d ^ Canddca sowing in a good crop produoes 1400

Sept. 11—12. Seers, which is at the rate of rather less than seven bushels an acre. Doda udu. There are here two kinds of the pulse called Udu ; the Doda, or

great, which is reaped in the dry season; and the Chittu, or little, which comes to maturity in the rains. I had no opportunity of learning how far the great differs from the little Udu, which is the Phaseolus minimoo of Dr. Roxburgh's MSS. It is cultivated on good Magy-soih, and is taken as an alternate crop with that grain. After cutting the H^gy the field is ploughed once a month for a year. At the last ploughing some people sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough ; others drop it into the furrow after the plough. In this last case, the young plants are always too thick ; and when they are a month old, part of them must be destroyed by the hoe drawn by oxen. If sown broad-cast, the weeds at the end of a month must be removed by the hand. The seed required is ^V ^^ ^hat sown of Ragy, or rather less than a peck for the acre. The broad-cast sowing gives least trouble, and produces about 3|Vir bushels an acre. The drilled Udu produces i more. It ripens in three months. chutu vdu. The ChittUj or l&sser Udu, is cultivated at the same season with

^^J'eoxI) Mss^ '^® ^^*^'' R^^gVf •'^^d requires four months to ripen. Owing to a more luxuriant growth, even when sown broad-cast, it requires the use of the hoe drawn by oxen. It is not, however, so productive as the great Udu ; rather less than three bushels an acre being a goo<J crop. 1'he quantity of seed sown is the same. Cattle eat the straw o{Udu, when mixed with the husks,and with those otHiwuli, Carltnj, Avaray, and Tovary, and with the spikes of Ragy, after these have been cleared of grain. This fodder is reckoned superior to even the straw of Ragy, cat'EiiH^oi The next most considerable crop is Car^ EUu, OTSesamunu It is

setamum. rqwu ou Ragy-^olds that consist of a red soil, and does not exhaust them. The field is ploughed as for Ragy, but it is not allowed manure. The seed is mixed with sand ,^ sown broad-cast, and harrowed with the rake drawn by oxen. It ripens in four months without farth'^B trouble. The seed is equal to ,2 of the Ragy that would be sown on the same field, which is less than half a peck an acre. The pro- duce is about twenty seeds, or about 2| bushels an acre. The sU^w is burned, and the ashes are used for manure. Mar* Etiu, The ucxt most considerable crop is Mar* EllUj which is the same

plant that in other places is called Huts' Elluy and which Dr. Rox- burgh considers as a species of Verbesina, It is sown on poor soils alternately with Huruli, and is cultivated in the same manner. It is sown also on ita^iy-fields, when the crop has failed for want of rain. The rich only can have recoui*se to this, as the next crop of Ragy would suffer unless it received an extraordinary quantity of manure. On this ground it produces most. On the poor soils it produces about twelve-fold ; but the quantity sown on an acre amounts to less than six Seers.

A very small quantity of the wheat called Juvi Oodi {Triticursi

CHAP. Vni.) MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, 367

monacoccum) is raised here on fields of a very rich soil, from which ^qqq^ alternate crops of Carlay and of it are taken. The manure is given s«pt. n- is, to the Carlay \ but wheat requires none. From the winter to the summer solstice plough once a month. Then in the following month plough twice, bow broad-cast, and cover the seed with the plough. It ripens in four months without farther trouble. The seed required for an acre is about ^x^q pecks; the produce is ten seeds, or rather less than twelve bushels.

I have reason to think that this account of the cultivation of dry grains is not materially erroneous.

The labouring servants of the farmers are here called Jitagara, juaigaru^arit^ or hired men. Tliey eat once a day in their master's house : a good Jj^*"gri?u^ ^" worker gets also 40 Fanams, or about li. 6fi. lOrf. a year ; and an ture. indifferent man gets only 30 FanamSy or about 1 /. A woman gets yearly 5 Fanams worth of cloth, and 4} FauQTna in money, and eats twice a day at her master's expense. Their diet consists of Ragy-fiour boiled into a kind of porridge. The seasoning consists of a few leaves bruised with capsicum and salt, and boiled in a little water. It is only the rich that use oil or Ghee (boiled butter) in their diet. Milk is in such plenty, that the Jiiagara may have as much Tyrt^ or sour curds, as they please.

Owing to the devastations of wai*, the people near Pnya-pattana Famen and are at present so poor, that they are cutting off the unripe ears of '*""•• com, and parching them to satisfy the cravings of appetite. Before the invasion of the Bombay army under General Abercromby, the poorest farmers had two ploughs ; some rich men had fifteen ; and men who had from eight to ten were reckoned in moderate circum- stances. A man who had two ploughs would keep 40 oxen, young and old, 50 cows, two or three male buffaloes, four females, and 100 sheep or goats. A rich man would have 200 cows, and other cattle in pro- portion. One plough can cultivate 10 Colagas o{ rioe'lBiid, and 5 Colagaa of iZc/^^-field ; altogether a little less than four acres. This is too small an allowance ; and the farmers seem to under-rate the ex- tent of a plough of land, as much as they exaggerate their former affluence. They pretend, that the officers of government are forcing them to cultivate more than their stock could do properly, by which means their crops are reifdered poor. The officers deny the charge, and say, that since Tlppoo^a death this has not been practised. In Indian governments, however, it is a common usage.

By the ancient custom, the Oaudas, or chiefs of villages, were Tenuai. hereditary, and the heira still retain the dignity ; but the power is lodged with the renters, who offer the hi<>he8t sum ; and every year, in me month preceding midsummer, a i^ew Jummdbunda^ or agree- ment, is made. A farmer cannot be turned out of liis possession so long as he pays the fixed rent ; but if he gives over cultivation, the officers of government may transfer his lands to any other pei-son.

The rent for dry-field is paid in money, according to an old va- Rentondry- luation made by Chica Deva Raya of Mysore ; and most of it pays ^""^^

3G8 1800.

Sept. 11- IS.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII.

Pert of wv teroil -lauds.

Free -lands.

Kitcb«n gardens.

t^Untn lions of iHdm-trecs.

Cand.	c^
1	{)
0
0	.>
0	ad
... 0	1
0	2
0	o

40 Fanams a year for every Cattdaca, or almost 3«. 6d. an acre, Tliis includes both f^ood and bad soils ; care having been taken, in lav- ing out tlie fields, to include in each nearly an equal proportion of the four different kinds of soil. In s^)me liigh places, where thoi-e is no good soil, the Gandaca lets at twenty Fanams, or at about 20(^ an aoi*e. Some land that is now cultivated for rice, having been dry-field at the time when the valuation was made, continues to pay the old rent. '

By far the greater part, however, of the wet-land pays by n division of the crop, made as follows : the produce of a Ca'tuloLca-laivi having been taken.

The fftimer gets for his labour

The 3Ietf/, or priest to the stake of Cassia Fkixihi

'Hie Sa/j^V?, or destructive spirits

The watchman, TaUiari, or Barlca, as he is here called ...

The Skarucboga of the Hobly, or accompuiut of the division ... 0

The Nirgunty^ or conductor of water

The ironsmitli

1 U The remainder is equally divided between tlie government an 1 farmer, the latter taking the sweepings at the bottom of the heap. In every village there are some free-lands that pay no rent. In this district tliere are free-lands to the annual value of seventy-ei^lit Pagodas, which fonnerly belonged to the PanchangaSy or villa<re astrologet-s ; but since Tippoo^n death they liave been pven to Vaidrka Brdhriians. These formerly had many villages entirely h*^- longing to them, which were reassumed by Tippdo, aniL have not yet been given back. The same is the case with the lands tlmt formerly belonged to the temples. The Talliari of each villap^p. who is a kind of watchman and beadle, has, as pay, from twenty to thirty fanaiiJ« worth of land free from rent. Here this officer

1>erforms the annual sacrifice to the village god ; for most of tlio lereditary Gaudas wear the Linga^ and will not put any animal t'l death. The hereditary Oauda and ironsmith had each a portion of land, for which they paid only half rent. The full tax was im- posed on these lands by Tippoo, add is still continued. Some Gaud manage their villages on account of the government, and pay iu the proceeds of their collections. These persons receive wagea.

In this part of the country there are no professed gardeners ; bu* every farmer, for his own use, raises a few greens and vegetables iu a small spot behind his house.

The plantations of plam-trees were formerly extensive, an<^ tlirro is much soil tit for them ; but they have been much reduced by the disasters of war. They belong chiefly to Brdhmans. Having as- sembled some of the proprietoi-s, they gave me the following aocount. The A rfica, or Betel-nut feAnif requires an Eray, or black mouM, on a substratum of lime-stone ; and of such a nature that water may

/<

I

CHAP. VIII.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND BIALABAR. 3C9

be had at no greater depth than three cubits. This soil does not isoo. agree with the ooco-nut palm ; but rows of these are always put ^®p*' **''*^- round the plantations of Areca, in order to shelter them.

To make a new plantation oi Areca, takea piece of pro^r ground, Arua or setci- and surround it with a hedge of the Euphorbium TirxLcalh^ and some ^^' rows of young coco-nut palms. Then, at the distance of twelve oubitSy dig rows of pits, two cubits deep, and one and a half in diameter. These pits are sis cubits distant from the nearest in the same row. In the second month after the vernal equinox, set in these pits young plantain-trees {Mum)^ and give them water once; after which, unless the weather be uncommonly dry, they require no more. Two months afterwards hoe the whole garden, and form a channel in the ttiiddle between every two rows of plantain -trees. The channels are intended to carry off superfluous water, and are a cubit wide, and two feet deep. In the month immediately following the winter solstice, hoe the whole garden a second time. In the follow- ing month, between every two rows of plantain -trees, make two rows of holes at six cubits distance, and one cubit wide and deep. Fill each hole half up with fine mould ; and, in this, place two ripe nuts of the Areca, six inches asunder. Once in two days for three months water each hole with a pot. The shoots come up in Vaisakha ; after which they get water once only in five days. The holes must be kept clear of the mud that is brought in by the rain ; and for three years must, on this accotmt, be daily inspected. In the month following the autumnal equinox, give a little dung. Ever after- wards, tne whole garden must be hoed three times a year. After they are three years old, the Areca palms must be watered every other day in hot weather ; when it is cool, once in every four or five days ; and not at all in the rainy season. The waterings are

Ierformed by pouring a pot full of water to the root of each plant. n the beginning of the seventh year the weakest plant is removed from each hole ; and at each digging, for three years more, every tree must receive manure. After this, for three years, the young

Ealms have neither dung nor water. In the fourteenth year they egin to bear, and in the firteenth come to perfection, and continue in vigour until their forty-fifth year, when they are out down.

When the -Areca plantation is fifteen years old, in the month ^r'«^^''«/ or immediately following the vernal equinox, a hole is dug near every ^'^ tree, one cubit deep and one and a half in width. After having ex- posed the earth to the air for a month, return it into the holes, and allow it to remain for another month. Then take out a little of the earth, smooth the surface of the pit, and bury in it the ends of five cuttings of the Betel-leaf vhie, which are placed with their upper ex- tremities sloping toward the palm. Once every two days, for a month, • water the cuttings, and shade them with leaves. Then remove the leaves, and with the point of a sharp stick loosen the earth in the holes. In the first year the waterings must be repeated every day, and the whole must once a month be hoed ; while at the same time dung is

47

370 A JOURNEY FROM MAD3EUiS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. given to every plant. In the aecond year, the vines are tied up to

Sept. 11-13. the palms ; onoe in two months the garden is hoed and manured ; and it is in the hot season only tliat the plants are watered. At the end of the seoond year, the vines begin to produce saleable leaves. In the third year, and every other year afterwards, so much of the vines, next the root, as has no leaves, must be buried. Onoe in six months the garden must be hoed and manured ; and in the hot season the vines must be watered every other day. MMiner of keep- The owuors of thoso plantations are annoyed by elephants, mon- punutum!! kies, and squirrels ; and, besides, both palms and vine are subject to diseases ; one of which, the Aniby, in the course of two or three ^ years kills the whole. J^xcept when these causes of destruction occur,

the vine continues always to flourish ; but, as I have before men- tioned, the palm begins to decay at forty-flve years of age, and is then removed, care being taken not to injure the vine. Near this is made a fresh hole, in which some persons place two nuts for seed, and others plant a young seedling. In order to support the vine, during the fifteen years which are required to bring forward the new palm, a large branch of the Haruna7iaj or ErytkHna, is stuck in the ground, and watered for two or three days ; when it strikes root, and supplies the place of an Areca. The plantain trees are always kept up. The crop-season of the Beid-nut lasts Aawaja, Kartika^ and Margaairsha. :Produoe. It is Said, that a Candaca of land, rice-measure, will plant 1000

Areca trees ; but it is evident, that, at six cubits clistanoe, above 2000 trees ought to be placed in the Candaca of S^^j^ acres. Con- siderable allowances must, however, be made for the hedge, and for the ground occupied by the surrounding coco-nut palms. If for these we take forty feet, the remainder of the Candaca would plant 1 200 Arecas, Of these, in an old garden, part are useless ; as the young trees put in to supply the place of decayed ones do not bear fruit. Perhaps the 1000 trees may therefore be considered as a just account of the actual number of productive Arecas on a CandoA^ of land. The produce of these, stated by the proprietors, amoimts to forty ox-loads of wet-nut, yielding thirty Maunds of the Betel as prepared for the market. The quality of the nut is equal to that of the Walc^ gtum ; and it is bought up chiefly by the merchants of Mysore and Seringapatam. As these make no advances, it is evident that the proprietors are in easy circumstances.

On examining the people of the town on this subject, they said, that seven good trees, or ten ordinary ones, produce a load of fruit containing 6000 nuts. A good tree therefore gives 857, and an ordinary one 600 nuts. Sixty thousand nuts, when prepared for sale, make a load of between seven and eight Maunds. One thousand ordinary trees at this rate should procure 75 Maunds^ or more than double of what was stated by the proprietors. I am indeed inclined to believe, that their statement was merely accommodated to the share which the government actually receives on a division, in which

CHAP. VIII.) MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 371

it must be always defrauded. The 75 Maunda from a Gandaea-lB,nd 2300. agrees nearly with the produce that Trimula Nayaha stated atJfodAw- sept- »-i3. gin^ and on his veracity I depend. The towns^people also say, that the mode of cultivation, as stieited to me by the proprietors, is only what ought to be done ; but that the present cultivators never give themselves so much trouble, and very seldom hoe their plantations throughout ; which is indeed confirmed by their slovenly condition. Pumea has here a garden containing 900O Arecas, which, his servants say, produce about 52 loads of raw firuit. This would make the produce of 1000 trees rather more than 42J Maunda of prepared nut.

While a new plantation is forming, the owner pays for every Rent of paim hundred plantain trees, three Fanams a year, which will be fifteen J^*"****<>"» FanamSy or about lO^. for the GaiidacoAand. After the garden grows up, the government gets what is called one half of the boiled netd^ nut, or about 15 Maunds of that commodity, for the CaTidaca-land. This is worth 75 Fanam8\ which makes the rent paid to the govern- ment about I09. an acre, or 2/. lO^. 4d. for 1000 bearing trees. In an old garden nothing is paid for the plantains, or betel-leaf. Such a moderate tax will account for the Brdhmans being the chief pro- prietors.

I have already had occasion to mention the goodness of the pas- SSiJ!* *"* ture in this neighbourhood ; and at this season, at least, it keeps the cattle in excellent condition. These are all bred in the house, and are of the small short kind. Formerly they were very numerous. A good cow gives daily two Pucka Seers of milk, or a little less than two ale quarts. A good bufialo gives three times that quantity.

The following is the account of the climate which was given me cuni»t«. by the most intelligent natives of the place. The year is, as usual, divided into sis seasons : I. Vasanta Ritu comprehends the two months following the vernal equinox. During this the air is in general very hot, with clear sun-shine, and strong winds from the eastward. No dew. Once in ten or twelve days squalls come from the east, accompanied by thunder, and heavy showers of rain or hail, and last three or four hours. II. Orishma Ritu Contains the two months including the summer solstice. The air is very hot, and there is no dew. The winds are westerly ; during the first month weak, but after the solstice strong. It is said, that formerly, during this period, the weather used to be constantly clouded, with a regular, unintermitting, drizzling rain ; but for the last half century such seasons have occurred only once in four or five years ; and in the intervening ones, although the cloudy weather continues, the constant rain has ceased, and in i^ place heavy showers have come at intervals of three or four days, and these are preceded by some thunder. III. Varshd Ritu includes the two months preceding the autumnal equinox. The air is cool. The winds are light, and come from the westward. Formerly the rains used to be incessant and heavy ; but of late they have not been so copious oftener than about once in four or five years : still, however, they are almost always sufficient to pro-

:]72

1800-

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII.

-13.

\r»ij?hls, met" «iires, aud coins.

duce a good crop of grass and dry grains, and one crop of rice. Friyd'pattana has therefore been justly named the Chosen City by the natives of Karndiay who frequently suffer from a scarcity of rain. At this season there is very little thunder. IV. Sarat i2i^u contains the two months following the autumnal equinox. In thiB the air is colder, and in general clear ; but once in three or four days there are heavy showers from the north-east, accompanied by thunder, but not with much wind. In the intervals the winds are gentle, and oome from the westward. Moderate dews now begin. V. Hemanta Ritii includes the two months immediately bef Dre and after the winter sol- stice. The air is then very cold to the feelings of the natives. They have never seen snow nor ice, even on the summits of the hills ; but to these they very seldom ascend. Bettada-pura I conjecture to be about 1800 or 2000 feet perpendicular above the level of the country, which is probably 4000 feet above the sea. It is a detached peak, and is reckoned higher than either Sidd^sivara, or Saikia ParavatUy from whence the Cavery springs. These two are the most conspicuous mountains of the Coorg country, and are surrounded by lower hiUs. At this season there are heavy dews and fogs ; so that until ten o'clock the sun is seldom visible. There is very little wind ; but the little that there is comes from the west. This is reckoned the most unhealthy season ; and during its continuance intermittent fevers are very frequent. VI. Sayshu Eitu includes the two months imme- diately preceding the vernal equinox. The dews decrease gradually in tlie first, and disappear in the second month. There is no rain, and the atmosphere is clear, with remarkably fine moonshine nights. The air is cool and pleasant. The winds are from the eastward, and moderate. Except in Heiiianta RiUiy fevers are very rare. In the Coorg country the air is hot and moist, and by the natives of this place ifl reckoned very unhealthy.

The Cucha Seer and Maund of the Sultany standard are here in The Candaca of grain contains 140 Seers, and is nearly 4 ,V.j

use.

CoramMce and luAUuiaclurts.

bushels. Accompts are kept in Canter^ Raya Pagodas, Fanvms, and Dudus. Bombay cash is current ; but cowines are not naed. The Madras and Sultany Rupees exchange for 3^ Fanams, although the latter is most valuable by about ^ per cent The Bovibay Ru^'Ce passes only for three Fanams.

Priya-pattana enjoys a considerable share of the trade between the Mysore dominions, and those of Coorg ; but the plaoeis now very poor, the Vir* Raya having carried oflF all the rich merchants* Pur their accommodation he has built a new town called, after his own name, Vir' Raya Petta ; and, as he gives them good enooungement and protection, they are not likely to return. There is no trade at Modicany and Nacnadu, the two places where the Raja usually re- sides. From Mysore are sent the dry grains, cloths, ghee, oil,jagory. coco-nuts, tobacco, garlic, capsicum, betel-leaf, iron, steel, blankets, and tamarinds. The retiums are rice, salt, and all the kinds of goods which are imported at Tellichei^y. The sales are chiefly made at a

CHAP. VIII.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 373

weekly market in Vir^ Raya Petta. The quantity of rice that passes xsoq. the cuBtom-house of Priya-pattana annually from Coorg, is between sept 11-13. five and six thousand ox-loads, each containing from seven to eight Maunds, or about 182 lb. The only cloth made here, is a very small quantity of coarse cotton stuff of a thick fabric. It is manufeic- tured by a caste of weavers called the Toreai^.

There is at present no Gyda Gavih, or forest-renter ; but for- Forests. merly there used to be one, who, having made friendship with the wild tribes called Cad' Eravaru, s,nd Jainu CuruJarti;, procured from them honey and wax, Popli chica, a dye, Dupada wood, Ghinti Beru, a root used in dyeing, Cad' Araiiia, or wild turmeric, and Cadu Baly Aly, or the leaves of the wild plantain tree, which are used by the natives as dishes. For timber, or grass, no rent was demanded.

Sandal- wood grows in the skirts of the forest. The people of ^^^J^^^* Coorg were in the habit of stealing a great part of it ; but since the a'&w"*- country received the Company's protection they have desisted from this insolence. It is often planted in gardens and hedges ; and, from the richness of the soil, grows there to a large size; but in such places the timber has little smell, and is of no value. It is a Da/ray, or stony soil only, that produces fine sandal. It may be felled at any season ; and once in twelve years, whatever has grown to a proper size is generally cut. On these occasions, this (Bstrict pro- duces about 10,000 Maunds, or above 2000 hundred- weight. The whole was lately sold to the agents of the Bombay ffovernment, and a relation of Purneds was employed to deliver it. Much to the credit of the Dewan, this person was put in confinement, having been detected in selling to private traders some of what he cut, and also in having sold great quantities that were foimd buried. During the Sultan's government a great deal of it arrived at maturity, which he would not sell. In general, this was privately cut, and concealed under ground, till an opportunity offered of smuggling it into the Vir' Maya's dominions. The AmUdars have now received orders to cut all the sandal-wood in their respective districts, and to deliver it to the Bombay agents.^ They know nothing of the condi- tions of sale. At present, no sandal-oil is made at Priya-pattaTia,

The woods are infested by wild elephants, which do much injury Eiepiumts. to the crops. They are particularly destructive to the sugar-cane and palm-gardens ; for these monstrous creatures break down the Betel-nut tree to get at its cabbage. The natives have not the art of catching the elephant in Kyddas, or folds, as is done in Bengal ; but take them in pit-falls, by which a few only can be procured, and these are frequently injured by the fall.

The strata of rocks in this neighbourhood are much concealed ; ?3J**°* but, from what I have seen of them, I am persuaded that their direction is different from that of the strata toward the north-ea^. They run about west-north-west and east-south-east, a point or two more or less I cannot determine, as my compass was stolen at Ban^ galore, nor could I repair my loss at Seii/ngapatam, The most

874 1800.

Sept. 11-13.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII,

Sept- U. //anagodu, and the neighbour' ing countiy.

F rontier ol

Coorg.

Lahihmana river, and ir- ligation from thence.

Gungrieara Wo- uliffos, who fol' ^ow the Brahr

mans.

common rock here is hornblende. In the buildings of the place there are two excellent stones : one is what the Germans call regenerated granite ; the other is a granite, with gray quartz and reddish fel- spar disposed in flakes, or alternate plates ; but in such an irregular manner, that it does not appear to me that they could be so arranged by any deposition from water, however agitated.

14th September. — In the morning I went three cosses to Hana- godu, the chief place of a division, called a Hohli, dependent on PTiya- pattana. It has a mud fort ; but the suburb is open, and contains about fifty houses. The country is naturally very fine ; little of it is cultivated however, and it is infested with tigers and elephants that are very destructive. Hanagodu is one coss and a half distant from the southern frontier of Priya-paitana, and at a similar dis- tance from the present boundary of Coorg. The Vir* Rdya is said to have made a ditch and hedge along the whole extent of the old eastern boundary of his dominions, which runs within three cosset of Hdnagodu. One half of this distance, next to his hedge, was reckoned a common, or neutral territory ; but the Rdja lately clainie<i it as his own; and, the Bombay government having interfered, Tippoo was compelled to acknowledge the justice of the claim. The whole country between Hanagodu and the frontier of Coorg has for sixty years been waste.

The Lakshmana river passes within a quarter of a mile to the eastward of Sanagodu, and at present contains much water. At all seasons it has a considerable stream ; and at this place is the upper- most of its dams. Advantage has been taken of a natural ledge of rocks which cross the channel, and stones have been thrown in to fill up deficiencies. The whole now forms a fine dam, over which rushes a cascade about a hundred yards long, and fourteen feet high ; which, in a verdant and finely wooded country, looks remarkablj'^ welL This dam sends off its canal to the eastward, and waters the ground that requires for seed 100,000 Seera of rice. If this be sown as thick as at Priyar-pattana,iliG ground irrigated will amount to 2678 acres. On the ground abov^ the canal, as the declivity in many places is very gentle, much might be done with the machine called Capily ; but the use of that valuable instrument is here not known. It is probable, that on this river several additional dams might be formed. Here it is said, that of the seven, which have been built, three are now out of repair.

The Oungricara Wociiligaa are in this neighbourhood the most common race of cultivators, and are a Siidra tribe of Karnata de- scent. Some of them wear the Lvnga, others do not. It is from these last that I take the following account. The two sects neither eat together nor intermarry. They act as labourers of the earth, and as porters. The head of every family is here called Ouada ; and an assembly of these settles all small disputes, and punishes trans- gressions against the rules of caste. Affairs of moment are always referred to the officers of government. The business of the caste, as

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 375

a

Usual, is punishing the frailty of the women, and the intemperance 2800. of the men. If the adulterer be a Gung-i^icara, or of a higher caste, 8«pu i*. both he and the husband are fined by the officers of government, from three to twelve Fanams, or from two to eight shillings, accord- ing to their circumstances. The husband may avoid this fine by turning away his wife, in which case she becomes a concubine of the kind called Cutiga ; but this is a length to which the husband seldom chooses to proceed ; the difficulty of procuring another wife being considered as a more urgent motive than the desire of revenge. If, however, the adulterer has been of a low caste, the woman is, without fail, divorced, and delivered over to the officers of govern- ment, who sell her to any low man that will purchase her for a wife. In this caste there are two kinds of Gutigaa : the first are such women as have committed adultery and their descendants, with whom no person of a pure extraction will intei-marry ; the others are widows, who, having assembled their relations, obtain their consent to become lawful Gutigaa to some respectable man. The children of these are legitimate, although the widows them- selves are considered as inferior to virgin wives. A man never marries a woman who is of the same family in the male line with himself The men are allowed a plurality of women, and the girls continue to be marriageable even after the age of puberty. None of them can lawfully drink spirituous liquors. Some of them eat meat, but others abstain from this indulgence. These two do not intermarry, and this division is hereditary. Some of them can keep aceompts, and even read legends written in the vulgar tongue. Some worship Siva, without wearing the Linga ; and some worship Viaknu ; but this produces no division in caste. They do not offer bloody sacrifices to the Sakiia ; but pray to the images of the Baewa, or bull of Iswara, of AtaHma, and of the Ga/ricut, or village god. They do not believe in the spirits called Virika ; but indeed that worship does not seem to extend to the south of the Cavery. They do not take the vow of Dds4ri, They bury the dead, and believe that in a future state good men will sit at the feet of God. Even a bad man may obtain this happiness, if at his funeral his son bestow charity on the DdsSris. An unfortunate wicked man, who has no son to bestow charity, becomes as mud. By this, I suppose, they mean that his soul altogether perishes. Their Guru is an heredittuy chief of the Sri Vaishnamm Brahmans, and lives at Mail-cotny, He gives them Ghak^ rdntilcam, holy-water, and consecrated rice, and from each person accepts of a Fanam a year, as Dharma. The Panchdnga, or village astrologer, acts as Purdhita at marriages, at the building of a new house, and sometimes at the annual ceremony performed in comme- moration of their deceased parents. On these occasions, he reads Maiitrams, which the Oungricara do not understand, and of course value greatly. He is paid for his trouble.

loth Sept&mher. — I set out very early with an intention of going DiSiuity in to Hegodu Devaim Cotay, where, as I had been informed, I should ?i£^2SSnnI5ioD

376 1800.

Sept 15-

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI II.

Btjuru,

Black -soil.

Sept. 16—18.

ElepbanU.

have an excellent opportunity of examining the forests that invest the western frontiers of the Mysore dominions. I was two hours employed in getting my baggage ferried over the Lakshmana; fur there was only one leather boat, about six feet in diameter. Dur- ing this time, I was informed that the forests were six casses from Hegodu Devana Cotay ; and that the nearest inhabited place to them was a miserable village half way from the town, which affordei no supplies of any kind. I was also informed, that, in the neigh- bourhood of where I then was, some people were employed in cutting timber for the garrison at Serinyapatara, and that here I might st^2 exactly the same kind of forest that I could at Hegodu Decana Cotn'j. In consequence of this information, I went half a coss up the right bank of the river, to a ruined village named Hejuru, where the workmen had taken up their abode in an old temple. At this place there are evident remains of a considerable fort, which about seventy years ago was d^troyed by the Vir' Mdya. IVenty or thirty houses had been again assembled, when, on General Abercromby's comins: up to Priya-pattaiia, the Fir* Bdya destroyed it again, and carried away all the inhabitants. One rich farmer has since returned. Part of the soil in this neighbourhood is the blackest that I have ever seen, some peat excepted. It is not very stiff, and is said to be re- markably productive of wheat and Car lay {Cicei* arietinum) ; but at present it is waste.

16th, 17th, and 18th September, — I remained at Hejuru^ endeav- ouring to procure an account of the forests, in which I met "with much less success than might reasonably have been expected. I went into them about three cosses, to a small tank, farther than which the natives rarely venture, and to which they do not £:«> without being much alarmed on account of wild elephants. In this forest these animals are certainly more numerous, than either in Chittagong or Pegu. I have never seen any where so many traces of them. The natives, when they meet an elephant in the day-time, hide themselves in the grass, or behind bushes, and the animal does not search after them ; but were he to see them, even at a distance, he would run at them, and put them to death. It is stragglers only from the herds, that in the day-time frequent the outer parts of tlie forest. The herds that at night destroy the crops, retire with tho dawn of day into the recesses of the forest ; and thither the natives do not venture, as they could not hide themselves from a number.* It is said, that at the above-mentioned tank there was formerly a village ; but that both it and several others on the skirt of the forest have been lately withdrawn, owing to an increased number of elephants, and to the smaller means of resistance which the decrciise of population allows.

* Elephants always move about in herds, and never attack nn1c8«i wonnded. But a JioguCf ». e.f one turned out of a herd, a solitary roamer, will attack in thou t any provoca- tion.—Ed.

CHAP. VIIIJ MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 377

The soil of these forests is in general very good, and much of it geil^e-is. is very black. In places where the water has lodged, and then dried soii and «p.* up, such as in the print of an elephant's foot, this black soil assumes SJSS.^*^^* ^ the appearance of indurated tar. The country is by no means steep, and is every where capable of cultivation ; but of this no traces are to be seen in any part of the forest. Near Hejuru the trees are very small ; for so soon as any one becomes of a useful size it is cut. As the distance and danger increase, the trees gradually are allowed to attain a larger growtii ; and at the tank they are of considerable dimen.sions. Farther on, they are said to be very stately. The forest is free from underwood or creepers ; but the whole ground is covered with long grass, often as high as a man's head. TMs makes walking rather disagreeable and dangerous, as one is always liable to stumble over rotten trunks, to rouse a tiger, or to tread on a snake. 'J'hese latter are said to be found of great dimensions, and have been Large serpenti. seen as thick as the body of a middle-sized man. The length of this kind is not in proportion to the thickness, and does not exceed seven cubits. Although I passed a great part of these three days in the forest, I saw neither elephant, tiger, nor serpent, and escaped without any other injury than a fall over a rotten tree.

These forests are very extensive, and rmxah, to the foot of the Bxtent and pro- western Ghats ; but in this space there are many valuable' and fer- forwts. tile tracts, belonging to the Bajda of Coorg and Wynaad^ The trees on the Ghais are said to be the largest ; yet in the dominions of Mysore there is much good timber. The kinds differ much less from those in the Magadi range of hills, than, considering the great difference of moisture and soil, might have been expected ; for the rains are here copious, and the soil is rich ; neither of which ad- vantages are possessed by the central hills of the Mysore Mora's dominions. In the woods of Hejuru, however, there are very few of the prickly trees ; whereas a large proportion of those at Magadi are miTnosaa, The following are uie trees which I observed in the forest at Hejuru.

1. DodaTayca. Tectonarobusta. In great plenty.

2 and 3. Cadaba. Naudea parvifolia, and Nauclea cordifolia, Koxb. These two species, although very distinct, are by the woodmen of this place included under the same name. Both grow to a large size, and their timber is reckoned equal to that of the Teak, or more properly Tayc,

4. HouTiay, or Whonnay. Pterocarpus santolinus. Is found in great plenty, and is a beautiful and useful tree.

5. BiiHday. Pterocarpus.

This is the same kind of tree with that at Magadi By the Mussul- mans it is called Sissu,

6. DaLbergia panictdata, Roxb.

Being useless, it has obtained no native name.

48

378 ^ JOUENEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH . {CHAP. VIH.

8e^t^6-i8 '^' Cagali. Mimosa Catechu, Roxb. FL Cor. No. 174.

*' * * Grows in the skirts of the forest only, and never reaches to a large size,

8. Bunni, Mimosa,

This is very like the Cdgali, Its timber is of no use. The tree is esteemed holy, as the shaft of Rdma^s spear is said to have been made of its wood.

9. Biluara. Mimosa odoratissima.

At Magadi this tree was called Betta Sujalu. It is a large valuable timber-tree.

10. Mutti. Chuncoa MtUtea^ Buch. MSS.

The natives here have several appellations which they give to this species ; such as Cari, or black ; BUy, or white; and Tor, by which name I knew it at Magadi,

11. Alalay, Myrobailantis Aruliy Buch. MSS.

Grows to a very large size ; but the fruit, or Tnyrobalans, are the only valuable part ; and, owing to the remote situation of the place, these are not collected.

12. Hulivay, Clmncoa Huliva, Buch. MSS.

There is only one kind of this tree, although it has a great variety of names given to it bj the natives. It is a large tree, and its tim- ber is good.

13. Tari. Myroballanua Taria, Buch. MSS. Very large.

14. Nai Bayla. Mimosa laxicophlea, Roxb.

15 and 16. Miiruculu, Chirongia sapida, Eoxb. MSS. ; and Chirongia glabra, Buch. MSS.

These two trees, although they are lofty, do not grow to a great thickness. The woodmen talk of Hen and Qhindu Murculus, or female and male ; but they do it without precision, and do not apply one term to the one species, and another to the other.

17. (himshia. Gambia chloroxyloriy Buch. MSS.

It does not grow to a large size ; but the timber is said to be very strong, and has a singular green colour. Hopes are made of its bark.

18. Dinduga. Andersonia Panchmoun, Roxb. MSS. Grows to a very large size. Its timber is valuable.

19. Shagudda, Shagadu Gussum, Buch. MSS.

A large tree. Its timber, being very rarely found sound at heart, is not much esteemed.

20. Okeru, Anacardium, Juss.

21. NeUi, Phylanthus 3rriblica,

It is the fruit only of these two trees that is of any use.

22. Ghja. Glutia sUpidaris ?

A large tree, of which the timber is reckoned good.

23. Sch-ebera aliens, Willd.

Has here no name. It is, in fact, an Eleodendnim.

24. Tv/pru Diospyrus, Buch. MSS.

Here it is always a large tree, and its timber is esteemed good.

CHAP VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 379

25. Jugalaguntu Diospyrus, se^^^L The same prejudice prevails here, as at Magadi, against this tree. ^ *

26. Culi.

A large tree producing good timber.

27. CacC Ipay, Soma,

The leaves are different in size and shape from those of the Bassia longifolia, which is planted near villages. The art of extracting a spirituous liquor from the flowers is here unknown.

28. Naerulu, Calyptranthes Jambulana, Willd.

29. Gaula. Pelou HoH Mai.

The fruit is said to be as large as that of the Ariocarpus integrifolia^ and to be a favourite food with the elephant.

30. Budigayray,

The fruit is said to poison fish.

31. Navulady. Fticrc a/ato, Buch, MSS. A large timber tree.

32. Jala. Shorea Jala, Buch. MSS.

A large timber tree. No lac is made here.

33. Nirany, An useless tree.

34. (hirivL Ixora arborea, Eoxb. MSS.^ Used for torches.

35. Wudi, Schrebera SweitenioideSy Roxb. A large tree-

36. Chadrunahi. Bauhinia. A small tree of no value.

37. Bamboos. Large, but not solid.

38. Chaningy, Lagerstromia parvifiora, Roxb.

39. Goda.

The Amutty of Magadi, Large and in plenty. Here its timber is reckoned to be bad.

40. ShiUa,

A large excellent timber-tree, of which I could get no specimen. It is quite different from the Shalay of Magadi.

The Cad* Curubaru are a rude tribe of Karndta, who are exceed- c***" curubaru. inglj poor and wretched. In the fields near villages they build miserable low huts, have a few rags only for covering, and the hair of both sexes stands out matted like a mop, and swarms with ver- min. Their persons and features are weak and unseemly, and their complexion is very dark. Some of them hire themselves as labour- ing servants to the farmers, and, like those of other castes, receive monthly wages. Others, in crop season, watch the fields at night, to keep off the elephants and wild hogs. These receive monthly one Fanam and ten Se^rs, or 1-^ peck of Eagy. In the intervals between crops, they work as day labourers, or go into the woods, and collect the roots of wild Fams (Dioaco^'eas) ; part of which they eat, and part exchange with the farmers for grain. Their manner of

3 80 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Till.

