Air Quality

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
University of Alberta Libraries

https://archive.org/details/albertastateofen1998albe

Air Quality

/dlbcrfa

ENVIRONMENT

For copies of this report, please contact:

Information Centre

Alberta Environment

Main Floor, Great West Life Building

9920 - 108th Street

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T5K 2M4

Telephone: (780) 944-0313

Fax: (780) 427-4407

Email: env.infocent@gov.ab.ca

Information Centre
Alberta Environment
#100,3115-12 Street NE
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2E 7J2
Telephone: (403) 297-3362

From anywhere within Alberta, use the toll-free Alberta Government number: 310-0000.

Internet Users:

Or download this report from the Alberta Environment website at

http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/info/infocentre/index.cfin

ISBN: 0-7785-2031-5 (printed version) Publication Number: 1/902

ISBN: 0-7785-2033-1 (on-line version)

Printed: January 2002

jtflbertajtfir Quality at a Glance - 1998

Table 1.0

Summary of Alberta Air Quality 1998

Air Quality Rating
(number of hours*)

Station

Good

Fair

Poor

Very Poor

Edmonton Central

8638

101

1

0

Edmonton Northwest

8339

403

4

0

Edmonton East

8291

448

0

0

Calgary Central

8715

45

0

0

Calgary Northwest

8343

415

2

0

Calgary East

8584

175

0

0

Fort Saskatchewan

8352

404

4

0

Fort McMurray

7515

144

0

0

* The different totals reflect the number of hours each station was operational in 1998.

The above table is a snapshot of Alberta’s air quality in 1998. The Index of the
Quality of the Air (IQUA) is a system developed to provide the public with a
meaningful measure of outdoor air quality. Using the IQUA, the air quality at
each station is rated as Good, Fair, Poor or Very Poor every hour.

In 1998, the air quality in Alberta was rated as Go7)d more than 95% of the time
and either Good or Fair more than 99% of the year. There were only 11 hours
when the air quality was reported as Poor and there were no incidents of Very
Poor air quality.

K u 1

What is the Index of the Quality of the Air (IQUA)?

The IQUA is a system developed to provide the public with a meaningful measure of outdoor air quality. From the IQUA, a
description of Good, Fair, Poor or Very Poor is given to the current air quality.

The IQUA converts concentrations of five major air pollutants to a single number and a matching description. For example, a
rating of 0-25 indicates Good air quality, 26-50 is Fair, 51-100 is Poor, and more than 100 is Very Poor air quality.

The IQUA is based on outdoor concentrations of carbon monoxide, the coefficient of haze (dust and smoke), nitrogen
dioxide, ozone and sulphur dioxide. These pollutants are monitored continuously at three locations in Edmonton (central,
northwest and east) and Calgary (central, northwest and southeast). An index value is calculated for air pollutants at each
monitoring station. The concentration of each pollutant is converted to an IQUA number and the highest number becomes
the IQUA for that station.

How was the IQUA Developed?

A federal-provincial committee originally developed the IQUA in 1978. Good, Fair, Poor and Veiy Poor air quality categories
are related directly to guidelines under Alberta’s Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act. These guidelines reflect
the maximum desirable, acceptable and tolerable levels specified by the National Air Quality Objectives.

For each air pollutant, an IQUA rating of 25 corresponds to the federal maximum desirable level; a rating of 50 corresponds
to the federal maximum acceptable level; and a rating of 100 corresponds to the federal maximum tolerable level.

How is the IQUA made available?

Alberta Environment provides this information through an automated air quality index reporting system. The monitoring
stations are automatically polled every hour and the data are available by telephone.

The IQUA is calculated and issued hourly by Alberta Environment in Edmonton and Calgary. The current air quality index is
available by phoning 780-427-7273 in Edmonton and 403-250-2099 in Calgary. (Or call 310-0000 toll-free from anywhere in
the province.)

When is air quality a problem?

Fair or Poor air quality conditions usually occur when there is a strong temperature inversion and light winds. The
combination of these weather conditions will often create a layer of cool, stagnant air near the ground. Air pollutants, emitted
mostly by automobiles, are trapped in this layer of stagnant air. In Edmonton, these conditions usually occur with the
approach of a warm front. In Calgary, strong temperature inversions are common before the arrival of a chinook.

Poor air quality can also occur in the heat of the summer. Under hot, calm weather conditions, photochemical smog can be
formed through a complicated set of chemical reactions involving oxides of nitrogen and volatile hydrocarbons in the
presence of sunlight. Photochemical smog has a noticeable light brown colour, and can reduce visibility and trigger
respiratory response. In Alberta, photochemical smog is typically a concern only one or two days a year.

Very Poor air quality almost never occurs at Alberta monitoring stations.

■Table of Contents

Preface xi

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 The Atmosphere 1

Composition of the Atmosphere 1

Structure of the Atmosphere 2

1.2 Monitoring Air Quality 3

The “Backbone” Provincial Air Quality Monitoring Network 3

Regional Monitoring 7

Future Air Quality Monitoring Programs 9

2.0 Influences on Air Quality 11

2.1 Geography and Climate 11

Alberta’s Geography 11

Alberta’s Climate 12

2.2 Weather and Its Effect on Alberta’s Air Quality 13

2.3 The Effect of Alberta’s Economy on Air Quality 15

3.0 Air Quality Management in Alberta 17

3. 1 CASA - The Clean Air Strategic Alliance 17

The CASA Mandate 17

The Future 19

3.2 Alberta’s Air Quality Management System 19

Goals 19

Policies 20

Ambient Air Quality Guidelines 21

Facility Approvals 21

Source Emissions 21

Plume Dispersion Modelling 23

Kv|

Table of Contents

Ambient Air Monitoring 23

Reporting Monitoring Results and Contaminant Releases 24

Emission Inventories 24

Inspections and Abatement Strategies 25

Enforcement 26

Research 26

4.0 Alberta Air Quality Issues 27

4.1 Carbon Monoxide 27

Sources of Carbon Monoxide 27

Carbon Monoxide in Alberta 28

1998 Levels of Carbon Monoxide 28

4.2 Oxides of Nitrogen 31

Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen 31

Oxides of Nitrogen in Alberta 31

1998 Levels of Oxides of Nitrogen Dioxide 32

4.3 Ground-Level Ozone 34

Sources of Ozone 34

Ground-Level Ozone in Alberta 35

1998 Levels of Ground-Level Ozone 36

4.4 Volatile Organic Compounds 37

Sources of Volatile Organic Compounds 37

Volatile Organic Compounds in Alberta 38

4.5 Acid Deposition 39

Sources of Acid Deposition 39

Acid Deposition in Alberta 41

1998 Levels of Sulphur Dioxide in Alberta 41

Alberta’s Response to Acid Deposition 43

4.6 Air Toxics 44

Sources of Air Toxics 44

Air Toxics in Alberta 45

Gas Flaring 45

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 46

El

Table of Contents

Alberta’s Response to Air Toxics 46

4.7 Particulates 49

Sources of Particulates 49

Particulates in Alberta 50

Alberta’s Response to Particulates 51

5.0 Global Air Issues 53

5.1 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 53

Ozone Depletion in Alberta and Around the World 54

The Global and Alberta Response to Ozone Depletion 55

Future directions 56

5.2 Climate Change 56

The Greenhouse Effect 57

Greenhouse Gases in Alberta 59

Alberta Climate Trends 60

Implications 6l

The Alberta Response to the Issue 6l

6.0 Summary 63

Trends 63

The Future 63

7.0 Bibliography 65

Documents 65

Websites 66

List of Figures

Figure 1. Alberta Environment Air Monitoring Station 3

Figure 2. Locations of Provincial Monitoring Stations, 1998 5

Figure 3- Mobile Air Monitoring Laboratory (MAML) 6

Figure 4. Air Monitoring Instruments 7

Figure 5. Air Monitoring Instruments 8

Figure 6. Airshed Zones 8

Figure 7. Air Monitoring Instruments 9

Figure 8. Alberta’s Natural Regions 11

Figure 9- Climate Regions of Canada 12

Figure 10. Alberta Emissions vs GDP 16

Figure 11. Key elements of Alberta’s Air Quality Management System 22

Figure 12. Long-Term Trend in Carbon Monoxide Concentrations 29

Figure 13. Long Term Trends for Particulate Matter 52

Figure 14. Temperature Variations over the last one million years 57

Figure 15. The Greenhouse Effect 58

I “ 1

List of Figures and Tables

Ml ■

List of Tables

Table 1. Summary of Alberta Air Quality 1998 iii

Table 2. Air Parameters Measured by “Backbone” Monitoring Stations 4

Table 3- 1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages (ppm) for Carbon Monoxide 29

Table 4. Annual Average Carbon Monoxide Concentrations (ppm) 30

Table 5. 1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Nitrogen Dioxide (ppm) 32

Table 6. Annual Average Nitrogen Dioxide Concentration (ppm) 33

Table 7. Annual Average Ozone Concentration (ppm) 36

Table 8. 1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Ozone(ppm) 37

Table 9- Annual Average Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations (ppm) 41

Table 10. 1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Sulphur Dioxide (ppm) 42

Table 11. Annual Average pH values of precipitation (1993-1998) 42

Table 12. Annual Average Benzo (a) Pyrene Concentrations (ng/m3) 47

Table 13. Annual Average Particulate Matter Concentrations (|ig/m3) 52

Table 14. Major Ozone-Depleting Substances 54

Table 15. Greenhouse Gas Emission Estimates for 1997 in Canada and Alberta 59

II

Alberta Environment is committed to informing Albertans about the state of the province’s environment and produces many
reports on the status of Alberta’s environmental resources. This ensures accountability and gives Albertans important
information for their own consideration and use. There is also a legislative basis for state of the environment reporting.
Alberta’s Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act requires the Minister of Environment to report annually on the
state of the province’s environment.

Nationally, the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment have promoted a common approach to State of the
Environment reporting.

The purpose of State of the Environment (SOE) reporting is to provide timely, accurate and
accessible information on ecosystem conditions and trends, their significance and societal
responses, emphasizing the use of indicators.

SOE reports describe environmental conditions, pressures and responses to these conditions and pressures. They make
extensive use of environmental indicators, key measurements that can be used to monitor, describe, and interpret change.
Indicators can help us answer questions such as:

• What environmental trends are occurring?

• Why are they significant?

• What actions are being taken?

Education about the environment is an important goal of SOE reporting. In addition to facts and figures about the state of
Alberta’s environment, SOE reports feature background history and science to help the reader interpret the information
presented.

The first Alberta State of the Environment Report was published in 1994. This was followed by SOE reports focussing on
specific environmental topics:

• Waste management in 1995,

• Aquatic ecosystems in 1996, and

• Terrestrial ecosystems in 1997.

The theme of this SOE report is air quality.

Readers are invited to provide comments on this year’s report or any aspect of SOE reporting to Alberta Environment at the
address below. A reader survey form is enclosed at the end of this report. Your feedback is greatly appreciated.

Alberta Environment
Public Education & Outreach Branch
Main floor, Oxbridge Place
9820 - 106 Street

Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2J6 E-mail: env.education@gov.ab.ca

I x> I

Introduction

The Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds our planet. Our
atmosphere is vital for life on earth. Our atmosphere provides oxygen to breathe,
it insulates us and traps the heat from the sun, it protects us from harmful
radiation from outer space, and it is the main mechanism by which water is
distributed around the globe.

One of the by-products of the industrial age was the increased release of human-
produced substances into the air. At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, not
much attention was paid to the emissions generated as a result of industrial
production. Air quality began to be recognized as an issue in the late 1800s. As an
example, the term “acid rain” was first used in the 1870s.

Over the last four decades, there have been many advances in our knowledge of
air quality and pollution reduction strategies. As a result, many air pollutants
have declined in concentration since the 1970s. As science improves, we are
getting better at understanding the atmospheric processes that affect the quality of
our air. However, despite the encouraging results, there is still concern about the
quality of our air and the substances being released into our atmosphere.

There are many sides to the issue of clean air. Air quality is not only concerned
with the physics and chemistry of the atmosphere. Economics, environment and
even our lifestyle also enter into discussions on air quality.

Air quality is not an issue unique to Alberta. Throughout the world, the quality of
the air is an important environmental concern.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The two major gases found in the atmosphere are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen
(21%). Other gases found naturally in the air include argon (0.9%), water vapour,
carbon dioxide and traces of various inert gases.

Water vapour in the atmosphere is essential to life on the planet. Without water
vapour, there would be no clouds, no precipitation - essentially no weather.

II

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Many substances in the atmosphere that we consider to be pollutants have natural
sources as well as human ones. Volcanoes contribute sulphur dioxide (SO2),
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and particulates into the air. Forest fires add carbon
monoxide (CO), while biological processes in the soil release nitrogen oxide
(NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is added to the air through biological decay. The oceans
serve as both a source and sink for carbon dioxide.

Naturally occurring levels of ground-level ozone (O3) in rural areas can exceed
those levels found in urban areas. Many different types of organic chemicals, or
hydrocarbons, are also emitted into the atmosphere by trees, vegetation, and the
decay of plant and animal material.

While we have little control over natural emissions into the atmosphere, we do
have control over the amounts of materials we release as a result of our activities.

It has been estimated that 90% of all sources of human-produced substances
released into the atmosphere are the result of combustion of one kind or another
(Henderson-Sellers 1984). We burn fossil fuels to heat our homes, power our
vehicles and produce electricity. Most air emissions come from the incomplete
combustion of these fuels. The materials released depend on the type of fuel
burned and how efficiently the combustion takes place.

Most of the discussion about air quality is on the human-produced by-products of
combustion, their effects and our efforts to reduce their impact.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere can be divided into layers that are defined by height and
temperature.

• Exosphere - 500 to 1,000 km above the Earth’s surface

• Thermosphere (also called Ionosphere) 85 to 500 km above the
Earth’s surface

• Mesosphere - 45 to 85 km above the Earth’s surface

• Stratosphere - 15 to 45 km above the Earth’s surface

• Troposphere - 0 to 15 km above the Earth’s surface

We are concerned mainly with air quality in the troposphere - the layer of the
atmosphere where we find our weather. An exception is the depletion of ozone
occurring in the stratosphere.

A sink is any process, activity or
mechanism, which removes a
greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or
a precursor of a greenhouse
gas from the atmosphere"
(Melillo et a/., 1996).

I2I

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Monitoring Air Quality

The first step to determine the quality of our air is to find out what is in the air.
Monitoring programs help do that. There are two different types of air
monitoring: ambient air monitoring and emissions or source
monitoring.

The “Backbone” Provincial Air Quality Monitoring
Network

Alberta has an innovative way of monitoring ambient air quality. The ‘backbone’
provincial monitoring network provides an integrated and focused network for
monitoring air quality. The network helps relate ambient air quality data with
human health and ecosystem data.

The primary focus of the program is to collect air quality data needed to address
concerns regarding the potential impacts of air emissions on human health,
livestock, crops, soil and water. Alberta Environment is responsible for managing
the operations of the provincial monitoring network.

