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Amateur Fruit Growing.

A Practical Guide to the Growing of Fruit
for Home Use and the Market.

Written with Special Reference to Colder Climates.

BY

SAMUEL B. GREEN,
Professor of Horticulture in the University of Minnesota,

ST. PAUL, MINN.

Webb Publishing Company.

1905.

C«-f3.^

JOPYRIGHT, 1893.

iJY Samuel. B. Green.

INTRODUCTION.

-J, N my experience as teacher of Horticulture in the School of
(^. Agriculture of the University of Minnesota I have not been

able to -find a book on fruit growing at all adapted to the
V7ants of the students coming under my instruction. In fact, I
soon found that the material along this line consisted princi-
pally of papers scattered through reports of the various hor-
ticultural societies and in the agricultural Dress, and that these
were not generally available, nor, indeed, sufficiently condensed
for my purpose. The peculiar conditions that obtain in this
section of the country, and which render the works of Eastern
authorities of little practical value here, made it desirable for
me to have some practical book on fruit growing that the
students could study and refer to at their convenience.

Another reason for presenting this book is that by so doing
I might answer the many questions relating to the subject
treated, which have been often referred to me, and which have
required much time and attention in correspondence.

The book is written for the beginner and is not offered
as a complete manual of Horticulture, although it is believed
to cover all the important points in practical fruit growing.
But fsw varieties are recommended, and only the kinds tliat
have been tried for some considerable period and can be ob-
tained from the general nurserymen. Untried and little known
kinds have been purposely avoided, however well they may
have appeared. It is my earnesb wish that new varieties be
let alone by the amateur in horticulture, and that, instead of
beginning with novelties in fruits, as is too often the case, he
will postpone their trial until he has first tried those kinds
that are known to be desirable.

iV INTRODUCTION.

Varieties of many fruits, especially of small fruits, seldom
last in full vigor for more than a score of years, and often
after a much less time they are superceded by new and bet-
ter kinds. There are many novelties in fiuits introduced each
year, but in my experience not one new variety in ten that is
offered for sale is worthy of trial. It is my intention to issue
a supplementary fruit list as often as may seem desirable, and
lists of fruits recommended in this work may be supplemented
by reference to the fruit lists of the different horticultural soci-
eties.

SAMUEL B. GREEN.

St. Anthonij Park, Decemher 15, 1893.

A short appendix has been added to this, the third additition
of this book, in order to bring it up to date in regard to the best
varieties of later introduction, and to cover some matters pertain-
ing to cultivation that are of special interest anr^. were left out of
previous editions. The author hopes to get o^'': a complete newly

revised edition at no distant day.

S. B. G.
St. Anthony Park, January, 1901.

CHAPTER L

STRAWBERRIES.

^jTtHE strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is
(^ found growing from the far north to the hot south, and across
the Continent. There is not a state in this country but has its wild
strawberries. There are large sections of Minnesota where the
strawberry produces as heavily as it does anywhere when given
good cultivation, and there is not a county in the state wiiere it
cannot be made to yield abundantly. It is easily grown, stands
transportation moderately well, and is almost universally admired.

Species.— There are three species of the strawberry common-
ly met with in cultivation : —

(1) Fragaria Virginiana, which forms entirely or enters largely
into the parentage of the varieties that have become widely known
and esteemed on account of their hardiness and reliability.

(2) Fragaria grandijlora, the South American strawberry, is
grown much more extensively in eastern Europe than in this coun-
try. This variety readily hybridizes with the F. Virginiana, but in
a pure state is not suflBciently hardy to withstand successfully our
hot summers and cold winters. It has very handsome, large fruit,
but it has not the sprightly quality of our native berry.

(3) Fragaria vesca, called the Alpine or wood strawberry, is a
native of Europe and of the northern parts of this country and
Canada. From this have come the ever-bearing varieties whose
praises are so often talked of. It will not hybridize with either of
the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is not sufficient-
ly productive to warrant its being largely cultivated. The ever-
bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable. They produce a
few berries all through the season, but do not produce enough at
any one time to make their cultivation an object of importance.
Practically, then, this species is of little account.

Propagation.— The strawberry is increased by seed, runners
and plant divisions. The plants do not "come true" from seed, but
seedlings vary very much in their value for cultivation. Probably
5

n STRAWBEKKIES,

not one plant in five thousand seedlings that may be raised will be
as good as any of the best half dozen varieties now in cultivation,
but there will be a good many plants out of such a number that
will be fairly productive of good fruit. It is this variability that
gives us an opportunity of improving on the kinds now grown. To
raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should be crushed
in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as they are "dead
ripe. ' ' The seed and sand should then be sown at once in a some-
what shaded bed of rich soil. It will come up in a few weeks if
well cared for. The plants should be transplanted four inches
apart in another bed as soon as large enough to handle. By winter,
if carefully attended to, they will be of good size and may be moved
to the fruiting bed in the spring, where they will fruit the follow-
ing year, that is in two years from tne time the seed was sown. It
is a very simple process and may be carried on by any careful per-
son. The raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very
fascinating line of experimental work on account of the possibility
that one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value.

For practical purposes strawberries are increased only by run-
ners, which most desirable kinds produce in great abundance when
growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the old plant
only part of one season, the connection dying the first winter if not
before. It is common to separate the runners into old plants and
young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have once
borne fruit. They can be distinguished by their black roots, and
should never be used except in emergency as they often fail to
grow. Plants should never be taken from beds that have fruited.
The young runners are what should be set out. They have never
fruited, have white roots, and were formed the season just preced-
ing the spring they are set. Strawberries should never be grown
from divisions, unless it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable
kind.

Location and Soil. — The crop is generally most satisfactory
when grown on a northern slope, as it is then not exposed to the
drying southerly winds, which in exposed locations occasionally so
dry out the land that the crop is seriously lessened; also as the
plants start latest on north slopes the blossoms are not liable to be
injured by the late spring frosts which sometimes cause serious in-
jury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are very
successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level land.
In a general way any land or location that is good enough for a
crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but strawberries
should never be planted on sod-land on account of the liability of
its being infested with cut-worms, or with the white grub, which
feeds on the roots of the plants.

Manure and Preparation of the Land.— The strawberry
is a gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The
best fertilizer is barn-yard manure that is partially rotted, but it
should not be plowed in very deep. It is generally best to plow the

STRAWBERRIES. J

land deep in autumn, apply the manure in winter or in spring, and
then plow the manure under very shallow as soon as may be there-
after. The land should then be thoroughly dragged and smoothed,
when it is ready for the plants. When so prepared the land has a
loose surface bed in which to place the plants, while underneath it
the soil is so firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open
enough so that the young roots can push into it.

Time of Planting.— Practically there is only one time to
plant, and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended to
plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no
strawberry bed in the home garden, and there is considerable mois-
ture in the ground so the plants will live without too much care,
but in ordinary seasons here the results from setting the plants at
this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting of
them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the home
garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers from some
bed near by, or if obtained from a distance they should have been
potted and be well rotted in the pots. The potted plants cost more
but are much surer to grow than layers. The growers of straw-
berries for profit in this state always plant in the spring. The
earlier the plants can be set the longer the season for them lo grow,
and the cool, moist weather of early spring seems to favor the for-
mation of roots, but they may be set as late as the first of June
with fair prospect of success. However, if the land is very dry at
planting time it is best not to plant until after a rain, even if wait-
ing for it may delay the planting considerably. In this climate it
is poor practice to set out strawberry plants for profit in dry soil
and try to keep them growing by watering, as so much water and
attention is required that the operation will be found a losing one.

If plants are received when the land is very dry it is the cus-
tom of the best growers to open the bundles, shake out the plants,
and dip the roots into a clav-loam mud and "heel them in" close to-
gether, putting a little soil between the plants. When thus treated
they may be easily watered, and will commence to grow and be
ready to set out in the field or garden as soon as a favorable time
offers. If the space where the plants are heeled in is surrounded
by a board fence, or other windbreak, a few feet high, it will aid
much in preventing the drying action of the wind.

Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to look
white and weak when received, and are almost sure to die if at
once set in the full sunshine. They should be heeled in and par-
tially shaded until they assume their normal color.

Methods of Planting.— There are many methods of plant-
ing but I will mention only two ways, and they may be modified as
the good judgment of the planter may suggest.

Hill System.- This is especially adapted to the home garden.
By it the fruit is grown of a larger size than in the matted rows,
but not so much is produced. It consists in setting the plants at
about one foot distance in rows two-and-a-half or three feet apart,

STRAWBERRIES.

and keeping all the runners cut off. Managed on this plan the
plants become very large, have many crowns, look neat and pretty,
and produce a good amount of extra large fruit. The objection to
it is that it takes three or four times as many plants to set out the
land as are needed where the matted-row system is followed, and
the crop is not so large. For these reasons this system is not fol-
lowed by commercial growers.

Matted-Row System.— All large growers pursue very nearly
the following plan : After the land is prepared in the spring it i*
marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one way and two feet the
other, and the plants are set at the intersections. The horse culti-
vator is run both ways until the plants commence to make runner«^
rapidly (about the middle of July) , when it is run only in the four-
foot intervals. The runners are then pushed together forming a
bed or matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide.
The ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in
ten days throughout the growing season up to the first of Septem-
ber, after which cultivation should cease for the year. Keep the
soil loose and be sure the bed is free from weeds on the approach of
winter. For some varieties two feet apart in the row may leave
larger gaps than the runners can fill, but almost any of ou^ com-
mercial kinds will easily fill up even larger vacancies. Such varie-
ties as the Crescent will easily fill up intervals of three feet in rich

soil. The runners should stand about six inches apart in the bed

by the first of September.

Trimming and Setting the Plants.— The plants wh^ti dug

should have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms

trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves they

too should be cut off. All flowers that appear the first year

should be taken off. If the roots are large they are not readily

planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inches.

The way growth starts from these pruned roots is shown in Fig. 1.

If a great mop of roots is planted in

a bunch a part of them is very apt to

rot. Perhaps as good a way as any

to set the plants is with a spade.

This requires two persons, generally

a man and a boy, to do the work rap-
idly. After the land is marked out

the man places the spade with the

back side away from him, presses it

about six inches into the moist earth,

moves it from him and lifts it out.

The boy takes up a plant, separates

the roots, and puts them in the hole.

The man puts the spade in the

ground about four inches nearer him

than he had it before and presses '^ ^

the soil against the plant. The boy Fig. 1. Growth of pruned roots.

STRAWBERRIES. VJ

finishes the operation by firming the plant in the soil with h is
hands. As soon as the planting is done the cultivator should be
started to loosen up the soil. Great care should be taken to keep
the plants from getting dry when planting them out.

Winter Protection, — Under whatever system the straw-
berry ma^^ be grown, it is benefited by being protected in winter
by a mulch of sufficient thickness to prevent frequent freezing and
thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cover-
ing of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust to it.
This mulch should consist of marsh hay, corn-stalks, straw, boughs,
or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from Weed seeds.
It should be put on deep enough to cover the plants. Nothing is
gained by covering very deep. This should be applied after the
ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a team. In spring it
should be drawn from over the plants into the intervals between
the plants, where it will act to preserve the moisture during dry
weather and to keep the fruit clean.

Avoiding Frosts. — It sometimes happens that the blossoms
which appear about the middle of May, and are quite susceptible
to frosts, are seriously injured of cold nights. They may often be
protected when in this critical condition oy taking the mulching
from the rows and throwing it back again on the plants for a few
days, or until the danger from frost is past. Hay or straw sprink-
led with coal tar may be burned to windward of the bed of frosty
nights, and will make dense, heavy clouds of smoke that will afford
protection. If the winter mulch is left on as late as it is safe to do
so, which is until the new growth starts strongly, it will serve to
retard the plants and they will not come into blossom until a week
or so later than they otherwise would were the mulch removed early
in the spring and not until the great danger of frost is pa^t. This
latter method makes the crop late, but I think it the safest plan to
follow. An ordinary frost seldom destroys the stamens, its dam-
age being confined to the pistils, therefore the center or berry part
of the flower turns black.

How to Continue Beds in Bearing.— Some growers pre-
fer to fruit their strawberry beds but one season. I think it best
to fruit the bed at least two seasons, provided it is in good condi-
tion when the first crop is gathered. I have often had the second
crop on a strawberry bed better than the first, but generally it is
not quite as good. The best plan to follow with an old strawberry
bed is about as follows :

Renewixg Strawberry Beds.— There are several ways of re-
newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is as
good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered the bed
is closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberi-y leaves are
burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows and
all but about one foot in width of it is turned under. The furrow
thus made is filled with tine rotted manure and the cultivator set

10

STRAWBERRIES.

going. The plants remaining are then thinned out with a hoe and
special pains is taken to cut out all weeds and old op weak plants.
This leaves the old bed clean and with plenty of manure close by,
in which the old plants can make new roots. The plants soon send
up new leaves which are much healthier than they would be were
the old foliage allowed to remain, and if we have an ordinary sea-
son an abundance of runners will be sent out, and by winter the
old bed will look nearly as vigorous as a new one.

This method of renewing the old. bed has the merit of destroy-
ing all the diseased foliage, and to some extent also injurious in-
sects. It is very important that the renewed bed be kept healthy
by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any insects that may
appear in order to have it do its best in fruiting the following
season.

Sexuality of the Strawberry Blossom. — We have two
classes of varieties of the strawberry, distinguished by their blos'
som. One class has perfect flowers, i. e., all its flowers have sta-
mens and pistils (male and female organs) . These can be planted
alone without any other variety near, and will produce fruit. This

Fig. 2. Bisexual, or perfect fiower
of strawberry. A, petal: B, sep-
al; C, Stamens; D, 2ns(Us.

Fig. 3. Pistillate, or imperfect
flower of strawberry. A. petal;
B, sepal; D, pistils (notice the
stamens are wanting.

class may be called bi-sexual (See Fig. 2). The other class has
pistils (female organs), but does not have stamens, or has but very
few of them. This class is called pistillate (JSee Fig. 3) . It is found
in practice that the varieties with pistillate blossoms generally pro-
duce more fruit than those with bi-sexual flowers, consequently it
is advantageous to raise as many of such kinds as possible and as
few of the others, but it is necessary to have some of the bi-sexual
kinds near the pistillate kinds or no fruit is produced. Just the
proportion that should exist between the bi-sexual and the pistil-
late kinds is a disputed point, but it is probably about one to three
or four, depending upon the weather at the time of blossoming.
It is safe to say that when pistillate kinds are used every
third row should be of some bi-sexual kind, selected so that it will

STRAWBEUUIES. 11

be in flower at the same time as the pistillate variety. The neglect
of this precaution is a constantly recurring source of disappoint-
ment. Some growers recommend that every third plant in the row
be of some bi-sexual kind. The objection to this way in practice is
that the pistillate kinds, being often the strongest growers, may
soon crowd out the weaker variety ; and then, again, when this
plan is followed the plants when taken up are S3 hopelessly mixed
as to be worthless for setting a new bed.

Figure 2 shows the blossom of a bi-sexual or perfect flowering
variety, and this differs from Fig. 3 chiefly in having between the
petals and the pistils a ring of many stamens. This difference is
plainly seen in flowers of the different kinds by any one who will
take the pains to more than glance at them. It will be noticed that
Fig. 2 is shown with six petals and Fig. 3 five petals. This is not a
constant variation between the two kinds and is of no importance,
but it is thus shown to call attention to the difference in the num-
ber of their petals in varieties, and it is not uncommon to find a
strawberry blossom with seven petals, although the normal number
is five. Different flowers on the same plant even may vary in num-
ber of their petals.

Dry Berries, "Nubbins." — Sometimes the berries fail to fill
out evenly all over, or are small and mostly dry and hard or one
sided. This probably results from the pistils, or a part of them,
being injured by the frost, dry wind, or an unusually severe rain or
hail, which, by destroying the delicate pistils prevents the forma-
tion of seeds and the development of the berry adjoining, for it has
been conclusively proven that unless the seeds are perfected the
fleshy part near them does not fill out. Somet'mes the blossoms
are stung by a snout-beetle, then they hardly form berries at all.

Picking and Marketing.— If the berries are to be sold great
care should be taken to have them carefully picked. Green berries
are bad enough to have in a box, but, if they are to be shipped,
over-ripe ones will cause much more trouble, for they are sure to
decay before they reach their destination and to damage all the
good fruit. On this account the beds should be picked clean every
day in warm weather. The pickers will need careful watching so
as to be sure they do not put poor berries in the bottom cf the
boxes, and that they pick all the ripe berries so none will be left to
get over-ripe. It is always desirable to pick fruit, that is to be
shipped, in the cool of the day unless it should be wet.

Gift packages holding twenty-four boxes are almost universally
used in this state. They cost about twenty cents per crate, includ-
ing boxes and cover. They are always made so there is room to
heap up the boxes and to allow of a circulation of air through the
boxes. A box holding little more than a liquid quart when even
full and nearly a dry measure quart when heaped, is the size gen-
erally used. It is called the scant quart box.

Diseases. — The strawberry is subject to several diseases, but
only one is very serious. It is commonly called "Leaf Blight,"

12

STRAWBERRIES.

arked by Leaf Blight,
in. it's ecirly stage {Sphaerelta fragarim.)

"Rust" or "Sunburn," {Sphcerella fragarice) . It is a minute para-
sitic plant which hives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the
early spring small purple or red spots appear on the new leaves.
About the time the plants are exhausted by fruiting, or perhaps
before the fruit is fairly ripe, these spots increase rapidly in size,
and in a few days what was a promising strawberry bed is dried
up and worthless. Many varieties that are hardy otherwise have
foliage that is sus-
ceptible to this dis-
ease, and some kinds
should not be plant-
ed unless some fun-
gicide is used to pro-
tect them from it.

Our growers at
present prefer to ob-
viate the necessity
of using fungicides
by planting only
those varieties that
are very robust and

healthy. However, Fig. ^- ^^^^f^f of Jtrawherry^
it may be desirable
to grow some varieties with weak foliage, such for instance as the
Captain Jack, a fine bi-sexual kind that was formerly very healthy
but of late years has frequently been ruined by blight. In such a
case the newly set plants should be sprayed three or more times
the first season, commencing as soon as the young plants are well
established, and twice the following spring, with Bordeaux mix-
ture or some other fungicide. To do this requires no more labor
or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the same num-
ber of times, and the grower will be well repaid in the increased
crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to diseases than those
that are neglected.

Bordeaux Mixture. — This is made by slacking two pounds
of quick lime in 20 gallons of water in one barrel, and dissolving
three pounds of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in two gallons of
water in another barrel. A piece of coarse burlap is now put over
tte barrel containing the sulphate of copper, and the slacked lime
and water is strained through it and the two compounds are well
mixed together. It is now ready to use and should be applied with
a spray pump. This is the same solution that is so successfully
used to prevent blight and rot on potatoes, mildew on grapes, etc.

White Grub {Lachuosierna Sp.)—T\i.\s is the common white
grub found in sod land and in manure. It is the larvis of a large
beetle, and may be very disasterous when the plants are set on sod
land, but is seldom if ever very injurious under other conditions.

Leaf Roller. — This insect is injurious in the lai'vae stage. In
feeding it folds up the leaves by drawing the edges together by

STRAWBERRIES.

13

silken threads and then eats out the soft parts. There are two
broods of this insect during the year. The females deposit their
eggs on the leaves where they soon hatch, and the worms com-
mence their work. The second brood winters over in the pupa state
in the ground near the plants.

Remedy.— The larvae are not easily reached with any insecti-
cide as they are nicely protected by the folded leaf. The first
brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the frait.
Since the second brood does not appear until July they may be de-
stroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants.
Where there are but a few infected leaves they should be crushed
in the hand, a few trials showing the best method of crushing the
worm inside.

Shading the Strawberry Bed.— Some experiments recent-
ly made seem to indicate that the f ruitfulness of strawberries may
be increased by partially shading them, as shown in Pig. 5. While
this might not be practical on a large scale, yet it is so very inex-
pensive that it could easily be tried in the heme garden. It is sug-
gested that such a screen, w.th a light wind-break near by, would

Fig. 5. Screen for shading strawberry bed.
prevent the pollen being blown away, or the flowers or plants from
being seriously injured by frost, drying winds or hail. It will be
remembered that generally the best fruit, and certainly the best
late fruit of the strawberry, is found in the wild state in somewhat
protected and shaded locations, and that in such places the plants
are most vigorous and the foliage is seldom diseased. Many ways
of making such a screen will suggest themselves to the reader, but
it may be well to add that it should be at least six feet from the
ground— to allow of a good circulation of air and room to cultivate
—and covered with willow or other brush sufficient to keep out not
more than one-half the sunlight.

14 STRAWBERRIES.

Varieties.— The varieties vary much in size, color, and qual-
ity of the fruit and vigor, productiveness and hardiness of the
plants. The flowers also vary, as has been mentioned under the
head of "sexuality of the flowers." There are now probably over
a hundred varieties catalogued by nurserymen, and new varieties
are brought out each year, but of the new kinds that we have tried
probably not one in twenty-five has been worth the keeping. It is
well not to pay a high price for plants. The new kinds, if good,
are soon offered at reasonable figures. As a rule it is not necessary
to pay over twenty-five cents per dozen, or one dollar per hundred
for plants. In quantities of five hundred or more they can be
bought at much less cost. About two hundred plants, if well set
out and cared for, will give all the fruit needed by the ordinary
family.

Warfield,— Probably the most popular berry grown. Blos-
soms, pistillate ; plant healthy, a strong grower, producing a great
quantity of runners, and is very fruitful. The fruit ripens very
early, is of good size, dark red and firm, but not sweet or very large.
A good variety to ship,

Haverland.— A popular productive variety, having pistillate
flowers. The fruit is of the best quality but not very firm, unless
it is picked before it is fully colored ; a valuable variety for home
use or near market. Not quite as early as the Warfield. Needs
special care in mulching to keep the fruit clean, as it ripens close
to the ground. Very healthy.

Crescent.— For many years this variety has been very popu-
lar, but the Haverland and Warfield are generally supplanting it on
account of their being more productive. Fairly productive, vigor-
ous, healthy, early. Berries of medium size, bright red, firm, quite
acid. A good shipping kind and largely planted. Flowers pistillate.

Brandywine. — Bi-sexual. Finiit large, firm, good color and
quality, heart-shaped. Plant of fair size, vigorous and generally
productive, tt blossoms over a long season and produces large
amounts of pollen, and is one of the best poUenizers for pistillate
sorts. Mid-season.

Captain Jack.— Flowers bi-sexual. An excellent variety. For-
merly very healthy and widely grown, but for a few years past
has blighted badly. It should be treated with some fungicide to
preserve the foliage.

Splendid.— -Bi-sexual. A very popular new sort. Fruit large
and of fine appearance and color. Valuable for both house use
and marketing.

LoTETT.— Bi-sexual. One of the most certain and profitable
kinds grown. Fruit large, of high color, firm and of excellent
flavor. Mid-season. Produces lots of pollen.

Wilson.— One of the oldest varieties in cultivation, and where
healthy is still a most excellent pollenizer. It is, however, some-
what fickle about its location.

Other varieties of considerable mei-it are — of pistillate kinds—
Bubach. Princess, and Gandy. a very late variety, with bi-sexual
flowers.

CHAPTER II.

RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES.

^OME species of the cultivated raspberry are found indigeaous
c^^ to almost every climate. Many species are very prolific of fine
fruit in their wild state, and ail of them improve rapidly under cul-
tivation. It is an especially desirable fruit for temperate climates,
where it is found at its best. There is a grea*t difference in the
adaptability of the different species as well as varieties to various
climates, but there is no section of Minnesota where some kinds
cannot be safely and surely grown if proper care be used in plant-
ing and cultivating. It is a surer crop than the strawberry, and
the plantations of it will last indefinitely, seldom needing renewing
more than once in ten years, and frequently producing abundantly
over a longer period.

Species.— There are four species to which our cultivated
kinds belong, and they quite readily hybridize together. They all
have perennial roots and biennial canes ; i. e., the canes grow one
year and the next mature fruit and die, so that there are always
two sets of canes to each plant during the growing season.

(1) Richus strigoms. This , is the red raspberry of our woods •,
there are, however, some varieties of it that have yellow fruit.
Plants belonging to this class increase by suckers, which they gen-
erally produce abundantly from all the surface roots. All of the
most desirable red raspberries in cultivation, with possibly one ex-
ception, belong to this class.

(2) Bubus Ideus. European raspberry. In form and color of
fruit and method of propagation this resembles the preceding, but
differ" from it botanically in several minor points. Varieties of
this are not generally as well adapted to the climatic conditions of
this state as our native species.

(3) Rubus rieglectics. There is much difference of opinion in
regard to che plants grouped under this species. Some of the best
botanists consider the varieties generally put here to be hybrids
between R. StHgosus and R. Occidmtalis. The fruit from this class
is often of a purplish color, but is sometimes yellow, and the plants
often increase botu oy suckers and by tip-layers.

(4) Rubus Ocddentalis. Black-cap, or thimbleberry. A native
species, very distinct from one and two; increasing by layers,
i. e., the tips of the new growth bend to the ground and take root

15

16

RASPBERKIE3 AND BLACKBERRIES.

the latter part of the summer. They seldom produce suckers. The
fruit is generally black, but there are a few varieties with yellow-
ish fruit.

All the cultivated raspberries are commonly referred to as :

SucKERiNG Kinds; those that increase by suckers, which com-
prise chiefly varieties belonging to the three species first named.

Tip-rooting Kinds; those that increase by tip layers, which
chiefly comprise varieties belonging to B. OccidetUalu, but a few
that belong to R. neglectus.

Propagation.— The raspberry may be propagated by the fol-
lowing methods :

By Seed.— All the cultivated kinds may be grown from seed,
but plants from seed are not "true," i. e., are not like the plants
from which they came, and it is only an occasional seedling that is
nearly as good as any of the varieties commonly cultivated. To
raise seedlings the "dead" ripe fruit should be crushed in a small
amount of dry sand, and the whole sown at once in a light moist
soil, somewhat shaded. The seed will seldom germinate until the
following spring, when after the plants are large enough to handle
they may, if too thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to
grow the first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they
are. The plants should be taken up in the fall, "heeled in," and
planted again the following spring, when they will bear fruit the
following (third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as soon as
obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly with leaves or
litter. In February bring the boxes into a greenhouse, transplant
to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have their third leaves
formed, and plant permanently outdoors as soon as large enough
and the weather permits ; by this system some fruit is generally
obtained the second year.

By Root Cuttings.— Most of the varieties of raspberries com-
ing under the first three spe-
cies mentioned produce
sprouts from the roots (Fig. 6) ,
and these are generally used
to start new plantations, but
when there is a shortage for
this purpose it is customary to
grow plants of the suckering
kinds from root cuttings,
which may be made as fol-
lows: In the autumn after
the plants have stopped grow-
ing the roots are taken up, cut
into pieces two or three inches
long and put in boxes, with
alternate layers of sand or
loam. The boxes are then
buried in some well drained spot until the land is fit to work in the

Fig. 6. Raspben^y sets of the sucker,
ing class. A, before buds have start-
ed. By after buds have started. The
stem should be cut off at the cross tirte.

RASPBERRIES ANTl BLACKBERRIES. 17

spring, when the roots should show a callous on the cut ends. . The
roots are then planted three or four inches apart in furrows and
covered about two inches deep in rich soil. By the end of the sea-
son they will have made plants large enough to set out ( Fig. G).

This plan for growing plants from root cuttings may be greatly
changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It is always
best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cuttings from
strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in the spring. The
cuttings are generally made with a sharp knife or a pair of pruning
shears, but nearly equally good results may be had by cutting the
roots in a hay cutter.

By Layers.— The Black-cap and some other kinds grow most
readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach the ground
about the latter part of August or first of September, and readily
make new plants if held in place {Fig. 7) . These tips should be cov-
ered with a spadeful of soil,
or better, be inserted three or
four inches into a hole made
by pushing a spade in the
ground. They will be well
rooted in three weeks. These
rooted layers will be found to
winter over most safely if
allowed to remain undisturbed
until spring, but should have
a light mulch over them dur-
ing winter. They may be win-
tered over if dug and very

^carefully heeled in, or kept in

Fig. 7. ''Cap'' raspberry set or plant of ^ ^ ,-, ^„no« v.,,+ +>,-. v^i .

one season s growth. The sfraight line ^ ^old cellar, but the plan rec-
iihOH's the bud that will start into m^oivt hommended should be followed
in the spring and form the new plant. ^^^^ practicable. It is not
considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are
very liable to winter injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging
the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the
roots to facilitate handling (Fig. 7). It is generally believed that
unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain at-
tached to the plant during winter than they are if the layers are
cut off in the fall.