Bcpt?i6l-i8. driving away the elephant is by running against him with a burning torch made of Bamboos, The animal sometimes turns, waite till the Gurubat^i comes close up ; but these poor people, taught by ex-

Eerience, push boldly on, dash their torches against the elephant's ead, who never fails to take immediate flight. 8hould their courage fail, and should they attempt to run away, the elephant would immediately pursue, and put them to death. The Ctirubaru have no means of killing so large an animal, and, on meeting with one in the day-time, are as much alarmed as nny other of the inhabitants. During the Sultan's reign they caught a few in pit-faUs. The wild hogs are driven out of the fields by slings ; but they are too fierce and strong for th^ Gurubaru to kill These poor people frequently suffer from tigers, against which their wretched huts are a poor defence ; and, when this wild beast is urged by hunger, he is regardless of their burning torches. These Curubai^ have dogs, with which they catch deer, antelopes, and hares ; and they have the art of taking in snares peacocks, and other esculent birds. They have no hereditary chiefs, but assemble occasionally to settle the business of their caste. They confine their marriages to their own tribe. The Ganda, or chief man of the village, presides at this ceremony, which consists of a feast During this the bridegroom espouses his mistress, by tying a string of beads round her neck. The men are allowed to take several wives ; and both girls after the age of puberty, and widows, are permitted to marry. In case of adultery, the husband flogs his wife severely, and, if he be able, beats her paramour. If he be not able, he applies to the Gaudo, who does it for him. The adul- teress has then her choice of following either of the men as her hus- band. They can eat every thing except beef; and have no objection to the animal having died a natural death. They will eat victuals dressed by any of the farmers, but would not touch any of my pro- visions. They do not drink spirituous liquors. None of them take the vow of Ddsiri, nor attempt to read. Some of them bum, and others bury the dead. They believe that good men, after death, will become benevolent Ddva^, and bad men destructive D^vas, A good man, according to them, is ho who labours properly at his businea<, and who is kind to his family. The whole are of such known honesty, that on all occasions they are entrusted with provisions by the fiirmers, who are persuaded, that the Gurubaru would rather stane, than take one grain of what was given to them in charge. They have no GurUy nor does the Panchdnga, or any other kind of priest, attend any of their ceremonies. The spirits of the dead are believed to appear in dreams to their old people, and to direct them to make • ofierings of fruits to a female deity named Bettada Chicama; that

is, the little mother of the hilL Unless these offerings are made, this goddess occasions sickness ; but she is never supposed to do her votaries any good. She is not, however, appeased by bloody sacri- fices. There is a temple dedicated to her nesir Nuiijinagodu; h"t, there is no occasion for the oflfering being made at that place.

CHAP. VIII.) MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 381

There is also in this neighbourhood another rude tribe of Curu^ isoo. haru, called Betta, or Malaya, both words signifying mountain ; the ^a wlidiaya one in the Kamata, and the other in the Tamul knguage. Their ^«''«*^»"*- dialect is a mixture of these two languages, with a few words that are considered as peculiar, probably from their having become obsolete among their more refined neighbours. They are not so wretched nor ill looking as the Cad! Curubaru, but are of diminutive stature. They live in poor huts near the villages, and the chief em- ployment of the men is the cutting of timber, and making of baskets. With a sharp stick they also dig up spots of ground in Sie skirts of the forest, and sow them with Rngy, A family in this manner will sow nine Seers of that grain. The men' watch at night the fields of the farmers ; but are not so dexterous at this as the Gad! Cibiubarib are. They neither take game, nor collect wild Yama. The women hire themselves to labour for the farmers. The Betta Cut-ubaru have an hereditary chief called Ijyamdfw^ who lives at Priya-paU tana. With the assistance of a council of three or four persons, he settles disputes, and punishes all transgressions against the rules of caste. He can levy small fines, and can expel from the caste any woman that cohabits with a strange man. In this tribe, the concu- bines, or Cuti{fas, are women that prefer another man to their hus- band, or widows who do not wish to relinquish carnal enjoyment. Their children are not considered as illegitimate. If a man takes away another person's wife, to keep her as a Cutiga, he must pay one or two Fanams atS a fine to the Ijyamana, Girls are not consi- dered as marriageable until after the age of puberty, a custom that by the higher orders is considered as a beastly depravity. The men may take several wives, but never marry a woman of the same family with themselves in the male line. The Betta Uurubaru never intoxicate themselves ; but are permitted to eat every kind of animal food except beef, and they have no objection to carrion. They never take the vow of Dasiri, and none of them can read. Some of them burn, and others bury the dead. They understand nothing of a future state. The god of the caste is Ejuruppay who seems to be the same with Hanumanta, the servant of Jiama ; but they ilever pray to this last mentioned deity, although they sometimes address Siva. To the god of their caste they ofier fruit, and a little money : they never sacrifice to the Saktis, Their Guru, they say, is of tne caste Wotimeru, and from their description would appear to be of those people called Satananas, He gives them holy water, and con- secrated victuals, and receives their charity. At their marriages, he reads somewhat in a language which they do not understand.

19th September. — I went four cosses to Eegodu Devana Cotayj Sept. 19th. that is, the Fortress of the Tnigliiy Deva, The two first cosses of the th^^c^Sy kS^ way led through a forest, as thick as that which is to the south-west jSJSSna^^y. of HejurUy and is covered with longer grass. The road was a very narrow path. The trees are small, and stunted, probably from the poorness of the soil, which is in general very light. The elephants

232 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. ^1'® ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^ numerous here also, but I did not see any. The

Sept. luth. former sites of several villages could readily be discovered. Farther on, the whole country has evidently been once under cultivation ; but the greater part has been long waste, and is now covered with trees. Here a sudden change takes place. In the rich land to tlie westward, there are very few prickly trees or bushes ; but here, and all towards the east, the most common are Mimonas and Rkamni. On the way I passed two villages which had some cultivation round ~ them. The crops were mostly of the leguminous kind, and seemed to be very thriving. HistoTyoffle- The tradition conccming Heqoclu Devana (7ofe7t/ is as follows.

vvtay. About four hundred years ago liegodu Deva, a brother of the

Rayalu of Anagundi, having had a dispute with the king, came and settled here, the whole country being on the forest. He fir^t built a fort at a place called Hegodu-pura, about half a coss we^^t from hence. One day, as he was coui-sing, the hare turned on his dogs, and pursued them to this spot, which the prince therefore knew to be male ground, and a proper place for the foundation of a city. At this place he accordingly took up his residence, and fortified it with seven ditches. He brought inhabitants to cultivate the country which now forms this district, and was at the head of all the neigiibouringPolygars. His son, Singuppa JFbdcar, was con- quered by Betta Chama Raja Wbdear, of Mysore ; and the present fort was built about 1 30 years ago by Chica D4va, one of that rebel- lious subject's descendants. He made a Cund/tia, or valuation of the country; but I do 'not find that any person is possessed oi a copy of the whole. The Shanaboga or accomptant of each village has a copy of its valuation, which, from want of a pheck, is very Uablc to be corrupted. The dominions of Hegodu D^va extended from tlie city four cosses to the east, six cosses to the south, four cosses to the west, and three cosses to the north. Formerly the whole country was cultivated; but now three cosses toward the west, and two cosses toward the south are entirely desolate ; and in the other two directions much land is waste. Near the place, indeed, I can no- whefa see much cultivation. These devastations have been chiefly committed during the troubles with the Coorg Rajas, especially those which happened in Tippoo's reign. The town itself first Buffered considerably in the Marattah invasion during Hyder'a government. Previous to that, it contained a thousand houses ; but they arc no^v reduced to eighty. state of Bynadu The wretclied inhabitants of this country have also had frequent or wiTMad. troublo from the Bynadu Raja, who is besides possessed of a country called Cotat/'huttay in Malaydlam, This last territory is below the • Qhats, and is a part of what we call Malabar ; which derives its name

from its hilly nature. Bynadu signifies the open country ; and^ al- though situated on the summits of the Ghats, and in many places over-run with forests, yet it is infinitely more accessible than the other territories of this chief. Ccerulu Verma, the present Rdja^ is a

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 383

younger brauch of the family ; but retains his country in absolute isoo. sovereignty, denying the authority of the Company, of the head of ®**** his family, and of all other persons. In the reign of Tippoo, this active chief assembled some of nis Nairs, and regained possession of the territories which the former reigning prince had, on Hyder's in- vasion, deserted. The Raja^ who had so basely submitted to the Mussulman conqueror, succeeded aftei-wards to the tenitory of a rela^ tion, and now enjoys his share of the allowance which is made to the Rajas otMalabar by the Company, to whose authority he quietly sub- mits. The Bynadu Raja has at present sent the Conga Nair, one of bis ofiBcers, into the Mysore dominions, to cut sandalwood, and to plun- der the villages. In this vicinity there are now a hundred cavalry, and one hundred and fifty regular infantry, besides CandasJiara, be- longing to the Mysore Raja : but these dare not face the Conga A air, nor venture to repress his insolence. His master lays claim to all the country west from Nunjin^odu. Had I deferred visiting the forests till I came here, I should have been completely disap- pointed ; although the best information that I could procure at Se- ringapatam pointed this out as the -place most proper for the pur- pose.

Hegodu Divana Cotay is one of the most considerable districts ^^a^jJ^^Swin for the produce of sandalwood; and I found there a Portuguese agent of the Commercial Resident at Mangalore, who was employed to collect a purchase of this article that had been made by the gov- ernment of Bombav from the Dewan of Mysore. Two thousand Candies, each weighing 520 lb., were to have been delivered at a stipulated period ; but this has not been fulfilled. Orders, indeed, have long ago been issuld to the ATnildars for accomplishing it ; but a prompt execution of any such commands is by no means usual in an Indian government. The account which this agent gave is as follows : the Amildars, having no legal profit for this extraordinary trouble, endeavour to squeeze something out of the workmen. They cliarge the wages given to these poor people at ^ of a Fanam a day, which is the usual rate of the country ; and, in place of this, give them only half a Seer of Ragy. The labourers^ being thus forced to work at a low allowance, throw in his way every obstacle in their power. It is the lowest and most ignorant of the peasantry, in place of tradesmen, that have been selected. A sufficient number having been seized, they are ordered each to bring a billet of san- dal to the Cutchery, or office of the Amildar. Every man imme- diately seizes on tiie tree nearest him ; cuts it down, whether it be ripe or not ; neglects the part nearest the root, as being more trouble- some to get at, and drags the tree to the appointed place, after having taken off the bark to render it lighter. Before the office the logs lie exposed to sun, wind, and rain, until other peasants, as ignorant as the former, can be pressed to cut off the white wood with their miserable hatchets. These cut the billets of all lengths, according as every man thinks it will be most convenient for him

3S4« ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH ICHAP. VIII.

1800. to clean them : by this means^ being less fit for stowage, they are

Btpu is»ui. not so saleable. The whole is then hurried away to the plaoe where the agent is to receive his purchase ; and when it comes there, the Amildar is astonished to find, that one half of what he had calcu- lated upon is being rejected, as being small, foul, or rent. The people are very docile ; and the agent, so far as he has been able, has had the trees brought to him, just as tiiey were cut, and freed from their branches and bark ; and he has superintended the cutting them into billets of a convenient size, and the cleaning them properly from white wood. Owing to a want of time, he has been obliged to have them diied in the sun ; and I observe, that in consequence of this, a great many of the billets are rent in all directions. He sunpects that the Amildars throw delays in his way, in order to force him to weigh the sandal while it is green. He thinks that, in order to instruct the villagers in the manner of cleaning the wood, it would be of advantage to send a carpenter, with proper tools, to each district.

'J'he agent says, that the sandal-wood oi Priya-'paUana arid Maha-Rayna^Durga, although smaller, is of a much better quality than that of Naggara, which is inferior to that even of the districts south &om Priyu'pattana. None, or at least a very inconsiderable quantity, grows in Coorg and Bynadu ; but in Tippoo^s reign the Telliclteroy market was chiefly supplied by the Bajas of these two countries, to whom it was smuggled by the inhabitants of Mysore ; for the most violent orders had been issued prohibiting the sale. The people of Coorg understand the preparation of the sandal-wood much better than those of My9(yi*e. The proper manner, aooording to the agent, is as follows : the trees ought to be felled in the wane of the moon ; the bark should be taken off immediately, and the trees out into billets two feet long. These should be men buried in a piece of dry ground for two months, during whioh time the white ants will eat up all the outer wood, without touching the heart, which is the sandal. The billets ought then to be taken up and smoothed, and according to their size sorted into three kinds. The deeper the colour, the higher is the perfume ; and henoe the merchants sometimes divide sandal into red, yellow, and white; but these are all different shades of the same colour, and do not arise from any difference in the species of the tree. The nearer the root, in general, the higher is the perfume ; and care should be taken, by removing the eadh, to cut as low as possible. The biUet nearest the foot, when this has been done, is commonly called root-sandal, and is of a superior quality. In smoothing the billets, chips of the sandal are of course cut off, as are also fi-agments in squaring their ends. These chips and fragments, with the smallest assortment of billets, answer best for the Arabian market; and &om them the essential oil is distilled. The largest billets are sent to China ; and the middle-sized billets are used in India. The sandal, when thus prepared and sorted, for at least three or four months before it is

CHAP. VIII.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 385

sold, ought to be shut up from the sun and wind in close wai^e- 1800. houses ; out the longer it is kept, with such precautions, the better ; ^^p** *®' its weight diminishing more than the smell. Prepared in this way, it rarely either splits or warps, both of which accidents render it unfit for many of the purposes to which it is applied. If it be not buried in the ground, the entire trees ought to be brought into a shed at the warehouse, and there cut into proper billets, cleared of white wood, smoothed, and immediately shut up tOl thoroughly dry. The Vi)^ Rajahs people^ although they cure the sandal properly, have no notion of sorting it The liaja is the principal dealer in this article, and insists (m the merchants taking it good and bad, as it comes to hand, at the same price. He, no doubt, thus gets quit of the whole refuse ; but, I believe, most merchants of experience would prefer selling their wares properly sorted.

The officers of government say, that the sandal tree seldom or never grows in the lofty forests. It delights in the skirts of the open country, where small intervals are left between the fields, or on the banks of mountain torrents. It prefers a light stony soil, and such only as grows there is of any value. In the soil which this tree requires there is, however, something peculiar ; as it rises up in one place copiously, and not at all in another neighbouring sj)ot, although there be no apparent difference in the situation or soil. It sprmgs partly from seed, scattered by the birds that eat its berries ; and partly from the roots of the trees, that have for- merly been cut ; and requires about twenty years to come to per- fection. No pains, that I could discover, are taken to preserve the young plants from cattie ; so that they always rise in a very strag- gling manner. If formerly any systematic management was ob- served, it has of late been entirely neglected. To prevent any per- son from cutting sandal without permission from government, laws have long existed : but these never were enforced with rigour by Tippoo. They are excessively severe, and prevent the peasantry from ever stealing the tree. It is only Rdjas, and men above the law, that venture on this kind of theft. The present plan adopted by the Deivan seems to me to be the worst that could have been chosen. The woods are as much destroyed as if they had been sold to a renter ; and, I am assured, will produce no more for at least twelve years ; while no pains have been taken to make the most of what has been cut. To the conduct of this minister, however, no blame is, on this account, to be attached. He had sold the wood to the Company ; and the misconduct of the officer, whom he had en- trusted to cut it down, rendered it necessary for him to adopt the means by which he would be most likely enabled to fulfil his en- . gagements, without attending to any other circumstance of less im^ portance.

IVo means occur to me, as likely to ensure a considcmblo and regular income from sandal- wood. One means would be, to grant long leases to an individual, who would of course take every care

49

386 1800.

Sept. 19.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII.

Sept. 20.

Want of yOTi' «ity.

Irrigation.

Soil.

of the trees, and employ every means proper to render what was cut fit for the market.- The rent would be fixed at so much a year ; and restrictive clauses, to prevent the renter from ruining the woods toward the end of his lease, would be necessary. The difficulty in exacting the performance of these restrictive clauses would make me prefer the other plan ; which would be, to put the sandal-^wood under the management of an agent, on a footing similar to the salt- agents of Bengal. He would preserve the trees, when young, by destroying all the other plants that might choak them, and by watching against thefts, or the encroachments of fanners. He would yearly cut the trees that were ripe, and no othere. He would take care that the billets were properly prepared and cured; and he would bring the whole to public sale at proper times and places. His pay ought to be a commission on the neat proceeds. For some years, it is probable, the quantity procured would not overstock the market ; but with care the quantity raised would, no doubt, so lower the price, as to diminish the profit very much. In that event, the sandal of the least profitable districts might be entirely destroyed ; and in the most convenient and profitable situation, a sufficient quantity would be raised. As it is a mere article of luxury, or rather of ostentation, there can be no doubt of the propriety of making it entirely subservient to the purpose of raising a revenue ; and the whole sandal of India is now in the hands of the Honour- able Company, and of the Raja of Mysore ; between whom Uie necessary arrangements might be readily completed.

20tn September. — I went three cosses to Humpor-pura. The country has formerly been almost entirely cultivated ; but at present about three-fourths of it are waste. The sandal- wood is very conmion here^ growing in intervals between the com fields, and by the sides of torrents. The Parputty, or revenue officer, of Humpor-pura had the impudence to tell me, that although the farmers were rather

I)oor, owing to the depredations of the camp followers during the ate war, yet there was abundance of stock ; and that every field capable of it was actually cultivated. The same officer said, that cattle were never permitted to go near the young sandal- wood trees. Now the man must have known, that from the tent in which we were sitting, I had ocular demonstration of both afiirmations being false ; and what could induce him to make them I could not discover. Among the natives, however, similar departures from the truUi ai^e common.

Pumea has lately repaired a canal which comes from the diun at Hanagodu, and w hich in the rainy season conveys the superfluous water into a reservoir> where it is preserved for cultivating a con- 'siderable portion of rice-land in the dry weather. By similar means much water, that is now lost from the Cavery^ might be preserved.

We have now again got into a dry soil, with short herbage inttr- mixed with bushes of the Cassia auriculata : but the fields have a ver- dure unknown to the eastward, and Ca?^' Rctgy is the conunon crop.

CHAP. VIlI.l MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 387

All the high grounds that I have seen south from the Cavery, 1800, as well as tho»e in many places north from that river, have evi- p^*JJ^* dently been once fenced with quickset hedges. Some of these at this place are very fine ; and the natives, being sensible of the advan- tage of shelter in preserving a moisture in their fields, have allowed the Tirucalli to grow twenty feet high. When from its height it has become too open at the roots, they plant in the openings the Ewplvor- biwm antiqvxyrum, which grows well under the shade of the other ; and both united make a good and a very beautiful fence. Tho hedges of the country in general, even where they are kept up as fences, are in a very slovenly condition, and are ruined by being overgrown with the Convolvulus, and other rank climbing plants.

Humpa-pura is a miserable open village. A little east from it Monument of a is erected a stone, containing some small figures in bas-relief, which *'^*'^***^'^' are much defaced. Concerning this the tradition is as follows: Canterwa, Rdya of Mysore, having invaded Coorg with a large army, was entirely defeated, and pursued this length by the Vir* Bay a. In the flight there perished three hundred and sixty of the Mysore nobles, each of whom had the privilege of using a palanquin. The conqueror having bestowed great Lharma, that is to say, having thrown away much money on religious mendicants, erected this stone as a monument of his victory, and to mark the new boundary of his dominions. It was but for a short time, however, that he re- tained these acquisitions.

Yesterday afternoon I was very unwell ; and another day's stay in the woods would probably have given me a serious indisposition.

2l8t September, — I remained at Humpa-pura, to obtain an 8*pt 21. account of the iron mines in that neighbourhood.

The strata at Humpa-pura are vertical, and run nearly north strata at Hum- and south. Many of them consist of pot-stone of a bad quality. fSi^JJ^Jg. These are of various breadths.

South fix)m Humpa-pura is a cluster of high hills, named The goddcM Cliica Deva Betta, or the hill of the little spirit. It is sacred to ^**""^' Chicama, the deity of the Gad/ Cv/nibai*u lately mentioned. Over the elephant she has peculiar authority ; and, before a hunt of that animal is undertaken, she is propitiated by a sacrifice.

On the north side of Chica Dev& Betta are three low hills, which i»on mines. produce iron ore. Mota Betta is situated about three miles E. S. E. from Humpar-puTa, immediately below the junction of the river Nuga with the Kapi/nA, and to the right of bo&. Culia Betta is the most considerable mine, and is situated between the two rivers, being distant from Mota Betta one coss and a half*. West from thence about half a coss, is Hitena Betta, which is on the left of the KapinL I could only examine Mota Betta, without occasioning a delay of several days in my journey ; which I did not think ad- visable, as I was told that the dtQ in all the three places is nearly the same ; and this is confirmed by the hills lying nearly in the direction of the strata at Mota Betta.

388 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. Moia Beiia is a hill of do coDsiderable height, about a mile in

i^scrStionof length, aod extcDcliDg from Dorth to south. It is wrought at tho stataBetta^and south end Only ; but no trial has been made to ascertain how ferr the mines. mine extends. The strata that are in view run from about north- west to south-east, or rather more toward the east, and west ; but I judge merely from the sun. They point directly toward the high peak called Bettada pura ; while those on the opposite side of the Kapini run nearly north and south. The strata dip toward the north at an angle of about 30 degrees. They consist of schistose plates ; and, owing to their being penetrated by fissures at right angles to the strata, they break with a smooth surface into angular fragments. The internal structure of the plates is foliated, and these leaves being of different appearances, and sometimes straight, sometimes undulated, would seem to show that they have been deposited frx>m water at different times. The strata are from one to taree feet in thickness, and consist of granular quartz more or less impregnated with iron ore, which is of the same nature with the common iron- sand of the country. In most of the strata the quartz predominates ; and by the natives these are considered as useless. In others, al- thougn having nearly the same external appearance, the iron is more abundant, and these are the ore. From these last, ochies of various colours exude, by which they are readily distinguished from the barren strata. In the rainy season, the workmen content themselves with collecting the fragments of ore which the water brings down from the hiU. These are like the black sand, but larger and more angular. From the earth with which they arc mixed they are separated by being washed in long wooden troughs, made of hollow trees. In the dry season, the workmen are forced to have recourse to the strata ; but never penetrate deeper than the surface. Before they begin to work upon any spot, they cover it with a coat of earth for a year ; which seems to accelerate the decay, and to render the ore brittle. After it has been dug up with pick- axes, the ore is broken into small pieces, and the iron is separated from the stony matter by washing. Expense and The Smelting is said to be carried on in a manner similar to

mt*Se Iron ow. that uscd in othcr parts of the country. The iron, as it comes fix)m the smelting-fumace, is sold to the farmers ; and the common foi^ges of the blacksmiths are sufficient to work it up into the implements of agriculture. The rent paid to government is in iron, and this must be formed into wedges at a forge. Hyder made an allowance for the expense of doing this, which amounts to a Fanam on the Maund ; but his son stopped this allowance, which has not been restored. The rent paid for each furnace is 30 Maundjs of 50 SeerSy or about 300 pieces, or 9101b. of wrought iron. For every ten pieces the owners pay, to the people who forge it, one Fanam, or in all 30 Panama, worth 40 pieces of crude iron. The whole rent then is 340 pieces, or 225 Fanams. This and all other advances are made by the Pyragara, or superintendent, who pays all the work-

GHAP. VIILJ MYSORE, CANAEA, AND MALABAR. ggj

men by wages, ff we allow the furnace to work 320 days in the igoo.

year, he pays as follows : ^p'* *»•

Fanamt, ji.0 irenv ••• •• *** *** •■•• ••■ ••• 200

To ten makers of charcoal, at -^ i^anam daily 64<0

To four miners, at ditto ••• ... ... ... ... 240

To four washers of the ore, at ditto ••• 240

To two principal bellows-men, at \ Fanam daily •.. 213^ To two mferior ditto, at ^ iViJtam daily 160

Total Fanam 1748^

Fvaiamt, These melt four times a day, and at each time get three

Fan/'t/i« worth of iron, in all 3840

Deduct expenses ... 1748^

The profit will be • •..21012

From this, however, must be deducted the expense of bellows and other implements, with sacrifices, presents to mendicants, and other similar charges. Each melting is cut into four bars ; and from eight to twelve, or on an average ten, of these make a Mound of forged iron. Its prime cost is therefore 7 J Fanama, with 1 Fanam to uie workmen who forge it ; in all, 8| Fanams for a Maund of 50 Suliany Seere, or about 2l9. a hundred-weight.

In the fork between the Nuga and Kapini rivers, is a etratum of fieauufoi rock. a similar disposition to those of the mine. It consists of very shining black foliated hornblende^ or perhaps basaltine, dotted with white felspar.

The pillars of a temple of Bhairawa Dharu^ at'the same place, oneiM. are of very fine gneiss, like some of the best at AfaU-cotay. The priest could not inform me from whence they had been brought.

Eliairawa Diva/i*Ut is the cod of the Gurubaa, and is a malevolent shairmpa Dt- male spirit. His temple is built exactly like the smaller temples ?tho ctu^iSm. of the gods of the Brdkmana, and without spires, or high ornaments. Its roof, like those of the temples of lawara (also a destructive spirit), is ornamented with images of the bull. The Pujari, or priest, is a Hal Curtibaru, who can neither read nor write.

The Kapmi river, at Humpa-pura, is about sixty yards wide, xapim riTer. and at all seasons contains running water. Its channel is sandy, and considerably below the level of the country; which circumstances, have prevented the natives from making dams. It takes its rise from a hill named Baiiasura, in the Bynadu. At this season the Ferries, river is no where fordable, I crossed it on Barnhoo floats, which with ease transport horses and palanquins, and which are a much better conveyance than the baskets, covered with leather, that are the usual ferry-boats in all parts of the peninsula.

390 1800.

Sopt 21. Ifuga river.

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. viri.

Ignoraneo and want of Yera- citf.

Appearance of the country.

Qnarry of Sila or Prailma CulJti.

The Nuga river is smaller and more rapid and rocky than the Kapinu It also rises in the Bynadu. Formerly there were two dams on it ; but the fields which they watered have for twenty years been deserted. By the disturbances in the country the number of the people had then been so much diminished, that they were no longer able to resist the encroachments of the elephants. This year the Amildar of Hegodu Divana Cotay has sent a party of armed men to protect the place, and some farmers have returned to their for- mer abodes. The country, watered by these rivers coming from the western Ohats, is naturally by far the finest in Mysore, and would equal in beauty any in the world, were it decently cultivated ; but ruin and misery every where stare the traveller in the face.

I have no where met with the people so ignorant, and such gross liars, as in this vicinity. Except the accomptant, a Brahman, I did not converse with one man who did not prevaricate ; and very few of them would give an answer to the most simple question ; while most of them pretended ignorance on all occasions and subjects. The accomptant's answers were rational, and never contradictory ; and it was owing to him that I was able to procure any account of the iron manufacture. During my stay at Humpa-pura I could pro- cure none that was in the least satisfactory ; but ashamed of his countrymen, he persuaded two of the workmen to follow me to the next stage, and to give me the account that I have inserted.

22d September, — In the morning I went three cosses to Maru- Hully, The road leads parallel to the valley which the Kapi7ii waters, and runs along its north side at a considerable height above the river, and also at some distance from its banks. The valley is naturally beautiful. So far as I could judge from looking down upon it, the whole has been once cultivated, and indexed with quick- set hedges ; and it contains an abundance of trees, though few of them are large. The hills that bound it on the north and south are covered with bushes, so as to give them an imiform verdure ; and, for the matter of prospect, look as well as if clothed with the most lofty forests. Near the road there was very little cultivation ; and some of the soil is too poor to be fit for the plough ; but I am told, that in the bottom of the valley there is a good deal of cultivation ; for the small remainder of the inhabitants cnoose, of course, to employ their labour on the best soil.

By the wuy I turned out of the road ; and in order to examine a quarry of the stone called Sila, or Pratimd CuUu, I went in among the hills on my left to a small village, named Arsina Caray, .The first name in the Sanskrit language means stone ; the latter ap- pellation means image-stone, as it is used for making idols. The quarry is in a hollow, which is surrounded by low hills that are sacred to Chicama. Many stones have formerly been dug, and have left a considerable cavity ; but, as the quarry has not lately been wrought, much rubbish has fallen in, and entirely hides the disposition of the strata. The whole of the strata that I observed between Maru-

CHAP, VIIL} MYSORE, CANARA, AND.MALABAR. 39 J

HuUy and Humpor-pura, on both sides of the quarry, run nearly -g^-j north and south, and are much inclined to the plane of the horizon, sept. 32. These etrata consist of a bad kind of the Prativid CvZlWy which crumbles into irregular masses, and is disposed alternately with those of schistose mica, intermixed with parallel layers oi poi'Stone, All these strata are in a state of decay. I have little doubt, but that the quarry itself is disposed in a strcUum parallel to the others ; but thicker, more compact, and less decayed. Lying round the quarry were many half-formed images. The largest that I saw was about eight feet long, three broad, and one and a half thick ; but by dig- gir)g deeper, larger masses might probably be procured. It is an indurated pot-sk>ne, or rather a pot-stone intimately united with hornblende, and is capable of a fine polish. It approaches very near to the hornblende of Hyder^a monument, but is softer.

Arsi/na Caray, or the prince's reservoir, is a small village sur- Arswa caray, rounded by hills, which are covered by low trees and bushes, bj ww^t u® From time immemorial it has belonged to the Sucar of the KJidlsa ; ^®^^- that is, to the master of the mint The faimers supply, at a regu- lated price, whatever charcoal he may want ; and if there be any balance of rent due, they pay it in money. There are subject to the jurisdiction of the Amildar of Mahasura Naggara, and hence this tenure of the mint-masters is not called a Jaghire.

Mai'u-HuUy, commonly corrupted into MarwuUy, signifies the Mati^uuny, tho second village ; for when the dominions of the reigning family were nea.*^* ° confined to their' original fee (Polyam), this was, next to Mysore, the most considerable place in their possession. It is, however, entirely exempted from the jurisdiction of the jlmi^f, having been granted by Hyder as a Jaghire to Pumea, who still holds it by the same tenure, and manages it by an officer called a Parputty. It is an open village, containing thirty houses of farmers, and ten of labourers, witJi a few shop-keepers and artificers. They are very • poor, having been completely plundered by the Lumbadiea, a kind of tnulers in grain, that followed General Harris.

The chief cultivation here is Car^ Rogyy although the people al- car' Ram. lege that the railis do not begin earlier here than at Seriiigapatam ; but in this^ I imagine, they must be mistaken.

Most of the cultivators in the Mysore district wear the Linga. shivaJbaetam Of these the 5jV Acharya Woculigas pretend to a much higher dig- Ja?^"^ ^**«'*" nity than the others ; and say, that only they and the Pancham Banijigaa can be admitted to the order of priesthood. They are a tribe of pure Kamafa descent. They act as officers of government, as messengers, traders, farmers, and farmers' servants. Disputes being settled by the Gauda, or chief of the village, and their (jturus taking cognizance of all transgressions against the rules of caste, they have no hereditary chiefs. The chief Guru, SwatnalUf or throne (Singhaeana) , appoints an inferior Ouru to a certain number of families. This person is a married Jangama, and attends at births and marriages, and takes cognizance of all transgressions. For loss

392 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. important ceremonies, such as bestowing the Linga and Upad^sa,

8cpt.i2. any Jangama suffices. On all these occasions the Jangama reads

Mantrama in the vulgar language. At their marriages, and when Dhana, he receives their Dhana, which is charity given in order to procure

an absolution from sin, the Panchanga, or village astrologer, reads Mantiams in SanftkriL The Janganias cannot read the Mantrams which are necessary for this purpose. The Brdlimans, indeed, prjp- tend that they are the only persons who have the power of taking away the sins of men ; and they say, that, however willing, they cannot do it gratuitously ; for the quantity of sin removed is exactly in proportion to the Dhana, or sum of money given. The perforai- ance of this ceremony is therefore one of the most essential duties of a Pnrohita, The Jangama Gurus attend the Siv' Aeharyas at the annual ceremony performed in honour of their deceased parents ; and, besides getting provisions at their visits, and certain dues for performing all ceremonies, they get annually a Fammi or two from every person who is under their authority. None of this tribe ac- knowledged the Brdhmana as their Gurus ; and aU of them wear tlie Linga, and consider Siva as the proper deity of their caste. They offer fruits and flowers to the Suktis, but never appease their wrath by bloody sacrifices. They suppose, that after death bad men are punished in a hell called Nuraca ; and that good men go to the feet of Iswara on mount Coilasa, and there become like gods. They call a man good, who prays constantly, who confers on religious mendi- cants great Dhai^ma, or alms, who gives much Dhana, and who makes tanks or reservoirs, inns, aiid gardens. This tribe bury the dead, and abstain entirely from animal food, and all intoxicating substances. The men pi-actise polygamy. A man and woman of the same family in the male line cannot intermarry. In order, therefore, to prevent insest, they always marry in certain families that are known to be distinct from their own. The ffirls are mar- riageable both before and after the age of puberty. A widow can- not marry, but she may become a concubine of the kind called Cutiga ; her children, however, in this case are considered as belong- ing to a bastard race, although they are still much better than out- casts. An adultere&s is not always divorced ; the Gutni c<Hnmonly makes up the dispute ; and the cuckold, having paid a fine, takes his wife quietly back again. Sometimes, however, the man will continue obstinate ; in which case the adulterer pays the fine to the Guf-u, and keeps the woman that he has seduced as a Cutiga. A woman that cohabits with a pei^son of any oUier tribe, even with a Brdhman or Javgama, inevitably becomes an outcasts Quarry of Silo, Near Maru-HuUy also there is a quarry otSUa^ or image-stone.

The mass of rock is larger than that of Arsina-Caray, and has lately been wrought for the buildings that are now erecting at Mysore, Although it has been laid bare to a considerable extent, nothing stratified can be observed. The stone seems to be of a middle nature between that of Hyder^s monument and the Sila of Arsim-

CHAP. VI IL] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 393

Caray, and to contain less homBlende than the former, but more igoQ than the latter. Large blocks may be procured, and perhaps of the whole it is the finest stone.

23d September. — In the morning I set out for Nunjinagodu, sept. as distant three cosses ; and I intended, by the way, to visit a place ^iS^ u^\ from whence pot-stone is dug. After having gone half way, 1 dis- d«*4 otconees covered that the guide had deserted me ; and, in order to procure another, I was forced to go back again to Maru-Hully. I found tiie quarry not a mile from that place ; and was informed, that the stone-cutter who works it lives there, although I had in vain soli- cited the officer of government to procure me a workman of that kind to break some specimens of the image-stone. It must be • observed, that I find more difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the quarries and forests, than of any other subject of my inquiries. On the revenue of the country the natives are more communicative than I desire ; and even in their accounts of the produce of their fields, the cultivators of the land adhere more to the truth than all ranks do, in answering queries relative to quarries and forests. It is evidently suspected, that my object in asking such questions is to find out materials for public works ; and the natives are terrified at the thought of being again harassed with the Corv^ea to which in the reign of the Saltan they were cruelly subjected.

The poi-stane o{ Mam-Hully is used for making pot^, dishes, QQany of pot- and pencils. It differs from the image-stone only in containing **°°®' more earth of magnesia ; for it has hornblende as one of its compo- nent parts. It is readily scratehed by the nail ; but retains an exces- sive toughness ; so that before it will break into fragments under the hammer, it is reduced to powder. Like those of the kindred stones that have been already described, its masses are irregularly angular. The surrounding strata are vertical, and nm north and south.

The road, by which I travelled to-day, leads partly through Face of the among the small hilk that bound the vale of the Kapini on the north, ^'^^' and partly through the valley itself. Among the hiUs, almost all the fields of a good soil are cultivated; but many of the poorer ones are waste : some of the land that would appear never to have been cultivated seems to have a tolerable soil ; but by far the greater part can never be made to produce any thing, except a wretched pasture. In the valley, much good land is waste, much very poor land is interspersed, and the cultivation is extremely slovenly. The river winds much, and its course here is rapid. On its north side are several large temples in a ruinous condition. Near one of them is a village, which, from the comparative goodness of its houses, may be at once known to be chiefly inhabited by Brdhmans.

At some distance from this 1 crossed ihe Kapini by a bridge. Bridge, which is here looked upon as a prodigy of grandeur ; in Europe it would be considered as a disgrace to uie architect of the meanest town. The arches are about five feet span ; the piers are of nearly

50

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII.

tiJ'T

Sept. 25.

an equal thickness, and do not present an angle to the stream. Jh w. The sides of the arches have scarcely any curvature, but are com- posed of two planes meeting at an acute angle. 1 he parapet is rude and the whole is composed of an irregular mixture of brick an.l stones The mvement consists of rough and irregular flags, which form a very bad road. The bridge is, however, both long and wide, and is a great convenience for foot passengers, or merchants

conveying their goods on oxen.