Figure 1

Alberta Environment
Air Monitoring Station

Ambient air monitoring

Ambient air monitoring

evaluates an air sample from the

general atmosphere. In Alberta,

government agencies and

private organizations conduct
.

ambient monitoring
—

Emissions or Source
Monitoring

Emissions or source monitoring
measures the substances in
emissions as they are released

from their source. Many
industries monitor their emissions
to comply with government
regulations.

In 1998, the provincial monitoring network consisted of 12 air quality stations
and 10 precipitation quality stations. The provincial government, the federal
government, airshed zones and industry operate these stations.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

The stations are located across the province (see Figure 2):

• Edmonton (3 sites operated by Alberta Environment) ,

• Calgary (3 sites operated by Alberta Environment) ,

• Fort Saskatchewan (operated by Alberta Environment) ,

• Sherwood Park (operated by the Strathcona Industrial Association),

• Fort McMurray (operated by the Wood Buffalo Environmental Association) ,

• Beaverlodge (35 km west of Grande Prairie - operated by Alberta
Environment),

• Hightower Ridge (65 km northwest of Hinton - operated by the West Central
Airshed Society), and

• Esther (40 km northeast of Oyen - operated by Environment Canada) .

Table 2.0

Air Parameters Measured by “Backbone” Monitoring Stations

Parameter

Edmonton

Central

Edmonton

Northwest

Edmonton

East

Calgary

Central

Calgary

Northwest

Calgary

East

Fort

Sasktachewan

Sherwood

Park

Fort

McMurray

Beaverlodge

Hinton

(Hightower

Ridge)

Esther

Carbon Monoxide

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Dust and Smoke

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Inhalable Particulates

X

X

X

X

X

Total Particulates

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Oxides of Nitrogen

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Ozone

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Hydrogen Sulphide*

X

X

X

X

X

Sulphur Dioxide

X

X

X

X

X

Total Hydrocarbons

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Volatile Organic Compounds

X

X

X

Carbon Dioxide

X

Ammonia

X

Wind

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

* Measured as total reduced sulphur in Fort McMurray

4

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Figure 2

Locations of
Provincial
Monitoring
Stations (1998)

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Other air quality values are monitored at some of the stations on an intermittent
basis (every sixth day) as part of the National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS)
system. Alberta Environment is also testing innovative methods to measure
monthly concentrations for oxides of nitrogen, ground-level ozone, sulphur
dioxide and volatile organic compounds.

Alberta Environment requires hundreds of industrial facilities across the province
to monitor their emissions and local air quality. Special air quality monitoring
surveys are also conducted by Alberta Environment. These surveys are conducted
to:

• Obtain province-wide air quality data,

• Explore potential sites for Alberta’s permanent monitoring network,

• Identify any potential problem areas, and

• Respond to specific air quality concerns from a community.

Many of these air quality surveys are conducted in response to public concerns or
requests from municipal officials. Most special air quality surveys involve
collecting air quality data using the Mobile Air Monitoring Laboratory (MAML).

Figure 3

Mobile Air
Monitoring
Laboratory (MAML)

1

6

I

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

The MAML is an 8.2-metre (27-foot) vehicle designed and equipped to measure
air quality. It houses a variety of instruments that take air samples and analyze
the samples on site. The MAML measures many different atmospheric substances
(carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, total reduced sulphur, sulphur dioxide,
oxides of nitrogen, ozone, hydrocarbons and particulates) as well as weather
conditions (wind speed, wind direction, temperature and relative humidity).

Some special air quality monitoring surveys may use other
monitoring techniques to obtain measurements not provided
by the MAML. For example, intermittent monitoring
techniques may be required to measure volatile organic
compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or sulphur
compounds. In addition, passive techniques can be used to
obtain longer-term concentrations of compounds such as
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulphide
or total sulphation.

Figure 4

Air Monitoring
Instruments

Data and information from Alberta Environment’s air quality
monitoring program are presented in monthly data reports,
quarterly summary reports and annual interpretative reports.

These reports are available through the Alberta Environment
Information Centre at (780) 944-0313 (and toll-free by
dialling 310-0000). Alberta Environment information on air
quality is found at the department’s web site at
http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/air.html. Air quality data collected
by the backbone provincial monitoring network may be
accessed directly at the CASA data warehouse, which is found on-line at
http://www.casadata.org.

Regional Monitoring

In 1995, the Clean Air Strategic Alliance* (CASA) conducted a survey to determine
current and future air quality monitoring needs for the province. The results
indicated two main air quality concerns:

• The impact of air emissions on human health, and

• The effects of air quality on ecosystem health.

Recognizing these concerns, CASA proposed a new monitoring system for the
province that would collect even better air quality data and allow Alberta to
address air quality issues at local, regional and provincial levels.

* For more information about CASA, see section 3.1.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Some air quality issues in Alberta are local or regional, and are not easily
addressed by a province-wide monitoring program. Therefore, CASA developed a
program to measure air quality in specific zones right across the province.

The location and boundaries of an air quality zone
depend on many factors. These factors include:

• Land use,

• Emission source types and volumes,

• Meteorological air pollution dispersion
characteristics,

• Receptor types (human, vegetation, crops, land,
water),

• Location of major population centres, and

• Unique management factors specific to each area.

Ultimately, the success of a zone is largely dependent on the cooperation and
dedication of local governments, industries and environmental organizations.

In October 1995, the West Central Airshed was the first air quality zone established
in Alberta. The zone includes the communities of Drayton Valley, Edson, Hinton
and Jasper. The key objective of the West Central Airshed program is to monitor
the air and the effects that human-produced air emissions may have on
vegetation in the zone. Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, particulates,
volatile organic compounds, wet and dry acid deposition are monitored in the
airshed. The program is jointly funded by the industrial, agricultural, residential
and transportation groups in the zone.

Figure 5

Air Monitoring
Instruments

Figure 6

Airshed Zones

The West Central Airshed is recognized as
an example for future zones proposed for
the province. Recently, similar air quality
zones have been established in the Rocky
Mountain House/Sundre/Red Deer area
(Parkland Airshed Management Zone) and
Fort McMurray/Fort MacKay/Fort
Chipewyan area (Wood Buffalo Zone).

Esl

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 1.0

Future Air Quality Monitoring Programs

The future “backbone” provincial monitoring network will be expanded to about
35 stations. A number of these sites are operating already and will only require
upgrading to become part of the network. In addition, monitoring sites will be
established to gather data on emissions that come from outside Alberta’s borders,
as well as data on flux and visibility. A second mobile monitoring unit may be
added for use around the province. Ecological effects monitoring is proposed for
each natural region of Alberta. This involves monitoring sensitive vegetation and
soil characteristics, as well as air quality.

Figure 7

Air Monitoring
Instruments

Province-wide monitoring provides information to evaluate relationships and
detect longer-term trends. The data will be fed into an integrated data
management system, making it available to those who need it. The system will be
flexible and will be able to incorporate data gathered by other monitoring
systems.

The provincial network is part of Alberta Environment’s strategic plan to better
address provincial and regional air quality concerns in Alberta. The plan
represents a major step toward improving Alberta’s present air quality monitoring
system that was first established in the 1970s. The progress over the past several
years is the direct result of cooperative efforts among representatives from
industry, health and environmental groups, and the federal, provincial and
municipal levels of government. Each of these groups shares a common goal: to
develop a more efficient and effective air quality monitoring system in Alberta.

Further information on the provincial monitoring network is available on the
CASA web site at http://www.casahome.org/.

mm

Influences onjflir Quality

Geography and Climate

Alberta’s Geography

While most of Alberta is relatively flat and rolling, there are also scattered uplands in
the province, such as the Swan Hills, the Birch Mountains and the Cypress Hills. The
major topographic features in Alberta are the foothills and Rocky Mountains on the
province’s western border. The Rocky Mountains play a significant role in defining
Alberta’s weather and climate, which, in turn, affects the air quality in the province.

The natural regions of Alberta reflect the varying soils, vegetation and climate of
the province.

Figure 8

Alberta’s

Natural

Regions

Foothills m

Grassland

Parkland MB

Rocky Mountain im
Canadian Shield | |

Boreal Forest I I

• ' ■ ■ ■ '

Grassland - The Grassland region, as its name suggests, is
relatively flat terrain with few trees. Also known as Prairie,
this region covers the southeastern portion of the province.

Parkland - The Parkland area is the transition zone
between the Grassland and Boreal Forest and Foothill
regions. It is characterized by rolling terrain mostly covered
by aspen forest and small grassland clearings.

Boreal Forest - The Boreal Forest is the largest natural
region in Alberta and is covered mainly by coniferous trees.

Foothills - The Foothills region is found as the elevation
increases toward the mountains. This is a narrow band
along the western edge of the province.

Rocky Mountains - Found along the western border of
Alberta, the Rocky Mountains are characterized by high
elevation vegetation and extreme climate.

Canadian Shield - The Canadian Shield covers the
northeastern comer of Alberta. The Shield is an area of rock
outcrops, lakes and relatively sparse vegetation.

11

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 2.0

Alberta’s Climate

A “climatic normal” refers to the average weather values for a given location. In Canada, the minimum length of record
required to establish a climatic normal is 30 years.

Alberta’s climate is called “continental.” Continental climates have no major water bodies close by to moderate weather
patterns. As a result, extremes in temperature and precipitation are common. Alberta’s climate has been described as “no
two years are alike” (Phillips 1990).

Alberta has two major climate regions: the Prairie and Northwestern Forest Regions. (Environment Canada 1995) The
Prairie climate region corresponds roughly with the Prairie and Parkland natural regions. The Northwestern Forest climate
region covers most of the Boreal Forest, Foothills, Rocky Mountain and Canadian Shield natural regions.

Figure 9

Climate Regions
of Canada

Arctic
Mountains
& Fiords

Arctic
Ik Tundra

/ Yukon/ V
North B.C.{
(Mountains

Northwe :

stern F<

NortheastermForest

MacKenzie

District

Prairies

South B.C.
Mountains

Great Lakes/
St. Lawrence

Pacific
Coast ^

(adapted from Environment Canada 1995)

I 12 ■

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 2.0

The Rocky Mountains influence both of Alberta’s climate regions. The mountains
block or modify the prevailing westerly winds before the winds reach Alberta. The
mountains shield the province from the effects of the relatively warm waters of the
Pacific Ocean, less than 500 km to the west. Without the moderating influence of
the Pacific Ocean, temperatures in Alberta can range from +40°C to -40°C, a
difference of 80°. In contrast, the temperatures found in a maritime climate, such
as Vancouver, normally range from only from +28°C to -15°C - a difference of
only 43° (Hare & Thomas 1974).

The Rocky Mountains also influence the amount of precipitation that falls in the
province by creating a rain-shadow in the southeast corner of Alberta. As a result,
this part of the province - in the Prairie climate region - features the driest
conditions in Alberta. In fact, the Prairie region is one of the driest areas in
Canada. Only the high Arctic receives less precipitation than the Prairie region.
Precipitation in Alberta’s two climate regions ranges from as little as 300 mm
each year in the Prairie region to as much as 500 mm in the Northwestern Forest
region yearly.

In winter, both climatic regions are subject to Arctic air producing episodes of very
cold temperatures, light winds and clear skies. Summers tend to be relatively short
and dry with long hours of sunshine and high temperatures (Phillips 1990).

Weather records in Alberta date back about 1 10 years in the major centres.
Evidence of the climate that existed prior to these records is inferred from the
analysis of lake sediments, tree rings and pollen studies (Environment Canada
1997b). Knowledge of past climates is helpful when discussing the issue of
climate change.

Weather and its effect on Alberta’s
air Quality

Our weather plays a major role in determining the quality of our air. To better
understand the role of weather and air quality, it helps to look at some basic
meteorology. Meteorology is the science of weather - understanding how weather
works and predicting weather patterns and events.

As mentioned earlier, the troposphere is the layer where weather occurs.
Troposphere is taken from the Greek word “tropen” which means “to mix.” The
troposphere is characterized by significant amounts of water vapour and vertical
mixing of the air. The mixing occurs because the sun heats the surface of the
earth and the air at ground level, which rises because it is lighter than the cold
air above it.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 2.0

El Nino

El Nino has many impacts on weather worldwide. Every three to eight years, the easterly trade winds that usually
blow west from South America to Australia subside. As a result, a large pool of abnormally warm water forms off the
coasts of North and South America. This pool of warm water influences weather patterns over North America. This
large scale warming in the equatorial Pacific off the coast of South America is called El Nino.

{Turing a typical El Nino event, a high-pressure ridge forms over the southern United States. This allows warmer, drier
air to flow into the southern Prairies. During El Nino winters in Alberta, temperatures are about 1° to 2°C above the
long-term average and precipitation is about 10% below average for the December to February period. Natural
runoff volumes are generally below average following El Nino winters.

La Nina

La Nina (the opposite of El Nino) is a large-scale cooling in the tropical Pacific waters off the coast of South America.
La Nina is typically associated with an abnormally strong high-pressure system off the coast of South America. As a
result, colder water exists in the eastern tropical Pacific. During a La Nina winter, colder than normal air presides over
Alaska and western Canada with average temperatures 1 to 2 Celsius degrees below the long-term average.
Precipitation is approximately 50% above average in December to February period and natural runoff volumes are
above average following La Nina winters.

This mixing is responsible for the formation of clouds and precipitation. The
mixing also helps to disperse substances in the troposphere.

In certain weather and topographical situations, a condition may arise where the
air is stable and so tends not to mix vertically. This is usually caused by a
temperature inversion and plays a major role in concentrating air pollutants
in urban areas.

Much of our weather activity is defined by the air masses that move through
our province. In Alberta, the main air masses that influence our weather are
continental Arctic in the winter, and maritime Polar in the summer. As their
names suggest, the maritime air masses are wetter than the continental air
masses.

Continental Arctic air tends to produce cold, clear and dry weather conditions.
Maritime air brings warmer temperatures, clouds and precipitation. The
interaction of air masses creates much of our weather. For the most part, weather
systems tend to move through the province very quickly.

This variability in our weather has an important effect on air quality in Alberta.
While weather conditions can produce widespread temperature inversions and
trap substances near the ground, such situations are uncommon in Alberta. There
are local exceptions, but the quickly changing weather patterns help disperse air
pollutants so concentrations tend not to build up.

Air Mass

An air mass is a region of air
having uniform temperature and
moisture characteristics. An air
mass is named for the region of
its origin. For example,
continental Arctic air comes from
the high Arctic away from any
significant source of moisture
and so the air is cold and dry.

1 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 2.0

What is a temperature inversion?

On a typical sunny day with relatively light winds, the air temperature is highest near the ground. This is because the
ground has been heated by the sun, which in turn, heats the air closest to the ground. The air a few hundred metres
above the ground is cooler than the air at the ground. As the evening approaches, the sun's energy decreases and
the surface of the earth loses its heat to the atmosphere. As the ground cools, the lower levels of the atmosphere also
cool. Eventually, the air close to the ground is cooler than the air a few hundred metres above the ground, creating
a situation that is now the reverse of the daytime situation. This is referred to as a temperature inversion. The air is stable
since there is cooler, heavier air below warmer, lighter air.