Location and Soil.— The common varieties of the raspberry
succeed admirably in any good soil ; but the suckering class, which
includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather better than the
black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy
loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as
it is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens
the fruiting season in bad situations ; but it is well known that
some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles
far better than others of the same species.

18 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES.

Manure and Preparation of Ljand.— All varieties need
high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured and thor-
oughly plowed and brought into the best condition for corn or other
gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard
manure. Raspberries, especially the black-cap kinds, will produce
very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough culti-
vation is necessary for the best success with any variety.

Time of Planting. — The suckering kinds may be planted in
autumn or spring with safety. When the work is done in the
autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the
roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protection
against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in autumn, as
at that season they can give the work more careful attention than
in the spring. Then again the new sprouts from sets (suckers)
start very early, and if the work is delayed in the spring they are
often broken off or injured in the work of planting. Black-caps
and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they
are very liable to be winter-killed if moved at that season. They
should always be set in the spring.

Selection of Plants. — Since the canes are biennial there is
no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees, when
we refer to the stems ; but the roots may be of any age, as they are
perennial. Plants of one season's growth are best to begin with.
Sucker plants are generally best with t he varieties increasing in
that way; but plants from ro3t cuttings may be just as good, or
even better, when well grown. The old stools may be broken up
and the plants set out, but such sets have few fibrous roots and
often start slowly ; with the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by
breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the sucker-
ing kinds obtained the same way, and should not be used when
avoidable, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of care.
It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectly
healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries frequently become
d'«eased and plants from them a^e often worthless, consequently
care should be exercised in bujdng plants.

Planting and Cultivation. — After the land is thoroughlj'
prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and
at three foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place.
The distance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more
space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are planted,
but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the
bushes are loaded witk fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach
the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they
should never be set any nearer; while for some of the strongest
growing varieties the hills she uld not be nearer than five feet in
the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close
to the ground and no fruit a' lowed to form the first season.

A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way
and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants

RASPBEKKIES AND BLACKUEKKIES.

19

in the furrows, co veering them temporarily with the feet, and after-
wards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with the feet at
the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south,
for planted in this way the fruit is shaded by the new growth dur-
ing the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening.

Depth to Plant.— Black-cap raspberry plants should be set
about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The roots
should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The
suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they natur-
ally grew and be well firmed in.

Cultivation.— The soil should be kept loose with a horse culti-
vator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one-
horse plow may be used, but the land should be kept flat and as
free from ridges as possible. Frequent cultivation, especially in a
dry time, is important.

Pruning and Thinning.- Not more than two shoots should be
permitted to grow from each root the first year, and these should
be pinched off when eighteen inches high to encourage the growth of
lateral branches, for it has been conclusively proven that raspber-
ries fruit more heavily on the laterals than on the main cane. The

second and succeeding
years the suckering
kinds will produce a lot
of sprouts a'l around
the hill ; four or five of
those nearest the hill
should be allowed to
grow and the rest treat-
ed as weeds. If a great
lot of these suckers are
allowed to remain but
little fruit will be pro-
duced. Black-cap rasp-
berries will this year
send up a half dozen or
so of sprouts at the
base of the old plants,
and enough of these
should be removed to allow the remainder to properly develop. All
these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen
inches high {Fig. 8-9). As soon as the fruit has been gathered the
old canes which have borne fruit the current ^ear should be cut out
and destroyed. (Fig. 10.) In the spring the suckering kinds
need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the Black-cap varieties
should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches {Fig. 11). This
is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that
they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit
unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit tlian they can
mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the

Fig. 8. A, young black raspberry cane as it
appears before pinc/iing. B, the same a
short time after being pinched, showing the
way growth starts from the buds.

iO

RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES.

fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield as much fruit as
if all the canes were left their whole length.

Mulching. — The first year no mtrlching is needed; but the
second season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should be
mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with
what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on
two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because it lies
close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it
makes a good manure. This material keeps the land moist, the
berries clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as
recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide
between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the
soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance
of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a
good profit and a big loss.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. A, Red rasj)berry cane in aufmnn that has been -properly innched in

summer. B, Cane not pinched.
Fig. 10. A, The fully grown cane of the current season's growth which ivill

fruit next season. B, Cane two seasons old, which having fruited,

is to be cut away.
Fig. 10. Spring pruned Black-hlach raspberry plant.

Support. — It is desirable in this climate to have fhe canes sup-
ported in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protec-
tion is not necessary, the bushes may be so frequently pinched as
to make them form little trees that support themselves ; but this
kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be cov-
ered in winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be
easily laid down. A very good support for rasperries and black-
beiTies is made by running a No. 12 galvanized iron wire on each
side of the bushes attached to a good solid post at each end of the
row. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty^
five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants lo move gently

RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES.

21

in the wind but not sufficiently to break them by its violence. It
keeps the fruit off the ground and is cheap and convenient.

Winter Protection. — As a rule it is not safe to allow any
known variety of raspberries to go through the winters of this sec-
tion without some kind of protection, not that they will always kill
to the snow line if not protected, but because covering them in-
volves no great expense, makes them almost a sure crop, and the
covered plants seem, to have more vigor than those left exposed.
There are, however, locations near some of the larger lakes, or
where surrounded by forests, that are so very favorable that such
varieties as the Turner, Souhegan, and even the Cuthbert, are not
injured when left unprotected in winter.

The bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground
freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost in

the canes. The best
covering is fresh
earth. In laying
them down com-
mence at the north
end of the row, re-
move the soil from
the north side of the
hill, about four inch-
es deep, with a gar-
den fork ; gather the
branches together
Fig. 12. Canes laid down, for ivinter but not yet ^^^-^ a two-tined
'''^"'^■^'^- fork, press gently to

the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the
hiU and press hard, bending the bush in the root as much as pos-
sible, and as little as may be in the canes, until nearly flat on the
ground (i^/^. i2), and hold it there until second man covers with
soil sufficient to hold them down. The top of each succeeding hill
will lie at the base of its predecessor, making a continuous cover-
ing. It will be found that a little of mulch put on the canes first
after laying them down will hold the soil put on, and much less will
be required than if no mulchjs used. After laying them all dovm
turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as
possible, and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed.
It is only necessary to use soil enough to barely cover the canes.
There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg,
that en rich land are very difficult to cover. With them it. will
do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover
the tops with enough soil to hold them in place. While it would
be better to cover them all if it were practicable, yet treated in
this way enough snow will generally lodge in the canes to cover
them, and if this is supplemented with a light covering of coarse
litter' or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous
must be poisoned, or they may eat the canes under the mulch.

they

22 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES.

Lifting Canes in Spring.— In the spring use a round-tined
fork ; carefully remove the earth and raise the plants to a slanting
position. It IS found that left in this position the fruiting canes are
shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised
up straight.

A Convenient Box Holder.— Thay-
er's berry-pickers' box carrier {see Fig. 13)
for use in picking raspberries and black-
berries, is made of tin of a size to easily
hold a berry box. It has straps to fasten
around the waist of the picker, and a slat-
ted bottom, so the berry box may be easily
pushed up from the under side when taken
out. Its chief advantage is that it leaves
both hands of the picker free to gather
fruit and keeps dirt out of the boxes.

Diseases. — There is a great diiference
in the liability to diseases of \ he different va-
rieties of the raspberry. Some of the kinds ^^' ^^'
producing the finest fruit are so weak in constitution as to render
them valueless for cultivation, and only those kinds are profitable
\v hich are strong ahd vigorous in constitution and resist diseases
without recourse to special treatment. High cultivation will be
found the best preventive of disease, but there are three diseases
that are occasionally very injurious even in the best cultivated
plantations.

(1) Leaf Curl.— This name is indicative of one of the early
stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they may
remain green all through the season the plants make a poor, weak
growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size, and rather bitter
in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy sets with
which they may be replaced soon succumb to the trouble. This
disease spreads very slowly, and, as a rule, there are only a few
infected spots in a plantation, which slowly increase in size from
year to year. The spread of the disease may be prevented to a
great extent by pulling and burning the diseased plants as fast as
they appear. In setting out a new plantation use only land which
hivs not been in raspberries for several years, and to take great
care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from a
weak plantation on any account.

(2) Red Orange Rust {Caeortia lurnbiatuni). — This is most hurt-
ful to the black cap raspberries, though it frequently injures other
kinds. It produces a weak appearance in the canes and foliage,
and in the latter part of the summer the underside of the foliage
becomes completely covered with a thick coating of brilliant orange
colored spores, which easily rub off. One soon comes to know the
plants that are diseased even before the spores appear, and they
should be pulled and burned at once. This is especially necessary
with the black-cap varieties ; but even with these, if the affected

RA.SPBERRIES AND BLACKBEHIIIES.

28

plants are destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in check
until a new plantation can be well started, and sometimes assidu-
ous attention to pulling and burning results in stamping out the
disease.

(3) Anthracuose, or Cane-Rust— Also known as the rasp-
berry cane-rust. It manifests itself by weakening the grrfwth and
causing the bark of the canes to become marked with many white
or grayish, flattened or depressed spots, bordered by a ring of pur-
ple; s.ome of these spots may be one-third of an inch in diameter.
This disease seldom does serious injury to any but cap varieties of
the raspberry, and it is only occasionally noticed to any extent in
this state, and then not as being very hurtful. In some of the
eastern states it is so abundant as to almost prohibit the growing
of cap varieties.

The treatment for this disease consists in burning all the in-
fected canes and in applying Bordeaux mixture to the new growth
occasionally during the growing season, commencing early.

Insects.— The rasberry is seriously injured by but few insects.
The most common are the following :

Raspberry Flat-headed Borer (Agrilus ruficolUs ) Fig. 14.
The perfect form of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the
growing canes some time during the summer. Where the eggs are

laid peculiar gall-like
swellings may occur
{Fig. 15), having many
rough slits in them ; but
this is not always the
case, for sometimes
canes may be killed by
the insect and no swell-
ings at all appear on
the canes. The eggs
hatch into little yellow-
ish-white larvae, having
a flattened body, brown
jaws, and a tail fur-
nished with two dark-brown horns. One swelling may contain
many larvse. When full-grown the larva? is from one-half to three-
fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood frequently
girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about the time the
plants are in full blossom. They have a brilliant copper-colored
head and thorax, and the body and hard wings are velvety black.
As the insects winter over in the canes they may be destroyed
by cutting and burning all the infested wood some time during the
winter.

Snowy Tree Cricket {Oecantfms niveus). Fig. 16. This insect
does not feed on the raspberry plant in any way, but it is injurious
on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with lines
of little holes in which to deposit eggs. If this work does not kUl

FIG. \A.— Raspberry Cane-borer. A, larvce,.
B, mature insect. C, Horns at extremity
of abdomen of larvo&.

24

KASPBERRIES AND BLACKBEKHIES.

the canes it so weakens them that when they start in the spring
they are very apt to break off as soon as the foliage is expanded.
The eggs, which are laid in autumn, are yellow and about one-
eighth of an inch long. They are not readily seen when laid, but
by the latter part of winter the infested canes take on an unhealthy
appearance by which they may be readily located. They should
then be cut out and burned. This icsect feeds on leaf lice and is
thus beneficial to some extent, but it causes so much injury by lay-
ing its eggs in grape and other plants with pithy wood, as well as
the raspberry, that it should be destroyed as nearly as possible.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 15 — Gall-like swelling resulting from work of raspherry cane-lorer.

Fig. us.— Snow Tree Cricket. A, Shon-s its method of work in the canes;
anegg enlarged with its end still further enlarged. B, The insect that does
the mischief.

Varieties.— There are many varieties of the raspberry offered
by various nurserymen, but the following have been well tested
and are the most desirable, yet there are many other good kinds.
About fifty hills of raspberries will be found suflBcient for the ordi-
nary family garden, and it will be most satisfactory to have them

RASPBERKIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 25

divided so as to give one-half of red and the other of the black-cap
Kinds.

SucKERiNG Kinds. Cuthbert—A strong growing, hardy, pro-
ductive kind, having large, red fruit of good quality. The most
popular of the late varieties.

Marlboro— The most popular early red berry for marketing ; of
fairly vigorous growth, hardy, and very productive. Tlie fruit is
very large, bright-red and firm ; however, it is of rather inferior
quality. It needs the highest cultivation.

Ooldm Quer-ji—Liike the Cuthbert, but of a yellow color. The
best yellow fruited kind.

Turner— The best known and the hardiest of the red kinds.
Plant of strong, vigorous, healthy growth, and very productive.
Fruit sweet, of fair size, though somewhat soft. Not popular ^or
marketing. Other valuable kinds of this class are Hansell, Clark
and Reliance,

Tip-rooting Kinds. Schceffer''s Coloanal—YevY productive, but
its dull purple color makes it a poor kind for marketing. Valuable
for the home garden and for canning.

07iio— Not as early as the Sou began, but the most popular of
the early black-caps for general planting.

Nemeha—A beautiful large, very productive, strong growing
kind, of medium quality and latest in ripening. It is now the most
popular late black-cap raspberry wtih those who are acquainted
with it.

Other good kinds of th's class are Souhcgan, Gregg, Older and
Johnson's Sweet. There are no good yellow varieties belonging to
this class.

BLACKBERRIES.

The blackberry is nearly allied— botanically— to the raspberry.
There are two species of it cultivated, and both of them are natives
of Minnesota and other northern states.

High-bush Blackberry {Bubus villoitm). To this species be-
long the kinds geaerally cultivated. The fruit, almost without ex-
ception, is black ; but there are varieties with whitish or red fruit.
Tliis specie suckers freely and may bo readily increased by root
cuttings.

Low-bush Blackberry or Dewberry {Rabus Canadensis).
The fruit of this resembles the above, but the plant is vine-like and
trails on the ground. It is propagated by layering the growing
canes, which take root very readily. Varieties of this species are
not generally cultivated with much success, but in some location.'^
they fruit abundantly.

26

RASPBERRIES AND BLiCEBERRIES.

Fig. \7.—A, Blackberry cane
'properly pinched. B. Black
berry cane grown wilhont
summer pinching.

Tlie blackberry well repays careful cultivation. It requires
the same soil and methods for planting, summer pinching, mulching
and winter protection as the red raspberry. It should always be
protected in winter. In the spring,
however, the plants should not be
pruned until the flower buds can be
plainly seen, when, if in too great
abundance, a part of the canes may
be pruned enough to thin tne fruit.
{Fig. 17.) Never trim blacKberries
until the flower buds can be seen,
for it often happens that the flower
buds which are formed the year pre-
ceding that when fruit is produced
are near the ends of the canes, and
in pruning all of them are cut off.
This is a frequent cause of failure
with blackberries.

The insects and diseases affect-
ing the blackberry are nearly the
same as those injuring the raspberry, and are subject to the same
remedies.

Varieties.— There are only a few varieties of special interest
to planters in this state. About twenty-five hills of blackberries
will be found sufficient to supply the ordinary family. They are as
follows :

Ancient Briton.— This is probably the most valuable for gen-
eral planting of any blackberry grown. The plant is hardy,
healthy and productive; the fruit is large, sweet and of fine
quality. The variety next described is often substituted by deal-
ers for this variety.

Snyder.- In some sections, generally on clayey land, this vari-
ety is most highly esteemed. It is very early, hardy, productive,
and of good quality.

Dewberries.— The Lucretia and Windom are the best known
varieties of dewberries. They seem to do best on sandy loam, but
while some growers are very successful with them, others in differ-
ent locations, who appear to take the best of care of them, fail most
completely. Where they do well they are very desirable, as they
produce their fruit earlier in the season than the tall kinds. As
the vines lie on the ground they should be heavily mulched at
fruiting time to protect the fruit from dirt, as weU as the roots
from dry weather.

CHAPTER m.
CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

i^fpIHE currant will grow and fruit abundantly in almost any soil
(^ or situation in the Northern States if given good cultiva-
tion; and even when it has but little care it is still very sure to
produce a fair crop. However, no cultivated plant responds more
promptly and generously to manuring and careful attention. The
acid fruit in any of the various ways in which it is used is healthy
and refreshing. It is not so universally esteemed as the straw-
berry, yet it is used in immense quantities each year, and first-class
fruit carefully marketed generally pays the grower a good profit.
No fruit is more satisfactory in the home garden. A currant bush
once planted will continue to bear fruit for an indefinite period,
often for thirty years. . There are very many species of currants,
but our cultivated kinds belong to the following :

(1) Red Currant {Riben ruhrum). Native of the Northern
States and Canada, Northern Europe and Asia. The European
form of this species is the parent of all the red and white varieties
in cultivation.

(2) Black Currant {Rihes Negrum). A vigorous, growing
plant; native of Northern Europe and Siberia. The fruit is
black and all parts of the plant has a strong peculiar odor, K^hich
to many people is unpleasant until they become accustomed to it.
The fruit is grown only in quite a limited way. In many markets
there is no demand for it, while in others it brings a higher price
than the common currant. It is easily grown. Valued medicinally
for throat troubles.

(3) Missouri or Flowering Currant {Rihei^ Aureum). A vig-
orous plant; native of Mississippi Valley ; having beautiful, sweet-
scented yellow flowers early in the spring. It is much cultivated
for ornamental purposes. Fruit large, purplish black and rather
astringent. A few varieties of this species have recently been in-
troduced as fruit plants, but none of them have proved sufficiently
valuable to warrant their extensive cultivation.

27

28

CURHANTS AND GOOSEBEKKIES.

®?^r^

Propagation.— The currant does not come true from seed.
The named varieties are grown from layers, cuttings, or divisions.

Seedlings are easily raised if treated the same as recommend-
ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be taken
with its seed than with that of the raspberry as it germinates very
quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has started it
often fails to grow. On this account the seed should be sown in
the fall where it is to grow the following year. Or if sown in
boxes they should be frozen until February or March, when they
may be put in a greenhouse or hotbed. But very few seedlings are
of any value, and the growing of them is seldom attempted.

Cuttings are very easily rooted and varieties are almost uni-
versally grown from them. They may be taken oflf at almost any
time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any age or size
will root if carefully handled, but the following method is generally
very certain to bring good results :

As soon as the leaves have fallen— which may be in the latter
part of August or first of September— the young wood (growth
of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven inches long.
They are then at once set out in rich, well drained
soli four inches apart, in rows three feet apart.
Only about one inch of the cutting should be above
ground, and great care should be taken to very
firmly pack the earth around the bottom of the
cuttings. When thus treated they will have cal-
loused and made some small roots (as shown in
Pig. 18) before the ground freezes, and will start
vigorously the following spring. The cuttings
should remain as planted for at least one, or per-
haps two years. If the land is in good condition
they will be ready to set out when one year old,
but can remain where planted for several seasons
if well cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings
may be shorter than recommended, but in such a
case more care will be required to ensure that
they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the
cuttings may consist of a single bud each, and
may be sown like beans in a furrow, but much ex- -^^if; ^^
perience is required to be successful with them
when made so very small.

Layers may be made at any time during the
growing season, but preferably in the spring or
early summer, as they will then be well rooted by autumn. They
consist simply of branches which have been covered with earth
and have become rooted. After becoming well rooted they are
separated from the old plant. The way in which they are made is
shown in Fig. 19. The branches are rather surer to root if the
bark and wood is cut or broken a little, or if treated as in Fig. 20,
but most varieties root very easily without this trouble. The cur-

■Currani
cutting planted
in, Aitqust show-
ing the roofs as
they appear on
the approach of
winter.

CUKUANTS AND GOOSEBEUHIES. 29

rant may be increased by dividing the old bushes, however plants
so made generally have but few very hard roots and are slow to
start into vigorous growth.

Soil and Planting. — The currant will grow in almost any
kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it will

give good returns, but
the soil cannot be too
rich or the cultivation
too constant for the
best crops of fruit.
Plants may be set out
in the fall or spring
with good results. If
set in autumn each
plant should be banked
up with about two
spadesful of soil. They
should be put live or six
'^■.:'-^- feet apart each way,

Fio- 19. and for the varieties

Currant bush loith six of its steins layered. most generally grown
six is better than live feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and
those that are young and thrifty are better than older ones. Where
practicable they should be planted so as to allow of cultivation both
ways. They should not be set along a fence or border, as in such
places they are difticult to cultivate. The land should be plowed
lightly with a one-horse plow early in the spring, and the cultivator
started soon afterward. While the plants are in fruit, cultivation
will have to be suspended, as the weight of the berries will bend
the branches so that they will be in the way and liable to injury.
As soon as the crop is gathered the working of the land should be
again commenced and continued until the middle of August, after
which there is no need of it.

Mulching.— Good crops of currants may be grown without
'cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in somewhat
dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than on any
other. The mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes, hard
wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is used it
should not be mixed with the soil but kept on the surface. It is
often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate in the
center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this purpose will
keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with the neces-
sity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good for this pur-
pose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely used if kept
on the surface of the land and not mixed with it. Partially rotted
sawdust is much to be preferred to that which is fresh.

Pruning. — The currtmt is improved by some pruning each
year. This may be done at almost any season, but preferably ir

30 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

August. To do this work properly it should be understood that
but very little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding season's
growth, and that the buds which produce the greatest amount of
fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or older. The fruit
buds are formed late in summer and open early in the following
growing season. In pruning, the old wood which is weakened by
age, should be cut out close to the ground and enough new sprouts
from the roots should be encouraged to take its place. Not more
than from four to six shoots from the roots should be allowed to
remain ; the rest should be cut away, for if allowed to grow too
much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will consequent-
ly be very small. The wood which is infested by borers should
also be cut out as nearly as may be. But for the past few years in
some sections of Minnesota all the shoots of the currant have bsen
infested with this insect. In such extreme cases necessity may
compel the leaving of those least injured.

Fig. 20. — Currant layer split before layering to en-
courage : he formation of roots.

Tree Currants are frequently advertised as being very desir-
able and are often sold at a much higher price than commoner cur-
rants ; while in fact they are our common currants pruned so as to
make them take on a tree-like form. They appear very pretty
while growing, but having only one stem the first borer that attacks
it destroys the plant. To make plants take on this tree-form all
but one upper bud is rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out.
The remaining bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to
branch at about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature
tree. Such plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be
renewed. The common red currant is sometimes grafted on the
Rihes auretim., but such plants are open to the same objections as
other tree currants, and are only valuable as curiosities.

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

31

Winter Protection. — The Red Dutch and a few other very
excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situa-
tion', but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are occasion-
ally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, however, be
easily protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated
they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep the
fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well in the
spring after being bent down all winter. Another way of giving
some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn with a string
or willow withes. This is very desirable where the snow drifts
over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by it when it
settles in the spring and more protection is afforded by this treat-
ment than is generally supposed.

Marketing.— It is customary to market the currant in baskets
holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart boxes and
other packages are used for this purpose. One must study the
local market to learn which package is the best to use. This fruit
is generally sold by the pound. Unlike the raspberries and straw-
berries it will remain in good condition on the plants for some little
time after getting ripe, but it does not ship as well if very ripe as
when it is a little green. The fruit makes the firmest jelly before
it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is sometimes most profit-
able to market the crop when the berries at the ends of the bunches
are still quite green.

Insects. — The Currant Worm {Xe/natus veritricosus) is the
most troublesome insect that attacks this plant. The female lays

her eggs in rows on
the veins on the un-
der side of the
leaves (as shown in
Fig. 21) quite early
in the season. They
are white in color
and about one-twen-
tieth of an inch long.
These eggs hatch in
about ten days. The
young worms feed
in companies, at
first eating small
holes in the leaves
as shown at ^, ^
and G in Pig. 21, but
later on they de-
stroy all the green
tissue in the leaf
PiG.2l.—A,Eggsofcurranfivormonthevineson and then spread in
the under ^ side of the leaf. C and B, Holes ,, dirpptinns ovpr
made by the yo'sng worms when they first com- f^^ airecLions o v e i
mence to feed shortly after coming from egg. the bush eatmg th

33

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

foliage. They will frequently strip a bush of its leaves in a few
day's time if left to themselves. Figure 22 shows the worms at
work in the latter stage of their growth. When full grown they
are three quarters of an inch long. There are two broods of these
worms ; the first appearing before or about the time the fruit is
ripe, and the second two or three weeks later. The mature insect
is a fly somewhat resembling the housefly {Fig. 23).

Remedy.— Powdered hellebore mixed with its bulk of flour
may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet, or it may be
uscnI at the rate of one ounce of powdered hellebore to a gallon of
wa"^r and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a
vey*^ cheap, effective and easily,applied remedy. But hellebore is

Fig. 22. — Currant worms {Nemaius ventncosus) at work on the *«t»tJi,^

quite poisonous and is not safe to use when the fruit is ripe,
although no danger will exist if several days should elapse after
the application before the fruit is gathered, and a light shower
after the hellebore is applied will remove all danger from it. Py-
rethrum insect powder is a good, safe and effective remedy when
applied just at night, but it is very expensive and diflficult to obtain,
of a good quality, at any price.

Where these insects have made their appearance the first in-
dication of them should be watched for in following years and
great care taken to destroy the first brood each season. Growers

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES,

33

Of this fr-dit should be very particular not to neglect the bushes
after the crop is gathered, for it is very important for the next
year's crop that they should make a good growth of wood, and
neglecting them at this time often allows a crop of worms to
mature to cause more extensive injury the following year. The
flies seem to prefer the foliage of native varieties of goose-ber-
ries, such as the Houghton seedling, for its eggs, and a few of

these bushes may be plant-
ed among the currants,
when most of the worms
can be very easily de-
stroyed on them as soon as
the eggs hatch.

Imported Currant
Borer {Aeget^a tipicUform-
is) . Fig. 24. In many sec-
tions this insect in its lar-
val state causes great in-
jury to the stems of the
currant and gooseberry by
so weakening them that
they break off when loaded
with fruit, and by making
them sickly. The female
lays her eggs in the stems
early in the summer. In
a few days the eggs hatch
into little white grubs,
which work into the pith
of the stem where they
make their burrows and
live until the following
season. They then finish
their transformation and appear as wasp-like moths and the fe-
males shortly commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly
the red and white currant, but it also attacks the black currant
and occasionally the gooseberry

Remedies. — The infested stems should be cut out in the au-
tumn or very early in the spring and be burned at once. If the
growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort
they can keep this insect in subjection. However, it is quite
certain this pest will not continue for many years so very abundant
as it is now, but that following the natural course of events it will
be checked by parasites or some disease, and we may then enjoy a
period of comparative immunity from it for a series of years.

liice {Aphis HUti) are frequently very abundant on the foliage
of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves to curl
up and become distorted thus checking their growth, but sel-
dom causing serious injury. They may be destroyed by spray-

FiG. 22.— Mat are form of the Currant Won
A, male. B, female.

84

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

ing the foliage with tobacco water made by steeping the raw leaf
or stems in hot water until it is the color of strong tea. Kerosene
emulsion is also a very excellent remedy. It may l?e made as fol-
lows : Soft soap, one quart ; hard soap (preferably whale-oil soap)
one-fourth pound ; two quarts hot "water, and one pint kerosene.
Stir thoroughly until all are permanently mixed, then add two
quarts more of water. A force pump will be found the best thing
to mix it with, and the mixture should be forced through the pump
back into the receptacle containing it many times in order to make
it pemlanent. In using this mixture its strength may have to be
varied a little to suit the plant or the aphis. In fighting these in-
sects it is very important to commence as soon as the first are seen,
as they often increase with
great rapidity. On account of
the position of the leaves these
lice are very difficult to get at
with a spray, and on their
first appearance the infested
foliage should be destroyed.
It is sometimes most practi-
cable to dip the branches into
the emulsion.

Diseases.— There are sev-
eral fungi that attack the fol-
iage of the currant. Perhaps
the most common is the rust
(Septosia Eibes), which causes
the leaves to fall prematurely
in Jaly or August. The Bor-
deaux mixture mentioned un-
der the head of the strawber-
ry is probably the best pre-
ventive, but should be used
quite early in the spring a.n.dFiG.2i.—Carrafit Borer (Aegeria Hpuii-
again after the crop is gath- formi.^) A, winged moth; B grown

, ^, ,. ^f^,, caterpillar; C, pupa; D, stem split

ered. If used just before the open to show caterpillar inside and
fruit is ripe it will badly dis- an empty pupoi skin above.
figure it.

A^arieties.— There are not so many varieties of the currant
offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated fruits,
but still there is much difference in the size and quality of the dif-
ferent kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the plantSc
For the home garden about one dozen plants well cared for will
give an abundance of fruit. The following are the most important
kinds:

Red Dutch.— The variety most commonly cultivated and the
most productive, hardiest and best kind known for general plant-
ing. Fruit bright red, small to medium in size and in g m d bunch-
es. It will hang on the bush a long time after getting ripe without

CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 60

being seriously injured. The fruit seldom brings the highest price
on account of its rather small size, but if severely pruned and high-
ly manured it is greatly improved in this respect.