25th Sep<mfeer.— Yesterday I had a febrile paroxysm, and at night found myself unwell. In order therefore to take medicmc, 1 remained here another day. , <...•_ „i„„„

A-™,i^a<.d». Nunjimigodv, signifies swallowmg powon; for it la a place

ona it. umpic ,1 to lewara, who, on account of one of his exploits, is trequcnt-

a„az,ra*«««. g^^^^^JJ ^TJ^ig' ^^^^ Originally there was a small temple ten cubite square, and of the greatest antiquity. About six or seven hundred years ago, the country was entirely covered untti forests. The iWia then in power brought inhabitants, and enlarged the temple to 200 cubits square. From that time frequent donations were made to the Brdhmans ; some Rajas giving them in chanty a thousand Paqodaa worth of land, and others giving lands to twice that annua value. Diva Bdya, the Dalawai of Mysore, buUt the bridge; and his brother, who succeeded him, and who was displaced by Uyder, was the greatest benefactor to this place of worship. This pnnce. named Caramr Nandi Rdya, adopted the mark of Siw, although his predecessors had been followers of the Sr% Vaish-mvam Brah- mans. He made Nunjinagodu his favourite place of abode, and enlarged the temple to its present size, which is a square of 400 cubite In the time of this prince the Brd^mana of Nunjinagodu occupied 300 houses; and they possessed lajj^s wWch gaye an annual revenue of 14,000 Pagodas or about 4700i. J« ^^^^^ f. the S4dras amounted to 700. The town was fortified by Nandt Rdva who dispersed the &&draa into the neighbouring villages, au<l periiitted none to remain in the holy place but the BmAniarw. and the servante who belonged to the templo. Ttppoo Sultan gnulually deprived the Brdhmans of the whole of their lands, aad gave them a monthly pension of 100 Pagodas. On the re-establishment of the Raja's government, they were put on the same footing witu the Brdhmans oi MaiUotay; and they receive the income of a whole district, which has last year produced 4000 Pagodas, or about 1343i This district is managed by an Amildar, who is aooount- ablo to government for his conduct. In the reign of ^twoo, the temple suffered much; but at the expense of Bucftarow, the JUi?. Dm it is now undergoing a repair. The fort is rumous. Tl.e town at present contains 120 houses of BrMmans, ajid 200 of r , ;».. Sa^dras. It is situated in the fork formed bv the junction of the Kaun - Kaun„n. »T.-. ^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^ .„ . ^^ ^^^^ ^ver. The Kaundtm has ite soum-

from under the feet of an image of Vishnu, on a hill named mmad-f GopaUt, in the district of aimdal, of the Raja's dommions.

CHAP. Vlll.] MYSOEE, CANARA, AND MALACAU. 395

The temples on the north side of the river Kapini are of very jqqq great antiquity. They are ruinous, but the images are still attended by Brdhmans.

26th September. — Having yesterday had a severe paroxysm, and scpt 20. being desirous of getting near assistanoe should my disorder have oPs^^^^'^' increased, I altered my intention of proceeding to SatteagoLa by ^*'«"*- Coulaiiday Areolar, Hardena-kully, Moma, and EUandurvb, and re- turned to Mysore^ which is four cosses distant from Nunjlnagodu. At Mysore I met with some friends, who informed me that Seringa- patam was then dreadfully unhealthy ; and Mysore being in a fine dry situation, I determined to remain there till my fever could be stopped.

The country through which I passed has formerly been mostly Faoo of the cultivated ; but at present a very large proportion of the fields is *^*^"°*'y- waste. Wore it in a good condition, it would l>e very beautiful. Severnl of the tanks are out of repair : near Mysore, are two remark- ably fine.

Except at Mysore and Serinffapalam, I have in every part of the nifflcaity in pro- country experienced a diflBculty in procuring forage. 1 have reason ««^"« '^'•k*^- to think that this proceeds from the universal and long continued usage, of every person who belongs to the government taking without payment whatever forage he wants. At Seringapatam, and even here, the women of our Madras servants have been of great use. The officers of government are afraid to meddle with them, and they are very diligent, and bring in large supplies of grass.

27th, 28th, and 29th September, — While confined here, I sent for scpt j7-29. the stone-cutters ; who, with the utmost obstinacy, would give roe ^i***"***- no information whatever on the subject of the quarries. In the buildings here, the three most common stones are a gray granite with large spots of black mica ; a reddish granite ; and a fine grained yellowish gneiss, like that of Mail-cotay. They are all pro- bably from the hill that overlooks the town, and many of the blocks are of large dimensions. While I was at Seringapatam I had seen s[)ecimens of them all.

30th September, — Ilaving escaped two periods without any re- sept so. turn of the fever, I went two Sultany cosses to Wai-acadu. The country uS'SJSS^.**' has formerly been nearly all cultivated, and more than a half is now occupied. The fields are mostly inclosed, and are all high ground, or such as is fit for palm-gardens. There are some small tanks, the water of which is applied to the cultivation of sugnr-cane and beiel^ leaf. The Gauda, or chief of the village, says, that there is a number of people sufiicient to cultivate all the fields ; but the want of stock prevents them from undertaking so much. They suffered greatly from the depredations of the Lumbadies, or traders in grain, that last year followed the besieging army ; and also from the epidemic distemper tirhich, after the fall of Senngapaiam, raged among tho oattle. During tho invasion of Lord Comwallis most of the palm- ^ardens were destroyed.

396

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII,

1800.

S«?pt. 30 Wcuacadu,

Oct. 1.

Appearance of tbu cooBtry.

Waracadu is a Hobly, or division of Mahasura Ashta-^avi dis- trict. It derives its name from IFara, wishes, and Gadw^ to grant ; from a temple in it, dedicated to Warada Maya, or Vishnu, the granter of wishes. This temple was built about 120 years ago bj Doda Deva Ray a. This person was a natural son of Krishna Raya^ the Curtur of Mysore, and held the office of Dalawai, or prime minister, between forty and fifty years. This village was his favourite retreat ; and, besides the temple, he built a fine tank from which the inhabitants are supplied with drink. The village is not fortified, and is said to contain 150 houses ; but I think that estimation grossly exaggerates their number.

1st October. — I went two cosses to Taiuru. Part of the road passes among low hills covered with bushes, and abounding witii antelopes. The soil of these hills is in general poor, and full of small stones ; but they are not occupied by naked rocks, like those on the north side of the Cavei^. In some places the soil seems to be tolerable ; and sufficient marks remain to show, that some of it, which is now overgrown with bushes, has formerly been cultivated. Among the hiUs are some level grounds that are now cultivated ; and in the most extensive of these is a fortified village in a very ruinous condition^ Towards the Kapini the soil b^mes better, and is in a state nearly similar to that of the country through which I passed yesterday. Near the river is a canal, which comes from a dam on the Cavery at Madayena-hully, three cosses below Seringa- patam ; falls into the Kapini at Usocotta, a ooes above Taiuru ; and forms the space between it and the two rivers into rice fields, which are mostly under cultivation* The Kapini i& here a fine broad river, and its basket ferry-boats occasioned a considerable delay in trans- porting my baggage. The cattle were obliged to swim.

Taiuru is a well-built mud fort, situated on the right bank of the Kapini, about two oosses from its junction with the Cavery. It contains 141 houses, with 11 in a suburb. Its Sanskrit name ia Ma-- teni'pura, or mother-town ; and its vulgar name, in the language of Karnatay has the same meaning. No tradition remains concerning its foundation, nor the princes who ruled it before the family of Mysore. It is the residence of an Amildar, whose district is sepa- rated from the Mahdsura Ashta-grdm by the Kapini river. It has no commerce ; nor any manufSBM)tures, except the coarse cloth which the Vfhalliaru weave. In the two last wars, it met with no disturb- ance, nor did the inhabitants suffer frt>m famine during the invasion of Lord Comwallis. Last year more than usual of their cattle died of the distemper ; but once in four or five years it generally prevails, more or less.

In some villages of this district, the Qaudas, or chiefs of viQa^es, lecti^'^ihe und- are hereditary ; in others, the renter is called by that name. The hereditary Qaudas seem to be preferred both by the farmers, and by the officers of government. Being personall}'^ acquainted with all the inhabitants, their orders are more cheerfully obeyed ; and having

Dislwnper nraong the homed cattle.

tax.

eona.

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 397

been long resident in the place, they have better credit to enable them i^qq, occasionally to borrow money for making up their rent at the fixed oct. 1. terms of payment. The rent of the dry -field is paid by three Kists, or instalments, which all become due before the Eugy harvest. In case of failure in tlie payment of these instalments, the crops are seized, and sold by the Parputty^ or accomptant of the division. This ofiicer sells also the government's share of the crops that are divided; and these sales are made at three different periods ; as, by selling the whole at once, the market would be overstocked.

In this country there is a class of men called Gani or Shaycaiia, cmi, or skav who are generally Whaliidru^ and always of some low caste, and who ~"'' subsist by acting as sorcerers and diviners. Some of them derive their knowledge from the stars, and are considered as men of learn- ing, but not as inspired by the deity ; others rattle an iron instru- ment, and sing to invoke the gods^ until their voice almost fails. They then appear as if druuk, and are considered fis inspired. Con- cerning the causes and events of the diseases of men and beasts, both kinds are consulted. The causes which they assign are, the wrath of different gods ; and at the same time they tell, whether or not the god will be pacified, and allow the object of his wrath to recover, and also how this may be obtained. In this part of tho country the spirits of bad men ai-e oModVirikae, and are believed fre- quently to torment the living. The diviners are supposed to be able not only to tell what Virika is afflictin<> a family, but also to expel the evil spirit. When a Virika seizes on the persons of his own family, he is driven out with great difiiculty, and requires a sacrifice, and many prayers ; but a strange Virika is not so troublesome ; a diviner will ti^e a Fanam and a half, and immediately dismiss him. Except the Brdhntana^ Mussulmans, and those who pretend to the rank of Kshairiy every caste labours under this superstition.

The Toreaa are a kind of the caste called Besta that in the south- orn parts of i/^aor^are very numerous^ and are an original tribe of Karnata, They neither eat nor intermarry with the Bestaa called Cabbn, nor with those descended from families that originally spoke the Telinga and Tamid languages. They cultivate the fields, and gardens of Betel-Uafy Areca, and kitchen herbs ; and act as ferry- men, armed messengers, palanquin-bearers, burners of lime, fisher- men, and porters^ They are a low kind of Siidrasy and have no hereditary chiefs ; but government appoints a renter, who collects four or five old men of the triboj and by their advice settles all disputes; and by fines, laid on with their consent, punishes all transgressions against the rules of caste. The renter must always be a Torea, and he agrees to pay annually a certain sum. If the members of the caste behave themselves properly, he must pay this sum out of his own pocket ; but this is seldom the case : the Toreas are apt to be irregular ; and the fines which he levies, after paying the rent, leave in general a considerable profit, although they cannot be con- sidered as heavy. They ai-e as follow : for fighting, half a Fanam,

398 A JOURNEY FUOM MADRAS THEOUGH [CHAP. VIII.

1800. ^^ ^^ ' ^^^ scolding, half a Fanam ; for committing adultery with

Oct. I. another man s wife, two Fana/niB and a quarter ; and for having a

wife that chooses to commit adultery, one Fanam and a half. If the husband prefer giving up his wife to her seduoer, he avoids the fine, which is then paid by the guilty man : but, as the women aro bought by the their husbands, the men are very unwilling to part with them, especially if they be good workers. The men buy zs many wives as they can ; for the women are very industrious, and assist even to support their husbands. A virgin costs thirty FanamSy and a widow from ten to fifteen. Both of these sums are given to the women's parents or relations. A Torea who has connection with a woman of higher rank is flogged, but not fined. If a man of higher rank corrupts tiie wife of a Torea, and the husband should choose to part with her, he may pay a shilling to the renter and keep her. The widows, or adulteresses, that live with a second man are called Gtdigas ; but their children are perfectly legitimate. The Tore^js are permitted to eat animal food, but ought not to drink spirituotis liquors. None of them can read. They bury the dead, and believe in • a future state of reward and punishment; but they assign do place for heaven or hell, nor do they pretend to know how the spirits of good men are employed. The spirits of bad men continuo to do evil. Some of the Torca% take the vow of Ddsiri, The deity T)eculiar to the caste is Marima, a goddess tliat inflicts the small-pox on those who offend her. The P'&jdrU in her temples are Toreuis, and the ofiBce is hereditary ; but this order of priests are not above intermarrying with the laity. Some of the Toreaa worship Vishnu also, and have for their Our us the hereditary chiefs of the Sri Vaish- navam Brdhmam, Others again worship Siva, and, although they do not wear the Linga, consider the Jangamas as the persons to whom they ought to give DItarma ; but, by giving Dhana to the Smartdl Brdhmans, the rich procure absolution ; the poor must of course trust to the mercy of God. At marriages, and at the build- ing of a new house, the Panckanga, or village astrologer, reads Mantrams. Rttfnmgam, or There is a tribe of oil-makers, who in their mill use only one ox,

j^typiiaiuidas. ^^^ ^jj^ ^^^ called IlegaJiigaru. They call themselves Jotypha^uuias ; and, as they are not followers of the Brdhmans, do not acknowleilge themselves to be Sudras. They will neither eat nor intermarry witli the oil-makers who use two oxen. They eat with the other tribes that wear the lAnga^ but do not intermarry with any of them. Thoy .are a tribe of /rar7?ra^/i extraction; and, besides their proper busi- ness of making oil, they cultivate the fields and gardens, and deal in grain and cloth. They have hereditary chiefs called Chittiganis, who with the advice of a council of ten settle all (Usputea, and punish transgressions against the rules of caste. Thoy are not alloweil to eat animal food, nor to drink spirituous liquors. The men t;(ke several wives. The women, oven after the ago of puberty, continue to bo marriageable ; but widows are not permitted to marry, u^r

CHAP. VIII.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAE. 39^

are any concubines of the kind called Cutigas allowed. Whenever, 1800. therefoie, a woman commits adultery, she entirely loses caste. The^*^** * Jotyphanada are divided into four or five families, and a man cannot marry a woman of his own family. These oil-makers cah keep acoompts^ but they never read booKs. They bury the dead, and believe in a future state. Heaven is at the feet of Iswara ; but it is not known how the spirits of good men will there emnloy them- selves ; nor can these people give any description of Nuraca, the residence of the spirits of wicked men. They do not believe in VirikoB^nor do they consult the diviners abovementioned. They all wear the Lingay and of course Siva is the principal object of their worship ; yet some of them occasionally pray to Vishnu, The men are ashamed openly to worship MaHma; but in sickness, their women and children privately carry offerings of money and fruit to the priest of that idol. Their Onru is Cari-Baswa-Uppa, iheNida^ rrmvudy Swamahi, who sends his disciples to receive their conti-ibu- tions, to eat their victuals, and to give them holy water. These priests also attempt to take Dhana, and thereby excite the indigna- tion of the Brdhviansy who consider themselves as the only persons • sufficiently in favour with God to be able to procure an absolution from sin. The oil-makers seem to be sometimes of the same . way of thinking, and give Dhana to the village astrologer, or to some Fai- dika Bi oilman ; and in proportion to the sum which they bestow, they expect a remission of sin. These BrdhmuTis, however, will not acknowledge that they perform the proper ceremonies for the heretics. They take the money, and mutter a few words in Sanskrit, which content the donor. The oil-makers receive the Livga from the Jaii- gama of their village.

2d October. — I went five Sultany oosses to Malingy. From oet «. Taiuru to Narasingha-pura is three oosses. Near both places the th^^SS^,^ country is very beautiful, and well cultivated. Every field is enclos- ed with quick-set hedges, the whole being high ground without rice-land. In the middle between these two places, the soil is poor; but formerly it has been all ciUtivated, and would produce good crops otHuTuliBndShamay. The present stock is only adequate to culti- vate the richer grounds near the villages, and the greater part of the country is waste.

NaraBingha-pura contains about two hundred houses ; and, ^aratinth^pura many of its inhabitants being BrdfiTnans, it is better built than usual ; it has two considerable temples, and stands on the bank of the Cavery, immediately below the junction of the Kapini^ which is six Sultany cosses from Seringapatam.

About a mile below Karasingha-pura is a small village, named oS^JJ^t^.*^' Nilasogy ; and about two miles from Malingy a small rivulet enters the Cavery, after having passed the town of Moguru^ from whence it derives its name. Between Nilasogy and the Moguru nvidet the road passes through one of the finest plains that I have ever seen. It consists of a rich black mould fit for the cultivation of cotton, wheat.

400 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. Till.

1800. Car lay, and Tfomum ; but at present it is almost entirely waste,

Oct. 2. The people say, that they have never recovered from the devastation

which was committed in the old Marattah invasions, especially in one that happened about forty years ago. In the last war also they suf- fered considerably from the allied armies. East from the Moguru rivulet the country is rather higher, and the soil is somewhat sandy, but still very good. Some part of the black mould contains oaloarious nodules, and by the natives is then called CariUu. cuuirationof Tho principal crop in this fine couutry is cotton, which here is

rich black Koii. jjgygj raised in soil that contains calcarious nodules. The bla<^ soil that is free from lime is divided into three qualities. The first gives annually two crops, one of Jola (Bolcus sorghum}, and one of cotton ; the two inferior qualities produce cotton only. As^ however, next to cotton, Jola is the most considerable crop, and is never sown but on black soil of the first quality, it must be evident, that the two poorer soils form but a small part of the whole. An old measure- Jq this part of the oountry a land measure was formerly in use ; ^^ ' and in the revenue accompts the fields are stated to contain a certain

9 extent. According to this measurement 4| cubits make an All- iycolu, or measuring-rod; and 60 rods square are a Nurmunu, Nurguny, or Nurcuniba. Wherever a foolish prinoe, under .pretence of his arm being long, has not established a royal cubit longer than the natural, eighteen inches may be received as a general standard. Taking the cubit at this length, the Nurcumba will be ^iW Acres. On measuring a field said to contain one Nurcumba, I foimd it to be 4,Vinr acres, which comes so near as to establish the accuracy of the old measurement.

In this part of the country accompts are kept in an imaginary money, called Oytty Varaha, which contains twelve Canter' Rdya Fanams. The weight used by the farmers, in selling cotton, is as follows :

5 Dudus = 1 Polam=lh. 0-1264 decimal parts. 60 Polam8= 1 Cuttu = 7-5835. 50.Poia7n«=l Tucu = 6-3195. The Colaga of gi*ain here contains only 4j^ Seers, and the Can- daca is nearly Sj^^ bushels.

So much having been premised, I preceed to state the account given by the fanners of the cultivation in this neighbourhood. Jola or Hoieu* The bcst black soil produces annually two crops, the first of Jola,

sorghum. ^j^^ socoud of cottou. In the month following the vernal equinox, after having manured the field with dung, plough twice. After the first good rain that happens in the two following months, sow the Jola seed three Colagas on a Nurcumba, or 0*111 decimal parts of a bushel on an acre. The seed is sometimes sown broad-cast, and ploughed in ; or sometimes dropped in the furrow after the plough. On^e 12th, 20th, and 28th days, superfluous plants must be de- stroyed by the hoe drawn by oxen ; but if the rains are slight these hoeings mnst be somewhat later. In the intervals the weeds must

CHAP. VIII. j MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 401

l>o pulled out by the hand. In three months the Jola is ripe^ and in isoo. a good crop produces 1800 Seers from a Nurcumba^ or nearly twelve ^** ^* bushels from an acre. •

In the month which immediately precedes, or in that which fol- cotton. lows the autumnal equinox:, whenever the Jola has been cut down, plough the field, and hoe it twice with the Cuntay. The field is then dunged, and after the first rain is again ploughed. The cot- ton seed is then put in drills, distant from each other one cubit. A furrow is drawn with a plough ; at every three or four inches distance a seed is dropt into it, and is covered by another furrow. Then, to smooth the fields a harrow of thorny bushes is dragged over it. The hoe called Cuntay is drawn by oxen between the dnlls once every eight days until the cotton is ripe, which happens in the course of the two months immediately following the vernal equinox. At the end of the first month the earth is thrown up by the plough, in lidges, toward the drills of cotton. The moment the cotton haa been gathered, the field is again ploughed for Jola. A Ntircumba of land requires between seven and eight Seers of seed, and in a good crop produces 150 Cuttus of cotton, worth, when cheap, 10 Varahcis, • or 120 Fanams ; and, when dear, 15 Varahas^ or 180 Fanama. At this rate, a good crop will be about 2711b. an acre ; which, of course, welling low, will be worth 1/. \bs. 8^d A poor crop is 60 Cuttus from a Nurcumba ; which, selling dear, is worth 72 Faitams^ being at the rate of 108j^ lb. from an acre, worth 10^. 8^d.

On the two inferior soils, that do not produce a crop of Jda^ the cotton yields from 48 to 72 Fananis a Nurcumha^ or from 7«. \\d. to 10«. %\d, an acre. In the two months following the vernal equi- nox this soil is hoed with the Col Kudali, It is then dunged and ploughed, and afterwards hoed with the Cuntay. At the seed season the cotton is sown, and afterwards managed exactly as in the first quality of soil. The quality of the cotton raised on the two poorer kinds of soil is preferable to that which is raised on the best. The whole is sold at weekly markets in GaniganurUy Singanaluru, Cola- pura, Talacadu, Hamigay^Molura, Agarui Nara^ngJux-pura, Taiuru, Coleagalat and other places on this side of the Caveiy. It is all wrought up into coarse cloths, for country use, by the castes called Whalliaru, Divangas, and Tricoluro JDasas, who reside in the neigh- bourhood. None is sent to Bangalore^ Saiiem, or the other manu- facturing towns ; but were the whole country cultivated, a great supply of cotton might be procured.

Next to Jola, iNavony is the most considerable crop. It thrives iva«my. or Pa- best on the richest black soil ; but it is raised also on that which ***"""• **^''''""- contains lime, and on other inferior land. In the two months which follow the vernal equinox the field is dunged, and is then ploughed from two to four times. In the two following months, the seed is sown broad-cast, and covered with the plough. On the 15th day the hoe drawn by oxen is used. On the 30th the weeds are re- moved with the Cdl^y Cudugulu (Plate 11, Figure 2). In four

51

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 408

The seed is then sown, in drills one cuhit distant, by dropping it in oc\?aP' the furrow after a plough. On the 15th, 28th, and 35th days the hoe is again used ; and two or three days afterwards the weeds are removed by the Ccday Cudugulu. This wheat ripens in three months and a half, and is immediately followed by a crop of cotton. A Nur- cwmha requires seven Colagas of seed, and in a good crop produces 540 Seers. An acre, therefore^ sows a little more than one peck, and yields almort four bushels and a half. The wheat is liable to be spoiled by a disease called Uraina Mari ; owing to which, in the course of one day, it becomes yellow, and dies.

When the rains are late in coming, the Haivu crop of wheat is BatML wheat, taken after Carlay, Cotton cannot be taken in the same year. The maimer of cultivation is the same as for the Caru crop, only the season is different. The ploughings are performed in the month which precedes the autumnal equinox, or in the beginning of that which follows. At the end of this month the seed is sown. The produce is about one half only of that of the Caru crop.

The Wbmum, ovAnethuin 8owa, of Dr. Roxburgh (MSS.) is sown ^-^^^^ indifferently on all soils, nor does it injure any succeeding crop ; on the contrary, it is thought rather to improve the soil. The field is prepared as for the Hainu crop of wheat. In the beginning of the second month after the autumnal equinox, the see<l is sown broad-cast and covered by a ploughing. On the 1 5th day it is hoed with the Gun- tay ; and on the 30th the weeds are removed by the Calay Cudugulu. In four months it ripens. A Nurcumha requires for seed 22 J Seers \ and 10 Canddcas, or 900 Seers, are reckoned a good crop. The seed for an acre is therefore almost I J gallon, and the produce almost 7^ bushels.

On this side of the river, Cabbay Bavii, or the red soil proper Ragy^ or cynn. for Ragy, is in very small quantities ; so that this grain is sometimes «'•««' corocunws. sown on the Eray Buini, or black soil ; in which case the crop is poor. A Nurcumha requires 22J Seera of seed, which is at the rate of 1 J gallon an acre. A Nurcumha of black soil in a good crop pro- duces 1080 SeerSy while the same extent of red soil yields 1800 Seera. The former is at the rate of almost ten bushels, the latter at almost iifteen bushels, an acre. Here the Hainu Bcigy only is sown.

On red or the poorer soils Hziruli is also sown. The seed is 31 J ffuruH, Dou^hos Seers a Nurcumha, or a trifle more than a peck for the acre. The J'^"**^'^^^"' produce in a good crop from a Nurcumha is 900 Seers, or from an acre seven bushels and a half.

It must be observed, that the faiuners here allow a much smaller produce nnder- produce from the same extent of ground, than has as yet been done '•^•^* by those of any other place. It is true, that even on their dry-field they have in general two crops in the year ; and it may therefore be supposed, that by this means the soil is exhausted, and produces little. This may in part account for the poverty of their crops ; but I am inclined to believe, that the farmers wanted to deceive me, and alleged their lands to be less productive than they really are.

404

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VUI.

1800.

Oct. 2. Vcflteni Ghaii,

town cfjrer*:d

by cJLDd-LiilA.

Coxtry rlTor.

Tlie mountainous tract which forms the western Ghats is visible from Midijigy, and rises very high above the country to the west- ward.

There are two Malingya : this, called Tady ; and another, which is called Jlossa, and is situated in the company's territory'. Tady Malingy is a small open vilLige ; but before the Marattcdt in- vasion it had a fort, and was a considerable place. The last war has occasioned several rains. Concerning its governors before it became subject to the Rajas of ilysore, no tnidition is current. It forms apart of the Talacwfu district, the chief town of which is situated on the north bank of the river, and contains about two hundred houses, and a celebrated temple dedicated to Iswara. Between it and the present channel of the river were fonnerly situated a large fort, and a gi"eat number of temples, which for many yeara have been overwhelmed by sand-hills. The bank at Malingy is steep, and the principal stream of the river comes near it ; yet these sand-hills appear to be higher ; and, to the traveller, coming all the way from Narasingfta'pura, they make a very conspicuous figure. ITiey are said to be yearly increasing in height ; and no part of the former city is now to be seen, except the tops of some of the temples, and cavaliers. This is a curious phenomenon ; but circumstances would not permit me to investigate the particulars on the spot. The na- tives attribute it to the prayei*s of a woman, who was drowned while she was crossing the river to visit the place, and who, while dyin^^, wished that it might be overwhelmed by sand. One temple only has escaped ; the legend concerning which is extremely absurd. A men- dicant came one day to Talacudu, intent on making an offering to Mahdd/va, or Isivara, The temples dedicated to that idol were, however, so numerous, that he was much at a loss how to procure an offering for each, so as to avoid giving offence to any idol that might be omitted. With his whole means, which were very slemler, the holy man purchased a bag of pease, and offered one at e;uh temple ; but all his pease were expended, and one idol still remained, to which no offering had been made. Of course it was highly offended at the preference given to the others by a pereon of ]u> holiness ; and, to avoid theii* insolent boasting, it transported itself across the river, where it now stands at Malingy, while its fonut^* companions are buried in sand. Near it is a Silu Sdsana, or in- scription engraved on stone ; but unfortunately it is not legible, as it might probably have thrown some light on the history of Talf-

cadu.

The Cavery here is at present a fine large and deep river, flow- ing with a gentle stream about a quarter of a mile in width. In the hot season it is fordable ; but after heavy rains it rises alx)ve its present level ten or twelve feet perpendicular, and then its channel is completely filled. Once in nine or ten yeai-s it rises higher, ami occasionally sweeps away a hut ; but its floods are never very de- structive.

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 405

The only ferry-boats on this large river are what are called Do- isoo. niea, or baskets of a circular form, eight or ten feet in diameter, and luVrrics. covered with leather. They titinsport with tolerable safety men and goods ; but cattle must swim, which is both a fatiguing and a dangerous enterprize. Bamboo floats provided with a hawser, so as to form flying bridges, would make an excellent and cheap con- veyance. From the north side of the Cavei^y a fine canal is taken by means of a dam, and wrtters much land near Talacadu.

8d October. — I went to Satteagala, distant from Malingy four S^^tft^, ^auea- Sultany cosses ; but, owing to the deepness of the roads, I was i/«^''. obliged to take a circuitous route, a circumstance that never happened to me in any other place above the Gliata, A small village, named Caleuru, is the last in the present dominions of Mysore. MuLur, the first place in the Company's territory, is one coss and a half from Malingy, and is a pretty large open village.

From Mulur I went one coss to Coleagala, an open town which ^0'«»^«'«» contains above 600 houses. It is the residence of a Tahsildar, or chief of a Taluc, or district ; for the officers in the Company's terri- tory differ from those in Mysore. It has two large temples, and is a considerable mart for the traders between Seringapatam and the country below the Ghits, and near the Gavery. Coleagala signifies the plundered town ; which appellation was bestowed on it after it had been pillaged while under the dominion of Gaiiga Raja, to whom it formerly belonged.

From Coleagala to Satieagala the distance is two cosses and a|^®°y ***® half. The country through which 1 passed to-day is in general very fine, and much better cultivated than that between Narasingha-'pura and Malingy. In fact, near Mulur and Coleagala the cultivation is equal to any that I have seen in India, and consists chiefly of rice- fields watei-ed by means of several large reservoirs. In the Colea- gala district there were between forty and fifty reservoirs, which about eighty years ago were put in good order by the Dalawai of Mysore, Doda JJ^va Mdya Wodear. From that time until the country came into the Company's possession, after the fall of SeHngapatam, they have been neglected. Six of them have now been completely repaired ; and orders have been issued for perfecting the remainder, as soon as the dryness of the season will permit. 1 passed through the grounds of only one of these decayed reservoirs, and found them entirely waste. I saw also many dry-fields wjiste, especially near Saiteagala^ where the soil is poor; but in most places it is capable of producing Hurtdi, In this part of the country there are very few fences. According to tradition, the god Rama, when on his works of /lawa. wa}* to Lanka, formed the great reservoir at Satieagala^ and a fine dam named Danaghiry, that waters much land below the town.

Satieagala formerly belonged to Rajas who were of the same satieagaia. family with those of Mysore. On the death of Put' arsu, the last of them, without issue, he was succeeded quietly by his relation Canienia, the Curtur of Mysore. The fort is of considerable size, and

406

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VIII.

Extent of the district of black soil.

Basrca^ the vil lage Kud.

C'ttudcu.

1800. in good repair ; but at present contains very few houses : the whole

Oct 3. number, both in the fort and suburbs, amounts only to about 250.

In a Marattah invasion before the time of Hyder, it was entirely ruined, and most of the children and cattle were swept away. Before the invasion of Lord Cornwallis, about 1000 houses had been again assembled. That time a party of Marattah plunderers ravaged all this neighbourhood ; and they were followed by a dread- ful famine, in which 400 of the families in Satteagala perished of hunger. In the last war the town was first plundered by the Lum- hadies, or denlei-s in grain, belonging to the British army, and then burned by orders from the Sidian, The inhabitants are now hardly able to defend themselves from the beasts of prey, with which, from its depopulated condition, the country abounds.

The black soil fit for the cultivation of cotton extends over the lands of the following towns and villages : Nanjinagodu, Moguru, Narasingha'pura, ElLandui u, Sosila, Matingy, Muliuru, Cttntum, AlahuUyy Honia, and Mangala, and is mostly in the RAjds dominions. In the Coleagala district the soil is mostly red, and is fit for the cultivation of rice and JRagy ; of which nearly equal quantities are raised.

In this part of the country the village god is Baswa, or the bull of Siva, whose Pujdri^ or priest, is quite distinct from the Gaiula^ or chief of the village. By Major Maoleod, the collector, the Oaudas are not allowed to rent their villages ; but they receive a fixed salary, and collect the revenue from the farmers. Here this office was never hereditary ; but that of the ShanabogaSy or accomp- tants, always was.

In the Coleagala district are some sandal-wood trees, which are now cutting by the collector, who employs a Mussulman agent. Fifteen years ago the Sultan cut the whole of the large trees, like the sandal of Magadi, it thrives in the high forests of Mod-hull g and Mahd-dev^swara, as well as in the skirts of the cultivated country ; but it is not of so good a quality as that on the western frontier.

The greater part of the mountains in this district produce only stunted trees, or bushes. Mod-huUy and Mahd-d^oesicara are th(» only ones that are clothed with timber trees ; but in size these are greatly inferior to those of the western Gho,t8. Some teak and Bi- riday of a good size may be procured. Oct. 4. ^fth October. — I went to visit the island ofSiuafia Samudrdy or the

5«ml5ra ^*'^*'" ^* ^^ '^'^^^ ^^^ ^^ noWo cataracts. From Satteagala^ the upper end of the island is one Sultany coss ; and its whole length is said to be three cosses, or probably nine miles ; but in width it is no where above a mile. The island, at its upper end, is not much raised above the level of the river ; but, as its lower end does not sink, while the river falls very rapidly, toward its eastern end it appears to be very high. Owing to the rapidity of the river, and to deep

Sa^dnI'WOod.

Forests.

CHAI'. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 407

cavities between the rocks and stones of its channels, even in the hot isoo. season, there is only one ford that leads to the island^ and that is ^*' ^* a very bad one in the southern branch. The island is therefore by nature very stix)ng.

The northern branch of the river is the most considerable, and ^^^l^^^^^ soon divides into two channels, which form a smaller island, named ^''"" Nellaganatitu, The channel of this branch next the northern con- tinent is the smallest, and nearly level until it comes opposite to Gangana Chukiy a place on the large island about three miles from its upper end. There it precipitates its water over a perpendicular rock, I suppose nearly two Inindred feet high. Ihe stream is very considerable ; but is divided by a small island into two great branches, and by large rocks into four or five portions, which be- fore they reach the bottom are quite broken into foam. The water which runs between the two islands is the most considerable portion of the northern branch of the river. It runs with vast rapidity over and among immense rooks, until it comes.to Qangana Chuki, wherd it mshes down into the abyss, which a little way below receives also the other portion. There it is hidden from human view in a cloud of vapour, which is foniied by its violence, and which is at times visible even from Satteagala. From this circumstance I could not ascertain how far this fall is entirely perpendicular. If it be quite so, the whole height will be about a hundred feet ; but at times 1 thought I could see obscurely through the cloud a projection of the rock, which divided the fall into two stages. I have never seen any cataract that for grandeur could be compared with this ; but I shall not attempt to describe its broken woody banks, its cloud of vapour, its rainbow, its thundering noise, nor the immense slippery rocks from whence the dizzy traveller views the awful whirlings of its tumultuous abyss. All these^ except in magnitude and sublimity, exactly resemble those of the other water-falls that I have seen. The pencil of an artist might be well employed in imitating its mag- nificent scenery, and would convey a better idea of its grandeur than my power of description can venture to attempt.

The island of Sivana Samudra is in general rocky, with vertical i!«i«nd of Tirana strata running norti) and south. The principal stone is a gneiss, of ^""*"*'''*' which the great buildings of Ganga Raja are constnicted, and which may be cut into blocks of large dimensions. Near the upper end of the island, bridges have been constructed across both branches of the river. They were formed, like that at SeringapataTa^ of long stones placed upright as pillars to support others laid horizontally, so as to form the road. Both bridges have long ago been broken^ but many of the pillars still remain erect. Two dams and canals fipom the southern oranch of the river supply the island with water, and, if in good repair, ought to supply with water as much ground as would sow 3510 Seers of rice. In order to magnify the wonders of the island, this quantity of seed in the accompts is called 90 Can^ d(tca8j a nominal Candaca of 39 Seers having been purposely intro-

408

1800

Oct. 4

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP.* VII I

Munit, or ilemons.

MnsRulman hennitAge,

Oct. 5. Cataract of Mrra C'huki,

duceJ^ Owing to the disrepair of the dams, two-thirds of this land is at present waste. On the island there is a good deal of land lit for the cultivation of dry grains ; and it would be a fine situation for a village, were it not possessed by a Muni ; on which account, and owing to the terrible disastera attributed to this demon's wrath, no Hindu will settle in the place. The people of Satteagala, at the time of cultivation, carry over their cattle, and sleep with them iu one of the old temples, which is a defence against the tigers that are said to be very numerous. When they have committed the seed to the ground, tliey return home, and wait there until the tinio of harvest ; when they again go to the island, and bring away their crops.