Temperature inversions will generally last longer during the winter and fall than in the spring and summer. In winter,
temperature inversions can last all day. The combination of a strong temperature inversion and light winds may lead
to a layer of cold, stagnant air near the ground. Substances emitted from low-level sources, such as vehicles, are
trapped in this layer of air. A persistent temperature inversion may lead to increased concentrations of air pollutants in
the lower atmosphere.

In Alberta, many incidences of fair or poor air quality are often related to temperature inversions. Warm air flowing
across the mountains from the west can trap cooler air below. Any emissions released into the air may be trapped
near the ground until the weather conditions change. Temperature inversions and still air conditions are very important
when looking at air quality in Alberta.

The effect of Alberta’s economy on
air quality

The “emissions profile” of a region is a snapshot of the air quality in the area.
Each region of Alberta has a unique emissions profile, because each region has
different sources of emissions, topography and climate.

A region’s air emissions are linked to its economy. As the economy grows, typically
so do air emissions from human activity. As businesses and industries produce
more goods and services for consumers, more people are employed, transportation
needs increase, and demand for goods and services by individuals and
organizations increase.

Alberta’s economy and resulting air emissions depend a great deal on factors
outside the province. Alberta has an open, trade-based economy that supplies
goods and services to Canadian and international trading partners. In 1996,
Alberta produced $20 billion worth of goods and services for the rest of Canada
and $24 billion of goods and services for international export. Our gross domestic
product that year was $74 billion. The largest single component, at over 40 % of
exports, was oil and gas exports. A third of this amount went to the rest of Canada
and the rest to the United States.

Producing and using fossil fuels create more air emissions in Alberta than any
other activity. The production of synthetic crude oil from oil sands in northern

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 2.0

Alberta and the production of upstream oil and gas create significant air
emissions. As well, significant air emissions are created by burning coal and
natural gas to produce electricity and to transport goods throughout the province.
All of these activities burn fossil fuels, which emit sulphur and nitrogen oxides,
volatile organic compounds and greenhouse gases. While market demands
outside Alberta drive oil and gas production activities, demand within the
province determines the amount of fossil fuels used for transport and power
generation.

Figure 10 shows recent trends in greenhouse gas emissions and gross domestic
product for Alberta. The two trends parallel one another in Alberta, as well as in
the rest of Canada. However, the per capita level of emissions in Alberta is much
higher than the rest of Canada since Alberta is a major fossil fuel producer for
both Canada and the United States.

Upstream oil and gas

The portion of the oil and gas
industry that explores for,
acquires, develops, produces
and markets crude oil and
natural gas. Downstream oil and
gas includes refineries and
distribution to consumers.

Figure 10

Alberta Emissions
vs. GDP

120000

</5

100000 Js

o

80000 °
ON

60000 S

o

40000 g
o

20000 g
0

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Alberta Emissions r~ \

Alberta GDP

Economic activity is continuing to increase in Alberta. In fact, rising population and consumer demand in Alberta, Canada
and the United States will create long-term energy demands. As a result, production of synthetic crude oil from the oil sands
may double in the next 20 years.

Governments and industry have recognized that as populations and economic activity increase and emissions increase, air
quality may deteriorate. As a result, technological solutions are being researched to avoid this outcome. For example, vehicle
manufacturers have made impressive gains to the efficiency of modern cars and trucks. This will help stabilize and reduce
emission levels despite increased transportation demands.

While reducing total emissions in Alberta is a significant challenge, progress is being made toward reducing emissions per
unit of goods produced. Technology can help reduce emissions in cost-effective ways. In fact, technology created to reduce
emissions will be marketable in its own right.

glir Quality Management in ^gllberta

In Canada, the federal and provincial governments have roles in managing the quality of our air. In Alberta, the
Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act is the primary piece of legislation dealing with air quality.

CASA - The Glean Air Strategic Alliance

The Clean Air Strategic Alliance is a group that was formed by a process that
began in March 1990 when the Alberta government announced the Clean Air
Strategy for Alberta.

The Alberta Government developed the Clean Air Strategy in response to concerns,
both in Alberta and around the world, about the environmental impacts of
energy-related emissions from burning fossil fuels, such as oil, gas and coal.
Given the energy industry’s important role in the economies of Alberta and
Canada, the strategy was a timely and necessary response.

The strategy was created using a broadly based, public consultation process. The
consultations brought together people from various stakeholder groups in
workshops throughout Alberta. One of the key recommendations from the process
was to form the Clean Air Strategic Alliance (CASA).

CASA has identified a number of values important to its operation and to a vision
for Alberta's air quality. These values include the following:

• Protecting human health and ecological integrity,

• Consensus decision-making,

• Sound scientific and economic knowledge,

• Open and transparent communications,

• Prudent action in areas of uncertainty and,

• Shared responsibility and accountability for decision-making.

The CASA Mandate

The Clean Air Strategic Alliance is a unique partnership of industry, government,
environmental groups and other key stakeholder groups. Established in March
1994, CASA brings together a diverse range of interests to address air quality

CASA’s vision tor air

quality in Alberta

, ' vv: . ■ ' j

The air will be odourless,

tasteless, look clear and have
no measurable short or long-
term adverse effects on
people, animals or the
environment.

1 17 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

concerns through consensus. CASA’s goal is to develop a new air quality
management system for Alberta.

The following interests are represented on the CASA board of directors:

• Agriculture industry

• Federal government - Environment Canada

• Non-government organizations (NGOs)

- Wilderness (Alberta Environmental Network (AEN) Wilderness caucus)

- Pollution (AEN Energy caucus)

- Pollution (AEN Air caucus)

- Health

• Alternative energy Industry

• Forest industry

• Oil and gas industry

- Canadian Petroleum Products Institute

- Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers

- Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada

• Chemical manufacturers

• Local government

• Provincial government

- Alberta Resource Development (more recently, Alberta Energy)

- Alberta Health and Wellness

- Alberta Environment

• Consumer/transportation representatives

• Mining industry

• Utilities

The Clean Air Strategic Alliance is accountable to its members and to the people
of Alberta for its decisions. The Alberta government has agreed to approve and
implement CASA decisions if they meet the following two criteria:

• Consensus must be reached among the stakeholders, and

• Decisions must be based on that consensus.

CASA carries out its mandate in the following ways:

• Clearly identifying the most important air quality issues,

• Prioritizing specific problems,

• Allocating and coordinating resources,

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

• Developing solution-oriented action plans, and

• Evaluating results.

The CASA mandate incorporates sustainability. CASA aims to pursue economic
development in an environmentally responsible way and to improve the
environment in an economically efficient way. CASA’s commitment to consensus
decision-making will give strength and direction to its many projects.

The Future

The Clean Air Strategic Alliance will continue to work on the following projects:

• ambient air quality monitoring,

• acidifying emissions management,

• zone coordination,

• human health and ecological effects monitoring, and

• air toxics and vehicle emissions management.

Every project maintains CASA’s fundamental dedication to consensus decision
making and accountability to the concerns and interests of citizens across the
province. Future projects and studies may also come to CASA’s attention as
Alberta’s population grows and industries expand. CASA’s multi-stakeholder
approach ensures these future concerns will be dealt with in a way that is open
and transparent for all the parties involved.

Alberta’s Air Quality Management System

—

Goals

Together, the members of CASA have developed the following goals to manage air
quality in the province:

• to protect the environment,

• to optimize economic performance and efficiency, and

• to seek continuous improvement.

These goals are not separate elements. All three goals are taken into account
when making decisions about air quality in Alberta.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

Alberta Environment works toward these goals by using a regulatory management
approach, which uses the following tools to apply the Environmental Protection
and Enhancement Act and its regulations:

• policies,

• ambient air quality guidelines,

• facility approvals,

• source emission standards,

• plume dispersion modelling,

• ambient and source emissions monitoring

• reporting monitoring results and contaminant releases

• emissions inventories

• inspections and abatement strategies,

• enforcement, and

• research.

Policies

Alberta has a number of key policies to manage of industrial emissions to the
atmosphere:

• Industrial facilities must be designed and operated in accordance with the
pollution prevention principle. This means facilities must work to prevent
pollution rather than having to deal with the emissions after they have
occurred.

• Emissions from each industrial source must be controlled using

- the best available control technology for carcinogens and

- best available demonstrated technology that is economically achievable for
other substances.

• Residual emissions must be dispersed through a stack designed to keep
ambient concentrations below guidelines.

• Cumulative impacts from multiple sources must be considered.

• Industrial operators must monitor stack emissions and the resulting ambient
concentration around their facilities to demonstrate compliance with
emission limits and ambient guidelines or prescribed levels.

• Industrial operators must report the monitoring results to the government.

Pollution prevention

Pollution prevention strategies
that avoid or minimize the
creation of pollutants or wastes
at the source.

I 20 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

Ambient Air Quality Guidelines

An ambient guideline is the maximum concentration of a substance that we
would want to observe in the air around us. Sustained concentrations above the
guideline could create adverse effects in humans and the rest of the environment.

Facility Approvals

Alberta Environment uses regulatory approvals issued under the Environmental
Protection and Enhancement Act as the main tool for implementing the
province’s industrial air quality system. These approvals provide the following
directions to industry:

• source emission limits,

• required pollution control equipment/technologies and allowable emission
sources,

• operational procedures required to minimize emissions,

• stack design criteria based on plume dispersion modelling to ensure
acceptable ambient levels are met, and

• environmental monitoring and reporting requirements, including emission
inventory data.

Alberta Environment issues a single, integrated environmental approval to each
industry or facility as required. Approvals cover all phases of industrial operations,
including construction, operation, and reclamation. Approvals also address all
environmental aspects including air, industrial wastewater, hazardous and solid
wastes, groundwater, soils, sanitary sewage/waterworks, and reclamation and
decommissioning aspects of facilities.

Approvals under the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act can be
issued for up to 10 years. The approval process also allows public input and has
an appeal mechanism administered by the Environmental Appeal Board.

Source Emissions

To ensure that ambient air quality is maintained within guidelines, Alberta
Environment restricts the emissions of various air contaminants that may be
released by an industry or facility. Regulations and directives set the standards and
Alberta Environment approvals manage the release of these source emissions.
Under the approval system, regulated industries and facilities are allowed to emit
limited amounts of these air contaminants. These emissions limits or source
emission standards are specified in the approvals issued by Alberta Environment
to each industry or facility.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

Figure 11

Key elements of Alberta’s Air
Quality Management System

Source

Monitoring

Development of facility approval
Ongoing evaluation

Plume

Ambient

Monitoring

Predictive Plume
Dispersion
Modelling

‘**5

The source emission limits for any facility applying for an approval depend on the
following:

• existing air quality,

• ambient air quality guidelines or prescribed ambient levels,

• source emission standards based on the

- nature of the air contaminant, that is, carcinogenic or not

- nature of the industry

- air pollution control technology that is determined to be the best available
demonstrated or best available

• results of plume dispersion modelling which takes into account the

- local meteorology and terrain, and

- surrounding emission sources.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

Stack Monitoring

One way to monitor source emissions is to sample the quality of air right in the
output stack of the industry or facility. There are two ways to take such a sample:
manual stack surveys and continuous emission monitoring.

Manual stack surveys are short duration tests, usually consisting of three one-
hour tests. These surveys are conducted by specially trained stack sampling
personnel according to methods outlined in the Alberta Stack Sampling Code.
The Code is updated periodically to reflect new methods and procedures.

In addition to conducting manual stack surveys, facilities that emit large
quantities of substances must monitor emissions continuously. This is done with
instruments permanently installed inside the stack. By measuring the
concentration and flow rate, a facility or industry can determine its mass
emission rate on an ongoing, year-round basis. Requirements are set out in the
Alberta Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems Code.

Fugitive Emissions Monitoring

In some industries, mainly oil, gas and chemical plants, a significant amount of
volatile organic compounds can escape from valves, flanges, sampling
connections, pumps, pipe and compressors. Such emissions are commonly called
fugitive emissions. Industries, especially organic chemical plants, are
required to use monitoring programs to detect leaks, and to take corrective
action, such as repairing or replacing equipment.

Plume Dispersion Modelling.

Plume dispersion models are computer tools that link actual stack emissions to
ambient concentrations. Once an emission limit for a particular source has been
set, the models are used to determine the required stack height needed to properly
disperse any residual air contaminants. Generally, the higher the stack, the lower
the ground-level concentrations in the immediate area. The stack height must be
high enough to ensure that the prescribed ambient levels are met. These models
use information on emission characteristics - such as pollutant mass emission
rate, gas temperature and flow rate - to predict the maximum ground level
concentrations that may occur over a wide range of possible meteorological
conditions, including the worst case atmospheric conditions. Modelling is also
used to help determine the best position for air monitoring stations in the vicinity
of industrial facilities.

Fugitive emissions

Fugitive emissions are
unintentional gas

emi ssions ; from an
installation, usually from
im properly sea led joi nts
in valves and piping.

Ambient Air Monitoring

Some industries are required to monitor ambient air quality for specific
substances as part of the conditions in their approvals. The number of monitoring

I 23 |

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

stations, frequency and duration of monitoring or sampling, measuring or
sampling techniques, and analytical methods, if necessary, depend on the
substances to be monitored and their emission rates.

Ambient monitoring for air pollutants takes various forms. Perimeter monitoring
consists of taking samples of chemical compounds at various locations along the
property boundary of a plant for specified periods of time. The compounds are
considered to be significant because of either the quantity involved or the
potential health and environmental effects.

Ambient air quality can also be monitored by a permanent station located where
the predicted maximum ground level concentration is expected to occur. Alberta
Environment is researching other innovative ambient monitoring programs such
as remote sensing.

Reporting Monitoring Results and Contaminant
Releases

Industries are required to submit monitoring reports to Alberta Environment.
Reporting requirements are specified in their approvals. The requirements vary
depending on the chemicals, size and nature of the facility. The reports
summarize ambient and source monitoring data. The reports also outline
problems that may have arisen and corrective actions taken. The report formats
are specified in Alberta Environment’s Air Monitoring Directive.

Certain types of environmental incidents must be reported immediately. This
requirement is outlined in the Environmental Protection and Enhancement
Act and the associated Release Reporting Regulation. Alberta Environment’s
Release Reporting Guideline provides additional details on which situations
must be reported immediately. The Release Reporting Guideline is available on
the Alberta Environment web site under the Protection and Enforcement section
at http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/protenf/standards/index.html.

Emission Inventories

Emission inventories are used in many ways to manage air quality:

• To assess total emissions and emission trends,

• To perform sector-specific emission evaluations,

• To provide benchmarks for reference to national/international protocols and

• To plan zone/region airshed management and land use.

As a requirement of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act , Environment
Canada compiles the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) each year.
Anyone in Canada who owns or operates a facility that manufactures, processes or
otherwise uses any of the NPRI-listed substances in sufficient quantities must file

14

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

a report with Environment Canada to identify any release or transfers of NPRI
substances. There are currently 178 substances on the NPRI list. Information
about air toxic emissions in Alberta is available in the NPRI database. More
information on the inventory can be found on the NPRI Internet site at
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm.