Victoria.— One of the latest varieties in time of ripening.
Very satisfactory in every way and especially valuable for market-
ing. Fruit red, of large size in large bunches, and it hangs on the
bush well after getting ripe.

Fat's Prolific— Plant of moderately spreading growth. Ber-
ries dark red, very large and borne in large bunches. It brings the
highest price, but the plant is somewhat tender and liable to have
its fruit buds injured in severe winters if exposed^ on this account
it should be protected, except in favorable locations.

Long Bunch Holland. — A very popular market currant. Ber-
ries red in color, in long bunches. Rather more liable to drop its
fruit as soon as it is ripe than is the case with the Victoria or Red
Dutch.

Cherry and Versailles. — Nearly identical large red-fruited
varieties. They are not as hardy as the two kinds first mentioned,
but do well in favorable locations.

White Grape is the best of the white varieties and is sweeter
and more desirable for table use than any before mentioned. It is
prolific and very satisfactory in the home garden. But white cur-
rants seldom bring as good a price in the markets as the red kinds.

GOOSEBERRY.

The gooseberry is closely related to the currant, but is not so
generally esteemed. There are many species, but the varieties in
cultivation are generally included under two species, yet a third
may enter into the parentage of a few of them.

(1) Eibes hirtellum. Native of the Northern States and Canada.
Our best wild gooseberries belong here, and such well known kinds
as Houghton Seedling, Downing and Smith are improved selections
of it, little removed from the better representatives of the type
in its wild state. Varieties belonging to this class are very hardy
and generally most desirable.

(2) Ribes gronmlacece. The European gooseberry in its wild
state is not nearly so fine a fruit as the native American species,
but by painstaking care m.any kinds having large berries and often
of luscious quality have been developed, until in England it is re-
garded a fine table fruit. Varieties belonging to this species are.
poorly adapted to the dry climate of this section, and are prone to
mildew and sunscald. Quite recently some very interesting hy-
brids between the two species have been brought out which pro-
duce very large fruit and yet appear adapted to our severe climatic
conditions.

The directions given for growing the currant apply with equal
force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars which are in-
cluded under the following heads :

36 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.

Propagation.— Most varieties do not grow as readily from
cuttings as the currant, and kinds with coarse wood it is almost
impossible to root in this way. For this reason layering is the
most common method of propagation. If the layers are carefully
put down in June after the new growth is several inches long each
twig will be found slightly rooted by autumn. They should then
be taken up, cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with
each twig. These little layers should be set out at once in the
spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cuttings.
Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken when they
are laid down, but most kinds root readily without this trouble.

Planting.— Autumn is the time usually preferred for setting
the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very early in the
spring that any delay at that time causes them a set-back from
which they may not readily recover. But plants may be very sue-
cessfully set in the spring if planted early.

Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or weak
stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the size and ap-
pearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be greatly improved
if from one-third to one-half of the new growth is cut off annually.
However, some of the newer kinds producing the largest fruit may
need this recommendation somewhat modified. Large fruit is
picked and sold most readily and the quantity produced from a
trimmed bush is, as a rule, fully as much as from one not trimmed.
This is especially true of our native kinds which are inclined to
overbear.

Mildeiv (SphaerotJieca Jfors-uvtu) is the worst disease of the
gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which becomes covered with a
whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up and drop off and the wood
fails to mature. In bad cases the berries too are discolored, and
perhaps ruined. As a rule this disease does not cause serious in-
jury in good locations in this section, but in wet seasons, or any
season on wet land, or where there is a poor circulation of air, it
may be very destructive even here.

Remedies.— These should be preventive largely, and consist
of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good circula-
tion of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of health as
possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease makes its
appearance in the face of these precautions recourse should be had
to the following remedy, which is very satisfactory :

Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young leaves
begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eighteen or twenty
days, except in times of heavy rains when it must be done oftener.
For this purpose use liver of sulphur ( potassium sulphide) dissolved
in water at the rate of one-half ounce to the gallon. The liver of
sulphur dissolves very readily in hot water; costs from fifteen to
twenty cents per pound, and one gallon of the solution is enough

CUHKANTa ANU GOOSEBEKKIES. 37

for ten or twelve large bushes if applied with a spray pump, but if
sprinkled on the foliage much more of the solution will be required.

Varieties.— The American kinds are best for general planting.
Those most commonly offered by nurserymen are as follows:

Houghton Seedling is the hardiest and most satisfactory of
the gooseberries for this section. It is prolific with little care in
almost any situation. If neglected the fruit will be small, but it
responds readily to good cultivation. Berries reddish brown in
color when ripe.

Downing has larger and sweeter fruit than the Houghton, but
the bush is not so hardy. If laid down and covered with earth in
winter it is a sure cropper, but otherwise it Is liable to lose its fruit
buds in this section. Berries pale-green when ripe.

Smith's Improved is a productive variety of good quality.
Berries larger in size than the Houghton and yellowish green in
color.

None of the European or their hybrids have proven a great
success in this state. They generally mildew badly or sunscald,
and require much care. The best of this class are the Industry
and Triumph. The latter is a new kind cf more than usual
promise.

CriA±>TEK IV.

THE GRAPE.

;^|TtHERE is probably no large section of Minnesota, or other
P^ ref ions east and west on the same latitude, where some of the
hardiest kinds of grapes cannot be grown and ripened, while on the
latitude of the southern half of the state, and on the highlands near
rivers and lakes many of the best varieties are easily grown in
large quantities. Our popular cultivated grapes are almost with-
out exception the result of the selection and hybridization of native
species. In a few varieties we find a little of the European wine
grape, but they are not generally as vigorous and free from dis-
eases as the former. There are many native species in the United
States, but those which enter largely into the parentage of the
kinds most valuable at the north are: —

(1) Northern Fox Grape {Viiis labrnsca), the species from
which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Examples
of these are Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and Lady. As usu-
ally found it has a large purple fruit, thick skin, and very pulpy
meat surrounding the large seeds. The leaves are large, with
whitish down on the underside. Found occasionally in the east-
ern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in states farther east.
The Concord grape resulted fi'om the selection of seed from a wild
vine which had been cultivated for two generations. Seedling
labncsca are frequently white in color. The cultivated grapes of
this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens.

(2) Winter, or Frost Grape {Vitis riparia), the common
wild grape found throughout Minnesota, except north of Lake
Superior; as yet not much cultivated, but it is probable that some
of its hybrids will prove valuable for severe locations in the North-
west.

(3) European "Wine Grape (Vitis vinifera). In its pure state
this has never been a success in open air culture in the Northern
States, but the tine quality of its fruit has greatly improved the
hybrids into which it has entered. The so-called Roger's hybrids.

THE GRAPE. 6\f

tne Brighton, Delaware and others are the product of the union of
/. vin>fe)-a with V. lahrusca^ and as a result we have among them
varieties of the finest quality, though almost without exception
they exhibit some weakness in foliage or root, and a predisposition
to disease not found in those of pure labmsca origin.

These species of the grape readily hybridize together. The
blossoms of the cultivated kinds of grapes are generally perfect, as
shewn in Fig. 26. This is especially true of varieties of pure f ox-

Pig. 25. Fig. 2G. Fig. 27.

Fro. 2'5.—S^07VS the way in which the stamens push off the covering of the

flower. The petals separating at the loiver edge.
Fig. t^.— a per Jed flower with erect {full developed) stamens.
Fig. 27. — A flower with reflex {weak) stamens.

grape ( V. Idbrusca) origin ; while hybrids having some of the Euro-
pean wine grape {V. vinifera) in their parentage often have flowers
which are deficient in pollen. The latter have their stamens some-
what crooked and are said to be reflexed {Fig. 27) . They frequent-
ly do not produce enough pollen to fertilize their own flowers, and
when grown alone the bunches of fruit on them are perhaps only
partially filled out, having many small, seedless berries. This fea-
ture is characteristic of the Lindley, Brighton and others," and
varities with this wv^akness in their flowers should be grown near
such kinds as the Concord, Worden, etc., which produce an abund-
ance of pollen.

Propagation.— The grape is increased from cuttings and lay-
ers, and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. Pro-
pagation from seed is resorted to only when new varieties are
desired.

By Seed. — If vines are to be grown in this way the seed should
be saved from ripe berries. It should bo at once sown in boxes of
rich soil, or in a fine seed-bed, covering it a half inch deep and pro-
tecting by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of
one or two feet the first season, and will show blossoms about the
fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers,
while others will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seed-
ling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances
for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli-
gent hybridization is resorted to.

By Cuttings.— Grape cuttings are of three kinds— long and
short, hard wood and soft wood. The process by which they are

40 THE GRAPE.

rooted varies greatly in its details, but the general principles are
the same in every case.

Long Bard-wood Cuttings.— These should be made in the fall
from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to
make them about eight inches long, if wood is abundant. The
length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between
the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of
some varieties they may be ten inches long. They are often made
six inches long, but so short as this they are more liable to fail
from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if
cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings
should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury
them in some well drained place with the tops down, and cover
with about six inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure
the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that
they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is
dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut-
tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to
induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary, to insure
their rooting, and they should not be planted out until well cal-
loused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings
with a box and sash, which will confine the sun's rays and so warm
the roots that they will start a callous. When the soil is settled
and warm they should be planted out, six inches apart, in rows two
or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. Thay
should be at least seven inches deep in most locations.

The Land for Cuttings.— The land selected for growing cut-
tings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be greatly
improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and having
a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When
planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line,
and a sub-soil plow>un eight inches deep in the mark to loosen the
soil, after which the cuttings can easily be set by hand. The rows
should next be straightened with a line, and each cutting carefully
firmed by pressing close to each side of each cutting with the ball
of the foot. When this work is well done the cuttings will be in
the ground so solid that they cannot easily be pulled out with the
fingers. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the
top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are
weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for
another season's growth ; but if strong, they may be dug and used
for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig
all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in
out doors for winter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the
spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weak-
er ones be set out in the nursery to grow another year.

One-eye CuTTiNGg.— The wood for these should be cut in the
fall and wintered over in a cold cellar, burieci in moss, sand, saw-
dust, or other similar material, or it may be buried out- doors. In

THE GKAPE. 41

the spring, generally in March, these canes should be cut up into
pieces having one inch of wood be.ow and half an inch above the
bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four
inches deep, and having holes for drainatre, should be prepared by
putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the
same amount of clean sand on top of it. The cuttings should be
set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting them
two inches apart each way. The boxes may now be put in a gentle
hot-bed, or on a bench in a greenhouse, and kept moist. The cut-
tings should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made
a good root growth they should be planted at a favorable time in
rich soil out-doors. The time for this will be as late as the latter
part of May in this section. Very nice plants may be grown in
this way, but they do not make as strong a growth the first year as
long cuttings, and often need a second year in the nursery before
they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard.

Soft-Wood Cuttings. — These are made from the green wood
taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in
much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums,
fuschias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very val-
uable, and as a means to increase new varieties. Plants grown
this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well started,
and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be
obtained.

Liayering. — This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of
increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow them where but
few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, which are
called spring and summer layers, from the season at which they
are made.

Summer Layers are made in the summer, generally the last of
July, from a branch of the same season's growth. They are likely
to be weak for several j^ears, and do not make as good plants as the
spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch
or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the
cane four inches deep in the ground and it will be rooted by late
autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year-
ling vines grown from hard-wood cuttings.

Spring Layers.— These may be made by laying down any
cane early in the spring. It will root in one season. By fall it will
have made a good growth of roots, when it may be cut from the
main cane, and if strong it may be divided into two plants. This
form of layer is illustrated in figures 28 and 29. By a little dif-
ferent treatment of the spring layer a vine may be grown from
each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane
should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried.
In the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted
to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about
six inches from each bud the whole cane should be layered about
four inches deep, handling it carefully ro _., not to break the new

42

THE GRAPE.

growth. Figure 30 shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is a
good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill
up the trench as the shoots grow. If covered four inches deep at
once the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom hap-
pens, and some skillful growers fill the trench f uU at once. In the
autumn roots will be found growing from each joint, and these
may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines
grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used
to some considerable extent vines should be grown specially for the
purpose. It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to
any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way.
The subject of grafting the grape will be considered later in a
special chapter on grafting and budding.

Liocation of the Vineyard.— Some of the hardy, early rip-
ening but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but

the better kmds need a
warm exposure and free
circulation of the air about
them to insure their ripen-
ing each year. High south-
ern slopes generally offer
the best locations ; in such
places there is the greatest
amount of heat in summer,
very general immunity
from the late frosts of
spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at
all times ; all of which are important matters in growing grapes.
Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for
this purpose, but on northern exposure the fruit will be later in
ripening than if in situa-
tions where the plants re-
ceive the direct rays of the
sun. However, excellent
fruit may often be grown
on a northern slope if it is
near some large body of
water, which will help
maintain an equable tem-
perature, and especially to fig.
keep off the early frosts of
autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in so that the foliage of the
vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers it will be
found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes, on
account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. THe
cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to
allow a free movement of air through the vines at all times, has
often been the means of making ihe difference between failure and
success in growing grapes.

Fig. 28.— -4 Rooted Layer.

■The rooted layer separated, mak
ing txoo jdants

THE GRAPF!.

43

Soil.— The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy
loam, with an open clay sub-soil ; but a somewhat clayey loam wil)
do very well if sufiiciently drained to remove any excess of mois-
ture. Before planting the land should be thoroughly prepared by
plowing and harrowing until In the best condition. Where there is
not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be
found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six
furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept
smooth.

The Best Vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty
two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those having
a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years
old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon outgrow those
that are old and large when transplanted. It matters little about
the direction of the rows, they should be laid out so as to prevent
the wash as much as possible.

Fig. 30.— J. rooted layer. Each hud making a new plant.

The Distance Between the Plants will depend somewhat
on the kinds planted, the manner of pruning and the soil; but the
strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should gener-
ally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, to allow for the growth
of roots and a good circulation of air between the vines. When
the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to in-
crease this distance, but when located in an airy position and on
retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet.

Planting.— The most rapid way of planting is to furrow out
the land both ways and put the vines at the intersection of the fur-
rows. Before planting the tops of the vines should be cut off so as
to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it
will facilitate planting to cut them back to eight or ten inches in
length; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure
the growth of the plant. On light soil it is exceedingly important
to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be
made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about fifteen
inches below the surface. The top loam should be put ai'ound the
roots, but the plants' should not be covered at once more than two
inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. The soil should be

44 THE GRAPE.

gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes
are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe
to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the
right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on
the one-cane system, which is generally practiced by grape growers
in this region, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction
in which they are to be trained on the trellises, this should be in
the direction of the prevailing summer winds.

Cultivation.— Soon after planting the vines should be well
cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be
grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the
vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of a shal-
low plowing early each spring and during the summer. The top
soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultivation. Deep
cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a
vineyard, and it may cause serious injury. If the land is lightly
plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form;
but if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will
get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines.

Pruning and Training are the great bugbears to amateurs
in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar method
has done more than anything else to discourage the growing of this
fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact vines will grow and bear
fruit without any pruning whatever. ' Pruning is done simply to
get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for prac-
tical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are, however,
many systems described in books, and occasionally used in prac-
tice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to un-
derstand. * The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes
are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears
again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the
bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left
on the vine it will bear ten times more
clusters than it can properly develop,
and they will all be small and imperfect.
(4) If ninetenths of the new wood is cut
away leaving only from three to six
buds to each stalk the yield of good
grapes will be much increased. (5) It
is desirable in severe climates to train
the vine so that it can be laid down on
the ground with but little resistance, for
in such locations it is necessary to pro-
tect it each winter. Fig. 3l.— Autumn of first, year.

If these points are borne in mind it JT'''^ ^7'"^'^ "''"^ prepared
^ ,,. ^ for winter.

matters not so very much what system

or whether any system at all is pursued

in pruning. However, it will be found

most convenient to adhere somewhat cleariy to some simple system

THE GRAPE. 45

of pruning. But whatever plan for after-training is adopted the
care of the vine for the first two years should be about the same.

The First Year no support or pruning is needed. The vines
will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as if
tied to stakes, but it will oe more convenient about cultivating if
they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year* all of the vines
should be cut away except three or four buds, as shown in Fig. 31,
which should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches
deep, and later on, before cold weather sets in, apply a covering of
mulch, two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some soi*t.
This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the wintering of
newly transplanted vines.

Trellis.— The following spring a trellis should be built — unless
stakes were set the first year, when they may be used again— and

Fig. 32.— Vine in spring of (he third season.

the work of putting up a trellis be deferred until the opening ol
■ the third year. The form of trellis may vary greatly, but a very
practical and simple kind is made by setting posts twelve feet
apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron,
putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and
those above ten inches apart. The wires should be fastened
securely to one end post, passing through the other end and
through staples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires
free play through them. This method allows the loosening of the
wires in autumn and tightening them in summer.

The Second Year, as soon as the weather is settled, the vine
should be uncovered ; the garden fork being the best tool for this
purpose. Permit only one bud to grow, and that the strongest that
starts. Rub off all the others that show, while they are small.

46 THE GRAPB.

Tie the cane as it grows to the stakes or wires, and if it grows
rapidly pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. In
carrying out some systems two canes are permitted to grow this
year, but the system best adapted to commercial vineyards is prac-
tically as follows: The pruning in the fall of the second year
should consist ift cutting off all the laterals— in other words in cut-
ting off all the side branches close to the main cane. In pruning
the main cane leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made,
but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried
as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient
to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage
take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the
bend to come near the ground. As the vines get older and stiffer
they will be found to bend most easily and safely below ground.

Fig. 33.— Vine in autumn of the third season. Dotted lixes show where
pruning should be done.

Third Season.— The third spring the cane should be tied along
the lower wire (see Fig. 32) . If it has wintered well two shoots
will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four
inches long the weakest should be broken off and only the strongest
ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. In
selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those
coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots
push upwards from the main cane they should be tied to the wires
(see Fig. 33) , and when they have reached the top of the trellis
each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will
check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed
nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further
pinching is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit
are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and

THE GRAPE. 47

some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is
probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is
followed.

If the vine is thrifty it will bear se-'^eral pounds of fruit this
year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the
vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill
the leaves, anl it will not do any harm to bury with some of the
leaves on the vine. In this region the time of pruning is between
the middle of October and tenth of November. Where one has but
few vines it is best to wait until there is danger of the ground
freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is
not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence ear-
lier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extrem-
ity of the main cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the

Fig. Si.— Vme in spring of the fourth season.

next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire
the following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent
main cane (see Fig. 34). The rest of the pruning this fall will con-
sist of cutting back to from three to six buds the other shoots that
have grown from the main cane. Any small side branches that
may remain should be cut off, and the vine when ready to lay down
should resemble Fig. 35, which shows it properly tied to the trellis
the following spring. In pruning do not cut nearer than within
one inch of any bud, to avoid winter killing. Eury as directed.

Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the laterals
that remain on the wain, cane in this and following years after prun-
ing. From these spurs come the new growth and fruit each sea-
son. It is desirable to keep them as short as possible, but with
some varieties it wiU be found difficult to keep them very short;

48

THE GRAPE.

for instance, Moore's Early is a shy bearer, and if pruned very
close will not bear even a fair crop, consequently the spurs on it
must be left longer than on some other kinds that are more prolific.
But careful attention in pruning to save the growth from the low-
est bud on the spur will aid very much in keeping th?m within
bounds. (See Fig. 31.)

These spurs should be about ten inches apart on the main cane.
If in after years some of them are lost, or they become too long, a
new main cane may be introduced by encouraging the growth of a
new shoot or by renewing the main cane with a shoot from a spur
near the ground, after which, when well started, the main cane
may be cut away. However, there are vineyards in the hands of
careful cultivators that have grown large crops for many years, on
which none of the spurs are lost, neither are they long enough to be
at all troublesome, and yet the main cane has never been renewed.

I

'\i\

1

-\

I

1

/ ;

' \

k

)^

/

^1

_i

^

J

Iz

^

"■""fchniHiiWL..

Fig. Zr>. — Vine in autumn of the fourth season. Doited lines show wliert
pruning skouLd be done.

Fourth Season. — Tie the vine to the lower wire in the spring
as directed, when it should appear much as in Fig. 34. Permit
only one shoot to grow from each bud on the spurs. These should
be pinched once when they have reached the top wire, and after
that allowed to grow freely. This autumn, and subsequently,
when pruned the vine will consist of a main cane extending along
the lower wire of the trellis to the next vine. It will have spurs
on it of three or more buds each, standing some eight or ten inches
apart, as shown in Fig. 36. Under this system if the canes are not
pinched in summer the fruit buds will be formed high up on the
laterals and consequently the spurs will have to be left very long
in order to have any fruit, while if pinched, the fruit buds will be
formed nearer the main cane, and the spurs can be kept short. It

THE GRAPE

has frequently happened that inexperienced persons failed to get
much fruit on their vines because in pruning they had cut away all
the fruit bearing wood. However, this pinching should never take
off more than the tip of the cane.

Removing Foliage. -Under no circumstances should any
considerable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing.
The notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at
iauit. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the
leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both
lungs and stomach to the plant, and anything thdt injures them
prevents the ripening of the fruit.

An Easy System of Pruning, and also one that is well
adapted to practical purposes, may be described as follows: Plant

Fig. m.— Permanent vine in autumn of fijlf^ <f»^l subKcqui-ni years.
Dotted Lines show where pruning should be done.

the vines twelve feet apart in the rows. The second year permit
two shoots to grow, and in pruning in the autumn of this year cut
out the weak wood only. The third year tie one cane to the lower
wire and the other to the third wire. Encourage the vine to spread
over the trellis, and in prunine: leave perhaps one-third of the new
wood. In after years retain enough young thrifty wood to fully
cover the trellis, which will be a.l that the roots can properly sup-
port, and cut out as much old and weak wood as practicable, and
shorten any very long canes. This will require the cutting out of
perhaps four-fifths the new wood each year. As the vine gets old
encourage the growth of one or two young shoots from near the
root. When the main cane oecomes so stiff that it cannot be easily
buried in winter it may be replaced with one of these shoots from
near the root, or what is generally preferred, the stiff part of the
main cane may be buried permanently and some of the younger

50 THE GRAPE.

wood, branches from the main cane, may be trained to form a new
main cane. The main cane so laid down will become rooted and
thus strengthen the new vine formed from one of its branches.
Under this system no summer pinching is necessary. After the
vines have been trained in this way for eight, ten, or more years,
there should be many flexible main
canes, and as they get old and too stiff
to bend easily they should either be cut
out and replaced by some young bear-
ing shoot or layered as recommended.
Trained in this way a vineyard does not
look as symmetrical and pretty as when
grown on some more regular plan, but
it will produce as much fruit as any
system. A little experience will soon
show the beginner the amount of wood
to leave each year. Vines may be grown
on this system for covering high arbors,
trees, the sides of buildings or other Fig S7.—A Spur. The dotted

objects. In fact it is better adapted to ^.''''' '^''''l^.'.'d'Zil^'^^'^^'

^, , . , , , mg should be done.

a rather high than to a low support.

Training vines against buildings or walls is a good
plan, and such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and
protect from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern ex-
posure is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be
about one foot away from the wall or building. In such locations
it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise
they would be a failure. It is doubtful if there is a habitable sec-
tion of northwestern United States where fairly good grapes will
not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every
farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The soil
close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can easily
be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind substituted.
And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for many other
crops is just what is needed for the grape. There are cases where
in such locations single vines have borne several hundred pounds
of grapes in one season.

Pruning Neglected Vines.— When vines have been neg-
lected for several years it is often a difficult matter for the begin-
ner to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on
this account allowed to go un pruned and unproductive. Some-
times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting away
nine-•^enths of the wood and then carefully thinning out and pinch-
ing the young growth that may start. At other times again it may
be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of the ground. If
\ih.is is done at the proper season for pruning several sprouts will
start from near the root, but only one, or at most two, should be
saved. These sprouts should be trained the same as a newly
planted vine, except that in one season they will make a vine large

THE GRAPE.

51

enough to bear a good crop of fruit the following year. By either
method only one fruiting season is lost, but as a rule the greatest
success attends the latter method.

Time of Pruning.— The best time to prune the grape is late
in the fall or very early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid
on the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in autumn,
as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down process. If
for any reason the vines have not been pruned until the buds have
started, it is far better to do it then than not at all. The so-called
"bl*=eding" of vines does not appear to seriously injure them,
though pruning when the sap will run from the cut surfaces is a
bad plan.

Fig. 3714.— J./2, old grape vine pruned on the one-cane, spur renewal system
as recommended. From a photograph.

Thinning th«3 Frnlt.— Under almost any system of pruning
some varieties will set more fruit than they can properly mature.
Where this is the case the poorest bunches should be cut away as
soon as the berries are well formed. As a rule, the improved ap-
pearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of this
thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one.

Manures.— Ordinarily the new soils of the northwestern
states contain an abundance of plant food. Grapes do not require
much manure, and the best kinds for them are those which have
but a small amount of organic matter, such as wood ashes. Yet on
gravelly or sandy lands they may be much benefited by the liberal
use of stable manure. Never apply manure so long as the vines
are making a saLisfactory growth without it. A very rapid, long
growth is not nearly as desirable as that which is well matured
and moderate in quantity.

53 THE GRAPE.

Bagging Grapes.— In sections of the country where blacl:
rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the
g'rapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occasion-
ally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But in grow-
ing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is wanted, it
will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for labor and ma-
terial need not exceed a half cent per pound. The bagged grapes
have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, are free from dust,
and spiders' webs, and are not so liable to be caught by the first
autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen more evenly when
bagged.

Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size of
small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For this
purpose ordinary one-pound manilla paper bags should be used,
such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They should be
cut down about two inches on each side, and a small hole made
in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, to let out
any water that might collect in them. They are then ready for
use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the branch, and
securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be left on until
picking time, when the bag and bunch may be taken off together.
If the fruit is to be stored it will be found that the fruit will
keep longer in the bags than without them. Generally the bags
remain on the whole season without trouble, and some growers use
the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags made especially for
this purpose will last about four years. In France a wire bag is
used to some extent for this purpose.

Keeping Grapes.— The keeping qualities of grapes varies
much with the different kinds ; some varieties will hardly keep a
week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for two or
three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold cellar is
a very good place to keep them. The bunches should first be re-
lieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid one tier deep
on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may circulate freely
among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry when put ia the
cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed for use some ice may
be put in it in a tub and the windows kept shut in the day time and
opened at night. If the grapes are packed in dry saw dust or cork
bark they will keep even better than on trays. Where cold storage
is accessible they may be packed in baskets before being stored,
but in any case great care should be taken to remove any injured
berries, or they will rot and spoil those near them.

Girdling the Grape to advance the period of ripening is
practiced to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of
opinion regarding the ultimate effect of the operation on the health
and vigor of the vine. It seems, however, to be pretty generally
conceded that it can be done to a limited extent without serious, if
any injury. That it generally advances the period of ripening
from seven to ten days, and that the fruit from girdled vines is

THE GRAPE.

53

considerably larger than from vines not girdled and of just as good
quality. But on the other hand, some very careful experiments
made by Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Pitchburg, Mass., seem, in his words,
to show that "whenever a grape will ripen fairly well by na^ui-al
processes girdling is a complete draft upon the future withour.
prospect of means to pay it through the gains of the present " The
operation consists in taking out a ring of bark one- fourth inch or
more in width, at any time during the growing season, but gener-
ally soon after the berries are weU set. For this purpose a special
tool is often used, which makes two cuts and takes out the bark
with one movement (Fig. 38). If the whole vine is girdled at the

Fig. 38.
Girdling knife,
made of two
thin steei
blades icith
cleaner at a.

--•:rry

Fig. 39— Girdled
Cane. A, ivherermg
of bark has been re-
moved. B and E,
where the vine is to
be pru'U'd in the
fall, thus cufting
offthegird'ed wood
entirely C and D.
growth fr'nn re-
mainingnuds infol-
lowing year, nthen
D should be girdled

surface of the ground it will soon show great weakness, so when
practiced at all it should be done by girdling the lateral canes ;
those that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned
(Fig. 39). In sections where early autumn frosts are common it is
frequently desirable to try this method of advancing the period of
ripening.

Diseases.— There are many diseases which may at times
attack the grape, but only two are commonly met with in the
northwestern states, where on account of the dryness of the air
there is less trouble from fungus diseases than where the climate
is more humid.