The Munis of Karndta, who are demons of the first magnitude, must be carefully distinguislied from a kind of Bruhmans of the same name, who* have been saints of the greatest holiness, and whoso memories persons of all ranks venerate. The Br dhmaTis never openly worship the Munis ; although it is alleged, that in private many of them make offerings, in the same manner as they do to the SakiiSf or destro} ing female spirits. Among the followei-s of the BrdhmaTis be- low the Ghats, the worship of the Munis, who are male destructive spirits is very prevalent

The only persons who defy this devil, and the tigers, are two Mussulman hennits, that dwell at Gangana Chuki. Tlie hermitage is a hut open all round, placed opposite to the tomb oiPirca WvlUiy, an ancient saint, and surrounded by some neat smooth areas, and n number of flowering and aromatic trees introduced from the neigh> bouring forests. One of these hermits was absent on business ; the other had no defence from the tigers, but his confidence in the holiness of the place, and in his own sanctity, of which he seemed to have a very favourable opinion. He told me with great complacency, that he had offended Major Macleod by not answering that gentleman's questions ; having been at the time more inclined to read the Kk6i an than to converse with an infidel. He appears to be an ignorant bigot ; but the man who is absent is said to possess more conciliating manners In the reign of the Sultan^ these hermits received very frequent visits and many presents from the Mussulman officers, and their families. They are now almost deserted, and snb- sist on a Candaca sowing of free-gift land that they possessed ou the island, and of which they have not been deprived.

5th October. — Having remained all night near the abode of the hermit, in the morning I crossed over to view the cataract of the southern branch of the Cavery, which is also about three miles from the upper end of the island. The river there is very wide, and in its channel contains a number of rocks and small islands, the largest of which is called Birra Clivki, The precipice at the southern cataract may be about a hundred feet high, and forms part of the arch of a large circle, down which the river is thrown in ten or twelve streams. In the center is a deep recess in form of a horse-shoe, down which

CHAiP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 409

the principal stream falls ; and, having been collected into a narrow laoo. channel, rushes forward with prodigious violence, and again falls ^^^' ^ down about thirty feet into a capacious basin at the foot oi the pre- cipice. In the dry season two channels only contain water. The month immediately following the summer solstice is the most fiivour- able for viewing these water-falls, as the river is then at its greatest height. The one on the southern branch contains many beauties ; and as a stair has been made, so as to give easy access to the side of the basin, and to afford a fine view of the whole, I think it is by far the most agreeable object of contemplation. The access to 0(mgana Ghuki is very bad ; and a descent to the river there is both fatiguing and dangerous. Its cataract is, no doubt, more sublime than the other ; but in viewing it the mind is impressed more with awe at its tremendous force, than with pleasure at its magnificence.

From the falls oiBirra GhiOci I went about a mile to the eastern city of oanga gate, that of the old city of Ganga Bdja. On the walls here some red ^^''' stains are shown with great gravity, as the blood of the inhabitants who were killed when the place was taken. From this gate a straight wide street may be traced, for about a mile and a half, to another gate that leads to the ruinous bridge over the southern branch of the river. On one side of this bridge is a large temple, and on the other the ruins of the palace, where I was ^own the baths in which the R&ja sported with nis women.

On my return to Sattea^ala, an old Brdhman, the historian of History of Gan- the place, whs brought to me. He had no written documents ; but ^ ^'''^**' related the following account, on the authority of tradition. About 600 years ago Ganga Bdja, of the Anagwiidiisijxnly, was sent hither by his kinsman, the king of Vijai/a-nagara, to govern the neighbour- ing country. On examining all the places in the vicinity, he found none so fit for erecting a city in which he might reside, as the island of Sivana Samudra, where there then were two or tluree small vil- lages. The inhabitants of these informed the prince, that they lived there by the permission of the Muni ; and unless that could be obtained, certain destruction would await the new-built city In order to obtain the favour of the Muni^ the Raja made daily large offerings of fruits and rice, and prayed incessantly ; till at length the demon appeared to him in a dream, and informed him, that he might lay the foundation of the new city whenever a signal was made by the blowing of a Conch The Rdjay having prepared every thing, was waiting for the signal, when an unlucky Ddsiri passed by, blowing on his conch, as is usual with that kind of mendicants. This having been mistaken for the signal, the foundation of the city was immediately laid. Half an hour afterwards tibe Muni gave the true simial ; at which the Raja, being alarmed, had again recourse to offerings and prayers. Mbved by these, the Mwni ap- peared to the Raja, and informed him, that, as he had begun to build the city at an improper time, it could not be permitted to stand long. Out of his personal regard for the prince, however, the

52

410 A JOUKNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII

1800. Muni would cause the city to flourish for three generations, Gunga

^^* *• Raja accordingly reigned there in great magnificence, and died in

peace* Kandi Raja. Naudl Raja, the son of Gaiiga, met with many mira<;ulous

adventures, and at length was defiled by eating, unknowingly, with a certain servant of the Whalia caste, who had the power of renderinfr himself invisible, and who, while in this state, partook of his mas- ter's food. On this occasion, the prince consulted the Brdhmanf, who advised him to put himself to death. He accordingly deli- vered the kingdom to his son, and, having persuaded his wife t<> accompany him, they blindfolded a horse, and having mounted him, precipitated themselves into the catai-act at Gangana Chuhi.

Qan Ru'aw G GTig a Rdj a the second enlarged the city greatly, and lived

with much splendour. He had two daughtera, whom he gave in marriage to tne two chief Polygara in the neighbourhood. The ono was married to the Raja of Kilimaly, a place now in ruins, and about four cosses from SatteagaZa, The other daughter was married to Buc' Rdia, Raja of Nagara-Caray, one coss east from MadvA^i, These marriages were very unhappy ; for the pride of the ladies gave their husband constant disgust. They were continually upbraided for not living in equal splendour with their father-in-law ; and at length, having consulted together, they determined to humble their wives, by showing that their power was superior to that of Ganga Roja. Having assembled all their forces, they besieged Sivana Samudra ; but for a time had very little success. The siege had continued twelve years, without their having been able to pene- trate into the island, when the two Rajas found means to corrupt the Dalatcai or minister of Ganga Rdja. This traitor removed the guards from the only ford, and thus permitted the enemy to surprise the place, while he endeavoured to engage his master's attention at the game of chess. The shouts of the soldiery at length reaching their ears, the prince started up from the game. The Dalawai, who wished him to fall alive into the hands of his sons-in-law, en- deavoured to persuade him that the noise arose merely from chil- dren at play ; but the Rdja, having drawn his sword, first killed all his women and children, and then, rushing into the midst of his enemies, fought, until he procured an honourable death. The sons- in-law, on seeing this, were struck with horror, and immediateh^ threw themselves into the cataract at Gangana Chuhi ; and their example was followed by their wives, whose arrogance had been the cause of such disasters. Jagadeva Raya of ChenapattanOy and Sri Ranga Raja of ToZocacZu, the two most powerful of the neighbour- ing PolygarSy then came, and removed all the people and wealth of the place ; and ever since^the Muni has remained in quiet pos- session of his island.

Tnicdftte of There can be no doubt, that the time oi the foondatioiii of At

th«M •T«at«. ^j^y jjj Sivana Samudra is later than its historian stated. Six hundred

CHAP. VIII.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 411

years from the present time would make Ganga Raja the first ante- ^gOO. rior to his ancestoi Hariahara, the first king of Vijayonnagara, I oct. s. afterwards learned, that Jagadtvda m:undson was alive, and governed a large territory, in the year of Sahvahanam J 546. We may allow a hundred years for the reiCT3 of the three princes of Sivana Samudra and of the three Polt/gars of Chenapatiana, which will make the foundation of the city to have happened in the year of SalivahaTiam 1446, or 188 years after the foundation of Vijaya^ nagara, and 277 years before the present- time.

At the time of the fall of Ganga Bdja the second, it is said that AnUent urrito- the Mysore Rdja^ were veiy petty Polygars, and possessed in all 2fu1S?^5o"/ thirty-two villages. Other Poiygars governed Taiuru, Womaluru, of tbatfamuy. JUogtwu^ Mangaia, Ellanduru^ Hardeva-hully, <kc. Jcc, all places in what our maps call Mysore proper. The first rise of tha family is said to have been their destroying the Rdja of Sri-Ranga-PaUana, called by us Seringapatam. This prince possessed the two districts called Ashta-grdms, and was of the blood of the Rdyaius, the sover- eigns of the country ; for after the death of Rdma Rdja, who was killed on the banks of the Krishna before the middle of the fifteenth centurv, several princes of the royal family retired to different strongholds, and for some time retained a certain power, until it was gradually overwhelmed by their rebelliousi subjects the Poly- gars, or by Mussulman and MarattaJi invaders.

It is said, that during the hot season some diaphanous shining Rock cirstai. s:tones are found in the channel of the Cavery above Gangana Chuki. I could procure no specimen; but from the description of the natives I suppose that they are rock crystal,

6th October. — I went three computed cosses, called Sultany, to oct. 6. Stnganaluru. The distance could not be above nine or ten miles ; ^^Jf ^^'^ ^'"■' so that the cosses called here Sultany are not longer than the usual computed cosses or Hardaries of the country above the Ghats.

On the road I came first to Pallia, a considerable open village one coss and a half south from Satteagala, and one coss n*om Golea- gala. The interjacent country is beautiful, and lies immediately west from the range of mountains that crown the summit of the eastern Ghats, and which are from about 1500 to 2000 feet in per- pendicular height, above the level of the upper country. Although there is here much waste land, the country is better cultivated than most of the Mysore dominions, and wants only fences, and a large supply of inhabitants, to be complete. There are many large taiiKS ; but these not havinff been yet repaired, there is at present very little rice cultivated. From Pallia to Singaivaluru the road leads east through a fine valley, but not so well cultivated as that to the westward of the hills. About nine-twentieths of the fields are uncultivated. All the tanks have, been in ruins for thirty years ; and their cavities, which consist of a fine black mould, are cultivated for JoUiy wheat, Carlay, and cotton. In this mountainous tract, which extends from the Cavery to GujuUiatty, and includes the

412 A JOURKBT FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIlI.

1800. greater part of the Coleagala and Talemaly districts, that belong to

Oct. c. the Company above the Ghats, it is said that the hills occupy one

half of the space, and that arable vallies occupy the remainder. Viewed from a little distance to the westward, the hills appear to form a continued chain of mountaii\s. The number of inhabitants in any pai*t of this tract, especially toward the south, according to the report of the natives, is very inadequate to its cultivation ; but every where, at some distance, there are villages scattered. The hills are not so rocky as in the range extending north from Cupala Durga, but they produce hardly any timber. At this season, how- ever, from the bushes and grass with which they ai*e clothed, they possess considerable verdure. On these mountains the inhabitants pasture their cattle, and raise a considerable number, although they deny having any flocks for breeding, like the herds of MadKv^giri. The pasture is sufficient to support many more than the present stock: There is here no Gydda Cavila, or forest renter.

stnganaiuru, Slngaualurw has a small ruined fort, which has been deserted

ever since it was plundered by the Marattafis before the government of Hyder, Previous to the invasion by Lord Cornwallis, the suburb contained a hundred houses ; but having been plundered by the Bringaries, or Luvibddies, that brought grain to his ai-my, the bulk of the inhabitants»perished from hunger. It now conUiins thirty- five houses, and has a temple dedicated to Bastca, or the bull of Iswara.

'VTonhir of the The people in this part of the country consider the ox as a living

god, who gives them their bread ; and in every village there are one or two bulls to whom weekly or monthly worship is performed ; and when one of these buEs dies he is buiied whith great ceremony. These objects of worship are by no means Sannyasis, but serve to propagate the species. When a woman of the sacred caste has not a child so soon as she could wish, she purchases a young bull, carries him to the temple, where some ceremonies are performed ; and ever afterwards he is allowed to range about at pleasure, and becomes one of these village gods. The Brdhmans, however, abstain from the absurd worship of these animals, although they are considered as possessed of a Brahman's soul. On the north side of the Cavery this superstition is not prevalent. The bull is there con- sidered as merely respectable, on account of Istcara's having chosen one of them for his steed, and as the animal is occupied by the soul of a Bvdhvmn in a state of purgation.

Major Macleod, the collector, has just now sent up people with the seed of the Falmira tree, or Borassus JlabeUiformis, in order to instruct those here in the manner of cultivating that palm. They are forming a plantation on good land, a quarter of a coss in length,and 200 yards wide. The people here were formerly supplied with paJm-wine

lixiTuian. '"" from the wild date ; but by the orders of the Sultan these were all cut ; for the rigidity of this prince's morals would not allow him to permit, in his territory, the growth of an intoxicating substance.

bull

Palnw a tree.

Fii^idity of the

CHAP.VIIL] MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. 413

7th October, — Following the same valley in which Sinfjanaluru 1800. is situated, I went two cosses to Hanuru, The soil is i-ather poor Jj^Sthecoun- and in some places stony ; but, owing to a want of cultivators, a *^' "^J***** •' great deal of good land is waste. Hanuru is an open straggling ^^ village, which contains between seventy and eighty houses. For the accommodation of travellers, a GhouUry, or inn, has lately been erected. Before the invasion of Lord Cornwallis it contained five hundred houses ; but, having been then plundered, most of the inhabitants wei-e dispersed, or died of hunger. One coss and a half e€u>t from Hanuru is Hagi-pura, which in the government of the former Rdjaa was a fort that contained six hundred houses. Its works were allowed by Hyder to fall into decay, and it now contains only four or five houses. The Shanaboga, or accomptant of this village, estimates, that in the Coleagala district there is only one- fourui of the people that would be necessary to cultivate all the arable lands. The reservoir here has long been filled with mud.

Hanui u is estimated to be five cosses from Bud-hully, the near- oct. 7. est place on the Cavery, Below Sivana Samudra the immediate Sw^dStif^uie banks of the river are so steep and high, that there is no road near ^^**- it. and very little cultivation : but villages are every where scattered in the vaUies that lie among the hills, which are included in its great bend, as it descends the Ghata. A road passes from Hanurxi, to Kanya-kanid-hully, vulgo Cancan-hully, and crosses the Cavery at a ford called Baawana Kydda, which is about half a coss below the place where the Rdma-giri river enters. In other places the Cavery tumbles over rocks and precipices, which, although not of great height, render the channel so uneven, that it is impassible.

The principal hiU between the Cavery and the southern ex-FoitttotBediuy. tremity of the eastern Ghata is called Hediny Betta ; and on this ^'""' chiefly grow the timber trees that are to be procured. It produces chiefiy Tayka, Biriday, Whovay, and Jaia, which have all been before mentioned. The sandal- wood grows on a hill called Maha- dev^swara.

On the east side of Hanuru is a small river of clear water, Tati-hoiaynm, which some years, even in the hot weather, does not become dry. It is called Taii-holay, and falls into the Cavery two cosses below Baawana Kydda. On the banks of this, two cosses below Hanuru, is Mudra-pura, formerly a large place. It had rice and sugar grounds watered by a dam and canal, from the Tati-holay \ but now the whole is in ruins. On this rivulet there are still four dams in re- pair ; but the grounds which they supplied with water are entirely unoccupied. The rivulet is too inconsiderable to be depended on for a regular supply of water from its dams ; so that the crops were uncertain : but this might be remedied by forming reservoirs to collect the water of its canals, and by sowing no more seed than the quantity collected would be able to mature.

In this mountainous district there are two rainy seasons. The seasons, first is in the month following the vernal equinox, and is called

4.14 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. VIII,

1800. Mungaru. During this the WulT EUu, or Seaamum, is sown. The

Oct. 7. second lasts the two months before, and the two immediately fol-

lowing, the autumnal equinox. These rains bring to maturity the crops of Ragy, ShaTaay, Jola, Camba, Udu, Hessaru Huruli, and Carlay. Since the country has been under the management of Major Macleod, the solar year of the Tamule has been introduced. ccht-tadm In this hilly tract are a number of people, of a rude tribe called

cuittTatioii. SoligaSy or Soligaru who use a kind of cultivation called the Cotu^ cadu, which a good deal resembles that which in the eastern parts of Bengal is called Juviea, In the hot season the men cut the bushes that grow on any spot of land on the side or top of a mountain, where between the stones there is a tolerable soil. They bum the bushes when these have become dry, and leave to the women the remainder of the labour. When the rains commence, these with a small hoe dig up the ground to the depth of three inches. They then clear it ot weeds, and next day sow it broad-cast with Ragy, here and there dropping in a seed ofAvaray, Tovary, mustard, maize, or pumpkin. The seed is covered by another hoeing. A woman in one day can hoe ten cubits square, and on the next can sow it. The sowing season lasts about two months ; so that the quantity sown in a year by every woman may be estimated at somewhat less than the sixth part of an acre. The custom however is, for all the people of one village to work one day one family's ground, and the next day at another's in regular succession. The vmages in general con- tain four or five families. The women perform sdso the whole har- veat, wOk^M Sum" These people have also plantain gardens. To form one of these, iAwa. thev cut down the bushes, and form pits with a sharp stick. In

each of these they set a plantain-sucker, and ever afterwards keep down the grass and bushes, so as to prevent them from choking the garden. The plantains are very large and coarse, and are eaten partly when ripe and partly when green. Every family of the Soligaru pays annually to government three Ihnavia, or about two shillings, cuitopii of Um Such is the account given by themselves of their system of agri-

'^'' "" culture ; I now proceed U) detail, on the same authority, the customs

of the Soligas.

The Soligas speak a bad, or old dialect of the Khnidta langua^ ; but have features a good deal resembling those of the rude tribes of Chittagong, to whom in many respects they are inferior in know- ledge. They have scarcely any clothing, and sleep round a fire, lying on a few plantain leaves, and covering themselves with others. They live chiefly on the summits of the mountains, where the tigers do not frequent ; but where their naked bodies are exposed to a disa^eeable cold. Their huts are most wretched, and consist of Bamboos with both ends stuck in the ground, so as to form an arch, which is covered with plantain leaves. I have already explained the nature of their agriculture. The men supply the farmers with

iSol^'^rM.

CHAP. VIILJ MYSORE, GAKABA, AND MALABAR. 415

timber and Bamboos ; and they gather various eeculeni leaves, and igOO. wild Tarns (Dioscoreas). They also collect honey, which they im- <>«*• '• mediately eat. They possess no domestic animals, and have not the art of killing game. They would willingly eat meat, but cannot get it. They are ignorant of the art of distilling, or fermenting any grain or liquor, and refuse to drink any thing that will intoxi- cate. They have hereditary chiefs, who manage the business of the tribe with the officers of government ; these settle all disputes among their clients, and give good advice to those who are not disposed to observe the rules of caste ; but thev never fine, whip, nor excommunicate any offender. Every man takes as many wives as he can persuade to live with him after they have arrived at the age of puberty. Widows are permitted to marry again. When a girl consents to marry, the man runs away with her to some neighbouring village, and they live there until the honey-moon is over. They then return home, and eive a feast to the people of their village. Among their women adulteiy is unknown. The sons remain in their father's house until they are married. They then build a hut for themselves, and each contributes a share toward the support of their aged parents. The dead are buried ; and all the rags, ornaments, and implements of the deceased are placed in • his grave. On this occasion the family, if they are able, give a feast. Once a year each family celebrates a feast in commemora- tion of their deceased parents. If this be omitted, the parent be- comes a Diva^ or devil of low degree, and torments the undutiful children until they perform the proper ceremonies. The Soligas pray to Vishnu, under the name of Ranga Swdmi ; and on festivals they give some plantains to the priests at his temples. They are too poor to have either Chii'u, or Furdhita,

8th October, — I went four computed coeses to Cavd-hullp. The ott •. road is hilly, and on the whole descends considerable. There is uS^JS^.^ scarcely any cultivation ; and the soil of a great part of the valley is very poor ; still there appears to bem uch now waste that possesses a good soil, and not a little that has formerly been cultivated. Even the fields immediately contiguous to Caudr-hully are entirely waste. I passed many small torrents that convey the rain water into the Tatirholay, The two most considerable are the Ududaray, half a coss from Caud-hully ; and the Cavd-hully, close to ti^e village of that name. From the former a canal gave a precarious supply of water to some rice grounds. Both might be easily employed to fill reservoirs. The water of the Oaud'huliy is excellent, and may be procured, even in the driest seasons, bydigginga littledepth in the sandof its channel.

In the last war General Floyd came here to meet a convoy D«pMdatioM comii^upfirom Kdveri^pura under Colonel Read, who was accom- ;{J''j;JJ2^ paniedby a large body of Brmjaries, or dealers in grain, and aJ»"»**« numerous rabble belonging to the NizcmCs army. The country*""^' through which such ruffians passed is of course entirely ruined^ and not a house is to be seen between Homuru and Cavd-htdly.

41G

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. VI 11.

1800

Oct. 8

the QhaU.

Carriage cattle.

This Inst place then contained two hundred houses. Of these ^aitd'huUy. ninety have been rebuilt, but not a single cultivator has returned. At present the inhabitants are traders, and their servants and de- Swtoum*r7e»° P^i^dents ; for this is a principal thoroughfare between the country abore and below below and that abovo the Ohats, In the former Saliem, in the latter Oviulu neai* MuTidmm, and Serimgapataniy are the principal marts. In going to Gutuhv, the Cavery is crossed a little above Satteagala. Some merchants ai*e settled here, who purchase invest- ments below the OliaiSy and carry them to Outulu ; where they again lay in goods that are in demand at Saliem, The goods that are sent from the upper country are turmeric, Betel-nut, black pepper, Cut^ or Terra Japonica, Danya-seed, opium, Jagot^,sngax, and Copra, or dried coco-nut kernel. Those that are brought up the GliaU are cotton-cloths, tobacco, boiled butter, rice, salt, Palmira- Jagory, and castor-oil. The custom-master^ under pretence of having sent the books to his superior at Cokugala, will give me no account of the quantity : indeed, as he farms the customs, his showing them could not reasonably be expected. It is said, that in Tippoo^s government, the trade was much greater than it is at present.

'J'he goods are all transported as back-loads on oxen or asses. • A load for an ox weighs eight Maunds, or a little more than 194 lb. The hire for four computed Sultany cosses is one Fanam, or nearly TJcZ. In the Ghats, owing to the badness of the roads, the cosses are veiy short. Good cattle tmvel four cosses a day, and middling ones three cosses. A good ox costs eighty Fauama, or abou& 21.98. llii^ and must be fed with grain. The asses are only em- ployed by persons of the lowest caste, who trade in grain and salt; yet, if any pains were taken with the breed, they would in this arid country be cheaper means of carriage than oxen are. A good ass, that costs five Rupees ^lOs. ^0d.), will daily travel three cosses, and carry forty Seers of grain, weighing about eighty-five pounds. His keep is next to nothing.

Caud-huUy is the first place of any note above the Ghats. Below them, the two places nearest it are Alumbady and Kdverwpura. Each is estimated to be twelve cosses distant ; but the roads are bad, especially that to Alumbady, which is therefore never fre- quented by merchants.

The people of Cav,d-hully and Hanuru either pretend to be, or really are, the most stupid of any that I have ever seen, and the labouring class are most wretchedly poor.

9th October. — I went three computed Sultany cosses to MaV- puled by time ; hully, ov Marat-hvUy. The natives here begin to compute distances wi^tLVy by hours, and call what we have come to-day six Ui-nalivulies, or hours 'joumies. The hour, as is usual all over India, is the sixtieth part of a day, or 24 minutes. This mode of computing distances is employed every where in the country of the Tamuls ; and an hour's journey is by the Europeans of Madras called a Malabar-mile. I suppose it is the same with what Major Eennell calls a coss of the Camatic : for coss is a word of Hindustan proper^ and is not eni-

Roadi through the Ghaii.

Inhabitants.

Oct 9. Diftancei com

CHAP. VlII] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR, ^jy

ployed in the dialects of the sonth : but coss is a word now univer- 1800- sally received among the English in India ; for which reason I use ^*' * it as a translation for the Hardary of Kamata.

The road from Caud-hully to Ma^-hully is so surrounded by Road down the mountains, that iJbe traveller has no view of flie country below the ^^*'' Ghats. Except in a few places that might be easily avoided, the road is not very steep ; but it is very stony, as is the case with the country through which it passes.

In several parts the country has formerly been cultivated, and country, much of the valley is capable of being rendered arable ; but at pre- sent all near the road is quite waste. The natives say, that there are many small villages in the valley, both south and north from that part of it through which we came ; but in the late war great numbers of the houses in them were ruined, Ma^-hvMy is totally deserted, except by the Pujari of its temple, which, he says, is de- dicated to Bfohmeswara, a brother of Siva, With this god my BrethmMwara, » Brahman is not acquainted. A Choultry, or inn, has been lately ****' built for the accommodation of passengers, whose resort will soon, no doubt, bring back inhabitants.

Two rivulets, that contain perennial streams, join at MaP-huUy ; and, running down the valley, meet the Palar, which comes from the south. The united streams turn to the east, and join the Catary below the Ohata. The western rivulet is the largest ; it is named Bagali, and rises from the west side of the Mahdd^^awara hill. This hill is the only place in the ColeagcUa district that produces sandal-wood, and has on it a very celebrated temple, from whence it derives its name, and which is distant from Mat'^hully four cosses. It is surrounded by villages and cultivation. The smaller and eastern rivulet, from a fort that stood near it, is named Cotay.

The farmers from the neighbouring villages, that came to sell SmSSS^^Sy provisions, were miserably poor. Most of their stock having been th9£nnjarUi. carried off in the late war, the greater number of the survivors have been obliged to go down to the country below the Ghats to work as servants. Many died of hunger, and still more frx)m the diseases brought on by want. The chief plunderers were the rabble belong- ing to the Nizam, and the Brinjaries, who are most ferocious ruf- fians, that not only plunder, but wantonly murder, every defenceless person that comes in their way. My interpreter, who was in the party coming up with Colonel Bead, confirms the truth of what the natives say. No exertions of our officers could prevent the Brinjaries fix)m plundering, not only the enemy, but the villages belonging to the Company tiiat were in the neighbourhood of their route. Colonel Head's humanity and justice are too well known in the eastern parts of Mysore, for a single person there to imagine that every pas- sible exertion for their saiety was not employed.

1 0th October. — I went three computed cosses to Nidy Cavil-, which oct, lo. in the Tamvl lanraage signifies the gvAird of the middle ; this place ^^**^ ^^•'*"' being in the middle of the Ghats, and situated at the boundary of

53

418

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. vin.

IftOO.

O L 10.

Palar riTer.

Road down the Ghats.

atrata of the eMtern Ghats,

Karnata from the Ch&a D^sdm, which includes what we call the province of Coimlyetore, and the district of SalieTn.

Soon after leaving Mai-hully, I reached the Palar, which comes from the south-west, and passes througli a valley that is cultivated from its source downwards to Nellum, which is four cosses from where we joined the river. From Nelluru, to the bottom of the Ghats, this valley is very narrow, and could scarcely admit of any cultiva- tion. There are, however, some level spots that might be cultivateil, and this would add greatly to the comfort of passengers. I am persuaded, that Palmira trees would thrive near the banks of the Polar the whole way ; and their produce would find a ready sale. The channel of the Palar, so far as I have seen it to-day, has a verv* moderate declivity, and at present contains a good deal of water ; but in many places it is fordable. For several days toge- ther, after heavy rains, it is frequently impassible, to the great dis- tress of travellers. In the dry season there is no stream in its channel ; but, by digging in the sand, good water may always be procured. The dry weather, however, is here of uncommon short duration ; for the rains from the eastward commence as soon as those from the west have abated. I have now been out the whole of the rainy season above the Ghats ^ and to-day I met the violence of the monsoon coming from the eastern side of the peninsula.

The road passes by the side of the Palar, and frequently crosses its channel. Li the diy season, indeed, this is generally used by travellers. A good road, and one of easy declivity, might without much trouble be constructed. At present, nothing can be worse. The hills on both sides are steep, and covered with trees ; but few of them are of a size fit for timber.

The atrata of the Ghaia run north and south, and are vertical. They are so much intersected by fissures, as to be of little use for building. In one place I found large concretions of lime-stone, resembling those found at Maleawara Betta, which have the appear- ance of the petrified nests of white ants : but here the masses were infinitely too large to have derived their origin from such a source. The ore of iron, in form of black sand, is very plentiful ; but in this neighbourhood none is smelted.

CHAPTER IX.

FROM THE KAVERI-PURA GHAT TO COIMBATORE.

October 11th, 1800. — Nidi Cavil, at which I have now arrived 1800. is situated on the frontier between Karndta and Cher a Desam, Acoommod*uon two of the ancient divisions in Hindu geography. It was formerly '^' tr»Toiien, a small fort, and was occupied by a few Sepoys ; but the fort is now in ruins, and the guard has been withdrawn. A commodious build- ing for the convenience of passengers had long ago been erected by GiUtimodaly, a person who seems to have had great influence in Chei^a. This has lately been repaired, and placed under the care of a BrdhmaUy who receives from government four Rupees a month, and has seven cows allowed him to serve gratuitously all travellers with milk. This is perfectly according to Indian custom ; but by no means answers the purpose of procuring milk for the passengers. The Brdhman, having no object to attain by attention to the cattle, is contented with drawing from them as much as will serve himself; and of this he will spare a little to any rich traveller, from whom, of course, he- expects a present of five times its value. A shopkeeper has also been established here, with a monthly salary of two Rupees. He ought to keep a supply of provisions for all travellers who choose to purchase them ; but he complains, that he has very few customers, every one bringing with him a supply of necessaries.

The Brahman and shopkeeper say, that every day, on an Trade, average, about twenty oxen loaded with goods pass this way. During the government of Hyder, ten times that number usually passed. A company of the traders called Lumbadies, that employed 1 2,000 cattle, obtained from the Sultan a monopoly in every article of commerce except cloth, tobacco, and boiled butter, which continued open. These Lumbadies dealt chiefly in grain, large quantities of which they brought from the low country for the supply of Seringapatam.

To-day I went three computed cosses to Ghaca Cavil, at the bottom of the Ghats. The road is by no means steep, but the day's journey was laborious, as we were obliged to cross the Palar four times, and it was exceedingly swollen by the heavy rains. The road, I believe, might readily be conducted, the whole way, on one side of the river ; but, as the stream for a great part of the year is inconsiderable, travellers have been in the habit of crossing it on the slightest difficulty ; and thus the path has been formed in a manner very inconvenient for those who arc compelled to pass it after heavy rain.

420 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH fCHAP. IX.

^800. The hills on both sides of the river are steep, but afford ab\in-

danee of pasture for cattle, and in a few places leave level spots that might be made comfortable abodes for the managers of flocks, or for the cultivators of Palmira trees. From the hills on either side, several small clear streams run into the Palar, Chica Cavil, or the Small guardy is a house built for the accommodation of passengers on a rising ground above theP^/ar, where it enters the valley watered by the Cavery, as that river comes south from A lumbady. From the rising ground, those who delight in rude scenes of nature may enjoy a most beautiful prospect. The valley watered by the Caven/y is here very rough, and contains few people and little cultivation.

The inhabitants of this neighbourhood are a strange mixture of those who speak the languages of i&irwa^a and otTelingana. These last have probably been introduced by the Poly gars of Alum^bady, named Aralappa Naidus, and who were of the JSici caste, who among the Telingas are the bearers of palanquins. They were troublesome ruffians, who possessed the rough country on both sides of the Cavery, as it descends the Ghats ; until the last of them suffered himself to be deluded by the fair promises of Tt-vmvZaia, a Brdhman, who in the government of Hyder was Amildar of Kaverirpura. The Brahman, after several visits, and many professions of friendship, at last induced the Polygar to make him a visit with a few armed attendants. Immediately on his having got the Polygar in his power, regardless of the ties of hospitality, the Amildar hanged the ruffian ; who met with a merited fate, had it been inflicted l>y honourable means. Such policy, however, is not unusual among the natives of Asia. Qutniioui dia- The chicf of a neighbouring village, who Supplied me with pro-

nativifc **' '^* visions, was exceedingly disposed to complain. He first told me, that, since the Company had acquired the government of the country, his rent had been raised from 6 to 11 Pagoda% a year; but, as I knew that the rent was fixed on the fields, I soon brought him to confess, that he now occupied much more land than he did under Tippoo'a government. He then complained, that now he could not cheat the government : in former times, by means of a small bribe, he could get excused from paying a large share of his rent. Tenures and These rents are all paid in monev, the whole cultivation in this

'*"*• valley being that of dry grains. They are fixed on each field by a

valuation made in the reign o{ the Svltdn, which is very unequal ; but people have lately been employed to measure all the arable lands, with a view of making a more just assessment. The Oauda, or chief of the village, prefers paying his present rent to an equal division of the crop ; and says, that he would be contented to give government one-third of the produce. Owing to the dilapidations to which such a mode of paying rent must be subject, it is evident, that the public, by what is called an equal division of the crops, would not in reality get one-third of the produce : the present rent, therefore, is probably not excessive.

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 421

The Gauda complains also, and I believe with reason, of the 1800. great poverty to whicn the people are reduced by the plundering of the ^'^ of the Luvibadiee, who in the last war supplied the army with grain. He ac- euitiraton. knowledges that the collector offered to advance money to enable the farmers to carry on cultivation, and that none was accepted.

The reason he assigns for this is, that the money advanced, or raeaoy, or Tacavy, was to have been repaid immediately after cutting down the ^olUuf^t^ crop : the farmers would therefore have been under the necessity of cwitiTaton. selling at once the whole of their grain ; and thus, by glutting the market, they would have been great sufferers. A great many of them, who have now been forced to work as labourers, would have thankfully receivedTacavy, to be repaid, by instalments, in the course of two or three years. It must, however, be evident, that such ad- vances are extremely inconvenient to any government, and perhaps could not be made without doing injustice to those who paid the taxes necessary to raise the money advanced. Nor are such advances in general attended with any national advantage ; they do not enable the people to cultivate one acre more, and are an assistance only to some individuals, who, if they did not receive advances to enable them to cultivate their own fields, must hire themselves out to work on the fields of those who have stock. They are, however, a favourite maxim of Indian policy ; partly as having a popular ap- pearance of liberality, and partly as opening a great field for corfupt partialities.

The hill producing sandal- wood is three cosses distant from SMdai-wood; Chica-CaviL It is here called Punashy-conda, which is its proper name ; that by which it is commonly called above the Ohata is de- rived firom Mahd'div^cara, a temple built on it. The Mussulman who is employed to cut the sandal, is said by the querulous Oavda to use the neighbouring people very ill, and to give them no pay. It appears to me, however, that the Oauda is not a man likely to suffer any injustice without complaining, and he does not say that he has ever in vain applied for redress.

In the Omta above this place the most common strata are gneiss ^roeaof the and a quartz strongly impregnated with iron. Both are vertical, •*•*•'■ ^**»*'- and run north and south. They are much intersected by veins and fissures ; so that no large blocks could be procured. The most re- markable mineral phenomenon here is the lime-stone, or Tufa cal^ carta. In its nature it entirely resembles the Congcar of Hirtdustan proper. Some of it ia whitish, and some of an eaiihy brown. It is found in very large masses, many feet in length, and often six or eight in thickness. It appears to me to have been once in a state of fluidity resembling thin mortar, and to have flowed irregularly over nmny large spaces of these Ohata ; after which it has hardened into its present form. Where it flowed through earthy or vegetable matters, it filled up the interstices between tneir parts ; and after- wards, having been freed from them by their gradual decay, and the action of the rains, masses of it are now exposed to the air per-

422 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. f orated in all directions, like that which I found at Malaiawara

Oct. 11.' Betta. In other places, this liquid has flowed among the decaying

masses of rock and gravel It has filled up all the veins and rents of the former, and united them again into a solid mass. With the gravel, it has formed a substance entirely resembling the mortar made of quick-lime and that matter, but of a very great hardness. This rock is therefore evidently of a much later formation than the strata of the mountains ; having been formed after they began to decay, and even after the formation of mould and vegetables. Oct 13. 12th October. — I went five computed if aZaftar hours' journey,

th^^co'imtry. °' which, I supposc, Major Eennell would call five cosses of the Car- nntiCy and came to Kdveri-'pura. The country in general is level, but very stony, and full of rocks even with the surface. About forty or fifty years ago it is said to have been wholly cultivated; as far as the rocks would permit ; and the soil is a red clay and sand, very productive of dry grains. Ever since, from the unsettled state of the country, the cultivation has been gradually on the de- cline; and now the country is entirely waste and uninhabited, except in the immediate neighbourhood of Kavetir-pura, where a little wretched cultivation is visible. The fences here are commonly built of loose stones, in a manner similar to the sheep-dykes of Gal- loway, which keep out cattle remarkably well. Those near Kav^ri- pura are badly constructed, and, as usual with Hindu, fences are kept in bad repair.

The mountains, viewed from the banks of the Cavery here, do not appear to be higher above the level of the country than they did fi'om Satteagala above the Ghats. This is probably owing to their eastern ridges being lower than those to the westward, but yet suf- ficiently high to conceal the others from the view. The Cavery here is at present a wide and strong, but smooth stream,' which is no where fordable ; but in the dry season it has fords every where. Kaveri-pura. rpj^^ f^j^ ^f KaveH-piira is said to have been built by Guttimo-

daly, who was Polygar of much of the neighbouring country ; and who also, in order to protect his territories from the Polygara of the hills, built Nidy-Cavily and Chica-CavU. The suburb is at some distance from the fort, and contains about a hundred houses, with the ruins of a much greater nimiber. It is said, however, that tlie place was never larger, nor more populous, than at present ; and that the ruins are houses, which were built by a Hussein Sakeb, who wished to have enlarged the town, but never could induce inhabi- tants to occupy his buildings. The place did not suffer from the Lumbadies under Colonel Read, as he could spare a guard to repress their barbarity ; but they are said to have plundered many villages on the opposite side of the river, which then belonged to the Com- pany, and was under his government. The greater part of the popu- lace inhabiting Kdveri-pura speak the Tamu/ language. Most of the Brdhtnans speak the language otKarndta, or the Canarese as we call it. They seem to be still more brutally ignorant than the peoplo

CHAP. IX.J MYSOEE, CANAKA, AND MALABAR. .oo

of Mysore south from the Cavery ; and I soon found the only two igoo. oflScers of the place, the chief, and the accomptant, to be inveterate o«^- ^^^ liars.