Every five years, Environment Canada and the provinces prepare a national
inventory of sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons
and particulate matter. Industries and facilities report their data on sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides to Alberta Environment through manual stack
surveys, continuous emission monitors and estimates of flared emissions. They
also report data to the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board on substances associated
with well testing and solution gas conservation projects through flaring. Both
Alberta agencies share this information to help Environment Canada complete
their inventories.

Inspections and Abatement Strategies

The Compliance Inspection Program helps ensure that facilities meet the
requirements of their approvals or registrations from Alberta Environment.
Inspections are designed to identify and correct non-compliance. Significant non-
compliance can be the subject of enforcement action. Whenever possible,
inspectors emphasize prevention through education.

How frequently a facility is inspected depends on its priority. The department
assigns all facilities a priority rating based on a number of factors. These factors
can include the following:

• potential to cause an adverse effect,

• compliance history,

• environmental performance, and

• time elapsed since the last inspection.

Companies with greater potential to cause an adverse effect or with a history of
non-compliance can expect to be inspected more frequently than others.

The majority of inspections are unannounced. Department inspectors can review
and inspect all aspects of any facility’s approval or registration. The review and
inspection can include taking samples of soil, groundwater and effluent, and of
air emissions at their source. If problems are identified, follow-up inspections
ensure the appropriate actions have been taken. Failure to take the requested
actions can result in enforcement action.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 3.0

Enforcement

Alberta Environment’s philosophy is to enforce regulations in a timely and
consistent manner, and in a firm but fair fashion.

Infractions of environmental laws, such as legislation or approval conditions, are
enforced with a wide range of tools, which are outlined in the Environmental
Protection and Enhancement Act:

• warning letters,

• tickets,

• enforcement orders,

• administrative penalties,

• prosecutions,

• court orders, and

• cancellation of approvals.

The enforcement action taken depends on the circumstances surrounding the
particular situation and the past history of the operation. Generally, companies
experiencing difficulties in meeting Alberta Environment approval requirements
will voluntarily take appropriate actions to meet the regulations.

Research

As an ongoing program to further learn about emissions and control
mechanisms, Alberta Environment continues to fund the Alberta Research
Council and other research institutions. Research topics include:

• ethylene effects on crop growth and yield under controlled environmental
conditions,

• assessing natural terrestrial emissions of volatile organic compounds,

• characterizing airborne particulate matter from different sources,

• stack emissions of volatile organic compounds from sour gas plants,

• dioxins and furans in the ambient air,

• using lasers to measure ammonia emissions from treated hog manure, and

• best available technologies to remove liquid from solution gas directed to
flare and the relationship between liquids in solution gas and flare
combustion efficiency.

B>6|

4.0

^Ilberta^Iir Quality Issues

A number of air quality issues affect Alberta and Albertans. These issues are not exclusive to Alberta, and examples can be
found in other parts of Canada and rest of the world. This chapter examines a number of these issues from an Alberta
viewpoint.

Statistics show our air quality is improving. Across Canada, concentrations of carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of
nitrogen and suspended particles have all declined significantly since 1979 (Environment Canada 1996). Improvements in
vehicle design and energy efficiency efforts have contributed to this decline. Personal awareness of air issues has also helped
people take their own steps to reduce emissions.

Carbon Monoxide

Sources of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas emitted primarily from the
incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels such as gasoline, natural gas and
wood. The major source of CO in urban areas is motor vehicle exhaust. Vehicle
emissions account for over two-thirds of the human-produced CO in the
atmosphere (Environment Canada 1990). Minor human sources include
fireplaces, industry, aircraft and natural gas combustion. CO is also found
naturally in the atmosphere at very low levels (0.05 - 0.2 ppm*). Forest fires are a
significant natural source of CO.

Carbon monoxide reduces the ability of blood to absorb and deliver oxygen to the
organs of the body. In low concentrations, CO has been found to affect people
with heart disease (Environment Canada 1990). At high concentrations, found
above Alberta and Canadian standards, the symptoms include dizziness,
headaches and fatigue. Exposure to high concentrations of the gas can be lethal.
Every year, people die from CO exposure as a result of using inefficient heaters in
poorly ventilated areas.

parts per million

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Carbon Monoxide in Alberta

The guidelines for the maximum permissible concentration of carbon monoxide
are based on preventing adverse human health effects. Alberta has adopted the
most rigorous of the national ambient air quality objectives for CO.

Alberta Guidelines
Carbon Monoxide

One Hour - 13 ppm average concentration
Eight Hour - 5 ppm average concentration

In Alberta, the highest CO concentrations are detected at monitoring stations close
to major roadways and tend to be short-lived. The high readings are a direct
result of traffic during morning and evening rush hours. Concentrations also
fluctuate seasonally. The highest concentrations occur during the late autumn,
winter and early spring. High concentrations occur mainly because of
meteorological conditions, such as temperature inversions and low wind speeds.
Higher concentrations during the autumn and winter also occur because vehicles
run less efficiently in cold weather and people tend to let their vehicles warm up
and idle for longer periods.

1998 Levels of Carbon Monoxide

In 1998, there were only two occasions when the one-hour guideline for CO was
exceeded in Alberta. The first was at the Calgary East station in January. The
second occurred at the Edmonton Central station during October. In both cases,
the high readings were associated with a stagnant weather pattern and high
traffic volumes.

The eight-hour guideline was exceeded on four occasions during 1998. There
were two days in January, one in Edmonton (Edmonton Central) and one in
Calgary (Calgary Central and Calgary East), when the guideline was exceeded. In
October, two days above the guideline were recorded in Edmonton (Edmonton
Central). The high readings were caused by still weather conditions.

The majority of urban locations in Canada have shown a downward trend in
carbon monoxide over the past 15 to 20 years. The average concentration of CO in
Canadian cities has declined 70% between 1974 and 1992 (Environment Canada
1995). In Alberta, significant downward trends in CO levels are seen at the
Edmonton Central, Edmonton Northwest, all Calgary stations and at the Fort
Saskatchewan station based on data collected from 1980 to 1997. Decreases in
annual average CO values of 77% and 60% are evident in downtown Edmonton
and Calgary, respectively, based on data from 1980 to 1997.

How long should you let
your car idle?

In most situations, you will use
more fuel by letting your vehicle
idle for longer than 20 seconds
than if you turn it off and restart
the engine.

ROVER

In October and November
1998, the CASA Vehicle
Emissions Implementation
Team welcomed the Roadside
Optical Vehicle Emissions
Reporter (ROVER) to Alberta.
The ROVER van and
equipment were on loan from
the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment. ROVER gathered
data on Alberta vehicles,
specifically the concentrations
of carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
exhaust plumes of passing
vehicles. Information on
ROVER and its findings are
posted on the CASA web site
http://www.casahome.org.

I I

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 3.0

1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages (ppm) for Carbon Monoxide

Station

Jan - Mar

1998

Apr - Tun

1998

Jul - Sep

1998

Oct - Dec

1998

Annual Mean
1998

Edmonton Central

1.11 (1.47)

0.59 (0.86)

0.63 (0.84)

1.10 (1.38)

0.86 (1.14)

Edmonton Northwest

1.05 (1.28)

0.58 (0.68)

0.41 (0.77)

1.02 (1.28)

0.77 (1.00)

Edmonton East

0.54 (0.62)

0.37 (0.38)

0.31 (0.44)

0.53 (0.59)

0.44 (0.51)

Calgary Central

1.23 (1.54)

0.67 (0.88)

0.81 (0.94)

1.00 (1.47)

0.93 (1.21)

Calgary Northwest

0.76 (0.83)

0.51 (0.46)

0.56 (0.51)

0.69 (0.81)

0.63 (0.65)

Calgary East

1.14 (1.38)

0.50 (0.69)

0.70 (0.74)

0.97 (1.36)

0.83 (1.04)

Fort Saskatchewan

0.59 (0.65)

0.39 (0.34)

0.47 (0.39)

0.61 (0.62)

0.52 (0.50)

(Figures in brackets represent the average for 1981 to 1997)

The main reason for the decline in CO emissions is the continued improvement in vehicle emission control equipment over
the past two decades. It is estimated that a car made in 1990 only produces 4% of the CO compared to a 1971 model
(Environment Canada 1996). The overall reduction in CO concentrations is striking when you consider there are more
vehicles on the road today than in 1971.

Figure 12

Long-Term Trend in
Carbon Monoxide
Concentrations

Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Calgary
Central Northwest East Central

Calgary Calgary Fort Fort

East Northwest Saskatchewan McMurray

-0- -0- -ir- -v-

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 4.0

Annual Average Carbon Monoxide Concentrations (ppm)

Year

Central

Edmonton

Northwest

East

Central

Calgary

Northwest

East

Fort

Saskatchewan

Fort

McMurray

1980

2.97

1.78

0.66

2.34

1.08

1.25

no data

0.37

1981

2.18

1.62

1.01

2.33

1.04

1.96

no data

0.48

1982

1.89

1.03

0.90

2.01

1.00

1.38

0.89

0.54

1983

1.74

1.20

0.82

2.08

1.06

1.29

0.69

no data

1984

1.62

1.15

0.79

1.84

0.93

1.23

0.65

0.32

1985

1.51

0.95

0.72

1.69

0.80

1.11

0.58

0.20

1986

1.54

1.27

0.58

1.88

0.89

1.34

0.65

0.25

1987

1.67

1.48

0.60

1.70

0.75

1.30

0.98

0.54

1988

1.51

1.27

0.55

1.68

0.72

1.39

0.74

0.54

1989

1.65

1.15

0.57

1.48

0.68

1.21

0.44

0.46

1990

1.43

1.07

0.53

1.28

0.62

1.06

0.46

0.59

1991

1.30

1.12

0.55

1.35

0.75

1.13

0.45

0.51

1992

1.15

1.08

0.53

1.20

0.71

0.99

0.45

0.49

1993

1.12

1.06

0.53

1.12

0.64

0.99

0.40

0.35

1994

0.94

0.93

0.50

1.07

0.64

0.94

0.54

0.41

1995

0.91

0.88

0.48

1.02

0.62

0.98

0.51

0.38

1996

0.70

0.78

0.45

0.95

0.56

0.88

0.52

0.30

1997

0.70

0.68

0.39

0.93

0.60

0.85

0.44

0.31

1998

0.86

0.76

0.44

0.93

0.63

0.83

0.52

0.32

1999

0.72

0.71

0.37

0.80

0.53

0.73

0.47

0.27

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Oxides of Nitrogen

Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen

The terms “oxides of nitrogen (N0X)” refers to the sum of nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2). During high temperature combustion - as in the
burning of natural gas, coal, oil or gasoline - atmospheric nitrogen may
combine with molecular oxygen to form nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is a colourless,
odourless gas and has no known toxic effects. Most of the NO rapidly oxidizes to
form nitrogen dioxide. NO2 is a reddish-brown gas with a characteristicly
pungent odour. NO2 is partially responsible for the brown haze sometimes seen
in urban areas. Oxides of nitrogen also contribute to acid deposition.

Oxides of Nitrogen in Alberta

In Alberta, about 34% of oxides of nitrogen emissions are produced by
transportation (primarily vehicles), while 48% are due to industrial sources
(mainly chemical, oil sands, upstream oil and gas) and 14% are due to coal-
burning power plants (Environment Canada 1998). In Alberta cities, vehicles
produce most of the oxides of nitrogen. Smaller sources of oxides of nitrogen
include natural gas combustion and heating fuel combustion. Forest fires are a
natural source of oxides of nitrogen.

The highest concentrations of oxides of nitrogen are generally recorded in the
fall and winter at stations located downwind of major traffic arteries and areas
of high traffic volume. Daily peaks are recorded during and after the morning
and evening rush hours. As with other pollutants emitted by vehicles, higher
levels of oxides of nitrogen are associated with vehicle emissions during stable
weather conditions, such as strong temperature inversions and light winds.

The relevant ambient guidelines relate specifically to NO2 concentrations. The
maximum permissible concentrations are based on preventing human health
effects.

Alberta Guidelines
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

One Hour - 0.212 ppm average concentration

24 Hour - 0.106 ppm average concentration

Annual - 0.032 ppm arithmetic average

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

1998 Levels of Oxides of Nitrogen Dioxide

Air quality guidelines for NO2 are rarely exceeded in Alberta cities. In 1998, all
data collected in Edmonton, Calgary, Fort Saskatchewan, Fort McMurray and
Beaverlodge were within the air quality guidelines. Although peak one-hour
average concentrations do not exceed the air quality guidelines, overall average
NO2 concentrations are close to the annual guideline at the Calgary Central and
Calgary East monitoring stations. The annual average NO2 concentrations at
these two stations in 1998 were 0.0308 and 0.0287 ppm, respectively, compared to
an annual guideline of 0.032 ppm.

Annual average values in Calgary (0.026 ppm) were generally higher than those
recorded in Edmonton (0.023 ppm).

Table 5.0

1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Nitrogen Dioxide (ppm)

Station

Jan - Mar
1998

Apr - fun

1998

Jul - Sep

1998

Oct - Dec
1998

Annual Mean

1998

Edmonton Central

.033 (.035)

.021 (.023)

.024 (.020)

.030 (.029)

.027 (.027)

Edmonton Northwest

.030 (.029)

.020 (.018)

.018 (.016)

.028 (.027)

.024 (.023)

Edmonton East

.025 (.024)

.013 (.013)

.015 (.013)

.022 (.022)

.019 (.018)

Calgary Central

.040 (.040)

.027 (.028)

.026 (.025)

.031 (.035)

.031 (.032)

Calgary Northwest

.025 (.024)

.013 (.013)

.013 (.013)

.021 (.022)

.018 (.018)

Calgary East

.039 (.033)

.024 (.022)

.024 (.022)

.028 (.030)

.029 (.027)

Fort Saskatchewan

.019 (.019)

.009 (.009)

.009 (.008)

.017 (.017)

.014 (.013)

Beaverlodge

.007 (na)

.002 (na)

.002 (na)

.006 (na)

.004 (na)

Numbers in brackets represent the average for 1990-1998)

Higher NO2 values in Calgary may be a result of stronger and more frequent
temperature inversions due to the local topography and chinook winds. Higher
levels in Calgary and Edmonton may also reflect higher numbers of vehicles than
in other parts of the province. The NO2 concentrations in Fort Saskatchewan
(0.014 ppm) and Beaverlodge (0.004 ppm) were lower than values recorded in
the larger Alberta cities.