54 THE GRAPE.

Downy Mildew {roroiiO'<pora viticola). This fungus may at-
tack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same time.
When it attacks the foliage it first appears as greenish-yellow or
brownish irregular spots on the upper surface, with corresponding
spots of whitish frost-like mildew on the under side. The effect of
this is to cause the leaves to dry up and fall off, frequently when
the fruit is quite green, which consequently does not ripen.
But besides the loss of the fruit from this disease the wood is often
left in a very im. mature state, and the whole plant so seriously
weakened that it will not produce a full crop of fruit for several
years. It frequently acts in this manner on the Delaware, while it
seldom injures the fruit of that variety. On other varieties the
fruit is more susceptible than the foliage, and it produces brown
rot of the berries, which may cause severe losses some seasons. In
this case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a pur-

FiG. 40. Fig. 41.

Berries affected with hroivn. rot. Berries affected with black rot.

plish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is
covered with a white mould, and in a short time the whole fruit
turns brown, and later on becomes soft and wrinkled. Figure 40
shows a cluster of mouldy berries.

Black Rot affects the fruit which it seldom attacks until the
berries are two-thirds grown; these shortly dry up, turn black,
and remain hard and dry on the vines, often until the following
spring. Each dried berry is covered with minute postules. This
disease is only occasionally injurious in the northwestern states.

Preventives.— There are no remedies for either of these dis-
eases, for after the fungus finds a lodgment in the tissues of the
plant we are powerless to destroy it without injuring the plant
itself. Consequently every effort should be used to keep the fun-
gus from getting a hold on the plant. It has been found that where
the vines are closely shut in, so that there is but little circulation
of air and the water does not quickly dry off the foliage, or where

THE GKA-rE.

5.1

the soil is wet and cold, that the vines are very liable to become
diseased. On this account where a vineyard is sii Dject to these
troubles the first thing to do is to remedy, so far as is practicable,
anything that obstructs free circulation of air through it. If the
land is moist and cold it should be undcrdrained. For brown and
black rot of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found
quite effective. But after these things are done disease may gain
a foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties in warm, wet
seasons. Some varieties are almost uniformly healthy in good
locations, while others are very susceptible to disease. Yet these
latter are often the most profitable kinds to grow for marketing
purposes. To grow these successfully recourse must be had to
treatment with fungicides, and the following is probably the best
method of procedure, and if carefully followed the expense of the
operation and the loss from disease will be very slight.

Use of Fungicides.— As soon as the fruit has set spray the
vines thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, made as recommend :.d
in chapter on strawberries. Repeat the spraying once in two
weeks until the grapes begin to color, using Bordeaux mixture un-
til August 1st, and after that date the ammoniacal solution of car-
bonate of copper, made as recommended below. Bordeaux mix-
ture should never be used after August 1st, or it may adhere to the
grapes when they are ripe and make them unsalable. The carbon-
ate of copper mixture has sometimes been successfully used alone
without the Bordeaux mixture, but the latter is most desirable be-
cause it stays on the vine even in very rainy weather, when the
former would be washed off.

For applying these mixtures a knapsack sprayer and a nozzle
that makes a fine spray should be used. There are now many good
patterns of these offered by different companies at reasonable
prices. Of course a common syringe with a rose nozzle could be
used for this purpose, but it will be found to waste a great deal cf
the material on the ground and put more on the plant than there is
any need of. Carefully conducted experiments show that when
these insecticides are applied as directed there need be no fear
that injury will result from the small amount of copper that is put
on the fruit. Almost without exception the copper is all washed
off the fruit before it is ripe. In extreme cases where Bordeaux
mixture remains on the fruit it can all be taken off without even
injuring the bloom by dipping the fruit into water sliarhtly acidu-
lated with vinegar. The fruit does not absorb any of the copper.

Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper is made by dissolving-
one and one-half ounces of precipitated carbonate of copper in one
quart of commercial ammonia. Then add this solution to twenty-
five gallons of water. The ammonia should be kept tightly corked
in a glass or earthen vessel. The solution should be added to the
water immediately before spraying, otherwise some of the am-
monia may be lost by evaporation.

56 THE GRAPE.

Insects.— The grape is generally quite free from insects in
this section, but the two following named species are occasionally
troublesome, besides which there are several others that may
cause damage in the future, but as at present they are not numer-
ous enough to do much harm they are not referred to here.

Grape Vine Flea Beetle {Graptodcra chahjbea) is the name
of a small, dark colored beetle that is most injurious from its habit
of gnawing out the buds from the canes in early spring before
vegetation has started. Later in the season it feeds upon the
leaves on which the female lays her small orange-colored eggs in
the last of May or first of June. The young larvae riddle the leaf
with holes, or if very numerous eat all except the largest ribs, but
they or the beetles seldom cause serious trouble after the vine is
in leaf.

Remedy.— The beetle may be jarred from the vines by a sud-
den shake, therefore by putting a piece, of cotton cloth, saturated
with kerosene, on the ground under and on each side of the vine
before it is jarred the beetles ai-e destroyed. They have only to
touch the kerosene-covered cloth and they are almost instantly
killed. Care should be taken that the pieces of cloth are together
around the base of the vine. A warm, bright afternoon is the
proper time to do this work, and it should be very faithfully per-
formed every day until the vines are out of danger. By two per-
sons working together, one on each side of a row of vines, eacll
with a piece of cloth, the work can be done very rapidly.

The Eight Spotted Forester (Alypia octornaculata) is the
name given to a blueish looking caterpillar that sometimes is quite
destructive to grape vines and the Virginia creeper by eating the
foliage. It may be kept in check by hand picking where there is
only a limited number, but when very abundant recourse must be
had to the poisoning of the foliage with arsenites.

Varieties.— For home use the hardy, healthy, productive
kinds that do not require much special culture, should always be
given the preference; while for marketing varieties those that
need special culture may sometimes be most profitable. The fol-
lowing list includes the best of the varieties that have been well
tested, yet there are many others that produce well, and in favored
locations may even be superior to some of those mentioned. For
the ordinary family a dozen vines are a great plenty, and three or
four that are well managed may give far more fruit than a dozen
that are neglected.

Brighton.— A superb red grape of finest quality, of strong
growth and productive. It gives quite general satisfaction, but in
poor location* frequently fails to ripen evenly. Its flowers have
reflexed stamens and it should be planted near perfect flowering
kinds.

Concord.— Where it will ripen it is the most productive and
satisfactory grape grown. Of good quality, vigorous, hardy and
healthy. In unfavorable locations in this section it often fails to
ripen. Black grape.

THE GRAPE. 57

Cottage.— A vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive black grape
of very good quality. Very early, and on account of this and its
quality it should be generally planted in the home garden. It is
rather undesirable for marketing on account of the berries easily
separating from the stem soon after being ripe.

Delaware.— A small, red grape of extra good quality. Gener-
ally more popular than other kinds with commercial growers, but
it is quite liable to mildew in some seasons, and on this account
should be avoided except by those who have extra good locations,
or who will give it extra good care.

Hartford.- A well known early black variety of fair quality.
Very productive and hardy.

Janesville.— Very vigorous, healthy, hardy and productive
berry, black, rather acid, of medium size in a very compact cluster.
It colors very early. This is the most desirable kinds for very
severe locations.

LiNDLEY.— Like the Brighton, deficient in pollen, but quite
productive when grown near other kinds. Of extra quality and
one of the best keeping kinds ; with ordinary care it will keep until
January

Ladt. —An early white grape of excellent quality ; hardy and
healthy. Not very productive.

Moore's Early.- The earliest grape of extra good quality.
Vme hardy, vigorous, healthy, but not very productive. Berries
very large and black with a heavy bloom. It requires rich soil
and high cultivation for best results.

PocKLiNGTON.— A little later in ripening than Concord, and is
among white grapes what that variety is among black kinds, the
most productive and satisfactory where it can be ripened. Hardy,
healthy and productive. Only adapted to best locations.

WoRDEN.— A magnificent black grape of better quality and ten
days earlier than Concord. Hardy, productive and healthy. For
general planting to be preferred to Concord. It should be in every
collection. Occasionally it drops badly from the stem. It brings
the highest price where well known.

Green Mountain is a new grape that is promising for home
use on account of its being very early and of extra quality. Berries
small and greenish-white in color. They seem inclined, however,
to drop easily from the bunch.

Moore's Diamond.— A very promising new white grape of
good quality, ripening from four to eight days before the Concord.
Very hardy and productive.

List of Varieties Recommended.— i'br very severe locations:
Janesville, Ives, Hartford.

For fairhj good locations: Janesville, Hartford, Cottage, Wor-
den. Lady, Brighton, Moore's Early.

For extra good localioyis: Concord, Delaware, Worden, Lady,
Cottage, Pocklington, Lindley, Moore's Early.

CHAPTER r.

THE CRANBERRY.

^/jt'RANBERRY (Vaccinium macrocwpon.) This is the low trail-
%J^ ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states.
The form and habit is well illustrated in fi^^ure 42. The so called
high bush cranberry is a shrub and is much more widely distrib-
uted than this. The
latter has one flat seed
in each fruit, while the
former is a many seed-
ed berry. This plant
is not adapted to gen-
eral cultivation, and
seldom if ever does well
on the prairies of the
West. It may be laid
down as a general ru.e
that it cannot be suc-
cessfully cultivated ex-
cept on the granitic
soils of the northern
states, and that it will
be a failure on the lime-
stone drift soils, such
as are common to the
prairies of Minnesota,
Iowa and the Dakotas.
In Wisconsin and east-
ern and northern Min-
nesota it is often very
productive, either wild
or cultivated, and is an
article of much impor-
tance in the markets of
those sections each
year. Where this fruit
58

Fig. 42 —Crnnhfi,rry 'plant avdfndf.
One-half natural size.

THE CRANBERRY. »w.

can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be
grown.

Best Location for Cranberry Beds.— In a wild state this
plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is
within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather indif-
ferent about the soil, sometimes growing on sand and then on peat
mud or moss. As a rule the best locations are low meadow lands
sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat
sheltered but shaded. On uplands it has been successfully culti-
vated, but in such situations it is generally unprofitable and fre-
quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the
soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied
with water, and yet the land must be so drained that the water
can at will be drawn off to at least ten inches below the surface.
The best cranberry bogs are so arranged that both the flowage and
drainage can be controlled at will. Land that has been covered
with stagnant water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not
fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and ex-
posed to the air for a year or more.

Soil Adapted to It.— Wherever the cranberry is growing
naturally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its
culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed proper
location it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of the most
favorable portion of it as an experiment before spending much
time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile.
With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of
the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit is assured for almost
every year, if the work of preparation is properly done. Yet there
are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profit-
able crops for many years where the flowage has not been con-
trolled, and hence if that factor cannot be directed at will is not
necessarily a sufficient reason why an attempt should not be made
to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small
cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be
greatly increased by a little judicious expenditure.

Preparation of the Land.— The first steps should be di-
rected to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The
proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and
condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by flooding the
land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fiiilowing,
and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog,
with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But in some way
the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made
level, and tine and perfect as a garden. If it is to be flowed it
should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water
for flowage than if uneven. This matter is especially important
where the water supply is limited.

Supplying Sand.— It is of great advantage to have the sur-
face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and

60 THE CRANBERRY.

this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand
used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from
clay or loam, as anything that encourages the taking of the surface
of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good place for the
plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it
conduces to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat
beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used
without sand the surface should be exposed to frost one year
before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one sea-
son's frost it becomes loose and fine.

Drainage and Plowage.— The method of securing these
conditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The
drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open ditch
four or more feet wide through the center of the land ; a smaller
ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided
into beds by lateral ditches, about five rods apart. Where springs
are met with they must be connected with a ditch.

Importance of Water.— The flowage may sometimes be
controlled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek
running through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to
secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons :
(1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in
periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and
occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up, destroying
all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except
by flooding. (2) The water kept over the plants in the spring will
serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and
will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that
are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously
injured by insects. (4) Beds do best when protected by a water
covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously
injuried.

Where there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to
finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where
there is not more than two or three feet of fall one dam is quite
suflQcient. Dams should be made strong and have sluice ways
large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them.

About Flowing.— All that is required in flowing a bog is
sufficient water to cover the vines ; they should be covered about
the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered
during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not
hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they
are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the
ground, is where the great danger lies. To avoid this the sluice-
ways should be kept sufficiently open to allow any surplus water
to pass off.

The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines
until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in condi-
tion to bear, the water should be kept on until the last of May or

THE CRANBERRY.

61

first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent in-
jury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm,
which are the worst foes of the cranberry. If the fruit is covered
with water in warm weather it is very liable to be ruined, but the
vines are uninjured by such ilowage. Throughout the growing
season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface
of the bed.

Plants and Planting.— In selecting plants great care should
be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren.
There are very many named kinds, and they vary greatly in size,
growth, time of ripening and pro-
ductiveness, but it is doubtful if any
of the named kinds, the most of
which have originated in the East,
are adapted to the climate of this
section, and it is probably bet'er for
the present to depend on getting
plants from the most fruitful wild
cultivated beds near at hand. The
kind most esteemed at the East is
called the Early Black. It is very
early and productive, though not a
vigorous grower.

The cranberry plant grows very
readily from cuttings, and on this ac-
count slovenly growers sometimes
cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow
the pieces broadcast and harrow
them in, but that method of planting
is not advisable. The most common
way is to make cuttings of the
younger parts of the vines about ten
inches long, and plant three or four
together, as shown in Fig. 43, but
sometimes longer cuttings are used
which are doubled when planted.
The cuttings may be carried over a
whole season with good success, if
they are kept covered with running water, but in stagnant water
they would be likely to spoil. On this account they may be set at
almost any season of the year if the flowage is controlled, but the
spring of the year is generally preferred, and if there is no chance
to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant.

Before planting is commenced the bed should be marked off
each way at eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a wooden dibber
is used having an incurved or reversed wedge-shaped point, with
which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into con-
tact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first making
a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the

Fig. 43 —Showing method of
■planting cranberry cuttings.

g^ THE CRAXBERKT.

cuttings are planted the vratcr should be raised in the trenches
sufficiently to keep the surface land a litt'e moist to encourage the
rooting of the cuttings. The after cultivation consists in keeping
the soil moist and giving clean cultivation.

Picking.— If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine
they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there
is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked
as soon as they commence to color, though when picked thus early
they will seldom keep well after the middle of January. If severe-
ly frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a
'^white frost." Picking is generally done by hand, though some
few growers "rake" them off the vines. The berries keep well in
a dry, cool place, but they are more easily kept if covered witl
water.

CHAPTER VL

DWARF JUNEBERRY.

*JpJWARF JUNEBERRY \(Ame.lancMer Cmiadensis, variety obLng-
^^ ifolia.) This is also called shad bush and service berry.
There are several so-called varieties of it found in the north-
ern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is better known
in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as
to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter

Fig.

U.— Foliage a7ul fruit of Dwarf Juneberry, about one-half
natural size. A, Fruit natural size.

63

64 THE DWARF JUNEBERRT,

form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the
selected kinds of it that are cultivated for fruit,. It generally
grov-s from four to six feet high ; is covered with a profusion of
white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with
the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly
one-half inch in diameter. Figure 44 shows its size and form.
Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather
tame, but by the addition of a little lemon juice it makes an excel-
lent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and
abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit
must be protected from the birds or they will take it as fast as it
ripens. Mosquito netting, or the coarse wire netting— such as is
used for chicken yards — is useful for this purpose. When grown
on a large scale the depredation of the birds is not so apparent.
The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by
our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from insect
pests. On account of its many good qualities it should find a place
in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near
market at a profit.

Fig. 45.— Full size flowers of Dwarf Janeberry.

Propagation and Cultivation.— The plants are readily in-
creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around
the old plants. These should be set out at about four foot intervals
in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They commence to bear in
two years, but will not produce a full crop until the fourth year.

THE DWARF JUNBBERRr. P>5

They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be
mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning,
though the suckers should be thinned out if they become abundant.

Varieties. — There are but few varieties of this fruit offered
by nurserymen, and these are the result of selections made from
plants gro.wing in the wild state. They are, however, much super-
ior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly
found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by
cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings new
varieties much superior to those now known will be originated.
The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their
fruit. The varieties that have been grown long enough to give
them a fair trial are as follows :

Success.— This probably originated in Kansas. It is productive
of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit,
with pendulous fruit clusters. Earlier than the others mentioned,
ripening about with the early currants. Probably as good as any
if not the best for general cultivation.

Chester Center and Alpiyia are strong growing kinds of decided
merit. They are rather close and erect in habit, and may attain a
heighth of seven or eight feet ; very productive ; fruit reddish pur-
ple ; fruit clusters more erect than in Success ; season a little later
than that variety.

Osaae.— Resembles the Success in habit but is not so produc-
tive, and is the latest of the kinds mentioned.

Aside from its fruit producing qualities the Dwarf Juneberries
make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when
covered with their profusion of graceful white flowers, which
appear esrly in the spring. See Fig. 45.

CHAPTER Vn.

SAND CHERRY.

AND CHERRY (Primus pumila). This fruit plant is found
in Northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas,
and elsewhere. It is especially fruitful even in the most
severe situations. It frequently fruits prodigiously in dry, gravelly
embankments where scarce any other plant can find existence. In
fact it seems to be better adapted to a very dry than to a moist
location. In my experience with it plants from rich, moist land
have flowered profusely but have failed to set much fruit. It

Fig. i^— Foliage and fruit of Sand Cherry. A, Fruit naturu' .si;
66

THE SAND CHERRY. 67

seems quite probable that where the rainfall is light this plant will
do well on rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is
best adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly
on the sandy land of Northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land
of the Dakotas. See Fig. 46.

Description.— Some plants will reach a heighth of four feet
and spread five feet on the ground, while others will scarce attain
to half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but
varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It
is generally of a reddish— almost black — color when ripe. The ripe
fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five-eighths of an
inch in diameter. In some the pit is small, while in others it is
very large. The quality is generally too astringent to be relished
uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants,
some being fairly palatable. When cooked its astringency disap-
pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abund-
antly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which is said to be
very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit plant, but a clean,
strong growing shrub, and well adapted to severe locations on the
lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part of July and first of
August. It seems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and
perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it.

Propagation. — It grows freely from seed, which should be
sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings
vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways.
They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the
wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants
may be increased by layers, suckers and from root cuttings, and by
budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The
easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the
plants but eight inches away from the main stem sometime when
the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form
new plants. If the roots are cut into pieces about six inches long,
and these treated like willow cuttings they will grow nearly as
readily. When budded on the plum peculiar looking, interesting
trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. The plum may also be
worked on the sand cherry and it forms a good union, but the roots
are so very flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the
union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely
on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymen, there
having been no named kinds introduced.

A form of this called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry has
recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been sufficiently
tried to warrant conclusions as to its value here. It is, however,
extremely doubtful if it is any better than the best of our native
kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry somewhat resembles this but has
a more erect habit. A quite limited experience seems to show it is
much inferior to our best native kinds.

CHAPTER VIIL

BULLBERRY, OR BUFFALOBERRY.

^ULLBERRY, or BUFFALO-BERRY (ShepJierdia argentea).
,^^ This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and
coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though
but sparingly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and cen-
tral states, yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the
northern states. (Fig. 47.)

Fig. 47.— Foliage and fruit of Buffalo-berry; oce-half natural size.
A, Fruit natural size.

Description.— A small tree or shrub with light colored foli-
age and young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit
are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on
very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistillate
and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have
both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flowers appear

THE BUFFALO BBRRT.

69

very early in the spring before the leaves, and are small and in-
conspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abundance— often so
thickly as to conceal the branches on which it grows,— and when

ripe gives a scarlet
appearance to the
whole plant. Occa-
sional plants have
yellow fruit. It is
about the size of red
currants, and con-
tains one oval, quite
large seed. The
quality is very good,
even of the best. It
makes a fine jelly,
but on account of
the large seeds it is
not so desirable for
a sauce as red cur-
rants, and it is
doubtful if it will
ever be popular for
fruit where the red
currant is product-
ive and reliable; but it is an elegant ornamental shrub, and it will
probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. (Fig. 48.)

Propagation.— This plant suckers readily if the roots are
cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readily
if not allowed to dry and is winter covered wi^h earth and sown in
the spring. An eas.v way to winter it is to cover the seed on the
surface of the is;round wit^ an inverted sod.

Fig 4S—Floivers of Baffa^o-herty.
flowers; (b) Siaminate flowers,
size.

(n) Pistillate
About natural

CHAPTER IX.

RUSSIAN MULBERRY

g|f RUSSIAN MULBERRY (M'orus Tartanctc). The mulberries
^y commonly grown in the eastern and central states are not
hardy in this section, but that introduced .from Russia under
the above name is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The
Menonites of Nebraska were the first to intrudace It into this coun-
try, and they grew it from impor! ed seed. It makes a small tree,
but is much better
adapted to being
grown in the form
of a hedge or wind-
break. In this form
it will often attain
the height of twenty
feet and become
very close and pret-
ty if given an occa-
sional pruning. It
is of very rapid
growth. (Fig. 40 )

Hardiness.— It
is very hardy in
Southern Minnesota
and Southern Dako-
ta, and even north
to the latitude of St
Paul it stands fairly
well. Occasionally
in very severe win-
ters it will lose a
part of its nev/
growth, but it quick-
ly outgrows any in-
jury and it is less liable to winter-kiii when old than when young
70

Fig
a.'>d
size

Russian iMntherry, s/iowi/w
Jruu, rednctd about one half jialufal
(a), Fruit natural size

RUSSIAN MrLBERRY. 71

Its Fruit.— With very few exceptions all the trees of this now
growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as
with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces
fruit of value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others
are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some
trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and
occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies
nearly as much as the size of the berries; some being insipid and
even unpleasant, while others are sweet and agreeable, but like a'.l
mulberries, they lack high quality. They are quite soft when ripe
and quickly fall to the ground, which should be kept smooth so
that they may be readily gathered. It is at its best just as it falls
from the tree. It generally commences to ripen just before the
first currants, and continues ripening for a week or more. It gen-
erally resembles the blackberry In appearance, but the fruit of
some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel-
dom, if ever, as good eating as the black. The age at which plants
commence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six
years old they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they
grow older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it prob-
ably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden.
Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit
alone to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this
purpose something should be added to it for flavor.

Propagation.— The seed grows readily if sown as soon as
ripe. For this purpose the berries may be crushed in dry sand
and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In
two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the permanent
location, but these vary much in their productiveness, and while
for a wind-break they many answer as well as any, yet when
plants are wanted for fruit they should be grown from cuttings or
layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. For
this purpose the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve
inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land,
with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches
root easily wnen layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the
sprouis until they root they make good plants.

Varieties.— There are no named kinds offered by nurserymen,
and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. However, if
any large wind-break is locked over in the fruiting season one or
more trees can generally be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional
value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two
kinds; someiimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female)
are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex.
On this account some care is necessary in selecting a variety to get
one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind
near a tree having staminate flowers.

CHAPTER X.

THE APPLE.

J^HE APPLE is a native of Northern Europe and Asia. Its
,^5 botanical name is Fyrus mains. The crab-apples have de-
scended from the wild Fyrus baccata of Siberia. These two
species readily hybridize, and there are quite a number of varieties
of the apple in cultivation that show the characteristics of both
species. The American native crab-apple {Pyrus coronaria), so
abundant in some sections, seems to be poorly adapted to cultiva-
tion. It often blights badly in its wild state, and when exposed in
the orchard is not nearly as hardy as the hardier kinds of culti-
vated crab-apples. There is, however, one variety (the Soulard)
belonging to this species, that is cultivated to some extent.

This is the most ancient and also the most highly esteemed and
valuable of cultivated fruits. It reaches its highest development
in tree and fruit in cold climates, yet in extremely cold situations
it seems to be somewhat beyond its limit and to require special
care to make it profitable. Many of the failures which have
attended the planting of apple trees in the northwestern states
need not be repeated if the subject is given careful study before
new plantings are put out. It is far better that one should be en-
tirely ignorant of the subject, but come to it with a desire and in-
tention to learn every detail, than that he should undertake it with
the belief that his experience in Eastern orchard methods and vari-
eties is sufficient to guide him in similar work here. The methods
and varieties adapted to Eastern and Southern orchards do not
hold well here, and the following out of such methods, and the use
of such varieties as are used there, has generally led to failure and
discouragement, and to the often heard remark that "apples can-
not be successfully grown here."

Among those who have given this matter the most careful
attention there is a well grounded belief that this section will
eventually raise all the apples that can be used within its borders,
and that too of varieties adapted to every season. The season of
1892 saw the markets here abundadtly supplied with the Duchess
of Oldenburgh apple, and many car-loads of it were shij)ped to
72

THE APPLE. T6

adjoining states. The large crop in that year resulted from its
being a favorable season, and also from the fact that after the
severe seasons of some ten years previous, which proved the great
value of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, it was largely planted, and
these plantings had just commenced to come into heavy bearing
condition in 1892. There is every reason to believe that several
other varieties will prove even more widely adapted to general cul-
tivation here than the Duchess of Oldenburgh.

In this section apple trees are not so long lived as in a some-
what milder climate, but they come into bearing much earlier and
are very productive. The profits from properly planted orchards
here are far in excess of those realized from Eastern orchards, and
orcharding in some parts of this section offers a good field for prof-
itable investment. The reason for this is found largely in the
superior quality, higher color and generally brighter appearance of
our fruit, and the proximity to good markets, together with the
fact that our summer and autumn varieties do not come into mar-
ket until the great rush of early Southern shipments has ceased
and the winter kinds have not commenced to come in.

Locations Especially Adapted to Orcharding.— While
apples will undoubtedly be grown in the near future to some ex-
tent over the whole of this section, yet at present the facts will
only warrant their being planted on a commercial scale, in favor-
able locations south of the latitude of St. Paul, and in other loca^
tions where the climate may be much equalized by bodies of water
and other modifying conditions. There are many excellent loca-
tions for orchards on the high rolling land and admirable soils in
this section.

Location of the Apple Orchard.— The best location for
an apple orchard is on high northern slopes, tipping down to the
northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, providing it does
not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred
because it is least affected by drouth, by sudden changes in temper-
ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the
south. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are
located on southern slopes. It is important to plant apple trees on
the highest land available. If the elevation is not more than ten
feet above the general level of the adjacent land it is a great ad-
vantage in furnishing air, drainage, equalizing the temperature in
summer and lessening the danger from frost in the blossoming
period.

. The Worst Location for an Orchard is what is called a
warm, sheltered spot, where the sun has free access and the winds
are entirely shut off. Into such ajplace the cold air from surround-
ing higher elevations settles];^at night, and while it is the hottest
place during the day, it is the coldest at night. Blight and winter
killing are apt to be abundant in such places. In some sections,—
most generally those protected by water, forests or wooded hills—
but little if any difference is to be noticed in the growth and pro-

74 THE APPLE.

ductiveness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed
places this difference is very marked.

Wind-breaks.~A free circulation of air is very desirable in
an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting in too closely,
yet in a full exposure is rot found the best condition for a success-
ful orchard. It should be surrounded with wind-breaks on the ex-
posed sides, sufficient to somewhat break the force of the wind,
but not heavy enough to prevent a good circulation of air through
the orchard at any time. It is much |more important to have a
wind-break on the southland west sides of an'orchard, than on the
north or east, for it is from the former directions that come ihe
most injurious winds.

The Land Best Adapted to the Growth of Apples in
this section is what might be called a deep, open, clayey loam,
that is well drained, either naturally or artificially, and does not
suffer severely from drouth or excess of water. But the apple
may be grown successfully on almost any soil, even on that which
is dry and gravelly ; but the orchard requires more careful manage-
ment in severe situations than in those that are favorable.

The land must be retentive and rich in plant food, for it is im-
possible to raise good fruit on poor soil. Sufficient moisture can
generally be secured by heavy mulching, and the newer soils of
this section are generally rich enough for apples without manur-
ing; indeed, heavy, black prairie loam is generally so rich in plant
food that it stimulates in most varieties of apples a late growth,
especially when the autumn is warm and moist, and only the
hardiest kinds, isuch as do net make a late growth in autumn,
should be planted in such locations.

If the sub-soil is such very hard clay that the roots can scarce-
ly penetrate, if at all, very deep plowing should be resorted to ;
but as this cannot go deep enough to give the roots much of a
chance in very hard, dry clays, the holes should be dug very deep.
A better way than digging holes into such hard pan is to explode a
medium charge of dynamite in it, which will so loosen it that
the roots can penetrate. In some locations such treatment will
make all the difference between success and failure.

Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with
plenty of strong roots (Fig. 50). It is really of little importance
as to the size or form of the top of a tree, providing it has good
roots, and is healthy and free from blemishes ; for if vigorous the
form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are those
not over four years old, that have made moderate and not a rapid
growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most varieties,
are generally the best to set. Two-year-old trees do very well,
and are often as good as any. Those one year old are too small to
conveniently cultivate around in the field, and are better off in the
nursery for another year.

Seedlings.— Apple seed grows readily and generally forms
plants about twelvej inches high, with a tap-root of about the

THE APPLE. <0

same length, the first season. The seed does not re-produce in
quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling
in a thousand would be as good as any of the better cultivated
kinds. Seedlings, however, are raised in large quantities, to be
used in grafting, to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is
generally obtaiced by washing out the pomace from cider mills.
The seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated
from it by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry,
and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in the fall s hort-
ly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and keep it buried
in the ground until spring. If the seed gets very dry it often fails

I'IG. 50.~(A) Tree rcifh very poor roots, which were s])oiled by being cut ojff
too short in digging. A coinmonforin.

(B) A well rooteil tree with <ill the root^ coming f mm, the scion. The origi-
nal root in which the scion was set has been broken off. An uncommon
form.

( C) A xvell rooted tree with fibrous roots. Such roots grow well if carefully
spread out when planted. An uncommon, form .

(D) A well rooted tree properly dug, leaving some roots from the scion. A
common form.

76 THE APPLE.

to start, or does not start for one year, unless scalded or mixed
with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw a few times. In
a small way the seed may be kept mixed with sand and buried in a
box in the ground until spring, when it should be put in a warm
place until it starts into growth a little. It should then be sown in
drills three inches deep and about three feet apart, in rich, warm
soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the foot.

Root-grafted Trees should always be preferred to those
that are budded, for this section, unless in the case of hardy trees
that are already once root-grafted, and are budded to change the
bearing qualities, when budding is as good as grafting. The objec-
tion to budded trees is not to the method of propagation, but from
the fact that the buds must be inserted above the ground into a
seedling root, which seedling is of doubtful hardiness, and is per
haps quite tender ; yet is partly exposed above ground, where it is
liable to fail at any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below
ground and send out roots from above the graft, which increases
the hardiness of the trees. Quite frequently the roots of a budded
or grafted tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy
and sound ; consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy
as the top. But as this is not always practicable every effort
should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In more
favorable locations budded trees may be just as desirable as those
that are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft, whether with whole
or piece roots, makes but little difference to the ordinary planter,
who should look especially to getting good trees, when he should
be careful to plant the graft well below the surface of the ground.

Planting.— The land should be in as gbod condition as is re-
quired for corn. The work of planting will be greatly facilitated
if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large plow, and the
trees set at the intersections. If the trees must be set in sod, a
hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree ; no grass
should be allowed to grow in this space, and it should be heavily
mulched. In setting the trees the holes should be made large
enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If it is neces-
sary to set trees into the sub-soil, and it often is, then in digging
the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the sub-soil
and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in contact
with the roots. The roots should be evenly spread out in the hole
and the fine top-soil carefully worked among them so as not to
leave any air spaces between or under them. If the soil is dry it
can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If wet but little
pressure should be used.

The Time to Plant.— In the north apple trees should never
be set in the fall of the year, nor should they be dug from the nur-
sery rows in the spring, as they are very liable to be weakened ; if
not seriously injured by the winter if left exposed. They should
be dug in the autumn and buried root and branch— "heeled in"- in
dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in a cold

THE APPLE.

77

cellar, with their roots buried in soil. As few cellars are fit for
this purpose it is generally safer to bury them outside. As a rule
it is best for planters to get their trees in the fall, as they are then
more certain to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for
them to come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the
soil works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf.
As a rule moderately early planting gives the best results, but trees
should never be set in wet, sticky soil.

Heeling In is a term used to designate the temporary bury-
ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If the
trees are to be moved again in a few days a very light covering
will be sufficient ; but if they are to remain several weeks much
care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with, select a
dry, mellow piece of ground; dig a wide trench, put in the trees—
i few at a time— either in an erect or sloping position, and cover
them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out. If apple or other
somewhat tender trees are to remain heeled in over winter it will
be found best to commence by digging a trench about two feet deep

Fig. 51. — Various stages of the operation. A, Jioio of trees with roots
covered; B, a row bent down and the tops covered with earth at C.

and three feet wide in dry land, where no water will stand in the
trenches ; put in a layer of trees sloping ; cover the roots with a
thin layer of fine, mellow earth, filling in carefully and solid all the
interstices among the roots and stems ; continue thus until all the
trees are in, when the tops and all should be bent down to the
ground and entirely covered with about six inches of earth. Fig-
ure 51 shows the various stages of the operation. (.-1, Row of trees
with roots covered; B, A row bent down and the tops covered
with earth at C.) The stems and all should be completely covered
when the work is finished.

Depth to Plant.— In the best locations the trees should be set
about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In very
dry, light soil they may be put twelve inches deeper than they
naturally grew. On steep hillsides they must be set much deeper,
or they will come too near the surfa<?e owing to the slope of the
land. One of the most important objects secured by deep planting

to THE APPLE.

is the sending out of roots from the scion, for when trees are well
rooted from the scion they are generally much improved in har-
diness. However, in heavy retentive soil deep planting is not
desirable.

Distance Apart to Plant.— Apple trees in cold regions
should be set quite close to one another. In favorable locations
they should be set further apart than when the conditions are very
severe. Most varieties do best when not over sixteen feet apart ;
but upright growing kinds should be set closer. The Duchess of

Oldenburgh does very well
■^orih. in .severe locations when

* * * * * set not over twelve feet

apart each way. The trees
.^ ^ ^ ^ should be set so as to

"break joints", north and
south— that is, the trees in

* * . * * * Qjie row should be set op-

posite the vacancies in the
^^ .;^ ^ ^ next. If the rows run

northeast and southwest
the trees will shade one
*" **■;<•* another on the southwest

'South. side, which is most liable

Fig. 52.—AsfeHsks showing desirable ar- to injury from the sun.
rangement of the trees in the orchard. Pigrire 52 shows the ar-

rangement of the trees.
Cultivation. — Young orchards should be cultivated in some
hoed crop that does not necessitate the working of the soil in
autumn, but will keep the land well worked in the early summer.
For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good crops.
Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buckwheat,
however, seems to be an exception to this rule, and on account of
its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose. After the
trees begin to bear it is often a good plan to seed the land to clover,
which should be broken up occasionally. The trees should be well
mulched, and if they do not make a satisfactory growth should be
well manured. When an orchard becomes "sod bound" nothing
will do it more good than a drove of hogs sufiacient to root up all
the sod, but they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides
breaking up the sod the hogs are very beneficial by destroying
many kinds of insects.

Forming the Tree.— Whatever may be the shape of the
tree when it is received from the nursery, it will need careful
attention in the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with
a long or a short trunk, is a much disputed one ; but it may be laid
down as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of the
hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three feet
from the ground, but in such cases it should have some protection.
In very severe and exposed locations, or in the case of somewhat

THE APPLK.

79

tender varieties, it will be better to have the trees branch near to
the ground (Fig. 53), since when so formed they are hardier and
less exposed to the wind than if tliey have tall trunks. There is a
constant tendency for our trees to incline to the northeast, and this
should be prevented so far as possible. To do this the growth
should be encouraged on the southwest side by light summer prun-
ing on the north side. Also, in setting the trees they should be
slightly inclined to the southwest, and an effort made to keep them
in that position.

rxG. ^^.—A low-headed tree n-Hh trunk boxed. Form and treatinent
adapted to severe locations.

Pruning.— In pruning it is well to remember that pruning in
tho summer checks growth, and pruning at suitable times, when
the tree is dormant, stimulates growth. Pruning apple trees just
as the sap is starting in the spring is a bad practice, and generally
results in quite a portion of the pruned limb dying back or being
seriously weakened. The best time to prune is in June, as then
the wounds heal over at once. But if a very large amount of wood
must be removed it would be better to cut it ofE in October, or dur-

80

THE APPLE.

ing warm days in March, before the sap starts, as the removal of a
large amount of foliage in June might give a serious check to the
tree. Scions for grafting are generally cut in November, before
severe weather. Very light pruning may be done safely at almost
any time, except as noted above. If the work of pruning is pro-
perly attended to there will be no need of heavy pruning, and gen-
erally a little pinching or rubbing off of the growth in summer is
sufficient. In a northern climate it is better not to prune at all
than to prune too much, and apple trees only need to have inter-
locking and straggling branches removed or shortened. They need
all their wood for the protection it affords. All wounds over one-
half inch in diameter should be covered with grafting wax.

When trees are received they should have all broken or bruised
roots removed, and the ends of all roots cut off smooth. The top,
too, should be cut back about one-half or more of its new growth to
correspond to the loss of roots. Some varieties— the Wealthy, for
instance— will sometimes kill back severely and then sprout from
the roots. In such a case the sprouts should be encouraged to
make a new tree, which they will do very quickly if given a little
care, and then they are often more productive than ever.

Injured Trees.- One of the most common forms of injury to
trees is girdling by mice or rabbits. If the girdling is not com-
plete, even though only a small part of the inner bark extends
across the wound, the best treatment is to bank up around it with
earth, and this is good treatment for any wound. If injury of any
kind is so far from the ground that banking up is impracticable*,
the wound should be covered with grafting wax and cloth, or with
clay or cow manure, so as to exclude the air. When large wounds
are left exposed they do not heal readily, and often the wood sea-
sons through and permanent injury results. Covering the wounds
with heavy paper, even without other protection, aids very much

Fig. bi—Girdled tree icith wound bridged over. A, a girdled trunk.
B, scions inserted; C, method of inserting scions.

in the healing process. Another way of saving girdled trees is to
wait until the bark peels freely ani then spring in scions long
enough to connect the sound inside bark above and below the in-
jury. The ends of long scions are cut all on one side and shoved
under the bark as in budding (Fig. 54). The tree eagerly seizes

THE APPLE. 81

upon this opportunity for making a connection between the root
and top in the cambium layer, and the scions increase in size until
finally they close up and make a covering as good as the original
bark.

Mulching.— The advantage of a mulch around trees is not
generally appreciated. It checks evaporation and prevents the
running off of water which allows it to soak into the land. It
helps to equalize the moisture in the soil throughout the growing
season, and prevents root-killing in winter. It is of the greatest
assistance in rather dry locations, where its use makes success
possible with many varieties that otherwise would be complete
failures. In almost any soil in the Northwest the chances of trees
living and doing well would be increased by the use of a mulch
around them, but this is especially true of sandy land and southern
exposures. It is generally best to cultivate the land around trees
when they are small ; but if they are set on sod land, or after they
begin to bear, or if they suffer from drouth, they should be heavily
mulched at once, and this should be renewed as often as necessary,
to keep a covering five or six inches in depth on the ground at all
times extending at least four feet on all sides from the tree, and
in the case of larger trees extending out as far as the branches.
This mulch may consist of any litter, straw, bagasse, hardwood
sawdust, brush, weeds and grape trimmings, and even coal ashes
are good for this purpose.

Manuring.— Young orchards are sometimes injured by too
much man are, which stimulates a late autumn growth that may so
weaken the tree that it may be winterkilled. But if crops are
grown in an orchard enough manure must be added to put back the
plant food carried off in the crop. After trees begin to bear fruit
they need manuring, and without it they are very liable to run out.
All manures for orchards should be applied to the land during the
time between the fall of the leaves in the autumn and their appear-
ance again in the spring. In case the manure is well-rotted it
should be applied in the spring. Barnyard manure is as good as
anything for this purpose. Some soils, however, will maintain
their fertility without manure, providing a crop of clover is plowed
in every few years.

Sunscald.— This is the name given to a condition of trees
when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest sides of
trees (Fig. 55). This is a very serious cause of loss of trees in
high latitudes, and all trees should be protected against it. It is
probably due to the action of the sun in starting the growth on the
southwest side of the trees and then being suddenly checked by
the cold. It is most liable to occur in the latter part of winter.
Some varieties are much more liable to this trouble than others.
Trees that incline to the northwest, so that the sun's rays fall di-
rectly on the trunk, are very liable to it. If trees are planted and
kept inclined to the southwest until the tvanches shade the trunk,
they will not be affected. Anything that shades the trunk pre-

82

THE APPLE.

vents this trouble, and various means are employed to that end.
Sometimes the trunk is covered with hay, straw, corn-stalks, bur-
lap or paper, wire netting or laths wired together, or it may be
shaded by a board set up on the southwest side. All these are good
and answer the purpose, and many of them protect from mice,
rabbits, and flat-head borers as well, if properly attended to ; but
one of the best is the lath screen, which is easily made, is cheap,
durable and satisfactory.

Fig. 5b —S'lnscnldfd t7'ee.
a, a, a, dead wood.

Fig h&. — Loth sere fri in
place around tree.

The lath screen protector is shown in Fig. 56. It is easily and
quickly made, but whether it will be cheaper to use than wood
veneers will depend on circumstances. Each of these methods of
protection secures immunity from sunscald, mice, rabbits and the
flat-head borer to the part they cover, and also protect the bark
from whifQe-trees. Six cr seven common laths and three No. 18

THE APPLE.

83

Fig. b7.— Showing meHtod of making lath

wires are necessary to make the lath screens. The laths are left
one-fourth of an inch apart, and the wire is simply crossed between
the laths and not twisted. Methods of making it will readily sug-
gest themselves. It may be made on a common work-bench by the
device shown in F^g. 57, which is from an article by Prof. Goff, in
the Wisconsin Horticultural Report for 1891. J., J., A represent
nails in the bench to which are attached the wires. B^ the first

lath put between the

i J V —^WW^-p wires and attached to

1^ thespring stick, C,

y ^ -^ which holds the wires

^1 ]^j^ B -^ ^^^^^^^ taut while the other

laths are inserted from
the end, and these are
always put under the
lower and over the up-
per wires, thus crossing
*'^'''^^'^- the wires. E show the

end of spring stick and part of first lath held together with a
hooked wire. D shows lath screen partly made. The laths should
be long enough to reach nearly to the lower branches of the trees.
A bunch of hay may be stuffed in at the top to keep the protector
in place and keep it from rubbing the tree. The screens should be
left on until the wires rust off. Tar or tarred paper should never
be used in contact with the bark of apple trees.

Protection by banking up the trunks
of young trees about one foot, on the
approach of winter, as shown m Fig. 58,
is a good practice. It protects the graft
and is a sufficient barrier against mice,
unless there is a deep fall of snow. This
is not a very laborious matter, for about
three spadesf ul of soil is enough for each
tree. When there is danger of mice
working under the snow trod it down
quite firmly around the trees. To guard
against mice and rabbits when not oth-
erwise protected, wash the stems with
thin whitewash thickened with copperas
and sulphur. If this is washed off by
rains renew the wash as often as neces-
sary.

Protecting the trunks by box-
ing them up and then tilling the boxes
with earth, as shown in Fig. 53, is a method that is well worthy of
being adopted, especially by those who wish to grow apples in very
severe locations. Such treatment protects the trunk from sun-
scald, mice and rabbits, and also from Jrying winds, severe cold,

Fig.

58. — Apple tree banked
up for winter.

84

THE APPLE.

and from sudden freezing and thawing, and commends itself in
every way. The boxes may be kept filled with soil all the year
around, but care should be taken that if the practice is to be dis-
continued that they are not taken off on the approach of winter,
bat in the spring. In more favorable locations such treatment is
unnecessary with hardy kinds, but even in such places the good
effect will be apparent.

Top-working.— By top-working is meant the grafting or bud-
ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term is
used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. It
is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat tender
kinds, such as the Wealthy, which, besides being somewhat tender
and liable to sunscald, is weak in the stem and crotches. If this
variety is grafted on the branches of the Virginia crab, which is a
very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is formed that has
much of the hardiness of that crab, but at the same time bears
Wealthy apples. By this method we may
increase the hardiness of trees to a consid-
erable degree. Some varieties seem to be
better adapted to one stock than to another.
The Virginia crab is a stock that is hardy
in every particular, and especially desir-
able for top-working. It grows rapidly,
makes a large tree, and will keep up in
rapidity of growth with any of our larger
apples. But most of the larger growing
crabs make good stocks for top-working.
The Transcendent crab may be successfully
used for this purpose. When it is intended
to grow an orchard by this method the
stocks should be set in the spring, to be
budded the following August, or should be
grafted the following spring. Figure 59
shows where the grafts should be made. If
to be budded the buds should be inserted in
about the same positions in the head of the
tree as the grafts.

Picking and Marketing.— In order
to have apples keep well, or command the
highest price, they must be hand-picked
before they are fully ripe and handled very
carefully. They should never be shaken
from the trees, for although they may not Fig. b9. —Top-worked tree.
show the bruises at once, yet they will ^' "' "• ^''"•^^*-

show plainly in a few days, and cause premature decay. This is
especially true of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, and other varieties
which, like it, easily become spotted. They should be carefully
sorted into three grades— best, second bost, and culls. The latter
grade had better be kept at home and fed to stock, or made into

THE APPLE. 85

vinegar. If to be shipped to a distance apples should be packed in
clean, new barrels, into which they should be pressed so firmly
that they cannot move. If packed loosely they are almost certain
to arrive in market in a badly injured or worthless condition. A
regular press is made for this purpose and is sold by all implement
dealers.

Some Important Things to Remember Are: —

(1) If the roots of trees are frozen out of the ground, and
thawed again in contact with air, the tree will probably die.

(2) If frozen roots are well buried before thawing at all the
tree will be uninjured.

(3) Manure should never be placed in contact with the roots
of trees when they are set, but old pulverized earth compost
answers well.

(4) Trees that are received in a shrivelled condition may gen-
erally be revived by burying, tops and all, with earth for a few
days.

(5) If trees are to be watered in dry weather it is very im-
portant that they have a heavy covering of mulch, otherwise the
earth will be crusted over, causing the water to dry out rapidly.

(6) If watering is commenced it should be continued until
rain comes, otherwise it may be worse than no watering at all. As
a rule heavy mulching is better than watering.

(7) A tree of small or medium size that is thrifty is much to
be preferred, for transplanting, to one that is very large, but
which will be checked in its growth by being moved.

Diseases.— Blight. In order to be truly hardy and desirable
for northern sections an apple tree should be hardy against fire
blight as well as the weather. This is the blight that kills the
growing wood in the summer. It is due to the growth of a very
small microscopic plant termed Micrococcus amylovorus. It is much
the same as the germs of disease which attack animals. These
germs are very light, are thrown off by the plant and readily blow
about. They grow in and destroy the tissues of the tree. It is a
very insidious enemy, and as yet we know of no method of destroy-
ing it or stopping its ravages. Some varieties, for reasons not
known, are not subject to its attacks, while others are only slightly
affected or only in occasional years. When it appears the best
treatment is to remove and burn all the diseased parts as soon as
may be, cutting considerably below where the disease appears.
The only way to avoid it is to plant varieties that are not subject
to its attacks. In pruning it should be borne in mind that the dis-
ease may be carried from a diseased to a healthy tree by the prun-
ing implement.

Scab {Ftmcladiu'ni).—Tti\s is the disease that causes the scab or
blotches that deface the skin of apploc and destroys the leaves.

86

THE APPLE,

Fig. 60 —Ap-ple affected wUh scab.

It also attacks pears. Figure 60 shows the appearance of an apple
affected with this disease. It not only injures the appearance
of the fruit, and conse-
quently its market value,
but seems to dwarf its
growth. It is only occa-
sionally abundant in this
state, and as a rule our
hardy varieties are not in-
jured by it. In case it be-
comes abundant it may be
prevented by spraying the
trees with Bordeaux mix-
ture, made as recommend-
ed in the chapter on straw-
berries, but diluted by
adding twice as much
water. Spray the trees
with it as soon as the first
leaves appear ; again just
after bloom, and a third time two or three weeks later. If rainN
are frequent in June a fourth spraying should be given in th&
latter part of that month.

Insects.— Flat-headed Apple Tree Borer {Ghrysohothrh
fetnorata). This borer is quite abundant in some sections, but
generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work
in trees that are newly transplanted, or weakened by some dis-
ease, and makes its borings in the trunk and larger branches, often
completely girdling them. It is the larva
of a beetle which is oblong, flattish in
form, and of a shining greenish-black
color, about three-eighths of an inch
long. The beetles emerge from the bor-
ing in the trees in the early summer.
They are very active in the middle of
warm days, and may be found in the hot
sunshine running up and down the
trunk of the tree, whence they fly quickv
ly if an attempt is made to catch them.
They lay their eggs, which are yellow,
under loose scales on the bark, or in
cracks and crevices. The young soon
hatch and eat their way through the

^, _,,,,, , , bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the
Fig. G\.— Flat-headed apple , v ^ -i. -^ ^^

free borer,- a. larva (bot-en; ^orer a,ppro&ches maturity it usually

b, pupa: d, beetle somewhat bores into the more solid wood, and
enlarged.

into the beetle form,
forms.

finally out to the bark, where it changes
Figure 61 showo the borer in its severa,!

THE APPLE. ' 87

REMEDIES.— All trees should be examined early in autumn,
when, if there are borers present, they may be detected by the
dry appearance of the bark, by the borings, or by the exudation of
sap, or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts
should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed.
As a preventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to
coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft-soap re-
duced to the consistency of a thick paint with a solution of wash-
ing soda, and if a little carbolic acid is added it will be even more
repulsive to the beetles. This should be kept on the trees during
the summer montns, when this insect is injurious.

New York Weevil (Ithycerus novehoraceyisis) . This is a very
large snout-beetle of gray color marked
with black, about one-half inch long.
It breeds in the. oak, and is only abun-
dant where there are oak groves near
by. In such locations it often causes
great injury by gnawing out the buds
early in the season, and later by cutting
off the young shoots, so that the trees
are destroyed or seriously injured. It
attacks cherries and plums as well as
apples. It seems to do its work at night,
or early in the morning, for it does not
work much if at all during the day.
Figure 62 shows this insect in its differ-
ent stages of growth.

Remedy. — The only known remedy
for this pest is to jar the trees, when
they curl up and fall to the ground, and
then may readily be gathered and des-
troyed. When the trees are badly in-
fested they should be jarred once a day
as long as any are found. They disap-
pear about the first of July.
Tent Caterpillar (Clisiocampa Amet'icand) . — The characteris-
tics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 63, which shows the
caterpillar resting on the outside of the lent-like structure in
which they live, and also a twig sustaining a bunch of eggs. The
habit of this insect is about as follows : The eggs are laid on the
smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first
two weeks in July. Two or three hundred eggs are laid in each
cluster, and they are firmly cemented together. These hatch out
early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars
soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of web across
the nearest forks of the twigs, and this tent or nest is enlarged as
more room is needed. It has holes in it through which the cater-
pillars enter. The caterpillars retreat to the nest at night and in

Fig. Q2.—New York Weevil
&, larva; c, beetle.

88 THE APPLE.

stormy weather, ^nd usually when not feeding. They generally
come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after-

FiG. m.— Early stages of Orchard Tent CaferpUlar.
a. b. Cater2)iUars resting on tent-like nest; c, ring
of tike egg mass on twig; d, cocoon.

noon to feed. They are very voracious, and soon strip the infested
tree of its foliage. They change to moths (Fig. 64) in June and
soon commence laying eggs.

Remedy.— The tents
are readily seen. They
should be destroyed early
in the season when the
worms are within them.
The egg masses are also
readily seen against a

cloudy sky, and are easily , ,,- w. ,

gathered and destroyed. Fig. M.~Motk of Orchard 7 ent Cat ennllar.
The foliage may be poisoned with Paris green, used at the rate of
one pound to two hundred gallons of water.

The forest tent catert^illar, which has caused so much damage

THE APPLE.

in this section some years, closely resembles the foregoing in ap-
pearance, but it builds orily a very thin web against the trunk or
branches of the ^rees, and they march in every direction. At night
they collect in groups on the trunks and branches of the trees,
■where they may be easily destroyed. The egg masses resemble
those of the tent caterpillar, but as these are generally high up on
forest trees it is impracticable to gather and destroy them. The
best remedy is to poison the infested trees with Paris green, as
recommended for the tent caterpillar.

Climbing Cut- Worm {Jgroiis sp).— When the foliage or buds
are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cut-
worms should be searched for. They will be found buried in the
ground near the base of the trees. They are closely allied to and
resemble the common cut-worms, so well known to gardeners, and
occasionally do much damage. They may be destroyed by spray-
ing the foliage as recommended for the tent caterpillar and by
jarring the trees after dark, having first spread sheets on the
ground. Putting a cone-shaped piece of zinc or tin around the
tree, so that they cannot gain a foothold on it, will keep them off
the trees.

Codling Moth (Garpocapsa pomonella). — Figure 65 plainly
shows the work of this pest. It is the common cause of wormy

apples, and causes the
infested fruit to ripen
prematurely and fall to
the ground. The moths
deposit their eggs in
the calyx or eye of the
apple just as the blos-
soms fall. On hatching
the worm eats into the
fruit, where it lives un-
til it is ready to change
to the moth stage, when
it leaves the fruit an-d
spins a cocoon in which
it undergoes its change.
There are several
broods in a season. The
worms that are in the
late apple leave them
in the winter and find
Fig. ^.—Codling Moth a, Apple injured ^jy places to spin their co-
icorni; 6, calyx, end where f he larva entered; qqqj^q near by often be-
e. larva {worm) escaping; J\ moth at rest; g *u u ' -,

same with wings spread; d, chrysalis; i, co-^^^^^ the hoops and
coon. staves of the barrels

holding the fruit.
Remedies.— The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and
destroyed. Keeping hogs in an orchard is very beneficial. If

90

THE APPLE.

bands of burlap, or even paper, six inches wide, are fastened
around the trunks not later than the first of June, the worms and
chrysalides of this moth will be found under them and may be
easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in
ten days until the last of August.

The most common way of protecting against this insect is by
spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the apples
stand upright, with Paris green and water, at the rate of one
pound to two hundred gallons. When the trees are sprayed to
prevent scab the Paris green may be added to the Bordeax mix-
ture at the rate of one pound to two hundred gallons of the mixture.
Fall Web-Worm {Hyphantria teztor) .—This resembles the or-
dinary tent caterpillar in having a tent, but is smaller in size. It
appears in the late summer and fall. It is quickly seen and easily
destroyed by cutting off the twig on which the web is found and
destroying the caterpillars, or by spraying the foliage with Paris
green, as recommended for tent caterpillar.

Apple Curculio {Anthonomus quadrigibhus) . This is a snout-
beetle which cuts small holes
in fruit as it feeds, and also as
a place for its eggs. The lat-
ter soon hatch a small grub,
about one-half inch long. The
special injury to the fruit
comes from the hard knots
that form around the hole,
which makes the apples
gnarled and of poor quality.
(See Figs. 66 and 67 )

Remedy. — This insect
breeds mostly in the wild fig.

haws and wild crab apples, size; b and c, the beetle much i
and destroying these generally results in lessening the damage to

the apples in their vicin-
ity. The windfalls should
be destroyed, and pastur-
ing hogs in the orchard is
probably the easiest way
to accomplish it. Spray-
ing the fruit with Paris
green and water, as recom-
mended for the tent cater-
pillar, is a satisfactory
remedy and may be ussd
to supplement the other
remedies mentioned.

Fig. 67 —Apple curmlio. a. Pupa stage;
' ~ The hair lines indicate

b. Larva xvorm.
the natural size.

THE APPLE.

91

Apple Leap Lice {Aphis mali).— The leaves of the apple are
frequently attacked by lice, which by sucking the sap cause the
leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearaoce. They

work almost entire-
ly on the lower side
of the leaf and are
most abundant on
the new and tender
growth. Similar
lice attack the foli-
age of plum, currant
and other plants.
The eggs of these
lice are very small
but shiny black in
color, and may be
Fig. 68. — Apple Leaf Lice, showing various stages found on the twigs
of growth. The straight lines indicate natural size, m Qvjvjig ^^nd. other

trees during the winter. They hatch out early in the spring and
multiply with great rapidity. (Fig. 68.)

Remedies.— The lice should be destroyed early in the spring
before they have become numerous. The eggs hatch out about the
time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear they
should be sprayed with strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or
tobacco water; the latter made by boiling one pound of rough
stems or leaves in a gallon of water ; will be very effective against
the young lice. Kerosene emulsion is easily made, cheap and very
effective. It should be sprayed on the infested trees. If the lice
are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced
the work will have to be repeated several times. Kerosene emul-
sion made as follows :

Kerosene EmuMon.Soft soap, one quart, or one-fourth pound
of hard soap ; two quarts hot water ; one pint kerosene. Stir until
aU are permanently mixed, and then add water until the kerosene
forms one-fifteenth of the whole compound. A good way to make
the emulsion permanent is to pump the mixture back into the re-
ceptacle several times.