The fortisseparatedfrom the suburb by a rivulet named Sway am- irrigation^ t^ara-puZ/wm, which formerly filled a large tank, named Swayamvard JEray, which is situated 2 J oosses, or about 5 miles south-west from KdverC-pura. It supplied with water as much ground as sowed 16,000 Seers of rice, or probably about 520 acres ; but unfortunate- ly it burst down more than fifty years ago, and has never since been repaired. The Sultdn ordered an estimate to be made of the ex- pense necessary for the purpose ; but finding it to amount to 18,000 Pagodas^ or about 60002., he desisted.

This is a considerable thorough-fare between Dalawai petta, Co- Trade. viardb poMiuTriy Pallaputti, Nerinjor-petta, Ama-petta, Erodu^ Tudu- puUi, Sitodu, Aravacurchy, Nangapulliy Womaluru, Saliem, RaalLe- puram, Namacvlla, Sadamangalam, and Dindigul on the one hand ; and on the other OutcdUy Naggara, Seringapatavt, Gubiy CoUagalay Caudr-hully, and Band^huUy, A custom-house has ac- cordingly been erected ; but as the duties are feirmed, I could not expect the officers to give me a fair account of the exports. In the course of the last two months, they say, there has passed nearly

Loaded oxen.

Of cloth ... ... ... ••• 50

Of tobacco • 300

Of Ohee, or boiled butter, 70

Of castor oil ... 10

Of poppy seed ... 5

Of Ooniy or hemp 5

01 Palmira Jagory 60

Of potstone vessels 5

495 ; or about eight loaded oxen daily. I have met between forty and fifty loaded cattle every day, since I left Caud-huUy ; but such a great number may have been accidental. By the account of the people at Nidi- Cavity about 20 cattle passed that place daily ; and one half of these being taken, as those going up^ will agree tolerably well with the account which the officers of Kdverir-pura gave. The trade in Tippoo*s reign was, it is said, much more considerable ; but then it consisted chiefly in grain, which the reduced population in Seringa-' patam renders no longer necessary.

13th October. — ^I went ten Malabar hours' journey to Navaputty ; oet 13. that is, the nine villages, having formerly been the principal of nine ?ati^^' ^^ adjacent hamlets. It is a sorry place, containing about twenty houses. The huts of the country, called Oheray are like bee-hives ; and consist of a circular mud widl about three feet high, which is covered with a long conical roof of thatch. Contrary to what might have been expected in a hot dimate, but agxeeable to the custom of

424 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX

1800. almost all Hindus, one small door is the onlj otit-let for smoke, and

Oct. 13. the onlj inlet for air and light. Each family has a hnt for sleeping,

another for cooking, and a third for a storehouse. Wealthy men add more huts to their premises, but seldom attempt at any innova- tion in the architecture of the country, jjppearan^ of To somo distauoc from KdveH'pura the plain continues, hut it

econo . j^ extremely rooky and poor. Afterwards there are many high mountains, reaching from the OhaUf to the Cavery. These do not form ,a continued ridge, but are separated into detailed hills bj Tallies, through which the traveller passes from Kdveri-pura to the level country that is watered by the Bhafvdni, These vallies are less rugged, and contain a better soil, than the country near KdverU pura ; but in both, owing to a scarcity of cultivators, there is much arable land unoccupied. The people say, that the oppreBsion of TippoOt cmd of his officers, drove many of the oultiTators to forsake their homes, and retire to the country, under the just and humane government of Colonel Bead. Last year a great number of their cattle perished, owing to the epidemic distemper. Irritation by On the north side of the ran^e of hills is a fine little river, named

rtre^'ivm&ttb. ^e Tumbula, or CoUitur, from its having passed through a large re- servoir named Cdatur Eray. Between this, and where the riveivjoins the Cavefi^y^ had been formed four reservoirs ; and nearer the source Vencata Eaya had formed a fifth, called after his own name. Aboufc 60 years ago this gave wey after a heavy rain, and the torrent broke down the mounds of all the reservoirs in the lower part of the rivu- let. They have never since been repaired, although the quantity of gix)und which they watered is said to have been very considerable. A Brdhman has this year made a small dam on the Twrnimky and the cultivation of rice has again commenced. outtymod^ ^^^ ^i® rivulet is a small town named Shandi, with a fort en-

^y^T®' ' tirely in ruins. It was built by OtUtimodalp, who lived at a place ''^ called Womaluru, distant 16 Maiabar hours' journey toward the east, and which is probably the Wombinellare of Major BenneU. About a himdred years ago this prince's territory was conquered by the Mysore family, after an obstinate resistance. Shamli fort was at that time destroyed, and has never since been repaired.

In this country the cultivation of Palmira gardens is pretty ex- tensive. This tree is the Borassus fiabdliformis of Linnseus, ih» Til or Tdr of Bengal, and the Pana Maram of the Tamule. In many parts of India it grows almost spontaneously, but here it is reared with some care. It thrives best in a strong , black day, next on the red soil commonly used for Bagy, and it wUl also erow on the poor sandy soil called here Manui; but its produce is then very small. When a new plantation is to be made, the ground in Adi (1 3th July to 13th August) is ploughed twice. The fruit for seed is gathered in the beginning of this month, and kept in a heap untLl the end ; when the field is ploughed a third time, and the seeds, having been separated, are put into the ground at the mutual distance ol three

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 425

cubits* They are placed in the bottom of a furrow after the plough, isop. and are covered b}" the* next For 9 or 1 0 years the young palms ^^' ^** are secured from cattle by a fence, and require no farther care. At this age they are about six feet high; and, as cattle cannot then injure them, the fences are removed, and the gai'den is used for pas- ture. When the trees have been planted in a good soil, they begin in 30 years to produce Gillu, or Palmira-wine ; hixi in a poor soil 40 years are required. When they have aiTived at maturity, the ground between the trees is cultivated every year for grain ; but this, although it increases the quantity of Palmira- juice, yields not more than one half of what the field would do, were it not planted. This palm is supposed to live a thousand years ; that is, it lives longer than can be ascertained by ti*adition. No care is taken to plant young trees in place of the old ones that have been destroyed by accident, or by old age ; but young ones spring up in the empty spaces from the fruit that drops from maturity. I observe, how- ever, that in most of the plantations the trees are at great distances ; and it is said, that many of the young ones are out down for their cabbage, or central young shoot ; while the bears and wild hogs eat most of the fruit that falls.

This palm produces juice five months in the year, from about the Paimira-wiM. 1 1th of January until the 1 1th of June. The stem must be cleared from all the roots of the branches, which is attended with a good deal of trouble ; and the workman mounts by means of a strap passed round his back, and a rope round his two feet An active man can manage forty trees, but an awkward fellow will only ma- nage fifteen. They are all of the caste called Shanan^ or in the plural Skanar, Before tlie bursting of the membrane which covers the flowering branch, and which botanists call the spntkay the workman bruises it between two sticks for three successive mornings. On each of the four following mornings be cuts from its tip a thin slice. These operations prevent the spatha from bursting ; and on the 8th morning a dear sweet liquor begins to flow from the wound. A pot must then be suspended, so as to collect the liquor, as it drops from the spatha. A good tree will give daily about three ale quarts <^ juice, a bad one about a sixth of that quantity. II the juice is to be boiled into Jagory, a little quick-lime must be put into tiie bottom of the pot in which it is collected ; in order, I sup- pose, to absorb any acidity, and thus to prevent fermentation. This is not done when the juice is intended for drinking, as then the sfaonger it foments so much the better wine will be produced

In order to make Jofforyy the juice of the Palmira tree is boiled raimira jagory, down on the same day that it is collected. Four pots being placed with a fire under their common center, about three quarts of the juice is put into each, although they could contain four times that quantity ; for in boiling, this Iiqu<»' is apt to overflow. The vio- lence of ebullition is fdlayed by throwing in some bruised seed of the Rid^uis, and by stirring about the juice with a branch of the Sunda,

54

426 -^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800 ^^ Solanum pubeacens Wild : When tlie juice has been boiled

oci. 13.' for two hours, a small quantity is taken out and tried. If it has

been sufficiently boiled, it will form into a ball between the fingers ; but if it will not cohere, the evaporation must be continued. When ready, it is formed in amass, or ball, by pouring it into a hole in the ground, or in a piece of timber. Every three quarts of liquor should give one Seer and a half, or a little less than one pound. This Jagory is used both for eating and distilling, and a great part of it is exported to the Mysore country. It sells at the rate of 32 Tucus for 7 Rupees^ or for about Bs. 3d for the hundred-weight Rent of p*im The Skanav, or collectors of palm-wine, cultivate the ground

gaidens. amoug the trees, paying half rent for it ; and every man takes as

many trees as he can manage. For these he pays annually six Ru- pees ; but this not by an actual poll tax. In the accompts of the vil- lages, a certain number of trees are supposed to be in each ; a certain number of Shanar is supposed to be able to manage these ; and for this number the tax is paid. Although from nine to twelve men may be actually employed in a vifiage which is rated as having three Skanars, the government receives only eighteen Rupees. It may in general, indeed, be observed respecting Mindu accompti>, that, with a vast appeai'ance of detail, they are extremely erroneous ; for the minuteness is not intended to elucidate the state of revenue ; but to enable the inferior officers to confuse matters, and thus to pe- culate without detection. i^iofNotin It is estimated, that a plantation of Palinira, including land

iMSMir* '"*'** rent and Shanar capitation, pays two and a half times as much as the same ground cultivated for dry grains would do ; but, in order to procure tms, a total sacrifice of between 30 and 40 years rent must be made. Old gardens ought therefore to be most carefully sup- ported ; and the cultivators should be boimd to plant young trees in empty spaces ; for a new garden can never be formed with advan- tage at such an expense, unless there be much more land in tlie country than the existing stock c<an cultivate. This being the case at present, it is very judicious in Major Macleod to make plantations now, as the land that he employs would at any rate pay no rent. Oct 14. 14i\h October, — Having been deceived about the distance, con>

i£?countr?.** ceming which it is very difficult to get accurate information, I went a very short way to Nerinjopetta, which was said to be five Mala- bar hours' journey, I passed through a narrow plain, bounded on my left by the Cavery, and on my right by high hills. The soil of this plain, in some places, is covered with rock, and sand intermixed with calcarious Tufa ; but much of it is good, although, from a want of inhabitants, very little is cultivated. There is no rice land. iTtrinjapetta, Nerinja-petUb is a poor open town, said to contain about two

himdred families. The uihabitants of three hundred houses are said to have retired from it to the country under Colonel Head's manage- ment, in consequence of the contributions levied by Jemdl Khan, to enable the Sultan to pay the sum which waa exacted from him by

CHAP. IX.) MYSORE CANARA, AND MALABAR. 427

Lord Comwallis. Previous to that emigration, the place contained 1800. many traders and cotton weavers. These were of three kinds ; ^^^ ^*' Muca ChambadavaVy Skalifir,' and Goicular. The first have entirely- deserted the place; and of the two last only eight houses remain. The Shaliar are a tribe of Telinga origin, and are the same with those who above the Ghats are called Pad/ma Shalay.

The Cavery here begins to rise about the 26th of May. It is at cdvery rirer. the highest from the 13th of July until the 13th of August, before therainy season commences. As this advances, it decreases in size, but does not become fordable until after the 11th of January. At Nenvja-petta a dam was built across the Cavertf Cada Rdya, one of the family of Chica Deva Raja of Mysore, It formerly sent a canal to each side of the river ; that on the left ran five Malabar hours' journey ; that on the right ran three hours' journey, water- ing the fields all the way between it and the river ; both have been entirely ruinous from the breaking down of the dam, which hap- pened at a period beyond the memory of the oldest inhabitant.

On Palla hill, which extends from ShamLi to Nerinja-peitd, are People caiud sixteen villages of Malay ala, or hill people, who on the summit of ^''*'**'"" their mountain cultivate all the dry grains of Mysore^ and have the only Mango (Mangifera) and Jack (Artocarptis integrijolia) trees that are to be found in this neighbourhood. These villages are said each to contain from five to sixteen houses ; but are so difiicult of access, that I could not visit them without a day's halt. Several similar hills are scattered through Major Macleod's district on both sides of the Cavery. The inhabitants of the plains cannot live on these mountains ; nor can the highlanders live on the plains, with- out the greatest danger to their health. They are a distinct caste from the people of the plains ; but quite diflferent from the people of Malayalam, or what we call the province of Malabar, although both people are known by the same name, from their both inhabit- ing hilly countries.

In the hills here are many black bears. These are harmless B«an. animals, living chiefly on white ants, wild fruit, and that of the Pal- mira tree. The only injury that they do is to the crops of Sholum (Holcus sorghum). If a man disturb or surprise a bear, he is liable to be killed by the animal, but not to be eaten. It is unsafe, there- fore, to approach these animals, especially advancing straight before them ; for, the bear's eyes being turned backwards, he does not see the person advancing towards him until he is alarmed by the man's near approach, and then attacks the sudden intruder. The bear is very strong, and is not afraid of the tiger. It lives in oaves, and holes under large stones. Such is the account of the natives ; for in the south of India I have not seen the animal, although there can be no doubt that it is the Bradypus urainus of naturalists, which is a real bear.

The CotU'Cadu cultivation is carried on by the poor fanners of cb««-e»fttctti- this neighbourhood, when they have not stock sufficient to enable **^****'°*

42S A JOURNEY PHOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. them to plough the arable fields. Having assembled some of these.

^^^ ** they told me, that the soil fit for their purpose is to be found both

on the southern face of the great mountains^ and on the smaller hills between these and the Gavery. It is known by its producing an abundance of trees, and is in general extremely steep, being always situated on the declivities of the hills. It is not reckoned worse for containing many large stones, and projecting rocks ; as by these the soil is kept cool and moist. When a spot tit for the pur- pose has been detennined, the trees are cut down in the first three months of the solar year, commencing on the 1 1th of April. To- ward the middle of July thej' are burned /^nd from about the 28tli of that month the seed is sown, and then covered by digging the gi'ound with a small hoe. The seeds are Colin {Doliehosoifioncs), Tenay (Panincm Uallcum)^ and Cambn {Holctis spicatus). These are all sown separately ; but with each of them is intermixed a small quantity of cotton seed. The season for sowing the Tenatf and Cambu continues until about the 13th of September ; then com- mences the season for sowing the Goelu, or Horse-gram^ and it lasts for a month : after twenty or twenty-five days the crops are weeded. The Tenay and Cambu ripen in three months ; but five are required to bring the Horse-grafni to maturity. Next year the cotton pro- duces, and the difierent gi-ains are then sown, and hoed in between the cotton plants. In the third year a new spot must be cleared ; and the former requires ten years for the trees to grow up again, the ashes of these being a necessary manure. This ground, when it has been cleared, is measured, and the rent is one-fourth of what would be paid in the plains for a similar extent of dry-field. Major Macleo<l discourages this kind of cultivprtion, as it takes away useful hands from the plough. A man can cut down and bum the trees growing on one cuiy of land, or rather less than one acre ; when he sows, in order to do the whole quickly, he hires as many labourers as he can ; but he is again hired to sow the field of his neighbour. On this extent of land, besides one puddy of cotton-seed, may be sown five jmddies of Horse-gtam, and eight pttddies of Cambu^ or 2Vtiay. In the first year it will produce two hundred and forty pvxldiea ofJSbrse- gramj and two hundred and sixty of Cambu, or Tenay, the second year's crop will be about one hundred and sixty puddles otHorsr- gram, and one hundred and seventy-two of Cambu or Tenay^ with four tucua of cotton-wool. One acre at this rate -will Hn the first year produce about six bushels of Hot sc-graniy and six and a hail of the Cambu.OT Tenay; in the secondyear four bushels of Horse-gram, a little more than four of Cambu or Tenay, and about thirty-two pounds of cotton-wooL

Oct 15. Xoth October — 1 went ten Malabar hours' journey to Bhawdni-

iLe'J^iilS^.^' hudal, called in our maps Boying Coral. The country on the right of the Cavery is free from hills, except one conical mountain, whicli rises from the bank of the river near Bhawdni. The soil in general is stony, or sandy ; but in some places the stones are mixed with a

CHAP. IX;] MTSORE, CAKARA, AND MALABAR. 429

strcmg red olay. At one reservoir, the people have recommenced I8OO. the cultivation of rice, and have cleared about three acres for the ^®^ '*' purpose ; all the other cultivation that I saw was that of dryfield. A veiy small proportion of the country is however, cultivated- . The Cambu, (Holcns ^icatus)^ which is here the prevailing crop, looks much better than it did ahove the Ghats, At A'ina-petta, a town containing about forty houses, and full of inhabitants, not a single spot of ground was cultivated ; the people being nil merchants and weavers. I crossed two rivulets, the Sitaru and Funachi. The irrigation, former supplied a large reservoir with water ; but this was broken down by the flood that has destroyed so many others in the neigh- bourhood, and has never been repaired The ground that it watered has been planted with Palmira trees, which are a poor substitute for rice. The Fun^nchi fills a reservoir, from which some rice- grounds now receive a supply of water.

The strata run north and south, and are much intermixed with strau. calcarious matter, that has diffused itself among them while it was in a fluid state. It is chiefly found near rivulets and torrents. On the banks of the Sitaru I observed it under an extensive stratum of white quartz ; but I do not think it can be from thence inferred, that the quai-tz is of so recent a formation as the calcarious tufa. It may have been undermined by the rivulet, and the calcarious matter afterwards deposited under it, so as to fill up the empty space.

B/unvdnC-kudal is an old runiousfort at the junction of the Bha- stunottm^Bwias tcdni with the Cavery* It contains two very celebrated temples ; the one dedicated to Vishnu, and the other to Siva ; and was built by a Polygar named QuttimodaLy, who held all the neighbouring GMHtmoddty countries as a feudatory under the Bdjas of Madura^ whose domin- ^j^Sadm. ioiiSy including Saliem, Tritchenopoli/, and all the country south of Sholta, or Tanjore^ were called by the general title Angaraca, and comprehended the two countries called G'A^ra and Fandava. At one of the temples there is an inscription on stone, giving an ac- count of its foundation ; but as the hour, day, month, and year, of the cycle are only mentioned, it is impossible to ascertain the date of its erection ; and on this subject the most learned Brdhmans here profess ignorance ; uor can they give any information concerning the time when the country became subject to Mysore, Their knowledge of the history of the country, they say, ceases with the overthrow of Havana king of the Bucsfuisa, to whom it belonged, by Mama the king of Ayudya, which happened exactly 879,901 years aga The only information that they can give concerning Outtimodal, except the miraculous actions performed in erecting the temple, is, that he was contemporary with Dalawai Bdina Feya, prime minister to thejR4;aof2VttcA^napo{^,who was also a feudatory of the Sdf'a of Madura, Both families intermarried with the old Sholia Bdjas, or prinoes of Tanjore. It is probable, that all these families rose into great distinction after the overthrow of the kings of Vijaya-nagara ; for the Brdhmans here are so little informed in history, as to think

430

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS TUROUGH

[CHAP. IX

1800.

Oct. 15.

Town otBhO' vnni.

8t rata.

InhofplUble dU position of the HinduM,

tliat the present Marattah dynasty lias been in possession of Tanjore

for an immense time.

•

The suburb of Bhawani-kudal is a very poor place ; but, as it has become the head Cutchery^ or office ol' all the district under the management of Major Macleod, it will increase very rapidly ; as the situation is very fine, and a plan for building it regularly and handsomely has been laid down by that gentleman. Money has also been advanced to assist new settlers to build good houses, and it is to be repaid by moderate instalments. Many new houses are building, which promise to be better than any that I have yet seen in the course of my investigation.

The strata at Bhawdniy although of the same nature with those near the Ghats, run about north-west and south-east, with a great dip towards the north.

16th and 1 7th October. — I remained at Bhaiodni-kudul^ taking an account of the state of the country, and endeavouring to repair my tents, which, from having been long exposed to rain, had becoine very crazy ; but I met with a severe loss in not finding Major Mac- leod at home. My information was much less oomplete than it would have been had I received his assistance ; and the poverty cf the place, joined to the obstinate and inhospitable disposition of its inhabibints, prevented my equipage from getting the repairs, and my servants and cattle from obtaining the refreshments, of which tliey were so much in need. Although very high prices were paid for every thing, no article could be procured, without long conti- nued threats of instantly forwarding, to .the collector, a complaint of the neglect which the native officers showed in obeying the orders of the government of Madras. I purchased the very articles sent from hence to Seruigapalam cheaper there, than we were obliged to pay for them on the spot where they grew. I mention these difH- culties, which are very frequently met with by travellers in all parts of India where Europeans have not resided long, to show the inhospi- table nature of its inhabitants. From the strict attention which I paid in redressing every injury done by my followers to any person what- ever, I am confident that no attempt was made to take any thing Without full payment.

The health of my people is now beginning to suffer from the constant change of air and water, which the natives of India do not support so well as Europeans. TVifiiK/CftieiidAr The Lokika, or vulgar men of the world, throughout the couo- tries in which the Tamul language is spoken, use a solar year chilled Siirya-manam in the Sanskrit. The almanac here came from Titn- ^or^, the great seat of learning in the southern part of India. The current year is as follows. It is reckoned the year 1722 of Sdiva- Aanam and the 4901 of the Kali-yugam. This, it must be observed, difiers one year in the former era, and seven in the latter, firom the reckoning in Karndta,

Feeble eoutl- tutiona of the nadvet.

MVSOU£, CANARA, AND MALABAR.

Tamui Uoutha. EaropMD Months.

S 12 313 4 14 615

717 8)8 919

lolso

Hl\ M-y-

I JOURNBY FROM MADRAS THHOUGIl

Oct. i«. 17. Tamiit MoDthB. EuropeMi Months Tumid Mouths. European Months.

Ptratathi 1732.

|19| 1| September.

Alpiihi

September 1800.

S2Sl 9S3

10 S4

11 S3

13,87

liSS :fij89

173l|

16| li NoTemb«r.

HTSOBE, CANABA, AVD MALABAR.

Tamvt Houtbs. European Hontfas. T'omtil Uontha. Earopeui MonthB. ^^ '*>

AJpUhi mi. Curtiwty

November 1800.

Margtdly 1722 ...|25| 6| Jinuar? 160L

434

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX

Wetilier.

1800. Oct. ie> 17.	Tamul Months.	Earopean Months.	Tamul Months.	European Months.
	Mashi\7i2 ...	20 •21	1 2	March 1801.	Panguny ljf22...	11 12	22 23	March 1801.
		22	3			13*24
		23	4			14.25
		24	5			15 20
		25	6			16'27
		36	7			17 -28
	«	27 28	8 9			18 29| 19 30
		29	10			•20 31
	Panguny	30 X 2 3 4	11 12 13 14 15	1		21 1 22 2 23| 3 24: 4 25i 5	April.
		5	16	1	26 6i
		6	17		27	/
		7	18		28	8
		8;i9			29	9
		9 20		30	10
	^10 21

Owing to a different manner of introducing the interoalarr days, the beginning of the Surya-ttianam year varies from the ninth to the eleventh of April.

The following is the account given by the most intelligent per- sons of the weather in the different seasons, or RUus,

I, Chitri and Vyashi form Vdsania Ritu. The winds are mode- rate and from the southward, except about twice in the season ; .when, for from ten to fifteen days, violent squalls come from the westward, accompanied with thunder and lightning, with pretty heavy showei-s, and sometimes with hail. Before the squalls the sky is red ; at other times it is clear, with warm sunshine, and neither fogs nor dews. At this season the trees flower.

II. OrislimoL Rihi contains Ani and AdL Once in eighteen days heavy showers come from the westward, accompanied by wind and thund^, but no hail. There are fogs on the hills, but not in the open country. In the intervals between the rains the heat is moderate, with cloudy weather, and strong westerly winds.

ni. Varsha Ritu contains Avony add Perataskr, At this season heavy and incessant rains, for five or six days, come from the west- ward, with similar intervals of fair weather, and are attended \fi\ix lightning, but no thunder, and very moderate winds.

IV. Sarat Ritu contains Alpishi and Carticay. In the former, heavy rains come, once in six or eight days, from the north-east. Each fall in general continues a whole day. There is very little wind, and the heats are by the natives reckoned moderate ; that is, to an European they are not absolutely frying. In Carticay, there are usually only two or three days' rain, which also comes from the

CHAP. IX.] liTSORE, CANAEA, AND MALABAR, 43$

eastward. The winds are moderate, and easterly. The air is cool. 1800. Toward the end of the month tiiere are heavy dews. ^*- "' ^^'

y. Hemanta Ritu contains Margully and Tey. About the middle of Margully tliere are showers for three or four hours iu the day, with moderate winds from the south, and some thunder. At other times there are heavy dews, with a very cold air^ and south- easterly winds of very moderate strength. The sky is sometimes clear, and at others cloudy,

VI. Sayshu Ritu, oontains Mashi and Panguny. Towards the end of Panguny there are sometimes squalls from the westward, with thunder and rain ; but the greater part of the season is dear and hot« with light breezes from the south, and moderate dews.

In the southern parts of the Coimbetore province, opposite to the breach in the mountains at AnUmalaya, the winds in the beginning of the south-west monsoon are excessively violent.

All the people here allege, that the rains are more regular and in greater quantity above the Ohats, than they are here. This how- ever appears to me doubtful : although here, as well as above the Ohata^ the westerly winds bring the strongest rains ; yet here they enjoy a considerable portion of the rain from the other monsoon, which must prevent the country from ever being burnt up by a long drought.

Fevers and fluxes are epidemic from about the middle of October dimmmm, until the tenth of January ; and generally at the same time an epidemic distemper prevails among the cattle.

Since this part of the country has been under the management weigiitt«id of Major Macleod, that eentleroan has endeavoured to introduce "^^^'^'^ a regular standard of wei^ts and measures, similar to those in use in parts of his district that were formerly under Colonel Read. The shortness of the time has, however, hitherto prevented this salutary measure from being completely effected ; and the weights and mea- sures of almost every village cUffer from those of its neighbours.

Land Measure according to RegulaUon,

"For rice-land. 24 Adies^ or feet square=l Culj^ square feet 57&

100 Oulies =^\Chei 67,600.

The Chei is therefore'^ l^^t^V ^^^^^ nearly^

For dry-field. 6 J feet =1 Jfar.

16 Mars =1 Chdngali.

4 Chingdlis square =1 J3uZ2a= 173,050 squsure feei

The Bulla is, therefore, 3^«^ acres nearly.

The Chingali, or chain, belonging to the collector's office, I found to be actually 102 feet 8 inches long, and very rudely formed, some of the Mars being five or six inches longer than others ; for in India such a piece of workmanship as a measuring chain is far be- yond the skill of any native, who has not received long instruction from an European. On measuring a BnUa of land, I found it ^riAAr acres. These differences are trifling, however, and of no con- sequence in such accounts of the country as can be procured by a

436 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. traveller, who is constantly liable to errors of much greater magnitude.

oci. 16, 17. jj^ |.j^jg pjy,|. q£ j^ajor Macleod's district, the old oomputed Cheis, and

BuUas, are still continued in the accompts of every village, and every- where vary from one another.

Weights, according to the new Hegulaiion.

52 grains =1 Star-Pagoda. 520 grains, or lO Star-Pagoda^l Polam. 4160 grains, or 8 Potams - =1 Cudut Seer — 0^^^^^ lb. 20800 grains, or 5 Cucha Seers =1 Viaay. 166400 grains or 8 Visay - = 1 Munnagu =23{-5^ lbs. The Munnagu, by the English, is usually oalled Maund, The old weights, however, are in general use, and are as follow : 177 grains = 1 Dudxib. 1816 grains, or 8 Dudus =1 Potarru 4248 grains, or 3 Pofam«=l S^cr=O0vy^ lb. 21240 grains, or 5 Seera =1 Visay, 141600 grains, or 100 Polamsmml Tola=20 jVU^nr lb. By this are sold Betel^ut, black-pepper, Jagory, tamarinds, Sira- gum, or oummin-seed, Mendium^ or fenugreek, mustard, sugar, spices, cotton-thread, raw-silk, poppy-seed, garlic, ginger, Oheej or boiled butter, and medicines.

Cotton-wool is sold by the Tucu of 50 Polams^lO^^Q lb.

Dry Measures in use.

66 Dudus weight of Horse-gram (seed Cubical inches.

of the Dolichos hiflorus) ... =1 Puddy -i 45 f^ 224 Dudusy or 4 Puddies ... - 1 Bulla =181 ^

1960 Dudus, or 40 Bullae ... = 1 Candaca =7248,'^

The Candaca, therefore, contains 3 1^^ bushels.

Coins.

Accompts are kept in SuUany Rupees, and fractions |, j;, |, iV» &o- as usual in India. The sixteenths here are called Vishuna, The variety of coins current is very great, and hardly any of them are ali- quot parts of the SuUany Rupee ; nor is there any regulated price for their value, ftie money-changers managing the affidr as they please. The following is the market-price at present, isiSultany Rupees, and decimal parts.

Oold Coins.

Varahun SuUany, or Tippoo's Pagoda... Sy. Rs. 3625

V.Bahadury,oTHyder^siitlo 3*625

Pu VarahuHy or Star ditto Feringy ditto, or Porto Novo ditto Sultany Panam, or Fanam Vir'-Raya ditto or ditto Gopaly ditio OT ditto

• •• • • • ...

••• • •

••• ... ...

3-25

2-75

0-2335

0-2222

0125

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. ^^*j

Silver Caifu.			1800.
Sultany Rupee		10	Oct. It, 17.
Pandioherry ditto	• • •	10
Company ditto, Rupee coined at Madras	• • •	0-9062
Arcot ditto	• • •	0-875
Myla Panam double Fanam of Madras	•••	01481
Shina ditto» or single Fanam of Madras	•••	0-0740

Copper Coins.

Ani Dudu^ or elephant Dub of Madras English 0*0146 Ani Oaehij or ditto Cash ot ditto ... 0*0029

The Sultdny Rupea contains 1 65 grains of pure silver, and there- fore would be worth, at the royal mint in the Tower, a little less than 28. Bat 3^ Rupees purchase one Star^Pagoda, containing 41 ^ grains of pure gold^ which are worth at the same SS^d. nearly : besides, one Rupee exchanges for 4 +1+^ of ^ Sultany laname^ which reduced to decimals is 4*2812, and these at the mint piice are worth Z2d. Silver, therefore, both here and at Seririgapatam, is of considerably more value in proportion to gold, tlian it is by the standard of Bri- tish coin. In all calculations I shall reduce the money to the British standard by the most common coins cuiTcnt in the province of Coim^ betore ; and these are the Sultany and Vir*'Raya Faname : the former is worth at the British mint 7^^,^., and the latter 5,^^. ;bttt where great precision is not wanted, the one may be tak^a at f^d. and the other at 6d. For changing a Rupee into copper money, the dealers in coin take two Cash. If sdver is wanted for gold, nothing is required ; but if gold is wanted for silver, nine Cash are required for every Fa- goda. The shells called Cov/ries are not cunent

Road Measure*

Distances are reckoned by the time a man oupfht to take in walk- ing them. The distance a man can walk in the Hind/u hour, of forty- four European minutes, is called Umalivuttiea ; which measures what Major Rennell means by a coss of the Carnatic, which is 37^ go to a degree. 7| Urnodivullies are reckoned 1 Cadam^ or hours-journey with loaded cattle. 2^ UmalivuUiee are equal to one Sultany Goae, or Hardary. Cose, it must be observed, is a word from the North of India.

The principal native officer here says, that people are now em- New meunxr*- ployed in measuring the lands which belong to all the villages in this SS.*"*^*^"** latdy acquired division of Major Macleod's district. The measure- ment, however, will be by no means complete ; as large hflls and wastes are not included within the boundaries of any village, and will not be comprehended in the accompts. Even within the idllage boundaries it is only the lands that are considered arable, or as ca- pable of being made so, that are actually measured ; steep and rocky places are taken by conjecture. The people employed to measure are called Peymaehi (i. e., measurers); as while they measure the land they

438 A JOURNET FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. put on it a fair valued reut^ which is to be that levied on the £Biinei*s

Oct. 16, 17. ^ g^^^ ^ ^1^^ valuation is complete. In the meanwhile the culti- vators pay the tax to government by an old rental and measurement, which is extremely unequal and erroneous. The fields have been found to contain from } more to double of what they ought to do, and their rents have been found to be not at all in proportion to the quality of the soiL The surveyors are dependent on the collector alone ; and their reports are made up into proper form by fifteen clerks called Mutastddies^ who reside at the principal office. Ron! of dry-field The old BuUas of dry-ficld let from eight to twenty-five Canter'^ Baya Fanama ; but it is impossible to say what this would amount to by the acre, owing to the inequality of their dimensions. Rent of watered Formerly the watered lands were let by a division of the crops, ^^^' and in the country below the Ghats the government took two-thunis

of the crop, leaving one- third to the cultivator. About thirty years ago this was altered by Hyder^ who introduced a fair rent, tiie ac- compts being kept in Vir'-Raya Fanama. On this all of the old far- mers, who were moMy Brdhmans, ran away. So the ground was forced upon those who remained, and the Sudras who had formerly been chiefly employed in cultivating dry-field. The Sultan raised the rents firom Vir'liaya to Canter^-Raya Fanama, on which all the old &nners disappeared, and the lands fell entirely into the hands of the Sudras, who were obliged to betake themselves to abetter mode of cultivation, that they mifi;ht be able to pay the high rent The watered lands aro let by what is computed to be a Candaca sowing. The actual rent for one of these is from eighty to two hundred Canter^-Baya Fanama ; but one hundred and twenty may be taken as the average, which is equal in value to twelve Candacaa of rough rice. The whole additional rents imposed by the Sultan hxiYe been removed; and, owine to the poverty of the fanners, an abatement of ten per cent has been made, from what was demanded by Hyder. My informant does not think that the land-tax under that judicious prince was by any means exorbitant. He says, that the farmers always prefer the division of the crop to a fixed rent ; partly from their being able to defiraud the government, and partly from those who are necessi- tous being obliged to sell off the whole of their grain imme- diately after the harvest, in order to pay the rent Such a large quantity brought into the msgrket at once unavoidably de- presses the price. The plan which Pumea has adopted in the vicinity of Seringapaiam seems an excellent one ; he has there fixed the quantity of grain to be paid annually ; by which means fraud is avoided, and the farmer is not forced to sell his grain to a disadvantage. A farmer cannot be turned out of any field that he has cultivated, so long as he pays the fixed rent, but he may give it up whenever he pleases. Advances of money, for one year without interest, have been made by the Company to such of the poor fanners as chose to accept of this assistance, in order to enable them to carry on cultivation. The government keeps up all reservoirs or

CHAP. IX.] MTSORB, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 43^

canals for watering the land; which is done by paying money wages isoo. to day-labourers, under the inspection of the district native officers, ^*- **»*^- or, if the work be great, under tlie inspection of an officer (Daroga, or Mutasiddy) appointed for the purpose.

Every village had formerly an hereditary chief, or, as he isvuiag»offi6«n.. called in the Tamul language, a Munigar ; and every large village, or every two or three small ones, had an hereditary accomptant, called here Canidapillay. An order was issued both by Hyder and Tippoo^ that all offenders and peculators should be dismissed from these offices, and new men appointed in their stead ; but these orders were never enforced until it was done by Major Madeod. The new men are considered as put in possession of an hereditary office, and are liable to forfeiture on account of misdemeanour.

On the fifteenth of November, and tlie forty-five following days, Manner of let- every farmer gives in to the CanicapiUay, or village accomptant, a by thJ caiii«»- list of the fi^ds which he undertakes to cultivate for that year, p^^'^y*- The accomptants then assemble, and deliver to the collector a list of all the lands that have been taken ; the rental of the lands so taken is then made out from the fixed valuation, and the whole farmers of each village are jointly bound for the payment of its rent. This is the principal duty of the CanicapUUiy, but he is also bound to assist the Munigar in collecting the rent.

The Munigara are not now permitted to rent or farm their vil- awtiffan^r lages ; as it was found that they spent the money, as it was raised *^^*'*® **^ from the cultivators, and wei'e not able to.fiU their engagements. The rents are now paid by eight monthly instalments, which are re- ceived firom the cultivators by the Munigar^ and immediately trans- mitted to the chief officer of the district, called a TahsUdari When- ever a farmer is deficient in the pajrment of an instalment, he is by the Munigar carried to the Tahsudar, who puts him in confinement until his effects are sold ; and any deficiency that there may then be, is made up by a contribution from the other farmers. It becomes thus impossible for any man to conceal his property in order to defraud the government, as every neighbour 13 interested to watch over his conduct.