I^l

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 6.0

Annual Average Nitrogen Dioxide Concentration (ppm)

Year

Central

Edmonton

Northwest

East

Central

Calgary

Northwest

East

Fort

Saskatchewan

Fort

McMurray

1982

0.037

0.026

0.017

0.046

0.017

0.030

0.014

0.010

1983

0.027

0.025

0.018

0.036

0.018

0.027

0.018

0.012

1984

0.027

0.022

0.017

0.033

0.018

0.028

0.012

0.009

1985

0.029

0.019

0.018

0.036

0.017

0.026

0.013

0.009

1986

0.030

0.020

0.016

0.034

0.020

0.027

0.013

0.008

1987

0.031

0.020

0.016

0.034

0.020

0.025

0.014

0.010

1988

0.028

0.021

0.016

0.035

0.019

0.026

0.013

0.010

1989

0.026

0.022

0.016

0.035

0.020

0.029

0.009

0.010

1990

0.027

0.025

0.019

0.034

0.018

0.027

0.013

0.011

1991

0.029

0.026

0.021

0.037

0.018

0.026

0.013

0.010

1992

0.026

0.022

0.020

0.032

0.017

0.025

0.010

0.009

1993

0.027

0.021

0.016

0.031

0.017

0.026

0.013

0.005

1994

0.027

0.023

0.017

0.029

0.017

0.027

0.014

0.009

1995

0.026

0.019

0.017

0.028

0.018

0.027

0.014

0.009

1996

0.024

0.024

0.018

0.029

0.017

0.028

0.015

0.010

1997

0.025

0.026

0.018

0.030

0.018

0.029

0.014

0.010

1998

0.027

0.024

0.018

0.031

0.018

0.029

0.014

0.009

1999

0.024

0.022

0.017

0.028

0.016

0.025

0.013

0.009

In Canada over the past two decades, NO2 concentrations have dropped at most urban locations. Based on annual average
values, NO2 levels decreased by 38% between 1974 and 1992 (Environment Canada 1995). However, this downward trend has
levelled off over the last six years. Improvements in vehicle emission controls have been offset somewhat by the increasing
number of vehicles on the road. It is anticipated these levels will begin to decline again as automobile technology continues
to improve and alternate-fuel vehicles are introduced.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Ground-Level Ozone

Sources of Ozone

Ozone (O3) is a colourless gas that is odourless at normal outdoor concentrations.
At concentrations higher than 1 ppm, ozone has a characteristic sharp odour.
Photocopiers, lightning and electrical discharges associated with arcing electric
motors can sometimes produce ozone. Ozone is a component of
photochemical smog sometimes generated near urban areas and industrial
facilities in spring and summer.

Ozone is found near the ground and in the upper atmosphere. Stratospheric
ozone depletion refers to the reduction of ozone in the upper atmosphere and is
discussed in a later section of this report.

Unlike many other substances, ozone is not emitted directly from the exhaust pipe
of a car or a factory stack. Ozone is considered a secondary pollutant since it
is not directly released into the atmosphere. Ozone is created when an oxygen
molecule (O2) and an oxygen atom (0) combine. Natural processes produce most
of the ozone found in the atmosphere.

One of the natural processes that produces ozone is the reaction of oxides of
nitrogen and volatile organic compounds (primarily from vegetation) in the
presence of sunlight. Ozone is also transported to ground level by mixing in the
troposphere.

Most of the time, ozone concentrations are lower in the downtown cores of major
cities than at rural locations. In urban areas, nitric oxide (NO) emitted from
motor vehicles reacts with ozone to produce nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and
molecular oxygen (O2). This reduces the amount of ground-level ozone in an
urban area. In rural areas with less traffic, there is less nitric oxide to reduce the
ground-level ozone.

In urban areas, ozone can be created on warm spring and summer days (above
20 to 25°C) when oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds undergo a
complicated set of chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight. This ozone,
which is created from human-generated gases, adds to the natural ozone already
in the atmosphere. This situation can cause elevated ozone levels downwind of
large cities and industrial complexes.

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical smog is created
by a combination of nitrogen
oxides in the atmosphere and
hydrocarbons released from
vehicle exhaust, all in the
presence of sunlight. The term
"smog", combining the words
smoke and fog, was first used in
England in 1905 to describe air
pollution.

Secondary Pollutant

A secondary pollutant is a
pollutant that is not directly
released into the atmosphere
but is created when two or more
substances combine in the
atmosphere.

K34fl

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Ground-Level Ozone in Alberta

Alberta has high natural levels of O3. The province’s guidelines for ozone are
based on preventing adverse effects to human health and vegetation. The air
quality guidelines for ozone are currently under review by a federal-provincial
committee.

Alberta Guidelines
Ozone (ground level)

One Hour - 0.082 ppm average concentration

The one-hour guideline for ozone is occasionally exceeded at stations located
near the edge of large cities or in communities located downwind of large urban
or industrial areas during warm weather conditions. In 1998, the one-hour
guideline was exceeded four times between July and September. The incidents
occurred in Edmonton (2), Calgary (1) and Fort Saskatchewan (1). All of these
episodes occurred during hot weather conditions. These situations were likely
caused by a high concentration of natural ozone along with an increased level of
ozone generated as a result of human-generated precursor gases. In 1997, the
one-hour guideline for ozone was not exceeded in Alberta.

In Alberta cities, elevated ozone levels and associated photochemical smog are
typically a concern only one or two days a year. Photochemical smog is
considered a serious air pollution problem in other parts of Canada, specifically
the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, the Windsor-Quebec corridor, Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick.

Based on data from 1990 to 1997, the one-hour guideline for ozone in Edmonton
and Calgary was exceeded an average of 0.6 and 0.3 hours per year per station,
respectively. This is much lower than large cities in Ontario and Quebec where the
one-hour guideline for ozone is exceeded up to 14 hours per year per station
based on 1990 to 1994 data.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 7.0

Annual Average Ozone Concentration (ppm)

Year

Central

Edmonton

Northwest

East

Central

Calgary

Northwest

East

Fort

Saskatchewan

Fort

McMurray

v o
oo
to

0.014

0.021

0.024

0.012

0.022

0.016

0.027

0.021

1983

0.013

0.019

0.023

0.012

0.022

0.015

0.022

0.019

oo

0.015

0.017

0.020

0.013

0.023

0.015

0.026

0.021

LT\

OO

0.015

0.016

0.025

0.013

0.024

0.016

0.024

0.020

1986

0.016

0.017

0.022

0.012

0.022

0.017

0.021

0.020

V£>

OO

0.021

0.019

0.022

0.014

0.023

0.017

0.024

0.022

1988

0.016

0.018

0.022

0.016

0.023

0.017

0.025

0.022

vo

oo

VO

0.015

0.017

0.020

0.015

0.024

0.016

0.021

0.023

1990

0.014

0.018

0.021

0.014

0.023

0.018

0.025

0.025

1991

0.017

0.020

0.020

0.015

0.025

0.018

0.027

0.022

1992

0.016

0.017

0.021

0.013

0.021

0.015

0.020

0.021

1993

0.017

0.017

0.021

0.013

0.021

0.014

0.022

0.022

1994

0.020

0.020

0.023

0.015

0.024

0.017

0.027

0.024

1995

0.014

0.016

0.022

0.012

0.021

0.015

0.025

0.019

1996

0.016

0.015

0.022

0.014

0.023

0.017

0.025

0.018

1997

0.016

0.018

0.020

0.014

0.022

0.015

0.021

0.017

VO

oo

0.016

0.020

0.023

0.014

0.023

0.015

0.022

0.021

1999

0.017

0.018

0.024

0.015

0.022

0.017

0.024

0.021

1998 Levels of Ground-Level Ozone

Ozone levels in Fort Saskatchewan exceed the one-hour guideline more frequently than in Edmonton and Calgary. Higher
ozone levels in the Fort Saskatchewan area are likely due to the combination of natural ozone and ozone resulting from
vehicles and industry emissions in the Edmonton area that are transported to the Fort Saskatchewan area by the prevailing
winds. This situation usually occurs in the afternoon on warm spring and summer days. The figures for monitoring stations
in the mountain foothills show high levels for naturally occurring ground-level ozone.

Small upward trends in long-term ozone concentrations are seen in data collected at the Edmonton Central and Calgary
Central monitoring stations. This trend in downtown Edmonton and Calgary seems to be related to lower concentrations of
nitric oxide in the downtown cores.

| 36 |

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 8.0

1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Ozone (ppm)

Station

Jan - Mar

1998

Apr - fun

1998

Jul - Sep

1998

Oct - Dec
1998

Annual Mean

1998

Edmonton Central

.012 (.013)

.025 (.024)

.019 (.017)

.009 (.010)

.016 (.016)

Edmonton Northwest

.013 (.015)

.031 (.027)

.025 (.018)

.010 (.010)

.020 (.018)

Edmonton East

.018 (.020)

.034 (.030)

.024 (.021)

.015 (.014)

.023 (.021)

Calgary Central

.009 (.011)

.021 (.021)

.017 (.016)

.009 (.008)

.014 (.014)

Calgary Northwest

.017 (.020)

.031 (.031)

.027 (.024)

.015 (.016)

.023 (.023)

Calgary East

.010 (.013)

.023 (.024)

.018 (.018)

.009 (.010)

.015 (.016)

Fort Saskatchewan

.017 (.024)

.032 (.033)

.024 (.023)

.014 (.015)

.022 (.024)

Beaverlodge

.028 (na)

.035 (na)

.028 (na)

.024 (na)

.029 (na)

(Numbers in brackets represent the average for 1988-1998)

tile Organic Compounds

Sources of Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include a large number of substances that
contain hydrogen (H), carbon (C) and possibly other elements. VOCs evaporate
easily. Some react with oxides of nitrogen in the presence of sunlight to form
ozone and photochemical smog. Other VOCs are toxic to humans, animals or
vegetation. Methane (CH4) is not a VOC.

Volatile organic compounds are produced by both natural and human sources.
Total VOC emissions from natural sources - mainly forests - are estimated to be
six times greater than from human sources in Canada. Other natural sources of
VOCs include grasslands, wetlands and water bodies.

Human-generated sources of VOCs include vehicle emissions, gasoline marketing
and storage tanks, petroleum and chemical industries, dry cleaning, fireplaces,
natural gas combustion and aircraft. The major human-generated sources of
volatile organic compounds are motor vehicles and industrial plants. VOCs, such
as ethylene, propylene, toluene, m-xylene and p-xylene are major components of

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

vehicle exhaust. Butane and isopentane are major components of gasoline
vapour. Propane is emitted by propane-fuelled vehicles and from propane storage
and distribution. VOCs are also produced by various industrial processes and when
solvents and organic chemicals evaporate. A notable amount of VOC emissions
result from small leaks in valves, flanges, sampling connections, pumps, pipes
and compressors at industrial facilities.

Volatile Organic Compounds in Alberta

In 1994, total emissions of VOCs from human sources in Alberta were 745,000
tonnes, almost 30% of the national total (Environment Canada 1995). In the
industrial process category, almost 94% of emissions came from upstream oil and
gas operations. Automobiles make up almost 50% of the transportation sector
emissions and general solvent use accounted for 85% of the miscellaneous
category.

Over 150 VOCs are monitored in the downtown cores of Edmonton and Calgary, as
well as in the industrial area of east Edmonton. Monitoring for VOCs at the
Edmonton Central, Edmonton East and Calgary Central stations began in 1991
with the co-operation with Environment Canada.

Some individual VOCs are believed to be a threat to human health. For example,
benzene is classified as carcinogenic (cancer causing) to humans and hexane as
a cause of nervous system disorders.

In the presence of sunlight, many VOCs can react to form secondary pollutants,
which can produce smog or ground-level ozone downwind of urban centres and
industrial complexes. As a result, public concern has increased regarding
potential health risks posed by VOCs in the urban environment.

Not all VOCs are equally effective at producing ozone. For this reason, VOCs often
are classified in terms of their reactivity, or their tendency to contribute to the
build up of photochemical smog (Carter 199 0- The top 10 VOCs measured in
Alberta that contribute to the potential formation of smog are:

ethylene

• isobutene

m-xylene and p-xylene

• butane

propylene

• isopentane

toluene

• pentane

1 ,2,4-trimethylbenzene

• propane

These volatile organic compounds account for over 60% of the potential ozone
and smog formation from VOCs at the Edmonton and Calgary monitoring
stations (Bates andAklilu 1998).

1 38 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Concentrations of ethylene, m-xylene and p-xylene, propylene, toluene, 1,2,4-
trimethylbenzene and isobutene were substantially higher at the Edmonton
Central and Calgary Central stations than the Edmonton East station. The major
source of these VOCs in downtown Edmonton and Calgary is vehicle exhaust
emissions. At the Edmonton East station, which is considered an industrial
location, alkanes such as butane, isopentane, pentane and propane play a more
important role in potential smog formation. In 1997, concentrations of these
VOCs were at least twice as high in east Edmonton as in downtown Edmonton
and Calgary. In addition, a downward trend based on annual medians from 1991
to 1997 is evident for butane, isopentane and pentane at the Edmonton East
monitoring station. A statistically significant downward trend in toluene is also
evident based on annual median values from 1991 to 1997.

The issues surrounding VOCs are quite complex. Alberta is working with other
provinces and the federal government to address VOCs in the environment. To
deal with both nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, Alberta has
implemented relevant parts of the Management Plan for Nitrogen Oxides (N0X)
and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) developed by the Canadian Council of
Ministers of Environment (CCME).

Regarding ground-level ozone, the CCME has developed a federal-provincial plan
to manage emissions of N0X and VOCs. The plan has two main objectives:

• To resolve existing N0X and VOC-related environmental problems in Canada,
and

• To meet Canadian international obligations relating to N0X and VOCs.

The CCME is also studying the direct effects of VOCs on the environment in order
to develop standards for these compounds. For some VOCs, the standards from
other jurisdictions, such as the United States, are being considered for use in
Canada. For other compounds, studies are looking at creating new standards that
will be acceptable across the country.

Acid Deposition

Sources of Acid Deposition

Acid deposition or “acid rain” is a well known air quality issue. While Canadians
have become aware of “acid rain” over the past 30 years, the term dates back even
further. Robert Angus Smith first used the term in his 1872 publication, Air and
Rain: The Beginnings of Chemical Climatology , to describe the sooty skies over
Manchester, England.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Acid deposition can occur through two separate processes - wet deposition or
dry deposition. Wet deposition, or acidic precipitation, occurs when acidic
substances, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) or oxides of nitrogen (N0X), combine
with water in the atmosphere. The resulting mixture is more acidic than normal
precipitation. When the precipitation falls to earth, it affects vegetation, soils and
water bodies.

“Wet deposition” is precipitation (rain, hail, sleet, snow or fog) that has a pH of
less than 5.6. Although neutral substances have a pH of 7, “pure” precipitation
has a pH of approximately 5.6. This is because unpolluted precipitation is
normally a dilute solution of carbonic acid, which is formed when atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves with atmospheric water and creates slightly acidic
precipitation.

With “dry deposition,” gaseous or aerosol compounds interact directly with
surface water, vegetation and soils in a variety of ways to create acidic
compounds. In certain regions of the world, dry deposition can have more of an
environmental effect than wet deposition. In fact, dry deposition can be the major
cause of total acidic deposition in such areas.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is one of the main compounds that contributes to acid
deposition. SO2 is formed when fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, are
burned to generate electricity, to heat homes, and to power vehicles. During
combustion, sulphur (S) is released from the fossil fuel and combines with
oxygen (O2) to form SO2. Coal-burning plants are significant sources of SO2
emissions, which explains the high value placed on low-sulphur coal for power
generation. Sulphur dioxide can also combine with moisture in the atmosphere
to form a weak form of sulphuric acid (H2SO4).