There are many other insects that occasionally injure the
apple. For those that eat the leaves Paris green and water is
generally the best remedy, and it may be used as strong as o^e
pound to one hundred gallons of water without injury to foliage,
but generally one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water
is considered about the right proportion.

Varieties.— The following list of varieties includes only the
hardiest kinds and those that are generally successful in the loca-
tion for which they are recommended, and that can be readily ob-
tained from nurserymen. In very favorable locations less hardy
varieties may be profitable, but it will be best for the inexperi-
enced planter in severe climates to try only the hardiest kinds.

92 THE APPLE.

In selecting varieties it should always oe borne m mind that
the experience of reliable and progressive tree growers of a neigh-
borhood will indicate what varieties will succeed in that particular
location far better than any list one is apt to receive from those
not acquainted with the local peculiarities of climate and soil.

In planting do not put in many varieties, and especially avoid
using many of those that are untried, or new seedlings. These
latter often sell at high prices, and are generally of doubtful value
and disappointing in results. Past experience would seem to show
that not one in fifty of new seedling apples introduced are worth
growing. If one wants to and can afford to experiment, it is a good
plan to try new fruits, for it is a very interesting pursuit, but at
the same time such work can and is being done in a much more
thorough way by the Experiment Station.

Russian Apples.— Under this head is mcludea several Hun-
dred varieties of apples that have been introduced into this coun-
try from Russia. They vary wonderfully in form, size and quality
of fruit, and in hardiness of tree. All of them have not been tried
here long enough to determine their value, but enough has been
learned to say that among them are many so tender, or susceptible
to blight, as to be worthless for the colder portions of the United
States. Others are of too poor quality, while others are too long
in coming into bearing. But some of them have shown wonderful
hardiness, productiveness and freedom from blight, so that they
are now being more largely planted by the most intelligent apple
growers of the North than any other kinds. These few Russian
apples have proven to be much superior to the varieties in the old
lists. In this connection it should be remembered that the apple
known as Duchess of Oldenburg has been conclusively shown to be
a Russian variety. Among the Russian apples are varieties
adapted to eveiy season, and the near future will undoubtedly
warrant a more liberal selection of them than is here indicated.

Summer Varieties.— Tetofskt (Hiissian) . Fruit is medium
size, yellow, and of a sprightly, agreeable acid quality. Ripe early
in August and quickly perishable. The tree is a close, very up-
right grower, and is doing well over a large portion of the North-
west. More desirab e for home garden than for market.

Yellow Transparent {Russiav).—A fine, early, yellow sum-
mer apple of extra quality, good size and productive. It is fajxly
hardy against climatic changes, but is very liable to blight, and
should not be planted where this disease is prevalent. Bears young.

Late Summer and Early Autumn Varieties.— Olden-
burg, OR Duchess, or Duchess of Oldknburg {Rustiiav). The
first name is now recognized as official. The most popular late
summer or early autumn apple, and the standard of hardiness as
far north as Minneapolis. Of large size and beautifully colored;
rather acid. It comes into bearing very young, and is very pro-
ductive. Season : August and September. Excellent for cooking
in a green state or when lipe.

THE APPLE.' 93

BoBOviNKA (B'ussiayi) . — Closely resembles the Oldenburg in
every particular, except that it is said to be a little less acid and a
better keeper.

Chahlamoff (Riisxiau) .—la colo-^ of fruit resembling the Olden-
burg, but oblong in form, of good size and quality, season a little
later than Oldenburg, and the tree about as hardy.

LoNGFiELD (limsian) .—A small, light colored, pretty desert
apple, of extra good quality, that -with ordinary care will keep un-
til January. It bears young and regularly. It does best when top-
worked on hardy crab-stocks, and should generally be grown in
that way.

REcrriviBENT, also called Lieby (Rtcssian).— Without doubt the
hardiest of the well-tested varieties. The tree is very spreading
in habit, and is considerably hardier than the Oldenburg. A rather
early and regular bearer and productive. It seldom if ever
blights severely, the blighting part being confined to the new
growth. The f i-uit is large and colored much like the Oldenburg ;
rather sour but excellent for cooking, and not to be despised for
table use, when fully ripe. Season, late autumn and early winter
as far north as Minneapolis, but may be kept until March by a
little extra care.

Hibernal {Iiusoian).—As it is generally grown practically the
same as Recumbent.

Mac Mahon WniT^d!.— A very handsome, very large, very pro-
ductive light green apple ot good quality. The tree is fairly pro-
ductive and nearly hardy in Southern Minnesota and Northern
Iowa; highly esteemed for -planting in very favorable locations.
Originated in Wisconsin.

Wealthy.— A beautiful red apple of extra quality and quite
hardy ; it occasionally blights badiy, but is wonderfully productive
in good locations. It bears very young and has great recuperative
powers. If killed back to the ground it seldom fails to sprout from
the root, and these sprouts generally produce remunerative crops
of fruit. In the bushy form thus made the trees often fruit for
many years. It does best, however, when top-grafted on the
branches of strong growing crabs. Season, late autumn and early
winter, and it may be kept until spring by special care. Origin-
ated in Minnesota.

Supplementary List of Apples.— The following varieties
have been tried to a limited extent in northern sections and are of
great promise :

Breskovka (Buifsiayt).- -Resembles the Yellow Transparent in
fruit, though somewhat later in ripening. It has been tried only
in a limited way in Minnesota, but it is quite free from blight ; a
full and regular bearer and much hardier in tree than the Yellow
Transparent, which it will probably supplant when better known.
Trees of this kind are very scarce.

Thaler, ok Charlottenthaler (R<isi>iaii).— Much like the

y* THE APPi^ii.

Yellow Transparent and of about the same season, but a much
better tree ; very productive.

Blushed Calvillb (Hussian). — A fine summer apple resem-
bling the Yellow Transparent in fruit, but the tree is hardier and
not subject to blight.

Anisim (iSmsiaw).— An early winter apple of extra nice table
quality; fruit medium in size; tree extra hardy and a strong
grower. This variety has generally been sent out under the name
of Good Peasant. It is not subject to blight and seldom sun-scalds.

Crab Apples.— Among these are some delicious little dessert
apples, while others are only valuable for cooking. Some are very
hardy and resist blight, while others are quite tender, or perhaps
blight badly.

Early Strawberry.— Tree very hardy, of spreading growth,
bearing young and heavily ; fruit tender and delicious, but quickly
perishable. It seldom blights severely.

Whitney No. 20.— Tree much hardier than the Oldenburg,
and generally very productive ; of very close, upright habit. Fruit
of large size, handsomely striped with red, of excellent dessert
quality. It seldom blights badly.

Minnesota. —Tree quite hardy, but rather a shy bearer when
young. Fruit large, yellow ; of fine table quality, and keeps until
January. It is highly thought of by those who are growing it in
Southern Minnesota and Northern Iowa. It seldom blights.

Transcendant.— Very hardy; a strong grower and very pro-
ductive; it often blights severely. Fruit ripens in September, and
is well known.

Martha.— Tree very hardy, a fine, thrifty grower and a heavy
bearer. It seldom blights. Fruit large and of a rich red color; of
fine quality for cooking. Ripens in September and will keep until
December. Originated in Minnesota.

Virginia.— Tree very hardy and free from blight; a strong
grower. It probably will stand more adverse conditions than any
other apple known. Fruit as large or larger than Transcendant,
and more completely covered with red. Excellent for jellies or
preserves. Ripens in September and keeps for two months. Per-
haps the best variety for top-grafting with the larger kinds of
apples.

Tonka.— Tree very hardy, of upright growth, quite free from
blight and very productive. Fruit about the size of the Trans-
cendant but flat; quite acid. Season, October. Excellent for
cooking. Originated in Minnesota.

Pride of Minneapolis.— Tree very hardy, a good grower, pro-
ductive and quite free from blight. Fruit of green color, medium
size, quite acid. Ripens late and keeps into winter. Excellent for
jellies. Were it not for its unattractive color this would be one of
the most profitable crabs to grow for market as it is immensely
productive. Not generally offered by nurserymen. Originated in
Minnesota.

CHAPTER XL

THE PLUM.

I^ HE plum is one of the most valuable of our cultivated fruits.
^P In point of hardiness it is surpassed by none other. Some
varieties of good quality are hardy as far north as Winni-
peg. It is valuable for cooking or eating uncooked. It should be
more generally grown, and more attention should be paid to get-
ting varieties that will prolong the season, which will lastfor at
least six weeks if a proper selection is made of the kinds now
offered by nurserymen at reasonable figures. There are four
species of the plum which are of interest to us in this section:

(1) Prunus domestical is a native of Europe, and from it have
come the varieties of plum commonly cultivated in the Eastern
States and In California, but varieties of it generally cultivated in
these sections are not hardy here. There are, however, a number
of varieties of this species which have been introduced from Rus-
sia and promise to be of some value here.

(2) Frunus Americana, is the plum found in our woods in its
wild state. It is far superior to the original form of the preced-
ing species, and it is very probable that under cultivation many
very desirable varieties will be developed, which will be hardy
enough for this section,. Already selections have been made from
it by our nurserymen which are vastly superior to the kinds ordi-
narily found in the woods. These vary much iu size, form, quality
and color. Some are very nice dessert fruit, some have free-stones,
^hile generally they have cling-stones. This is the most promising
species for this section.

There are two forms of this. One is rather a small tree with
black twigs and close head, having small, very astringent purplish
fruit. The other is more open in its habit, makes a larger tree, and
has rather large fruit colored with red and yellow. It is to this
latter form that we must look for the best varieties for cultivation.

The two other species of interest to us are (3) Prunus hortulana
and (4) Primus a'ngustifolia. These species are seldom found north
of Central Iowa. Many of them are not hardy enough for North-
ern Iowa, but some varieties of it are hardy as far north as bi.

96

THE PLUM.

Paul, although, as a rule, they do not fruit well so far north. All
these species readily hybridize together.

Propagation. — The plum does not come true from seed, al-
though there are some varieties which nearly reproduce themselves
in this way. However, the seed is sown in order to produce new
varieties, and the stocks into which the named kinds are budded
or grafted. If the seed is allowed to get very dry before planting
it will lie in the ground one year before it will start ; but if it is
buried at once after separating it from the flesh it wil], come up the
following spring. Seedlings bear in from three to five years from
seed. They are generally large enough to graft upon when one
year old, and if given plenty of room, in rich soil, are large enough
to be budded the first year from seed.

Nurserymen generally offer plants that are grafted or budded.
It matters not by which method they are grown, as long as the root
on which they are worked is hardy. For this purpose native seed-
lings are most desirable and should be used when possible, but
Angustifolia and Hortulana stocks do very well if planted pretty
deep. A European form of the plum called Myrobolan is frequently
used by nurserymen for stocks, but its use in this section is to be
discouTdged, as it does not stand well here. If plums are to be
grafted the work should be done very early in the spring, even
before the frost is out of the ground.

Thrifty Suckers make very desirable trees when grown for
a year or two in the nursery. They should be taken up with a
short piece of the main root
from which they grew (Fig.
69). If simply pulled up they
are often of little value. If
the smaller roots around the
trees are cut while they are
dormant, as in the early fall
or early spring, they will read-
ily sprout. Most varieties of
the plum will grow from
pieces of the root made into
cuttings about six inches long
in the fall of the year and
planted out in spring. Such
cuttings should be buried in
the ground until planted out.
One advantage of having trees
that are grown from suckers
or cuttings is that they are on
their own roots and conse-
quently any suckers from
them will be true to name,
while suckers from grafted or
budded trees are of little if
any value.

Fig

.—Plum sprout properly taken
up with a piece of the root from
which it grew.

THE PLUM. 97

Profits ot Cultivation.— In good locations this fruit may be
grown at considerable profit. Occasionally the numerous -wild
plums somewhat affect the demand for the cultivated kinds, but
wild plums are growing scarcer with each succeeding year, and the
consumers already begin to discriminate between the wild and the
cultivated varieties, and are willing to pay more for the latter. No
one should be contented to plant with the common wild kinds when
varieties so very much better can be obtained at a moderate price.

liocation.— The best location for the plum is on high land,
sloping to the north and having a retentive soil, and protected from
the east winds, as the storms from this direction are most injurious
at blooming time. It will, however, grow and fruit abundantly in
almost any situation. It will stand much neglect, but responds
quickly to good cultivation, which it must have to be profitable.

Planting.— The trees may be set out either in the fall or
spring of the year, but spring setting is most desirable. If planted
in autumn the work should be done by the middle of October, and
the soil watered if dry. The best trees are those which are two
years from the graft or bud and grown on native seedling stocks.
Thrifty suckers also make good plants if well rooted. The trees
should be planted about ten feet apart in rows, leaving sufficient
distance between them to allow for a free circulation of air. It is
preferable to plant in rows running north and south, and they
should not be nearer together than twenty-four feet. The same
general directions given for planting the apple will apply here.

Cultivation.— Land around the trees should be thoroughly
cultivated for the first three years. If thorough cultivation cannot
be given the trees should be heavily mulched, and this is by far the
best treatment for them when they become old.

Renewing Old Trees.— Plum trees are inclined to over-bear
and to exhaust themselves, after which they often die out or the
fruit becomes very small and of poor quality. On that account
manuring should be resorted to when the trees fail to make a satis-
factory growth. Quite frequently as the trees get old the fruiting
branches become very long and bare with all the fruit near their
extremities. In such shape they are liable to split down in the
crotches. When trees get into this condition the longer branches
should be shortened back (as shown in Fig. 70) , and some care
taken In removing or shortening the suckers that will start so as to
make a good top to the tree. Where a crotch is found cracked it is
a good plan to hold it in place, driving a wire nail through it far
enough so that its end can be turned over. This will often affect a
permanent cure.

Pruning.— The notes on time and manner of pruning given in
the cliapter on the apple will apply here. Plum trees should be
pruned so as to allow the branches to start out about two feet
from the ground. The trunks of plum trees do not sun-scald read-
ily, but if long stems are exposed the gro^-th on the south side is

98

THE PLUM.

weakest and the trees are very liable to become onesided. Ex-
posed trunks are also liable to a fatal gumming disease.

Mixing Varieties.— Some varieties of the plum have flowers
which seem to be impotent to their own pollen, that is they are not
fruitful when growing away from other varieties of the plum.
Then again other varieties, while seemingly potent to their own
pollen, fruit much more abundantly if they are pollenized with
some other variety. On this account it is always desirable to
pl&nt more than one variety of the plum, and even to mix the vari-

.Y^s^Pt^i-^'iS'*^

Pig. 70.— Renewing an old plum tree. The long branches have been
shortened in to encourage compact form. The figures 1 indicate
v}here pruning has been done.

eties together by planting them alternately in the rows. Some
varieties which are entirely unfruitful when growing alone are
very productive when grown by the side of some other kind having
strong pollen.

Marketing.— The rule of never sending fruit to market in
rough, unsightly or unusual packages, holds well here. Plums
should never be marketed in rough baskets, tubs or boxes, as is
often practiced, but in some of the popular commercial fruit pack-
which can now be o'otained at very .ow prices.

THE PLUM.

^.

Varieties.— The varieties mentioned below ripen about in the
order in which they are described. They are all good fruits and
desirable. By selecting three or four kinds the season of fruiting
may be made a very long one. There are a number of other vari-
eties that are very good, and several untried ones said to be better
than any mentioned, but those referred to have been tried for a
considerable time.

Cheney. ~A very early plum of largest size and excellent qual-
ity. Tree, a very strong grower, hardy and productive. This
variety flowers very early, and on this account is more liable to
have its blossoms injured by late frosts than some others.

Forest Garden.— An early plum of
high flavor and fair size, but its skin is
rather thick and astringent. Tree a strong
grower and fruitful.

Wolf.— A fiee-stone plum of large size
and excellent quality ; pit very small. Tree
a good grower, hardy and fruitful.

RoLLiNGSTONE. — A large plum of excel-
lent quality. Tree vigorous, hardy, with
very crooked branches. Season, second
early. In seme location a heavy bearer. fig. 71.— S^cfion tkrough

Weaver.— A valuable late large plum forest Garden 2ilum.
of good quality, having its pit free from the flesh. Skin not astrin-
gent. Tree a strong grower, very hardy and fruitful.

Fig. TZ.—Section through
Weaver plum.

Fig. 1^.— Section through
Be Soto plum.

DeSoto.— A late variety of medium size and good quality.
Tree a vigorous, good grower. Thought by many to be the most
reliable of our native plums.

Wyant. — Fniit large, firm, quality good. Mid-seuson. Tree
'vigorous, prodiu'tive, liurdj'. One of the best sorts.

100

THE PLUM.

Diseases of the Plum.— Plum Pockets.— This is a name
given to certain peculiar hollow deformities which occasionally
take the place of the plums (see Fig. 74). They consist merely of
a thin shell with no evi-
dence whatever of seed.
Some seasons this dis-
ease is very abundant,
and then for a number
of years it may scarce
appear at all. It is due
to the presence of a
parasitic fungus ( Taph-
rina primi) which at-
tacks the young fruit,
and by growing within
it causes the peculiar
development which fin-
ally results in the for-
mation of the so-called
pocket. The only
course of treatment
which can be recom-
mended is that of re-
moving and destroying
the pockets before they
reach maturity. It will
sometimes be found
that a single tree will
be troubled with this
fungus for a series of
years, and it will not
spread much. When
this is the case such
trees should be des-
troyed, as they are
likely to be centers of
infection. Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others.

Black-knot, or Wart of the Plum, is the common name of
th3 fungus disease of this tree which manifests itself by knot-like
or wart-like growths appearing on the smaller limbs as well as on
the larger branches, and sometimes even on the trunk (see Pig. 75).
In sections of the country where Frunics dortiestica is grown this is
one of the most serious obstacles to successful cultivation of the
plum. Our native plums are not often destroyed by it, but it
sometimes causes serious injury to them. This knot-like growth is
spongy and of a black color. Upon examining it with a microscope
it is found that the surface has many little cavities which contain
".he spores by which the disease spreads. It is probable that the

Fig. 74. — Plum j^ockets, or diseased ■plums.

TUE PLUM.

101

spores escape from the knots during the late winter or early spring
months.

Eemedy.—Upon their first appear-
ance these swellings should be removed
and burned, if they are on the smaller
branches where it is practicable to cut
them off; if on the trunk or larger
branches where they cannot be cut out
they should be painted with a paste
made of yellow ochre and linseed oil,
using care to keep the oil away from
the healthy bark ; where trees are very
badly infested they should be removed
entirely. This same disease also grows
in the wild black and choke cherries,
and if abundant on them their removal
will make the extermination of the dis-
ease more easy.

Other Diseases.— There are sev-
eral other fungus diseases which occa-
sionally injure the plum. One of them
(iWonilia friictigena) causes the fruit to
rot, while another produces round, dry,
scabby spots on the skin. Probably the
best treatment where these are abun-
dant is to spray the fruit with Bordeaux
mixture as soon as it is well formed,
and again when about half grown. For
recipe for making Bordeaux mixture
see chapter on the strawberry.

Insects.— Plum Curculio.— This is
the insect which causes the plums to
prematurely ripen and drop to the
ground. It is not nearly so destructive
to our native plums as to those of the
Prutius domestica tribe. The latter are
often so badly infested that none of the
fruit comes to full maturity. While our
native plums are stung just as much by
the curculio as the others, but few of the eggs of the curculio de-
velop into the grub. This insect is a small, rough, greyish or
blackish beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long with a black, shin-
ing lump on the middle of each wing, and behind this a more or
less distinct band of a dull yellow color, with some whitish marks
about the middle (see Fig. 76). The snout is rather short. The
female lays her eggs in the young green fruit shortly after it is
formed. After laying the egg she cuts a circle round it to prevent
the part in which the egg is laid from growing (see Fig. 77). The
3gg hatches in a few days and the larva works around the outside

Fig. 75.— Black knot, or ivart
on J) turn wood.

102

THE PLUM.

of the stone. This causes the fruit to become diseaseu and it falls
prematurely to the ground. Within the plum the growth of the
iarva is completed. It then goes into the ground and transforms
to the beetle and soon goes to the surface and escapes.

Memedy.—When the curculio gets alarmed it draws itself to-
gether and falls to the ground. Advantages are taken of this
peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under the
trees and the tree and its branches are suddenly jarred, when the
beetles, which fail on the
sheet, may be gathered up
and destroyed. As it is im-
portant to catch as many
beetles as possible before any
mischief has been done, jar-
ring should begin while the
tree is in blossom, and be con-
tinued daily morning and
evening, if the insects are
abundant, for three or four
weeks, or until they become
very scarce.

Another remedy which is
less laborious and has been
found very effectual is to
spray the plums as soon as the
fruit is formed with Paris
green in the proportion of one
pound to two hundred gallons
of water, and repeating the application at intervals of a week or
ten days until the curculios disappear. If the weather is very

showery three sprayings
may be necessary, but gen-
erally two is sufficient. It
will be found that where
heos with their broods of
chickens are inclosed with-
in the plum orchard that
they will devour a large
number of the larva of the
curculio. If hogs are kept
in the same inclosure as
the plum trees they will
pick up the fallen fruit
and so destroy a great
Fig. 77.— a, Part nfplum shoioing egg-pnnc- many of the larva.

tare, and locatinii of egg, froin abor.e: n r\ n.ifo TVi

b,.section through egg-puncture, showing Ir'LTTM LtOUGER. ine

egg. plum gouger is a snout-

beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily distinguished
from it by a little careful examination, it is about five-sixteenth

Fig. 7Q.—Plum Curculio (Vonotrache-
lus nenuphar.) a, represents the
worm; b, the pu2Ki; c, the perfect
beetle; d. a j)l'i">' showing the punc-
ture made in deposii/g the egg, and
the crescent cut. The hair-lines just
below a and c, and to the Left side oj
b, indicate the natural size.

THE PLUM. 103

of an inch long. The head and wing cases are brown with a leaden
grey tinge, the latter with whitish and black spots scattered irreg-
ularly over their surface. It appears in the spring about the same
time as the curculio, and it causes the plums to drop in much the
same way as the curculio, but instead of working around the stone
it eats through the soft shell and lives within the stone, where it
undergoes its changes and emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of
the plum gouger bore cylindrical holes in the fruit or food. These
cause the fruit to become knotty and worthless, but it does not
prevent their remaining on the tree until maturity. This insect
does not cut a flat or half circle around the hole in which the egg is
placed, as is characteristic of the curculio. The remedies recom-
mended for the curculio are the best for preventing the work of
this insect.

Aphis, or Leaf Lice.— These are often abundant upon the
native plums. They live upon the under side of the leaves ; are
generally not observed until they are very abundant, and increase
with great rapidity. They resemble very much the apple aphis
before described, and the same remedies will be applicable here.
It is of the utmost importance that treatment be commenced early.
As a rule, if they are abundant during the summer their presence
could easily have been detected early in the spring when they were
not numerous, and when it would have been but a small matter to
destroy them.

There are a number of other insects that injure the plum, but
they have been referred to under the head of insects injurious to
the apple.

CHAPTER XII.

THE CHERRY.

j^trtHE species from which the commonly cultivated cherry is
(^3 derived was probably the Prnnus cerams, of Europe and
Asia. It is not indigenous to this country. There are two
distinct groups of this fruit. The first comprises those kinds of a
strong, upward, straight growth, pyramidal form, and sweet or
bitter but not sour fruit. The second group has sour fruit, and
either a spreading or upright habit, and the young branches are
crooked. This group is divided into two classes, which were for-
merly termed Morrellos and Dukes, although the reason for this
distinction has been largely done away with by their becoming
intermingled by crossing. To this latter group belong all the vari-
eties that can be successfully grown north of what might be called
the "peach belt", and therefore those that are of interest to grow-
ers in such latitude.

Historical.— Until the importation of East European varieties
of cherries there was little encouragement for any one to plant this
fruit in the colder sections of the West. The hardiest West Euro-
pean varieties, such as the Early Richmond and English Morello,
are not reliable in the North, though after lasting well for a few
years. The East European kinds, which are often referred to as
the Russian cherries, while as yet tried for but a short time, give
promise of being an important addition to the list of cultivated
fruits for all northern regions. At present they can be bought of
but few nurserymen, but as they are easy to propagate it wiU not
be long before they can be readily and cheaply obtained.

Soil and Loeation.— The best soil for the cherry is one that
is drier than is desirable for most other fruits ; a sandy or gravelly
loam, with porous subsoil, is best. In wet places, or ou water-
soaked subsoils, it soon perishes. The best locat)ons are on high
land, but a rise of even a few feet above the surrounding country
is of great advantage

Propagation. — The cherry does not come true from seed,
though seedlings are often of very good quality. Seedlings are
]04

THE CHBKRT.

105

generally used as stocks on whioh to work the named varieties.
The vits (seed) should be managed as recommended for plum pits.
Nameu varieties of the cherry are propagated by budding, graft-
ing, and from suckers. Budding and grafting are generally done
on eithei of two kinds of seedling stocks, called Mazzard and Mah-
aleb, whicii are imported frcm France. These are not as hardy as
is desired, add in fact are too tender to be left without protection
in winter, tbuugh they may last well if protected by deep plant-
ing. Seedling .bird cherry (Primus Pennsylvanica) is the best for
stock purposes. Recent experiments with the sand cherry (Prumis
Puniild) seems to indicate that it may be useful for this purpose by
budding, but not oy ^iJ'\, grafting.

Fig. is.— Showing fruit of Early Morelle Cherry.

Suckers.— Most of the cultivated kinds that are valuable for
northern sections sucker readily if they are cut back to the surface
of the ground, but, of course, where such practice is attempted the
trees must be on their own roots, or the suckers will not be like
them. This method of propagation is seldom practiced in tills
country, but may readily be followed wherever there are old trees
on their own roots. It is the method generally preferred in Russia,
and will undoubtedly prove best adapted for severe locations here.

Cuttings.— A few of the various cherries may be grown from
cuttings, but this method is very uncertain and requires much
careful management. On this account it is seldom practiced.

Planting.— The varieties of cherries that are hardy in this
section do not make large trees, but are quite dwarf and bushy in
habit, and on this account they may be planted quite close to-

106

THE CHERRY.

gether. It is generally best to plant about eight feet apart, in rows
fifteen feet apart. Most of the plants sent out are budded or
grafted on tender roots, as they are most easily obtained. These
may easily be winter-killed if exposed and cause the death of a
tree which might otherwise be perfectly hardy. On this account
the roots should be planted from four to six inches deeper than
they grew in the nursery, to afford them the protection of the soil.
Besides this, when planted deep the scion sends out roots, and
when a tree is thus on its own roots its powers of resisting adverse
conditions is greatest.

Cultivation.— The cultivation suggested for the plum applies
here. It is important also to mulch the trees when on exceedingly
dry soils, but this is not so necessary as in case of the plum, since
they do well on much drier land.

Fig, '1'^.— Cherry tree of good form.

Pruning.— The cherry needs only enough pruning to keep the
tree in shape, and but very little is required to accomplish that.
In Russia it is grown in bush form, and when it becomes too old to
bear profitably the older parts are cut away and new sprouts take
their places. The Important point to remember in connection with
this, as well as all stone fruits, is that they should be trained to
branch low.

Insects and Diseases.— The insects and diseases which
affect the cherry are about the same as those that injure the plum.

THE CHERKT. 107

and the same remedies are applicable here. But the cherry may
be injured by several insects that injure the apple, and they will be
found referred to in the chapter on that fruit.

Varieties.— The varieties which have proven most hardy thus
far are Early Morello (23 Orel), Sklanka, Bessarabian (No. 62),
Cuse d' Ostheim ; but there are several others that are standing
well and may prove valuable.

CHAPTER Xin.

BUDDING.

<^ N its broad sense the term grafting, or graftage, includes all
^ there is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree
is growing. But as generally used budding applies to the
process by which a bud of the season is removed from its parent
plant and induced to unite with and grow upon some other plant
congenial to it. In the northern states it is commonly practiced
to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and apples and pears,
all of which are readily increased in this way. The varieties of
some ornamental trees and plants may be propagated by budding,
as for instance some varieties of elm, maple, poplar and birch.
Most trees that graft readily will bud as
readily, while others that are very difiScult
to graft will bud very easily. Budding is
rather a simpler operation than grafting,
and easier for the beginner to perform suc-
cessfully.