The only other village officer is the Toti, who serves as a messen- i„f,rior TUiage ger and watchman. In vulages where there is rice ground, there is also omc«n, a Nun/y, or man to distribute the water, and watch over the reservoirs and canals.

The whole of these are paid by government, and the proper al- p.^ of the vii- lowance is for the Munigar two percent, on the rental ; for the Cani-^*^^^^^ capUlay two per cent ; for the Toti ) ^ per cent. ; and for the Nunjy 1^, in all 6 1 per cent. : but in small vilLeiges this allowance is increased, and in large ones it is diminished, so as to make the whole reason- able.

In every village there are charity lands belonging to the Chuma Luida utioDfiag D^vaJtoB ; that is to say, to their priests, who in this country are J2d£* ^'*'* never BrdhmaiM, These lands are cultivated by the priest, who

440

▲ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800

Oct. 16, I7.

tTnreH«on»ble«x- actlonfl Abolished

Division of the country into Talucs, or dis- tricts.

TahiOd&r,

MutanUdiii,

pays a small rent, but one very inadequate to their value. The SuU tan ordered all these lands to be resumed ; but he oould not carry the order into execution, and Major Maeleod does not attempt to en- force a measure so odious.

The officers of government, in travelling on public business, were formerly provided at the different villages with forage for their cattle, and with firewood^ without payment ; but Major Madeod has entirely abolished this vile practice.

This country, under Major Macleod's management, is divided into Talucs, paying annually from 28,000 to 45,000 Star Pagodas^ or from about 10,293/. to 16,545/., if the Pagoda be taken at its mint value. The establishment of officers for a Taluc is one Tahsildar ; one Siriahtddar ; three OomastaSj Mu4asiddi€8y clerks, or aj^ents ; one Saraf, or money-changer ; one Oola, or treasurer ; six Raicsay or letter- writers ; and from thirty to forty Attavamesy or messengers : besides a proportion of the five or six hundred Candanhara^ or armed men, that are kept in the whole country. All these receive monthly wages.

Ihe duty of the TaluildaT8 is to travel through their distrricts, inspecting the conduct of the village officers ; so as to prevent them from oppressing the farmers, and from cultivating any ground, ex- cept that which pays rent. He superintends the repairs of tanks and canals, receives the rents from the village officers, and transmits them with care to the general treasury. He acts as civil magistrate, in the first instance deciding all causes, but in every case there is an appeal to the collector. As officer of police, he takes up all cri- minals ; and, having examined witnesses, sends an account of the proceedings to the collector, who either orders punishment, or, if not satisfied, personally investigates the matter. He has no power, without orders from tlie collector, to inflict corporal punisnment. There is no jurisdiction in the province of a civil nature, that pos- sesses the power of life and death ; a want of which authority is much felt, as murders and robberies are very frequent. In order to

Eunish the more daring attempts of this kind, recourse has necessarily een had to courts martial Eight chie& of villages went to the insur- gent IhindiOy and procured from him an order to plunder the country. Having returned with this commission, they collected about five hun- dred ruffians, and plundered fi^a^^man^a^. Thirty of these people, having been taken, were hanged about four months ago. Had not very vigorous measures been taken to repress their barbaiity, every farmer in ti^e district wa.s . ready to have joined them, in order to share in the plunder of the towns. It must indeed be observed, tiiat throughout India the military portion of the Sridra caste, who are the common class of cultivators, are all by inclination addicted to robbery.

The Serishtadar and Mutaaiddies are accomptants. The ac- compts were formerly kept in the Canarese, or langiiage of Kctrn&ta ; but, since the country came under the Company's dominion, they

CHAP. IX.J MYSORE CANARA, AND MALABAR. 441

have been changed into the Maratiah, Both languages seem impro- isoo. per for the purpose. The acoompts ought eertainly to be kept in^'- '^' '^' the language of the TamulSj which is that of the country, and which would not require the revenue officers of Madras to become acquaint- ed with an additional dialect.

Having assembled the most intelligent farmers in the neigh- thq nunujar, or bourhood^ tiiey told me, that, whatever government may choose to do hSrodiui^^ii- with his power and emoluments, the real hereditary Munigar will ^s« p»««t. always continue to enjoy his rank as chief ; for he is the only person who can perform the annual sacrifice to the goddess Bhadra Kdli, to whom in every village there is a temple, as being the Qrdma D^vatd, or village deity.

When Tippoo stopped the allowances that had formerly been ?3J^*<>^« •''^b- granted to the temples of the great gods, the revenue officers collect- ed money from the people in order to celebrate the usual festivals. For the two last years of the SuLtdn^a reign, the Mussulman officers pocketed one-half of these collections, and gave the remainder to the Bfdhmanai so that none of the festivals were celebrated. The people seem much pleased with the restoration of the ceremonies^ for which an allowance is made by the collector.

In Hyder^a government a rich fiirmer would have, in constant 8i« of f»nn«, employ, thiily men servants, and fifteen women. He would have^stod?.*^ ^^ also twelve ploughs, forty-eight oxen, one hundred and fifty cows, and two hundred Adu^ or sheep and goats. Such a man would cul- tivate fifty Bullaa of dry-field, or seventy-five Ch&ia of rice land. Taking the average excess of the estimated contents of fields, above actual measurement, to be sixty per cent., this would make such a man's farm about tiiree hundred and seventy acres of dry- field, or one hundred and fifty-eight acres of rice-ground. The number of servants seems by this account to be greatly exagge- rated, and also the quantity of land that was cultivated by one plough. A farmer is now reckoned rich who has four ploughs with two oxen to each. The generality have at present two ploughs, and cultivate about four Bullaa of dry-field, or about twenty-five acres, following the same rate of size for the computed BuUaa as before mentioned. Although these men complain thus of their want of stock, they must not be implicitly credited ; for, when afterwards questioned concerning the manner of ploughing, they say, that one man is kept for every plough ; that he goes out at 8un-rise with two oxen, and ploughs until near noon, when he is allowed an hour for breakfast. He tl^en ploughs, until sun-set, with another team ; so that for every plough four oxen must bo allowed.

The hinds, or servants hired for the year by the farmers, are i>rice of ubonr. here called PvAdiaZ, and are on the same footing with the Batigaa of Karndta. They sometimes bind themselves for & number of years, in which case the master advances money for their marriage expenses, and deducts so much from their monthly pay, until he is

56

442 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. repaid. Unless tied down by some stipulation of this nature, they

Oct. 16, 17. j^j^y change their service whenever they please. A servant gets from his master a house, and from fifteen to twenty GdpdLy Faiiams, or from 5s. to 68, 8d. a year, with a monthly allowance of twenty Vullas, or 1^^^ bushel of OTain. Their wives, when they are able ,to work, have daily wages. Day-labourers at harvest time, whether men or women, get daily one Bulia and a half (rather more than i bushel) of the grain called Cambu. At weeding the crops, the daily wages are one Bulla of Cambu, or about -{4 of a bushel A man working with a hatchet or pickaxe gets one Gdpdiy Fanam (ahowt 4d.) a day ; canying earth in baskets, or the like, he gets | of a Odpdly Fanam, or 3rf. ; and porters, for carrying a load eight Uriui- vulliea, or Malabar hours' journey, get two Gdpdly Fanams, or nearty 8rf. impiemenuof The implements of husbamdiy are here more miserable, and

LuhUndry. fewer in number, than those used above the Ghats, The farmers of Ch^ra have no carts, no drill plough, no rake, nor hoe drawn by oxen, nor do they use even a bunch of thorns to supply the want of a harrow. Their plough is the same with that used in the vicinity of Seringapatam, and they have all the small iron instruments that are in use above the Ghats, except the UjaH, or weeding-iron. To plough a BuUa of dry-field once in one day, six ploughs are re- quired ^^♦'iv ^ w»ter. r[^jje quantity of watered land, or of Nunjy as it is here called,

being veiy small, I shall defer taking any account of its cultivation till I go to a place where it is in greater plenty. A fine canal is taken from the Bhatcdn{ here, by means of a dam ; but the ground that it supplies with water is chiefly in the neighbourhood of Erodu. Atryv,o» dry- The principal cultivation here is that of dry-field, which in this

^'^^' country is called Punjy.

BoicusspictavM Cambu, or Holcus spicatm, is by far the greatest article of

or cambu, culture. It is of two kiuds, Ard and Natu.

Of the kind The Ard Cambu is cultivated as follows. The field is manui-ed

c'ambuf'"^ with dung. From about the 16th of April to the 10th of June, it is ploughed four times, and after each ploughing the roots of grass and weeds are removed by the hand. The seed is then sown broad-cast, and covered by the plough. A month afterwards the field is ploughe<l again ; and fifteen days afterwards this is repeated in a cross direc- tion, the com being tiien about six inches high. The intention of these two ploughings is to kill superfluous pknts. Weeds, as they spring up, are removed by the hand. In three months and a half the Cambu ripens. The ears or spikes of grain are first cut off, aud immediately trodden out by oxen, and the grain cleaned with a fan. If kept in bales, bound up with straw, the grain will preserve for ten years ; but that intended for present use is put into pits, where it will not keep more than three months. The straw is after- wards cut down close to the ground, and is used both for tbak'ii and as fodder, for which it is here prefeiTed to the straw of rice ;

CHAP. IX] IHYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 443

■

but I observe, that in every district the straw which is most com- igOO: mon is preferred for fodder; merely from custom and prejudice, ^*' *®' *^' without any actual or rational experiment having been made to ascertain its comparative value. A Bulla land requires four BuUcls of seed ; or an acre, 0*08486 decimal parts of a bushel. In a good crop it shoidd produce seventy-two fold, or two hundred and eighty-eight Bidlas, which is at the rate of 61 -^js bushels an acre. The Arsi Oambu thrives best on a light sandy soil, called here Pa- dagu ; next best on Shin and Eram soils, or red and black moulds ; next best on Callan Cumy, or soil containing rounded stones. For this object of culture, soil containing calcarious Tufa^ or fixed rocks, is very bad. The farmers have no knowledge of the advantages to be derived from a change of crops. They know that some e^thaust the ground more than others ; but the remedy which they apply is giving a greater quantity of manure to the crop that follows one of an exhausting nature ; and they often continue for many years suc- cessively to cultivate the same field with the same crop. They are here sensible of the advantage of fallow ; but very rich people only have recourse "to what is considered as a very expensive mode of improvement ; as they must pay the rent for the field, whether they plough it or not. In general, it is thought that the difierence in the crop after a fallow does not make up for the loss of a year's rent. Cambu is not considered to be an exhausting crop.

The Natu GawJm seed is diflerent from the And, and is culti-^K^'^iiLI^jf ,„. vated in a different manner. The field is manured and then ** ploughed once between the 10th of April and the 10th of May. Between the 10th of June and 10th of July it is ploughed a second time. It is sown with the commencement of the rainy season, which generally happens from the 1 0th of July to the 1 0th of September, though sometimes the rains do not commence until between the 10th of September and 10th of October ; in which case, the sowing of the Cambu must be deferred until the rains begin. The sowing is pre- ceded and followed by a ploughing ; after which the crop is managed exactly like the Arai Cambu. It requires five months to ripen, and is equal in quality to the other kind ; but from the same quantity of seed, and extent of ground, yields only half of the produce.

With both kinds of Cambu are sown two kinds of pulse. The r.rainasown seed of Tata Pyru, or Dolichos Catajangy is mixed with that of the c^wiu\iuhos Cambu, to the quantity of half a Puddy to the Bulla land, and then ^^^°'^' sown with it. If the Camim does not thrive well, this pulse pro- duces about twelve Bullas, or about I bushel on the acre. If the Cambu is a good crop, the quantity of puLse will be about one-fourth part less.

Machu Cotay, or DolicJios Lablab, is also sown with Cambu. On iMickos labiab, the day after sowing the Cambu, furrows are drawn through the field, at the distance of six cubits, and about two Bullae of the Muchu Cotay seed is dropt into the furrows of one Bulla land. If the Cambu grows properly, this pulse will only produce about twelve

444f

A JOURNET FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAF. IX.

1800.

Oct. 16, 17 Seianium.

or Colu,

Cotton, or J'iruti.

A'adum Pirati

Bullas ; but, if the crop of Cambu be bad, that of the puke will amount to twenty Bullas, or to less than ^ bushel on the acre.

Sesamum is sometimes sown mixed with Cambu ; but in such small quantities, as not to be an object worth particular consideration. DoHchasbiflorus, Next to Cavibu and its concomitants, the most considerable crop here is Colu, Horse-gram, or Dolichoa bifloi^us. From about the middle of September to that of October, plough once, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough. It requires no manure ; but, if some dung be given, the crop will be greatly improved. It ripens in five months ; a Bulla land requires six Bullae of seed, and in a good crop produces ninety-six Bullae, The seed for an acre, according to this, will be i bushel, and the produce two bushels.

The next most considerable crop is cotton- It is of two kinds, Ufum Pirati, and Nadum Pirati,

The seed of the Nadum Pirati, to the quantity of six Bullae for the Bulla land, is mixed with the usual quantity of Cambu, Colu or Sholum, and sown broad-cast, without any ferther preparation than would be necessary for the single crop. After the crop of grain has been cut down, the field is ploughed four times between the plants. The intervals between these ploughings are from ten days to a month, according as rain happens to come ; lor each ploughing must be performed immediately after a copious rain. Tne cotton next year produces a small crop in the month which ' commences about the 12th of July ; and a larger crop in that which commences about the loth of January. On tne third year the field is ploughed again in July, and gives then a small crop. It is ploughed again in the month commencing about the middle of November, and gives a good crop in January, The field is then manured, and cultivated for two years with grain. With the third crop the cotton seed may be again sown. The crop of grain accompanying the cotton on the first year is as good as that sown by itself. Some poor people sow a crop of Cambu among the growing cotton plants, in the se- cond and third years ; but if produces very little. The quality of the July and Januaiy crops of the same year is equal ; but the crops of the second year are superior, both in quantity and quality, to those of the third. The cotton, as sold by the farmers, is mixed with the seed, and, according to the demand, varies from two to four G&pdly Fanams a Tucu, for that of the first two crops. The produce of the two crops of the third year sells for about J of a Fanam lower than that of the second year.

Produce ois^ Bulla land.

Q6p6ljf Fanams.

1st year, 288 JBitiifls of OaTTiiu, average value 57^

2nd year, July crop seven Tucua ofcotton, January crop 8 Tucu9 4t5 3d year, ditto ... two ditto ditto two ditto 12

GSpdli/ Fanams 114 J This, divided by three for the years employed, would give only

CHAP. IX.] UYSOBE, CAIfARA, AKD MALABAK. 445

38^ Q6pdly Fanams for the yearly gross produce of a Bulla land of ^SOO. the worst quality, or 3«. 2 j[d. an acre. oct. le, 17.

The Upum cotton is raised on Erum bumy, or black mould ; andin cotton called this of kind cultivation the following succession of crops is taken : first ^^^^ ^'^^^' year cotton ; second year cotton; third year Cambu (Holcus spicatwi) \ fourth year Sliolum (HoIcub sarghum). The cotton ought to have dung, but this is sometimes omitted. The manure is first put on,, and Uien the field is ploughed four times, from about the middle of August to that of October. With the first rain, in the following month, the cotton-seed is sown broadcast, and ploughed down. From the 12th of December to the 12th of January, the weeds are removed by a small hoe named Cotu. The crop is collected from about the be- ginning of April until the 10th of May. If there come rain afterwards there is &om the middle of July to that of August another small crop, and then the field is jdoughed up again for the second yeai*'s crop, which is managed exactly like the first. The two crops of cot- ton are nearly equal in quantity and quality. The Upum cotton sells for nearly the same price as the Kadum, although the wool is not of so good a quality ; but then its seeds bear a smaller propor- tion to the wool, than those of the Nadum cotton do. A BulUi of land requires eight Bullae of seed, and in favourable seasons pro- duces fifteen Tucus in April, and five Tucm in July. The mcr- diants sell it, with the seed, to the women who spin. A woman takes two days to dean one Tucu of cotton, and to fit it for spin- ning.

Near Bhawdni-kudal these are by far the most considerable crops. But several other articles are cultivated.

Shamay, or Fantcum miliare E. M. is cultivated as follows. JiifJI'sIl^**^* The field is manured, and then ploughed from two to four times in ' **' ''**^' the two months following the 12th of July. In the beffinning of September, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. The weeds must be removed with a small hoe in me end of October, and again about the end of November ; and in five months the crop ripens. The proper soil for this is a red mould called Shin bumy ; nor does it here thrive on the sandy soil that is generally used for it above the Ghats, It does not exhaust the ground, and its straw is reckoned a better fodder than that of Uambu. A Bulla land requires six Bullaa of seed, and produces three Podis, or two hundred and eighty-eight Bullae, The acre, therefore, requires 0127:^9 bushel of seed, and produces 6iV^ bushels.

Varagu, or tiiePaepalumfrumentaceum of Dr. Roxburgh's MSS. ptupaiumfi-w and probably the Paspalum kora of Willdenow, is cultivated as fol- ■•*"**<*•***• lows. The field having been previously manured, is ploughed twice or thrice, from the 10th of Apm to the 10th of June. The seed is sown bnntd-cast about the last mentioned time, and then covered by a ploughing. Next day the Tovary seed {Cyiiaus Cajan) is drilled in furrows six cubits distant. A month afterwards the plants will be a span high, and the superfluous ones must be destroyed by

446

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800.

Oct. 16, 17.

Patpatum pih- iutn.

Sttamum.

Car* AIM.

Citr' £ttu.

ploughing the field. Fifteen days afterwrards this must be ploughed again in a direction crossing the former at right angles. The Va- ragu requires seven months to ripen, and the straw is bad fodder. A Bulla land requires for seed six BuUcos of Varagu, and two of Tovary, In a good crop it produces one hundred and ninety-two Bullae of the former, and fifty of the latter. An axsre, therefore, requires for seed J bushel of VaragUy and ^ bushel of Tovary, and produces 4^^ bushels of the former, and 1 J of the latter.

Pant Varagu, or the Paspalum pilosum of Dr. Roxburgh's MSS. is cultivated as follows. Having manured the field from about the middle of August to the middle of October, plough it immediately twice or thrice ; sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with another ploughing. At the end of a month, weed with the small hoe called Cotu, It ripens in sixty days. The straw is very good for cattle. It is, however, sown in such small quantities, that no estimate can be formed of iJie produce of a Bulla land.

Here are three kinds of Ellti or Sesamum^ that are cultivated ; and the seeds are always kept separate, and cultivated at different seasons.

The Car' Ellu has a black seed, and is sown with Camhvu (Hoi- ens spicatus)^ as I have already mentioned.

The Cur' Ellu has red seed. Between the 10th of April and 10th of May the ground is ploughed once, sown broad-cast, and then ploughed again. At the end of a month the weeds are pulled up by the hand. In three months the seed is ripe. A BuUuk land re- quires \\ Bulla of seed, and in a good crop produces ninety-six Bullae, or one PoiL An acre, therefore, requires ,V bushel of seed, and produces two bushels.

The VuUay Ellu has white seed. Tlie field for this must be manured, and ploughed once or twice in August, or the beginning; of September. About the middle of September the seed is sown, and covered by the plough. At the end of a month the weeds must be removed by the hand or hoe. The quantity sown on a ^Ur/^a-land is the same as of Car^ Ellu. It ripens in four months, and a Bulla land in a good crop produces sixty -four Bullae ; or an acre one bushel and a half. The soil proper for Ellu is Skin Bumy, or red mould ; but a sandy soil also answers. This crop is reckoned very exhausting. HOevi iorghuwL Sholum^ or Holcus sorghum, is cultivated as foUows. Having ma- nured the field, it must be ploughed twice or thrice between the 10th of April and 12th of May, and between that time and the 1 0th of June it is sown broad-cast, and ploughed again. Next day drills are made for Avaray (Dolichos Lablab) and Tovary {Cytisns Gajan); and some seeds of a oucurbitaceous fruit, called Shucum Vdari Gai, are often intermixed At the end of a month the field is ploughed, and the weeds removed by the hand« In six months it ripens. A Bulla land, for seed, requires four Bidlas of Sholum, and, besides the pulse, produces in a good crop two Podis of Sholum, or one hundred and ninety-two Bullae, which is at the rate of 4t\ bushels on the acr

VvIUty Xttm,

e.

(.'HAP. IX.) MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 447

Ef-wm and Shin humies, or black and red moulds, are equally well 1800. fitted for this grain. The straw is reckoned better fodder than that ^^ **^' ^^' of Oambu.

Tenay, or Panicitm italicum ; T^ulindu, or Phaseolua minimoo, ^I^*^2\\^^^ Roxburgh's MSS. ; Pacha Pyru, or Phaseolua Mungo ; and Cota^ quwlttUM. Hutu, or Ricinus Palmd ChrisH, are also cultivated here ; but in such very small quantities as to render them of no importance.

I suspect the produce of these crops is under-ratea by the per- sons who gave me this account.

The principal native officer here says, that in Major Mac- Fontti a&d leod's district there is no forest-renter ; and that any person who ^■■**** pleases may cut Bamboos, or forest trees. Nor is any rent exacted from those who feed cattle in waste lands, except where the pasture is very good ; and there, for an exclusive privilege of keeping their herds, some people pay a trifle. The honey is collected by the far- mers of each village, who keep the wax for their trouble, and ought to give the honey to the government. That which is produced on the high hills is rented by the tribe called Soligas. In this district there is no Lac,

At BaraguTu and Punachi near A Iwmhady^ and in one place 8»n^*i-wood. near Ougul-^iatty, sandal-wood is procured. People are hired by the collector to bring it here. It is cut, on the spot, into billets from one cubit to one and a half in length, and the white- wood is immedi- ately removed. The rough billets are then sent to Bhawdnt kudalj and have as yet been all kept there just as they were brought, with- out being soiled or polished. It is reckoned inferior in quality to that which comes from the western part of the Mysore JRajWs domi- nions ; but none has as yet been sold. None of it is stolen, and care is taken to cut that only which is ripe ; so that there will be a certain quantity procured annually. My informant thinks that this will amount to about four hundred loads each weighing eight Maunds of forty Seers of twenty-four Diidm ; or in aU about six hundred and ninety-three hundred weight.

l^ih October, — I went seven Indian hours' journey along the oct is. northern bank of the Bhaivdn(, to Apogodal. The country through oo^tiy*""* which I passed is level, and well peopled ; and the quantity of waste land is not considerable : it indeed seems too small to be able to afford pasture for the cattle. I saw eight or ten acres only of ricd- ground, and one half of that was waste. The only fences were a few hedges made of dry bushes. The cultivation is extremely slovenly, more so even than in any place above the Ghats, It is said, that at any distance from the river one half of the fields is waste. Near the hills is Andeuru, the chief place of a large dis- trict comprehending Kdteri-pura and Bhawam/C-hidal. In its vicinity are said to be seven reservoirs in repair, which supply with water a considerable quantity of rice-ground.

Apogodal contains a temple of Iswara, and about one hundred Apogodai. houses, but has not a single shop. Bazars, or shops, indeed, seem to

44?8 A JOURNEY FROM -MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX

1800. be uncommon in this country ; and the inhabitants supply themselves

Oct. u. ^j|.|j necessaries at fairs, called here Shand/ty^ and which resemble

the Hants and Oanges of Bengal. Apogodal was sold by Hyder to a banker named Valmun Doss, who gave sixty thousand Pagodas on condition of holding it as a Jagnirt. It then contained between three and four hundred houses. The head man of the village says that five years after this sale, and about thirty years ago, the Ma- rattahs invaded the country, and laid every thing waste ; since which it has never recovered its former prosperity. He remembers no other invasion ; I therefore suspect that the Maratiahs he speaks of was the army of General Meadows ; all matter of history being in a sad confusion in the mind of a Hindu. He says that after the invasion a famine followed, which destroyed a great part of the inhabitants. The epidemic distemper prevailed among their cattle last year, and carried off about three-eighths of their stock ; but they met not with the smallest disturbance from the war. B«nt When Hyder sold this place to Valmun Doss, a small land

measure was introduced, and a Bvdkt land was called one and a quarter. Tippoo afterwards seized on this man's property, which was then measured, and what his villainous officers called a Bulla is now found to contain twice that extent. I measured a Bulla here, and found it agreeable to the standard at Bhawdni-kudal. It was of a very poor soil, fit for Cambu, and paid ten Fanams rent, or at the rate of 18J(i. an acre. The best dry field here lets at thirty-five Canter'-raya Fanams, and the worst at five, for the Bulla. The acre therefore lets at from 6«. 6d. to nearly 9 JA crotoiaria AliJiouffh tiiQ fanucrs of Bhxiwdni-kudal oudiied it in their

account of the produce of the country, I found that on the banks of the river a great deal of Shanapu, or Orotolariajuncea, is cultivated. It is here raised by the farmers, and, when fit for being put into the water, is sold to the people called Telinga Chitties, who make the hemp, and work it up into Ooni, or sack-cloth. The field is dunged, and ploughed twice, between the twelfth of July and the same day of August. At any time in the course of the two following months, after a rain, the seed is sown broad-cast, and covered by the plough. At the same time any bushes that have not been ploughed down must be removed by the hand. In order to prevent the plant firom putting out side-branches, the seed is sown very thick ; ninety-six BuUas are therefore required for a Bulla land, or rather more than two bushels for an acre. It is sold by the thousand handfuls, or as much as a man can grasp between his finger and thumb. Tall plants sell at two Rupees for the thousand himdfuls, short ones for one Rupee and a half. It thrives best on a poor sandy soil, but is also cultivated on black and red moulds. It is reckoned to improve the soil for every other kind of crop ; but it cannot be cultivated on the same ground for two successive years. Cattle will eat the seed ; but when given to cows with calf, it is said to produce abortion.

juriOM.

CHAP. IX]

MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALADAR.

449

Near Apogodal^ Tenay, or the Panicum italicum, is raised in isoo.

f^reater quantities than at JBAai«;awi-A:iwiaZ. It is cultivated exactly JI^M®^ ^^^,. like the Arai Cambu, and ripens in three months. ' Its sti'aw is worse cum, or niwy. fodder than that of Cambu. A Bulla land requires eight Bullae of seed, and in a good crop produces three PodiSy or two hundred and ' eighty-eight Bullaa : an acre, therefore, requires 1 ^h^ gallon of seed, and produces 6^^ bushels.

The principal dry crops here are explained in the following produce of the

foKln* * most common

^^^^^^ • crops.

t Kinds. 1	Seed.	Produce.
Per Bulla	Per Acre.	Per Bulla	Per Acre.
r 1 1 Cambu Golu : Shoium Varagu 1 Sfua/may 1	Bidlas. 6 10 8 8 8	Gallons, dec 1018 1-697 1-358 1-358 1-358	Podis. 3 2 2i 4 4	Bushels, dec 611 4073 5-092 8147 8147

19th Octobei\ — ^I went a very long stage, called nine hours' oct. i9. journey, to Nala-rdy ana-pally am, a small village on the bank of ^''"**'"'* """"* the river, which at all seasons contains running water, and has here many pools, which are always deep, and harbour crocodiles.

More than three-fourths of the countiy through which I travel- Appearance of led seemed to be waste. I passed a fine reservoir full of water. In ^^"^ '^°""^'y- the ground which it irrigates, cultivation was just commencing ; for the whole had been waste last year. Several clear streams run down from the hills to the Bfutwdni. The soil is sandy, and contains many loose stones and rocks ; but traces are to be seen of the whole having been formerly cultivated.

Ihere being much rice cultivated near this, I assembled the Cuiuraiion of most intelligent farmers, and took from them the following account ^»*««^«** ^»^^- of the cultivation of Nunjf/, or watered land. No rice can be made in this country by the rain water alone; the whole must be artifi- cially supplied, either by canals or by reservoirs. A dam on the Bkatodni, three Malabar hours' journey below Sati-^mangala, sends off a canal to each side of the river. That which goes on the south side, and passes through tlie district called Gdpala Ghitty Pallyam, waters a greatextent of ground. This one, that comes on the north side through Sati-mangala, waters eleven hundred Oandacaa of rice-land, and one hundred and thirty-two Candacaa of gardens. Two hundred of these Candacaa are at present unoccupied ; and a moderate repair given to the Dam, would enable it to water in all thirteen hundi-ed and fifty Candacas of rice-land. The Candaca here is said to be as much ground as used to be sown with eighty Seera of sprouted need, and to extend from 1 J to 1 1 of the new Chcis, It ought,

57

450 A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH (CHAP. IX.

1800. therefore, to be on an average 75,600 square feet. The land watered

Oct. 1?. jjy canals gives only one crop in the year, but that never fails. A

little land watered from reservoirs, when the season is favourable, gives annually two crops ; but as the supply in the tank often fails, owing to a want of rain, the rent of the two kinds of ground is nearly the same. Scat. Thirty-years ago the dry-field was cultivated by one set of men

and the watered lands by another, who paid to government two- thirds of the produce. ITiis was idtered by Hyder, who introduced a fixed rent in money, even for watered land. On this many of the old farmers gave up their lands, which were forced on ihose who remained, and on those who formerly cultivnted only dry miins. Tippoo raised the rents from Vir' Raya Fanavis, in whi^ the accompts had formerly been kept, to SuUany Fatiams^ of which one hundred are equal to about one hundred and twent^'^-five of the former. The whole of the old ciiltivators of the watered lands, who were mostly Brdhvuins, now disappeared, and the lands were forced upon the cultivators of dry-field, who say that they have thereby been reduced to great poverty. Having a high rent to pay, they have been compelled to betake themselves to greater industry than formerly was practised. They have given up the sprouted-seed cultivation, which required little trouble ; and, ex- cept on a small quantity of poor low -rented land, have adopted the more laborious culture by transplantation, owing to which the pro- duce of the land has been almost doubled. Those fanners who still cultivate nothing but dry-field allege that they are worse off than those who have taken rice-grounds, as, owing to a regular supply of water jfrom the river, the crop on these never fails. No one, however, could expect, that any of these poor people should confess that they were satisfied with their lot. A sandy loam is here reckoned the most favourable for rice, and, according to its four qualities, lets for 230, 200, 190, and 180 SuUany Fanama a Candaca ; or for 42. 2s. S^d., 3f. Ms. Ud., 31 8^. 4d. and 3/. 48. 8}d an acre. Black and red clay lands let, according to their quality, for 180. 160, 150, and 140 Sultany Fananis a Candaca; or 3/. 4«. 8|^., 2i. 17*. 6Jd., 21. 13«. U{(i. and 2/. 10«. 4(1 an acre. Stony land lets for 140, 130, 120, and 100 Sultany Fawiws a Candaca; or for 2L 10«. 4(2., 2/. 68. 9d, 22. :i8. v|(/. and \l \58. 1 1^. an acre. A still inferior soil lets for 100, 80, 60, and 50 Sultany Fanams a Camiaca ; or 11. 15s.ll^d.,ll. Ss. 9{d., 11. 1«. 7{d. and 17«. ll|«i. an acre. These rents seemed so high in proportion to the extent of ground, that at the time I suspected the farmers of alleging the dimensions of the Candaca to be smaller than they really are ; but I have now reason to think that the statements given here are not materially erroneous. nl^JoIk«ion in ^^ Tippoo' 8 government the farmers were ordered to pay for the 7Yp;M>o'«coT»rii- whole lands, whether they were cultivated or not : but a small part ^^^^ only reached the treasury. In order to prevent the people from

complaining, small balances were allowed to remain in their hands,

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANAKA» AND MALABAR. 451

while in the public accompts a very large proportion of the nominal 1800. revenue was stated to be outstanding, owing to bad seasons, the ^^^ ^*- desolations of war, or other pretences ; and, whatever was not allowed to remain with the farmers was embezzled by the officers of government. These, however, did not enjoy in quiet thMr ill- gotten wealth. They were in constant terror ; and, in order to pre- vent information, were obliged to give very high bribes to Meer SttduCy and to officers who were sent round, to inspect the state of the country. The illicit gains of even this description of officers did not enrich them. They were all Brdkman8, and spent the whole of their money on dancing-girls, and in what they ciJled charity, that is, money given to mefl reputed holy. At present, no money is asked for waste lands ; but the farmers must pay the full rent for what they cultivate, and all those of a village are bound for the rent of each individual. To this they seem to have no objection, and say, that they never scruple receiving any new cultivator on account of his poverty.

The farmers are very anxious to b6 put on the old footing of ^*J<»*' paying the two-thirds of the produce. Jn order to procure this indulgence, they say that they would undertake to cultivate every spot of rice-land ; out confess that they would return to their old habits of indolence, and cultivate only tilie sprouted seed, by which not only the ^vemment would lose much, Dut the produce of the country would be diminished by at least one half. From the state- ment given by these men of the produce of their lands, it does not appear that at present they pay more than two-thirds of the pro- duce ; their great object, therefore, in the wished-for change is, to have an opportunity of defrauding government in the division of the crops.

Transplanted rice is here called iVodatnt, and ^routed-seed is c«iUT»tion of called (kd Varupu. The kinds raised, with several particulars at- ' ^ tending their cultivation, will be seen in the accompanying table. The produce stated in this is that of the best soils, except in the case of the kind called Cam, which now is raised only on the very lowest rented fields. The first two kinds in the table are those by far most commonly cultivated ; the others, ripening in five months, are sown chiefly on rich lands, that give an after-crop of EUu {SeBamum) or of Shanapu ( Orotalaria juneea), which compensates the deficiency of their produce. All the kinds keep equally well, amd the rough rice will keep four years in store-houses. I^evious to being put up in these, it must be carefully dried in the sun for three days ; and the floors, walls, and roof of the house ought to be wen Uned with straw. It ought not to be opened again until wanted for consumption.

^52

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800.

Uct. 19.

Table explaining the cultivation of Rice at Nala-rdyana-pallyain, in the

Coimbetore Province.

C!

is fitted.

Crop for ^ V iphich each -a

o.

Quality

c

Produce.

On ft Caiidaca-land.

On an Acre.

^rrfa Mulligy . ./>ei'a Aaya ^um-

hava GunduMullfgy..,

Shitia Voffum ... Caru

Tnns

pUnted

ditto

ditto ditto

ditto

Sprouted

seed

7 6

^5*

H

Coarse ditto

Small

Round k

small

Small

Coarse

8 8

ii

s.d.dec[Caiidaoa.

1 6-16 60 to 55 I 5-1660 to do

1 6-24

I 624 I 624

1 302

50 to 45

50 to 45 35 to 30

30 to 20

480 to 440,96 to 886 17 3} 480 to 440,96 to 836 17 3|

to to

6 6

6 6

lOJl

h

425 to 382^80 to 72^ 17 to 5 9 3

425to38-2i90 to 726 298 to 255|56 to 48 4

210 to 140

1 6

7

to 5 to 3

9 3 12 Hi

48 to 323 0 li to 2 0 0}

A'fidavUf or

transplanted

crop.

The following is the manner of cultivating the Nadavu crop. lu the month following the 12th of July, the ground for raising the seedlings is inundated, and ploughed twice. Tiie labourers then tread into the mud a quantity of Uie loaves of the following plants. Colinjiy or Qalega purpuria ; Catcolay, or Jatrapha Cuixas ; and EracytUayy or Asdejyias gigantia. The seed, which is preserved in Cotays^ or straw bags, is then put with its covering into water, where it soaks a whole night. Next day it is kept in the wet bag, and on the third day it is found ready for sowing, having pushed forth small sprouts. The field is sown on the third day after the leaves have been put in, being covered to the depth of one inch with water. The seed is sown broad-cast, and excessively thick, or at the rat^} of forty-eight Candaccu of seed for one Candaca of land. This 8er\'es to transplant into thirty-two Candctcas ; so that one Candaca and a half of seed are required for a Candaca of land, or 2^^ bushels for an acre. On the day after sowing the seed the field is drained. Ever}- other day, for four times, it is covered in the momiag with water. which is let off again at night : afterwards it is kept constantly inundated, deeper and deeper as the plants grow. The proper time for transplanting is between 4he thirtieth and fortieth days ; but poor people are often compelled, by want, to protract the operation until between the fortieth and fiftieth days, which injures their crops. In a few days after the seed is sown, the fields in which the seed- lings are to ripen are inundated for three or four hours ; then ploagh- ed once ; then inundated for eight days ; then ploughed a second

CHAP. IX. J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 453

time, having been previously drained ; and at similar intervals they jgno must get a third and fourth ploughing^ with intervening inundations: Oct 19.' so that the fourth ploughing must be on the twenty-fourth day. The field is then kept inundated until the rice is going to be trans- planted ; and, superfluous water having been let off, the mud is then ploughed a fifth time, and smoothed with a plank {Parumbu) drawn by oxen. The seedlings are transplanted into it in the course of that and the following day. The seedlings, after being plucked, may be preserved in water five days before they are planted. After having been transplanted, they are allowed water, for the first time, on the fifth day. This water is drained as soon as the field* has been filled ; and for the next eight days, it is allowed te run in at one side of the field, and out at another. The field is- kept after- wards constantly inundated, except on the day when it is te be weeded, which is the fortieth after it has been transplanted. When the ears are full and from their weight begin te inclme, the water is let off in order te ripen the grain. The rice is cut down close by the ground, and immediately afterwards is put up inte stacks, with- out having been bound in sheaves. Next day itis threshed by strik- ing handfuls of it against the ground. The straw is then exposed to the sun for three days, and then trodden by oxen, in order te pro- cure the remaining grain* That intended for seed is exposed four or five days te tne sun, and is then tied carefully up in bags of straw. A plough, with one man and four oxen, is said te be able to cultivate only one Candaca of land ; and te the amount of five Candacaa of rough rice is required for extra-labour at seed time and harvest, and for other small diarges.