As well, oxides of nitrogen (N0X) are compounds that contribute to acidic
deposition. Naturally occurring nitrogen in the air, combined with nitrogen
released during the combustion of fossil fuels, is transformed into N0X. Through
a series of chemical reactions, nitrogen oxides are converted to nitric acid
(HNO3).

Alberta Guidelines
Sulphur Dioxide

One Hour - 0.172 ppm average concentration
24 Hour - 0.057 ppm average concentration
Annual - 0.011 ppm arithmetic average

pH

The acidity of a substance is
referred to as pH. The pH scale
is numbered from O to 14, with a
reading of 7 being classed as
neutral. A pH value below 7
indicates an acidic condition
while readings above 7 are a
basic or alkaline. It must be
remembered that the pH scale is
logarithmic. This means that a
change from one number to
another is a factor of 10. A
difference of one scale number
(i.e. pH 7 to 8) means a
difference of 10 times from the
first to the second value.

pH Scale
pH Value
BASIC

.

13 household lye
12 bleach

11 household ammonia

10

9 baking soda

8 eggs/ sea water

7 NEUTRAL

6 spring water

5

4 orange juice

3 vinegar

2 lemon juice

1 battery acid

ACIDIC

| 40 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Acid Deposition in Alberta

SO2 is emitted by many different industries. These include natural gas processing
(sulphur recovery sour gas plants, flaring sour gas plants, sour oil batteries, and
well testing flaring), oil sands, and electric power generation.

Emissions of SO2 from the natural gas processing industry in Alberta peaked in
1972 at 460 kilotonnes per year, then decreased to about 300 kilotonnes per year
in 1982 and have remained at that level ever since. Although natural gas
production has increased in the province, SO2 emissions from the industry have
leveled off because the Alberta government introduced sulphur recovery
requirements for sour gas plants.

Emissions from the oil sands sector in Alberta also gradually declined through the
1970’s due to operational improvements. Between 1971 and 1995, SO2 emissions
from the oil sands plants were around 150 kilotonnes each year, even though
their annual production of synthetic crude oil increased from about 2 million to
14 million cubic metres during the same period.

Emissions from the electric power generation sector in Alberta have showed a
distinct upward trend from 1971 to 1995. This is directly related to the increased
demand for power in the province.

1998 Levels of Sulphur Dioxide in Alberta

The 1-hour and 24-hour guidelines for SO2 were not exceeded during 1998.

Table 9.0

Annual Average Sulphur Dioxide Concentrations (ppm)

Station Name

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Calgary East

.0029

.0037

.0039

.0040

.0033

.0036

Edmonton East

.0032

.0028

.0024

.0028

.0029

.0024

Fort Saskatchewan

.0016

.0022

.0021

.0023

.0023

.0019

I 41 9

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 10

1998 Quarterly and Annual Averages for Sulphur Dioxide (ppm)

Station

Jan - Mar

1998

Apr - Jun

1998

Jul - Sep

1998

Oct - Dec

1998

Annual Mean

1998

Edmonton East

0.003 (0.004)

0.002 (0.002)

0.002 (0.002)

0.003 (0.003)

.0024 (.0028)

Calgary East

0.005 (0.004)

0.003 (0.002)

0.004 (0.003)

0.004 (0.004)

.0036 (.0036)

Fort Saskatchewan

0.003 (0.003)

0.001 (0.001)

0.001 (0.001)

0.002 (0.001)

.0019 ( 0021)

(Numbers in brackets represent the average for 1993-1998)

Table 11

Annual Average pH values of precipitation (1993-1998)

Station

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

Beaverlodge

5.0

5.0

4.9

5.0

5.2

5.0

Calgary

5.1

5.3

5.4

5.6

5.8

5.7

Cold Lake

5.4

5.2

5.3

5.5

5.3

5.6

Fort McMurray

4.7

4.8

4.8

4.9

5.3

4.9

Kananaskis

5.0

5.0

5.2

5.1

5.1

5.1

Suffield

5.1

5.2

5.5

5.3

5.4

5.6

In 1998, the lowest average pH of precipitation was recorded at Fort McMurray
while the highest overall average pH was in Calgary (Table 11). These readings
are consistent with the high SO2 emissions in the Fort McMurray area and
common occurrence of wind-blown dust in Calgary.

Since most of the soils in Alberta are naturally basic, dust from the soils tends to
buffer the effects of any acidic deposition. Surveys conducted during the 1980s
and early 1990s found that the northern half of Saskatchewan and northeastern
comer of Alberta contain the most sensitive soils to acid deposition throughout
the prairies. The Clean Air Strategic Alliance S02 Management Project Team
recommended Alberta adopt critical loads and target loads to manage acid
deposition.

It is difficult to link emissions with acid deposition because of the complex
relationship between meteorological conditions and sources. However,

' •

Critical Load

Critical toad is defined as the
highest amount of acidic
deposition that will not cause
chemical changes leading to
long-term harmful effects. The
critical load value differs from
that of the target load.

Target Load

The target load is the maximum
level of acidic atmospheric
deposition that affords long-term
protection from adverse
ecological consequences, and
that is practically achievable.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

mathematical modelling does provide a cost-effective way to link emissions with
deposition given these complex relationships.

Recent acid deposition modelling results (Cheng et al. 1997) suggest that
Alberta’s soil and water currently receive less than 40% of their designated critical
loads. These results, however, are applied to relatively large areas (1° latitude by
1° longitude). Local events, especially those close to emission sources, may
produce higher levels of acid input relative to critical loads.

Alberta’s Response to Acid Deposition

Alberta is the second highest emitter of acidifying emissions in Canada. However,
the province is in the enviable position of being able to establish critical/target
loads before adverse environmental effects are observed. In Europe and eastern
Canada, governments have had to apply management methods in response to
environmental damage that already exists.

Alberta Environment conducted a three-year Alberta Acid Deposition Program
between 1991 and 1993- The purpose of this program was:

• To establish reliable methods to predict acid deposition within Alberta,

• To provide scientific and technical knowledge for limiting acid deposition to
protect sensitive forest, lake, and soil systems in Alberta, and

• To develop monitoring techniques for wet and dry deposition of acid
substances.

The program was a follow-up to the Alberta government/industry Acid Deposition
Research Program carried out between 1985 and 1987. Building on this prior
research, the Clean Air Strategic Alliance (CASA) established an SO2 Management
Project Team to recommend a comprehensive system to manage SO2 emissions in
Alberta. In 1997, the team recommended a system to link the day-to-day
management of SO2 emissions in Alberta. The system would allow for periodic
evaluations and improvements. Through this system, SO2 would be managed in
an environmentally sound and economically efficient manner.

Following up on the recommendations of the SO2 Management Project Team, the
CASA SO2 Management Implementation Coordination Team is developing plans
for the following:

• A voluntary initiative for enhanced performance, and

• Managing the “gap” between actual environmental conditions and the
environmental limits.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

The emissions “gap” is the difference between existing emissions and emissions at
critical levels. CASA is working to manage this gap while it seeks ways to improve
air quality. These goals can be achieved by:

• Educating industry about planning and identifying options,

• Rewarding superior performance in reducing emissions,

• Establishing emission credits, economic instruments and incentives, as well as
plans to manage emissions, and

• Employing existing ambient objectives and regulatory tools, including
approvals from Alberta Environment.

The concept of “managing the gap” was adapted from the “keeping the clean areas
clean” concept outlined in the Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000.

■1

/§

Air Toxics

Sources of Air Toxics

Air toxics are poisonous airborne substances that exist in the atmosphere either
as gases, aerosols or particulate contaminants.

Improved knowledge about atmospheric pollution has recently generated
government and public concern about emissions of air toxics or hazardous air
pollutants. This group of compounds includes:

• Metals and metalloids, such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury,

• Respirable mineral fibres, such as asbestos,

• Inorganic gases, such as fluorides, chlorine and sulphur,

• Non-halogenated organic compounds, such as benzene, aldehydes, 1,3-
butadiene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), and

• Halogenated organic compounds such as dioxins, chloroform, vinyl chloride
and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs).

In Canada, a substance is defined as an air toxic substance if it enters the
atmosphere in a quantity or concentration and under the following conditions:

• The substance has or may have an immediate or long-term effect on the
environment,

• The substance constitutes or may constitute a danger to the environment on
which human life depends, or

What does Toxic Mean?

Toxic comes from the Greek
word toxikon, which referred to
the poison smeared on the tip of
an arrow.

■>T|

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

• The substance constitutes or may constitute a danger to human life or
health.

Human exposure to these substances at sufficient concentrations and duration
can result in cancer, poisoning, and rapid onset of sickness, such as nausea or
difficulty in breathing. Other less measurable effects include immunological,
neurological, reproductive, developmental, and respiratory problems. Substances
deposited onto soil or into lakes and streams affect ecological systems and can
affect human health through food contamination.

Air Toxics in Alberta

Potential sources of air toxics in Alberta include:

• Building materials,

• Chemicals,

• Food processing and animal by-products,

• Metals and minerals processing,

• Oil and gas production,

• Power plants,

• Solvents from dry cleaning and printing facilities,

• Vehicle exhausts, wood burning stoves and fire places,

• Waste incinerators (including flaring), and

• Wood fibre products.

Information about emissions of air toxics in Alberta is available in the National
Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) database on-line at
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm.

Gas Flaring

In Alberta, solution gas flaring has been identified as a human and animal
health concern. In 1995, Alberta produced 162 trillion cubic metres of natural
gas. Of this amount, 1.5 % was considered waste gas and was flared to the
atmosphere. Gas is flared when economic and physical factors limit the
opportunity to collect, process and market the gas. Examples of this would be
when there is no access to pipelines or the gas volume may be too low. In these
cases, excess gas is burned off. All sour gas is flared to eliminate a possible
hazard to workers and nearby residents.

Sources of waste gas include:

• Gas liberated during the production of oil (solution gas),

• Heavy oil and conventional oil production installations,

Flaring

Flaring is the controlled burning
of gases or vapours from an oil
or natural gas installation.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

• Production testing of gas and oil wells, and

• Gas from depressurising pipelines and processing equipment during
maintenance and emergencies in the production and processing of natural
gas.

Solution gas from oil installations is the main source of flare emissions,
accounting for 73 % of total volumes flared in 1995. However, most solution gas
produced in Alberta is not flared. About 92 % of the solution gas produced in
Alberta is gathered, processed and sold.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals formed during the
incomplete burning of substances such as gasoline, diesel, oil, coal, wood and
garbage. Tobacco smoke and charbroiled meats are also common sources of
PAHs. There are more than 100 different PAHs with varying levels of toxicity. PAHs
usually occur as complex mixtures (for example, as part of combustion products
such as soot and smoke) and not as single compounds. PAHs occur in the
atmosphere as vapours or attached to dust particles. The primary sources of PAHs
in urban Alberta are exhaust emissions from vehicles. Other outdoor sources
include wood smoke from fireplaces and smoke from forest fires and industrial
facilities.

Benzo(a)pyrene (pronounced benzo alpha pyrene), the most well-known PAH, is
monitored in Edmonton, Calgary, and Fort Saskatchewan. Observed annual
average concentrations are much higher at stations located in the vicinity of
heavily used traffic arteries. A seasonal trend in benzo (a)pyrene is evident at all
monitoring stations. Much higher concentrations are evident in the fall and
winter than in the spring and summer seasons. The reason for such results is that
meteorological conditions tend to inhibit dispersion of substances.

Solution Gas & Sour Gas

"Solution Gas is natural gas
found in solution with oil or
bitumen. Sour Gas is natural gas
that contains hydrogen sulphide
H2S. Unless a concentration is
specified ... sour gas is defined
as gas that contains H2S in
sufficient quantities to pose a
public safety hazard if released
or to result in unacceptable off-
lease odours if vented to the
atmosphere." Alberta Energy
and Utilities Board - Guide 60:
Upstream Petroleum Industry
Flaring Requirements

Alberta’s Response to Air Toxics

The Alberta government and most major Alberta industries are participating in
the Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET) Program. ARET has
expanded from a private-sector initiative to a national program. It is an
experiment to determine whether voluntary commitments to reduce or eliminate
emissions can achieve environmental goals faster and with more flexibility than
regulations alone. It is also an example of how governments, citizens’ groups and
industry can work together to develop joint approaches to important
environmental issues.

1 46 a

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 12

Annual Average Benzo (a) Pyrene Concentrations at Alberta Stations (ng/m3)

Year

Central

Edmonton

Northwest

East

Central

Calgary

Northwest

East

Fort

Saskatchewan

1982

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.2

0.0

1983

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.0

1984

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.1

1985

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

1986

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

1987

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

1988

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.5

0.1

0.3

0.1

1989

0.3

0.3

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.2

0.0

1990

0.3

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.0

0.1

0.0

1991

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

1992

0.2

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.0

1993

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

1994

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

1995

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

1996

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

1997

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.2

0.1

1998

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

1999

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.0

0.1

0.1

In Alberta, a management program for industrial air toxics is administrated by
Alberta Environment. The major components of the management system include:

• ambient guidelines or prescribed ambient levels,

• source emission standards,

• plume dispersion modelling,

• ambient air monitoring,

• source emissions monitoring,

• environmental reporting,

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

• emission inventory,

• approvals,

• inspection/abatement, and

• enforcement.

The management program is similar to that for pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide and oxides of nitrogen.

The Clean Air Strategic Alliance (CASA) established two multi-stakeholder project
teams to review and develop ways to manage air toxics in Alberta.

The objectives of the CASA Air Toxics Project Team were to:

• Identify and substantiate any Alberta-specific issues,

• Develop a process for assessing these issues,

• Make recommendations on how continuous improvement can be built into
this process, and

• Recommend management options, including reporting and updating.

As a result, the CASA Flaring Project Team developed recommendations that
address potential and observed impacts associated with solution gas flaring. The
team recommended that Alberta work to eliminate routine solution gas flaring
with the following hierarchy to guide decisions:

• Eliminate routine solution gas flaring,

• Reduce volume of solution gas flared, and

• Improve the efficiency of solution gas flared.

Industry and regulators have accepted a new flaring management framework.
The framework calls for a reduction of up to 70% of the volume of solution gas
currently being flared. As well, new standards will be applied to both new and
existing flares to improve their combustion efficiency and reduce products of
combustion released to the atmosphere.

■4»1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Particulates

Sources of Particulates

Particulates include a wide variety of tiny particles, invisible to the naked eye.

They include both solid matter and liquid aerosols that are small enough to
remain in the air for long periods of time. Particulates come from large and
small sources. These include soil, roads, agricultural dust, vehicles, and industrial
emissions, as well as smoke from forest fires, agricultural burning, household
fireplaces, barbeques and cigarettes. Particulates are a key component in many
atmospheric processes, including the production of photochemical smog, acid
deposition, reduced visibility, and possible changes to our climate.