The word "stock" is used to designate
the plant into which the bud is inserted,
and for success it must be of the same or
some nearly allied species. Stocks are geh-
erally grown from seed and the buds are in-
serted in them before they are five years
old, and as near the ground as may be. But
budding may be done very successfully on
any growing branch or stem where the bark
is not too hard and stiff to bend easily. It
is often used to change the bearing quali-
ties of fruit trees of small or medium size.

Bud-stick is the name given to the
shoots from which the buds are taken. It
is also referred to as the scion, but the scion
proper is the piece which is inserted in the
stock. In Fig. 80 is shown at D' a bud-stick
prepared for use by cutting off all but
about one-half inch of the stock of the leaf,
which part is left for a handle.
108

Fig. 80.— Showing Bud
Sticks.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 109

Time for Budding.— In a general way, budding may be
done at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds are
sufficiently matured on the new growth of the season. The proper
time will be influenced by the kind of stock used, the season, and
sometimes by attacks of insects and diseases. For instance, the
native plum is generally budded to best advantage about the tenth
of August, but should the stocks be attacked by some insect or dis-
ease that seriously injures the foliage in the latter part of July the
growth of the stocks will soon be checked, and the work must be
performed at once or not at all. A period of severe drouth may
check growth, and in a similar way make early budding necessary.
If the stocks are growing very fast it is often best to delay the
operation until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else
its rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable
pruning of the stocks is necessary to make a place for the bud it
should be done at least two weeks before budding is commenced,
for the heavy pruning of any plant when it is in active growth re-
sults in a serious check to the growth, and if done just when the
buds are inserted it may prevent the success of the operation. Tlie
ordinary season for budding in the northern states is from the
middle of July to the first of September, and the earliness or late-
ness at which a variety is most successfully budded depends on the
condition of growth. The stocks that stop growing early in the
season are budded early, and those that grow until autumn are
budded late. The conditions for success are :

(1) TJie stock and scion must be perfectly heaWiy and free from in-
sects. If either of them are weak or sickly unsatisfactory results
may be expected. To this end everything necessary should be
done to keep off insects and diseases.

(2) The buds sJioald be well developed in the axils of the leaves on the
young sJioots from lohich the buds are to be taken. It seldom happens
that they are in this condition until the bud at the end is formed,
but sometimes the buds in the center of the twigs will be large
enough to grow, while those at the base and at the extreme tip are
still quite small. In Fig. SO the buds shown between B and C are

'supposed to be mature enough for budding, while those at the base
are too small, and those at the tip, beyond the cross-line, are too
soft. If the buds are thought to be too immature they may readily
be developed by pinching off the tips of the twigs. In ten or
twelve days after such pinching, of even a very soft shoot, its buds
will be ht for working.

(3) The bark raust separate easily from the loood on the stocks to
be budded. This will take place only when they are growing
rapidly.

(4) A sharp, thm knife is absolutely necessary.

(5) The work mast be done rapidly, and the buds firmly an-1
evenly tied into place. No wax is needed.

110 BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

Necessary Implements. — A common shoe-knife with the
corners rounded off, as shown in Fig. 81, malies a very cheap
and yet a most excellent budding knife. There are many specially

designed forms of
knives for this pur-
pose, and most of
them have an ivory

Fig. d>\.-Badding Knife. POi^^ o^ bla<^e in the

base of the handle
for lifting the bark, but the rounded corner of the back of the shoe-
knife is just as good as the best ivory blade for raising the bark,
and a shoe-knife costs not one-fourth as much as an ordinary bud-
ding knife, and generally holds an edge better.

Besides a shoe-knife, tying material is necessary. For this
purpose basswood bark is perhaps the best, since it is but little
affected by moisture, and if put on wet remains tight and close.
But corn husks, cotton warp or woolen yarn answers very^ well,
and a tying material called rhaphe is largely used for this purpose,
but it should be put on dry, while basswood bark should be used
wet.

Basswood Tying Material is prepared by soaking sections
of the bark in water until the inner layers separate easily. The
bark peels from the trees readily in June and July, and it requires
about three weeks of soaking in stagnant water to get the fiber'in-
to the right condition. After the layers readily separate the bark
should be stripped into pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide.
If hard and stiff it may be softened by rubbing or pounding it.

The Process of Budding will be found illustrated in Fig-
ures 82, 83, 84, 85 and 86, which show the successive stages in shield
budding, which is the form generally used in this country. When
everything is ready for the work prepare a lot of bud-sticks, as
shown in Fig. 80, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the
leaf stalks. These sticks should be carefully protected from wilt-
ing, and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in
moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to store them after
they are cut they should be kept in a cool, moist place in mors or
sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often kept for a
week before using, but should be used as soon as may be after they
are cut.

To Insert the Bud a smooth place should be selected (on
small stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and
Dn the north side if practicable, since buds are less liable to be in-
jured by freezing on that side than on any other. A cross-cut should
be made at this point, and from it a cut about \% inches long,
as shown in Fig. 82; at the same time the bark should be raised, as
shown in Fig. 85. A bud-stick is then taken and a bud cut off with
ohe bark and a thin piece of wood (Fig. 86X) extending about one-
aalf inch above and below the bud, as shown in Fig. S3. The lower

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

Ill

T'lG. 8^;.

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84.

Fig.

Fig. 86.

Fig ^Z — Th'^ rrmi fhf exist or fi. vi.atlo in. Ihe of nek. Fig. 83— T'A^ bud when
cut off; i{fe J rom untltr f-uff. Fig. 84 — 'J7te bark rained for the. in.xertion
of the bud. Fig. 8b.— The bud inserted, t ig. Sij.—The bud tied inplace.

Fig 86>4 —Shoioing fhe way in v^hieh the bud is cut off and its relative size
The v.nshaded 2)a>'f around the bud represent h the pivce of bark taken off
w.ih the bud.

112 BUDDING AND GKA.FTING.

point of the bud (by which is meant the bark and wood cut off as
well as the bud) is now inserted under the bark at the cross-cut,
and is gently pushed down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If
the bark of the stock will not raise when the bud is thus pushed
down the stock is not in the best condition for budding, and it will
be necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade, or
with the ivory blade previously referred to, in order to let the bud
come into its place. The sides of the bud should come under the
bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit quite all the
bud, any small part tbat may project above the cross-cut should be
cut off by again drawing the knife through the cross-cut. The bud
must now be securely and firmly tied in place, taking care to draw
it down evenly and firmly and to cover all the wounds with the
tying material (Fig. 86), but not to draw the string over the bud
itself. In less severe sections the ties do not need such careful
attention as here in the northwestern states, where it is im-
portant to tie very carefully. After the bud is tied the bands
should be watched so that when the growth of the stock becomes
so great that the bands are too tight for it (which is generally in
about a week) they should be loosened, and when the bud is well
united the band should be cut off altogether. The buds will gener-
ally unite in about two weeks, but sometimes they will require a
longer time, and it is often desirable to leave the ties on for some
little time after this period. It is 3j bad practice to neglect the
bands and allow them to severely cut the stock.

The inserted buds should not start at all until the following
spring. If they start into growth the season they are inserted they
are almost certain to be killed the following winter. If the bark of
the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains fresh aad the bud falls
off the work is entirely lost, though the stocks that have missed
one year may be budded the next, and even while loosening the
bands it may not be too late to again bud those that have failed.
To make the work more certain two buds are often inserted in each
stock, although only one is allowed to grow.

In the spring the inserted bud will resemble Fig. 88. Just as
the buds commence to swell the budded stocks should be cut off at
least one inch above the inserted bud, and sometimes seven or eight
inches of the old sto-'.k is left above the bud to serve as a stake to
support the shoot starting from the bud (Fig. 87). All the shoots
that come from the stock should be rubbed off so that all its
strength shall go into the inserted bud (Fig. 87).

Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just above
the bud as shown by the line at B in Fig. 87. The growing shoot
should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a low one, so as to
make a straight tree. If the root is strong the bud will make a
growth of from two to four feet the first year. Some kinds of trees
readily take on an upright form, while others naturally grow very
crooked and need special care to induce them to grow straight.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

113

On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the earth
up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be done when
the buds are more than two or three inches from the ground. If
the buds are too high up to allow of this earthing up from the
ground, especially in the case of somewhat tender kinds, some
growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax around the bud,
taking care not to cover the tip of the bud more than a very little.
This covering is a protection against ice forming behind the bud
and from sudden freezing and thawing in winter. However, with
our hardy trees this precaution is not necessary.

^^

Fig. 87.

Fig.

Fig. 89.

Fig. Bl.— The shoot starting from the bud tied to a portion of the stock,
B—A. The line B indicates where the sfock should be cat off Inte in the
season Fig. 8f^.—A plm/i bt/d in the sp7-i/ig of is'JS before' growth com-
menced. Fig. ^9.— The jcay in which a bud should be cut if the bark is to
be taken out. A form not used much in this country.

June-Budding.— Many eastern nurserymen offer what they
call June-budded trees, at low prices. They are small trees that
can be easily sent by mail, and are made by an operation similar to
common budding, as described herewith, except that the work is
done in June, and the inserted buds are forced into growth as soon
as they adhere to the stock by cutting off the latter. They make
only a small growth the season they are budded. The buds for this

114

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

purpose may be hastened in maturing by pinching in the ends of
the shoots to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes noth-
ing is gained by budding in June, for a plant budded in August
will make as large, if not a larger, growth by the'end of the follow-
ing year than a June-budded tree of the same age will make in its
two years of growth, and will make a straighter tree.

The bark is removed from the bud after it is cut oft by some
budders, but in general practice in this country it is left on. How-
ever, care should be used not to cut the bud very thick, or the large
amount of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly
and evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud the
latter is cut off in a little different way from the method des-
cribed, and the way this is done is illustrated by Fig. 89. The ci^ts
A and £ are made in order and by a dexterous twist the bud and
bark removed. It is then inserted as previously described.

Other Forms of Budding are used occasionally, but in all
of them the same general laws, as laid down for shield budding,
are necessary for success. Figure 90 shows what is called flute

budding, to perform which

the bark of the stock is cut

out to exactly fit the bark

of the bud to be inserted.

Figure 91 shows a form of

budding wherein a circle

of bark is taken out of the

bud-stick and inserted into .

a stock or branch of about

the same size. These are

unusual forms and only

used for some special pur-
pose. In budding on the

branches of trees it is gen-
erally best to insert the

bud on the upper side, but

the place for its insertion
should be governed by the form of the tree,
better than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps
worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If the
buds and stocks are
perfectly hardy, as for
instance when our na-
tive plum seedlings are
budded with similar
kinds of improved qual-
ity, as with the DeSoto
plum, then the tree re-
sulting is as good as if _

root-grafted. But if fig. 92.- At work inserting buds near the
the hardy kinds of ap- ground on small stocks.

Fig. 90.
Flute Budding

Fig. 91.
rdng Budding.

Budded trees are no

BUDDi:^G AND GUAFTING. 115

pie are budded on ordinary seedling, which are mostly not hardy,
then there is a part of the tender seedling which is above ground
and is liable to be killed out by cold. In this case the resulting
tree would be much improved if the seedling root had been grafted
below ground instead of being budded above, so as to haye the ben-
efit of the protection the ground afforded. On the other hand
where hardy trees are budded on the branches to change the bear-
ing the work is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish, then, to
pay more money for a budded than a grafted tree.

CHAPTER Xiy.

GRAFTING.

^RAFTING is distinguished from budding by being performed
at a season of the year, generally in the spring, when vegeta-
tion is dormant— at least when the plant operated upon is not
in full leaf ; but there are many exceptions to such a definition,
and it might be better to include the two subjects of budding and
grafting under the general head of graftage, as they are closely
related. It is the object of this chapter to discuss some of the
methods of grafting as used in the propagation of fruits.

liiiuits of Gratting.— It is quite common to hear very sur-
prising stories about grafting. Quite lately a prominent grape
grower referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red
maple tree. Even Pliny says : "Some apples are so red that they
resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted on a mul-
berry stock." But grafting or budding is never successful unless
the graft and stock are nearly allied, and the closer the relation-
ship between them the more certain the success. Snidley says :
''Varieties of the same species unite most freely ; then species of the
same genus, then genera of the same natural order, beyond which
the power does not extend." For instance: pears work freely on
pears ; very well on quinces and mountain ash ; less successfully
on apples or thorns, and not at all upon plums and cherries ; while
the lilac will take on the ash, because of the near relationship be-
tween the two. But there are many exceptions to any rule that
could be laid down concerning this matter. Some plants are in-
creased most readily by budding, while others graft more easily
than they are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded,
but grafting them is a much more uncertain operation.

Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted upon,
whether large or small.

Scion is the term used to express the part inserted, of what-
ever size or form it may consist. These should be of the new, well
ripened growth of the season. If scions are to be used in the
spring they should always be cut late in the fall, as they are liable
to be injured by the winter. However, spring cut scions may
116

BUDDING AND GKAFTING. 117

*ften be used successfully, but it is not safe to trust to them, espe-
cially if when cut open the heart wood appears dark colored.
Scions should not be cut when frozen. They should be stored in
moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar, or buried in the ground out-
doors during winter. Cherry scions are most safely carried
througii the winter when packed in moist leaves. If packed in
sand or sawdust they sometimes become water-soaked.

The Principles which under ie grafting are the same as in
budding, i. e., the scion and stock must be closely related; the
work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of both
scion and stock come closely in contact ; and at a season of the
year, and under such circumstances, that they may unite at once,
or as soon as growth starts. The success of the operation largely
depends (1) on having the stock and scion perfectly healthy; (2) in
selecting the proper season, which varies somewhat with different
plants ; (3) in getting a perfect union of the inner barks of scion
and stock at least on one side; (4) in making all the cuts with a
sharp knife, that the parts in contact may have a smooth surface ;
(5) in doing the work rapidly, so that the surface may not be
exposed.

Grafting Wax is generally used for covering the wounds
made in grafting. A gord grafting wax is one that will not
become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run down the stock,
or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. A very reliable
grafting wax is made by melting together : resin four (4) parts, by
weight ; beeswax, two (2) parts ; tallow, one (1) part. When well
melted pour into a pail of cold water, grease the hands slightly and
pull the wax until it is about the color of pulled molasses candy.
Make into balls and store for use. This wax should be warmed
when applied. If it is too hard more tallow and less resin may be
used. Some propagators use linseed oil instead of tallo-v.

Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by grafting,
and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if pioperly
applied. For this purpose some very tenacious clay should be used,
and it is thought to be improved when mixed with about one-third
fresh cow dung and a little plasterers' hair. The whole mass
should be thoroughly worked over before using.

Cleft Grafting is a very common form of grafting, and is
mere universally known and used than a,ny other. It is commonly
performed to change the bearing of apple, plum and various other
trees and plants. It is generally the g.

most practical method to use on
branches two or three inches in
diameter, but it also works well on
quite small stocks.

The tools used are a sharp, fine ^^^ m.-Urafilny ddsd.
saw and a grafting chisel, a good ♦

pattern for which is shown in Fig. 93. where a represents blade for
splitting the stick ; &, the wedge-shape end for holding the cief t

^■. ■UMJilHllI

118

BUDDING AXD GRAFTING.

Fig. 9i.— Stock cut off and split and
cleft held open wuh wedge-shaped
end of grafting chisel.

open ; ana c, a took by which the tool may be hung on some con-

Tenient branch.

Cleft grafting is performed as follows : The place selected for

the insertion of the scion should be where the grain of wood is

straight. The stock is then cut

"square" off with a sharp saw

and is split through its center,

with the grafting chisel, to a

depth sufficient to allow the scion

to be put in place. The cleft is

held open by the chisel (Fig. 94)

until the scion (Fig. 95) is cut

and inserted, when the wedge is

withdrawn, allowing the stock to

close on the scion and so hold it

in place. If the stock does not

spring back so as to hold the scion firmly it should be
tightly drawn together with a string. The numbers
of scions inserted will depend on the size of the stock.
If the stock is not over three-quarters of an inch in
diameter one scion is enough to insert, but on larger
stocks two may be put in. All the cut surfaces, in-
cluding the ends of the scions, should now be covered
with wax, as shown in Fig. 99.

The Scion to be inserted in cleft grafting should
be cut wedge-shaped lengthwise, as shown in Fig. 95,
and its cross-section should resemble Fig. 96, in which
a shows the outer bark and 6 the inner. Figure 97
represents a cross-section through a newly made
graft, showing cleft in the stock and two scions in
place (note how the edges of the wood come together) .
Figure 98 represents the scion and graft as seen in
perspective. Figure 99 shows the appearance of the
graft when completed and
covered with wax.

Whip Grafting is illus-
trated in Fig. 100, in which A
represents the stock with a
slit at a ; ^ the scion with a
slit at 6 ; C the scion and stock
put together. When finished
all the cut surfaces should be
covered with grafting wax, as
shown in Fig. 99. In this
form of grafting it is seldom

that the inner barks come together on more than one side of scion

acid stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by .one

accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems under

three quarters of an inch in diameter, but fcr stocks coming within

Fig. 95
Shoiring the
scion cut
for inser-
tion.

Fig. 96. — Cross-secfion
0 f tcedge-shaped end of
scion.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

iiy

Pig

this limit it is very convenient. It is much used by nurserymen in
root- grafting apple, pear and plum seedlings. It is done to a large
extent during the winter months, when but very little can be
accomplished out of doors. It is performed as follows :

Root-Grafting.— Seedlings which are dug in autumn and

packed in moss or saw-
dust in a cold cellar,
are taken as needed to
a warm room and the
scions grafted upon
them just below the col-
lar, i. e., the place
where root and top are
■joined. The kind of
frraf t made is illustrat-
ed in Fig. 101, which
shows the successive
stages of the work. A
shows a seedling apple
root with top removed,
which is to be cut off
and grafted at the cross
■(Jros8-secti07i through a graft showing ^'^'^^'t -o shows scion ; C
cleft and scion in place. scion and stock pre-

pared for being united, but with the cut held open. This cut is
made by the knife-blade, and no wood is removed from it. D, the
same united. ^, the union wrapped with a strip of paper or cloth
which has previously been covered with
grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string
for this covering. The grafts should be
about eight inches long. When completed
they should be tied in bundles and put
away, packed very firmly in sand or light
soil, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring
they should be planted in the nursery,
about six inches apart, in rows three feet
apart, setting all but the upper bud of the
scion below the surface of the ground. It
is important to plant the scion deep so as
to encourage it to throw out roots, as the
trees are then more hardy than when they
depend entirely on the seedling root for
support. Great care should be taken to
have the soil very firm and solid around the base of the root and at
the union. This may be secured in several ways. Some nursery-
men attain this end by the use of a large dibber, having a guard on
the side to prevent its going too deep. With this a hole is made
sufficiently wide and deep to permit the insertion of the graft

Fig. QB.— Perspective
view of scion and com-
])leted graft.

120

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

easily so mat not more than one or two buds project above the
ground. To do this work most expeditiously the grafts should ail
be of the same length and free from side branches. Two persons
should work together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who
carries the grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the
boy puts in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole
by the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft,
and pressing towards the graft packs the soil firmly around it.
After each row is finished in this way the man should turn back on
the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the ball of
the foot.

Fig. 99.— Graft covered v^Uh
wax. AA, scionn; B, wax.

Fig. 100.— .4, sfoci:-, B, scion; C, scion
and stock united.

Another method of planting root grafts which is as applicable
for planting cuttings on a small scale is as follows. It is not a fast
method, but a very excellent one for a few grafts : The thoroughly
plowed land is smoothed off, a line stretched and walked where the
row is to come and then thrown to one side. With a spade throw
out a furrow along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth.
Against this place the grafts, and then with a hoe turned bottom
up push a little earth against the lower part of the root of each
graft, and afterwards draw three inches of soil into the furrow

BULBING AND GRAFTING.

121

around the grafts and then press firmly against each graft with
the ball of the foot. Fill the trench full and repeat the footing
process again. A more expeditious way is to plow out a furrow
instead of making it with a spade, and then fill the trench v ith a
plow. In this way the work may be successfully done if the soil is
not dry and the season is favorable. But it pays well to do good
work, and where one has only a few hundred or a thousand grafts
to plant the spade method is most certain. In planting in a dry
time the great key to success is to have the land firm and solid

around the root and the
union so that there will
be no air space. This
is very important. In
two or three years from
the root-graft the trees
Will be large enough to
be transplanted to the
orchard. The kind of
roots which they will
bear at this time is
well illustrated in Fig.
50. In this figure A
shows a tree which has
been ruined by improp-
er digging; 5 and C
trees that have rooted
from the scion and
have lost the original
root stocks.

Side Grafting.—
Side grafting is illus-
trated in Fig. 102, in
which a represents the
scion, & shows the stock
prepared for the scion,
c the graft made, and d
the same covered with
wax. This form of
^^ 5^0^^.. grafting is especially
B, scion; (J,'''8cion"and'Tfock^prepared; D, applicable to cherry
graft made; E, graft completed and wrapped seedlings, on which
with waxed cloth. ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^

at the crown of the plant, which is just below the surface of the
land. This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums,
apples, and other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree
there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft until
the scion starts into growth.

Grafting Below Ground.— If graidng is done ]ust below
the surface of the ground the work io much more certain of being

Fig. xys.. — Root grafting illustrated

123

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

successful than if above the surface, and the resulting tree will be
hardier than if the union were above ground, since the weakest
point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of
course very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this
manner. Figure 103 shows a grape root so grafted. The methods
adapted for grafting below ground are the same as for above
ground, only not so much wax is required.

In grafting below ground it is important to remove the soil
until a smooth straight part is found of sufficient length to contain
the scion. It is impor-
tant, also, to keep the
wounds free from dir^
for however much it
may help to have the
whole graft covered in
this way, any soil on
the cut surfaces will
prevent that desirable
close contact of the cells
which is necessary for
successful work. When
grafting is done below
ground suckers will
often start from the
stock in great numbers.
These should be all re-
moved or the graft will
be ruined. A little ob-
servation soon teaches
one to distinguish at a
glance the sprouts from
the stock from the
scion. In removing
these suckers they
should be pulled away
from the stock and not
simply cut off. Only
one shoot should be per-
mittee' to grow from
each scion, and this
should be the thriftiest
and generally that
starting lowest down.
The lowest is saved because wherever a shoot starts there is gen-
erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it is not unsightly.

Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper bag that is
sometimes drawn over and tied below the graft as soon as it is
completed. It is well illustrated in Fig. 104. Its use is to prevent
the shriveling of the scion due to exposure to drying winds.

Fig. \02.— Side-grafting as practiced on cherry.
a, scion; b, stock; c, graft made; d, grajt
covered with zeax.

It is

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

123

especially desirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or in ex-
posed locations. It is a very valuable adjunct to the grafting outtit
and its use should be more general. Of course the bags should te
removed as soon as the scions start, and the same care should be
taken in the use of wax around the graft as if the night cap was
not used.

The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps be
of interest :

Grafting Apples.— Apples in the open ground should be
grafted about the time the buds are nicely started, but the scions
should not have started at all. It is the easiest of all the fruits to
graft, and almost any method may be used successfully on it. The
scions should be from four to six inches long.

Grafting tLie Plum.— The plum is most successfully grafted
very early in the spring— even before the frost is out of the ground

or a bud has commenced to
swell. The work when
done at this time is gener-
ally successful, though not
as certain as the apple. It
is said that the plum may
be grafted very successful-
ly later in the spring, even
after the buds have com-
menced to swell, providing
the buds on the scion are
started as much as those
on the stock at the time
the work is performed.

The plum may be quite
successfully root-grafted
in the house in winter, as
recommended for the apple
and treated the same way,
but it generally takes a
year longer to get the tree
formed, since in this case the growth from the scion is quite
slow the first t^o years.

On account of the slow growth trees grown in this way are
often crooked and unpromising. This defect, however, may be
remedied by cutting away in the early spring of the second year
all the growth from the scion except one strong bud at iis base. If
this work is done very early in the spring it will result in throwing
the whole strength of the root into a single bud and the forming of
a stem that is straight in place of the former crooked one. A much
better and more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the
stocks in the nursery one year before they are intended to be
grafted, and then graft them below the surface of the ground very
early in the spring. For this purpose cleli or whip-grafting should

Fig. IQZ.— Grape viae root. grafted.

124

BUDDING AND GRAFTING.

be used. When the work is done in this way the resu t is a very
strong growth from the scion. If the suckers are pinched off and
the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the result, on
rich land and in the case of strong, healthy stocks, will be to give
a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Sometimes the
growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the branches are
liable to be broken off in the wind, and should be tied to stakes
with soft string. The scions should be from four to six inches long.

Grafting the Cherry.— The cherry may be root-grafted in-
doors in the winter. When this is done what is called side-grafting
is employed, and it gives results far ahead of any other method.
But with the best of cai*e the losses from in-door grafting of this
fruit makes it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be
achieved by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks
well established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended
for propagating the plum. In regard to this
fruit it is also reported that, as in the case of
the plum, the work may be done after the
stocks start into growth a little, providing the
scions are as far advanced. The scions should
be from four to six inches long.

Grafting the Grape is done most safely
very early in the spring, even before a sign of
growth appears, but it may also be grafted
about the time the first leaves are nicely ex-
panded, if the scions are kept dormant until
that time. The work should always be done
below the surface of the ground. Any form
of graft may be used, but that most commonly
used is cleft-grafting, as shown in Pig. 103,
In making a cleft-graft upon a grape root it is
often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock
with a fine saw on account of the crooked,
twisted grain of the wrod, which does not
allow it to split straight. Some growers do
not use any wax around the graft but simply
cover it with a mound of well packed earth up
to the upper bud of the scion. In grafting
after \he leaves are expanded some propaga-
tors prefer to use side-grafting, and do not
cut the vine severely until it is believed the
scion has grown fast to the stock, when the
vine is cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this
purpose. The scions should be about six or eight inches long.

To change the varieties in a vineyard it is sometimes practiced
to graft on a cane from the old vine. In this case a cane from the
old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vine is
grafted with a scion which should be at least two feet long. When
grafted the graft, including the cane and scion, should be buried

Fig. 104.— Graft ?d
2)lum with graft
coveredicith night
cap.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 135

six inches deep, the end bud of the scion being brought above
ground where the new vine is desired. The following year the old
vine may be largely cut away and the growth from the scion will
take its place. This method is not so neat as when the vine is cut
off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, but it has the
merit of being very much more certain of not necessitating the
destruction of the old vine until a new one is established.

Grafting by Approach or Inarching is a form of grafting
in which the branches of growing plants are brought together. It
is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to
grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa-
gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. It
may be done at any time during the growing season and on any
flexible growth of whatever age. It is performed by shaving out a
piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the scion, of the
same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each may be
together. If this is done even so late as the middle of July they
will grow firmly together before winter. It is customary when
this method is to be used for propagation to either plant a lot of
small plants around the one from which the scions are to come, or
to grow them in pots and set pots and plants near by. When the
branches have united they are permitted to grow until autumn,
when the scions are cut off just below the union and the plants
with the scions on them are heeled in for winter or protected in
some other way. No wax is needed as the union is very sure if the
parts are closel.v tied together. This is a very safe and sure
method and is easily performed, even by the novice.

APPENDIX

STRAWBERRIES.

Winter Protection. — In winters when there is not much
snow-fall it is important in this section to cover strawberr3^ plants
much deeper than is customary in the eastern and central states.
Twelve inches is genei-ally none too much, and where straw is
very abundant, as is the case where grain growing is largely prac-
ticed, it is a good plan to use as much as this every year. This is
especially true in Western Minnesota and the Dakotas, where a
heavy covering will often make all the difference between success
and failure. However, where a heavy covering is used it is im-
portant to set the plants in rows at least six feet apart, so that
there will be room between the 1-ows for the straw when the plants
are uncovered. It is then very convenient for replacing over the
plants if a very cold spell comes when the flowers are open. The
use of straw as here recommended has been known to save the crop
for several years in succession in some of the most severe locations
in this section. It is a good plan to not wait until the ground
freezes hard before covering, but some covering should be put on
as soon as' the ground begins' to freeze hard, say by October 25th,
in average years. Nubbins may be frequently prevented by heavy
covering, which prevents the plants from injury by severe freezing
in winter.

Plants for setting out may occasionally be found to have the
fleshy part of the interior of their stems discolored by the winter.
If not moved they will frequently grow and overcome this injury,
but if transplanted they often die. The loss from this cause may
be greatly lessened if in such a case the plants are not set out until
late in the spring, after they have partly recovered from the
trouble. Cases have occurred where all the plants set early have
died from this cause, while those from the same bed set out late
have done well.