The Gai Varapu, or sprouted seed cultivation, is as follows. In the month after the 13th of July, the field is watered, and then ploughed. Afterwards it has three other ploughings in the course of twenty-four days, and in the intervals is inundated. It is then watered for four days, ploughed a fifth time, and smoothed with the plank drawn by oxen. The seed is prepared in the same manner as for the other mode of cultivation, and is sown broad-cast, at the rate o{ one Candaca te one (7anoEaca-land, or of l^ bushel to an acre. For the first three days it has no water, after which once in three days, for four times, it is watered an hour. On the thirtieth and forty- fifth days the weeds are removed, the field having at both times been drained. The crop is aft^rwaixls managed exactly as in the transplanted cultivation. It is allowed no manure.

X7pon some of the best land a crop of EUi^ or Shanapu^ may be seeond crop. taken in the same year with a crop of rice : the former is thought to exhaust the soil, the latter does no harm.

For Car* SUu the ground is ploughed between the 10th of March seMmmum called and the lltii of ApriL It is then sown broad-cast, and the seed is ^•^'*"*- covered by a second ploughing. In three months it ripens without farther trouble, and is folfowedby a crop of any kind of rice. On a Oandaca^lamd are sown five Seers, or two Bidlaa of seed, and the

454 1800.

Oct. 19.

CrotolMria jun- eta, or ShoHtpu,

A JOURNEY TROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

0«t. 90. Irrigattea.

Fm« of the

eouBtey, and deioUtiott of

war.

avUim4dai9.

OjjipHiiiffli d«r JHiffOO.

produce is four Candatutn, An acre^ therefore, sows /^^^ ^^ ^ gallon, and produces 1 1 ^ bushels. This is of an inferior quality to the Ellv, or SesanYiwrn, that is produced on diy-field.

The Shanmpu^ or Ct^toUria, is cultivated on fields that have produced a crop of rice, between the 12th of January and the !Sth of February. In the foUowing month, water the field, sow the seed, and cover it with the plough. Once a month it requires to be watered, and it^ takes four months to ripen. This is more valuable than the hemp cultivated on dry-field, and sells for about twenty Vn^'Raya Fanams for the thousand bundles. A Candaea-Anxkd re- quires tfajree Vandacas seed, and produces four thousand bundles. An acre, therefore, requires 4 ^ bushels of seed, and its produce is worth about 12. ta. lO^d.

20th October, — I went six Malabar hours' journey i^Anacador' very, the place where the canals are taken firom the river BbawAni to water the rice grounds which I described yesterday. The dam by which the water is forced into these ginals is said to have been built about one hundred and twenty years ago, by Nunjay Bdjd^ fisiiher of Canter Bdya of Mysore. It is a good work ; but in the reign of the Stdlan it had been nearly choakra up, and very little of uie rice ground was then cultivated. It has ktely been cleared, and, as I yesterday stated, the greater part of the fields has been brought into cultivation.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Codavery^ most of the fields are not watered land, and not above a sixth part of th^oti are at present occupied. The soil in some places is very good ; and the remains of many hedges, and traces of cultivation, show not only that the whole country has once be^i cultivated, but also that the mode of cultivation was superior to any now practLsed. The devas- tation has been occasioned by the invasion of General Meadowa There was then no want of rain ; but for two years cultivation was at a stop ; and whatever grain was in the country was equally 8wiq>t away by the defending and invading armies. The inhabitants re^ tirea to the hills, to procure the small quantity of grain prodnoed in places inaccessible to the military ; but there, partly from hun- ger, and partly from disease, great numbers of them died. On the &ce of tne lulls is much of the Cotu. Cadu cultivation, which is carried on partly by poor people living on the low ground, and partly by the Soligaru, who live on the mountains, and who have already been described.

The tradition here is, that there were dght or ten OuMnuxUUies^ to whom in succession this country belonged. About two hundred years ago they were deprived of it by we Mysore family. Chica JMva Baya Wodear was the fifth in descent firom the conqueror.

The farmers here say, that they now pay the same rent that they did in Tippoo'e time, which is a SuUany Fanam for every Vir-Bdya Fanam that they paid.to\Hyckr. The revenue officers under the late government, although they in general left out-

CHAP. IX] MISORF; CANAR\AND MALABAR. . .^

standing balances in the hands of the farmers, in order to pre- 1800. vent them from con^phiining, extorted every thing that they hado^^*^* from tiiem, by demanding payment of their rents twice, or even oftener, in the year : the receipts granted for the former pay- ments were always discovered to be forgeries. The people sent to inspect the state of the province were instantly bribed. In car- rvinff on public works, it was the Sultanas orders, that every person shoiud be fully paid for his labour. The wages were regularly charged by the superintendants, who gave nothing to the labourers, but just so much grain as would keep them in existence. Access to tne Sultan was very seldom procurable bv the people who suf- fered by such means ; but some few are said to have reached the }>resence, where they were kindly received, and sent to i^eer Saduc or redress. They were instantly shut up in some dungeon, while the minister reported to his master that the delinquent had been

Eunished ; as of course he was, by being obliged to part with all that e had procured by his embezzlements. No man had the courage to complain of Meer Saduc, ,

2\BiOct(jbe>\ — I went three Malabar hours' journey to Sati- oei,t\. mangalam, which in the Sanskrit language signifies truly good. The *^*'"**'"'*^ fort is large, and constructed of nncut stone, and haa a garrison, but contains very few houses. It is said to have been built, about ' two hundred years ago, by THmula Ndyaka, a relation of the Rdf'a of Jlfadura, who governed this part of the country for his kinsman. The merchants, who in general are the best-informed Hindus on his- torical subjects, say, that fifty years afterwards it became subject to Cantirava Nuraa Bdja of Myam^e, From this long dependence on princes of Kamdta, the language of that country is now the most prevalent, although that of the Tamuls is the orifi;inal dialect of the place, which is a part of CMra D^sam. It is said to have formerly depended on Pandia, which formed the continental possessions of Havana king of Laiica, or Ceylon.

The Petta, or town o{ Sixti-maf^alam^ is scattered about the iniiMeacr of ui« plain at some distance from the fort, and in Hydtr's reign contained ^**^ ''«»»"*»• seven hundred and eighty-four houses. These are now reduced to five hundred and thirty-six. Here is a considerable temple dedica- ted to VUhnu. The Hath or chariot belonging to it is very large, and richly carved. The figures on it, representing the amours of that god in the form of K'i'iskna, are the most indecent that I have ever seen.

The country is at present very unhealthy ; and ever since we Air. came through the K&vcri-jmra pass, some of my people have been daily seized with fevers. The oays are intensely hot, with occasion- ally very heavy rains. The nights are tolerably cool ; to the na- tives they appear cold.

The country through which I passed to-day is much in the appmaum of same state with that through which I came yesterday. Above Co- **** ***"*^' davery there are no canals ; but there are several reservoirs for

450 1800-

Oct. 21.

Candaca-lAtifl, and doubts rei- pecting the statement! at Aaln-rdyana- puUyatiu

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

Iron ore

Foreita.

CotiUD«rc6.

Maonfliclttrss.

Coirpany't ijivMtaieati.

watering the ground. At Sati'mangalam there were four large onef, each of which watered one hundred and fifty Candacaa of land, or upwards. One of these is half repaired, the others are totally ruinous. Tne Gandaca here also contains eighty Seers, so that it ought to sow the same extent of land as at Nala-rayana'paUyam ; but the officers here say, that the Candacaa of land contain from two and a half to four Cheis^ or at a medium three and a quarter, which is at least double the size allowed to them by the farmers of that place. If any person be inclined to prefer the account of the officers, the quantity of seed, rent, and produce of an acre of the watered lands at Nala-rdijatM-paUyatn, as stated from the accounts given by the armers there, would require to be reduced at least one half. ITiesc officers of revenue say also, that the farmere at Anacodavery, who who stated that they now paid the same rent which they did in the I'eign of Tippoo, are liars ; and that, in fact, the rents are now lower than in Hyder^s government, whose assessments were seldom, if ever, exorbitant.

In all the rivulets of this part of the country, iron ore, in form of black sand, is common; and at a place seven ^a/(i6ar houiV journey north-east from hence it is smelted.

1 remained at Sati-ma7igalain two days, with a view chiefly of procuring specimens of the timber trees that grow on the neighbour- ing Ohats. In this however, I failed, through the obstinacy or stupidity of the Seinahladar, In the forests of these Ghftts are said to be the following kinds of trees, that produce good timber :

Moluga*

Velingy.

Calicotay Tdyca,

Cad* Jekay.

Vaynga.

Chipily*

VaycaXij Avdersonia altissima, Roxb. MSS.

The people here allege, that the rich merchants in this country never live in towns, but stay in the villages, and collect gofxis which they carry to Seringapatam by the Gujul-hatty pass, and go thither either this way, or by the Budigupa custom-house, two miles from Dan* Nayakana Gotay, The goods that are sent up arc all the kinds of cotton cloths made in this neighbourhood, Ses^nvurn and castor oils, Ghee^ or boiled butter, tobacco, sackcloth, or Goni, sheep, and goats : all the returns are in cash.

The weavers in this district, including fifty Ooni-makers, employ eight hundred looms. The cotton wool used by them is entirely the produce of the country ; all the silk used for borders is brought from Saliem, ^ The cloth is either used in the neighbouihood, or sent to Seringapatam, About five months ago the Commercial Re- sident at Saliem came round the villages in this vicinity, and from among the weavers in each appointed a head-man to make a<l- vances to the othera. lie advances to each family so much money

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 457

as it will undertake to work for in one month. He is answerable 1800. for balances, and on each piece gets a commission of one Canter*- *^<'*-*^^- Bdya Fanam, or about 7^d. The carriage is paid by the Commercial Resident, and he bleaches the doth at Saliem. The only cloth that he advances for, is a coarse stuff called Shalambrti. It resembles the Baflas of Bengal^ and is thirty-six cubits longi by two and a quarter broad. It is divided into three degrees of fineness ; the first contains nine CaUs, and sells for four Rupees and a half, which are worth 98. 1^(2.; the second contains eigtii Calk, and sells for four RupeeSy or 8«. I^c2.; and the third contains seven Calls, and sells for three Rupees and a half, or Is. ^jgd. The (7a{2 contains 2 pzi^/ijfcw, and the pv^ja 62 threads. This cloth seems to me to be cheap, and had never been made here until the commercial resident came.

Native merchants frequently make advances for the cloth in- ^jj^ye dealers, tended for country use. These persons endeavour to keep the weavers constantly in their debt ; for, so long as that is the ease, they can work for no other merchant, and must give their goods ■ at a low rate. When a merchant wishes to engage a new weaver, he must advance the sum owing to the former employer. With this the weaver buys goods to fulfil his old contract ; but then he be- <!omes equally bound to the person who has advanced the money. A few weavers are rich enough to be able to make doth' on their own ac6ount, and of consequence sell it to the best advantage. The cloth for the use of the natives is always sold unblecushed.

The weavers in this district are of two. kinds, Coicular,, smd weaxexi, tmd Jadar ; but both make the same kinds of cloth, which are as follow : of^^lf,^^'*"

Shillas, or thin white muslins, 22 cubits long, and 2| or 2j- broad. They are very coarse, and are sometimes striped, and then are called Duputtas. They sell for from 7 to 20 Vir* Rdya Fanams, or frlim 38. 5|d. to 98. lid, a piece. If commissioned, the pieces are sometimes made of double length.

Shoman is the same kind of cloth with silk borders. The pieces are from 22 to 24 cubits long, from 2| to 3 cubits broad, and sell for from 8 to 40 Vir' Ray a Faiiams^ or from 3ft 11^<2. to 1 98. 10 Jd.

Shalay is a thicker cotton cloth with red cotton borders. The pieces are 19 cubits long, from 2| to 2J broad, and sell for from 6 to 20 FiV Rdya Fanams^ or from 28. llfd to 98. lid.

Romdla, or large handkerchiefs for tying round the head. They are of white cotton, measure from two to six cubits souare, and sell for from^li to 10 ^ViT\R(iya'^ Fanams each, or from 8|a. to. 48. l]^d.

Parcaln is a coarse plain cloth, from 20 to 22 cubits long, and 2J broad, which sells for from 10 to 20 Fanams, or from 4*. Iljd. to 98. lid.

A new stamp duty, off + J of a Vir' Rdya Fanam, or of about stamp duty. 5Jd., has been laid on every two pieces of fine cloth; and of -^

of a Fir' Rdya Fammi, or about 2^/* on every two pieces of coarse

58

453

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800.

Oct. 21.

Jadar^ a CKste of wearers.

Oct 28. Stupidity of guides.

cloth. The weavers in consequence have given up work, and gone in a body to the collector, to represent their case. The tax is laid on in place of a duty, or four or five Fanama a year, that was for- merly levied on every loom : by the weavers it is considered as heavier.

The weavers called here Jadar are the same with those who in the country above the Ohata are called Telinga Divangas, and intermarry with those settled in Karndta. They still retain the TeltTigd lan- guage. The greater part of those here wear the Linga. Some of them, however, are followers of the BrahmanSy and worship ViAnu ; but this difference in religious opinion produces no separation of caste, and the two parties can eat and intermarry. Those who wear the Linga have a Ouru, called Seranga D^varu, whose Matam is at Cumbu Uoniiy in Tanjore. Once in four or five years this Ouni sends his agents to receive a small contribution. When he comes in person, he b^tows UpadUsa. Under the Gum are village Jangamas, who are marriedmen holdingtheir office by hereditary right,and subsisting upon charity, which they receive at all feasts and ceremonies. These Janganias, and the Brahmans are by the Jadar considered as being equally portions of Iswara. The Panchanga, or village astrologer, reads Mantrams at their marriages, births, and fasts in commemora- tion of their deceased parents, both monthly and annual. The whole of the Jadar give Dhana to the Brdhtnans, who inform them that their sins are thereby expiated. The hereditary chiefs of the Jadar are called Shittigar ; these, with the assistance of a council, settle all disputes, and formerly used to levy weighty fines on all those who transgressed the rules of caste ; but this authority has lately been curtailed. They still, however, continue to excommunicate trans- gressors. They are allowed to eat fowls, mutton, and the like ; but ought not to drink spirituous liquors. They bury the dead, and %Fe allowed a plurality of wives. The women continue to be marriage- able after the age of puberty, and widows may take a second husband without disgrace. When a man commits adultery with another person's wife, and is discovered, he takes her to five with him as a kind of concubine, called here Jatybidda ; but their children are looked down upon, and form a kind of bastard, or Jatybidda race. A woman, who has connection with a person of any other tribe, is severely flogged, and turned entirely out of the caste.

23d October. — I went seven Malabar hours' journey to Modu- curi'Dery, or the ferry of Moducun. This village is on the south bank of the BhawdtrC ; but the people of Sati-mangalam were so stupid, or so malicious, as to inform us that it was on the north side ; and although we had five guides from Sati-mangaJam, the tents and baggage were separated. The people with the tents, hav- ing found out the true situation, went thither, while the persons con- duoting the baggage continued along the northern bank in aearoh of the tents, till people were sent to recall them. Such accidents fire- quently occur ; and the traveller^ in questioning the persons brought

GMAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANABA, AND MALABAR. 459

him as guides, ouglit to be very partioular to know, whether or not ^^qq they are acquainted with the road ; and he ought not only to pro- oct. 23.' mise them an adequate reward for their trouble^ if they conduct him properly ; but also to threaten them with a loss of pay, should they, either from ignorance or carelessness, mislead him. By means of a small basket covered with leather, I crossed the river at a place called Dodara pallyamy which contains fifty houses of weavers, who are all Canara Dongas. They are quite clamorous about the new stamp duty ; which, they say, will for every loom cost them twenty FaTMtns, in place of the five which they formerly paid.

In the western parts of Major Madeod's district the Canara Di- canara z><- vangas are very numerous; but, unlike the parent stock, they*****^" have given up the Linga, and are followers of the Sri Vaishnavam Brahmans. Some in a similar way of thinking are settled in Areolar ^ and Goleagala, places toward the southern extremity of Kamata. In consequence of a famine, those now here migrated from Namacidla about seventy years ago. They do not intermarry with the Canara D^vangaa who wear the Linga, nor with the Telinga Divangas who , follow the Sri Vaishnavam' Brdhmana. They are all weavers, or cloth merchants, and never follow any other business. Their Ghiru'a office is hereditary. In his visits, which are not more frequent than once in eight or ten years, he receives the voluntary contributions of his followers, performs the ceremonies called ChaJcrdnHkam and UpadAa, and distributes holy-water, and consecrated Tulai {Ocy- mum). These people have an hereditary Purdhita, or VaJdika Brak- man, who ought to take their DfiAna, and perform for them all other ceremonies, such as marriages.

Every Brdhman is hereditarily attached to some Purohita; but JPurohua. in Kamata few of the SAdraa are considered as of sufficient conse- quence to be so far honoured, and the Panchdnga, or astrologer, of each village performs the ceremonies of religion for every person of pure descent who happens to live in it. In the country below the OhatB, the SUdras, being more wealthy, have acquired more atten- tion ; and many of them, like these weavers, are the hereditary property of particular Brdhm/ins. The Purdhita has considerable authority over his dependents ; and, if they be rich, receives a large share of their profits. A man, who has ten or twelve families m good circumstances, can sell his office for five hundred Pagodas ; for this is an alienable property : the only restriction in the sale is that the office must be sold to a VaidUca Brdhman of the same sect. The office may even be mortgaged ; the person lending the money performing the ceremonies, and taking all the profits until he has been repaid.

The Purdhita of the Divangas comes to marriages, and bestows on the bridegrooms a thread like that of the BrdJvmans, which they ever afterwards wear. He also takes their Dhdna^ and at funerals reads certain Mantrams. If these are duly performed, the soul of the deceased goes to heaven, whether he has been a good man or

460

A JOURNEY FROM BCADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800

OcU 23.

Qnarry of pui-stoDe.

not ; and if, the proper ceremonies have been emitted, he becomes a devily whatever his conduct in this world may have been. The profits for smaller ceremonies seldom induce the Purohiia to attend ; and any BrcJiman that chooses may perform them. These D^vangaa have hereditary chiefs, who^ with the assistanoe of a council, settle all disputes, and expel such as are obstinate, or who transgress the rules of caste. They bum the dead. Some of them eat animal food ; but none of them are allowed to drink intoxi- cating liquors. They never offer sacrifices to the Saktis. They are allowed to take several wives. The women are marriageable after the age of puberty ; and widows may, without scandal, marry again. In tins caste, no bastard race is permitted ; and women who go astray, even with a Devangay are inevitably excommunicated. There is no punishment for the seducer.

I went firom Dodara-Fallyara, and about a mile firom the river saw a quarry of pot-stone. It is found in very large beds or masses among the usual vertical strata of the country, all of which near the Bhxiwdnirxm east and west. The Balapum, or pot-stone, is of a better qualitjr than that above the Ghdts ; and the vessels made of it are much used by the natives for cooking, as it resists the fire, and^ although very soft, is by no means easily broken. Four men find a constant employment in making these vessels, which are sent as far as Seringapatam, They are very clumsy, and not polished.

The country through which I passed to-day is more' rocky than that east from Sati-Toangalam^ but is better peopled. About one half only is waste. The only cultivation is that of dry grains. The coimtry would look pretty if it were better wooded ; but all the banks of the Bhawdni are rather bare. The land here lets from five to forty FafULfM the estimated BvMa. That whidi gives a high rent is in very small quantity^ and the common rent is from ten to fif- teen lanams. By £eu: the greater number of the people here are of Kamata extraction. The sickness among my people continues to increase.

24th October, — I went five Malabar hours' journey to Dmi' Nayd- van^^Nayakai^ Jfcaita Cotay, a fort situated on the north side of the Bhawdni, a UtUe above the junction of the Jfd^dr. It is said to contain only about fifty houses, but it is large. In the suburb there are said to be 107 houses. Both statements seem to me to nnder-rate the popu- lation. nistory of Daic Tho fort IS Said to have been built by Bdna, a Kdyaka^ or ifayokana Cotajf. p^iyg^^ dependent on Madura. The name signifies the fortress of Ddna the Nayaka, or chief. His descendants were deprived of it by BaT Raja, anotiier dependent on the princes of Madura, From him, or at least from a descendant of the same name, it was taken by fhe Raja of Mysore ; and, from its having been long dependent on that family, by far the greater part of its inhabitants spwk the Ian* guage of Karnata.

Face of ibe country.

Oct. 24.

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 4(31

About two montns ago thirty or forty Naira from Wynaotd, or 1800. from Nellala, as it is here called^ persuaded the chief of one of the ^^' ^^ hill villages, subjeot to the Company, to join them with sixty or seventy men. This united force came down to the low country, and plundered three villages. A hundred Candaaharay supported by a few Sepoys, were sent out ; and after an engagement, in which nobody was killed, took the chief and seven men prisonei's. Of these three were Nairs. About ten years ago these banditti made some disturbance among the hill villages, but never before ventured down into the low country.

The country through which I passed is rather rough, but con- Face of the tains much good land. It is almost entirely waste, which is attri- ®<>^*^- buted to the frequent marches made through it by Tippoo^fs troops, on their way between Seringapatam and Coimbetore, The only cultivation at present is that of dry grains ; but formerly, three Ma- labar hours' journey above the fort, there was a dam which by a oanal on the north side of the river, sent off water sufficient to supply five hundred Candacas of land, each containing one hundred Seers, This dam was built about a hundred years ago by a person named Lingaia, In the following year it was swept away by a flood, and has ever since been neglected. Major Macleod was repairing it, when the rainy season commenced, and put a stop to the work.

The forests on the Ghats here contain the following trees : Forest

Bamboos. Which are small, but very strong.

Carachu. Hardwickici, Koxb. MSS. Timber very hard, and black.

Biday. This is called Sissu by the Mussulmans ; but is probably a different species of Dalbergia^ or PterocarpuSy from the Sissu of Hindv^tan proper.

T/lfhoTiay. Pterocarpus Santalinvs, Wild. A valuable timber tree.

Tayca, or Teah The only kind here ia said to be different from the common TeaJc, and is called Cotay, Calicotay^ or Cadicotay. The leaves and branches brought to me as belonging to it strongly resemble the Premna vUlosay Eozb. MSS. ; but I suspect some mistake in this*, and that the timber which was brought as a specimen was really that of the Teciona robusta,

Vaynga. Pterocarpus bilobus Eerbarii Banksiani. A good timber tree.

Sujahi. Mimosa Tuggula^ Buoh. MSS.

Uf^gtdu. Sweitenia CUoroxylon, Eozb.

Anuay. Myrobalanus Arulu, Buclu MSS.

Nerulu. Myrtus Cv/mni.

Bagy. Mimosa spedosa Jacquini.

462 ^ JOURNEY FKOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. Wild Uango-tree^ Mangifera,

Oct. M. Wild Jack-tree^ Ariocarpu8.

ulbJJf **'^' » ru e Honey and wax are gathered by a caste called Budugar, who in- habit the hilly country between this and the province of Malabar, and which lies south from Nelleala, or the Wynaad of Major Ben- nell. They live in small villages, and huts, like the Eriligaru ; and not only use the Cotu-Cadu cultivation already desoribedy but have also ploughs. The quantity of honey and wax which they procure is considerable, and they pay notlung for it, there being no forest- renter in this district. Oct. 2s. 25th October. — I remained at Dan* Nayakana Cotay^ and took

twe^ (Mmbe- & vcry loug and fatiguing walk to the top of the western hills, in *2ir. *%ui^^ order to see a Cambay, or village inhabited by Eriligaru. The love of the marvellous, so prevalent in India, has made it commonly re- ported, that these poor people go absolutely naked, sleep under trees without any covering, and possess the power of charming tigers, so as to prevent those ferocious animals from doing them any injury. My interpreter, although a very shrewd man, gravely related that the Eriligaru, women, when they go into the woods to collect roots, entrust their children to the care of a tiger.

On the hills the Eriligaru have small villages. That which I visited contained seven or eight huts, with some pens for their goats; the whole built round a square, in which they bum a fire all night to keep away the tigers. The huts were very small, but tolerably neat, and constructed of Bamboos interwoven like basket-work, and plastered on the inside with clay. Tl^ese people have abundance of poultry, a few goats, and in some villages a few cows, which are only used for giving milk, as the Eriligaru never use the plough. They possess the art of taking wild-fowl in nets, which adds to their stock of animal food ; and sometimes they kill the tigers in spring tmps, loaded with stones, and baited with a kid. Near their villages they have large gardens of plantain and lime trees, and they culti- vate the neighbouring ground after the Ootucadu fashion, changing the fields every year. One of the articles raised by this means is a new species of ATnaranthiiSy the seed of which they grind to flour, and use as a farinaceous substance. I have sent it to Dr. Roxburgh, under the name of Amaranfhua fariniferus. Besides cultivating their gardens and fields, the Eriligaru gather wild Yams {Dioseorecei)^ and out timber and Bamboos for the people of the low country^ Both men and women take an equal share of the labour in cultivat- ing their fields. They have the advantage of a tolerably good soil, and a part of two rainy monsoons ; yet, although they have fixed abodes, and of course gardens, they are greatly inferior to the sub- jects of the Pomang-gri, and other rude tribes, who inhabit the hilly parts of Chittagong. Their huts are much poorer^ and their persons are miserable. Both men and women are clothed with dirty cotton stuffs, but in much smaller pieces than those used by the other in- habitants. They speak a bad or old dialect of the Karndta Ian-

CHAP. IX. J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 453

guage, and must be therefore of a different race from the Eriligaru i^qq^ that I saw at Rama-giri^ who spoke a dialect of the TamvJ. oct, 25.

Although the atmosphere was rather hazy, I had from the hills Kobu prospect. a noble view of the whole course of the Bhawdni, aud of the country called Chera as far as Sandi^urga^ and other remote hills. Near the village I w»b refreshed by the cool water of a fine perennial spring, which in India is a great rarity.

26th OHober. — I went seven and a half Malabar hours' journey oct. as. to Sirumuga, on the east side of the Bluiwdniy which is here a fine 5JJ,^*^J^ ^ clear stream coming from the south. Cultivation occupies a very small proportion of what iias fonnerly been ploughed, and is con- lined chiefly to the banks of the river, where tlie soil is best. The higher grounds consist of a poor soil full of stones ; and many of the fields, to judge from the size of the trees that have sprung up in them, seem to have been long deserted. Sirumuga is a poor village, with about twenty houses ; but has some shops, which are not very common in this province. In the Sultan's reign it was the residence of an Amildar dependent on the Asoph of Coimbeiore, and contaitis the ruins of many huts. The people complain much of the scarcity of rain ; and the dryness of the fields, and want of pasture, show their comphiints to be well founded. Fifteen of my people are now ill with fevers.

27th October, — I went a long stage called seven and a half Mala- Oct. 27. bar hours' jouraey, and halted at Oulur, a village vitliout a shop. the''c*SSt?.°' By the way I passed Bellady, a mud fort which has a suburb at some distance. Two small streams cross the road toward the east ; but it is said, that having united they turn roupd, and at Sirumugd join the Bliairdni by a channel, which I did not observe. A small tunk has been foimed near these streams, and receives a supply of water from them, so as to enable the people to cultivate a little rice, The soil of the country through which I passed to-day is very poor, and there is scarcely any of it cultivated.

There has been rain twice only this season, and none for the last impiur ntturt fifteen days, so that the country is quite parched; and it is said, **' *^* '**"** tliathad there been more rain, the cultivation would have been more extensive. The rains seem here to be very partial. They have been plentiful all the way up the Bhawani, except at Sirumugi; and at Neltaturu, near its source, they are said to have been abun- dant Most of the people here speak the Tamnl language, a few use the Telinga, but that of Karn(Ua does not extend so fai* from the GliaU.

28th October, — I went eight Malabar hoars' journey to Coimbe- oet. S8 tore. The country is much freer of rocks and stones than that Jjj^^^*'** through which I have passed for some days, and the soil is in general good. The waste fields do not appear to amount to more than a half of all that is arable. There are a few hedges, and the country is remarkably bare of trees. An avenue of a species of Ficus has been planted all the way from Dan' Nayakava to Coimbeiore,

464 A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. but it is not thriving ; and, except these trees, the country is as bare

Oct. 28. ^ ^jjj^^ jjj ^Ijq vicinity o{ Seringapdia^n.

History of The hereditary chief of Coimbetore, as we call it, is of the Vay-

(joimbetort. i^lar trlbc. Formerly his ancestors dwelt in a village at the foot of the hills, the site of the town being then a forest, in which there were four or five huts of a rude tribe called Malashir, and a temple of their goddess Conima, which still remains. The head man of these people was called Coia, and the name of the village Coiampuddi. The ancestor of the present chief, having obtained the consent of the MaLashiry came to their village, and built a fort. Soon after all these people died, and their goddess appeared in a dream to the Vaylalar chief, and commanded him to enlarge her temple, and appoint a priest [Pujari), promising him a great increase of power and desiring liim to assume the name of Gotigara CaLippa, and to change that of the place to CoiamxUuru, The present chief, who gives me this information, says, that he is the twentieth in descent from the first founder of the town. The family originally paid tribute to the Rajas of Madura. The country was conquered by the Mysore family about one hundred and fifty years ago, iftid the fort was then enlarged. For some time before and after the acces- sion of Hyder, it was governed by a person named Madana, who enjoyed his office forty years, and was a Lingabunt (one who wears the Linga), He buUt a house here, which by the natives is called a palace, and is considered as an immense work. It certainly is abundantly large ; but it is a clumsy, inconvenient pile of mud ; and at present serves as a barrack for the officer commanding a regiment of cavalry, who is very indifierently lodged. In the gov- ernment of Madana the place was very flourishing. It suffered much by the subsequent wars ; and about eight years ago the fort •was destroyed by the late Sultan. Since it fell into the hands of the English, and especially since it became the quarters of a regiment of cavaliy, the town has recovered considerably ; and it now con- tains two thousand houses, which is about f of what it contained under Hyder' a government. It has a tolerable mosque, built by Tippoo^ who sometimes resided in the palace ; but it has no large temple. Here I was most kindly received by the officers of the regiment, as indeed I was almost every where during my journey ; for English hospitality is in no part of the world more eminentiy distinguished, than among the officers serving under the govern- ment of Madras. Oct. », 30. 29th and 30th October. — I remained at Coimbetore^ taking an

J^chSumbra. accouut of the vioiuity ; and on the morning of the 30th I visited a celebrated temple at Peruru, which is two miles from Coimbetore. It is dedicated to Iswara, and called Mail (high) Chitumbra, in order to distinguish it from another GAitumbray that is near Pondicherif. The idol is said to have placed itself here many ages ago ; but it is only three thousand years since the temple was erected over it by a Raya of Madura. It has four Rathe, or chariots, and a very fine

CHAP. IX.] BITSOBE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 4g5

tank entirely lined with out stone. The building is highly oma- ^^qq mented after the Hindu fashion ; but the whole^ as usual, is utterly oet S0,'a<». destitute of eleganoe, and the figures are not only extremely rude, but some of them are indeoent The stone of which it is built is very fine. Some of the pillars intended for it are lying near, and are said never to have been erected ; the work havinff been left in- complete, owing to the death of the JRaja by whom it was under- taken. The freshness of the stones by no means corresponds with the era given by the Brahmana for the work. The Brdhmana PcrMcvtioB of in the time of Hyder had very large endowments in the lands, ^^*^^^^ but these were entirely reassumed by Ti/ppoo, who also plundered tiie temple of its gold and jewels. He was obliged, however^ to respect it more than many others in his dominions ; as, when he issued a general order for the destruction of all idolatrous buildings, he excepted only this, and the temples of Seringapaiam and MaxLeotay. This order was never enforced, and few of ti^e temples were injured, except those which were demolished by the SulUm in person, who delighted in this work of zeal. I^his temple is in the district of Mr. Hu^is, who gives for its support an allowance sufficient for keeping up a decent worship, but very inadequate to quiet the clamours oi the Brdhmana. Even in the reign of the Sultan an allowance was clan- destinely given ; so that the P'A^a, or worship, never was entirely stopped, as happened in many less celebrated places.

In the nei&;hbourhood of Peruru, both culinary salt and saltpe- tre are procured by lixiviating the soil.

At Coinfibetore the new weights and measures introduced by 8«]iM«artb. Major Macleod are coming fast into use ; but still the cultivators in general reckon every thing about their farms by the old standards which are as follows :

Weights.

177 grains =1 Dudu. 1416 grains, or 8 Diulua =lPoiam. wtigiii.

14160 grains, or 10 Polams^z i 8eer^2j^ lbs.

40 Seers =1 Maund^SOjif„ lbs.

Measure for Liquids and Orain.

84 Dudus weight of grain make one Puddy^ which is therefore equal to the SuUany Seer. nSJSi^^^

4 Puddies = 1 Bulla. 30 BuUas =1 ifau— Bushels 4^VfrV The Mau of the Ta/muU is called Salaga in the Tdinga lan- guage ; Oandaca^ in that of Zarnoto, and Candy by the Mussulmans.

Land Measure for watered ground.

The pole is 24 feet in length. A square of 16 poles by 15uiidmM«iiw, makes a Jf au, or Candaca-land, which requires 3 Maus of seed in ScmS!"^^ the transplanted cultivation, and sows two Maus of sprouted seed. It is nearly equal to 3,{^ acres. Thefieurmers here therefore sow 3%^ bushels on the acre; but at Nala Ruyana PMy am ikej sow

59

466

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800.

Oct. 29, 30.

Monej.

Watered-eround rice.

Dry-fi«ld.

Manure,

ProduM ol diy'flfld.

only at the rate of 1 1% of a bushel. Until I came here, I suspected that at the last mentioned place they had stated their Cdndaca-lsnd to be less extensive than it actually is ; and I was confirmed in this opinion by what was said at Satimangalam ; but I am now inclined to believe in the accounts given me by the people of Nala Rat/ana PaUyam, and in the great fertility of their rice lands.

Measure for high Lands; The Mar is a fathom made by passing the rope round the shoul- ders, and bringing the hands forward, and is equal to six feet nine inches. 64 Mars square is one Bulla, or Vullam, as it is pronounced here. This is therefore equal to 4-^^oV ^('<^^s-

Once a month iheTahsildar assembles the money-changers, and by their advice establishes a Niruc Nama, or rate of exchange. In this, occasional alterations are made, if complaints are preferred by these persons^ of an increased or diminished demand for any parti- cular coin.

In this neighbourhood there is much rice ground watered by means of reservoirs, that are filled by canals drawn firom the Noyel river. They produce only one crop in the year, which begins to be cultivated from about the 1 0th of June to the 10th of AugusL The cultivation that has always been most prevalent, is by trans- planting, although it is reckoned by far the most troublesome. I have already stated the quantity of seed, which i6 at the rate of almost four bushels an acre« The produce of a MauAsjiA, of good soil, when there is plenty of water, is thirty-five Maus^ or Gandaeas ; and, when the water is scanty, twenty-five Candacas. The former is at the rate of forty-six bushels, and the latter at that of 32^ bushels^ an acre. One plough, wrought by a man and two oxen, ought to cultivate a ilfau of rice land, or 31^^ acres; wd addi- tional labourers must be hired at planting and weeding seasons. At this place very little sugar-cane is raised.

Near the town the principal articles cultivated in dry-field are CambUf Sholum (Hold spicatus et sorghum)^ and cotton. On the black mould, the farmers sow alternately Upum cotton one year, and in the other any of the following grains ; namely, Sholum, Cawhuj Tenay (Panicum italicum)^ and Cadalay (Cicer arietinum). Two crops are never taken in the same year. The manner of cultivation is the same with that at Bhawani-kudal.

It must be observed, that in all this part of the country the far- mers have no dunghills ; they manure their rioe-lands with leaves, and their dry-field by folding cattle on it, before the ploughing commences ; for this purpose sheep or goats are reckoned best, and are kept by every foxiner.

The follovdng is the statement given by the cultivators, as the produce of their fields in a good crop, from one Vullam :

Upum cotton 75 Chicha Maunds, or 425 lb. an acre. Sholum ... 20ifaf#, or 19| bushels an acre.