The term “total suspended particulates” (TSP) is a measure of particles in the air
that are captured on a filter and then weighed. These particles range in size up to
50 micrometres in diameter.

Recently, researchers have paid increased attention to the human health
implications of airborne particles, especially the size of the particles. Research has
shown that small particles are a more serious health concern than previously
believed. To enable researchers to more accurately measure such particles in the
air, researchers measure particulate matter (PM) rather than total suspended
particulates.

Standards or guidelines for PM are based on two ranges of particle size: PMio or
PM2.5. This means the sampling equipment captures either any particles smaller
than 10 microns in diameter (PM10), or just particles smaller than 2.5 microns in
diameter (PM2.5). Note that PM10 measurements include the smaller PM2.5
particles. To determine the amount of particulate matter in an air sample, the
particles are collected on a filter. Particles larger than PM10 are excluded and then
the remaining particles are weighed. Therefore, PM10 is only one part of what was
previously measured in total suspended particulates.

All measures of particulates - TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 - are measured as mass per
volume of air, usually micrograms per cubic metre (pig/m3). The amount of
particulates found under natural conditions in the air is very small, usually about
6 pig/m3 in western Canada.

PM2.5 particles differ from the larger PM10 particles in more than just size. They
have different sources and chemical composition and they behave differently in
the air. Particles larger than 2.5 microns settle to the ground more quickly and
remain in the air for only a few hours to a few days. Particles smaller than 2.5
microns may persist in the air for a few days to a few weeks.

How small is a
micrometre?

One micrometre is one one-
thousandth of a millimetre. The
symbol for a micrometre is jlm.
To give an idea of how small
that is, a human hair is about
500 micrometres in diameter. A
micrometre is sometimes called a
micron.

Mi

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Larger particles in the air often come from activities such as grinding and other
mechanical processes. When PMio particles are released from sources directly into
the air, these are called primary particulates. Secondary particulates, which are
finer particles, less than 2.5 microns in size, may be formed when physical and
chemical reactions occur between gases emitted into the air. Particles larger than
2.5 microns are often made up of materials that are typical of the earth’s crust.
These include iron, calcium, silicon and aluminium. Sodium and calcium
particles may also come from sea spray carried by the wind.

Different processes create PM2.5 particles. These processes include the
condensation of vapours or gases, the combustion of various materials,
coagulation of smaller particles or interactions of gases. Gases that create PM2.5
particles include SO2 (sulphur dioxide), N0X (oxides of nitrogen), and VOCs
(volatile organic compounds), as well as various other gases that often come
from industries, vehicles and fires. PM2.5 particles consist primarily of
ammonium, sulphate and nitrate, elemental carbon, and hundreds of other
organic compounds.

In high concentrations, suspended particulates can harm respiratory function in
humans. The degree to which these particles are harmful depends, in part, on
their chemical composition. However, not much is known about the effects of
particles of different chemical composition. What is known is that particles small
enough to be inhaled, sometimes called inhalable particulates, can affect human
health. The effects may include reduced pulmonary function and aggravation of
existing pulmonary and cardiovascular disease.

Smaller particles, such as PM2.5, seem to have more effect on human health than
larger particles. This is why they are measured separately from PM 10. The larger
particles tend to be deposited in the upper respiratory tract, in the nose and throat,
while smaller particles travel deeper into the lungs. As a result, they can cause
breathing difficulties and possibly permanent damage to our lungs.

Approximately 25 to 60% of inhaled particles smaller than 2.5 microns can be
deposited deep in the lungs, as compared to less than 5% of PM10.

The toxicity of the particles varies, depending on their chemical composition. A
number of potentially harmful substances have been found in PM2.5 particles.
Sulphates produced from sulphur dioxide emissions are acidic and may react
directly with our lungs. Several studies have shown that trace metals such as lead,
cadmium and nickel are more concentrated in PM2.5 than in larger particles.

Particulates in Alberta

Alberta’s Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act authorizes
development of guidelines for air pollutants. These guidelines include
recommended levels for particulates and dust.

I 50 1

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Alberta Guidelines

Particulates (Total Suspended Particulates)

100 micrograms per cubic metre as a 24-h average concentration

Alberta Environment, in cooperation with Environment Canada, has monitored
ambient concentrations of particulates in downtown Edmonton and Calgary since
1984. At some sites, there were peaks in particulates in the morning and late
afternoon. This suggests particulate levels are related to traffic flow Silicon was
the most abundant element found in the PMio levels, while sulphate made the
largest contribution (80%) to PM2.5 readings (Cheng et al. 1997). As table below
shows, PM10 and PM2.5 levels, as well as amounts of nitrates, lead and bromine,
decreased over the study period. No significant trends were observed for silicon,
sulphur, chlorine, magnesium, formate or acetate. Increasing trends were
observed in PM2.5 calcium and potassium at the Edmonton site.

Sulphate, silicon, calcium, iron and sulphur particulate concentrations generally
peaked in the spring, while nitrate and chlorine particulate concentrations
reached definite peaks in the winter. Peaks in the spring likely are due to
increased circulation of sand and salts from road surfaces. High nitrate
concentrations in the winter correspond with higher concentration of oxides of
nitrogen in the air. These concentrations come from combustion of fossil fuels,
including vehicle exhaust.

Alberta’s Response to Particulates

Alberta is participating with the federal government in a PM10 and PM2.5
monitoring program. This program has been in operation since 1984 under the
National Air Pollution Surveillance (NAPS) network. The NAPS network focuses
primarily on urban areas with some rural monitoring sites.

Alberta also participates with the federal government and representatives of other
provinces and territories to develop Canada-Wide Standards for various
contaminants, including particulate matter in air. Four key elements form the
basis of the Canada-Wide Standards:

• A numeric level,

• A timeline for implementation,

• An initial set of jurisdictional actions, and

• A protocol for monitoring and reporting progress.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 4.0

Table 13

Annual Average Particulate Matter Concentrations (jag/m3) *

Year

Edmonton Central

PM2.5

Calgary Central

Edmonton Central

PM10

Calgary Central

1984

13.47

13.32

29.33

26.74

1985

18.26

12.76

39.47

27.78

1986

12.89

16.56

41.40

38.27

1987

12.68

12.15

30.78

29.49

1988

9-19

11.44

29.16

28.83

1989

9-76

9-65

25.31

23.17

1990

10.55

12.18

28.58

28.00

1991

12.55

7.98

24.70

20.62

1992

9-34

9-38

24.62

22.41

1993

8.97

8.35

22.06

22.14

1994

8.29

9-05

19.82

24.46

1995

8.58

9-29

16.83

22.54

1996

7.38

7.64

16.90

20.39

1997

7.37

7.64

19.04

20.31

1998

11.60

7.68

25.09

29.65

1999

8.60

8.27

25.61

20.66

Based on 24-hour samples collected once every sixth day in accordance with
the National Air Pollution Surveillance program.

Figure 13

Long-Term Trend in
Particulate Matter
Concentrations

Calgary Central (PMjq)
Calgary Central (PM2 5)

II

Edmonton Central (PMjq)
-O- Edmonton Central (PM2 5)

5.0

Globalj/lir Issues

Many of the air quality issues discussed in earlier chapters have local or regional effects. There are also air quality issues that
affect the atmosphere as a whole and the effects are seen around the world. T\vo major global air issues are stratospheric
ozone depletion and climate change. Both issues are have attracted a lot of attention from not only the scientific community,
but also the worldwide media and the general public.

These issues may seem overwhelming when viewed in the global context. However, it is important to remember that our
seemingly small personal actions can impact both of these important air issues.

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

The ozone layer refers to a natural concentration of ozone in the stratosphere.

This ozone plays a critical role in filtering the amount of ultraviolet (UV)
radiation that reaches the earth’s surface from outer space. UV radiation, in
high enough doses, is harmful to plants, animals and humans.

Ozone in the stratosphere is constantly being created and destroyed. The natural
production and destruction of ozone is a complex process. UV radiation, especially
UV-B and UV-C radiation, and other compounds in the stratosphere are all part of
this process. The temperature of the stratosphere also has a bearing on the
process. Colder temperatures can accelerate ozone destruction.

Concerns about the ozone layer first arose when a reduction in the amount of
ozone over Antarctica was observed in the mid 1980s. The depletion of the ozone
layer over Antarctica was widely reported as an “ozone hole.” The depletion was
due to the presence of certain human-produced compounds in the stratosphere.
These compounds react with ozone in the stratosphere and cause a net
destruction of ozone. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were identified as the main
compounds found to destroy the ozone in the stratosphere.

CFCs are human-produced chemicals created in the 1930s as a replacement for
ammonia in refrigerators. They also were used as a propellant in aerosol
containers. Normal meteorological mixing processes in the lower atmosphere can
transport these compounds into the stratosphere. Because CFCs are very stable
compounds, they do not break down (chemically) very quickly. Some types of
CFCs can exist for up to 200 years before breaking down.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation refers
to radiation at the wavelengths
from 200 to 400 nanometres
(nm). This part of the spectrum is
further broken down into 3
subregions:

UV-A from 320-400 nm
UV-B from 280-320 nm
UV-C from 200-280 nm

Of these, UV-C is the most
energetic of three different forms
of UV radiation and the most
dangerous to life on earth.
However, almost all UV-C
radiation is absorbed in the
stratosphere by ozone and
oxygen.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

While CFCs are considered the main threat, they are not the only ozone-depleting
substances in our environment (see Table 14).

Table 14

Major Ozone-Depleting Substances

Ozone-Depleting Substance

Major use

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

• as refrigerants in refrigeration and air-conditioning systems

• as propellants

• as solvents, reagents, manufacture of foams and medical uses

Halons

• as fire suppressants

Methyl Chloroform (MCF)

• as solvent

Carbon Tetrachloride (CCU)

• as solvent and reagent

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)

• as an interim replacement for CFCs

Methyl Bromide

• in pesticides

(Source: Environment Canada, 1993b)

Ozone Depletion in Alberta and Around the World

Across Canada, observations of UV-B radiation at ground level have shown a 10%
increase between 1986 and 1996 (Environment Canada 1997a), reflecting a
decline in ozone levels. However, in 1998, ozone levels over the Arctic did not
decline as much as in previous years. The temperature in the stratosphere was not
as cold as in the previous two years and this appears to have reduced the
depletion. Ozone levels do recover somewhat in the spring and summer when the
temperature in the stratosphere warms.

A recent study of Alberta UV-B trends (Shen 2000) uses data from the Stony Plain
measuring station from 1992 to 1996. The study indicates that the integrated
irradiation over the UV-B range decreased approximately 21% during the summer
months of May through August. The UV-B readings for November to February
increased approximately 1 1% at the same station.

These and other studies indicate that the rate of ozone destruction may be slowing
down following the banning of major ozone-depleting substances. However, many
experts feel it will take until at least 2050 for ozone levels to return to pre-1980
levels.

II

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

The main concern about the thinning of the ozone layer is that increased UV
radiation, particularly the UV-B radiation, will lead to adverse health effects for
humans and ecological systems. Increased exposure to UV-B radiation has been
linked to sunburn, skin cancer, a weakened immune system, and increased eye
cataracts in humans. It may also affect food chains in the ecosystem and reduce
crop yields.

The Global and Alberta Response to Ozone
Depletion

To prevent further thinning of the ozone layer, the world's nations agreed in 1987
to reduce and limit the emission of ozone-depleting substances. This agreement is
known as the Montreal Protocol. The protocol aimed to cut production of CFCs to
50% of the 1986 levels by the year 2000. Canada was one of the main initiators of
the Montreal Protocol.

There have been several amendments to the Protocol, which Canada has
supported. At an international meeting in London in 1990, the nations of the
world decided to phase out CFCs completely by 2000. As well, additional
substances were included in the list of ozone-depleting substances to be banned.

In 1994, a meeting at Copenhagen hastened the process to phase out CFC
production by moving up the deadline to 1996. Canada was one of the countries
to reach this target on schedule. An immediate effect of these agreements was that
alternatives now have to be found to replace the phased-out substances.

In March 1998, Canada became the first country to ratify the latest set of changes
to the Montreal Protocol. These changes involve a ban on importing and
exporting methyl bromide, another ozone-depleting substance, and creating a
worldwide license system to keep track of ozone-depleting substances.

The federal and provincial governments have adopted the National Action Plan
for Recovery, Recycling and Reclamation of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to help
deal with CFCs. This National Action Plan is being expanded and updated. In
addition, Alberta is an active participant in the Federal-Provincial Working Group
on Ozone-Depleting Substances.

Alberta’s Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act (EPEA) regulates
the release of substances into the environment. In 1992, the production of ozone-
depleting substances was banned in Alberta under the EPEA. On September 1,
1993, the Alberta Ozone-Depleting Substance Regulation was enacted. This
regulation prohibits the release and use of ozone-depleting substances and
products containing these substances.

The regulation has some provisions related to servicing equipment that contains
ozone-depleting substances. Some other exemptions in the regulation allow for

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

essential use in fire-fighting equipment and health care applications. Regulatory
offences and penalties are also specified in the regulation. The maximum fine for
violation is $50,000 for individuals and $500,000 for corporations. Alberta’s active
enforcement program produced a major prosecution regarding ozone-depleting
substances in 1997, which resulted in a total penalty of $300,000.

Future directions

Canada has already met its obligations under the Montreal Protocol for phasing
out the production of ozone-depleting substances. It is expected the use of ozone-
depleting substances such as CFCs, halon, methyl chloroform and carbon
tetrachloride will also be phased out within the next 10 years. In the next 20
years, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) will also be phased out. HCFCs are used
as interim alternatives for CFCs since they have a much lower ozone depleting
potential. This means alternatives with no adverse environmental effects need to
be developed and made available for use.

In the future, there will be further prohibition on the use of CFCs for recharging
air conditioning systems on older vehicles. Repairing these older units will require
non-ozone-depleting refrigerants. A Halon Management Plan must also be
developed to phase out the use of halons in fire protection systems. Treatment or
disposal alternatives for ozone-depleting substances, especially halons, are
required. In addition, ongoing public education will help to ensure we continue
to protect the ozone layer.

Climate Change

A large body of research is being directed to determine the causes, extent and
magnitude of climate change. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) says that “the balance of evidence suggests that there is a
discernible human influence on global climate” (Houghton et al. 1996). This
implies that both evidence and counter-evidence exist for the human influence on
climate and the timing, nature and magnitude of the impacts.

The Earth’s climate system is extremely complex and dynamic. Many factors
affect our climate, including composition of the atmosphere, solar radiation, the
earth’s orbit and volcanic eruptions. Our climate has varied in the past - the ice
ages are strong evidence that our climate has not always been as it is today.

K#l

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

Figure 14

Temperature Variations
over the last
one million years

800 600 400 200 0

Years Before Present (000's)
(Environment Canada 1993a)

The Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect refers to the natural role of the atmosphere in the global
balance of heat energy. Short wave radiation from the sun passes through the
atmosphere and heats the Earth’s surface. This energy is then radiated from the
Earth like a giant radiator. Some of the gases in the atmosphere absorb this heat
energy. This warms the atmosphere. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the
average temperature of the Earth would be much lower and life as we know it
would not exist. Without our atmosphere, most of the heat received by the Earth
would escape to outer space and the Earth’s average temperature would be a cold
-18°C. The warming effect of the natural greenhouse raises the average global
temperature by approximately 33 degrees, to around 15°C.