Burning Over the Strawberry Bed is very important
where old beds are to be fruited again, but it is absolutely nec-
126

APPENDIX. 127

essary for best success that the buniing shall be done quickly;
that is, the trash should be thoroughly dry, so that it will "go like
a flash.'' If the trash is somewhat moist, so that it will buru but
slowly, the roots and crowns of the plants will almost certainly be
killed. Sometimes it may be impracticable to get the trash suffi-
ciently dry to burn well. In such cases the material should be
raked from over the plants into a windrow between the rows, to be
burned, or it may be best to cart off a part if the coverhig is very
heavy.

In Renewing Old Beds a common two-horse com cultivator
Avill be found a very satisfactory implement. A disc harrow with
the inner sections removed is also good. Either of these imple-
ments will do the work better in hard soil than the one-horse plow.

Some Varieties of Strawberries produce too many plants
to be productive. In such cases they should be thinned by destroy-
ing all that start after the rows are well filled. The plants should
average about six inches apart each way in the rows.

Varieties. — For the home garden beginners will find it better
to use some good bi-sexual kind alone, rather than phuit pistillate
sorts. For this purpose Beder Wood is very satisfactory, and it is
perhaps by far the best variety for beginners to start with.

Beder Wood.— An extremely hardy, vigorous, productive
sort. Well adapted to the home garden, but rather too soft for
marketing at a considerable distance. However, it is probably the
most popular bi-sexual kind now grown.

RASPBERRIES.

Winter Protection.— It is a good plan to get all raspberry
plants laid down by the 20th of October, with enough earth to hold
them in place, but it is not necessary to put on the final covering
until the approach of hard freezing weather, when they may be
covered by plowing a furrow over them from each side with a
16-inch plow. The canes are more flexible before than after hard
freezing weather.

In Selecting Plants those that have been transplanted once
before setting out permanently are much more certain to grow
well than ordinary one-year-old sets, but they are somewhat more
expensive. The uncertainty of the ordinary sets of the tip rooting
kinds makes "transplants" of this class especially desirable.

Anthracnose can be held in check by the following treat-
ment: Spray the canes before they leaf out with thick Bordeaux
mixture, i. e., made of 5 lbs. lime, 5 lbs. sulphate of copper, and 25
gallons of water ; and again after the leaves have started with

128

APPENDIX.

Bordeaux made with twice as much water. The youngr growth
should be sprayed when 12 inches high.

A'arieties.— Loudon.— A very vigorous, healthy, hardy kind
that produces a large amount of fruit over a long season. Fruit
bright red, large, firm, and of good quality. Perhaps as w^ell
adapted to general cultivation as any varietj^ known. Some grow-
ers complain that tlie fruit adheres so firmly to the stem that it is
difticult to pick. This feature may perhaps be v/orse in some sec-
tions than others.

KiXG. — ^A desirable, productive, vigorous, early red raspberry.

Older. — A vigorous, productive blackcap raspberry of best
quality. The objection to it is that it is rather soft for marketing.
Columbian. — A very strong growing, productive, purple berry
of the tip-rooting class. The canes make ah enormous growth, but
bend to the ground quite readily. A peculiarity of this variety is
the great productiveness of its side shoots, even when the canes
are broken off not more than a foot above the ground. Fruit pur-
plish, with more acidity than ordinary kinds. Its color is not pop-
ular, so that it does not sell well except where known. It is, how-
ever, very desirable for preserving. Perhaps the most productive
raspberry grown in this section.

GRAPES.

The Munson System of Training.— T. Y. Munson, of Den-
ison, Texas, is one of the best authorities on grapes in this coun-
try. As the result of much careful study and observation, he sug-
gests the following system of training grapes :
He makes a trellis as follows: Two rather
small posts, each about eight feet long, are set
in the same hole, with their tops diverging
about three feet, and held together by a cross-
wire about twelve inches below their tops.
Three wires are used for the trellis, one fast-
ened near the t6p of each post, and one at the
middle of each cross-wire, as shown in Figs.
105 and 106. The vine is then encouraged to
grow a long cane to reach to the lower wire as
soon as may be, and it is there secured. From
this i3oint two or four canes are trained along
the middle wire, as shoMTi in the figures.
These canes are left at each annual pruning
and tied to the central wire. The shoots from
i;;?: these canes stand upright at first, but soon

Fig. wi-Micnson ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ '"^^^^ ^^^"^P °^'®^ ^^^ ^^^®
2'raining. End View, wires, thus making a trough-shaped mass of

APPENDIX.

129

foliage. Mr. Munson describes his method of training as follows :
"■After the vines have flowered the bearing laterals have their
tips pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets,
except to rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch.
Two to four shoots, according to strength of vines, are started
from the forks or crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but ane
trained along over the lower central wire for renewal canes.
When pruning time arrives the entire bearing cane of the present
year, with all its laterals, is cut away at the point near where the
young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are shortened
back, according to strength of vine. Some, such as Herbemont,
being able at four years to fill four shoots six or eight feet long
with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three or
four feet each way of one shoot only. The different varieties are
set at various distances apart, according as they are strong or
weak growers.

'Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the
simplest form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and
a few ties complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the
work well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower

Fig. 106.—JIunson Training. Side View.

wire, along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning, and
from which the young laterals which produce tlie crop are to
spring. These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon clinging to
them with their tendrils, and are safe from destruction, while the
fruit is grown in the best possible position for spraying and gath-
ering, and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I have now
used this trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines, and I am
more pleased with it every year. The following advantages are
secured by this system :

"First — The mutual habit of the vine is maintained, which is a
canopy to shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit without
smothering.

"Second — New wood, formed by sap which has never passed
through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop — a very impor-
tant matter.

"Third— Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free
passage in any direction through the vineyard ; circulation of air
without danger of breaking tender shoots ; ease of pruning, spray-
ing, cultivation, harvesting.

"Fourth — Perfect control in pruning off amount of crop to suit
capacity of vine.

130 . APPENDIX.

"Fifth— -Long canes for bearingr, which agrees exactly with the
nature of nearly all our American species far better than short
spurs.

''Sixth— Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being
pruned and not tied, standing away from posts, can be bent down
to one side between the rows and earth thrown upon ib, and can be
raised and tied in position.

''Seventh— Cheapness of construction and ease of removing
trellis material and using it again.

"Eighth— Durability of both trellis and vineyard."

The Grape Phylloxera, or root louse, is an American insect
that is frequently found on the roots or leaves of American vines.
On the roots its presence results in the iorm.ation of swellings or
knotty excresences. It occasionally appears on the leaves of some
species that have thin leaves, such as those of the Riparia class,
where it forms many galls on the under side. This leaf form,
however, is not necessary for the propagation of the species. It is
spread by winged forms that occur on the roots or leaves, and may
travel through or over the land for considerable distances. On
the American vines its presence does not necessarily cause their
death or seriously check their growth ; but European vines suc-
cumb very quickly to its attacks, and it has been the principal
cause why the European grapes could not be successfully groAvn in
this country. The importation of this insect into Europe, and its
spread there, threatened to destroy the vine industry of many sec-
tions. The danger from this source has, however, been largely
overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American
species, for which purpose the V. ripavia (our River Bank grape)
is preferred. Immense quantities of wood of this species have
been sent to Europe for this purpose. The phylloxera is a native
of America east of the Rocky Mountains, but it has been intro-
duced into California, and foresighted growers there are practic-
ing grafting to get their vines on Y. riparui roots.

The Grape Vine Leaf Hopper is one of the most trouble-
some insects the grape grower has to deal with. It is a small,
gray insect that moves very rapidly. Where they are abundant, a
slight rustling of the leaves on a warm, dry daj^ will cause them to
start in clouds. They suck the juice of the leaves, generally col-
lecting on the underside, and cause them to appear yellowish or
rusty, and when very numerous cause them to dry up. They are
especially injurious on varieties having no down on the underside
of the leaves, such as the Clinton, Bacchus, and similar kinds.

Remedies.— The ordinary remedies for sucking insects, such
as spraying with kerosene emulsion or tobacco water may some-
times be used to advantage, and where there are but few insects
may drive them off. But where they are very numerous such
remedies have little effect. It may be that the use of water and
kerosene in a suitable force-pump will destroj^ them, but this has
yet to be determined. But by taking advantage of the fact that the
insects are dumpish early in the morning, and may be easily jarred

APPENDIX. 181

to the ground ; large numbers have been destroyed by jarring the
vines after first laying down strips of cloth. covered with coal tar
or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best rem-
edy is that practiced by Mi-s. S. Erwin, of Minnesota, which con-
sists in making two frames four feet square out of common lath,
and covering them with cloth which is coated with fresh coal tar.
Two men are required to use them, in doing which tliey place the
frames opposite one another on each side of the rows, and as near
as practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the
vines by striki<ng downwards with a few light branches on each
side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught, and
if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept in check.

The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug eats roses, the flowei's of
the grapes, and, when very abundant, many other garden plants.
It is a beetle with long, hairy legs, and rather slow in its move-
ments. It is especially injurious by reason of its eating the flowers
of grapes. Where they are very abundant insecticides are too
slow in acting to do much good, and all remedies fail. Where not
unusually abundant they may be kept in check by hand-picking
Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with ex-
cellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to them,
and spraying with this material will often largely prevent their
ravages as well as check fungus diseases.

Additional Varieties.— Beta is a grape that originated with
L.' Suelter, of Carver, Minn. It is like the Janesville, in being a
probable hybrid with our native V. riparia. It is an exceedingly
hardy, productive purple grape, quite acid and inferior for dessert
use, but very valuable for cooking. Desirable for severe situations.

Wild Grapes. — In some portions of Northern Minnesota and
the Dakotas it is very difficult to do much with the cultivated var-
ieties of grapes. In such places it is well worth while to grow
vines from cuttings of fruitful native plants. These can be found
along the rivers throughout this whole section. They make a good
porch or trellis cover, and will produce much fruit. In selecting
vines from which to propagate, it is very important to select fruit-
ing plants, as many of the wild vines have staminate flowers only,
and while they may make an enormous growth of vine are abso-
lutely unproductive of fruit.

Bordeaux Mixture. — Further experience with Bordeaux
mixture seems to show that the following directions for making
it are most certain to give best results : In a barrel, or other suit-
able vessel, place 25 gallons of water. Weigh out six pounds of
sulphate of copper (blue stone) , and tie the same in a coarse gunny
sack and suspend it just beneath the surface of the water. By
tying the bag on a stick laid across the barrel no further attention
will be required. In another vessel slack four pounds of lime,
using care, in order to obtain a smooth paste free from small
lumps. To accomplish this it is best to put the lime in an ordinary

133 APPENDIX.

water pail and add only a small amount of water at first, say a
quart or three pints. When the lime begins to crack and crumble
and the water to disappear add another quart or more, exercising
care that the lime at no time gets too dr3^ Towards the last con-
siderable water will be needed, but if added slowly a perfectly
smooth paste will be obtained if the lime, is of good quality. For
this purpose what is sometimes known as ''double strength" white
lime is best. When the lime is slacked add enough water to bring
it up to 25 gallons. When the copper sulphate is entirely dissolved
and the lime is cool stir the milk of lime and pour it and the copper
solution slowly together into a barrel holding 50 gallons. The
mixture should then be thoroughly stirred. This is then "ordin-
ary Bordeaux" mixture. Thick Bordeaux is just twice as strong,
i. e. , has one-half as much water and is used for spraying dormant
plants. It is too strong for the foliage of most plants. Thin Bor-
deaux mixture has twice as much water as "ordinary" Bordeaux
mixture. It is used for the tender foliage of peach and plum trees.

To determine if the Bordeaux mixture is safe to use on tender
foliage, two simple tests may be used. First, insert the tip of a
penknife for at least one minute, when if metallic copper forms on
it, i. e., the tip is the color of copper, more lime should be added.
If on the other hand the steel remains unchanged it is safe to con-
clude the mixture is all right.

Another test is to pour some of the mixture into a shallow
dish ; then blow into it for at least one-half minute, when, if prop-
erly made, a thin oil-like scum will form on the surface.

CRANBERRIES.

Highbush Cranberry.— The Highbush Cranberry (V^ihernum
opuliis) is far removed (botanically) from the common ci-anberrj^ of
commerce. It is a shrub growing six feet high and has very orna-
mental flower clusters, these are followed by oblong yellow or red
fruit, which has one rather large flat seed in its center. A form of
it in which all the flowers are sterile is the common Snowball of
the gardens. The Wild Black Haw (T'. pmnifoHum) and the
Sheepberry {V. lentago) are also closely related to it.

The fruit is of a pleasant acid flavor and esteemed for sauces.
It is common in thickets and moist land in the northern states and
is often gathered, although it is seldom offered in the markets in
any considerable quantities. There is, however, a good market for
it whenever it is offered for sale.

On moist, heavy soil it will fruit abundantly, and it could often
be planted to advantage. For this purpose plants may be taken
from the woods, or propagated especially for this purpose. They
should be set about four feet apart in rows five feet apart.

APPENDIX. 1B3

Propagation.— The seed grows readily if mixed with moist
sand and kept buried out of doors all winter. The plants may be
grown by division, but the common and preferred method is layer-
ing, by which it is easily increased. For this purpose any of the
branches are partially covered with earth, as recommended for the
propagation of the grape by laj^ers. It will also grow from cut-
tings made up in the autumn and treated as recommended for
hardwood grape cuttings.

BUFFALOBERRY.

Biiffaloberry.— In order to facilitate the planting of the
proper number of each kind of plants one should familiarize him-
self with the peculiarities of each sex, and these are so distinct
and marked that a little careful observation will enable any one to
distinguish them when dormant. This is done by noting the shape
and form of the flower buds, which in the staminate plants are
large, round and very numerous. In the pistillate plants the buds
are fewer, smaller and oblong in form.

APPLE.

Root-killing is occasionally a very destructive source of in-
jury to apple trees. This comes from the practice of grafting on
roots that are too tender to stand our winters. It shows itself by
the root dying and the top remaining alive, and either growing by
means of roots sent out above the graft or by eventually dying for
lack of its own roots. This injury can be largely prevented by
mulching the soil around the trees in winter. Since the disasters
from this cause in the winter of 1898-99 there has been much talk
in regard to the importance of hardj^ roots and seedlings from our
strongest growing crabs are now recouunended as stocks for the
common apple.

Prof. N. E. Hansen says that in Russia they have overcome
this trouble by grafting on the true Siberian crab (Pynis baccata).
This is a rather dwarf tree having very small fruit, in which it is
very prolific. It can hardly be found in this country, but is easily
grown, and if wanted will soon be abundant. The seed grows very
readily. As a stock it has a tendency to dwarf the trees grafted
on it, and there is some question about its being well adapted to
the apple. This matter is in a rather experimental stage and
needs some careful trials. It is also recommended to graft on seed-
lings from large hybrid crabs, such as Transcendant and Virginia,

134

APPENDIX.

and these jvre known to make very ^ood stocks for grafting piir-
poses.

Apples and Crabs. — The difference between the well-knoAvn
crab apples and the so-called '"apples" of our markets is well
known in a general way, but in some cases it is not very clear.
The term "crab" is applied in England to small, inferior seedlings
of the apple {Pijrus malus) , while here the same term is used to in-
dicate the crab apple (Pyms haccata) . or its hybrids.

of
J)— Oblate. Numbers refer as follows: l^Stem; 2— Cavity; S— Calyx;

-Different forms of apples.

Oblong; B~Round; C— Conical;

4— Basin: 5— Core.

Drawing by E. S. Mackintosh.

Pyrus malus, the true apple, is distinguished by leaves that
are woolly on the underside, woolly calyx and flower stems. Fruit
various, but always holding the calyx, i. e., the parts of the flower,
on the end of the fruit. Leaves thicker and broader and the new
growth thicker and more woolly than in the crab.

APPENDIX. 135

Pyriis baccata, the true crab apple, is characterized by
smoother and more wiry growth than the apple. Narrower and
thinner longer stemmed leaves than the above, that are scarcely
woolly. The flower clusters are more open and not woolly. The
fruit is set on long, slender, wiry stems. The seed is enclosed in
very hard, close-fitting hulls, and the calyx falls off or becomes
loose when the fruit is mature. Hybrids between Pynis malm and
Pyrus baccata have become very numerous, and as a result of sucli
hybridization we have many varieties that embrace more or les.s
the qualities of each of these species, some of which bear fruit of
considerable size and value, such as Transcendant, Virginia, Min-
nesota, and Whitney No. 20.

For Describing Apples a certain convenient nomenclatui*e
has been accepted. It frequently happens that the color, shape
and quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The char-
acteristic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less
liable to change, and in the identification of fruits it is often neces-
sary to take it into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip-
tion should include the tree as well as fruit. These terms, as ap-
plied to the growth of a tree, are ''strong and vigorous," as the
Duchess of Oldenburg; "vigorous and slender," as Anisim; "stout
and short jointed," as the Yellow Transparent.

For the general form of the tree the term "upright spreading"
would indicate the Duchess ; "spreading" the Hibernal ; "upright"
Whitney No. 20; "round headed" the Anisim.

In describing the fruit the word "base" means the part of the
apple at the stem end; "apex" the portion at the blossom end;
"cavity" is the depression around the stem; "basin" the depres-
sion around the flower end; "calyx" the co-called flower in the
apex of the apple. The general form is referred to as being
"round," "oblate," "conical," and "oblong," which terms are illus-
trated in Fig. 107. As regards size, apples are said to be small
when two and a half inches in diameter, or under ; from two and a
half to three and one-half inches they are termed "medium." and
above this "large."

Autuniii Planting. — While it is best, as a rule, to plant trees
in the spring, yet it is quite practical to plant in the autumn
apples, plums, and most other trees, providing that they are after-
wards laid on the ground on the approach of winter and covered
with earth and a little mulch. This makes considerable additional
labor over spring planting. On the other hand, however, it per-
mits of planting in the autumn when the general farm and garden
work is not as pressing as in the spring. It really amounts to the
"heeling in" of each tree separately. In the spring the trees
should be uncovered and straightened up before growth starts,
and they are then all ready to go on and grow.

Additional Varieties.— Chaklamoff.— There are two varie-
ties sent out under this name. One of these so closely resembles

136 APPENDIX.

the Duchess as to be practically the same. The most desirable
kind is known as Petcr'son's Charlamoff, which has fvuit more or
less conical and a spreading top to the tree. The fruio of this is
milder in quality than the DucLess, and ripens a llctle later. It is
of fine quality when picked fully ripe, but soon loses this quality
by storing for a few days. The tree is much hardier than Duchess.

Patten's Greening. — Originated by C. G. Patten, of Iowa.
At the annual meeting of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, in
1899, it was classed in the list recommended for general planting in
Minnesota, and of first degree of hardiness. This is the only
American seedling apple admitted to this class. The tree is of ex-
ceedingly strong growth and very hardy and productive. The
fruit is large, green in color, sub-acid, and flesh rather coarse. Ex-
cellent for cooking purposes. Keeps into December.

Malinda.— A very pretty, conical, almost sweet apple, that
keeps easily until late winter. About as hardy as the Wealthy.
Rather a tardy bearer on its own roots, but productive when once
it commences to bear. It is hardiest and most productive when
top-worked on very hardy kinds, such as Transcendant and Vir-
ginia crabs and Hibernal.

Sweet Russett Crab. — A very hardy crab that is highly es-
teemed for home use. The fruit ripens in August, and is a very
pleasant, sweet apple. Very productive.

Gideon's No. 6. — A large, deep red crab of good coooking qual-
ity that ripens in August and September. Tree hardy and prolific,
and well worth a place in the orchard.

PLUM.

Prunus Nigra is the name that has been given to a group of
plums that have for many years been included under the Prunivs
Americana. Some botanists even now refuse to make it a separate
species. The characteristics of this group are: dull (not glossy);
flat foliage, i. e., not trough-shaped; early flowering (the flowers
often appearing a week before those of the P. Americana). The
fruit ripens earlier, and is characterized by a flat, thin stone, while
the pits of the P. Americana are much swollen. Examples of this
are the Aitkin and Cheney plums.

Cutting Plum Scions.— In propagating the plum by graft-
ing it is generally safest in the case of hardy kinds of native origin
not to cut the scions until shortly before they are wanted for use.
If plum scions are cut in autumn they are liable to be injured dur-
ing winter. The wood and bark will often come through the win-
ter in good condition, while the buds will become rotten. If they
must be cut in autumn and wintered over in the cellar they can
pi'obably be kept to best advantage in moist leaves.

Plums may be worked successfully on sand cherry stocks.

APPENDIX. • 137

Seedling Plums msby often be set in forest plantations,
whsre they will arcnerally give a few ci-ops of fruit and at ttie
same time give needed shade. For this purpose small seedlings
should be used, which are very inexpensive.

Plum Pocket. — Recent experiments with a similar disease
of peach trees known as the "leaf curl," in which the leaves in-
stead of the fruit becomes swollen, indicates that Bordeaux mixt-
ure will prevent it. For this treatment spray the trees before the
leaves appear with thick Bordeaux mixture, 1. e., made of 5 lbs.
lime. 5 lbs. sulphate of copper, and 25 gallons of water ; and after
the flowers fall with Bordeaux mixture made of 2 lbs. of lime,
2 lbs. sulphate of copper, and 50 gallons of water.- A further appli-
cation may be necessary if the weather is rainy, but if dry the
latter will be found sufficient.

In addition to the above treatment it is desirable to pick and
destroy the plum pockets that appear.

Plum Leaf Aphis, commonly called "leaf lice," is frequent-
ly troublesome, and occasionally appears in such large numbers as
to seriously check the growth of trees. Tobacco water, kerosene
emulsion and similar materials often hardly appear to have any
effect when lice are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and pro-
tect the lice so they are not easily reached. At such times it Mall
be found that tobacco smoke is a most valuable and certain rem-
edy. In applying it a tent made of unbleached cotton large enough
to cover the tree should be used. The best form for this tent is
bag-shaped, and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent
should be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In
operating the hoop-tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge, close to
the tree, and gradually lifted up over it, the slender long side-
branches being pushed inside the tent. When the tree is finally
enclosed tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled with
smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the face, when
it is allowed to thus remain for 15 minutes, which is long enough
to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring the tree if the
tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this the tobacco used
should be dampened. The most convenient form of tobacco to use
is leaf stems which come from cigar factories. These can be ob-
tamed very cheap.

A tent that v/ill answer the purpose very well may be made
out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wooden
frame. Where the trees are very large, i. e., require a tent more
than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope will be found to
work better than a gas-pipe hoop to hold the bottom of the tent.

The Identification of Plums is more easily accomplished
by the pits (stones) than by any other portion. These have very
strong individuality, and wid often serve to make identification
sure when every other mcars fail. A collection of the pits of
named varieties of plums is desirable for a horticulturist and is

i:}8 APPENDIX.-

easily obtained. If these are kept in small bottles they can be
easily used for identification.

Additional Varieties of Plums.— Surprise.— Originated
with M. Penning, Brown county, Minnesota, probably from seed
of the Miner. The fruit is of large size and keeps i^emarkably
well ; the flesh is firm and does not cling very closely to the stone,
and is rich and delicious. The skin is tough and A^dthout astrin-
gency. The tree is hardy, vigorous and productive; has glossy,
rather light colored foliage and strong crotches and readily takes
on a good tree form. Of recent introduction, but it gives much
promise of easily taking the first rank over all the older varieties
of plums.

INDEX.

Page.

Appendix , 126, 138

AppLcES 72, 94

Crab apples 94

Cultivation 78

Depth to plant 77

Diseases 85

Blight 85

Scab 85

Distance apart to plant 78

Forming the tree 78

Injured trees 80

Insects 86, 91

Climbing cut- worm 89

Codliug moth 89.

Curculio 90

Flat headed apple tree

borer 86

Fall web worm 90

Leaf lice 91

New York weevil 87

Tent caterpillar 87

Land best adapted to apples 74
Location of apple orchard . . 73
Location especially adapted

to orcharding 73

Manuring 81

Marketing 84

Mulching 81

Picking: 84

Planting 76

Protecting trunks by boxing 83

Pruning 79

Root-grafted trees 76

Russian apples 92

Seedlings 74

Some important things to

remember 85

Sunscald 81

Supplementary list of apples 93

Time to plant 76

Top- working 84

Tr^^es 74

Varieties 91

Late summer and early

autumn 92

Summer 92

Wind-breaks 74

Worst location for an or-
chard 73

Blackberkies 25, 26

Dewberries 26

Species 25

Varieties 26

Bordeaux Mixture 12

BUDDING 108, 115

Bud-stick 108

June-budding 113

Necessary implements 110

Other forms of 114

Process of 110

Time for 109

BUFFALOBERRY 68, 69

Description 68

Propagation 69

Page.

Cherry 104, 107

Cultivation 106

Diseases 106

Insects 106

Location 104

Planting 105

Propagation 104

Cuttings 105

Suckers 105

Pruning 106

Soil 104

Varieties 107

Cranberry 58, 62

About flowing 60

Best location for beds 59

Drainage and flowage 60

Importance of water 60

Picking 62

Plants and planting 61

Preparation of land 59

Soil adapted to it 59

Supplying sand 59

Currants 27, 35

Diseases 3-1

Insects 31

Currant worm 31

Imported currant borer ... 33

Lice -. 33

Marketing 31

Mulching 29

Planting 29

Propagation 28

By cuttings 28

By layers 28

By seed 28

Pruning 29

Soil 29

Species 27

Tree currants 30

Varieties 34

Winter protection 31

Dewberries 26

Diseases of the—

Apple 85, 86

Currants 34

Gooseberry. 54

Grape 53, 55

Raspberry. . 2i, 23

Strawberry 11,12

Gooseberry 35, 37

Mildew 36

Planting 36

Propagation 36

Pruning 36

Species 35

Varieties 37

Grafting by Approach, or
Inarching 125

Grafting 116, 125

Below ground 121

Cleft-grafting 117

Night cap .. 122

Root-grafting 1 19

Scion 116

GRAmNG — Continued. Page.

Side-grafting 121

Stock 116

Whip-grafting 118

Grafting Wax 117

Grape 38, 57

Bagging fruit 52

Best vines 43

Cultivation 44

Diseases 53

Downy mildew 54

Black rot 54

Distance between plants 43

Fungicides, use of 55

Ammoniacal carbonate of

copper 55

Girdling 52

Insects 56

Eigbt spotted forester 56

Grape-vine flea beetle 56

Keepingfruit 52

Layering 41

Spring layers 41

Summer layers 41

Location of vineyard 42

Manures 51

Planting 43

Preventives of disease 54

Propagation 39

Cuttings 39

Seed 39

Pruning and training 44

Pruning, easy system 49

Pruning neglected vines 50

Pruning, time of 51

Removing foliage 49

Soil 43

Species 38

Thinning the fruit 51

Training vines against build-
ings or walls 50

Trellis 45

Varieties 56

Varieties, list recommended 57
Insecticides—

Kerosene emulsion 91

Paris green 90

Tobacco water 91

Insects Injurious to—

Apple 86, 91

Currant 31, 34

Grape 56

Raspberry 23,24

Strawberry 12, 13

JUNEBERRY, D WARE 63, 65

Cultivation 64

Propagation 64

Varieties 65

Kerosene Emulsion 91

Mulberry, Russian 70, 71

Hardiness 70

Its fruit 71

Propagation 71

Varieties 71

Plum, The 95, 103

Cultivation 97

Diseases 100, 101

Black rot, or Wart of the

plum 100

Diseases, other lOl

Page.

Plum Pockets lOO

Insects 101, 103

Aphis, or Leaf Lice 103

Plum Curcuiio 101

Plum Gouger 102

Location 97

Marketing 98

Mixing varieties 98

Planting 97

Profits of cultivation 97

Propagation 98

Pruning 97

Renewing old trees 97

Species 95

Suckers, thrifty 96

Varieties 99

Raspberries 15, 25

Convenient box holder 22

Cultivation 18

Diseases 22

Anthracnose 23

Leaf curl 22

Red orange rust 2-2

Insects 23

Flat-headed borer 23

Snowy tree cricket 23

Location 17

Manure 18

Mulching 20

Planting 18

Preparation of land 18

Propagation 16

Layers 17

Root cuttings 16

Seed 16

Pruning and thinning 19

Selection of plants 18

Soil 17

Species 15

Support 20

Time of planting 18

Varieties 24

Winter protection 5!l

Stravhberries 5, 14

Avoiding frosts 9

Bordeaux mixture 12

Diseases 11

Dry berries— "nubbins" 11

How to continue in bearing. 9

Insects 12

Leaf roller 12

White grub 12

Location 6

Manures 6

Marketing 11

Methods of planting 7

Hill system 7

Matted row system 8

Picking 11

Preparation of land 6

Propasratiou 5

Sexuality of blossoms 10

Shading 1 he bed 13

Soil 6

Species 5

Time of planting 7

Trimming and setting pi ■ nts 8

Varieties 14

Winter protection 9

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