CHAP. DC.] MTSORB, CAMABA» Am) MALABAR. 4g7

1800

Cambu ... 10i#au»or 9} bushels an acre. oet»,8o.

Tenay ... 20 ditto 194 ditto

Cadalay ... 7 ditto 6^^ ditto.

Nadum cotton is cultivated in one village only of the Cwnibe' ootton. tore diBtrict It lasts thiee years }Xi the ground ; but is inferior in quaUty to the Uputn kind, and is in fact a wretohed article.

Near the hills of Goimbetore, Kevir^ or Eagy, is sown on dry- oynoturm field ; but in every other part of the province it is only cultivated ia*"'"'***^- gardens. Cattle are folded on the field, which is afterwards ploughed four or five times between the 10th of April and the 10th of June. After a good rain in any of the three following months, it is sown broad-cast and ploughed in. To destroy supexfiuous plants, at the end of a month furrows are draWn throughout the field, at the dis- tance of six inches. Ten days afterwards the weeds must be removed with a hoe. It requires six months to ripen. The seed for a FttUam* land is 15 Vullams; the produce in a good crop is thirty Mau. At this rate, the acre sows 0*486 bushel, and produces 29j^ bushels.

One plough, two oxen, and a man, in a proper season, can oulti- ^^°,^.^^ vate 3 VidlamSy or 12f- acres, of dry-field. A farmer, with four ^^ ' ploughs, five men, eight common oxen, and a large one or two for the machine called Capily ; manages eight VuUams^ or 33^ acres, of dry-field, and one VuUam of garden, which is 4{^^ acres; in aU, 37^ acres.

A considerable quantity of the ground rated as dry-field is call- ^J^^jSS^ ed here Capily Tota, or gardens watered by the Capily; and also Ve- lami Tota, or cultivated gardens. Its rent is much higher than that of the other dry-field ; as it lets for from 30 to 200 Canter^^Baya Bent Fanams a VuUam, or for from 4«. 4}o{. to U. 9^. l^d. an acre ; whUe common dry-field lets for from five to sixty Fanams a Vvdlamy or for from 8fa. to 8^. 9d. an acra Ail kinds of soil are cultivated for gardens, and the variety in this respect occasions some difference in their value ; but the depth below the surface, at which the water stands in the wells, is the chief cause of the variation in rent. In some gardens the water is within eight cubits of the surfjE&oe, in others at eighteen. Some wells also contain only saline water, and this diminishes greatly the value of the land which they irrigate. The best soil for this purpose is called Krishna bumi, and is a Uack mould', that readily dissolves into mud when water^. The articles cultivate in these gardens are tobacco, Sholum, (Holcua sorghum), Kevir {Cynosurus eorocanuSj) Cambu {Holcus spicatus), wheat, cap- sicum, onions, and other kitchen stufib.

Tobacco preceded by Kevir, and followed by Sholum, is by far aotauoi. the most important rotation.

The Kevir raised in these gardens is the same with the Nat* Ragy of Mysore. Between the 11th of April and the 12tb of VLsj cattle are folded on the ground, which is then ploughed four times, sprink- led with ashes, divided into square plots for confining ihe water, and then sowed. The plots are smoothed with the hand, and immediate-

468 A JOURNEY FROM ICADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. ly watered. On fhe third day, and on every fifth day afterwaids,

Oct. »,sa for ^ month, the watering is repeated ; and then the seedlings, which have been raised very thick, must be transpknted. The ground for this purpose is prepared exactly like that for the seed, in the interval Detween the sowing of this, and tiie seedlings being fit for transplantation. By watering the soil is then converted into mud, and the young plants are set at proper distances. On the third day they get water, which afterwards is given every sixth day. If the soil be good, no weeding is necessary ; but in bad soils grass springs up, and, thirty days after the planting, must be removed by a small hoe. The Kevir, after being transplanted, requires four months to ripen ; and a Fiu22am-Iand, in a good crop, produces thirty if out, which IB at the rate of 29^'^^ bushds an acre. Tobacoo; For raising the tobacco seedlings, a small plot of ground must

be hoed between the 14th of August and the 14th of September, and formed into small squares for watering. The seed is sown, and covered with the hand. The plot is then watered, and, to keep off the sun, is covered with bushes. For the first month it must be watered every other day. On the tenth and twentietii days sow some more seed on the same plot, by which means a succession of seedlings is procured. After the first month water is only given every Sth day. In the end of August and beginning of September the field into which the seedlings are to be transplanted must be dunged, and then ploufi;hed ; and, if the cultivator has cattle, he folds them on the ploughed ground. He then ploughs four or five times, and takes out all the weeds. From the middle of September to the middle of October the ground is divided into small squares ; the squares are watered, until the soil becomes mud ; and at three o'dodk the plants of the first sowing are taken up, and transplanted inmiediately at a cubit's distance. The whole seedUngs of the fiist sowing must be removed in two or three days about the end of September. About ten days afterwards, transplant the seedlings of the second sowing, and ten days afterward those of the thizd. On the third day after transplanting, give them water, and repeat this every fifth or sixth day, until they are fit for cutting. At the end of a month the field must be hoed. A month afljermrds the plants have grown high, and their tops must be pinched ofi*, so as to leave only a cubit of'each. Once a week, for three times, the young brandlies which shoot out must be pinched otL When four months old the tobacco is fit for cutting. In order to render the leaves sweet, the field must then be watered, and the plants are cut down close by the ground, and left on the field until next morning, when they are tied oy the root*end to a rope, and hung up aJl round the hedges. If it be dear weather, the leaves diy in ten days ; but when the sun is obscured by clouds fifteen are required. When dry» the tobacco is placed in a heap under a roof, is covered with bushes, and pressed with stones for five days. The leaves are then removed from the stems, and tied up in bunches, which are again heaped up.

CHAP. IX.] HT80BB, CANABA, AND MALABAB. 469

and pressed for four days. After this they are made up into bundles 1800: eacli oontaining some small and some large leaves ; and, when fully ^^ ^' ^' <mred, weighing about twelve PoiomSy or nearly 2Y^s^lbs. These «re heaped up again, and pressed for twioe five days, having at the •end for the fifth day been opened out, and new heaped. The tobacoo is then ready for sale. A good crop, from a vullam-ldLiid^ is one thousand bundles,or 666| lbs. from an acre. During the busiest part of this cultivation, eight oxen and ten men are required daily for one Ftilftim-land.

Immediately after outtmg the tobaooo, in the month oommeno- sucu$ sorghum. iog about the 10th of January, plough three times ; and, after some days rest, plough a^ain. Sow the Sholum seed broad-oast, and cover it by a fifth ploughmg. With the hoe called Mamutty divide the field into aquares for watering, each side being about four cubits. Fill the squares with water ; repeat this on the fifth day, and ever afterwards every eighth day. At the end of a month hoe again with the MamuU^^ In four months the Sholum ripens. A Fti!^am-land requires eight VuUaina seed, and in a good crop pfoduoes thirty Muus: an acre, therefore, for seed requires 0*2551 bushel, and pro- duces 29^ bushela

Fart of the watered ground is cultivated for gardens, which are ^J^S^^d. either of Betel-kaf or of palms.

The Betel-leaf gardens are cultivated by a particular class of men, called Codi-^al-carun ; that is, BeteUtrench-makers. For each

flaatation these rent a Mau of laud, and pay for it three hundred ^^marni a year, which is at the rate of 32. 14a. 8^. an acre. This must be of a very rich soil, either black, or black mixed with red. A new garden is thus formed. From the 13th of July until the 13th of August trenches are dug with the Mamutty one cubit wide, one oubit deep, and twenty-eight cubits long, at the distance of four oabits from each other. In the beds formed between these trenches are sown two rows of the seeds of the Agutty (dschynomane grandi' JUra), and of the Ouilaindina Moringa. Every oliier day the trenches aiB filled with water, and from these the beds are sprinkled. This having been continued for four months, slips of the Betel-vine are planted in two rowa The slips are a cubit long, and one end of each is placed in a hole, distant one cubit from the others of the aame row. At the first commencement of the garden it is sur- rounded by a hedge of CoMi (JSuphorHum TirucaUi). The channels, ever after planting the vines, must be kept conatantly full of water, and in Uie diy aeaaon the beds must from thence be sprinkled once every other day. When the vines have been planted three months, they must be tied up to the trees, and the garden must be cleared of weeds with a knife : a little dung is then given to each plant. From the 12th of March to the 10th of April, or three months after the first weedinff, the weeds are again removed, and the plants are manured. At me same time the opposite trees, of the two rows in each bed, ace tied together in the form of the cross of St. Andrew

470 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

1800. ^^^ the vinos are tied up afresh. From January the 11th to Fe-

Oct. 29, 30. bruary the 9th of the. second year, the vines are untied ; two cubits next the root are buried in tiie earth, and then they are tied up again. Wjienever weeds shoot up, they must be removed. In the month commencing with the 12th of May of the second year, the garden begins to produce leaves fit for use ; and continues to do so for one year and a half, when it is ploughed up for rice. A gar- den of one Mau, equal to three acres and a half, requires the con* stant labour of thirty-two men. li^^siu. '^^^ palm gardens contain the Betd and coco-nut palms, and

''^ the plantain tree, and are cultivated by the richer farmers. The

most favourable situation is near the side of a river, or torrent, where the soil contains a good deal of sand, and where water may be found by digging to the depth of two cuhits. Limestone in the soil is not reckoned of any advantage. A new plantation is thus formed. In the first month of the year, commencing on the 11th of April, the ground is ploughed twice, and manured either with dung, or by folding cattle on it. In the next month plough again twice, and then manure the field as before. Between the 14th of September and the 14th of October plough once, and at the distance of four cubits from each other dig trenches, one cubit broad, and about six inches deep, crossing each other at right angles through the whole extent of the garden. Near every channel, or trench, ia set a row of the young shoots of the plantain tree, at the distance of four cubits from each other. Parellel to every fourth row of these, is formed a row of pits, distant from each other sixteen oubits, and a foot deep. In each of these is placed a coco-nut, with the eye up, audit is covered with four inches of fine mould. Once in six days the channels are then filled with water. Between the 13th of De- cember and the 10th of January small pits are made, at the dista&oe of one cubit, or of one cubit and a half from each other, and in rows on the opposite side of the channels from where the plantains were set In each of these holes is placed a Betel-nut In the following month, the whole garden must be hoed^ and the channels formed again. Once in ten or fifteen days, when there is no rain, these mast ever afterwards be filled with water. The garden must be hoed twice every year; once between the 11th of January and the 10th of February, and again between the 12th of June and the 12th of July. It is surrounded by hedges containing limes. Jacks (Artocarpus), oranges, pomegranates, &c. secured by the Euphorbium TirucaUi. In eighteen months the plantains yield fruit, and are never remov- ed from the garden. The Arecaa are thinned where they happen to grow too close ; the proper distance for each tree being three cubits square. In eight years they begin to bear ; but do not produce a full crop until they are twelve years old. In the twenty«second year new seed is put in, to supply the place of the trees that die. At twelve years of age the coco-nut palm begins to produce fruit ; and, when they are fifty years old, seed is put into supply the loss of

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE CANARA, AND MALABAR. 471

the old ones. They are all used in the country, and sold in 1800. the shell ; for the people here prepare no Copra, or dried kernel. ^®** ^'' '^* The husks of the green nuts, that have been used for drinking, are thrown into water to soak. Onoe in five or six months the people called Parriar oome and prepare the Coir (from which ropes are made) from what has been sufficiently soaked, giving one half to the farmer^ and keeping the other half for their trouble. The husks of nuts that are allowed to ripen the kernel are of no use. Some of the Areca palms produce between the 12th of May and the llth of June ; many more of them produce in the month following, and a few produce be- tween the 14th of November and the 12th of December ; but no one tree produces two crops in the same year. The nuts, as they come from the tree are sold by the farmers to people who make a separate profession of boiling them. The rent of a Mau of gstrden cultivated with palm varies from fdrty to two hundred and thirty FanamSy which amounts, to from 7<. lO^d. to 22. 5^. 2\d. an acre. Until twelve years old it pays forty Fanams only, as a rent« for the plan- tains. Two men take care of a garden of one Mau ; but at each hoeing thirty or forty labourers must be hired. The proprietor can- not or will not give me any estimate of the produce. The Betd^ nut is reckoned inferior to that of Malabar.

Iron is smelted from black sand at Topum Betkt, about five miles iron, north from Comibetore ; and at two places^ at no great distance, in the district under Mr. Hurdis. This information I did not teceive in time to be enabled to examine the process.

The principal merchants at Ooimbetore are ComaUiei, or Faia- commerce. yaa. They say, that the chief trade is carried on with the province of Malabar. The places that trade with this are» Pali-gliat, Calicut^ Coehi, Wanarcoty TeUichery, and Angada-puram, The exports from hence are tobacco ; cotton wool, thread, and cloth ; sugar, and Ja- gory ; capsicimi, onions, Betd-leafy and Jira and Danyaj two of the carminative seeds. The imports from Malabar are Betel-nut^ black pepper, turmeric, 8unty or dried ginger, nutmegs, mace, doves, and other spices, safflron, camphor> benjamin, assafoetida, Munjeetrootj Cut, or ten^a japonica, Piphuly or long pepper, raisins^ dates ; China sugar-candy, Bengal sugar, sulphur, red arsenic, Hurtal, or yellow orpiment> lead, copper, fabe gilded paper, paper, raw-silk, taffetas, sill: cloths called Kingcoba, and Otdbvdden, woollen eloths, cotton cloths called MucmuUs ; Attaku ; Nankeens and ohintsses ; towels, and shawls, with many smaller articles. Covmhetore has no direct trade with Travancore, nor with Caiangady, as the Wynaad is here called. From the country above the Qhata are brought some BurraAunpour goods ; and there are sent up tobacco, Oh^, or boiled butter, and cotton cloths. From the places in the eastern country below the Ohats, such as Saliem, Tanjore, and Negapatam, there oome silk, and cloths. The returns are made in the Betel^nut and pepper of Malabar,

There are many weavers in the neighboturhood of Caimbetore ; ^^^^.^j„j„ those in the town are Jadar, and Coicular ; those in the villages are

472

A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH

[CHAP. IX.

1800. Bestas, Caiiara Devangas, and Parriar. In the whole district there

K?nd8 andi)rioes *^® ^^^^ hundred and fifty-nine looms.

w^^ciilS^^e ^^ Jadar make the finest cloths. They are of a veiy thin tex- * tare, like those called book muslin. Of these the following kinds are wrought for common sale :

• •• •••

••• ••• ••• ••• •••

• > • t • •

• •«

• • • • ■ •

••• •••

I CloUiB of an open texture made by the Jadar.

SkillaSf plain mhiie muBlin

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Skirayi, with coloured silk borders, gold ends, aud figures wrought in the loom with silk thread

Ditto without the gold or figures

Dotras, being also white muslin with coloured silk

woru ^E D ••• ••» ••• ••• ■■• *«• v«« *•• ••

Dupatai. Plain white muslin worn round the shoul Giers iiKe a snawi.. • ... «•• ••• •■• ••• •••

Soda 8hal^ Same cloth with gold and silk borders' in shawl patterns

P<igUf or turbans, white with gold ends

Shiraytf dark blue with yellow or red silk borders...

CambawuUy Shirayt, or white muslin ohecquered with coarser thread and red cotton borders

s o

a

o

Cloths of a dose texture.

i%iya«a/a, like the JSTumtMis of Bengal

Dolra$, of the same fabric, with red cotton borders Sldray$ of yarious mixed colours, dark and light

blues, and red, very coarse ... ,

Ditto striped blue and white with red borders Ditto white with red and yellow borders

24 36 24 24 20

20

20

24

8

8 30 20

20

20 5

19 16 16

Oloths made by the CviauJlaT aud country weaTers.

Cadi. Plain cloth like Bengal BaftM

XylSvO a.. .«• **• ..* ••* ».

X/lwvO ■•• ••« ... ••'•

Skirayi with red borders ... Ditto with blue ends

••» •••

• • > •• 9 • * «

■ • • ■ ••

• ••• aee

24 20 17 16 16

I

9

3

t

2* 2} 2*

1

2i 2i

n

2* 3

2

3

2

1| If

s

U

22 32 16

do

6

56 24

40

6

64

16 40

32

24 S

22

11

74

5

H

4

I

I

1.*

•••

2

8

i 25

7

26

12

15

82 4

16

20

S

a

s.

.2 fl

.M So

h

iJoQ

10 111 5 114 15 104 S i 7 Uf 6 84

14 10| 3 111

27 9f 10 11

19 104

2 11}

31 9

7 llj

19 10|

15 104

12 8

2 U 5 114

7 54

I 5}

15 104 111} 7 11}

9 II

10 2

12 9 7

11 U I 4 114 5 5}| 0 U}

5 114

Of the oloths made by the Jadar, the plain ones ftppft^ to my Bengal servants to be oheapi the figured ones are dear. The doths made by the Coicular are very coarse, and rather dear.

CHIP. IX.3 MYSORE, CANAEA, AKD MALABAR. 473

The cotton growing in the country is not only sufficient for the igoo. coDsumption of the place, but is also exported in great quantities, ^^' »» ^o. both raw and spun, to the province of Malabar, The women of all the farmers and low castes are great spinners ; but those of the Par- ^^^^. Har are reckoned to make the best thread. The women of the weavers are chiefly employed in warping the webs. ^ All the silk and gold thread, with the best of the red cotton yarn, is imported ready prepared from Saliem, Tanjore, Tranquehar, and other towns on the sea-coast.

The weavers dye cotton thread red with the Muddi, or Morinda; Dyd"*. but it is a perishable colour. Those of this place are reckoned to excel in dying black, as they call it, but in fact a dark blue. They use indifferently the indigos prepared from the Nily or Indigo/era tinctoria, and from the Pala^ or Nerium tinctormm, Eoxb. MSS. This kind of indigo is called Palxic ; and I was here told, that it was prepared at Palachy ; but on going to that place, I found that this information was not true. Indeed, in that vicinity I did not see one of the trees. The colour given with both kinds of indigo is exactly the same, and in the same vat they are frequently intermix- ed. The account of the process given by the weavers is as follows.

Take ten Polam {2j^\h.) of Pcdae, pound it small, and soak it '*«'«« ^'^^^k^- three days in J Puddy of water (0*2433 quart). Saline water is not preferred here, as is the case at Bangalore. After having been soaked, the Palac is rubbed in a mortar, until it is reduced to a mud. Then take one Puddt, (0-2777 Winchester gallon) of the seed of Tagashay {Cassia Tor a), and boil it in one and a half Pi^rfy (1 ,4^ ale quart) of water, untU it be soft. Pour this decoction upon the Paho that has been ground to mud, and for three days cover the vessel with a pan, until the mixture becomes sour. Then, by filtering water through the ashes of the Euphorbinm Tirucalli (GalU Chumhul) make a strong solution of the carbonate of potash. Of this every morning and evening and \ Puddy (0*2433 quart) to the fermented vat, until the colour be dissolved, which will require eight or ten days. Then having added some quick-lime to the solution of potash, and having thus drawn from it the carbonic acid, take of the caustic ley \ Puddy ^ and morning and evening for two or three days add tins to the vat, which will then be fit for dyeing. The thread, as it comes from the spinners, is dipt into a solution of carbonate of potash, and having been wrung is dyed in the vat. After the colour has been extracted from this, it is filled up again with caustic ley, and next day again produces some colour. This is repeated seven or eight times, until the colouring particles are quite exhausted. Two dips in a fresh vat give a full colour ; but as the vat is exhausted, the number of inmiersions must be increased.

Of the cloth not consumed in the country about one half is sent Expoitation of to the province of Malabar^ and the remainder to Seringapatam. ^^^^^' The commercial resident at Saltern twice made advances to the weavers of Coimbetorc for the coarse cloth called Paracalas, on terms

CO

474 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH fCHAP. IX.

1800. similar to those whioli I have already mentioned. The weavers are

^ ' ' very anxious to have a continuation of this employment None of

their cloth was rejected ; but some, that they had rated as of the

first quality, the resident reduced to the second, and the weavers

were contented to receive this price.

Advances. Each of the different classes of weavers here forming, as it were,

a kind of family, the richer assist the poor ; so that those who work for country use are either able to make the oloth on their own account^ or at least are not obliged to take advances from a native merchant for more than one piece at a time. Those who once get into the debt of a native merchant are ever afterwards little better than slaves, and must work for him at a very low rate.

Duties on mana- The wcavcrs hcro formerly paid a certain duty on every loom ;

jaoiurea. which, iu Order to encourage large dealers, was lower on those who

kept many looms, than on those who had few. Eight Fanams {3s. n^d,) was paid annually for a single loom, and this revenue was collected by the Sunca, or custom-house. This duty has been taken off, together with all transit duties on cloth ; and in place of these, a stamp duty has been imposed. The weavers say that this will be harder on diem than the former duties were, and they have requested the collector to restore the former mode of assessment, but without success.

None of the weavers here cultivate the land- Some of them, it is truOj rent lands ; but these are cultivated by servants of other tribes.

cii'^tomsofthe The Natami Carun, or hereditary chief, of the Coicular weavers

coicuiar, thcrc, infonus me, that in this tribe there are the following divisions ;

namely, Siritali, Tataynatar, and CovgOj to which last he belongs. In other distiicts other divisions are known ; at Sati-mangalam, for instance, they are divided into Oholay Culcundo^ Murdea, and Conga. There the hereditary ohieiia h Miirdea, Those divisions do not intermarry, but can eat in common. As the Co/cu/^r never marry persons of the same family in the male line with themselves, their \ marriages are confined to a few families, whose descents are known to each other. The men may marry several wives, and the women continue after the age of puberty to be marriageable. Except among the Siritali, a widow cannot marry again. They do not al- low of that kind of inferior marriage, called Gwtiga above the Glials^ and ^Vo2)ati or Jaty-bidda in this country. A woman, who has any criminal connection with a strange man, is excommunicated ; but when a married woman is seduced by a Coicular, both seducer and cuckold pay a fiue of two Fanams^ or almost a shilling, and the matter is settled in an amicable manner by the hereditary chief. The Coicular are allowed to eat animal food, and to drink intoxi- eating liquors. Many of them read legendary tales, and can keep accompts. Some of them bury, and some of them bum the dead.

CHAP. IX.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 475

On both occasionfl, proper Mantrams must be read by a Brdhman ; jg^Q otherwise the departed soul ineyitably beoomes a Muni^ or alowocuw, so. kind of devil ; as is also the case with the souls of all those who are killed by accident, whether they may have been good or bad* If the proper ceremonies have been performed, the souls of good men are received into the heaven called Coilasa ; those of bad men are punished by being bom again, either as men or animals. The Coi- cuiar are of Siva^s side, but consider OamachuTna, or Parvatij as the proper deity of their caste. Some of the idols of this goddess are served by priests of the Coicuiar, others by Pundarum, and in some large temples by Brahmana ; but these never join in the bloody sacrifices that are offered by the low tribes to the idol, and retire whenever the animals are going to be killed. The Coicular offer sacrifices also to the Saktis and Munia. These last are destructive spirits of the male sex, of whom the worship is very common through- out the province of Ooimbetora. The (hum of the Coicular is a Smartal nrdhman, whose office is hereditary. He gives them Up" adesoy and consecrated food, water, and ashes, and receives their an- nual contributions. He either comes round, or his disciples visit for him, once in the year. The PaTichanga, or astrologer, acts for the Coicular as Purdhita, and reads Mantrama at the annual and monthly commemoration of their deceased parents, at the building of a new house, at marriages, and at funerals. The hereditary chief punishes transgressions against the rules of caste by fine and excommunication. He is assisted by a council, and pretends also to have a jurisdiction in disputes ; but in these an appeal is commonly made to the offi- cers of government. The Coicular are weavers, writers, or accomp- tants, schoolmasters, and physicians ; and all the dancing women, and musicians attached to them in this country, formerly belonged to this caste ; but the decent part of the community have entirely given up all society with these abandoned characters.

These dancing women, and their musicians, thus now form a cnncheny, m separate kind of caste ; and a certain number of them are attached to ^»"«^ women. every temple of any consequence* The allowances which the musicians reoeivs for their public duty is very small ; yet morning and evening they are bound to attend at the temple to perform before the image. They must als6 receive every peison travelling on account of the government, meet him at some distance from the town, and conduct him to his quarters with music and dancing. All the handsome girls are instructed to dance and sing, and are aU pros« titutes, at least to the Bvahmana. In ordinary sets they are quite common ; but, under the Company's government^ those attached to temples of extraordinary sanctity are reserved entirely for the use of the native officers, who are all Brahmana^ and who would turn out from the set any girl that profaned herself by communication with persons of low caste, or of no caste at all, such as Christians or Mas* snlmans. Indeed, almost every one of these girls that is tolerably sightly is taken by some officer of revenue for his own special use^

47G ' A JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH jCHAP. IX.

1800 and is seldom permitted to go to the temple, except in his presence.

Oct. 29, 30. Most of these officers have more than one wife, and the women of the Brdhmans are very beautiful ; but the insipidity of their conduct from a total want of education or accomplishment^ makes the dancing women be sought after by all natives with great avidity. The Mussul- man officers in particular were exceedingly attached to this kind of com- pany, and lavished away on these women a great part of their in- comes. The women very much regret their Toss, as the Mussulmans paid liberally, and the Brdhmans durst not presume to hinder any girl, who chose, from amusing an Aaoph, or any of his friends. The Brdhmans are not near so lavish of tlieir money, especially where it is secured by the Company's government, but trust to their autho- rity for obtaining the favours of the dancers. When a Mussulman called for a set, it procured from twenty to two hundred Faname (from 12«. 6d. to 6/. 45. 9rf.), according to the number and liberality of his friends who were present ; for in this country it is customary for every spectator to give something. They are now seldom called upon to perform in private, except at marriages, were a set does not get more than ten Fanams, or about 6«. Sd. The girls belonging to this caste, who are ugly, or who cannot leam to sing, are married by the musicians. The Nutua, or person who performs on two small cymbals, is the chief of the set, and not only brings up the boys to be musicians, and instructs all the good-looking girls> bom in the set, to sing and dance, but will purchase handsome girls of any caste whatever that he can procure. When a dancing girl becomes old she is turned out from the temple without any provision, and is very destitute, unless she has a handsome daughter to succeed her ; but if she has, the daughters are in general extremely attentive and kind to their aged parents. To my taste, nothing can be more silly and unanimated than the dancing of the women^ nor more harsh and barbarous than their music. Some Europeans however, from long habit, I suppose, have taken a liking to it, and have even been capti- vated by the women. Most of them that I have had an opportuni- ty of seeing have been very ordinary in their looks, very inelegant in their dress, and very dirty in their persons : a large proportion of them have the itch, and still larger proportion are more severely diseased.

Cnstomi of the The Panchalav sjce a set of artists, who (as their name imports)

panchaiar. are of fivo different tradcs ; goldsmiths, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, carpenters, and masons. By the Brdhmans they are reckoned a low kind of SUdras ; but this they do not readily acknowledge to be true, and say, that they are of the Tiakwa Karma caste, being de- scended from the five sons of that person, who lives in heaven, and is the chief artist among the Brdhma L6ca^ or angels. All the Pan- iJialar in southern India wear a thread like the Brdhmans. In the dispute about precedency, their hereditary chiefe lead the right fa&nd tide. On this account Ooimbetore has bJBen long divided into se- parate quarters. In its own quarter, each party may perform its

CHAP. II.J MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 477

ceremonies in whatever manner it pleases ; but it is not allowed to I8OO. go into the adversary's quarters with any procession. This keeps ^'^^- ^* ^* the peace ; and, although the killing of a jackass is known by report to the natives in this part of the country, it never has been practis- ed. A Panchala may follow any of the live arts that he pleases ; but there are many divisions among them, that prevent intermarriage. No man can marry a woman of a different nation; a Telinga Pan- chala, for instance, could not marry a woman of this country. Again, a man cannot marry any woman of the same family with, himself ; and, in order to prevent mistakes, marriages are always made with families who are well known to each other. The men are allowed a plurality of wives^ and the women continue to be marriageable after the age of puberty. Widows are not allowed to marry again ; nor are they ^rmitted to live with another man in the kind of concubin- age called Jatycddda, of whom none belong to this tribe. Widows, indeed, ought to burn themselves with the dead bodies of their hus- bands ; but, for at least a century, the practice has gone into disuse. When two persoiis of the caste commit adultery, they are carried be- fore the Ouru. The man is fined, and the woman is flogged ; but, after she has been purified by some consecrated food, and water, her husband receives her back again. If a woman has criminal connection with a man of any other caste she is excommunicated* Some of these people eat animal food, others do not. They are allowed to drink intoxicating liquors. They never offer sacrifices to any of the destructive spirits, either male or female. The deity peculiar to the caste is Camcichuma, or Kalimay who is, they say, the same with Farvatiy is the wife of Siva. The priests in her temples are all Brdhmans ; but in the southern parts of India no sacrifices are offered to this idol, as is done in Bengal. The images of this goddess in the two countries are very differently shaped. The PanchaUu are frequently instructed to read and write, and there is a book called Vimwa Puranam, which any of them may read. It is written iu the vulgar languages. The Gurus of the Pdnchalas are not JBrah- mans, but persons of the caste. They have four Matams, the authority of all which is equal. One Maiam, situated beyond the Tungor-bhadra river, is under the government of a Sannyasiy who appoints his suc- cessor from among his relations in the male line. The persons of this family who are not called upon to fill this sacred o£Sce work at the anvil as usual, and are not too proud to intermarry with ordi- nary families. The heads of the other three families marry, and their office is hereditary in the male line : one of them, named Parsamium^ lives at Tinevelly ; another, named Vepuru Vencaia Achdrya, lives at Andeuvu ; the name of the third and his place of residence, are unknown the te people of Coimbeion. To their followers these Gurus read Mantrams and Charitra, or prayera and legends, in the Telinga language. They also bestow Upadesa, and receive the gifts called Ddna^ and Dharma; for which purpose they once a year travel round, and receive from each person a Fanam at least

478 A JOURNEY FEOM MADRAS THROUGH [CHAP. IX.

-QQQ The Panchdnga of the village acts a-s Purohita for the Pancha-

Oct, 20, 30. Inr, and reads to them Mantrams, in an unknown language, at mar- riages, births, the building of a new house, and at the monthly and annual celebrations of the ceremonies for their deceased parents. He also receives the charity called Dana, Torearu. The Tofcas, OT Toreavu, are a tribe o{ Karnata, although many of

them have been long settled in this country. They are rather a low caste, and their proper duty is the cultivation of the Betel-leaf, Many of them formerly were armed messengers, employed to col- lect the revenue ; but, having been deprived in a great measure of this resource by the reduction made in that body of troops, or rather rabble, they have become small dealers in grain, and cuttera of firewood; both of which are considered as low employments. They have hereditary chiefs called Gotugaras, or Ij)/amtfft<i8y who with the advice of a council reprimand all troublesome persons, and inflict slight punishments on those who trangress the rules of caste. The Toreas may eat animal food, but are not permitted to drink intoxicating liquors. They are not allowed to marry a second wife, without obtaining the consent of the first ; and this is never asked for, if she has any children. The girls continue to be marriage- able after the age of puberty, and widows may marry a^ain with- out disgrace. The bridegroom generally gives his father-in-law forty Fanams {11, 68,) ; but this is only to assist in deft^ying the ex- pence of the ceremony, which is performed at the father's house, and which costs more money. In cases of adultery, the husband does not always turn his wife away, but contents himself with flog- ging her. A woman loses caste if she cohabits with a strange man. This caste has two deities peculiar to itself ; the one a male, the other a female. The male is called Sidday Devaru, and is usually represented by a stone placed in the Betel-leaf garden. The eldest man of every house acts priest for his own family, and offers up bloody sacrifices to this stone, in order to appease the wrath of the god which it represents. Once in three or four years a feast is ce- lebrated in honour of Sidday Devaru, in order to induce him to be- stow prosperity on the caste. This is done by a contribution,and costs fifteen Pagodas (4f. ISs. 7d,), On this occasion Sidday Devaru is re- presented by a pot, which is placed in a house, and has worship {Puja) performed in its honour ; that is to say, flowers, and water dyed yellow with turmeric, are poured over it, and incense is burned before its throne. The female deity is named Urucate, and is represented by a stone placed in a wood. To this sacrifices and Puja are offered eight days after the great feast of Sidday Devaru, and the goddess is solicited to bestow prosperity on her votaries. Although these are the peculiar deities of the Tareas, these poor people pray to any image that comes in their way, and use the mark of Siva. They have no Guru. The Panchdnga acts as Puro- hita, and reads Mantrams at marriages, and when they build a new house. His fee is a Fanam and a half ( U ^d.). In cases of sickness,

CHAP. IX.] MYSORE, CANARA, AND MALABAR. 479

the Toreas frequently vow Ddsiri one day in the week ; that is to jgQQ say, to live upon what they can procure by begging. oct. 29, 30.

The Palli are a very numerous caste in all the countries where paui, the Tamul language, their native tongue, is prevalent. They pretend to be Sudras, but are looked upon as rather a low tribe. They have many sub-divisions, none of which intermarry with each other ; but all can eat in common. Those from whom I have my information are called Afiska Palli^ and act as cultivators of fields, and of gar- dens watered by machinery, both as farmers and servants, and also as porters. They have hereditary chiefs, called here Ijyamdna, On all public ceremonies these receive Betel first ; and, with the as- sistance of an assembly of the people, settle disputes, when the mem- bers of their tribes are willing to refer the matter to their deci- sion ; but a reference to the oflicers of government is in general pre- ferred. Some of this tribe are able to read and write accompts. They can lawfully eat animal food, and drink spirituous liquors. They are permitted to marry several women, and pay to the father of each from nine to eleven Pagodas. The father pays one-third of the marriage expences, and the bridegroom the remainder. Girls con- tinue to be marriageable after the age of puberty ; but after that period sell lower than while children, A widow may marry again without disgrace. In cases of adultery within the caste, the husband in general flogs the woman, and takes her back, giving a small fine to bis relations ; but sometimes he turns her away ; in which case the man who seduced her keeps the woman as his wife, and pacifies his relations by a small fine. All this produces no disgrace, either to the woman or to her children. A woman loses caste by criminal communication with any man, exce]3t a PalH ; a man may without disgmce indulge himself with any woman, except those belonging to the Pandiatna, or impure castes.

The gods peculiar to the Pailu are a male named Manar 8%oami^ and Pachumma his mother. In the temples of these deities the priests are Pallis. They are represented by stone images, and, as usual in the province of Goimbetore, have placed in the yard belong- ing to their temple a great many figures in potter's work, which represent horses, elephants, and Munis, or devils, who are supposed to be the attendants of these gods. When a person is sick, he fre- quently vows to place some of these images of potter's work at the temple of the spirit who is supposed to be the cause of his disease. None of these are ever presented to the great gods of the Brdhmans, but only to the deities peculiar to the castes of the lower tribes. No sacrifices are offered to Mannar, or Pachumma ; but they are fre- (juently presented to the attendant Munia, of whom a great many have appropriate names and characters ; such as Val, Shem, Car, Vayda, Midtii, &c. They are all males. The Pallis frequently offer sacrifices to ManTua, PtUalima, and the other Saktis, and pray to Siva, Vishnu, or anything which they meet, that is called a god.

480 ^ JOURNEY FROM MADRAS THROUGH MYSORE, &c. [CHAP. IX.

jgQQ The Panchanga, or astrologer of the village, acts as Purdhita (or

Oct. 29, 30. the Pallia, and reads Man&ama at their births aitd marriages, at the annual commemorations of their deceased parents, and at the build- ing of a new house.

Some of the Pallia are of Siva^s side, and others of VishmCs. The former have a Guru peculiar to themselves, who is called Palli Sivdmi, and lives at Andeuru, His office is hereditary, and he wears the Linga. He receives the charity of his followers, and gives them consecrated food, and holy water. On such as oboose to wear the Linga, he bestows an Upad^a ; but very few apply for this, as ever afterwards they must abstain from animal food. The Pallia who wear the mark of Vishnu have for Ourus the Sri Vaishnavam Brdh- mana. i

Monntainooi The MUs wcst fro|n Coimhetore are inhabited by Malasir, Mudu-

coimhet^eMr ff^^'f Eriligaru, and Todear^ These last cultivate with the plough, naiabar. and pay rent for their fields. The others cultivate- after the Cotii-

cadu fashion, and live like those whom I saw on the hills near Dan Nayakana Cotay, Besides plantains, they have for sale honey, and wild ginger, -^hich is *the same species with that cultivated. They pay no rent immediatel|y to the government ; but are compelled to sell their commodities to a man, who pays an amiual duty for this exclusive trade. He may give what price he pleases for their com- modities. Those who want timber, or Bavibooa, hire the hiU people to cut them. sickncM, 31st October, — The sickness among my people had now increased

so much, that the greater part of them could not proceed farther ; and I Wcis forced to employ this day in providing a fresh set of sei'vants*- 7^

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

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