The main greenhouse gases found in the atmosphere are:

• Water vapour (H2O)

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Methane (CH4)

• Nitrous oxide (N2O)

• Ozone (O3)

• Halocarbons, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

Figure 15

The Greenhouse
Effect

2. Most of this energy is absorbed
by Earth’s surface and
re-emitted as infrared radiatior

1. Solar Energy penetrates
Earth’s atmosphere

greenhouse gases abso
re-emit some of this ra
warming Earth’s sunaj

the lower atmosphen

Except for the halocarbons, all the main greenhouse gases are found naturally in
the atmosphere. Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas, in terms of
its effect on heating the atmosphere. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere, however, is not significantly affected by human activities. Human
activities do add the other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, the most
significant being carbon dioxide, mainly from burning fossil fuels such as coal,
oil and natural gas. Some agricultural practices add methane, while industrial
processes add other greenhouse gases. The addition of human-produced
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere is called the “enhanced greenhouse effect.”

The main sources of human-produced greenhouse gas emissions are associated
with producing and using energy. In Canada, energy production and related
processes account for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions (Environment Canada
1997a). Table 15 shows 1997 greenhouse gas emissions by sources for Canada
and Alberta.

As human activities add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, more long-wave
radiation is absorbed by these gases. This may lead to additional warming of the
Earth’s temperature. However this warming is not a certainty. There are other
mechanisms within our climate system that may work against it. For example, a
warmer atmosphere can hold more moisture, leading to greater cloudiness and
more reflection of the short-wave radiation back from the sun. This could have a
cooling effect. Is this cooling enough to offset the possible rise in global

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

Table 15

Greenhouse Gas Emission Estimates for 1997 in Canada and Alberta

Source

Canadian Emissions

Alberta Emissions

Kilotonnes -
CO2 Equivalent

Percentage

Kilotonnes -
CO2 Equivalent

Percentage

Energy

537,000

78.8

167,000

83.2

(includes transportation,
stationary sources and
fugitive emissions)

Industrial Processes

56,000

8.2

12,000

6.0

Solvent Use

900

>.01

43

>.01

Agriculture

63,000

9-3

20,000

10.0

Land Use Change & Forestry

1,700

>.01

570

>.01

Waste

23,000

3.5

1,000

5.0

TOTAL

681,600

200,613

(Neitzert, F. et M. , 1999)

temperature from the addition of human-produced greenhouse gases? There are
many uncertainties around this issue.

Researchers use computer models to assess and predict the enhanced greenhouse
effect. These global climate models run on very powerful computers. No matter
how sophisticated the model is, the climate system is even more complex. There
are uncertainties regarding important processes like the role of clouds and
oceans. In addition, the models can only estimate the climate for large areas. At
present, models provide little detail at regional and local levels. Global climate
models cannot directly predict extreme weather events such as storms and
drought, although there are indications from some models that extreme events
may increase in frequency. Extreme weather events have been linked to El Nino,
but the relationship between El Nino and enhanced global warming is not clear.

Greenhouse Gases in Alberta

Canada contributes approximately 2% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions,
ranking second on a per-capita basis to the United States (Environment Canada
1997a). This figure reflects the fact that Canada is a vast northern country with a
cold climate, long distances between population centres, and a resource-based
economy.

1 59 I

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

1997 statistics (Nietzert et al. 1999) show that Alberta accounts for approximately
30% of Canadian greenhouse gas emissions and the highest per-capita release of
greenhouse gases in Canada. This is mainly a result of our energy-based
economy. Alberta is the largest producer of oil and gas in Canada, and
greenhouse gases are released during oil and gas production.

Alberta is a net exporter of energy resources. Most of Alberta’s greenhouse gas
emissions are from fossil fuel production and power generation. Alberta’s
emissions of greenhouse gases are increasing, primarily to meet energy demands
from the rest of Canada and the United States. Increased exports accounted for
more than 80% of the emissions growth in the petroleum industry and about 31%
of Canada's total increase in emissions from 1990-1995 (Government of Alberta
1997).

Energy resources exported from Alberta displace other energy sources that produce
greater quantities of greenhouse gases. While Alberta’s emissions continue to rise,
the net result is that some other regions are able to reduce their emissions by
using more efficient and less carbon-intensive fuels imported from Alberta.

Alberta Climate Trends

Alberta’s record of weather observations has been kept for little more than 100
years. However, we can make inferences about Alberta’s past climate by looking at
other indicators, such as sediments from lake bottoms, tree rings and pollen
studies (Environment Canada 1997b).

We can also identify trends in the existing data. By comparing data for two recent
periods (1975-1985 and 1985-1995) with the long-term averages (1905 to 1995),
we can see how temperature and precipitation have changed over the past century
in Alberta.

This comparison shows that the average temperature for 1985-1995 was higher
than the long-term average. There were also higher average maximum and
minimum temperatures during the 1985-1995 period.

For the 1975-1985 period, the mean temperatures at the stations were closer to
the long-term mean. Some stations were slightly warmer, others were slightly
cooler and some (like Calgary and Lethbridge) were close to the long-term
average. However, the maximum temperatures during this period were mostly
lower than the long-term average maximum temperature by fractions of a degree,
whereas the minimum temperatures were mostly higher than the long-term
average minimum.

A recent study on the climate of Alberta (Shen 1999), using data from 1884 to
1996, indicates no upward trend in the maximum temperature. The study looked
at 38 stations throughout the province. However, results showed an upward trend

| 60 |

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

of approximately 0.8 Celsius degrees since 1920 in the minimum temperature.
Total precipitation appears to increase slightly since the 1920s. However, the
precipitation data is much more variable and more testing is needed to confirm
the results.

Is it possible to draw conclusions about climate change from these studies? There
is no doubt that the decade of the 1990s was one of the warmest in the last 90
years of record. Still, there have been warmer years on record and it is not clear
whether this period confirms enhanced warming.

Implications

Alberta’s records indicate some warming over most of the province and generally
less snow and more rain in recent years. However, the factors causing these
changes are not identified. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
report suggests that human activities could possibly be influencing the global
climate by releasing excess greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and world
leaders have decided to take precautionary action. International meetings on
climate change began with the Rio Summit in 1992 when more than 150 nations
signed on to the Framework Convention on Climate Change aiming at a global
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Subsequent developments led to the Kyoto
Conference of December 1997, in which developed nations negotiated targets to
reduce missions of greenhouse gases.

The Kyoto Protocol requires Canada to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions to 6%
below its 1990 level by the year 2010. Since economic growth is closely associated
with increase in greenhouse gas emissions, this is a very significant reduction, in
light of the projected growth in the Canadian economy. There are also significant
implications to Alberta as a major producer of oil and gas.

The climate change issue has both environmental and economic implications.
Adapting to climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions both involve
costs for the benefits obtained. Also, the uncertainties in various aspects of the
issue mean risks have to be assessed before actions are taken.

The Alberta Response to the Issue

The principles for Alberta’s response to climate change are based on precautionary
action, equitable sharing of responsibilities, and flexible, cost-effective approaches
to overall environmental improvement. The Alberta government says that actions
should contribute to sustainable development and maintain the economic
competitiveness of Canada. These principles are similar to those contained in
Canada’s National Action Program on Climate Change in which the Alberta
government is an active participant and supporter.

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 5.0

Central to this program is the Voluntary Challenge and Registry (VCR)
program, begun in 1994 as a voluntary initiative that allows for a “quick start”
to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Alberta organizations have led Canada in
participating and supporting the VCR. As of October 1997, there were 98 Alberta-
based organizations that have submitted either action plans or progress reports.
In addition, Alberta organizations also contribute significant funding to the VCR
program.

The Alberta government submitted a VCR action
plan in October 1995 and aimed to reduce
emissions in its own operations by 14.1 % from
1990 levels by 2000. In 1996, the Alberta
government was the only province in the
government category to receive an award for its
achievements in the VCR program to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the Alberta
government’s 1996 Progress Report was ranked
fourth overall in an independent assessment of
Canada’s VCR action plans.

In 1997, the Alberta government established a
Cabinet committee on climate change to consult
with stakeholders in the province and to report to
Cabinet on stakeholders' response.

In its 1998 report, the committee stated that “(we)
agree with the assessment that the risk of
greenhouse gas emissions contributing to climate
change warrants precautionary measures - which
would mean incurring prudent costs to achieve
best efforts in reducing the growth in emissions.”

In response to the report of the Cabinet Committee
on Climate Change, the Alberta government held a
roundtable on climate change. Albertans from all
walks participated in the roundtable to “chart our
course” and determine Alberta’s response to the
issue of climate change.

The Voluntary Challenge and Registry

The Voluntary Challenge and Registry (VCR) Program is a key
element of Canada's National Action Program on Climate
Change. It invites Canadian companies and organizations to limit
net greenhouse gas emissions, on a voluntary basis, by developing
and implementing individual action plans. The role of the VCR is to
recruit participants and to record and report on their action,
commitments and achievements. The Registry component of the
VCR is a permanent, open and public record of the commitments
made and the actions taken by industry, business and government
to limit emissions of greenhouse gases from their operations. The
Registry allows organizations to learn from others and share
information about innovative greenhouse gas reduction initiatives.

Participation, commitment and achievement form an overall
framework for measuring the progress of the VCR. Participation must
be accomplished first through a letter of commitment from interested
organizations. This commitment is then demonstrated by developing
an action plan. Action plans undertaken by different organizations
show they are seriously addressing the need to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. Organizations are encouraged to refine their action
plans on an annual basis. Achieving actual greenhouse gas
reductions is the final step. Organizations are encouraged to
measure the results of their actions. This may include improved
energy efficiency, reduced emissions of greenhouse gases or
increased emission offsets.

The VCR Program recognizes the performance of leading
organizations in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Governments
record actual emission reductions achieved by participants.
Participants are assured that those reductions will be credited
against any future obligations required by government.

The roundtable endorsed forming Climate Change

Central, a government/private sector partnership that is working with Albertans to
address climate change and energy efficiency.

More information on Alberta’s response can be found at the government’s climate
change website, http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/climate/index.html.

|62 1

Trends

Over the past 20 years, air quality in Alberta has improved. The Index of the
Quality of the Air for 1998 supports this conclusion. Improved technology and
public awareness of air issues has helped this trend.

In 1998, Alberta’s air quality was considered Good for over 95% of the year.

Among all the reporting stations, there were only 1 1 hours where the air quality
was considered Poor, and there were no incidences of Very Poor air quality.

The few incidents of Poor air quality are associated with stable weather patterns
that prevent substances from being dispersed and removed from the air. Smoke
from forest fires is often the cause of these incidents. Fortunately in Alberta, these
types of conditions are short-lived.

The Future

Alberta Environment, along with industry, operates an extensive air-monitoring
and reporting network. Industrial facilities in the province are regulated through
government-issued approvals. Inspections and abatement strategies ensure high
standards of air quality are maintained.

While we do enjoy good air quality in Alberta, there is always room for
improvement. As well, other air quality issues are emerging that have to be
considered. Issues such as climate change, air toxics and particulates are
important, and will have to be dealt with.

Fortunately in Alberta there is a unique partnership — the Clean Air Strategic
Alliance. This group of government, industry and environmental groups works
together to deal with air quality problems. It is through this spirit of cooperation
that progress can be made toward more improvements in our air quality.

In the future, technology will, as it has in the past, play a considerable role in
improving air quality. There is also room for lifestyle changes and personal
actions to help keep our air clean. All sectors of our province — government,
industry, schools, environmental groups and the public at large — will have to
play a significant role to ensure our air quality improves over the coming years.

II

7.0

bibliography

Documents

Clean Air Strategic Alliance. 2000. Factsheet - Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Edmonton, Alberta: Retrieved from the
World Wide Web: http://www.casahome.org/vocs.htm.

Cheng, L., K. McDonald, D. Fox and R. Angle. 1997. Total Potential Acid Input in Alberta. Alberta Environmental Protection,
Edmonton.

Clark, Audrey N. 1990. The New Penguin Dictionary of Geography. London. Penguin.

Environment Canada. 1990. Canadian Perspectives on Air Pollution. (A State of the Environment Report; SOE Report no.
90-1). Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada.

Environment Canada. 1993a. A Matter of Degrees: a Primer on Global Warming. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada.

Environment Canada. 1993b. A Primer on Ozone Depletion. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada.

Environment Canada. 1995. The State of Canada’s Climate: Monitoring Variability and Change. (A State of the Environment
Report; SOE Report no. 95-1). Ottawa: Public Works and Government Services Canada.

Environment Canada. 1996. The State of Canada’s Environment. Ottawa: Public Works and Government Services.

Environment Canada. 1997a. Trends in Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990-1995. Ottawa: Public Works and
Government Services.

Environment Canada. 1997b. Preparing for Climate Variability and Change on the Canadian Prairies. Summary Report of a
Workshop February 14-15, 1996. Herrington, Ross. Editor. Edmonton.

Environment Canada. 1998. 1995 Criteria Air Contaminant Emissions for Canada. Ottawa: Public Works and Government
Services.

Government of Alberta. 1997: Alberta Progress Report on the National Action Program on Climate Change (NAPCC).
Edmonton.

Hare, Kenneth F. and Morley K. Thomas. 1974. Climate Canada. Toronto: Wiley.

Henderson-Sellers, B. 1984. Pollution of our Atmosphere. Bristol: Adam Hilger Ltd.

Houghton, J.T, L.G. Meira Filho, B.A. Callender, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg and K. Masked (eds). 1996. Climate Change 1995:
The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of WGI to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, New York: Cambridge University Press

K^fl

Alberta State of the Environment - Chapter 7.0

Melillo, I.C., etal., 1996. Terrestrial Biotic Responses to Environmental Change and Feedbacks to Climate. In Houghton, J.T.,
etal: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of WGI to the Second Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. New York: Cambridge University Press

Neitzert, F. etal. , 1999- Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory: 1997 Emissions and Removals with Trends. Ottawa:
Environment Canada.

Phillips, D. 1990. The Climates of Canada. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada.

Shen, S.S. 1999: An Assessment of the Change in Temperature and Precipitation in Alberta. Contract report, Science and
Technology Branch, Alberta Environment. Edmonton.

Shen, S.S. 2000. UVB and Ozone Trend Detection Using the Stony Plain Station Data, in preparation.

Websites5"

Alberta Environment
http://www3.gov.ab.ca/env/air.html

Clean Air Strategic Alliance
http://www.casahome.org

CASA - Alberta Ambient Air Data Management System (AAADMS)
http://www.casadata.org

Environment Canada - Clean Air
http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/introduction_e.cfm

National Pollutant Release Inventory
http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_home_e.cfm

*Due to the nature of the Internet, the addresses for these sites may change without notice.

E 66 1